BAIKONUR COSMODROME IN 2050 - An end or a new beginning? by Ildi Mali

ABSTRACT In the mid-1950s, world scientific-technological progress evolved towards new frontiers. New technologies has allowed humans to cross the atmospheric limit and enter space. Located in the desert of Kazakhstan, the Baikonur Cosmodrome was the first spaceport in the world, where many of the important first milestones in conquering space were achieved. At a time when the United States and the Soviet Union challenged each other for world supremacy, during the Cold War, the Soviets built the largest Cosmodrome in history. The Soviets exprimented secret military technologies, capable of surprising the competitors. Great experimental successes for space exploration followed and the great “Space Race” began, which allowed enormous technological advances in space exploration. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, and the Baikonur Cosmodrome was suddenly in a new country, Kazakhstan. The thesis will analyse and focus on the transition that changed the character of the Cosmodrome, rented by the Russians with a contract valid until 2050. The facility no longer has the splendor of the 60-80s, and the repercussions of a crisis are ever greater. In this thesis it will be analysed how this site went on to decay and how in the future it is in danger of being abandoned completely. This stage will allow to devise strategies on how the site could be saved from a possible dystopian scenario. Through a more specific analysis of the abandoned area of the Buran Program Complex, will be evaluated the dynamics of these crises, in relation to the economic and scientific context of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. This will allow the researcher to evaluate the possible dynamics and opportunities recreating these secret places through the analysis of photographic material.

BAIKONUR COSMODROME IN 2050: An end or a new beginning? Speculation on the future of the largest cosmodrome in the world ILDI MALI MArch Architecture Part 2 2020/2021 Thesis Tutor: Nerma Cridge Architectural Thesis: University of Greenwich

word count: 10500

Aknowledgements I would like to give a special thank you to Nerma Cridge, who has provided me with support, knowledge and invaluable advice that has guided me through the fundamental aspects of this thesis. I also thank my family for giving me the opportunity and supporting me in attending this course of study.

CONTENTS _Abstract

_Key Terms

_Research Method Statement

_Introduction: Speculation on the future of the largest Cosmodrome in the world

_Chapter 4: POSSIBLE SPECULATIONS SpaceX: an Oppotunity or a Threat? Euro Space Center Moving to Mars

54 56 59

SPACE TROPHIES Cosmodrome Facilities Triumphs and Disasters

_Conclusion: OBSOLETE RUIN

SOVIET GRAPHIC IDENTITY Soviet Posters in Baikonur City Galina Balashova

19 23 26

_Chapter 1: UTOPIAN DREAM DECOY CITY

_Chapter 2: DYSTOPIC RISK USA vs USSR: Difference of approach The Agreement Theory of abandonment: Chernobyl and Juteborg

36 _Chapter 3: ACCESS TO THE SECRET 37 The Informers: Photographers of abandoned sites 38 Buran Programme Complex 39 Photoanalysis: Site 112a and Energia Dynamic Test Facility 44-52 Graphic Reconstructions

_Bibliography

28 30 32

Book Covers Books and Articles Online Sources

_List of Illustrations

KEY TERMS

DEFINITION

Abandonment

The act of leaving someone or something or of ending or stopping something, usually forever.

Cosmodrome

An aerospace center or launching site for spacecraft in the Soviet Union.

Decay

To become gradually damaged.

Distopia

A very bad or unfair society in which there is a lot of suffering, especially an imaginary society in the future, after something terrible has happened.

Isolation

To separate an object from other things with which it is connected or mixed.

Obsolets

Not in use any more, having been replaced by something newer and better or more fashionable.

Orientalism

Western ideas about the Middle East and about East and Southeast Asia, especially ideas that are too simple or not accurate about these societies being mysterious, never changing, or not able to develop in a modern way without Western help.

Political

Wise and showing the ability to make the right decisions.

Propaganda

Information, ideas, opinions, or images, often only giving one part of an argument, that are broadcast, published, or in some other way spread with the intention of influencing people’s opinions.

Secret

A piece of information that is only known by one person or a few people and should not be told to others.

Utopia

A perfect society in which people work well with each other and are happy. (Cambrige Dictionary, 2021)

RESEARCH METHOD STATEMENT BAIKONUR COSMODROME IN 2050: AN END OR A NEW BEGINNING?

PURPOSE BAIKONUR COSMODROME

Title

Subtitle

Political context Technical-Scientific context

Image

2° Paragraph

1° Paragraph

Social context Economic context Image reference, title, author

Russia

AGREEMENT

End of Contract: 2050

SPECULATION ON THE FUTURE OF THE COSMODROME

Kazakhstan

Layout set of 4 images

Layout set of 2 images

Russia intend not to renew the contract

Total Abandonment Potential Renewal

CHAPTERS DIVISION: Full Page Soviet Space Poster FONT USED

TITLES: Buran USSR, 12 pt PARAGRAPHS: ISOCPEUR, 10 pt

The thesis aims to analyse the Baikonur Cosmodrome in relation to its future, determined by a political situation agreed through rental contracts with a foreign nation. The thesis will evaluate the positive and negative aspects of the launch site located in Kazakhstan, but temporarily managed by Russia. This will allow to describe dynamic criticisms of the place and the relative risk of abandonment, dictated by specific economic, historical and political circumstances. The final goal will evaluate a possible post-2050 dynamic, considering a hypothetical decline of the complex and any opportunities for recovery or reuse. REPRESENTATION The thesis is represented by a single digital file, possibly printable, with the conformations of a physical book. Given the need for digital reading, it was chosen to represent the sequence of single pages in landscape format, given the common conformations of horizontal monitors. The physical print would consist of a book with faced pages. The sequence of single pages was chosen to make it easier to read on the screen, allowing for closer text and larger images.

1950s

Evolution of the Cosmodrome

1960-1990s Analysis of the period of greatest progress

1986

Chernobyl Disaster

1991

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

1991-2021

Analysis of the crisis and the Cosmodrome maintenance plan

2021-2050

Speculation on progress or crisis of the Baikonur Cosmodrome

Post 2050

Speculation on the future of Baikonur

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The thesis analyses the structural, historical and contractual aspects of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, to have a clear picture of the past, present and future situations on the site, through technical, contractual data and photographs of specific places. The general character on the representation tries to represent as much as possible a graphic style of Soviet posters, which during the years of Space Exploration, met with great graphic and media success. In certain case studies, it is not possible to use such representations and therefore real images of the contexts treated are used. The research takes as a reference, authors who have depicted the Cosmodrome through photographs of abandoned places illustrating characteristics. Thanks to these sources, photographic analyses will be carried out to reconstruct the structure in technical drawings. A combination of primary and secondary sources will be used to scrutinise the research within the thesis, although access to some information will be limited. The research methodology began with the search for descriptive sources on the Baikonur Cosmodrome and its historical relevance, later on the relationships between the Cosmodrome and the local inhabitants of the Kazakh desert were sought, which allowed to evaluate positive and negative aspects of the Cosmodrome. The search for graphic material will be fruitful for the creation of technical drawings and collages made by the author.

Through the comparative analysis of definitions, concepts, descriptions and examples, the thesis evaluates the conformity, opportunities and similarities with the Baikonur Comsodrome, allowing to obtain an innovative analytical identity for the future fate of this place. THESIS CONTEXT The research focuses from the second half of 1900, describing the development of technologies that have allowed the evolution of space exploration, the construction of the Baikonur Cosmodrome and the Space Race. The next phase concerns the period of the dissolution of the Soviet Union up to the current historical period, describing the crisis and poor maintenance of the Cosmodrome. 2050 is a decisive date for the fate of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, is the year in which the Russian lease will expire, marking a further historical context that refers to the possible dynamics relating to the future of Baikonur. The geographical-political context focuses on the former Soviet Union and the United States of America, which were the protagonists of the Space Race and leaders of Space Exploration. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the context shifts to the relationship between Russia and Kazakhstan. Some examples for the comparison of the Cosmodrome, also highlight some European countries, such as Ukraine, Germany and Belgium.

STRUCTURE Introduction

Purpose of the Thesis

Chapter 1

Analysis of key events

Chapter 2

Crisis analysis

Chapter 3

Photographic analysis

Chapter 4

Comparison with similar structures and activities

Conclusion

Possible evolutions or failures, in relation to the analyses

Baikonur Cosmodrome

Buran Programme Complex

General historical and technical analysis

FOCUSED ANALYSIS _Design analysis _Functional analysis _Technological analysis _Historical analysis _Photographic analysis

The thesis will be devided into 4 chapters. The first chapter will analyse the history of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, analysing the influence that this structure has had for the nomads of the desert and the technical information that justifies the choice of the place. This chapter will highlight the secrets behind its contruction, and the historical events that made this place important for space exploration, as well as negative events. Through the progress of these events, the thesis will show the importance of Soviet propaganda for the city of Baikonur and how it has preserved much of these posters and monuments to this day. The second chapter will analyse the reasons for the decline of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, comparing the concept of Soviet Space Exploration with that of the United States, evaluating what were the main reasons for this crisis. An important step will be described which establishes the agreement between Russia and Kazakhstan in order to continue to use the Cosmodrome through an annual rent until 2050. This step will allows us to identify possible future fates, through the analysis of the Russian intention to gradually abandon the Cosmodrome.

The third chapter will focus on the abandoned area of the Cosmodrome called Buran Program Complex, which will analyse the reasons of the crisis and the characteristics of the structures, through photographic analysis and reconstructive representation in technical drawings. The fourth chapter will analyse the current progress of evolution in the Space Exploration field, allowing to find a connection between these themes and the abandoned places of the Buran Complex. In addition, an analysis will be made on the comparison between the Cosmodrome and other abandoned Soviet structures, to also evaluate the probability of a total abandonment after 2050. Through the comparison with tourist and space activities, a probability of conformation with the Buran Complex and these activities will be provided, evaluating the possible future efficiency. DELIMITATIOS The thesis will describe the structure and the historical context in the general integrity of the Baikonur Comsodrome. The focused analysis of the thesis will concern in the area of the Buran Program Complex, given the impossibility of accessing information from every place in the Cosmodrome and the large number of structures and technological complexes.

