IFATCA The Controller - July 1963

TELEFUNKEN radar for safe guidance from take-off to landing

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It provides an extremely rapid method of calculating flight paths, for assessing potential conflicts and for coordination between Area Control Centres.

Special features are included for military/ civil coordination and for the control of jetpowered traffic.

The system has been ordered

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N.V. HOLLANDSE SIGNAALAPPARATEN - HENGELO - NETHERLAND S

I say, Humphrey, look at that simply marvellous aeroplane. How madly fast it's flying.

And there's another one over there- and there- and there Do you suppose they know where they're going?

Crazy man. of course there's a frantic genius in that control tower place taking care of all that Like poor Cuthbert, my controller cousin, who was wafted screaming to a clinic?

You'd think there was an easier way . ..

.. . There is!

The precise push-button navigation system with air traffic control data link

IFATCA JOURNAL OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

THE CONTROLLER Volume 2 · No. 3

Frankfurt am Main, July 1963

Publisher: International Federation of Air Traffic Con· !rollers' Associations, Cologne-Wahn Airport, Germany.

Elective Officers of IFATCA: l. N. Tekstra, President; Maurice Cerf, First Vice President; Roger Sade!, Second Vice President; Hans W. Thau, Secretary; Henning Throne, Treasurer; Walter Endlich, Editor.

Editor: Wolter H. Endlich, 6471 Rommelhausen, Wilhelmstrosse 10, Phone Frankfurt 20821.

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Subscription Rate:

DM 8,- per annum (in Germany).

Contrib~t?rs are expressing their personal points of view and opinions, which must not necessarily coincide with those of the International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations (IFATCA).

IFATCA does not ass ume respons1'b'J' 1 1ty for statements ma d e 'bT and opinions expresse d , 11 . does only accept respons1 1 ity for publishing these contributions.

CONTENTS

Civil Aeromedical Research, Responsibilities Aims and Accomplishments Stanley R. Mohler, M. D.

5

Contributions are w I .

N e come as are comments and criti-

cism. o payment c b d an e ma e for manuscripts submitt d f b e or hpu .lication in "The Controller•. The Editor red' . serves t e right to m k . 1 h' a e any e 1torial changes in manuscr;p ~; ~ ich hhe believes will improve the material withou a ering I e intended meaning.

W:it~en permission by the Editor is necessary for re-

University of Birmingham to commence new Graduate Courses

15

Cockpit Laxity "Overdramatized"

15

printing any part of this Journal.

Marconi Tracker Ball Controller Advertisers in this Issue.• Th e Decco N av1gotor .

Compony, Ltd. (2). Decca Radar Limited (4). Hollandse Si naalapparaten NV (1) M .. · g · · · arconi s Wireless Telegraph Comp?ny (Inside back cover, back cover). Standard Elektrik L_orenz GmbH (15). Telefunken GmbH (Inside Cov_~r). ~1cture Credit: British Features (17, 18). Marconi s Wireless Telegraph Company (16).

16

VASI, Visual Approach Slope Indicator

17

PEEP, Pilot's Electronic Eyelevel Presentation

19

Fred Keating

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DECCA RADAR

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THE DECCA AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADAR TYPE AR-1,

a low cost, S-band radar which gives unbroken coverage on a typical civil transport aircraft to a range of 70 miles and to heights in excess of 35,000 f~et, with outstanding low cover extending beyond 35 miles at 0° elevation. Technical features include stable ~rah7sistorised MTI, low noise TWT amplifier and h1g Y effective circular polarisation.

The Decca AR-1 is suitable for:Terminal Area Surveillance Approach Control Outbound Control GCA Surveillance Element PPI Approaches Fighter Recovery Standby radar for other equi~ments at major airports .

AR-1-ANOTHER RADAR IN THE DECCA RANGE OF INTEGRATED SYSTEMS FOR CIVIL AVIATION

Civil Aeromedical Research Responsibilities Aims and Accomplishments This paper has been prepared for use in connection with the dedication program of the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute building, October 19-21; 1962, at the Aeronautical Center, Will Rogers Field, Oklahoma City.

Dr. Mohler is Director of the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute and Chief of the Aeromedical Research Division, Federal Aviation Agency.

A Definition of Aeromedical Research Aeromedical research ist the scientific study of the interrelation in aeronautics of the human elements and the hardware. All disciplines and skills are involved, including physicians, physiologists, psychologists, physical anthropologists, engineers, and flight test pilots.

Aeromedical research provides the Aviation Industry and the public with answers to questions having a vital bearing upon accident and crash injury prevention. The information derived through aeromedical research when applied to aeronautical activities leads to an enhancement of the air safety record.[58]

Civil Air Carrier Passengers

Stanley R. Mohler, M. D.

periods following the early diagnosis of a chronic disease, are becoming more numerous. General aviation pilots have no upper age limit, and as the number of older general aviation pilots increases, the number of pilots with chronic disease will increase.

In all cases undergoing treatment, should the pilot be grounded because he is undergoing good preventive medicine treatment for a condition which in its early untreated stage would not justify grounding the pilot? Many physicians think not (including the author). On the other hand, some of these preventive drugs have side effects in many persons which would make these persons unsafe pilots while taking the drugs. By and large, the military aviation programs remove pilots from flying status while they are taking medication. In civil aviation, through pilot and airman performance studies by aeromedical specialists, information may be developed which will enable us to identify the drugs which are not detrimental to pilot performance. Many pilots may, thus, be kept in the air at a safety level equivalent to their level of safety when not receiving medication.

Civil Air Carrier Pilot Aging

Civil aeromedical research is resonsible for providing human factors information relating to the preservation of health of general population groups ranging in age from infancy to old age. This is in sharp contrast to the aims of military aerospace medicine programs. [57] In 1961, well over 50,000,000 passengers, many with chronic diseases (for example, coronary artery disease, emphysema, asthma, cerebrovascular insufficiency, and extreme obesity), many with the general infirmities of old age, were transported by the scheduled airlines. Many pregnant women, infants and children were carried as passengers. In civil aviation emeigency situations (explosive decompression, passenger impact protection in eras~. landings, rapid aircraft evacuation requirements), traditional safety procedures are often inadequate. [23]

Nonduplication of Effort The Air Force and Navy aerospace and aviation medicine research programs, and the space medicine research program of the National Aeronautics and Ad . . . f h . . pace .min1strahon, ocus t e1r ma1or attention upon the requirements of the . young adult male who is a p"ilot or crew member of a high performance weapons system on wings · . or o.f . an or b 1tal craft. Today ' these milita ry aerospace' d me 1cine have almost no b ear1ng · . . research. programs . upon h t e av1alion med1c1ne research requirements f · ·1 · tion. [57] 0 CIVI OVIO-

s

The . research of. the Veterans Admin"istrat·ion d ea 1s wit .h a special population of chronically ill vet d h · . erans, an t e . h f1 n d ings .ave lrttle direct bearing 0 _ I f 11 1uman bi · · · actors proems in a~1ahon. Similarly, the research of the Public Health Services has only an occasional an d 1so . 1ate d in. f stance o a specific contribution t o air . sa f ety.

Drugs in Civil Aviation The general aviation pilots , of who m th ere are severa I hundred thousand with current FAA me d'1ca I cer t'fl 1 1ca t es, need knowledge of what drugs they may take and still safely fly. Preventive drugs, which are taken for long

At ninety miles per hour, the corrugated aluminum Ford Tri-motor airliner would drone over its destination airfield, enter, the pattern, and glide in at seventy-five miles per hour, to a gentle full stall landing having a roll of three hundred feet or less. [31] So long as the pilot was in reasonably good health for aviation activities, his age made little difference in his ability to land these low-performance aircraft.

Today, the jet airliners have to be dreased on at about one hundred and forty miles per hour, or so, and leave little margin for reflex error. Pilot aging, a process having a wide variation in rate within the pilot population (as in all populations), ultimately has a detrimental ~ffect ~n the ability of pilots to handle these demanding airliners. [35] As yet, no one has developed an in~ex wh_ich can be used to assess the functional age of a given pilot and relate this index to his performance capability. ~he military aerospace medical research progra_ms ~r~ doing little which bears upon this question. A ma1or civil ?~ro.

(FAA' Georgetown Clinical medical research program s · . . k" on the possibility of deResearch I nst1tute) 1s war ing up . . h" h for 0 given pilot, may enable him . . . d v1s1ng an in ex w 1c ' I · I f to fly air carrier aircraft beyond his chrono og1ca age o sixty (the upper cut-off time at present), if his functional age is lower. [21 J

Crash Impact Survival Flight in light and heavy airplanes, helicopters, short take-off-and-landing aircraft, gyropters,. gyro-dx.nes, and other yet-to-be-developed aerial machines, w111 always entail some risks to those within, for all of these are human creations and are opernted by humans. So long. as the human is imperfect, he will be a potentially weak link in the operation and maintenance of his aircraft. [20] In the long run, it will pay (in terms of decreased mortality and morbidity and a decreased fear of flying in the general population) the aviation industry to incorporate features in all new aircraft which will protect the occu-

5

pants from impact injury. This facet of aeromedical research requires the interdisciplinary team approach wherein biologists, engineers, accident investigators, engineering test pilots, physical anthropologists and flight surgeons cooperate in joint studies.

The military aeromedical escape studies focus attention on the election seat and parachute method of avoiding injury through removing the occupants from an aircraft prior to impact. These studies have little application to civil aviation where, for example, the air carrier pilot, as commander of his craft, cannot leave it in flight so long as the passengers are aboard. Providing civil passengers with ejection seats or parachutes seems to be an impractical and unlikely escape procedure for adoption in civil air carrier operations.

Improvement in light plane interiors to diminish or prevent injury to occupants in potentially survivable accidents is within immediate reach. [49] Human Errors

When we talk about civil airmen, what size is the group we discuss, and what are the medical certification facts in terms of numbers?

During the January l to June 30, 1961, period, almost 112,000 persons went to FAA designated Aviation Medical Examiners for Class I, II, or Ill medical certification. [19] About 15,000 (13%) of these persons had medical conditions and physical deficiencies which potentially could be hazardous to the safe discharge of their respective aviation activities. About 500 applications had to be denied (115 appeals were reviewed by the Medical Review Board of the Aviation Medical Service, and 72 were denied again, 16 were certified, and 27 were deferred for additional information). The over-all history has been that less than two per cent of the applicants are ultimately denied each year.

