15 ijaems may 2015 16 a novel approach to reduce active attacks in manet using extendeddempster shaf

International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311

A Novel Approach to Reduce Active Attacks in MANET Using Extended Dempster Shafer Theory Prof. H. Santhi1, Prof. Gayathri. P2, Dr. N. Jaisankar3 1,2

Assistant Professor (Senior), School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore , Tamil Nadu, India, 3 Professor, School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore , Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract—MANET is kind of adhoc network which changes location and organize itself. This kind of networks doesn’t have any fixed framework and are more tending to attacks that take place in the networks. Encompassed by theseattacks routing attacks had received significant interest since it could the most overwhelming damage to MANET. The present methodologies like 2ACK, NACK, SMP and STP results the inadequacy of detecting attackers trespass during collisions and have high routing overhead. To overcome this we areusing reactive routing protocols like DSR in MANET we used extended Dempster Shafer theory to identify routing attacks in the network.

Keywords— Mobile Adhoc Network, Extended Dempster Shafer theory, intrusion detection, intrusion response

A MANET is self-governing system of linked by wireless networks. Here the routers move arbitrarily and arrange themselves erratically. So, the wireless network topology will change immediately and impulsively. Such a network may progressin a standalone style.

Mob

Comp uter

Mob

Mob Compute

Mob

I. INTRODUCTION Mobile Adhoc networks are set a wireless communication in improvised surroundings without a predefined framework.

MANET is deployed in unfavorable aggressive environments where central authority point is not compulsory. The unique characteristic of MANET is the dynamic nature of its network topology which is repeatedly changed due to volatile mobility of MANET. Each mobile node in MANET acts as a router during a data transmission in the network. Therefore any compromise nodes under an unfriendly control could cause major damage to the process and security of its network the crash would transmit in performing routing tasks.

Several works addressed in the intrusion response actions in MANET by separating perverse nodes based on the node reputation resultantfrom the actions. A simple reply against malignant node often neglects possible negative side effect involved with the reply actions. In MANET improper countermeasures may cause the sudden network division that causes damage to the network framework.

Fig 1 Manet Routing II.

ATTACK IN MANET

In all the layers of the network there occurs somedissimilar type attack in MANET. There are two types of attack in network. Active attack and Passive attack are more important here we are going discuss about active attack.

2.1Sleep Deprivation AttackThiskind of attack is more specific to mobile attacks. The saying is to sap-off limited assets in the mobile adhoc by assiduously makes them busy giving out avoidable packets. In these routing protocols like DSR, sleep deprivation attack might be launch by flood the directed node with avoidable routing packets. As an outcome that exacting node is not capable to contribute in the routing and affected by the other nodes in the network.

2.2 Link Spoofing AttackA link spoofing attack the traducer node announces affected links with non-neighbors to disturb Page | 104

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routing action. For Example-The attacker node promotes a false link with a target two-hop neighbors which cause the mark node to choose the unacceptable path.

III. RELATED WORK In the related paper [1], the author used 2ACK scheme method to detect routing misbehavior and to reduce the effect. And the outcome is the 2ACK scheme reduce overhead detects the network misbehavior .In paper[2] “SORI-A secure and objective reputation based incentive scheme for adhoc networks “ and the method used here is one way hash chaining, and its objective is to encourage packet forwarding and discipline selfish nodes, the overcome of this paper is the reputation of the node is quantified by objective measures and secured by one-way hash chaining based on authentication scheme which is computational efficient. In this paper [3] the author used the method packet leaches and TIK authentication and the objective is to detect warm hole attack and avoid them, To overcome this a MAC Using TIK efficiently protects against reply spoofing and warm-hole attack and ensures strong freshness. In[4] paper the method used is effective leader election mechanism and its objective is prolonging the life time of mobile nodes and for preventing the emergency of selfish nodes, over come of this is secure election algorithm detect the selfish nodes and to push them. In paper [5] the methods used are routing attacks such as link spoofing and collude mis-relay attacks in MANET and its objective is mobile adhoc network has became a research topic due to their flexibility and independence of network frame work such as base stations the overcome this approach is to detect link spoofing is to calculate the distance between two nodes.