INTRODUCTION Speculation on the future of the largest Cosmodrome in the world The Baikonur Cosmodrome is the largest launch site on Earth. The first of its kind, the Cosmodrome is capable of housing global events that were once a source of pride for the Soviet Union. It is located close to the small village of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, in a semi-arid area on the northern bank of the Syr Darya river (Jimenez, 2018). Since its inception, the Cosmodrome has hosted the largest number of events such as the first artificial satellite and the first man flight into space, animating the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Baikonur Cosmodrome no longer serves these functions to the same capacity than it did in the 60s-80s. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the space program was almost completely abandoned and the Cosmodrome became the site for lowcost launches, facing a strong period of economic depression, surrounded by the desert, camels and stray dogs. Following this extensive period of crisis, the Cosmodrome currently hosts dilapidated structures with a declining interest for regeneration. Since Kazakhstan declared independence on July 2, 2005, an agreement was signed where the Russians rented the territory to continue using the Baikonur Cosmodrome until 2050, stipulating the sum of 115 million dollars a year. (Zak, 2020).

Fig.03 : Site 250a mobile service tower, Rustem Adagamov, 2010 This image shows one of the typical platforms, representing the general character of the Baikonur Cosmodrome

It is estimated that Russia spends an additional 50 million dollars on infrastructure maintenance and test facilities, in order to ensure proper functioning. Highlighting that some Hangars and Launch facilities are abandoned, it could be argued that this sum is currently not sufficient to guarantee the appropriate functioning of this structure (Potekhina, 2010). According to Eliseo Acanfora, as the expiry of the concession contract with the Kazakh territory approaches, the Russians are gradually abandoning their commitments to Baikonur, to move to the new Russian launch site of Vostochny. (Acanfora, 2019). Considering this, the future of the launch site remains uncertain. What will the dynamics be in 2050? What will happen if the Russians hand over the Cosmodrome to Kazakhstan? Will the Kazakhs be able to manage the largest space facility in the world? Could a site of such historical, technological and complex importance, become a real dystopia in the middle of the desert? The thesis will analyse the characteristics of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, understanding its historical importance and its legacy of scientific progress for humanity, in order to speculate its future.

INTRODUCTION

The influence of the Soviet occupation on desert nomads and the importance of keeping the Cosmodrome secret will be scrutinised. Through the historical analysis of the various successes that have characterised Baikonur, the identity character that has marked the Soviet Space propaganda and its influence on the city of Baikonur will be analysed. The causes of the crisis in this place will then be examined by comparing them with places with a similar identity and historical path. This step will allow the researcher to consider the possible fate of the cosmodrome. This consideration will also be influenced by the contractual relations between Russia and Kazakhstan, evaluating the reasons why Russia is gradually abandoning the Cosmodrome and the possible consequences. The thesis will highlight the secret nature of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, which will lead to the desire to recreate an approximation of technical drawings and graphic posters of the inaccessible places, through the analysis of photographs illegally taken by curious adventurers. 2050 will mark significant events that will further develop changes for scientific landscape. In the concluding parts of the thesis, the analysis of potential activities will be carried out in order to recover these places and make them more accessible, breaking the segregation barrier that has always characterised this place. Fig.04: “Glory of the Space Heroes - Glory of the Soviet People!” Berezovsky, B., 1963

CHAPTER 01 Utopian Dream

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Decoy City

The Soviet Union called this place in various names such as Zarya, Leninsk and Zvezdograd, to create confusion about the location of the Cosmodrome. It was called Baikonur by Russian President Boris Yeltsin in 1996 (Hutchinson, 2005, p.258). This name, derives from the small village of the time called Baikonur (Kazakhstan), which in reality was located 250-300 km from the real position of the Cosmodrome.

KAZAKHSTAN

Fig.6: The map of the world showing present-day territory of Kazakhstan. Collage by the author, 2020

The mid-1900s was an important historical period for the Soviet rocket engineers in terms of the increase in the development of intercontinental missiles. This factor has characterised the need to create a structure capable of hosting its construction and testing. According to the technological needs of the time, the choice of the site had mainly to depend on a good control of radio transmission. This depended on a territory of flat morphology, and the distance from the equator, because the closer the site is, rockets require less energy to pierce the atmosphere (Acanfora, 2019). Kazakhstan was at the time part of the Soviet Union, and Tyuratam had all these characteristics to be chosen as the ideal location (Russianspaceweb, 2020). This involved forming a Soviet Security team that was responsible for ensuring to avoid the risk of spreading rumors. (Zak, 2016)

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Decoy City

Fig.7: Peddler of fish and camel milk, Tyuratam. A. Sorini

Fig.8: Lonely mullah, Tyuratam. A. Sorini Those images depict the local inhabitants of the Kazakh desert, now much influenced by the presence of the Russians

The real village name was Tyuratam, inhabited by poor nomadic shepherds located in a semi-arid area on the northern bank of the Syr Darya river. With the arrival of thousands of Russian soldiers involved in the construction of the Cosmodrome, they also built their residences and all the facilities necessary to be able to live in their own place. They approached Tyuratam and built the new city a few meters south, called Baikonur.

The construction continued uninterrupted, until around 7 pm on October 4, 1957, an explosive sound broke out that frightened the entire inhabited area. That was the launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite into space. Tyuratam was politically invaded by the Soviets without having to answer to the local inhabitants, who say they began to feel like foreigners in their own home, in a rapidly changing city.

The screenwriter Eliseo Acanfora in his book “Baikonur, Terra, 2018” tells stories about Baikonur, discussing his own and the testimonies of Tyuratam inhabitants. The author describes the emotions that stand out in a unique site in the world, in a remote area in the desert of Kazakhstan, invaded by the Soviet Union in 1953. According to the nomadic farmers, when the Russians arrived, they were deceived in being told that the largest Olympic stadium in history would be built, topped by light towers of over 60m and a fully dedicated international airport (Ancafora, 2019). The small local station was expanded from 2 to 16 tracks and on 12 January 1955 excavations for the foundations of the Baikonur Cosmodrome began. According to Russian scientist Anatoly Zak, at the end of July 1955 there were 3,000 to 5,000 military construction workers present. (Zak, 2016) The local inhabitants realised that the stadium was a decoy, seeing only people in military uniform disembark from the trains, realising that the plan was to build a secret military base.

The distinction between Russians and Kazakhs was well known, as Baikonur grew, becoming less and less accessible to locals. Due to an epidemic during the 1970s, the village of Hutor Boldina, northeast of the city, was rased to the ground. Unexpectedly, the inhabitants of the old village were welcomed into Baikonur, where the first district for Kazakhs was granted. These people tell how over the years the lives of the two nationalities began to merge, living together in harmony. This is demonstrated by the testimony of a local Kazakh citizen named Nursultan. He had lived the whole story of Tyuratam’s transformation, being 14 years old during the launch of Sputnik 1 (Ancafora, 2018). Nursultan says he cannot speak ill of communism, since it was only thanks to the transformation of the village that he had the opportunity to study in a real school, to read and to play sports.

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Decoy City It could be argued that, the new Baikonur was a city with standards more beneficial to the quality of life of the area of the villages located near the Kazakhstan desert. Without the arrival of the Soviets, he would probably have remained a illiterate, following a more difficult life. Instead he became a professor of physical Education, coaching football teams and having the monetary opportunity to travel and compete at higher level. “Maybe the Soviets really had built a gigantic stadium where they wouldn’t let us in. And that missile will have been launched by the great Nikita Simonjan in an attempt to score from midfield; only that in the heat of the game he missed the trajectory (Acanfora, 2019)”. According to the analysis, the Cosmodrome affected Tyuratam in two distinct ways. The first siege of the military showed little respect to the locals of the village, changing their freedom and making them feel like foreigners. Later it allowed instead an improvement in the quality of life of the nomads. In this way a phenomenon of unconscious positivity was created, since it was not in the plans of the Soviets. This can be partly demonstrated by the fact that a probable failure of the Cosmodrome, would force Baikonur citizens to return to nomads or to emigrate, as it is the largest form of local income.

Fig.9: Baikonur and Tyuratam Village map by the author, 2020

Fig.10: Akay Village map by the author, 2020

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Space Trophies

Heating Pipes 360 km

Electricity Cables 6610 km

The Baikonur Cosmodrome is the largest launch site in the world, expanding to 5500 square meters, going from north/ south for 75 km and east/west for 90 km (ESA, 2020) According to official 1993 data, the Cosmodorme had 11 assembly buildings and 9 launch complexes with 15 launch pads for space boosters (Nechesa, 1993). Figure 11 highlights all the infrastructures and services of that period, which represents the first years of the beginning of the Cosmodrome crisis.

Water Pipelines 1240 km

TRIUMPHS Fig.12

4 Flight-test centres Power Station for intercontinental 9 launch complexes with missiles 15 launch pads, rocket assembly and satellite preparation buildings

Telephone Lines 2784 Km

Aerodorme 4 Spaceflight test centres (Soyuz, Zenit, Proton, Energia-Buran)

Daily water consumption 220 000 m3 Roads 1281 km

Liquid oxygen and Nitrogen Factory

4 Propellant Stocking Stations

Electric Transformers 600

Sewers 400 km Telemetry and tracking stations

Landing Strip for Buran

Railway Tack 470 km

Fig.11: Baikonur site selective inventory, 1989. The diagram by the author, 2020 This diagram attempts to show the infrastructures of the Cosmodrome in a Soviet graphic context.

World curiosity in exploring what was out of Earth’s orbit increased strongly in 4 October, 1957, after the Soviet Union announced that it had sent the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into space. According to Sara Zapponi, Sputnik became “the symbol of socialist modernity”. (Zapponi, 2014) If we think of the new Russian AntiCovid vaccine, its name proves a certain continuation of this modernity. The vaccine was named Sputnik V, exposing the continuity of this great national pride. Less than 1 month later, the news of the second big hit launched by Baikonur came out. The dog Laika was launched and became the first living creature being to fly into space inn 1957. The greatest achievement of the Soviet Union, however, is marked by the name of Yuri Gagarin, an idol of the entire nation. Gagarin, became the first human being to fly to space on April 12, 1961.

