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IJHSS.NET
Vol. 5, No. 1
September 2015
International Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences
e-ISSN: p-ISSN:
1694-2639 1694-2620
AAJHSS.ORG Vol 5, No 1 – September 2015 Table of Contents Impact for professional development expenditure on student achievement in Texas public schools Dr. Jason L. Johnston, Dr. J. Ray Thompson and Dr. Chuck Holt
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The colonial testament: An economic re-interpretation of Europe’s motives for colonizing Africa Moses Allor Awingson
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Metaphors in Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, Heriyanto and Kasno Pamungkas
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Electrophysiological evidence of object processing in visual working memory Lingxia Fan, *Yang Dong, Yan Lei and Renlu Guo
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-7, ŠIJHSS
Impact for professional development expenditure on student achievement in Texas public schools Dr. Jason L. Johnston. Texas A&M University-Commerce Commerce, Texas Dr. J. Ray Thompson Texas A&M University-Commerce Commerce, Texas Dr. Chuck Holt Texas A&M University-Commerce Commerce, Texas Abstract The debate over whether money matters in education has been waged in journal articles, legislatures, and courthouses all across the United States of America with no decisive resolution. In a time of heightened focus on educational accountability, district administrators have concentrated on allocating resources to those areas with the greatest impact on student achievement. It is essential that research continue in the area of effective educational resource allocation to determine the choices that yield the highest return on investment when considering student achievement. The purpose of this study was to independently examine the relationship of professional development expenditures for both property wealthy (Chapter 41) and property poor (Chapter 42) school districts in the state of Texas with student achievement as measured by the data from the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills. The intent of this quantitative study was to narrow the resource allocation focus from the more broad instructional expenditures category by extracting and isolating the professional development sub-category for analysis. Policy makers and school researchers will find significance in the study as they continue to debate whether money matters when determining current funding policy and school accountability measures. Keywords: professional development, school finance, education Introduction Due to the litany of budgetary constraints that the United States of America and Texas faces, some researchers have identified a need to ensure the most effective and efficient use of educational resources (Jones & Slate, 2010a). The debate over the impact of educational funding on student achievement has a long history that dates back at least to the findings of the 1966 publication known as The Coleman Report. Two decades later, the 1983 report, A Nation at Risk, intensified national concerns for the perceived failures of the country’s educational system, specifically, the growing performance gap between economically disadvantaged students and students from districts with more available resources (Burtless, 1996). 1
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The debate over whether money matters in education has been waged in journal articles, legislatures, and courthouses all across the country with no decisive resolution. Hanushek (1994) has conducted studies and insists there is no significant correlation between funding and student academic performance. Hedges, Laine, and Greenwald (1994) refuted Hanushek’s findings, stating that the study was inadequately conducted and that funding does yield a positive impact on student performance. Greenwald, et al. (1996) continued to make the case that when the data is properly interpreted, it is evident that educational funding is a relevant variable when seeking to improve academic outputs. Several states passed legislation that required specific spending levels in an effort to improve student achievement. Jones, Bingham & Jackson (2007) found no relationship between instructional expenditures on student outcomes when they examined the impact of the 65% rule on student achievement in Texas. A later study did find a relationship between instructional expenditures and district performance ratings (Jones and Slate, 2010a). Picus (2004) suggested a more narrow examination of expenditures was necessary to identify what, if any, aspects of educational spending most directly impacted student achievement. Instructional allocations drew the eye of many school leaders and researchers. Higher performing schools tended to allocate instructional expenditures at higher levels than their lower performing counterparts. Picus (2004) used data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) to determine that roughly 61% of expenditures from 1950 onward were spent on instruction and that district expenditures were relatively consistent throughout most school districts. States were quick to pass legislation mandating instructional allotments be allocated at 65% of total expenditures (Jones & Slate, 2010b). Rick Perry, the Governor of Texas, issued Executive Order number RP47 in 2005, mandating school districts to spend at least 65% of district funds on instructional purposes (Perry, 2005). Even though the order was repealed, effective in July 2010, the mandate sparked studies within the state on the impact of the 65% rule (Texas Association of School Boards [TASB], 2010). These studies raised more questions about the categories of spending within the instructional aspect of education budgets and the effectiveness and efficiency of the monies spent on student achievement (Jones et al., 2007). Professional development expenditures fall within instructional allotments and are a natural focus when discussions of improving academic performance are occurring in most education related discussions. As states continue to measure the return a dollar of instructional spending will yield, it is important to examine the impact of professional development expenditures on student achievement. At the 2011 Texas Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (TASCD) conference, Thomas Guskey alleged that most professions dedicate roughly 10% of time to professional growth activities, whereas, education tends to hover in the 3% to 5% range (Guskey, 2011). Educational institutions have taken a varied approach toward professional development implementation and evaluation over the past one hundred years. As accountability from state and federal mandates continues to increase, school systems are seeking to implement ongoing professional development that is consistent and assessable in terms of implementation and effectiveness in regard to improving student achievement (Mouza, 2007). Parry (1996) indicated determining the return on investment of professional development activities is very difficult. The increased focus on accountability has led to increased investigation of professional development effectiveness studies. The examination of available professional development studies has produced concerns among professionals in the field. As noted by Guskey (2011), of the over 1,300 studies collected and examined by Southwest Regional Education Laboratory (SREL) on professional development effectiveness, only nine meet the What Works Clearinghouse’s standards for credibility. 2
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When studying the impact of education expenditures in Texas, it is important to consider the distinction of school districts classified as property wealthy (Chapter 41) and property poor (Chapter 42) by the Texas Education Code (TEC). Local school district property taxes, state funds, and federal funds account for the funding for Texas’ public schools (Davis, Dawn-Fisher, McKenzie, Rainey, & Wall, 2012). A complex system of formulas is in place in an effort to ensure equitable distribution of funding to the state’s public school system. The Foundation School Program (FSP) establishes the amount of funding due from state and local taxes for each district in accordance with current finance laws. In its current structure, the FSP is meant to ensure that all districts, regardless of property wealth, are allocated “substantially equal access to similar revenue per student at similar tax effort” (Davis et al., 2012, p. 1). This effort has led to a complicated funding system that requires property wealthy districts to return local tax revenues to the state to be re-dispersed to property poor districts. Chapter 41 of the TEC outlines the provisions of the Robin Hood plan that property wealthy districts must adhere to when they qualify to have funding recaptured by the state (Davis et al., 2012). As the state continues to find the most suitable, and legal, formula for funding public schools in an equitable manner, questions loom about the positive or negative impact on academic achievement the funding system has on both Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 schools. Following the lead of Picus (2004) and numerous other educational researchers, this study intends to independently examine the impact of professional development expenditures of both Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 Texas public schools on student achievement as measured by the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) (Greenwald, et al., 1996). Statement of the Problem Policy makers and educators who are faced with dwindling resources continue to search to find ways to provide today’s school children with the knowledge and skills they need to compete in a global society that promises to be increasingly interconnected (Moak, Casey & Associates, 2011). The legislature of the state of Texas determined to classify and fund schools based on property wealth in an effort to ensure equitable and adequate funding (Benson & Marks, 2005). Fiduciary efficiency is quickly becoming the most challenging issue faced by educational decision makers (Odden & Picus, 2008). It is essential that research continue in the area of effective educational resource allocation to determine the choices that yield the highest return on investment when considering student achievement. Research Design of the Study The purpose of this quantitative study was to independently examine the relationship of professional development expenditures for both Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 school districts in the state of Texas with student achievement as measured by the data from the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) as reported by the All Students category. To accomplish the purpose of this study, the following research questions were posited: First, what relationship exists between the district level professional development expenditures based on the preceding 3year average and overall levels of student achievement of K-12 public school districts that are classified as Chapter 41, property wealthy, in Texas as measured by the TAKS test in the 20102011 school year? Second, what relationship exists between the district level professional development expenditures based on the preceding 3-year average and overall levels of student achievement of K-12 public school districts that are classified as Chapter 42, property poor, in Texas as measured by the TAKS test in the 2010-2011 school year? The hypotheses statements in this study concentrated on student achievement data as measured by state passing percentages from all four areas of the TAKS assessment. First, when 3
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isolating property wealthy schools, Chapter 41, there will be no significant relationship between student achievement on the TAKS test and the district level professional development expenditures based on a preceding 3-year average. Second, when isolating property poor schools, Chapter 42, there will be no significant relationship between student achievement on the TAKS test and the district level professional development expenditures based on a preceding 3-year average. Significance of the Study This study has national and international significance to policymakers and educational practitioners regarding the relationship between student achievement and resource allocations. Practitioners in education will find the study significant considering the heightened need for fiscal efficiency amidst increased legislative mandates and increasing student performance expectations. Policymakers may find significance in the study as they continue to debate whether money matters when determining current funding policy and school accountability measures (Hartman, 1999). Picus (2004) suggested a more narrow examination of expenditures was necessary to identify what aspects of educational spending most directly impacted student achievement. This study narrowed the resource allocation focus from the more broad instructional expenditures category by extracting and isolating the professional development sub-category for analysis. This study laid the groundwork for future examination of efficient use of resources to impact student achievement. Method of Procedure This quantitative study was designed to examine the relationship, if any, of professional development expenditures of Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 Texas public schools with student outcomes on the TAKS. In an effort to establish a clearer picture of the impact, a 3-year average of professional development expenditures was established based on the required state financial reporting of the districts. The sample population consisted of K-12 Texas public school districts that reported assessment data from the TAKS for the 2010-2011 school year. Averaged expenditure data of Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 school districts were compared to overall district performance on the state assessment. Collection of Data The Texas Education Agency (TEA) requires that all Texas public school districts report their fiscal and assessment data each year. Professional development expenditure data, as reported in budget function code 13, were requested and obtained from the TEA for all districts for the 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011 school years. In conjunction with the financial data, TAKS assessment data for each district were requested from the TEA for the 2010-2011 school year. Requests to the TEA included that all districts be identified as Chapter 41 or Chapter 42 as defined by the Texas Accounting Code (TAC). In circumstances where the chapter designation changed for a district, for the purpose of this study, the district was excluded. Treatment of Data Upon completion of data gathering, a quantitative statistical analyses approach was administered. Microsoft Excel was utilized to produce descriptive statistics of the data. Pearson productmoment coefficient was used to analyze the data to determine possible relationships. Scatterplots provided visual representation of the final analyses. The study utilized two state determined groups, Chapter 41and Chapter 42 districts respectively, and examined the independent variable of percentage of average professional development spending based upon average overall district revenue. The independent variable was compared to the dependent variable of percentage of 4