The persons certified as noted above, are the principals most involved in the discussion which follows.

When a civil aircraft crashes, a constellation of factors usually have interacted to set the stage for the precipitating factor, or "probable cause", the legal determination of which, is the responsibility of the Civil Aeronautics Board.

For a flying aircraft, either the aircraft, the occupants, or an outside factor, constitute the three areas within which the "probable cause" rests. The Comet disasters were attributed to metal fatigue, and, thus, the aircraft was at immediate fault. In the National Airlines bomb accident over North Carolina, neither the airplane nor an outside factor were determined as immediately involved, thus, the solution lay within the sphere of occupant behavior. In bad weather, during a period of deueased visibility, a Capital Viscount was struck over Maryland by a violent thunderstorm; hence, an outside factor was implicated. in addition, the possibility, as reported by the Civil Aeronautics Board, that certain late weather information bearing on this storm was not relayed to the pilot, falls within the outside factors area.

It is estimated that human errors and other human factors are associated intimately with eighty-eight per cent of civil air carrier accidents. [19] Psychological studies of decreased performance in fledgling pilots, fatigued pilots, and ill pilots, are shedding new light on what have been iong standing mysteries in aviotion. [33] Also, studies of the best methods of tr.aining 6

student pilots are being conducted. (60] These studies are helping us to diminish the possibilities of pilot error, of air traffic controller error, and of errors by maintenance men.

Physiologists are involved in these studies, and relatively recently, the neurophysiologists have cast light on a cause of aircraft accidents in a certain percentage of pilots w~o have ~ susce~tibility to becoming temporarily unconscious during periods when they are observing flickering light. The condition is flicker vertigo. It may be sunlight flickering through helicopter rotors, or through airplane propeller blades, particularly in light singleengined aircraft.

Judgment may be affected by alcohol, drugs, fatigue, hypoxia, carbon monoxide, personality and character deficiencies, and other factors, such as poor pilot instruction and illness. Poor judgment often leads the general aviation pilot to fly into weather conditions with which he cannot cope. Poor judgment leads a pilot to decide to dive on a friend's house. Poor judgment leads a week-end pilot to fly an unfamiliar airp/ane, or to fly his family and himself into oblivion through careless flight planning and operation of the aircraft.

Judgment, thus, is a quality which in a given individual, moves up and down, in accordance with mood, spirit, mental and physical conditions, and stress factors (for example, a pressing business appointment). Human factors studies by civil aeromedical research scientists are yielding new information in this highly important area.

The human engineers and psychologists are helping 10 work on diminishing pilot error through decreasing the chances of cockpit mistakes. The opportunity for errors in pilot manipulation of the various switches and other flight, engine and equipment controls (flap control), landing gear control, propeller pitch control, fuel cut-off control, etc.) has been enhanced through the scrambling of location of these elements within successive models of a g'.ven aircraft by the same manufacturer, as well as by different manufacturers in their construction of similar types _of aircraft. [14] FAA's "Project Little Guy" is working on this ma~ter, ~/us the matter of attempting to devise a standardized instrument design and instrument panel overall lay-out, which would aid in diminishing errors on the part of the pilot. . The possibility that stall warning and gear-up warning l'.ghts and horns may not reach the attention of pilots at times because of overloaded visual and auditory sensory c~ann~ls, has led one CARI researcher to investigate other ~iolo~ical sensory systems as potential avenues for warning signals. [26]

CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH Organizational Pattern of Research Programs

The Aeromedical Research Division of the Aviation Medical Service (the Aviation Medical Service is under the direction of the C1v1·1 A.1r S urgeon who reports to the . .

Adm1111strator of the Federal A . t.

A ) k I I ·h h · via ion gency wor s c ose Y w_it t. e other three major medical Divisions (the Aeromed1ca/ Standard s D.1v1s1on, · · . w h.1ch writes the aero. medical_ standards for civil airmen and conducts the medical p_ortion of _FAA'_s accident investigations, and the Aeromed1cal Certification Division , wh·1c h prov1.d es current . . medical certificates to more th an one m1. 11 .ion c1v1 . . 1 rnrmen . and con~ucts special refresher seminars for the designated av1at1on medical examiners, and the Clinical Ser-

vices Division, which examines FAA personnel and conducts on employee health program). Questions are referred to the research program and, following appropriate study, answers are returned.

The Aeromedical Research Division also maintains close liaison with the hardware and systems research and development program conducted at the FAA's National Facilities Experimental Center in Atlantic City.

The Aeromedical Research Division consists of the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute, located at the Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City, and the Georgetown Clinical Research Institute, located at the Georgetown Medical Center in Washington, D. C. Of the following categories of projects, "A" through "H" are conducted at CARI, and "I" and "J" are conducted at Georgetown.

A. Air Traffic Controllers and Air Crew Members: Physiological Stress, Fatigue, and Aging Factors Relation to Proficiency.

B. Air Traffic Controllers and Air Crew Members: Psychological Stress, Fatigue and Aging Factors Relating to Proficiency.

C. Air Traffic Controllers: Proficiency, Selection Factors, and Optimum Characteristics of Air Traffic Working Environment.

The CARI projects falling within the above three categories are conducted by scientists in each of CARi's six Branches (Biodynamics, Environmental, Physiology, Neurophysiology, Pharmacology-Biochemistry, Protection and Survival, and Psychology).

The findings of one of the projects in psychology were recently incorporated in the Civil Service Announcement No. 281 B, issued May 22, 1962. [54, 56] CARI investigators gave certain psychological tests to air traffic controller students and correlated the performance of each student with his performance while undergoing air traffic controller training at the Aeronautical Center. Five test areas emerged as highly predictive of school performance: (1) ab~t.ract reasoning ability; (2) ability with numbers; (3) ability to conceptualize space in three dimensions; (4) ability to make "non-verbal" analogies; and (5) ability to solve a special test of air traffic control problems. [7] By setting the minimum cut-off scores on the above tests to an appropriate level, candidates for air traffic controller training, can be screened prior to their entrance in training, and, with as high as eighty to ninety per cent accuracy, those individuals with little aptitude for a career in air traffic control can be eliminated. Previously, these persons were eliminated at the end of their air traffic schooling, or later, during their first year of work as controllers.

Through elimination of unfit candidates prior to train'.ng, this study, which cost about forty thousand dollars, is conservatively estimated to save the taxpayers more than two million dollars over a ten year period. A contribution to air safety results also in that with a high degree of confidence, persons poorly fit for air traffic work who, none the less, might scape by in air traffic school, are not trained. One interesting aspect here has been the discovery that persons who undertake air traffic c?ntrol training who are over the age of 35, have a very high rate of failure. [55] ~nother study in the above area is the longitudinal medical, physiological and psychological evolution of more than one thousand air traffic controllers, from the

day of entrance on duty for training, to a point a few years later in their career when their work efficiency and disease pattern can be assessed. One of the treadmil I test techniques is described in CARI Report 62-5. [30] From the more than one thousand air traffic students now studied in detail at CARI, certain patterns are already beginning to appear. Wide variation in physical habitus and conditioning are noted. One hypothesis being tested is that the individual goes a better job as a controller if he is in a better state of physical condition from the athletic standpoint.

Many people are of the personal opinion that better physical conditioning leads to better working ability in all endeavours. This has never been tested and, may, in fact, be exactly opposite to the facts with respect to sedentary work. The controller who rates poorly on a physical condition scale with respect to his physical work capacity, may, in fact, be highly conditioned physically to spending long periods in physical inactivity, and, thus, be at his best from his job requirement standpoint. The venerable Wiley Post was of this latter opinion, and spent weeks of physical inactivity prior to his solo round the world flight in 1933. [43] He sat for hours in his parked airplane, and in his hotel room, doing essentially nothing from the physical work standpoint.

It has been observed that in certain demanding locations, controllers as a group are somewhat more prone to develop stress-related medical conditions (for example, peptic ulcer, hypertension, anxiety psychoneuroses), so studies are underway which are attempting to enable us to better pin-point the stress factors which lead to these conditions, and to identify those individuals who are most prone to develop these conditions. The above mentioned longitudinal sample should prove to be of immense value here.

For many years to come, man will be a functioning and integral component in the air traffic system. Human error will, therefore, be an ever present potential threat to air safety. CARI psychologists have investigated several air traffic controller error incidents, and have made r~. . changes 1n · exis · fng 1 air traffic commendations for certain . . d the chances of reprocedu res which will help ecrease . currence to these errors. Of additional interest here 1ks . h · t ffic around-the-cloc the matter of shift work in t e air ra f th . . . h rk-rest-sleep eye 1e o e activity, with reference to t e wo_ . d. t I follows individual. Also, the period which imme 1.a de Y a change to another shift time is being studie · . . ment of the controllers, some The working environ ers with large-heavy-fast and being in glass control tow . f om all directions small-light-slo"". air_craf~~~nv:!t;~ngdi~ly lit, smoky and and othedrs beingt i:e~ters 'is being scrutinized from the congeste en rou e ' · A t d . . . d p work proficiency standpoint. s u Y ind1v1dual an grou h. h ecolo of these groups, and the factors w 1c may on t~e. t . g{erpersonal strife, sa detrimental to the eff1prec1p1ta e in · d . f th required team effort, 1s un erway. ciency o e . . , · · fatigue an allegedly poss1b1e concomitant Excessive ' . . . of iloting large civil jet aircraft, 1s rece1v1ng some _at_ten. p CARI [34] The subject is difficult to define, d1ff1cult t1on at · nd is complicated by pass1"bi e p1·1 ot-a1r · 1·1ne to measure, a . d controc t 1·mplications · Some have. felt that the increase . demands of these aircraft fo1· a higher level of pilot alertness have produced mental fatigue which toward the e_nd f a flight can cause a performance decrement which ~ detrimental to the pilot's safe handling of the aircraft.

