I ns t i t ut eofManage me nt & Te c hni c alSt udi e s
HRM & ORGANI ZATI ON BEHAVI OUR
500
MBADUALSPECI ALI ZATI ON www. i mt s i ns t i t ut e . c om
IMTS (ISO 9001-2008 Internationally Certified)
HUMAN RESOURCE MANG. & ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR
HUMAN RESOURCE MGMT. & ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR
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HUMAN RESOURCE MGMT. & ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR
CONTENTS:-
UNIT I
01-57 Human resource management – objectives, scope, importance – evolution of
HRM – role of HR manager – challenges faced by HRM – trends in HRM – Indian scenario and HRM – strategic human resource management
UNIT II
58-94
Job analysis – components, process, job design – recruitment – sources, techniques, internet recruitment – employee testing and selection – types, effective interview – placement – induction
UNIT III
95-150
Training – importance – types of training – performance appraisal – objectives, process, methods – job evaluation, promotion – demotion – transfer – separation and implication of job change
UNIT IV
151-175
Compensation – factors determining pay rate – incentives – incentive plan, effective incentive plan – employee benefits and services – employee welfare, safety and health Unit- V
176-220
Meaning and definition of Organisational Behaviour (OB) – Scope and importance of OB – OB and other similar fields of studies – disciplines contributing to OB – Models of OB – historical evolution of OB – Hawthorne Experiments and its implications.
Unit- VI
221-271
Learning – meaning and definition – principles - theories – perception – process factors influencing perception.
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Unit – VII
272-300
Attitude – nature – functions - formation - changing attitude - personality - nature – types – theories.
Unit- VIII
301-337
Motivation – nature – theories, job satisfaction - causes - measuring of job satisfaction. Unit – IX
338-374
Group dynamics – nature - process of group formation - types - leadership - importance – styles
theories– workers participation in management – grievance handling –
redressal committees .
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Unit: 1 Human Resource / Capital Management INTRODUCTION
An organization is made up of four resources, namely men, material, money and machinery. Of these, the first one id living one, i.e. human resource and other three are non-living i.e.non human. It is the human/people that make use of non human resources. Hence, people are the most significant resources in an organization. It is man who makes all the difference in organizations. L.F.Urwick had remarked that “business houses are made or broken in the long run not by markets or capitals, patents or equipments, but by men”. According to Peter F.Drucker, “ man, of all the resources available to man, can grow and develop.”
The main objective of this Unit is to present a perspective for human capital management in the Indian context. Accordingly the meaning, objectives, scope and functions become the subject matter of this Unit. Before we define HRM, it seems pertinent to first define the term “human resources.” In common parlance, human resources mean people. OR Personnel means the persons employed. Personnel management is the management of people employed.
Organization may be a manufacturing firm, a business concern, an insurance company, a governmental agency, social organizations, hospital, a university and even families. It may be small or large, simple or complex. An Organization is a human grouping in which work is done for the accomplishment of some specific goals, or missions.
What do you mean by personnel management or define the term personnel management or write short notes on personnel management? Introduction:
1 + 1 makes an organisation i.e., where there are two or more persons there is in effect an organisation. The concept of organisation is its HR or people at work. HR have been defined as “from the national point of view, the knowledge skills creative abilities, talents, aptitudes and obtained in the population, where of form the individual enterprise point of view, they represent the total of the inherent abilities, acquired knowledge and skills as exemplified in the talents and aptitudes of its employees.
A human factor refers to “a whole consisting of interrelated, interdependent and interacting physiological. Psychological, sociological and ethical components. “The management traditions, sentiments and behaviour, they differ widely also as groups and are subject to many and varied influences. Peoples are responsive they feel, think and act
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therefore; they cannot be operated like a machine or shifted and altered like a template in a room layout. They therefore, need a tactful handling by management personnel.
Taking a look at this world of human beings is a rewarding experience. Contrasts abound in this world. Contrasts notwithstanding, one thing is certain – it is people who make an organization a success or allow it to be handed over to the board of industrial and financial reconstruction (BIFR). If HLL, INFOSYS, RIL, BAJAJ AUTO, ICICI have become star performers and HMT, mysore lamps, NGEC are on their way to the BFIR. It evidently shows how important human resources are to the life and health of the organization.
Who are these so-called patrons?
How to attract them?
How to retain them?
How to motivate them?
These questions need in-depth study and personnel management tries to study these and other related questions.Humanware
Orgoware
Infoware
Workers, supervisors, managers and other employees directly involved in the organization form ‘humanware’.
Materials, machine, money, infrastructure and organization together form ‘orgoware’
Knowledge, skill, technology etc,. Are covered by ‘infoware’
When we look at closely, both the orgoware and infoware heavily depends on human beings. We can see ‘n’ number of examples in this aspect.
“focus on people” is the main reason for the success of Japanese management. “as success today depends on “competitive advantage” of the organization, it is both obtained and sustained through knowledge and skill of its people”
Definition of personnel management or personnel administration or define the term personnel management or personnel administration or write short notes on personnel management or personnel administration:
“It is that phase of management which deals with the effective control and use of man power as distinguished from other sources of power”.
“The management of HR is viewed as a system in which participants week to attain both individual and group goal”. Its objective is to understand what has happened and is happening and to be prepared for what will happen in the area of working relationships between the management and managers personnel (or man power) administration is concerned with the managerial (plant, organization, stuff, direct and count) and operative (procurement, development, maintenance and utilization) functions with a view to
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attaining the organisation goals economically and effectively and meeting the individual and social goals.
“PM is the recruitment, selection, development, utilization of and accommodation to human resources by organizations. The HR of an organisation consist of all individuals regardless of their vote, who are engaged in any of the organizational activities”.
“The PM is the process of attracting, holding and motivating people involving all managers – line and staff”. (+) Group concept – Create Group relationships within an organisation, to enable each person to make his maximum personal contribution to the organisation as a member of the working group, to achieve these things through respect for human personality and the well being of the individual.
MEANING & DEFINITION OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Human Resource Management means: “The management of human resources is viewed as a system in which participants seeks to attain both individuals of group goals”.
If an analysis is made of this definition it will be seen that personnel management involves procedures and practices through which human resources are managed (i.e. organized and directed) towards the attainment of the individual, social and organizational goals. By controlling and effectively using manpower resources, management tries to produce goods and services for the society.
Definitions: a Human Resource Management involves all management decisions and practices that directly affect or influence the people, or human resources, who work for the Organization. An organization’s employees enable an Organization to achieve its goals, and the management of these human resources is critical to an organization’s success. 2b According to Process Systems View Human Resource Management means: “ Human Resource Management is the systematic planning, development, and control of a network of inter related process affecting and involving all members of an Organization”.
DEFINITIONS: “Human Resource Management effectively describes the process of planning and directing the application, development and utilization of human resources in employment” –Dale Yoder.
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“Human Resource Management is that part of management process which is primarily concerned with the human constituents of an organization”. – E.F.L.Brech. “The personal function is concerned with the procurement, development, compensation, integration and maintenance of the personnel of an organization for the purpose of contributing towards the accomplishment of that organization’s major goals or objectives” - Flippo “It is the field of management which has to do with planning, organizing, directing and controlling the various operative functions of procuring, developing, maintaining and utilizing a labour force for the attainment of the company’s objectives”- Prof. Jucius “It is that part of the management function which is concerned with people at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring together and develop into an effective organization of the men and women who make up an enterprise and having regard to the well-being of an individual and of working groups, to enable to make their best contribution to its success” – The British Institute of Personal Management.
Key Terms used in this definition: Process: Process is an identifiable flow of interrelated events moving towards some goal, consequence and end. An example of the human resource management is the staffing process, a flow of events that results in the continuous filling of positions within the Organization. These events include such activities as recruiting applicants, making hiring decisions, and managing career transitions such as transfers and promotions. Flow: Flow implies movement through time and in the direction of a result; Inter-related: implies interaction within the process and between events; Goal and Consequence (Purpose): suggest a human objective; Events: are activities, happenings or change; End: implies some conclusion or consequence that may not necessarily be sought or planned by man.
System: System is a particular set of procedures or devices designed to control a process in a predictable way. For e.g. Staffing System of an Organization.
As a process it includes: Human Resource Planning; Job and Work Design; Staffing; Training and Development; Performance Appraisal and Review;
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Compensation and Reward; Employee protection and representation; Organization Improvement. “Human Resource Management is the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organizational and societal objectives are accomplished". Edward Flippo This definition is a comprehensive and covers both the management functions and the operative functions. The purpose of all these functions is to assist in the accomplishment of basic objectives.
General Definition: “Personnel Management is the recruitment, selection, development, utilization of and accommodation to human resources by organizations. The human resources of an organization consists of all individuals regardless of their role, who are engaged in any of the organizations activities”.
Three aspects of Human Resource Management: Welfare Aspect: concerned with working conditions and amenities such as canteens, crèches, housing, personal problems of workers, schools and recreations; Labor or Personnel Aspect: concerned with recruitment, placement of employees, remuneration, promotion, incentives, productivity etc.; Industrial Relations Aspect: concerned with trade union negotiations, settlement of industrial disputes, joint consultation and collective bargaining. Difference between Personnel Management and Human Resource Management Dimensions
PM
HRM
Nature of relations
Pluralist
Unitarist or neo-unitarist
Perception of conflict
Conflict is
Conflict is pathological
institutionalized Contract
Emphasis on compliance
Beyond contract commitment
Role of procedures
Rules dominated
Culture and values dominated
Planning perspective
Adhoc, reactive
Integrated, proactive
Acceptability of
Acceptable
Non desirable
Low
High
unions Level of trust
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Key relation
Labour management
Customer
Management’s Role
Transactional
Transformational
Basis of job design
Division of labour
Teams
Key people
PM/IR specialist
Line people and general mangers
Skills acquisition
Training and
Learning Organization
Development Reward
Standardized job
Management
evaluation
Performance related
Characteristics of Human Resource Management 1. Human Resource Management is concerned with managing people at work. It covers all levels of personnel, including blue collared employees and white collared employees; 2. It is concerned with employees, both as individuals as well as group; 3. Human Resource Management is concerned with helping the employees to develop their potentialities and capacities to the maximum possible extent, so that they may derive great satisfaction from their jobs; 4. It is a major part of the general management function and has roots and branches extending throughout and beyond each Organization; 5. Human Resource Management is of a continuous nature; 6. Human Resource Management attempts at getting the willing co-operation of the people for the attainment of the desired goals.
HRM can be of full value to an Organization only when it is consistently throughout out and applied at all levels and to all management functions; in corporate policies, in the systems, procedures and in employment practices, etc. this integrative aspect of HRM is, therefore, of vital importance.
Employee Relations
Personnel Administration HRM
Industrial Relations
Fig, 1
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EXPLAIN
7
THE
PECULIAR
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
HUMAN
RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT? NATURE / CHARACTERISTICS /FEATURES 1. Integral part of management: Human Resource Management is inherent in the process of management. This function is performed by all the managers’ throughout the organization rather than by the personnel department only. If a manager is to get the best of his people, he must undertake the basic responsibility of selecting people who will work under him. He must also take interest in training and motivating the employees and of appraising their performance for improving their quality. 2. Pervasive Function: Personnel Management is a pervasive function of management. It is performed by all managers at various levels in the organization. Every manager from managing director to the foreman is required to perform the personnel function on a continuous basis. It is not a responsibility that a manager can leave completely to someone else. However, he may secure advice and help in managing people from expects who have special competence in personal management and industrial relations. 3. It is universally relevant: Human Resource Management is relevant not just for a business organization alone. It has universal relevance. Effective management of the human resource is a task to be performed right from the household level to a government. The very fact that the Govt. of India has created a separate ministry called the ‘ministry of Human Resource Management’ proves this point. 4. It is goal-oriented: The goal of Human Resource Management is to make the best use of the available manpower resource of the organization. Only then it will be possible to achieve the ultimate goal of the organization, i.e., the targeted level of projects in the case of a business organization. 5. Systematic Approach in handling the manpower resource: Human Resource Management lays emphasis on a systematic approach to the task of managing the human resources of an organization. This is done by the performance of two sets of functions i.e. managerial function and operations functions. 6. On-going Activity: Human Resource Management is not something that is required only at a particular pout of time. It is a continuous affair. As long as manpower resource is needed in any place, the importance of its management will be felt 7. Development of manpower resource: Human Resource Development is part of Human Resource Management. Development of the manpower resource through training programmes is as important as its
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procurement needless to say, in an organization it is only the Human Resource that be trained to acquire greater skills. 8. It is a science as well as an Art: The subject Human Resource Management is both science and art. As a social science, it relies on experiments and observations for the sake of making inferences. As an art, it calls for certain special skills on the part of the manger for the effective handling of the manpower resource. 9. Relatively new: When compared with subjects like psychology, sociology, economics, marketing, financial management etc. Human Resource Management is relatively a new subject. It was once popularly known by the name personnel management. After it became Human Resource Management, its scope widened.
Objectives of Human Resource Management Objectives are pre-determined ends or goals at which individual or group activity in an Organization is aimed. Objectives can be divided in to two parts: Primary Objectives: HRM’s main goal is the creation of a workforce with the ability and motivation to accomplish the basic organizational goals; They relate to the satisfaction of the personal objectives of the members of an Organization through monetary and non monetary devices; They relate to the satisfaction of community and social objectives, such as serving the customers honestly, promoting a higher standard of living in the community, bringing comfort and happiness to the society, protecting women and children and providing for aged personnel; To utilize human resource effectively; To establish and maintain a productive and self respecting relationship among all members of an Organization; To establish and maintain an adequate organizational structure;
To bring about maximum individual development of the members of an Organization;
to maintain a high morale and better human relations inside an Organization by sustaining and improving the conditions which have been established so that employees may stick to their jobs for a longer period;
Secondary Objectives: The secondary objectives aim at achieving the primary objectives economically, efficiently and effectively.
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Objectives of Human Resource Management: 1. To make an optimum utilization of the human resource of the organization: By this we mean that every that every individual in the enterprise shall work to his potentials only then the amount spent on human resource will be justified.
2. To ensure that the organization has the required number staff: The objective here is to do away with the problem of both surplus and shortage of labour. Surplus labour would mean higher labour cost and inefficiency. Shortage of labour would mean that the organization is ill-equipped to cope with the volume of work. 3. To establish and maintain a sound organization structure: Human Resource Management aims at dividing the organization tasks into different functions, jobs and positions. The authority and responsibility associated with each such position is clearly defined. 4. To reconcile and organizational goals: There is often a clash between individual goal and organizational goal. Human Resource Management aims at integrating personal and organizational goals guiding the employees to work with a sense of involvement, commitment and loyalty towards the enterprise. 5. To provide scope for the development of personnel: Human Resource Management provides scope for the employees to enrich their job knowledge and skill by undergoing relevant training progrmmes. Employees need to update themselves in tune with requirements.
6. To ensure that the employees have higher job satisfaction: Human Resource Management ensures a higher level of jobs satisfaction among employees by providing them the kind of work environment that is equitable remuneration and social security benefits like provident fund, quality, insurance etc. 7. To provide scope of participation in decision making: Under Human Resource Management, employees are involved in the process of division -making. The decisions binding on employees are made with their participation. In other words, management does not take unilateral decisions. As employees are involved in decision – making, they extend their support to the implementation of any decision and do not show resistance. Functions of Human Resource Management According to different authors HRM functions can be divided in to different categories. Some of the categories are as follows: 1. General and Specific functions; 2. Personnel administration and Industrial relations functions. 3. Managerial and Operative functions
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General and Specific functions: General Functions: To conduct personnel research; To assist in the programmes of personnel administration; To develop appraisal plans; To launch education and training programmes; To develop a competent work force; To establish and administer varied personnel services delegated to personnel department. Specific Functions: Employment; Safety; Wage and salary; Benefit Schemes; Community relations and Advice and counseling the employees.
Personnel Administration and Industrial Relations Functions:
Personnel Administration: These functions relate to the function of managing people from the lower to the upper level of the Organization and embraces policy determination as well as implementation of policies by the personnel at the lower levels;
Industrial Relations Functions: These functions relate to interactions between the management and the representatives of the unions. Such functions involve all activities of employer employee relationship, such as Organization of the union members, negotiations of contracts, collective bargaining, grievance handling, disciplinary actions, arbitration etc- the purpose of all these being to prevent conflict between two parties.
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Managerial and Operative Functions; Managerial Functions: Management is Personnel administration. It is the development of the people and not the direction of the things. Managing people is the heart and essence of being a manager. Thus, a Human Resource Manager is a manager and as such he performs the basic functions of management.
Directing
Inputs
Planning
Organizing
Human and Economic Resources interacting with environmental changes
Determinatio
Development
n of short to
of the Orgn.
long range
Structure
plans to
according to
accomplish
predetermine
Organization
d plans
Stimulation and motivation of Organization personnel according to predetermined plans
objectives
Controlling Assurance that directed action is taking place according to predetermined plans.
Outputs Goods and services needed by the organization customers
Feedback of significant deviations from planned performance (Managerial Functions) Fig: 2 Operative Functions: These functions are concerned with the activities specifically dealing with procuring, developing, compensating and maintaining an efficient work force. These functions are also known as service functions. Procurement Function; Development function; Compensating function; Integrating function; Maintenance function.
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Managerial Functions: Planning: Is a predetermined course of action. Planning is a hard job, for it involves the ability to think, to predict, to analyze and to control the actions of its personnel and to cope with a complex, dynamic fluid environment. They bridge the gap from where we are to where we want to go. The two important features of planning are research and forecasting. The task of forecasting personnel needs in relation to changes in production or seasonal variations and the leveling out of differences in the production extremely important, both for employees and for management. Therefore, planning and decision making has to be undertaken much in advance of an action so that unforeseen or anticipated problems and events may be properly handled. This as also stressed by the saying: “ Good managers make things happen”. Organizing:
An Organization is a means to an end. It is essential to carry out the
determined course of action. Complex relationships exist between the specialized departments and the general departments as many top managers are seeking the advice of personnel manager. Thus, Organization establishes relationship among the employees so that they can collectively contribute to the attainment of company goals. Directing: Direction is an important managerial function in building sound industrial relations besides securing employee contributions. Co-ordination deals with the task of blending efforts in order to ensure successful attainment of an objective. The personnel manager has to coordinate various managers at different levels as far as personnel functions are concerned. Personnel management function should also be coordinated with other functions of management like management of money, machine, and material. Controlling: Controlling involves checking, verifying and comparing of the actualize with the standards, identification of deviations if any and correcting of identified deviations. Thus, action and operation are adjusted to predetermined plans and standards through control.
Fig. 3: Functions of Personnel Office/ Personnel Management.
Functions of Personnel Office
Managerial Functions
Planning Organizing
Directing
Operative Functions
Controlling
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Employment HRD
Compensation
Human Relations, Placement.
H R P; Performance- Job Evaluation; Motivation; Recruitment; Appraisal; Selection;
Training;
Induction;
Mgmt. Dev.
Wage & Salary
Morale;
Quality- Circles. Orgn.Change & Dev. Fringe Benefits.
Career
Planning
Operative Functions: The operative functions of human Resource Management are related to specific activities of personnel management e.g. employment, development, compensation & Relations. All these functions are interacted by managerial functions. Employment: Employment is concerned with securing and employing the people possessing required kind and level of human resources necessary to achieve the organizational objectives. It covers the functions such as job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction and internal mobility. Human Resource Development: It is the process of improving, molding and changing the skills, knowledge, creative ability, aptitude, attitude, values, commitment etc. based on present and future job and organizational requirements. This function includes Performance Appraisal, Training, Management Development, Career Planning and Development, Internal Mobility (Promotion, Demotion), Organizational Development. Compensation: It is the process of providing adequate, equitable and fair remuneration to the employees. It includes job evaluation, wage and salary administration, incentives, bonus, fringe benefits, social security measures etc. Human Relations: Practicing various human resource policies and programmes Loire employment, development and compensation and interaction among employees create a sense of relationship between the individual worker and management, among workers and trade unions and management. It is the process of interaction among human beings. Human relations is an area of management in integrating people in to work situation in a way that motivates them to work together productively, cooperatively and with economic, psychological and social satisfaction. Human Resource Management Environment HR manager can’t perform his job in a vacuum as a number of environmental factors affect the HRM. In fact, these factors influence the Organization through human resources. Environment (with special reference to Human Resource Management): means the totality of all factors, which influence both the Organization and HRM sub system.
Fig. 4: Environmental Scanning of HRM
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Technological Marketing
Government & Legal
Customers
Orgn. Politics
HRM
Production
Political
Trade
Unions
Finance
Orgn. Structure
Economic
Social & Religious
The environment furnishes the macro context and the Organization is the micro unit. The external environment is comprised of those factors, which affect an organization’s human resources from outside the Organization. Important among them are:
Economic;
Social;
Political;
Governmental;
Legal;
Technological;
Manpower in the country;
Tradition and culture;
Customers;
Other organizations;
Trade Unions in other organizations.
Internal Environment: The internal environment also affects the job of a personnel manager. The internal environmental factors include Organization objectives, policies, organizational structure, and the functional areas of the Organization with which the personnel manager works continuously like finance, marketing and production. Impact of internal environment factors is profound as they frequently and closely interact with HRM function in an Organization.
External Environment: The influence of external environment on HRM is also equally important, though the severity is comparatively less. People are essentially self-managing. In other words, while people manage other resources, themselves manage personnel. People themselves decide
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about the nature, time, and place of their employment. And people react to the changing conditions and to the techniques of management unlike money, material and machine. The changes includes in the external environment are:
Technological obsolescence;
Cultural and social changes;
Changes in the policies of govt.;
Politics and the like.
With the result, the work environment changes thereby affecting their productivity level.
Considering the complexities and the challenges in the HRM now and in near future management has to develop sophisticated techniques and efficient specialists to among the personnel on sound lines
Functional Areas/ Scope of Human Resource Management 1. Organizational planning, development and task specification; 2. Staffing and Employment; 3. Training and Development; 4. Compensation, Wage and Salary administration; 5. Motivation and Incentives; 6. Employee services and Benefits; 7. Employee records; 8. Labor and Industrial Relations; 9. Personnel Research and Personnel Audit.
EXPLAIN THE SCOPE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT: 1. Recruitment, selection and job determination for the employees. 2. To adopt suitable wage system. 3. Education and training of employees. 4. Job analysis, job distribution and job evaluation 5. Labour welfare activities. 6. Personnel accounts 7. Public relations 8. Personnel planning and education.
SCOPE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: 1. Welfare Aspects of Employees:
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Functions associated with the welfare aspect of labour are connected with the conditions of work and the amenities such as provision of canteens, crèches, housing, transport, medical, education, recreational and cultural facilities and health and safety provisions. The personnel manger must be fully conversant wish the provisions of the Factories Act, 1948 and other labour laws Minimum Wages Act, ESI Act, Maternity Act etc. 2. Personnel Aspect of Employees: Functions associated with the labour or personnel aspect include activities concerned with manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction, promotion, transfer, demotion, separation, lay-out, retrenchment, training and development, wages and salary, administration etc.,
3. Industrial Relational Aspects of employees: Industrial or labour relations aspect is concerned with the company’s relations with the employees as a group and includes union management relations, joint consultation, negotiating and collective bargaining processes, discretionary action, grievance handling and settlement etc. The reorganization of human values as the basis of personnel management helps in achieving and maintaining good industrial relations.
Dale Yoder has specified the scope of Human Resource Management in terms of the following functions.
Management policy: organizational
relationship
Setting general and specific management policy for and
establishing
and
maintaining
a
reliable
organization for leadership and cooperation.
Employees Development: Collective bargaining, contract negotiation, contract administration and grievance handling.
Staffing the organization: Staffing the organization, finding, getting and handling prescribed types and number of workers.
Motivation of Employees: Adding in the self-development of employees at all levels providing opportunities for personal development and growth as used as for acquiring requisite skills and expensive.
Incentives to Employees: Developing and maintaining motivation for workers by providing incentives.
Role of manpower: Receiving and auditing manpower management in the organization.
Industrial Research: Industrial relations research carrying out studies designed to explain employees behaviour and thereby affecting improvements in manpower management.
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EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: 1. Social Significance: a. Maintaining the gap between job available and job seekers according to their qualification b. Providing suitable environment and psychological satisfaction. c.
Maximum utilization resources
d. Eliminate waste or improper use of HR e. Helping people make their own decisions that are in their interest. 2. Professional significance: By providing a healthy working environment it promotes team work in the employees. This it does by a. Maintaining the dignity of the employee as a human being b. Providing maximum opportunities for personal development c.
Provides healthy relationship between different workgroups
d. Improving the employee’s working skill and capacity. e. Correct the work errors of wrong posting and proper reallocation of work. 3. Significance for individual enterprises: a. Creating positive attitude among the employees through effective motivation. b. Utilizing effectively the available HR c.
Securing willing co-operation of the employees for achieving goals of the enterprise and fulfilling their own social and other psychological needs of recognition, love, affection, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization. Employee capabilities must continuously be acquired; sharpened and used any
organisation will provide proper HRM. a. To improve the capabilities of an individual b. To develop team sprit of an individual and the department c.
To obtain necessary co-operation from the employees to promote organizational effectiveness.
Importance / Essentials of Human Resource Management: 1. It helps the organization to identify correctly its manpower needs: The manpower needs of an organizational will have to be correctly determined. As amount spent on human resource is deemed an investment, it is necessary to determine the number of men required for doing the various jobs in the enterprise accurately so that investment in human resource will be at the optimum level. 2. It ensures that the organization does not suffer from either surplus or shortage of manpower: It is further important that the number of persons employed in the organization at any given point of time should neither be more or less than what is actually required. Human
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Resource Management helps to do away with the problem of both surplus and shortage of labour. 3. It facilitates the selection of the right man for the right job: Human Resource Management ensures the selection of the right man for the right job. It recognizes the fact that if a candidate is overqualified for the job, he will not have a positive attitude towards work and on the other hand, if he is under qualified, he cannot carry out the task assigned. 4. It focuses attention on the development of the skill of every individual in order to make him up-to-date: Every person in the workplace has to update his knowledge and skill in tune with the development in work methods. Human Resource Management takes note of the fact that a person who does not update himself will become outdated. 5. It recognizes the need for the appraisal of employee’s performance: Performance appraisal is an in integral part of Human Resource Management unless the performance of the employees is periodically reviewed; it will not be possible for the employer to know their level of efficiency. 6. It considers the need to provide incentives to the employees performing well: Employees, who are very good in their work, need inducement in the form of incentives. These incentives may be financial as well as non-financial. Human Resource Management does recognize the fact that if good workers are not suitably rewarded, they may lose interest in their work. 7. It gives utmost importance to securing a favorable employee attitude: The attitude of the employees towards work is a crucial factor determining performance. Human Resource Management makes an earnest attempt to secure a favorable employees attitude. This is done by providing the employees with proper working environment. Counseling is provided to those employees who undergo stress. 8. It emphases the need for good human relation in every workplace: Human Resource Management places emphasis on cordial human relations. Conflicts are unavoidable in a workplace. But such conflicts shall not be allowed to damage inter-personnel relationships. 9. It provides scope for collective bargaining: The employer shall encourage the employees to form a union the workplace. This will give the employees the benefit of collective bargaining. In the absence of such a union, if any individual has certain grievances, he may find it difficult to represent the same to the management in his personal capacity.
Explain the basis or concept of personnel management: a. Managing people to “Rank and file employees at work�. Blue collared (craftsmen, foremen, operatives and labourers) and white collared employees (professional, technical
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and kindered workers, marketers, officials, proprietors, clerical workers and sales workers) b. Group and individual co-ordination, make them to involve in a group. c.
Helping the employees to develop their potentialities and capabilities to the maximum possible extent, so that they may derive great satisfaction from their job.
d. Recruitment selection and accommodate them. e. It is like water from a faucet continuous nature. f.
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT attempts at getting the willing co-operation of the people for the attainment of the desired goal, “esprit de crops”.
EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGY USED FOR PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT : Different terms such as ‘personnel or staff management, ‘personnel administration’, labour management, employee relations, manpower management, individual relations etc, have been used interchangeably. This phrase ‘staff executive’ in charge of PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT personnel administration has been variously designated, reflecting changes, in status and functions, executives designated as personnel officer, personnel director, personnel man, personnel executive, staff and personnel manager, employment manager, labour welfare officer, labour liaison officer, labour officer or chief industrial relations officer. In India he is called ‘LWO’ personnel officer, Empl. Relation officer, ERO and so on.
EVOLUTION OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT:
th
Development of scientific management and social awakening at the end of 19 century
were the main causes of growth of personnel management. Personnel management was th
originated in U.S.A at the end of 19 century.
The term is popular, by the name labour welfare, labour management, and industrial
relations. 1. Early philosophy (Before 1900): Robert Owen 1813 – he wrote book – a new view of society – stressed upon IR, Improvement of working conditions, operative labour management – they treat personnel management as a science. The view of Owen is wage incentives and labour welfare very slow progress only.
2. Efficiency and productivity movement (1900 – 1920) These two decades, scientific management movement, development of labour unions and the establishment of industrial corporations etc., size of industrial units increased – technology of job analysis, job evaluation, merit ranking and standard costing were adopted. Though of F. W. Taylor scientific management was greatly accepted.
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3. Period of welfarism and Industrial Psychology (1920 – 1930) Up to 1925 personnel management is a staff line activity – many units scientific management was apposed by workers – because of this industrial psychology was developed. This is helped in the development of many new technologies such as psychological tests, scientific interview, and training on scientific basis; non-financial incentives personnel management becomes profession here.
4. Period of human relations in industries (1930 – 50) Prof. Elton Mayo – Hawthorne experiments – find HR and important they increase the production than any other physical resources. The experiment proved that the workers treated as human being. The social, psychological and moral feelings of workers are identified – fast development of personnel management many new technologies in selection, training trade union in flourished and good working conditions were provided.
5. Modern period (From 1950 up to current time) Personnel management becomes profession – new consents like behavioural science and social system. The concept of industrial democracy has been adopted. Large number of industrial houses is welcomed – new responsibilities upon personnel management are assigned. Personnel management is wider and wider.
The development of personnel management occurred due to the unsatisfactory recruitment policies and labour dissatisfaction. 1. In 1920 – Industrial disputes arises – producers and the government – recognised trade unions – many great industrialists appointed labour officers and took interests in labour welfare works. 2. In 1931 – When royal commission on labour recommended the appointment of labour officers to take care the recruitment and settle the grievances. 3. In 1934 – Bombay industrial development settlement act was passed under this act ‘LWO’ appointed whom responsible for the settlement of labour disputes. 4. In 1939 – ‘Government Labour commission, recommended the appointment of labour officers, a few labour acts were passed, to regulate the working hours of labour and the improvement in their working conditions.
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5. In 1941 – A tripartite labour conference was held in which the representative of workers, producers and government took part, object is implement the labour rules for the settlement of disputes and to advice a system for industrial cases. 6. After independence – Several laws were enacted, 1948 – factories act, 1946 – Central Labour Investigation committee, this act made it compulsory that a ‘LOW’ show appointed in every factory employing 500 or more workers. 7. The government made wide ranging plans like improving the training, institutes were started, a. Xavier institute of labour relations (XLRI) b. Indian institute of personnel administration, Calcutta c.
Indian Labour Management institute Bombay
d. Institute of Industrial Relation – Bangalore, e. Federation of all India Labour Welfare Office, Delhi f.
National Productivity Councils, Delhi.
EVOLUTION OF HRM The philosophy of managing human being as a concept was found developed in ancient literatures in general and in India philosophy in particular. Till 1930’s it was not felt necessary to have a separate discipline of management called personnel mamagement. Infact, this job was assigned as part of the factory manager. Since 1930’s Certain developments took place which greatly contributed to the evolution & growth of HRM. These developments are given below.
Scientific Management Labour Movements. Government Regulations.
CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Period
Concept/Development
Impact
Upto 1900
Nine inventions(1780)
Technological devt, Mass production concept, prosperity to employers Misery to employees.
Industrial Revolution (1870)
1900-1940
Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor USA –1911
Universal Impact, Scientific approach on standards, work strudy, productivity, human
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engineering etc.
1940-1970
Industrial psychology by HugoMusterbeemg USA-1913
Emphasis on morale, motivation, working environment, etc. Extrinsic & Intrinsic motivation and Human relations.
Hawthorne studies by prof. Elton Mayo(1932)
Emphsis on feeling, attitude & sentiments of workers, stress on emotions rather than logic, Approved shifted from scientific to human relation.
Improved recruitment selection, and testing methods. Management development programme. Behavioural approach,Motivation Theories of Maslow Herzberg Mc Greger & Others
Experience from war & Training.
Improved recruitment, selection and testing methods. Management devlopment programme.
Modern ERA after 1970
Innovation & creativity Human capital Empowerment.
Focus on employees & overall development and satisfaction of unique expectation. Human capital is more important than finance capital & market standing Improvement is promoted through development of competence, interest & commitments.
CONTRIBUTION OF LABOUR MOVEMENTS Period
year
Major events.
Upto 1900
1890
Bombay mill association was formed in india.
1900-1940
1935-40
Sport of activities of trade union movements in India.
1940-70
1940
Resignation of congress govt. on protest of war efforts. Strikes and lockouts and Labour unrest due to reign of terror unleashed
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by British Govt. on Indian Lobours.
1940-45
Second world war period, achieved some of the labour’s long standing demands like DA, adjudication Machinery etc. All types of employees including Govt servants form union.
1948 Reversal of trend in which employees exploited the employers. Because of outside influence, union become pawns in the hands of political parties. Weakness due to multiple unionism to exploit unity.
Modern period
CONTRIBUTIONS BY GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS
WRITE SHORT NOTES ON - EVOLUTION STAGES – PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT : 1. Industrial revolution era – relationship between employer and employee is stated as – ‘Slawer”, “Guild system” “serflom” 2. Era of trade unionism 3. Era of social responsibility feeling – Robert Owen – 1913 4. Scientific management era – 1900 – 1930 (1856 – 1955) 5. Industrial psychological era. 6. The behavioural era – 1955 (Abraham maslow – 1954 – motivation theory) 7. Personnel specialist and welfare era.
PERIOD
YEAR
CONTRIBUTIONS
1900-40
1926
Indian TU Act protected TU activists.
1931
Royal commission of Labour in India. Made recommandation on hire, wages, working hours prohibition of child labour
1940-1970
1948 1952 1956
Modern period after 1970
1976 1975 1976 1976
Employees state insurance act Employees provident fund act Industrial dispute act
Factories act Payment of wages act Equal remuneration act Workers compensation act.
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ROLE OF HR PRACTITIONER / MANAGER The coordination and integration of activities in an organization just not happen, it has to be worked out. People tend to head off in different directions- to go their own sweet way. They will jot necessarily cooperate with one another. Thus, to begin with, the HR manager should have three main objectives in mind: 1. To gain the commitment and cooperation of all the members in his work group; 2. To get the group into action to achieve agreed objectives; 3. To make the best use of the skills, energies and talents of all the members.
In the modern era, the personnel manager typically performs a variety of the roles, such as a role of a conscience, of a counselor, a mediator, a company spokesman, a problem solver and a change agent. He performs many roles as per needs of the situation. Such as: 4. The conscience role is that of humanitarian who reminds the management of its moral and ethical obligations to its employees; 5. The personnel manager plays the role of a counselor to whom the employees frequently go for consultation and with whom they discuss their marital, health, mental, physical and career problems; 6. As a mediator, he plays the role of a peacemaker, offering to settle the disputes that may arise among individuals or groups. He acts a liaison and communicating link between an individual and a group and between labour and management; 7. The personnel a manger has always been a frequent spokesman for or representative of the company because he has a better overall picture of his company’s operation, since he deals intimately with many key organizational activities and functions; 8. The personnel manager also acts as a problem solver with respect to the issues that involves human resources management and overall long range organizational planning; 9. He works as a change agent within the organization because he is best suited to introduce and implement major institutional changes. He takes initiative for installing organizational development programmes and convinces the top management of their need. It is he who alerts the top management regarding managerial obsolescence in his organization; 10. The personnel manager plays many other roles as well. Any matter which need someone’s attention and which no body wants to deal with is, often handled by the personnel department. Such activities may be peripheral but important and crucial to the efficient and effective operation of an organization. It has been now fully recognized that the basic role of the personnel manager if “the management of the manpower resources.” Such management is concerned with “leadership” both in-group and individual relationship, and labour management relations. It effectively describes the process of planning, and directing the application, development and
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utilization is now considered as one of the four main functions, viz. finance, production, marketing, and human relations. The ideal personnel manager is not a “decision maker” but a counselor not “collector of responsibilities” but an “advisor” to help the management make more reliable personnel decisions. In any organization it is these “line man” who determine the “personnel climate” for the entire organization. If the personnel man can meet the challenge of “staff role” he would make the effective contribution to industry.
Personnel Role
Welfare Role
Advisory:
advising
Research
in
on
personnel
and
management
effective use of human
organizational
resources
problems
Manpower
Administrative Role
Fire Fighting/Legal Role
Time keeping
Grievance handling
planning:
Managing services-
Salary
Recruitment, selection
canteens, transport
administration
etc.
etc.
Training development
of
and
Group
dynamics:
line
group
counseling,
man
and
wage
Settlement of disputes
Human engineering: man
Handling
disciplinary
machine relationship
actions
-
-
Collective bargaining
-
-
Joint consultation
motivation, leadership, communication etc.
Measurement
and
assessment individual
of
and
group
behavior -
Table 2 WHAT ARE ALL THE QUALITIES REQUIRED BY THE PERSONNEL MANAGER: 1.
Philosophy, which seeks for the underlying explanations of human nature of conduct.
2.
Ethics, which is concerned with moral and value judgements.
3.
Logic, which concerned with the rules and principles of reasoning.
4.
Mathematics, which tells the exact relations between quantities and magnitudes and systems.
5.
Sociology, which deals with the forms and functions of human goods.
6.
Anthropology, which concerned with physical and environmental relations to peoples social and cultural patterns.
7.
Medicine, which in all its branches is concerned with the well being of the people.
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8.
History, which seek to record and explain past events.
9.
Economics, whose interests are in optimizing choices among competing use of limited resources.
10. Management, which is concerned with a skilful leadership of organizational groups. 11. Political science, which in the best sense, is concerned with how people are governed how they govern themselves.
EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF PERSONNEL MANAGER? 1. Humanitarian who reminds the management of its moral and ethical obligations to its employees. 2. Counseling. 3. As a media for 4. Frequent spokesman or representative of company 5. Problem solver 6. Create and implement the change 7. He helps line managers learn to detect and solve their problems 8. Other roles like effective operation of an organisation.
EXPLAIN THE QUALITIES OF A HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER. To be successful on his job, the Human Resource Manager shall hold an MBA (with specialization in Human Resource Management or Personnel Management) obtained from one of the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMS) or its equivalent. Knowledge of organization theory, behavioral science and labour laws is absolutely necessary for such a person. Apart from the academic qualifications mentioned above, the Human Resource manager is expected to have certain other qualities to be successful in his work.
1. He should possess good communication skills. He should be fluent in English, Hindi and a couple of Indian Languages. Only then, he will be able to convey his ideas emphatically. 2. He should be a creative person and only then he will be able to conceive novel ideas to solve complex Human Resource Management problems. 3. He should be able to analyse any problem objectively. Only then he will be able to arrive at a practical solution. 4. He should be able to inspire, induce and motivate he employees to put in their best efforts. For this, the manger must be a motivated person himself. 5. He should have leadership qualities without which he will is not be able to lead a team of subordinate staff and guide them properly. 6. He should not be an irritable person. He should be friendly and approachable.
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7. He should be fair and honest in his dealings. Only then the subordinate staff will repose faith in him. 8. H should have ability to make decisions independently. 9. He should be curious always. Only then he will be able to a dynamic person 10. He should have good memory to be able to recollect anything. He should not give scope for others to prompt him to art.
IS (HRM) HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT A PROFESSION? EXPLAIN. Human Resource Management as a profession fulfils he following criteria of a profession. 1. An organized body of Knowledge: Human Resource Management like medicine, law and engineering has welldeveloped concepts, principles theories and practices. A Human Resource Management professional cannot perform his tasks if he is not familiar with these concepts, principles etc. 2. Educational qualification: A person who wants to become a medical or engineering professional has to posses the minimum qualification and training prescribed for it. In the same manner, a person aspiring to be a Human Resource Management professional has to fulfill the educational qualification norms. In India, a person holding on MBA (with specialization in Human Resource Management or Personnel Management) obtained from one of the Indian Institute of Management (IIMS) or its equivalent is considered a Human Resource Management professional.
3. Regulatory Authority: The medical council and the bar council act as the regulatory authority for medical and law professionals as far as Human Resource Management is concerned, the Govt. of India has created a separate Ministry called the Ministry of Human Resource Department that is empowered to regulate the activities of any Human Resource Management institution. The National Institute of Personnel Management prescribes certain obligation for the Human Resource Management professionals. 4. Code of conduct: Every member of a profession has to observe certain ethical standards laid down for that profession. The code of conduct lays down ethical norms, which the members shall observe while dealing with their clients. Such a code of conduct exists for Human Resource Management professionals too in the manner it exists for medical, law and other professionals. Any member found to be violating the code of conduct might be disqualified from functioning as professional.
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5. Surviving the commodity: A professional’s main obligation is to serve the society. He must not think in terms of personal gain always although his profession gives ample scope to earn. So, Human Resource Management has come to be recognized as a profession in the way medical, law and engineering are recognized. A profession is different from an occupation. A profession need not work for salary under an employer. He can have his own clients and get his remuneration from them directly. On the other hand a person who is employed as a clerk or as an officer or in some other capacity in a bank or in some other organization has to work for monthly salary under an employer. Same is true with regard to a profession who is employed in a college or university. He gets his salary at the end of the moth and is an employee of the Institution where he is employed. A professional can be an employer for many. A doctor, for e.g. may have his own clinic and employ nursing staff, lab technicians and others.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.
S.NO
ADMINISTRATION
MANAGEMENT
1.
It is concerned with determining the
It is concerned with the doing or
major policies and objectives of the
execution function, the policies and
business enterprise.
decisions to be implemented being those laid down by the administration. It refers o employees of the enterprise.
2.
3.
4.
Decision making is mainly influenced by
The scope for its decision-making is
the force of public opinion, governmental,
limited. At the most, decisions are
policies, as also social and religious
influenced by the values, opinions and
factors.
beliefs of managers.
It is that part of management which is
It is a general name for the total process
concerned with the determination and
of executive control in industry or
caring out of the procedures by which
commerce. It khas responsibility for the
the progress of activities is evaluated and
effective planning and execution of
controlled as per plans.
various operations of the enterprise.
It refers to owners of the enterprise also
It refers to employees of the enterprise
by way of return on the capital invested
who, for working within the broad policy
by them; receive profits by way of
guidelines
dividends.
administration, are paid remuneration in
laid
down
by
the
the form of salaries and sometimes, also a share to the profits.
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Evaluating HR Function
Organizations can promote human excellence by offering a potential site for the flowering most forms of human excellence. Within an organization, if there is meritocracy, people compete for promotion and other rewards on the basis of good work rather than on the basis of “pull.� Recognition and rewards for creative ideas, discoveries, inventions, innovations etc. promote creative excellence. The human resource development movement in industry is aimed at facilitating organizationally useful individual growth and development. The more an organization promotes individual or team excellence, the more the organization itself is likely to excel because the work of any organization is dependent on the work of its individual members and employee groups.
The human factor across all organizations comprises three basic elements:
1. The people themselves who work in the organization; the skills and capabilities they possess and their attitude towards the company; 2. The management style prevalent in the organization, which usually stems from the top. The style may be aggressive, authoritarian, democratic or laissez faire and each type has a different impact on the way people work as individuals or in groups; 3. The organizational climate i.e. the work atmosphere in the company, as determined by the degree of interpersonal cooperation, the types of conflict resolution, the amount of trustworthiness, the prevalent organizational politics etc.; The quality of HRM practices prevalent in a particular organization can be rated by scrutinizing the following factors:
Organization Climate: 1. Do people feel they are giving enough responsibility? 2. Do people know what is expected of them in the shape of objectives and standards of performance? 3. Do people see themselves being fairly rewarded for their work and feel that promotion policies are fair? 4. Do the employees feel that they belong to a worthwhile company and are valuable members of working teams? 5. Is there adequate feedback to people on their performance, whether it is good, bad or indifferent? 6. Is there sufficient to challenge in their jobs? 7. Are people given enough support by their managers or supervisors in the shape of guidance or help?
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Type of Management Style:
1. Does it tend to be Autocratic? 2. Does it tend to be Task centered or people centered? 3. Do managers tend to be distant or cold or approachable and friendly? 4. Do managers tend to be hard or soft on people? 5. Thus, an amalgamation of all the factors throws some light as an indicator of the quality of HRM practiced in an organization.
EXPLAIN THE PRESENT SITUATION OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN INDIA OR WRITE SHORT NOTES ON PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: 1. Automatic machines and equipments. 2. Traditional outlook of industrialists 3. Lack of harmonious labour – management relations 4. Lack of organized labour unions 5. Traditional outlook of workers 6. Excess of labour force 7. Selfish policy of union leaders. WHO IS PERSONNEL MANAGER AND EXPLAIN THE DEPARTMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY (DEPARTMENT) 1. Employment department 2. Training department 3. Wages and salaries department 4. Employees development department 5. Labour welfare department 6. Labour relations department
PERSONNEL POLICIES
The dictionary meaning of “policy” is a “planned action” and that “plan” is a policy. Policy making and planning are, therefore, synonymous. “A policy,” says Flippo, “is a man made rule of pre-determined course of action that is established to guide the performance of work toward the organization objective it is a type of standing plan that serves to guide subordinates in the execution of their tasks.” According to Calhoon, personnel polices constitute guides to action. They furnish the general standards or base on which decisions are reached. Their genesis lies in an organization’s values, philosophy, concepts and principles.” “Policies are statements of the organization over all purpose
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and its objective in the various areas with which its operation are concerned –personnel finance production marketing and so on.”
AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF PERSONNEL POLICIES
The aims of personnel policies should be/are: 1. To enable an organization to fulfill or carry out the main objective which have been laid down as the desirable minima of general employment policy; 2. To ensure that its employees are informed of these items of policy and to secure their cooperation for their attainment; 3. To provide such condition of employment and produces as will enable all the employees to develop a sincere sense of unity with the enterprise and to carry out their duties in the most willing and effective manner; 4. To provide an adequate, competent and trained personnel for all levels and types of management; and motivated them; 5. To protect the common interest of all the parties and recognize the role of trade union in the organization. 6. To provide for a consultative participation by employee in the management of an organization and the framing of condition for this participation, which, however shall not take place in technical, financial or trading policy; 7. To provide an efficient consultative service which aims at creating mutual faith among those who work in the enterprise;
By developing management leadership which aims is bold and imaginative and guide by moral values;
By effectively delegating the human relation aspects of personnel function of line managers by enforcing discipline on the basis of cooperative understanding and humane application of rules and regulation; and
.
8.
By providing for a happy relationship at all levels
To establish the conditions for mutual confidence and avoid
confusion
misunderstanding between the management and the workers, by developing suggestion plans, joint management councils, work committees, etc., and by performance appraisal discussion; 9. To provide security of employment to workers so that may not be distracted by the uncertainties of their future; 10. To provide an opportunity for growth within the organization to person who are willing to learn and undergo training to improve their future prospects. 11. To provide for the payment of fair an adequate wages and salary to the workers so that their healthy cooperation may be ensure for efficient working of the undertaking;
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12. To recognize the work and accomplishment of the employees by offering non-monetary incentives rewards; 13. To create a sense of responsibility on the part of those in authority, for the claims of employees as human being, who should be guaranteed protection of their fundamental rights and offered enough scope for developing their potential.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERSTICS OF A SOUND PERSONNEL POLICY The main features of a good personnel policy are:
1. The statement of any policy should be definite, positive, clear and easily understood by anyone in the organization so that what it proposes to achieve is evident. 2. It should be written in order to preserve it against loss to stimulate careful consideration before its formulation and to prevent the promulgation of numerous, differing and temporary oral policies from multiple sources. 3. It must be reasonably stable but not rigid, i.e., it should be periodically revised, evaluated, assessed and revised and should, therefore, be in tune with the challenge of changes in the environment and should have built in resilience for adjustment from time to time. 4. It must be supplementary to the over-all policy of an organization, for if departmental policy were made such as to come into conflict and violet the company policy, it would be tantamount to insubordination. Peter drucker has observed: “the policies of an enterprise have to be balanced with the kind of reputation an enterprise wants to build up with special reference to the social and human needs, objectives and value.� 5. It should be indicate that the management knows that workers prefer to deal with the management on an individual basis. 6. It should recognize the desire of many workers for recognition as groups in many of their relationships. 7. It should be formulated with due regard for the interests of all the concerned parties-the employers, the employees and the public community. 8. It should be the result of a careful analysis of al the available facts. 9. It must provide a two-way communication system between the management and the employees so that the latter are kept informed of the latest developments. In the organization and the employers are aware of the action and reaction of employees on particular issues. 10. It should be consistent with public policy, i.e., with the spirit rather than the letter of the law, so that the intensions and settled course of an organization are appreciated in terms of public opinion from the standpoint of national, economic and social justice for the employees and for the community at large. 11. All interested parties should generally know it. 12. It must have not only the support of the management but also the co-operation of employees at the shop floor level and in the office.
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13. Before evolving such a policy, trade unions should be consulted in 14. Matters of industrial relations; and the role of trade unions should be restricted only to this area. 15. It should be progressive and enlightened, and must be consistent with professional practice and philosophy. 16. It must make a measurable impact, which can be evaluate and qualified for the guidance of all concerned, especially in the field of the three ‘R’s of personnel management viz., recruitment, retainment and retirement. 17. It should be uniform throughout the organization, though, in the light of local conditions, slight variation may be permitted in specific policies relating to staffing compensation, benefits and services. 18. It should have a sound base in appropriate theory and should be translable into practices, terms and peculiarities of every department of an enterprise. 19. Except in rare cases, policies should not prescribed detailed procedures.
Challenges faced by HRM Major challenges of HRM The major challenges of HRM are: 1. Outsourcing HR activities 2. BPO and Call Centres 3. To balance work-life 4. To make HR activities ethical 5. To manage diversity 6. Attitude towards unions 7. Globalisation 8. Organisational restructuring 9. Changing demographics of work-force 10. Changed employee expectations
1. Outsourcing HR Activities Increasingly many large firms are getting their HR activities done by outside suppliers and contractors. Employee hiring, training and development and maintenance of statutory records are the usual functions contracted out to outsiders. P&G has signed a 10 year, $400 million deal with IBM to handle employee services. IBM will support almost 98,000 of P&G employees in nearly 80 countries with services such as payroll processing, benefits administration, compensation, planning, expatriate and relocation services, and travel and expense management.
2. BPO AND CALL CENTRES Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) Several MNCs are increasingly unbundling or vertical
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deintegrating their activities. Put in simple language, they have begun outsourcing (also called business process outsourcing, or BPO) activities formerly performed in-house and concentrating their energies on a few functions. Outsourcing involves withdrawing from certain stages/activities and relying on outside vendors to supply the needed products, support services, or functional activities. 3. Call Centres-Challenges
If an external company develops the software for a company, if someone else does advertising for the company’s products and if some other firm administers benefits for the company’s employees, it is BPO. Similarly, if some other company makes calls to the company’s customers or receives their calls, it is call centre business – a part of BPO itself. But because of its high visibility, call centre business is treated independently. 4. HOW TO BALANCE WORK WITH LIFE
Balancing work and life assumes relevance when both husband and wife are employed. Travails of a working housewife are more than a working husband, as the opening case to this Unit shows. Work- life balance is becoming a major challenge to HR manager as more women are taking up jobs to add to finances of their families or to become careerists. In India, workingwomen now account for 15 percent of the total urban female population of 150 million. The number is likely to increase as more number of girls is coming out of colleges and universities with degrees in their hands. 5. MAKING HR ACTIVITIES ETHICAL The HR manager’s role in building an ethical climate in the organisation is significant. The HR manager needs to carefully screen applications for jobs, weed out those who are prone to indulge in misdemeanors and hire those who can build a value driven organisation. Hiring ethically strong employees is only the beginning. The HR manager needs to institute; mechanisms to ensure ethical conduct of employees. 6. MANAGING DIVERSITY Employees of organizations are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. As days go by, diversity is going to be an important issue for the HR manager for the following reasons: -force is increasing -force. -force is increasing
l careers and expatriates are becoming common -requisite for career progression to many toplevel managerial positions. 7. GLOBALIZATION
How to face competition from MNCs is a worry for Indian firms. As globalization spreads,
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more foreign firms are entering Indian market and the challenge before domestic firms is going to be much more severe in the years to come. Many Indian firms are compelled to think globally, something which is difficult for managers who were accustomed to operate in vast sheltered markets with minimal or no competition either from domestic or foreign firms. The Internet is adding fuel to globalization and most large MNCs are setting up green field projects in India or entering into joint ventures with local companies. 8. Corporate Reorganizations It is difficult to imagine circumstances that pose a greater challenge for HRM than reorganizations resulting from acquisitions, mergers, divestitures or take-over threats. The reorganizations will have impact on organizational levels and employees. Employees experience anxiety and uncertainty about their places in a new organisation. The strength of unionized staff of Shaw Wallace, for example, has risen considerably in 1995, thanks to the acquisition of 14 distilleries. Executive strength has also gone up by 20 per cent in one year. As a trimming exercise, the company decided to retrench as many as 400 executives. The employees of both the ‘taking over’ as well as the ‘taken over’companies will have anxious moments because of Fear of loss of jobs Trends in HRM Job changes, including new roles and assignments Transfers to new geographic locations Changes in remuneration and benefits Changes in career possibilities Changes in organizational power, status, and prestige Staff changes, including new peers, supervisors, and Changes in corporate culture and loss of identity in the company.
CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS OF WORKFORCE The major challenge that has resulted from changing workforce demographics concerns dual career couples, couples where both partners are actively pursuing professional careers. Organizations have been accustomed to using job moves and physical relocation as an important means of developing talent. Men or women moving through organizational ranks to upper-level positions need experience in a variety of roles in different organizational units. Frequently, physical relocation is required.
The increasing number of dual-career
professionals limits individual flexibility in accepting such assignments and may hinder organizational flexibility in acquiring and developing talent.
CHANGED EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS With the changes in workforce demographics, employee expectations and attitudes also have shifted. Traditional allurements such as job security, attractive remuneration, housing and the like do not attract and motivate today’s workforce. Employees demand empowerment and expect equality with the management.
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Previous notions on managerial authority are giving way to employee influence and involvement alongwith mechanisms for upward communication and due process.
LOSS OF JOY AND PLEASURE The HR manager of today is an unfortunate individual. He/she has been denied the joy and pleasure of hiring and managing thousands of employees under one roof. Which HR manager of today claims to have experienced the real HR challenges of yester years? Which HR manager today has received bricks, encountered menacing body language of irate workers, faced strikes, saw lockouts, witnessed vehicles being burnt, executives being lynched, saw graffiti on the walls in which his own name is dragged and maligned by militant union leaders? The HR manager of today is a poor legacy of the one lived in the past. With regard to the HR function, the focus in the coming years would be on the following lines: ral of business,
-sensitive management styles and practices, Managing the changing work diversification – change of priorities,
-machine interface,
ndividual effectiveness through performance feedback and counseling.
INDIAN SCENARIO AND HRM POSITION OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: Despite the recent increase in his status, the personnel officer on indian scene continues to present a kaleidoscopic picture of his multiple role structure. Due to this diversity and elasticity of his he is called by several names: “buffer zone between labour and management”, social worker in the industrial setting and above all ‘staff advisor ‘ in the organisation and ‘executive’ in the personnel and welfare spheres. In the current tradition of India, the personnel officers is not invested with necessary authority to implement the decisions effectively and therfore commands relatively less respect from workers and trade unions as well as from technical and other managerial staff of the organisation. Factors which have impeded the growth and progress of personnel function in india can be summarised as follows
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1. By creating welfare officers under factories act 1948, the government has done more harm than good because these statutory officers have not won the support of line management in their organisation. 2. A large number of industrial relations laws have resulted in a legalistic approach to labour relations and has made personnel executives dependent on lawyers. 3. The job results which cannot be measured in concrete terms has proved frustrating for many personnel executives for evaluating their success. 4. The job of personnel officer is considered as fire fighting function only to head off union troubles. 5. Many personnel executives consider line managers as inferior due to academic qualifications which results in hostility. 6. Personnel executives have generally short range perspective and remain insensitive to the organizations internal needs. 7. The human relations approach t personnel management has not yet taken a firm foothold in our country. The reasons are 1. Highly authoritarian culture. 2. Abundance of cheap labour. 3. Weak and unenlightened labour movement 4. Technological backwardness 5. Traditional management.
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES
/NATURE
OF
HUMAN
RESOURCE
PLANNING/
MANPOWER PANNING? MEANING: Human resource planning, in simple terms, is the process of determining the manpower needs of an enterprise so that it is possible to fill-up any vacancy as and when it arises, such a plan eliminates the risk of surplus or shortage of staff at any time. DEFINITION:
“Human resource or manpower planning is the process of determining the manpower requirements and the means for meeting those requirements in order to carry out the integrated plan of the organization”. – Coleman
“Human Resource Planning is a process of determining and assuming that the organization will have an adequate number of qualified persons, available at the proper times, performing jobs which meet the needs of the enterprise and which provide satisfaction for the individuals involved”. – Dale S. Beach.
“Human Resource Planning is an integrated approach to performing the planning aspects of the personal function in order to have a sufficient supply of adequately developed and motivated people to perform the duties and tasks required to meet organized objectives
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and satisfy the individual needs and goals of organizational members� – Leon C. Megginson. It is clear from the above definitions that human resource planning is concerned with the task of projecting the manpower needs of an organization and steps to fulfill the same.
NATURE / CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES
OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING/
MANPOWER PANNING 1. Goal Oriented: The main objectives of Human Resource Planning are ensuring that the amount invested in human resource is justified. i.e., the organization should derive maximum benefits. If further ensures that the organization has the right number and types of person working at any given point of time. 2. Present and future manpower needs: After the present and future manpower needs of an organization have been anticipated, steps may be taken to fulfill the same through proper planning. Human resource planning, thus, relevance for the present and the future. 3. Systematic approach to the task of fulfilling the manpower needs: In the absence of Human resource planning, the organization will recruit staff at random. This leads to certain problems, e.g. surplus or shortage of manpower and the organization appointing unsuitable persons. Human resource planning follows a systematic approach to the entire process of recruiting staff in order to overcome these problems. 4. Promotes efficiently: Human Resource planning is required as it leads to greater efficiency. This is does by keeping the cost of recruitment and selection low and by ensuring right man for the right job. 5. Continuous process: It is not correct to think that human resource planning is required only in the early years of inception of an organization. It is something that is required continuously. In other words, as long as organization requires manpower, the need of human resource planning will be felt. 6. Flexibility: There is always a feeling among many that any type of plan makes things rigid. It may be said here that the human resource plan can be made flexible by making changes in it in tune with the changing manpower needs of the organization.
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING INTRODUCTION Planning is thought prior to action Planning has been visualized as a thought proper to action, embracing a scheme of action involving the determination of the strengths and weaknesses in the choice of the best course of action from the standpoint of strategy and programmes.
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The term “Plan” is defined as a forecast of future attainment and forms a written statement of what will be the outcome of this action specifying a time period ranging from one year to five years. Meaning of Human Resource Planning:
Is both a process and a set of plans. It is the process used by organisations for assessing the supply and demand for future human resources. In addition, an effective HR plan also provides the mechanisms that will be used to eliminate any gaps that may be exist between supply and demand. Thus HR planning is process that is used to determine the number of employees to be recruited in to the organisation or the phased out of it.
Human Resource Planning as a process involving the following activities: 1. Forecasting of future human resource requirements; 2. Task of inventorying present resources and assessing the extent to which these resources are optimally utilized; 3. Anticipation of human resources problem, and 4. Planning of necessary human resource programme.
Manpower Planning Provides information in three dimensions: The estimated manpower requirements (including expectations of manpower utilization); The analysis of the external manpower market situation,& The resulting estimate of manpower availability from the two dimensions.
Strategic HRM Strategies for Manpower Planning Manpower planning involves the application of a set of 9 strategies: 1. Collect, maintain and interpret relevant information regarding human resources; 2. Report periodically manpower objectives, requirements and existing employment and allied features of manpower; 3. Develop procedures and techniques to determine the requirements of different types of manpower over a period of time from the standpoint of organizational goals and modify these goals, if they make unrealistic demands for human resources; 4. Develop measures of manpower utilization as a component of forecasts of manpower requirements along with –if possible- independent validation; 5. Employ- if suitable- techniques leading to effective allocation of work with a view to improving manpower utilization; 6. Conduct research to determine factors hampering the contribution of the individuals and groups to the organization with a view to modifying or removing these handicaps;
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7. Develop and employ methods of economic assessment of human resources reflecting its features as income generator and cost and accordingly improving the quality of decisions influencing manpower; 8. Evaluate the procurement, promotion and retention of the effective human resources in the context of the forecast requirements of the enterprise; & 9. Analyze the dynamic process of recruitment , promotion and loss to the organization and control these processes and organization structure with a view to encouraging the maximum individual and group performance without involving excessive costs.
Reasons for Human Resource Planning All organizations perform human resource planning, either formally or informally. The major reasons for employment planning are: More effective and efficient use of human resources: Human resources planning should precedes all other HRM activities. Careful analysis of all HRM activities shows that their effectiveness and efficiency, which result in increased productivity, depend on human resource planning. More satisfied and better developed employees: Employees who work for organizations that use good human resource planning systems have a better chance to participate in planning their own careers and to share in training and development experiences. Thus they are likely to feel their talents are important to the employer, and they have a better chance to utilize those talents; More effective equal employment opportunity planning: The govt. has increased its demands for equal employment opportunities.In sum, effective human resource planning ensures that HRM activities and programme will be built on a foundation of good planning. Proper planning should cut down on the number of surprises that occur involving human resource availability, placement and orientation.
The HR Planning Process HR Planning involves four distinct phases or stages: Situation analysis or environmental scanning; Forecasting human resource records; Human resource supply analysis; Action plan development. Situation analysis and Environmental scanning: The first stage in HR Planning is where the HRM function and strategic planning initially interact. The strategic plan must adapt to environmental circumstances, and the HRM function is one of the primary mechanisms that an organization can use during the adaptation process. For e.g. rapid changes in the technological environment can force an organization to quickly identify and hire employees with new skills that previously weren’t needed by the organization.
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Without an effective HR plan to support the recruitment and selection functions in the organization, it will be impossible to move fast enough to stay competitive. Thus, organizations are becoming more dependent on an ability to gather relevant information about their environment and to react to this information.
Forecasting future demand for employees: The next phase of an effective HR Planning process is estimating not only how many but what kinds of employees will be needed in the future. Forecasting yields these advanced estimates or calculations of the organization’s staffing requirement. Although there are many quantitative tools to help with forecasting, it
is a process that involves a great
deal of human judgment. In addition, many successful HR planners also rely heavily on their “gut instincts” about future conditions. For e.g., planners at Unilever attribute much of their global successes to such instincts.
Analysis of the supply of current Employees: The third phase of HR Planning id designed to answer the question “How many and what kind of employees do I currently have in terms of the skills and training necessary for the future?” It should be obvious that this phase of HR Planning involves much more that simply counting the number of current employees in the organisation. The major tool used to assess the current supply of employees is the Skill Inventory. It is a list of names, certain characteristics and skills of the people working for the organisation. It provides a way to acquire these data and makes them available where needed in an efficient manner.
Action decisions in Human Resource Planning: After the HR Planning system has analyzed both the supply of and demands for future workers, these two forecasts are compared to determine what, if any, action should be taken. Whenever there is a discrepancy between these two estimates, the organization needs to choose a course of action for elimination the gap. No matter how good the HR Planning system is, an exact match between supply and demand forecasts is rare. Even when overall estimates are similar, there are frequently important gaps in certain subgroups. These data become inputs to facilitate decisions about training, promotion, demotion and similar decisions.
Action decisions with a shortage of employees: When employment specialists comparing demand to supply find the supply of workers is less than the demand, several possibilities are open to the organization. If the shortage is small and employees are willing to work overtime, it can be filled with present employees. If there is shortage of highly skilled employees, training and promotions of present employees, together with the recruitment of lower skilled workers, are possibilities.
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Action decisions in surplus conditions: When comparison of employee demand and supply indicates a surplus, the alternative solutions include attrition, early retirements, demotions, layoffs, and terminations. Employee decisions in surplus conditions are some of the most difficult decisions managers must make, because the employees who are considered surplus are seldom responsible for the conditions leading to the surplus. A shortage of raw material such as fuel, or a poorly designed or marketed product can cause an organization to have a surplus of employees. Fig. 1: Human Resource Planning Process
STATE THE IMPORTANCE OF HR PLANNING? 1. To procure the required manpower: To perform the various jobs in the organization, people with varying skills, qualification and expectance are required. HR planning helps to fulfill such requirement. 2. To replace employees: Every year, a number of employees retire in workplace. These employed therefore have to be replaced. Vacancies arising due to retirement can be anticipated and suitable arrangement for replacement can be made. A vacancy may also arise when an employee dies or becomes incapacitated or dismissed on disciplinary grounds proper planning his enable the management to fill-up vacancies as and when they arise. 3. To tackle the problem of surplus of shortage of manpower: In the absence of proper planning of manpower needs, the organization is ---- to face the problem of either surplus or shortage of manpower. Surplus employees do not contribute to output. On the other hand, if there is shortage of manpower, the volume of work. To tackle both the problem, proper planning is essential. 4. To meet the needs of changing Technology: Rapid technological changes would render the existing workplace, the organization must require the exiting employees to update themselves or recruit a new set of workforce. Here again, human resource planning can help. 5. Expansion programmes: No organization is going to remain static. To undertake expansion activities additional hand are necessary. Such additional hands can be served thorough effective planning. 6. Optimum investment in human resource: Under Human Resource management, the amount spent on Human Resource is viewed as on investment. But it is necessary that such as investment is made at the optimum level in order to device maximum benefits. Human Resource
planning ensure optimum
investment in Human Resource.
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EXPLAIN PROCESS / STEPS OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING / MAN POWER PLANNING. Process of HR planning
1. The system analysis
2. Determining the time
Reconciliation 5. Preparation of
3. Forecasting the
frame of the plan
4.
supply of manpower
action plans
I. THE SYSTEM ANALYSIS: The company has to design the systems in which the organization works it may be either closed or ‘open end’ a closed system will have all actions, variables, information and relationship necessary for he achievement of its goals, within its limits. A closed system have a high degree of predictability of its behaviour. This makes, planning very easy. An open end system is for more uncertain and unpredictable and appropriate corrective actions are after unknown. Ascending to T.C. Trepathy , generally, the manpower planning will work in a vast open – end system the / the national economy. Which contents of number of complicated open-end sub-systems (firms, unions, families and individuals)? Therefore a system has to be analyzed with regard to the planning. 1. Goals: The company’s goals should always be clear manpower planning cannot succeed until the goals to the organization (i.e. profit, welfare, unity etc.) are clearly defined and ------assigned to them. 2. External environment constraints: The company has to consider the external factors (such as population, investment, union rules) etc. which are beyond his control. 3. Internal variables: The HR managers has to identify those variables which are either the firms control foe e.g productivity incentives or training or redundancy payments.
II. DETERMINING THE TIME FRAME OF PLAN: The manger has to decide the time frame of his plan as this will show how much is changeable with in the system. For the shorter time span. There will be less variance. A reasonable accuracy can be expected in case of short-term forecasts up to 2 years a useful techniques is to roll on the forecast by a year at each annual revision. Thereby keeping the
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length of the forecasting period unchanged whilst making nay amendment necessary in the light of changing circumstances. Short-term planning is undertaken to find a temporary match between the exiting individuals and the existing jobs. It aims at reamong the anomalies in posting and placements. Long –term planning, on the other hand, is done to a find proper match between the future jobs and their future incumbents. III. FORECASTING THE SUPPLY OF MANPOWER: The essential element in the manpower planning is the forecasting of the demand and the supply of manpower, for the period for which the plan is outlined. To forecast manpower demand in the future, the period for which the plan is outlined. To forecast manpower demand in the future, the HR manager must have a detailed knowledge to the company’s future achievements targets. Generally, the forecast will be made on the assumption of a given target level. The following steps are required to be followed for projecting manpower demand. 1. Selection of suitable method for calculation of manpower needs. 2. Estimation of the productivity rates. 3. altering the productivity rates and 4. Estimation of manpower requirements.
i) Suitable method: selection of a suitable method for the calculation of manpower requirements is an essential element. In case of a retail store, the best method is quantum of sales, and in case of a company producing steel. It may be tons of steel, for a university it may has to satisfy one requirements –the required manpower be proportional to the changes in the basic. In a steel co, tons of steel’ will serve as a useful basis for the calculation of manpower needs if the number of workers is performed to the output of steel.
ii) Productivity ratio: the second in the forecasting is output per individual. Productivity ratio can be calculated in a number of ways. The most typical method used by small companies is managerial judgment or copying ratios of other concerns. Fro instances, a manger of a small company may estimate the manpower needs on the basis of his own judgment or on the basis of experience of other similar companies that he needs 12 persons in his office to process 360 files per week on he basis of this ratios, one can easily forecast the number of men needed to carry out a planned volume of work. Sometimes, the productivity ratios are calculated with the help of statistical or work study technical. Here, there will use regression analysis to find out the movement in the values of the 2 variables-manpower and output-are corrected with each other. Afterwards, we can predict manpower requirements for a given level of production activity.