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overall students passing all areas of the 2010-2011 TAKS assessment. The data were measured at an Alpha = 0.05 level to determine statistical significance. The data were divided into two separate study groups, Chapter 41 and Chapter 42, for independent analysis. The Chapter 41study group was comprised of 241 Texas public schools. This group represented approximately 22% of the total population being studied. The remaining 864 school districts, or 78% of the population, were analyzed within the Chapter 42 data set. All data were analyzed utilizing Microsoft Excel for Mac 2011. The software was used to calculate minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation, Pearson r, and r-squared to determine possible relationships between staff development spending and student outcomes on the TAKS from the 2010-2011 school year Findings Pearson correlation statistics were utilized to determine whether a relationship existed between district staff development expenditures and student outcomes on the 2010-2011 TAKS assessment for Chapter 41 school districts. The Research Hypothesis01 conjectured that when isolating Chapter 41 school districts, no significant relationship would be found between student performance on the TAKS test and professional development spending. Two hundred forty-one school districts were analyzed in the Chapter 41study group. District level staff development expenditures, which were calculated over a 3-year period between 2008-2011, served as the independent variable. The dependent variable was the mean passing percentage of all students of grade levels 3-11 from each Chapter 41 district for all 2010-2011 TAKS assessments administered. Pearson correlation statistics were utilized to determine whether a relationship existed between district staff development expenditures and student outcomes on the 2010-2011 TAKS assessment for Chapter 42 school districts. The Research Hypothesis02 stated that when isolating Chapter 42 school districts, no significant relationship would be found between student performance on the TAKS test and professional development spending. Eight hundred sixtyfour school districts were analyzed in the Chapter 42 study group. District level staff development expenditures calculated over a 3-year period between 2008-2011 served as the independent variable. The dependent variable was the mean passing percentage of all students of grade levels 3-11 from each Chapter 42 district for all 2010-2011 TAKS assessments administered. Research Question 1 posited what relationship exists between the district level professional development expenditures based on the preceding 3-year average and overall levels of student achievement of K-12 public school districts that are classified as Chapter 41, property wealthy, in Texas as measured by the TAKS test in the 2010-2011 school year? In an effort to address the initial question, Research Hypothesis01 was postulated. The hypothesis conjectured that when isolating Chapter 41 school districts, no significant relationship would be found between student performance on the TAKS test and professional development spending. Research Question 2 posited what relationship exists between the district level professional development expenditures based on the preceding 3-year average and overall levels of student achievement of K-12 public school districts that are classified as Chapter 41, property wealthy, in Texas as measured by the TAKS test in the 2010-2011 school year? In an effort to solve the second question, Research Hypothesis02 was postulated. The hypothesis conjectured that when isolating Chapter 42 school districts, no significant relationship would be found between student performance on the TAKS test and professional development spending. 5
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Conclusion and Implications of the Study The purpose of this study was not to determine how professional development expenditures should be allocated, but to determine if a relationship existed between those allocations and student achievement within Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 designated school districts. This statewide analysis revealed that there is no significant relationship between professional development expenditures and student achievement in Texas public school districts, whether those school districts are designated as Chapter 41 or Chapter 42. The findings of this study suggest that further research is necessary to ascertain specific funding areas that directly yield higher student achievement. This study has extended the research on student achievement, professional development, and resource allocations. Marzano, et al. (2011) identified professional development activities that yield a measurable return on student achievement. While there is growing research to support a positive relationship between school expenditures and student achievement, there is little that identifies a relationship exists between professional development expenditures and student achievement (Guskey, 2011). The findings of this study support the conjectures of some researchers who have cautioned the validity of education professional development expenditure studies because of differences in funding sources, accounting practices, and multiple departmental professional development programs (Chambers, Lam, & Mahitivichcha, 2009). The state of Texas has attempted to create an accountability system, Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS), which more precisely tracks expenditures (TEA, 2007). However, based on the small expenditure percentages reported by districts, it appears that inconsistency in reporting still exists. This study did not conclude that professional development expenditures do not impact student achievement; it only revealed that a relationship could not be determined within the parameters of the analysis. Legislative and educational decision makers have persisted in finding ways to ensure today’s students possess the knowledge and skills they need to compete in a global society that promises to be increasingly interconnected with declining funds (Moak, Casey & Associates, 2011). The legislature of the state of Texas determined to classify and fund schools based on property wealth in an effort to ensure equitable and adequate funding (Benson & Marks, 2005). Fiduciary efficiency quickly became the most challenging issue faced by educational decision makers (Odden & Picus, 2008). The implications of this study have the possibility to assist policy makers and educational leaders in discovering which educational resource allocation categories yield the highest return on investment when considering student achievement. Additionally, this study provides a glimpse as to whether designating districts as Chapter 41 or Chapter 42 provides the balance the funding system desired. This aspect of the study adds to the ongoing conversations about wealth equalization among Texas public schools and the corresponding impact on student achievement. Since this study does not allow the researcher to draw definitive conclusions about the impact of professional development spending on student achievement, the researcher cautions generalizations made from analysis of this study, as numerous variables must be considered and analyzed. It is concluded that a weak relationship existed between Chapter 41 school district professional development expenditures and student achievement. Lastly, it concluded that no relationship existed between Chapter 42 school district professional development spending and student achievement. References Benson, E., & Marks, B. (2005). Robin Hood and Texas school district borrowing costs [Entire issue]. Public Budgeting & Finance, 25(2), 84-105. Burtless, G. (1996). Does money matter? The effect of school resources on student achievement and adult success. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Chambers, J., Lam, I., & Mahitivichcha, K. (2008). Examining context and challenges of measuring investment in professional development: A case study of six districts in 6
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the southwest region (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2008-No. 037). Washington, DC: Department of Education, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Education Laboratory Southwest. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs Davis, B., Dawn-Fisher, L., McKenzie, A., Rainey, N., & Wall, K. (2012, Fall). School finance101: Funding of Texas public schools (Manual). Texas Education Agency. Retrieved from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/index4.aspx?id=7022&menu_id=645&menu_id2=789 Greenwald, R., Hedges, L.V., & Laine, R. (1996). Interpreting research on school resources and student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 411-416. Guskey, T. (2011, November 1). Differentiating instruction with mastery learning. Austin, TX: Texas Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hanushek, E.A. (1994). Money might matter somewhere: A response to Hedges, Laine and Greenwald. Educational Researcher, 23(4), 5-8. Hartman, W. T. (1999). Education funding disparities: What do the dollars buy? Journal of Education Finance, 24(3), 389-408. Hedges, L. V., Laine, R. D., & Greenwald, R. (1994). Money does matter somewhere: A reply to Hanushek. Educational Researcher, 23(4), 9-10. Jones, T. B., Bingham, W. D., & Jackson, S. H. (2007). Will the sixty-five percent instructional expenditure rule improve student achievement in Texas? Manuscript submitted for publication. Jones, T. B., & Slate, J. R. (2010a). Instructional expenditures and accountability ratings: A multi-year statewide study. Manuscript submitted for publication. Jones, T. B., & Slate, J. R. (2010b). The 65% instructional expenditure ratio and student achievement: does money matter? Unpublished manuscript, Sam Houston State University, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX. Marzano, R. J., Frontier, T., & Livingston, D. (2011). Effective supervision: Supporting the art and science of teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Moak, Casey, & Associates. (2011, February). Tracking the education dollar in Texas public schools (White Paper). Author. Retrieved from http://www.moakcasey.com/search/default.aspx?search=tracking%20the%20education % 20 dollar Mouza, C. (2007). The impact of professional development on teacher learning, practice and leadership skills: a study on the integration of technology in the teaching of writing. Odden, A. R., & Picus, L. O. (2008). School finance: A policy perspective (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Parry, S. B. (1996). Measuring training’s ROI. Training & Development, 50(5), 72-75. Perry, R. (2005, August 22). Executive order number RP47. State of Texas. Retrieved August13, 2012, From http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/press/exorders/rp47 Picus, L. O. (2004). School finance adequacy: implications for school principals. National Association of Secondary School Principals. NASSP Bulletin, 88(640), 3-11. Texas Association of School Boards. (2010). Chapter 19: financial accountability (Policy Brief). Author. Retrieved from www.tasb.org/.../sch_first_and_finan_solvency_rev_process.pdf Texas Education Agency. (2007). Texas Accounting Code (Data File). Texas Education Agency. Retrieved from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/
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The colonial testament: An economic re-interpretation of Europe’s motives for colonizing Africa Moses Allor Awingsong Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Cape Coast, Caper Coast, Ghana
Abstract This paper examines the motives put forward by European statesmen and historians for the formal annexations or colonization of Africa. An explanatory and argumentative paradigm to historical research is adopted to dissect the „public explanations‟ proffered by statesmen and historians of Europe for the colonization of Africa. The reasons given for colonization were political, economic, humanitarian and moral, and religious in nature. Though this paper does not wholly refute the authenticity of these claims, it posits that there was an overriding economic concern that underlay the formal annexation of Africa and the carving out of spheres of influence by European nations. It examines the four main explanations European historians have offered for colonization and argues that the economic and commercial motive was the chief reason for the formal colonization of the continent of Africa. Key words: Africa; Colonialism; Economic; Europe Introduction Scholars of African History agree that by the nineteenth century (C19th), the European presence in Africa had succeeded in endowing Europe with the natural, human, and mineral resources which laid the bedrock for its prosperity and advancement (Rodney, 1971; Nkrumah, 1965). By the end of that century, pressing economic and other needs in Europe compelled a reluctant continent to engage actively in carving out spheres of occupation and influence in Africa. Colonialism dawned on the continent of Africa. Iwe (1985) describes colonialism as:
“... a phase in the evolution of Africa characterized by intensive geographical explorations, the slave trade, the scramble for Africa, the territorial ambitions and pretensions of the Western nations, the imposition of alien rule and institutions, the planting of Western forms of Christianity, acculturation, racialism and exploitation...”(quoted in Okon (2014:193) Similarly, Dumor (1993) holds that colonialism is a system of governance involving the administration of law and justice, and the organization of an economic system in such a way that the social, economic, and political interests, and the fundamental rights of the colonial subjects 8
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become subservient to that of the colonizing power. Such subjugation as colonial rule did in Africa was not done without an explanation. To offer what will today be „public explanations,‟ to use a modern journalistic term, for the subjugation of Africa, political, religious, moral, and economic motives were vigorously mooted by European statesmen to justify colonization. It is the view taken in this paper that behind all reasons given for colonization was a desire to position Africa well to exploit her economically for the well-being of Europe. This paper contends that it was purely economic motives that pushed European statesmen to undertake effective colonization of the continent of Africa.