7

Others suggest that since a given flight is now more quickly accomplished with jets, the jet pilots must make more individual flight now to reach the maximum allowable monthly number of flying hours (eighty-five). There is, thus, less time off now, and the extra free-way traveling to the far-out jet airports associated with the additional flights compounds the fatiguing factors. Cutting timezones more quickly when flying from West to East, or vice versa, is also conducive to producing fatigue.

CARI researchers have been in frequent commun ication with the medical directors of the major airlines, and with various pilots through the Air Line Pilot's Association and are giving attention to the jet pilot fatigue question'.

Other studies in the broad area of proficiency include determinations for pilots, ground support and other essential personnel, of safe levels of function in the following areas: l. Visual acuity 2. Color vision 3. Hearing acuity 4. Vestibular function.

Accidents have occured through excessive deficiencies 1n these areas so vital to aviation. It is recognized that some kinds. of .aircraft and some types of flying are not as deman?1ng in these neurophysiologic and psychologic areas as 1s the case in other instances. Therefore CARI is working closely with the Aeromedical Standard's Division in an attempt to match the medical standards for airmen with the type of flying and the nature of the equipment. Thr~ug~ research, the standards can be revised up or down 1.n timely relation to future equipment through extrapolation. In the absence of proper information developed through research, standards must be established in accordance with the best judgment of medical and aviation authorities, and ~hanged only after a retrospective assessment of the accident and flight experience with the equipment in question. Too often, based upon a series of tragedies, this latter approach shows whot the standards should have been to insure safety for certain pilots in certain categories flying certain equipment, and by the time new standards are made in this retrospective fashion, new and unevaluated equipment and flying techniques have replaced the older examples.

D. Civil Aviation: Passengers and Crew Emergency Procedures, Oxygen Equipment and Safety Measures.

This category of CARI research is focused on providing the aircraft manufacturers and the airliners with informatio:i on factors vital to the preservation of life during civil aircraft emergencies.

A study of emergency evacuation patterns in large civil aircraft is underway. [23] An accident may be considered to be an unplanned expe:路iment (albeit unfortunate), and CARI from its vantagepoint as a component of the FAA, and a not infrequent assistant to the CAB, is obtaining heretofore lacking information on the stumbling blocks to rapid escape in air cmrier accidents.

Narrow aisles, rai-e escape doors, inadequately briefed passengers, elde1路ly women, children, the general confusion which may accompany a crash landing: these are factors which interact to impede a rapid egress from a burning airer-aft. Ce1路tain corrective measures are possible and are being incorporated in future aircraft. Much more

8

remains to be studied with respect to this topic, and CARI is providing attention to these additional matters.

Better protection of the passengers and crew in today's civil jet aircraft which fly at altitudes up to 40,000 feet, in the event of an explosive decompression, is being studied at CARI. (3] These studies also anticipate the requirements of the next evolutionary step in the large civil aircraft, which will see the Supersonic Transport rising to altitudes of 50,000 to 60,000 feet. The dive-ram principle of recompression will likely be employed, and a large increase of cabin heat resulting from the compressed air will occur.

Survival tolerances of civil air carrier populations (including all age groups, pregnant women and persons with chronic cardiovascular conditions) to these explosive decompressions, and to cabin heats of 170 degrees Fahrenheit for five minutes, are being determined.

CARI is working with the aircraft industry on an explosive decompression study, particularly with Lockheed, to whom CARI has given a contract for the conduct of special high altitude chamber studies, of a type herefore not conducted by military or other groups. [18] It is possible that if middle-aged and elderly persons with certain chronic diseases (for example, cerebrovascular insufficiency, coronary artery disease, pulmonary emphysema, obesity, anemia) are found not to tole~ate these potential decompressions and recompressions, flight on this next generation of aircraft will be proscribed for them by their physicians.

A CARI investigation of an accident involving a twinengine Convair revealed how improperly installed rearward seats caused vertebral fractures in certain occupants. [25] Another CARI study revealed that a possible attraction by a popular civil aircraft type for starlings may be due to the similarity of the taxiing sound of the aircraft and cricket chirps. [l, 10, 50] More recent studies indicate that the suspect sound may come from the propeller tips during the taxiing operations, and may possibly be eliminated through cockpit manipulation of the propeller pitch controls.

E. Civil Aviation Personnel: Drug Effects on Performance and Safety of Aircrew and Ground Support Personnel.

Aircraft accidents have occurred which quite likely woul~ not have occured had the pilots not been taking certain drugs. Included in this category of studies is the acute alteration of behavior which immediately follows alcohol ingestion, and the subtle residual effects of aicoh~I ingestion which persist twenty-four hours after ingestion.

Air traffic controllers, non-pilot aircrew members, and ~ainte.nance men may take various drugs (aspirin, anti~1s.ta~1nes,. antimotion-sickness drugs, "wake-up" and

diet med1c1nes, barbiturates, nasal decongestants, and other drugs). No good information exists concering the role of these drugs in producing performance decrements in these various categories of aviation personnel.

CARI is studying these matters, which do present complex methodological problems. The information, as it is developed, is disseminated to the airlines, the pilots and 01rcrew members, the controilers, and other persons who are concerned.

F. Aerial Applicators: Effects of Toxic Chemicals upon Health and Safety.

More than one million hours per year of flying are conducted in the field of aerial application. [16] The accident incidence is the highest of any segment of general aviation, and possibly one-half of the fatal accidents are due to pilot decrements in performance due to chronic toxicosis.

Organophosphate insecticides are in common use today, and evidence indicates that the high incidence of pilot fatalities in crop-spraying with these substances is the result of chronic absorption by the pilots of small amounts of organophosphates. [47] At a certain constitutional level of absorption, the pilot's nervous system is poisoned to the point where his reactions and decisions in flight are not compatible with aerial applicator maneuvers. Blood tests are being refined at CARI which give an index during the aerial application season of how much poison a given pilot has absorbed. Also, protective equipment is being developed which aids the pilot, his swampers and his flag man to avoid contamination.

The biochemical effects of the chlorinated hydrocarbons used in aerial application (for example, lindane and dieldrin) are being studied at CARI, and recently CARI investigators have found that certain members of this class of compounds have a highly specific and hitherto unsuspected interference effect upon the molecular dynamics involving the high-energy phosphate bond. [13] It is predicted that this discovery will lead to an entirely new biochemical research tool of great potential utility for medical and life sciences investigations. An antidote to acute and chronic poison cases due to these compounds may be devised as a result of this further clarification of their biochemical mechanism of toxicity.

CARI keeps in close touch with the Department of Agriculture on these studies. The DOA investigators, however, are primarily concerned with the acute and cumulative effects of aerial applicator substances on the public which at times may consume food containing traces of these chemicals. The pilot's flying proficiency in relation to his absorption of these substances is the FAA's responsibility.

A brief reference to the CAB report on aerial application accidents in 1959 is pertinent here. [5] Of 314 total accidents, 57 were fatal and 57 fatalities resulted. One hundred and. nine ?i~craft were destroyed, and 35 persons were seriously 1n1ured. The accident rate per hundr<>rl thousand flight hours was 6.47 for fatal accidents a~d 35.69 for all accidents. The fatal rate was 78 per' cent ab~ve that for all general aviation (although the total accident rate was 3 per cent lower in aerial application than for all general aviation).

The report mentions that. at least l 0 accidents were experienced by pilots affected by the chemicals being used in aerial application. Among these, parathion is prominent. Three fatal accidents were distinctly due to the toxic effects of the chemicals on the pilots. In many other accidents, the possibility that pilot performance was impaired due to the gradual accumulation of the chemicals in the pilots during the active season is good.

G. Injury Prevention in Light and Heavy Aircraft Accidents.

Consistently missing in the structural and interior fittings design of civil aircraft is the matter of "delethali-

zation". [24] Perhaps the greatest strides have been made with respect to providing delethalized and crashworthy airframe and ini·erior designs in certain of the newer agricu ltura I aircraft. [22] The aircraft manufacturers and the airlines are becoming increasingly interested in incorporating anti-crash injury features in their equipment. CARI is working with a number of these groups and is supplying them immediately with information as it becomes available through studies by CARi's Protection and Survival Branch.

These studies are made by going to the scene of selected accidents and determining the causes of specific fractures, lacerations, and internal impact injuries.

Modifications of hazardous structure I features which can be changed without altering the function of the structure, are recommended. Investigators at CARI subject themselves to prescribed degrees of impact and test the attenuating effects of certain substance, for example, Stafoam. One investigator, (Mr. Swearingen) has absorbed as much as one hundred g's deceleration force through eight milliseconds in a vertical drop test using this loiter substance as an impact cushion. [62] The implications with respect to the construction of seats in future aircraft are obvious.

Other studies on impact are conducted using articulated dummies and high speed cinemaphotography (8,000 frames per second). In addition, certain long bones and flat bones are tested against current and proposed aircraft seat structures with hydraulic presses and elastic propulsion devices, in an attempt to determine the degree to which elements of the seat structure do or do not, attenuate impact forces as may be sustain~d by occupants of a decelerating aircraft.

CARI is conducting the first large-scale study of human survivors of long free-falls from heights up to several hundred feet. [48] The circumstances of each fall, the characteristics of the impact surface, the position of the victim at impact, the injuries sustained, and the convalescent course, are being documented in several thousand instances.

Already, certain highly significant findings a~e coming to light, which include new information bearing upon specific fail points during deceleration in the human ana. · · b'Jity of humans tom1cal structure, and potentra 1 survrva 1 to extreme impacts. . . .

The fail point information is of key value in desrgnrn~ ·t· the occupants in the attraircraft seats so as to posr ron . . k fair tude most likely to lead to crash survrval. ?ne e'( ' . t b . . g to emerge from this study rs the srte of porn egrnnrn d h h t attachment between the inferior vena cava an t e ear .

With res ect to survivable impact le_ve.ls, the CARI s~udy _ dp s of survival of fall vrctrms who sustained h. as toun case · . d as high as two thousand g's for a fractron of a secon .

Occupant restraint sy~t~m~ which. protect the crew and from flailing rn1uries durrng crashes are under passengers · f · t. t'on [42] A particular need exists or proper •nves raa r · h i~·fant protective equipment (in many cases at present t e mother must hold her infant during the take-off and landing of an airliner) and proper shoulder harnesses for all heights and werghts. Shoulder harnesses peop Ie Of . . which con be accomodoted to the drfferrng breast structures of different women passengers are requrred.

