REASEARCH INSTRUMENTS

When a researcher reaches the data collection stage of the research process, there are several key items that the researcher should identify. These items include who will collect the data, when will the data be collected, at what setting will the data be collected, what data will be collected, and how will the data be collected. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018)

The terms research instrument and data collection tool are synonyms. The data collection tool, or instrument, is the mean by which the researcher will collect data relevant to the variable of inquiry. There are several types of data collection tools that a researcher would choose from. The suitable data collection tool varies depending on the variable of inquiry, the research question or hypothesis, and the study design. Different types of data collection tools include questionnaires and surveys, observation methods, interviews, etc. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Questionnaires

A questionnaire is simply a sum of questions that a researcher formulates to gather data about a certain variable. A questionnaire is considered a self-report data collection tool. Questionnaires have a variety of formats which makes them very versatile. And this versatility is perhaps the reason it is the most common data collection tool (Phillips & Stawarski, 2016). Questionnaires can be used to collect different types of data: opinions, knowledge levels, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, ideas, and perceptions as well as factual information about the respondents (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Types of Questions

The questions in a questionnaire are the most essential part. Utilizing the appropriate question type is the main step in formulating an effective questionnaire. There are several types of questions used in questionnaires: demographic, closed-ended, open-ended, contingency, and filler questions. These types are not exclusive though. For instance, a demographic question can be either open-ended or close-ended. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

1. Demographic questions

Do not necessarily provide data about the variable. Rather, they‖re used to collect data about the characteristics of the sample. These characteristics, called demographic variables or attribute variables, include age, educational level, religious affiliation, etc.

Besides the fact that almost all questionnaires have a target demographic of respondents, data collected from these questions can be used to study the relationship between respondent characteristics and their responses to questions about other variables in the study. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

2. Close-ended questions

Are questions where the researcher provides a set of predetermined answers for the respondent to choose from. A close-ended question can have two options like a true or false question (Birmingham, 2016).

It can include a check list where the respondent selects all items that apply. Other forms of close-ended questions are multiple choice questions and matching questions (Phillips & Stawarski, 2016). Close-ended questions are the most structured form of questions in a questionnaire. To ensure that a close-ended question is structured correctly, the answer choices must be collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Collectively exhaustive means all possible answers to the question are included in the choices. Mutually exclusive means every choice distinct from the others, they don‖t overlap.

3. Open-ended questions

These are questions where the researcher allows the respondent to answer in their own words rather than choosing from multiple answers. Open-ended questions include essay questions and fill-in-the-blanks (Phillips & Stawarski, 2016). Openended questions can be presented with close-ended questions where the respondent would be able to add any explanation or thought of theirs after answering the close-ended question.

4. Contingency questions

These are questions that do not apply to all respondents. Whether a respondent should answer such a question is dependent (contingent) on their answer to its preceding question. “How long was the last hospitalization period” is an example of a contingent question; if the respondent has been hospitalized before then they can answer this question but if the respondent hasn‖t been hospitalized then the question doesn‖t apply to them. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

5. Filler questions

These are questions that a researcher would include in their questionnaire to deter respondents from giving answers that they think the researcher is looking for.

Filler questions are questions that the researcher has no direct interest in but are included to drain some emphasis from the main subject to achieve more honest answers. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Advantages

Questionnaires have numerous advantages as a data collection tool. A questionnaire is generally a quick and inexpensive tool to collect data from a large sample. It is also easier to test for the reliability and validity of a questionnaire than other data collection tools. Administration of questionnaires is less time-consuming than interviews or observation and it is relatively easy to obtain data from a sample with a prevalent geographical status. The anonymity of respondents is easily maintained. Finally, questionnaires are easily analyzed compared to other research tools. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Disadvantages

However, there are several key disadvantages to questionnaires. For once, response rates to questionnaires are typically low. Also, as the researcher is unable to explain items in the questionnaires that may be misunderstood, contrary to interviews, respondents might fail to answer some of the questions. Some respondents may also provide socially acceptable answers rather than their honest opinions.

Finally, because of the nature of the questionnaires, respondents must be literate and free of any physical disability that would prevent them from answering the questionnaire. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Interviews

Interviews, although not as common as questionnaires, is a very useful and prominent tool for collecting data. An interview is a process where an interviewer directly obtains information from a respondent through a face-to-face meeting, a telephone call, or, more commonly now than ever, an online call or meeting (Phillips & Stawarski, 2016). Interviews are used to collect factual information about people and their opinions, attitude, and beliefs on a certain topic.

Types 1. Structured interview

It is where an interviewer asks respondents specific questions with little to no variation in the questions asked between respondents.

2. Unstructured interviews

They allow the interviewer to ask additional questions and seek further information from each respondent. (Birmingham, 2016).