Europe’s Motives for Colonizing Africa Political Reasons Europe, in support of its colonization drives in Africa, put forward that it had an obligation to provide political order on the chaotic political planes of Africa (Crowder, 1968; Dei-Anang, 1964). It was thought that there was a dearth of law, order and stability on the continent due primarily to inter-tribal wars, civil strives within states, and the activities of other undesirable beings. Again, it was held that Africans were incapable of providing for themselves any form of protection and security through organized governments and that they must be guided by the superior political organization of European nations (Okon, 2014). The statesmen of Europe held that colonial rule was a necessary step to provide for the institutionalization of organized structures and institutions to regulate human behavior, protect lives and property, and assure liberty. But this political view of colonization hid a far greater fact: that it was European ammunition which helped keep tribes at each other‟s throats. The policy of „divide and rule,‟ a popular African quote to describe political divisions engendered by imperial powers among locals, was very much practiced by trade companies and European administrative representatives to help provide political leverage conducive for the conduct of trade. On the Gold Coast, for instance, the physical confrontations between Asante and the Fante city-states were propped up by Dutch and English support, respectively. But even more important was the situation of Europe‟s politics within the contemporary economic climate of the late nineteenth century (C19th). The great economic depression of the late nineteenth century (C19th) compelled most scholars, statesmen, and leading citizens to look away from Europe and the Americas for resource control in Africa as an answer to the fundamental questions of economic sustainability of Europe (Bolt, 2013). Bolt (2013:14) observes that: “…at the time Europe found itself in the depression, the reports of explorers on the African continent that reached Europe never failed to emphasize the riches of the continent. By the 1880s, the general belief in Europe was that Africa was the world‟s last great untapped reservoir of markets, resources and possible investment opportunities.” It was these great markets, resources and investment openings that needed tapping by Europe. And the most efficient way of realizing these visions was to press for complete, unbridled political control of Africa through colonial rule. Also, widespread unemployment and decreased investments throughout Europe in the nineteenth century (C19th) threatened the social fabric and political sanity of European society (Boahen, 1965). Industrialization meant more redundant human resource in Europe which needed to be put to work. In England of the 1870s, there was an estimated one million paupers, according to Boahen. These posed political threats to the established order of European society. 9 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
For instance, some monarchies lost power due to the pressure and the agitations of rowdy, unemployed people whose energy was ably used by revolutionaries to cause instability or even overthrow the establishment. To avoid the likely negatives associated with a large unemployed population, European politicians sought more resources to facilitate job creation and prosperity. For this reason, Europe turned to Africa as a centre to supply the resources and goods for reestablishing economic sanity in Europe through employment creation for political and social stability (Padmore, 1956). So, instead of colonization becoming a means to bring the much talked about political order in Africa, it became, contrastingly, a means of arming Europe financially so it could avoid the fragility and friability brought about by unemployment and decreased investment. These then were another stellar economic reason which compelled the formal launch of colonization in Africa by European nations. An equally pronounced political factor for colonization was Legitimate Trade. Legitimate Trade involved trade in goods like cotton, oil palm, timber, rubber, and precious minerals which brought about reciprocal prosperity for the parties involved (Boahen, 1965). It replaced the obnoxious slave trade. It helped position the African as a trading equal with the European merchant. This equality enabled the native Africans pick and choose trading partners based on informed economic interest. Trade companies, according to Boahen, became engaged in competitive struggles for African goods. It was, however, the autonomy Africans enjoyed in their trading activities with European traders which became greatly detested by some European merchants. Legitimate Trade failed precisely because many Europeans hated the parity trade relations between them and their African counterparts (Crowder, 1968). These European mercantilists sought opportunities for monopoly and thus, supported colonization. They lobbied and pressured their governments to exercise political control over areas of interest to aid them, the merchants, exercise monopoly over the same areas (Boahen & Webster, 1967). Howard (1978) captures it succinctly when she contends that traders from Europe, for economic reasons, became advocates for colonial occupation for obvious reasons. One of the obvious reasons was the desire to have the power to decide how trade was to be conducted to their African colleagues rather than dealing with these local merchants on more equal terms. Political colonization was therefore a means of substituting Legitimate Trade with one in which European merchants will exercise monopolistic rights in their commercial enterprises on the continent. It is therefore significant to note that the desire to institute law and order was not for altruistic reasons but for economic considerations. Colonization was to help Europe gain uncontested access to the natural and mineral resources of Africa. It was also to help each imperial nation carve out a sphere over which it could effectively exercise trade monopoly as a means to bettering its own national economy. Humanitarian and Moral Reason European statesmen who advocated colonization also held a moral belief that Europe owed it a duty to colonize Africa so as to open it up to the benefits conferred on Europe by scientific progress and technological advancement (Crowder, 1968; Boahen, 1965). Modern rail technology, architecture, roads, hospitals and manufacturing industries were still much unknown or underdeveloped in Africa. Europe thus made it its crusading mission to bring the African into the light of such civilization which it held to be synonymous with human progress and betterment. But this moralistic contention was informed by racialism and a lack of understanding of the culture of the people. Crowder (1968:5) explains that: “Christian Europe, which had abolished the slave trade, felt itself morally superior to heathen Africa....This sense of moral superiority was reinforced by theories of racial superiority which placed the white man at the top of the hierarchy, the black man at the bottom. Thus, the European colonial powers 10
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found nothing wrong in occupying and ruling lands belonging to African peoples....” He continues to explain that European statesmen held that complete control of Africa, justified by superior moral and scientific resources, would enable Europe push back the environmental and technical barriers to progress on the continent and open up the land to the light of modern civilization. But a careful look at the impact of technical and technological improvements in Africa reveals an economic and commercial undertone. The impressive East African rail system, the famous triangular rail system in the Gold Coast, the great ports on the African seaboard, extensive inland roads network, and social improvements were meant to help move experts and resources around the continent with ease and to help cart goods to Europe without difficulty. So technological and scientific progress, on one hand, and commercial or economic exploitation, on the other hand, were bedfellows. In effect, the introduction of technological and scientific know-how furthered the cause of resource exploitation in mining, agriculture, and logging. The fellowship between the two was to be seen in how they complemented each other. For instance, hospitals aided the fight of malaria; schools produced the clerks and interpreters who oiled the communications system of the colonial administration; sophisticated equipment bettered the methods for mining operations. All these added to the economic well-being of Europe “in such a way that the fundamental rights of the colonial subjects become subservient to that of the imperial power” (Dumor, 1993:153). Religious Reasons At the Berlin Congress in 1884-85, Leopold II, together with other altruistic politicians of Europe, propagated the idea that Europe needed to bring Africa effectively under the light of Christianity and to halt the slave trade which was unchristian (Foeken, 1995). However, the notion that Africa should be evangelized was not a novelty. In fact, the evangelizing zeal for Africa had begun with the first Europeans on the continent in the fifteenth century (C15th) (Sanneh, 1983). But the powers of Europe argued, from a new dimension, that the dearth of legitimized political authority on the continent thwarted missionary efforts of European clergy on the continent. Colonial rule, it was supposed, would create the security and stability necessary for effective Christianization of Africa. Bolt (2013) indicates that the annexation of the Bugunda Kingdom reluctantly by Britain was necessitated by pressure from missionaries who thought that without formal political control, they would be kicked out of the kingdom. He argues that missionaries supported colonialism as a means to help further the spread of the Gospel message throughout the continent. However, one question that begs an answer is whether colonization was the best way to achieve the evangelizing mission. Critical thinking, however, reveals that Christianity created a favourable ground for the implementation and sustenance of colonization and exploitation. The gospels preached submission, long-suffering, meekness and surrender which all fit the exploitative intent and matrix of colonization. Rodney (1972:278) reiterates that: “The church's role was primarily to preserve the social relations of colonialism... the Christian church stressed humility, docility and acceptance. Ever since the days of slavery in the West Indies, the church had been brought in on condition that it should not excite the African slaves with doctrine of equality before God.” By preaching submissiveness, the Christian religion produced a class of passive, malleable citizens who readily bore human indignities and the natural resource exploitations that marked the rise of colonialism all in the name of religion. Equally significant about Christianity was the fact that the clergy subtly and overtly promoted the political agenda in their missionary work. This was pronounced in Southern and 11