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By using work study method, we can find out the work standard hours required to produce one unit okf output on the basis of work measurement done by industrial engineers. After finding the standards hours per unit, it is easy to forecast the number of workers required for producing the planned number of units.
iii) Making adjustments in the productivity ratio: The next step is to make adjustments in the producing ratio based on the changed in technology, changes in organizational structure training and better utilization of resources manpower estimates for the target years must reflect the productivity anticipated at that time.
iv) Projecting manpower requirements: After finding out the productivity ratios, the projection of operative manpower need for he target year is easier. After planning the need for each section or department the organization can proceed to
find out the ratios between the number of operative and
managerial personnel at various levels on the basis of certain assumptions about span of control, nature of work, technology and historical data. These ratios will help to work-out the projections for its managerial personnel.
FORECAST OF MANPOWER SUPPLY: Manpower demand is the key element manpower forecasting. The supply of manpower to fulfill the demand. The following are the sources of the supply of manpower. i) Internal supply forecast: This is a kind of internal sources through which can get the required manpower by regular promotions, turnover etc. the stochastic modes helps in forecasting internal supply is the markov-chain analysis. Under this method, the probabilities are calculated of he movement of people from one job to another in the organization or of leaving the organization on the basis of past record over same specified time period. Here, it is assumed that these probabilities would remain stable to make forecast future manpower supply in the organization. (ii) External supply forecast: The internal supply forecast will be successful only in the most exceptional situations. When the organization expends the supply will be less than the demand. Sometimes, the supply will exceed the generally given to increasing the supply by recruitment although other internal means to alter the supply. External supply forecast will be undertaken in the right of several local and national factors operating in the labour market. Avoiding to S. Ghosh, the following local factors worth mentioning i.
HR available at various distance from the work place.
ii.
Other employment chances available.
iii.
Availability of part-time labour
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Competition prevailing in the market for similar categories of labor from other organization both local and national.
v.
Output from the local educational system (general as well as technical)
vi.
People coming on emigration within the area and between it and other areas.
vii.
Shelter faculties available to the work force.
viii.
Transfer and communication facilities.
(iii) Reconciliation: Any manpower forecast depends on the cost factor. The manpower plans are reconciled with the company’s finances. Always, the manpower needs and manpower programmes will have the company’s finance. Always, the manpower needs and manpower programmes will have to be re-examined and reassessed and a suitable reconciliation within the financial constraints achieved. (iv) Action plans: After analyzing the manpower requirements, the action plans relating to productivity and manpower costs, covering the following subjects be prepared.
Selection
Training
Improvement in productivity and
Improvement in the retention of employees.
In the above areas of the manpower plan, it is essential to calculate the costs involved so that thy can be assessed against the potential benefits. It is also equally to indicate who responsible for implementing the plan, for reporting the progress and for monitoring the results achieved.
DISCUSS THE USES AND BENEFITS OF MANPOWER PLANNING. USES AND BENEFITS OF MANPOWER PLANNING: 1. Reduces labour cost: Manpower planning results in reduced labour cost as it helps the management to anticipate shortage and / or surpluses of manpower and correct these imbalances before they become unmanageable and expensive. 2. Best use of skills of employees: It is better basis for planning employee development that is designed to make optimum use of workers skills working in an organization. 3. It planning training faculty: It enables identification of the gaps existing manpower so that corrective training programme becomes more effective. 4. Improvements in all levels: It leads to improvement in the overall business planning process. 5. It is useful for making employees skill up to date:
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It leads to a greater awareness of the once of sound manpower management throughout the organization. 6. It is Evaluation Tool: It serves as a tool to evaluate the effect of alternative manpower actions and polices. 7.Useful to managerial succession: It helps in formulating managerial succession plan as a part of the replacement planning process which is necessitated when job-change plans for mangers are formulated. Besides, this exercise would provide enough lead time for identifying and developing managers to make-up the corporate leader.
LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING: 1. Expensive: Preparation and implementation of the HR plan is expensive is terms of time, efforts and money required. 2. Inaccurate forecasts: The manpower needs of an organization are determined based on forecasts. The HR plan is prepared in tune, with such forecasts. The success of the plan, therefore depends on the accurately with which the forecast are made inaccurate forecasts would only result in the failure of the plan. 3. Uncertainties: Absenteeism, seasonal nature of certain jobs, labour turnover etc. can separate the HR paln. 4. Trade union resistance: Trade unions often utilize the HR plan of an organization on the ground that it is detrimental to the interests of the employees. The plan may contain such measures as increase in workload, voluntary retirement redeployment of surplus labor etc. it is for these reasons the trade unions show resistance. 5. Rigidity: Any plan is basically rigid. The rigidity of the HR plan may, sometimes, affect implementation. Such a plan, thus, remains only on paper. 6. Focus on quantity: The manpower plan often focuses attention on the quantity of HR rather than quality. Quantity without quality does more harm than good.
WHAT ARE THE REMEDIES / MEASURES TO MAKE THE HR PLAN EFFECTIVE? REMEDIES / MEASURES TO MAKE THE HR PLAN EFFECTIVE: 1. Case-benefit analysis of the HR plan: One of the limitations of the HR plan is that it is expensive in terms of time efforts and money required. The costs of preparing such a plan may be compared with the benefits
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accounting to the enterprise. It must be ensured that the benefits are greater than the costs incurred. 2. Making accurate Forecasts: As the success or failure of the HR plan depends on the accuracy of the forecasts, steps must be taken to predict the presented and future manpower needs of the organization more accurately. There are several quantitative and qualitative tools used for the purpose of forecasting. 3. Provision for future uncertainties: Adequate provision should be in the HR plan for such uncertainties as absenteeism, labour turnover etc. This would ensure proper implementation of the HR plan. 4. Involve employees and their unions: Employed participation in management is an integral part of human resource management while preparing the HR plan, the suggestions and values of the employees on the manpower needs of the organization can be received. Where ever possible, steps can be taken to incorporate such suggestions in the HR plan. This would, certainty, steps overcome resistance by the employees and their unions. 5. Introducing Flexibility: The rigid notice of the HR plan may hamper implementation. To overcome such a problem, certain amount of flexibility may be introduced into the plan. 6. Consideration of both quantity and quality: The HR plan to be fruitful must consider both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the human resource.
EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE HR PLANNING. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE HR PLANNING Internal factors: 1. Recruitment policy of the organization: The policy of the organization regarding the source of recruitment and the method of selection is an important factor influencing the HR plan. 2. Availability of funds: It finance is not constraint, the organization may be in a position to offer an alternative salary package and thereby induce decreasing persons to apply for the various jobs. 3. Job requirement: Different jobs call for different qualifications and skills from prospective applicants. The requirement of every job, therefore will have to be borne in mind while preparing the AR plan. 4. Scale of operation: The manpower needs of an organization the scale of operation of which is greater, will naturally be more than the one with a lesser scale of operation.
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5. Trade union influence: The demands of the trade union regarding the hours of work, source of recruitment etc. may also influence the HR plan. External Factors: 1. The reservation policy of the Government: The reservation policy of the Govt. provides for reservation of jobs for certain communities. The HR plan of every Govt. organization and Govt. aided organization has to give effect to such a policy. 2. Availability of the desired manpower: Before preparing the human resource plan, it must be ensured that the type of HR needed by the organization is actually available. This is because sometimes people with a certain skill or qualification may not be available in the job market. 3. Willingness of the job seekers to accept the terms and conditions: When an organization wants to recruit staff afresh, it must ensure that is terms and conditions of service are acceptable to the job seekers of they find the unreasonable, they may not be willing to apply. 4. Knowledge of the trend is the industry: Consideration of the trend in the industry in the manner of the type of workplace preferred for certain jobs, wage rates, hours of work etc. is important in preparing the HR plan. 5. Level of technology: A business is enterprise is highly susceptive to technologies changes. Technically qualified persons constantly update themselves to enhance their employment prospects. The job offers of an enterprise, therefore, must be such that the potentials of the individuals are fully and they are also rewarded suitability.
EXPLAIN THE HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING AT VARIOUS LEVELS. HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING AT VARIOUS LEVELS 1. Global level: Eminent persons throughout the would are considered for appointment in global organizations like the UNICEF, the UNESCO etc. computer professionals throughout the world and in particular from India are working for he corporate giants of the U.S and the European countries. 2. National Level: A citizen of India, possessing the requisite qualification, is considered for appointment in central government organizations. In India, organizations like the union public service commission (UPSC) and the staff selection commission (SSC) are empowered to conduct entrance steps to select suitable candidates for central government must be milling to serve in any part of India. A citizen of India, fulfilling the eligibility criteria, may be inducted into the Indian Army, Navy or Air force. There are also organization that select desiring sports
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persons, thoughts the country to pay for India. The Board of center for cricket in India (BCCI) for example, has a selection committee that selected talented, cricketers throughout India to play your India. 3. State level: Vacancies in state Govt. organization in India are filled up with the help of the respective state public service commission. For e.g. the Tamil Nadu Public Service Commission (TNPSC) is empowered to hold entrance tests to select candidates for state Govt. service. An employee in the state Govt. service must be prepared to service in any part of the state. 4. Industry Level: The level of activity of a particular industry like automobile, textile, chemical etc. will determine its manpower requirements. Only persons possessing certain specific qualification and experience can be considered for appointment in these industries for e.g. a degree or diploma in automobile engineering is necessary for someone associate himself with the auto industry as a technician. 5. Firm/ company level: The scale of operation of particular firm or company will determine its manpower needs. The recruitment policy of the particular concern will indicate the mode of selection type of candidates (male or female, with or without previous work or without previous work experience and so on) for the various jobs. 6. Department/Division level: This is concerning the manpower needs of a particular departments or division within a firm or a company. The natures of activities of a particular department, the availability of financial resources etc. are some of the factors influencing the HR plan.
DISCUSS THE HUMAN RESOURCE RETENTION PLAN. 1. Job security for all the employees: Obviously, an employee who does not have job regularly will quit his present job if he finds a secured job elsewhere. 2. Pay benefits on par with those in rival concerns: The salary and other monetary benefits given to the employees shall be on par with those in rival firms. Only then the employees will have a feeling that the employer does not exploit them. 3. Promotion opportunities: Lack of promotion opportunities results in stagnation. This leads to monotony and boredom in the workplace. There should always be scope for the employees to move higher positions. 4. Facilities for Training: Training enables an employee to update his knowledge and skill of gives him greater confidence to meet future challenges.
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5. Conductive working conditions: The physical environment as well as he social environment in the workplace should be conductive for he employees. 6. Encouraging workers participation in management decisions: Only then the employee will have faith in the management, as the latter cannot take individual decisions. 7. Challenging work: The work given to any employee must be of a challenging nature. It must give scope for the employees to exhibit their skills. 8. Motivation of employees: Inducement of employees is necessary to get the best all of them. This may done by offering them suitable tangible benefits. 9. Encouraging workers to form of union: When there is a trade union, the employees will be in a position to represent all their genuine demands collectively. 1. Facilities for Counseling: Employees do under crap stress in view of domestic and work related problems. Counseling, by the manager or by a specialist, enables them to get rid of their stress and perform then jobs better.
EXPLAIN THE GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ERP. GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ERP There are certain fundamental principles that make HR making effective there are as follows. 1. The plan should be as detailed as expenditure constraints allow. 2. Plan should not extend too far into the future, accurate prediction of the distant future is simply impossible. 3. All attendance courses of action should be considered. 4. Side effects and implications of the actions envisaged should be examined. 5. Institutions to individual and departments must be incorporated into the plan. 6. Plans should can use and easy to understand. Once the plan so formed is executed, its effectiveness in achieving set stated objectives should be periodically motivated. Variations, if any between actual and desired positions must be identified as easily as possible and the remedial measures should be introduced immediately.
HOW IS HR INFORMATION SYSTEM USEFUL IN HRP? HRIS-Human Resource Information system aspects to a computerized system that aids the processing of information relating to HRM it is a system of gathering, classifying, processing, recording and disseminating the information required for effective management of
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HR in an organization HRIS forms an integral part of the management information system (MIS) MIS includes information relating to aspects finance, production, marketing, sales, accounting etc. HRIS collects and analysis date relating to HR of the organization. The inputs of employees, their abilities, qualifications, potentials, creative instincts, age, sex, their jobs, pay scales, organizational objectives, policies procedures etc. These inputs are processed and transformed into multiple forms of inputs like ------and many other devices. These outputs are made available at the fingertips of the manager through computer network. Thus, managers find HRIS as a decision support system device for managing human resources in the organisation. HRIS is considered superior one to that of manual system. The main advantages that HRIS offer individual. 1. It is both saving and cheaper device 2. It gives accurate information relating to human resource. 3. it makes resources 4. it makes information readily available as and when desired. 5. it acts as a decision support system. Like career planning, development skill, moral etc.
WHAT DO YOU MEANT BY PP AND EXPLAINS IT ? OR WRITE SHORT NOTES ON PERSONNEL POLICY? “A policy is man made rule or predetermined course of action that is established to guide the performance of work towards the organisation objectives.
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PP:
-
DEFINITION:
“Main objective of personnel management is to get the work done by the employees working in an organisation so that the organisational objectives may be achieved in the best possible manner”.
“A policy is a pre-determined course of thought and action that is defined and established as a guide towards accepted goals and objectives”.
“Policies are general instructions, procedure and specific applications”.
“Pp constitute guides to action, they furnish the general standards or bases on which decisions are reached. Their genesis lies in an organisation value, philosophy, concepts and principles”.
EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PP: 1. PP are the statement of objectives. 2. PP guides the management in respect of personnel problems. 3. A policy is a pre-determined and accepted course of action.
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4. PP reflects the intentions to personnel management to guide subordinate and helps them in discharging their responsibilities. 5. PP provides the basis on which personnel decisions are taken.
EXPLAIN THE OBJECTIVES OF PP: 1. To protect the interest of labour and capital 2. To bring prosperity to the organisation 3. To provide the base for decision making 4. To facilitate the process of decision making 5. To develop the feeling of mutual co-operation and dignity between labour and management. 6. To bring the employees in a closer contact of management. 7. To provide the proper and adequate financial incentives. 8. To provide the safety of job to the workers. 9. To maintain the achievements of trained employees 10. To develop the feeling of royalty and faithfulness among employees towards the enterprise. 11. To provide the opportunity for development 12. To formulate justified policy regarding the terms and conditions of employment 13. To recognize the work of employees and to give due regards to their achievements. 14. To help in the selection of suitable persona 15. To develop the feeling of responsibility among managers and employees. 16. To provide the opportunities of maximum individual development. 17. To make possible maximum exploitation of HR
EXPLAIN THE NEED OF PP: 
Pp guide the management and employees in the execution of their tasks. These policies are helpful in establishing co-ordination between labour and management. So the pp are essential for the smooth functioning of an organisation.
1. ESTABLISHMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PEACE: A personnel policy helps in developing harmonious relations between labour and management thus helps in solving the labour problems. 2. BASIS OF DECISIONS: Personnel management helps in achieving the organisation objectives by taking relevant decisions at proper time.
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3. UNIFORMITY IN DECISIONS: Pp are pre-determined course of action, so all the decisions based on Personnel polices are uniform. 4. Helpful in achieving: - the organisational objectives. 5. Delegation of authority: - is possible. 6. Helpful in effective control 7. Motivation to do more work 8. Helpful in evaluating efficiency. 9. Development of confidence among workers. 10. Co-operation from labour unions.
EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF PP: Pp are the policies, which guide the management and workers to discharge their responsibilities properly. These policies are helpful in establishing effective co-ordination between labour and management. These policies are based on some principle so that they may be helpful in achieving the organisation objectives.
1. Principle of Common interest: The interest of employees and employers of an enterprise is on and the same that means economic success of the enterprise. Pp must be based on the principle of common interest. Both parties must realise that there interests are not separated but are alike and the achievement of organisation objectives depends upon mutual co-operation and co-ordination. 2. Principle of recognition of trade unions: The work, liabilities and responsibilities of workers must be appreciated; human dignity of workers must always be honoured. There must be a direct relationship between workers and management all the facilities must be provided to the workers and their problems must be solved. 3. Principle of recognition of work and accomplishment: Due recognition must be paid to the work and accomplishment by formulating suitable Pp. This principle involves the determination of a satisfactory policy of wage payment, job security, reasonable standard of living, and sympathetic attitude towards labour, job a P Appreciation and job satisfaction. 4. Principle of development: Opportunities must be provided within the organisation so that the employees may improve their status earns more wages and share higher responsibilities. Personnel Polices must be formulated in the manner that the employees, who are willing to contribute some thing for the prosperity of the organisation and to sacrifice their time, and efforts to improve themselves on the job, may get proper opportunities or development.
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5. Principle of participation in management: The success of any policy is depends on the effective implementation and willing acceptance. If the decision regarding personnel matters is taken with the consultation and consent of the representatives of employees, it will improve the working conditions. 6. Principle of change: Change is the law of nature. It has been the general experience that the employees resist almost all the changes. Therefore, the management must take measures to prepare the employees well in advance to face these changes.
EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF PP OR HOW TO FRAME THE PERSONNEL POLICY OR EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF PP : 1. The name, objects, organisational structure and management must be introduced in brief. 2. The recruitment of employees must be in partial. 3. It must disclose the source of recruitment, selection, procedure and minimum qualifications for different job. 4. It must disclose the period of probation also. 5. Working conditions, work hours must be disclose (it differ for women’s, children etc) 6. It must disclose training programme 7. Principle of equal remuneration – equal work 8. Rules regarding payment overtime must be clearly mentioned. 9. The time payment of wages must be pre-determined. 10. Holidays must be announced well in advance. 11. The rules regarding absenteeism and slacks of employees must be specified. 12. The basis of promotion must be certain and specific the basis must be strictly be observed. 13. The rules of demotion must also be specified. These rules must be clearly communicated to the workers. 14. Possible measures should be adopted to remove the grievances. 15. The Policy must contain all detail about collective bargaining. 16. Possible measures should be adopted for the welfare and social security of the employees. 17. The policy must have detail of punishment on the vocation of rules of the organisation. 18. Schemes of labour participation in management should be specifically disclosed. 19. The policy should also have specific rules regarding retirement. 20. In addition to above particulars
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a. Leave with pay b. Rules regarding transfer c.
Rules regarding retirement
d. Safety rules e. The works that are prohibited f.
IR
g. Labour relations h. Termination i.
Possible accidents and safety
TYPES OF PERSONNEL POLICIES: 1. Functional grouping of policies or organisational grouping of policies 2. Centralised policies
1. Functional grouping of policies: Those policies, which are, grouped for different categories of pp. E.g., for the management dealing with personnel planning, organizing and controlling or for management concerned with functions of procuring developing and utilizing man power. The centralised policies are framed for companies with several locations. Policies may be classified into major and minor.
OVERALL OBJECTIVES: Minor policies; cover relations in a segment of an organisation with considerable emphasis on details and procedures. Such policies are the out growth of major policies and preserve their unity of purpose.
BOARD OF THE USA VIEW THAT THE FOLLOWING MATTERS SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE PERSONNEL POLICY: 1. History of the company’s growth 2. Recruitment procedure in detail 3. Grievance redressal procedure 4. Safety rules 5. General practices like operation, attendance maintenance, punch card etc. 6. Co-operation 7. Employees financial aids 8. Training 9. Employees news and journal 10. Communication
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11. Motivation 12. Health and hospitalization 13. Vacation with pay 14. Allowances 15. Leave details 16. Employees discussion methods 17. Company’s policy on compensation, reward 18. Social security like pension, gratuity etc 19. Collective bargaining 20. Garnishments 21. Public relations 22. Labour – company relations 23. Union relations 24. Prohibition activities – smoking, gambling, imbibing liquor etc 1. Maintenance and disciple rules regarding etc.
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Unit – II Job Analysis Job Analysis is one of the most important functions of Human Resource Manager. Performance Appraisal, Job Designing, Personnel selection, employee training, career development and planning are among the many activities that depends upon the information gathered in the job analysis.
Key terms: Job: A job may be defined as “a collection or aggregation of tasks, duties and responsibilities which as a whole is regarded as a regular assignment to individual employees”. Putting in different words the meaning of a job can be described as a pocket containing differentiated set of total workload in an organization.
Position: Position is collection of tasks and responsibilities regularly assigned to a person.
It is to be noted that job is impersonal and position is personal.
Today, however, the word job has many mutations depending upon how, when and by whom it is used. It is often used interchangeably with the terms like position and tasks. Before proceeding with a detailed discussion on “job Analysis” it would be fruitful to familiarize ourselves with terms that form specific job attributes.
Fig. Relationship among the different job components: 9 8 7 6 5
4 3 2 1
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1 – Micro Motion 2 – Elements 3- Tasks 4- Duties 5- Positions 6- Job 7- Job Family 8- Occupation 9- Career
Micro Motion: The simplest unit of work is the micro motion. A micro motion involves a vary elementary movement such as reaching different work performed in an organization can be traced from a micro motions to an occupation grasping, positioning and releasing an object. It is the most elementary unit in to which a job can be broken down.
Elements: An element is alignment of two or more micro motions to make a basic movement like picking up an object.
A task is congregation of elements to constitute an activity for a specific purpose like preparing a lecture. Two or more related tasks performed in carrying out specific job responsibilities are referred to as duty.
A position constitutes specific duties and tasks group together. In an organization there may be one or more person assigned a position. A position constitutes the whole unit of work assignment
Job: When positions are combined they create a job.
A job family is a group of two or more jobs that either call for similar worker characteristics or contain parallel work tasks as determined by job analysis.
Occupation: A grouping of similar jobs or job families across organizations is termed as occupation.
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A Career represents a sequence of positions, jobs or occupations that a person has over his or her working life.
Having familiarized oneself with the basic conceptual framework which acts as foundation stone for the knowledge on job analysis, we shall now proceed with a step-by-step discussion of the main topics. Job Analysis Job Analysis is a written record of actual requirements of the job activities.
Definitions:
“Job Analysis is the process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job.” Bayers and Rue
It is the determination of tasks, which comprise the job of the skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required of the holder for the successful job performance. Putting it in other words it is the process of getting information about the job incumbent’s skills, education and training to carry out the job effectively and terms on time for completion, performance standard.
It is procedure by which pertinent information is obtained about a job, i.e. it is detailed and systematic study of information relating to the operations and responsibilities of a specific job.
A job analysis results in two important documents:
Job Description;
Job Specification.
Job Description:
Job description is written record of the duties, responsibilities and requirements of particular jobs. It is concerned with the job itself and not with the work. It is a statement describing the job in such terms as its title, location, duties, working conditions and hazards. In other words,
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it tells us “What to be done, and how it is to be done and why.” It is a standard of function, in that it defines the appropriate and authorized contents of a job.
Job Specification:
Job specification is a standard of personnel and designates the qualities required for an acceptable performance. It is a written record of the requirements sought in an individual worker for a given job. In other words, it refers to a summary of the personnel characteristics required for a job. It is a statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities necessary for the proper performance of a job.
Purpose and Uses of Job Analysis
Job Analysis is not useful but an essential part of organizational strategies to serve the following purposes:
Organization and Manpower Planning: It is helpful in organization planning, for it defines labour needs in concrete terms and coordinates the activities of the work force, and clearly divides duties and responsibilities;
Recruitment and Selection: By indicating the specific job requirements of each job (i.e. the skills and knowledge), it provides a realistic basis for the hiring, training, placement, transfer and promotion of personnel. “Basically, the goal is to match the job requirements with a worker’s aptitude, abilities and interests”. It also helps in charting the channels of promotion and in showing lateral lines of transfer;
Wage and Salary Administration: By indicating the qualification required for doing a specified job and the risks and hazards involved in its performance, it helps in salary and wage administration. Job analysis is used as a foundation for job evaluation;
Job Re-Engineering: Job Analysis provides information, which enables us to change jobs in order to permit their being managed by personnel with specific characteristics and qualification.
Employee Training and Management Development: Job Analysis provides the necessary information to the management of training and development programmes. It helps to determine the content and subject matter of in training courses. It also
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helps in checking application information, interviewing, weighing test results, and in checking references.
Performance Appraisal: It helps in establishing clear cut standards which may be compared with the actual contribution of each individual;
Health and Safety: It provides an opportunity for identifying hazardous conditions and unhealthy environmental factors so that corrective measures may b taken to minimize and avoid the possibility of accidents.
Employee Orientation: Effective job orientation cannot be accomplished without a clear understanding of the job requirements. The duties and responsibilities of a job must be clearly defined before a new employee can be taught how to perform the job.
Utilizing Personnel: Job Analysis information can help both employees and managers, pinpoint the root of a problem if employee functions are not adequate.
In sum, it may be noted that job analysis is a systematic procedure for securing and reporting the information, which defines a specific job.
Steps in Job Analysis/Process The major steps to be followed in carrying out job analysis in an organization can be described as follows:
Step 1: Studying job vis a vis the organization: Review the available Background information through organization workflow or process charts. Studies the job inter relationships. Often, a restructuring, down sizing, merger, or rapid growth will initiate this review.
Step 2: Selection of uses of job analysis information: Be selective regarding the future uses of job analysis. The employee or the manager may request a job analysis to determine the appropriate compensation, but they also be interested in formally documenting changes in recruitment, placement and training for a particular job.
Step 3: Identify the “job” to be analyzed: it is always advisable to choose flow representative and key positions for job analysis, thus avoiding unnecessary time and financial expenditure.
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Step 4: collection of Job Analysis data: manager should consider using a number of different methods of data collection because it is unlikely that any one method will provide all the necessary information needed. Three of the most popular form of data collection is:
Observation of tasks and behavior with the job incumbent i.e. both physical and mental activities;
Interviews;
Questionnaires and checklists;
Step 5: Develop a Job Description: Highlight the major tasks, pertaining to effective job performance through the written description;
Step 6: Develop a Job Specification: Transcript the information obtained after step 4 highlight what personal qualities, trait, skills, background is necessary for optimal job performance.
Job Performance
Data Collection methods
Observation
Degree of
Interview
interaction
Critical incident technique
with
Questionnaires
personal
Diary method Training material Dictionary of occupation
Step 7: Review and update of information: If no major changes have occurred in the organization, then a complete review of all jobs should be performed every three years.
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Review & Update of information
Develop a job specification
Develop a job description
Collection of job analysis data
Identify the job to be analyzed
Selection of uses of job analysis information
Studying job vis a vis the organisation Contents of Job Analysis
A job Analysis provides the following information:
1. Job Identification; 2. Significant characteristics of a job; 3. What the typical worker does; 4. Which materials and equipment of a worker uses; 5. How a job is performed; 6. Required personnel attributes; 7. Job relationship.
It is obvious from the foregoing that a job analysis is usually a clear indication of a job description and job specification. Purpose of job analysis: To assist man power planning. To assist recruitment and selection. To assist equipment and facilities required for each job.
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To determine qualification & experience required for each holder. To set up production standard. To draw up training & development programme. To provide guidelines for promotion & transfers. To establish responsibility, delegate authority and fix accountability. To settle grievance on assignment of jobs or fixing compensations. To design working environment based on ergonomics. To assist work study and work measurement. Content of Job analysis:1. Job identification:- Its title, code number if any. 2. Distinctive or significant characteristics of the job;- its location, setting, supervison, hazards & discomforts. 3. What a typical work does: Specific operations and tasks make up of assignment, the time limits of the job, the nature of a job- simple or complex the responsbility for the property etc. 4. What materials & equipments a worker uses:- Metals, plastics, yarns, milling machines, punch presses etc. 5. How a job is performed:- Nature of operation- lifting handling, cleaning, washing, feeding, removing, drilling, driving. 6. Required personal attributes:- Experince, training, apprenticeship, physical strngth, coordination, physcial demand, mental capabilities, aptitudes, social skills. STEPS IN JOB ANALYSIS: The fundamental process of jobs analysis involves five steps:a. Collection of information:First of all an overview of a job, it relation to other jobs, and its requirements for competent performance are collected. This information can be had from organization charts, job specifications and job description. b. Selection of representative position:The analysis of job would be time consuming and hence some sample, representative position is usually considered for the people. c. Collection of job data:This includes information regarding the features of a job, required employee qualification and the experience. This can be obtained from the employees who actually perform a job. d. Developing job description:The information collected above can be developed into a job description. Job
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description is a document that describes the main characteristics of the job and required qualification & experience on the part of the incumbents. e. Developing a job specification:It is through the job description, the job specification is derived. The job specification describes the qualifications of a person trying to occupy a specific position.
TECHNIQUES OR METHODS OF JOB ANALYSIS:1. Job performance:With this approach, an analyst actually dies the job under study to get first hand exposure to what it demands. 2. Observation method:Here the analyst keenly observed the work connected with job. The advantage of this method is that it is a direct method. Demerits:1. Here the employee become conscious & his performance may be best or worst according to this attitude towards such studies. Either way it distorts the date. ii.In certain job, observation method is impossible . Example are managerial job, R & D word:2. Recording methods:Here the worker is assigned the responsibility of recording his activities during the performance of his job. Advantages:1. it gives firs hand information. Disadvantages:1. The attitude of the woldr 2. His record do not contain information such as work environment, tools & equipment’s , workers r/s with supervisor. 3. Interview Techniques:Interview can be conducted individually or collectively by the process of interview differing viewpoints are collected and collated. This methods gives better accuracy . The main disadvantage is it consumes more time. 5. Critical Indicate:-
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These are collection of brief actual report that illustrate particularly effective or ineffective worker behaviours. Structures Questionnaires:These questionnaires list tasks, behaviors(Negotiating , co-ordinating, using both hands) or both. One of the most popular structured questionnaires is the position analysis questionnaires(PAQ). The PAQ is a behavior oriented job analysis questionnaires. It consists of 194 items that fall into the following categories.
Information input-where and how the worker gets the information to do her or his job.
Mental processes – The reasoning, planning & decision making is involved in the job.
Work output- physical activities as well as the tasks or devices used.
Job context – physical or social
Other job characteristics-Work continuity , responsibility.
Conference method:This is a method of exchanging ideas & gathering information with the help of experts & supervisors. Conference become the platform for eliciting expert opinions by probing questions and through open discussion.
COMPONENTS OF JOB ANALYSIS:a. Job description. b. Job specifications. A. Job description:Job description as a written record of the duties, responsibilities and requirements of a particular job. It details the tasks of behaviors associated with performance of the job. It provides both organization information (location in structure, authority) and functional information (what the work is) FORMAT OF JOB DESCRIPTION XYZ & Co. File No Ref No. Job file: Programmer
Code no. 474
Position:
Job No. 103
Job
Office Assistant Reporting to: office Family: Clerk
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Superintendent Supervision: Trainees
Grade:1
Date:
Functions:
Create, process, store & retrieve computer date.
Control, collect, summarizes & supplies information as directed.
Conduct training & evaluation & computer operators under training
II. Equipment tools: PCS type 286,386,486 Printers Dot Matrix & Laser Calculator, Xerox machine III. Job Characteristics:
Skilled operation of Pc’s printer, Calculator & Xerox machine
Through in computer operations like data entry, computations, compiling, commands, WordStar operation
Continuous & Occasional extra hours.
Communication skill.
IV. Work environment:
Inside A/c rooms
8 hours shift 6 days in a week
Occasional overtime
Occasional travel.
Group working 5 to 10 persons.
Nature of supervision – Limited to functional & not administrative – practice to trainee. JOB SPECIFICATION: In state the employee’s characteristics (knowledge & skill) inferred to be necessary for performance. It translated the job descriptions in terms of the human qualification, which are required for a successful performance of a job.
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Demographic
Nationality: Indian Age: 30 yrs Sex: male or female
Educational qualification: 1. Graduate 2. PG/Diploma/Certificate in computer operation (well versed in WordStar & COBOL)
Experience: - Min 1yrs experience preferably in PC 286, 386, 486. Ability: -
Physical: - Healthy Mental: - good with fingers, analytical reasoning. Special: - command in English (Teaching (training HR skills)
Potential making & capacity to take higher responsibilities career path. Next promotion as system analyst in 2 yrs
JOB ANALYSIS A process of obtaining all pertinent facts about the job
Job description A statement contains such items as
Job specification It contains items such as
Job title
* Education
Locality
* Experience
Summary duties
* Training
Statement of work
* Skills
Tools & equipment’s
* special attitudes
Responsibilities
* Initiative
Qualification
* Responsibility
Working conditions
* Analyzing and judgement ability
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What do you meant by Job design It is the division of total task to be performed into the manageable and efficient units, positions, departments and divisions and to provide for their proper integration. The subdivision of work is both on a horizontal scale – with different tasks across the organisation being performed by different people and on the vertical scale, in which higher level of the organisation are responsible for the supervision of more people, the co-ordination of sub-groups, more complex planning etc.
EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OR STEPS INVOLVED IN HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING:
Deciding goals or objectives
Estimating future organisational structure and man power requirements
Auditing hr
Planning job requirements and job descriptions and
Developing a human resource plan.
Job analysis:
Each task is described in detail. Job analysis is a procedure and a tool for determining the specified tasks, operations and requirements of each job.
“It is a process of getting information about jobs, specially what the worker does, how he gets it done, why does it, kill, education and training required, relation to other jobs; physical demand; environmental conditions. In other words, it refers to the anatomy of the job.
It is a complete study of job, embodying every known and determinable factor including the duties and responsibilities involved in its performance, the conditions under which the performance is carried on, the nature of the task, the qualities required in the worker, and such conditions of employment as pay, hour, opportunities and privileges. It also emphasis the relation of one job to others in the organisation.
Recruitment
Successful human resource planning should identify our human resource needs. Once we know these needs, we still want to do something about meeting them. The next step in the acquisition function, therefore, is recruitment. This activity makes it possible for us to acquire the number and types of people necessary to ensure the continued operation of the Organisation.
Recruiting is the discovering of potential candidates for actual or anticipated organizational vacancies or from other perspective, it is a linking activity- bringing together those with jobs to fill and those seeking jobs.
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“ Recruitment a process to discover the sources of manpower to meet the requirements of the staffing schedule and to employ effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate numbers to facilitate effective selection of an efficient working force” Yoder & others “It is a process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating and encouraging them to apply for jobs in an Organisation. It is often termed positive in that it stimulates people to apply for jobs to increase the “hiring” ratio i.e. the no. Of applicants for a job.” Flippo
Technically speaking, the function of recruitment precedes the selection function and it includes only finding, developing the sources of prospective employees and attracting them to apply for jobs in an organization, whereas the selection is the process of finding out the most suitable candidate to the job out of the candidates attracted (recruited). Objectives of recruitment:
To attract people with multi dimensional skills and experience that suit the present and future organizational strategies;
To induct outsiders with a new perspective to lead the company;
To infuse fresh blood at all levels of the Organisation;
To develop an organizational culture that attracts competent people to the company;
To search or head hunt/ head pouch people whose skills fit the company’s values;
To devise methodologies for assessing psychological traits;
To seek out non-conventional development grounds of talent;
To search for talent globally and not just with in the company;
To design entry pay that competes on quality but not on quantum;
To anticipate and find people for positions that does not exist yet.
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Fig. 1:Recruiting and other Human Resource Management activities
Human Resource Planning
Recruiting
Job Applications
Selection
Which provides new employees for
Orientation; Training/ Development; Etc. Factors affecting Recruitment There are a number of factors that affect recruitment. These are broadly classified in to two categories: 1. Internal Factors; 2. External Factors.
External Factors: The external factors include supply of and demand for human resources, employment opportunities and /or unemployment rate, labour market conditions, political and legal requirement and govt. Policies, social factors, information systems etc. External factors: Socio economic factors; Supply and demand factors; Employment rate; Labour market conditions; Political, legal and governmental factors; Information systems. Internal Factors: The internal factors include the company’s pay package including salary, fringe benefits and incentives, quality of work life, organizational culture, career planning, growth opportunities, size of the company, company’s product and services, company’s growth rate, role of trade unions and cost of recruitment.
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Internal factors: Company’s pay package; Quality of worklife; Organizational culture; Career planning and growth; Company’s size; Company’s products and services; Geographical spread of the company’s operations; Company’s growth rate; Role of trade unions; Cost of recruitment; Company’s name and fame.
External Environmental Influences: The union; Govt. Requirements, regulations and laws; Economic conditions; Composition of the labour force; Location of the Organisation. HRM activities:
Equal employment opportunities; Job analysis; Recruitment; Planning; Selection; Training and development; Career planning and development; Benefits and services; Discipline; Labor relations; Safety.
Internal Environmental Influences: People
Strategy; Goals; Organizational Culture; Nature of the task; Work Group; Leader’s style andEffectiveness experience. Criteria: Performance; Abilities; Satisfaction; Attitudes Absenteeism; Preferences; Turnover; Motivation; Scrap rates; Personality. Grievance rates; Organisation End Accident rates. Results; Competitive products; Competitive services.
Sources of Recruitment
Recruitment is more likely to achieve its objectives if recruiting sources reflect the type of position to be filled. Sources are those where prospective employees are available like employment exchanges while techniques are those, which stimulate the prospective employees to apply for jobs like nomination by employees, advertising, promotion etc. Certain recruiting sources are more effective than others for filling certain types of jobs are.
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The sources of recruitment are broadly classified in to internal sources and external sources.
Internal Sources: are the sources within organizational pursuits. It includes (a) Present permanent employees; (b) present temporary/ casual employees; (c) retrenched or retired employees; (d) dependents or deceased, disabled, retired and present employees; (e) Promotions; (f) Transfers.
Present Permanent Employees: Organizations consider the candidates from this source for higher-level jobs due to: (1) availability of most suitable candidates for jobs relatively or equally to the external source, (2) to meet the trade unions demands; (3) to the policy of the Organisation to motivate the present employees.
Present temporary or Casual employees: Organizations find this source to fill the vacancies relatively at lower levels owing to the availability of suitable candidates or trade and pressures or in order to motivate them on the present job.
Retrenched or Retired employees: Generally a particular Organisation retrenches the employees due to lay-off. The Organisation takes of the candidates for employment from the retrenched employees due to obligation, trade union pressure and the like. Sometimes the organizations prefer to re employ their retired employees as a token of their loyalty to the Organisation or to postpone some inter personal conflicts for promotion etc.
Dependents of Deceased, Disabled, Retired and Present Employees: Some organizations with a view to developing the commitment and loyalty of build up image provide employment to the dependent(s) of deceased, disabled and present employees. Such organizations find this source as an effective source of recruitment.
Promotions: Most of the internal candidates would be stimulated to take up higher responsibilities and express their willingness to be engaged in the higher level jobs if management gives them the assurance that they will be promoted to the next higher level.
Transfers: Employees will be stimulated to work in the new sections or places if management wishes to transfer them to the places of their choice.
Why do organizations prefer Internal Source?
Internal recruitment can be used as a technique of motivation; Morale of the employees can be improved; Suitability of the internal candidates can be judged better than the external candidates as “known devils are better than unknown angles”;
Loyalty, commitment, a sense of belongings and security of the present employees can be enhanced;
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Employee’s psychological needs can be met by providing an opportunity for advancement;
Employees economic needs for promotion, higher income can be satisfied; Cost of selection can be minimized; Cost of training, induction, orientation, period of adaptability to the Organisation can be reduced;
Social responsibility towards employees may be discharged; Stability of employment can be ensured. Why organizations don’t prefer internal sources?
It often leads to inbreeding and discouraging new blood from entering in an Organisation; There are possibilities that internal source may “dry up”, and it may be difficult to find the requisite personnel from within an Organisation;
Since the learner does not know more than the lecturer does, no innovations worth the name can be made. Therefore, on jobs which require original thinking (such as advertising, style designing and basic research), this practice is not followed;
As promotion is based on seniority, the danger is that really capable hands may not be chosen. The likes and dislikes of the management may also play an important role in the selection of personnel.
External Sources: External Sources are those sources, which are outside the organizational pursuits. These sources include: (1) Campus Recruitment; (2) Private Employment Agencies/ Consultants; (3) Public Employment Exchanges; (4) Professional Associations; (5) Data Banks; (6) Casual Applications; (5) Similar Organizations; (6) Trade Unions; (7) Advertisements; (8) Employee Referrals.
Campus Recruitment: different types of organizations like industries, business firms, service organizations, social or religious organizations can get inexperienced candidates of different types from various educational institutions like colleges and universities imparting education in science, commerce, arts, engineering and technology, agriculture. Medicines from the training institutes. Most of the universities and institutes imparting technical education in various disciplines provide facilities for campus recruitment and selection.
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Fig.3 process of Campus Recruitment:
Identify campuses to recruit on
Form manpower addition plan
Secure place in the queue on each campus
Conduct pre-placement Tasks
Check application form of candidates Conduct written test for knowledge
Interview intensively for competence Identify suitable candidates
Cross check for inconsistencies
Stay in touch with those who accept
Advice through final year’s specialization
Make job offers Provide support to ease stress
Continue informal interaction
Employment Agencies: These agencies or consultants perform the recruitment function on the behalf of a client company by charging fee. Line mangers are relieved from recruitment functions so they can concentrate on their operational activities and recruitment functions are entrusted to a private agency or consultants. These agencies are also called Executive Search Companies.
Public Employment Agencies: The govt. set up Public Employment exchanges in the country to provide information about vacancies to the candidates and to help the organizations in finding out suitable candidates. Public sector and private sector industries have to depend on public employment exchanges for the specified vacancies.
Professional Organizations: Professional organizations maintain complete data of their members and provide the same to various organizations on requisition. They also act as an exchange between their members and recruiting firms in exchanging information, clarifying doubts etc.
Data Banks: The management can collect the bio data of the candidate from different sources like employment exchanges, educational Training Institutes, candidates etc. and
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feed them in the computer. It will become another source and the company can get the particulars as and when they need.
Casual Applicant: Depending upon the image of the Organisation, its prompt response, participation of the Organisation in the local activities, level of unemployment, candidates apply casually for the jobs through mail or hand over the applications in Personnel Department. This would be a suitable source for temporary and lower level jobs.
Trade Unions: Generally, unemployed or underemployed persons or employees seeking change in employment put a word to the trade union leader with a view to getting suitable employment due to latter’s intimacy with management.
Similar Organizations: Generally, experienced candidates are available in organizations producing similar products or are engaged in similar business. The management can get most suitable candidates from this source. This would be the most effective source for executive positions and for newly established organizations or diversifies or expanded organizations.
Advertising: Advertising is widely accepted technique of recruitment, though it mostly provides one-way communication. It provides the candidates in different sources, the information about the job and company and stimulates them to apply for jobs. It includes advertising through different media like newspapers, magazines of all kinds, radios, television etc.
Employee referrals: Friends and relatives of present employees are also a good source from which employees may be drawn. When the labour market is very tight, large employers frequently offer their employee’s bonuses or prizes for any referrals that are hired and stay with the company for a specific length of time.
Modern sources or techniques of Recruitment:
WALK IN: The busy organizations and the rapid changing companies do not find time to perform various functions of recruitment. Therefore, they advise the potential candidates to attend for an interview directly and without a prior application on a specified place. The suitable candidates among the interviewees will be selected for appointment after screening the candidates through tests and interviews.
Consult In: The busy organizations encourage the potential job seekers to approach them personally and consult them regarding the jobs. The companies select the suitable candidates from among such candidates through the selection process.
Head Hunting: The companies request the professional organizations to search for the best candidates particularly for the senior executive positions. The professional organizations search for the most suitable candidates and advise the company regarding the filling up of the positions. headhunters are also called search consultants.
Body shopping: Professional organizations and the hi tech training institutes develop the pool of human resources for the possible employment. The prospective employers
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contact these organizations to recruit the candidates. Otherwise, the organizations themselves approach the prospective employees to place their human resources. These institutions are called body shoppers and these activities are known as body shopping.
Business Alliances: Business alliances like acquisitions, mergers, and takeovers help in getting human resources. In addition, the companies do also have alliances in sharing their human resources on ad-hoc basis.
Tele Recruitment: The technological revolution in the Tele communication helped the organizations to use Internet as a source of recruitment. Organizations advertise the vacancies through the World Wide Web (www) Internet. The job seekers send their applications through e-mail or Internet.
In short: successful and effective recruitment programme necessitates having certain attributes such as:
A well defined recruitment policy;
A proper organizational structure;
A well laid down procedure for locating potential job seekers;
A suitable method and technique for tapping and utilizing these candidates;
A continuous assessment of effectiveness of recruitment programme and incorporation of suitable modifications from time to time to improve the effectiveness of the programme;
An ethically sound and fool proof practice telling an applicant all about the job and its position, the firm to enable the candidate judiciously decide whether or no to apply and join the firm, if selected.
EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RECRUITMENT POLICY: 1. All selections must be made at a central place of the enterprise. 2. The number of employees to be recruited must be determined well in advance according to the need of enterprise. 3. No such assurance should be given at the time of recruitment. Which may not be followed later on. 4. The quality experience, terms of service, salaries etc, must be determined well in advance. 5. Higher posts must be filled by promotions as far as possible. 6. The abilities of employees must be according to the need of their jobs. 7. The selection of employees must be strictly in accordance with the merit. 8. A senior, responsible and reliable officer completes the whole process of recruitment.
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9. Officers must authorize new posts. 10. Recruitment policy must be fair and flexible.
EXPLAIN THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION: 1. Observation of government rules and regulations. 2. Policy of recruitment in accordance with the objects of enterprise 3. Clear policy of recruitment 4. Recruitment by a committee 5. Impartiality 6. Flexibility 7. Job security 8. Opportunity of development to the employees WHAT ARE ALL THE OBJECTIVES OF INDUCTION: 1. Provide necessary information about the enterprise. 2. Communicate rights, duties and responsibilities. 3. Introduction with other employees 4. To develop the feeling of confidence 5. Develop the feeling of loyalty and integrity.
EXPLAIN THE FACTORS AFFECTING RECRUITMENT: Internal factors like
Recruitment policy
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING strategy
Size of organization (employees)
Cost of recruitment
And growth and expansion plans of the organisation.
External factors like
Supply and demand of specific skills in the labour market
Political and legal considerations – such as reservation of jobs for scs, sts and so on
Company’s image
Perception of the job seekers about the company.
“Recruitment policy is concerned with quantity and qualifications of man power”.
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METHODS OR TECHNIQUES OF RECRUITMENT: 1. Direct method: These include sending, traveling recruiters to educational and professional institutions, employee’s contracts with public and manned habits. E.G., DCM, TATA’S ETC.
2.Indirect method: Involve mostly advantage in newspaper, on the radio, in trade and professional journal, technical magazines and brouchers. E.G., THE HINDU – WEDNESDAY NEWSPAPER.
3. Third party methods:
It includes private employment agencies
o
State or public employment agencies
o
Shops
o
Colleges and professional institutions
o
Professional recruiting organizations
o
Indoctrination seminars for colleges professors
o
Employee referrals (friends and relatives of present employees)
o
Trade unions
o
Causal labour or applicant at the gate
o
Unsolicited applications
o
Voluntary organizations
o
Computer data banks.
Psychological testing
Interviews
Placement and Induction
WHAT DO YOU MEANT BY STAFFING OR DEFINE STAFFING Personnel management is concerned with this aspect of the enterprise. Staffing is a part of personnel management. This function pertains to the recruitment, selection, development, training and compensation of subordinate managers. Staffing function is continuous “Setting up of internal structures of roles and positions”.
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“Filling position in the organizational structure through identifying work force requirements, inventorying the work force, recruitment, selection, placement, promotion, appraisal, compensation and training of people. “The process involved in identifying, assessing, placing, evaluating and directing individuals at work”.
FACTORS AFFECTING RECRUITMENT:
Endogenous factors
Exogenous factors
Endogenous factors: These are the factors within the organization. A few of these factors attract people to organization; others will deter them for applying.
Image of organization: -
Good image of organization naturally attract potential candidate. Good image is built Up by a number of actions by management, which can good, will from the public. Example: social orientation in business, good public relation exercise, public services like building roads, public parks, and hospitals schools. Inaccessibility, pollution and unresponsiveness can bring about poor image, which deter person from the organization.
Image of Job: Good public image of job is build up by better compensation & working conditions.
Organizational policies experience on promotions & career path can also make the job attractive.
Size & growth potential of the organization: Present size & rate of growth of the organization are important factors in attracting
right talents to the organization. Exogenous factors: These are the factors, which are external to the organization and have decisive influence tot he recruitment process.
Demographic factors: - These are very important aspects affecting recruitment. Some of these are
1. Biological factors: - this includes data relating to sex ratio, age group, educational level etc 2. Economic factors: - Economic conditions of people, the per capita income, disposable income of people, and proximity of other organization offering employment.
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Industrialization: - Industrialization within geographic are and beyond, existence of cluster of industries and geographic concentration etc will have performed influence.
Labour market: “ The most striking features in the Indian Labour market is the apparent abundance of Labour… yet the right type of Labour is not too easy to find.
-IIPM
INTERNET RECRUITMENT: The technological revolution in the Tele communication helped the organizations to use Internet as a source of recruitment. Organizations advertise the vacancies through the World Wide Web (www) Internet. The job seekers send their applications through email or Internet.
EMPLOYEE TESTING AND SELECTION SELECTION Selection procedure is concerned with securing relevant information about an applicant. The objective of the selection decision is to choose the individual who can most successfully perform the job from the pool of qualified candidates.
The selection procedure is the system of functions and devices adopted in a given company to ascertain whether the candidate’s specifications are matched with the job specifications and requirements or not. The selection procedure cannot be effective until and unless: 1. Recruitment’s of the job to be filled, have been clearly specified (Job analysis, etc. 2. Employee specifications (physical, mental, social, behavioral, etc.) have been clearly specified; 3. Candidates for screening have been attracted.
SELECTION PROCEDURE There is no standard selection process that can be followed by all companies in all the areas. Companies may follow different selection techniques or methods depending upon the size of the company, nature of the business, kind and no. Of persons to be employed, govt. regulations to be followed etc.
Application Form
Written Examination
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Preliminary Interview
Group Discussion
Tests
Final Interview
Medical Examination Reference Checks
Line Manager’s Decisions
Application Form: Also known as application blank. This technique is widely accepted for securing information from the prospective candidates. It can also be used as a device to screen the candidates at the preliminary stage. Information is generally required on the following items in the application forms: a) Personal background information; b) Educational attainments; c) Work experiences; d) Salary; e) Personal details; f)
References.
Written Examination: The organizations have to conduct examination for the qualified candidates after they are screened on the basis of the application blanks so as to measures the candidate’s ability in arithmetical calculations, to know the candidates attitude towards the job, to measure the candidate’s aptitude, reasoning, knowledge in various disciplines, general knowledge and English language.
Preliminary Interview: The Preliminary interview is to solicit necessary in formation from the prospective applicants and to assess the applicant’s suitability to the job. This step is useful as a process of eliminating the undesirable and unsuitable candidates.
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Group Discussions: The technique of group discussion is used in order to secure further information regarding the suitability of the candidates for the job. Group discussion is a method where groups of the successful applicants are brought around a conference table and are asked to discuss either a case study or a subject matter.
Tests: The next stage in the selection process is conducting different tests. The objective of tests is to solicit further information to assess the employee suitability to the job. The important tests are: TYPES OF TESTS
Aptitude Test: a) Intelligence test b) Mechanical Test c) Psychomotor Test d) Clerical Test
Achievement Test: a) Job Knowledge Test; b) Work Sample Test.
Situational Test: a) Group Discussion; b) In Basket.
Interest Test:
Personality Test: a) Objective Test; b) Projective Test.
Aptitude Tests: These tests measure whether an individual has the capacity or latent ability to learn a given job if given adequate training. Aptitudes can be divided in to general and mental ability or intelligence or specific aptitudes such as mechanical, clerical, manipulative capacity etc. These are: 1. Intelligence Tests: These tests in general measure intelligence quotient of a candidate. In detail these tests measures capacity for comprehension, reasoning, word fluency, verbal comprehension, numbers, memory and space. 2. Mechanical Tests: These tests measure the capacities of spatial visualization, perceptual speed and knowledge of mechanical matter. 3. Psycho meter Tests: These tests measure abilities like manual dexterity, motor ability and eye hand coordination of candidates. 4. Clerical Aptitude: Measure specific capacities involved in office work, items of this test include spelling, computation, comprehension, copying, word measuring etc.
Achievement Tests: These tests are conducted when applicants claim to know something as these tests are concerned with what one has accomplished. These tests
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are more useful to measure the value of specific achievement when an Organisation wishes to employ experienced candidates. These are: 1. Job Knowledge Test: Under this test a candidate is tested in the knowledge of a particular job. 2. Work Sample Test: Under this test a portion of the actual work is given to the candidate as a test and the candidate asked to do it.
Situational Test: This test evaluates a candidate in a similar real life situation. In this test the candidate is asked either to cope with the situation or solve critical situation of the job.
1. Group Discussion: This test is administered through group discussion approach to solve a problem under which candidates are observed in the areas initiating, leading, proposing valuable ideas, conciliating skills, oral communicating skills, co-ordination and concluding skills. 2. In Basket Test: The candidate in this test is supplied with actual letters, telephone and telegraphic message, reports and requirements by various officers of the Organisation, adequate information about the job and Organisation. The candidate is asked to take decisions on various items based on the in basket information regarding requirements in the memoranda.
Interest Tests: These tests are inventories of the likes and dislikes of candidates in relation to work, job, occupations, hobbies and recreational activities.
Personality Tests: These tests prove deeply to discover clues to an individual’s value system, his emotional reactions, and maturity and characteristic mood.
1. Objective Test: most personality tests are objective tests as they are suitable for group testing and can be scored objectively. 2. Projective tests: Candidates are asked to project their own interpretation of certain standard situations basing on ambiguous pictures, figures etc., under these tests
Final Interview: Final Interview is usually followed by testing. This is the most essential step in the process of selection. In this step the interviewer matches the information abstained about the candidate through various means to the job requirements and to the information obtained through his own observation during interview.
Types Of Interview: Type
Type of questions Usual applications
Structured
Unstructured
A predetermined checklist if
Useful
for
questions, usually asked of all
especially when dealing with
applicants.
large number of applicants.
Few, if any, planned questions.
Useful when the interviewer
Questions are made up during
tries to probe personal details
the interview.
of the candidate to analyze why
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valid
results,
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they are not right for the job. Mixed
A combination of structured
A realistic approach that yields
and
questions,
comparable answers plus in
what,
is
depth insights.
to
Useful
which
unstructured resembles
usually done in practice.
Behavioral
Questions
limited
to
understand
applicant’s
reasoning
Evaluation is based on the
analytical
abilities
solution and approach of the
modest stress.
hypothetical
situations.
and under
applicant. Stress
A series of harsh, rapid-fire
Useful for stressful jobs, such
questions intended to upset the
as handling complaints.
applicant.
Medical Examination: Certain jobs require certain physical qualities like clear vision, perfect hearing, unusual stamina, tolerance of hard working conditions, clear tone etc. Medical examination reveals whether or not a candidate possesses these qualities.
Reference Checks: After completion of the final interview and medical examination, the personnel department will engage in checking references. Candidates are required to give the names of reference in their application forms. In case the reference check is from the previous employer, information for the following areas may be obtained. They are: job title, job description, period of employment, pay and allowances, gross emoluments, benefits provided, rate of absence, willingness of the previous employer to employ the candidate again etc.
Final decision by the line manager concerned: The line manager concerned has to make the final decision whether to select or reject the candidate after soliciting the required information through different techniques. A true understanding between the line managers and personnel mangers should be established to take proper decisions.
Employment: Thus, after taking the final decision the Organisation has to intimate the decision to the successful as well as unsuccessful candidates. The Organisation sends the appointment orders to the successful candidates either immediately or after sometime depending upon the time schedule. EFFECTIVE INTERVIEW
Selection policy Selection policy lays down the guidelines for those engaged in the selection process. Every organization has its own selection policy.
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Usually this list contains 1. Policy of entrusting responsibility of selection to centralized or decentralized agency department. 2. Policy on source either from within the organization, from outside or from both State whether the selection policy is based in either to
Fit a person to given job
Fit a job to a given person
3. In the case of fitting “ job to a person” differential testing policy must be laid down to conduct different types of test for each. Such policy requires the following
Re-structuring of testing methods, procedure and sequence
Re-design of job to suit the person
Examples are employment of handicap persons 4. Hire the best available person 5. Reject the poor candidate 6. Motivate the talented to join the organization 7. Avoid job pirating from other organizations 8. Dissuade “ job hopping” and “job shopping” by employees 9. No discrimination in selection based on cast, creed, or sex. 1. Avoid child labour.
Placement
When once the candidate reports for duty, the Organisation has to place him initially in that job for which he is selected. Immediately the candidate will be trained in various related jobs during the period of probation of training or trial. The Organisation, generally, decides the final placement after the initial training is over on the basis of candidate’s aptitude and performance during the training/probation period. Probation period generally ranges between six months and two years. If the performance is not satisfactory, the Organisation may extend the probation or ask the candidate to quit the job .If the employee performance during the probation period is satisfactory, his services will be regularized and he will be placed permanently on a job.
Fig. 6: Employee Placement Process Collect data about the employee Construct the employee’s profile Match between sub group profile and individual’s profile
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Compare sub-group profile to job family profile
Match between job family profiles and sub-group profiles
Assign the individuals to job family Assign the individual to specific job after further counseling and assessment
Placement is “the determination of the job to which an accepted candidate is to be assigned and his assignment to that job. It is a matching of what the supervisor has reason to think he can do with the job demands (job requirements), it is a matching of what he imposes (in strain, working conditions) and what he offers in the form of pay roll, companionship with others, promotional possibilities etc. It is not easy to match all factors to the new employee who is still unknown to many. So the new employee is placed as a probationer until the trial period is over.
SELECTION TESTS Tests are conducted in order to improve the selection decisions. Organization historically, relied considerably to a number of tests. Hugo Muster berg who is known as father of industrial psychology has provided the basis of psychological tests. Psychological tests were first introduced in US army during First World War for recruitment. This was a great success. This led to introduction of tests in selection in industries and business. Definition Tests are defined in the following words. “ A systematic procedure for comparing the behavior of two or more person”- Groonbach “ A sample of an aspect of an individual’s behavior, performance or attitude.” CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST: a. Assumption Usually following assumptions are made: 1. No two individuals are born alike. They differ from each other in their attributes like physical abilities and interests. 2. In addition to the above persons possessing different skills perform differently in their jobs. 3. Organization is capable of administering tests and predicting future behaviour / performance. b. Validity. Validity is the extent to which test score is able to predict the future performance correctly.
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There are five variations of validity.
Content validity’
Predictive validity
Concurrent validity
Construct validity
Criterion related validity
Content validity:
the content of test should truly and faithfully represent all attributes
required for the actual job. Predictive validity: this is the degree to which the test score is capable of predicting the performance of the candidate, actually on the job. Concurrent validity: this is the extent to which the test scores are related with performance in the job, measured simultaneously. Construct validity: it is most difficult. It refers to the extent to which test measure the psychological attributes like “emotional stability” and “intelligence”. Criterion-related validity: this is the degree to which a particular selection test accurately predicts the important elements of work behaviour. c) Reliability: reliability is the ability of tests to give consistent result. This is the repeatability of result of test while conducted on the same person at a number of occasions. d) Standardization: test must be administered under standard conditions. This will enable comparison between persons based on test score secured by such persons e) Objectivity: the tests are designed in such a manner that different individuals can not only understand the questions or the task in the same way but can even respond and score in similar manner. In other words subjectivity is eliminated.
TYPES OF SELECTION TESTS:
Aptitude test (proficiency test)
Achievement test (performance test)
Personality test
Interest test.
APTITUDE TEST This test is used to measure talent ability and potential capability of specific talent such as learning reasoning, mental ability and mechanical dexterity. Most common aptitude tests are Intelligence test: this test examines mental abilities such as verbal, reasoning, analytical ability, etc. one such test used in US army in second world war is known as the army general classification tests. It is also called as intelligent quotient, IQ= mental age / chronological age
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Mechanical aptitude test: in this test, the capacity of person to learn a particular mechanical type of work is checked. The parameters checked are spatial visualization, perceptual speed, manual dexterity and visual motor co-ordination Psychomotor test: Here applicants mental dexterity, control and coordination of muscles, are checked. ACHIEVEMENT TEST This test is conducted to measure the level of skill achieved either due to previous experience or due to training undergone Simulation test: (test ot measure knowledge)\ An office assistant is required to possess reasonable communication skill in oral and written forms. Applicants of such jobs are given written and oral tests. Work sampling test: (test to measure skill level) An applicant for typist job is given a typing test to ascertain his skill on typing work. Typing test is reproduction of a work situation. PERSONALITY TEST: Research studies show most employee fail mostly because of personality defects and not due to lack of aptitude or ability. Personality tests are used to assess an individual applicants motivation, adjustment to stresses, capacity to interpersonal relationships, and self-image. It is usually used to assess the following attributes.
Self confidence
Ambition
Decisiveness
Optimism
Patience
Fear
Distrust
There are three types of personality tests 1. Objective test: this is an objective paper-and-pencil type test. The attributes checked are self- confidence, neurotic tendencies, dominance-submission and self-sufficiency. 2. Projective test: this is for checking his motives, values, and personality. Usually some of the tests used are
Rorschach ink blot test
Thematic apperception test
California test of personality scale.
3. Situation test: this test is conducted to find out his behavioral pattern under stress and strain. Stress related to leadership situation is created and reaction of individual and groups are observed.
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INTEREST TEST In this case an attempt is made to find out in which type of job the candidate is best suited. This is also called vocational test. Fitting-person-to-job ahs become an important aspect of selection. Questions are asked on his likes, dislikes, hobbies, cultural activities and preferences, which through light into his interests or natural likings.
INTERVIEWS Interviews are widely used device for selection. This is a complex technique and its scope is very wide. It summarizes and integrates all information concerned with a candidate. It enables the organization to get a wholesome view of the candidate including his intelligence, personality, interest, aptitude, and attitude to the life. DEFINITIONS “ It is a method by which an idea about an applicant’s personality including his intelligence breadth of interest, and general attitudes towards life can be obtained by face-to-face contact.”
-Strauss And Sayles
“Interviewing is deliberate, active listening with a purpose to draw the other person out to discover, what he really wants to say and to give a chance to express himself freely” OBJECTIVES
It is the only way to see an applicant in action how he looks, his manner and his bearing
It is the only way to witness how he interacts, how he responds, his way of thinking and the effects of his personality on another
It is perhaps the best way to get at the “will do” features of performance- motivation, initiative, stability, perseverance, work habits, and judgments.
The so-called, “can do” aspect can be examined by application, test and reference checks
Some other views
To get an opportunity to judge an applicant’s qualifications and characteristics.
To establish a report between organizational personnel and applicant.
To promote goodwill towards the company
To get first hand information about the candidate.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS Structured interview/ patterned interview This is common method of interview. In this type necessary pre-planning work has been done to determine what information is required to be collected and how this is done. In other words, questions are predetermined and sequenced.
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Unstructured interview/ unstructured interview This is non-planned and non-formatted. Here the applicant is encouraged to talk freely on variety of subjects, including his views, on his aspirations, values, expectations, and judgment on contemporary topics including politics. This interview requires trained and qualified interviewer. Depth interview This is semi-structured. Here certain amount of planning is made to design and sequence questions to elicit required amount of information. Typical subjects discussed interviewed in such interview include life, educational career, previous experience, hobbies etc. Situation interview Here a group is interviewed instead of an individual. They are given a certain problem and asked to discuss among themselves and come out with an agreed plan of action for solving the problem. Here they will be watching the individual contribution and behavioral pattern of individuals. A lot of information on drive, motivation, attitude, leadership qualities and interpersonal relationships can be gathered. Stress interview In this case interviewers take a hostile posture-making candidate to take a defensive posture. Offensive action is through putting annoying and embarrassing questions and in rapid succession with occasional interruptions and demonstration of annoyance and intolerance. INDUCTION
Introducing the new employee who is designated as a probationer to the job, job location, surroundings, Organisation, organizational surroundings, various employees is the final step of employment process. This process is important because of the high turnover rate among the new employees compared to that among senior employees. This is mainly because of the problem of adjustment and adaptability to the new surroundings and environment. further absence of information, lack of knowledge about new Organisation, cultural gap, and behavioral variations, different levels of technology, variations in the requirements of the job and the Organisation also disturb the new employee. Induction is necessary as the newcomer feel insecure, shy, nervousness and disturbing. This situation leads to instability and turnover.
“Induction is the process of receiving and welcoming an employee when he first joins a company and giving him the basic information he needs to settle down quickly and happily and start work�.
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Lecture, handbook, film, group seminar are used to impart the information to new employees about the environment of the job and the Organisation in order make new employee acquaint himself with the following heads: 1. About the company; 2. About the department; 3. About the superiors, subordinates;
Objectives of Induction: I.
Putting the new employee at his ease;
II. Creating interest in his job and the company; III. Providing basic information about working arrangements; IV. Indicating the standards of performance and behavior expected of him. Making the employee feel that his job, however small, is, meaningful, that he is not a cog in the vast wheel; V. Informing him about training facilities; VI. Creating the feeling of social security; VII. Minimizing the reality shock which would be caused due to incompatibility caused between
the
employee
provides/offers
regarding
expectations pay,
and
benefits,
actually what status,
the
working
company conditions,
responsibility, opportunity for growth, innovations, creative ideas etc. Advantages of Induction I.
First impression matters a good deal and results in less turnover;
II. Newcomer adjusts himself to the work quickly, and it saves the time of the supervisor; III. Reduces employee dissatisfaction and grievances; IV. Develop a sense of belongings and commitment.
In general, productivity forms a measure of the output of goods and services to the input of labour, material and machinery. The more productive a sector, the better its competitive position will be, as its unit cost will be lower. With the increase in productivity, earnings will improve, raising the standard of living. Improving productivity does not mean working harder. Rather it means working effectively. It means getting more out of what is put in. It is doing better with what one has.
Dismissal
Dismissal is a termination of service of an employee as a punitive measure. This may occur either on account of unsatisfactory performance of misconduct. Persistent failure on the part
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of employee to perform up to the expectations or specified standard is considered as unsatisfactory performance. Willful violation of rules & regulation by the employee is treated as misconduct.
Dismissal is a drastic step seriously impairing the earnings and image of an employee. Therefore, dismissal as a measure should be resorted to with great care and caution. It must be justifies and duly supported by the just and sufficient cause. Before an employee is dismissed, he must be served advance notice to explain his position. the reasons for dismissal must be clearly made known to the employee.
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Unit- III TRAINING Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an individual for doing a particular job. In the present scenario training is increasingly viewed as a means of fostering the growth of the individual employee but as an integrated part of organizational growth. Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behaviour. It is application of knowledge. It gives people an awareness of the rules and procedures to guide their behavior. It attempts to improve their performance on the current job or prepare them for an intended job. Development is a related process. It covers not only those activities, which improve job performance, but also those, which bring about growth of the personality; help individual in the progress towards maturity and actualization of their potential capacities so that they become not only good employees but better man and women.
Definition Of Training: “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job.” Edwin. B.Flippo
“Training is the organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and \or skill for definite purpose”. Dale S.Beach It is the training that bridges the gap between Job requirements and employees present specifications. Training is a process by which attitudes, skills and abilities of employees to perform specific jobs are increased. Thus, it can be concluded that training is a process that tries to improve skills or add to the existing level of knowledge so that the employee is better equipped to do his present job, or to mould him to be fit for a higher job involving higher responsibilities. In other words, training is a learning experience that seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his/her ability to perform his job.
Distinction between training and development Training is a short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which non-managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. Development is a long-term educational process utilizing a systematic and organised procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoritical knowledge for general purpose.
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Training refers only to instruction in technical and mechanical operations, while development refers to philosophical and theoretical educational concepts. Training is designed for non-mangers while development is designed for managerial personnel. Training and development differs in four ways:
“What” is learned;
“Who” is learning;
“Why” such learning takes place;
“When” learning occurs.
Learning Dimensions
Training
Development
Who?
Non Managerial Personnel
Managerial Personnel
What?
Technical and Managerial operations
Theoretical
and
ideas Why?
Specific job related
General knowledge
When?
Short Term
Long Term
Objectives Of Training
The primary purpose of training is to establish a sound relationship between the worker and his job –the optimum man task relationship.
To upgrade skills and prevent obsolescence.
To develop healthy and constructive attitude
To prepare employees for future assignments
The Focus Of Training Is On Three Broad Objectives:
To bring about attitudinal change.
To bring about quality to be the very top of agenda.
To savagely cut waste.
Importance And Benefits Of Training Training is important to develop the employees and make them suitable for the job. Training constitutes significant part of management control. Benefits of training to following are: Organization Level:
It leads to improve profitability
It improves the job knowledge, skills and morale of the work force
It helps in organizational development and preparation of guidelines for work
It enhances quality of work and appropriate climate for growth
It supports in improving organizational communication
Individual Level:
It help in encouraging and achieving self development
It provides a sense of growth in learning
It increases job satisfaction and recognition
It helps the individual in effective problem solving
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TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: “Training is not something that is done once to new employees. It is used continuously in every well-run establishment. Every time you get some one to work in the way you want it done, you are trained. Every time you give directions or discuss a procedure, you are training”.
Benefits: Better performance Lesser training period Elimination on of wastage Uniformity procedures Elimination of misfits Economy in material handling Less supervision High morale Reduction in labour turnover Removes fear of the employees.
A Model Training Program Should Encompass The Following Points:
Management
overall
responsibility
right
from
planning
stage
to
successful
implementation.
The companies approach to the training function, which would include guidance for design and execution as well as dissemination of relevant information to all employees.
Provision for annual or periodic surveys in order to ensure that training are need based and development oriented.
Identification of priority area since resources are always scarce and programs must be prioritized according to felt needs.