In [6] paper the method used is black-hole attack which is one of attacks in adhoc networks the objective of this is reduce the attacks and its outcome is most important security troubles in MANET. In paper [7] the techniques adopted are nack scheme reducing the routing layer misbehavior and to analyze the existing misbehavior scheme the main objective of this is to reduce the misbehavior in routing layers and its outcome fulfilled the requirements of an ideal MANET environment using the nack scheme. In paper [8]author used the mostly used ad hoc networks based on security, trust, modeling and his main objective is to use quantitative trust

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models that have been developed to model trust transit through third parties by using fuzzy logic which provides trust metrics. In [9] paper they used security vulnerabilities and gives the design for detection algorithms. And the intrusion detection in adhoc networks is unlike form of legacy networks. It is dynamic in nature with the decentralized and dynamic for the frameless and centralized nodes for forwarding the data.

In Paper [10] the technique adopted are adaptive reputation, management system, time slotted approach its objective is to demonstrate the importance of adaption in reputation management systems in dynamic network environments and its outcome showed that adaptive system can operate under a wide range of network conditions and yields low false positive false negative with fast detection. In paper [11] the author discussed about the security attacks and counter measures there is a detailed survey on possible security attacks in MANET and their counter measures. And how classification of security threats gathering selfish and malicious attacks is proposed. In paper [12] author used Dempster-shafer theorem its abstract algebraic properties of the Dempstershafer set of mass assignments are investigated and compared with the properties of the Bayes set of probabilities. After the comparison it is clear that DS works more efficient than Bayes theorem at high complexities.

In [13] paper consists of Fuzzy MLS model and its basic idea is o inherent uncertainty and risk in access control decisions which are best addressed in explicit way. author illustrate it by showing how the rationale of the well known bell-lapdula model based, and Multi-level security access control model can be used to develop a risk adaptive access control model. In paper [14] Routing Security in wireless ad hoc networks he proposed a solution for black hole problem for AODV by disable the ability to reply in a message of an intermediate node. He studied the routing security issues of MANET, analyze one type of attack that is the black hole which is easily deployed against a MANET and proposed a possible solution to it. In [15] it’s a survey of secure wireless ad hoc Routing which reviews attacks on ad hoc networks and discussed the current approaches for establishing cryptographic keys in ad hoc networks and described its state of research and its challenges.

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

Ref no 1

2

Title An acknowledgment based approach for the detection of routing misbehavior in MANET’s

Method

2ACK scheme

Objective

Outcome

To detect routing misbehavior and to mitigate the effect

2ACK scheme reduce network overhead and detect network misbehavior.

to encourage packet forwarding and discipline selfish nodes

1) the reputation of a node is quantified by objective measures 2) the propagation of reputation is secured by one-way-hash chain based authentication scheme, which is computationally efficient, A MAC using TIK efficiently protects against replay, spoofing, and wormhole attacks, and ensures strong freshness.

Secure election algorithm detect the selfish nodes and punish them

SORI: A Secure and Objective Reputation-based Incentive Scheme for Ad-hoc Networks

SORI scheme

3

Packet Leashes: A Defense against Wormhole Attacks in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

Packet leaches and TIK authentication

To detect warm hole attack and avoid them

4

Mechanism Design-Based Secure Leader Election Model for Intrusion Detection in MANET

Effective leader election mechanism

for prolonging the lifetime of mobile nodes and for preventing the emergence of selfish nodes

One-way-hash chaining

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Metrics compared -Reliable Data Transmission -Reliable Route discovery -Limited transmission power -Limited overhearing range

Limitations

-various number of connection -various data rate -various dropping probability of selfish nodes

-support in broadcast transmission - node should have unique identity throughout the lifetime -node should be selfish but not malicious

To reduce extra routing overhead, only a few of the received data packets are acknowledged in the 2ACK scheme.

Attacks on physical layer is not discussed.