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

SPUTNIK 1 4 Oct 1957

DOG LAIKA 3 Nov 1957

SPUTNIK 3 15 May 1958

1st satellite into Orbit

1st living creature into Orbit

1st scientific satellite into Orbit

LUNA 1-4 Jan 1959

1st lunar probe

VALENTINA TERESHKOVA 16 Jun 1963

ALEXEI LEONOV 18 Mar 1965

LUNA 9 3 Feb 1966

LUNA 16 12 Sep 1970

SALYUT 1 19 Apr 1971

1st woman space flight

1st human spacewalk

1st landing on the moon

1st Moon sample to Earth

1st orbiting space station

YURI GAGARIN 12 Apr 1961 1st man space flight

BURAN 15 Nov 1988

Automated return of a Spaceshuttle

Fig.12: Cosmodrome Triumphs Timeline by the author, 2020

NEDELIN CATASTROPHE 24 Oct 1960

SS8 24 Oct 1963

Explosion of SS7 missile: 165 deaths

Explosion of SS8 missile: 7 deaths

Fig.13: Cosmodrome Disasters Timeline by the author, 2020 17

SOYUZ 1 23 Apr 1967

Death of Komarov

SOYUZ T10A 23 Sep 1983

Explosion on the launch pad

SOYUZ 18A 5 Apr 1975

Catastrophe narrowly avoided

SOYUZ 11 30 Jun 1971 Deaths of 3 Cosmonauts

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Space Trophies The Soviets were the first to send the first woman, Valentina Tereshkova into space on June 16, 1963. This event symbolised the value that the former Soviet Union placed on gender equality, causing many more women to take up technological fields (Zapponi, 2014). DISASTERS Fig.13 Unfortunately, during these years of success, tragic disasters also occurred. Often these events were kept hidden from the public to avoid tarnishing the Soviet reputation, causing an immorality that marked the political negativity of communism. The Nedelin Catastrophe occurred on October 24, 1960, caused by a tragic explosion during the testing operations of the SS7 missile, causing the death of 165 people who were in the surrounding area. On the same day in 1963, another tragic accident occurred which caused the death of 7 people following the explosion of the SS8 missile, due to excessive oxygen pressure on the refueling system. October 24th became Baikonur’s “Black Day”, deciding that there would never be more launches on that date (Smolchenko, 2010).

Fig.14: The First Sputnik Passenger, the dog Laika, 1957

Fig.15: Poster commemorating the space flight of Valentina Tereshkova, 1963

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Graphic Identity

The historical events, needed to communicate to the Soviet people and to the whole world, what Soviet technology managed to achieve. Propaganda is a media tool that was used by Soviet Union and USA. According to this communication system, it was intended to provide strong messages that would demonstrate the technological supremacy of a nation. One of the reasons why propaganda takes on negative connotations, is the fact that the Soviet Union aimed for people to perceive that these successes, were due to the communist political orientation. It was therefore a method to influence and manipulate people’s mentality. (Ellul, 1973). According to this concept, a so-called Soviet graphic style has consequently developed, showing its own identity. This style has evolved mainly following the Russian revolution between 1917-1923, caused by the idea of dreaming big and planning a future for the nation. This has developed the idea of the press as a tool to spread ideas and news to large masses of the population (Sankova, 2020). The evolution of these representations went hand in hand with the first space successes mentioned before, that made the Soviet Union a world leader.

Fig.16: “Long live the son of the Communist Party!” Berezovsky, B., 1961

According to Jowett and O’Donnels, the definition of propaganda “Is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (Ellul, 1973). Like many other analysts, this term takes on negative connotations. In the case of the Soviet Space Propaganda, it can be attributed an artistic positivity to a defined negative concept. This kind of manipulation has in fact made it possible to create graphics that have allowed artists to express messages through their artistic qualities. It can be added a note of negativity to this, given that these messages were often not determined by the artistic will of the author, but by the imposition of political authorities, who instructed on the message to be published, according to their political interests. The importance of these representations for this thesis lies in the fact that Baikonur made it possible to represent these great events, contributing very influentially. Every event has been studied, tested and launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. This reason creates the interest of being able to use this graphic style as a sign of representation, to maintain a stylistic identity of this place.

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Graphic Identity Based on the analysis of the use of these graphic messages, the Cosmodrome and the development of the Soviet graphic style were both dependent on technology and political regime. The increase of government promotion celebrating the Cosmodrome, subsequently would led to more favourable public opinion on the Space Race. This would have allowed for little to no opposition to increased funding and attention for the launch site. The large government spending would have helped the successes of the Baikonur providing a wealth of material to document for a well established Soviet graphic style.

6m Fig.18: Monument to Lenin, Baikonur city

2.50 m

Fig.17: Soviet Graphic poster in Baikonur

Fig.19: Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin statue, Baikonur city The images serve to convey the idea of Baikonur’s Soviet character. Lenin’s and Gagarin’s statues still remain in the city long after it changed its name and after the collapse of the Soviet Union

Generally, most of the countries of the former Soviet Union have tried to delete the traces of the old regime, by removing the various statues and posters of this style. Through a photographic research, it was instead analysed that Baikonur still preserves the statue of Lenin and a large number of Soviet posters, as shown in figures 17-19 ; 22-27, demonstrating a strong sentiment based on the main system that the city serves. These materials indeed represent the great history of Baikonur, and preserving this memory is an indispensable factor in its identity.

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Graphic Identity

Fig.20: Vertical set of Soviet Space Propaganda

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Graphic Identity

Fig.21: Horizontal set of Soviet Space Propaganda

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Posters in Baikonur

1,5 m

4m 2m

Fig.22: “Raise your head !!!”. Residential area Bajkonur city These photographs depict the influence of former Soviet graphics in the city of Baikonur and the scale of realisation through a probable measurement made by the author based on the proportions of the elements

1,5 m

Fig.23: Soviet Graphic posters in Baikonur

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Posters in Baikonur

7,5 m 7,5 m

5m 5m Fig.24: Soviet Graphic poster in Baikonur, J. Jimenez, 2019

Fig.25: Soviet Graphic poster in Baikonur. J. Jimenez, 2019

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Soviet Posters in Baikonur

10 m

12 m

Fig.26: “Raise your head !!!”. Residential area Bajkonur city, Andrea Sorini

16 m

Fig.27: Yuri Gagarin Poster in Baikonur, Stefane Carlier, 2006

CHAPTER 01 UTOPIAN DREAM

Galina Balashova

Galina Balashova was an architect who invented the interior design of the space capsules and was the first woman among the design teams of the Soviet Union. Among her various most important works, there was the design of the MIR space station, and the interiors of the Soyuz spaceship which on 17 July 1975 made the docking with the American Apollo (Fossi, 2020). The analysis of these graphics made it possible to attribute great value to Soviet design. The key to this success is being able to see, unlike the Americans, a spacecraft, like a temporary home, which needs the same comfort and design warmth as a normal habitation. Balashova attributed a new way of perceiving aerospace design through her graphics, which were produced and launched by the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Like Valentina Tereshkova, Balashova represents further testimony, for the importance that the Soviet Space Program attributed to the female role of the time.

Fig.28: Sojus-M spacecraft (1970-74). Galina Balashova

Fig.29: Design for the cabinet of the space station Mir, final version interior design (1980) Galina Balashova

CHAPTER 02 Dystopic Risk

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

USA vs USSR Difference of approach

Fig.31: Kennedy Space center, Cape Canaveral, Florida

Fig.32: Test Energia Launcher and Site 112a, Baikonur Cosmodrome

The two main nations that made astronautics a significant topic of discussion in society were the Soviet Union and the USA. In order to evaluate the main reasons why the Baikonur Cosmodrome has suffered and is undergoing a severe crisis, it is worth comparing the Cosmodrome to the American launch site that has gained the current success. This is the Kennedy Space Center. The factors that these two places have in common are astronautics/cosmonautics and their latitude. The influent difference between the two nations was their approaches between the citizens and space exploration. Although the Soviet Union’s desire for technological improvement was very ambitious and rich in investment, its policy certainly negatively affected its long-term success. In fact, the Soviet Union decided to create this place in secret, moreover built in the middle of the Kazakhstan desert, far from everything and everyone, providing incorrect coordinates to confuse its real position. The citizens of the entire Soviet Union therefore had no idea where this mysterious place was. Furthermore, television was a tool only for a few and we can therefore consider propaganda as the only effective tool to make citizens appreciate space exploration.

The USA, on the other hand, made it clearly visible what happened and where the space successes were launching from. The Kennedy Space Center is located along the Florida coast, next to one of the most spectacular American tourist destinations such as Miami Beach, full of events, clubs and fascinating places. Being able to attend a launch, has always been clearly visible, considering these events as the most technological attractions in the country. As a result, an independent economy developed around all of this consisting of premises and infrastructures for tourism, which still enjoy a strong business that could continue even without the Space Center activity (Ancafora, 2018). The Baikonur Cosmodrome was opposing in its exposure to the public. It joined the poor shepherd village of Tyuratam, and colonised the area by founding a small town dedicated exclusively to Russian scientists, engineers, military and officers who would serve the Cosmodrome. This caused the local Kazakhs to despise this occupation. The only ones who could really appreciate what was happening, were the inner circle of Russian workers of the Cosmodrome. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the space program was almost completely abandoned and the energy of the citizens had no way of involving a plan B for Baikonur, located far from urban areas.

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

USA VS USSR: Difference of approach

Adding to this situation also the fact that the Americans were the first to set foot on the moon., marking their technological superiority, in a transparent and joyful atmosphere of the entire country. In that same period, the Soviets suffered their greatest loss, the death of the leading engineer Sergei Korolev. The engineer was the mastermind that led the Soviet Union towards ambitious and successful plans. After his death, in fact, they could not find a worthy replacement and the plans of the Buran Programme, were extremely expensive, strongly diminishing the interest in aerospace progress. In the USA, too, there was a notable decline in these interests, influenced by the Cold War. Although the American space plan was sidelined, the entire area of Florida had a by now flowing wealth, which was not affected by this crisis (Ancafora, 2018). Baikonur instead remained in a strong period of economic depression, surrounded by the desert, by camels and stray dogs. Claudia di Giorgio wrote in her article for the Italian newspaper “La Repubblica”, that in the worst period of the crisis (after the dissolution of Soviet Union), wages, food and medicine stopped arriving and the number of inhabitants dropped drastically from 100,000 to 20,000 (Di Giorgio, 2002).

Fig.33: Space launch seen from Miami Beach, Florida The image tries to convey the involvement of the American people in space exploration.