What are all the objective of training 1. To establish the feelings loyalty among the workers and employees towards the enterprise and its management. 2. To increase the morale of employees. 3. To enable the workers and employees to do their work in the best possible manner. 4. To make them efficient to do their work in the changed circumstances. 5. To fulfill the desires of development and promotion of the employees. EDUCATION: Education is a learning process, intended for the twin process of improving intellectual abilities and moral character. Intellectual abilities involve development of capacities of
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objective analysis and synthesis. Moral character involves development of socially acceptable value system, behavior, maturity and attitude.
Education is concerned with increasing the general knowledge and understanding of the employees’ total environment.
- Tripathi
Training “Training is a short term process, which is “ application specific” intended for improving skills or knowledge which has immediate application to the benefit of individual as well as the organisation.” “ Training is the art of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job”
-tripathi
development Development is the process of transition of an employee from a lower level of ability, skill and knowledge to that of higher level. This transition is influenced by education, training, work experience and environment. “Development covers not only those activities which improve job performance, but also those which bring about growth of personality, help individual in the progress towards maturity and actualization of this potential capacities, so that they become not only good employees but better men and women.” -Memoria Training and development differs in four ways, a) Who is learning? b) What is learned? c) Why such learning takes place? d) When learning occurs? Learning dimension
Training
Development
Who?
Non-managerial personnel
Managerial personnel
What?
Technical and managerial
Theoretical and conceptual
operations
ideas
Why?
Specific job related purpose
General knowledge
When?
Short term
Long term
Activity
Focus
Training
Learning of present job
Education
Learning of other related jobs
Development
Learning not related to any
Purpose Improved performance on the present job of the employee. Preparation of the employee for related jobs in not too distant future. General growth of employees
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specific present or future job
Elements of HRD Climate – OCTAPACE Openness
–
a climate congenial for free expression of ideas and opinions
Collaboration
-
a tendency of being generally helpful to each other, to
accept Interdependency and work as a team. Trust
-
a basic faith in each other
Authenticity
-
Genuine communication process convertible into action, People are encouraged to take initiative
Autonomy Confrontation
-
people have a fair degree of freedom of activity problems are faced rather than postponed for fear of some Body or in anticipation of hurting somebody.
Organizational Role clarity
having pride in being part of organization -
employee’s growth aspirations are taken care of.
Career development Job satisfaction
Employee is clear about his role and function
-
A favourable feeling with which employees view their roles.
Identification Of Training Needs
Organizational Analysis: - It involves a study of entire organization in terms of analysis of objectives, utilization of resource, environmental scanning and organizational climate analysis.
Task/Role Analysis: - It involves a careful study of jobs within in an organization in a further effort to define specific content of training. It requires systematic collection of data about the job, role or position and what type of behavior, skill, and knowledge the jobholder must have to perform certain specified tasks.
Manpower Analysis: - It is conducted through appropriate observation, supervisory evaluation. This analysis is undertaken to know about the specific areas in which training is needed
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:
TYPES OF TRAINING :
INDUCTION ON TRAINING: ~ At introducing a new employee to other employees and to the enterprise. Introduction to the whole enterprise and personnel. JOB TRAINING: ~
Given to the workers in the handling of machines,
equipments and materials. Workers become more proficient and operations becomes most facilities. CRAFT TRAINING: ~
May be given to the employees in different crafts by an
experienced crafts man. Experiences in craft tools. TRAINING FOR PROMOTIONS: ~
To seek the bigger designations and
promotions the employees are send to special training. These types of training are called training for promotions. The training may be related to the personality development, communicational improvement, technical seminars Etc., REFRESHER TRAINING: ~ –
Refresher courses are organized for existing employees for
giving them training in the latest development in the field of technology and science. Technical Seminars, some type of orientation programmes, new equipment model training Etc., COMPONENTS OR FUNCTIONS:
Forecasting future manpower requirements.
Making an inventory of present manpower resources and assessing the extent to which these resources can be employed.
Anticipating manpower problems by projecting present resources into future, comparing them with the forecast of requirements to determine their adequacy.
Placing the necessary programmes – recruitment, selection, training and development etc.
: THE METHOD OF TRAINING IS ADOPTED BY DECIDING THE FOLLOWING FACTORS: 1. Skills required. 2. Qualification of the candidate 3. Cost and time available 4. Depth of knowledge required.
DESIGNING TRAINING METHODS
Training methods are means of attaining desired objectives set for a training programme. In practice, a variety of training methods are employed for achieving these objectives. But an organization cannot use all types of training methods for the reason like cost involved and
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also their relevance to organizational need hence, organization needs to select a method or mix of methods to meet its training needs the choice of training method would depend on a Varity of factors, such as purpose of training, nature of contents, relevance to the participants, level of trainees, competence of trainers/instructors, cost, etc. Depending on the training result and the process employed to attain these, the various training methods can broadly categorized into four groups as under:
1. On- the job oriented methods 2. Off the job training methods
On the job oriented training methods. As the name itself denotes, methods include in this cluster are those whose main objectives are centered around the job, i.e., learning on the job itself by a variety of methods. The main methods, which fall into this category, are discussed here under: On the job training (OJT). On the job training is probably the most Common approach to training, which can range from relatively unsophisticated “observe and copy” method to highly, structured courses. In this method, the new employee is placed on a job and taught the skills necessary to perform it a trainer or superior teaches the employee. Since trainee learns by observing and handling the job this is also termed as ‘observing, and copying’ or ‘learning by doing.’ Job instruction training (JIT). In this method, a trainer or supervisor gives instruction to an employee how to perform his job. This method of training is appropriate for acquisition or improvement of motor skills and routine and repetitive operations. Coaching: this is similar to the JIT .in this method, the superior teaches or guides the new employee about the knowledge and skills of a specifically defined job. The superior points out the mistakes committed by the new employee and then also gives suggestions to improve upon. Job rotation: in this method, a trainee moves from one job to another and from one department to another. This type of training method is more appropriate for developing multiskilling, operational flexibility, providing satisfaction from routine jobs and broadening the overall perspective of the trainee.
Vestibule training: this is a system in which employees learn their jobs on the equipment they will be using, but the training is conducted away from the actual work floor. This type of training is commonly used for training personnel of clerical and semi-skilled grades.
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OF THE JOB TRAINING METHOD: -
Role-play: this is just like acting out a given role as in stage play. In this method of training, the trainees are required to enact defined roles on the basis of oral or written description of particular situation. Case method: the case is an actual event or situation on organizational problems, which is a written description for discussion purpose. Trainees are asked to analyses the event or circumstances with an objective to identifies problems, trace out the causes for it and find out the solution to solve the problems. Management games: the game is devised on the model of business situation. Then, trainees are divide into groups who represent the management of competing companies. They make decisions just like these are made in real life situations. Decisions made by the groups are evaluated and the likely implications of the decisions are fed back to the groups. In basket exercise: this is also called ‘in tray’ method of training. This is built around the ‘incoming mail’ of manager. The trainees is presented with a pack of papers and files in tray containing administrative problems and are asked to take decision on these within a specified time limit. The decision taken by the trainees are compared with another. The trainees are provided feedback on their decisions. Lectures: lecture is by far the most commonly used direct method of training. In this method the trainer provides knowledge to the trainees usually from prepared notes. Notes are also given to the trainees. This method is found more appropriate in simulations where some information is required to be shared to a large number of audience and which does not require more participation from audience. It is a low cost method. The major limitation of this method is that it dose not provide for active involvement of the trainees. Conferences/seminars: in this method, the trainer delivers a lecture on the particular subject, which is followed by queries and discussions. The conference leader must have the necessary skills to lead the discussion in a meaningful way without losing sight of the topic or theme. This method is used to help employees develop problem-solving skills. Programmed instructions: this is the recently developed technique based on the principle of positive reinforcement developed by B.F.Skinner. This technique is used to teach nonmotor and behavioral skills. The subject matter to be learned is prepared and
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condensed into logical sequence from more complex. The trainer monitors trainee’s independent progress through the programme. The trainee gets instant feedback on his learning however; this method is expensive and time consuming also. Sensitive training: sensitive training is also known by a Varity of names such as tgroups, laboratory training and encounter groups. (The “T” is for training.)The objective of sensitive training is to increase participants’ insights into their behavior and the behavior of others by encouraging an open expression of feelings in the trainer guide T-group. This approach is useful for understanding people’s behavior particularly when they are involved in inter personal relationships. Development of positive thinking, improvement in inter-personal relationships, proper motivation of people and organizational development are some of the important benefits of transactional analysis as a technique of training. Conclusion:
To conclude, each method of training has some strengths and weaknesses. Given the purpose of a training programme, the level of participants the competence of trainers, etc., the appropriate method has to be chosen to impart training.
MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT While drawing a distinction between training and development in previous Unit, we introduced in brief, the concept of development/ based on that concept, we elaborate it in more detail. The term “development” implies overall development in a person. Accordingly, Management development means not only improvement in job performance, but also improvement in knowledge, personality, attitude, behaviorism of an executive, etc. It means that executive/management development focuses more on the executive’s personal growth. Management Development is a systematic process of growth and development by which managers develop their abilities to manage. Management Development is concerned with improving the performance of the managers by giving them opportunities for growth and development. Definition: “Executive /Management Development includes the process by which managers and executives acquire not only skills and competency in their present job but also capabilities for future managerial tasks on increasing difficulty and scope. ” Flippo. “Any activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers and to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future organizational requirements is called management development.” S.B.Bhudiraja
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Techniques Of Management Development There are mainly two techniques of management development, one is the formal training and the other is through the on the job experience.
Important Techniques Of Management Development
On-The-Job Technique Coaching
Case method
Off-The-Job Technique
Job
Under
Multiple
rotation
study
managem ent
Incident method
Role-playing
Simulation method
Grid training method
In basket method
Conference method
Business game
Sensitivity training
Lectures method
On The Job Techniques
1 Coaching: In coaching the trainee is place under a particular supervisor who acts as an instructor and teaches job knowledge and skills to the trainee. 2. Job Rotation: The transferring of executive s from job to job and from department to department in a systematic manner is called job rotation. 3. Under Study: An under study is as person who is in training to assure at a future time, the full responsibility of the position currently held by his superior. 4 Multiple Management: Multiple management is a system in which permanent advisory committees of managers study problems of the company and make recommendations to higher management.
Off-The Job Technique 1.
The Case Study: Cases are prepared on the basis of actual business situations that happened in various organizations.
2. Incident Method: This method was developed by Paul Pigors. It aims to develop the trainee in the area of intellectual ability, practical judgment and social awareness.
3. Role Playing: A problem situation is simulated by asking the participants to assume the role of particular person in the situation.
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4. In Basket Method: The trainees are first given background information about a simulated company, its products, key personnel, various memoranda and all data pertaining to the firm. The trainee has to understand all of this and make notes of it. 5. Sensitivity Training: The main objective of sensitivity training is the “Development of awareness of and sensitivity of behavioral patterns of oneself and others”.
6. Simulation: Under this technique the situation is duplicated in such a way that it carries a closer resemblance to the actual job situation.
7. Managerial grid: It is a six-phase programme lasting from three to five years. It stats with upgrading managerial skills, continues to group improvement, improves inter group relations, goes into corporate planning, develops implementation method and ends with an evaluation phase.
8. Conference: A conference is a meeting of several people to discuss thee subject of common interest.
9. Lectures: It is the simplest technique. The lacquerer organizes the material and gives it to a group of trainees in the form of talks.
Objectives of Executive/Management Development 1. Improve the performance of mangers at all levels; 2. Identify the persons in the organization with the required potential and prepare them for higher position in future; 3. Ensure availability of required number of executives mangers succession who can take over in case of contingencies as and when these arise in future; 4. Prevent obsolescence of executives by exposing them to the latest concepts and techniques in their respective areas of specialization; 5.
Replace elderly executives who have risen from the ranks by highly competent and academically qualified professionals;
6. Improve the thought process and analytical abilities; 7. Provide opportunities to executives to fulfill their career aspirations; 8. Understand the problem of human relations and improve human relations skills.
MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTES IN INDIA i. In India – All India Council for technical Education (AICTE), All India Managerial Institutions,
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Post graduate Institutions Management of training, Arrangement of managerial education in colleges and universities, Small Industries organization. Industrial management board, National productivity council, Private management Institutes by TATA, BRILA, JK Groups, SAHAU JAINS GROUP, XLRI, AIMA Ect. Training and development is a long term education process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose”.
What is learned, who is clearing, why such learning take places, when learning occurs”.
Learning dimensions training development who?
Non-managerial personnel Managerial personnel.
Learning dimensions training development what?
Tech and mechanical operations theoretical and conceptual ideas.
Learning dimensions training development why?
Specific Job related purpose General knowledge.
Learning dimensions training development when? Short term Long term. Job Instruction training (JIT) : The JIT method requires skilled trainers, extensive job analysis, training schedules, and prior assignment of the trainee’s job knowledge. This method is also known as “training through step-by-step learning”. It involves listing all necessary steps in the job, each in proper sequence. This steps show that is to be done, along side each step is also listed a corresponding “key point”, which show how it is to be done and why. 2.Demonstrations and examples or learning by seeing. 3.Simulation is a technique, which duplicates, as nearly as possible, the actual conditions Encountered on a job.
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TRAINING EVALUATION: Two writers have suggested that four basic categories of outcomes can be measured:
1.Reaction: Evaluate the trainee’s relation to the programmed. Did he like the programme? Did he think it worthwhile?
2.Learning: learning did the trainee learn the principles, skills and fact that the supervisor or the trainer wanted him to learn?
3.Behaviour: whether the trainee’s behaviors on the job changed because of the training programme.
4.Results: What final results have been achieved?. Did he learn how to work on machine?. Did scrapped costs decrease? Was turnover reduced? Are production quotas now being met? Etc.
Executive Development: Knowledge and skills of the management. 1
Technical skills,
2
Human skills.
3
Conceptual skills are those, which make it possible for a movement to consider an enterprise as a whole and evaluate the relationship, which exists between various parts or functions of a business.
CONCEPTS AND AREAS OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMME General administration Q 1: How to decide overall company strategy? Q 2: How to evaluate capital expenditure proposals? Q 3: How to improve the flow of information needed to control the organization? Q4: How to launch a new project? Marketing & Sales Q 1: How to forecast demand? Q 2: How to generate new product ideas? Q 3: How to launch a new product? Q 4: How to determine the profitability of a product or product line? Q 5: How to improve product design?
Production Q 1: How to remove factory bottleneck? Q 2: How to improve product quality and reliability? Q 3: How to cope with complex mixes? Such as several factories, delivery to many customers, or several products from many raw materials available from many different sources, or several products profitability made by several process, etc. Q 4: How to cut labour cost? Q 5: How to improve labour relations?
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Human Resource Q 1: How to improve training methods? Q 2: How to bring order and equality into wages and salary schemes? Q 3: How to recruit the right number of the right type of people? Purchasing Q 1: How to check quality and reliability of raw materials? Q 2: How to cut down the cost of purchasing holding stocks? Research Q 1: How to reduce the time taken to complete research?
CAREER MANAGEMENT Introduction Career Management: A career is all the jobs that are held during ones working life. Edwin B. Flippo defines career as a sequence of separate but related work activities that provides continuity and, order and meaning in a person’s life.
Career management focuses on career goals and it is the process of designing and implementing goals, plans and strategies to enable the organization to satisfy employee needs while allowing individuals to achieve their career goals.
Following are the key ingredients for career management, which focuses on the process of implementing organizational career planning.
Top management support.
Coordination of other human resource activities.
Involvement of superiors.
Use of human resource managers as consultants.
Periodic skill assessment.
Realistic feedback about career progress.
Equal access and open enrollment.
Focus on psychological success rather than advancement.
Flexibility for individual needs.
Climate setting for career development.
Small Pilot Programmes.
Periodic programme assessment.
Career management involves both organizational actions and individuals’ initiatives to ensure that when the career plans developed by the organizational requirements and individuals aspirations undergo unanticipated changes, they are managed appropriately on a continuing basis.
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Categories for Career Management
There are three major categories to undertake career management. To select a field of employment and employer: - One cannot manage his career unless one has a long-range objective and the first point is to think in terms of where you ultimately want to be. Other important point is to view your potential employer and position in terms of long-range career goals. To know where you are: - To be aware of the opportunities available to you in the current position and to carefully and honestly posses current performance. Plan your exit: - To leave the current organization on good terms and not under questionable circumstances.
Career management is complementary to management development and it is concerned with planning and shaping the path, which people take in their career progression within the organization. The underlying assumption of career management is that, in the context of management succession, the organization should be alert to provide able people with training, guidance and encouragement to enabler them to fulfill their potential. HR APPROACHES TO IMPROVING COMPETENCIES Following are the approaches, which help in improving competencies among the employee of the organization. 1. Incentives. The term in incentives means an inducement, which rouses of, stimulates one to action in a desired action. An incentive has a motivational power, and may be broadly grouped into (a) Financial incentives: - Common use of money as incentive are in form of wages and salaries, bonus, retirement benefits, medical reimbursement, etc. money plays a significant role in satisfying physiological and security/ social needs. (b) Non-Financial Incentive: - the following non – financial incentives could be effectively usedi.
Appreciation of work Done
ii.
Competition
iii.
Knowledge of result
iv.
Worker’s participation In Management:
v.
Opportunity for Growth
vi.
Suggestion System
vii.
Job Enrichment
2. Management By Objectives (MBO): - Management by Objective can simply be defined as a programme that encompasses specific goals, anticipatively set for an explicit time period, with feed back on goal progress.
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3. Training: - Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behavior. It is application of knowledge. It gives people an awareness of the rules and procedures to guide their behavior. It is used to teach the employee the most efficient and effective ways of performing their job. Also used for better quality of their working. 4. Off the job techniques: - Many Techniques could be very effectively used for the purpose and these are: a) The Case Study b) Role Play c) In-Basket Method d) Sensitivity Training SUCCESSION PLANING Meaning: Organizations run on eternal basis. The survival and thrive of any organization on continuous basis requires a succession of person to fill key position. This is done through “ succession planning.�
Succession planning can be defined as an executive inventory report indicating what individuals are ready to move into higher positions in the organization. In an organization, position at higher levels fall vacant due to various reasons like retirement, resignation, promotion, transfer, death etc. Therefore, the very purpose of succession planning is to identify, groom, develop and make the people ready to occupy higher levels job as and they fall vacant.
SOURCES 1. Internal Sources; 2. External Sources.
1. INTERNAL SOURCES: Succession from internal sources is advantageous to the organization as well as to the internal employees. This is so because while organization can buy employees loyalty and commitment, employees feel belongings and shared feelings and development along with the organizations. In order to groom internal employees to assumes higher responsibility in future, some professionally run large organization ask their managers and supervisors to identify the internal employees having potentialities to replace them in jobs should the need arise.
2. EXTERNAL SOURCES:
Succession through outside talent in certain cases like
when competent and qualified are not available internally, when major expansions, diversification and growth plans are in offering. Experiences suggest that complete
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dependence on either internal or external sources is not advisable to any organization what is often advisable in this regard is judicial balance between the two sources should be maintained
The succession planning involves the following core activities:
3. Analysis of the demand for executives, managers and professional by level, function and skills. 4. Audit of existing executives and inventory of likely future supply from both internal and external sources. 5. Planning individual career paths based on objective estimates of future needs and drawing on reliable appraisal and assessment of potential. 6. Undertaking career counseling in the context of future requirements of executives and managers. 7. Accelerated promotion scheme with development targeted against the future needs of the organization. 8. Training and development activities to groom people for future roles. 9. Planned recruitment to fill short-term vacancies and provide people for development to meet future needs. 10. The actual process by which jobs are filled includes recruitment procedure internal appointment procedure, methods of assessments, internal search mechanism and often use of computer based information systems
Socialization Concepts of socialization:
In simple words socialization is the process of adaptation. Different thinkers have defined socialization differently. For example, Feldoman, has defined socialization as “acquisition of work skills and abilities adoption of appropriate role behavior and adjustment to the norms and value of the work group.” In the opinion of Manen and Schein, “socialization can be conceptualized as a process made up of three stage: pre- arrival, encounter and metamorphosis.” Thus socialization can be defined as a process of adaptation that takes place as individual attempt to learn the values and norms of work roles.
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PHASES OF SOCIALISATION PROCESS
The socialization process involves the following three phases: i.
Pre- arrival
ii.
Encounter
iii.
Metamorphosis
Pre- arrival: the pre- arrival phase explicitly recognizes that all the new recruits arrive the organization with a set of values attitudes expectation and learning. in other word pre arrival refers to all the learning that occurs before a new member joins the organization.
Encounter: upon entry into organization, the new member enters the encounter stages. The role-playing starts here. The member’s starts comparing expectation, the image of the organization, which he had formed during pre arrival phase with reality. If expectation and reality concur the encounter is smooth. But seldom it concurs. When the two differ, stress and frustration set in what follows thereafter is mental process of adjustment. In the process of adjustment. In the process of adjustment the individual tries to replace his/her own values and norms with those of the organization. At the other extreme, the member simply cannot reconcile to those values and norms of the organization and gets disillusioned and quits the job.
Metamorphosis: In this stage, the member master the skills required to adjust with the organization norms and values. This is a stage going through changes. Hence, this is called metamorphosis stage. This is of course a voluntary process and a conscious decision, which enables the new member to become compatible with the organization. This signals the completion of socialization process.
MANAGING ORGANISATIONAL RENEWAL
You’ve just taken over as CEO of a company; what aspects of that company can you change / there are several, including its strategy, culture, structure tasks, technologies, and the attitudes and skills of its people. All such changes will require the support and expert advice of the HR department.
STRATEGIC CHANGE: Organization change often starts with strategic change, a change in the firm strategy, mission and vision. Strategic change may require other changes for instance in the firm production technology, structure and culture.
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CULTURAL CHANGE: Implementing a strategic change often requires changing the culture the firm’s shared values and aims. For example, it created a new set of “heroes ”, individuals and teams who were publicly congratulated whenever their behavior reflected new values of quality, teamwork. and customer focus.
HR plays an important role in changing culture. For example one expert advocates five “ primary embedding mechanisms “ to change a company’s culture, each of which requires HR support and advice: 1. Make it clear to your employees what you pay attention to measure and control. 2. React appropriately to critical incidents and organizational crises. 3. Deliberately role model, teach and coach the values you want to emphasize 4. Communicate your priorities by the way you allocate rewards and status. 5. Make your HR procedures and criteria consistent with the values you espouse.
STRUCURAL CHANGE: Organizing redesigning the organizations departmentalization, coordination span of control, reporting relationship or centralization of decision-making is relatively direct and quick method of changing an organization.
TASK REDESING: The task and authority assigned to individual and teams within the organization are often changed as well.
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE: Technological changes are modification to the work method the organization uses to accomplish its tasks. They may include new production technologies, new selection and screening procedures and new performance appraisal techniques.
CHANGE IN PEOPLE ATTITUDES AND SKILLS: Sometimes the employees themselves must change. Techniques such as lecture conferences and on-the – job training and often used to provide new or present employees with the skills they need to perform their job adequately
A 10- STEP PROCESS FOR MANAGING ORGANISATION RENEWAL
1. Establishing a sense of urgency 2. Mobilizing commitment to change through joint diagnosis of business problems 3. Create a guiding coalition
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4. Develop a shared vision 5. Communicate the vision 6. Enable employees to facilitate the changes 7. Generate short term win 8. Consolidate gains and produce more change 9. Anchor the new ways of doing things in the company’s culture 10. Minorities progress and adjust the visions as required.
Performance Appraisal
Once the employee has been selected, trained & motivated. , He is then appraised for his performance .Performance appraisal is the step where the management finds out how effective it has been at hiring and placing employees .If any problems are identified steps are taken to communicate with the employees & to remedy them.
Definitions It is defined “ as a process of evaluating the performance of a job in terms of its requirement.” A performance appraisal is a process of evaluating an employee’s performance of a job in terms of its requirements Mc Gregor says, “ Formal performance appraisal plans are designed to meet three needs, one of the organisation and other two of the individual, namely: i.
They provide systematic judgments to back up salary increases, transfers, demotion or terminations.
ii.
They are means of telling a subordinate how he is doing, and suggesting needed changes in his behaviour, attitudes, skills, or job knowledge. They let him know “ where he stands” with the boss
iii.
They are used as a base for coaching and connecting the individual by the superior.
According to Heyel “ It is process of evaluating the performance & qualifications of the employees in terms of requirement of the job for which he is employed
for purposes of
administration including placement, selection for promotions providing financial rewards & other actions which require differential treatment among the members of the group as distinguished from actions affecting all members equally. “Process of estimating or judging the value, excellence, qualities or status of some object, person or thing.”
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IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Performance appraisal provides systematic judgment to back up salary increases, transfers, demotion or terminations They are means of telling subordinates how he is doing & suggesting needed changes in the behaviour attitudes, skills, and job knowledge. They let him know where he stands with the boss. The superior uses them as a base for coaching & counseling the individual. It provides adequate feedback to each individual for his or her performance. It plays a vital role in identifying training & development needs & to evaluate the effectiveness of training & development programmes. i.
It helps in comparison of employees It unifies the appraisal procedures so that all employees are rated in the same
manner, utilizing the same approach so that the ratings obtained of separate personnel are comparable. ii.
It helps in management decisions It provides information, which is useful in making and enforcing important decisions
about selection, training, promotions, pay increases, transfers, lay offs, discharges, salary adjustments etc. iii.
It can used a legal document It provides information in the form of records about ratings, which may be produced
as evidence when decisions on ratings are challenged in a court of law. Even arbitrators accept these in the course of grievance handling procedures as authentic records. iv.
It serves to stimulate and guide employee development. Appraisal programmes provide information on the weaknesses of employees and
enable them to gauge their own value and accomplishments and to know what they are doing. v.
It helps in weeding out poor employees By finding out employees’ qualifications and his work and comparing it with job
requirements, inefficient employees and those whose views are not in harmony with the company’s objectives or management philosophy can be weeded out or persuaded to adjust themselves. vi.
Periodic and accurate appraisal constraints a supervisor to be alert and competent in his work.
vii.
It gives supervisors a more effective tool for rating their personnel, enables them to make a careful analysis of their men and gives them a better knowledge and understanding of them.
viii.
It makes for better employer-employee relations
ix.
It helps in manpower planning.
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EXPLAIN THE OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL; (1) To make a comparative study of the abilities of different employees. (2) To reward the more efficient employees. (3) To improve the justification of different rate of wages. (4) To evaluate the success of training programmes. (5) To forecast the need of training nature of training needed. (6) To determine a policy for promotions and transfer. (7) To motivate the employees to do better and more coork. (8) To establish harmonious relations between employees and employers. What should be rated? 1) Quality=Result. 2) Quality=activity completed-dyes. 3) Timeliness. 4) Cost effectiveness. 5) Need for supervision. 6) Enter personal impact. 7) Training.
The functions of performance appraisal is – 1. It seeks to provide an adequate feedback to each individual for his or her performance. 2. (ii) It purposes serve as a basis for improving or changing behavior towards some more effective working habits. 3. (iii) It aims at providing data to managers with which they may judge future job assignments and compensation. “ Employees or personnel rating is the evaluation or appraisal of the relation worth to the company of a man’s services on his jobs.” “ Merit ranking is a systematic, periodic and so far as humanly possible an impartial rating of an employee excellence to his present job and to his potentialities for better job”.
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Process of performance appraisal The Evaluation Process
The process of performance appraisal follows a set pattern, which is periodically appraised by his superiors. The process of evaluation begins with establishment of performance standards .At the time of designing a job & formulating a job description performance standards are usually developed for the position. These standards set should not be vague but should be clear .The next thing is that these standards should be communicated to the employees for the employees left to themselves & for making communication effective feedback is necessary from the subordinate to the manager. The third step is measurement of the performance, to determine the actual performance is that, it is necessary to acquire information about it .The sources used for measuring the performance can be through personal observation, statistical reports etc .The fourth step is the comparison of the actual performance with the standards. The next step is the results of are discussed periodically with the employees, where plus points & weak points are discussed .The final step is initiation of corrective action where necessary. EXPLAIN THE STEPS, PROCESS, WAYS, OR PROCEDURE FOR DOING PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL.
1) The process of evaluation begins with the establishment of performance standards, at the time of designing a job and formulating a job description, performance standards are usually developed for the position establishing performance standards. 2) Communicate performance expectations of employees, communicate the expiration and collect the feed back of the subordinate regarding the same that should be properly rectified. 3) Measurement of actual performance we should concerned how we measure and what we measure by personal observation, statistical report oral reports and written reports. 4) Compare the actual and standard performance to know the deviation it is done. 5) Discuss the appraisal with employees this has to be periodically discussed with the employees where goods points weak points and difficulties are indicated and discussed so that the performance can be improved. 6) If necessary corrective action is initiated, immediate corrective action can be two types; one is immediate and deals predominately with systems. The other basis and delves into causes. Immediate corrective action is often described as “putting out fires�.
Establish performance standards
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Communicate performance expectations to employees
Measure actual performance
Compare actual performance with standards
Discuss the appraisal with employee Traditional methods lay emphasis on the rating of the individual’s personality traits,
If necessary, initiate corrective action
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Such initiative,
Dependability drive,
Responsibility,
Creativity,
Integrity,
Leadership potential,
Intelligence,
Judgment,
Organizing ability etc,
Never methods place move emphasis on the evaluation of work results job achievements,
Then personality traits,
Result oriented appraisal tend to be more objective and worth while,
Especially for concern selling and development purposes.
Methods of Performance Appraisal
Traditional methods:
1. Straight Ranking Method: It is oldest & simplest method of performance appraisal by which the man & his performance is considered as entity by the rater .The whole man is compared to with the whole man .The relative position of each man is tested in terms of his numerical rank .It may also be done by ranking a person on his job performance against that of another member of competitive group placing him as number
2. Paired Comparison Technique :In this each employee is compared every trait all other persons in pairs one at a time .In this judgments is simpler than the ordinary ranking method.
3. Man-to-Man Comparison Method: This technique was used by the USA army during the First World War. In this method certain factors are selected for the purpose of analysis (such as leadership, dependability & imitative) the scale of man is also created for each selector.
4. Grading Method: In this method the rater considers certain features & marks the carefully according to a scale.
They select the features like analytical ability,
cooperativeness, dependability, self-expression, job knowledge, judgment, leadership & organizing ability etc.
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5. Graphic Method: This is the most commonly used method of performance Appraisal .In it one of the each person is rated on a continuous scale. These factors are employee characteristics & employee contribution which includes qualities such as initiative, leadership, cooperativeness, dependability, industry, attitude
6. Forced Choice Description method: in this ranking method it attempts to correct a rater’s tendency to give consistently high or consistently low ratings to all the employees. This method uses objective reporting & minimum subjective ratings.
7. Free Essay Method: Under this supervisor make s a free form, open ended appraisal of an employee in his own words & puts down his impression about the employee .He take into account of these factors like relationship with fellow supervisors, job knowledge & potential, employee characteristics & attitudes, physical conditions, development needs for future.
MODERN METHODS
1. Management By Objectives: It is potentially a powerful philosophy of managing and an effective way of operationalising the evaluation process. It is defined as “ a process whereby the superior & subordinates managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individuals major areas responsibility in terms of results expected of him & use these measures as guides for operating the unit & assessing the contributions of each of its members.
2. Assessment Center method: The assessment center concept was initially applied to military situations in the Germany army in the 1930 .The purpose of this method was and is to test candidates in a social situations using a number of assessors & a variety of procedures. The most important feature of the assessment centre is job related simulations. These simulations involve characteristics that Managers feel are important to the job success. The evaluators observe & evaluate participants as they perform activities commonly found in these higher levels of jobs.
3. 360 degree performance appraisal: The appraisal may be any person who has thorough knowledge about the job done by contents to be appraised, standards of contents & who observes the employee while performing a job .He should asses the performance without bias .The appraiser are supervisors, peers, subordinates employees themselves users of service. Performance appraisal by all the parties is called 360degree appraisal. 4. Human Asset Accounting method: The human asset accounting method refers to activity devoted to attaching money estimates to the value of a firm’s internal human
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organization & it’s external customer goodwill .If a well trained employee leaves a firm the human organization is worthless& if they join the company the human assets are increased.
5. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: This a new appraisal technique which has been recently developed .It provides better results as compare to other techniques .The BARS is usually consist of five steps. (a) Generate critical incidents: Person with knowledge of the job to be appraised are asked to describe specific illustrations of effective performance behaviour (b) Develop performance Dimensions: These people then cluster the incidents into small set of performance dimensions. Each cluster must be defined. (c) Reallocate Incidents: Any group of people who also the job then reallocate the original critical incidents. They are given clusters definition’s & critical& asked to redefine each incident to the dimension (d) Scale of Incidents: The second group is generally asked to rate the behaviour described in the incident as to how effectively or ineffectively it represents performance on the appropriate dimensions. (e) Develop Final Instrument: Subsets of incidents are used as behaviour anchors for the performance dimensions.
360 DEGREE FEEDBACK Introduction This attempt to update the traditional employee appraisal process is one of the fashionable techniques of the mid 1990s, fitting in with other newts tools called team management, employee empowerment and total quality management.
In 360 degree feedback the appraisal should may be done by any person who has thorough knowledge about the job done by the contents to be appraised, standards of contents & who observes the employee while performing the job .The appraiser should be capable of deciding what is important & what is relatively less important. He should assess the performance without bias .The appraisers are supervisors, peers, subordinates employees themselves users of services & consultant. Performance appraisal by all these parties is called 360degree feedback.
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Definition 360-degree feedback, as the term implies, brings together formal appraisals from everybody that the person being assessed comes into contact with—line managers, subordinates, colleagues, peers, and even outsiders such as clients. Another name for it is multi-source feedback and a variant is upward feedback, in which subordinates appraise their supervisor’s performance. Though it is frequently intimidating or dispiriting for the person concerned, some studies indicate that such feedback can be helpful in changing behaviour and improving performance. However, others suggest that the technique shows little or no improvement over more traditional methods and has the disadvantage that results need skilled interpretation. They say 360-degree feedback should be regarded as an organizational process rather than a mechanical tool. FEATURES OF 360-DEGREE FEEDBACK
360-degree feedback is an assessment process used to improve managerial effectiveness by providing the manager with a more complete assessment of their effectiveness, and their performance and development needs.
The process involves obtaining feedback from the manager's key contacts, normally: o
The manager him/herself
o
Subordinates
o
Peers
o
Manager
o
Customers
o
Suppliers
Feedback is normally gathered by means of a questionnaire, which asks participants to rate the individual according to observed behaviors - usually managerial or business-specific competencies.
The 360-degree process will not suit all companies. You should assess how well it would fit with your current culture before launching a scheme and a pilot scheme is worth building into your programme.
Communicating the scheme, it's purpose and benefits to all those involved will be a key factor in reducing the participants' fears and gaining their commitment to any new scheme.
Presenting the results of the appraisal to managers in a constructive way is critical to the success of the process. All feedback, positive and critical, should be presented, with the aim of highlighting and acting on areas for development.
Results can be aggregated to give you some feedback on organizational strengths and weaknesses in relation to your business objectives and training strategy.
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A -- What is a 360° assessment?
It's a full-circle overview of a person's performance on the job. Instead of a single evaluation from the boss, a person receives feedback from many workplace sources. Sometimes 360°s are called multi-source or multi-rater assessments. The boss still gives input, but peers and direct reports (people who report to the participant) also get involved in the evaluation process. The person participating in a 360° gets to rate his or her performance, too. Applying their individual observations and experiences, everyone involved brings different perspectives to the assessment. For participants, the feedback from multiple work associates is highly motivating. Used as a springboard for professional growth, the assessment can make a powerful impact on an individual's career and a company's success. The 360° assessment process is designed as an ongoing process that can be used at key intervals, usually annually, to monitor the progress of professional growth. B -- How does the Checkpoint 360° system work? 1.
The participant and his or her boss, peers and direct reports fill in surveys. Responses
of
the
peers
and
direct
reports
are
kept
entirely
anonymous.
The standard Checkpoint survey has 70 items and takes approximately 15 minutes to complete. It covers competencies in the areas of Communications, Leadership, Adaptability, Relationships, Task Management, Production, Development of Others and Personal Development. 2.
Results from all of the surveys are compiled in a confidential feedback report. Graphs and charts relate the data in a detailed, easy-to-understand format. The report presents a balanced picture of perceptions about a person's skills.
3.
Participants use the information from the feedback report to establish goals and ongoing action plans, aimed at better utilizing their strong points and improving their weaker skills. They can use the 360° process before and after training opportunities to measure their effectiveness and measure gains.
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C -- Why should a company implement a 360° process?
The process leads to better job performance, as participants use the 360° to sharpen their skills. As a consequence, productivity in the workplace increases, and a company enjoys more success. Groups have found that the 360° process is an excellent method for establishing specific training needs. When a business has a clear objective to accomplish or a specific mission to carry out, a 360° assessment can be a valuable tool. It can help everyone to focus on skills consistent with the company's goals and to target their development plans to fit the direction the business is taking. If a business is struggling in a particular area, a 360° system can help identify the skills requiring attention. Participants can then make the chances necessary to remove obstacles to success. D -- What are the advantages of a 360° feedback system?
Everybody involved in the process benefits:
Participants get a fairer, well-rounded impression of how their work is viewed by others. Applying this valuable information, they can take steps to continuously improve their effectiveness on the job.
Bosses get an overall perspective about a person's skills and, consequently, develop a more accurate, on-target training plan for each individual.
Peers and Direct Reports get an opportunity to share concerns, which helps them contribute to constructive changes in their work environment. At the same time, they can confirm positive behaviors that do not need attention.
Team members can use the information to identify and prioritize team development needs. The process can improve their teamwork, increasing their ability to solve problems together.
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The organization can develop appropriate skills to consistently reflect company values. Continuous progress can be achieved through periodic reevaluations using the 360° system.
E -- How do companies use the 360° results?
Most businesses initially use the 360° feedback for employee development. Some begin by using it for development planning and then expand to use the 360° system for appraisal and pay decisions. Later, they may also use it in promotion and succession planning. When the initial use is for development only, everyone has a chance to become familiar with the process and make any necessary adjustments. It also allows time to build trust in the value of the 360°. For uses other than development, specific legal guidelines must be followed.
When implementing a 360° system, its use must be taken into account. For instance, companies will need to have a policy about who sees the 360° survey results. When the feedback will be used solely for development, the participant might be the only person to see the report. If the results will be used for performance management, both the participant and his or her boss will review the report.
WHAT DO YOU MEANT BY JOB EVALUATION: Job evaluation is the process of valuing or assessing or evaluating the worth of the job in comparison with other jobs in the organization. Based on job evaluation, all the jobs in the organization can be arranged, in an hierarchical order of their worth and priced.
DEFINE JOB EVALUATION: Definition: Job evaluation is a process of determining the relative worth of the various jobs within the organization, so that differential wages may be paid to jobs of different worth. -
Wendell French
Job evaluation is a method, which helps to establish a justified rank order of jobs as a whole, being a foundation fro setting of wages. – Netherlands committee
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Introduction Job evaluation is the output provided by job analysis. As seen earlier, job analysis describes the duties of a job, authority relationships, skills required, conditions of work, and additional relevant information. Job evaluation on the other hand, uses the information in job analysis to evaluate each job- valuing its components and ascertaining relative job worth. It involves, in other words, a formal and systematic comparison of job relative to another, so that a wage or salary hierarchy results. So it is a process by which job in an organization are evaluated.
If job values are not properly studied, it is very likely that jobs would not be properly priced, i.e., high valued jobs may receive less pay than low valued jobs. When employee realizes that this is happening, they become dissatisfied. They may leave the organization, reduce their efforts or perhaps adopt other modes of behavior detrimental to the organization.
Definition- “Bureau of labour statistics, USA “Job evaluation is evaluation or rating of jobs to determine their position in job hierarchy. The evaluation may be achieved through assignment of points or use of some other systematic method of essential job requirement such as skills, experience and responsibility”. According to ‘Kimball and Kimball’ “Job evaluation is an effort to determine the relative value of every job in a plant to determine what the fair basic wage for a job should be”. According to ‘Wendell French’ “Job evaluation is the process of determining the relative worth of the various jobs within the organization, so that different wages may be paid to jobs of different worth”.
Explain the Objectives of job evaluation 1. Secure and maintain complete, accurate and impersonal descriptions of each distinct job or occupation in the entire plant. 2. Provide a standard procedure for determining the relative worth or value of each job within the plant. 3. Determine a rate of pay for each job, which is fair and equitable with relations to other jobs in the plant community and industry. 4. Ensure that like wages are paid to all qualified employees on like work. 5. Promote fair and accurate consideration of all employers for advancement and transfer. 6. Provide a factual basis for the consideration of wage rates for similar jobs both within the community and within the industry. 7. Provide information for the work, organization employee’s selection, training and numerous other important purposes.
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WHAT ARE ALL THE PRINCIPLES OF JOB EVALUATION : 1. Job evaluation must attempt to rate the job and not the man. 2. Elements of job selected for the job evaluation must be common to most of the jobs, few in number and simple to identify and easy to understand.eg. Skill 3. Clear definition of elements and consistency of degrees of such elements, improve accuracy of job evaluation. 4. secure willing co-operation and support of supervisors on job evaluation. This is obtained by selling this idea among them and obtain their participation in the process. 5. secure cooperation and participation from employees. minimize number of wages rate within each grade. Procedure for Job Evaluation Step 1: Analyze & prepare job description- this require a preparation of job discription and also a analysis of job requirement for successive performance.
Step 2: Select and prepare job evaluation plan-
Means job must be broken into small
components i.e it should involve the selection of factors, elements needed for the performance of all jobs for which money is paid, determining their value and preparing return instructions for evaluation.
Step 3:Classify Jobs: This Requires grouping for arranging jobs in a correct sequence in terms of value to the firm and relating them to money terms in order to ascertain their relative value.
Step 4:Install the programme: This involves explaining it to employees and putting it into operations.
Step 5:Maintain the programme: Jobs cannot continue without updating new jobs and job changing in obedience to changing conditions and situations.
Methods of job evaluation There are five popular methods of job evaluation. Two of them are qualitative and two quantitative. ADVANTAGES OF JOB EVALUATION 1.
Job evaluation is a logical and, to some extent, an objective method of ranking jobs relative to one another. It may help in removing inequalities in existing wage structures and in maintaining sound and consistent wage differentials in a plant or industry.
2.
In case of new jobs, the method often facilitates fitting them into existing wage structure.
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The method may lead to greater uniformity in wage rates, thus simplifying wage administration.
4.
The method helps in removing grievances, arising out of relative wages; and improves labour management relations and workers morale.
5.
The information collected in the process of job description and analysis be also used for the improvement of selection, transfer and promotion procedure on basis of comparative job requirements.
6.
The method replaces many accidental
LIMITATIONS OF JOB EVALUATION These are: 1) Though many ways of applying the job evaluation techniques are available, rapid changes in technology and in the supply and demand of particular skills have given rise to the problem of adjustment. These need to be probed. 2) Substantial differences exist between job factors and the factors emphasized in the market. These differences are wider in cases in which the average ay offered by a company is lower than the prevalent in other companies in the same industry or in the same geographical area. 3) A job evaluation frequently favours groups different from those, which are favoured from the market. ‘Kerr and Fisher’ observes, “the jobs which tends to rate high as compared with the market those of janitor, nurse and typist, while craft rates are relatively low. Weaker groups are better served by an evaluation plan than by the market; the former places the emphasis not on force but on equity”. 4) Job factors fluctuate because of changes in production, technology, information system, and division of factors and such other factors. Therefore the evaluation of the job today is made on the basis of job factors and does not reflect the time job factor in future. 5) Job evaluation takes a long time to install, requires specialized technical personnel, and may be costly. 6) A large number of jobs are called ‘red circle jobs’. Some of these may be getting more and other less than the rate determined by job evaluation.
Qualitative Methods: Ranking method: Ranking of job is normally done by an expert committee formed by the organization. This committee consists of representatives from management and executives. It is a direct system of comparing hobs together so that they are ranked in their order of importance starting with the least important in the first rank and moving to the most important in the last. Here the jobs are ranked as a “whole job” instead of breaking them into parts.
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Advantages:
Simple and easy to understand
Faster and inexpensive Disadvantages:
Subjective and influenced by personal bias
Specific job requirements are not taken into account.
GRADING METHOD OR CLASSIFICATION METHOD Here the different grades or classes of jobs are predetermined based on certain criteria such as skill, knowledge, responsibility etc.
Quantitative methods: Point rating method: Jobs are divided into compound fraction, points/ weights are assigned to each factor depending on the degree of its importance in a particular job. The total points for a job indicate its relative worth of the job. Procedure: i.
Determine the job to evaluate
ii.
Select the factor
iii.
Define the factor
iv.
Determine the degree
v.
Determine relative value of job factors
vi. Assign point value to degrees. vii. Find point valued viii. Assign moral values. Advantages:
Most common and popular method.
More systematic and objective
Evaluation become more objective since factors are weighted in terms of points.
Disadvantage:
Method is less flexible
Requires more time and money. FACTOR COMPARISON METHOD Here ranking is done based on objective criteria, which are called factors. In this method each job must have job description. Ranking of factors are made based on job descriptions. ADVANTAGES
Scientific method
Jobs are compared with each other to obtain relative value.
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DISADVANTAGES
Few factors make the study unrealistic.
Requires experts.
JOB EVALUATION METHODS / SYSTEMS There are four basic, traditional system of job evaluation: (1) The ranking system, (2) The grading or job classification system; (3) The point system; (4) The factor comparison system. The first two systems are popularly known as non-analytical or non-quantitative or summary systems, because they utilize non-quantitative methods of listing jobs in order to difficulty and are, therefore, simple. The last two systems are called the analytical or quantitative systems, because they use quantitative techniques in listing the jobs. 1) THE RANKING SYSTEM Mechanism: Under this system, all jobs are arranged or in order of their importance from the simplest to the hardest, or in the reverse order, each successive job being higher or lower than the previous job in the sequence. It is not necessary to have job description Generally speaking, the following five steps are involved in the system: Step 1: Preparation of job description, particularly when the ranking of the job is done by different individuals and there is a disagreement among them.
Step 2: Selection of raters, jobs may be usually ranked by department or in clusters. This eliminates needs for directly comparing factory jobs and clerical jobs. Most organization uses a committee of raters. Step 3: Selection of rates and key jobs, usually a series of key jobs or bench-mark jobs (10 to 20 jobs, which include all major departments and functions) are first rated; then the other jobs are roughly compared with these key job to establish a rough rating.
Step 4 : Ranking of all jobs. Each job is than compared in details with other similar job to establish its exact rank in the scale. For this each rater must be given a set of ‘index card’, each of which contains a brief description of jobs. These jobs are than ranked from ‘lowest to highest’ or from ‘highest to lowest’ are ranked first and than the next highest and next lowest and so forth until all the cards have been ranked.
Step 5: Preparation of job classification from the rating: The total ranking is divided into an appropriate number of groups or classifications, usually 8 to 12. All the jobs within a single group or classification receive the same wage or range of rates.
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Merits of Ranking Method of Job Evaluation: 1. The system is simple, easily understood, and easy to explain to employees. Therefore, it is suitable for small organizations with clearly defined jobs. 2. It is far less expensive to put into effect than other systems, and requires little effort for maintenance. 3. It requires less time, fewer forms and less work, unless it is carried to a detailed point used by company. Demerits: 1. As there is no standard for an analysis of the whole job position different bases of comparison between rates occur. The process is initially based on judgment and tends to be influenced by a variety of personal biases. 2. The system merely produces a a job order and does not indicate yo what extent it is more important than the one below it. 3. Specific job requirements are not normally analysed separately.
2) JOB CLASSIFICATION OR GRADING METHOD Under this system, a number of pre-determined grades or classifications are first established by a committee and than the various jobs are assigned within each grade or class. Grade descriptions are the result of basic job information which is basically arrived from the job analysis. After formulating and studying job description and job specifications, jobs are grouped into classes or grades which represent different pay levels ranging from low to high. Steps: The following 5 steps are generally involved: 1. The preparation of job descriptions, which gives us basic job information usually derived from a job analysis. 2. The preparation of job descriptions, so that different levels or grades of job may be identified. 3. Selection of grades and key jobs. About 10 to 20 jobs are selected, which include all the major department and functions and cover all the grades. 4. Grading the key jobs. Key jobs are assigned to an appropriate grade levels and their relationship to each other studied. 5. Classification of all jobs. Jobs are classified by grade definitions. All the job in the same grade receive the same wage or range of rates. For example, menials may be put into one class, clerks in another, junior officers in other class, and the top executive in high class. Merits: 1. This method is simple to operate and understand, for it does not take much time or require technical help.
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2. The use of fully described job classes meets the need for employing systematic criteria in ordering jobs to their importance. Since many workers think of job in, or related to, cluster or groups, this method makes it easier for them to understand rankings. 3. If an organization consists of 500 people holding to different jobs, the jobs might be broken up into perhaps 5 classes, arranged in order of importance from high to low, and described class by class. 4. The grouping of jobs into classifications makes pay determination problems administratively easier to handle. Pay grades are determined for, and assigned to, all the job classifications. 5. It is used in important government and operates efficiently, but it is rarely used in an industry. Demerits 1. Although it represents an advance in accuracy over the ranking method, it still leaves much to be desired much because personal evaluations by executives establish the major classes, and determine into which classes each job should be placed. 2. Since no detailed analysis of a job is done, the judgment in respect of a whole range of jobs may produce an incorrect classification. 3. It is relatively difficult to write a grade description. The system become difficult to operate as the number of job increases. 4. It is difficult to know how much of a job’s rank is influenced by a man on the job. 5. The system is rather rigid and unsuitable for a large organization or for very varied work.
3) THE POINT SYSTEM This method is the most widely used type of job evaluation type. It requires a identifying number of compensable factors and than determining degree to which each of these factor is present in the job. Once the degree to which each factor is determined, the corresponding number of points of each factor are added and an overall point value is obtained. Steps : This system requires a detailed examination of the jobs. The Steps in these method followed are: Step 1: The jobs have to be determined first which are to be evaluated. They are usually clustered. The jobs, which require (1) similar activities, (2) the same workers characteristic or traits and work on the same kind of materials (say wood or metal are placed in the same cluster or family). Step 2: For the purpose, a pre-determined number of factor are arbitrarily selected by raters. The number of factors used varies a great deal from company to company.
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The common factors are: Education and training; experience; physical skills and effort; planning for the supervision of others; external contacts, internal contacts; confidential information and working conditions. Step 3: The next step is to break down each factors into degrees or levels, and to assign a point value each level or degree. Step 4: Determination of relative values or weighs to assign each factor. For each job or cluster of jobs some factors are more important than others. For example for executives, “the mental requirements” factor would carry more weight than “physical requirements”. The opposite might be true of “factory jobs”. Step 5: The next step is to assign money values to points. For this purpose, points are added to give the total value of a job; its value of a job is translated into terms of money with a predetermined formula.
4) THE FACTOR COMPARISON METHOD Under this system, jobs are evaluated by means of standard yardstick of value. It entails deciding which jobs have more of compensable factors than others. The evaluation committee selects some’ key’ or benchmark jobs for which they are clearly understood job description and counterparts in other organizations and for which the pay rates are such as agreed upon and are acceptable to both management and table. Steps involved:
Step 1: Clear-cut job descriptions are written and job specifications are preferably in terms of compensable factors. The people specifications are generally provided with a set of definitions which have been used in each of the compnsable factor selected. Step 2: Selecting of key jobs: Such jobs are those jobs which represent the job under study; and for which pay is determined to be standard or reference points and for which there is no controversy between management and the employees. Step 3: Ranking of key jobs: Several different members of the job evaluation committee rank the key job on each of five factors (mental requirements, physical requirements, skill requirements and working conditions). Step 4: Valuing the factors: The basic pay for each ‘key’ job is allocated to each factor. Step 5: Comparing all job with each jobs: All the other jobs are than compared with the key jobs, factor by factor, to determine their relative importance and position in the scale of jobs. Step 6: Establishing the monetary units value for all jobs: monetary values are assigned to each factory of every key job.
Merits: 1. It is a systematic, quantifiable method for which detailed step by step instructions are available.
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2. Jobs are compared to other job to determine a relative value. 3. It is a fairly easy system to explain to employees 4. There are no limits to the value, which may be assigned to each factor. 5. The plan does not require a translation from points to money. 6. The reliability and validity of the system are greater than the same statistical measures obtained from group standardized job analysis plans. Demerits: 1. It is costly to install, and somewhat difficult to operate for any one who is not acquainted with the general nature of the job evaluation techniques. 2. Wage level change from time to time, and there minor inconsistencies may be brings in order to bring all the job in alignment. 3. Money rates, when used as a basis of rating, tend to influence the actual rate more than the abstract rate. 4. The system is complex and cannot be explained to, and understood by every day non-supervisory organizational employees.
Once a job is evaluated, or say ranked, the next step is to convert this measurement in to salary bracket. In other words, it implies simply breaking up the total salary structure in to sun divisions corresponding to the number of classes of job arrived at through job evaluation. However, several other factors also need to be looked in to before a right type of salary structure is evolved. Establishing Pay Equity People have no basic or instinctive need for money, a commodity that is important only if it can satisfy other needs. Organizations frequently overestimate the value workers place on monetary rewards. The equity theories can help explain employees’ reaction to compensation system. EQUITY: Employees wanted to be treated fairly. Equity is the balance between the inputs an individual brings to a job and the outcome he or she receives from the it. An employee input includes experience, education, special skills, effort and time worked. Outcomes include pay benefits, achievement, recognition and any other rewards. Individuals use a complex process to determine what is fair. Inputs are continually compared with outcomes-the individual’s special skills and efforts are weighed against the pay and recognitions given by the organization. However inputs and outputs are in different units, and are hard to compare to each other directly. However, inputs and outcomes are in different units, and are hard to compare to each other directly. Thus, equity theory suggests that individuals determine whether they are being fairly treated by comparing their own input/outcome ratio to the input/outcome ratio of
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someone else. This other person may be in the same job or in other jobs, in the company or outside the company, in the same industry or outside the industry sense of inequity arises when the comparison process uncovers an imbalance between inputs and outcomes of the employees compared with others. Equity Theory
My rewards (outcomes)
=
Other’s Rewards
Equity
=
Inequity
Other’s Contribution
My contributions (Inputs)
My rewards
=
<
My contributions
Other’s Rewards Other’s Contribution
(under-reward)
Action to Restore Equity from Under-Reward Equity: 1. Person could ask for a raise. 2. Persons could reduce contribution (work harder). 3. Person could try to get other to increase contribution (work harder). 4. Last resorts: Quit or choose another comparison other.
My rewards My contributions
Other’s Rewards
>
Other’s Contribution
=
Inequity
(over-reward)
Action to Restore Equity from Over-Reward Equity 1. Person could increase contributions (work harder or longer, cultivate additional skills). 2. Persons could ask for a pay cut. 3. Person could attempt to get other a raise. 4. Person could attempt to get other to reduce his or her contribution. 5. Last resorts: Quit the job or choose another comparison other.
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DESIGNING EQUITABLE COMPENSATION SYSTEM Internal Equity: It refers to the relationships among jobs within a single organization. Internal equity exists when the pay differentials between different jobs within the organization and perceived as fair - neither too large nor too small. External Equity: It refers to the comparisons of similar jobs in different organizations (for example, the pay received by presidents of various electrical manufacturing firms.
Individual Equity: It refers to comparisons among individuals in the same job with the same organization There are accepted procedures for establishing internal, external and individual with an organization.
METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING INTERNAL EQUITY 1. Job Evaluation methods: The major purpose of job evaluation is to determine the relative worth of the jobs within an organization. A systematic comparison can define an internal job hierarchy that ranks jobs in terms of their relative contribution to the organizational objectives. The five most frequently used job evaluation methods are 1. Job ranking 2. Job grading or classification 3. The point method 4. Factor comparison Establishing External Equity Methods of Establishing External Equity: 1. Wage and Salary surveys: - to establish a competitively priced wage structure, organizations typically rely on wage and salary survey data collected from other organizations. The survey process involves identifying the jobs to be included, selecting the organizations to be surveyed, and then actually collecting the data. The data then must be interpreted so that wage rates can be set within the context of the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pay policy. 2. Identifying Key Jobs: - in practice, employers do not seek market data on all jobs. Instead, they gather survey information only for key jobs, which generally have the following characteristics: a.) The job content is relatively stable over time.
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b.) The jobs occur frequently, both in the organization and in the surveyed organizations. c.) The jobs can be defined quite precisely. d.) The jobs are performed in a similar manner in most organizations. 3. Selecting Organizations to Survey:-Identifying organizations to survey can be important. Organizations to covered in a wage survey typically include those that
Employ workers with the same skills.
Are within geographic distances that would make employees willing to commute or relocate, and
Are in the same or similar industry.
However, the considerations that go into selecting a set of organizations to be surveyed vary for different jobs. 4. Collecting Data: - rather than running their own wage survey, many organizations obtain the results of surveys undertaken by industry associations, professional associations, government agencies, or consulting firms. Numerous annual surveys cover a wide choice of job families and industries. At local levels, Units of Society for Human Resource Management or Chambers of Commerce often undertake surveys for their membership. For a company that wants to collect and analyze its own data, it is important to obtain information on the characteristics of the responding organization, as well as on both direct and indirect compensation. The organizational information is needed to judge the comparability of the competitor in terms of size, products, and financial condition. It is also crucial to know the types and amounts of benefits offered as well as incentives and hourly pay. Of the three summary measures, the median is the most useful in setting wage ranges. The mean can easily become distorted if a few workers are paid at extreme rates. The median is not the subject to such distortion. 5. Pay Level Policy: - once an organization has completed an internal job evaluation and obtained wage survey data, it needs to translate this information into pay rates for each class of jobs. This process involves appropriate interpretation of survey results, the merging of the job evaluation with the survey data, and consideration of the organization’s pay level policy.
Establishing Individual Equity As mentioned earlier, jobs evaluated as having nearly the same value are usually combined into a single wage grade. A single wage may be selected for each grade and paid to every person whose job falls in the grade. More commonly, however, a range of pay rates is set for each grade. When a range is set, the issue of individual equity becomes salient, and the organization must have a system for determining where in the range the compensation of each employee should be.
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Steps in designing Individual Equity:
Designing pay ranges: The range associated with a pay grade sets the upper and lower bonds of possible compensation for individuals whose jobs fall in the grade.
Setting Individual pay: Individual equity requires that rewards to employees be allocated fairly across individuals performing the same jobs. The two commonly used approaches to determine how workers are placed and progress through the pay ranges are seniority and merit. A newer method bases increments on the number of skills mastered. In short, equity concern centers on setting the pay of individuals within a wage grade.
Typical bases for this decision include seniority, merit, and skill. Merit pay system has the potential to motivate high performance, but they are difficult to administer in a way that employees perceive as fair.
PROMOTION WHAT IS MEANT BY PROMOTION OR DEFINE THE TERM PROMOTION: Advancement with in an organization is known as promotion. It involves a change from one job to another that is better in terms of status and responsibility. The change to the higher hob is accompanied by increased pay and privileges. The term dry promotion refers to an increase in responsibility and status without any increase in pay.
EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF PROMOTION: 1. Horizontal promotion: In this type of promotion employee’s job classification remains the same only his position is increased. Ex: A lower division clerk may be promoted as upper division clerk with same job assignment and responsibility. 2. Vertical promotion: In this type of promotion an employee crosses his hob classification. This increases his responsibility and status. Ex. A superintendent becomes departmental manager.
EXPLAIN THE NEED OR ADVANTAGES OF PROMOTION: ORGANISATIONAL NEEDS:
No organization can rely on outside recruitment to fill all its requirements. Jobs, which are not quite unique, may require familiarity with the people, procedures, policies and the special characteristics of organization in which they are performed. Thus, promotional ladders are needed to funnel upward those who have broad experience, in the organization.
PROVIDING SATISFACTION:
Promotion is used as reward and as an inducement to better work performance and other organizationally approved form of behaviour.
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3.PROVIDING SATISFACTION:
Opportunities and clear policies for promotion provide satisfaction to employees in the following manner.
Employees get job satisfaction in the organization.
Promotion provides economic and moral development in employees.
They are able to increase their productivity for promotion, which inculcates the habits of learning new things.
Their morale remains high, which is quite useful to employees as well as to the organization.
BASIS FOR PROMOTION: 1.Promotion on merit basis. 2.Promotion on seniority basis PROMOTION ON MERIT BASIS:
Merit is taken as base for promotion
Efficiency is ensured in the organization.
Conscientious and systematic attempts are undertaken to measure merit. o
Test scores
o
Performance appraisal
o
Analysis of behaviour is taken into consideration for the judgment.
PROMOTION ON SENIORITY BASIS:
Seniority can be defined as length of recognized service in an organization.
While determining the seniority of individuals in the organization, the rules should be carefully and specially spelled out.
PROMOTIONS:
“A promotion is the advancement of an employees to all better in terms of greater responsibility, more remuneration or status, greater skill and specially increased rate of pay or salary”.
“ A promotion involves a change from one job to another that is better in terms of status and responsibilities”.
What are the reasons for promotion?.
To reward the ability and efficiency of the employees
to develop the feeling of integration with the enterprise among the employees
to provide and opportunity of development to the employees
to motivate them to do their jobs with responsibility
to develop the feelings of loyalty
to maintain discipline
to reduce labour turnover to establish coordinate human relations
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to fill higher posts
to maintain the industrial peace.
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EXPLAIN THE OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES OF PROMOTION:
Better utilization of abilities.
Responsible and efficient employees
rewards for services of employees
provides an opportunity to the employees
morale
maintain employee strength
Reduce labour turnover.
It make the cost straining
minimize industrial conflict
establish the sweet human (skills) relations
attract the workers
possible utilization of resources
It increase the recognition of enterprise.
EXPLAIN THE TYPES OR KINDS OF PROMOTION.
1.Horizontal promotion: The nature of job remain same, responsibilities also remain same, only designation and salary increase.
2.Vertical promotion: Nature of job change, it involves greater responsibilities, better status, higher pay and more facilities.
Explain the ideal promotion policy or the principles of a sound promotion policy?.
(1)To promote the present employees to the vacant higher posts.
(2) Consideration of ability and seniority.
(3) Promotion policy must be well defined and properly communicated.
(4) Impartial promotion.
(5) Order of promotions must be clear.
(6) Promotion by top management.
(7) Freedom of representation to the employees or labour unions.
(8) Temporawaery promotion in the beginning.
(9) Arrangement of training.
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Seniority as sole criteria It refers to length of service in the company or in its various plants or in its departments or in a particular position. This is an area of dispute between union and management. Union prefers policy of seniority as the basis for promotion. Management in the other hand prefers merit as a basis for promotion. Advantages 1. Easy and simple. All employees are assured that promotion will come automatically when it is due. 2. Focus on individual career prospects and security. 3. Risk is reduced. A known devil is better than an unknown angel 4. Avoid favoritism and arbitrariness by management. 5. Policy is more acceptable to majority of employees and unions. 6. It is compatible with Indian psychology of respecting age and experience.
Disadvantages 1. Merit is devalued 2. Promote mediocre performance and inefficiency. 3. There is no guarantee that past experience or length of services increases ability. 4. Such organizations fail to attract talented hands from outside. 5. Create frustration to young and talented persons leading to a situation where good employees will leave the organisation. Merit as sole criteria for promotion The rule followed is “ promote the best man available”. Today, efficiency is the main consideration for promotion. Advantages:
It brings rewards for meritorious work, extra competence, achievement and initiative.
It encourages and employee to work hard so that he may get an opportunity for advancement in the organisation
It leads to increased productivity, for individual are satisfied that there merit and competence will be properly appreciated and rewarded.
It attracts talented hands from outside.
Disadvantages: 1. In discourages senior employees 2. Employee’s morale will reduce.
Merit and seniority as the basis for promotion This is the most widely based method. This approach will reduce the disadvantages of either of the policies given below.
If two employees are of same seniority give weightage to ability and merit in promotion.
If two employees are of it merit and ability give weightage to seniority in promotion.
The exact weightage between the two depends on the organisation, nature of work and responsibility, competition existing in the market, grade/rank to which promotions are made.
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Explain the kinds or types of promotion.
1) Multiple chain promotions, which provide for a systematic nuking of each position to several others. Such promotions identify multi promotional opportunities through clearly defined avenues of approach to and exit from each position in the organization.
2) Up or dry promotion, a person must either earn a promotion or seek employment elsewhere.
Dry promotions are those, which are given in lieu of increases in compensation. i. e, when all compensation is adjusted upward to keep pace with the cost of living we have dry promotions.
Define the term promotion policy. The usual policy is to take merit into consideration sometimes length of service, education, training courses completed, previous work history etc, are factors which are given weight while deciding a promotional through promotions are made on the basis of ability, hard work, co-operation, merit, honesty, many informal influences are powerful.
DISCUSS SENIORITY VERSUS MERIT: “ Seniority refers to length of services in the company or in its various plants or in its departments, or in a particular position. Under straight plant wise seniority in all jobs, promotions go to the oldest employees, provided that he is fit for the job. Occupational seniority may be within a department, within a division or in the entire plant. Seniority offers certain rights and benefits. 1. Some rights are based on competive seniority among employees. Rights to promotion, transfer, lay off and recalls are such examples. 2. Other benefits have nothing to do with one man relative to another, e.g. a man may be entitled to have 15 days causal leave in a year, a pension after 30 years and a certain amount of sick leave after 6 month’s service trade unions are favour on seniority and mgt is favour on merit. The most widely used basis for promotion combines both the ability and seniority. 3. The best policy when there are two employees of almost equal seniority, ability or merit should be the deciding factor in a promotion. Vice-versa, such equal seniority- ability is a factor equal ability- seniority is a factor satisfies to both of them. Arguments for and against promotions by
Seniority system:
Representation by sen- by trade unions:
1. (1)Simple to understand and operate all of them are assured. 2. (2) Build moral. 3. (3) Optimum utilization of existing resources. 4. (4) More economical than recruitment cost. 5. (5) Management will have a known man.
But this system suffers from certain draw backs too such as: (1) In efficient may be promoted. (2) Imbreading ideas. FOR MORE DETAILS VISIT US ON WWW.IMTSINSTITUTE.COM OR CALL ON +91-9999554621
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The system of promotion by merit enjoys these benefits:1. It brings rewards for meritorious work, extra competence, achievement and initiative. 2. (2) It encourages an employee to work hard so that he may get an opportunity for advancement in the organization. 3. It leads to increased productivity, for individuals are satisfied that their merit and competence will be properly appreciated and rewarded.(appreciated and rewarded). “ Promote the best main available”. In India:
In public companies (sector) elaborate rules exists for regulating seniority of employees in different services cadres.
More on seniority (because of political pressure’s).
Demotion De promotion with in an organization is known as demotion. It involves a negative change from one job to another that is not better in terms of status and responsibility. The change to the lower job is accompanied by decreased pay and there will be no privileges. The term demotion refers to an decrease in responsibility and status with any decrease in pay.
What do you meant by transfer or defines the term ‘transfer’?
“A transfer involves the shifting of an employee from any job to another without special reference to change responsibility or compensation.
” According to date “Transfer may involve promotion, demotion or no change in status and responsibility”.
What are all the Reasons for transfer:
(1) Lack of sufficient no of employees in a particular department.
(2) Surplus no of employees.
(3) No equality in the department.
(4) Rectify wrong placement.
(5) Disputes.
(6) Adverse effect of specific job.
(7) Train different job.
(8) Requisition of the employees.
(9) Agreement.
TRANSFERS “ A transfer involves the shifting of an employee from one job to another without special reference to changing responsibilities or compensation”
- Yoder
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Transfer is a horizontal or lateral movement from one section/ department/ job to another within the plant or to another plant of the same organisation either at the time place or to a different place. Purpose of transfer: 1. To meet resources leveling requirement (By transferring from surplus area to deficient area) 2. To improve effectiveness of organisation (By utilizing available talents by rotating them) 3. To increase versatility of employees (By job rotation they will be exposed to different areas, experience etc.) 4. Training and development 5. To improve human relation. Conflict between two individual in-group can vitiate the healthy working climate. In such cases transfer of such employee may assist improving human relation. 6. To replace an employee It is to replace an employee who was employed for a longtime or those who could not perform due to failing health. 7. To meet employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; request (Convenience of time or place for him) 8. To utilize services of employees in a better manner. (Increase his efficiency or utilize his special knowledge and skill acquired by him through training and development) 9. To maintain tenure system In civil services and government organizations, there is a regular practice of transfer at periodic intervals.
Explain the kinds or types of transfers. 1) Production transfer: When an employee is transferred keeping in view the needs of production, it is known production transfer. 2) Replacement transfer: When an employee is transferred to a different dept or job to replace the employee of that particular dept or job. 3) Versatility transfer: When an employee transfer from one job to another or from one dept to another, with a purpose to train to him for different jobs. Such transfer aims the efficiency. 4) Shift transfer: When an employee is transferred from one shift to another on the same job. 5) Remedial transfer: When an employee is transferred from one dept to another from one job to another to solve a particular problem, it is known as remedial transfer, eg: transfer because of his dispute with any of his follows.
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a. Demotion b. Layoff c.
Termination & service
d. Retirement e. Supervision f.
Dismissals
g. Retrenchment.
Lay off: means the refusal of employer to assign the job to an employer to assign the job to an employee because the employer is unable in job. Causes of lay off:
Shortage of lay off
Power
Finance more stock
Breakdown
Any other incident.
Retrenchment: The termination of an employee from his services due to the adverse economic conditions of the org. eg; Surplus employees, Principle is “Lost in first out”.