Denial of Service attack is beyond the discussion Percentage of alive nodes, energy level of nodes, percentage of leader node, average cluster size, maximum cluster size and number Page | 106

International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311 of single node clusters

5

Semigroup Structure of Singleton Dempster–Shafer Evidence Accumulation

Dempstershafer theorem

abstract algebraic properties of the Dempster– Shafer set of mass assignments are investigated and compared with the properties of the Bayes set of probabilities.

Through the comparison it is clear the DS works more efficiently than Bayes theorem at high complexities

06

A SURVEY OF ROUTING ATTACKS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS

Routing attacks, such as link spoofing and collude mis relay attacks such attacks in presented MANET protocols

Mobile ad hoc networks became a research topic due to their flexibility and independence of network framework such as base stations. . It is based on the security issues.

This approach detects the link spoofing by calculating the distance between two nodes that claim to be neighbors and checking the likelihood that the link is based on a maximum transmission range

Despite the greater complexity of the general DS set, the fundamental, semigrouptheoretic relationship between the DS and Bayes analyses still holds and the interpretation of the role of uncertainty presented They are some of character like limited battery power, bandwidth routing in MANET

This approach is that it cannot avoid the blackhole attack in which two consecutive nodes work in collusion, i.e., when the next-hop node is a colluding attacker sending CREPs that support the incorrect path.

Link Spoofing attack : The main drawback of this approach is that it might not work in a situation Page | 107

International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311 where all MANET nodes are not equipped with a GPS

07

Detecting Black hole Attack on AODV-based Mobile Ad Hoc Networks by Dynamic Learning Method

The black-hole attack which is one of attacks in ad hoc networks.

The effect node can remove the traffic from the source node

Black-hole attack is one of many possible attacks in MANET. In this attack, a effect node sends a forged Route REPLY (RREP) packet to a source node that initiate the route discovery in order to act as if to be a destination node.

By comparing the destination sequence number restricted in RREP packets when a source node received multiple RREP, it one as the most recent routing information and selects the route contained in that RREP packet.

Black-hole attack is one of the most important security troubles in MANET. It is an attack that a effected node that reaches a destination node by sending fake RREP to a source node that initiates route discovery, and consequentlydeprives data traffic from the source node.

A new detection method based on dynamically updated training data.

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

08

Information Theoretic Framework of Trust Modeling and Evaluation for Ad Hoc Networks

09

Cross-Layer Detection of Sinking Behavior in Wireless Ad Hoc NetworksUsing SVM and FDA

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311

They are mostly used adhoc networks based on Security,Trust Modeling

Quantitative Trust Models: Many trust models have been developed to model trust transit through third parties.

By using the fuzzy logic provides rules for reasoning with provide trust metrics. In the context of the “Web of Trust,� many trust models are built upon a graph where the resources/entities are nodes and trust relationships are edges

Four axioms are developed to address the meaning of trust and establish trust relationship through third parties.

In these level of trustworthiness can be quantitatively determined based on observation and through propagation. Two models that are used concatenation and multipath propagation of trust are developed.

The proposed framework is suitable for a variety of applications in distributed networks & by using malicious node detection and route selection.

To secure ad hoc routing protocols focus on preventing attackers from entering the network through secure key authentication

They are using some of connection between trust metrics and observation (trust evidence) and justifying calculation policies rules that govern calculations performed upon trust values &Quantitative Trust Models

In these paper we are using security vulnerabilities and gives the design for detection algorithms

In this paper the intrusion detection in adhoc networks is unlike form of legacy networks. It can be dynamic in nature with the

In ad hoc networks, nonlinear machine learning techniques such as SVM were infeasible due to the computational complexity induced

Efficiency, Framework, distributed decentralized and complexity and large size of the data

To improve security of ad hoc networks is to develop mechanisms that allow a node to evaluate trustworthiness of other nodes.

Such mechanisms not only help in malicious node detection, but also improve network performance because honest nodes can avoid working with less trustworthy nodes

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

decentralized and dynamic for the frameless and centralized nodes for the forwarding the data.

by the large size of training data.

Furthermore, as the cross-layer approach forms a bigger feature set, the high complexity incurred has made combining cross-layer schemes and nonlinear machine learning techniques infeasible Classification of security threats gathering selfish and malicious attacks was proposed.