A CARI study of the seat pressures exerted by the ischiol tuberosities of a sitting person revealed some interesting findings. [51] The body weight is supported by

9

about eight per cent of the body area when one is sitting on a stool. When seats are constructed so that four or five straps support a cushion, the actual body weight is focused during impact upon only one or two straps. The results of this study have an important bearing upon future seat designs.

H. Civil Aviation Generated Biological Stresses in the General Population.

When an airport is planned for a community, not infrequently certain psychosocial dynamics characterizing group human behavior begin to operate which may force the location of the airport in one of the less ideal sites from the standpoint of the safe operation of the aircraft. [37] Since a large airport is more often than not a relatively permanent facility, its proper location is key to air safety. Human behavior studies of this type have proven their value in implementing such public health programs as community immunizations in relation to specific diseases.

Other examples are seen in the anti-air pollution programs. CARI is investigating the reasons underlying the behavior of the various elements in the community when the planned optimum location of an airport is ieopardized. From these studies may come specific guidelines which will enable those persons responsible for planning and establishing an airport, to develop a profile of the community in question, and, through direct and effective communication with specific segments, enlist the requisite community support for responsible airport location.

This study also has a direct bearing in providing assistance to those aspects of general aviation v;hich are hard pressed due to the widespread closing of the smaller airports. A return to the scene of a certain number of convenient, small airports, is vital to a growing, and safe, general aviation activity.

Another study under this category is focused upon the factors which cause overhead aircraft noises to be highly irritating to some persons in the community but not to others. Many people quickly learn to accept these noises as they did raiiroad whistles so common in past decades.

Another study related to the effects of aviation activities on the public gives information concerning how high persons with penetrating eye injuries may be safely flown during air evacuation. [12] I.

Physiologic Age Rating for Pilot Certification Eligibility.

J. Prognostic Studies of Diseased States Influencing Flying Safety.

These interdisciplinary studies are focusing on several hundred civilian pilots. A correlation is being made between the physiological, biochemical, psychological and clinical characteristics of each pilot and his flight performance as he ages. [21] It is anticipated that an index of functional age will be developed which ai a later date may enable a revision of the current standards to potentially allow airline pilots who are chronologically over sixty to continue to fly if the are funtionally less than sixty in age. Also, the imy . h . d. plications for flying safety of certain c ron1c 1seases are being investigated. [36] 10

BRIEF HISTORICAL RESUME Mr. Grahame-White in his 1912 book, Aviation, calls our attention to the fact that the Aero Club of France could document only one fatal accident for every 92,000 miles flow in France during the year 1912. [20] The supposed "perils of aerial navigation" were thus "dispelled".

In 1921, the U.S. Post Office Air Mail Service had one fatal accident for each 104,000 miles flown. [46] No passengers were carried, and the flying was quite rugged due to weather hazards and equipment failures.

In 1938, the domestic U.S. scheduled air carriers handled 1,366,000 passengers over more than 560 mill ion passenger-miles. [38] Five fatal accidents occurred and 35 persons died (crew and passengers). The passenger fatality rate per 100 million passenger-miles was 4.45.

In 1960, the comparable figures are 52,392,000 passengers for almost 32 billion passenger-miles. Nine fatal accidents occured and 329 persons died (crew and passengers - not counting the 34 passengers and crew fatalities in the January 6, 1960, Bolivia, North Carolina bomb accident). The passenger fatality rate per 100 million passenger-miles was 0.93.

It is clear that for a given individual, a given flight today is much safer than was the case in earlier years.

In fact, the degree of safety is steadily improving. However, in spite of this, the total picture over the years in civil aviation is one of an increasing absolute number of deaths. Obviously, this latter fact is due to the continuous growth of aviation activities, and the increasing passenger load per plane in air carrier activities.

For example, there were only 9,072 civil airplanes in the U.S. on January 1, 1936 (7,371 U.S. Bureau of Air Commerce licensed aircraft, 1,701 unlicensed aircraft). [63] This compares with 117,560 on April 30, 1962.

Also, there were 14,805 Bureau of Air Commerce licensed pilots in 1936 (included 736 scheduled air transport rated pilots and 5,961 licensed private pilots; of the total, only 410 were women pilots). This compares with a figure of several hundred thousand today (no one is quite certain what the exact figure at present is for the total number of active airmen; many licensed airmen have let their medical certificates expire without later renewal - others have current medical certificates but are not active airmen - still other persons have current Class II medical certificates but are not pilots: for example, tower air traffic controllers).

The thread of aviation medicine and aeromedical research comes to us along a winding trail. Bert's classical studies in the 19th century in relation to balloonists ascending to high altitudes, set the sta[:le for scientific oeromedical activities. [29) Bert explained-why some early balloonists returned to earth dead.

Dr. John Kelly, a Medical Reserve Corps Lieutenant, was the first "flight surgeon" in the U.S. when in 1911 he was assigned to College Pork, Maryland. [4] The U.S. Army had at that time only one airplane.

Dr. Louis Bauer became Director of the Central Medical Research Laboratory at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, Long Island, in 1919, and conducted research on high altitude physiology. This facility moved to Mitchel Field tn late 1919, and in the early 1930's, a final move was made to Randolph Field, Texas, where the famous School of Aviation Medicine developed.

In the period leading up to World War II, the Navy developed a school of aviation medicine at Pensacola,

and an aeromedical laboratory was established at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton.

Dr. Bauer resigned his commission in 1926 and became the first medical director in the new Aeronautics Branch of the Bureau of Air Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce. The designated aviation medical examiner system was established and the original physical standards for civil airmen were defined. An attempt was made in 1930 to relate the accident rates with the types of physica I deficiencies. [9] Definite correlations were found.

The Civil Aeronautics Administration medical laboratory was established on Aug. 2, 1946, in Oklahoma City at the Aeronautical Center at Will Rogers Field. [64] Later, Dr. Stovall, Chief of the Medical Division, CAA, transferred the laboratory to Ohio State University, where the establishment of an Institute of Civil Aviation Medicine was planned. Mr. John Swearingen was the laboratory director. In 1958, the Civil Aeromedical Research Laboratory was transferred back to Oklahoma City.

In 1959 and 1960, Dr. James Goddard, the FAA's first Civil Air Surgeon, and Dr. John E. Smith, Chief of the Research Requirements Division under the Civil Air Surgeon, began to lay the basis for the present Civil Aeromedical Research Institute. Dr. H. D. Estes became the first Director of the Institute in 1960.

The evolution of civil air transportation has been a steadily progressing phenomenon, although many setbacks have occured and are occuring. For a discussion of the economic problems currently facing the airlines, see Mr. Harding's recent article. [61] The world's first scheduled airline was launched in 1909. [41] Count Zeppelin and Dr. Eckener created the Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktien-Gesellschaft, which operated dirigibles between Friedrichshafen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Leipzig, Potsdam and Dresden. For f.ive years this airline carried more than thirty-seven thousand passengers without iniury. Low speeds, low cruising altitudes, and good maintenance helped to produce this good safety record.

The first scheduled airline to use heavier-than-air equipment operated a Benoist flying boat between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. It made two round trips a day and carried one passenger at a time. This operation began on January 1, 1914. The twenty-two mile one way flight took twenty minutes.

The Air Commerce Act of 1926 provided for air mail contracts to private operators and marked the start of air transport in the U.S. [45] The first year of private contractor airline operation saw five thousand seven hundred and eighty-two passengers carried. This number makes an interesting contrast with the more than fifty million domestic passengers carried by scheduled U.S. airlines in 1960, and the estimated figure of seventy-five million for 1967. [39] In the twenties, many of the commercial airliners, for example the Ford Tri-Motors, had no safety belts for the passengers. The wicker seats were provided with hand grips for passenger stability in rough air. Overhead baggage racks were used for suitcases, a hazardous transfer to aviation of practices used with reasonable safety by the railroads.

A final historical note seems pertinent. In 1929, Transcontinental Air Transport provided travelers with the possibility of crossing the U.S. in forty-eight hours. The itinerary consisted of going from New York City at night

to Columbus, Ohio, via the Pennsylvania Railroad. From Columbus, a Ford Tri-Motor was taken to Waynoka- Oklahoma, where a Santa Fe sleeper was taken to Los Angeles. The passengers were subiected to noise, vibration, air pressure changes, temperature extremes, and other stresses.

It is interesting to note that the first human factors fatality in the U.S. in a heavier-than-air aircraft apparently was Professor John Montgomery. Professor Montgomery suffered from periodic attacks of vertigo and loss of consciousness. During a glider flight in 1911 in California, he lost control and crashed. Prior to dying from his iniuries, he told of the occurrence of one of these attacks during the flight leading to his disorientation. Along this line, through a contract with the University of Oklahoma, CARI investigators are studying the matter of vertigo, disorientation, and inner ear malfunction. [17] Through the years, aviation notables have recognized the importance of human factors research. [11, 15] For example, Lindbergh conducted altitude physiology studies in the 1930's, and Amelia Earhart pressed for additional investigations of the effects on the pilot of his aircraft.

Even as far back as World War I, the castor oil used in rotary engines would at times cause incapacitation of the pilots through exhaust fume inhalation. The importance of aviation medicine became clear.

The Oklahoma City Chamber of Commerce held three annual civil aviation clinics in 1943, 1944 and 1945. [8, 52, 53] Industry and Governmental officials active in civil aviation participated, and held brain-storming session which attempted to forecast what problems should be tackled in the post-war era to help foster civil aviation safety and growth.

These persons did not overlook the human factors elements, so vital to air safety and development. For example, the following research needs are contained rn the 1944 book, as outlined by Mr. M. K. Fahnestock: I. Biological Sciences A. Involving Both Aircraft and Personnel 1. Pilot and crew fatigue, per f ormanc e , maintenonce and length of service.

2. Optimum operating sc h e d u Ies for equipment and personnel. . h 3. Design of aircraft to reduce iniurihestrn tcr~:u;~j Available information indicates t a s. ru d . . f planes may reduce fatalrtres an d re esrgn rng o d' h 路 hts . . 路es in crashes from me rum erg . serious 1n1ur1 .