ERRORS IN INTERVIEWING:
Halo effect: o
One marked characteristic of the candidate (either favorable or un favorable) may be allowed to dominate the appraisal of his entire personality.
Leniency: o
If he rated by too raters, their rating may be different.
(3) Projection: o
Error projection arises when an interviewer expenses his own liabilities, skills, and values in an applicant.
(4) Stereo typing: o
When the interviewers how already for me some men fall association between a particular trait, culture or communal origin and a particular type of personality. Therefore objectivity is a desirable quality interviewer.
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Separation and implication of job change : Means cessation of service with the organization for one or other reason.
Resignation
Discharge and dismissal
Suspension and retrenchment
Lay off.
Rate of absenteeism = the period
Man-days lost during a certain period/ total man-days during x 100.
Labour turn over rate (LTR) = S x 100 S= enterprise F During certain period. F=
No. Of workers who left the
Average no of workers on pay roll.
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
HRD implies that the organization wants to enhance the overall capabilities of its employees to develop their potential in directions best suited to them.
Basic Concepts Of HRD: The belief that every person has potential which can be utilized for better productivity or services has enabled to establish a process of converting this potential into reality. In this process the human being is continuously helped to acquire knowledge and skill and to change to the organizational culture. Therefore the basic concepts of HRD are:
To acquire capability to meet present and future job specification.
To develop an organizational climate to bring about team spirit and group dynamism.
HUMAN RESOURCE TRAINING
JOB ENRICHMENT
HUMAN RESOURCE INPUT
ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE
JOB SATISFACTIO N
There are efforts being made to synchronies three basic elements of HRD:
Education
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EXCELLENCE
ORGANISATIUONAL DEVELOPMENT
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Training
Development
To fulfill desired objectives. Training and education can be appraised immediately by simple question answer approach but development evaluation needs ability to predict the long term results. A realistic and long-term HRD plan appears to be difficult but if planned properly, funded adequately and supervised minutely, implementation of HRD practice helps the organization to grow fast.
Facts About HRD:
It is with belief that under certain circumstances people are capable of improving their capability.
It is the process of helping people to acquire competencies.
In an organizational context HRD “…is a process by which employees of an organization are helped in a continuous and planned way to acquire or sharpen capabilities.
HRD
develops
an
organizational
culture
in
which
supervisor-subordinate
relationships, team work, collaboration among units are strong and contribute to the professional well being, motivation and pride if employees.
Employees are continuously helped to acquire new competencies through a process of planning, feedback, training etc.
Why HRD Is Needed?
It is required for continuous development of competencies.
To avoid a saturation point in terms of growth of an employee by enhancement of competencies.
To improve the service and effectiveness of employees.
Benefits Of HRD Unlike education, training in HRD not only develops the competence of the individuals but also develops his/her latent potential for the total effectiveness of the organization. The benefits from HRD are therefore many. Some of them are:
It helps employee to diagnose his/her own strengths and weaknesses.
It develops creativity in employees.
It helps employee to develop himself/her in a given organizational climate to improve not only his/her performance but that of the organization.
It develops trust and openness amongst employees thus enriches interpersonal relationships.
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It creates environment for realistic feedback and guidance from superiors.
It provides long term & short term development opportunities.
It smoothens the career development plans.
It helps organizations to use available human resource for future challenging responsibilities after developing them.
It enables an overall development of personality of employees and the organizations.
Features Of HRD In An Organization
Founded on the belief that people are capable of growth and management has to create an environment of growth.
This belief is to be manifested in managerial practices and in the behavior of managers and supervisors who are the key agents of HRD in the organization.
For operational purposes large Organizations focus on HRD, generally the areas concern are Recruitment, raining, Appraisal, planning etc.
LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Definition of Learning: Any relative permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Learning is a kind of action, and it takes place through number of development methods undertaken by the organizations. There are four important points in terms of learning and development.
Learning involves a change in behavior and opens a way for development.
Any temporary change in behavior due to fatigue or any reason is not a part of learning.
Learning is totally based on some form of practice or experience.
There must be practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur
The most effective and quick method of Learning is Learning on the job, this is been referred as on the job training. In this method the trainee has direct personal responsibility.
Facts About Learning And Development:
Learning if it is adopted to the real needs is enforced it creates a long-term impact.
The technique of on the job training is very useful in the case of leaning and Development in teaching skills at the work place or the desk or in the laboratory.
The focus is mainly on imparting practical inputs in order to convert it into a more fruitful training.
Characteristics And Principles Of Learning And Development:
It requires purposeful activity.
It is a Problem solving process.
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Learning and development go hand in hand.
Friendly competition stimulates learning and development..
Early Successes increases the chances for effective learning and d3evelopment.
Benefits Of On The Job Training In Order To Highlight The Relevance Of Learning And Development:
The trainee learns effectively as he experiences the same problem, which he will be facing on the job.
Learns to locate the fault and corrects error.
Confidence in speed and senses of productiveness, and gets positive and reinforcive support.
Benefits Of Job Rotation Method In Order To Highlight The Relevance Of Learning And Development.
It is a effective method to develop small number of people in various jobs by rotation.
It is mainly used for management development methods where managers are exposed to handle the situation of other departments.
Such a exposure gives you the opportunity of acting in a service role with increased knowledge and sensitivity. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
Survival, Growth and Effective existence of an organization require a succession of people to fill various important jobs. Personal Development planning focuses on for main steps
Individual Needs
Vision linked with needs.
Action plan to achieve the vision.
Results focusing on maintaining the change.
Following are the points to highlight Personal Development Planning:
To first of all identify individuals interest, skills and potential.
To identify life goals and career goals.
To develop a written plan (including schedule to achieve individual goals)
Seeking and obtaining the best first.
Communicating to management the individual career plan.
To seek Counseling from the manager and from the HR organization.
To evaluate the internal and external opportunities.
To making known yourself and your accomplishments.
Advantages Of Personal Development Planning
It helps the individual to have the knowledge of various career opportunities.
To select the career which is suitable to ones life style.
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To satisfy individuals’ esteem needs.
To improve the individual employees performance on the job.
To increase the level of Job Satisfaction.
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UNIT - IV EMPLOYEE COMPENSATION One of the most difficult functions of HRM is that of determining rates of monetary compensation. Not only it is one of the most complex duties, but it is also one of the most significant to both the organisation and the employees.
Wage & salary refers to the establishment & implementation of the sound policies & practices of the employees compensation . It includes such as such areas as job evaluation , surveys of wage & salary, analysis of relevant organizational problems ,development & maintenance of wage structure, profit sharing
& incentives
etc. The basic purpose of wage & salary
administration is to establish & maintain an equitable wage & salary structure .The secondary objectives to establishment & maintenance of an equitable labour –cost structure .The compensation is mainly concerned with the financial aspects of the needs ,motivation & rewards. Managers Must analyse the needs of the employees so that reward can be designed to satisfy some needs.
Definition:
Compensation: Compensation may be defined” as money received in the performance of work , plus many kinds of benefits & services that organization provides their employees .” Money is included under direct compensation while benefits come under Indirect Compensation. may consist of life ,accident & health insurance ,employer’s contribution to retirement ,pay for vacation or illness . Wages: Wages are defined as the remuneration paid for the services of labour in production, periodically to an employees /worker. These are generally refers to hourly rate or daily rate paid to such groups as production & maintenance employees (Blue Collar).
Salary: Salary on the other hand refers weekly or monthly rates paid to the weekly or monthly rates paid to clerical, administrative & professional employees (White collar workers) AIMS OF COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT As far as the organisation is concerned, employee compensation programs are designed to do three things:
To attract capable employees to the organisation
To motivate them toward superior performance, and
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To retain their services over an extended period of time.
The aims of wage and salary administration are numerous and sometimes conflict with each other. The main objectives of wage and salary administration are: 1. To acquire qualified competent personnel: Candidates decide upon their career in a particular organisation mostly on the basis of the maount of remuneration the organisation offers. So the organisation should aim at payment of salaries at that level, where they can attract competent and qualified people. 2. To secure internal and external equity: Internal equity does mean payment of similar wages for similar job within the organisation. External equity implies payment of similar wages to similar jobs in comparable organisations. 3. To retain present employees: The organisation must keep the wage level at the competitive level, in order to prevent such quits. 4. To ensure desired behaviour: Good compensation reinforce desired bahaviour like performance, loyalty, accepting new responsibilities and changes etc. 5. Control costs: To keep labour and administrative costs in line with the ability of the organisation to pay. 6. Comply with Legal regulations: A sound wage and salary system considers the legal challengers imposed by government and ensures the employerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s compliance. 7. To pay according to the content and difficulty of the job and in tune with the effort and merit of employees. 8. To facilitate pay roll administration of budgeting and wage and salary control. 9. To simplify collective bargaining procedures and negotiations. 10. To promote organisation feasibility.
PRINICPLES Of WAGE & SALARY ADMINISTRATION There are several principles of wage and salary plans, policies and practices. The important of them are: 1. There should be definite plan to ensure that differences in pay for jobs are based upon difference in job requirements. 2. The general level of wages and salaries should be reasonably in line with that prevailing in the labour market. 3. Wage and salary plans and policies should be sufficiently flexible. 4. Job evaluation must be done scientifically. 5. Wage and salary administration plans must always be consistent with overall organisational plans and programmes. 6. Wage and salary administration plans and programmes should be in conformity with the social and economic objectives of the country like attainment of equality in income distribution and controlling inflationary trends.
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7. Wage and salary administraion plans and programmes should be responsive to the changing local and national conditions. 8. These plans should be simplify and expedite other administrative processes.
FACTORS DETERMINING PAY RATE FACTORS AFFECTING WAGE AND SALARY ADMINISTRATION IN AN ORGANISATION 1.
The organization ability to pay: The first important factor which determines the pay rate is the as the companies with good sales & high profits have the ability to pay higher wages to the employees as compare to any other small scale company .
2.
Supply & Demand Force of labour : The labour market conditions or supply &
demand forces at the national ,regional & local levels because if the demand for certain skills is high & supply is low the price to be paid for these skills will be high & similarly if demand for skill is low & supply of manpower is more than salary paid will be low . 3. Prevailing Market Rate: The next factor is the prevailing market rate or known as going market rate or comparable wage .It includes the competition demand ,then the government laws & judicial decision ,trade union encourages this practice so that people have equal pay ,equal work. 4. The Cost of living: The Cost of living is the usually regarded as automatic minimum pay criterion & it is based on the increase or decrease in an acceptable cost of living index .When the cost of living increases ,workers & trade union demands adjusted wages. 5. The Living wages : It means that the wages
paid
should be adequate to enable
employees to maintain himself & his family at a reasonable level of existence . 6. Productivity : It is the another criteria measured in the terms of output per man hour . Technological improvement, better organization & management better methods of production by labour & management
the development of
,greater skill by labour are
responsible for the increase in productivity . 7. Trade Union Bargaining Power : The trade unions play an important role ,generally the stronger & powerful the trade union, the higher wages, As a strike or threat of strike is the most powerful weapon used by them . 8. Job Requirements : The more difficult a job is more higher is the wages. As the jobs are graded according to the relative skill ,effort ,responsibility & job condition required . 9. Managerial Attitudes : The managerial attitudes plays an imp role like top management desires to improve or maintain morale & to attract high caliber employees to reduce turnover& to provide high living standard . 10. Psychological & Social Factors: These determine in a significant measure how hard a person will work for the compensation received or what pressure he will exert for his hike in compensation .Wages as a measure of success in life ,people may feel secure or have an inferiority complex .
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Incentives WAGE CONCEPTS Minimum Wage: must provide not merely for the bare sustenance of life but for the preservation of the efficiency of the workers by providing some measure of education, medical requirements and amenities. This is the wage established according to the provisions of the law. Living Wage: It represents a standard of living, which provides not merely for bare physical sustenance but decency, protection against illness, requirements of essential social needs and some insurance against important misfortunes;
Fair Wage: The wage, which is decided according to the productive contribution of the work done by him. Methods of wage payment Time wage: Wages are paid on the basis of time spent Wages = number of days worked x rates per day Wages = number of hours worked x rate per hour. Merits:
Simplest method
Earnings of workers are regular
The quality of work can be kept high
DEMERITS
No distinction between efficient and inefficient workers.
Guaranteed remuneration makes workers indifferent
Productivity of labour becomes low unless close supervision is used
Piece rate: Wages are paid on the basis of output and quality of work done. Wages = Number of units produced x rater per unit Merits:
It works as an incentive to produce more
Records are related to efforts.
Management can distinguish efficient and inefficient
DEMERITS
Earnings of the workers are not assured
In order to maximize the wage they excessively work which spoils their health.
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Creates jealous between efficient and inefficient worker.
Balance or debt method: It is the combination of time and piece wage system. Workers are guaranteed a time rate with alternative piece rage. If wages are calculated at piece rate and exceeds tine rate, the workers get credit. On the other hand if time wage exceeds piece wage the worker is paid time wage and the deficit is carried forward as debt to be recommended in future.
Incentive plan: Individual incentive: a. Time based Halsey plan: under this minimum wage is guaranteed. A standard time is fixed to the worker performs his job is less than standard time, he is given bonus. Total wages = T X R + 50% (S-T) X R MERITS
simple to understand
employers and employees get equal benefit
Guaranteed minimum wage
DEMERITS
Standards based on past performance ;may not be scientific
Workers get half of the benefits for efficiency
Much clerical work is involved
Rowan plan: Under this scheme, time saved is expressed as a percentage of time allowed and the normal rate is inflated by this percentage. Bonus = time taken / time allowed x time saved x HR Merits:
There is a guarantee of maximum work
Since bonus increases at a decreasing rate at higher levels of efficiency, workers are not induced to such through the work
EMERSON’S EFFICIENCY PLAN A minimum wage rate for workers is guaranteed irrespective of their performance. The worker is paid hourly rate when his performance is below 66.71 efficiency from 66.71 up to 100% efficiency the time he actually works plus an increasing bonus according to the degree of efficiency on the bonus of step bonus rates. Above 100% efficiency, an additional bonus of one percent of the hourly rate is paid for each one percent increase in efficiency Merits:
A minimum wage rate is guaranteed
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Since bonus varies with the efficiency it acts as a motivation for the efficient worker.
Demerits.
Little incentive after 100% efficiency level
A great deal of clerical work is involved.
Bedeaux plan: Here the basic unit of time is the minute termed as B. a job should be complete in so many minutes and if the worker completes the job before the standard time then the bonus is given to him according to the number of points saved Merits:
It can be applied to any kind of job
When management establishes a carefully amended performance standard. Bedeaux point system of incentive wage payment become successful in motivating the employer towards better performance.
Output based TAYLOR’S PLAN The scheme was introduced by F.W.Taylor with 2 objects a. to give adequate incentive to worker and induce them to produce up to their full capacity. b. To provide the workers with 2 different types of piece rates. One is used for worker whose production is lower than the minimum prescribed production and a higher rate is paid to workers whose production is much above the standard level Benefits
Provides strong incentive to efficient and hard working employees
Inefficient workers are penalized
Worker do not share reward with the foreman
Demerits:
No guarantee of minimum wage.
It is harsh for worker who is below standard
2. Merrich multiple piece rate plans: up to 83.3% efficiency – normal rate from 83.3% to 100% - 10% above normal rate above 100%
- 30% above the normal rate
Merits:
less harsh for beginners
it is more flexible
Demerits:
minimum wage is not guaranteed.
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3. Ganttâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s task and bonus plan: under this there is guaranteed minimum wage to every worker. If the worker achieves or excess, he gets extra wage varying between 25% to 50% of the hourly rate for the time allowed for the tasks. But if a worker fails to complete the tasks within the standard time, he receives only the wages of actual time spent at the specified rate. II Group Incentive Scheme: 1. Priest Man Bonus Plan: it is the most applied method â&#x20AC;&#x201C; under these methods a committee of workers and management, sets the standard of performance. A minimum wage is guaranteed to each worker. The group gets bonus when actual output exceeds the standard,. The supervisor also gets benefit 2. Scalar Plan it is plant wide scheme designed to involve workers in making suggestions for reducing the cost of operations and improving work methods by showing the gain of increased productivity. This plan has 2 basic features. a. financial incentives are used to increase productivity and reduce cost. PAY FOR PERFORMANCE Pay for performance system involves rewarding the employees according to their performance, or results achieved or contribution to organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance as individuals or as a part of a group. It involves a shift in focus from remuneration models based on the worth of jobs and employee skills to their performance. Designing a performance linked reward systems is conditioned by a variety of factors such as the nature of business, type of technology, the attitude of unions and human resource management strategies of the organization. This system reduces labour cost, result in increase in real wages and motivate performance. They provide a method of absorbing cost escalation on account of pay increases and thus help in sustaining competitiveness of the organization.
Forms and Choice of Performance Linked Reward System There are several types of Performance linked reward schemes. Generally these are designed to share with or distribute to employees as individuals groups or a collectivity productivity gains, profit improvement or financial results of enterprise performance. Such schemes fall into the broad categories: 1. Schemes based on individual or small group performance including piece rates, traditional merit pay and sales commission. 2. Incentive schemes which may relate pay to profits on the basis of pre determined formula.
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3. Bonus schemes based on contribution to productivity and profitability according to a predetermined formula with gains sometimes distributed among the individual employees on the basis of merit rating. 4. Productivity bargaining. 5. Employee strike options plan (ESOP) 6. Competency based pay. 1. Merit Incentive Pay The merit incentive pay scheme provides another method of recognizing and rewarding differential performance. This method could particularly be suitable for office staff. The scheme essentially involves the following steps: a) The determination of result oriented merit rating procedures, b) The identification of job and their relative importance c) The formulation of scale of reward and d) The communication of the basis of monetary reward.
Under a system of merit increments, there is no prompt relationship between reward and effort. The quantum of reward at a point of time will be considered inadequate. Additional cost on the form of enhanced allowances is built for the company on permanent basis. Employees continue to benefit from their best performance even if it remains below standard in the future. Employees getting merit awards cannot visualize a proportionate relationship between their performance and rewards. The basis of determining the quantum cannot be explained to employees who are not given such awards. This may evoke jealousy and friction and may thus jeopardize cooperation and goodwill. 2. Incentive schemes Output based incentive scheme are appropriate where tasks are repetitive and measurable These involve the following steps: 1. Selecting the objectives 2. Determining the parameters of performance in accordance with the objective 3. Determining the norms or base values or benchmark values for each parameter 4. Determining performance reward relationship 5. Fixing the relative importance of the selected parameters that is, their weightings. 6. Designing information and procedure formats. 7. Determining the maximum payable incentive amount (incentive opportunity) and payment period. 8. Formulating a communication and review scheme These are, however, not suitable for technology and service activities, which require information sharing problem solving and team work. Productivity gain or profit sharing or employee stock option plan (ESOP) may be suitable types for such activities
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3. Group incentive and productivity gain sharing. Under the productivity gain sharing schemes productivity gains are shared in accordance to an agreed pre-determined formula. Profit sharing gives a share of profit. Sometimes, the quantum of bonus is determined on the basis of profit as well as productivity improvements according to pre determined benchmark value for each of them. Productivity bargaining Productivity bargaining can provide yet another method of improving productivity and linking wage increase to such improvements. Productivity bargaining, however dose not mean an incentive scheme or wage increase in return for assurance and promise from union in return for achieving production targets. This method implies: a) A detailed analysis of the firms operations b) The identification of cost reduction possibilities c)
Estimation of savings in cost
d) The development of a system of indexing wages increase with cost reduction actually realized over time.
The climate for productivity bargaining has never been more favorable than now it is for managements to take initiative and build this approach in their collective bargaining relationship with unions.
Long-term incentive (ESOP) Long term incentive in the form of employee stock options schemes are operated both to improve long-term incentives and to reduce fixed cost. ESOP envisages employee participation in and ownership of company equity. This plan is intended to provide an incentive to the employees to improve the all round performance and growth of the company and share its prosperity. The plan usually involves allotments of equity shares according to laid down procedure and subject to governmental regulations, laws and rules. The employees benefit in the form of enhanced market value of his share and capital gains, which in turn depend on company and employee performance .several software and high tech organization such as infosys have conceived and designed such plans . Competency based pay The competency is a critical determinant of performance. Therefore there is an increasing interest in offering monetary incentive for acquiring competencies required for higher performance on the present job or the next job. Such competency may for instance include values, attitude and behavioral characteristics, which influence performance. In designing a performance linked reward scheme, choice of an appropriate scheme should be considered as critical. The choice will be determined by a Varity of factors such as
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nature of the organization, the nature of technology, the nature of profits the nature of markets, the human resource strategy and business objective. For reviewing an incentive scheme and designing an appropriate scheme. ISSUES AND TRENDS
1. Level of education 2. Trade union 3. Organization culture 4. Package of monetary and non monetary incentives 5. Rewarding good performance 6. Performance pay and performance management 7. Caveats ELEMENTS/INGREDIENTS OF A GOOD WAGE PLAN Basic elements of good wage plan are as follows: 1. Should be easily understandable; 2. Easy Computation; 3. Capable of motivating Employees; 4. Should provide remuneration as soon as employees have made efforts; 5.Should be relatively stable;
EFFECTIVE INCENTIVE PLAN COMPONENTS OF THE COMPENSATION SYSTEM Jobs offered by an organization vary in terms of their values. Job value is ascertained by job evaluation. Jon evaluation is a systematic method of appraising the value of each job in relation to other jobs in an organization. We have already discussed the job evaluation method of in the previous Unit on job evaluation. Once all the jobs are assigned values, then these are placed in a grade, or say, a rate per job. These grades are arranged in an hierarchical order starting with lower to higher jobs. Thus, job and salary structure consist of the various salary grades and their different levels of single jobs or group of jobs.
Basic Wage/Salary;
Dearness Allowance;
House Rent Allowance;
City Compensatory Allowance;
Conveyance Allowance;
Leave Travel Concession;
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Education Subsidy;
Bonus (Profit bonus /Incentive Bonus);
Medical;
Provident Fund;
Pension;
Overtime;
Fringe benefits;
Social security benefits.
In case of executives, various reimbursements are also made as part of their salaries. These are:
Company leased accommodation;
Servant salary reimbursement;
Company maintained car;
Driver salary reimbursement;
House maintenance reimbursement;
Children education;
Scholarship to the children;
Electricity, water, gas charges reimbursement;
Insurance premium;
Hospitalization;
Office maintenance at residence;
Household furniture and appliances;
Holiday homes;
Interest free loans for house building & many more.
In short, the main objective of wage and salary administration is to establish and maintain an equitable wage and salary system to obtain, retain, and motivate people to required skill in an organization. The whole administration of wage and salary payment is based upon three principles, namely, external equity, internal equity and individual equity.
EMPLOYEES BENEFITS & SERVICES
Management is concerned with attracting & keeping employees, whose performance meets at least minimum levels of acceptability ,& at keeping absenteeism & turnover to tolerable levels .The provision of benefits & services are important in maintaining the employees & reducing the turnover & absenteeism low .
The financial incentives are paid to specific employees whose performance whose work is above standard. On the other hand the employees benefits & services are provided to all the employees based on their membership in the organization.
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According to the Employee Federation of India has defined Fringe Benefits “Fringe Benefits includes payments for non working time ,profits & bonus ,legally sanctioned payments on social security schemes ,worker’s compensation ,welfare & contribution made by the workers under such voluntary schemes for the post retirement ,medical ,educational ,cultural & recreational needs of the workmen.” According to the Cockman “ Those benefits which are provided by the employer to or for the benefit of the employees & which are not in the form of wages ,salaries & time related payements.” Features of Fringe Benefits 1) Wages are directly related to the work done & paid regularly usually weekly monthly & benefits which a worker enjoys in addition to the wages or salary he receives. 2) Benefits are not given to workers for any specific jobs they have performed but are offered to them to stimulate their interest in their work & to make their job more attractive & productive for them. 3) Fringe represents a labour cost for the employer , it is basically an expenditure incurred 4)
Fringe is never a direct reward geared to the output, effort for merit of an employees not on the basis of hard work or long hours of work but on the basis of length of services ,his sickness ,sex the hazard of life .
5) The fringe benefit is enjoyed by all . 6) Fringe benefit must constitute a positive cost to the employer & should be incurred to finance an employee benefit.
OBJECTIVES OF FRINGE BENEFITS To create & improve sound industrial relations. To Boost up employee morale To motivate the employees by identifying & satisfying their unsatisfied needs. To provide qualitative work environment To protect health & safety of the employees To promote employees welfare by providing welfare measures like recreation facilities.
COVERAGE/SCOPE OF BENEFITS 1) Employee Security Payments: (a) Employers Contribution stipulated in legal enactment: old age, survivor, disability health (b) Payments under the workmen’s compensation Act. (c) Supplemental unemployment benefits (d) Accident insurance (e) Pensions (f)
Contribution to the saving plans & health & welfare benefits.
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2) Payment for the time not worked: (a) Rest Period: Among the office jobs the breaks popularly known as rest break or coffee break are allowed during the day to the workers (b) Holidays: Holidays which includes Christmas ,New Years, Holi ,Diwali on which the employees have to be paid & they do not have to work. (c) Vacation : Paid vacations vary from 15 days to 1month in a year . (d) Sick Leave : This is provided to the employees when is out on illness (e) Severance Pay : This provides one time payment to an employee when he is terminated (f)
Leave of Absence: These are generally educational leave provided to managers or management trainees during training period .
(g) Pension Programmes (h) Insurance
( C) Bonus & Awards :These consist of financial amenities & advantages as holidays ,over time & shift premium ,attendance bonus, Diwali bonus etc.
EMPLOYEES SERVICES In addition to the above fringe benefits, organization provides a wealth
of
service that
employees find desirable .These services are usually provided by the organization at no cost to the employees .These services are provided at the discretion of the management & are generally are concern to trade union.
These services mainly include:
1) Services related to the type of work performed, including subsidies for the purchase & upkeep clothing, uniforms 2) Eating facilities cafeteria, lunch rooms, canteens, lunch rooms 3) Transportation facilities including parking & bus services 4) Childcare facilities, comprising nurseries, day care centers for children. 5) Housing services including company owned housing projects. 6) Financial & legal services including sponsoring of loan funds. 7) Recreational social & cultural programmes including athletics, beauty, social clubs , parties ,picnics . 8) Educational services 9) Medical services 10) Flexitime
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POTENTIAL APPRAISAL Evaluating what a person can perform or do is called ‘potential appraisal or evaluation.’ Potential refers to the abilities present but not currently utilized. It is a latent capacity in a person to discharge a responsibility. “People are like icebergs. What you see above the surface (performance) is only a small part. A large part of the attributes needed to perform excellently in future job, which I call potential is not immediately visible. It is hidden below surface.” Potential represents latent capacities and qualities in a person, which manifest while performing the job.
WHY POTENTIAL EVALUATION? The objectives of potential evaluation are to: 1. Promote an employee to higher levels of jobs involving higher order or responsibility, which the employee can effectively discharge without being over burden and stretched. 2. Assist the organization to allocate jobs among employees as per their capabilities so that organizational responsibilities are discharged effectively.
A potential employee is characterized by the following attributes: 1. Ability to foresee future opportunities. 2. Consistency in approach and performance. 3. Responsive to condition whatever comes in the way. 4. Person with high level of integrity. 5. Broader vision and micro perception.
HOW TO EVALUATE EMPLOYEE POTENTIAL? The potential of employees can be evaluated by following the following steps: 1. Determination of role dimension: the process of potential evaluation starts with determining the role dimension of the employee whose potential is to be evaluated. Job description and job specification help determine the role dimensions. The former provides information about the responsibilities involved in a job, while the later provides information on attributes the jobholder should possess. 2. Determination of mechanism: having determined the role dimension a mechanism to evaluate these attributes in an employee is evolved. Obviously, the mechanism should be appropriate to appraise the potential of employee by a designated appraiser.
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3. Linking potential with other elements: in order to evaluate potential in a meaningful manner, other elements of human recourse management such as feedback, counseling, training, job rotation, etc. should also be lined with it. motivation in practice - introduction to financial incentives
Although some theorists like Herzberg believe that money is not a positive motivator (although lack of it can de-motivate), pay systems are designed to motivate employees.
The scientific / Theory X approach, in particular, argues that workers respond to financial rewards.
Getting employee pay right (often referred to as the “remuneration package”) is a crucial task for a business.
Why is pay important? • It is an important cost for a business (in some “labour-intensive” businesses, payroll costs are over 50% of total costs) • People feel strongly about it. Pay helps to satisfy many needs (e.g. security, esteem needs, resources to pursue self-actualisation) • Pay is the subject of much important business legislation (e.g. national minimum wage; equal opportunities legislation) • It helps attract reliable employees with the skills the business needs for success • Pay also helps retain employees – rather than them leave and perhaps join a competitor • For most employees, the remuneration package is the most important part of a job – and certainly the most visible part of any job offer. There are many methods of financial reward (these are covered in separate revision notes) • Time-rate pay • Piece-rate pay • Commission • Performance-related pay • Bonuses • Shares and options • Benefits in kind (“fringe benefits”) • Pensions Because pay is a complex issue, there are several ways in which businesses determine how much to pay, and which methods to use: • Job evaluation / content; this is usually the most important factor. What is involved in the job being paid? How does it compare with similar jobs? • Fairness – pay needs to be perceived and be seen to match the level of work • Negotiated pay rates – the rate of pay may have been determined elsewhere and the business needs to ensure that it complies with these rates.
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• Market rates – another important influence – particularly where there is a standard pattern of supply and demand in the relevant labour market. If a business tries to pay below the “market rate” then it will probably have difficulty in recruiting and retaining suitable staff • Individual performance – increasingly, businesses include an element of “performancerelated” reward in their pay structures. However, it is important to remember that pay is only one element of motivation and will work best where management also give attention to: • Developing good management and supervision; • Designing jobs and organising work groups to make them as satisfying as possible; • Providing feedback to staff about their performance and training and development; • Making effective arrangements for communications and consultation. motivation in practice - time rate pay
Time rates are used when employees are paid for the amount of time they spend at work. This is the most common method of payment in the UK.
The usual form of time rate is the weekly wage or monthly salary. Usually the time rate is fixed in relation to a standard working week (e.g. 35 hours per week).
The employment contract for a time-rate employee will also stipulate the amount of paid leave that the employee can take each year (e.g. 5 weeks paid holiday).
Time worked over this standard is known as overtime. Overtime is generally paid at a higher rate than the standard time-rate – reflecting the element of sacrifice by an employee. However, many employees who are paid a monthly salary do not get paid overtime. This is usually the case for managerial positions where it is generally accepted that the hours worked need to be sufficient to fulfil the role required.
The main advantages of time-rate pay are: • Time rates are simple for a business to calculate and administer • They are suitable for businesses that wish to employ staff to provide general roles (e.g. financial management, administration, maintenance) where employee productivity is not easy to measure • It is easy to understand from an employee’s perspective • The employee can budget personal finance with some certainty • Makes it easier for the employer to plan and budget for employee costs (e.g. payroll costs will be a function of overall headcount rather than estimated output)
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The main disadvantages of time-rate pay are: • Does little to encourage greater productivity – there is no incentive to achieve greater output • Time-rate payroll costs have a tendency to creep upwards (e.g. due to inflation-related pay rises and employee promotion. motivation in practice - commission
Commission is a payment made to employees based on the value of sales achieved. It can form all or part of a pay package. Commission is, therefore, a form of “incentive pay” (see also performance-related pay, bonuses).
Commission, like piece-rates, is a reward for the quantity or value of work achieved. In most cases, the employee is paid a flat percentage of the value of the good or service that is sold.
The rate of commission depends on the selling price and the amount of effort required in making the sale.
For example, commission rates could range from 5% where the product sells easily (e.g. household goods sold door-to-door) to 30% where the effort is substantial.
Advantages of Commission
The main advantage of commission from an employee’s point-of-view is that it enables high performing sales people to earn huge amounts.
The main advantage to the employer is that the payroll cost is related to the value of business achieved rather than just the amount produced. After all, businesses exist to sell goods and services for profit – not just to make things (piece rates simply reward amounts produced, not sold).
Disadvantages of Commission There are several drawbacks with using commission payments:
• Sales people may cut corners to make sales (e.g. not explain the product or service in enough detail to potential customers). This was a major problem in the recent pensions mis-selling scandal in the UK
• High commission earnings enjoyed by some of the sales team may be resented elsewhere in the business – particularly if the sales actually depend on a team effort
• It is difficult to change what proves to be an over-generous commission structure without upsetting and demoralising the sales team
• Once commission payments have been made, the sales force may lose some motivation until they begin to focus on the next payment (which might be up to 12 months away)
As a result of the above disadvantages, most businesses that use commission as an incentive payment method offer a basic pay plus a moderate commission level. In this way, if sales and profits justify the change, the commission rate can always be increased slightly.
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Recent research suggests that the use of commission is reducing in comparison with the growth of other incentive payment methods.
motivation in practice - national minimum wage
Many businesses in the UK, including large numbers of small businesses, are affected by the national minimum wage. It is worth understanding how this works since it may be relevant in a business studies case study exam.
Who the Minimum Wage Applies To
The national minimum wage in the UK is currently £4.20 for workers aged over 21 and £3.60 for 18 to 21 year olds.
These rates will rise to £4.50 and £3.80 respectively from October 2003; with a further proposed rise to £4.85 and £4.10 from October 2004. There is also a minimum training wage for new employees over 21 of £3.60 an hour, but this wage applies only to workers doing accredited training and for a maximum of 6 months. A worker's hourly rate of pay may include such payments as bonuses and performance-related pay.
There is no national minimum wage for workers aged under 18. Other exemptions from the minimum wage are the self-employed, volunteers, apprentices, members of the armed services, and people working as part of a family.
What Employers Have to Do
Employers have to keep records that show that they are paying the national minimum wage, although it is up to an employer what form these records take.
Employees have a right to see their pay records and legal rights to the national minimum wage.
The Inland Revenue enforces the legislation, and employers can be taken to an employment tribunal or to court if they fail to pay the minimum wage. There are financial penalties for failure to comply with national minimum wage legislation.
Employers found not to be paying at least the minimum wage may be served an enforcement notice ordering them to make minimum wage payments and refund any underpayment. If this notice is ignored employers may face a penalty notice and a fine of £7.40 per worker for each day they do not comply. motivation in practice - job rotation What is Job Rotation?
Job rotation involves the movement of employees through a range of jobs in order to increase interest and motivation.
Job rotation can improve “multi-skilling” but also involves the need for greater training.
In a sense, job rotation is similar to job enlargement. This approach widens the activities of a worker by switching him or her around a range of work.
For example, an administrative employee might spend part of the week looking after the reception area of a business, dealing with customers and enquiries. Some time might then
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be spent manning the company telephone switchboard and then inputting data onto a database.
Job rotation may offer the advantage of making it easier to cover for absent colleagues, but it may also reduce' productivity as workers are initially unfamiliar with a new task.
Why is Job Rotation Important? Job rotation is seen as a possible solution to two significant challenges faced by business: (1) Skills shortages and skills gaps, and (2) Employee motivation
Skills shortages occur when there is a lack of skilled individuals in the workforce.
Skills gaps occur when there is a lack of skills in a company’s existing workforce which may still be found in the labour force as a whole.
According to the Treasury and DfES, both skills shortages and gaps are major problems acting as major barriers to economic growth and the reduction in long-term unemployment in the UK.
motivation in practice - structuring the pay package
With so many methods of pay available, how should a business decide to structure the pay package it offers to employees, and what rate of pay should it use?
Start with the “Market Rate”
The starting point is usually to find out what the “market rate” is. Paying the market rate involves careful job evaluation (it helps to know what is being compared to what!).
Factors that help determine the market rate for a job include: • Whether the skills that are required are widely available • The overall level of unemployment in the employment “catchment area” • Whether the job requires specialised (or even highly specialised) skills There are several ways in which a business can obtain data on market rates: • Local employment agencies • Job centres • Job adverts in national newspapers of specialist publications (e.g. professional journals) • Commission (or contribute towards) a specific salary survey in the industry More or Less?
The next question is – should the business pay MORE or LESS than the market rate? Factors to consider here include:
• Does the business need above-average employees (e.g. salesmen with an industry reputation for being strong performers) • Does the business need trained employees or is it prepared to invest in training beginners?
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• Are the skills wanted by the business needed urgently (in which case – the business would probably want to pay more) • Do factors affecting the mobility of labour need to be addressed – e.g. are there transport problems that need to be solved (e.g. pay for a rail season ticket) or relocation allowances to be offered to encourage new employees to move home? Structure The third important question is how to structure the remuneration package.
• Should employees be paid on the basis of time spent working (e.g. time-rates) or the amount they produce (e.g. piece rates) or some other measure of performance?
• Should the remuneration package be a combination of approaches (e.g. some basic pay per month + a commission-related incentive)?
• What kind of remuneration package is used by competitors - this may provide a useful guide as to how to structure the package (and it may also influence what employees expect)
In deciding the answers to these questions, a business should try to construct a pay structure that is simple (to help employees understand it), logical and fair
motivation in practice - piece rate pay
Piece-rate pay gives a payment for each item produced – it is therefore the easiest way for a business to ensure that employees are paid for the amount of work they do. Piecerate pay is also sometimes referred to as a “payment by results system”.
Piece-rate pay encourages effort, but, it is argued, often at the expense of quality. From the employee’s perspective, there are some problems. What happens if production machinery breaks down? What happens if there is a problem with the delivery of raw materials that slows production? These factors are outside of the employee’s control – but could potentially affect their pay.
The answer to these problems is that piece-rate pay systems tend, in reality, to have two elements: • A basic pay element – this is fixed (time-based) • An output-related element (piece-rate). Often the piece-rate element is only triggered by the business exceeding a target output in a defined period of time Case study: Piece-rate pay in practice in the UK – Home-based workers
In the UK many thousands of people engage in what is known as “home-based work”. This refers to work:
• In the home, or near the home in premises that are not those of an employer • For a cash income (i.e. not unpaid household work)
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Whilst there are many successful business people and well-paid professionals working from home, the use of piece-rate pay is focused is on those at the other end of the scale – home-based workers, mainly women, who earn only a subsistence level income.
Subsistence level home-based workers fall into two broad categories:
• Those who work for an employer, intermediary or subcontractor for a piece-rate, who are not responsible for designing or marketing the product, but simply contribute their labour. These workers are often called subcontracted or dependent home-workers
• Workers who design and market their own products, but who cannot be considered to be running small businesses - known as own-account workers.
The majority of home-based workers are women who do home based work in order to combine earning cash with other responsibilities, such as child-care and household management. Many earn well below the local minimum wage or average earnings. Most dependent workers work informally, without a proper employment contract. They are rarely organised or supported by formal trade ety motivation in practice - performance related pay Performance-related pay is a financial reward to employees whose work is: • Considered to have reached a required standard, and/or • Is above average
Performance related pay is generally used where employee performance cannot be appropriately measured in terms of output produced or sales achieved. Like piece-rates and commission, performance related pay is a form of incentive pay.
Whilst the detail of performance-related schemes varies from business to business, there are several common features:
• Individual performance is reviewed regularly (usually once per year) against agreed objectives or performance standards. This is the performance appraisal.
• At the end of the appraisal, employees are categorised into performance groups – which determine what the reward will be (if any)
• The method of reward will vary, but traditionally it involves a cash bonus and/or increase in wage rate or salary.
Performance-related pay has grown widely in recent years – particularly in the public
sector. This is part of a movement towards rewarding individual performance which reflects individual circumstances. According the Equal Opportunities Commission, a well-designed performance-related pay scheme would have the following elements: • Objective setting • Communication and understanding of objectives
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• Consideration of performance against objectives • Translation of evaluation into performance rating • A link between ratings and the determination of pay • A separate appeals procedure Disadvantages of Performance Related Pay There are several problems with performance-related pay:
• There may be disputes about how performance is measured and whether an employee has done enough to be rewarded
• Rewarding employees individually does very little to encourage teamwork
• It may encourage unhealthy rivalry between managers
• There is much doubt about whether performance-related pay actually does anything to motivate employees. This may be because the performance element is usually only a small percentage of total pay
Employee Welfare LABOUR WELFARE AND SOCIAL SECURITY Two inevitable consequences of the modern factory system have been that: 1.
It has made workers powerless. They have lost all control over the process and the product of their labour. All decisions concerning production are made by the ruling entrepreneur; and
2.
It has made jobs meaningless. Jobs have become so much specialized that they require very little skill on workers’ part and give them no opportunity to demonstrate all the skills that they possess. They experience their jobs as intrinsically dissatisfying and monotonous.
These conditions when coupled with exploitative management practices alienate the workers and lead them to revolt against the existing social norms. Their self-interest and careerism increase and their dedication to work declines.
This has made the task of a
personnel manager very challenging by bringing into sharp focus the need for labour welfare and social security measures. These measures operate to neutralize the harmful effects of large-scale industrialization and urbanization. They enable the workers to live a richer and more satisfactory life. They also benefit the employer in several ways many of which are not subject to quantification. Among these benefits are: 1.
More effective recruitment (because these benefit add to job appeal).
2.
Improved morale and loyalty.
3.
Lower turnover and absenteeism
4.
Good industrial relations
5.
Reduced influence of union
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Reduced threat of further government intervention It is doubtful whether labour welfare and social security programmes motivate
employees to increased productivity.
According to the two-factor theory propounded by
Herzberg the factors which motivate workers to produce more are increased responsibility, advancement, growth, recognition, achievement and the work itself.
Labour welfare and
social security benefits do not fall under any of these factors. There is evidence to show that after sometime these benefits, not being dependent on production or performance, are taken for granted by the workers. Labour welfare and social security measures are also known as employee service programmes or fringe benefits. Employees enjoy these services (such as canteens, crèches, education and recreation facilities, etc.) without any reference to the specific work done by them. In the case of economic benefits (such as disablement compensation for employment injury, retirement benefits, medical and maternity benefits, etc.) their amount is not predetermined and can be ascertained only after the event. LABOUR WELFARE The Oxford dictionary defines labour welfare as “efforts to make life worth living for workmen”. These efforts have their origin either in some statute formed by the State or in some local custom or in a collective agreement or in the employer’s own initiative.
An
employer may voluntarily initiate labour welfare measures in his undertaking with the following objectives: 1.
To give expression to philanthropic and paternalistic feelings
2.
To win over employees’ loyalty and increase their morale.
3.
To combat trade unionism and socialist ideas.
4.
To build up stable labour force, to reduce labour turnover and absenteeism.
5.
To develop efficiency and productivity among workers.
6.
To save oneself from heavy taxes on surplus profits.
7.
To earn goodwill and enhance public image.
8.
To reduce the threat of further.
9.
To make recruitment more effective (because these benefits add to job appeal)
It is, however, difficult to precisely define the scope of labour welfare efforts. Different writers have defined it in different ways. Some writers say that only voluntary efforts on the part of employers to improve the conditions of employment in their factories form the scope of labour welfare efforts. Some others say it includes not only voluntary efforts of the employer but also the minimum standards of hygiene and safety laid down in general legislation.
Principles of Labour Welfare Services Following are generally given as the principles to be followed in setting up a labour welfare services:
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The Service should Satisfy Real Needs of the Workers: This means that the manager must first determine what the employee’s real needs are with the active participation of workers. In one case, a company manager who had a bias for sports purchased all sports facilities, and hired a sports director without consulting workers. But when the whistle was blown to play the ball, nobody wanted to play.
2.
The Service should be Such as can be Handled by Cafetaria Approach: Due to the differences in sex, age, marital status, number of children, type of job and the income level of employees there are large differences in their choice of a particular benefit. Hence, it is suggested that a package total value of benefits should be left to the choice of each individual employee. This is known as the ‘cafetaria’ approach. Such an approach individualizes the benefit system though it may be difficult to operate and administer.
3.
The Employer should not Assume a Benevolent Posture.
4.
The cost of the service should be calculable and its financing established on a sound basis.
5.
There should be periodical assessment or evaluation of the service and necessary timely improvement on the basis of feedback.
Types of Labour Welfare Services We may classify all labour welfare services two heads: intramural and extramural. Intramural services are those which are provided within the factory (such as safety, health and counseling services). Extramural are those which are provided outside the factory (such as education, housing, transport, recreation, etc.) We are describing below three important welfare services, viz., safety, health and counseling.
SAFETY AND HEALTH Safety Service Prevention of accidents is an objective which requires no explanation. This is one area in which there is complete identity of employer employee interests – the employee does not want to be injured and the employer does not wan to incur the cost of injuring him. The cost of accidents are enormous in suffering to the injured, in reduction or loss of earnings, in disabilities and incapacities which afflict those involved and in compensation, insurance and legal costs, in lost time, filling in reports and attending to enquires, and in spoilage of materials, equipment and tools to management. According to and I.L.O. report, despite progress in recent years, the price for livelihood paid in lives, limbs and health remains unbelievably high. About 9 million persons were injured in 1983 as results of on-thejob accidents in 64 countries – 24,000 of these injuries were fatal. The situation, the report says, is worse in the third world than in the industrialized West. Increasingly new risks are added to the old ones. Human beings are exposed to more and more chemical substances and exposure limits have been adopted for only a fraction of them and that too in a limited
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number of countries. As regards multinational enterprises (which are the major employers with some 44 million people on their payrolls) the report observes that these enterprises have better safety and health performance at home than in their subsidiaries in developing countries. But this is due to lack of observance of safety and health instructions by local workers. Accidents are the consequence of two basic factors:
technical and human.
Technical factors include all engineering deficiencies related to plant, tools, material and general work environment. Thus, for example, improper lighting, inadequate ventilation, poor machine guarding and careless housekeeping are some hazards which may cause accidents. Human factors include all unsafe acts on the part of employees. An unsafe act is usually the result of carelessness. In some cases it may be deliberate also. In most instances carlines can be attributed to the entail condition f the employee.
For example, an employee
emotionally upset, worried or disturbed is very often careless.
A constantly harassed
individual with home worries and a nagging wife is the sort of person likely to have an accident.
Young and new employees, because of their difficulty in adjusting to the work
situation and to life in general, also have many more accident attention to what they are doing. A fatigue increases during the work session, the liability of having an accident raises. Intake of liquor tends to destroy perception and judgement and slows up reaction.. Many accidents lead to further accidents as the behaviour of the work group becomes disrupted by their occurrence and the worry that is generated by them. Underlying the spate of accidents is an uneasy sense of insecurity, loss of status, maladjustment and frustration. In short, the work group becomes more and more demoralized and ill-disciplined.
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UNIT –V ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Define Psychology? What do you mean by psychology? Psychology: Psychology is the science of behavior. It focuses directly on understanding and predicting individual behaviour. It has contributed to intra personal dynamics of human behaviour. Topics such as personality, perception, attitude, opinion, learning and motivation describe intra personal aspects of OB. Definition: Psychology is “The science of human and animal behaviour: It includes the application of this science to human problems”.
Organisational Psychology: The application of psychology to the problems of industries and organizations is called industrial and organisational psychology. This is a sub-field of psychology in which psychological principles are applied to practical problems of work and commerce. Define Organisational behaviour? Explain Organisational behaviour? MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR: ~
All organizations, be these business, educational or government, are social systems. These are run by people. For example, It is a combination of men, money, machinery, material and methods, commonly known as 5m’s.Then it means the functioning of organization mainly depends on how people work or behave in the organization.
Human Behaviour is caused and highly unpredictable. Therefore, understanding human Behaviour has assumed great significance for the managers for managing the people effectively.
Psychology: It is a science that focuses directly on understanding and predicting individual behaviour. It has contributed to intra personal dynamics of human behaviour. Topics such as personality, perception, attitude, opinion, learning and motivation describe intra personal aspects of OB.
Psychology is “the science of human and animal behaviour: it includes the application of this science to human problems”.
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Organisational Psychology: The application of psychology to the problems of industries and organizations is called industrial and organisational psychology.
The first application of psychology to the problems of industries and organsations was the use of intelligence and aptitude tests in selecting employees. Today many tests in their modern versions of such tests in their hiring and placement programs.
DEFINITIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR (OB)
“According to Luthans “OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour with in organisations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards so improving an organisations effectiveness”.
Organizational behaviour is the study of organizational components, and their impact on human behaviour and organizational performances. Such study can benefit from various behavioural and social sciences.
Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within the Organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behaviour of people in all types of organizations such as business, government, schools and service organizations.
Meaning: Organisational behaviour is the study of the behaviour of people within an organisational setting. It involves the understanding prediction and control of human behaviour and the factors, which influence the performance of people as members of an organisation. Definition: According to S.P. Robbins “Organisational behaviour is a field of management that is primarily concerned with understanding, predicting and influencing human behaviour in the organisation.
Discuss the key elements of organisational behaviour? The external environment influences the following key elements and they influence it. 1. People: The success and failure of an organisation mainly depends upon the type of people with which it is working. People make up the internal social system of the organisation. They consist of individual employees who are expected to perform the tasks allotted to them, the groups work as teams and have the responsibility for getting the job done.
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2. Structure: It defines the formal relationships of people in organisations. Different jobs are required to accomplish all organisation activities. There are managers and employees. These people have to be related in some structural way so their work can be effectively coordinated. Their relationship creates complex problems of co-operation, negotiation of decision-making. 3. Technology: Technology is the mechanism by which the end product or service of the organisation is produced. It provides the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The great advantage of technology is that it allows people to do more and better work, but it also restricts people in various ways. It has costs as well as benefits. 4. Environment: All organizations operate within a given internal and external environment. In fact no organisation exists alone. An organisation is a part of a larger system that contains other factors or elements, such as a government, the family and other organisations. All of these mutually influence one another in a complex way.
SCOPE OF OB Explain the nature and scope of Organisational Behaviour. 1. A separate field of study: A discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical formulation. But OB has a multi-interdisciplinary orientation and is not based on specifies theoretical background. 2. An inter disciplinary approach: OB is essentially an interdisciplinary approach as it tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology to make them applicable for studying and analyzing Organisational Behaviour. 3. An applied science: OB basically does the application of various researches to solve the organisation problems related to human behaviour. It concentrates on applied research. 4. A normative science: The positive science discuses only cause-effect relationship, OB prescribes how the findings of applied researches can be applied to socially accepted organisational goals. OB deals with what is accepted by individuals and society engaged in organisation. 5. A humanistic & optimistic approach: OB applies humanistic approach towards people working in the organisation. It treats people as thinking, feeling human beings. OB is based on the belief that people have an innate desire to be independent, creative and productive.
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6. A total system approach: The systems approach is one that integrates all the variables affecting developed by the behavioral scientists to analyses human behaviour and to find solarium to his/her psychological framework. 7. Oriented towards organisational Objective: Though an organisation may have several objectives and sometimes conflicting with individual objectives, it should not be understood that OB only emphasis the achievement of individual objectives at the cost of organsiational objectives. In fact, OB tries to integrate both types of objectives so that these are achieved simultaneously.
Write about the scope of the organisational psychology. Scope of OB: OB is the study of human behavior at work in organisations. Accordingly, the scope of OB includes the study of individuals, groups and organisation individuals, groups and organisation structure. The scopes of OB are as follows: 1) Individuals: Organisations are the associations of individuals. Individuals differ in many respects .The study of individuals, therefore, includes aspects such as personality, perception, attitudes, values, job satisfaction, learning and motivation. 2) Groups of individuals: Groups include aspects such as groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dynamics, group conflict communication, leadership, power and polities & the like. 3) Organisation / structure: The study of organisation /structure includes aspects such as formation of organisational structure, culture of change and development.
Explain the need of Organisational Behaviour? Explain Significance Organisational Behavior? 1. Understanding people: The study of OB helps to understand people in a better way. This helps greatly in improving interpersonal relations in the organisations. 2. Social systems: The basic job of a manager is to develop an environment conductive to effective co-ordination. An organisation is a social system in which behavioural patterns work. Unless it is an integrated and coordinated team, it will be difficult to achieve corporate objectives.
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3. Decision-making: Decision-making is the basic job of any manager. It involves collection of data regarding problems and the analysis of them for drawing the right conclusions. Measurement of attitude becomes a part of decisions making as it is necessarily a study of behaviour. 4. Better knowledge of human: The knowledge of OB helps the managers know individual employees better and motivate employees to work for better results. 5. Problem solving: OB tackles human problems humanly. It helps understand the cause of the problem, predicts its future course of action and controls its evil consequences. 6. Managerial functions: Planning, organizing motivating, coordinating and controlling are managerial functions of managers, and that would be effective only when the manager has the necessary skills to perform these functions. 7. Prediction: The most popular reason for studying OB is to learn how to predict human behaviour and then apply it in some useful area to make the organisation more effective. 8. Motivation: OB helps managers how to efficiently manage human resources in the organisation. It enables managers to inspire and motivate employees towards higher productivity and better results. Opportunities for ob 1. Responding to globalisation: Philips sells more than 95% of products outside its country, ford makes cars in india, maruti is going towards european countries. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s manager shoukd be capable of working with people from different cultures. 2. Managing workforce diversity: Workforce diversity focuses on dffernces among people withi given countries interms of gender, race and ethnicity. Ob helps to manage diversity positively which interms increases morale and productivity of the employees. 3. Improving quality and productivity; Contemporary managers understand that, any effort to improve quality and productivity to succeed, it must include their employees and their involvement. Ob offers important isights to help managers to get compolete involvement of employees. 4. Improving people skills: Ob helps managers gain insights into specific people skills that can be used on the job. How to motivate people? How to do better communicator? How to create more effective teams. 5. Empowering people:
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it is putting employees incharge of what they do. Today organizations are using self managed teams, where workers operate largely without bosses.ob helps managers to learn how to give up control and teaches emplolyees to learn how to take responsibility for their work. 5. Coping with temporariness: Today’s world faces permanent temporariness. Ob helps managers and employees to better understand the world of continual change, how to overcome resistance to change etc. 6. Stimulating innovation and change: An organisation’s employees can be impetus for innovation and change or they can be a major stumbling block. The challenge for the managers is to stimulate employee creativity and tolerance for change. Ob helps them in realizing their goals. 7. Improving ethical behaviour: Ob helps today’s managers to create an ethically healthy climate for his or her employees.
FOF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR: 1. To improve efficiency and output in the industry: In every organisation where goods are manufactured, increased productivity with low expenditure has been the consideration in determining the destiny of the plant. Organisational behaviour acts as an aid to improve production with less expenditure. 2. To understand and consider the human nature of human beings: Organisational behaviour helps the superior to understand that every worker is basically a human being first with a personality which has the desire for power, prestige, and recognition and that he is a worker afterwards. 3. To discover the best possible human condition in work: Organisational behaviour helps the management to adopt the best possible human condition so as to improve their morale and to avoid fatigue, monotony and boredom. 4. To discover causes and remedy of irritations, discontentment and unrest: organisational behaviour aims at giving full training to the laboureer supervision and executives so that tahey are well versed with work situation. 5. To improve industrial relations: Organisational behaviour aims at improvement in industrial relations. It studies the attitude of employees and individual differences between people. Therfore different measures may be adopted in solving the problems of individuals. 6. To measure the attitude: If the worker has favourable attitude towards the work, he can do it correctly, otherwise even the best conditions cannot persuade the worker to work. The study and measurement of workers attitude done with the help of psychologist is so useful for the industrialist.
OB AND OTHER SIMILAR FIELDS OF STUDIES As discussed above. the emerging field of study of human behaviour in organisation
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is referred to by different names - organisational behaviour, behavioural science, human relations. or organisation theory. Though each of them tries to study human behaviour in organisation and they are used interchangeably in many cases. they differ in their approaches. In the following paragraphs. a comparison between OB and other similar field of studies such as behavioural science. human relations and organisation theory is presented.
OB and Behavioural Science A comparison of OB and behavioural science shows that both have similar focus on organisational study. Behavioural science can be defined as the study of human behaviour to establish generalisations that are supported by empirical evidence collected in an impersonal and objective way. This evidence must be capable of verification by other interested scholars, and procedures must be completely open to review and replication. Thus. behavioural science is interested in studying human behaviour in a scientific way. Therefore. behavioural science avoids speculation about 'what is' and normative discourse about 'what' ought to be.' This characteristic differentiates between OB and behavioural science though OB also uses scientific methods in collecting facts about human behaviour, it goes one step further by providing the answer of the question 'what ought to be in a given situation rather than merely giving the answer of the question 'what it is in the given situation.' This normative aspect of human behaviour in organisation goes a long way in improving human. behaviour in the organisation to realise its objectives. Davis makes a difference between human relations and organisational behaviour and observes that 'organisational behaviour is an academic discipline concerned with understanding and describing human behaviour in an organisational environment.
0B and Human Relations A comparison of OB and human relations shows that sometimes both are used synonymously, while at other times, a distinction is made between the two. Human relations broadly applies to the interaction and co-operation of people in groups. This can happen to any aspect of human activity-organisational or non-organisational. Thus, human relations can be applied in a wider context, either in organisational setting or non-organisational context. When human relations is used in the organisational context, particularly in business and industrial organisations, the term has quite a different connotation for persons in managerial positions. In this context, it means the integration of people into a work situation which motivates them to work together effectively. The basic implication of motivating human beings in the organisation is that managers are no longer pushing or driving forces but their role is to help It seeks to shed light on the whole complex human factor in organisations by identifying causes and effects of that behaviour. Human relations goes one step further and applies behavioural knowledge in operating organisations to build human co-operation toward organisational ends. It is action-oriented and goal-directed. While organisational behaviour
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seeks to gain understanding, human relations seeks to use it in operational situations. The difference in emphasis between the two terms is similar to the difference between a pathologist and a physician. The pathologist seeks to understand certain human ills,and the physician uses that knowledge to achieve result.
0B and Organisation Theory OB and organisation theory are also used interchangeably. However, some differences can be made between the two. Organisation theory may be defined as the study of structure, functioning, and performance of organisations and the behaviour of individuals and groups within them. If this definition of organisation theory is compared with that of OB, the differences between the two can be identified on two counts. First, organisation theory is macro analysis of organisation, that is how the organisation structure is designed to integrate people with organisation. OB, on the other hand, deals with micro aspect ofthe organisation, that is, individual and group behaviour in the organisation. Second, organisation theory is descriptive and predictive about a particular state of affair in the organisation: organisational behaviour provides ways for influencing human behaviour in certain directions on the basis of such description and prediction. Davis states that "from administrative point of view, organisational behaviour seeks to improve the people-organisation relationship in such a way that people are motivated to develop teamwork that effectively fulfils their needs and achieves organisational objective".
What is meant by organisational theory? Point some traditional issues in it [or] Bring out the importance of organisation theory. Meaning: The word ‘theory’ is derived from the Greek word ‘qewpix’ meaning ‘theoria’. It means looking at, viewing or contemplation. Thus, theory means a systematic grouping of interrelated happening having relationships between two or more dependent and independent variables. Definition: According to Tyson and Jackson “ Organisation theory is like a guide for decisions, a set of explanations and statements, based on research and experience, which describe different kinds of working relationships and their consequences”. Thus, it is the study of structure, functioning, and performance of organisations and behaviour of individuals working therein. In brief, organisational theory prescribes how best to organise people and tasks to effectively accomplish organisational goals. Importance: Organizations are a major part in every body’s environment. Organisations are interwoven in the human life. We are born in organisations and spend much of our lives working for organisations. Everywhere there are organisations and we are invaded by
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organisations different quarters. Organisational theory helps us in appreciating and understanding of what is happening in organisation.
The importance is as follows. 1. Organisations are very complex entities and organisational theory helps in reducing this complexity by providing a useful set of concepts and models. 2. Organisational theory helps in exploring analyzing and explaining what is happening in the organisations. Because of it, managers can take the decisions with much more certainty. 3. Organisational theory helps in designing and understanding the organisational structure.
Discuss the important elements of classical organisation theory (Or) What are the chief characteristics of classical theory (Or) Discuss the evolution of classical theory of organization. (Or) What is meant by classical organisational theory? The term â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;classicalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; means something traditionally accepted or long established. The evolution of organisation theory is traced back to the second half of the 19
th
century when industry and urbanization started expanding considerably. The systematic study of organisations begins with the classical organisational theory. The need of theory was realized to solve the problems caused by the development of large-scale organisations and the mass product techniques, which were quite different from the traditional techniques. The classical writers considered the organisation as a machine and man as a component of it. Human aspect was totally ignored. They considered the man as economic man motivated by economic rewards, who works for the achievement of common goals. They emphasized on internal factors and ignored external environmental factors to promote efficiency.
Characteristics and Assumptions of classical theory: 1. Workers are economic men and may be motivated by economic rewards. 2. Emphasis on detecting of errors and their correction. 3. The theory emphasizes on centralized organisation. 4. Man is homogeneous and unmodifiable. 5. The relationship between management and workers was established through scalar chain. 6. Managers are rational, kind hearted, intelligent and qualified. 7. Both management and workers are rational and both should work for mutuality of interests. 8. Organisation is a machine and the workers are its components.
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Bring out the criticisms of classical theory (or) “The traditional theory of organisation suffers from a narrow approach towards specialization and a narrow definition of the efficiency criterion” – Discuss. The neo classical theorists on the following grounds have criticized the theory. 1. Criticisms based on assumptions Certain assumptions of classical theory are stated unrealistic. They are: i Close system assumption: The theory assumes that the organisation is not affected by the environment and also does not affect it. It is a closed house that once created would function smoothly. ii Static View of organisation: It assumes that organisation is static and not dynamic to adopt the changes occurring in the environment. The assumption is not realistic. iii Unrealistic assumption about human behaviour: The theory assumes that the human behaviour is too simple and ignored all complexities of human behaviour. iv Economic rewards are main motivators: Theory assumes man as an economic man who is motivated only by economic rewards. Other motivational considerations have been ignored.
2. Criticisms based on principles: Certain principles of classical theory were also criticized. i) Lack if empirical verifiability: The classical principles are not based on empirical researches. They are based on experience. ii) Lack of universality: Principles of classical theory are not universally applicable i.e. to all and organisations, to all levels of one organisation, and to all functions of the organisation as claimed by the theorists.
3. Excessive reliance on the strength of key pillars: i) Division of labour: Division of labour created many problems such as depersonalization, interdependence of individuals and organisations. No criteria for grouping the activities are given. ii) Scalar and functional process: It raises the problem of delegation of authority i.e., authority will be delegated to those who have capacity and capability. But it cannot be measured and rather it will not solve all problems. Problems will be solved through satisfying the requirements of people. iii) Structure: The criticism is that human behaviour disrupts the structure. Line and staff conflicts are very common. Moreover, things do not sail smoothly as desired otherwise there would be no need of control agency. iv) Span of control: Narrow span of control does not favour the present organisation.
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4. Neglect of human factor: The theory neglects many environmental factors such as formation of informal groups and their leaders, emotions and sentiments of people at work, etc. 5. Little scope for integration: Theory provides no integration of people with decision makes. Decision makers are superiors and people at lower levels are not consulted.
Explain Organizational Behaviour. “Organisation behaviour is concerned with the understanding, predicting and management of human behaviour in organisation” - Fred Luthans. There are many definitions about organizational behaviour; three features should be emphasized in any definition. 1. Organizational behaviour is the study of human behaviour; 2. The study is about behaviour in organisation; and 3. Knowledge about human behaviour would be useful in improving an organization’s effectiveness.
OB has emerged as a distinct field of study. It is a distinct area of expertise with a common body of knowledge. OB is also an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, group, and the effect of structure on behaviour in order to make organisations work more effectively.
Write about principles of scientific management. (Or) Bring about Taylor contributes to the scientific management? Taylor’s scientific management: Taylor published his views on scientific management in 1911. He proposed four principles of scientific management. 1. The replacement of rule-of-thumb methods for determining each element of a worker’s job with scientific determination. 2. The Scientific selections and training of workers. 3. The Co-operation of management and labour to accomplish work objectives in accordance with the scientific method and 4. A more equal division of responsibility between management and workers, with the former doing the planning and supervising and the latter doing the execution.
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What are the techniques of scientific management? (Or) Write about the mechanism of the Taylor’s new approach. Following are the important techniques which, taken together constituted the mechanism of the Taylor’s new approach: 1. Time study to analyses and measure the time taken in doing the various elements of a job, and to set standards for both work and time for a day. 2. Motion study to eliminate wasteful motions and decide on the best way of doing the job. 3. Standardization of tools, equipments and machinery and working conditions. 4. Differential piece rate of wages for efficient and inefficient workers. 5. Functional foremanship involving different specialist for men supervising machine, speed, group work, repairs etc. 6. Fatigue study to study how much work a worker can perform with good health and efficiency. 7. Routing, Scheduling, Follow up are the elements of systematic task planning The biggest strength of the Taylor’s scientific management was conversation and proper use of every once of workers’ energy. His time and motion techniques are important tools to organize the task in the ‘one best way’ in which it should be done. This forms a part of what today we call the issue of work design. Limitation: 1. One of its shortcomings is assuming workers inherently lazy and thus, requiring strict supervision and exercise of authority by managers. 2. It only believes monetary rewards as the best motivations. 3. No importance is attached to social and psychological aspects to work environment State the Fayol’s contribution of management? Or What are the principles of Management? Fayol’s administrative management: Henry Fayol, director of a coal mining company in France, made a systematic analysis of the process of management. His approach to the study of management is also known as the Process or Functional Approach. In Fayol’s view, every business organisation consists of six inter-dependent operations viz., technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and administrative or managerial operations. According to him, management involves application of certain skills, which can be acquired by persons on the basis of systematic instructions and training. He emphasizes
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that once such skills are acquired, these could be applied to all types of institutions including church, schools, politics, industrial organisations and so on. Fayol proposed fourteen principles of management, which he argued, were universally applicable. They are as follows. 1. Division of work: The object of this principle is to derive the benefits from the principles of specialization. It believes that specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority: Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority, however, goes responsibility. Wherever authority is exercised, responsibility arises. 3. Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organisation. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rules and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules. 4. Unity of command: Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. 5. Unity of direction: Each group of organisation activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan. 6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest: The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organisation as a whole. 7. Remuneration:
Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.
8. Centralization: This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision-making. Whether decision-making is centralized or decentralized is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralization for each situation. 9. Scalar chain: The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed, if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed. 10. Order: People and Materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity: Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel:
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should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative: Employees who are allowed to originate, carry out plans, will exert high levels of effort. 14. Espirit de corps: Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organisation.
Neo-classical theory Write about the neo-classical theory. (Or) The neo classical theory is human oriented. Discuss. (Or) State the characteristics of neoclassical theory (Or) What are the major elements of neoclassical theory? On what lines it is superior to classical theory? Neo-classical theory emphasizes on the human relations and behavioural movement. It is built on the base of classical theory. Classical theory was more concerned with the job while neoclassical theory is more concerned with the human beings working in the organisation. This theory advocated the importance of human values in business. The main points under this approach are: 1. The business organisation is not just a techno-economic system. Basically, it is the social system. 2. The employees cannot only be motivated by the financial incentives but also by social and psychological want fulfillment. Money is less important than the emotional factors in determining production efficiency. 3. Democratic rather than autocratic leadership style to deal with the employees. 4. Effective two-way communication to establish common flow of understanding in any organisation. Participation is the essence of neoclassical school. 5. Management must take great interest in employee development of workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s satisfaction as there is a very close connection between morale and productively. 6. Informal groups and informal organisation must be recognized. 7. Job Structure, job design should receive the secondary importance.
ELEMENTS: 1. THE MAN: The classical theory ignored the difference among individuals. But, the neoclassical theory emphasized that individual differences must be recognized. Each person is unique and each has different feelings, perceptions and attitudes. The theory means that for motivating
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individuals, the needs of different individuals are to be identified and the measures are to be taken to motivate them accordingly. 2. WORK GROUPS: An individual in a group develops social wants e.g. a desire to belong, to be accepted by and stand well in his work groups. The existence of informal organisation is natural. It must be integrated with formal organisation. The informal communication i.e. grape vine is often very speedy and often accurate. Classical theory ignored the importance of informal organisation. Human relation theory emphasized its importance. 3. PARTICIPATION: Neo-classical theorists advocated workers participation in management. Allowing workers to participate in decision-making, primarily to increase productivity was a new form of supervision. Neoclassical theory focuses its attention on the worker and it is employee oriented.
Modern organizational theory: What is modern organizational theory? Discuss the system approach in detail. (Or) Write about the systems approach to organisational theory? Explain the salient features of this approach? (Or) Elaborate the general systems theory. (Or) What do you mean by system? Distinguish between open system & closed system? Modern organisation theory is basically the combination of classical and neoclassical principles. It is a sophisticated and scientific way of explaining a complex organisation. The Theory is centered on the concept of system. The theory is very systematic and highly constructive Systems approach: Basically systems approach is a technique for the application of scientific approach to the complex problems, which concentrates on the analysis, and design of the whole as district from components. Systems approach basically is a problem solving process. A word system is derived from Greek word meaning to bring together or to combine. A system is a group of inter-related parts, which function together to achieve a goal. Parts of system: a) Every system is a goal oriented and its must have a purpose of objective to be attained. The objective provides the basis for evaluating functions performed within the system. b)
System is a necessary arrangement of components.
c) Inputs of material, information are allotted for processing as per plan. So that the outputs can achieve the objective of the system i.e productively and satisfaction.
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Features: 1. Systems consists of inter-related and inter- dependent parts. 2. The systems approach to management brings out the complexity of a real life management problem much more sharply than any other approach. 3. The systems approach has been utilized in studying the function of complex organisations and has been utilized as the base for new kinds of organisation like the project management organisation. Types of systems: Systems are of two types: (a) Open system is the system, which continuously interacts with the environment and also adopts the changes that are taking place in the environment. All living human beings and present day organisations constitute the open system. (b) Close system is one, which does not interact with the external system. It is a dead system. Environment can affect the system but the system does not respond to it.