10

Survey of routing attacks and counter measures in mobile adhoc networks

Security attacks and counter measures

A detailed survey on possible security attacks in MANET and their counter measures

11

Co operative approach to detect misbehaving nodes in MANETs using Multi-hop acknowledgement scheme

For reducing the routing layer misbehaviour author analysed the existing misbehaviour scheme and also used nack scheme.

The main objective is to reduce the routing layer Misbehaviour

fulfilled some of the requirements of an ideal MANET environment have fallen short in Locating the misbehaving nodes, using Nack scheme.

Adaptation of Reputation Management Systems to Dynamic Network Conditions in Ad Hoc Networks

Adaptive reputation management system, Time slotted approach.

To demonstrate the importance of adaptation in reputation management systems in dynamic network environments such as ad hoc networks

The results obtained showed that adaptive system can operate under a wide range of network conditions and yields low false positives and false negatives with fast detection, thus, reducing the impact

12

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Computation, communication, storage overhead

The effectiveness of adaptive reputation management system under more complex network environments is not done.

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311

of misbehaving nodes on the network.

13

Fuzzy Multi–Level Security : An Experiment on Quantified Risk– Adaptive Access Control

Fuzzy MLS model

14

Routing Security in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

Proposed a solution for black-hole problem for AODV by disable the ability to reply in a message of an intermediate node

Basic idea is that there is always inherent uncertainty and risk in access control decisions that is best addressed an explicit way. So author illustrate it by showing how the rationale of the well– known, Bell– Lapadula model based, Multi– Level Security (MLS) access control model can be used to develop a riskadaptive access control model.

The black hole which is easily deployed against a MANET and To propose a feasible solution in the AODV protocol.

The fine tuning of the Fuzzy MLS parameters, the quantified risk– adaptive access control (QRAAC) helped in addressing the issues that exist in current access control systems.

Studied the routing security issues of MANET, analyze one type of attack, the black hole, that is easily deployed against a MANET, and propose a feasible solution for it in the AODV protocol

Risk, probability of unauthorized disclosure,

Uncertainty in Security Labels, Loss variance based access decisions, Risk Modulating Factors are to be still needed to be worked out.

limitation of the proposed method is that it works based on an assumption that malicious nodes do not work as a group.

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15

IV.

A Survey of Secure Wireless Ad Hoc Routing

Ad hoc networks use mobile nodes to enable communication outside wireless transmission range. Attacks on ad hoc network routing protocols disrupt network performance and reliability. The authors survey the state of research and its challenges in this field.

This article reviews attacks on ad hoc networks and discusses current approaches for establishing cryptographic keys in ad hoc networks. We describe the state of research in secure ad hoc routing protocols and its research challenges.

EXTENDED DEMPSTER-SHAFER THEORY

The Dempster-Shafer theory is a combination of both theory of evidence and theory of probable reasoning. However it plays efficient role in the detection of routing attacks, the limitations made to extension of DS theory. The limitations regarding DS theory are:

First, the secure routing problem in such networks isn’t well modeled.

A more complete model of possible attacks would let protocol designers evaluate the security of their routing protocol. In addition, such a model would form the basis for using formal methods to verify protocol security.

1.

order plays a major role in prioritizing the attacks scenario different evidences have different trusts.

To overcome these limitations DS theory is extended by using the waited factor as importance factor and belief function A. Importance factor and Belief function

Bandwidth, Computation speed .

problem is designing efficient routing protocols that have both strong security and high network performance.

Although researchers have designed security extensions for several existing protocols, many of these extensions remove important performance optimizations.

Optimistic approaches can provide a better trade off between security and performance.

Suppose θ is a finite set of states then it have 2θsubsets.

In DS theory θ is a frame of judgment. There is a proposition correspond to the subset discern the proposition.

1. The order of evidences does not affect the result but 2. In DRC all evidences have equal trust. But in real

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311

2.

Importance factor is a positive real number regarding the importance of evidence. It is derived from the previous observations or through experience value Evidence can be defined as a set of {x,IF} where x is a probability assignment.