Operating Personnel and Passengers.

B. lnvo Ivrng I d Pilot and crew training, includ.in.g menta an 1. h . I examinations and mrnrmum requ1rep ~/CO ' ments for commercial flying. . . .

Mental and physical examrnatrons and minimum 2 ' requirements for personal flyers. uman reactions accompanying fear and emer3. H gencies.

4. Physical fitness and influence on training and performance. . .

S. Public health and disease carrying insects. all 6. Food and food service for pilots, crew and types of passenge1路s.

7. Effects of factors of flight on impaired phys10logically deficient people.

11

11. Social Sciences

A. Economics l. Influence of air transportation on goods and markets, including consumer demand.

2. Economic problems of airline and airport management.

B. Sociology l. The effects on people and the social processes of bringing all sections of the world into intimate contact with one another.

2. Possible effect of small planes and helicopters on individual and community arangements.

The literal translation of these recommendations into a material program is now seen in the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute.

Interestingly, a large of the conceptual foundation upon which the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute now rests can be directly traced to Oklahoma's air genius, Wiley Post. "Secretly, I had been forming the Wiley Post Institute for Aeronautical Research", is a statement by Post in his 1931 book, Around the World in Eight Days.

[44] He had the idea in 1913, when he was 14 years old.

The Civil Aeromedical Research presently conducts studies which Post undoubtedly would have applauded: High altitude physiological effects (Post was among the foremost in this field with his pressure suit), fatique (Post studied his own fatique pattern, especially following the loss of sleep), depth perception {Post conducted studies of monocular vision for obvious personal reasons), and biological rhythms (Post studied the effects on the sleepwake cycle and digestive system of cutting time zones).

Some historical aeromedical papers of note include an early dissertation by Henderson, et. al., on the medical aspects of flight, [27] an early analysis by Anderson of "Aeroplane Accidents" [2], and early batteries of psycho!ogica! tests for flying aptitude by Henman [28] and

by Lowenstein [32]. An excellent historical review of the psychological aspects of aeromedicine is given by Viteles [59]. About the earliest report by a pilot on certain aeromedical considerations is that of 1914 by Mr. Ovington in the Journal of the American Medical Association. [40] The evolution of aviation medicine and research programs contains many exciting steps by brilliant scientists. Among these are Dr. McFarland's program at Harvard, Dr. Lovelace's program in Albuquerque, Dr. Ashe's program at Ohio State, Dr. Tillisch's program at the Mayo Clinic, the programs of the various airlines and aviation industrie and the Guggenheim und Flight Safety Foundations. There are others, and all have a common aim: enhaced air safety.

CONCLUSION Were there no aircraft accidents due to human factors, there would be no need for aeromedical research.

Aeromedical researchers, thus, frequently ask themselves the question: "What is the c.urrent air safety picture?"

At CARI we have instituted within the Program Advisory Office a means by which a running up-to-the-minute tally may be kept with respect to all U.S. aircraft acciden~s.

While some persons and groups appear complacent 1n the face of the present record, we are not.

I am not complacent when ! go to the scene of a fata! light airplane accident, as I did recently near my home 12

field, and learn that the two dead occupants probably would have lived through the impact if appropriate relatively inexpensive restraint harnesses, such as developed and recommended by CARI researchers, had been used.

I am not complacent when I come across the fact during a recent on-the-scene study of a light-twin accident, fatal to the four occupants, that the pilot had been daily taking large amounts of dexedrine, barbiturates, thyroid extract, and other drugs. This latter accident is particularly noteworthly since a gross failure of judgment on the part of the highly experienced pilot was involved in the steps which led to the accident. The combined dosages being taken by the pilot could easily have had a detrimental effect on his abilities.

Jn civil aviation tragedies, there are many additional examples of injury and death which resulted from the lack of application of existing aeromedical knowledge or the lack of existence of timely aeromedical knowledge.

Examples may be found in the CARI Reports and CAB reports. [6] Our aeromedicol research program is dedicated to the production of the information which is vital to the human fators aspects in civil aviation. In the absence of this information, civil aviation will continue to be periodically shocked through the occurrence of "difficuit to explain" accidents and injuries.

Our tallies show that in the first six months of calendar year 1962, the following accident experience occurred: Air Carrier Fatal Accident 4 Air Carrier Fatalities 248 General Aviation Fatal Accidents 178 General Aviation Fatalities 361 The Civil Aeronautics Board reports indicate the major roles placed by the human factors aspects in these accidents. Until these human factors aspects are properly defined, and brought to the attention of aviation personnel and pilots through education and training, the accidents will continue at the present, unacceptably high (in my opinion) rate (if you don't believe its high, ask some of your neighbors why they feel uncomfortable in airplanes, or why some of them won't fly at all).

There were last April, a little more than 114,000 general aviation aircraft registrated in the U.S. Also, there were about 2,200 air carrier aircraft. In 1961, 437 fatal general aviation accidents occurred (with 794 deaths), which means that, roughly, one of each 260 general aviation aircraft was involved in a fatal accident. Preliminary estimates indicate that about one of each 20 general aviation aircraft was involved in an accident of greater or lesser importance in 1961.

}s

, ~~at the trend over the past three years in aviation ratrn 1hes ~ There are many approaches to attempting to dete~n:iine this ..Some recommend taking the number of fatalities ~er mile flown. I would like to point out that many acc1d.ents occur during the take-off and landing phases flight. Thus, for example, a jet passenger is just as committed to undergo the risks of take-off and landing on a short flight as he is on a long flight. An accident rate based upon a fatalities per mile calculation would indica~e, however that the passengers in the long i~t flight, assuming a 100% fatal accident occured at the termination, were traveling at less risk than the passengers in a short flight experiencing a 100% fatal accident at the termination.

a:

The same is true with caicuiations which determine the aircraft accident rate by dividing the number of accidents

by aircraft flight hours. Let us remember that the "accident rate" is one thing, and the "risk of flying" another.

By-and-large, the present FAA and CAB methods of accident rate computation indicate rates which are somewhat below the actual risks associated with flying, as noted above.

For general information, the following figures are instructive:

Air Carrier Fatal Accidents

Air Carrier Fatalities

Calendar Year 1960

17

499

Calendar Year 1961

12

312

Accidents Fatal General Aviation

General Aviation Fatalities

Calendar Year 1960

438

835

Calendar Year 1961

437

794

Scheduled- Supplemental and Commercial Air Carrier

Passenger Rate/100

Fatality million

Federal Aviation Fatal Accident Rate/ 100,000 hours

possenger-m iles

Calendar Year 1960

l.30

3.5

Calendar Year 1961

0.66

3.4

So far this year, there is no spectacular indication that these regrettable rates are declining. When one considers the rapid introduction of new types and categories of civil aircraft, only the conceted interaction of the aircraft industry, the airlines, the FAA and the CAB, could have led to keeping the rates from increasing. However, a large dent can be made in the present rate through the application of the fruits of civil aeramedical research.

I would also like to point out here that quite often when an aircraft accident occurs, the victims represent some of the Nation's top executive, scientific, and cultural talent. Air safety is, thus, doubly important to our country. For example, [ust a few days ago, on October 6, Mr. Tom Slick, well known Texas philanthropist died in a light plane accident in Montana (CARI researchers are assisting in the investigation), and on October 7, U.S. Representative Clem Miller died in a light plane accident in California.

The title of this paper incorporates three elements in Federal civil aeromedical research. Our responsibilities are clear: (1) to insure that no loss of life or limb in civil aviation activities occurs for reasons which could have been prevented had adequate and timely human factors knowledge been available, and (2) to keep abreast of evolving aviation equipment, and, through anticipation of the requisite futurn human factors information, conduct appropriate studies.

The aims are consistent with, and part of, the mission of the Federal Aviation Agency: (1) to enhance the air safety record, and (2) to foster the growth of civil aviation.

Selected accomplishments are enumerated in this paper and its bibliography. Much remains to be done, and we shall continue to strive to achieve that level of aeromedical research which insures an optimum air safety record with respect to the human factor elements.

Planned air safety, consistent with economic realities, then, is the key to aviation's continued growth and successes in the years and decades to come.

REFERENCES 1. Aldrich, J. W., Robbins, C. S., and Dykstra, W.W.: "Bird Hazard to Aircraft"; Wildlife Leaflet 429, U.S. Department of the Interior, January, 1961, pp 1-10.

2. Anderson, H. Graeme: "Aeroplane Accidents"; The Scientific American Supplement, 87, 1919, pp 30-31.

3. Balke, Bruno: "Human Tolerances"; CARI Report 62-6, pp 1-15.

4. Benford, Robert J.: Doctors in the Sky; Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 1955, pp 1-326.

5. Civil Aeronautics Board (Bureau of Safety): Accidents in Aerial Application Activities, CAB, Washington, D. C., Calendar Year 1959, pp 1-23.

6. Civil Aeronautics Board: Summary Reports of Accidents, U.S. General Aviation; Docket Cases 2-0001 to 2-0100, containing January-March, 1962, incidents.

7. Cobb, Bart B.: "Problems in Air Traffic Management: II. Prediction of Success in Traffic Controller School"; CARI Report 62-2, February, 1962, pp 1-15.

8. Cohen, S. Ralph (Editor): Proceedings of the First National Clinic of Domestic Aviation Planning; Harlow Publishing Corporation, Oklahoma City, November 11-13, 1943, pp 1-277.

9. Cooper, Harold J.: "The Relation Between Physical Deficiencies and Decreased Performance"; The Journal of Aviation Medicine, March, 1930, pp 4-24.

10. Darling, Lois and Darling, Louis: Bird, Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1962, pp 1-261.

11. Davis, Kenneth S.: The Hero, Charles A. Lindbergh and The American Dream; Doubleday and Company, Garden City, New York, 1959, pp 1-527.

12. Dille, J. Rober: "The Effects of Simulated Altitude on Penetrating Eye Injuries"; CARI Report 62-12, May, 1962, pp 1-6.