Systems approach applied to an organisation: An organisation is an open adaptive system. The features of the organisation as an open adaptive system are as follows: (a) It is sub-system of its grader environment. (b) It is a goal-oriented system. (c) It is a technical system. (d) It is a system where people work together on interrelated activities i.e. it is a structural system. (e) It is co-ordinate by the managerial system.
APPRAISAL OR CRITICISM: 1. Systems view provides an over all view which is more in line with reality of the organisational life. 2. The total systems concept is an approach that visualizes the business organisation as a single entity composed of various interrelated and interdependent sub-systems working together to provide timely and accurate information for management decision making which leads to the optimization of over all enterprise resources.
CONTINGENCY APPROACH Explain the contingency approach to modern organisation theory (or) Critically evaluate the contingency approach to the theory of organisation. The best approach to manage organisations is contingency approach or situational approach. Contingency approach emphasizes that there is no universal approach or principle to be applied in all situations. It focuses attention on specific situational factors that influence the appropriateness of one managerial strategy over another.
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Features of contingency approach: (a) Management action is dependent upon certain active outside the system or sub-system as the case may be. (b) Organisational system should be based on the behavior of action outside the system so that organisation should be integrated with the environment. (c) Because of the specific organisational environment relationship, no action can be universal. It varies from situation to situation. The contingency approach can be expressed as IF-THEN relationship, if denotes the independent variable – environment when, then stands for the dependent variable i.e. Management action. ADVANTAGES: 1. It widens their horizons beyond the theory of management, etc, concepts, principles, techniques and methods. 2. It helps them to broad base their approach from more technique orientation to problem situation orientation. 3. It leads them to be sensitive, alert and adaptive to situation behavioral variables, while tailoring their approaches and styles. 4. It guides them to adopt open system viewpoints.
EXPLAIN THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? Individual differences Each person in the world is individually different. Each individual is different from others in several ways. Whether it is intelligence, physique, personality in any way one can find striking differences. From the date of birth, each person is unique and individual experiences after birth make people even more different. OB begins with the individual. Only a person can take the responsibility and make more decisions; a group by nature cannot do so. A Whole person When an individual is appointed, his\her skill is not hired, his\her social background likes and dislikes, pride and prejudices are also hired. A person’s family life cannot be separated from factory life. They not only strive hard to develop a better employee out of a worker, but also a better person in terms of growth and fulfillment. Caused Behaviour The Behaviour is directed towards some end that the employee believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his best interest. Thus, when the worker comes late to his work, pelts stones at a running bus, or abuses the supervisor, there is a cause behind. The manager must have the basic principle to solve the problem of late coming or stone pelting.
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Human dignity This concept is of a different order from the other three because it is more an ethical philosophy than a scientific conclusion. It conforms that people are to be treated differently from other factors of production because they are of a higher order in the universe. It recognizes human dignity because people are of higher order; they wanted to be treated with respect and dignity and should be treated this way. Every job, however simple, entitles the people who do it to proper respect and recognition of their unique aspirations and abilities Organization are social system From sociology we learn that organizations are social systems; consequently, activities therein are governed by social laws as well as psychological laws. Just as people have psychological needs, they also have social roles and status. Mutuality of interest Mutual interest is represented by the statement that “organizations need people and people need organization”. Organisations have a human purpose. They are formed and maintained on the basis of some mutuality of interest among their participants. People see organizations as means to help them reach their goals, while at the same time organizations need people to help reach organizational objectives. Holistic concept When the six fundamental concepts of OB are placed together, a holistic concept emerges. This concept interprets people organization relationship in terms of whole group, whole person, whole organization and social system.
DISCIPLINES CONTRIBUTING TO ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR EXPLAIN THE CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? Organizational Behaviour is an applied behavioural science. It has drawn heavily from a number of applied behavioural disciplines such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. A brief description of each is in order. Psychology: Psychology is understood as the science of behaviour. It is generally includes animals as well as human behaviour. Animals like rats and monkeys are used for psychological experimentation and the conclusions drawn from such experiments. Psychology is concerned with individual behaviour. It has greatly contributed to the intra-individual dynamics of human behaviour. In other words, intra-personal aspects of organizational behaviour like motivation, personality, perception, attitude, opinion, learning etc. Psychologists themselves are
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becoming increasingly important these days. The number of professional psychologists has also been growing. They hold important positions in many fields. Sociology If psychology is the study of individual behaviour, sociology addresses itself to the study of group behaviour. It studies the behaviour of people in relation to their fellow human beings. Sociologists have enriched organizational behaviour through their contribution to the study of inter-personal dynamics like leadership, group dynamics, communication, and formation of groups and the like. Anthropology Anthropology is understood as the study of man and his works. In particular anthropologists study culture. Culture has significant influence on human behaviour. It dictates what people learn and how they behave. Some organizations, Tata for example, take employee welfare and social responsibility as their main goals. Culture of organization will have an influence on employee. The above said are the contributing disciplines of organizational behaviour.
EXPLAIN THE APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? Four approaches are human resources approach, contingency approach, productivity approach, and systems approach. These are examined in the following paragraphs. Human resources approach This approach recognizes the fact that people are the central resource in any organization and they should be developed towards higher level of competency, creativity and fulfillment. People thus developed will contribute to the success of any organizations. The human resource approach is also called as the supportive approach in the sense that the manager’s role changes from control of employees to active support of their growth and performance. The supportive approach contrasts with the traditional management approach. In the traditional approach managers decided what employees should do and closely monitored their performance to ensure the task accomplishment. In human resource approach the role of manager’s changes. Contingency approach The contingency approach is based on the premise that methods or behaviours, which work effectively in one situation, fail in another. OD programmes, For example, may work brilliantly in one situation but fail miserably in another situation. Results differ because situations differ. The manager’s task, therefore, is to identity, which method will suitable in a particular
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situation, under particular circumstances, and at a particular time, best contributes to the attainment of organization’s goals. Productivity approach Productivity, which is the ratio of output to input, is a measure of an organization’s effectiveness. It also reveals manager’s efficiency in optimizing resource utilization. The higher the numerical value of this ratio, the greater the efficiency. Productivity is generally measured in terms of economic inputs and outputs, but human and social inputs and outputs also are important. If better organizational behaviour can improve job satisfaction, a human output or benefit occurs. Systems approach Systems approach to OB views the organization as a united, purposeful system composed of interrelated parts. This approach gives managers a way of looking at the organization as a whole, whole person whole group, and whole social system. Systems approach tells us that the activity of any segment of an organization affects, in varying degrees, the activity of every other segment. Managers, however, tend to have larger responsibility, because they are the ones who make majority of the decisions affecting human issues, and most of their daily activities are people- oriented. Manager’s help to build an organization culture in which talents are utilized and further developed, people are motivated, teams become productive, organizations achieve their goals and society reaps the reward. MODELS OF OB Organisational Behaviour Models: Explain the various Models of Organisational Behaviour: Four OB models have been developed by experts. These are: 1,Autocratic 2, Custodial 3, Supportive and 4,Collegial Thus understand the autocratic model, the employees are made to work like machines. The use of such an approach may not always give the manager the desired result. In long run, the employees may develop frustration and may be prone to stress conditions. There physical or mental health may get affected. The organization may also begin to face such behavioural problems as a high rate of absenteeism, low morale, high rate of labour turnover and so on. Custodial Model: If under the autocratic model the employee has to depend on his boss all the time, Under the custodial model he has to depend on the organization. The organization takes care of all the
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needs of the employees. This is done by the introduction of a number of welfare measures like rent free accommodation, subsidized food, free education for the children and soon. Under the custodial approach the employee is happy as the organization satisfies his needs. But there is no guarantee that his performance level be high. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;A happy and satisfied employee need not be a productive employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.
Custodial
Autocratic
Models of Organizational Behaviour
Supportive
Collegial
Supportive Model: In this case the manager supports his subordinates in the performance of their tasks. The focus here is on managerial leadership rather than on the exercise of authority of fulfillment of the subordinates needs. The manager does not make unilateral decisions but involves his subordinates in the decision-making process. The supportive model is suitable in those workplace where the employees are self-motivated. It has greater relevance personnel rather than the operative level workers.
Collegial Model: In the collegial model the manager participates in the process of task performance by the subordinates. In other word, the manager and the subordinates work as a team. There is better interaction among the team members. Such an approach is suitable where every subordinate is able to be self- disciplined.
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A comparison between the four OB models may be tabulated as follow: Autocratic
Custodial
Supportive
Collegial
Basic difference
Authoritative
Organisation
The employee
The employee
in approach.
nature of the
takes care of the
is assisted by
and the
management
needs of
the manager.
manager work
employees.
as a team.
Position of the
Total
Safe and
Can get help
Can secure the
subordinate
dependence on
secured.
from the
participation of
superior.
the superior in
the manager.
work. Needs of
Subsistence
Security
Recognition
Self-Fulfilment
Minimum
Passive Co-
Greater scope
Higher
operation
to perform well
performance
employees met. Performance level of subordinates.
level.
EXPLAIN THE THEORIES WHICH ARE USED IN ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? The model or theory describes all interrelated concepts in a systematic manner. In organizational behaviour, theories and models are used interchangeably. Types of research: Applied and fundamental: Research can either be applied research or fundamental. Research done to generate a body of knowledge about some phenomena of interest to the researcher, it is called fundamental research. It is also known as basic research or pure research. The most university professors are engaged in fundamental research. When a research is conducted to find out solution to a specific real problem, it is called applied research. Finding solutions for why there is a frequent strike in Hindustan Paper Corporation is an example of applied research. Descriptive and analytical: In descriptive research, the researcher can presents a description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The researcher can present only what has happened or what is happening. On the other hand, in analytical research, the researcher only makes analysis of facts and information already available to make critical evaluation of the material.
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Conceptual and empirical In conceptual research, the researcher tries to develop new concept or to reinterpret the existing ones. empirical generally used by the philosophers and thinkers. Research is based on first hand data and facts. Thus, in empirical research, the researcher has to control over variables.
EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? Inter personal role: Working with and through people. Management is basically concerned with getting things done through the efforts of other people. The study of OB helps us to understand ourselves and others in better way. This helps greatly in improving our inter personal relations in the organization. Inter personal relations such as group dynamics; inter group conflict, communication and leadership. A universal process: Management involves the co-ordination of human and material resources towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives. Basically, it is a mental work, concerns with thinking, feeling and intuiting. Organizational behaviour helps us to understand the people. And it helps the people to use in a better way. Through proper OB only co-ordination is possible. OB is a mental work for the managers. Contributing disciplines: Management and organizational behaviour have drawn knowledge and concepts from several disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, history etc. Prediction: Management predicts on the basis of knowledge of relationship between variables. Management is merely a guess based on subjective understanding of realities. Organizational behaviour is also predicts the human working in the organization. Managers have to predict the future course of action and control evil consequences. Human resource: Management is concerned with conversion of diverse resources- mainly people. Management is concerned with how efficiently and effectively it has used its human and physical resources.
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This recognizes the fact that people are the central resources in any organization and that they should develop towards higher level of competency, creativity etc. Whole person The management should be viewed as a total system. All the sub-systems are to be organized in such a way so as to ensure the efficient functioning of the system as a whole. Organizational behaviour is also considered as a whole person. When an individual is appointed, his/her skill is not hired, his/her social background- likes and dislikes, pride and prejudices are also hired. Both are purposeful: Management is a way to achieve certain end results, without end results it would be of directionless. All activities of management are goal oriented. In organizational behaviour, if there is a change in structure or technology surely that there must be a purpose behind. Both are human activity: Management is a human activity where human beings plan, implement and control the activities. Managers perform the functions of management Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act in organization. It is a human tool for human benefit. Organization needs people and people need organization. Hence both are interdependent. Both can be applied in any situation: The basic principles of management are universal. They can be applied more or less in each and every situation. In organizational behaviour there are some theories or models. That can be applied in any situation. If there is any deviation between standard performance and actual performance. The manager may use such models. Skills required: For both management and OB, the following skills are required. Conceptual skills: It is the ability to integrate and co-ordinate the various activities. The manager needs to have the qualities and skills. Human skills: A manager has to get the things done through other people and hence he must have human skills or ability to learn, judge and control the people.
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Technical skills: Technical skill is to be needed for the lower management. It is an ability to use a special proficiency or expertise in particular field.
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR OF INDIVIDUALS
INTER GROUP BEHAVIOUR INTER PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR
What do you mean by group behaviour? What is the nature of INTER GROUP BEHAVIOUR? Group Behaviour: Groups are composed of individuals. Hence group behaviour means behaviour of its members. In practice, each member of the group affects the behaviour of thither member and, in term, is also affected by them. The nature and patterns of reinforcement the members receive through their interaction with one another is also determined by the group itself. This is because the behaviour of individual members in a group becomes different than their behaviour outside the group situation. Therefore, while studying group behaviour, the factors that should be understood are group norms, group cohesion, group role, group conflict, and group decision- making. What is the nature of Inter group behaviour? Or Explain INTER PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR? Inter group behaviour: Organisation is composed of individuals and groups. Organisation being a system, both individuals and groups cannot remain independent but dependent on each other.
For example, one group may depend on other for raw materials, information
and other assistance. The nature of interdependence among different groups can be classified into the following four categories. i) Pooled Interdependence: When the groups belonging to the same parent organisation depend on each other, it is called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;pooled interdependenceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Such groups have limited interaction amount them. Manufacturing divisions producing independent products are examples of pooled interdependence. ii) Sequential interdependence:
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Group activities occurring in a sequential manner create sequential interdependence. For example, A group’s activities or operations precede and act as pre requisite for B group’s operations. Assembly line departments represent sequential interdependence. Reciprocal interdependence: when group relies on the other to perform its own job effectively, it is called reciprocal interdependence’. Relationship between union and management is and example of reciprocal interdependence. iv) Team interdependence: The reciprocal interdependence gets multiplied with interaction among multiple groups. The example of multiple groups may bb various departments such as sales, advertising, and market research in marketing division. The nature and degree of interdependence among groups will influence the degree and quality of inter-group behaviors. Accordingly groups tend to have the following two types of interactions. Types of interactions. i) Inter group openness and cooperation: Groups being parts on and organisational system. Each group cooperates with other to achieve organsiational objectives. Factors like super ordinate goals, lateral communication, and suitable structural arrangement help establish co-operation amount various groups. ii) Inter group closure and competition: Intergroup relations become as competitive in the following situations: a) One group sees other group, as enemy with decrease in interaction and communication, hostility of one group towards others tend to increase. b) With interacting with each other, the groups try to defend own viewpoints and finding faults with the other. Interpersonal behaviour: Interpersonal behaviour is concerned with interaction of two persons at a time. In this interaction, the individual behaves in a particular way, which may be either cooperative or conflicting. State the types of Interpersonal Behaviour? Interpersonal cooperative Behaviour: When the interaction between two persons is mutually gratifying, it is cooperative behaviour. In this case, both persons are engaged in complementary transactions. Out of this interaction, both persons get satisfied over the objective of mutual interaction. Conditions necessary for cooperative interpersonal behaviour are mutual trust and respect, concern for each other’s needs, and interaction with complementary ego states. Ion organisational setting, such behaviour are functional and lead to the achievement of organsiational objective providing satisfaction to the individuals at the same time.
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Interpersonal conflicting Behaviour: Out of interpersonal interaction, it is not necessary that only cooperative behaviour will result. Because of several reasons like personality differences, different value systems, interest conflict role, ambiguity etc. interpersonal conflict may arise in the organsiation. This type of behaviour may not be functional for the organisation. Therefore, the managers should take effective steps to overcome such behaviours. ORGANISATIONAL THEORIES OR THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION What is meant by organisational theory? Point some traditional issues in it [or] Bring out the importance of organisation theory. Meaning: The word ‘theory’ is derived from the Greek word ‘qewpix’ meaning ‘theoria’. It means looking at, viewing or contemplation. Thus, theory means a systematic grouping of interrelated happening having relationships between two or more dependent and independent variables. Definition: According to Tyson and Jackson “ Organisation theory is like a guide for decisions, a set of explanations and statements, based on research and experience, which describe different kinds of working relationships and their consequences”. Thus, it is the study of structure, functioning, and performance of organisations and behaviour of individuals working therein. In brief, organisational theory prescribes how best to organise people and tasks to effectively accomplish organisational goals. Importance: Organisations are a major part in every body’s environment. Organisations are interwoven in the human life. We are born in organisations and spend much of our lives working for organisations. Everywhere there are organisations and we are invaded by organisations different quarters. Organisational theory helps us in appreciating and understanding of what is happening in organisation. The importance is as follows. 1. Organisations are very complex entities and organisational theory helps in reducing this complexity by providing a useful set of concepts and models. 2. Organisational theory helps in exploring analyzing and explaining what is happening in the organisations. Because of it, managers can take the decisions with much more certainty. 3.Organisational theory helps in designing and understanding the organisational structure. What is meant by classical organisational theory? The term ‘classical’ means something traditionally accepted or long established. The evolution of organisation theory is traced back to the second half of the 19
th
century when
industry and urbanization started expanding considerably. The systematic study of organisations begins with the classical organisational theory. The need of theory was realized
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to solve the problems caused by the development of large-scale organisations and the mass product techniques, which were quite different from the traditional techniques. The classical writers considered the organisation as a machine and man as a component of it. Human aspect was totally ignored. They considered the man as economic man motivated by economic rewards, who works for the achievement of common goals. They emphasized on internal factors and ignored external environmental factors to promote efficiency. Characteristics and Assumptions of classical theory: The characteristics and assumptions of classical theory are: 1. Workers are economic men and may be motivated by economic rewards. 2. Emphasis on detecting of errors and their correction. 3. The theory emphasizes on centralized organisation. 4. Man is homogeneous and unmodifiable. 5. The relationship between management and workers was established through scalar chain. 6. Managers are rational, kind hearted, intelligent and qualified. 7. Both management and workers are rational and both should work for mutuality of interests. 8. Organisation is a machine and the workers are its components.
Taylorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scientific management: Frederick Winslow Taylor, who was a mechanical engineer, introduced an alternative to the prevailing system of management by unitizations and incentives based on his work experiences in Miolvale and Bethlehem Steel Companies In Pennsylvania. After years of conducting experiments with workers output was believed that workers output was only about one-third of what was possible. He set out to correct the situation by applying the scientific method. To jobs to replace methods based on trial & error and rule of thumb. Taylor published his views on scientific management in 1911. He proposed four principles of scientific management. HENDRI FAYOLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE MANAGEMENT Fayol provides Current Management thought. The following fourteen principles create the successful organization. This is also calling it as principle of management, Fayol thoughts, Fayol contribution. I. Division of work:
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The division of work or specialization of functions can be applied in all the spheres of activity; technical as well as managerial. Specialization belongs to natural order. The work is divided to all. It refers to separation of various management functions like planning, directing, coordinating, staffing, controlling etc., and entrusting them to different experts specializing in related fields. It would to greater efficiency and systematic working of enterprise. II. Authority and responsibility: Both are related authority as a continuation of official and personal factor. Official authority is derived from the manager’s position and personal authority is derived from personal quality such as intelligence, experience, moral worth, past services etc. Responsibility arises out of assignment of activity. In order to discharge the responsibility properly, there should be parity of authority and responsibility. :
“ is the right to give the orders and the power to extract obedience”.
Responsibility :
“ obligation to perform the work in the manner desired and directed
Authority
by the superior authorities”. III. Discipline: Discipline is the condition precedent for the smooth functioning of every enterprise. All the personnel serving in an organisation should be disciplined. Discipline is obedience, application, energy, behaviour and outward mark of respect shown by employees. Prerequisites for discipline: ~ a. Good supervisors at all level b. Clean and fair agreements c.
Judicious application of penalties or sanctions.
IV. Unity of command: Means that a person should get orders and instructions from only one supervisor. One man – one head. The principle means that each employee must receive orders from and be responsible only to one supervisor. No man can serve best under two masters. V. Unity of direction: The objective, aim and goal of all the departments are seem to be the same line. Better coordination among various activities to be undertaken by any organisation. Unity of direction means that each group of activities having the same objectives must have one head ands one plan. In other words, there should be only one plan for action or schedule of Programme for each category of work and it is to be executed under the over all supervision and control of a single authority.
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VI. Subordination of individual to general interest: Individual interest to common interest must prevail over individual interest, but some factors like ambition, laziness, weakness, and others tend to reduce the importance of general interest. This principle says that the elimination of the personal element form the work of the organization. HENDRI FAYOL says that, the interest of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over that of the concern" i.e. the common interest must prevail over individual interest. VII. Remuneration of personnel: Fair and satisfactory. The salary method should be refreshed. First the manager has to identify the need and satisfaction level of a worker. Accordingly we have to decide the salary and wages. The given salary satisfies the basic need of a worker. At most good action should take to find out the satisfaction level. Remuneration and methods of wage payment fair and afford maximum satisfaction both to the employees and to the worker. 8. Centralization: Every thing, which goes to increase the importance of the subordinatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; role, is decentralization and every thing, which goes to reduce it, is decentralization. In this context, the principle refers to the extent to which authority is delegated and the extent to which it is retained in the hands of higher management. The degree of centralization depends upon the circumstances of each case. 9. Scalar chain: The chain of superiors or the line of authority from the highest executive to the lowest one for the purpose of communication. The scalar chain refers to the chain of superiors or the line of authority from the highest executive to the lower one for the purpose of communication. If the chain is clear from the top to the bottom, the proper functioning of the organization 10. Order: â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Place for every thing and something in its place and social order demands the engagement of the right man in the right placeâ&#x20AC;?. This principle relates to the arrangement of things and person. There should be a place for every thing and for every person. The right man must be in the right place and right thing in the right place. 11. Equity: Results from the combination of kindliness and justice. Equity requires good sense, experience, and good nature with a view to securing devotion and loyalty from employees. Equity means fair dealings, accommodative, or cooperative attitude among the personnel in the undertaking. It is greater than justice as it is a combination of kindness and justice. It ensures a cordial relationship between the management and the employees, and elicits loyalty and devotion from them.
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12. Stability of tenure of personnel: Experience and stable personnel strength. Decreased employees turn over. Every employee must have security f job tenure. An employee who feels insecure about his opposition or who has fear of losing his job will not be motivated to turn out better work. The management must generate a feeling of security in the minds of the employees. This will develop a sense of attachment towards the undertaking. 13. Initiative: Motivation, freedom to propose a plan and to execute it is what is known as initiative that increases the zeal and energy on the part of human beings. Initiative means and includes the freedom and capacity to think out original plans and execute them with independent discretion. The management must turn it subordinates to exercise initiative. This will create a greater sense of satisfaction in the minds of the employees. 14. Espirit – de- crops: The principle denotes the well-known rule that “union is strength ”. – FAYOL says that to maintain proper espirit de crops in the organization, the manager should not resort to the policy of divide and rule and the abuse of written communication. Unity of command– spirit, teamwork, avoids politics in the organization. Explain Max Weber’s ideal bureaucracy? Or What are the characteristics of Max Weber’s ideal bureaucracy? Bring out its criticisms? Max Weber, the German Sociologist, is regarded as the father of the concept of bureaucracy. Based on sound reasons, Weber developed a structural model, which he called ‘ideal type’ and argued that it was the most efficient means for achieving organisational ends. According to him, an ideal structure of bureaucracy should have the following characteristics in it: 1.Specialization & division of labour 2.Hierachical positions 3.A system of abstract rules 4.Impersonal relationship Critisisms of bureaucrcy: 1.Bureaucracy does not adequately allow for personal growth and development of make personalities. 2.It develops conformity and groups think. 3.It does not take account the informal organisation and the emergent and unanticulated problems.
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4.Its system of control and authority is outdated. 5.It does not possess adequate means for dissolving differences and conflicts between rank & most particularly between functional groups. 6.Communication and innovative ideas are thwarted or distorted as a result of hierarchical divisions. 7.It modifies personality structure in such a way that the person in a bureaucracy becomes the dull, guy, conditioned, organisational man. The NEO CLASSICAL THEORY is human oriented. Discuss. OR State the characteristics of neoclassical theory (OR) what are the major elements of neoclassical theory? On what lines it is superior to classical theory? Neo-classical theory emphasizes on the human relations and behavioural movement. It is built on the base of classical theory. Classical theory was more concerned with the job while neoclassical theory is more concerned with the human beings working in the organisation. This theory advocated the importance of human values in business. The main points under this approach are: 1. The business organisation is not just a techno-economic system. Basically, it is the social system. 2. The employees cannot only be motivated by the financial incentives but also by social & psychological want fulfillment. Money is less important than the emotional factors in determining production efficiency. 3. Democratic rather than autocratic leadership style to deal with the employees. 4. Effective two-way communication to establish common flow of understanding in any organisation. Participation is the essence of neoclassical school. 5. Management must take great interest in employee development of workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s satisfaction as there is a very close connection between morale and productively. 6. Informal groups and informal organisation must be recognized. 7. Job Structure, job design should receive the secondary importance.
ELEMENTS OF NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL: There are three main elements of neo-classical school: 1.THE MAN: The classical theory ignored the difference among individuals out the neoclassical theory emphasized that individual differences must be recognized. Each person is unique and each has different feelings, emotes perceptions and attitudes. The theory calls
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that for motivating individuals, the needs of different individuals are to be identified and the measures are to be taken to motivate them accordingly. 2.WORK GROUPS: An individual in a group develops social wants e.g. a desire to belong, to be accepted by and stand well in his work groups. The existence of informal organisation is natural. It must be integrated with formal organisation. The informal communication i.e. grape vine is after very speedy and after accurate. Classical theory ignored the importance of informal organisation. Human relationists through out its importance. 3.PARTICIPATION: Neo-classical theorists advocated workers participation in management. Allowing workers to participate in decision-making, primarily to increase productivity was anew form of supervision. Neoclassical theory focuses its attention on the worker and it is employee oriented.
Modern organisational theory-system approach: What is the systems approach to organisational theory? Explain the salient features of this approach? (Or) Elaborate the general systems theory. IS it rally a skeleton of science (or) what do you mean by system? Distinguish between open system & closed system? (Or) What is modern organisational theory? Discuss the system approach in detail. MODERN ORGANISATIONAL THEORY: Modern organisational theory is a sophisticated and scientific way of explaining a complex organisation. The Theory is centered around the concept of system. The theory is very systematic and highly constructive. It is basically the combination of classical & neo-classical principles. It is composite representation of various contributions from different disciplines over 3 decades. The protagonists of these schools are Chester. I Bernard, Mary Parker Follet, Norbert Weiner, Philip selzick, George Hormans, Luduring von Burtalanffy, churchman and his associates Burns and Stalker, Katz and Kahn, Charles perrow and others. Systems approach: Basically systems approach is a technique for the application of scientific approach to the complex problems, which concentrates on the analysis, and design of the whole as district from components. Systems approach basically is a problem solving process. The system concept recognizes the fact that any organisation is a system made up of a member of segments each of which has that parochial goal. Attentions must be paid to the overall effectiveness of the system rather than the effectiveness of the sub-system in isolation from other sub-system. Parts of system: a) Every system is a goal oriented & its must have a purpose of objective to be attained. The objective provides the basis for evaluating functions performed within the system. b)
System is a necessary arrangement of components.
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c) Inputs of material, information are allotted for processing as per plan. So that the outputs can achieve the objective of the system i.e productively & satisfaction. Features of systems approach: The major features of the systems approach to the study of management may be summed up as under: 1. A system consists of inter-related and inter- dependent parts. 2. The systems approach to management brings out the complexity of a real life management problem much more sharply than any other approach. 3. The systems approach has been utilized in studying the function of complex organisations & has been utilized as the base for new kinds of organisation like the project management organisation.
Types of systems: Systems are of two types: (c) Open system is the system, which continuously interacts with the environment and also adopts the changes that are taking place in the environment. All living human beings and present day organisations constitute the open system. (d) Close system is one, which does not interact with the external system. It is a dead system environment can affect the system but the system does not respond to it. Systems approach applied to an organisation: An organisation is an open adaptive system. The features of the organisation as an open adaptive system are as follows: (e) It is sub-system of its grader environment. (f) It is a goal-oriented system. (g) It is a technical system. (h) It is a system where people work together on interrelated activities i.e. it is a structural system. (e) It is co-ordinate by the managerial system. APPRAISAL: Systems view provides an over all view which is more in line with reality of the organisational life. The total systems concept is an approach that visualizes the business organisation as a single entity composed of various interrelated and interdependent sub-systems working together to provide timely& accurate information for
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management decision making which leads to the optimization of over all enterprise resources. CONTINGENCY APPROACH Explain the contingency approach to modern organisation theory (or) critically evaluate the contingency approach to the theory of organisation. The best approach to manage organisations is contingency approach or situational approach. Contingency approach emphasizes that there is no universal approach or principle to be applied in all situations. It focuses attention on specific situational factors that influence the appropriateness of one managerial strategy over another. FEATURES: 1. Management action is dependent upon certain active outside the system or subsystem as the case may be. 2. Organisational system should be based on the behavior of action outside the system so that organisation should be integrated with the environment. 3. Because of the specific organisational environment relationship, no action can be universal. It varies from situation to situation. The contingency approach can be expressed as IF-THEN relationship, if denotes the independent variable â&#x20AC;&#x201C; environment when then stands for the dependent variable i.e. Management action. The figure below shows the contingent relationship between environmental variables. ADVANTAGES: 1. It widens their horizons beyond the theory of management, ets, concepts, principles, techniques& methods. 2. It helps them to broad base their approach from more technique orientation to problem situation orientation. 3. It leads them to be sensitive alert and adaptive to situation behavioural variables. 4. It guides them to adopt open system viewpoints.
Behavioural
contribution
sciences
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211 learning,
motivation,
personality,
training,
leadership,
effectiveness, attitude, work design, work stress, individual decision making
Sociology
group conflict,
dynamics, work intergroup
teams, communication,
behaviour,
organisational
power, change,
organization change
Social psychology
behavioural change, attitude change, group processes, group decision making
Anthropology
comparative values, comparative attitudes, cross cultural analysis, organisational culture, organisational environment
Psychology Organizational psychology
Sociology Organizational sociology
Anthropology Anthropology
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Power
History of organization and management
Decision theory
Organisation/structure: the study of organization/ structure includes aspects such as
History
formation of organizational structure, culture and change and development.
Political science
Economics individuals
groups
Personality, Learning Group Dynamics Perception, Values Group Conflicts Attitudes Leadership Motivation Organizational Power Behavior Politics Structure, Change, Culture And Organizational Development
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212 structure
Basic Objectives of Organizational Behaviour The basic objectives of OB are follows.
Objectives of Organisational Behaviour
To describe behaviour
To understand behaviour
To influence behaviour
To predict behaviour
To ‘describe’ human behaviour in workplace: The first objective of OB is to describe how people in the workplace behave under different conditions. The manager, should be able to talk about how the employees would react to a change in working hours or a cut in pay. To ‘understand’ behaviour: Understanding behaviour is the next important objective of Ob. The manager should be able to understand why his subordinates behave in a particular manner. Roe Example: An employee, who is eligible for promotion and is denied the same, may not work with enthusiasm. To ‘predict’ behaviour: Making a prediction of the future behaviour of the employees is another objects of OB. If the manager knows beforehand that a change in working hours would be resisted by the employees on certain grounds, he can overcome such resistance by explaining the proposal to the employees well in advance and by getting their consent to it. Any attempt to thrust a certain decision on the employees would certain be resisted by them. To ‘influence’ behaviour: The ultimate objective of OB is to influence positively the employees to attain the organizational goal. The manager should use his positive to induce, persuade and motivate the employees to approach work with a positive attitude.
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HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
The quotes from george Santayana and oliver w. helmes stated above, tell us why, one should know history. With regard to organizational behaviour, its history will tell us how the subject has evolved, over a period of time, to its present stage. It will help us understand, for instance, how management came to impose rules and regulations on employees, why many employees in organizations do standardized and repetitive tasks on assembly lines and why a number of organizations in recent years have replaced their assembly lines withtem-based work units.
Interestingly, many contemporary managers today have come to appreciate value of history. For example, managers glean insights from Mahabharata, iliad and other great works. And some organizations such as tatas, godrej and salgaocars have corporate historians, others such as coca-cola, openly proclaim their heritage as part of their employee orientation programmes.
Concern for the welfare of workers in management of business enterprises has been in existence since ages. Kautilya’s arthasastra states that there existed a sound base for systematic management of human resources as early as the 4
th
century
B.C. itself. The government then, took an active interest in the operation of public and private sector enterprises and provided systematic procedures for regulating employer-employee relationships.
Elsewhere human resource in organizations received management’s attention much earlier. As early as 1800 B.C. itself, ‘minimum wage rate’ and ‘incentive wage plan’ was included in the Babylonian code of hammurabi.
But experts of human behavior have tired to chronicle the growth of the subject th
th
only from the beginning of the 19 century. The early part of the 19 century is significant because it was during this period that the industrial revolution took place that resulted in the total transformation of the then industrial environment.
Platitudes about minimum wage rate, incentive wage plan and sound base for systematic management of human resources apart, there is no gainsaying the facts that life th
for an average employee, prior to the 19 century, was miserable to say the least. Working conditions in factories were brutal and buck breaking. People worked from dawn until duck under intolerable conditions of disease, filth, danger and scarcity of resource s. they had to work this way to survive, so that they had little time to improve job satisfaction.
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The came the industrial revolution which brought about materialism, discipline, monotony, boredom, job displacement, impersonality, work interdependence, and related behavioural phenomena. Nevertheless, the industrial revolution was responsible for planting the seed for potential improvement. Industry created surplus of goods and knowledge that eventually gave workers increased wages, shorter hours, and more work satisfaction. In this new industrial environment Robert Owen, a young welsh factory owner, about the year 1800, was one of the first to emphasize the human needs of employees. He refused to employ young children. He taught his workers cleanliness and temperance and improved their working conditions. Owen could demonstrate in his own fctory that it paid to devote as much attention to’ vital machines’ as to ‘inanimate machines.’ His methods entitled him to be called the ‘ father of personnel management.’ This could hardly be called modern organizational behaviour, but a beginning in that direction was, however made.
In 1835, Andrew ure published his the philosophy of manufactures, in which, he included the human factor as one of the factors of production, besides the mechanical and commercial parts. Believing in the importance of the human factors, ure provided workers with hot tea, medical treatment, and sickness payments.
Nearer home, around this time J.N. tata took a special interest in the welfare of this worker. He installed the first humidifiers and fire sprinklers in his factories. In 1886, he was decades ahead of his time and miles ahead of his competitors. The empress mills experiments showed that not only profits but people mattered to him.
The ideas of Owens, ure and tata were accepted slowly or not at all, and they often deteriorated into a paternalistic, do-good-approach than a genuine recognition of the importance of the people at work.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
The very mention of scientific management brings Taylor to our memory. He is appropriately called the ‘father of scientific management’ as he converted broad generalization into practical tools. He was also responsible for awakening interest in workers in the 1900s. Taylor advocated the selection of right people for right jobs, training them handsomely. To be sure, Taylor’s goal was technical efficiency, but at least management was awakened to the importance of human resources which was hitherto neglected.
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The scientists HRM &who OBwere closely influenced by Taylor were the industrial psychologists' and Lillian 215Gilbreth. This husband - and - wife team pioneered time-and-motion study, a~ applied research designed to classify and streamline the individual movements needed top~ jobs with the intent of finding "the on~ best way" to perform them. Although this approach ~ to be highly mechanical and dehumanising, Gilbreths had great concern for human beings. exhibit 3.2) Scientific management was criticised by employees and theorists for its over emph task accomplishment and monetary incentives at the cost of respect for human beings. approach that treated workers as hUlp.an beings was desired)
Taylor published his major work principles of scientific management in 1911. During the decade, interest in human conditions at work was accelerated by World War I. HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT ~ Taylor’s ideas were criticized-particularly; his belief in rationalizing everything and holding the assumption that Failure of Scientific Management gave birth to the human relations movement which is characterized by heavy emphasis on employee cooperation and morale. Under this, people to be treated as human beings and not as machines, listening to their needs and problem involving them in decision-making in matters relating to working conditions. There are
I and complex reasons for this human relations position. Historically, three of the most imp contributing factors would be the Great Depression, the labor movement, the results of th famous Hawthorne Studies’ The stock exchange crash of 1929 in America marked the beginning of the Great Depr~ The consequences of the Depression were wide spread unemployment, decline of pure power, collapse of markets, and lowering of the standard of living of people. This pheno was world wide and not confined to America alone. human behavior is based on ‘rabble hypotheses.’ But Taylor’s ideas are practiced even today. As the talking technology story in exhibit 3.1 describes, companies such as UPS still use some of the basic concepts introduced during the scientific management era in their efforts to become even more efficient. One positive outcome of the Depression was that management began to realise that prod alone could not be its major function. Marketing, finance, and personnel were also required
The scientists who were closely influenced by tailor were the industrial psychologists frank and Lillian gilberts. This husband – and-wife team pioneered time- and-motion study, a type of applied research designed to classify and steamline the individual movements needed to perform jobs with the intent of finding “ the one best way” to perform them. Although this approach them. A
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HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE: Bad working conditions always affect the productivity adversely. It has been established that comfortable workplace will be the productivity. Hence, while designing a work place such factors must be considered. Following are some of the important elements which are related to the work place:1. Cleanliness: Working place must be clean. For this purpose, care must be taken to provi9de a suitable place for everything connected with the job workers must be asked to Mere creation or strengthening of personnel departments did not improve the plight of workers. Production still preceded people in order of importance in organisations. Decent hours of work, fair wages, and adequate working conditions were sacrificed for more production. There were people like Taylor, Ford, and Sloan who sincerely believed in giving labour due share. Such noble hearted souls were few and far between. In general, exploitation of labour continued,) 't'Labour Movement: Continued exploitation made workers realise that their protection lay in their own hands. They formed strong unions and this had the desired effect on management.
keep everything in its place. Work area must be clean and well painted. 2. Proper Illumination: Work place must be properly illuminated so as to avoid eyestrain. Care must be taken to avoid glare and flickering of light. Colour of light selected must be such as to reduce fatigue. 3. Noise: A work place must be selected so as to have as less noise as possible. Experiments have shown that reduction in noise results in the increase of efficiency with lesser fatigue. 4. Location for tools and materials: All tools and materials required by a worker must be located within the normal group are and as far as possible in front of the worker because such and arrangement saves a lot of time and energy of the worker. 5. Chairs and Workbench: Performing a job on floor in sitting position or on table on floor in sitting position or on table in standing position requires more energy. The height of chair and of the workbench must be arranged in such a way that the worker may not experience any difficulty while working. Describe Hawthorne experiments and highlight their significance (Or) What are all the findings of Hawthorne experiments? (Or) Explain the place of physical and human environment in promoting work efficiency in the light of Hawthorne experiment INTRODUCTION:
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Hawthorne experiments (1924-1932)
were conducted at Western Electric’s
Hawthorne plant at Chicago to determine the effect of better physical facilities on workers output. This experiment contributed by Elton Mayo, Roethlisberger and White Head.
FOUR TYPES OF EXPERIMENT WERE AS FOLLOW
1. ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENT: (1924-1927) This experiment was conducted to know the effect of illumination on workers productivity. For the purpose of this experiment workers were divided into two groups. One group was sent to an experimental room with varied illumination and the other group was sent to the control room with constant condition .The productivity of the test group increased each time with the intensity of the light increased, but quite contrary to the expectation output also increased in the control room. Even when the level of illumination was reduced to that of ordinary moonlight the productivity increased. So the researchers concluded that there is no relationship between illumination and output.
2. RELAY ASSEMBLY TEST ROOM EXPERIMENT: (1927-1928) This experiment was conducted to know out the effect of change in working hours and other working conditions on productivity. In this experiment two groups of six female telephone relay assemblers were put under close observation in separate room. In one room the conditions were altered and in the other they were not. One observer was also placed in the test room to record the work and create a friendly atmosphere. Over a two-year period many changes were introduced. The following were the changes and resultant output. 1. Incentive system was changed, Based on group performance –productivity increased. 2. Two five minutes rest –one in morning and another in evening session –productivity increased. 3. Two ten minutes rest instead of two five minutes-productivity increased. 4. Four five minutes rest-productivity decreased because rhythm of the workers was affected. 5. Two ten minutes with coffee or soup in the morning and snacks in the evening – productivity increased. 6. Allowed to disperse at 4.30 pm instead of 5.30 pm.
As changes were introduced absenteeism decreased, less supervision was required and morale increased. Then all these changes were dropped and returned to their original status productivity increased because of -
Changes in girls’ attitude towards work.
-
Development of senses of self -discipline and sense of responsibility.
-
Friendly relationship between supervisor and worker.
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2. MASS INTERVIEWING PROGRAMME: (1928-1930) This experiment was conducted to find the workers attitude and sentiments. Interview with workers confirmed the fact that performance at work depended not merely on pay but on employee’s feelings about how they were treated and their perception of the supervisors’ style of management.
3. BANK WIRING OBSERVATION ROOM EXPERIMENT: (1931-1932) This experiment was conducted to know social aspect of work organization .In this experiment 14 male workers were formed into a group and were closely observed. The employees were paid based on efficiency rating plus bonus based on group effort. It was expected that highly efficient workers would increase output to attain bonus. The expected result did not come about. It was found that the group had established its own standard of output. From that we know the output of member is a function of accepted social behaviour and norms established in the group. Member avoided both under production and over production in order to gain social acceptance of the group. PHASE IV: THE BANK WIRING OBSERVING ROOM EXPERIMENT: In this experiment, 14 male workers were formed into a small work group and intensively observed for 7-months in the bank wiring room. The men were engaged in the assembly of terminal banks for the use in the telephone exchanges. The employees in the group were paid in the regular way depending on the efficiency rating plus a bonus based on average group effort. Thus, under this system, an individual’s pay was affected by the output of the entire group and by own individual output. In was expected that highly efficient worker would bring pressure to bear on less effective workers in order to increase and thus take advantage of the group incentive plain. But, these expected results did not come about. The researchers found that the group had established its own standard of output and this was enforced rigorously by various pressures. In summary, the Hawthorne experiments indicated that employees were not only economic beings, but social and psychological beings as well. The reasons for the restricted output were - Fear of unemployment - Fear of raising the standards. - Protection of slowest workers.
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IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ARRIVED FROM THIS EXPERIMENT 1. SOCIAL FACTOR IN OUTPUT: Elton Mayo has described an organization as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;social systemâ&#x20AC;?, informal status system ritual, and mixture of logical, non- logical and illogical behavior. The level of production is set by social norms not by physiological capacities. Economic satisfaction and productivity do not necessarily go together. Non -economic rewards and sanctions significantly affect the behavior of the worker and limit the effect of the economic incentives.
2. GROUPS: In the organization, individual tend to create groups. They like to react as member of group and not as individual. Thus management cannot deal with workers as individual but as member of work group.
3. LEADERSHIP: Leadership cannot come from superiors only as told by Scientific Management approach. In some cases, informal leader is more important than formal one. The supervisor could not exercise pressure on workers to accept group norms of which he was in charge. However, a supervisor is more acceptable as leader if his style is in accordance with human relation approach. In this situation democratic style is the best, which provide greater satisfaction to workers.
4. COMMUNICATION These experiments show that communication in the organization is very important. Through communication workers can be explained why a particular course of action is being taken. Participation of workers can be sought in decision making process concerning the matter of their importance and problems faced by them and their attitude, opinion and method of working may be identified.
5. CONFLICT Conflicts generate in the organization because of the creation of groups with conflicting objective. Thus, Group may be in conflict with organization. Though the creating of groups sometimes helps to achieve organizational objective, conflict raises the problem of adjustment of individual to the organization. In course of time the individual adjusts with the total structure, if the individual stands still, the structure itself may change.
6. SUPERVISION The supervisory climate has also an important role to play in determining the rate of output. The friendly to worker, attentive, genuinely concerned supervisor affect the productivity positively.
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Example: In the bank wiring room, an entirely different supervisory climate existed-more friendly to the workers and less use of authority in issuing order- which helped in productivity, while in regular departments, supervisors were used to maintain order and control and this type of supervisory arrangement produced inhibiting atmosphere.
CONCLUSION: The Hawthorne studies have been severely criticized as being inadequately controlled and interpreted. Despite some limitations, there are some interesting insights from the experiments that contribute to the better understandings of the human behaviour in the organization. It becomes evident that the informal association to be found in almost every organization affects an individual â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s motivation to work, level of output and quality of performance. .
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UNIT- VI LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES The term learning means changes in our behavior, attitude, knowledge and skills. In other wards we can say that through learning we can feel permanently changes in our self. If we are not feeling any changes in our above skills then it will not be cal ed as learning. The learning is a type of reinforcement, which may learn a change in behavior enduring by strengthening and intensifying certain aspect of an individual behavior. Learning may be described at the process of acquiring the ability to respond adequately to a situation, which may or may not have been previously an countered. After analysis, the term learning consist of the following contents:L - At length E - It should be affective A - It should be apparent R - Relentless N - Elimination of negative thoughts I - Implanting N - Elimination negative internalization. G - Elimination of generalization
Meaning and definition Learning is a change in behaviour for better or worse.
1.
It is a change that takes place through experience or practice
2.
and this does not include changes that take place due to growth, maturation or injury. The change, must be relatively permanent, that is it must lost for a
3.
fairly long time.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
explain the concept of Learning
define learning
describe the factors involved in learning
explain the Classical conditioning
identify the stimuli and responses in classical conditioning
explain the various types of instrumental conditioning
list out other types of operant learning
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NATURE OF LEARNING
Learning is a key process it pervades everything we do and think, it influences various aspects of our behavior like the way we speak, dress, attitudes, belief and the goals we pursue. Let us first define the learning.. Learning may be defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;any relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a result of experience or practiceâ&#x20AC;? excluding the role of motivation. You must note that in this definition there are three important elements.
Meaning and definition 1.Learning is a change in behaviour for better or worse. 2.
It is a change that takes place through experience or practice and this does
not include changes that take place due to growth, maturation or injury. 3.The change, must be relatively permanent, that is it must lost for a fairly long time.
LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
Learning, relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience is a basic topic of psychology. However it is a process that must be assessed indirectly by observing performance. In this unit, we will define learning, factors involved in learning; explain the Classical conditioning and the various types of instrumental conditioning. Finally, other types of operant learning will be listed out.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN LEARNING
There are many factors that contribute to learning, for the phenomena of learning to occur; a single factor or a combination of factors may be involved.
a) Arousal and motivation: We all know that the most fundamental condition for learning to take place is that the organism be in a reasonably high state of arousal. Although it has been claimed that some learning can take place during sleep, such learning is very minimal. But than, is being aroused a sufficient condition for learning or do you think that the organism must also be motivated. Being motivated for learning to take place is important in at least three ways.
1.
First, it is a condition for eliciting behaviour. For example if a rat is to learn a maze, it must at least walk through it, rat will do this merely to explore, but they are found to be more active when they are hungry.
2.
Second motivation is necessary for reinforcement, which in turn is an essential condition of learning. Reward and punishments act as reinforcers. For a
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hungry rat, food not water is a reinforcer that explains the point that reinforces should be appropriate. Thirdly, motivation controls the variability of behaviour. When learning a new
3.
half, a motivated organism will run through an extensive repertory of response, one of which may be “correct”. Let us make this clear with an example, suppose a mother is interested in teaching her child, who is thirsty to say “milk” when a glass of milk is shown to. One way of doing this is to show the child a glass of milk while saying ‘milk’ at the same time. If he says ‘milk’ be will be given a sip as reinforcement. If he is motivated, the child will quickly run through many behaviours, he may grab for the glass, he may cry, he may imitate 3 and say “milk” the “correct” response. If he is not motivated this repertory of responses will be less likely to occur.
In summary we can say that motivation is important become
(1)
It brings out appropriate behaviours to be learned.
(2)
It permit reinforcement to occur and
(3)
It increases the variability of behaviour, this raising the probability that a correct response will occur.
b) Association: One factor that is common to most situation in which learning takes place is association. By association, here we mean some connection in time and place between two events. Lightning (S1) and thunder (S2) usually occur in close sequence, so the light and sound may be connected. There connections in the physical world provide opportunities for an organism to form association’s focus experiencing two events simultaneously or in close succession. The formation of such associations is a function of the brain. Stated symbolically, if S1 and S2 together will tend to form an association between processes in the train, so that S1 can now a rouse S2 or S2 arouse . (i)
Stimulus Response Association
Another kind of association is the S-R or stimulus response association. In this care the learner associates a stimulus with a response. For instance, when we learn a foreign language vocabulary, we are forming a S-R association. The foreign work is a stimulus for the English learning response or vice versa. S-R association lend themselves to objective observation, and for this reason they have received the greatest attention in psychological experiments.
(ii)
Contiguity
The concept of association implies contiguity that is to say, for two physical events to be
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connected, and hence for the corresponding processes in the training to become associated, the event must occur at approximately the same time and place. They must be contiguous, or paired, events. For this reason, contiguity has long been started as a basic law governing the formation of associations.
What must be contiguous varies with different learning situations. In simple conditioning, it is the contiguity of two stimuli that is essential for learning. In more complex learning it is the contiguity of a response and a reward or punishment that is important for learning. For example, we give a dog a bit of food when he performs a trick, or we slap a child’s hand when he reaches for a lighted matchstick. In every care, it is the pain of event making them contiguous that is essential in learning.
(iii)
Interference
Still another aspect of forming association deserves emphasis the possibility of interference among associations. One stimulus may become associated with two different stimuli or with two different responses. If the two associations with the single to stimulus are incompatible, are tends to block interfere with the other. Let us understand this better with an example of learning two languages at the same time. Children who are brought up in bilingual homes or where two languages are used are slower in language development than there who learn only is language of home. A child learns a good deal of language by associating a word with same stimulus. He learns to associate (thirst) with water. But if he must learn to associate ‘thanni’ (Tamil for ‘water) or ‘pani’ (Hindi for ‘water’) at the same time, he has two different associations (R 1 and R2) for the same visual stimulus (5). He cannot say than both at the same time. Hence are association interferes with the other and neither association is built up so rapidly as it might be. The principle of mutual interference of association is a general one, which accounts of several of the phenomena of learning and for getting.
c) Reinforcement
Another important term, one that psychologists repeatedly use when talking about learning, is reinforcement. This term has two meanings, depending on the kind of learning situation be is talking about. In simple conditioning, it merely refers to the second stimulus of the pair being presented. The other meaning is what is commonly called reward or punishment. Examples of the things that serve, as reinforcers are food for a hungry organize, praise for a child or escape from punishment.
Reinforcement is of great importance in learning and hence Thorndike called it the law of effect. This law states that an act, wh ich has a satisfying effect for instance, satisfaction of a drive, escape from punishment, or relief from pain, fear will be learned, but an
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act, which has an unpleasant effect such as frustration of a motive, punishment, or fear, will not be learned. It is relatively easy to observe that reinforcement strengthen. Certain kind of association’s Hall has called this simple fact that reinforcement work to strengthen association has the empirical law of effect.
We have discussed three basic principles or factors in learning can you recall them; they are motivation, association and reinforcement.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is a form of learning. In lower organisms, much behaviour is instinctive, or inborn for e.g. fishes are born “knowing” how to swim. Among human being, however, the variety and complexity of behaviors pattern are largely learned through experience. Classical conditioning involves same of the ways in which we learn to associate events. let us understand this better with an example we are i usually more likely to stop our cars for red traffic light. Why? Red light is associated with avoiding accidents and traffic regulations.
Ivan Pavlov Rings a Bell
Lower animals also learn relationships among events, as Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) discovered in research with laboratory dogs. Pavlov during his research found that because of its biological making, a dog will salivate if meat powder is placed on its tongue. Salivation in response to meat powder is unlearned, a reflex. A certain range of stimuli elicits reflexes. A stimulus is an environmental condition that evokes a response from an organism. Reflexes are simple unlearned responses to stimuli. Pavlov discovered that reflexes could also be learned, or conditioned, through association. His dogs began salivating in response to clinking food trays became this noise, in the past, had been paired repeatedly with the arrival of food. The dogs would also salivate when an assistant entered the laboratory. Guess why? In the past the assistant had brought food.
When we are faced with novel events, we sometimes have no immediate way of knowing whether or not they are important. When we are striving for concrete goods, we often ignore the unexpected, even when the unexpected is just as important, or more important, than the goal. So it was that Pavlov at first saw this uncalled for canine salivation as an annoyance, a hindrance to his research. But in 1901, he decided that this ‘problem’ was worth looking into. He then set about to show that he could train, or condition, his dogs to salivate when he wished and in response to any stimulus he chose.
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Pavlov termed the trained salivary responses as “conditional reflexes”. They were conditional upon the repeated pairing of a previously neutral stimulus (such as the clinking of a food tray) and a stimulus (in this case, food) that predictably evoked the target response (in this case, salivation). Today conditional reflexes are more generally referred to as conditioned responses, (CRS) since they are responses to previously neutral stimuli that are learned or conditioned.
Pavlov demonstrated conditioned responses by strapping a dog into a harness. When meat powder was placed on the dog’s tongue, the dog salivated. Pavlov repeated the process several times, with are difference. He preceded the meat powder by hall a second or so with the sounding of a bell on each occasion. After several pairing of meat powder and bell Pavlov sounded the bell but did not follow the bell with the meat powder. Still the dog salivated. It had learned to salivate in response to the bell. Why did the dog learn to salivate in response to the bell? Behaviorists explain the out came of classical conditioning in terms of the publicity observable conditions of learning.
They define classical conditioning as a simple form of learning in which one stimulus craves to evoke the response usually evoked by a second stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the second stimulus, In Pavlov’s demonstration, the dog learned to salivate in response to the bell because the sounding of the bell had been paired with meat powder. Thus, in classical conditioning, the organizing forms association between stimuli because the stimuli are contiguous. Behaviorists are of the opinion that any targeted behaviour can reliably be made to occur, and hence behaviorists focus on the mechanical acquisition of the conditioned response.
Stimuli and responses in classical conditioning: US, CS, UR and CR.
In the demonstration described above we have seen that that meat powder is an unlearned or unconditional stimulus (US). Salivation in response to the meat powder is an unlearned or unconditional response (UR) where the bell was at first a meaningless or neutral stimulus. Then, through repeated association with the meat powder, the bell became a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) for the salivation. Salivation in response to the bell (or CS) is a learned one or conditioned response (CR). A CR is a response similar to a UR, but the response elicited, or brought out, by definition a CR, not a UR.
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Fig A schematic Representation of Classical Conditioning
Before conditioning Neutral stimulus (Bell)
No response or orienting response
US (Food)
UR (Salivation)
During conditioning CS (Bell)
UR
US (Food)
(Salivation)
After conditioning CS (Bell)
CR (Salivation)
Extinction
In classical conditioning, extinction is the process by which conditioned stimulus (CS) Jose the ability to eiicit conditioned responses (CR) because the CS are no longer associated with unconditioned stimuli (US). From the cognitive perspective, extinction teaches the organism to modify its representation of the environment because the CS no longer serves its predictive function.
In this experiment in the extinction of CR, Pavlov found that repeated presentation of CS (or bell) without the US (meat powder) led to extinction of the CR (salivation in response to the bell). The dog conditioned by Pavlov began to salivate (CR) in response to a bell (CS) often only for a couple of pairings of the stimuli led to increased salivation, as measured in number of drops of salivation. After seven or eight trials, salivation leveled off at eleven to twelve drops. Then, salivation to the bell (CR) was extinguished through several trailsreferred to as extinction trials in which the CS (bell) was presented without the meat powder (US). After about ten extinction trails, the CR (salivation in response to the bell) was no longer shown.
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Generalisation
We know that no two things are exactly alike. Traffic lights are hung at slightly different heights, and shades of red and green differ a little. The barking of two dogs differs and the sound of the same animal differs slightly from back to back. Adaptation requires that we respond similarly to stimuli that are equivalent in function and that we respond differently to stimuli that are not. Pavlov noted that responding to different stimuli as though they are functionally equivalent is adoptive for any organism.
In a demonstration of generalization, Pavlov first conditioned a dog to salivate when a circle was presented. During each acquisition trial the dog was shown a circle (CS), then given meat powder (US) After several trials, the dog exhibited the CR of salivating when presented with the circle above. Pavlov demonstrated that the dog also exhibited the CR (salivation) in response to closed geometric figures such as ellipses, pentagons, and squares. The more closely the figure resembled a circle the greater the strength of the response (the more drops of salivation that flowed).
Discrimination
This is another important concept organizers must also learn (1) that many stimuli perceived as being similar are functionally different and (2) to respond adoptively to each. During the first couple of months of life, babies can discriminate the voices of their other from there of others. They will often stop crying when they hear a strangerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s voice.
Pavlov showed that a dog conditioned to salivate in response to circles be trained not to salivate in response to ellipses. The type of conditioning that trains an organisms to show a CR in response to a narrow range of stimuli (in this care, circular rather than elliptical geometric figures) is termed discriminating training, Pavlov trained the dog by presenting it with circles and ellipses but associating the meat powder (US) with circles only. After a while, the dog no longer showed the CR (salivation) in response to the ellipses. Instead the animal showed discrimination. It displayed the CR in response to circle only.
Instrumental or Operant Conditioning
This is another important type of learning: operant conditioning also referred to as instrumental conditioning. An organism learns to engage in certain behaviors because of the effects of those behaviors. There are two important psychologist associated with operant conditioning. They are Edward L Thorndike and B.F.Skinner.
Edward Thorndike used stray cats for his research in learning by trial and error. He
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placed the animals in so-called puzzle boxes. If they managed to pull a dangling string a latch would be released, allowing them to joining out and reach a bowl of food. When the cat was placed in a puzzle box, it tries to squeeze through any opening and would claw and bite at the confining bars and wire or would claw at any feature it could reach. Through such random trail-and-error behaviour, if might take three to four minutes, before the cat would chance a response of pulling the string. Pulling the string would open the cage and allow the cat to reach the food.
Classical conditioning experiments throw light on important features of learning or association providing a starting point for the study of more complex types of learning. The next basic kind of learning is what is known as Instrumental or operant conditioning. The term “operant” emphasizes the component of work involved on the part of the learner, because he has to “operate” on his environment, and the term “instrumental” points to the fact that the learner” has some control over his circumstances (his action is instrumental to what happens to him) Instrumental conditioning involves more activity on the part of the learner than classical conditioning. Generally, behaviors directed towards gaining a reward or avoiding a punishment are examples of instrumental action. In this form of behaviour, the intention and achievement are important.
The important concepts in this sort of conditioning are contingency and consequences. Instrumental learning involves learning about the consequences of behaving in a specific way (Le.) learning that making of a particular response will be followed by a specific stimulus event. For instance, a child might learn that crying would fetch him his mother’s attention. Simplifying the basic idea, we might say that learning consists of discovering that a particular response (R) wilt be followed by a stimulus event (S).
In another way, we may interpret it in terms of contingency learning. The learner finds out that for the purpose of making a stimulus event to occur (getting the mother’s attention), he will have to perform a particular response (crying). Here, the stimulus (S) is contingent upon the response.
Historically, as classical conditioning is associated with the work of Pavlov, instrumental conditioning is associated with the works of E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner. Thorndike was the first to conduct laboratory experiments on instrumental conditioning leading to the formulation of the Law of Effect, which formed the basis for the principle of reinforcement. But it was Skinner who made operant conditioning popular. His studies on the behaviour of pigeons, rats and human beings led to the identification of the basic elements and laws of operant conditioning. The development of the concepts functional analysis, which. emphasizes on the functions (the consequences of behaviour is due to his efforts) His findings, which forms the foundation for the development of a new technology of behaviour
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modification in its application.
Though this is in its formative stage, still it is useful and controversial. Skinnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Work
Skinner used a device, which has come to be known as Skinner box to investigate the relationship between the events of instrumental conditioning. He placed a rat inside a glass box containing a lever and food tray. The animal was free to explore the box. Whenever the lever in the box was pressed, automatically a pellet of food was dropped on the tray. A mechanical device recorded the number of times the rat pressed on lever. Pressing of the lever was the response to be learned (the operant response), and the food was the stimulus consequence (reinforcement). The rate: of presses increased notably with the rewarding of the rat with food each time he pressed the bar. By reinforcement, the rat learned the instrumental response.
Basically the reinforces are of two kinds namely the positive (S+) and the negative (S). A positive reinforcer refers to a stimulus event that when made contingent on a response will cause the frequency of that response to increase. In the rat experiment, the food is a positive reinforcer because the rat will increase the number of presses if food is withheld until he presses the lever. Generally speaking, positive reinforcers are those things that are liked or desired i.e., rewards. On the other hand, a negative reinforcer refers to the stimulus event that will cause an increase in response frequency when the contingency is a negative one Le. the making of the response results in the cessation of the stimulus. For example, an electric shock in the place of food may be called a negative reinforcer. Generally, a negative reinforcer is one, which is disliked or avoided by an organism, i.e., punishments.
Types of Instrumental Conditioning
By this conditioning method, it is possible to teach an individual to make a particular response or withhold it by providing him with either rewards or punishments. A combination of two kinds of consequences (rewards and punishments) with two kinds of contingencies (either the consequences is contingent on making or on not making it) can be presented. They are: reward, omission, escape and punishment training. Positive reinforcement is used in reward training. For example, giving an individual his due allowance is a case of this kind of training. When rewards are used to withhold a response that is not desired, it is called omission training. For instance, if a child is offered a candy for giving up nail-biting it is a case of omission training. Escape training refers to the use of negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of a desired response. Telling a convict that good conduct on his part will secure him remission of sentences of this type. Lastlyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; punishment training is used to make the learner cease performing an undesired response. Scolding a child for using impolite language
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is a good example of this type of instrumental conditioning.
Shaping
Shaping refers to the reinforcing of closer approximations for performing a desired response. This consists of learning graduated steps, where each following step has a resemblance to the desired performance and hence it is known as the method of successive approximations. For example, in the case of an animal in the operant conditioning apparatus, with the help of a remote control, the experimenter reinforces the approaches to the lever, by going near it, pawing it and eventually pressing it a sequence of responses leading to the appropriate response. This kind of a thing is done with children, when they are taught to learn languages. At the beginning, the child may say “Maaa”..... “Mrrr”... “Maar” and finally “Mother”.
PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
We have already seen what reinforcement means. in primary reinforcement, a reinforcer is an event that increases or maintains the strength of a response. Secondary reinforcement also is important in operant conditioning. A stimulus is a secondary reinforcer if it has acquired a reinforcing quality because it has been associated with a primary reinforcer. When such a stimulus follows a response, it tends to increase and maintain the strength of a response.
The experiment by Cowles with chimpanzees would be useful. The chimpanzees learned to work for poker chips, which in turn helped to get food. Here poker chips were token rewards and they were exchanged for food. While food is the primary reinforcer, poker chips are the secondary reinforcers. In human beings, in the social learning’s secondary reinforcers plays a vital role: Symbolic rewards like degrees, titles, promotions and money serve as secondary reinforcers.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio Schedules
If a schedule is administered on a ratio basis, reinforcement is given after a certain number of responses. If the schedule is a fixed ratio, the exact number of responses is specified. A fixed ratio that reinforces after every response is designated as 1:1. The 1:1 fixed ratio is generally used in basic conditioning experiments, and almost every type of learning
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situation must begin with this schedule. However, as learning progresses, it is more effective to shift to a fixed ratio of 2:1, 4:1, 8:1 and even 20:1.
Administering rewards under a fixed ratio schedule tends to produce a high rate of response that is characterized as vigorous and steady. The person soon determines that reinforcement is based on the number of responses and performs the responses as quickly as possible in order to receive the reward.
Fixed Interval Schedules
A second common way to administer rewards is on a fixed interval basis. Under this schedule, reinforcement is given after a specified period of time, which is measured from the, last reinforced response. The length of time that can be used by this schedule varies a great deal. In the beginning of practically any learning situation, a very short interval is required. However, as learning progresses, the interval can be stretched out.
Behavior resulting from a fixed interval method of reinforcing is quite different from that exhibited as result of a fixed ratio schedule. Whereas under a fixed ratio schedule there is a steady, vigorous response pattern, under a fixed interval schedule there is an uneven pattern that varies from a very slow, unenergetic response immediately following reinforcement to a very fast, vigorous response immediately preceding reinforcement. This type of behavior pattern can be explained by the fact that the person figures out that another reward will not immediately follow the last one. Therefore, the person may as well relax a little until it is time to be rewarded again.
Variable or Intermittent Schedules
Both ratio and interval schedules can be administered on a variable or intermittent basis. This means that the reinforcement is given in an irregular or unsystematic manner. In variable ratio, the reward is given after a number of responses, but the exact number is randomly varied. When the variable ratio is expressed as some number say, 1:50 this means that on the average the organism is reinforced after fifty responses. However, in reality the ratio may randomly vary from 1:1 to 1:100. In other words, each response has a chance of being reinforced regardless of the number of reinforced or non reinforced responses that have preceded it.
The variable interval schedule works basically the same as the variable ratio schedule except that a reward is given after a randomly distributed length of time rather than after a number of responses. a fifty-minute variable interval schedule means that on the average, the individual is reinforced after fifty minutes, but the actual reinforcement may be given
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anywhere from every few seconds toâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; every two or three hours.
Behavior under Variable Schedules
Both variable ratio and variable interval schedules tend to produce stable, vigorous behavior under variable schedules is similar to that produced by a fixed ratio schedule. Under a variable schedule, the person has no idea when the reward is coming, and so the behavior tends to be steady and strong. It logically follows that variable schedules are very resistant to extinction.
Variable schedules are not very effective in highly controlled learning experiments and are seldom used. On the other hand, they are the way in which many real-life, everyday learning situations are reinforced. although primary reinforcers for humans are administered on a relatively fixed basis (for example, food is given three times a day at mealtimes, and organization compensation plans are on either a fixed ratio or a fixed interval basis), most of the other human behavior that takes place is reinforced in a highly variable manner. For example, practically all social rewards are administered on a variable basis. Attention, approval, and affection are generally given as reward in a very random fashion.
OTHER TYPES OF OPERANT LEARNING
a) Aversive Conditioning
This is kind of conditioning response learning in which aversive stimuli (Stimuli that the unpleasant, painful or noxious) playa part. Escape conditioning, avoidance conditioning and punishment training are the various types of aversive conditioning.
i) Escape conditioning Here the organism learns to get away from a stimulus situation that is aversive to it. There termination of electric shock reinforces the response. With repeated trials the subject escapes more and more quickly from the shock.
ii) Avoidance conditioning Here, a warning signal is followed by the onset of an aversive stimulus. This happens until such time the proper response is made terminating the aversive stimulation. However, a quick reaction on the part of the subject may help him to avoid the aversive stimulation completely. For instance, a rat placed in a box, which has two apartments, one painted white and another black, separated by a low partition over which the rat can, jump. in the whit portion there is a provision to give electric shock to the rat and in the black portion the animal can stay without a shock. A few minute following the sound of a buzzer, the rat is
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administered a shock. After some random movements, the rat jumps to the black apartment. Following such a procedure repeated a number of times; the response generally becomes so immediate that the rat avoids the shock totally.
In the case human beings also, learned or acquired fears induce behaviour and responses that remove a fear-arousing signal are secondary reinforcing. When external stimulus situations given rise to fear such as addressing a big audience, or pursuing a difficult academic task, the response that would help the individual to get away from the situation is reinforced by reduction of fear.
iii) Punishment Training Punishments are generally used for suppressing or eliminating undesired behaviour of an individual. In punishment training, an aversive stimulus is contingent on response. Cases such as being fixed for not following the rules of the road or an employee being taken to ask for late coming are examples. Punishments generally result in suppressing the responses at least for sometimes. Punishment or threat of punishment to improve human learning has many problems. The individuals getting punishment develop hostility towards the punisher Punishment may also wound one’s feelings that one is not being wanted and loved. Punishments may produce unrealistic and exaggerated fears. For instance, a child who is punished for sex play may develop a generalized fear of everything related to sex.
TYPES OF LEARNING
Conditioning is most directly to single identifiable responses, but much learning is more complex than this. These more complex instances are classified as multiple response learning. Some psychologists are not in favour of over emphasis upon the automatic nature of learning that comes from stimulus response associations. Much of our learning consists of acquiring patterns of sequences of behaviors, as in learning athletic skills of in memorizing a poem. In this unit, we will discuss about the multiple response learning, cognitive learning, programmed learning and computer aide~ instruction, transfer of learning and role of reward and punishment in learning.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you would be able to:
explain about multiple response learning
describe multiple response learning
explain the components of cognitive learning
discuss about the programmed learning
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explain the advantages of computer aided instruction
analyse the transfer of learning
highlight the significance of reward and punishment in learning
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MULTIPLE-RESPONSE LEARNING
These patterns illustrate multiple response learning, a kind of learning involving more than one identifiable act, with the order of events usually fixed by the demands of the situation. To study this kind of learning psychologists have designed such laboratory tasks as mirror drawing, target tracking, and rote memorization. The first two tasks are forms of sensorimotor skill, and the last is largely verbal. Tasks such as these approximate the learning of skills that are used in everyday life.
Sensorimotor Learning
By a sensorimotor skill we mean one in which muscular movement is prominent, but under sensory control. Riding a bicycle, turning a flip from a diving board, playing a piano, and typing are sensorimotor skills. They are not simply patterns of skilled movements. The bicycle rider has to watch the traffic and the bumps in the road and be guided by them; the diver must adjust his timing to the height of the platform; the musician reads notes and attempts to play with feeling; the typist must follow a manuscript and stay within specified boundaries. These considerations call attention to the sensory control of skill.
Psychologists have not limited themselves to laboratory tasks in studying skills. The pioneer study was, in fact, a practical one on learning to send and receive telegraphic messages, carried out by Bryan and Harter in 1897. Many of the best-established principles are first worked out on laboratory skills, however, and later validated in more complex practical situation. A convenient laboratory illustration is given by the mirror-drawing experiment. We learn something of the importance of eye-hand coordination in developing skills by studying what happens when our usual eye-hand coordination’s are inappropriate and we have to reorient accordingly.