Probability assignment of null function is zero x(Φ)=0 ∑x(P)=1 P≤θ Page | 112

International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

Now we can state belief function as Bel(p)= ∑x(Q) Q≤P Where Bel(p) represents total beliefs to evidence p Suppose we have two beliefs bel1, bel2 over x1, x2 then x can be defined as x(Φ)=0 and

3.

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X(R)=∑Pi ∩Qj=R x1(Pi)x2(Qj) / 1- ∑Pi ∩Qj=Φ x1(Pi)x2(Qj) If E1={x1,IF1} and E2={x2,IF2} are two independent evidences then evidence E can be taken as E= {x1⊕x2,(IF1+IF2)/2} where ⊕is DS theory with importance factor

B. System design

Intrusion Detection Evidence collection System

Routing table change factor

Risk assessments of attacks

Risk assessment Risk of counter measures

Adaptive decision Intrusion making Response Intrusion response

Risk assessment

Decision making

Algorithm: - It is combination of multiple evidences is constructed.

1. MUL-EDS-CMB INPUT:-Evidence pool Ep OUTPUT: - One Evidence 1.|Ep|=size of (Ep); 2. While |Ep|>1do 3. Pick two evidences with the least IF in Ep, name E1 and E2; 4. Combine (x1 ⊕x2,(IF1+IF2)/2; 5. Remove E1 and E2 from Ep; 6. Add E to Ep; 7. End 8. Return the evidence in Ep. V. RISK-AWARE RESPONSE MECHANISM Here we are expressing a adaptive risk-aware response mechanism based on risk estimation and tolerance. As a substitute of simple binary isolation of effected nodes, we are adopting isolation mechanism in sequential way based on values.

5.1 Overview Due to the lack of Infrastructure of MANET, the risk-aware response system ids distributed, where each node in the system makes it individual reaction and choice based on

facts for its individual profit. Our risk –aware response mechanism is divided into 4 steps: Evidence Collection: Here the IDS gives an attack alert with a confidence value and the routing table change detector (RTDC) will check out the number of changes take place in routing table .

Risk Assessment: The above two values are considered as independent evidences for calculation of risk .risk counter measures are calculated during risk assessment phase, based on this entire attacks can be find out.

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

[Vol-1, Issue-2, May- 2015] ISSN: 2454-1311

Evidence 1: Alert confidence its the confidence of attack Decision Making: It’s a flexible response decision making detection by IDS provides the possibility of attack mechanism, which considers risk estimation and tolerance occurrence. into account. for adjustment of temporary isolation level, Evidence 2: Missing entry indicates the proportion of user sets different thresholds to fulfil goal. missing entries in routing table Intrusion response: based on the outputs the above modules Evidence 3: Changing entry I it represents the proportion of corresponds response actions consists of table recovery and changing entries in the case of next hop being the malicious node isolation is carried to mitigate these damages in node. Here it builds a direct link so there are chances for distributed manner. attacker target. It drops all packages to form target node or 5.2 Response to Routing Attacks: behaves as normal node and waits for further attack action.

In this approach we are dealing with routing table recovery Evidence 4: Changing entry II shows the proportion of and node isolation. Routing table recovery has global routing changed entries in the case of different next hop and the and local routing recovery which performs recovery by the same distance. effected nodes that are detected in the attack and Evidence 5: Changing entry III it points out the changing automatically recovered. Global routing sends recovered entries in the case of different next hop and the different messages by effected nodes and updates table based on distance. corrected routing information in real time.