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

THE AGREEMENT

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia found itself faced with the fact that its main space base was located outside its political borders. This fact has caused serious repercussions on the government, having to enter into contracts with Kazakhstan, in order to be able to rent that huge territory and allow it to implement its own laws. The main contract established in 2005, that Russia can rent the Baikonur Cosmodrome for the sum of 115 million per year, up to 2050. The legislative framework does not only concern the Cosmodrome, but also the city of Baikonur, where there is a strong prevalence of Russian citizens. (Chukalova, 2018) The fact of no longer having a powerful space base within the borders has caused Russian interest to invest billions in the construction of the new Vostochny Cosmodrome, located in the far east of Russia. President Putin said that this place will allow Russia to remain an independent space power. “Russia has also built a new launch site, Vostochny, which is eventually expected to take over many of the launches of Baikonur” (Howell, 2018). The Roscoscmos company said launches in Baikonur would drop from 65% to 11%. The vice president of the national space agency of Kazakhstan, points out that maintainance costs for the Cosmodorme seem excessive to Russia, a reason that led to the construction of the new Cosmodrome of the Vostochny (Top War, 2011). Fig.34: Launch complex “Soyuz-2” under construction, Vostochny, Russia, Stepanov Slava, 2015

These large costs, and the construction of their own Spaceport, lead to the porbable expectation that the Russians may even leave the Baikonur Cosmodrome earlier than expected. According to the rules of the contract, they can in fact leave with 1 year’s notice, without the obligation to stay until 2050 (Trilling, 2014). According to the article by David Trilling, the local Kazakhs and the Russians, think that the hypothetical abandonment of the Russians will lead to serious damage to the place. In fact, they claim that everything in that place works only thanks to the Russians, and consequently the citizens and the Cosmodrome will suffer a huge crisis. (Trilling, 2014) Baikonur residents complained that there are already shortages of heating and the city seems increasingly abandoned (Ancafora, 2018). Russian Space Program expert Asif Siddiqi asks what will happen to the gigantic amount of proprietary equipment such as missile silos, pads, control and tracking stations. He answers this question by thinking that it is perhaps “the only barganining chip the Kazakhs have.” Experts strongly wants Russia to stay in Baikonur, as he argues that if they leave, Baikonur will become a store for private companies in the West (Trilling, 2014).

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

The Agreement

According to Eliseo, the launch pads are used as long as the structure guarantees completely safe operations. After they show signs of failure or danger they are usually abandoned, as their technology does not adapt to modification and reuse. (Ancafora, 2019). Baikonur equipment, but generally all complex aerospace facilities, are not interchangeable. This means that the Russians cannot simply transfer these huge facilities to the new cosmonaut base of Vostochny, but are forced to leave everything in the old Cosmodrome. The hypothesis that the Russians could leave the Cosmodrome leads the researcher to think about how this place could run the risk of becoming the perfect place for dystopian representation. Through the analysis of places that have acquired this concept, the probability of this tragic event will be assessed.

Fig.35: Abandoned building in Baikonur, Stefane Carlier, 2006

Fig.36: Wild animals around the Cosmodrome These images allow to get an idea of how the Baikonur Comsodrome would become in case of future abandonment.

Fig.37: Camels outside a Saturn-MS communication centre at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Savostyanov, S., 2018.

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

THEORY OF ABANDONMENT Comparison between Baikonur and Soviet abandoned sites.

Fig.38: Abandoned Pripyat, Ucraine

In order to evaluate the probability of a future total abandonment of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the circumstances of two places that are as similar to it as possible will be analysed, evaluating the historical, technical and political approach. These places must be in total abandonment, and it was chosen to opt for sites that had two main characteristics. The first feature is the search for a place built by the former Soviet Union, given that, as previously analysed, their way of approaching scientifically, competitively and in total secrecy. An ulterior aspect is the scientific-technological character. This means that an industrial site would reflect greater functional connection. Among the various places in the former Soviet Union, the example of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and the Military Base of Juteborg are chosen. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant was built in 1970, with the construction of the city of Pripyat, which housed the inhabitants for the construction and use of the nuclear center, located in present-day Ukraine. The reactors of the nuclear center began to operate in 1977 and in 1979 the city of Pripyat was made official and the nuclear center was able to produce the first 10 billion kWh of electricity (Carnazzi, 2016).

Fig.39: Abandoned Post Office, Pripyat, Ucraine

The evolution continued uninterrupted, producing large energy flows, until on the night of April 26, 1986, two powerful explosions occurred caused by the malfunction of the pumps and the high temperatures, disintegrating nuclear fuel and turbines. This event caused the release of strong nuclear radiation and fire. That radioactive explosion caused many deaths and the evacuation of 336,000 people. 43,000 inhabitants of Pripyat had to leave their homes permanently (Carnazzi, 2016). Pripyat became a ghost town, which seems to represent the ideal place for the concept of dystopia. The industrial character and political circumstances of its construction are very similar to the Baikonur Cosmodrome. It also represents the same fact that they are both places built by the former Soviet Union and now belong to another country. This factor is crucial as there are a large number of abandoned former Soviet sites located outside the Russian borders. The researcher speculates that this happened since these places were out of the interest of the countries conquered by the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), proving out of reach of the new countries.

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

Theory of Abandonment

Baikonur

Fig.40: Active Ferris Wheel in Baikonur City

Pripyat

In fact, if the Baikonur Cosmodrome were within the Russian borders, there would not have been the need to spend millions for rent in Kazakhstan and there wouldn’t be the need to spend additional billions for the construction of the new Vostochny site. The Baikonur Cosmodrome would probably not have been affected by this crisis, and there would have been far more funds to invest in the Space Programs (ucronistics hypothesis). If the possible abandonment of the Cosmodrome is the lack of a superpower nation or agency, capable of maintaining investments for the maintenance and continuity of new activities, in Pripyat the abandonment was mandatory. This obligation was decided by a chemical lawsuit, which did not let Pripyat citizens decide whether to stay or not, given that this explosion was biologically lethal to anyone’s health. Whatever the plan to reactivate the nuclear power plant and rehabilitate the city, with the impossibility of eliminating the radiation, no plan would have been acceptable. Abandoning this site was the only possible choice. Although the Baikonur disasters outnumbered Chernobyl, none proved to be toxic or dangerous for the continuation of the activities or the future health of the workers. This analysis induces positivity about the fate of this place. Because, while there was no hope for Pripyat, Baikonur still has options and attempts that it can rely on.

Fig.41: Abandoned Ferris Wheel in Pripyat The comparison between the two images makes one perceive the similarity between Pripyat and Baikonur, releasing that emotion of a similar dystopian destiny.

Therefore according to this consideration, there is no certain or definitive data that the Cosmodrome and the city of Baikonur will be abandoned. The second case was therefore chosen to find an alternative to an example of “forced abandonment”, so as to be able to evaluate further aspects of comparison. The abandoned Soviet Military Base in Juteborg, Germany, depicts the dynamics of a place used by the former Soviet Union, in a country outside the Russian borders, and which has not been abandoned due to force majeure. This place was built by the Nazis for the development of military techniques in the field of aviation. In 1945 it was occupied by the Soviet Union forces, who expanded the site and runways, with the aim of developing anti-aircraft missiles. It housed as many as 30,000 Soviet soldiers, and was the largest Soviet military airbase. The works for the restoration and expansion of the entire complex were entrusted to the Bosnian Architect Selman Selmanagic, well known at the time for his influence in the Bauhaus (Gianperoli, 2019).

CHAPTER 02 DYSTOPIC RISK

Theory of Abandonment

After the end of the Cold War, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, all military troops were withdrawn from this place. From that moment on, Germany has not yet implemented a reuse plan (Gianperoli, 2019).

Fig.42: Abandoned structure in Juteborg, Germany

What differentiates this place from Baikonur, is that Russia did not have the interest of continuing to use the base as in the case of the Cosmodrome. In fact, despite the Baikonur Cosmodrome being located in a remote area of Kazakhstan, Russia has enhanced the extreme importance that that place had for the history of space exploration, discarding the possibility of ceding a place that allowed the former Soviet Union to be among the major world leaders. This choice is reinforced by the fact that at the time, Baikonur was the only cosmonautic base it had. Leaving Baikonur would have meant the total abandonment of the Space Program. Of all the places left outside the Russian borders after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baikonur was considered the most important, and it can be partly proved by the fact that it was the only site to be taken over through numerous agreements with Kazakhstan.

Fig.43: Abandoned structure in Juteborg, Germany

The military base of Juteborg, has more decisive circumstances in relation to abandonment, since it is located very close to various inhabited centers, and its general structure has many civil buildings that are much easier to be reused. Just thinking of the increase in difficulty if this base would be located in the Kazakh desert. Through these two comparisons that express the tragic dynamics of abandonment, we note that the Baikonur Cosmodrome has elements that partly differentiate it, allowing for the possibility of maintaining the site after 2050. The scenario of a future abandonment in the desert (dystopian hypothesis), caused by the Russian abandonment and the possible Kazakh indifference to spend millions on its reactivation, does not seem so difficult to imagine. On the contrary, we can also think that the differences previously analysed mean that something decisive can happen, given that there are no major limits and that its historical importance means that the interest in maintenance is high. In the next chapter, a specific abandoned area of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, called the Buran Program Complex, will be analysed. This step will allow to speculate on the analysis and representation of a secret place, which represents a first dystopian concept of Baikonur.

CHAPTER 03 Access to the Secret

Access to the Secret Analysis of the Baikonur Cosmodrome segregation phenomenon

As analysed in the descriptive section of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the “secret” characteristics for the realisation of this place have emerged, such as the different denominations attributed over the years, to confuse about the coordinates. These plans were also kept secret from the local inhabitants, who despite seeing the development of the Cosmodrome, were told that it was a stadium. It must be considered that this tactic was successful, as they managed to surprise the whole world with the launch of Sputnik 1, the Dog laika, Yuri Gagarin and all the events mentioned in chapter 1. These events, surprised by the fact that no one knew how far aerospace technologies were really advancing, nor did anyone know that the world’s first great Cosmodrome had been built. Although this aspect is positive, negative aspects of such segregation can also be assessed. As analysed in chapter 2, the fact of making the Cosmodrome secret, required its construction in a remote place, not visible to the population, allowing not to spread rumors. This did not allow the development of any profitable business outside of it. This detail has shown how instead the development of a public and spectacularised image like the Kennedy Space Center, has allowed economic maintenance despite the dark years of space exploration. Fig.45: “Don’t Blab”, N. Vatolina, 1941

An even more serious aspect of segregation was the fact of hiding the tragic disasters that occurred during the various missions. The secret went beyond the importance of people’s lives, whose family members had no information until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In the last 30 years, the concept of “secret” can be considered improved. In fact, since then Baikonur has been a place of cooperation between various countries, which are allowed to launch their satellites. Although it is already a big step forward, the site is still inaccessible to the public and there is not much technical information about this place. Consequently, it is not known for sure what all the abandoned structures are. Through accessible information, some abandoned sites will be visually presented via illegal photography, recorded by photographers who infiltrated the Cosmodrome. Through the study of these photographs, an analysis of the structural composition of these places will be carried out, allowing the first approximate technical drawings to be reconstructed. Since there are no accessible drawings yet, this step will serve to create a first public approach to a historically inaccessible place.