In a typical mirror-drawing experiment, the subject is required to trace a path around a geometric figure, such as a star, while viewing it in a mirror. The subject knows that the correct performance is a smoothly traced line within the path around the figure. The subject starts out by using familiar habits. These of course cause trouble. When using the visual cues from a mirror in the same way as cues in direct vision, the subject will find that the pencil will
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not go where it is supposed to go. The subject therefore attempts to correct movements and gradually approximates a good performance, although at first a very jagged line is drawn. Old habits may again interfere at the corners of the figure. With practice, however, the lines smooth out, and the subject can achieve a rapid tracing of the figure.
a) Learning curves for skill
Experimenters typically keep track of progress in skill learning by plotting a learning Curve similar to those used to depict the course of classical conditioning. Two learning curves for mirror drawing are plotted, one representing massed practice (practice trails follows each other consecutively within one period) and theâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; other depicting spaced practice (practice trails distributed one per day). Note that spaced practice is more efficient, which is generally the case although there are exceptions. This comparison shows how learning curves can be used to display a relationship between two variables.
The measure of proficiency is the time required to trace a figure seen in the mirror. Improvement shows a decrease in time required and yields a falling curve. If the measure of proficiency is a score that increases with practice, then the learning curve rises. Scores in a target-tracking task like the pursuit rotor are of this sort. The subject attempts to keep the tip of a hand-held stylus in contact with a small metal disc mounted near the edge of a revolving
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turntable much like that of an ordinary record player. When the stylus is in contact with the moving target, an electric circuit is completed though a clock. The subject’s score is the amount of time on target.
b)
Qualitative Changes with Practical
A learning curve presents performance over the course of an experiments as though the subject followed the same pattern of activity at the end as at the beginning and improved only in efficiency. But it is quite possible that in the course of improvements the subject’s method changed. For example, in studying learning how to type, some investigators have detected a shift from a letter to a word habit (learning the location of the individual keys associated with a single burst of movement, embedding the letters in a total pattern). Occasionally these higher order and lower order learning conflict, and there is a period of no improvement in the learning curve. This period is described as a plateau because it has been preceded by improvement and will be followed by more improvement when the higher order learning wins out.
Rote Memorization
By rote memorization we mean verbatim learning by repetition, as contrasted with substance memorization. Experiments on rote memorization take one of two chief forms, corresponding to the ways we learn things verbatim in ordinary experience. One form is serial memorization, as in memorizing poetry or lines of a play. In a laboratory experiment, a list of words is memorized from beginning to end, so that each word in the list is in some sense the stimulus for the word to follow. The second form is paired associate learning, which is comparable to the method sometimes used in learning the words of a foreign language. The words are learned in stimulus response pairs, such as prepared-afraid, careless-vacant, hungry quiet; a stimulus word is presented, and the response word has to be learned. The pairs are not learned in any special order and depending on the experiment, mayor may not be meaningfully related.
The experimenter usually presents the material to the subject by means of an exposure device called a memory drum. The items to be learned appear one at a time at fixed intervals in the aperture of the memory drum. ‘After the initial presentation of each item, the subject tries to state in advance the next item to appear in the aperture. By keeping score of the subject’s hits and misses throughout memorizing, the experimenter can plot a learning curve from his record.
The anticipation method for rote memorization requires that the subject try to state what lies immediately ahead. It can be used for either serial memorization or paired-associate
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memorization. In the serial method the item anticipated becomes the stimulus for the next anticipation when it (the item) appears in the aperture; it is both a response item and a stimulus item. In the paired associate method the stimulus item is used only as a stimulus, not as a response. When the stimulus is presented in the aperture of the memory drum the subject tries to anticipate the response item; then the stimulus response pair appear together for a brief period of study prior to presentation of the next stimulus item.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
The kinds of learning that we have considered thus far all stress the organization of behavior into learned stimulus response associations. In studying more complex forms of learning, attention must be given to the roles of perception and knowledge, or cognitive processes. There is the possibility that emphasis upon stimulus-response associations may lead to too much concern for piecemeal activities and too little attention to organized relationships and meaning. The teacher impressed by habit formation may use rote memorization and drill excessively, without caring enough about whether the child organizes and understands what is learned.
Those identified with the cognitive viewpoint argue that learning, particularly in humans, cannot be satisfactorily explained in terms of stimulus response associations. They propose that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves and organizes information about the various events that occur in a learning situation.
When a test is made to determine how much has been learned is largely depend upon the situation. When a test is made to determine how much has been learned, the subject must encode the test stimulus and scan it against his memory to determine an appropriate action. What is done will depend upon the cognitive structure retrieved from memory, which preserves and organizes information about the various events that occur in a learning situation. When a test is made to determine how much has been learned, the I subject must encode the test stimulus and scan it against his memory to determine an appropriate action. What is done will depend upon the cognitive structure retrieved from memory, and the contex1 in which the test occurs. Thus the subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response is a decision process that varies with the nature of the test situation and the subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s memory for prior events.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
Insight Experiments
Partly in protest against too much study of the kinds of learning that involve stimulusresponse associations, Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist who immigrated to the United States. performed a series of dramatic experiments with chimpanzees. At some point
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in working on a problem, chimpanzees appeared to grasp its inner relationships through insight; that is, they solved the problem not through mere trial and error, but by perceiving the relationships essential to solution. The following experiment by Kohlier is typical. Sultan (Kohler’s most intelligent chimpanzee) is squatting at the bars but cannot reach the fruit which lies outside by means of his only available short stick.· A longer stick is deposited outside the bars, about two meters on one side of the object and parallel with the grating. It cannot be grasped with the hand, but it can be pulled within reach by means of the small stick. Sultan tries to reach the fruit with the smaller of the two sticks. Not succeeding, he tears at a piece of wire that projects from the netting of his cage, but that too, is in vain. Then he around about him (there are always in the course of these tests some long pauses, during which the animals scrutinize the whole visible area). He suddenly picks up the little stick once more, goes up to the bars directly opposite to the long stick, scratches it towards him with the “auxiliary,” seizes it, and goes with it to the point opposite the objective (the fruit), which he secures. From the moment that his eyes fall upon the long stick, his procedure forms one consecutive whole, picking the bigger stick by means of the smaller is an action that could be complete and distinct in itself, yet observation shows that it follows, quite suddenly, on an interval of hesitation and doubt staring about-which undoubtedly has a relation to the final objective. Then it is merged in the final action of the attainment of the end goal.
Other types of Cognitive Learning Apart from the learning types mentioned, hitherto, there are certain other types of learning are prevalent. This may appear simple but do have lot of social relevance and day to day living. They are:
a) Latent Learning The word latent means “hidden” or that is too obvious. Latent learning refers to the learning that occurs but this learning is not obvious or apparent until the conditions for its appearance are favorable. Latent learning is essentially cognitive learning since it occurs without reinforcements for particular responses; it also involves changes in the methods in which information is processed.
b) Insight Learning
The term insight describes the phenomenon in which a problem is posed. This is followed by a period of no apparent improvement in solving the problem. Then a sudden solution occurs. The suddenness of the solution is the unique nature of insight. Insight learning occurs because it involves a perceptual reorganization of the elements in the
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environment suddenly new relationships among objects and events are seen. The nature of perceptual reorganization would be seen clearly by getting to know the experiments conducted by Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist. He conducted many experiments making use of chimpanzees as his subjects and this is explained in the next unit.
c) Imitation and Modeling
Learning by modeling is also known as observational learning, learning by imitation, vicarious learning and social learning, such learning involves the observation of a response or a sequence of responses on the part of somebody else and later incorporation and display of these in one’s own behaviour is known as modeling or imitation.
Though the basic principle of modeling is the same, it may occur in many different ways. Live modeling or observation is one kind. This refers to the common form of learning, is by direct observation of a live model by the learner. This involves significant persons like the parents, friends and teachers with whom the observer has frequent contacts. Verbal modeling is another, which, perhaps is mostly characteristic of human beings. For example, through the use of vocabulary a person can learn from another (such as a short-cut route to a destination). Imitative behaviour is important in understanding such psychological phenomena as language learning, attitude formation and personality development.
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Programmed learning is essentially an instructional procedure that represents an application of learning principles to educational practice. This instructional procedure requires learner participation, provides immediate feedback and permits each individual to progress at his or her own pace.
According to DL. Cook programmed learning is a term sometimes used synonymously to refer to the broader concept of auto instructional method. According to Fred Stoftel,” The arrangements of the tiny bits of knowledge into a logical frequency is called the programme and its process is called programmed learning”
Principles of Programmed Instruction
The principles of programmed learning are as follows:-
Small steps: The materials to be programmed are divided into meaningful segment are
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presented through small steps.
Immediate Confirmation or feed back: As soon as the learner proceeds through programmes, his response, is immediately confirmed as to be either correct or incorrect by knowledge of results (KR) and feedback is immediately provided.
Active Responding: For the success of any programme the learner has to any how respond. Response is core of programmed learning that keeps the learner busy through out the programme.
Self pacing: An individual learner proceeds through a programme at his own pace without care for the group. He is not forced to move quickly by the teacher without mastery.
Student Testing: Regular and continuous testing of the effectiveness of the programme to the particular individual learner is conducted by the particular individual learner is conducted by the teacher with a view to improve upon it. Book â&#x20AC;&#x153;Programmed Instruction; Techniques and trendsâ&#x20AC;? has classified principles of programmed instructions into two groups. Mandatory Principle, and Optional principle. We would discuss each of there principles in brief:
(i) Mandatory Principle
(1) Objective specification: The programme, while developing a programmed instructional maternal, specifies the objectives of the programme in behavioural terms. He further specifies the conditions under which the terminal behaviours are to be manifested and states explicitly restrictions to be imposed. The standard of judging the acceptable performance is also mentioned in definite terms.
(2) Empirical Testing: Programmed material is empirically tested material. The programmer, after writing a few initial draft of the programme tries it out in the following three phases.
(a) Individual tries out- The first draft of the programme is tested on .an individual in face to face testing. The Reactions of the individual recorded for each frap1~.
(b) Small group try out - After modifying the programme on the basis of individual try out, the programme to test on five to ten representative students of the class for which it is developed.
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(c) Field try out - At the third stage, the programme, after modification on the observation of small group, is administered in actual class room conditions.
(3) Self pacing: In programmed learning, the learner decides the rate at which he progresses through the programme. He adjusts the pace of the work to his own ability and motivation level. He is not forced to work with the speed of other students of the class. The principle of self pacing incorporates the concept of individualized instruction.
(ii) Optional Principles
(1) Overt Responding: The learners are asked to respond frequently to explicit or implicit questions as they progress through the programme. The overt response requirement of programmed learning insures that the learner will become and remain active and attentive to the instructional material. The active involvement of the learner increases the learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motivation.
(2) Immediate Feed Back: Back to the learner. It is the knowledge of the result or the performance of the learner. When a learner works through a programmed text, he is immediately fed back by comparing his response with the response of the programme.
(3) Small step size: As already described the body of knowledge is broken into small units (Frames) of meaningful information and presented one frame at a time.
Psychological Principles under laying Programmed Learning
Ernest R.Hilgard has summed up the psychological principles of learning which support programmed learning.
(1)
Programmed learning recognizes individual difference by beginning where the learner is and by permitting him to proceed at Rise own pace. It is possible that programmed learning may success in reducing individual differences because of there features.
(2)
Programmed learning requires the learner to be active. Since learner is active he I she feels more involved and learns faster.
(3)
Programmed learning provides immediate knowledge of results.
(4)
Programmed learning emphasizes the organized nature of results knowledge because it requires continuity between the easier (earlier) concepts and harder (later
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ones).
(5)
Programmed learning provides spaced review in order to guarantee the high order of success that has become a standard requirement of good programmer.
(6)
Programmed learning reduces anxiety because the learner is not threatened by task.
Advantages:
programmed instruction has innumerable advantages over the traditional methods of learning that have been proved through research. A few of those are enumerated as under.
(I)Foreign languages drill in spelling, factual information can best be taught through programmed instruction.
(II) Teachers being free from routine classroom activities can devote more independent time and think more creatively in case of programmed instruction.
(III) Social and emotional problems, especially in the West, have been effectively dealt through programmed instructions in the classroom. The self instructional materials have successfully eliminated the problem of indiscipline inside the class.
(IV) It caters for the individual needs through individualized instruction and self pacing and can better serve a heterogeneous population of learners.
(V) It helps the teacher to clearly diagnose the needs and problems of the individual learner and correct those on personal basis without any delay that is quite absent in a traditional classroom of uncountable students.
(VI) Learning becomes interesting through programmed instruction. It provides challenge to the individual confirmation of correct responses provides sufficient motivation to proceed at a quicker speed to wards cent percent mastery.
Limitations of Programmed learning
Though the supporters of programmed learning make high claims and point out many
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advantages, there are certain limitations in programmed learning which require presence of the teacher.
(I) In programmed learning students learn how to search out the facts needed for a given purpose. E.g. Students can not develop the habit of using a dictionary of going the library with the help of a teaching machine or programmed learning.
(II)
In the rapidly changing world new situations arise quickly. In order to function
effectively in new situation and adjust accordingly, the students require developing certain personality qualities and social maturity.
(III)
The third limitation of the programmed learning is that it does not develop in students
the ability to discover problems for them selves and solve them on their own.
(IV)
Programmed learning does not develop creativity among students to the extent a
teacher can.
(V)
Teaching machines provide programmed learning in a scientific manner and thus
programmed is the science of teaching. As regards the art of teaching it is possible only withthe help of a teacher.
(VI)
Teaching machines and programme learning ignore the human factor and do not
provide opportunities for human relations, which is now regarded as the fourth R. The 3 Rs. being reading, writing, and arithmetic.
(VII)
Another limitation in programmed learning is that it does not help in socialization of
students. It is in peer groups play groups and work groups that social development of children takes place
Application of Programmed Learning
Programmed instruction can be applied where ever learning occurs, whether in the classroom or in the industrial setting. In the classroom it helps in regular instruction, enrichment of learning and for remedial instruction. In industry, it helps discriminating the technical innovations through refresher courses for up-to date professional development. This can also be applied in teaching military sciences in defence, for example teaching of electronic trouble shooting programmed instructions.
The use of programmed learning finds application in the following areas:
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Teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s training: Programmed material can be used at all levels of teacher education programmes. Many teachers need to keep abreast with knowledge latest developments in the field. In There areas programmed instruction is of considerable aid.
2.
Correspondence Courses: Education through correspondence courses or distance education is becoming very popular. \t is emerging as a very successful media for educating the masses as well as those who want to continue their education.
3.
Non formal education: Nor-formal education is becoming highly popular in India, especially with especially with unprivileged groups masses. Non-formal education makes use of programmed learning.
4.
Use of programmed material in air force: Programming techniques can be used to
train cadets in air force.
5.
Use in Banks: In U.S.A all banks use programmed material for training cashiers.
6.
Use for gifted children: Carefully programmed material can be used to enrich the
curriculum to cater to the needs of gifted children.
7.
Vocational training: Programmed instruction has been applied to vocational training
and psychotherapy. A technique of programmed therapy has been recently developed to correct deviants to rehabilitate emotionally disturbed children.
8.
Modification of deviant behaviour: Programmed instructional material has been
used very successfully to modify the behaviour of deviant children. A project has been undertaken at Draper correctional centre Elmore Alabama. The population consisted of young sociopath offenders. The objective was to reduce the rate of offences to rehabilitate the offenders in the society. The immediate aim was to raise the academic standard to develop vocational proficiency in the inmates. To achieve the Objectives, the project staff utilized th~/ programmed instruction adapting to the needs of individuals. The result ofthe project was very significant.
9.
Programmed instruction and exceptional children: programmed instructional
material has been used on disturbed children slow learners with great success. Eldred his coworkers conducted a study on slow learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s under-achievers with programmed instructional technique. The student shied great improvement in their performance.
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Special programmes should be developed for exceptional children. Abraham 1966 warned about the false assumption that a programme developed for so called typical children will work for exceptional children, disadvantaged population dropouts delinquents others.
PROGRAMMED LEARNING AND AUTOMATED INSTRUCTION
For centuries teachers have stood in front of classrooms and dispensed words of wisdom. Students passed or failed depending on how much of this knowledge they could recall at the time of an examination. This form of instruction has obvious limitations when compared to a tutorial arrangement - a one-to-one relationship between the student and teacher. But the cost of tutorial education makes it impractical on a large-scale basis. In the 1950s, under the guidance of B.F. Skinner at Harvard University, an effort was made to approximate some aspects of tutorial instruction in the form of a teaching machine. The basic idea was to present information to the student in a series of frames. Each frame contains a new item of information and also poses a question which the student must answer. After writing the answer (usually in a word or brief phrase), the student turns a knob that uncovers the correct answer and exposes the next instructional frame. In this way the student goes step-wise through a course, gradually being introduced to each unit of instruction and being tested to see that he understands it.
With the advent of computers it became evident that teaching devices could be developed that would be far ore flexible and responsive to the student than the Skinner-type teaching machine. As yet the use of computers in business, science, and engineering far exceeds applications in education. However, if potentials are properly realized, the nature of education during our lifetime will be radically changed by the computer. The most important feature of computerized instruction is that it permits a high degree of individualization; each student can proceed at his own pace following a path through the curriculum best suited to his particular interest and talents.
COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI)
Because of its great speed of operation, a large computer can handle many students simultaneously as many as several thousand students each at a different point in one of several hundred different curricula. One of the student terminals of a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) system used for research purposes at Stanford University. Located at each studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s station are a cathode-ray tube, a microfilm-display device, earphones, and a typewriter keyboard. Each device is under computer control. The computer sends out instructions to the terminal to display a particular image on the microfilm projector to write a message of text or construct a geometric figure on the cathode-ray tube and simultaneously
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plays an auditory message. The student sees the visual display, hears the auditory message, and then may be required to respond. The student responds by operating the typewriter keyboard or by touching the surface of the cathode-ray tube with an electronic pencil. This response is fed back to the computer and evaluated.
If the student is correct the computer moves on to the next instructional item; if incorrect the computer evaluates the type of error made and then branches to appropriate remedial material. A complete record on each student is stored in the computer and is updated with each new response. The record is checked periodically to evaluate the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rate of progress and to determine any particular difficulties. A student making exceptionally good progress may be moved ahead in the lesson sequence, or branched out to special materials designed to enrich his understanding of the curriculum. A student having difficulties may be branched back to review earlier materials or to a special remedial sequence. in a very real sense the CAI system simulates the human tutorial process.
Although CAI has had only limited development, experience and research support the claim that it will have wide application in the future. For example; CAI programs designed to teach reading in the early grades have proved remarkably successful Children receiving computer-based instruction made significant gains over comparable groups taught by traditional classroom methods (Atkinson, 1974).
One interesting outcome of CAI concerns sex differences in reading. With traditional teaching methods girls generally learn to read more rapidly than boys. Several explanations have been offered for this difference. The environment of the primary classroom, which is often run by a female teacher, nay be more oriented toward the needs of girls. The fact that first-grade girls rend to be more mature physically than boys of the same age may also be important. Whatever the explanation, this sex difference in reading performance disappears with the CAI reading program. Boys progress through the curriculum as rapidly as the girls, and do equally well on tests administered at the end of the school year.
Instruction under computer control has also been used successfully at the college level.
Instructional Program
The essence of teaching, whether in the classroom or under computer control, lies in the arrangement of the material to be learned. A body of material arranged so as to be most readily mastered is called a program. Instructional programs have two basic formats: the linear program and the branching program. With the linear program, the student progresses along a single track from one frame to the next; each time an item is answered the student
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moves on to the next regardless of whether the response was correct. The branching program allows the learner to take any number of different paths through the curriculum. Each response is evaluated; that evaluation determines, in part, where the student goes next. An error in response is pointed out, and the student is given help to avoid making that error again. The student who has done very well on a number of questions may be given an opportunity to jump ahead; the one who has made too many mistakes may retrace his steps or taken alternative route in an effort to resolve difficulties.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
An important issue in optimizing learning is the extent to which the learning of one thing facilitates the learning of something else. If everything we learner was specific to the situation in which it was leaned, the amount of learn in that would have to be crammed into a lifetime would be phenomenal Fortunately, most learning is readily transferable, with some modification, to a number of different situations.
The influence that learning one task may have on the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of learning. The term positive transfer is used when learning one task does facilitate learning another. If one is a good tennis player it is easier to learn to play squash; this is positive transfer. But transfer is not always positive; when interference occurs, we have negative transfer.
There are numerous examples of negative transfer in everyday life. When driving a car with automatic transmission after having been accustomed to one with a hand gear, we may find ourselves pressing a nonexistent clutch pedal. When changing from a pedal-brake to a hand-brake bicycle, we me still try to press back on the pedal when we have to stop quickly. And the transition from driving on the left -hand side of the street to the American procedure of driving on the right is difficult for many Indian visitors to America and vice versa. The original habit is so over learned that even after driving successfully on the left for some time, an individual may revert to right-side driving when required to act quickly in an emergency.
Doctrine of Formal discipline
The problem of transfer of learning has been historically of great concern to educators. For them it constitutes the very important practical question of â&#x20AC;&#x153;how the school curricula should be arranged to ensure maximum positive transfer. Does learning algebra help in the learning of geometry? Which of the sciences should be taught first to ensure maximum transfer to other science courses?
One of the earliest notions of transfer of learning, prevalent among educators around
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the turn of the century, maintained that the mind was composed of faculties that could be strengthened through exercise, much as individual muscles can be strengthened. This notion, known as the doctrine of formal discipline, was advanced in support of keeping such studies as Latin and Greek in the high school curriculum. It was argued that the study of mother tongue/native language, for example, trains a students powers of self-discipline, reasoning, and observation.
Learning to Learn
A special example of transfer of training is a phenomenon that psychologists have labeled learning to learn. Subjects who learn successive lists of verbal materials over a period of days are able to increase the speed with which they learn subsequent lists. Positive transfer occurs even though the lists are not similar. The subjects apparently learn a technique or an approach to the task that facilitates their performance on later tasks of the same sort.
Another example of learning to learn is provided by an experiment in which monkeys are presented with a series of discrimination problems. For each problem the animal is shown two objects for example, a red triangle and a green circle and is reinforced with food if it selects the correct object, which might be the red triangle. Object position is alternated in a random order from trail to trial so that sometimes the triangle is on the right and sometimes on the left. The animal must learn to ignore positional cues in selecting the correct object. After the monkey has learned consistently to select the correct object, it is given a problem involving a different pair of objects.
Transfer by Mastering Principles
One factor that makes transfer possible is the appropriate application to new situations of principles learned in old situations. The Wright brothers applied the principles they learned in flying kites to building an airplane. Principles of reasoning learned in logic are equally applicable in mathematics. The following experiment demonstrates the advantage of learning principles.
Reward and Punishment in Learning
Anyone responsible for training or instructing, whether at home, in school, or in business, has to decide what motivational techniques to use. Success may depend upon the skillful use of rewards and punishments to encourage and guide the learning process.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
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In choosing goals for the learner, it may be possible to select those intrinsically related to the task rather that those extrinsically related. A goal is intrinsic if it is natural or inevitable. For example, the boy who assembles a radio in order to communicate with a friend derives a satisfaction inherent in the task when he completes the instrument and finds that it works. The relation between a task and a goal is extrinsic if it is arbitrarily or artificially established. For example, a father may promise to buy his son a radio if the cuts the grass each week. The radio is an incentive extrinsically related to cutting grass; there is no natural relationship between cutting grass and a radio.
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is not clear-cut, and in most learning situations both, types of motivation are involved. A child !earning to ride a bicycle is usually intrinsically motivated by the pleasure derived from mastering this new skill. But fear of derision from his peers if he fails may also be a motivation, an ex1rinsic one.
Whenever possible, it is advantageous to use goals intrinsically related to the learning task. A child whose interest in music has been stimulated at an early age will persevere in practicing the piano longer than one whose motivation stems solely from promised rewards and threats of punishment. But even the intrinsically motivated child may require some extrinsic rewards when the drudgery involved in mastery outweighs the satisfaction of making music. !n most cases, if the person who guides and controls the learning situation can capitalize on intrinsic motives, the battle is half won.
We know that rewards are effective, but extrinsic rewards-such as prizes for excellence-may have some objectionable by products:
1.
A reward planned by an adult (parent or teacher) and arbitrarily related to the activity is like a bribe, and may lead to docility and deference to authority rather than to originality and self-initiated activity. It may engender in the child an attitude of â&#x20AC;&#x153;What do I get out of this?â&#x20AC;? The activity becomes worthwhile only for the praise, attention, or financial gain it brings. Cheating on examinations sometimes occurs when desire for the external reward outweighs regard for the processes by which the reward is achieved.
2.
Rewards are often competitive. One or a few learners may be encouraged by the reward, but many will be frustrated. If there is only one prize and many contestants, the problems of the losers must be considered. Is the gain to the winner worth the price in disappointment to the losers?
These remarks, however, should not be interpreted as justification for eliminating all extrinsic
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rewards in home or school situations. Evidence (to be discussed later with regard to behaviour modification.
Controlling Learning through Punishment
Folklore leads us to believe that punishment is an effective way of controlling learning. “Spare the rod and spoil the child’ is not an isolated epigram. Fines and imprisonment are forms of social control that are sanctioned by all governments. For many years arguments have continued over the relative advantages and disadvantages of benevolent treatment (emphasizing reward for good behaviour) and stern treatment (emphasizing punishment for error). The preference has shifted slowly from punishment to reward.
Has this shift come about solely on humanitarian grounds or has punishment been found less effective than reward? Evidence from psychological experiments indicates two important conclusions:
(1) punishment is often less effective than reward because it temporarily suppresses a response but does not weaken it and
(2) when punishment is effective it accomplishes its purpose by forcing the individual to select an alternative response that may then be rewarded.
PROS AND CONS ON THE USE OF PUNISHMENT:
In addition to its suppressive effect, punishment may unsatisfactorily control behaviour for the following reasons:
1.
The results of punishment, although they may include altered behaviour, are not as predictable as the result of reward. Reward says: “Repeat what you have done.” Punishment says “Stop it!” Punishment by itself fails to give you an alternative. As a result, an even more undesirable response may be substituted for the punished one.
2.
Punishment under some circumstances tends to fix the behaviour rather than eliminate it, perhaps as a consequence of the fear and anxiety induced by the punishment. Punishing a child for wetting the bed, for example, often increases the frequency of the behaviour.
3.
The byproducts of punishment may be unfortunate. Punishment often leads
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to dislike of the punishing person-whether parent, teacher, or employer-and to a dislike of the situation in which the punishment occurred.
These cautions about punishment do not mean that punishment is never serviceable in learning and teaching. In fact, it may be useful for several reasons:
Punishment can effectively eliminate an undesirable response if alternative
1.
responses are available that are not punished or, better yet, are rewarded. Rats who learned to take the shorter of two paths to reach food in a goal box will quickly switch to the longer path if they are shocked in the shorter one. In fact, they will learn the new response more quickly than animals whose response of taking the shorter path is blocked by a newly placed barrier. In this case, the temporary suppression produced by punishment provided the opportunity for the organism to learn a new response. Punishment was an effective means of redirecting behaviour.
2.Punishment can be quite effective when all we want is that the organism responds to a signal to avoid punishment. For example, people learn to come inside when they hear thunder, or to seek shade when it is hot and additional sun may cause uncomfortable sunburn. Avoiding a threatened punishment can be rewarding. The policeman is seldom a punishing person; he is more usually a symbol of threatened punishment. How does a policeman control us if he has never struck us with his stick or placed us under arrest? Our anxiety explains his control over us. If we drive too fast, and see a police car in the rearview mirror, we become anxious lest we get a ticket, and feel reassured when we have slowed down and the police officer has driven past without stopping us. Our reward comes from the reduction in anxiety we feel as a result of conforming to the law.
3.
Punishment may be informative. A child who handles electrical appliances
and gets shocked may learn which connections are safe, which hazardous. A teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s corrections on a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s paper can be regarded as punishing; but they are also informative and can provide an occasion for learning. Informative punishment can redirect behaviour so that the new behaviour can be rewarded.
PERCEPTION
a) Color Constancy
Familiar objects appear to retain their color under a variety of lighting conditions even colored light provided there are sufficient contrasts and shadows. The owner of a blue car sees it as blue whether looking at it in bright sunlight, in dim illumination, or under a yellow
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street light. He is relying on his memory of the carâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s color, which is one factor contributing to color constancy. Information about the nature of the illumination and the color of surrounding objects are also clues to color constancy.
b) Shape and size constancy
When a door sings open toward us, its shape as projected on the retina goes through a series of distortions. The doorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rectangular shape becomes a trapezoid, with the edge toward us looking wider than the hinged edge; then the trapezoid grows thinner, until all that is projected on the retina is a vertical line the thickness of the door. We can readily distinguish these changes, but the psychological experience is an unchanging door swinging on its hinges. The fact that the door does not seem to change it shape is an example of shape constancy.
Size constancy refers to the fact that as an object is moved farther away we tend to see it as more or less invariant in size. Studies of what people blind from birth see when their sight is restored through surgery show that the figure-ground organization is present even when other features of perception are missing. Adults who see for the first time have no difficulty seeing something as a figure on a background, although they are unable to identify familiar forms by sight.
We can perceive figure ground relationships through senses other than vision. For example, we may hear the song of a bird against a background of outdoor noises or the melody played by the violin against the harmonies of the rest of the orchestra.
FIGURE AND GROUND
Geometrical patterns are always seen as figures against a background and thus appear to be like objects, with contours and boundaries. Figure-ground organization is basic to stimulus patterning. Patterns do not have to contain identifiable objects to be structured as figure and ground. Patterns of black and white and many wallpaper designs are perceived as figure-ground relationships, and very often figure and ground are reversible.
In the following figure note that the part that is seen as figure seems more solid and well defined and tends to appear slightly in front of the background, even though the spaces in and around the figure to a uniform background behind, whether the background is in white (or a light color) or black (or a dark color).
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Fig: A Butterfly or Two Faces?
Reversible Figures In spite of producing a ‘good figure’ with the information given above, it will be not be maintained if the formulation and integrity of their borders is interfered by the introduction of succeeding ‘stronger’ figures. The multiple interpretations are afforded by the ‘ambiguous figures’, a sub-class in this type of figure is ‘reversible figures’. In such figures, perception seems to be perversely unstable. That is, a figure may remain detectable; its spatial stability may be disrupted in the absence of an articulated background.
A reversible figure is so structured that it gives rise to two possible figure ground relations. That is, at one time figure A becomes the figure and figure B becomes the ground, subsequently, figure B becomes the figure and figure A becomes the ground. in this, in any ideal condition which maintains stable perception, instability will occur if given a chance. But, the total figure does not disappear, only analogous to disappearance occurs. Alternative figures replace each other; when one is dominant, the other is in abeyance. The lines remain visible, but the interpretations change.
Perceptual Grouping and Patterning
Even simple patterns of lines and dots fall into ordered relationships when we look at them. In the top part of figure we tend to see three pairs of lines, with an extra line at the right. But notice that we could have seen three pairs beginning at the right with an extra line at the left. The slight modification shown in the lower part of the figure causes us to do just that. This tendency to structure what we see is very compelling; what we see in figures seems to be forced on us by the patterns of stimulation. The properties of wholes affect the ways in which parts are perceived. For that reason we may say following the lead of Gestalt psychology that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
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Visual Illusions
Sometimes we select a perceptual hypothesis that is actually incorrect; in this case we experience an illusion. Visual i1iusions have long intrigued psychologists by studying stimulus situations where perceptions are misleading; they hoped to gain information about how perception works.
MOVEMENT PERCEPTION
When you perceive movement, you sense action in space taking place over time. Usually the perception of movement is explained according to the stimulation of successive parts of the sensory surface. When an image moves across our line of vision it produces a pattern of successive stimulation of the rods and cones, and we perceive movement.
When you turn your head to look around the room. Images move across the retina, yet objects in the room appear stationary.
Some higher brain process apparently integrates the information from the retinal stimulation and the kinesthetic information from your head, neck, and eye muscles to tell you that your head or eyes are moving, not the room.
Apparent Motion
It is also possible to perceive motion without a successive pattern of stimulation. We will now consider some examples of this kind of apparent motion.
(i) Autokinetic effect: If you stare for a few seconds at a single spot of light in a completely dark room, the-light will appear to move about in an erratic manner-sometimes oscillating back and forth, sometimes swooping off in one direction. This apparent movement of a stationary light, known as the auto kinetic effect.
(ii) Stroboscopic motion: Another kind of apparent motion is known as stroboscopic motion this illusion of motion is created when separated stimuli, not in motion, are presented in succession. Each frame of a film is slightly different from the preceding one, but if the frames are presented rapidly enough, the pictures blend into smooth motion.
A simpler form of stroboscopic motion, known as the phi phenomenon, when one light blinks on and then off, followed shortly by another, there is the illusion of a single light moving from the position of the first to the position of the second, and so on. The apparent movement
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is seen as occurring through the empty space between the two lights.
Real motion
We can see apparent motion, when there is no real motion at all. The perception of real motion is even more complex; it depends upon the relations between objects within the visual field. Whenever there is movement, the perceptual system must decide what is moving and what is stationary with reference to some frame of reference. Experiments have shown that when the only information we have about movement is visually we tend to assume that large objects are stationary and smaller objects are moving. If a subject views a spot of light within a frame or against a screen background and the frame is moved while the spot remains stationary, he will perceive that spot as moving. This type of induced movement experienced when the moon is viewed through a thin cover of moving clouds. In a clear sky the moon appears to be stationary.
Depth Perception
Our study of perception would be incomplete without considering the problems of perceiving the third dimension that is distance and depth. The retina is essentially a twodimensional surface. How, then, is it possible to perceive things as filling a space of three dimensions?
(i) Binocular Cues to Depth
Many of the facts of vision can be treated by considering phenomena that can be registered with one eye only. A man with vision in only one eye has most of the visual experiences of a man using two eyes. He sees colors, forms, and space relationships, including third-dimensional configurations. We might suppose that two suppose that two eyes have evolved merely to give man a â&#x20AC;&#x153;spareâ&#x20AC;? in case of injury, just as he has two kidneys although one is enough.
A man with vision in both eyes does have advantages over a man with vision in one eye: his total visual field is larger, so that he can see more at once, and he has the benefit of stereoscopic vision. In stereoscopic vision the two eyes cooperate to yield the experience of solidity and distance. That the experience does indeed depend upon the cooperate of the two eyes is clear enough from the effects that can be produced with a stereoscope. In these device two flat pictures, presented one before each eye, combine to yield an experience of depth very different from that received from a single flat picture. The depth appears real, as though the objects pictured were exactly set up on a stage or in their true relations of depth and distance.
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Stereoscopic experience differs from the experience of the third dimension in single flat pictures because of retinal disparity. Since our eyes are separated in our head, the left eye does not get exactly the same view as the right eye; the stereoscopic effect results from the combination of these slightly different pictures in one view. You can easily demonstrate retinal disparity for yourself. With one eye closed hold a pencil about a foot in front of you and line it up with some vertical edge on the opposite wall. Open that eye and close the other. The pencil will appear to have moved a considerable distance from its original alignment. If you line up the pencil with both eyes open and then close each eye alternately, you can determine which your dominant eye is; that is, if the pencil shifts when you close the right eye, your right eye is dominant (which is usually the case with right-handed individuals).
The facts of stereoscopic vision are clear enough, but just how the process works is not so clear. Because of the way in which the nerve fibers from the eyes are separated in passing to the brain, the combination cannot take place in the eyes. Information from the two eyes must somehow be combined in the brain, probably at the level of the visual cortex (Barlow, 1972).
(ii) Monocular Cues to Depth
Although having two eyes helps us to perceive depth and distance, we are by no means restricted to binocular effects for this perception. Closing one eye causes the loss of some precision, but there is much left to go on. An artist is able to give depth to his picture because he can make use of the many monocular cues that tell us the distance of objects.
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The above Figure illustrates four types of cures that are used in the perception of depth. If one object appears to cut off the view of another, the presumption is strong that the first object is nearer (Figure A). If there is an array of like objects of different sizes then the smaller ones are perceived as being in the distance. Even a series of scattered circles of different sizes may be viewed as spheres of the same size at varying distances (Figure B); another hint of perspective is height in the horizontal plane. As we look along a flat plane objects further away appear to be higher, so that we can create the impression of depth for
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objects of the same size by placing them at different heights (Figure C). Even for irregular surfaces, such as a rocky desert or the waving surface of the ocean, there is a gradient of texture with distance, so that the â&#x20AC;&#x153;grainâ&#x20AC;? becomes finer as distance becomes greater (Figure D).
THE ROLE OF LEARNING IN PERCEPTION
The phenomena of perceptual organization movement, and depth perception, and the various perceptual constancies lend themselves to simple and convincing experimental demonstrations, so that by now there is general agreement over what the subject perceives. Disagreements remain, however, over how to explain what happens. One of the traditional problems of visual perception has been the question of whether our abilities to perceive the spatial aspects of our environment are learned or innate. This is the familiar nature-nurture problem, and its investigation with relation to perception goes back to the philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Natives and Empiricist Viewpoints
One group, the atavists (Descartes, Kant), argued that we are born with the ability to perceive the way we do. I n contrast, the empiricists (Berkeley, Locke) maintained that we learn our ways of perceiving through experience with objects in the world about us. Among the early sensory psychologists, Herring and Helmholtz (whose theories of color vision were discussed in Unit 5) held opposing views. Herring pointed to retinal disparity as evidence for the view that our eyes are innately designed to perceive depth; he developed a theory of distance vision based on the fact that each eye registers a different image. Helmholtz argued that visual perceptions were too variable (for example, the reversible figure) to be explained on the basis of fixed receptor mechanisms and must therefore be learned.
Most contemporary psychologists believe that a fruitful integration of these two viewpoints is possible. No one today really doubts that practice and experience affect perception. The question is whether we are born with some ability to perceive objects and space in our environment or whether these abilities are completely learned. Let us examine some of the areas of research that yield information on the role of learning in perception.
Effects of Restored Vision
As far back as the seventeenth century, Locke quotes a letter he received from a colleague, in which the problem is posed:
Suppose a man born blind, and now adult, taught by is touch to distinguish between a
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cube and a sphere of the same metal, and nightly of the same bigness, so as to tell, when he felt one and the other, which is the cube, which the sphere. Suppose that the cube and the sphere placed on a table, and the blind man be made to see... (Could be) now distinguish and tell which is the globe, which the cube? (Locke, 1690).
Locke, supporting the empiricist viewpoint, concluded that he could not. A partial answer to this question is provided by studies of individuals who were blind from birth with cataracts on both eyes and whose vision was restored by surgical means when they were adults (Senden, 1960). When the eye bandages are removed for the first time, the patient is confused by the bewildering array of visual stimuli. He is able, however, to distinguish figure from ground (apparently perceiving figure-ground relationships in much the same way as normally sighted people do), to fixate figures, scan them, and follow moving figures with his eyes. These abilities then appear to be innate. He cannot identify by sight alone objects very familiar from the sense of touch, such as faces, knives, and keys. He cannot distinguish a triangle from a square without counting the number of corners or tracing the outline with a finger. He also cannot tell which of two uneven sticks is longer without feeling them, although he may report that the two sticks look somehow different. Often it takes several weeks of training for such patients to learn to identify simple objects well from sight, and even after identification has been learned in a specific situation, the patient shows little evidence of generalization or perceptual constancy.
These studies of previously blind adults who are suddenly able to see for the first time suggest that our perceptions develop gradually from primitive visual experiences in which figure--ground relationships and color predominate, becoming more accurate and more detailed with practice. They cannot, however, be take-n as conclusive evidence of the innate visual ability of the infant.
Visual Deprivation with Animals
In an attempt to provide a more controlled situation similar to restored vision in humans, animals have been raised in various degrees of darkness and then tested for visual ability. Investigators who reared infant chimpanzees in total darkness until they were sixteen months old found serious perceptual deficiencies when the animals were tested upon first exposure to light. But these chimpanzees were later discovered to have defective retinas. Apparently a certain amount of light stimulation is necessary for normal anatomical development of the visual system. Without any light stimulation, nerve cells in the retina and the visual cortex begin to atrophy. This fact is interesting in itself, but it does not tell us much about the role of learning in perceptual development.
Later studies made use of translucent goggles so that the animals received light
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stimulation, but of a diffuse, unattended form. Studies have been carried out with monkeys, chimpanzees, and kittens wearing translucent goggle from birth to anywhere from one to three months of age. The result showed that although some simple perceptual abilities were unimpaired, more complex visual activity was seriously affected. The visually deprived animals did almost as well as normal animals in distinguishing differences in color, brightness, and size. But they could not perform such tasks as following a moving object with their eyes, discriminating forms (a circle from a square of triangle), perceiving depth, and distinguishing between a moving and a nonmoving stimulus.
Perception in Infants
If the human infant could tell us what the world looks like to him, many of our questions concerning the development of perception might be answered. Since he cannot, experimenters have had to stretch their ingenuity to try to measure the visual abilities of infants. An infant’s perception of height, a special case of depth perception, has been investigated. The apparatus has been used with human and various animal infants in attempts to determine whether the ability to perceive and avoid a brink is innate or must be learned by the experience of falling off and getting hurt. Most parents, mindful of the caution they exercise to keep their offspring from falling out of the crib or down the stairs, would assume that his ability to appreciate height is something the child must learn. But observation of the human infant’s susceptibility to such accidents does not tell us whether he is unable to discriminate depth or whether he can indeed respond to depth cues but lacks the motor control to keep from falling.
Gibson and Walk (1960) tested the response of infants, ranging in age from 6-14 months, when placed on the centerboard of the visual cliff. The mother called to the child from the cliff side and the shallow side successively. Almost all the infants crawled off on the shallow side but refused to crawl on the deep side. Their dependence on vision was demonstrated by the fact that they frequently peered through the glass on the deep side and then backed away. Some of the infants patted the glass with their hands but still remained unasserted that it was solid and refused to cross.
ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION
Our perceptions are selective. We do not react equally to all the stimuli impinging upon us; instead we focus upon a few. This perceptual focusing· is called attention. Through attentive processes we keep in focus-selected stimuli and resist distracting stimuli.
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Selective Attention
We are constantly bombarded by stimuli to which we do not attend. In fact, our brains would be quite overloaded if we had to attend to every stimulus present in our environment. Somehow, our brain selects those stimuli that the pertinent and ignores the others until a change in a particular stimulus makes it important for us to notice it. There is evidence, however, those stimuli to which we are not actively attending still register in some form in our perceptual system, even though we may not recognize them at the time. Consider what takes place during a cocktail party. Out of the complex volume of sound generated by the wavelengths of many voices taken together, you are able to listen to one voice. Although you may think you are not attending to the other voices, let someone in the far corner of the room mention your name and you are immediately aware of it; apparently the nervous system monitors the other voices for relevant stimuli without your being aware of such activity.
Determinants of Stimulus Selection
What factors determine which of many competing stimuli will gain our attention? The characteristics of the stimulus are important, as are our own internal needs, expectancies, and past experience. The advertiser is concerned with discovering these factors so that he can direct attention to his product. Some physical properties of the stimulus that are important in gaining attention are intensity, size, contrast, and movement.
Certain internal variables, such as motives and expectations, are equally important in determining which stimulus attracts our attention. The advertiser counts on an appeal to the male sex drives when he uses pictures of scantily clad females to advertise anything from carpets to automobile tires. In a culture where hunger is a more generally unsatisfied drive than sex, pictures of food might prove to be a more powerful attention-getter.
Because of habitual or momentary interests, individual vary greatly in their responses to the same stimuli. The naturalist will hear sounds in the woods that the ordinary picnicker would miss. A mother will hear her babyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cry above the conversation of a room full of people. These two illustrations represent abiding interests. Sometimes momentary interest controls attention. When you page through a book looking for a particular diagram, only pages with illustrations cause you to hesitate; others you ignore. Emotional states, especially moods, may also affect the ways in which attention is directed. In a hostile mood, personal comments are noticed that might go unremarked in a friendlier mood.
Physiological Correlates of Attention
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When a stimulus attracts our attention, we usually perform certain body movements that enhance our reception of the stimulation. If it is a visual stimulus we turn our head in the proper direction, our eyes turn so that the image falls on the fovea, our pupils dilate momentarily to allow lighter to enter the eye, and the lens muscles work to bring the image clearly into focus. If the stimulus is auditory we may cup our hands behind our ears or turn one ear in the direction, of the sound, keeping the rest of our movements very still so as to enhance the reception of a faint auditory stimulus. These body movements are accompanied by certain characteristic internal physiological changes. The physiological reactions that occur in response to stimulation changes in the environment form such a consistent pattern that they have been called the orienting reflex and have been studied extensively by psychologists.
The orienting reflex occurs in both man and animals in response to even minimal changes in the stimulus environment. The physiological accompaniments of attention, in addition to the body movements mentioned above, include dilation of the blood vessels in the head, constriction of the peripheral blood vessels, certain changes in the gross electrical responses of the brain (EEG) and changes in muscle tone, heart rate, and respiration. These responses serve the dual function of (1) facilitating the reception of stimulation and (2) preparing the organism to respond quickly in case action is needed we can see why such a reflex is extremely valuable for self-preservation.
Needs and Values
What a person perceives and how he perceives it may also be determined to some extent by his needs and personal values. The value an individual places on an object may affect such direct impression as those of size. For example, it has been shown that children from poorer homes tend to overestimate the size of coins more an do children from well-to-do homes (Bruner and Goodman, 1947).
PROCESS i) Socialization process: The contribution of family and social group in combination with the culture is known as socialization. It initially starts with the contact with the mother and later on the other members of the family. The social group plays influential role in shaping and individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception. ii) Identification process
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Identification starts when a person begins to identify himself with some other members of the family. Normally child tries to behave as father or mother. He tries to emulate certain actions of his parents.
Factors influencing perception
Sex: Men in the workplace generally show greater interest in union activities. Women employees, on the other hand, may be reluctant to even join trade unions. There is also a feeling among many employers that women employees are generally more sincere and will work with greater commitment. It is for this reason that they appoint more women employees.
Women employees may have to avail leave frequently due to greater domestic obligations. A pregnant employee, fro example, will apply for maternity leave that must be given to her as per law. Likewise, when the child is ill, it is she who has to give the necessary medical care. For all this, she has to abstain from work. Some women employee may even resign their jobs after marriage in view of family obligations. Education: The influence of level of education on a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior may also be explained from another angle. If a highly qualified person is given a lower level job he may not work with enthusiasm. Such a person deserves a better placement. On the other hand, if a person is given a placement for which he does not possess the requisite qualification and experience he will not be able to perform his duties. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Selection and placement of the right person for the right job, thus, is very importantâ&#x20AC;?.
Marital Status: The need for a secured job and stable income is greater in case of married employees. A married employee has domestic commitments and therefore adapts himself to the needs of the organization. He cannot reign his job in case he derives less or no job satisfaction or finds the work environment not conducive. On the other hand, an unmarried employee without much domestic commitments may find a better job if the present job does not give him satisfaction.
Potentials: Needless to say, the potentials of an individual influence behaviour. A person with the ability to perform any task effortlessly is able to be emphatic. He is in a position to demand better status in the organization. It is only people with greater potentials who contribute significantly to the progress of any organization.
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PERCEPTION
PERSONALITY
ATTITUDE
LEARNING
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR: Introduction: All organizations are composed of individual. No organization can exist without individuals. The organizational performance is largely affected by the way individuals behave at work. The individuals with different characteristics behave differently in the similar and different characteristics behave differently in the similar and different situations. Thus there is a need for managers to understand individual behaviour at work so as to extract the best and maximum contribution from them.
Meaning: Individual behaviour means some concrete action by a person. For Example, How a principles behaves in the class reflects his behavior. The behaviour of an individuals his behaviour. The behaviour of an individual is influenced by various factors. Some factors lie within himself.
What is mean by Individual behavior? Explain the positive and negative of industrial behavior? An organization cannot function by itself. It is only the individuals in the organization, who do and make things happen. As far as the individuals are concerned, it is their attitude towards work, their superiors, fellow employees and the management. A person’s behavior, therefore, needs to be observed. While positive or favorable employee behavior is detrimental to its interests. The success of the manager, therefore, lies in his capacity to secure positive employee behavior.
POSITIVE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:
Completes to task within the stipulated time
Does not waste time during working hours
Does not complain about anything or anyone unnecessarily
Is regular for work and also punctual
Accepts and carries out any assignment with enthusiasm
Negative individual behaviour: The individual behaviour is negative when
There is always undue delay in carrying out his duties.
There is always a tendency to while away time.
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He complains frequently about someone or something.
He is irregular for work.
He shows resistance to any proposal
Individual differences Different individuals possess different personality traits. Such differences may be usually noticed in respect of the following personal attributes.
Intelligence, Attitude, Aptitude, Preference, Memory, Perception, Inquisitiveness and Ambition. How the individual behaviour induces in workplace in an organization
Some employees join trade unions while others do not.
Job satisfaction is of paramount
importance for some while others attach much
importance to monetary benefits.
Some people just mind their work irrespective of whether the supervisors is present or not while others work only under strict supervision
Job stress affects the performance of same individuals while there are people who can successfully handle stress situation
Some subordinates expect spoon feeding by their superiors. On the other hands there are subordinates who can perform their tasks without any kind of assist once from anyone
Explain the various factors that influence individual behaviour? The various factors influence individual behaviour have been classified as shown in the following chart Factors Influencing Individual Behavior
Environmental Factors
Personal Factors
Psychological Factors
Organizational Factors
Sex: Men in the workplace generally show greater interest in union activities. Women employees, on the other hand, may be reluctant to even join trade unions. There is also a
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feeling among many employers that women employees are generally more sincere and will work with greater commitment. It is for this reason that they appoint more women employees.
Women employees may have to avail leave frequently due to greater domestic obligations. A pregnant employee, fro example, will apply for maternity leave that must be given to her as per law. Likewise, when the child is ill, it is she who has to give the necessary medical care. For all this, she has to abstain from work. Some women employee may even resign their jobs after marriage in view of family obligations. Education: The influence of level of education on a person’s behavior may also be explained from another angle. If a highly qualified person is given a lower level job he may not work with enthusiasm. Such a person deserves a better placement. On the other hand, if a person is given a placement for which he does not possess the requisite qualification and experience he will not be able to perform his duties. “Selection and placement of the right person for the right job, thus, is very important”.
Marital Status: The need for a secured job and stable income is greater in case of married employees. A married employee has domestic commitments and therefore adapts himself to the needs of the organization. He cannot reign his job in case he derives less or no job satisfaction or finds the work environment not conducive. On the other hand, an unmarried employee without much domestic commitments may find a better job if the present job does not give him satisfaction.
Potentials: Needless to say, the potentials of an individual influence behaviour. A person with the ability to perform any task effortlessly is able to be emphatic. He is in a position to demand better status in the organization. It is only people with greater potentials who contribute significantly to the progress of any organization.
II Psychological Factors Personality: The personality of a person, as misunderstood by many, is not just determined by his physical appearance alone. The physical characteristics of a person, no doubt, are important but these get notices only if accompanied by certain intellectual qualities as state below.
Communication ability
Perseverance
Reasoning power
Leadership capacity and so on.
An individual, who possesses the attributes mentioned above, can certainly command respect wherever he is. Such person is always able to achieve what he wants to achieve.
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Perception: Perception is the process of knowing or understanding. A given situation is perceived differently by different people. If the perception of a person is correct he\his organization stands to benefit. Attitudes: In the context of the workplace ‘attitude’ is the feeling of an employee about his job, his superiors and fellow-employees. Attitude may be positive of negative. An employee with a positive attitude like his job, carries out the tasks assigned by his superior and maintains friendly relationships with the fellow-employees. Values: The ‘values’ of a person indicate to him as to what is good and what is bad. Different people have different values. In the workplace the value of an individual do influence his behaviour. For Example: Some people are spendthrifts while others consciously save. Some contribute to charity while others don’t. Learning: Learning is the process of bringing about changes in an individual’s behaviour. Employee absenteeism, for example, may be a problem faced in many organizations. AS employees are eligible for certain types of leave, casual leave, sick leave, earned leave etc., they may be willing to avail the same.
III Organizational Factors
Nature of Job: Among the various organizational factors influencing behaviour the important one is the nature of an employee’s job. Obviously, if the employee’s job is a challenging one he will have greater motivation to work. On the other hand, if the work is of a routine, dull or repetitive mature the employee may not work with interest.
Job Security: One of the most important needs of employees is job security. An employee with security of service can, certainly, work with greater motivation than the one without it. Further, job security also makes an employee more loyal to his organization. The happens because he is able to identify himself with the organization. Work Environment: We can always talk about two kinds of work environment- one ‘physical environment’ and the other ‘social environment’.
Physical work environment is concerned, needless to say, the employer shall ensure the necessary physical amenities in the workplace- drinking water, toilet, rest room, canteen, workrooms with proper ventilation and lighting and so on.
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By ‘social environment’ we means the ‘employer-emplosyee’ and the ‘employee-employee’ relationships. If such relationships are cordial the employee may exhibit more favorable behaviour. If the inter-personal relationships are strained if will affect performance.
Pay Benefits: Let us not say here that the employee should be give higher pay. He should be adequately compensated for his work. The compensation package of the organization should to both the employee and the employer.
Leadership Style: Different managers adopt different leadership styles. Autocratic style of leadership dies not always produce good result. An autocratic manager may succeed in the short-run. He is sure to incur the displeasure of his subordinates and this may affect the attainment of goals in the long-run.
IV Environmental Factors The important factors in the external environment affecting behavior are discussed below.
Economic Conditions: Availability of plenty of employment opportunities results in a higher rate of labour turnover in workplaces. This happens because individuals begin to look for jobs that gives them better pay, status, and greater satisfaction. Once they find such a job they resign their present job and go. Fewer employment opportunities, on the other hand, curtails the rate of labour turnover and absenteeism because the employees are keen on retaining their present job.
Technological Change: Technological changes affect job opportunities and cause dissatisfaction among individuals. As a result of such changes there is a reduction in the skill of employees. For Example, in the past people with typewriting and stenography qualification could find jobs. But at present most employers want people with knowledge of computer operation.
Government Policies: The labour policy of the government is yet another important factor. Employees feel insecure due to such decisions of the Government as stated below.
Reduction in the retirement age
Compulsory retirement
Increase in the rate of income-tax
Ban on future recruitment
Cultural Environment: Cultural environment differs from region to region. For example, workers in the western countries work overtime to show their protest to the antilabour policies of their employers. But in India, workers strike work to show their protest.
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V Situational Factors: The effect of environment is quite string. Knowledge, skill and knowledge are acquired and represent important modifications of the behaviour, learned modification in behaviour are not passed on to the children they acquired by them through their own personal experience through interaction with the environment. Various Models of Man Discuss the ‘Economic Man’ and ‘Social Man’ models of behaviour. State the important behavioral models. Behavioral Models It has been mentioned already that difference among individuals cause difference in behavior. Based on behavioral differences the following models of man have been developed.
Rational-Economic Man Model
MODELS Self-actualizingOF MAN Man Model
Social Man Model
Organization Man Model
(i)
Rational Economic Man Model
This is one of the oldest behavioural models. According to this approach, man is primarily interested in monetary incentives. He is rational because he expects reward proportionate to his efforts. The manager, thus, can motivate his subordinates to produce more by providing more economic incentives. (ii)
Social man Model
According to the concept of social man, an individual is basically induced by certain social needs. Every individual strives to gain the acceptance of the society of which he is a part. A right thinking person does anything that appears to be right from the society’s point of view. It is said that no man can live by himself. He needs the moral support and sometimes even the physical support of the people around. (iii)
Organization Man Model This model is based on the assumption that the individual gives utmost importance to the interest of the organization in relation to his personal interest. Management experts are also of the view that whenever there is a conflict
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between individual interest and that of the organization the latter should get priority.
(iv)
Self-Actualizing Man Model According to this view man is self-motivated. It is not necessary that the manager has to motivate an employee all the time in the work place. The unfulfilled needs of an individual do induce him to strive hard.
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UNIT-VII Attitude
What are attitudes? Discuss the cognitive and affective components of an attitude. Meaning: Attitudes are evaluative statements. They respond one’s feeling either favourably or unfavourably to persons, objects or and events. In other words attitudes reflect how one feels about something. For Example, Professor Philip Kotler says, “ I like teaching” he is expressing his attitude about his work. Definition: Krech and Cruthfield define attitude as ‘an enduring organisatioon of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world”. An attitude is a predisposition to react to a situation, person, or concept with a particular response. This response can be either positive or negative. It is a learned reaction - one that results from individuals, past observations, direct experiences or exposure to others attitude. For E.g. someone may say, “I love cricket”, thus communicating to others a general attitude about the sport. Some people developed their love towards that sport while playing it in childhood: direct experience shaped their attitude. Others never played the game but developed their love by watching it on television. Still others had friends or family members who influenced their attitudes by communicating their love for the game. NATURE / CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE A. Valence It means the degree of favorableness or unfavorableness toward the object/event. If a person is relatively indifferent toward an object then his attitude has low valence. On the other hand, if a person is extremely favorable or unfavorable or unfavorable toward an attitude object, then his attitude will have high valence. B. Multiplicity: It means the number of components constituting the attitude. For e.g., an employee may feel simply loyal to an organization, but another may feel loyal, respectful, fearful and dependent. C. Relation to needs. Attitudes depend upon the needs they serve. For instance, attitudes of an individual towards pictures may serve only entertainment needs. On the other hand, attitudes of an employee towards task may serve strong needs for security, achievement, recognition and satisfaction.
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D. Centrality: It means importance of the attitude object to the individual. The attitudes, which have high centrality for an individual, will be less susceptible to change.
NATURES OR FEATURES OF ATTITUDE 1. Attitudes are related to the feelings and beliefs of people. 2. Attitudes respond to persons, objects or events 3. Attitudes affect behaviour either positively or negatively. 4. Attitudes undergo changes. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE The structure of person’s attitude of three vital components. Cognition
Cognition Affection
Affection Behavior
Behavior Cognitive component: It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. The belief that “discrimination is wrong” is a value statement. Such an opinion is the cognitive component of an attitude. Affective component. It is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. It is reflected in the statement “I don’t like John because he discriminate against minorities” Behavioral/ overt /conative component This is concerned with an intention to behave in certain way towards someone or something. So to continue our example, I might choose to avoid John because of my feeling about him.
FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES Katz has suggested that attitudes and motives are inter-related and depending on individual’s motives, attitudes can serve four main functions. 1. Knowledge function: Attitude provides knowledge. The knowledge helps to understand the world. The attitudes that are unsuitable to the situation will be retained and those that are outdated are discarded by an employee. 2. Expressive function Attitudes cause positive expression about an individual in the minds of other people. This enable individuals to indicate to others the values they hold and thus to express their selfconcept and adopt or internalize the values of a group. 3. Instrumental
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The people strive to maximize the rewards and minimize the penalties in their external environment. Attitudes are the means for reaching the desired goals or for avoiding undesirable results. 4. Ego-defensive Attitudes may be held in order to protect the ego from an undesirable truth or reality.
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES. According to Stephen Robbins, the attitudes are acquired from parents, teachers and peer group members. In our early years, we begin modeling our attitudes after those we admire and respect. We observe the way family and friends behave and we shape our attitudes and behavior to align with theirs. People imitate the attitude of popular individuals.
Basically
attitudes are not inborn and they are learned. They are acquired through the process of learning. Job experience. Generally people learn attitudes through job experience. They develop attitudes about such factor as salary, performance reviews, job design, work group affiliation and managerial capabilities. Association: People are subject to group influence or association to which they belong. For e.g. Religion, educational background, race, sex, age and income class all strongly influence attitudes. Family. Members of a family inherit attitudes from parents, brothers and sisters etc. It is found that a higher degree of relationship is found between parents and children in attitudes than they found between children and their peers. They also observed low correlation between attitudes of the children and their teachers. Peer groups: We often seek out others who share attitudes similar to conform to the attitude of those in the group who approval is important to us. Society: The culture, language and structure of the society all provide an individual with the boundaries of his initial attitudes. Personality factors Personality differences between individuals appear to vary, some people may be too fast to grasp things, and some may be too slow.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Cognitive dissonance refers to any inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
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No individual can completely avoid dissonance. We know cheating on our income tax is wrong but we fudge the numbers a bit every year. You tell your children to brush after every meal but you don’t.
The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by -Importance of elements creating the dissonance. -Degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements -The rewards that may be involved in dissonance.
Discuss the formation of attitudes? or How are attitudes formed? or what are the sources of attitudes? Attitudes, like values are acquired from parents’ teachers and peer group members. People imitate the attitudes of popular individuals or those they admire and respect. In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behaviour. In contrast to values, our attitudes are less stable. Advertising messages for example, attempt to alter the attitudes toward a certain product or service. 1.Job experience: Generally, people learn attitudes through job experiences. The develop attitudes about such factors as salary, performance reviews, work group affiliation and managerial capabilities. Even the past experiences account for the individual differences in attitudes such as loyalty, commitments, and performance. 2.Association: People are subject to group influence or associations to which they belong. For example, religion, educational background, race, sex, age and income –class-all strongly influence our attitudes. 3. Family:
Members of a family inherit attitudes from parents, brothers, sisters etc. The
family characteristics influence the individual’s early attitude patterns and control to which he is initially exposed. 4. Peer groups:
When the individuals grow they increasingly rely on their peer groups
for approval/attitude. Generally, the people would judge an individual largely depends upon his self-image, and approval seeking behaviour. 5. Society: The culture, language and the structure if society, all provides an individual with the boundaries of his initial attitudes. Normally, at the initial period, an individual is taught that certain attitudes are acceptable in the society. State the kinds of attitude? Or what are the kinds of job related attitudes? A person can have thousands of attitudes but organizational behaviour focuses our attention on a very limited number of job-related attitudes. 1) Job satisfaction:
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The term job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude towards his job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitude towards the job while a person, who is dissatisfied with hiss job, holds negative attitudes about the job, when people speak of employees’ attitudes, more often than not, they mean job satisfaction. 2) Job involvement: The term job involvement is a more recent addition to the organizational behaviour literature while there is not complete agreement over what the term means, a workable definition states that job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his job and considers his perceived performance level important to self worth. Employees with a higher level of job involvement strongly identify with the job and rarely care about the kind of work they do. 3) Organizational commitment: The third job attitude is organization commitment. It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So high job involvement means identifying with one’s specific job, while high organizational commitment means identifying one’s employing organization. What do you understand by attitudes? Discuss the various techniques used for measurement of attitudes. 1.Interviews: Interview, is a common method of obtaining information about personnel reactions. The workers are interviewed by the representatives of some outside organisation such as a consultancy firm or a university department. In a guided interview, the interviewer asks a series of questions such that each of which may be answered by a simple ‘Yes” or ‘No’ or by some other words or phrases. In the unguided interview, the interviewer asks the interviewer asks general questions to encourage the employee to express himself and solicit information about his job satisfaction, job involvement, job involvement and job commitment. 2) Opinion surveys: Attitude scales help to measure the attitudes of individuals by summarizing data for all employees with a group. Such scales can be used to quantify morale of employee groups. The information can be obtained by the use of questionnaire that provides for giving opinions about specific matters such as work conditions, company policies. The usual practice in opinion surveys questionnaire is to ask the employees each item in one of the boxes: satisfied, neutral or dissatisfied. The questionnaire serves both the purposes of measuring their attitudes. 3) Likert’s scale:
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Likert’s method does not require the use of Judges in scaling the statements. A number of statements describing attitudes are prepared and each statement has five degree of approval and the person is asked to state his reaction in one of the 5-degree scale. They are as follows: i) strongly agree ii) Agree iii) undecided iv) disagree v) strongly disagree 4) Thurstone Attitude Scale: To develop an attitude scale, the first step is to write out a large number of statements, each of which expresses a viewpoint of some kind towards the company. Each of these statement is typed on a separate slip of paper and the judge is asked to place each statement in one of several piles (usually 7,9, or 11) ranging from statements judged to express the most favourable view points (7,9 or 11). Statements judged to express the varying degrees of favourableness in between these extremes are placed in the piles that are judged best to characterize their relative degree of favourableness. The purpose of allocation is to determine the scale values of various statements. If all judges tend to place a statement in piles towards the favorable and of the series, then we can conclude that the statement expresses a favorable attitude towards the company. If the statement is placed by the judges in piles towards the unfavorable attitude is expressed by that particular statement, so we can determine the average location of the statement by the judge. Why we study attitude in the O.B.? Employee attitude are important to management because of their influence on behaviour, attitudinal influence on perception, job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. 1. Attitude influences on behaviour: Attitudes affect employee behaviour. However a direct relationship between attitude and action is agreeable to some, since attitude does not lead to any specific action. Example: A manager may dislike certain person people in minority groups, but he may treat them fairly and pleasantly in his office. This inconsistency occurs because the manager does not allow his attitude to interfere with his professions judgment. However, their attitude may manifest themselves in other behaviour. Example: The manager may treat the minority workers fairly on the job but not invite them to his son’s marriage.
2. Attitudinal influence on perception: Perceptual outcomes are derived from past experiences and perceptions, but they also influence the way we perceive stimuli. Such saying as “Beauty is altogether in the eye of the beholder” emphasizes the importance of attitudes in perceiving the world around us. If our attitudes are positive, things will look brighter to us.
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3. Job satisfaction: One of the tasks of managers is to provide satisfaction to employees from their respective jobs. A person with high job satisfaction holds a positive attitude towards his job; while a person who is dissatisfied with his job holds a negative attitude about his job. In fact, the two terms are used interchangeably.
4. Job involvement: The term job involvement refers to the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his job and considers his perceived performances level important to his self worth. A person with a high degree of involvement will identify with his job and will care about the kind of work he does on his job. Besides such involvement in the job results in reduced absenteeism and minimized absenteeism. Needless to say that attitude is an important variable in developing job involvement.
5.Organisational commitment: If job involvement refers to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identification with particular job, organisation commitment means oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s involvement with his organization.
Being another name for
organizational loyalty, organizational commitment results in a stable work force. As with job involvement, attitude is an important variable in determining organizational commitment
CHANGING ATTITUDE ATTITUDE CHANGE There is often a paradox of attitudes in that people need them to provide stability to social world yet world is a changing one and people must change their attitudes appropriate to the situation. The attitude change appropriate to organisational requirement is more important because attitudes affect behaviour and only a certain behaviour is desirable from organisational point of view. Organisations adopt a number of techniques for changing attitudes of their membcI"S- so that their behaviour corresponds to the organisational requirement. However, whatever the techniques for attitudes change are adopted, they can be effective only if basic characteristics of attitudes and their nature are kept in consideration. Though various theories of attitude formation and chang-e have been presented earlier which help in understanding attitudes and the techniques through which they can be changed, the change techniques can be more effective, if three basic factors are considered adequately: 1. the characteristics of attiudes. 2. the personality of attitude holder; and 3. the group affiliation of the attitude holder. These factors have been derived from two sources: theory of attitude formation and the factors affecting attitude formation.
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Another characteristic involved in changeahility of attitudes is their simplicity. The number offacts involved in the cognition and the number offacts of which it is related make the attitude simple or complex one. The degree of interconnectedness determines the changeability of attitudes. Usually, attitudes which are strongly supported by other attitudes are more resistant to change. Similarly, depending on how many social wants support them and the strength of these wants, the attitudes may be more or less changeable. Attitudes which reflect the core or principal,component of an individual's personality would most likely be very resistant to change Personality of Attitudes Holder The personality factors of attitude holder are also important in attitude change in the sense that some persons are more persuable as compared to others. This is so because of personality differences. Such differences change the nature of attitudes because attitudes are subjective qualities. Persuasibility is the tendency of a person to accept a persuasive communication. It commonly refers to a response to a direct influence attempt. Several Characteristics of Attitudes In understanding attitude change, the analysis of attitude characteristics is an important element. Theories of attitudes suggest numerous types of their characteristics. Such characteristics may be: (i) extremeness of the attitude, (ii) multiplexity, (iii) consistency, (iv) interconnectedness, (v) consonance ofthe attitude cluster of which the focal attitude is a part, (vi) the number and strength ofthe needs which are served by the attitude, and (vii) centrality of related values. Taking these characteristics of attitudes, there may be two types of attitude change: congruen t and incongruent. The congruent change involves an increase in the strength of an existing attitude, either to make a positive attitude even more favourable or to make a negative attitude more strongly negative. An incongTuent change is one in which the direction of change is opposite to the originally held attitude. Congruent change is easier to produce than incongTuent one-specially when the attitude system is interconnected with supporting attitudes. personality factors suggest different types ofpersuasibility. First is level of self-esteem ofthe person. The more inadequate a person feels and the more social inhibition he has, the more likely is he to be persuasible. People with great deal of confidence in their own intellectual ability are not only more resistant to change but more willing to expose themselves to discrepant information. Related to the personality factors, there is a style of thinking referred to as close minded or dogmatis. Dogmatism is a form of authoritarianism where there is admiration of those in authority and hatred for those opposed to authority. There is a strong belief in the cause and a decreasing tendency to admit that other causes might be valid. Dogmatism is a relatively closed system in which the beliefs and disbel iefs are isolated from one another. It tends to be organised around some central authority theme which must be protected at all costs. In dogmatism, there is high degyee of rejection of
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opposing beliefs, a relatively low level of interconnection among belief systems, and complex cognitions about positively valued objects as against cognitions about negatively valued objects. In such cases attitude change is often resisted. However, personality factors should not be overemphasised in attitude change because the change makes more sense in the context of total attempt situation.