Advantages

Interviews have a few advantages which set them separate from other research instruments.For once, response rates in interviews are relatively high compared to questionnaires. Also, and most importantly, more in-depth information can be gathered as well as nonverbal behaviors.

Disadvantages

However, there are several key downsides to interviews. Interviews are very time-consuming, unstructured interviews especially. Also, you need to be trained interviewers to be able to collect sufficient and relevant data.

An interviewer might misinterpret respondents‖ answers or respondents might give socially correct answers or be influenced by the interviewer rather than giving honest answers. Besides, setting up and scheduling an interview is a costly and difficult task. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Observation Methods:

Observation data collection methods are used to gather data by observing a selected sample during a period. Observations can vary on how structured they are.

Rather than two options, structured or unstructured, it‖s a range where most observations lie somewhere between the two ends.

1. Structured observation

It is when the observer has prior knowledge of the phenomenon they‖re trying to observe.

The observer will also have a checklist of the expected behaviors where he\she will record the frequency of each behavior.

2. Unstructured observation

It is where the observer records the events that occur without any prior knowledge of what would be observed. Thus, most observation methods lie between these two ends. The observation method is designed with some predetermined behaviors to observe but the observer is instructed to record any additional behaviors. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Time/event sampling:

Observation methods can also be classified into event sampling or time sampling. This refers to the criteria to which the period of observation will be executed. Event sampling is observing an entire event. Time sampling is observing behaviors during a certain period. Either of the classifications would be chosen based on the research aim.

According to the observer:

Observation methods can also be classified depending on the relationship between the observer and the subjects. There are two main types: participant and non-participant observer.

1. Participant observer

It is an observer who is involved in several interactions with the subject. That observer is in most cases a co-worker of the subjects being observed.

2. Non-participant observer

It is an observer who does not interact with subjects.

Participant

and non-participant observers

A. Overt observer

can be overt or covert.

It is an observer who the subjects know, prior to data collection, is observing them for research purposes.

B. Covert observer

It is an observer who the subjects, prior to data collection, are unaware of. Covert observation is rarely ethical. One example of an ethical covert observation is observing public behavior like the number of people who wear their seatbelts. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018

Other Data Collection Tools:

Other data collection tools include attitude scales, physiological tests, and psychological tests.

1. Attitude scales

These are self-report data collection tools that ask respondents to rate their attitudes about a certain topic on a predetermined scale. After the responses are collected, each respondent is given a score. The researcher then can compare between the respondents‖ attitudes using these scores.

One of the most common attitude scales used is the Likert scale. Likert scale, named after its developer Rensis Likert, usually consists of five to seven responses to each item ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

2. Physiological tests

They involve collecting physical data from subjects to measure a specific variable. Physiological measure of best quality is its accuracy and objectivity. For instance, observing facial expressions and body movements, and measuring heart rate and oxygen saturation to measure the response of subjects to acute pain is considered a physiological measure. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

3. Psychological Tests

They are used to measure the personality traits, needs, or values of people. There are many types of psychological tests. One major type is personality inventories. Personality inventories collect data from subjects by asking them direct questions or requesting responses to statements provided for the trait being measured.

Another major type is the projective technique which aims to eliminate the disadvantage of self-report psychological measures, socially acceptable answers rather than genuine ones. In this technique, the subject exhibits stimuli that are designed to be ambiguous then the subject is asked to describe this stimulus. The responses represent the feelings of the respondent. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

Using Existing Research Instruments:

During the literature review stage of the research process, the researcher might find a research instrument that is appropriate to use in his study. The use of an existing research instrument connects the present study with previous studies on the variable inquiry.

To use an existing research instrument, you must contact the developer of the instrument to obtain permission to use the instrument to avoid violating the developer‖s copyright. Moreover, there are numerous sources of published research instruments that are available for fair use by researchers. Some of the best sources are published compilations of instruments where each instrument is explained extensively and knowledge about the validity and reliability and the psychometric analysis of each instrument is presented, e.g: the DASS-21 scale in psychiatry research. (Nieświadomy & Bailey, 2018).

What makes a good research instrument:

 Validity

The degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it tends to measure

 Reliability

Means the extent to which a research instrument is dependable, consistent and stable.

N.B :

-The instrument can be considered reliable but not valid

-Reliability is less important than validity

-The most useful instrument which is both valid and reliable



Usability (practicability)

The ease with which the administration and interpretation of an instrument by patients and the scoring / interpretation by the researchers without undue expenditure of time, money and effort.

Factors of usability determination:

 Ease of administration.

 Ease of scoring.

 Ease of interpretation and application.

 Low cost.

 Proper mechanical make up.