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

THE INFORMERS Experiences of photographers infiltrated in the Cosmodrome

Reaching this mysterious and secret place is a unique adventure. Finding yourself in a purely deserted, sandy and devoid of vegetation, risking being captured by the constant security check and the danger of the long journey to access it. Several names of photographers are discovered who have secretly ventured on the site like Jonathan Jimenez (Jonk), David De Rueda, Alexander Kaunas, Ralph Mirebs and Philip Grossman, which allowed to find a large number of the photographic material of the thesis. Jonk created the photographic book “Baikonur, Vestiges of the Soviet Space Programme” where in addition to showing the fascinating images, he describes his adventure in detail. Fig.47: Photographers slept illegally inside site 112a, 2017

Fig.46: Journey to the Cosmodorme, Baikonur Desert, 2017

Fig.48: Journey to the Cosmodorme, Baikonur Desert, 2017

The author has visited lots of abandoned sites around the world and that this was the most exciting site he has ever photographed (Jimenez, 2018). Jonk and his 3 collegues, paid a local resident to be transported by car up to about 40 km from the center of the Cosmodrome. From there the journey on foot started, taking into account the weight of the photographic equipment and the provisions of food and water, as they slept in the hangars for 3 days (Jimenez, 2019).

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

BURAN PROGRAMME COMPLEX Abandoned sites

The Cosmodrome is extremely vast, and the infrastructures are innumerable. In this thesis, we focus on an area identified by the adventures of the photographers described above. This will make it more effective to focus on concrete places, which have great potential for renewal.

ENERGIA DYNAMIC TEST FACILITY

SITE 112A

In the Cosmodrome, there is a specific area called Buran Programme Complex “VVK Space Orbiter programme”. This area was born as a response to the United States of America’s NASA Space Shuttle program. The Soviet Buran spacecraft project started in 1974, with the aim of making a vehicle able to fly into space and being reusable (Jimenez, 2019). Construction of the first shuttle began in 1980 and the first test flight in 1983. This innovative program caused the large investment in the construction of a new area of the Cosmodrome dedicated exclusively to this space program. The construction of site 112a, the Energy Dynamic Test Facility, Site 110 and other facilities, was carried out to complete the services necessary for the completion of these Spacecrafts. Boris Yeltsin officially abandoned the Buran Program on 30 June 1993. One of the causes was the extreme costs of maintaining this program, which contrasted with the crisis due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in those same years (Zak, 2018).

Fig.49: The Buran Program complex. The Assembly and Fueling Facility hangar (right), Dynamic Test Stand (left) and the launch complex (in the background on the left). A. Podniesinsky, 2018

The next images will be used to reconstruct some structures, through the availability of information and the personal analysis of these photographs. Finally the abandoned places will be represented in technical drawings.

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

SITE 112A

According to the information, the site 112a, was completed towards the end of 1967. The main purpose of the facility was to refuel the shuttles before they were transported and mounted on the rockets. Following the abandonment of the Buran Program, there was a significant decline in the maintenance of these facilities, causing the gigantic access and exit doors to be impossible to open (fig.50). In this way, the two shuttles inside required such demanding operations for their removal, that it was decided to abandon the total structure in its current conditions. The two shuttles are identified as: Orbiter K2-PTICHKA, Orbiter OK-4M. According to Zak, the structure is 150m long, 80m wide and 70m high. However, for the photographer Ralph Mirebs, its length is 132 m and 62 m high. Although the exact measurement differs, consistency is maintained on the proportions between length and width. The structure is made up of a metal frame, able to withstand any explosion that could occur during the most dangerous processes. (Zak, 2020) The lifting capacity of the upper cranes is 400 tons (Zapponi, 2015).

Fig.50: Orbiter K2-Ptichka from ground level. Site 112a, Baikonur Cosmodrome. J. Jimenez, 2019

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Reconstructive photographic analysis

Fig.51: Analysis of the external windows of Site 112a, highlighted in red, J. Jimenez, 2019

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Reconstructive photographic analysis

Fig.52: Detail of the track movement system, J. Jimenez, 2019

Fig.53: Site 112a, main access door, J. Jimenez, 2019

According to the figure 50, the internal space is completely free from any masonry constraint, allowing for a single open space for an efficient mechanical processing. Figure 52 shows the movement systems worked according to sliding rails for opening the doors and moving the shuttles, by special supports with wheels. This allows directional maneuvers according to a single axis, taking advantage of the connection to powerful vehicles moving on rails. In the same image, the shuttle support systems are identified, on these specific four-axis supports, which distribute the weight on the rails. There are two in the rear of the Shuttles and one in the front. The opening system of the two doors, although it works according to the same movement principle as the shuttles, follows the opposite directional axis, opening in two sections. The difference in their size is analysed. According to the orientation of the shuttles, it is assumed which could be the entrance and which the exit. They have the same width measurement, while the exit door is much lower than the entrance door. According to the photographic proportions, the entrance door is 1/3 higher than the exit door. In image 50 we can see the complexity of the systems arranged along the side walls, hooked to the structure. It was not possible to find information on the concrete functionality of these complex technological machines, but it can be understood that many of these systems bark the functionality of being able to open and close according to hydraulic piston systems, allowing the cantilever of such structures, reaching the shuttles in any point.

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Reconstructive photographic analysis

Along the entire perimeter, the building develops from corridors, that allow circulation along its entire height, accessing any machinery fixed along the walls of the structure. These corridors are interrupted only on the side of the highest door, which occupies the entire height of the building. Daily lighting is analysed according to image 51, in which ribbon windows are identified according to two directional axes. According to the adjacent image, it can be confirmed that these windows are found inside along the corridors, highlighted in red (fig.54). The vast size and scale of these structures is very difficult to comprehend through the photographs. It is not possible to perceive the greatness of these immense hangars, if not through the contrast with a human figure. (Fig.55-58). Through photographic analysis, the first approximate technical drawings of Site 112a are shown in page 44-45. The photographic analysis allows us to have an initial idea of these buildings, given that to obtain precise and definitive drawings, it would be essential to carry out a survey on site.

Fig.54: Analysis of internal windows, highlighted in red, J. Jimenez, 2019

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Fig.55: Site 112a, human contrast scale proportions.

Fig.56: Site 112a, human contrast scale proportions.

Fig.57: Site 112a, human contrast scale proportions

Fig.58: Site 112a, human contrast scale proportions

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

TECHNICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF SITE 112A

150 m

Orbiter K2-PRICHKA Fig.59: Site 112a technical drawing made by the author, 2020

Orbiter OK-4M

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Technical reconstruction of Site 112a

80 m

70 m

Fig.60: Site 112a technical drawing made by the author, 2020

CROOS SECTION

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

ENERGIA DYNAMIC TEST FACILITY

This structure is located a few hundred meters from the hangar of site 112a as we can see in fig. 50. Its main function was to carry out the shock and vibration tests for the last pre-launch tests and to ensure that the rockets responded positively to any possible risk. This is the tallest building (100 m) in the entire cosmodrome, as it was to house the Energia rocket launcher “Energia-M”, still abandoned inside. On December 25, 1991, the rocket was transported to the launch pad ready to depart. The following two days it was brought back inside, since there were technical problems. Since that return, the rocket has remained inside the abandoned Energia Dynamic Test Facility (Zak, 2015). Through the photographic analysis we can see the structure of the building developed on about 12 floors. Based on the height provided by Zak, of about 100m, each floor should be between 8 and 10m high, considering the great thickness of the flat roof structure. Similarly to site 112a, it is spread over three walls made up of circulation floors over its entire height, in order to access every single view of the rocket. It is similar to the function of a huge scaffolding that develops around the object.

Fig.61: Rocket “Energia M”, Energia Dynamic Test Facility. J. Jimenez, 2019

The fourth wall is made up of the immense door that extends over the entire height of the structure, which, similarly to site 112a, it opens sliding on metal rails and allowing the entrance of the rocket. The difference is that the door does not open in two separate sections, but in one direction only. This hypothesis was analysed by figure 64, which also offers a representation of the entry and exit mode of the Energia-M rocket, through the use of immense specially designed vehicles. On the upper side, there is a cantilevered metal structure that at first glance can look like a crane. Through photographic analysis it is assumed that this structure serves as a guide for the opening of the immense door. From images 62 and 63 we can see the lighting scheme, consisting of two vertical ribbon windows on the sides of the building and a single strip on the rear facade, as highlighted in red in the images. Technical drawings based on photographic analysis are proposed in page 49-50.

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Reconstructive photographic analysis

Fig.62: Analysis of the external windows of Dynimac Test Facility, highlighted in red

Fig.63: Analysis of the external windows of Dynimac Test Facility, highlighted in red

Fig.64: Entrance door opening system, Energia Test Facility. Anatoly Zak, 2000

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Reconstructive photographic analysis

Fig.65: Energia Dynamic Test Facility, Baikonur Cosmodrome The multiplication of the human figure, inserted by the author of the thesis, tries to make people perceive the greatness of these places, in relation to the human propoportions

Fig.66: Energia Dynamic Test Facility, Baikonur Cosmodrome. J. Jimenez, 2019

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

TECHNICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ENERGIA DYNAMIC TEST FACILITY

Fig.67: Energia Dynamic Test Facility technical reconstruction drawings by the author, 2020

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Tehcnical Reconstruction of the Energia Dynamic Test Facility

Top View

Elevation 1

Fig.68: Energia Dynamic Test Facility technical reconstruction drawings by the author, 2020

Elevation 2

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

The analysis of these photographs allowed the researcher to perceive emotions influenced by two aspects. The first is the adventure of these people and the thrill of infiltrating a place that has always been secret, inaccessible and subject to surveillance. The second factor allowed the researcher to get to know places of enormous scale, which, compared to human beings, convey that desire to be able to live this experience in person. An experience that has potential for tourism, which would have the opportunity to experience these emotions as well as adventurous photographers. The vastness of these places resolved towards this first approach to space exploration, given that what perhaps most excites astronauts, is the reality of how small a human being is in the middle of space. The abandoned sites of the Buran Program complex represent the infinite immaterial sensation that would surround visitors.