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Eastern Africa where the clergy assumed roles of preachers, administrators, negotiators, and traders (Okon, 2014). In the opinion of Rothberg (1964), missionaries in Eastern Africa became vanguards of the West rather than of Christ. So the Christian clergymen became vehicles through which the flag of political control was planted on many African lands. The promotion of Christianity by the clergy was only a first step to the eventual manifestation of alien political control and effective resource exploitation of the people. As preachers, the clergy modeled a submissive citizen; they negotiated his relations with all who wish to contract with him; they themselves sold to him and bought from him; they administered his political life for him by making decisions for him because the clergy had preached all rational sense out of the citizen and replaced it with submission. Economic Reason Once this paper highlights the economic undertone in every argument raised by proponents of colonial rule, it is important to review the economic and financial motives of Europe in colonizing Africa in itself. At the turn of the last half of the nineteenth century, the general decline in the slave trade fueled hopes that Africa would become a large market for manufactured goods from Europe (Koponen, 1993). Sir John Kennaway of the Church Missionary Society affirmed this in a parliamentary debate in 1889 on the continued intra-Africa slave trade that: “We cannot find that outlet for our manufactures which is so necessary to our commercial existence in communities which have been deprived of all their inhabitants” (British Parliamentary Hansard, 1889). Africa‟s significance as a market was therefore never in doubt. Europe saw colonization as an effort to secure viable markets for each state‟s trade goods which were increasing in the numbers, thanks to cheap African raw material and the benefits of technology (Webster & Boahen, 1967). Indeed, Sir George Goldie saw the Niger Delta as a prized commercial possession so much so that he organized his fellow British competitors into a monopoly to fight off other European nationals (Crowder, 1968). In this way, British merchants will secure the monopolistic benefits of trading surplus goods in those parts of the continent. What merchants like Goldie sought was the formal annexation of defined territories to help further the trading activities of the monopolies and guarantee the economic good of Britain. But an even more pronounced reason for colonization was the economic promise Africa gave rival powers against the evils of trade protectionism which was at the forefront of Western economic thought in that century. Protectionism denoted the practice of charging high import tariff on goods from other countries so as to favour local industrial growth. For this reason, all rival powers sought to acquire as many colonies as possible to safeguard their industrial outputs from being blocked out by the probably extended protectionism of other imperial powers who equally sought colonies for similar reasons (Webster & Boahen, 1967). The French statesman Jules Ferry sounded this concern in the French Chamber of Deputies saying: “Is it not clear that, for all the great powers of modern Europe, since their industrial power commenced, there is posed an immense and difficult problem, which is the basis of industrial life, the very condition of existence- the question of “markets”? Have you not seen the great industrial nations one by one arrive at a colonial policy? And can we say that this colonial policy is a lunacy for modern nations? Not at all, Messieurs, this policy is, for all of us, a necessity like the „market‟ itself.” (quoted in Crowder, 1968:58). 12
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But Britain and Germany, especially, feared that an extended France in Africa would be a threat to free trade while France was desperate to impose her authority in Africa for similar reasons. So, purely economic or commercial factors were keys in promoting the advance of colonization. The returns, in financial terms to Europe, were unquantifiable. Even right up to the post-colonial period, these commercial ties continue to exist on the continent of Africa and manifest themselves in the Commonwealth and the International Organization of La Francophonie. Conclusion The colonization of Africa by Europe was one motivated greatly by economic and commercial purposes cloaked in different ways. Whether moral, political, religious, or purely commercial reasons were given, the facts point to an overriding economic impulse for colonization which left an eternal mark on Euro-African relations into the twentieth century. The idea of promoting the Christian enterprise fell in sync with the real commercial intentions of colonization. Market forces forced governments to strengthen political control for monopolistic guarantees. Political conditions in Europe fueled by exacerbating economic realities compelled political actors to fall on Africa to mend the cracks in Europe‟s political and economic walls through resource supply. A certain moral imperative and drive to share the benefits of modernity helped laid and spread the technology that mastered the exploration and exploitation of the mineral and natural resources of Africa. The Pall Mall Gazette gives an apt conclusion to this paper when it stated:
“Nor have we gone to the equatorial regions from religious or humanitarian motives... still less have we sought out the African in order to endow him with the vices (and virtues) of western civilization... the dominating force which has taken us to Equatorial Africa is the desire for trade. We are in these tropical countries for our own advantage and only incidentally for the good of the African” (quoted in Uzoigwe, 1978:28). It is therefore succinct to conclude that the imperial flags of Europe were driven by the winds of economics and commerce to Africa during the era of colonization.
References Boahen, A.A (1965). Topics in West African history. (2nd Ed) Singapore: Longman Group Limited Bolt, J. (2013). The partitioning of Africa. In: E.H.P. Frankema and E. Hillbom (eds.), Handbook of African Economic History, African Economic History Network, 14. British parliamentary hansard, 3rd Series, 334, 26th March 1889. Brothers Ltd. Crowder, M. (1968). West Africa under colonial rule. London: Hutchinson and Co. Ltd. Dei-Anang, M. (1964). Ghana resurgent. Accra: Waterville Publishing House Dumor, E.K. (1993). Government textbook for Ghana Secondary Schools. London: Evans Foeken, D. (1995). On the causes of the partition of Central Africa. Political Geography, 14 (1), 80100. Howard, R. (1978). Colonialism and underdevelopment in Ghana. London: Groom Helm Ltd. 13
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Iwe, N. S. S. (1985). Christianity, culture and colonialism in Africa. Port Harcourt: COE Koponen, J. (1993). The partition of Africa: the scramble for a mirage? Nordic Journal of African Studies, 2 (1), 117-135. Meredith, M. (2005). The state of Africa: a history of fifty years of independence. Michigan: Free Press Nkrumah, K. (1965). Neo-colonialism, the last Stage of imperialism. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Okon, E. E. (2014). Christian missions and colonial rule in Africa: Objective and contemporary analysis. European Scientific Journal, 10 (17), 197. Padmore, G. (1956). Pan-africanism or communism? the coming struggle for Africa. London: Dennis Dobson Books Limited Roberts, S. H (1963). The history of French colonial policy, 1870-1925(2nd Ed). London: P.S. King & Son Ltd. Rodney, W. (1973). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-Leâ€&#x;Ouverture Rothberg, R. I. (1964). Missionaries as chiefs and entrepreneurs: Northern Rhodesia, 1882–1924 In Butler, J. (Ed.). Boston University Papers in African History. Boston: Boston Sanneh, L. (1983). West African christianity: the religious impact. London: C. Hurst & Company University Press. Uzoigwe, G. (1978). Britain and the conquest of Africa. New York: NOK Publishers Webster, J.B & Boahen, A.A (1967). The growth of African civilization: the revolutionary years-West Africa since 1800. London: Longman Group limited
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 15-23, ©IJHSS
Metaphors in Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, Heriyanto and Kasno Pamungkas Linguistics Department, Faculty of Humanities Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia Abstract Many researchers do study on metaphors, but it is very limited research of the metaphors in tourism destination promotion, especially Jawa Barat tourism destination promotion. This study tries to figure out the types of metaphors found in tourism destination promotion texts. The method applied on this study is a descriptive method. The data are taken from Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts in printing and nonprinting media. The classification of the data refers to Newmark‟s metaphor classification. Results show that dead metaphor is the dominant metaphor found in data. The dead metaphor (36%) followed by metaphorical neologism or metaphorical neologism (29%), cliché (21%), and stock or standard metaphor (14%) as the last or least used in the Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts. Keywords: dead metaphor, metaphorical neologism, cliché, standard metaphor, Jawa Barat tourism destination promotion Introduction Jawa Barat or sometimes called West Java is one of the thirty four provinces in Indonesia. As an archipelago, Indonesia has about 13.466 islands with the five biggest islands. The five biggest islands are Jawa, Kalimantan, Sumatera, Sulawesi, and Papua while Jawa Barat is the part of Jawa Island. In Jawa Barat, the vernacular use in this area is Sundanese. Sundanese is in the second position of the number of speakers in Indonesia, after Javanese. That is why, the promotion texts of Jawa Barat tourism destination are influenced by Sundanese. According to tourists‟ statistical data, Jawa Barat is in the fifth position of the tourists‟ numbers after Bali, DKI Jakarta, DI Yogyakarta, and Jawa Timur. Provincial Tourism Service of Jawa Barat stated in Jawa Barat in Figures 2012 that 28,300,085 tourists (domestic tourist 844,557 and foreign tourist 27,455,528) come to visit Jawa Barat in 2010. Many tourists come to visit Jawa Barat to enjoy Jawa Barat tourism destination, culinary, and also its art and culture. There are many ways to improve the number of tourists visiting to Jawa Barat. One of them is by giving information through promotion texts. By giving information of tourism destinations in Jawa Barat through promotion texts, the tourists will be in interested in visiting the tourism destinations.