Group affiliation
Individuals often express their attitudes in terms of gYoup. This is more so in the case ofless extreme attitudes. This is so because membership in the group prevents existing attitudes from being disturbed by filtering the information. As will be discussed later, one of the powerful bonds which holds the gYOUp together is the fact that members think alike. Information likely to cause dissonance or inconsistency is either omitted or perceived according to group norms with some modification or is rejected or considered irrelevant. Though people are not always exposed to information in the concept or groups and information which may change their attitudes impinges upon them from many sources, even outside the group, their membership still influences the way the new information is perceived. This is particularly true of primary groups, such as family, friendship group, etc.
Methods of attitude change
There are various methods through which a positive change in attitudes may be brought. In the social context, Cohen has suggested four methods for attitude change. These are: 1. communication of additional information, 2. approval and disapproval of a particular attitude, 3. gYOUp influence, and 4. inducing engagement in discrepant behaviour.28 In some or the other, all these methods involve introducing discrepancies among the elements making up the individual's attitudes in the hope that the elements will be rebalanced through the effective component of the attitudes. Thus, in actual practice, the central variable in attitude change is the feeling component with the attitude object. From organisation's point of view, manager can take following actions in bringing change in attitudes of organisational members. 1. group action, 2. persuasion through leadership, 3. persuasion through communication 4. influence of total situation
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What do you understand by individual behaviour? Discuss the various factors influencing the individual behaviour.(OR) What are the causes for human behaviour? Introduction: All organizations are composed of individuals. No organization can exist without individuals. The organizational performance is largely affected by the way individuals behave at work. The individuals with different characteristics behave differently in the similar and different characteristics behave differently in the similar and different situations. Thus there is a need for managers to understand individual behaviour at work so as to extract the best and maximum contribution from them. Meaning: Individual behaviour means some concrete action by a person. For E.g. how a teacher behaves in the class reflects his behaviour. The behaviour of an individuals his behaviour. The behaviour of an individual is influenced by various factors. Some factors lie within himself i.e. instincts, personality traits, internal feelings etc. While some factors lie outside him i.e. weather conditions, other people behaviour etc. Factors influencing individual behaviour The following factors influence the individual behaviour: 1.Personality: Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness, persistence and other qualities reflected through a person’s behaviour. An individual’s personality determines the type of activities for that he is suited for and the likelihood that the person would be able to perform the task effectively. 2. Economic factors: All work is performed within economic framework that both directly and indirectly influence the individual behaviour. Economic factors that influence individual behaviour are i) Wage rates: Wages satisfy various individual needs. Money is a complex variable and its effects on behaviour, varies tremendously. It is well known that wages attract people to certain organizations and determine their satisfaction on jobs. ii) Technological change: Technological changes are includes as an economic factor because of its potential effects upon individual job opportunities. Technological change has its strongest impact at lower level jobs, although increased automation, robotics, computerization and more ‘sophisticated’ production.
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iii) The job: the job an individual holds, itself has significant influence on his behaviour. The behaviour of a worker in a factory will not be the same as the behaviour of a rickshaw pillar in the street. iv) Economic outlook: the general economic outlook also influences individual expectations, especially of those employed in industries severely affected by economic cycles. Individuals who experience frequent layoff are more likely to be motivated by factors that affect job security, other individuals would consider job security to be relatively unimportant and would be motivated by other factors. v) Employment opportunities: Fewer job opportunities create fear of losing the present job and increase the emphasis on job security and can change the base motivation pattern of the individual. 3. Socio-cultural factors: The social environment of an individual includes relationship with family members, friends, co-workers, supervisors and subordinates. The socio-cultural factors moderate the effect of other factors to determine the behaviour of individual. 4. Cultural factors: The following cultural factors, which have behavioral implications. i) Work ethics is tinged with moral. In the context of job ethics, it implies handwork and commitment to work. Strong work ethic ensures motivated employees, and the opposite is true when work ethic is weak ii) Achievement need has influence on employee behaviour. A person with a high need to achieve trends to see a high degree of personal responsibility, set realistic goals, take moderate risks and use personal performance feedback in satisfying his need to achieve. iii) A perfect match between effort and reward produce better performance from an individual when the individual perceives he has been treated unfairly, the performance suffers. iv) Value is tinged with moral favour involving an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s judgement of what is right good and desirable. Values influence oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception, attitudes and through these behaviour. 5. Organisational Factors: Systems such as the Organisational structure and hierarchy strongly influence and constrain both what individuals do and how they do.
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6. Motivation: Motivation refers to all the forces operating with in a person to cause them to engage in certain kinds of behaviour rather than others. A person’s motivation is influenced by his attitudes beliefs values and goals. 7. Attitudes: Attitude is apperception with a frame of reference. It is a way of organizing a perception. For e.g. we say that Ramesh like his ‘job’ means that Ramesh is expressing his attitude about work. 8. Values: Value- behaviour connections have been documented for a wide variety of behaviours, ranging from weight loss to shopping selections to political party affliction to religious involvement, to choose a college etc. 9. Abilities: Ability refers to the actual skills and capabilities that people possess and are required for the effective performance of activities. 10. Perception: Perception is process by which an individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environments”. 11. Personal Factors: Every individual brings to the work place a variety of following characteristics i) Age: Performance depends on age. As age advances, performance is likely to decline. ii) Sex: Man is expected to be tough while a woman is expected to gentle and are highly emotional, are some of the stereo typed assumptions that have no basis in genetic influences. iii) Education: Education has its effect upon individual behaviour largely through the level and type of education received. Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual’s expectations about positives outcomes. iv) Intelligence: Intelligence is primarily an inherited trait even though children of some very intelligent parents have turned out to be less intelligent and vice-versa. v) Marital status: Marital Status has influence on absenteeism, turnover and satisfaction. Marriage imposes additional responsibility hence the need for steady job and steady income. vi) Religion: Highly religious people have high moral standards and usually do not tell lies or talk in determining some aspects of individual; behaviour
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PERSONALITY Define the term personality. Discuss the various determinates of Individual personality (or) “People are similar yet they are different comment. Introduction: Personality of an individual also affects human behaviour. Personality is the sum total of an individuals psychophysical systems that determine his or her behaviour in a given situation
environment.
Therefore,
understanding
human/employees
behaviour
in
organizations in a better way under lines the need to understand personality in its various aspects. Meaning: The word ‘personality’ is used by same to refer to the physical attributes of a person – body structure, skin, color, hairstyle, etc.
The physical characteristics of an individual, no doubt, are important. But there are a number of intellectual and psychological qualities that reveal the true personality of a person. The intellectual qualities include among others, communication skills, intelligence (IQ), capacity to judge, tactfulness and inquisitiveness. Important among the psychological qualities are a person’s attitude, level of motivations and capacity to overcome stress.
DEFINE PERSONALITY:According to FLOYD L.RUCH:“Personality can be described as how a person affects others, how he understands and views himself and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits”.
According to Gordon .W. Allport:“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those Psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
According to Thomson and hasten:“Development results in a man acquiring distinctiveness or uniqueness which gives him identity and which enables him and us to recognize him apart from others. These distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the term personality”.
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Personality means different things to different people. To some, it means one’s char5m, dress and attractiveness, to others, it means a unitary mode of response to life situations. The term personality has been derived from Latin word ‘personnare’. Which means to speak through. Personality traditionally refers to how people influence others through their external appearances more precisely. Definition: According to Hilgardetat, “personality may be understood as the characteristics patterns of behaviour and modes pf thinking that determine a person’s adjustment to the environment”
NATURE OF PERSONALITY 1. Personality has both internal and external elements. The external traits are the observable behavioral that we notice in an individual personality. For example sociability the internal states represent the thoughts. Values and genetic characteristics that we infer form the observable Behaviours. 2. An individual personality is relatively stable. If it changes at all it is only after a very long time or as the result of traumatic events. 3. An individual’s personality is both inherited as well as shaped by the environment. Our personality is partly inherited genetically from our parents. However these genetic personality characteristics are altered some what by life experiences. 4. Each individual is unique in Behaviour. There are striking differences among individuals.
Determinants of individual personality: The personality is influenced by the following major factors 1) Cultural factors: Culture largely determines what a person is and what a person will learn. The culture within a person is brought up, is very important determinant of behaviour of person. Culture is the complex of these beliefs, values and techniques for dealing with the environment, which are shared among contemporaries and transmitted by one generation to the next. 2) Family and social factors: Family and social factors are important in shaping personality of andindividual. The impact of these factors on personality can be understood by socialization process and identification process.
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i) Socialization process: The contribution of family and social group in combination with the culture is known as socialization. It initially starts with the contact with the mother and later on the other members of the family. The social group plays influential role in shaping and individual’s personality. ii) Identification process Identification starts when a person begins to identify himself with some other members of the family. Normally child tries to behave as father or mother. He tries to emulate certain actions of his parents. 3) Situational factors: The effect of environment is quite string. Knowledge, skill and language are acquired and represent important modifications of the behaviour, learned modification in behaviour are not passed on to the children they acquired by them through their own personal experience. Through interaction with the environment. 4) Biological factors: These can be discussed into three broad heads; i) Physical Features: Physical stature is the most important factor that contributes to personality. For instance, the fact that person is short or tall, fat or skinny, hansome or ugly. Black or whitish will undoubtedly influence the person’s effect on the others and in turn, will affect the self-concept. ii) Brain: It is another biological factor that influence the personality. Research in this field has given indication that better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain. iii) Heredity: Certain characteristics, primarily physical in nature, are inherited from one’s parents, transmitted by genes in the chromosomes contributed by each parent. For instance, heredity is generally more important in determining a person’s temperament than values and ideas.
EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANT DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY:
Personality Determinants
Hereditary Factors
Social Factors
Situational Factors
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The various factors that determine the personality of a person may be grouped under three categories.
Hereditary/ Genetic factors
Social factors
Situational factors
Biological factors
HEREDITARY/ GENETIC FUNCTIONS:A number of physical, mental and psychological qualities of a person are determined by his heredity. Heredity is the biological transmission of physical and mental characteristics from parents to children.
The physical structure of a person – his height and weight.
Other physical features –color of skin, hair and eyes.
The capacity to learn and respond
Temperament
Levels of enthusiasm.
Social factors: Apart from the biological or heredity factors mentioned above certain social factors also play a crucial role in shaping the personality of an individual. Important among these are the influence of family, teachers and the peer group.
Parents play a significant role in the personality development of a child. Home is the first school of every child. The child learns basic manners and also acquires certain habits from its parents. It is appropriate to mention here that if the parents themselves are not disciplined. Apart from parents the other members of the family, particularly, brothers and sisters also shape a person’s personality.
Situational factors: The particular situation in which one is placed also puts pressure on him to behave in a particular fashion. A person who appears to be quiet may perform well in a crisis. On the other hand, there may be another person who may look aggressive always but may fail miserably in a critical situation. That is why it is often said, “Appearance is always deceptive”. Measurement of personality Explain the measurement of personality (or) Discuss the various techniques and test by which personality can be measured (or) Can personality be measured? Explain.
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Psychologists have devised a number of tests to measure the various aspects of personality, these are: 1) Projective techniques: These techniques are based on the assumptions that responses to unstructured stimuli are likely to indicated and individuals underlying motives, attitudes and aspirations. These include inkblots, incomplete sentences, ambiguous pictures, etc. It is called projective attributes his own traits or feeling to other persons or to inanimate objects. They reveal the crucial aspects of personality. The two widely used projective test are. a) Thematic which an individual sees in a picture, indicates something of his past experience, feelings, attitudes of motives. Apperceiving relates to perception of a situation largely in terms of pat experience rather than the immediate present. Here, the individual is exposed to ambiguous pictures and requested to make up a story for each. The themes in these stories may involve conflict, affection for contentment or achievements. b) Rorschach Test: It involves ten cards containing inkblots. These inkblots are shown to the individual at a time, in a prescribed way, with a request to state whatever comes to their mind in response to them. It is assumed that individual tends to project the predominating aspects of his personality through these cards. c) The California test of personality: the basic principle underlying the theory is life adjustment, which is thought of as a balance between personal and social adjustments. Personal adjustment cab be with regard to self-reliance, sense of personal worth, sense of personal freedom, feelking of belongingness. Social adjustment can be with regard to social standards, social skills, anti-social skills, anti-social tendencies, family relationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s etc, under this method, questions are asked in yes or no type based on the qualities. 2) Situational tests: This test involves studying the individual in daily situations when he is interacting with others, solving a problem or exploring a new environment. The purpose of this study is to which is similar to the one for which he is under review. This facilitates the prediction as to how he will reget in a specific situation. 3) Personality inventories: These inventories are printed forms containing questions, adjectives or statements about human behaviour. They can be used to evaluate both normal and psychiatric characteristics. The individual is required to indicate his reactions to different items. The inventories are scored and assessed in terms of percentiles or statistical norms. Initially, they involve merely single trait such as introversion-extroversion subsequently, they have been replaced by multiple trait inventories. Relatively the inventories are less time consuming and easy to administer. In certain cases, the individuals can give false impression about themselves if they desire to do so.
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4) Case history method: In the case history method the facts concerning life of the subjects are collected. This case history supplies all the facts related to manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environment and work 5) Interview method: Interview method is widest used in the selection of people for government, semi government, semi government and private services. In this subject and the tester sit facing each other and the former answers the questions asked by the latter. 6) Performance method: The performance method was developed by May and Hawthorne. In this method the subject is given a variety of specific job to be performed and the particular trait of his personality is examined. State the various types of Personalities. Or What are the different kinds of personality or Write Short notes on the following: Introvert personalities, Extrovert personalities, Type A, B personalities: The main types of personalities are: 1) Introvert personalities: Introvert is one of the two basic orientations people have. Such people look inward and experience and process their thoughts and ideas within themselves. They also avoid social contracts and avoid initiating interaction with other group mates. They are quiet and enjoy solitude. People with introvert personality are found more inclined to excel at tasks that require thought and analytical skill 2) Extrovert personalities: Extroverts are just contrary to the introverts. Extroverts are friendly, social, lively, gregarious, and aggressive and express their feeling and ideas openly. So, they are more suitable and successful for the positions that require considerable interaction with others. Sales activities, publicity departments, personal relations unit etc are the examples of activities suitable for extroverts 3) Type A personalities: Type A people are characterized by hard-working, highly achievement oriented, impatient, aggressive, etc. Such people tend to be very productive and work very hard. 4) Type B personalities: Easy going, social, free from urgency of time, non-competitive are the characteristics of Type B personalities such people do better on tasks involving judgements, accuracy rather than speed and team work. 5) Judging personalities: People with judging personality types like to follow a plan, make decisions and need only that what is essential for their work 6) Perceptive personalities: These are the people who adapt well to change, want to know all about a job and at times may get over committed.
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Theories of personality Explain the various theories of personality. or Explain the Trait theory of personality. Trait theory: Some psychologists have tried to understand personality on the basis of individual’s traits. A personality trait can be defined as “and enduring attribute of a person that appears constantly in a variety of situations. Popular human characteristics include shy, aggressive submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal and timid. In practice, the more consistent then characteristics and more frequently these occur in diverse situations, the more important traits become in describing a person. Thus traits can be described as individual variables or dimensions. Trait theory is based on the following three assumptions 1. Traits are common to many individuals but vary in absolute amounts between the individuals. 2. Traits are relatively stable. Their consistent occurrence influences the human behaviour. 3) One’s trait can be inferred by measuring his /her behavioural indicators. Allport and Cattell have been among the early psychologists who made efforts to isolate individual traits. Allport, in his study, identifies as many as 17,953 traits. Obviously, predicting human behaviour based on such a large number becomes virtually impossible. Realising the need for reducing such large number to a manageable one, Cattell first isolated 171 traits and then, the same reduced to 16 traits, which he termed as source or primary traits. Thus, trait theory attempts to understand how a set of personality variables exerts on one’s behaviour. However, this theory suffers from one limitations i.e it is very descriptive rather than analytical. In fact, no hard evidence supports trait theory as a valid measure of personality S.No
S.No Primary Traits
Primary Traits
1. Reserved Vs Outgoing
2.
Practical Vs Imaginative
3. Less intelligent Vs More
4.
Affected by feeling Vs Emotionally
Intelligent
stable
5. Submissive Vs Dominant
6.
Forthright Vs shrewd
7. Serious
8.
Self-assured Vs
Vs
Happy-go-lucky
Apprensive
9. Expedient Vs Conscientious
10. Conservative Vs Experimenting
11. Timid
12. Group-dependent Vs Self-sufficient
Vs Venturesome
13. Tough-minded Vs Sensitive
14. Uncontrolled Vs Controlled
15. Trusting Vs Suspicious
16. Relaxed Vs Tense
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2) Freud Theory: Fixed Contributed significantly towards the understanding of human behaviour through his concept of unconsciousness. Freud developed and organization of personality consisting of three structures within the human mind- the id, the ego and the super ego. These parts of the mind are primarily responsible for originating human actions and reactions of modifications. 1) Id. Id is the original and the most basic system of human personality. It consists of everything psychologically that is inherited and present at the time of the birth. Id represents a storehouse of all instincts, containing in its dark depths all wishes, desires and unconsciously directs and determines our behaviour. Id is largely childish, irrational, never satisfied, demanding and destructive of others. 2) Ego: The id is unconscious part while the ego is conscious part of human personality. The ego is associated with reality. It checks the id through logic and intellect. The ego can best be described as controlling id through realities. A starving man cannot control, but by really having
food.
Thus here lies the role of ego i.e. reality in satisfying hunger or reducing tension created by hunger. 3) The super ego: The super ego represents system of values, norms and ethic that guide and govern a person to behave properly in the society. In one sense, the super ego can be described as conscience. It provides norms and values to ego to determine what is wrong or right at given time in given situation or society. The super ego judges whether an action/ Behaviour is right or wrong as per the set norms and standards of the society. In total it can be concluded that id seeks pleasure, the ego verifies reality and the super ego strives for perfection. Freud theory is hypothetical and based on theoretical conception. But it does not provide any measure for its scientific verification and validity. It provides the idea of unconscious motivation, which adds to the understanding of human behaviour in a better manner. Social learning Theory: The theory considers the situation as an important determinant of behaviour as against trait theories, which assume that personality is characterized by the enduring traits of an individual. Learning can be defined as any change in oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behaviour that occurs as a result of experience in a manner different from the way he or she formerly behaved.
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Learning occurs through 2 ways: i) Reinforcement ii) Observing others is called vicarious learning. The social learning theory emphasis as on how an individual behaves or acts in a given situation determine how an individual will behave in such situation evokes and individual’s behavioural pattern. An Individual’s behaviour also at times influences the situational conditions. The reinforcement that controls the expression of learned behaviour may be Explain Self-Theory of Personality? Carl Rogers is credited with self-theory of personality. This theory is also described as’ phenomenological’ which studies individual’s subjective experience, feelings and his concept of world self. The following four factors are included in self theory: 1.Self Image: By nature, every person has certain beliefs about what or who be/she is. Selfimage is one’s image of oneself. This is how one sees oneself. 2. Ideal-Self: The ideal-self refers to what one should like to look like. The basic line of difference between self Image and ideal-self is that the former indicates the reality of a person whereas the latter implies the ideality of the person. The latter one, i.e., ideal self stands more important to motivate an individual to behave in a particular manner. 3. Looking Glass-self: This refers to how others we perceiving the individual. In other words, this means the way an individual thinks people perceive about him and not the way people actually see him. This indicates that one’s belief about self is a reflection of others perception about the person. 4. Real-Self: The real - self is what one actually is. The first three self -concepts relate to an individual’s perception about himself/herself. They may be the same or differ from the real self. People perceive the same situation differently depending upon their conception of the situation. This, in turn, influences them to behave differently. Thus, in any attempt of analysing and understanding organizational behaviour, the self-concept plays a significant role in reacting/ behaving in a particular manner. Write a Brief note on personality traits. Personality traits are the enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour. Popular characteristics include shyness, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal and timid. Efforts to isolate traits have been hindered because there are so many of them.
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The following are the sixteen traits, which are generally steady, and constant source of behaviour, allowing prediction of and individual’s behaviour in specific situations by weighting the characteristics for their situational relevance. Primary Traits Traits can additionally be grouped to form personality types. Instead of looking at specific characteristics, we can group these qualities that go together into a single category. For eg. Ambition and aggression tend to be highly correlated. Efforts to reduce the number of traits into common groups tends to isolate introversion-extroversion and something approximating high anxiety and extro version would be tense, excitable, unstable warm, sociable and dependent. As a result, personality traits tend to be more valuable as predictors with individuals who hold a trait at its extreme.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:-
Explain what is personality development? What is personality? Classify in to Freudian and new- Freudian stages in personality? How man’s personality is shaped. Explain its development? EXPLAIN ERILCSON’S EIGHT STAGE APPROACH TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT? The term ‘personality’ is derived from Latin word ‘per sonar’ which means “to speak through” personality thus traditionally referred to how people influence others through their external appearances actions. Personality includes:
External appearances and behaviour
The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and
The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer
To most psychologists of behaviour, this term refers to the study of characteristics traits of individual, relationships between these traits of individual, relationship between these traits, and the way in which a person adjusts to other people and situations.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:- Human personality development is a continuous process. At each stage, a person develops different aspects of personality. This stage has been described by different personality theorists.
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Freudian stages
Neo- Freudian stages- Erickson’s
Psychological stages
FREUDIAN STAGES:- According to Freud, personality develops as a result of interaction of four min sources of stress. These are physical growth process, frustration, conflicts and threats.
ORAL STYLE:- Oral stage covers the period from birth to 18 months of age.
ORAL STAGE
ORAL SUCKING ORAL BITING
Oral sucking period is from birth to 8 months in which satisfies his sexual instinct by sucking from mouth, lips, and tongue.
Oral biting starts at the age of 8 month and lasts up to 18 months. This stage consists of the earlier character and other specialties of personality also develop.
ANAL STAGE:- This stage is from 18 months to 3 years. Ego is developed at this stage and the child understands that he is from a part. Sex, however , if proper attention is “paid to the child, he experiences stress which affect his personality.
PHALLIC STAGE:- This stage extends from 3-7 years. At this stage, the child is prove to develop many types of complexes sees the differences in his brothers and sisters or other children.
LATENCY STAGE:- This stage interests grow and enjoys playing and talking with his friends. It is only during this phase the child acquires the knowledge and skill necessary to progress.
GENITAL AGE:- This stage is from 12 to 20 years phallic stage is again aroused. This phase occurs during adolescence to adulthood. The individual revives his sexual desire. The interest in the opposite sex increases. Freudian approach to personality development is mainly based on sexual instincts right from childhood. His ideas have been criticized by many psychologists. Freud’s Approach to Personality Development
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Age
Happenin gs
Oral
Upto
1
Year
Biological desires fulfilled by thumb sucking, biting etc.
Anal
1
to
3
Years
Stimulation by regulating bowel movement s.
Phalli
3
to
c
years
4
Examining and fondling sex organs result
in
stimulation . Laten
4
to
cy
Years
6
Social
to
needs get
Adolescenc
priority.
e. Genit
Adolescenc
Revival of
al
e
sexual
to
Adulthood.
desires.
ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES ERICKSON’S PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGES:- Erickson has felt that relatively more attention should be given to the social rather than the sexual adoptions of the individuals. (i)
Infancy The period covered by this stage is birth to one year. During this stage the infant who is well taken care of develops trust in others and in case it does not receive the love and affection of the people around it develops mistrust. Whatever happens during this stage has a lasting impact on one’s personality.
(ii)
Early Childhood
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This stage covers the period from one to three years. During this phase the child, whose activities get the approval of the parents and other people around, develops a sense of autonomy. In case his activities are disapproved, he develops a sense of doubt and shame. (iii)
Play Age This stage covers children in the group of 4 and 5 years. The child, during this phase, develops a sense of initiative if he is encouraged to experiment to attain certain goals. On thee other hand, if he is discouraged and made to feel inadequate or incapable, he feels guilty.
(iv)
School Age The age group covered by this stage is 6 to 12 years. The child becomes enterprising if he makes progress in proportion to his abilities. If he does not he feels inferior.
(v)
Adolescence Teenagers fall in this category. The individual, at this stage, tries to establish his own identity in the society. Failure to achieve result in confusion.
(vi)
Early Adulthood People in their early 20’s fall in this category. During this phase the individual tries to develop intimate relationship with others. Failure to achieve results in isolation
(vii)
Middle Adulthood Adults who are in their 40’s and 50’s face a situation of either generativity or stagnation. They are generative if they are productive and creative, able to give parental care and guidance. If the individuals, during this stage, is unable to look beyond himself, if result in stagnation.
(viii)
Last Adulthood People in their old age face the crisis of integrity versus despair. If the individual is fully satisfied and does not have feat of death, he has integrity and will have the wisdom of old age. On the other hand, if he sees no meaning in life, lacks faith in others or fears death, it results in despair or no hope situation.
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Erikson’s Approach at a glance
Stage
Age Group
Positive Effect
Negative Effect
Infancy
Birth to one year
Trust
Mistrust
Early Childhood
1 to 3 years
Autonomy
Doubt and shame
Play Age
4 to 5 years
Initiative
Guilty
School Age
6 to 12 years
Enterprising
Inferior
Adolescence
Teenage
Self identity
Confusion
Early Adulthood
20 plus
Intimacy
Isolation
Middle Adulthood
40 plus
Generativity
Stagnation
Late Adulthood
Old Age
Integrity
Despair
PERSONALITY FACTORS Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness, persistence and other qualities reflected through a person’s behaviour. An individual’s personality determines the type of activities for that he is suited for and the likelihood that the person would be able to perform the task effectively. a. Motivation: Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to cause them to engage in certain kinds of behaviour rather than others. A person’s motivation is influenced by his attitudes beliefs values and goals. b. Attitudes: Attitude is predetermined state of mind. It is a way of organizing a perception. For e.g. we say that Ramesh like his ‘job’ means that Ramesh is expressing his attitude about work. c. Values: Value- behaviour connections have been documented for a wide variety of behaviors, ranging from weight loss to shopping selections to political party affliction to religious involvement, to choose a college etc. d. Abilities: Ability refers to the actual skills and capabilities that people possess and are required for the effective performance of activities. e. Perception: Perception is process by which an individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environments”.
PERSONAL FACTORS: Every individual brings to the work place a variety of following characteristics
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Age: Performance depends on age. As age advances, performance is likely to decline. Sex: Man is expected to be tough while a woman is expected to gentle and are highly emotional, are some of the stereo typed assumptions that have no basis in genetic influences. Education: Education has its effect upon individual behaviour largely through the level and type of education received. Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual’s expectations about positives outcomes. Intelligence: The abilities required to perform mental work are known as mental abilities. This also makes influence on individual behaviour. Marital status: Marital Status has influence on absenteeism, turnover and satisfaction. Marriage imposes additional responsibility hence the need for steady job and steady income. Religion: Highly religious people have high moral standards and usually do not tell lies or talk in determining some aspects of individual; behaviour
PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE TESTS What is a test? It is a systematic procedure of comparing two or more persons. According to Blum, “a test is a sample of individuals’ behaviour, performance or attitude.” A psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour from which inferences about future behaviour and performance of candidate is drawn. Characteristics: 1. Assumption: The use of test is based on the assumption that “no two persons are equal so far as skills, aptitude and personality is concerned.” 2. Validity It means the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure. A test cannot be called valid unless it measures with reasonable accuracy the future job performance of the candidate. 3. Reliability It implies the ability of a test to give consistent results. If a person scores significantly different on the same test at two different points of time, then the test cannot be considered reliable. 4. Standardization. The test must be standardized so that scores become comparable. In other words test should be administered in the standard conditions. 5. Objectivity A test must be constructed in such a way that two or more persons can score the responses in the same way. Role And Importance Of Test: 1. Guidelines It helps the employer to identify the nature and behaviour of the candidates.
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2. Appropriate appointment. It has the beneficial effect of securing proper and desirable jobs for individuals according to their interest, intelligence and abilities as well as ensuring that highest level of efficiency is achieved by right man being in the right job. 3. Prediction INTELLIGENCE TESTS Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability to adjust oneself to a new situation. -William sterns Intelligence is the ability to make profitable use of past experience. In other words, intelligence is the ability of learning Intelligence is the ability to think abstractly. An important definition by husband states â&#x20AC;&#x153; a intelligent person uses past experience effectively, is able to concentrate and keep his attention focused for longer periods of time, adjusts himself to a new situation rapidly, with less confusion and with fewer false moves, shows variability and versatility of response is able to see distinct relationships, can carry on abstract thinking.â&#x20AC;? Intelligence tests: Intelligence tests are used to judge the mental capacity of the candidate. They indicate the individual learning ability i.e., the ability to understand instructions and to exercise judgment. The level of intelligence is measured interms of intelligent quotient. TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS. A. VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS: These are to test the intelligence of individuals and language finds adequate use in them. The higher age groups use language to considerable extent and its use gradually declines with the age group. For e.g. the two years group include the following activities. 1. Recognition of objects by name. 2. Recognizing the organs of the body 3. Making a tower of blocks 4. Naming an object from its picture. For adult group it include 1. Vocabulary 2. Logical reasoning 3. Sense of direction 4. Repeating nine digits B.NON-VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS These tests involve the complete absence of linguistic ability and are similarly almost unaffected by knowledge derived from books.
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i. Pinter pattern performance tests. In this scale there are 15 types of tests, which includes form boards, picture puzzles and imitation etc. ii. Porteus maze tests: Porteus created mazes for the children 3 to 14 years and it gets difficult corresponding to the ages. The subject is allowed two chances and if he fails in the attempt then the conclusion is that his intelligence is not of that age level. iii. Form board tests In this form board test, there are numerous blocks and an aboard in which there are holes corresponding to the blocks. The subjects have to fit the blocks in these corresponding holes in the board. The time taken and the mistakes committed being noted from which the scores of the tests are calculated. C.VERBAL GROUP INTELLIGENCE TESTS. They examine the reasoning power, power of comparing and contrasting, sense of direction, ability in numerals and language of the individuals who constitute the group. 1. Army alpha and beta tests: These tests were evolved during World War 1 in order to test the American soldiers. It revealed separately men capable of becoming skilled specialists, officers, men needing some training etc. 2. Dr. Sohan lal intelligence test: These tests were developed for 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 years old children and for adults, Find the odd one: - dog, hen, bull, horse D.NON VERBAL GROUP INTELLIGENCE: There are some performance tests in the group intelligence tests, in which the examinee draws some lines according to his abilities, fills in some empty spaces, draws some simple figures or performs some simple activities. Peculiarities pf non-verbal group intelligence tests: 1. Used to compare various human groups, breaking the language barrier. 2. The testing of illiterate soldiers 3. Helps in testing of children low in linguistic ability.
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UNIT – VIII MOTIVATION What do you mean by motivation? or Define Motivation? Introduction
Management is the art of getting things done through other people. ? When other individuals work together in groups, a proper environment should be created and maintained to achieve the cherished goals of the organisation.
The personnel shall work up to the satisfied and expectations of the management only when a interest in their job is created. Inspiring this interest in the minds of workers is known as motivation.
Meaning
Motivation originally comes from the Latin word ‘movere’, which means to ‘move’. It is derived from the w0ord ‘motive’.
o
Motive may be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs our behaviour. It makes us move to exert efforts towards the accomplishment of his /her goal.
Definition
According to Fred Luthans “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
According to Gray and Starke motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to the individual that arouses enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action
Explain the process of motivation? OR Explain the steps involved in motivation? Motivation is a six-phased process beginning from the inner state or need deficiency and ending with need fulfillment. The following figure illustrates the motivation model.
Need deficiency
Search and choice of strategy
Revaluation of needs
Reward or punishment
Goal directed behaviour
Evaluation of behaviour
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The model can be explained with an example. Let us assume that an employee desires to have a promotion.
Stage - 1
This desire for promotion represents need deficiency also called inner state of disequilibrium, tension or urge, which is the starting point in the motivation model.
Stage - 2
The employee is expected to search for strategies to get promotion and make a choice among them.
Stage - 3
Let us say, there are two way of getting promotion – putting better performance and pleasing boss.
Then he puts in regular attendance, completes allotted work on schedule and work hard.
Stage - 4
The fourth stage is assessment of employee performance by his boss. In the last stage evaluation of performance, the employee is either promoted (Reward) or promotion is denied to him (punishment). If he promoted, he feels encouraged to repeat better performance.
Stage - 5
If promotion is denied to the employee, the employee feels discouraged and he may not repeat better performance. And he may give up the idea of striving for promotion.
EXPLAIN THE KINDS OR TYPES OF MOTIVATION OR EXPLAIN THE TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION: POSITIVE MOTIVATION –
Reward, co-operation of employee’s happiness, praise, participation, indecision making process etc.
NEGATIVE MOTIVATION –
Fear and force, fails to complete the work then punished, demoted, dismissed, layoff, pay cut etc.
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION –
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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION –
Available at the time of performing job, recognition, power, delegation of authority and responsibility etc.
FINANCIAL MOTIVATION –
Pay and monetary allowance.
NON – FINANCIAL MOTIVATION –
Job rotating, participation, recognition, counseling etc.
FRINGE BENEFITS
–
In addition to the salary these perks are provided to motivate a particular set of consumers (some times it is non monetary in nature). Providing bus facilities, washing allowances, staff quarters. Etc., Monetary incentives like cash emoluments, cash awards, and cash bags. Etc., Creating sense of security of jobs – job security or permanent job Offering better conditions to work – good premises, good canteen facilities, all other environmental facilities like parking of vehicles. Etc., Dealing fairly with them – patient behaviour, respective and kind talk with the employees. Make adequate provision for progress and development – career courses arrangement, future oriented development programmes. Giving due recognition to the individual ability and skill of the workers – right appreciation
NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION: 1. Motivation Produces Goal Directed Behaviour Motivation has got profound influence on human behaviour, it harnesses human energy to organizational requirements. 2. Motivation Means Bargaining Behaviour is what people do. Motivation is ‘why’ they do it. Barnard explained motivation in the form of inducements- contribution theory. It focuses on workers and organization endeavoring to find what inducements to workers in exchange for what degree of contribution from workers will be satisfactory to both parties.. 3. Motivation Is Personal And Individual Feeling. Motivation is a psychological concept. It is an inducement of inner feeling of an individual. It cannot be forced upon from outsider.
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4. Motivation Is Total A motivation device which promises fulfillment of some needs of workers and not other will fall short of its objectives of producing total commitment of workers. 5. Motivation is determined by human needs. A worker will perform the desired activities only so long as he sees his actions as a means of continued fulfillment of his strongly felt needs. 6. Motivation Can Be Either Positive Or Negative. Positive motivation or the carrot approach offers something precious to the person in the form of additional pay, incentives, recognition etc,. Negative
motivation
or
stick
approach
emphasizes
penalties
while
controlling
performance. 7. Motivation May Be Financial Or Non-Financial. Financial motivation seeks to satisfy physiological and security needs and it is by way of wages, allowances, bonus etc. Non-financial motivation seeks to satisfy the social recognition and creative needs and it is by way of appreciation, higher status, participation etc. 8. Motivation Is A Constant Process Human needs are infinite. As soon as a person has satisfied one need, he seeks to satisfy another. Motivation cannot be time bound process. 9. Motivation Changes. Motivation of each individual changes from time to time. For e.g. A temporary worker may produce more in the beginning to become permanent, when made permanent he may continue to produce more, this time to gain promotion and so on.
EXPLAIN THE ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION:
THE JOB
:
Based on the category of the job, the motivation will differ.
Example the welding worker requires some glasses for the work. They require physical improvement facilities like physical exercise center.
THE INDIVIDUAL
:
Based on the behaviour, characteristics, attitude, psychology
of an individual the motivation will differ. Example money minded behaviour always aim money, those peoples are motivates only by financial incentives.
THE WORK CONDITION
:
The work atmosphere, work climate and work
conditions differ the motivation. The critical and executor work requires some type of motivation and others require other type of motivation.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS: Life positions or psychological positions refer to the dominant philosophy of an individual. Such philosophy is developed in early life on the basis of continuous experience.
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It is tied to an individual’s identity, sense of worth and his perceptions of other people. The life positions are four types as shown: ~ I AM OK
I AM NOT OK
YOU ARE OK
YOU ARE OK
I AM OK
I AM NOT OK
YOU ARE NOT OK
YOU ARE NOT OK
EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION (OR) EXPLAIN THE ADVANTAGES OF MOTIVATION (OR) POSITIVE OUTCOME OF MOTIVATION (OR) WHY MOTIVATION EMPHASIZED IN THE ORGANIZATION? The increasing attention paid towards motivation is justified because of several reasons. 1. Motivated employees come out with new ways of doing job. 2. Motivated employees are quality oriented. 3. Motivated employees are more productive. 4. Every organization requires human resources in addition to the need for financial and physical resources for it to function. For an organization to be effective, it must come to grips with the motivational problems of stimulating both the decision to participate and the decision to produce at work. 5. A comprehensive understanding of the way in which organization function require that increasing attention is directed towards the question of why people behave as they do on their jobs. 6. Any technology needs motivated employees to adopt it successfully. Example: The secret behind the success of ISRO has been its employees who are both capable of using and willing to use the advanced technology to reach the goal. 7. Inspire and get the attraction of the employees we require motivation. 8. Improve production, productivity and performance of the workers. 9. Create cool and positive atmosphere. 10. Increase the job satisfaction and morale of the workers. 11. Create the group and team sprit. 12. To achieve the goal of the organization. 13. To get the psychological satisfaction of the workers the motivation is very important.
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14. To increase the good will or brand image in the personnel area the motivation is very important factor. 15. Motivation very important to attract the general public in to our organization.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Critically examine the need hierarchy theory of motivation. (Or) Describe Maslow theory of motivation. The behaviour of an individual at a particular moment is usually determined by his strongest need. Psychologist claims that needs have certain priority.
As the more basic
needs are satisfied and individual seek to satisfy the higher order needs. Maslow’s theory is one of the most popular theories of motivation in the management and organizational behaviour literature. Features: 1. The urge to fulfill the needs is the prime factor in motivation of people at work. 2.
Human needs form a particular hierarchy. Physiological needs are at the base while self-actualization is at the top.
3. As soon as one need is satisfied another need emerges. 4. A satisfied need is not a motivator; only unsatisfied needs regulate an individual. THEORY NO I. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY:
MASLOW’S THEORY IS BASED ON THE NEED OF THE PEOPLE.
The psychologists recognize that needs have a certain priority. Only when the move basic needs are satisfied, persons seek to fulfill the higher land needs.
If one’s basic needs are not met, they claim priority and effort to satisfy, and the high level needs must be postponed.
Factors – need and satisfaction. Any thing satisfies a particular person - called need.
1. Physiological needs or basic needs: The basic needs are required to preserve human life such as food, shelter and clothing ect, They exert a tremendous influence on behaviour as point out by Maslow “Man live by bread alone, where there is no bread”. Basic needs are satisfied to a certain degree. 2. Safety or security needs: Once basic needs are satisfied, safety or security needs emerge and become dominant. These needs concerned with the physical and financial security. These include. a. Protection from physiological damage.
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b.
Economic security
c.
Fringe benefit, insurance programmes ect,
d. Desire for orderly predictable environment. 3. Social needs (or) Love needs: Man is social animal and wants to belong, to associates, to gain acceptance to give and receive friendship and affection. 4. Esteem needs: Esteem needs include both self-esteem and public esteem. People want a high self esteem as well as the respect and admiration of others. These needs take two different forms. First we have need for competency, confidence and independence. We also want the prestige, status, recognition and appreciation that other bestow on us. Satisfying the esteem needs produce feeling of self worth. 5. Self actualization needs: Self-actualization is the desire to become what is capable of becoming, “what a man can be he must be”. Self fulfilling people are rare individual one who comes close to living up to these full potential for being realistic, accomplishing things enjoying life and generally exemplifying classic human virtue. Criticism: a. Little empirical support is available. b. Only a theoretical statement rather than an abstraction from field theory. c.
The same need would not lead to the same response in all individual. :~ NEED
EXAMPLE
:~
MOTIVATIONAL TECHINIQUERW OR TOOL
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
Financial and negative motivation
SAFETY NEEDS
Non financial and financial negative motivation
SOCIAL NEEDS
ESTEEM NEEDS
SELF ACTUALIZATION NEEDS THEORY: ~II
Non financial motivation like housing, recreation facilities, cultural and art programmes Non-financial motivation, advancement, promotion, career development programmes, status recognition.
-
HERBERG’S MOTIVATION: ~ : HYGIENE THEORY :
HOW HYGIENE FACTOR AND MOTIVATIONAL FACTOR MOTIVATE A PERSON? OR CRITICALLY ANALYZE HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY?
BY FREDRICK HERGBERG ~ 1957 ~ BIG PSYCHOLOGIST
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HERBERG’S, Maintenance or hygiene factors are necessary to maintain reasonable level of satisfaction among employees. These factors do not provide satisfaction to the employees but their absence will dissatisfy them. Therefore, these factors are called dissatisfies.
In the late 50’s Fredric Herzberg and his associate conducted interview of 200 engineers and accountants in the Pits berg area in US. The persons were asked to relate elements of their jobs, which made them happy or unhappy.
Herzberg named the factors that are related to job satisfaction as motivational factors that are intrinsic in nature and the factors related to their dissatisfaction towards job as hygiene factors.
Hygiene factors: Like physical hygiene these factors do not lead to growth but only prevent deterioration. They are environment related factors. Hygiene when absent they increases dissatisfaction with job. When present, they help in preventing dissatisfaction but do not increase satisfaction or motivation. Set a Job condition which operates primarily to build strong motivational factors. Two factors 1. Satisfier 2. Dissatisfies Motivational factors: Motivations are associate with positive feelings of employees about the job. They make people satisfied with their job. When absent, they prevent both satisfaction and motivation. When present they lead to satisfaction and motivation. Absent
Hygiene factors
Job dissatisfaction
present
Absent
No job dissatisfaction
Motivators
No job satisfaction
present
job
satisfaction COMPARISONS BETWEEN MASLOW’S AND HERZBERG MODEL
Herzberg theory is an extension of Maslow’s need priority model
Maslow formulated the theory in terms of needs and Herzberg in terms of goals and rewards.
Hygiene factors are roughly equivalent to Mallow’s lower order needs and motivational factors are somewhat equivalent to higher order needs.
Both models assume that specific needs energize behaviour.
Differences Issue
Maslow’s model
Herzberg model
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1.
Order of needs
Sequential arrangement of
No such hierarchical arrangements
2.
Emphasis
needs
Prescriptive
3.
Essence
Descriptive
Satisfied need causes performance
of
theory
Unsatisfied needs influence
4. 5.
performance
Only higher order needs serve as
Motivator
Any unsatisfied need is an
motivators.
Applicability
motivator
Takes a micro view and deals with
Take a general view of the
motivational
motivational problems of all
professional workers.
workers.
Relevant for white collar workers.
6. Worker level
problems
of
Relevant for all the workers
Transcendence helping others to selfactualise Selfactualisation personal growth and fulfilment Aesthetic needs beauty, balance, form, etc Cognitive needs knowledge, meaning, self-awareness
Adapted 8 level Hierarchy of Needs diagram based on Maslow's theory
Esteem needs achievement, status, responsibility, reputation Belongingness and Love needs family, affection, relationships, work group, etc Safety needs protection, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc Biological and Physiological needs basic life needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
MOTIVATION
= PERFORMANCE X ABILITY
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Criticisms: a. This theory provides an explanation of job satisfaction. It is not a theory of motivation. b.
Tremendous emphasis on motivational factors and importance of hygiene factors
has been ignored. Compare and contrast Maslow ‘s need hierarchy theory with two-factor theory of motivation. 1.
Herzberg theory is an extension of Maslow need priority model.
2.
Maslow formulated the theory in terms of needs and herzberg in terms of goal
and reward. 3.
Hygiene factors are roughly equivalent to Maslow’s lower order needs and
motivational factors are somewhat equivalent to higher order needs. 4.
Both models assume that specific needs energize behaviour.
____________________________________________________________________ DIFFERENCES: ISSUE
MASLOW’S MODEL
HERZBERG MODEL
Order of needs
Sequential arrangement of needs
No such arrangements
Emphasis
Descriptive
Prescriptive
Essence of theory
Unsatisfied
Motivator
needs
influence
Satisfied needs cause
performance.
performance.
Any unsatisfied needs is motivators.
Only higher order needs serve as a motivator.
Applicability
Take
a
general
view
of
the
Take a micro view and deals
motivational
with motivational
Problems of all workers.
Problems of professional workers.
Workers level
Relevant for all workers
Relevant for white-collar workers.
Motivational factors: ~ Hygiene factores – maintenance factors –
Motivating factors - intrinsic
extrinsic
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311 Company policy and administration Technical supervision Inter personal relationship with peers
Inter personal relationship with supervisors Inter personal relationship with subordinates Salary Job security
Achievement Recognition Advancement Possibilities for growth Responsibility Work itself Challenging work
Personal life Working conditions Status THEORY NO 3 Theory ‘X’ and ‘Y’:
Prof. Dog Mc. Gregore. o
Theory ‘X’ is said to be pessimistic one and
o
Theory “Y” is said to be optimistic. THEORY ‘X’ IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS :
:
1. Workers do not like to work 2. Finds a way to post pond due to laziness 3. Do the job half heartily 4. Fear of punishment motivate the worker into action 5. Are not ready to accept responsibility 6. Not interested in achievement 7. Prefer some position 8. Prefers to be diverted by others 9. Hate improve their efficiency 10. Avoids taking decision when even necessary. Theory ‘X’:
Is to supervise and control the workers.
Workers are allowed to exposed their suggestions and emotions. :
ASSUMPTIONS OF THEORY ‘Y’
:
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1. Average human being has the to work once the worker understands the purpose of the job 2. He may co-operate to complete the job 3. Have self direction 4. Discipline and control 5. Right motion tends them to accept extra responsibility 6. Take right decision 7. Competence to work 8. Wants to be recognized for accomplishing his responsibility 9. Potentiality of human beings are not fully utilized in any independent 10. Work efficiently even for non-financial rewards like recognition, participation, and imagination.
‘Y’ a work is ready to work hard, shows a sense of creativity and imagination.
Positive and non-financial motivation is preferred.
Mc Gregor is credited as being the initiator of one of the most widely used and highly popular classification schemes for both the acceptable and unacceptable styles of today. Actually theory x and theory y are attitudes or predispositions toward people. Theory x is negative, traditional and autocratic style while theory y is participatory, positive and democratic. Employees are not basically sluggish, indifferent, not co-operative and unproductive but they learn this behavior as response to the directing behaviour of managers. People behave exactly as we predict. Thus managers are caught in a web of their own making. Theory x The set of assumption that man is by nature lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led. In order to accomplish objectives, therefore management must employ coercive techniques and tight external constraints over behaviour. Theory y It assumes that people are not by nature lazy and reliable. It proposes that people can be basically self directed and creative at work if properly motivated. Theory y emphasizes creating opportunities, removing obstacles, encouraging growth and providing guidance. Theory X
Theory Y
1. Inherent dislike for work 2. Unambiguous
and
necked by others
prefer
1. Work is natural like play or rest to
be
2. Ambitious and capable of directing their own behavior.
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313 3. Accept and seek responsibility and
3. Avoid responsibility.
under proper conditions 4. Creativity
4. Lack creativity and resist change
is
widely
spread.
No
resistance to change.
5. Focus on lower level needs to
5. Both lower order and higher order
motivate workers
needs like social, esteem and selfactualization needs are sources of
6. External
control
supervision
and
require
to
close
motivation.
achieve
6. Self control and self motivation
organizational objectives 7. Centralization
of
authority
and
7. Decentralization
autocratic leadership
THEORY 4 -
and
democratic
leadership.
VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION:
Variable 1. Attractiveness:
The importance which the individual worker has place on the potential outcome ore reward that con be achieved on the job. This considers the unsatisfied needs of the individuals. Variable 2. Programme:
Reward linkage the degree to which the individual worker believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Variable 3. Effort Performance Linkage:
The perceived probability by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
On the basis of these variables, Vrooms work that an individual places on a goal and the changes he sees in achieving these goals. FORCE I.E. PERFORMANCE
= VALANCE X EXPECTANCY = ATTRACTIVENESS X EFFORTS.
Expectancy theory represents a comprehensive, valid and useful approach to understanding motivation. 1. It is one of the most complete theories for detailing not only how people feel and behave but also why they react as they do. 2. It is a cognitive model i.e., it is based on conscious thoughts about the situation. When people are faced with a number of behavioral options leading to satisfaction, they will evaluate the potential outcomes of these options and select the one that promises the optimum result.
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314 Motivation= V x E x I ( valence, expectancy, instrumentality)
3. This theory is based on self- interest wherein each individual seeks to maximize his expected satisfaction. It is a form of calculative psychological hedonism in which the ultimate motive of every human act is asserted to be the maximization of pleasure or the minimization of pain. VALENCE: people have preferences for various outcomes or incentives that are potentially available to them. Valence is the strength of the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s desire for a particular outcome. It is the subjective value attached to a incentive or reward. For e.g., an individual desires promotion and feels that the superior performance is a strong factor in achieving that goal. His first level outcomes are them superior, average and poor performance. His second level outcome is promotion. The superior performance (first level outcome) is being seen as instrumental in getting promotion(second level outcome) EXPECTANCY: expectancy refers to the perceived relationship between a given level of effort and given level of performance. It refers to the extent to which the person believes that his efforts will lead to the first level outcome, that is, performance. Competent and secure individuals tend to perceive expectancy more positively than incompetent and pessimistic individuals. INSTRUMENTALITY: it refers to the relationship between performance and reward. It refers to the degree to which first level outcome will lead to a desire second level outcome. If people perceive that their performance is adequately rewarded instrumentality will be positive. The more likely people feel that a performance level will lead to desired outcomes, the more likely they will be to expend effort to perform at that level. Expectancy theory stresses -
it emphasizes payoffs
-
rewards should be tied to performance.
-
Rewards should be equitable and it should Emphasis expected behaviour
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Theory - 5 CARROT AND STICK THEORY: Behaviour Good
Treatments performance,
standard
production,
above
Reward, praise, participation, in
Extra
decision-making process, Pay and
Motivation
POSITIVE MOTIVATION
Ordinary Out put. Etc.,
monetary allowance.
Poor performance, Below standard
Fear and force, fails to complete
NEGATIVE
production, lazy work behavior.
the work then punished, demoted,
MOTIVATION
Etc.,
dismissed, layoff, pay cut etc.
Theory - 6 MC. CLEEANDS THEORY:
The theory was framed after the second world war
MC. CLEEANDS –basically from Harvard university
Factors: ~ o
POWER MOTIVE – one who is having an ability to influence others and induce others is called power.
o
AFFILIATION MOTIVE – association and relationship between others. Peoples belongs to the motive of affiliation are come sunder this category.
o
EFFORT AND PERFORMANCE MOTIVE –
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION MODEL Achievement motivation theory has been advocated by David McClelland and his associates. They identified three needs that motivate human behaviour. 1. Need For Achievement 2. Need For Affiliation 3. Need For Power Need For Achievement(Nach) Employees with high need for achievement derive satisfaction from achieving goals. Succeeding a task is important to the high achievers. Some of the main characteristics of achievement seeders are, -
They are not motivated by money. They use money as score of their achievements.
-
They prefer immediate feedback in their performance
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They prefer tasks of moderate difficulty rather that those that are either very easy or very difficult.
-
They prefer to work independently.
McClelland believes that the need for achievement can be learned.
Need for power(nPOW) Employees with High (nPOW) derive satisfaction from the ability to control others. satisfaction is derived from being in positions of influence and control. It is the ability to manipulate or control the activities of other to find ones own objective. Actual achievement of goals
is less important than the means by which the goals are
achieved. Need for affiliation(nAFF) Individuals with high need for affiliation derive satisfaction from social and interpersonal activities. They derive pleasure from being loved tend to avoid the pain of being rejected. They are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationship. Developing achievement motivation: McClelland has conducted achievement courses in India in the state of Andhra Pradesh. His achievement development courses contained following important points, 1. the individual should strive to attain concrete and frequent feedback. 2. they should seed models of achievement. 3. the individuals would imagine himself as one who needs success and set realistic goals. 4. he has to think & talk to himself in positive terms.
Developing achievement motivation: Mc Cleland has conducted achievement courses in the state of Andhra parades. His achievement development courses contained with following points. 1. Individual should strive to attain concrete and frequent feedback. 2. They should seed model of achievement. 3. The individuals would imagine him as one who needs success and set realistic goals. 4. He has to think and talk to himself in positive terms. State the characteristics of motivation or Bring out the Nature of motivation 1. Motivation is internal to man: Motivation cannot be seen because it is internal to man. It is externalized via behaviour. It activates the man towards goal. 2. A single motive can cause different behaviour
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A person with a single desire to earn prestige in the society may move towards to join politics, attain additional education and training, join identical groups and change his outward appearance. 3. Different motive may result in single behaviour The same or single behaviour may be caused by many motives. If a person buy a care for example. This buying behaviour may be caused by different motives. Such as to look attractive, be respectable, gain acceptance from similar group of persons, differentiate the status and so on. 4. Motives come and go Like tides, motives can emerge and disappear. Motives emerged at a point of time may not remain with the same intensity at other point of time. For instance, a boy overly concerned about his hair and stress styles during his adolescence age may turn his concern toward other thing like health and education once he grows up an attains youth. 5. Motives interact with the environment. The environment in which we are at a point of time may either trigger or suppress our motives. INCENTIVES OF TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION Incentive: The objects, which are perceived to satisfy employee’s needs, are called incentive. Individuals have varied types of needs; some of them can be satisfied by money while others cannot be satisfied by money alone. On the basis of this the various incentives may be classified into two parts viz., financial incentives and non-financial incentives. Financial incentives: Those incentives that are given in the form of money are called financial incentives. This can be classified into two parts. Individual financial incentives: this group of incentives includes all such plans, which induce an individual to achieve higher output. Taylor’s piece rate system, Halsey’s efficiency plan and Rowan plan are examples of such incentives. The basic assumptions behind these are that an individual will be motivated for higher output to earn money, which satisfies his needs. Collective financial incentives. This group of incentives tries to motivate individuals collectively, the basic idea of these incentives are the same as the individual incentives, however the employees are given these collectively. Eg. Bonus, profit sharing, pension plan Non-financial incentives: Individuals have various needs, which they want to satisfy while working in the organization. People at comparatively higher level of managerial hierarchy attach more importance to socio-psychological needs, which cannot be satisfied by money alone. This
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management in addition to financial incentive provides non-financial incentives to motivate people in the organization. The emphasis of non-financial incentives is to provide psychological and emotional satisfaction rather than financial satisfaction. For e.g., if an individual gets promotion in the organization, it satisfies him psychologically more, i.e., he gets better status, more challenging job, authority etc than financially. Non- financial incentives can be grouped under a. Individual non-financial incentives b. Collective non-financial incentives c.
Institutional non-financial incentives.
Individual Non-Financial Incentives. These incentives motivate people in individual tasks. The various forms of individual nonfinancial incentives are as follows. Status: It means the ranking of position, rights and duties in the formal organization structure. It is an instrument of motivation because it is extremely important for most of the people. Promotion: It is a movement to a position in which responsibilities and prestige are increased, promotion satisfies the need of human beings in the organization. Responsibility. Most of the people prefer challenging and responsible jobs rather than monotonous and routine types of job. If the job os responsible, it satisfies peoples natural and inherent characteristics and they put more efforts for completing the job. Making a job pleasant and interesting: The work can be made enjoyable and pleasant if it is so designed that it allows the employees to satisfy their natural instincts, this creates interest in the work and employee take it as natural as play. Recognition of work Recognition means acknowledgement with a show of appreciation is given to work performed by the employer. They feel motivated to perform work at similar or higher level. Collective Incentives: People may be motivated in groups also. They perform their duties in groups and are affected by the group. Some of the collective non-financial incentives are as follows. 1. Social importance of work People generally prefer a work, which is socially acceptable. If the society gives importance and praise to work people, like to perform. 2. Team spirit. The management should encourage team spirit i.e., to work in co-operation and coordination. 3. Competition:
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Sometimes for providing incentives to employees competition is organized between different individuals of different groups. Human Relations In Industry. It is related with policies to be adopted in the organization to develop a sense of belongingness in the employees, improve their efficiency and treat them as human beings and not merely a factor of production. 1. Participation; It is related with superior sub-ordinate relationship in the subordinate participate in decision-making process. 2. Communication Communication is the process of passing ideas and understanding from one person or group to another person or group. A free and adequate flow of communication becomes good motivation. 3. Building morale Morale is the attitude of individuals and group toward work environment and towards voluntary co-operation to the full extent of their abilities in the best interest of the organization ________________________________________________________________ JOB SATISFACTION What do you mean by Job satisfaction? What are the factors influencing job satisfaction? Or what are the determinants of Job satisfaction? Meaning Job Satisfaction is asset of favourable or unfavourable feelings with which the employees view their work. Job satisfaction is a feeling of relative pleasure or pain. It typically refers to the attitude of a single employee. Definition According to Feldman and Arnold â&#x20AC;&#x153; job satisfaction will be defined as the amount of overall positive affect that individuals have towards their jobs. Concept Job satisfaction means good or positive attitude or feeling towards oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s job. It is important to mention that an individual may hold different attitudes towards various aspects of the job. For example, a university professor may like his job responsibilities but be dissatisfied with the opportunities for promotion. Characteristics of individuals also influence job satisfaction. There are three important dimensions of job satisfaction 1. Job satisfaction being an emotional response to a job cannot be seen. As such, it can only be inferred.
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2. Job Satisfaction is often determined by how satisfactorily outcomes meet or exceed oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expectations. 3. Job satisfaction represents an employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitudes towards five specific dimensions of the job pay, the work itself, promotion opportunities, supervision and co-workers.
CAUSES OR EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION Job satisfaction has a variety of effects. These effects may be seen in the context of an individual's physical and mental health. productivity. absenteeism. and turnover.
1. Physical and Mental Health. The degree of job satisfaction affects an individual's physical and mental health. Since job satisfaction is a type of mental, its favorableness or unfavourableness affects the individual psychologically which ultimately affects his physical health. For example. Lawler has pointed out that drug abuse. alcoholism. and mental and physical health result from psychologically harmful jobs.Further, since a job is an important part of life, job satisfaction influences general life satisfaction. The result is that there is spillover effect which occurs in both directions between job and life satisfaction.
2. Productivity. There are two views about the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity: 1. a happy worker is a productive worker, 2. a happy worker is not necessarily a productive worker. The first view establishes a direct cause-effect relationship between job satisfaction and productivity; whenjob satisfaction increases, productivity increases; when job satisfaction decreases, productivity decreases. The basic logic behind this is that a happy worker will put more efforts for job performance. However, this may not be true in all cases. For example, a worker having low expectations from his jobs may feel satisfied but he may not put his efforts more vigorously because of his low expectations from the job. Therefore, this view does not explain fully the complex relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. The another view: that isa satisfied worker is not necessarily a productive worker explains the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. Various research studies also support this view. This relationship may be explained in terms of the operation oftwo factors: effe.ct of job performance on satisfaction and organisational expectations from individuals for job performance. 1. Job performance leads to job satisfaction and not the other way round. 38 The basic factor for this phenomenon is the rewards (a source of satisfaction) attached with performance. There are two types of rewards-intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic reward stems from the job itselfwhich may be in the form of growth potential, challengingjob, etc. The satisfaction on such a type of reward may help to increase productivity. The extrinsic reward is subject to control by management such as salary,
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bonus, etc. Any increase in these factors does not help to increase productivity though these factors increase job satisfaction. 2. A happy worker does not necessarily contribute to higher productivity because he has to operate under certain technological constraints and, therefore, he cannot go beyond certain output. Further, this constraint affects the management's expectations from the individual in the form oflower output. Thus, the work situation is pegged to minimally acceptable level of performance. However, it does not mean that the job satisfaction has no impact on productivity. A satisfied worker may not necessarily lead to increased productivity but a dissatisfied worker leads to lower productivity.
3. Absenteeism. Absenteeism refers to the frequency of absence ofajob holder from the workplace either unexcused absence due to some avoidable reasons or long absence due to some unavoidable reasons. It is the former type of absence which is a matter of concern. This absence is due to lack of satisfaction from the job which produces a 'lack of will to work' and alienate a worker from work as far as possible. Thus, job satisfaction is related to absenteeism.
4. Employee Turnover. Turnover of employees is the rate at which employees leave the organisation within a given period of time. As discussed earlier in this chapter under. defence mechanism, when an individual feels dissatisfaction in the organisation, he tries to overcome this through the various ways of defence mechanism. If he is not able to do so, he opts to leave the organisation. Thus, in general case, employee turnover is related to job satisfaction. However, job satisfaction is not the only cause of employee turnover. the other cause being better opportunity elsewhere. For example, in the present context. the rate of turnover of computer software professionals is very high in India. However, these professionals leave their organisations not simply because they are not satisfied but because of the opportunities offered from other sources particularly from foreign companies located abroad.
Improving Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction plays significant role in the organisation. Therefore. managers should take concrete steps to improve the level of job satisfaction. These steps may be in the form of job redesighing to make the job more interesting and challenging, improving quality of work life, linking rewards with performance. and improving overall organisational climate~)
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MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION MEASUREMENT AND DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION Job satisfaction is a positive attitude towards one’s job. The evidence from research studies indicates that the more important elements that contribute to job satisfaction are as follows: 1. Nature of work:
Most employees crave intellectual challenges on their jobs. Therefore
they prefer to jobs, which offer them challenges and an opportunity to use their skills and abilities. However, while too much challenge in job created frustration and feelings of failure, too little challenge causes boredom. It is the conditions of moderate challenge in which employees experience pleasure and satisfaction 2. Attending & solving problems:
It is desirable that complaints of the workers be
heard patiently and the problems solved as far as possible. Factories in which the worker’s demands are not needed suffer because the workers lose confidence because the workers lose confidence in the management, and become frustrated. 3. Pay and promotion Employees want their pay systems and promotions polices as unambiguous and in line with their expectations. Accordingly, if they see pay as fair, based on job demands and employees skill and as per community pay standards, it results in job satisfaction. 4. Testing the workers ability and progress Organisations in which the management keeps an eye on the ability ability and progress of its workers normally have high degree of job satisfaction among their employees. 5. Respect for creative suggestions If workers are encouraged to suggest ways and means of improving the condition of work, they often come up with valuable ideas. This helps in increasing job satisfaction because when work is praised he tends to pay more attention to his work. 6. Proper quantum of work If job satisfaction is to be maintained it is essential that quantity of work does not exceed the individual’s ability to complete it. 7. Praise for good performance If workers are not praised for exceptional performance in their work they lose interest in it and as result, the organisation suffers. If he is encouraged in his work by and occasional word of praise and respect, he is further motivated to maintain a high level of efficiency. 8. Freedom to seek help in solving problems Very often the worker is faced by problems in his work that he cannot solve alone. In such a case he should be free to seek help and guidance from other worker or even from the managers.
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9. Absence of unnecessary Intervention and criticism No individual wants to sacrifice his self-respect. If the worker is unnecessarily shown disrespect or abused he quickly becomes dissatisfied. Hence he should be protected from useless interruption and criticism. 10. Satisfactory future In the factory, rules regarding condition of promotion and advancement must be laid down and if the worker gets the expected promotion, he feels satisfied and becomes confident of his future otherwise he becomes confident of his future. Otherwise he becomes frustrated and slack in his work. 11. Quality supervision Quality or supportive supervision establishes cordial and supportive personal relationship with subordinates. These characteristics of supervision create satisfaction for employees on their jobs. 12. Satisfactory hours of work The hours of work in any factory or offices should be convenient and so arranged as to offer the least possible inconvenience to the largest number of employees. If this is not looked into the workers becomes dissatisfied. 13. Availability of leaves and rest In every industrial organisation the workers should be given the proper amount of rest and holidays on festivals and other occasions of social celebration. It is generally seen that workers feel satisfied if the management in any organisation follows a liberal policy towards leave for workers. 14. Supportive colleagues Experience shows that employees get more out of work than only money or tangible achievements. It happens so primarily by having opportunities for interaction with colleagues. Thus work teams fill the need for social interaction. Thus having supportive colleagues also leads to employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; job satisfaction ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS THAT DETERMINES THE JOB SATISFACTION IN AN ORGANIZATION?
Factors determining job satisfaction:
PERSONAL FACTORS Age Educational qualification
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS Nature of work assigned Pay and other benefits
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HRM & OB Experience Ability Perception
324 Superior – subordinates relationship Interpersonal relationship Opportunities for advancement Personal Factors
Age: The age of a person does have its influence on his level of job satisfaction people who are young usually have a higher level of job satisfaction provided they rightly choose their career. Those in their twenties or thirties we energetic and have the stamina to work hard and derive pleasure out of their work. As a person gets older, he gets tired physically and mentally.
SEX: There is a feeling among many employers that women employees are much more committed to work than men. Such employers prefer to appoint women in their concerns. A women employee who is able to show greater commitment to work naturally should derive higher level of job satisfaction.
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFACTION: The job satisfaction level of people with higher educational qualification is generally found to be low. This happens, because, such people always look for better employment opportunities. A person deriving pleasure out of his present job, which is also remunerative, need not look for better employment prospects.
EXPERIENCE: The experience of an employee gives him explosive to many difficult work situations. This enables him to learn the art of managing crisis. Such persons, in view of their ability to tackle any critical work situation, should naturally have greater job satisfaction than these who are inexperienced. It may be mentioned here that the age and experience of a parson need not go together.
ABILITY: An employee who lacks the capability to perform his job, obliviously, cannot derive job satisfaction. Performance is vital for job satisfaction. Only those who have the ability will be able to perform. It may be mentioned have that the satisfaction accruing to a person out of the monetary benefits he gets from his employment is temporary.
PERCEPTION: Job expectations differ from person to person. This is in view of difference in one’s perception. Some individuals may be interested in challenging jobs while others may be interested in routine work. Organizational factors: NATURE OF WORK ASSIGNED: The work assigned to an employee should be of interest to him. What appears to be an interesting job to one may appear to uninteresting to another and so says the proverb, ‘one man’s food is another man’s poison’. It is therefore, important that the employer understands the capabilities and preferences of his employees before
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assigning them work.
PAY AND OTHER BENEFITS: Pay and other tangible benefits offered to employees, although cannot determine job satisfaction in all cases, are not unimportant. An employee who derives pleasure out his job cannot be indifferent to pay and other benefits to which he is entitled. SUPERIOR – SUBORDINATE RELATIONSHIP: Sometimes, an employee may be fully satisfied with his job. But if his superior tries to find fault with him unnecessarily, the employee gets disturbed mentally. This affects satisfaction.
INTERPERSONEL RELATIONSHIPS: When the relationship between the employees working as a group is not cordial, it will affect individual performance. This happens because of two reasons.
OPPURTINUTIES FOR ADVANCEMENT: Where in an organization , there rare no opportunities for promotion, the employee may have to remain in the same job till their retirement. WHAT ARE ALL THE STEPS INVOLVED IN JOB SATISFACTION? The following measures may be adopted to have a higher level of job satisfaction among employees.
1. Selection of right man for the right job. 2. Payment commensurate with the employee’s credentials. 3. Conducive working environment. 4. Cardinal superior – subordinate relationship 5. Better inter –person relationship 6. Provision of suitable promotion opportunities. 7. Creation of facilities for training. 8. Provision of suitable incentives and social security benefits. 9. Job rotation where desirable. 10. Encouraging employee’s participation in decision making. The two factor theory the need fulfillment theory and the expectancy theory discussed in the chapter motivation has relevance to job satisfaction as well. DETERMINANTS/ FACTORS AFFECTING JOB SATISFACTION Supervision: Generally, employee – centered leadership enhances a great amount of job satisfaction as the leader looks after the subordinates carefully displays friendship, respect and warmth etc towards employees.
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The work group It has been proved that isolated workers dislike their jobs. In other words the work group exerts a tremendous influence on the satisfaction of employees at workplaces. The amount of satisfaction an individual derives from his on the relationship with the group members and his own need for affiliation. Job content: Job content refers to the factors such as recognition, responsibility, and advancement in the jobs employees performs. In a study it was found that at least one job content factor is very important for job satisfaction. Occupational level: High-level jobs are satisfying for many reasons The needs for power and autonomy They reduce financial stringency They offer task diversity and job enrichment It was found that that at each successive lower level the managers were less satisfied. Specialization: The relationship between job specialization and job satisfaction is complex. Based on specialization job satisfaction increases up to certain point and after
JOB SATISFACTION
a certain point specialization leads to dissatisfaction.
JOB SPECIALISATION Age: Job satisfaction usually tends to be high when people enter the work force; it plummets and the plateaus for several years up to age of roughly thirty years, after which there will be gradual increase in satisfaction. Race and sex: It has been found that job satisfaction among minority group has been lower compared to majority group. Likewise, females are dissatisfied that males because females have less job and pay opportunities than males Educational level: Keeping the occupational level as constant, there found a negative correlation between the level of education of employees and their satisfaction.
Job enrichment:It refers to the vertical expansion of job. It includes the degree to which the workers control planning, execution & evaluation of his or her work.
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Job enrichment can be defined as designing job that includes a greater variety of work contents; requires a higher level of knowledge and kill; give workers more autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning, directing & controlling their own performance; and provide the opportunity for personal growth and a meaningful work experience. It involves increasing the depth of job. Depth is the degree to which individual can plan and control the work involved in their jobs.