13. Daugherty, Jack W., Lacey, Dane Eugene, an d Korty ' Patricia: "Problems in Aerial Application: I. Some Biochemical Effects of Lindane and Dieldrin on Vertebrates"; CARI Report 62-10, May, 196 2, P~ l- 6 · of . Eugene F... "The Anatomy and Physiology 14. D u B01s, · · Re . Iane Cock p1't" ; Aeronautical Engineering th e A 1rp view, April, 1945, PP 1-3. .

H t Brace and arcour' 15. Earhart Amelia: Last Flight; Compa~y , New York, 1937, pp .1-226. 1· t. -" Fly. . . "Aerial App rca 1011 16. Federal Aviation Agency·

By October 1962, P 3 · FA 3039. "VestibuCon,tr,~ctU . .t · 17. Federal Aviation Agency . Mommas . n1versr y of Oklalar Investigations in ' h Institute.. 1962. homa Researc. .

FA 3082· "Effects · t'on Agency Contract · · 18. Fe d era I A vra 1 H s at · uman R 'd Decompressron on d of Slow an apr C ['for 45,000 Feet"; Lockheed Aircraft Company a r nia Division, 19 62 · . r R "' FAA · t"on Agency: Third Annua, epo .. , , 19. Fe d era I A via 1 Washington, D. C., 1961, pp l-_61. . . . .te Claude: Av1atron; Collrn s Clern20. Grahame- Wh 1 ' T e Press, London, 1912, PP 1-262. .

21. r::iaby, Najeeb E.: "FAA Develops Unique Studies to · 'True Age'"·, The Air Line Pilot, Februmy, Determrne

1962, pp 4-7. . I b D . " y esrgn ; 22. Hasbrook, A. Howard: "Crash Surv1va Arizona Engineer and Scientrst, March, 1958, pp 1-3.

13

23. Hasbrook, A. Howard: "Evacuation Pattern Analysis of a Survivable Commercial Aircraft Crash"; CARI Report 62-9, May, 1962, pp 1-10.

24. Hasbrook, A. Howard: "Crash Survival Study - DC 6 Accident at Elizabeth, N. J., on February 11, 1952"; Crash Injury Research Release Number 15, Cornell University Medical College, October, 1953, pp 1-65.

25. Hasbrook, A. Howard and Early, John C.: "Failure of Rearward Facing Seat-Backs and Resulting Injuries in a Survivable Transport Accident"; CARI Report 62-7, Apri!, 1962, pp 1-11.

26. Hawkes, Glenn R.: "Tactile Communication"; CARI Report 62-11, May, 1962, pp l -7.

27. Henderson, Yendel and Seibert, E. G.: "Medical Studies in Aviation"; Journal of the American Medical Association, October 26, 1918, pp 1382-1400.

28. Henman, V. A. C.: "Air Service Tests of Aptitude for Flying"; The Journal of Applied Psychology, June, 1919, pp 103-109.

29. Hitchcock, Mary Alice, and Hitchcock, Fred A. (Translators): Barometric Pressure, Researches in Experimental Physiology, by Paul Bert, 1877; College Book Company, Columbus, Ohio, 1943, pp 1-1055.

30. lampietro, P. F. and Goldman, Ralph F.: "Prediction of Energy Cost of Treadmill Work"; CARI Report 62-5, April, 1962, pp 1-4.

31. Larkens, William T.: The Ford Story; Rober R. Longo Co., Wichita, Kansas, 1957, pp 1-178.

32. Lowenstein, Otto: Experimentelle Hysterieiehre (Experimental Hysteria, subtitled "A Study of the Experimenta I Foundations of Psychogenic Trauma"); Verlag von Friedrich Cohen in Bonn, 1923, pp 1-412.

33. McFarland, Ross A.: "Health and Safety in Transportation"; Public Health Report, August, 1958, pp 663-680.

34. McFarland, Ross A.: "Human Problems in Jet Air Transportation"; Society of Automotive Engineers Transactions, Vol. 64, 1956, pp 437-452.

35. Mohler, Stanley R.: "Aging and Pilot Performance"; Geriatrics, February, 1961, pp 82-88.

36. Mohler, Stanley R.: "The General Biology of Senescense"; Postgraduate Medicine, December, 1961, pp 527-536.

37. O'Connor, William F.: "Community Reactions to Airports: A Psychosociolog ica I Approach"; Aerospace Medicine, March, 1962, p 366.

38. Office of Carrier Accounts and Statistics: Handbook of Airline Statistics; Civil Aeronautics Board, Washington, D. C., December, 1961.

39. Office of Plans: Aviation Forecasts; Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D. C., 1961.

40. Ovington, Earle L.: "The Psychic Factors in Aviation"; Journal of the American Medical Association, August 1, 1914, pp 419-420.

41. Palmer, Henry R.: This Was Air Travel; Superior Publishing Company, Seattle, 1960, pp 1-190.

42. Pearson, Richard G.: "The Cause of Death and Injury in Modern Lightplane Crashes"; Aerospace Medicine, March, 1962, p 348.

43. Post, Mae: (Personal Communication by Mrs. Wiley Post to the author, Snyder, Texas, September 14, 1962).

44. Post, Wiley and Gatty, Harold: Around the World in Eight Days; John Ham i Iton, Limited, London, 1931, pp 1-222.

14

45. Ray, Jim: The Story of Air Transport; John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, 1947, pp 1-104.

46. Smith, Dean C.: By the Seat of My Pants, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1961, pp 1-245.

47. Smith, Paul W.: "Toxic Hazards in Aerial Application"; CARI Report 62-8, April, 1962, pp 1-8.

48. Snyder, Richard G.: "Human Survival of Extreme Vertical Deceleration in Free-Fall"; Aerospace Medicine, March, 1962, p 369.

49. Swearingen, J. J., Hasbrook, A. H., Snyder, R. G., and McFadden, E. B.: "Kinematic Behavior of the Human Body During Deceleration"; CARI Report 62-13, June, 1962, pp 1-8.

50. Swearingen, John J. and Mohler, Stanley R.: "Sonotropic Effects of Commercial Air Transport Sound on Birds"; CARI Report 62-4, March, 1962, pp 1-5.

51. Swearingen, J. J., Wheelwright, C. D., and Garner, J. D.: "An Analysis of Sitting Areas and Pressures of Man"; CARI Report 62-1, January, 1962, pp 1-10.

52. Thompson, Horace: Proceedings of the Second National Clinic for Domestic Aviation Planning; Harlow Publishing Corporation, Oklahoma City, November 15-18, 1944, pp 1-396.

53. Thomson, Horace: Proceedings of the National Aviation Clinic; Times-Journal Publishing Company, Oklahoma City, November 19-21, 1945, pp 1-239.

54. Trites, David K.: "Problems in Air Traffic Management: I. Longitudinal Prediction of Effectiveness of Air Traffic Controllers"; CARI Report 61-1, December, 1961, pp 1-11.

55. Trites, David K. and Cobb, Bart, B.: "Problems in Air Traffic Mangement: Ill. Implications of Age for Training and Job Performance of Air Traffic Controllers"; CARI Report 62-3, February, 1962, pp 1-10.

56. U.S. Civil Service Commission: "Announcement 281-B, Career Opportunities in the Federal Aviation Agency for Air Traffic Control Specialist"; May 22, 1962, pp 1-6.

57. U.S. House of Representatives: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations (Fiscal Year 1963), U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, Spring, 1962, pp 1-1209.

58. U.S. Senate: Hearing before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations (Fiscal Year 1963), U.S. Senate, 87th Congress, Summer, 1962, pp 1-1434.

59. Viteles, Morris S.: An Historical Introduction to Aviation Psychology, Report No. 4, Division of Research Civil Aeronautics Administration, October, 1942, p~ 1-71.

60. Viteles, Morris S.: The Aircraft Pilot, Five Years of Research (Summary of Outcomes); Division of Research, Civil Aeronautics Administration June 15 1945, pp 1-46. ' ' 61. Harding, William B.: "Mergers Might Save the Airliners"; The Atlantic, September, 1962, pp 46-50.

62. Swearingen, John J., McFadden, E. B., Garner, J. D., and Blethrow, J. G.: "Human Voluntary Tolerance to Vertical Impact"; Aerospace Medicine December 1960, pp 989-998. ' ' 63. Minges, Woward: The Aircraft Year Book for 1932 33, 34, 35, 36; Aeronautical Chamber of Cammerc~ of America, Inc., New York. New York.

64. Oklahoma Aviation News: Volume 1, Number 1, September 1, 1946, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, pp 1-6.

University of Birmingham to commence new Graduate Courses in October The Electrical Engineering Department of the University of Birmingham offers a series of lecture courses at postgraduate level, and suitable combinations of these, together with tutorial and laboratory work and an individual project may be used to form a 12-month's graduate course leading (for students already holding Bachelor's degrees or the equivalent) to the degree of M . Sc. by examination . Normally only students with honours degrees (or the equivalent) in Electric;al Engineering, Physics, or Mathmatics are accepted, but students with other qualifications coupled with suitable experience will be considered. Students without university degrees (or their accepted equivalen ts) take the Diploma in Graduate Studies in place of the M.Sc. degree.

Subjects of lecture courses are selected from 14 different fields, and attention is drawn to the combination of subjects comprising the Air Traffic Engineering Course.

This course is not intended to lead to a narrow field of employment but to give a broad and fundamental treatment to the principles underlying Radar systems, Navigat ional Aids, Communicotion System, Computers, and the relevance of Information Theory to these subjects . A background course of mathematics is also given . The more vocational side of the course consists of lectures on Air Traffic Systems and Operational Research and represents about one-fifth of the total lecturing load . Mast of these lectures are given by people currently working in these fields, drawn from indu stry, Government establishments and the Ministry of Aviation in order to preserve an up-Iodate outlook on this rapidly develop ing field . The lectures are supported by visits to Airport s, Radar and Computer installations, Air Traffic Control Centres and other establishments working in this field .

The course also makes use of laboratory work, tutorials and a 3 months study or research project which may be arranged to have an operational bias for those who require it. The Electrical Engineering Department is currently engaged on research relevant to some Air Traffic problems and consequen t ly study projects are often associated with this research.

The Air Traffic cour se runs concurrently with other postgraduate courses in the Department and many of the lectures are common to several courses. The course leads to the award of the deg re e of M . Sc . or to a Diploma in Graduate Studies. The duration of the course is one. year from Octob er 1st to September 30th and the fee 1s 拢 88.