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Metaphor is a figure of speech closer to emotion since emotive words can express someone‟s emotion or someone‟s feeling. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980:1) stated “...that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life not just in language but in thought and action”. By using metaphors (or language) in tourism destination promotion texts, the writer tries to persuade readers (or tourists) to visit such destination places. This study tries to figure out metaphors found in Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts. Promotion texts used in this research are leaflets, booklets, or brochures (in Bahasa Indonesia) used as the promotion tools. Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes called Indonesian language is the official language used by Indonesian people. Many researchers found that metaphor is effective in promotion, as Heidt (2013: 248) argued that “… presidents turn to metaphor because they recognize the power of metaphor, the ability of metaphor to connect public policy to common conceptions of America, and the difficulty opponents have in countering metaphorical depictions.” Earlier, Baum et al. (2009: 428) argued in their article titled Social vaccines to resist and change unhealthy social and economic structures: a useful metaphor for health promotion that “…The vaccine metaphor should be helpful in arguing for increased action on the social determinants of health.” Method Design The research was designed to analyze the types of metaphors found in the leaflets and brochures about Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion. The data obtained from booklets and brochures of Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts. Procedure The method used in this research is descriptive method. It is a qualitative study. First of all, the researchers collected the data containing metaphor from tourism leaflets or brochures. After collecting the data, the researchers classified the data related the metaphor types. The data containing metaphors are classified into Newmark‟s six classifications: dead metaphor, cliché metaphor, standard or stock metaphor, recent metaphor, original metaphor, or adapted metaphor. Then, the researchers analyze and describe the types of metaphor found the Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts written in Bahasa Indonesia. After collecting the data, the researchers assorted items associated to metaphor types. Items were assorted the following six Newmark‟s classifications: dead metaphor, cliché metaphor, standard or stock metaphor, recent metaphor, original metaphor, or adapted metaphor. Then, the researchers tried to analyze and describe the types of metaphor found at the Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts in Bahasa Indonesia. Theoretical Framework The word metaphor is redefined by Nietzsche as the word übertragen. It derived from German verb übertragen as Daniel Breazeale explained in Murphy (2001: 1) that “The operative word in Nietzsche’s discussion of this [metaphor] is übertragen, which means “to carry over,” “transfer,” “translate,” “transmit,” etc. A contemporary instance of the process designated by the term is the “transference” of sound waves into electromagnetic signals. Translated literally into Greek,
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übertragen becomes μεταφορά recondite as this etymological excursus might appear it provides us with an essential clue for interpreting Nietzsche’s notorious claim that all words are “metaphors.” Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 5) defined metaphor (in their book “Metaphor We Live By” refers to metaphorical concept) as follow “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.” Since metaphor is argued as understanding and experiencing, it can be related to culture. Metaphor and culture are very close. As Kovecses argued (2006: 1) that “…metaphor and culture can be seen as intimately linked. After all, metaphor can be viewed as the ornamental use of language. Thus, metaphor and culture may be seen as being related to each other because they are combined in literature – an exemplary manifestation of culture“. From the above argumentation, it is said that metaphor and culture is an exemplary manifestation of culture. Moreover Kovecses (2006: 2) explained that “In such cases, the metaphors we use to understand these intangibles may become crucially important in the way we actually experience the intangibles in a culture. In short, on this view of metaphor, metaphors may be an inherent part of culture.” Promotion and Metaphor There are many types of promotion media. They could be printing or non-printing media. The printing media could be leaflets, brochures, booklets, billboards, or even street banners. The non-printing media could be radio advertisement, TV, or social media. The last type, social media is now more popular than others. Some people choose to promote their product through the social media than the printing media since it would be cheaper, faster, and more attractive to some people. The data obtained in this research is both printing and non-printing media: brochures and leaflets. People usually use metaphor in their promotion. McQuarrie and Mick (1996) mentioned that “Advertisements often make use of metaphors”. The World is in your Hand is a promotion of a cellular phone. It introduces a metaphor, by using your cellphone you can communicate to people around the world. Without visiting the place where the people live, you can connect them easily, in other words, the world is in your hand. People use metaphor not only in promoting cellular phones but also promoting tourism destinations. In Bahasa Indonesia, the words “burung nirwana” or „paradise bird‟ used to describe “burung Cendrawasih” or „Cendrawasih bird‟. The bird Cendrawasih is an endemic animal from Papua. Papua is one of the Indonesia islands. It is one of tourism objects in Indonesia. Cendrawasih bird has beautiful colors of fur, so it is compared to paradise that is why the birds called paradise birds. Here there is a relationship between metaphor and religion Bandung is the capital city of Jawa Barat it is called “Kota Kembang”. Kota means city and kembang, is a Sundanese word (Sundanese is a vernacular in Jawa Barat), means flower. To attract the tourist visit to Bandung, people usually use Kota Kembang than the word Bandung in their promotion media.
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Types of Metaphors Metaphor is one of the figures of speech besides simile, personification, hyperbole, and understatement. Metaphor is called a figure of speech, since metaphor is not straightforward. As Richards et al. (1989: 106) describes “In a metaphor, no function words are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared”. Metaphor is very close to culture, as Eder (2009: 3) stated “Metaphor can be viewed as the ornamental use of language, and a lot about metaphor and culture arises from what we have heard or learned in school about it, such as for instance creative writers or poets who use metaphors.” Since metaphor and culture arise from what we have heard or learned, they are about experiences; the experiences are in thought. When something is in thought, it will relate to someone‟s perception, someone‟s feeling, or even someone‟s emotion. The writers use metaphors to persuade or influence the readers‟ thought in introducing their products, in this case the tourism destinations. By using metaphors in promoting their tourism destinations, the writer of the promotion texts tries to offer the experience to the tourists. This paper discusses four types of metaphor from the six Newmark‟s classifications since the researchers did not find the data related to original metaphor and adapted metaphor. Newmark (1988: 106-113) argued that “Dead metaphor, viz. metaphors where one is hardly conscious of the image, frequently relate to the universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities.” In Bahasa Indonesia, the examples of dead metaphor are kaki gunung „foot of the mountain‟ and mata air panas „hot spring‟. The second type of metaphor, cliché metaphor, according to Newmark (1988: 107-108) “…is temporarily outlived their usefulness, that are used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the fact of the matter.” In English, the examples of cliché metaphor are the words backwater and breakthrough in the sentence The country school will in effect become not a backwater but a breakthrough. The third type of metaphor is stock or standard metaphor. Newmark (1988: 108-109) defines that: “A stock metaphor as an established metaphor which in an informal context is an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/ or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically - a stock metaphor has a certain emotional warmth- and which is not deadened by overuse. “ The example of stock or standard metaphor in English is “keep the pot boiling”. From the example, it is described that the pot is boiling, as we know that is boiling is something liquid not the pot. The fourth type is recent metaphor or a metaphorical neologism. It is called neologism since the words used are new metaphors or renew themselves in language. The examples of metaphorical metaphors are walkman from the word walk and man. The metaphor has a new meaning „portable casette player’. The metaphor software is from the word soft and ware, they make a new meaning „is a collection of instructions that enable computer‟s processor to perform specific operations.‟
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Discussion The fourteen data are taken from the ten texts. From the six Newmark‟s classification of metaphor, the researchers of the study have found that the dominant metaphor is the dead metaphors, followed by recent metaphors or metaphorical neologisms, cliché, and the last position is stock or standard metaphors as described in the following data. Text 1 “Gunung Tangkuban Perahu menjadi salah satu daerah tujuan wisata mountain Tangkuban Perahu become one of area destination tourism yang menarik di Jawa Barat. Lingkungan alamnya yang sejuk, dan which interesting in Jawa Barat environment nature which cool and sumber mata air panas di kaki gunungnya, serta deretan kawah yang source water spring hot at foot mountain and row crater which memanjang menjadi daya tarik tersendiri.” lengthwise become attractiveness separate From Text 1, it can be found one cliché and two data as dead metaphors. The cliché is Lingkungan alamnya yang sejuk and the dead metaphors are … mata air panas… and … kaki gunung…. The phrase lingkungan alamnya yang sejuk is a cliché since the word sejuk is used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the fact of the matter. Mata air panas is a dead metaphor, mata means eye, air means water, and panas means hot. It is classified into dead metaphor since mata „eye‟ relates to the universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body. In English, the metaphor mata air panas means „hot spring‟, but the phrase „hot spring‟ in English is not a dead metaphor. The second dead metaphor in Data 1 is kaki gunung. The word kaki means foot and gunung means mountain. It is classified into dead metaphor since the phrase kaki „foot‟ relates to the universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body. In English, the phrase becomes foot of the mountain and it is also one of the dead metaphors. Text 2 “Disebut Cilauteureun karena kondisinya mirip aliran sungai air laut called Cialuteureun because condition its similar flow river water sea yang eureun atau diam seakan tak mengalir.” which stop or not moving as if not flow In Text 2, there is one recent metaphor or a metaphorical neologism. The word Cilauteureun is from Sundanese words C(a)i + laut + eureun. Ci is shorten from Cai means water, laut means sea, and eureun means stop or motionless or it becomes „motionless sea water‟. The word Cilauteureun becomes the name of the beach which has a beautiful scenery. The sea water is motionless, that is why the word is classified into a metaphorical neologism, since it has a new meaning Ci laut eureun or motionless sea water. 19