Characteristics f job enrichment:1. Skill Variety:- Extended to which the job has a number of activities that require different skills. 2. Task Identify: It is the degree to which the job allows the completion of he major identifiable piece work. 3.Task significance: It is the extent to which the workers sees the job output as having an important impact on others. 4.Autonomy: It is the amount of discretion allowed in determining schedule and work methods for achieving the requires output. 5. Feed back:- The degree to which jobs provide for clear , timely information. Job enlargement:Job enlargement involves variety of jobs or operation at the same time. Simply it is the horizontal loading of job. Argryis feels that both enlargement avoids monotony which is the result of high degree of specialization and division of labour. An enlarges job can motivate an individual for 2 reasons. 1. Increasing the number of task to be performed can reduce the level of boredom. 2. It tends to increase satisfactory by allowing workers to appreciate their contribution.
Dis advantages:1. The testing costs tend to rise. 2. Even after enlargement, many jobs may still be routine & boring.
Job enrichment Vs Job enlargement -diagram1. Nature of job:- Enlargement involves a horizontal loading ore expansion or addition of task of the same nature. Enrichment involves vertical loading of tasks and responsibility of the jobholder; it improves the quality of job in terms of its intrinsic worth. 2. Objectives:- The basic objectives of enlargement is to reduce the antonym in performing certain repetitive jobs by lengthening the cycle of operations. The objective of enrichment is to make the job more lively and challenging thereby satisfying the needs of the jobholders. Particularly the higher order needs which he seeks from the job.
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3. Skill requirement:- Job enlargement does not asks for additional skills of the job holder due to similarity of additional tasks. Enrichment calls for development & utilization of higher skills, initiative and innovation on the fact of job holder. Direction & control: Job enlargement requires direction and control from external sources, say supervisor enrichment does not require external direction and control as they come from the job holder himself . He requires only feedback from his superiors.
WHAT IS STRESS? MEANING and definition: A person under goes stress when he feels that he is ill equipped to carry out the tasks assigned to him. Not every one undergoes stress in a work place. It is also not possible to explain precisely the situation that would give scope for stress because, many individuals are capable of performing their tasks irrespective of the work situation.
WHY DOES STRESS ARISE? The various factors that cause stress can be grouped under:
Stress arise of two factors
Personal Factors I
Organizational Factors II
Ability: They have the necessary mental and physical stamina to overcome any kind of a pressure. On the other hand, there are people who do not have the capability to face critical situations.
Perception: Whether a problematic has arise in the organization or not depends upon the perception of the people who are employed in it. Some people cannot perform any out-ofroutine work because they perceive into be difficult while there are people who are always prepared to accept any challenge.
Manner of approaching crisis: Hoe a person approaches his task when there is a crisis is yet another cause of stress. In a critical situation some become nervous and as a result they are unable to perform well.
Level of Self-confidence: Some people basically lack self-confidence. Needless to say, in a crisis for such people the level of self-confidence deteriorates further and affects performance. People who have supreme self-confidence are not likely to undergo stress.
Experience: Well- experienced employees would have come across difficult situations several times in their career and therefore are aware of the tactics to be used.
Desire for work: The desire of an employee for work is another important personal factors. An employee with a desire for work is always keen on performing his task and only completion of the task will give him peace and happiness.
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Beliefs: An employee who firmly believes that systematic work will pay rich dividends does not feel the work pressure and therefore is not likely to experience stress.
Organizational Factors
Nature of job: An employee who has to face challenges in his job, almost on a daily basis, undergoes stress often.
Superior- Subordinate relationships: Cordial superior-subordinate relationships is essential for the smooth functioning of any organization.
Inter-personal relationships: Such strained relationships affect co-operation and teamwork and also make the work environment unpleasant. The unpleasant environment affects the moral of the employees and finally leads to stress conditions.
Target to be reached: An employee who is not able to attain the target set for him either because the target is unreasonable or he is ill-equipped or the internal and external forces are not conducive the develops frustration.
Time pressure: This is an extension of the previous point. The target to be attained by an employee is always with reference to a time-frame.
Physical Working conditions: The existence of improper working conditions may also contribute to job stress.
Opportunities for advancement: When an employee is deprived of the opportunities to move to higher positions due to politics in the workplace, he is sure to get disappointed.
House of work: If the hours of work are too long and or the employee is made to work continuously without the required interval breaks he is sure to become tried physically as well as mentally.
Disparity in pay and other benefits: In some organizations there is often disparity in the payment of remuneration among employees. For a same type of job some employees may be paid more while others may be paid less.
Biased assessment of performance: Evaluating the performance of the human resource is an integral part of HR management. A number of crucial decision pertaining to an employs-pay fixation, payment of allowances, training, promotion, transfer and even termination of service.
Greater responsibilities: Some superiors expect too much out of their subordinates. They give their subordinates responsibilities without the requisite authority.
Consequences of Stress: Explain the consequences of stress. Having discuss its consequences. An employee undergoing excessive stress may face certain phychological problems as stated below.
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Physical Problems:
Headache
Hyper-tension
Lack of appetite
Sleeplessness
Indigestion
Psychological Problems:
Frustration
Emotional instability
Nervousness and tension
Anxiety
Irritable mood
Depression
Behavioral Changes: Certain behavioral changes may also take place in the individual undergoing excessive stress.
Excessive smoking
Abuse of alcohol or drugs
Late coming
Absenteeism
Tendency to Neglect safety precautions
Problems faced by the Enterprise: The enterprise may have to face several problems in view of the stress conditions of its employees.
Low productivity
Low quality output
Loss of man-hours
Excessive complaints and grievances
High rate of absenteeism
High rate of lab our turnover
Increase in conflicts
Strained inter-personal relationships
EXPLAIN HOW TO MANAGE THE STRESS? DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGING STRESS?
There are basically three approaches to stress management.
Present, Escape, Cope
Presentation of stress involves the adoption of certain measures as mentioned below:
Assignment of work according to each individuals capabilities
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Provision of better working conditions
Better superior – subordinate relationship
Better inter – personal relationships
Unbiased evaluation of employee performance
Maintaining equality and equity in the distribution of workload
THE EMPLOYEES CAN ESCAPE STRESS BY ANY OF THE FOLLOWING MEANS: 1) Seeking transfer 2) Opting for voluntary retirement 3) Finding alternative employment, etc Morale What is morale? What are the benefits of morale? What are the advantages of high morale? Introduction Generally, the term morale is used to describe and overall tone or climate prevailing among members of group, society and association. It is the by-product pf Motivation. If they appear to feel, good, happy, optimistic and friendly, there may be said to exist good or high morale. If they are quarrelsome, irritated critical and restless, the condition is called poor or low morale. Meaning Morale is the employee’s attitude towards his firm. It is the sum of satisfaction experienced by an employee on account of his job and a member of a work team. It is described as group attitude such as persistence, determination and cohesiveness. Good employee is the mental attitude of individual or of the group, which enables the employee to realize that the maximum satisfaction of his drives coincides with the fulfillment of the objective of the concern. 1. What is it? - An attitude of mind, a state of well or unwell being and an emotional force. 2. What it does? It affects outputs, quality, cost discipline, enthusiasm, co-operation etc. 3. Where it resides? In the minds, attitudes and emotions of individuals and groups 4. Whom it affects? Immediately the employees, executives and ultimately the consumers. 5. What it affects? Willingness to work and to co-operate in the best interest of the enterprise. According to Dale s. Beach “Morale is the total satisfaction a person derives from his job, his work group, his boss, his organization and his environment.
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Morale is defined as “ a composite of feelings, attitudes, and sentiments that contribute to general feelings of satisfaction.” Definition According to Keith Davis “Morale can be defined as attitudes of individuals and groups towards their work environment and toward voluntary cooperation to the full extent of their ability in the best interest of the organisation” Advantages 1. High morale retains good employees 2. It helps in minimizing labour turnover, absenteeism and disciplinary problems. 3. It results in increased job performance and consequent increase in job satisfaction 4. It improves cooperation and brings unity among the employees. 5. It creates favourable climate among customers, outsiders and the employees 6. It makes the work the enterprise healthy 7. It makes the work pleasant for employees. 8. It is a pride in the organisation What are the effects of high morale? Effects of Low morale 1. Reduced productivity 2. Excessive tardiness and absenteeism 3. Excessive complaints and grievances 4. High employee turnover 5. Friction among employees 6. Alcoholism 7. High Accident Explain various methods on measuring morale? Measurement of morale The measurement of moral4e is a very difficult task because it is basically a psychological question and it is made up of several individual tendencies. Hence in order to measure the level of morale in a worker, the management must obtain characteristic of low morale in the behaviour of a particular employee. 1. Common worker’s opinion analysis: In this method opinions of the average worker are collected and analysed. For this certain scientific questionnaires are prepared. It reveals the worker’s opinions regarding
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various aspects of the industry as well as towards the authorities. The worker does not have to reveal his name in answering these questionnaires assuring the worker of secrecy regarding his views. When the questionnaires are duly completed by workers it is received back and it becomes possible to see the various scores on which the workers have complained. If some particular object or subject is a matter of complaint in a large majority of cases, efforts can be made to rectify it. Success in this method depends upon the degree to which the questionnaire is scientific, and upon the degree of truth in workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responses. 2. Interview method: In this method, those individual are directly interviewed who have departed from the unit in question for various reasons. One main advantages of this method is that is reveals the reasons whereby the workers feel compelled to seek jobs elsewhere, so that future desertion on the part of present employees cab be discouraged part of present employees can be discouraged. Another advantage of this method is the views of departed employees cannot result in any harm to the administration. But if many workers level their jobs on the same pretext than evidently, it is necessary to put an end to the source of complaint in order to maintain a high level or morale. This method is useful in measuring the existing level of morale, and suggesting methods of improvements. It also locates the cause of falling morale, and suggesting methods of improvements 3.Attitude Measurement Morale is an expression of the work towards their work, the authorities and general administration or organisation. Hence the workers attitudes can be known to evaluate their morale. For example if the answer to the following queries where supplied by workers, their attitudes in these respect could be known: i)
I work in the company under compulsionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
ii)
I have no respect for faith in those in authority above me
iii)
I find no freedom, pleasure of satisfaction in my work.
The workers attitudes can be discovered by requiring him to mark the above queries right or wrong. 4. Sociological Method: Sociological Method can be used to discover characteristics of the workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s group organisation where by the level of morale can be discovered. The worker is given a questionnaire containing certain questions intended to throw light on the characteristics of group organisation. For example, the workers are asked to name and enumerate the individuals with whom they would like to work or under whom they would prefer to work If the answer of many individuals
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to this question seem to speak favourably of any one individuals, and the answer seem to show respect, love and confidence for the individual, it is fairly evident that he is capable of becoming a good administrator. 5. Company Records & Reports The records and reports of the company prepared for other reasons and purposes can be used to measure the morale of employees. These records can be analysed in the following manners change of labour ratio, man-hour lost, absence and slackness, number of grievances reported by workers and resolved by the management, number and value of accidents occurred in factory etc. ______ Concept of morale 1. Morale is a fundamental psychological concept. 2. Morale is a multi dimensional concept. It is a complex mixture of several elements. 3. Morale is a group phenomenon consisting of pattern of attitudes of the members of the group. It refers to the spirit of the organization. 4. Morale is different from teamwork. Morale is the capacity of group of people to pull together persistently and consistently in the pursuit of common purpose. 5. Rising morale to a high level and maintaining it there is a long term and continuous process, which cannot be achieved through short-run devices. 6. Morale may be ‘high’ or ‘low’. High morale is hallmark of sound behavioral climate in the organization. 7. Morale is different from motivation. Difference between morale and motivation Basis
Morale
Motivation
Composition
It is composite of feelings, attitudes and
It is something that moves a person
sentiments
to action
Group phenomenon
It
Scope
is
basically
an
individual’s
willingness to work Sources
Functions
of
freedom
or
restraint
It is a function of drives and needs.
towards some goals Concern
Mobilization of sentiments
Concerned
with
mobilization
energy Relationship between morale and productivity It is contended by human relations school that morale and productivity are positively correlated, i.e., they go hand in hand. High productivity results from the fact that people experiencing high morale do not skip their duty are least tardy, take keen interest in their work, show good team spirit and contribute their best to the attainment of organizational goals.
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Conversely, poor morale and low productivity go together. People with low morale show tendencies like absenteeism, tardiness, casual in interest coupled with apathy, anxiety, tension and even arrogance. But some recent studies have proved that there is no consistent, positive and casual relationship between morale and productivity, some studies though showed positive correlation, some other showed negative correlation. In other words, several other factors, apart from morale, influence productivity and if their factors are strong enough, they may pull down the influence of morale. There are four possible combinations of morale and productivity a. High morale and high productivity b. Low morale and low productivity c.
High morale and low productivity
d. Low morale and high productivity ď ś High productivity goes with high morale when the workers are highly motivated, the supervision is considerate of workers and the workers are highly trained, this is the ideal state. ď ś High morale is associated with low productivity when the employees are merely happy and they are not properly motivated to do their wok. Other reasons may be inefficient supervision, faulty technology, and low degree of skills. ď ś High productivity is associated with low morale when management uses strict supervision and punishment against low productivity. But high productivity with low morale cannot be sustained for long since will to work is a very important factor. High morale only High morale and high productivity
Morale High productivity only
Productivity
Measurement of morale 1. Observation methods: a manager can measure the morale of his subordinates by observing their attitudes and behavior towards the management, co-workers and the work. 2. Morale survey: this is the formal method of knowing the morale of the employees. A questionnaire may be drafted and the employees may be asked to provide answers about their attitudes toward supervision, peers, management and work. 3. Study of morale indicators
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a. Productivity – generally, low level of productivity is associated with low degree of morale. b. Absenteeism- greater degree of absenteeism is associated with low morale. c.
Job satisfaction - if the workers are satisfied with their jobs their morale will be higher.
d. Relations with other employees - the morale of the workers is high, if they feel belongingness and togetherness among themselves. e. Number of accidents - generally, low morale leads to more accidents f.
Number of grievances - if the number of grievances increases, there will be low morale of the workers
g. Employees’ turnover—if there is higher employee turnover due to avoidable causes, there will be lower morale.
Building morale It is very complex job to build and maintain high morale in a work group. It is a continuous process, which cannot be stopped even for a moment. The management can use the following techniques to achieve and maintain high morale of workforce. Incentive system: there should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and non-monetary rewards to the employees to motivate them. Welfare measures: management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens, credit facilities, sports clubs, education facilities for their children, etc. Management’s concern for workers’ welfare will increase the goodwill of the management in the eyes of the workers. Effective communication system:
there should be two-way communication
between the management and the workers as it exercises a profound influence on morale. The workers should be kept informed about the organization’s policies and programmes through conference bulletins and informal discussion with the workers. Social activities: management should encourage social group activities by the workers. This will help to develop greater group cohesiveness, which can be used by the management for building high morale. Workers participation: Management should allow workers participation in management. Whenever a change is to be introduces which will affect the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence. Workers must be allowed to put forward their suggestion and grievances to the top management. Features of low morale: Antagonistic attitude towards those in the authorities Lack of obedience or forced obedience Feelings of hatred, jealousy, doubt, disrespect and lack of confidence towards those in authority.
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Disappointed and unenthusiastic. Lack of collective administration, unity, belief in effort. Mental turmoil and unhappiness Lack of system and productivity in work Tendency to circulate all kind of rumor. Mutual conflict and non co-operation Features of high morale Positive attitude towards those in authority Voluntary obedience and discipline Feeling of proud, uncouthness, respect, confidence towards authority Satisfied, enthusiastic, motivated to all. Collective administration, unity and belief in-group effort. Mental peace and happiness Systematic activity in work and productivity Do not spread unnecessary rumour.
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UNIT – IX GROUP DYNAMICS WHAT IS GROUP DYNAMICS? The term group dynamics contains two terms: Group and dynamics. Group is basically a collectively of two or more persons. Dynamics comes from Greek word meaning force. Theory of dynamics is used in physical sciences and engineering which explains the phenomena of universe by some immanent energy. Operation force: Thus group dynamics refers to the Interaction of forces between group members in a social situation. However, the term group dynamics is defined in different ways. One view is that group dynamics describes how a group should be organized and operated. This includes democratic leadership, participation, and co-operation. Another view takes group dynamics as a set of techniques
such as role playing brain
storming, leaderless group, group therapy, sensitivity training etc. According to the third view, group dynamics is viewed from the internal nature of groups, their formation, structure and processes and the way they affect individual members, other groups, and the organization. This view is more prevalent. For example, group dynamics has been defined as follows. “The social process by which people interact fuse in small groups is called group dynamics”
The group dynamics encompasses the dynamic of interaction patterns within the group, the subtle and non- subtle pressures exerted by group members, the manner in which decisions are made in the group, how member’s needs are satisfied. Understanding of all these will enable managers to manage groups effectively leading to organizational effectiveness.
The term group dynamics contain two terms: group and dynamics. Group is basically a collectivity of two or more persons. Dynamics came from Greek word meaning force. Group dynamics refers to the interaction of forces between group members in a social situation. It is also defined as the social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group dynamics. Group A group is a collection of two or more people have a common goal or interest and interact with each other to accomplish their objective, are aware of one another and perceive themselves to be a part of the group. The above definition stresses the following thing
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Interaction: A group would be quite static without interactions. Some form of communication and ability to communicate is vital for a group to exist. Size: For a group to exist, it must have at least two members. Shared goal interest: The shared goal identifies a common concern of all group members. Collective identity: Members of the group must be aware about their membership of the group. FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs or tasks, which are related to the total organizational mission. Informal groups are created in the organization because of operation of social and psychological forces operating at the workplace.
Origin
Formal
Informal
Are created deliberately and consciously by
Are created because of the operation of
the framers
socio-psychological
forces
at
work
place. Purpose
Created
for
achieving
the
legitimate
objectives of the organization
Created by organizational members for their
social
and
psychological
satisfaction. Size
Are quite large in size. Efficiency is the
Small in size so as to maintain the
criterion for the size of the formal groups.
group cohesiveness.
The formal groups are stable and may
The informal groups are quite unstable
continue for a long period
in nature.
Number of formal groups depends on
Large number of informal groups may
groups
organizational pattern
be formed
Authority
The member of formal groups derive
In the informal groups, all members are
authority through formal position
equal, however, some may command
Nature
of
groups
Number
of
more
authority
by
virtue
of
their
personal qualification Behavior
of
members
Behaviour of members is governed by
Behaviour of member is governed by
formal rules and regulations.
norms, beliefs
and values
of
the
groups. Communication
It is normally through chain of command
Communication pass through informal channels.
Abolition
Formal groups can be abolished at any time
Informal groups are difficult to abolish
through organizational process when the
by organizational
intended purpose is over.
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Introduction: In any organization, the work of an individual is influenced by that of another. The employees, therefore, have to work together in a coordinated manner to complete any task. In other words, it is teamwork that makes goal attainment possible.
There are a number of groups that one can find in a work place. These groups contribute either directly or indirectly to the success of the organization. The behavior of an individual is significantly influenced by the group to which he belongs. It is, therefore, more appropriate to discuss group behavior in the context of organizational behavior.
This chapter deals with the role of groups in influencing organizational behavior.
DEFINE A GROUP AND DISCUSS THE CHARESTERISTICS OF GROUP:MEANING OF GROUP: A group is a cluster of persons who have come together to pursue activities of common interest. A group may consist of any number of persons. But the group members have continued interaction with and must be psychologically aware of one another.
Group is basically a collectively of two or more persons or it may be defined as aggregation of small members of persons who work for common goals, develop a shared attitude and are aware that they are part of a group.
CHARESTERISTICS OF A GROUP BEHAVIOR:The following are the basis characteristics of a group.
A group is always a conglomeration of persons.
The members know and interact with one another.
The members come together to pursue certain activities of common interest.
Each member perceives that he is part of the group.
NATURE / CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP 1. Two or more persons: A single individual can’t form a group. For group formation, at least two persons are must. There is no specific limit on the maximum number of persons to form a group. 2. Collective Identity: Each group member knows one another. Each member of the group perceives that he/she is a part of group. 3. Interaction:
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There is an interaction among the members of the group. Each member shares his ideas with others through different communication methods such as face-to-face, in writing, over the telephone, and across a computer network. 4. Common purpose: The Members of the group work to achieve some common objective or purpose. In fact, it is the common purpose that binds the group members together.
EXPLAIN THE NATURE OF GROUP BEHAVIOR:
Two or more persons to form a group, there should be at least two persons because a single individual cannot interact.
However, there cannot be any specific limit on the maximum number of persons in a group but size of the group will be determined by rules and regulations of the organization in this context, or meaningful interaction among the members in the case of informal groups.
Collective identity member of the group must be aware about their membership of the group. Each member of the group must believe that he is a member of, is a participant in, some specific group.
INTERECTION:- Interaction means that each member share his ideas with others through communication can take place face to face in writing, over the telephone, across a computer network, or in any manner which allows communication among group members.
SHARED GOAL INTEREST:- Member of the group should subscribe to the attainment of some common objectives. If a group has a variety of objective or interest, each member of the group must share at least one of the group is concerns. The shared goal interest binds the group members together.
WHY ARE GROUPS FORMED? People come together to join and form groups for a variety of reasons important among these are.
REASONS FOR THE FORMATION OF GROUP: Nearness and interaction. Capacity to influence Need for security. Common interests. Recognition Power To get rid of delay.
NEARNESS AND INTERECTION:- In the work place the employees work close to each other. During the course of their work, they may have to interact with one another. Such an
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environmental may induce them to form groups. CAPACITY TO INTERFERENCE:- The capacity of each individual in the organization to influence another by reason of work or work related issues is another factor that results in the formation of groups. NEEDS FOR SECURITY:-
One of the main reason for the formation of groups in
organizations is the need for security. If the employer creates an environment in which employees feel insecure, they have to come together as a group, namely. The union to safeguard their interests. COMMON INTERESTS:- People with common interest likes often come together. This happens in an organization too. The subject matter of interest may be something connected with their work or it can be anything like politics, sports, hobbies, etc. RECOGNITION:- The recognition that is not normally available to a person, when he is alone becomes available to him once he becomes a member of a certain group. A person who feels that all his endeavors must be recognized and appreciated will identify himself with some group in the organization. POWER:- Employees derive much greater power collectively, as members of union, than as individuals. In an organization where trade unions are absent or are not powerful, belonging to a mall informal group gives an individual a feeling that the group will not let him down when he faces a crisis. TO GET A RID OF DELAY:- Formal organization promotes delay in view of hierarchy and longer channels of communication. To get rid of the delay in the completion of certain specific taste, executives, sometimes, may have to meet and interact with employees casually and informally.
Factors Influencing Group Formation 1. Group provides warmth and support for individuals. When individuals are â&#x20AC;&#x153;solitariesâ&#x20AC;? lacking that warmth and support, they suffer. Aloneness leads to a degree of insecurity. In fact, the harshest punishment that can be given to a prisoner in the US penal system is to be put in solitary confinement for a given period of time. 2. Groups help employees satisfy the security needs or their need for power. Under conditions of an oppressive boss Or a very difficult and demanding job, people join together t o share sentiments and develop implicit or explicit tactics for dealing with the environment. 3. It is a source of recognition and esteem. Joining a higher status group can help an individual acquire esteem in the eyes of persons outside the group. 4. Proximity of people: It offers an excellent opportunity to exchange thoughts, ideas and attitudes regarding on and off the job activities.
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5. Economic reasons: Individual believe that they can derive greater economic benefits in their jobs if they form in to groups.
What Do Groups Do For Organizations? Socialization of new employees: The work group teaches the new employee the work norms, that is, how to behave at work. It orients and educates the new employees in to the enterprise work rules and norms and helps him under control. Getting the job done: The work group teaches the employees how to cope with the job. It helps the employees learn how to interact with the rest of the organization and how to get the job done. Decision making: Well-established groups can come out with better decisions. Two heads are better than one. GROUP COHESIVENESS It is defined as the degree to which members are attracted to one another and share the group’s goals. A cohesive group is able to act as one body to achieve its goals. According to Shaw, “Members of highly cohesive groups are more energetic in group activities, are less likely to be absent from group meetings and are happy when the group succeeds and sad when it fails”. Factors Determining Group Cohesiveness Size: Small groups offer frequent interaction opportunities leading to better understanding between members. Therefore small groups have a greater probability of being cohesive than larger one. Location: People who work closely together in the same geographical location have numerous opportunities to interact and exchange ideas resulting in highly effective and cohesive groups than do people who are geographically separated. Outside pressure: External threats create higher bonds between members. When the members perceive that the group is threatened by an external force, they strive together to combat the collective threat. Status of the group: A high status group that is successfully in achieving its goals tends to have greater cohesiveness. Membership in such a group is highly rated than membership in such a group widely denounced by all. It is better to a “big fish in a small pond” or “ a little fish in a big pond”
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Success: There is nothing like success to increase group spirit and cohesiveness. A universal finding is that cohesiveness generally increases with success Attractive leader: A good leader can build a cohesive group through his exclusive leadership skills
PROCESS OF GROUP FORMATION DISCUSS THE STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT? WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE PROCESS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT?
Adjourning
Performing Norming
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
Storming Forming
FORMING STAGE:- The initial information of group and bringing together of a number of individuals who identify, tentatively, the purpose of the group, its composition and terms of reference. At this stage consideration is given to hierarchical structure of the group, pattern of leadership, individual roles and responsibilities and codes of conduct.
There is likely to be considerable anxiety as members attempt to create an impression, to test each other and to establish their personal identity within the group.
NORMING STAGE:- As conflict and hostility start to be controlled members of the group will establish guide lines and standards, and develop their own norms of acceptable behavior. The norming stage is important in the establishing the needs for members to cooperate in order to plan, agree standard and develop their own norms of acceptable behavior.
The cooperation and adherence to group norms can work against effective organizational performance.
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STORMING STAGE:- As members of the group get to know each other better they will put forward their views more openly and forcefully. Disagreements will be expressed and challenges offered on the nature of the task and arrangements made in earlier stage of development. This may lead to conflict and hostility.
PERFORMING STAGE:- When the group has progressed successfully through three stages of development it would have created structured cohesiveness to work effectively as team. At this stage the group can concentrate on the attainment of its purpose and performance of their common task is likely to be at its most effective.
ADJOURNING STAGE:- This stage is relevant or work teams , task forces and such similar groups that have only a limited task to perform. As soon as the task is completed, the activities of the group are wrapped up.
WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF GROUP BEHAVIOR IN AN ORGANIZATION? EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROUP BEHAVIOR? BRING ABOUT THE ANALYTICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF GROUPS? Types of Group Formation: Groups can be classified into different types. The basis of differentiation may be purpose, extent of structuring, process of information, size of the group membership. However, an analytical classification of group may be.
Formal, Informal group
Primary or secondary group
Membership and reference group
Command group
In- group and out group.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUP:
It is created and maintained to fulfill specific needs or tasks, which are related to the total organizational mission. They are consciously and deliberately created.
Example: Committees board of directors teams, work units, staff groups.
INFORMAL GROUP:
It is created in the organization because of operation and social and psychological factor in the organization.
Members create this group for their satisfaction. The general organizational frame work of rules and regulations does not regulate the working of the group.
Example: Political groups, friendship groups, common interest groups.
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PRIMARY OR SECONDARY GROUP:- A primary group is characterized by intimate face – to- face association and cooperation. The membership of such a group is small and Is based on intimate relationship. Examples of such group may be family, friendship groups, and neighborhood groups.
Secondary group is more formal, general and remote. The members of secondary group may not have any interest in problems and pleasure of others. They do not have continuous interaction. Intimacy, face-to-face interaction.
Membership and reference:- A membership group is one to which the individual really belongs while a reference group is one with which the individual identifies or to which he belongs. In the membership group the individual may be of many groups but need not be an active participant. Here the individual actively participate in only those groups norm he feels is more attractive.
COMMAND AND TASK GROUP:- Composed of subordinates who report directly to a common superior. This type of group is determined by organization chart. Example:- Production manager subordinates in his department, a college principle, and teacher. TASK GROUP:- Formed to solve a problem an activity that involves a number of organization units. Thus membership of the task group extends beyond the hierarchical command of a superior. IN- GROUP AND OUT GROUP:
The in-group represents a clustering of the individuals holding prevailing values in a society or at least having a dominant place in social functioning.
Out group is the conglomerate looked up as subordinates or marginal in the society. It is referred as minority group.
Group Norms Group members tend to form & conform Norms. Norms are rules of behaviors or proper ways of action which are accepted or legitimate by group members. This kinds of behaviors that are expected of group members are specified by these norms. Features:1. Norms apply only to behaviors and not to private thoughts and feelings. 2. They summarize and high light those things that the groups feels important to control . 3. Norms usually develop gradually. 4. Not all norms apply to everyone in the group in the same manner. High status members enjoy more freedom to deviate from the “letter of the law” than do other members.
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Factors affecting conformity to group Norms. 1. Cohesive Group:-
The more stable
& cohesive a group is the more likely it is to
exercise conformity to its norms. 2. Compatible Goals:- It group goals mesh with individual goals, members are quite willing to adhere norms. 3. Situational factors:- Situational factors in group processes affect the degree of conformity. Thus the pressure for conformity increased for an individual as the number of personal agreeing to group norms increases. 4. Personality factors:- more intelligent members are likely to show lesser degree of conformity as compared to less intelligent members.
Enforcing group Norms:Group norms may vary from a very simple rule to very complex set of prescriptions and prohibitions. The leaders can derive certain actions for the adherence of group norms.
1 Education:Adherence to group norms can be increased through educating the group members about how the group norms contribute to the achievement of group goals. 2. Surveillance:Surveillance of adherence to group norms provides clue to measure the degree to which the group members adhere to norms. Such as clue helps mangers to derive suitable actions for ensuring conformity to norms. 3. Warning:Deviant members can be warned of the consequences of non-adherence to group norms. 4.Sanctions:This is the stage of taking actions against deviant members. Sanctions should be used only if means of persuading deviant members are exhausted .
THEORIES OF GROUP FORMATION 1. Balance theory 2. Propinquity theory 3. Exchange theory 4. Interaction theory
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Balance theory: Newcomb has advocated that persons get attracted towards each other on the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objectives and goals. Once the relationship is forged, it will continue to maintain symmetrical balance between attraction and the common attitudes. Propinquity theory This theory believes that geographical proximity enables people to come together and form groups. In the organizations people work together at the same place, come in contact of each other, interact and pass time with each other company. This proximity derives them to form groups. Exchange theory This theory suggests that people are attracted towards group when they find that rewards are more than the cost of joining the group. Rewards may be interpreted in terms of satisfied of needs and costs may be calculated in terms of fatigue, anxiety and frustration. Interaction theory Human has propounded this theory. According to him, activities, interactions, sentiments are the basic elements of group formation. Interaction and participation in organisation tend to result in a powerful group formation.
GROUP COHESIVENESS
WHAT IS GROUP COHESIVENESS? EXPLAIN ITS FEATURES? WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS? EXPLAIN THE FACTORS AFFECTING GROUP COHESIVENESS?
Group cohesiveness means the degree of attachment of the members to their group. If group cohesion is high, the interaction between members of the group is high and the degree of agreement in group opinion is high. A cohesive group usually has the following features.
The members share the group goals and norms and have common interests and backgrounds.
The number of members is small.
The members interact among themselves quite frequently and interpersonal communication is very effective.
Group loyalty among the members is high because the group enjoys high status.
The members stand united against perceived external threats to the group.
The members keep themselves glued to the group as they feel that their needs would be satisfied by the group.
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The group has a history of past success.
FACTORS DETERRMINING GROUP COHESIVENESS:DETERMINING OF GROUP COHESIVENESS:
DETERMINATIONS OF GROUP COHESIVENESS
Status of the Group Depending on Outside Pressure The Group
Autonomy
Size Communication
Leadership styles
Management Behaviour Degree of depending on the group:- The more highly dependent a person is on a group for some result or effect, the greater will be the groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attractiveness and consequently greater is its cohesiveness. Size: - The effective group is relatively small. Small groups are more closely knitted than the large ones. Status of the group: - A high status group receives loyalty from its members which in turns make the group stronger. Communication: - Group whose members are located close together and can interact frequently and easily are likely to be more effective than those whose members are scattered. Autonomy: - When each member of a group by independent and different activities, the cohesiveness among members of these group will be less as compared to the group whose members are dependent on each other. Leadership styles: The different styles of leadership influence the group cohesiveness differently. An effective leader keeps the members of the group close by helping them satisfy their social needs. Outside pressure: -Group provides a sense of security for the individual members from pressures from other groups. The group members work together when they are threatened by a common danger e.g. a group of employees may forget their personal differences and also ranks against a new supervisor who is regarded as a threat to the group. Management behavior: - By creating competition among employees and by constantly comparing one employee with another, a manager may make close relations difficult. He can utilize the group cohesiveness for achieving the goals of the enterprise it he can provide good leadership to the group.
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Discuss the measures that can be taken to increase group cohesiveness. Measures of agreement group cohesiveness I Inducing agreement on group goals
As mentioned earlier, the work of every employee influences and is influenced by the work of others. In the workplace the employees, therefore, have to work as a team. If only they work in a co-ordinated manner, it will be possible for them to carry out any task.
There must be consensus among the members on the goal for the accomplishment of which they work together. The manager has to play a vital role in this regard.
II Increasing the membership of like minded persons
Every organization has a unique culture that is reflected in the beliefs and attitudes of the personnel and also in the work methods and practices. The behaviour of the employees, therefore, must reflect its culture. While recruitment new employees, it must be ensured that they are in
a position to understand and appreciate the
organization’s culture.
If some members behave in an altogether different manner without bothering about the customer and values of the organization, it is sure to affect group cohesiveness. Steps must, therefore, be taken to induct and retain only those thinking coincides with that of the key persons in the organization.
III Increasing interactions among members
Any issue has be discussed in a forum and no attempt shall be made to thrust one’s views on others.
Before evolving decisions on any important matter, the manager must provide opportunities for all his subordinates to discusses the same and arrive at
a
consensus.
Group cohesiveness depends to a greater extent on how often and how effectively the members interact before reaching an agreement on any issue.
IV Taking care of the group size
If the group is unwieldy, securing consensus among the members is sure to become difficult.
It is therefore, necessary to take care of the group size.
V Encouraging competition among groups
Another measure to increase group cohesiveness is to encourage healthy competition among the different groups in the organization.
For Example: The salesman deployed in the southern region may compete with those deployed in the northern region. This will induce the salesmen in both the groups to evolve some strategy and work with better understanding. VI Rewarding the group instead of the individuals
If any group performs well, it is important to reward the group as a whole instead of rewarding a few although they have made a significant contribution when compared
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to others.
They may be help to avoid ill-feelings among the group members and may in fact bring them closer.
V Isolating the group members from rival groups
When there are rival groups, rival trade unions, it may sometimes be necessary to isolate the group members from the rival groups.
This purpose, the leader of the group may caution his members always so that they do not get carried away by the claims of the rivals and continue to be loyal to their group.
WHAT IS GROUP DECESION MAKING? EXPLAIN ITS PROCESS? It permits many persons simultaneously to interact and to arrive at a decision. In group decision – making there can be either consensus among the members of the group or the decision can be arrived at through simple majority. I Decision – making process: - Every decision is the outcome of a dynamic process which is influenced by multiple forces. They are (i) Specific objectives: - Objective setting is the initial stage of decision – making. It provides the frame work for the decision. (ii) Problem identification: -It is the real beginning of decision – making process.
II DIAGNOSIS:- It means identifying the symptoms and then judging the real problem. For e.g. If there is high employee turnover, then that is the symptom which indicates some problem in the organization. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what is end what ought to be, identifying the reason for the gap and understanding the problem in relation to higher objective of the organization. Analysis:- The analysis of the problem requires to find out who would make a decision , what information would be needed and from where the information is available.
Search for alternatives:- Once the problem is identified, the decision maker tries to find out the various alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result of a decision. Identification of several alternatives helps in selecting the most satisfactory one and also helps in avoiding bottlenecks if a particular decision goes wrong.
III EVALUTION OF ALTERNATIVES:- After the various alternatives are identified each one is evaluated to select the one that will meet the choice criteria. Two approaches can be followed.
(i)
The decision make develops a list of limits that must be met by the satisfactory solution. On this basis the number if alternatives are narrowed down.
(ii)
The alternatives are grouped on the basis of some important criteria and the alternatives falling in this group are analyzed further.
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Choice of alternation:- In choosing the alternative the following approaches can be followed. (i)
Experience:- It involves relaying on past experience, if a similar problem has been solved in the past.
(ii)
Experimentation:- The alternatives are put to test the result is observed and the best is selected.
ACTION: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. IV RESULT: The results of the alternatives are compared via â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a â&#x20AC;&#x201C;via the objectives, the entire process is repeated. V FEEDBACK: Feedback is given to top management.
GROUP DECISION MAKING
Identification Of Problems
Specific Objectives
Search For Alternatives
Evaluation Of alternatives
Feed Backs
Results
Action
Choice of alternative
WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF BEHAVIOR EMERGES IN GROUP DECISION- MAKING?
I Conformity to group norms: The norms of behavior established in a group becomes the standard code of conduct over a period of time. Every member in the group decision- making process adheres to these norms.
II Influence processes:- Some members are able to exert more pressure on the decisionmaking process, Therefore, decision- making process adheres to these norms.
III Role of leader: In coordinating the group processes the leader has to perform task role and social role.
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(i) Task role: The leader defines the problem or goal for the group, requests for ideas and opinions from the members, provides facts and his own ideas and opinions, clarifies the confusing situations, summarizes discussions and determines weather agreement has been reaches on the under discussion.
(ii)Social Role: The leader tries to restore and maintain group relationship by recognizing contributions, reconciling agreements, and playing supporting role.
USEFUL BEHAVIOR FOR CONSENSUS: Group decisions can be made either on the basis of majority votes on by consensus. Behavior for consensus decision – making are
Members present their position logically and listen to the comments of others.
They should not yield to others viewpoint merely to avoid conflict.
All the members participate wholeheartedly.
Members should not adopt win- lose strategy.
They should not suppress the feelings of any members.
Why do people join in groups? (Or) Discuss the factors influencing group formation. One of the major purposes for the group formation is “fulfillment the members needs”. 1.Safety and security needs: Groups provide protection to their members from outside pressures. That is why workers join trade unions to deal safe and secure. Even in the nursery class when the teacher asks the small kids who broke the toy, he seldom gets an answer. What happens is all the kids keep mum or quiet. Although young they protected their member by not disclosing anybody’s name or pointing out at any one in group. 2.Relatedness or belongingness needs: People being social beings, belonging to or relating to groups satisfies a number of social needs. In every organisation, there are many persons who are very isolated or who prefer to be absent from work most of the times, studies show, such phenomena occur more where people are unable to belong to groups.
3. Esteem needs: When others praise you, you get a sense of recognition, which fulfils your esteem need and also brings a sense of fulfillment of your need for growth towards further achievement of good work and career prospects. 4. Power:
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One of the appealing aspects of groups is that they represent power and also offer power to their members. Workers enjoy much greater power by joining groups than they do as individuals. This is because of at least two reasons i) There is strength in numbers and ii) United we stand, divided we fall. 5. Identity: As a member of a group, an individual gets identity who am I? In practices we understand ourselves through the behaviour of others towards us. For example when others praise us, we feel we are great, if others laugh at us, we see ourselves as funny ones. 6. Combined efforts: Certain tasks can be performed only through the combined efforts of a number of individuals working together. The variety of experience and expertise among members of the group provides a synergetic effect, which can be applied to the increasingly complex problems of modern organisations. 7. Groups encourage collusion (agreement) between members: Groups encourage collusion between members in order to modify formal working arrangements more to their liking, for example by sharing or rotating unpopular tasks. Group membership provides the individual with opportunities for initiative and creativity. 8. Groups offer friendship and a source of mutual understanding: This can help in solving work problems, and also to mitigate against stressful or demanding working conditions.
TYPES OF GROUP What do you understand by groups? Discuss the various types of groups. Through the general distinction they can classify into two types, Formal groups and informal groups. Formal groups: Groups established by the organisation to achieve organizational goals are called formal groups. In formal groups, the behaviors that a member should exhibit to subclassify formal groups into the following: 1) Command group: The organisation chart specifies command group. The subordinates, who report directly to a given supervisor, make up a command group. The relationship between the department managers and the foreman at the machine shop is spelled out in the organisation chart. 2) Task group: A number of employees that work together to complete a project or a job are considered a task group. They communicate and coordinate with each other if the process is to handle properly.
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3) Project groups: Project groups are formed to complete a specific project. The life of the project normally coincides with the length of the project. Assigning a research project to a University Professor by the University Grants Commission is an example of project group 4) Committees: Committees are usually created outside the usual command group structure to solve recurring problems. The life of a committee may be relatively long or short. An example is a Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Examination Discipline Committee created to solve disciplinary problems relating to examination Informal groups: Groups are not formal are informal. These groups which are neither formally created nor controlled by the organisation, these groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contract. 1) Friendship Groups: Friendship groups are associations of people who like each other and who like to be together. Such groups are formed because members have one or more common characteristics, such as age or ethnic heritage, political beliefs, religious values and other levels of attraction. 2) Interest groups: Interest groups are composed of individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s who may not be members of the same organisation, but they are unities by their interest in a common issue. Example of interest group may include a group of University Professors who organize a seminar on Law and Order Problems in the North Eastern Region of India. 3) Reference Group: A reference group is a special type of informal group that people use to evaluate themselves. It may not be an actual one that meets together it can be an imaginary group. The reference group for a new University Lectures for e.g. may be other scholars in the same discipline at other universities.
Differentiate formal groups with informal groups? Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs or tasks, which are related to the total organization mission. Informal groups are created in the organization because of operation of social and psychological force operating at the workplace.
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Origin
356 Formal
Informal
Are created deliberately and
Are created because of the
consciously by the framers.
operation
of
socio-
Psychological forces at work place. Purpose
Size
Created for achieving the
Created
legitimate objectives of the
members for their social and
organization
psychological satisfaction.
Are
Nature of groups
quite
large
in
Size.
Small
by
in
organizational
size
so
as
the
to
Efficiency is the criterion for
maintain
group
the size of the formal groups.
cohesiveness.
The formal groups are stable
The informal groups are quite
& may continue for a long
unstable in nature.
period. Number of group
Number of formal groups
Large number of informal
depends on Organizational
groups may be formed.
pattern. Authority
The
members
groups
derive
of
formal
In the informal groups, all
authority
members are equal; some
through formal position.
may derive more authority by virtue
of
their
personal
qualification. Behaviors of member
Communication
Abolition
Behaviors of members are
Behaviors of member are
governed by formal rules &
governed by norms, beliefs
regulations.
and values of the groups.
It is normally through chain of
Communication
commend.
through informal channels.
Formal abolished through
groups at
can any
be time
passes
Informal groups are difficult to abolish by organization.
organizational
process when the intended purpose is over.
What is Sociometry? Sociometry is an analytical tool for studying group interactions Shirley Goldman, Manager Branch bank has used this technique to know the informal groups leaders, members and their communication barriers. Sociometry helps to find out the person who is liked and disliked by other members. This information is gathered with the help of Questionnaire method or interview method. The
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gathered information is used to create a sociogram. Sociogram is a diagram that graphically maps the preferred social interactions obtained from the interview.
What do you understand by group decision-making? Discuss the various techniques of group decision-making? (Or) Write brief notes on the following a) Delphi Technique b) Brainstorming c) Nominal technique d) Consensus Mapping (or) How to improve Group decisionmaking 1. Brainstorming: Alex Osborn originally adopted brainstorming technique in 1938 in an American Company for encouraging creative thinking in groups of six to eight people. According to Osborn, Brainstorming means using the brain to storm the problem. In it, the participants should be connected to the problem directly or closely. It is based on the following basic guidelines. i)
Generate as many ideas as possible
ii)
Be creative, freewheeling, and imaginative
iii)
Build upon piggyback, extend, or combine earlier ide4as.
iv)
Withhold criticism of other ideas.
The following are the principles, which underline brainstorming i). Deferred judgement, by which all ideas are encouraged without criticism and evaluation. ii) Quantity breeds Quality: It facilitates to develop higher quality ones. The success of brainstorming depends on each memberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity and willingness to listen to others thoughts, to use these thoughts as a stimulus to spark new ideas of their own, and then feel free to express tem. Brainstorming sessions last from ten minutes to one hour and do now require must preparation. Although brainstorming technique is found for all types of decisions, it is particularly useful for simple and well-defined problems. It stimulates members to generate new ideas for solving a particular problem.
2) Nominal Group technique (NGT) The two disadvantages of group decision-making are it is time consuming and the dominant members influence the decisions. The nominal group technique minimizes these problems. In this technique, a nominal group exists in name only. The members have minimal interaction prior to making a decision. The NGT follows the following process. 1. Members are brought together and presented a problem. 2. Each member develops solution or ideas independently and writes tem on cards. 3. Each member presents his/her ideas to the group in a round-robbin procedure.
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4. When the presentation of ideas by each member is over, brief time is allotted to c clarifications of ideas or solutions. 5. Group members individually rank their preferences for the best alternatives by secret ballot. 6. Based on above, the group decision is announced. Advantages: 1. The integration of both group creativity and individual creativity. 2. Equal integration by all members in-group decision-making. Disadvantages: 1. Members do not have the opportunity to benefit from cross-fertilization of ideas.
3. Delphi technique: The name Delphi indicates a shrine at which the ancient Greeks used to pray for information about the future. In Delphi technique of decision making, members are scattered over large distances and do not have face to face interaction for decision making First, a small group of members designs a questionnaire, which is administered in a larger group. The results so obtained are the tabulated and used in developing a revised questionnaire. The larger group then completes the questionnaire. The results of the first round are fed back to the respondent group to use these in their subsequent respondent group to use these in their subsequent responses. The process is repeated several times until the response converse satisfactorily or a consensus is reached. The effectiveness of this technique depends on adequate time participantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expertise, communication skill, and motivation of the members to immerse themselves in the task. Advantages: 1. Elimination of interpersonal problems among panelist 2. Efficient use of expertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time. 3. Adequate time for reflection and analysis by respondents. 4. Diversity and quantity of ideas generated. Disadvantage 1. The technique is complex and involves high cost in administering the series of questionnaires.
5. Consensus mapping: Consensus mapping is yet another technique of group decision-making. In this technique, an attempt is made to arrive at a decision by pooling the ideas. It begins with developing ideas by a task sub-group. The facilitators encourage participants to further develop clusters of ideas. The ideas so generated by the task sub-groups are developed and narrowed in smaller number of ideas. Then, all ideas are consolidated into a representative structure
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called ‘strawman map’ for all ideas generated by the sub groups. Straw man map is further narrowed down to arrive at mutually acceptable solution. Consensus mapping Technique is found best suited for problems that are multidimensional, have interconnected relationships, and involve many sequential steps in problem solving
LEADERSHIP Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of others to work willingly and enthusiastically for achieving predetermined goals. According to terry “ Leadership is essentially a continuous process of influencing behaviour. A leader breathes life into the group and motivates it towards goals. The lukewarm desires for achievement are transformed into a burning passion for accomplished.” “Leadership is the process of influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward achieving objectives” Features:
Leadership is a continuous process of behaviour, it is not one- shot activity.
Leadership may be seen in terms of relationship between a leader and his followers.
By exercising his leadership, the leader tries to influence the behaviour of individuals or group of individuals around him to achieve common goals.
The followers work willingly and enthusiastically to achieve those goals.
Leadership gives and experience of help to followers to attain common goals. It happens when the leader feels the importance of individuals, gives them recognition and conveys them about the importance of activities performed by them.
Leadership is exercised in a particular situation, at a given point of time and under specific set of circumstances.
Characteristics: 1) The leaders should have followers. 2) Leadership considers deeply inter personal influence. It is rooted in feelings and attitudes that have grown out of reactions of individual personalities to each other. 3) A manager must lead continuously. 4) Dynamic. 5) Leadership involves directing, guiding, and influencing the behaviour individuals and groups. 6) There must be working relationship between the leader and his followers. 7) The leader must set an ideal before his subordinates. 8) Leadership involves motivation. 9) Leadership involves community of interest too.
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Qualities of a successful leader: 01) Energy 02) Emotional stability 03) Knowledge of hr 04) Empathy 05) Objectivity 06) Personal motivation 07) Communication skills 08) Teaching ability 09) Social skills 10) Technical competence. :
FUNCTIONS OF A LEADER
:
1) Taking the initiative 2) Representing the enterprise 3) Interpreting 4) Guiding and directing the organisation 5) Encouraging teamwork. Difference between Managing And Leading Bennis had once commented â&#x20AC;&#x153; there are many institutions I know are very well managed but very poorly ledâ&#x20AC;?. This statement crystal clearly demonstrated that the difference between managing and leading is indeed a lot.x 1. Relationship: managerial behaviour implies the existence of manager- managed relationships. This relationship arises with in organisational context. Whereas, leadership can occur anywhere, it does not have to originate in the organisation context. 2. Sources of influence: authority is attached to the managerial position in the case of a manger; whereas a leader may not have authority but can receive powers directly from his followers. 3. Sanctions: manager has control over the positive sanctions such as promotion and awards for high task performance or negative sanctions such as withholding promotions
or
demotion
in
some
cases
of
extreme
default.
Leader has altogether different types of sanctions to exercise and grant. He can grant or withhold access to satisfying the very purpose of joining the groupssocial satisfaction and related task rewards. 4. Role continuance: a manager may continue in office as long as his performance is satisfactory and acceptable to the organisation. A leader maintains his position only through the day-to-day wish of the followers.
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5. Reasons for following: people follow managers because their job description, supported by a system of rewards and sanctions, requires them to follow. Whereas, people follow leaders on voluntary basis, if there are no followers, leader no more exists. 6. Accountability Managers are accountable for the job behaviours of those managed as well as their own behaviour. Leaders are not accountable for the behaviour of their followers in the similar fashion of the managerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s accountability.
Importance of Leadership Leadership is an important factor for making any type of organizations successful. Throughout the history, it has been recognized that the difference between success and failure, whether in a war, a political movement, a business, or a team game, can be attributed largely to leadership. Here we are more concerned about manager as a leader. Without a good leader, organization cannot function efficiently and effectively. Since the organization is basically a deliberate creation of human beings for certain specified objectives. the activities of its members need to be directed in a certain way. Any departure from this way will lead to inefficiency in the organisation. Direction of activities in the organisation is effected by the leader. The importance of good leadership can be discussed as follows:
1. Motivating employees. As discussed earlier. motivation is necessary for work performance. Higher the motivation, better would be the performance. Agood leader by exercising his leadership motivates the employees for high performance. Good leadership in the organisation itself is a motivating factor for the individuals. 2. Creating confidence. A good leader may create confidence in his followers by directing them. giving them advice and getting through them good results in the organisation. Once an individual with the help of a leader puts high efficiency. he tries to maintain it as he acquires certain level of confidence towards his capacity. Sometimes. individuals fail to recognise their qualities and capabilities to work in the absence of good direction.
3. Building morale. Morale is expressed as attitudes of employees towards organisation. management and voluntary co-operation to offer their ability to the organisation. High morale leads to high productivity and organisational stability. Through providing good leadership in the organisation. employees' morale can be raised high ensuring high productivity and stability in the organisation. Thus. good leadership is essential in all aspects of managerial functions whether it be motivation. communication or direction. Good leadership ensures success in the organisation. and unsatisfactory human performance in any organisation can be primarily attributed to poor
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leadership. LEADERSHIP STYLES Leadership styles are the patterns of behaviour, which a leader adopts in influencing the behaviour of his followers. There are probably as many different styles of leadership as there are leaders. Autocratic leadership/ authoritative/ directive leadership In autocratic leadership style, a manager centralizes decision-making power himself. He exercises complete control over the subordinates. The leader gives orders and the subordinates are to follow them unquestioningly. There are 3 categories of autocratic leaders. 1. Strict autocrat: he follows autocratic styles in a very strict sense. Hid method of influencing subordinates behaviour is through negative motivation that is by criticizing subordinates, imposing penalty etc. 2. Benevolent autocrat: he also centralizes decision-making power in him, but his motivation style is positive. 3. Incompetent autocrat: sometimes, superior adopt autocratic leadership style just to hide their incompetence, because in other styles they may be exposed before their subordinates. Advantages: 1.This style is suitable when
Subordinates lack knowledge of company goals
Subordinates are inexperience’s or lack in training.
There should be no error in accomplishment
2. It provides strong motivation and reward to a manager exercising this style. 4. It permits very quick decision. Disadvantages: 1. Employees usually dislike this style since it relies on negative motivation. 2. Employees lack motivation, frustration, low morale and conflicts develop and reduces organisational efficiency. 3. There is more dependence and less individuality in the organisation. Participative leadership/democratic/ consultative Democratic leader practices leadership by consultation. He is like a theory y leader and invites decision sharing. They arrive at decisions after consultation with followers and participation. The participative leader attaches high importance to both work and people. Participative leadership is suitable where
The organisation had communicated the goals to the subordinates and the subordinates have accepted them.
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Rewards and involvement are used as primary means of motivation.
The leader truly desires employee’s ideas for making decisions.
The workers are reasonably knowledgeable and experienced.
The time for task completion allows for the participation.
Disadvantages: Participative leadership is not always bed of roses
It is a misleading term; there is always a danger of misinterpretation of decision sharing.
Participative leadership is time consuming
It is an effective way of passing the buck.
Free rein leadership It is rather a complete delegation of authority into the hands of the subordinates so that they must plan, motivate, control and otherwise be responsible for their own actions. Here the leader perceives that the costs associated with leading are greater that the benefits. More specifically the reasons may be lack of self-confidence, fear of failure, etc.
This style will be appropriate under the conditions where,
The organizational goals have been communicated well and are acceptable to the subordinates
The subordinates themselves are well trained and highly knowledgeable.
When the leader is ready to delegate the authority fully.
Use of authority by the manager Managers
Manager presents
take
ideas and invites
Sells decisions
suggestions
decisions
Area of freedom for subordinates Presents
Manager permits
problems, get
subordinates on
function within suggestionsDefines and limits, asks Presents tentative decision subject to groups to make decisionlimits changemakes decisions
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP Trait theory Trait is defined as relatively enduring quality of an individual. The trait approach seeks to determine what makes a successful leader from the leader’s own personal characteristics. The various traits can be classified in to Innate and Acquirable traits
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Innate qualities are those, which are possessed by various individuals since their birth. These qualities are natural and often known as god-gifted. On the basis of such qualities, it is said that leaders are born and not made. The individuals cannot acquire these qualities Physical features: They are determined by heredity factors. Heredity is the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant through chromosomes. To some extent, height, weight, physique, health and appearance are important for leadership.
Intelligence: Intelligence is generally expressed in terms of mental ability. It is a natural quality in the individuals because it is directly related with brain. Acquirable qualities of leadership are those, which can be acquired and can bed increased through training programmes. Following are the major qualities essential or leadership 1. Emotional stability: he should be free from bias, is consistent in action, and refrains from anger. He is self-confident and believes that he can meet most situations successfully. 2. Human relations: a successful leader should have adequate knowledge of human relations that is, how he should deal with human beings. 3. Empathy. Empathy refers to observing the things or situations from others’ point of view. The ability to look at things objectively and understanding from others point of view is an important aspect of successful leadership. 4. Objectivity: objectivity implies that what a leader does should be based on relevant facts and information. He must assess these without any bias or prejudice. 5. Motivation skills: not only a leader is self-motivated but he has requisite quality to motivate his followers. Though there are many external forces, which motivate a person for higher performance. 6. Technical skills. The various technical competence of leader may win support from the followers. 7. Communicative skills: a skillful leader knows how to communicate effectively. A leader used communication skillfully for persuasive, informative and stimulating purposes 8. Social skills: a successful leader has social skills. He understands people and knows their strengths and weaknesses. He has the ability to work with people and people co-operative willingly with him. Implication:
This theory emphasizes that a leader requires some traits and qualities to be effective.
Many of these qualities may be developed in individuals through training and development.
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Limitation:
No evidence has been given about the degree of the various traits
There is a problem of measuring the traits.
BEHAVIOURAL THEORY: This theory emphasizes that strong leadership is the result of effective role behaviour. Leadership is shown by a person’s acts more than by his traits. Here a leader should perform two major functions. TASK RELATED FUNCTIONS OR
PROBLEM SOLVING FUNCTIONS
This stresses the importance of providing solutions to the problems faced by the groups. GROUP MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS OR SOCIAL FUNCTIONS This stresses the actions of mediating disputes and ensuring that individuals feel valued by the group. An individual who is able to perform both roles successfully would be an effective leader. Here leadership behaviour may be viewed in two ways. Functional and Dysfunctional Functional behaviour influences followers positively and includes such functions as setting clear goals, motivating employees for achieving goals, raising morale, building team spirit, effective two way communication. Dysfunctional leadership denotes ineffective leadership. Such a behaviour may be inability to accept employees ideas, display of emotional immaturity, poor human relations etc. Situational Theory The prime attention of this theory is given to the situation in which leadership is exercised. Therefore effectiveness of leadership will be affected by Factors associated with the leader Factors associated with the fitration.
Leaders behaviors:It is affected by 1. Leaders characteristics 2. Hierarchical position.
Leaders characteristics:An individual behavior is influenced by intelligence & ability, personality characteristics, attitude, interest, motivation & physical characteristics. All these factors are internal to the leaders.
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Leaders hierarchical Position:Managers at higher levels are more concerned with long-run complex problems which require more participation in decision makings. Managers at lower levels are concerned with short-term problems involving the daily operations which may not require high level of participation.
Situational factors:The various situational factors may be grouped into four categories. 1. Subordinate characteristics. 2. Leaders situation 3. Group factors 4. Organizational factors.
Sub- ordinates characteristics:An individual behavior is influenced by intelligence, ability , personality characteristics, attitude, interest, motivation & physical characteristics.
Leaders situation:There are two main variables which determine leader’s situation, leaders position power and leader-subordinate relationship. High position power simplified the leader’s task of influencing others. While position power makes the leader’s task more difficult.
Group factors:Various group factors like task design group composition, group norms, group cohesiveness & peer-group relationship affect leadership effectiveness.
Organizational Factors:Organizational factor like organizational climate and organizational culture effect leadership effectiveness. Fielder’s contingency Model The contingency model attempts to rectify the inherent deficiencies of Behavioral theories. Fielder’s model is called a contingency model because the leader’s effectiveness is partially contingent upon three major situational variables. They are 1. Leader member relations 2. The task structure
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Leader member relations: It refers to the degree of confidence trust and respect followers have in the leader. If the followers are willing to follow the leader because of chairsma, expertise, competence or mutual respect, the leader has little need to depend on task structure or position power. If the leader is not twisted & viewed negatively the situation is considered less favorable.
Task Structure:- it measure the extent to which the task performed by subordinates is routine or non-routine.
Leader ship position power:Positional power in the contingency model refers to the power inherent in the leaders organizational position. It refers to the leaders authority over group members, the rewards & sanctions at his disposal etc.,
Favorableness of the situation:A favorable situation is where the leader members relation are good, the task is highly structured and the leader has enormous power to exert influence on the subordinates. Fielder stress that relationship-oriented style is best when the situation is moderately favorable when the situation is highly favorable, a task â&#x20AC;&#x201C; oriented style produces the desired performance. -Diagram-
Path goal Theory The path goal theory, proposed by Robel. J. house is an important landmark in the development of leadership theory. The term path goal is employed because the leader smooth the path to work goals and provide lendars for achieving them. This path goal model proposes that individual are satisfied with their jobs if they believe it leads to desirable outcomes, and they work hard if they believe that this effort will result in desirable outcome. According to the path goal theory leaders should motivate sub ordinate by clarifying the path of personal regards that results from attaining work goals. The path is classified by eliminating confusion or conflicting ideas that the subordinated may hold. The leader should also increase the number and kinds of rewards available to sub ordinates. He should provide concept & guidance to clarify the way in which these rewards can be obtained. Leaders should 1. Clear paths 2. Clarify goals 3. Provide support.
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368 4. Provide rewards 5. Analyses the situation , task & employees needs.
Leaders can perform these functions by adopting following styled of behavior. A. supportive: Leaders is friendly and approachable to the employee; shows concern for status, well-being and needs of the employees and treat the as his equals. B. Directive: Leaders hare focuses on planning, organizing & co-ordination the activities of sub-ordinate. He defined what is expected of them. C. Participate: Leader here consults the employees solicits their suggestion, incoyoreter the good decisions. D. Achievement-oriented: Leader adopting this style sets challenging goals, expects the workers to perform at their best, he continuously seeks increments in their performance.
SUPERVISION Supervision is Latin wors in which super denote “ from the above” and the cision “ t see” simply it is called overseeing activity. In maangement supervision means overseeing the subordinates at work with authority and with an aim to correct the employees if they are going wrong. According to vitals supervision refers to the direct and immediate guidance and control of sub ordinates on the performance to their task.
Function/role of the supervisor:1. Planning the work:The supervisor lays down the procedure targets for each workers and prepares production schedules for this sub ordinates. He also determines the methods and procedures of doing the work. 2. Organizing the resources:A supervisor defines the duty & authority of each worker for work. Under this he makes systematic arrangement of activities and resources for his group. He spells out the tasks to be performed by which subordinates and delegates proper authority to workers. 3. Stafting the units(Selector):He is actively involved in the selection & orientation of workers. He tasks part in interviewing candidates and familiarizes new employees with their jobs and work environment. 4. Maintaining Discipline:Discipline refers to the state of orderliness, which sub ordinates willingly conform to the standards of acceptable behavior prescribed by rules and practices.
The
supervisor uses leadership, authority and other techniques to maintain discipline among his sub ordinates.
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5. Enforcing safety Measures:One of the main function of a supervisor is to ensure proper safety in the work. He creates safety conscience among workers and takes action against breech of safety regulation. 6. handling grievance:The supervisor listens to the grievance and complains of his sub ordinates. He helps to solve these at the work place & brings these grievances to the notice of management. 7. Appraising performance:A supervisor evaluates the work performance of his sub ordinates in the light of perdetermined standards. By measuring actual performance the supervisor identifies the weakness if any and suggest corrective measures to overcome them. Training:It is the act of sharpening the skills an improving the knowledge of the employees towards the job. Supervisor training is the process whereby people
learn the skills, knowledge ,
attitude and behavior . IT is the process of learning a sequence if programmed behavior. Methods of training:-
1. On the job training:It involves learning by doing. The trainee is motivates to learn because the training takes place in the real job situation. Following are the types of on the job training. a. Orientation / Induction Training:It is meant for the new employees under it the new employee is given a description of his job. At the same time he is provided with set o policies, rules and procured to guide his performance & behavior. b. Apprenticeship:It is most common for training the draughts men, machinist, printers, mechanics, carpenters, training time is spent on the productive work and the period of training may vary between one year to 3 years.
Merits:1. Immediate returns can be expected from training 2. IT combines theory & practice
Demerits:1. It is time consuming & expensive 2. Many personal leaves the training program as the training period is very high.
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C. Understanding/Attachment method:When a person is promoted to higher level he is given training in the job to which has is the be appointed. He is chosen as the successor to the current incumbent, who is going to retire or resign.
Merits:1.Here the trainee is not over burdened at the same time participants is running the work unit. 2. He gets continuos guidance from the senior. 3. Training takes place in real life situation.
Demerits:1. The senior has no direct responsibilities for training and not take adequate interest in training the successor. 2. The deficiencies in the senior is likely to be shown out.
a. Position. Job rotation:It is the process of training people by rotation through a series of related job or position. The trainee levels several different jobs with in a work unit or department. He performs each job for a specified and limited period. Merits 1. It helps to reduce monotony 2. Best utilization can be made of each employees skills. 3. It facilitation can be made each employees. Demerits:1. Frequent changes created disruption of work. 2. Different coaches within various jobs suggest conflicting view point and approach.
b. Committee assignment:Under this method, trainee managers maybe appointed as member if a committee. A committee is a specific type of meeting in which a member as a group are delegated authority with regard to any particular problem. Committee provides an opportunity to know when it happening in the rest of the organization. Off the job training:These are formal management training programmme which can be run within the organization by training institution or by consultants to provide specific type of training . In recent years formal training and management development programmes have become very popular. 1. Selected reading:-
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This is a self improvement programme under which the executives acquire knowledge by leading professional journals and advanced books on management.
Many
organization maintain their own library for this purpose. 2. Conference and seminars:In conference , participants are required to bring out ideas, view points and suggestions.
The conference provides a common platform for intensive group
discussion and allows the participants to look at the problem from different angles. The participants may prepare and present papers. 3. Case study method:A case is a written description of any organization containing information about its numerous aspects, its history about its history external environment etc., a case study enables a person to a. To pin point the problem. b. To identify and analyse the causes c.
To suggest alternative solutions.
d. To indicate which of the alternative world to be the best under prevailing conditions.
4. Role playing:Under this method, two or more trainees spontaneously act or play role in an artificially created situation. They act out the given role, as they would be playing in real life situation. They are informed of the situation and roles they are expected to play.
5. Brain storming:Under this method a problem is put before a group of trainees and they are encouraged to offer ideas or suggestions. Critisisms of any ideas are not allowed.
6. Sensitivity training.
Status symbols:There can be several types of status symbols. 1. Insignia:Places or peoples having different status can be distinguished on the basis f insignia marks of identification differentiating things or people of different status. 2. Title & designation:People are also differential on the basis of various titles or designature they carry with them. For example Professor, Reader, or lecturers. 3. pay & Perquisites:-
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Every organization designs some rarely structure and people are place in various grades. Naturally persons placed in higher grade has higher status. 4. Physical facilities:It is quite common to
provide rooms of different sizes, tables of different size,
furniture of different types, or even name plates of different size and design, exclusive packing places to distinguish among different status. Problems of status system:1. Status as a end:Because of the status differentials the gulf between superior & sub ordinate become so wide. Some may become status hound. 2. Emphasis on position:Status emphasis the position rather than the man & his acts. The status system requires the maintenance of prequistiter compensation and other symbols of offices for the position holder, irrespective of this ability & working forge an engineer may be a poor mechanic vide president may be chairman son-in-law. 3. Problems of Equity:The status holder may be pre-occupied too much in taking care for the maintenance of his status & its symbols.
Thus he may not contribute meaningfully for the
achievement of organizational objectives.
Those who do not have status maybe
dissatisfied & Jealous of those who have. 4. Financial Burden:Maintenance of status system is financially difficult and burden on the pact of the organization.
5. Status inconsistency creates anxiety:For instance the title of the position may be right & but the incumbent may lack of ricate office that is appropriate for the particular level.
Organizational Conflict. â&#x20AC;&#x153; Conflict is a process in which an effort is purposely made by one person unit to block another that result in flultrating the attainment of the other goals or the furthering of his or her interests. Positive Aspects of conflict:1. Major stimulant for changes:- Conflict, spotlight the problems that demand attention, forces classification toward finding better solution. 2. Conflict fosters creatively and innovation:- A climate of challenge compels individual to which through their own ideas before arriving them out. Conflict can help individual to tst their capacities to learn & develop. 3. Conflict bring cohesiveness:- This happens more in case of intergroup conflict.
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4. A minimum level of conflict is optimal:- It also helps individual in reducing accumulated infeeling and tensions between them.
Negative aspect f conflict:1. Conflict created steps in people:- Intense conflict & generate feeling of anxiety, quite frustration & hostility. 2. Diversion of energy:- It leads to diversion of groups time & effort towards winning the conflict rather than forward achieving organizational goals. 3. Instability & Choar:- The normal work flows is disturbed; the moral fabric of the group form apart. -Diagram-
1. Intra personal or Intra individual conflict:Individual faces conflict with in himself. An individual experience two type of conflict in himself . God conflict & role conflict. a. God Conflict:- It occurs when a goal that an individual is attempting to achieve has both positive and negative features or when two or more competing goals exist:i.
Approach â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Approach conflict:- A person wants two positive situation but can have only one.
ii.
Approach â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Avoidance conflict:- In this form if goal conflict the person attempts to achieve a goal that both positive & negative aspect. For obtaining first rank in the university, student must make personal sacrifices.
iii.
Avoidance-Avoidance conflict:- Here a person faced with two negative goals may not choose either of them and may simply leave the situation.
B. Role Conflict:A role is a set of expectations people have above the behavior of a person in a position. It is an expected mode of behavior. Role conflict is the result of divergent role expectations. Different forms of role conflict are a. Person-role conflict:- This arises when expected behavior is incompatible with a persons own basic values and attitudes. b. Inter role conflict:- This arrise because of multiple role c.
Intrasender role conflict:- this happens when a person is called upon to perform a work within specified limit but cannot be possible to do the work within that limit.
d. Inter sender role conflict:- This happens when the expected send by one sender are in conflict with those from one or more other sender. Reasons for role conflict:1. Role contiguity 2. Personal Characteristics
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3. Organizational position
Interpersonal conflict:Vertical conflict:- Vertical relationship result into vertical conflict which usually arise because supervise attempts to control the behavior of his sub ordinates and sub ordinates resists such control.
Horizontal Conflict:Conflict among personal at the same hieracrchial level in the same function or in different functions. Causal of Interpersonal conflict:Nature of persons:- The type of person determine whether the interaction maybe co-operative or conflicting. 1. ego States:- Lack of complementary ego stages maybe ultimately leads t interpersonal conflict. 2. Socio cultural factors 3. Value systems
Situational variables 1. interest conflict 2. Role ambiguity
2.Group level conflict:Every group is in atleast partial conflict with every other group interacts with Following are the reasons for intergroup conflict. 1. Incompatible goals(difference in group goals) 2. Task interdependence 3. Resource allocation 4. Line & staff conflict 5. Differences in value & perceptions.
3. Organizational level conflict:Conflict at organizational level maybe intra organizational and inter organizational conflict.
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