Node isolation is the most intuitive way for preventing further attacks launched by malicious nodes. To perform this 5.3.2 Combination Of Evidences: next nodes ignore effected nodes. On other hand binary node We call the combined evidence for an attack, EA and the isolation results negative impacts. combined evidence for a countermeasure, Ec. the entire risk 5.3 Risk Assessment: value derived from Risk A and Risk c is: 5.3.1 Selection of evidences: Our evidence selection approach considers subjective evidence from experts’ EA = E1 ⊕ E2 ⊕E3 ⊕ E4 ⊕ E5; knowledge and objective evidence from routing table Where ⊕ is Dempster’s rule of combination with important modification. We take the confidence level of alerts from factor IDS as the subjective knowledge in Evidence 1. In terms of 5.4 Adaption Decision making:-our adaptive decision objective evidence, we analyze different routing table making this module it is based on quantitative risk modification cases. There are three basic items in OLSR estimation and risk tolerance which is fig routing table (destination, next hop, distance). We illustrate the possible cases of routing table change and analyze the degrees of damage in Evidences 2 through 5.

Level of Risk aware attack response

Permanent Isolation

Upper Risk Tolerance (UT) Band n Band n-1 Band n-2 ---

Temporary Isolation Band3 Band2 Band1 Lower Risk Tolerance Threshold (LT)

No Isolation Fig 2 Adaption Decision making Page | 114

International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS)

I= [Risk-LT/UT-LT*n], risk ϵ (LT,UT) T=100*I (Millisecond) The response level is divided into bands. Each band has isolation degree which gives time for isolation action. The upper risk tolerance threshold (UT) is associated with permanent isolation response. The Lower risk tolerance threshold (LT) is associated with each node unbroken. The recommend for LT is 0 The risk tolerance thresholds could also be dynamically adjusted by another factors, such as attack frequency VI.

CONCLUSION

Inorder to measure the risk of attacks and their countermeasures, Dampster-Shafertheory is extended with a inclusion of importance factor. Experiments conducted based on the extended DS theory demonstrates the effectiveness of this approach. Using Extended DS theory the detection of attacking nodes is scalable and efficient compared to original DS theory.

REFERENCES [1] Kejun Liu, Jing Deng, Pramod K. Varshney, and KashyapBalakrishnan “An acknowledgement based approach for the detection of routing misbehavior in MANET” [2] Q. He, D. Wu, and P. Khosla ” SORI: A secure and objective reputation based incentive scheme for adhoc networks”.

[3] Y. Hu, A. Perrig, and D. Johnson ”Packet leaches: A defense against warm hole attacks in wireless adhoc networks” [4] N. Mohammed, H. Otrok, L. Wang, M. Debbabi, and P.Bhattacharya, ”Mechanism design- Based secure leader election model for intrusion detection in MANET” [5] Satoshi Kurosawa, Hidehisa Nakayama, Nei Kato, Abbas Jamalipour and Yoshiaki Nemoto “Detecting blackhole attack on AODV-based Mobile adhoc networks by dynamic learning method” [6] B. Kannhavong, H. Nakayama, Y. Nemoto, N. Kato, and A.Jamalipour, “A Survey of Routing Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”

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[7] Yan Lindsay Sun, Wei Yu, Zhu Han and K.J.RayLiu , February 2006 “Information Theoretic Framework of Trust Modeling and Evaluation for Ad hoc Networks” [8] Andrzej K. Brodzik, Semigroup Structure of Singleton Dempster–Shafer Evidence Accumulation [9] S. Usha, S. Radha, "Co-operative Approach to Detect Misbehaving Nodes in MANET Using Multi-hop Acknowledgement Scheme," [10] M. Refaei, L. DaSilva, M. Eltoweissy, and T. Nadeem, “Adaptation of Reputation Management Systems to Dynamic Network Condition in Ad Hoc Networks,” [11] P. Cheng, P. Rohatgi, C. Keser, P. Karger, G. Wagner, and A.Reninger, “Fuzzy Multi-Level Security: An Experiment on Quantified Risk-Adaptive Access Control,” [12] H. Deng, W. Li, and D. Agrawal, “Routing Security in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks,” [13] Y. Hu and A. Perrig, “A Survey of Secure Wireless Ad Hoc Routing,” [14] Amara korbaAbdelaziz, Mehdi Nafaa, GhanemiSalim “Survey of Routing Attacks and Countermeasures in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks” [15] John Felix Charles Joseph, Bu-sung Lee, Amitabha Das “Cross-layer detection of sinking behavior in wireless adhoc networks using SVM and FD

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