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Text 3
“Santolo itu aslinya bahasa Belanda, Zon Tulu atau San Tulu. Matahari Santolo that origin language Dutch Zon Tulu or San Tulu Sun Tenggelam. Sebab dari sana kita dapat menyaksikan keindahan sink because from that we can see beauty pemandangan matahari tenggelam secara jelas.” scenery sun sink in
clear
Text 3 describes that the word Santolo is a recent metaphor or a metaphorical neologism. The word Santolo is from Dutch, Zon + Tulu. Zon means sun and it becomes San while Tulu means sun set and becomes tolo. The word Zon tulu or Santolo, means Sunset, is classified into a metaphorical neologism since it has a new meaning „a place where we can see a beautiful sunset.‟ Text 4
“Hal itu merupakan salah satu bukti sejarah bila pulau Santolo matter that denote of one proof history when island Santolo merupakan salah satu urat nadi perekomian penting ketika itu denote of one nerve economy important at time that di wilayah selatan Jawa Barat.” in area south Jawa Barat
Text 4 describes a dead metaphor, urat nadi perekonomian. The phrase urat nadi perekonominan is a dead metaphor since urat nadi means nerve, and perekonomian means economic matters, so it becomes the nerve of the economy matters. Both Bahasa Indonesia (urat nadi perekonomian) and English (the nerve of the economic matters) are classified into dead metaphor since the phrase urat nadi (in Bahasa Indonesia) and the nerve (in English) relates to the universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body. Text 5 “Jika melancong ke Santolo, jangan khawatir, di sepanjang perjalanan if travel to Santolo not worry in along trip dari manapun berangkat, akan disuguhi pemandangan alam yang from everywhere go will give scenery nature which
menakjubkan. Mulai hamparan sawah, kebun incredible
start carpet
teh, sampai hutan
rice field plantation tea up to
forest
lebat akan menemani perjalanan.” heavy will
accompany trip
In Text 5 there are two metaphors: cliché and stock or standard metaphors. A cliché in Data 5 is the phrase disuguhi pemandangan alam yang menakjubkan. It is classified into a cliché since the word menakjubkan is used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding 20
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to the fact of the matter. The second type of metaphor found is stock metaphors. The words hamparan sawah, kebun teh, sampai hutan lebat akan menemani perjalanan are classified into stock metaphors since they have certain emotional warmth. It is described that hamparan sawah, kebun teh, sampai hutan lebat akan menemani perjalanan, and the words hamparan sawah, kebun teh, sampai hutan lebat are inanimate, as we know the word menemani or to accompany is used by animate. Text 6 “Pantai Tanjung Pakis berada di ujung Utara Karawang, pantai pasir putih Pantai Tanjung Pakis be in end North Karawang beach sand white dengan ombak yang mengalun tenang dan indah, ini dikarenakan with wave which flow calm and beautiful this because Pantai Tanjung Pakis terletak pada teluk di semenanjung antara Pantai Tanjung Pakis located on bay in peninsula
between
Kabupaten Bekasi dan Kabupaten Karawang.” district Bekasi and district Karawang Text 6 describes a stock metaphor or a standard metaphor. The stock or standard metaphor found is ombak yang mengalun tenang dan indah „the wave dances in harmony‟ . It is classified into stock or standard metaphor since the words yang mengalun tenang dan indah has a certain emotional warmth. It is described that ombak yang mengalun tenang dan indah is inanimate, as we know the word mengalun or to dance is used by animate. Text 7
“Cipanas Cileungsing berada di kaki gunung Tampomas sebelah utara kota Cipanas Cileungsing be in foot mountain Tampomas part north city Sumedang. Di daerah tersebut banyak sekali muncul mata air panas Sumedang in area that many very appear water spring hot lebih dari 10 titik, tetapi yang letaknya dipinggir jalan dan debit more than 10 point but which located edge street and debet airnya yang cukup tinggi yaitu Cipanas Cileungsing Buahdua dan water which enough high that is Cipanas Cileungsing Buahdua and Cipanas Conggeang.” Cipanas Conggeang
Text 7 has two metaphors. Both of the metaphors are dead metaphors. The first dead metaphor is kaki gunung. The word kaki mean foot and gunung means mountain: kaki gunung means „foot of the mountain‟. The second dead metaphor is mata air panas, mata means eye, air means water, and panas means hot „hot spring‟. The two metaphors kaki gunung and mata air panas are dead metaphors since the phrase kaki „foot‟ and mata „eye‟ relate to the universal terms of space and time, the main parts of the body. The two metaphors have a little bit difference, the first one, kaki gunung and „foot of the mountain‟, are dead metaphor while mata air panas is a dead metaphor but „hot spring‟ is not a dead metaphor.
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Text 8
“Batu Hiu terkenal akan karang besarnya yang menyerupai ikan hiu.” Batu Hiu known with coral big which resemble fish shark
Text 8 has one recent metaphor or a metaphorical neologism, the phrase Batu Hiu. Batu means rock and hiu means shark. It is classified into a metaphorical neologism since it has a new meaning. Batu Hiu is a name of a tourism destination in Pangandaran „a huge rock looks like a giant shark‟. Text 9
“Pandangan lepas ke ujung cakrawala memberi Anda ketenangan view free to edge firmament give you serenity dan kenangan berlibur yang menyenangkan.” and memory holiday which delight
Text 9 has a cliché, pandangan lepas ke ujung cakrawala. It is classified into cliché since the phrase ujung cakrawala is used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the fact of the matter. Text 10 “Pantai Apra ternyata menyimpan sejarah tersendiri, dalam hal Pantai Apra in fact has history separate in
case
menjadi saksi sejarah pemberontakan Angkatan Perang Rakyat Semesta become witness history rebellion Angkatan Perang Rakyat Semesta (APRA) pada awal kemerdekaan Indonesia.” (APRA) in beginning independence Indonesia Text 10 has a recent metaphor or a metaphorical neologism. Pantai APRA is a name of a beach. It is one of tourism destinations in Jawa Barat. APRA is an acronym from A stands for Angkatan, P stands for Perang, R stands for Rakyat, and A from semestA. It is classified into a metaphorical neologism since it has a new meaning; APRA became a name of tourism destinations in Jawa Barat. The researchers have found the four types of metaphor relating to the Newmark‟s six classifications as described in the following pie chart:
Metaphors (%) 14 36 21
29
22
Dead Metaphor
Metaphorical Neologism
Cliché
Standard Metaphor
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From the Metaphor chart, it can be seen that Dead metaphor is the dominant metaphor found in the texts. It reaches to 36% while metaphorical neologism reaches 29%, cliché reaches 21%, and standard metaphor reaches 14% as the last. The domination of Dead Metaphor use in this research shows that in promoting the tourism object, it is more descriptive to employ this metaphor. Presenting the main part of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities in the promotion text are useful to develop consciousness of the object image. In addition, it gives more description of the object. While metaphorical neologism is often used and putting itself in the second dominant metaphor due to the importance of new terminology or word formation regarding the naming of the tourism objects and their etymologies. Conclusion As the result of the research, it can be concluded that metaphors can be found in the tourism destinations promotion texts, especially in Jawa Barat tourism destinations promotion texts. From the ten text collected, there are fourteen data obtained containing metaphors. The highest position is dead metaphors followed by recent metaphors or metaphorical neologisms, cliché, and the last stock or standard metaphors. References Eder, Katharina. Metaphor and Culture. German: GRIN Verlag, 2009 Fran Baum, Ravi Narayan, David Senders. “Social vaccines to resist and change unhealthy social.” Health Promotion International, 2009: 428-433. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980 Heidt, Stephen J. "Presidential Rhetoric, Metaphor, and the Emergence of the Democracy, Promotion Industry." Southern Communication Journal, 2013: 233-255. Jack Richards, John Platt, Heidi Weber. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. London: Longman, 1989. Jenkins, Timothy. "Review article Janet Martin Soskice Metaphor and Religious Language." Journal of Literature and Theology, 1989: 219-239. Kovecses, Zoltan. Metaphor and Emotion. New york: Cambridge university Press, 2007. —. Metaphor in Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. MacCannel, Dean. A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. McQuarrie, Edward F, David Glen Mick. "Figures of Rhetoric in Advertising Language." Journal of Consumer Research, 1996: 424-438. Murphy, Tim. Nietzsche, Metaphor, Religion . New York: State University of New York, 2001. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Singapore: Prentice Hall, 1988
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 24-33, ŠIJHSS
Electrophysiological evidence of object processing in visual working memory Lingxia Fan Department of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China *Yang Dong Department of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Yan Lei Department of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China Renlu Guo Institute of Psychology and Behavior, WenZhou University, Wenzhou, China Abstract There is an ongoing debate concerning object-based or feature-based processing when objects are stored in visual working memory (VWM). The present study demonstrates that object processing depends not only on the irrelevant features but also on the number of objects to be remembered. In a change-detection paradigm, participants were asked to memorize two, four, or six object colors for later detection and ignore the object shapes. The processing of taskirrelevant shapes was evaluated. The results of Experiment 1 showed that object-based processing dominated in visual working memory when memory load was two or four, but feature-based processing took over when the memory load was six, as indicated by the N2pc potentials. Experiment 2 used detailed random polygons that were defined by color and shape as memory items. The level of memory load was limited to two and four colors. The results showed that the N2pc potential only appeared in the color-matched condition and was not affected by memory load, suggesting that feature-based processing dominated whenever the task demand was low. These results support the notion of a discrete model of object processing in visual working memory that allocates discrete mechanism for different features. Furthermore, our study highlights the relationship between working memory resources and object processing in visual working memory. Keywords: visual working memory, memory load, event-related potential, N2pc.