Fig.69: Site 112a Contemporary Poster made by the author through the collage technique, 2020 51

CHAPTER 03 ACCESS TO THE SECRET

Based on these emotions and on the interest the researcher have for Soviet Space Graphics, there are made two collages that depicted the Site 112a and the Energy Dynamic Test Facility were designed inspired by this style (fig.69-70). This was to create a meeting point between the place and its history. This method of representation could be a hypothetical first approach for the reuse of these places, enhancing their scale of realisation and their memory through the graphic style. The two collage wants to show the intention of being able to design taking into account the memory of a certain historical period. The memory and testimony of the past are not endorsements of political choices, they are the scar that represents both the good and the bad of a path that created an identity.

Fig.70: Energia Dynamic Test Facility Contemporary Poster made by the author through the collage technique, 2020 52

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

SPACEX AN OPPORTUNITY OR A THREAT?

The birth of SpaceX started following the journey of Elon Musk, who had the interest of buying rockets in Russia. This request proved too expensive and he therefore decided to invest in opening his own company. The first factor that characterises this company today, is that it is the first successful private Space agency, which is dignifiedly challenging public competition. The second factor is that this company is managing to significantly reduce the costs for the construction of these objects, as well as the flight costs, guaranteeing or even improving the quality and safety of their processes. This agency has managed to develop the system according to which rockets can fly into space, return to the exact starting position in a vertical symmetry, and be reusable (Falcon 9). This is the main charge that allows the big drop in costs to fly a rocket. According to Vance, SpaceX is constantly producing new products, with better materials and better technologies from the first object to realise, at the final completion of a rocket. Modernisation is therefore a fundamental point, which satisfies marketing and above all functionality (Vance, 2017). The Russians are defined as the leaders in the number of objects sent to space, thanks to their low cost, emphasising that they use very old machinery (Vance, 2017).

Fig.72: Collage featuring Elon Musk by the author, 2020 The collage tries to emphasise the power that allowed Elon Musk to become a world leader for space exploration, in relation to the graphics that characterise the thesis.

According to Vance, SpaceX’s quest to cut the costs of the aerospace world, is gaining the support of various companies and nations, launching supplies to the International Space Station and satellites on their behalf. According to Eliseo Ancafora, this work is exactly what kept the Baikonur Cosmodrome alive, serving with low cost the shipment of any object to space, taking advantage of the low economy (Ancafora, 2019). Vance says SpaceX beats the prices of all American competitors. Whereas American clients previously relied on Russian suppliers, now they can have develope the American economy at an even lower cost and higher quality. Following the abandonment of the space shuttle, the Americans became dependent on the Russians as they had to launch their own astronauts from Baikonur Cosmodrome. This addiction is yielding secure money to the Russians, allowing them to control prices at will and block these launches in case of conflict. They can also ask for 70 million for a launch, which represents a good part of the 115 million that Russia pays annually to Kazakhstan to be able to use the Baikonur Cosmodrome (Ancafora, 2019).

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

SpaceX is able to overturn all this profit, guaranteeing to NASA, quality, innovation and low prices. According to Vance, this company plans to lower costs by up to 1/10 compared to any other competitor. In this way it will probably become the company that will launch most of the objects in the world. This would mean that individuals and large corporations would be more powerful than whole countries in the near future. According to this information, SpaceX seems to be perhaps the greatest threat to the Baikonur Cosmodrome, given that it is about to take away from that site the only quality that has allowed it to keep it active in the last 30 years. Elon Musk spoke at a conference, explaining how The American satellite company United Launch Alliance (ULA), used Russian machinery to launch its equipment from Baikonur. Musk at that conference made it clear to the government, of how ULA was spending exaggerated amounts compared to the much lower prices SpaceX could offer. This event resulted in the dismissal of the CEO of ULA, replacing the Russian suppliers with the American Blue Origin for the production of rockets (Vance, 2017). This may prove to be a very effective event for evaluating the distancing of American clients to Baikonur.

Fig.73: SpaceX reusable Falcon 9 rocket. Mike Killian, 2015

SpaceX presents itself as a threat not because it wants to undermine the Russian aerospace economy, rather because it is finding the answers to improve the American aerospace economy, not having to depend on a foreign country. It can therefore be considered that it is a mistake for the Russians to take advantage of an opportunity that was “temporary”, that is, to support themselves only thanks to the favors it did to other countries to carry out low cost launches. The economic recovery of Baikonur Cosmodrome must therefore develop its own independent economy, which at this point must be able to compete against the new giant SpaceX.

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

EURO SPACE CENTER

Hypothetical plans for the re-use of the abandoned sites of the Baikonu Cosmodrome, will be analysed through the search for examples of innovative space exploration structures. The place choosen is the Euro Space Center in Transinne, Belgium. This is the only space-themed park in Europe and has many interesting activities that can provide good functional ideas. The typical tour that is carried out by tourists is called “Spationaut Day”, offering these space themed activities: Moonwalk XP / Marswalk XP, SPACE FLIGHT UNIT, SPACE ROTOR, Free Fall Slide, Space Tour, Space Show, Planetarium, Mars Village, 5D Cinema (Euro Space Center, 2021). Fig.74: Mars model village, Euro Space Center

Fig.75: Euro Space Center Gravity activity

Fig.76: Euro Space Center VR Technology activity

Fig.77: Euro Space Center Gravity activity

Moonwalk XP / Marswalk XP: This experience allows to simulate a walk on the planet Mars or on the Moon, through special chairs that allow controlled suspension, able to simulate the gravitational effect. Through VR Technology, a visual device is worn that allows you to provide the image of the planet, experiencing a visual and physical simulation. The other activities offer centrifugal spinning machinery, extreme tilt slides and small-scale representations of Mars.

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

Euro Space Center

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of similar activities for the Baikonur Cosmodrome, given its extreme vastness, this thesis focuses on the area of the Buran Program complex, since it is the only area for which we have valid information of its abandonment.

Fig.78: Euro Space Center Shuttle interior model

Fig.79: Site 112a, authentic abandoned Shuttle Interior, Baikonur Cosmodrome.

Site 112a and the Energia Dynamic Test Facility, have features that can make these places much more real and attractive than the Euro Space Center. These two places are in fact completely authentic, and there would be no need to create replicas to show Shuttle or Rocket to passionate visitors. Most of the Euro Space Center attractions are in fact created specifically to cater to a space-themed park, while in the Buran Program area, visitors could enter places where the Soviets really invested hard work, money and aerospace experiments. . The two shuttles of site 112a and the rocket of the Energia Dynamic test facility, have been abandoned inside those hangars for 30 years. The experiences described by adventurers illegally infiltrated convey such an emotion as to be sure that being able to enter these places as tourists would be very successful.

The rest of the Cosmodrome, based on the information obtained, is currently active, and therefore the question of what will happen to the rest of the complex remains open. According to the circumstances analysed, in the case of the Russian abandonment, I think Kazakhstan can act in two directions. It can assess whether, through its economic, technological and scientific potential, it can really increase its role in space exploration and implement its own research and development plan at an international level. The second option, which could also be added to the first, is to be able to offer various countries and private space exploration agencies, to be able to offer the facilities of the Baikonur Cosmodrome (similar to the current Russian plan). Since Kazakhstan is not as financially powerful as Russia, China or the United States, it might consider developing a more modest space exploration plan and using only parts of the site, through its own forces and collaborations. For the rest of the structures, it could take advantage of the opportunity to revolutionise the tourist approach as seen in the proposal of the activities inspired by the Euro Space Center. This would finally break down the long barrier of a secret and inaccessible site, managing to maintain a good technological level of exploration, in a more inviting and transparent environment for visitors.

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

EURO SPACE CENTER - BELGIUM

Fig.80: Euro Space Center VR Technology activity for Marswalk simulation

Fig.81: Euro Space Center Rocket models

Fig.82: Euro Space Center, shuttle model

Fig.84: Energia Facility, authentic abandoned Rocket, Baikonur Cosmodrome

Fig.85: Authentic Shuttle, Baikonur Cosmodrome

BURAN COMPLEX - BAIKONUR COSMODROME

Fig.83: Site 112a, authentic abandoned Shuttle, Baikonur Cosmodrome

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

MOVING TO MARS

According to Justin McGuirk, there has been a real possibility of being able to send humans to Mars. McGuirk argues that this process is progressively influencing not only scientific and technological fields, but also the design project. It is necessary to develop a type of design that has functional priority, which guarantees the survival of the human being and specifically has the essential characteristics to maintain a psychological and physical balance (McGuirk, 2019). According to Eliseo, the conquest of Mars will be a kind of battle that will allow private pioneers to become as rich as an entire nation thanks to the mining of asteroids. It will probably become the most profitable business in the world. (Ancafora, 2018) Elon Musk’s SpaceX agency is currently the most active in the exploration and colonisation plan for Mars. However, not everyone thinks that the mission to set foot on Mars is all that important. According to astronomer Carl Sagan, the difficulty in carrying out this experience is extreme, very dangerous and exaggeratedly expensive. He then makes us reflect on the fact to imagine what we could be able to do if instead we invested this commitment and cost to planet earth (McGuirk, 2019). The main argument that Elon Musk justifies the will to colonise Mars, is that it will be planet B to save man from the future end of planet earth, which according to Musk will be very likely.

Fig.86: Colony of Mars under Plastic Domes, Chelsey Bonestell, 1963

According to Sagan’s thinking, this investment could allow us to improve and potentially save the place where we live. However, the fact remains that Sagan himself does not have a clear monetary estimate or a concrete plan that can demonstrate this. It seems that those who oppose the idea of investing in the exploration of Mars, have not yet sparked major debates or strong opposition to allow these investments to be re-evaluated. Although the project is designed for the Moon, the Lunark project created by SAGA Space Architects, represents an avant-garde design attempt. The group of young architects from the Danish studio designed and built the first experimental building to simulate the lunar living conditions. They experienced survival in this facility located in the extreme environment of the Artic region of Greenland, where they lived for a period of 3 months. According to Karl Johan Sorensen, one of the members of the study, the main purpose was to evaluate the most essential elements of which the human body needs under extreme conditions (Lunark, 2020).

CHAPTER 04 SPACE OPPORTUNITIES

Moving to Mars

These projects demonstrate a clear influence that “moving to mars” or generally in a space environment, is and will give to architecture, new concepts, new structural and technological systems. All this will certainly provide new measures that will also be useful for the development of architecture on our planet. Thanks to the large investment in the study of technologically advanced systems for homes on Mars, something will also prove useful for our future homes. The case of Lunark, not only influence the first concepts of an extraterrestrial design created by human beings, but above all influence the design on our planet. The example of Lunark helps to demonstrate that it is not so hostile to live in the North Pole, and that through a targeted and technologically advanced study, one can perhaps also live in places where man never thought was possible. Returning to the concept of Carl Sagan, there is perhaps a meeting point between those who have a strong desire to invest in Mars and those who think it is better to invest on planet earth. Going to Mars isn not feasible yet, but SpaceX and its collaboration with NASA and the US Federal Aviation Administration are providing good hope.