(University of Birmingham)

Erfahrung seit mehr als einem Vierteljahrhundert auf dem Gebiete der Funknavigation

I LS-Anlage Kain/Bonn , Antenne des Landeku rssenders

Dieses moderne auf die au tomatische Allwetterlandung nach ICAO Kategorie 3 weisende lnstrumenten-Lande-S ys t em am Flu ghafen Kain / B onn m.it Landekursanlage LK 2 wa r die Voraussetzung f_ur die dart im November und Dezember 1962 und im Februar 1963 durchgefUhrten automatischen Landungen .

SEL Beitrage zur Ortung und Navigation: VO R VHF-Drehfunkfeuer nach FAA-Richtlinien ILS FBll

Landefunkfeuertypen LK 1 und LK 2 fiir alle Flughafenkategorien Facherfunkfeuer und Z-Marker

ZFB

Mittelwellenfunkfeuer-N DB

O-VOR Doppler-VHF-Drehfunkfeuer TACAN Rho-Theta-System fiir Mittelstrecken

Cockpit Laxity ,,Overdramatized" says Ed Cockerham The Exe cutive Directo r of the U.S. Air Traffic Control A.s:,0 .ciation recently charged that the "l axity in the cockpit iss ue, raised again in editorial comment in the July 27 Saturday Evening Post, " Has been dramatized beyond reason".

In a letter to the magazine, Edward H. Cockerham, spokesman for the 7,500 air traffic controller members

~ SEL. .

die ganze nachrichtentechnik

STANDARD ELEKTRIK LORENZ AG 路 STUTTGART Geschaftsbereich Weitverkeh r und Nav1gat1on 15

of the Association, noted that " only a very few of the 17,000 airline pilots in the U.S. have been slow to respond to greater hazards due to increased air traffic".

Furthermore, the letter pointed out, the editorial charge that the present Administrator should be held responsible for the recent publicized cases of cockpit misconduct appears to overlook the fact that all the incidents took place between 1957 and June of 1961. The present Admini strator assumed his position in March of 1961, and should not be accountable for those infractions. The cockp it inc ide nts were revealed during recent Congressional h~ari~gs, wh.ere photographs were introduced showing pilot inattention to flight duties.

It was noted in the letter that "s ubsequent action has been taken. Thirteen of the offending pilots were fined, and two of the companies were put on notice to adopt a program to eliminate 'laxity in the cockpit"'.

"The nation 's air traffic controllers," the letter said "have a deep respect for the professional airline pilots'. and have first-ha nd knowledge of their alertness and attention to duty." Controllers ride in the cockp its of the natio~ 's airliners periodically, to observe operational pra~tices, and are in continous radio contact with pilots during the performance of their control duties . They also observe most of the fl ights continuously on radar, Cockerham noted.

The le tter also took issue with the Post's implication that FAA flight inspection personnel are incompetent.

"There are only 303 of these pilots who check on airline pilot proficiency," Cockerham wrote. "These dedicated public servants work for about half the salary of an airline pilot, and have a remarkable record of effectiveness for their numbers ." At the present time, they check out all the airlin e je t pilots, and at least 40 per cent of the turbo-prop and piston airline pilots . In addition, it is estimated that 75 per cent of all airline miles flown are under observation. The maximum that can be accomplished wit h the flight inspector man-hours currently available.

"The present government economy trend," Cockerham concluded, "is hav ing an adverse effect on air safety.

Public support is needed to continue the buildup of effective air safety programs, and the personnel necessary to execute them ."

(ATCA)

Answers to the quiz questions published in THE CONTROLLER No. 2, Vol. 2 l. Within the tropics of Cancer und Capricorn the sun is standi ng twice in the zenith during one year, on the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn the sun is standing once and outside the tropics of Cance r und Capricorn the sun is never standing in the zenith .

2. cp > 56° 15' .

3. Th e sa lesman can celebrate New Year's Eve at the date line twice.

4. The sa lesm an ca n celebrate his 21 st birthday at the date line for forty-eight hours.

5. The scientist can celebrate New Year's Eve at the South pole twenty-five times.

6. The scientist ca n celebrate his 21 st birthday at the earth 's South pole for forty-eight hours .

16

Marconi Tracker-Ball Controller The Marconi tracker-ball controller type F 3052 is ideally suited for use in co.mplex radar data handling systems and also for controlling the movement and orientation of aerial systems, television cameras and in fact any equipment which moves in two dimensions.

This device provides a more con:enien! and less tiring method of control than the conventional 1oystick control ler, while in association with its back-up un it it gives an output suitable for introduction directly into a digital computer. With adoption, an analogue output may be derived, suitable for feeding into an analogue computer or a cathode ray display tube.

The controller consists basically . . of a hard pi as t "rc sphere, 3" in diameter, housed rn a lrght alloy casting. The sphere protrudes through · ,, d a hole in the top of the ea s t·rng to a height of 1 /i an an operator can move it s· I . h h . f1 .

Th imp y and effortlessly wrt rs rngertrps. e ball is held f1 I against two take-off shafts, which are accurately mo~~';:~ at 900 to each other. Any movement . . .dof the ball will cause both shafts to turn an d th rs co-rncr ent with the axes of the take-off shafts. The number of turns of each s h a ft .rs a measure of the resolved component of this movement . along the shaft axrs .

The subsequent mechanical outputs from th ese s h afts I . . are translate d rnto e ectncal outputs by the use o f p h oto tran sis tors. Eac h s haft has a slotted disc fa t d . h h . s ene to one end, whrc , w en rotatrng, interrupts the pa ssage o f Iight from two Iamps on one side of the disc t 0 t . h · wo correspon .d rng · . a series h p oto-transrstors, the latter will receive 1ses a s the disc rotates The of I rg t pu b f . h . d . . num er o pulses rt as receive rs a measure of the ang u Iar d"rsp Iacement o f I h e s h a f I, an d consequently of the re so Ive d b a II move men! a Iong I h at shaft axis . However th" I . · h ' rs a one wrll not grve I e sense of rotation of the d" b distance involved . rsc ut merely the The sense of rotation is achieved b . . f h y arranging that th e pairs o p oto-tran sistors are mou 1 d . h .

I n e rn sue a posr . h h Iron I at t e pu ses from one preced e or f o II ow the pulseser, d epending on the d " 1. f rom I h e. ot hTh rrec ron of rotation o f I h e d rsc. e resultant outputs f ram th e controller a .

Ih erefore two parrs of pulses each p · . . re . d ' arr g1v1ng a measure o f I h e magnr tu. . e and direction of th e sp here resolved a Iong two ·rectr 1rnear axes. These pul ses are f e d .rnto the b ac k-up . un rt . where they are shaped ' an d converted into t h e b rnary sign and digit form .

(Marcani's Wire less Telegraph Company Ltd Ch 1 landl ' ., e msfo rd , Essex, Eng

VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator A new lighting sytem, which shows the pilot of an aircraft whether he is approaching the runway at a safe angle for landing, has been adopted as standard equipment throughout the world by the Council of the international Civil Aviation Organisation.

For this invention Mr. J. W. Sparke, of Britain's Royal Aircraft Establishment, has been awarded the United States of America's John Scott Award, which is given annually for "inventions useful to mankind".

TRANSITION BAR DZUS FASTENER BRACKETS FILTER ASSEMBLY

'-

\

CROSS-LEVELLING ADJUSTER ELEVATION ADJUSTER

LAMP ASSEMBLY

SLIT

High Cost of Accidents

While the importance of equipment which contributes towards air safety has long been recognised, the urgent need for it has been highlighted during the past few years, when the cost of accidents to jet airliners has totalled about 100,000,000 dollars. It is a disturbing fact that more than half these accidents have occurred during the final approach to the runway or in the landing itself.

When one considers that in addition to the grave dangers of injury and loss of life, the repairs to a big jet airliner which is damaged while landing seldom cost less than 1,000,000 dollars, plus the loss of revenue while the aircraft is out of service, improved landing guidance information for pilots can be seen as a vital requirement.

But one may ask: why develop a new visual system in this era of radio radar and electronics? For example, an advanced British system, also developed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment, has already proved its ability to land an aircraft automatically in zero-zero visibility without the pilot touching the controls. This equipment is to be fitted in a number of new airliners, such as the de Havilland Trident; so why rely on a pilot and the information with which he is supplied?

The answer is that even with such a seemingly foolproof system of automatic landing, in which every vital circuit is .triplexed against the risk of any one or even two failing, the ultimate responsibility for the safety of the aircraft will always rest with the pilot, whether he is touching the controls or not. He will be required to monitor the functioning of the automatic equipment throughout the /anding procedure, so that he can take command at any instant if anything goes wrong.

Similarly, with the electronic landing aids in service today - such as radar talk-down or ground controlled approach, and the instrument landing system, whether on cockpit i~dicator needles or coupled to the autopilot for autom.atrc approach - the pilot must be in visual contact wrth the runway by the time he has descended to a height of ~O? .t? 300 feet (60 to 90 metres) above ground. If the vrsrbrlrty rs less than this, he must break off the approach.

Extending Visual Range

Interior details of the Visual Approach Slope lndicatoL

the region in which the aircraft should touch down and gave virtually no approach guidance. Then during World War II, Britain developed the well known Calvert crossbar system, which combines a line of ground lights leading towards the runway threshold, with a series of lighted crossbars of diminishing length. Its disadvantages are that it cannot be installed where the approach is over forests, built-up areas or deep water, and the maximum practicable crossbar height is reached at about four miles (6.43 kilometres).

The next step was to install coloured lights near the threshold, sufficiently powerful to be visible several miles away even in daylight. This system, which is now in wide scale service, consists of three-colour sector lights giving an amber signal to show that the aircraft is too high, a green signal when it is on the glide path, and red signal when it is too low.

But in the opinion of many pilots, this system is unsatisfactory nowadays, because the indicator lights cannot be seen against the background of directional runway lamps and the hundreds of other lights installed at large airports. The indicators can also be unreliable, because condensation sometimes forms on the objective lens, causing both the green and red sectors to turn amber, and giving a false fly-down signal.