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Introduction Visual working memory (VWM) enables the online maintenance and manipulation of a limited amount of visual information (Irwin & Andrews, 1996; Vogel & Machizawa, 2004). Previous studies have shown that VWM capacity is limited to approximately three or four representations (Bays & Husain, 2008; Vogel, Woodman, & Luck, 2001; Oberauer & Eichenberger, 2013). Thus, to accomplish the current task efficiently, selection of task-relevant information and suppression of task-irrelevant information is of great importance (Chun & Potter, 1995; Schmidt, Vogel, Woodman, & Luck, 2006). However, everyday objects that are stored in VWM are usually consist of various feature properties. Whether observers could voluntarily encode and store a single property of an object without obligatorily encoding and storing all of an object’s features into VWM still remains unresolved. Two theories of object processing in VWM have been proposed to investigate the question: feature-based and object-based processing (Treisman & Gelade, 1980; Parra, Cubelli, & Della Sala, 2011; Woodman & Vogel, 2008). Researchers who support feature-based processing postulate that individuals are able to decide which features of an object are stored in VWM rather than automatically process the integral object (Ueno, Mate, Allen, Hitch, & Baddeley, 2011). Proponents of object-based processing, however, suggests that when one object feature is paid attention, other features may also be processed, even when these task irrelevant features (Luria & Vogel, 2011). Both feature-based and object-based theories are supported by a number of studies (Luck, Girelli, McDermott, & Ford, 1997; Parra, Cubelli, & Della Sala, 2011; Shen, Tang, Wu, Shui, & Gao, 2013; Woodman & Vogel, 2008). Thus, the question on how we control which features are held in VWM is still under debate. To reconcile the two seemingly contradictory theories mentioned above, Shen et al. (2007) proposed a discrete model of VWM storage, which proposes that simple irrelevant object features, such as color and shape, are stored as an integrated object in VWM, whereas detailed irrelevant features like changes in color, shape, or orientation are difficult to store as an integrated object. The authors further explained that features are maintained in VWM via two distinctive mechanisms. Simple features processed in parallel during the perceptual processing stage are easily stored along with relevant features in VWM, even when these features are task irrelevant. On the other hand, detailed features processed serially during the perceptual processing stage are not easily stored as an integrated object (Gao, Gao, Li, Sun, & Shen, 2011; Shen et al., 2007; Shen, Tang, Wu, Shui, & Gao, 2013). The discrete model of object processing in VWM integrates the alternative accounts of object-based and feature-based processing to some extent, and was further examined by several studies (Gao, Li, Yin, & Shen, 2010; Olson & Jiang, 2002). However, the processing materials used in these studies did not engage purely visual object working memory but a mixture of visual object and spatial working memory. Researchers proposed that Visual object working memory and visual spatial working memory operate separately (Vicari, Bellucci, & Carlesimo, 2006). Thus, the discrete model of object processing in VWM needs further exploration to disambiguate the effects of object and spatial working memory. Although the discrete model describes storage processing in VWM clearly, it is uncertain whether the model applies to all conditions, and whether storage processing in the discrete model is modulated by other factors. There is considerable behavioral and neurophysiological evidence that object-based processing is determined by the encoding situation of target features (Bays, Wu, & Husain, 2011; Xu, 2010). Therefore, storage processing in VWM not only may depend on the type of irrelevant feature but also may closely correlate with VWM resources. However, others have demonstrated that object-based encoding in VWM was robust even under 25
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difficult conditions and could not be affected easily (Ecker, Maybery, & Zimmer, 2013). Whether object processing is modulated by VWM load therefore needs further investigation. he present study aimed to re-examine the discrete model of object processing in VWM proposed by Shen et al. (2007) and to investigate the relationship between VWM resources and object processing using the event-related brain potential (ERP) component N2pc. The N2pc is an electrophysiological marker for the allocation of VWM resources that is usually elicited at posterior electrodes contralateral to the visually presented task-relevant stimuli between 180 and 300 ms after target appearance (Kiss, Van Velzen, & Eimer, 2008). The N2pc is an enhanced negativity component that indexes the amount of attention deployed to a stimulus; its latency corresponds to the point in time of attentional deployment (Brisson, Robitaille, & Jolicoeur, 2007; Eimer & Kiss, 2008). We assume that object-based processing dominates when the irrelevant feature consists of simple shapes and N2pc amplitudes elicited by both color and shape are observed, but feature-based processing is indicated when the irrelevant feature consists of detailed shapes, as indicated by the N2pc only found in color-matched condition rather than shape-matched condition. Furthermore, object processing is expected to be modulated by memory load. When VWM resources are scarce, even simple irrelevant features cannot be processed along with relevant features in VWM, which was indicated by the various N2pc potentials in different memory load. Method Experiment 1 Participants Eighteen neurologically unimpaired undergraduate volunteers (eight men, ten women; Mage = 22.1 years, age range = 21–26 years) participated in Experiment 1. All participants were righthanded and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. More importantly, no participant has color blindness. The experiment was approved by the ethics committee of the School of Psychology, Southwest University. Design The probe type (target feature match: color-match, irrelevant feature match: shape-match) and memory load (two, four, or six items; corresponding to low, medium, or high memory load, respectively) were manipulated within participants. There were 900 randomly ordered trials in total, 150 for each condition. All trails were divided into nine blocks, and each block consisted of 100 trials. Participants do not start formal experiments until reached 75% accuracy in practice trials. Materials Seven distinct colored shapes were chosen from the study of Xu and Chun (2006). The memory display consisted of two, four, or six colored shapes chosen randomly from a set of 49 shapes. All displays subtended an area of 4.78° × 4.78° of visual angle and were centered on a black background. Procedure A example of a single trial is depicted schematically in Figure 1. After a 500–1000 ms fixation period, the memory array containing two, four, or six colored shapes, for 200 or 400ms (In order to insure the similar difficulty, duration was 200ms when the load was two and four but 400 ms 26
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when six) was presented. Later, a 1000-ms blank interval was set. The test array was then displayed until paticipate make a response. Participants was required to focus on detecting a color change and to ignore the shapes. All different colored objects had an equal chance of appearing. Colors in the memory and test displays were same in 50% of the trials (color-matched condition), and on the other 50%, the color of one item in the test array changed compare with the corresponding item in the memory display, but the shapes were not changed (colormismatched but shape-matched condition). No trials where both color and shape were changed were presented. Participants were instructed to press one of the two buttons (“F” and “J” on the keyboard) on each trial. When colors of the memory and test arrays were identical, they should press “F” as soon as they perceive, otherwise, “J” on the keyboard should be pressed. Response accuracy and reaction times (RT) during the experiment were collected. Results Behavioral results Trials with RTs exceeding three SDs for each participant’s grand mean were excluded from the analyses. Table 1 shows the mean RTs and accuracy (proportion of correct responses) in each condition.The mean RTs and accuracy were subjected to a 2 × 3 (Probe type [color, shape] × Memory load [two, four, six] repeated-measures ANOVA respectively. For RTs, the ANOVA revealed significant main effects of load, F(2, 17) = 59.09, p < .01, η2p = .77, and probe type, F(1, 17) = 11.72, p < .01, η2p = .41. The interaction between those two factors was also significant, F(2, 17) = 33.35, p < .01, η2p = .66. Pairwise comparisons showed that RTs for color-matched trials were faster than for shape-matched trails when the memory load was four (p < .05) and six (p < .001), while responses to color and shape did not differ when the load was two. For accuracy, a significant main effect was found on load, F(2, 17) = 81.46, p < .01, η2p = .82, indicating that mistakes were made more easily in the high-load condition. No other significant effects were observed. ERP results Figure 1 illustrates the ERPs elicited by targets in all conditions at the PO7/8, PO3/4, P7/8, and O1/2 electrodes.The ERP amplitudes were analyzed with a 2 × 2 × 3 (Laterality [contralateral, ipsilateral) × Probe type [color, shape] × Memory load [two, four, six] repeated-measures ANOVA separately for the 240–320 ms (late N2pc) and the 320–400 ms (SPCN) analysis windows. In the 240–320 ms time window, a significant main effect of laterality was found, F(1, 17) = 24.91, p < .001, η2p = .59, demonstrating the presence of the later N2pc in the contralateral hemisphere. We also found a significant main effect of probe type, F(1, 17) = 38.78，p < .001, η2p = .70, indicating that the N2pc amplitude was larger for color-matched trials than for shape-matched trials. No other main effects or interactions were found. A 2 × 3 (Probe type [color, shape] × Memory load [two, four, six)] repeated-measures ANOVA was further conducted on the N2pc amplitudes, revealing no significant main effects or interactions. Simple t-tests revealed that the amplitude differences between contra- and ipsilateral hemisphere electrodes were significant in both color-matched and shape-matched conditions when the working memory load was two (c2 and s2, respectively), t(c2) = -4.71, p < .01, t(s2) = 3.7, p < .01, or four (c4 and s4, respectively), t(c4) = -2.41, p < .05, t(s4) = -2.60, p < .05, indicating the appearance of N2pc. However, when the memory load was six, the N2pc difference appeared only in the color-matched condition, t(c6) = -2.49, p < .05, but not in the shape-matched condition, t(s6) = .80, p > .05.