Fig.87: Moon Shelter Project, Lunark, Saga Space Architects, 2020

There will therefore be a need for launch ports, and as the multiplication of airports around the world has evolved, there may be a future need for launch ports scattered around the same concept. Baikonur clearly has all the needed features to accomodate future launches. Potentially this Cosmodrome could become a future launch pad for travelers to Mars. According to Ashlee Vance’s book, that’s exactly how SpaceX got started. In the Musk book, a three-hundred-acre test base located in McGregor, Texas is described. This base was abandoned following the bankruptcy of Andrew Beal’s aerospace company. The book describes the enthusiasm of the SpaceX designers in convincing Elon Musk to buy the place. The reason was that it had all the facilities necessary to develop each plan of the company, including a gigantic concrete tripod (Vance, 2017). This example is comparable to the conditions of a hypothetical future abandonment of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. There is therefore a possibility that such a place, could be useful. In fact, the need to have Cosmodromes scattered around the world would be greater and Baikonur could serve someone as well as McGregor.

OBSOLETE RUIN

OBSOLETE RUIN As we saw in the analysis in the first chapter, the Soviet years of Baikonur Cosmodrome or Leninsk as it was known then, are still obscured by secrecy. Even its geographical location was kept hidden with a “decoy” city constructed nearby in order to deceive. Astnishingly, this gigantic site was kept secret not only from the foreigners but also from the locals living nearby. Despite the locals being trated as foreigners in their own town, they clearly prosperred and benefited from the space industry. In the second part of the first chapter, we saw how the progress of graphic representations has evolved thanks to spectacular space successes, creating strong political messages thrue propaganda. It was surprising to discover that we still see old Soviet posters and names scattered across the city including references to Lenin and other polical leaders. Although only twelve posters were found to directly reference the city of Baikonur, the total number of such posters is difficult to estimate. Judging from the wealth of the archives which we are only beginning to be able to access, the overall number definitely runs into hundreds if not thousands. The power of those representations can not be emphasised enough as literally the eyes of the whole world were on the Soviet Space posters at the time. Fig.89: “Be proud, Soviet person! You’ve opened the way from the Earth to the stars!” Mikhail Solovliev, 1962

The analysis of historical events and the success of the Soviet poster graphics highlighted the importance of value that the Soviet Union attributed to the female role of the Space Program. Through the representations in the various posters depicting Valentina Tereshkova, the Soviet pride of sending the first woman into space can be seen. The gender equality was reaffirmed by the graphic representations of the inventor of the interior design of the space capsules, Galina Balashova. The second chapter, focused on the main causes of the decline of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. This step reminded the transition from Utopia to Dystopia, through the drastic crisis that hit the Cosmodrome since 1990. One of the major causes analysed was the dissolution of the Soviet Union, increased by the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Moreover, the comparison with the Kennedy Space Center allowed to better understanding the difference between the two sites. In the Kennedy’s case the place could maintain an economy independent of the spaceport’s activity. On the other hand, the Baikonur Cosmodrome allowed to isolate the place in itself, without the opportunity to create other types of business. This means that the citizens of Baikonur would have no economic alternatives in case the Cosmodrome completely stops working.

OBSOLETE RUIN

Another conclusion that has been drawn in the second chapter, analysed the relations between Russia and Kazakhstan, confirming that Russians are gradually leaving the Cosmodrome. This is given by the investment of the construction of the new Cosmodrome within the borders of Russia (Vostochny Cosmodrome). Putin has hailed this, as one of the most ambitious projects of the modern Russia, gaining its own Space Programme independence. The research showed the concern of those who live in Baikonur, testifying to the fact that the functioning of the city and the Cosmodrome, has always been functioning thanks to the Russians. Therefore, a hypothetical leave would worry about the fate of the place. In the third section of the second chapter, a comparison was made with the Chernobyl nuclear disaster and the military base of Juteborg, which are similar in their identity and historical path. The analysis of the nuclear disaster and the relative abandonment of Pripyat represented a dystopian reality. Through the comparison with the Baikonur Cosmodrome, it emerged that the abandonment of Pripyat was forced by nuclear radiation, while Baikonur, although it has recorded several disasters, does not present any factor that obliges its abandonment after the future leave of the Russians. Fig.90: “Glory to the workesrs of Soviet science and technology!”. Evgeny Soloviev, 1959

On the other hand, the analysis of the comparison with the abandonment of the former Soviet base of Juteborg, highlighted that while Juteborg would not have been essential for the Russians, Baikonur represented the only spaceport of the nation. This forced them to ask for the contractual concession to the Kazakhstan. The two comparisons have not totally ruled out the option of a possible post-2050 abandonment of Baikonur, but have allowed to state that there are no causes that impose future abandonment and that opportunities are available. In the propositional part of the thesis, we saw how rare urban explorers illegally entered in the Buran Programme Complex, showing the first information of an area that is certainly abandoned. Based on these photographs, a technical analysis was conducted aiming at reconstructing Site 112a and the Energia Dynamic Test Facility. The analysis was used to reconstruct the structural scheme, the lighting, and the general functioning, and allowed to model and represent the first technical drawings of these two buildings of the Cosmodrome. Through these photographs, the graphic concept was also addressed. Throughout the thesis, collage technique was used in order to help communicate the argument of the thesis visually.

OBSOLETE RUIN

Chapter 4 was characterised by the search for potential activities for the reuse of the site 112a and the Energia Test Facility. The most ambitious plans of space exploration were scrutinised, understanding what interest the future of Space Exploration. Researching potential opportunities for the site, the SpaceX agency was analysed, in finding opportunities for Baikonur. Rather then helping rejuvenate Baikonur, this agency is more likely to push it further into oblivion and make it irrelevant. SpaceX is increasingly conquering the flight market, thanks to the reduction of costs and the quality of their vehicles. Following the Soviet dissolution and the abandonment of the Buran Program, the only factor that kept Baikonur alive was the low-cost flight at the service of foreign companies. In the second part of the fourth chapter, the comparison between site 112a and the Energia Facility with the Euro Space Center in Belgium was analysed. The success of the Euro Space Center is characterised by imitations of shuttles, rockets and aeronautic settings. Instead, the Buran Program Complex have demonstrated the great potential characterised by the authenticity of each single element.

Fig.91: ‘Helicopter Over Mars’. Soviet Space Graphics. A. Pobedinsky, 1963.

This has proved to be a key element in increasing tourism and the accessibility, which would counteract the secret character that has always characterised the Cosmodrome. The last analysis of the colonisation plans of Mars, considered that investing efforts into colonising Mars may also help us with improving condition on earth too. This has been proven by the experiments of SAGA Space Architects, which have shown the attempt to create habit structures on uneven terrain and in harsh climates such as the polar regions. Thanks to real possibilities to colonise Mars, it has been hypothesised that the Baikonur Cosmodrome could meet the requirements to become one of the Space Ports to the red planet. Although it is very likely that Russia will not continue to use the Cosmodrome, being able to exploit tourist access will be a focal point for those interested in the history of technological evolution and space trave.

MAIN BIBLIOGRAPHY Book covers

Acanfora, E., 2019. Bajkonur, Terra

Cadbury, D., 2007. Space race

Jimenez, J., 2018. Spomeniks. 1st ed. Great Britain

Ellul, J., 1973. Propaganda

Leach, N., 2015. Space Architecture

Goeldner, C. and Ritchie, J., 2012

McGuirk, Nahum,Watson, 2019. Moving To Mars

Jowett, G. and O’Donnell, V., Propaganda & Persuasion

Sankova, A., 2020. Soviet Space Graphics

Jimenez, J., 2019. Baikonur. 1st ed. Jonglez

Taylor, R., 1979. Film Propaganda Vance, A., 2017. Elon Musk

BIBLIOGRAPHY Books and Articles

Acanfora, E., 2019. Bajkonur, Terra. Milano: ilSaggiatore. Anderson, C., 2019. Current Science Classroom: The New Space Race. The Science Teacher, 087(04). A. Koshim, A. Sergeyeva, K. Saparov, J. Wendt, 2019. Development of Scientific Tourism at Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 24(1), pp.262-274. Bespeka, V., 2019. USA propaganda in Cold War period: formation of the image of enemy in face of the USSR. Skhid, 0(6(164), pp.44-52. Boym, S., 2011. Off-Modern. Cadbury, D., 2007. Space race. New York: Harper Perennial. Chertok, B., 2006. Rockets and People. Creating a Rocket Industry, II. Cross, M., 2019. The social construction of the space race: then and now. International Affairs, 95(6), pp.1403-1421. Davis Cross, M., 2019. The social construction of the space race. Ellul, J., 1973. Propaganda. New York: Vintage Books. Erickson, A., 2018. Revisiting the U.S.-Soviet space race: Comparing two systems in their competition to land a man on the moon. Acta Astronautica, 148, pp.376-384. Goeldner, C. and Ritchie, J., 2012. Tourism. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Hutchinson Encyclopedia of Science 2005, Helicon Publishing, Abingdon. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [26 February 2021]. Jimenez, J., 2019. Baikonur. 1st ed. Jonglez. Jimenez, J., 2018. Spomeniks. 1st ed. Great Britain: Carpet Bombing Culture. Jowett, G. and O'Donnell, V., n.d. Propaganda & Persuasion. 7th ed. Sage. Kaczorowska, A., 2010. Public International Law. Milton: Taylor & Francis. Kopack, R., 2019. Rocket Wastelands in Kazakhstan: Scientific Authoritarianism and the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 109(2), pp.556-567. Leach, N., 2015. Space Architecture. McGuirk, J., Nahum, A. and Watson, E., 2019. Moving To Mars. 1st ed. London: The Design Museum. Muegge, S. and Reid, E., 2019. Elon Musk and SpaceX: A Case Study of Entrepreneuring as Emancipation. Technology Innovation Management Review, 9(8), pp.18-29. Nechesa, Ya., Cosmodrome Baikonur: Kratkie Svedeniya, Baikonur, 1993 Platt, C., Jason, M. and Sullivan, C., 2020. Public Perceptions of Private Space Initiatives: How Young Adults View the SpaceX Plan to Colonize Mars. Space Policy, 51, p.101358. Sankova, A., 2020. Soviet Space Graphics. 1st ed. London: Phaidon Press Limited. Taylor, R., 1979. Film Propaganda. 2nd ed. London: I.B Tauris. Tribe, J., 2011. The economics of recreation, leisure and tourism. 4th ed. Elsevier. Vance, A., 2017. Elon Musk. 1st ed. New York: Ecco. Vettel-Becker, P., 2020. Where no Woman has Gone Before: Femininity, Fashion Photography, and the Race for Space. Photography and Culture, 13(1), pp.83-105. Villain, J., 1996. A brief history of Baikonur. Space Policy, 12(2), pp.129-134.