Risks Eliminated

These oroblems have been solved in the Visual Approach Sl~pe Indicator, devised ~y J. W. Sparke .at ~he R.A.E. and now being built under lrcence by Atlas Lrghtrng It Ltd ., a su b sr·d·rary of Thorn Electrical lndustrres Ltd. b h consists of bars of lights at right angles to and on ot ~ne -<et at the approach end and s ·d r es o f th. e ru n-w-., u r, ~· another some distance along. . .

Each set of lights is housed in metal box contarnrng am pra1·ector lamps and a red colour t h ree sea Ie d be . · I ring half the lamp face, wrth a horrzonta e screen cov . .LL.. + +. .

I the front of the box. Tnrs resrric1s 111e par, o, s Irt a ong .

I the light which can be seen from any partrcular ang e, the beam appearing whrte rn the upper sector and red in the lower sector. Using six lamps in a row'. and an open s l .tr ·rns te ad of a lens , has eliminated the rrsk of a false 1

The majority of landing accidents however, are still caused by lack of - or errors in - guidance information, or in its interpretation, or in the response by the pilot.

Mistakes in height or approach angle lead to dangerous and sometimes fatal deviation from the correct glide path.

To extend the visual range of the runway, various methods of approach lighting have been evolved over the years, beginning with the simple flare path of white lights along the sides of the runway, which did not define

•

._

'.

.1.

fly-down signal. . .

The pilot sees the system as two bms of lrght staddlrng the runway. If he is too high, both bars show white. If he is too low, both are red. By flying so that the nemer· bar 17

appears wh ite and the farther bar red, the pilot can be certain af an ideal approach down a sloping corridor ta th e touchdown point.

The bars of light also gi ve the pilot an art ificial horizon and show him his d is placement from the centre line, so that he can e a sily judge the att itude of the aircraft in relation to the ground, as w ell as the ang le at whi ch he is approach ing .

Proved in Operation

The Thornray VASI a s it is known , has proved during a la rge number of routine operations to be very easily "fl yabl e". Not only does it g ive a minimum distance of 25 feet (7.62 metres) between the upper und lower boun-

SEAL ED

dories of the glide path at the threshold, enabling it to be flown right down to and below flar e-out height, but during corrections to the aircraft's approach slope the pilot sees a steady changeover from white to red indication s, and vice-versa, through progress ive shades of pink.

This transition sector shows him his rate of devia tion and av iods the danger, w hich might occur if the colour chang e were abrupt, "hunting " about the ideal position, to the discomfort of his passe ngers. And because the lights are visible until he actually passes them, one more danger is elim inated - the " black hole " beyond the threshold of many runways, w here a pilot can lose his sense of he ight, even when be ing talked do w n.

B EA M

~OJ"ECToR .

The opt ical system of the Tho rn ra y Vi sua l Approa ch Sla pe Ind ica tor is illu stra ted by thi s di a g ram .

A pilot' s view a s he approaches an a ir port runway showi ng the two se ts of Th ornray Vis ua l Approach Slope Indi cator .

18

(Br itish Features)

PEEP

Pilot's Electronic Eyelevel Presentation

Landing a modern aircraft puts a great strain on a pilot's eyes. He has to read at least five instruments giving him flight data, and - at a time when it is most dangerous for him to take his eyes off his flight path - he has to be aware of numerous other warning devices concerning his aircraft, presented normally by dials and warning lights.

An added danger is that his eyes must constantly be altering focal length at this vital time, and it was recently established by a report of Britain's Ministry of Aviation that, under certain conditions, it can take a pilot one second for adjustment from outside viewing to instrument panel, and another second for the reverse process.

A British television and electronics firm which also specialises in aviation electronics has developed an "eyelevel" presentation system for data for use in service craft, and now, after exhaustive testing - it has featured in the Meteor, the Royal Navy's Buccanear fighter, and is being installed in the new Royal Air Force strategic transport aircraft Belfast - the Ministry has allowed it to be offered to commercial airlines all over the world.

Low Weight and Size

The "Pilots Electronic Presentation" system (PEEP), better known in the service as the "Head-up" system, is a radical new method of presenting essential flight data in the form of symbols projected by a cathode ray tube, either on to a lens in front of the pilot or directly on to the windscreen as if it were part af the skypath outside the aircraft.

It is always in line with the aircraft's flight path, transparent and - what is most important - focussed at "infinity". With the development of new aircraft more and mare data has been required, but the use of transistors has helped to maintain low weight and size, an essential pre-requisite for commercial airline operation.

The symbols are always in the pilot's forward field of view towards which he is flying. This condition satisfies a number of psychological factors, for under present-day conditions in the piloting of high-speed, high-altitude craft the pilot has no object outside the aircraft on which he can focus his eyes exept the extremities of the aircraft itself. Continual short focussing reduces the ability of the pilot to appreciate the extent of the air space outside and reduces his ability to judge distance, particularly with regard to other aircraft.

But with infinity pattern to fly towards at all times, on which irregularly occurring information such as a storm warning or approaching aircraft, can be made to appear os well as flight data, these problems are overcome. In crowded traffic patterns or landing circuits where the pilot's attention must be everywhere at once the system is of even greater benefit.

by Fred Keating

re-produced. This cathode ray tube is contained within a lightweight casting together with a lens which can project the image on to a reflecting screen or direct on to the windscreen.

The amount of information presented to the pilot depends upon the existing instrumentation in the aircraft.

Among the most important information which is present are control parameters to enable the aircraft to be flown at safe attitudes, but due to the versatility of he design other parameters can be easily added to the system as required. It can include the simplest information such as flight direction and air speed, height and so on.

The pilot's work is eased because he has his own aircraft symbol in front of him with a director dot which he must keep in a circle. If he keeps these symbols matched up he should make a text-book flight operation.

The lens assembly is fixed to the cathode ray tube housing and the whole constitutes the "Pilot's Display Unit" (P.D.U.). The harmonisation of the equipment is accomplished by a combination of adjustments on the P.D.U. and waveform generator and, once set, requires no further attention for long periods. The pilot's only control that needs to be operated in flight is the "Brightness Control". This governs the brightness of the display and once set to a desired level in contrast with ambient lighting, that contrast level is maintained automatically.

Electronic Writing

The waveform generator accepts all the information from the various aircraft instruments and computers and transforms this information into the appropriate current waveforms for feeding the deflector coils around the neck of the cathode ray tube. It is fully transistorised and also contains power supplies required for the waveform g~nerator and the pilot's display unit; thus only normal mrcraft supplies are required.

Both units meet K 114 test for duration and operational conditions. The mechanical design is flexible enough to allow for fixing into almost any existing aircraft. Total power needed is approximately 100-150 VA-AC. Pre-flight checks can be carried out simultaneously with the checking of normal flight instruments, employing a simple test b~x.

In addition to flight data, a new warning sytem which consists of electronic writing flashed on to a mi~iature cathode ray tube has been released. Any letters in any language, any numeral, special symbol or patte.rn can be flashed in front of the pilot in various colours, instead of his having to watch the rows and rows of complex warning indicators. If anything goes wrong .a messag~ is flashed in front of the pilot in an appropriate c~loui 路 路 " uld automatically For example ,,Fire in port engine wo appear in red at the top of the screen.

Cathode Ray Tube

PEEP has at its heart, a small high intensity, high resolution, cathode ray tube on which the display picture is

(Rank Cintel Avionics, Worsley Bridge Rood, Lower Sydenhom, London,

S. E. 26)

19

Corporation Members of the International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations Cessor Radar and Electronics Limited, Harlow, England The Decca Navigator Company Limited, London ELLIOT Bros. Ltd., London Hazeltine Corporation, Little Neck, N. Y., USA IBM World Trade Europe Corporation, Paris, France KLM Royal Dutch Airlines The Hague, Netherlands Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd. Radar Division Chelmsford, Essex, England N.V. Hollandse Signaalapparaten Hengelo, Netherlands Telefunken GmbH, Ulm/Donau, Germany Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas 22, Texas, USA

The International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations would like to invite all corporations, organizations, and institutions interested in and concerned with the maintenance and promotion of safety in air traffic to ioin their organization as Corporation Members.

Corporation Members support the aims of the Federation by means of an annual subscription and b supplying the Federation with technical information. The Federation's international iournal "The Con~ trailer" is offered as a platform for the discussion of technical and procedural developments in the field of air traffic control.

For further information on Corporation Membership please contact Mr. H. W. Thau, Secretary, I FAT CA, Cologne-Wahn Airport, Germany.

20

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Television can present tabulated flight progress information instantaneously wherever it is required in an air traffic control centre.

TAKE A GOOD VIEW

DATA TRANSMISSION FOR AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL .~

PASSENGER HANDLING INFORMATION ARRIVAL/DEPARTURE INFORMATION FLIGHT SCHEDULE INFORMATION FLIGHT MOVEMENT INFORMATION WIND TUNNEL OBSERVATION MET. BRIEFING DOCUMENT TRANSMISSION TRAINING FLIGHT TESTING RUNWAY OBSERVATION APRON SURVEILLANCE

APRON SURVEILLANCE

Television presents an allround view of the complete parking area, eliminating the bl i nd spots and enabling the marshalling supervisor to see the number and disposition of aircraft anywhere on the apron.

MARCONI TELEVISION FOR AVIATION Closed Circuit Television Div ision MARCONl'S WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY LIMITED BASILDON , ESSE X, ENGLAND

RESEARCH

Obs ervation of after burning in a gas turbine engine at a government research station. This is typ1ca.1 of the many research applications for w hi ch telev1s1on is being used to-day .

Cl

MARCONl'S 7,000Mc/s rod or doto link system

*

Radar data links allow radar aerials to be sited remotely from control centres to take full advantage of ideal site conditions.

*

designed to moke lnternotionol lnteuroted Air Ironic Control MARCONI oreolity NOW

The U.K. airways system uses Marconi 7000 Mc/s radar data links.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

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MARCONl 'S

SURVEYED路 PLANNED路 INSTALLED 路 MAINTAINED

W IRELESS

TELEGRAPH

COMPANY

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LIMITED

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CHELMSFORO ,

ESSEX ,

ENGLAND

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