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Figure1
In the 320–400 ms time window, there were significant main effects of laterality, F(1, 17) = 23.03, p < .001, η2p = .58, probe type, F(1, 17) = 54.62, p < .001, η2p = .76, and memory load, F(2,17) = 6.50, p < .05, η2p = .28. Further, a significant interaction between laterality and probe type was found, F(1,17) = 4.78, p < .05, η2p = .22. The follow-up comparison demonstrated that contralateral and ipsilateral potentials induced by target color did not differ significantly (Md = -.05, p = .50), but the contralateral potential elicited by irrelevant shapes was significantly smaller than the ipsilateral potential (Md = -.30, p < .001). Paired t-tests with memory load (2, 6) as a factor for the difference amplitude between contralateral minus ipsilateral recordings showed that low memory load (2 items) yielded slightly smaller but nonsignificant difference waves compared to the high memory load, t(2) = -1.93, p = .07, suggesting a modest load modulation effect. When probe type (color, shape) was used as factor for comparing the difference amplitudes, it was further confirmed that difference waves for the irrelevant shape condition were significantly smaller when the load was two, t= -3.84, p < .01, or four, t= -3.19, p < .01, but this effect disappeared during the high-load condition. Difference potentials elicited by color did not differ from those elicited by shape for all memory loads, , which confirmed significant laterality effects for irrelevant features but only in the twoand four-load conditions. Thus, laterality effects were absent when the memory load was sufficiently high. Experiment 2 Participants Eighteen new undergraduate volunteers (nine men, nine women; Mage = 22.4 years, age range = 21–26 years) participated Experiment 2. The participant requirements were the same as those described in Experiment 1. Design 28
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The probe type (target feature match: color-match, irrelevant feature match: shape-match) and memory load (two or four items; corresponding to low or high memory load, respectively) were manipulated factorially within participants, in a two-way repeated-measures design. There were 600 randomly ordered trials in total, 150 for each condition. All trails were divided into six blocks, and each block consisted of 100 trials. Participants do not start formal experiments until reached 75% accuracy in practice trials. Procedure A schematic illustration of a single trial is depicted in Figure 1. After a 500–1000 ms fixation period, the memory array containing two or four colored shapes, for 200. followed by a 1000-ms blank interval. The test array was then displayed until a response was initiated. Participants were instructed to focus on detecting a color change and to ignore the shapes. All different colored objects had an equal chance of appearing. In 50% of the trials, colors in the memory and test arrays were identical (color-matched condition), and on the other 50%, the color of one item in the test array was different from that of the corresponding item in the memory array, but the shapes were not changed (color-mismatched but shape-matched condition). No trials where both color and shape were changed were presented. Participants responded by pressing one of the two buttons (“F” and “J” on the keyboard) on each trial to indicate whether the colors of the memory and test arrays were identical. Results Behavioral results Trials with RTs exceeding 3 SDs from the mean for each participant were excluded from analyses. Table 2 shows the mean RTs and accuracy in each condition. Mean RTs and accuracy were examined with a 2 × 2 (Probe type [color, shape] × Memory load [2, 4]) repeated-measures ANOVA, respectively. For the RTs, the analysis revealed a significant main effect of probe type, F(1, 17) = 5.73, p < .05, η2p = .29, and memory load, F(1, 17) = 40.15, p < .01, η2p = .74, but interaction between them was not significant. Further analysis revealed consistently faster responses in the color-matched condition whenever the memory load was two or four. For accuracy, there was only a significant main effect on load, F(1,14) = 327.60，p < .01, η2p = .96. Higher accuracy in low load than in high load. ERP results The ERP values were examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Laterality [contralateral, ipsilateral] × Probe type [color, shape] × Memory load [two, four]) repeated-measures ANOVA during the 240–320 ms (later N2pc) and 320–400 ms (SPCN) analysis windows. During the 240–320 ms time window, the main effect of laterality was significant, F(1, 17) = 12.03, p < .01, η2p = .46; the interaction between laterality and probe type was also significant, F(1, 17) = 9.32, p < .01, η2p = .40. Pairwise comparisons showed that the amplitude at the contralateral site was significantly smaller than at the ipsilateral site in the color-matched condition but not in the shape-matched condition, suggesting that the N2pc was only apparent in the color-matched but not in the shape-matched condition. No other main or interaction effects were found. T-tests (compare with zero) on N2pc values (Md= Mcontra - Mipsi) in color-matched condition and shapematched condition were taken. N2pc amplitude was significant smaller than zero in colormatched condition regardless of load, t(c2) = -3.73，p < .01； t(c4) = -3.19，p<.01, However, in shape-matched condition, N2pc value was no significant difference with zero, which further confirmed that attention was deployed only when the target color reappearance rather than irrelevant shape. During the 320–400 ms time analysis window, neither the main effects nor the interactions reached significance. 29
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Discussion The present study shows that simple irrelevant features are allocated into VWM along with relevant information, confirming an object-based storage system. However, when the current processing demand exceeds the limit of the VWM capacity, individuals can ignore the irrelevant information to ensure the efficiency of the search task. On the other hand, objects consisting of detailed irrelevant features show feature-based storage in VWM. Thus, individuals process only relevant information and ignore detailed irrelevant features. Our study demonstrates that the storage of irrelevant features in VWM depends on perceptual processing and encoding demand of the relevant features. Although various researchers have explored the processing of object storage in VWM, only a few used the ERP potential N2pc as an indicator. The N2pc specifically demonstrates the allocation of spatially selective attention (Woodman & Luck, 1999). Larger N2pc amplitude means that more attention is deployed (Hickey, McDonald, & Theeuwes, 2006; Luck, 2005b). The latencies of the N2pc reflect the moment when attention is allocated (Brisson, Robitaille, & Jolicoeur, 2007). In our study, we observed that the repetition of relevant and irrelevant features elicited the N2pc. In Experiment 1, using shapes and colors as targets elicited larger N2pc magnitudes when the memory load did not exceed the limitation of VWM. The magnitudes were similar for shapes and colors, suggesting that an object-based storage system exists in VWM. Furthermore, the appearance of SPCN observed between 320 and 400 ms indicated that irrelevant feature shapes not only demanded more attention but were also processed further in VWM. These results are consistent with previous studies (Luck, Girelli, McDermott, & Ford, 1997; Wheeler & Treisman, 2002; Xu, 2010). However, when we showed participants six objects containing color and shape, which exceeded the capacity of VWM, results changed. A larger N2pc was found in the color-matched condition but disappeared in the shape-matched condition. This can be explained by the load theory of selective attention proposed by Lavie and Hirst (2004), who demonstrated that distractor encoding could be impeded when perceptual load of target process increasing(Lavie, 2005). In situations of low-demand encoding, any resouces not used to process task-relevant features would involuntarily â&#x20AC;&#x153;spill overâ&#x20AC;? to the perception of taskirrelevant items. As encoding demand increases, however, relevant processing begins to engage the full VWM capacity, leaving none for processing task-irrelevant features. Thus, under these conditions, objects showed feature-based processing when they were stored into VWM. In conclusion, our behavioral and ERP evidences in Experiment 1 further confirmed that objectbased processing in VWM does exist, but is subject to modulation by the memory load of the task-relevant object features. In Experiment 2, we presented multi-feature objects consisting of colored polygons. Color was the task-relevant feature and the shape of the polygons was the task-irrelevant distractor. Unlike Experiment 1, slower RTs were observed in the shape-matched condition compared to the color-matched condition whenever the memory load was low or high. Measures of N2pc also supported this conclusion by showing that only the color-matched condition induced significant differences in N2pc, indicating that individuals have ability to control what features can be stored in VWM. The only difference between Experiment 1 and 2 was the type of irrelevant feature. Simple shapes are a highly discernible type of visual information that can be processed automatically and in parallel at the perceptual stage (Pasternak & Greenlee, 2005; Wolfe & Horowitz, 2004) On the other hand, a polygon contains more detail that is processed serially at the perceptual stage in a top-down fashion. A previous study suggests that the selection of the irrelevant feature might depend on information type on perceptual stage (Gao et al., 2010). Our experiments further confirmed the hypothesis that there is a dissociated extraction process in VWM. 30
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The results of our discrimination task extend previous results of change detection tasks (Lin & Luck, 2012; Wheeler & Treisman, 2002). On the one hand, previous studies often used objects containing both spatial and object information as experimental stimuli (Gao, Li, Yin, & Shen, 2010; Olson & Jiang, 2002). This combination is questionable when investigating object processing in VWM, because studies have shown that the processing of spatial and object information is separate in VWM (Vicari, Bellucci, & Carlesimo, 2006). Thus, the present study used meaningless polygons to exclude interference of spatial information. On the other hand, measures of N2pc in our study directly probed the effects of attention allocation and the time course of attention shift, which further confirmed the assumption of a discrete storage model, as proposed by Shen et al. (2007). Conclusion In summary, the present study found that object-based storage does occur in VWM when the irrelevant features are simple and perceptually processed in parallel. However, this storage was transient and disappeared under a high load processing demand of the task-relevant object feature. Feature-based processing was shown when the irrelevant feature was detailed and perceptually processed in serial. These results suggest that the processing of irrelevant features was not only determined by how those features were processed at a perceptual stage but also by the VWM load of the relevant features. Acknowledgments This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (71472156) and the Humanities and Social Science Research Funds of Ministry of Education (11XJC190003), China. References Alvarez, G. A., & Cavanagh, P. (2004). The capacity of visual short-term memory is set both by visual information load and by number of objects. Psychological Science, 15(2), 106–111. Bays, P. M., & Husain, M. (2008). Dynamic shifts of limited working memory resources in human vision. Science, 321(5890), 851–854. Bays, P. M., Wu, E. Y., & Husain, M. (2011). Storage and binding of object features in visual working memory. Neuropsychologia, 49(6), 1622–1631. Brisson, B., Robitaille, N., & Jolicoeur, P. (2007). Stimulus intensity affects the latency but not the amplitude of the N2pc. NeuroReport, 18(15), 1627–1630. Chun, M., & Potter, M. C. (1995). A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 21(1), 109–127. Ecker, U. K., Maybery, M., & Zimmer, H. D. (2013). Binding of intrinsic and extrinsic features in working memory. Journal of Experiment Psychology: General, 142(1), 218–234. Eimer, M., & Kiss, M. (2008). Involuntary attentional capture is determined by task set: evidence from event-related brain potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(8), 1423–1433. Gao, Z., Li, J., Yin, J., & Shen, M. (2010). Dissociated mechanisms of extracting perceptual information into visual working memory. PLoS ONE, 5(12), e14273. Gao, T., Gao Z., Li, J., Sun, Z., & Shen, M. (2011). The perceptual root of object-based storage: An interactive model of perception and visual working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 37(6), 1803–1823. Hickey, C., McDonald, J. J., & Theeuwes, J. (2006). Electrophysiological evidence of the capture of visual attention. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(4), 604–613. Irwin, D. E., & Andrews, R. V. (1996). Integration and accumulation of information across saccadic eye movements. In T. Inui & J. L. McClelland (Eds.), Attention and performance 31
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