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IMAGE REFERENCING THESIS COVER FIGURE 01

The Cover page was created through a collage that involved using the following images: _Kobanehko, B., 1979. Yuri Gagarin with Sergei Korolev, engineers and a representative Soviet politburo. [image] Available at: <https://www.flickr.com> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Viktorov, V., 1968. Space Docking Soyuz Station USSR Cosmos. [image] Available at: <https://www.antikbar.co.uk> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

ABSTRACT FIGURE 02

_1952. Saturn as seen from Titan. [image] Available at: <https://www.bonestell.org/Image-Gallery.aspx> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

INTRODUCTION FIGURE 03 FIGURE 04

_Adagamov, R., 2010. Site 250a mobile service tower. [image] Available at: <https://adagamov.info/3259344.html> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Berezovsky, B., 1963. Glory of the Space Heroes - Glory of the Soviet People!. [image].

CHAPTER 01 FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE 68

05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

_1963. “Our triumph in Space is the hymn to the Soviet Country!”. [image] Available at: <https://flashbak.com/61-sensational-soviet-space-posters-398905/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _ The map of the world showing present-day territory of Kazakhstan with propaganda style collage by the author. _Sorini, A., De Palo, G., 2019. Peddler of sifh and camel milk, Tyuratam. [image] Avaiable at: Acanfora, E., 2019. Bajkonur, Terra. Milano: ilSaggiatore. _Sorini, A., De Palo, G., 2019. Lonely mullah, Tyuratam. [image] Avaiable at: Acanfora, E., 2019. Bajkonur, Terra. Milano: ilSaggiatore. _Baikonur and Tyuratam Village map made by the author. _Akay Village map made by the author. _Baikonur site selective inventory, 1989. The diagram is made by the author. _Cosmodrome Triumphs Timeline, made by the author. _Cosmodrome Disasters Timeline, made by the author. _1957. The First Sputnik Passenger – the dog Laika. [image] _1963. Poster commemorating the space flight of Valentina Tereshkova. [image] Available at: <https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/nasa-social-movements/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Berezovski, B., 1961. Long live the son of the Communist party!. [image] Available at: <https://flashbak.com/61-sensational-soviet-space-posters-398905/> [Accessed 2 March 2021]. _Deev, A., 2017. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.it/maps/place/Baikonur,+Kazakhstan> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _2021. Monument to Lenin, Baikonur. [image] Available at: <https://www.advantour.com/kazakhstan/baikonur.htm> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _2013. Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin statue. [image] Available at: <http://baikonurfest.narod.ru/images/photos/big/2.jpg> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Sorene, P., 2018. 61 Sensational Soviet Space Posters. [image] Available at: <https://flashbak.com/61-sensational-soviet-space-posters-398905/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Sorene, P., 2018. 61 Sensational Soviet Space Posters. [image] Available at: <https://flashbak.com/61-sensational-soviet-space-posters-398905/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Deev, A., 2017. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.it/maps/place/Baikonur,+Kazakhstan> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Deev, A., 2017. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.it/maps/place/Baikonur,+Kazakhstan> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Baikonur. 1st ed. Jonglez. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Baikonur. 1st ed. Jonglez. _Sorini, A., De Palo, G., 2019. “Raise your head !!!”. Residential area Bajkonur city. [image] Avaiable at: Acanfora, E., 2019. Bajkonur, Terra. Milano: ilSaggiatore. _Carlier, S., 2006. Yuri Gagarin Poster. [image] Available at: <http://stefane.carlier.free.fr/Baikonur/wiki_EN/La_ville/index.html#DSCF1657_mod.jpg> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Balashova,G., 1974.Colour study for the living area of the Sojus-M spacecraft.[image]Available at:<http://kvadratinterwoven.com> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Balashova, G., 1980. Design for the cabinet of the space station Mir. [image] Available at: <http://kvadratinterwoven.com> [Accessed 20 February 2021].

CHAPTER 02 FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

_Antikbar Original Vintage Posters, 2017. USSR Soviet Propaganda Poster Anti USA. [image] Available at: <http://www.the-saleroom.com> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _2020. Kennedy Space Center. [image] Available at: <https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/info> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _2017. Energia Dynamic Test Facility and Site 112a. [image] Available at: <http://www.unexploredworld.ru> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Rubaoux, C., 2021. Space launch seen from Miami Beach. [image] Available at: <https://www.wuft.org/news/2016/06/24/atlas-rocket-launches-for-first-time-since-march-grounding/>[Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Available at: <https://russiatrek.org/blog/regions/the-construction-of-the-cosmodrome-vostochny/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _ Carlier, S., 1996. Abandoned building in Baikonur city. [image] Available at: <http://stefane.carlier.free.fr/Baikonur/wiki_EN/La_ville/index.html#DSCF4292.JPG> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _2021. Wild animals in the Cosmodrome. [image] Available at: <https://www.rbth.com> [Accessed 28 January 2021] _Savostyanov, S., 2018. Camels outside a Saturn-MS communication centre at the Baikonur Cosmodrome _n.d. Pripyat. [image] Available at: <http://sf.co.ua/id150442> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Richter, D., 2020. Post Office, Pripyat. [image] Available at: <https://www.anothermag.com/art-photography/12877/chernobyl-a-stalkers-guide-darmon-richter-book-fuel> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Deev, A., 2017. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.it/maps/place/Baikonur,+Kazakhstan> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _2021. [image] Available at: <http://blog.thecheaproute.com/chernobyl-pripyat-town-ukraine/ferris-wheel-pripyat-chernobyl/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Kindel, R., n.d. [image] Available at: <https://rebelhistorian.com/juterbog-soviet-abandoned/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Kindel, R., n.d. [image] Available at: <https://rebelhistorian.com/juterbog-soviet-abandoned/> [Accessed 20 February 2021].

CHAPTER 03 FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

_n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.deviantart.com/rthorvald/art/Spaceflight-Propaganda-128725741> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Vatolina, N., 1941. Don’t Blab. [image] Available at: <http://sovietposter.blogspot.com/2007/12/silence-is-gold.html> [Accessed 2 March 2021]. _Unexplored World, 2017. Cosmodrome adventurer. [image] Available at:<http://www.unexploredworld.ru/blog/1138?fbclid=IwAR0TnxOVngkfbcTittLr4xu7ROhMAorIKxYXaAD18JmIQK_X0LtmpFcBNL0>[Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Unexplored World, 2017. Cosmodrome adventurer. [image] Available at:<http://www.unexploredworld.ru/blog/1138?fbclid=IwAR0TnxOVngkfbcTittLr4xu7ROhMAorIKxYXaAD18JmIQK_X0LtmpFcBNL0>[Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Unexplored World, 2017. Cosmodrome adventurer. [image] Available at:<http://www.unexploredworld.ru/blog/1138?fbclid=IwAR0TnxOVngkfbcTittLr4xu7ROhMAorIKxYXaAD18JmIQK_X0LtmpFcBNL0>[Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Podniesinski, A., 2018. The Energia Launcher and Site 112a. [image] Available at: <https://www.podniesinski.pl/portal/forgotten-burans/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Site 112a, Baikonur Cosmodrome. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Orbiter K2-Ptichka from ground level. Site 112a. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Orbiter K2-Ptichka from ground level. Site 112a. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Orbiter K2-Ptichka from the central metal structure. Site 112a. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. View of the Walkways. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.foto-doehmer.com/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.foto-doehmer.com/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.foto-doehmer.com/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.foto-doehmer.com/> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Site 112a technical drawing made by the author. _Site 112a technical drawing made by the author. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Energia Dynamic Test Facility. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Energia Dynamic Test Facility. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Energia Dynamic Test Facility. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Zak, A., n.d. Eenrgia Dynamic Test Facility Opening Door System. [image] Available at: <http://www.russianspaceweb.com/baikonur_energia_112.html> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Energia Dynamic Test Facility. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. Energia Dynamic Test Facility. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

CHAPTER 03 FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE

67 68 69 70

_Energia _Energia _Collage _Collage

Dynamic test Facility technical drawing made by the author. Dynamic test Facility technical drawing made by the author. Poster Mde by the Author. Poster Mde by the Author.

CHAPTER 04 FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87

_1917. “October opened the road to space!”. [image] Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.com/here-are-the-soviets-extremely-intense-space-race-propaganda-posters> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Collage featuring Elon Musk made by the Author _Killian, M., 2015. SpaceX Falcon-9 booster with its landing legs. [image] Available at: <https://www.americaspace.com> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. 2020. [image] Available at: <https://focusonbelgium.be/en/lifestyle/reopening-euro-space-center> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://gems.campsinternational.com/all-trips/euro-space-camp-2/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. Jone, M., 2018. [image] Available at: <https://www.storytrender.com/50078/photographers-trek-through-desert-to-photograph-abandoned-space-shuttle/> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. n.d. [image] Available at: <https://www.eurospacecenter.be/en/stages/consult/1> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. _Jimenez, J., 2019. [image] Available at: <https://www.jonk-photography.com/en/le-monde-perdu/baikonour/> [Accessed 28 January 2021]. Bonestell, C., 1963. Colony on Mars Under Plastic Domes. [image] Available at: <https://www.bonestell.org/Image-Gallery.aspx> [Accessed 20 February 2021]. SAGA Space Architects, 2020. Moon Shelter Project. [image] Available at: <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article> [Accessed 12 February 2021].

CONCLUSION FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE

88 89 90 91

Sankova, A., 2020. Soviet Space Graphics. 1st ed. London: Phaidon Press Limited. Soloviev, M., 1962. Be proud, Soviet person! You’ve opened the way from the Earth to the stars!. [image] Available at: <https://www.rbth.com> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. Soloviev, E., 1959. Glory to the workesrs of Soviet science and technology!. [image] Available at: <https://www.wired.com> [Accessed 4 March 2021]. Pohedinsky, A., 1963. Helicopter Over Mars. [image]. Available at: Sankova, A., 2020. Soviet Space Graphics. 1st ed. London: Phaidon Press Limited.