IMTS Marketing Management (Production Management)

I ns t i t ut eofManage me nt & Te c hni c alSt udi e s

PRODUCTI ONMANAGEMENT

OPERATI ONMANAGEMENT

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IMTS (ISO 9001-2008 Internationally Certified) BBA-PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

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PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS:

Unit –I

01-21

Meaning and definition of Production Management – brief history of Production Management - Production Management and its impact on information technology and globalization - Production strategy and competitiveness – developing business strategy – competitive priorities – world class manufacturing.

Unit –II

22-54

Plant Location - plant lay out –objectives and types of plant layout.

Unit- III

55-77

Production planning and control – functions – scheduling – routing.

Unit- IV

78-90

Maintenance – importance – types of maintenance – material handling – importance – objectives – material handling equipments.

Unit- V

91-113

Work Study – time study – Calculation of standard time – Methods study – Steps in methods study – motion study.

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PRODUCTION & MATE. MANG.

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UNIT – I PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT Introduction: According to the Peter Drucker on the practices of management, “Production is not the application of tools to materials but is the application of logic to work” Production is the process by which the goods and services are produced. Production consists of a series of operations that transforms materials from a given form to the desired form. Production is an organized process of manufacturing/ producing goods and services through the use of inputs resources of men, materials, money, machines, minutes and methods.

Production is the foundation on which every organisation is built. The organisation may be a manufacturing unit or a service organisation. In a manufacturing unit, production involves producing something (goods) in an organised manner.

Similarly, in a service organisation, production means

providing some function which has some utility eg. Hospitals, hotels, banks etc. Hence it is to be noted that after the inclusion of services into the scope of production, it is broadly known as “Operations Management”.

Thus it is clear that production includes creation of both tangible goods as well as

intangible services.

In simple terms, Production is transformation of a set of inputs into goods and services (output).

Production process as a System Production system receives inputs in the form of material, labour, capital, utilities, information etc. These inputs are transformed or changed Into designed products and services which are called the output.

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TRANSFORMATION INPUT

OUTPUT

MEN MATERIALS MONEY MACHINE LAND CAPITAL etc

LAYOUT TOOLS MATERIALS HANDLING

GOODS & SERVICES

FEEDBACK

Thus, the basic objective of production is to make the products/services to satisfy the needs of the customers by giving right quality products at right place at right time and at right price.

In simpler terms, Objective of Production is -

Maximising the value of the product

-

Minimizing the cost involved

(Note: If the management activities are extended to services, then it is called as Operations management.)

Examples: For Production: Standardised products like car, bus, motor-cycle, radio etc And Customised products like Flats, Apparels etc For Operations: Medical facilities, travels, hotels, bank services etc

. What is the meaning of Production?

Production is a process which transforms a set of inputs into a set of output to achieve the objectives of an enterprise. . Define Production.

E. S. Buffa, defines production as “a process by which goods and services are created”. . Explain about the Production system.

Production as a System: A system is understood as a whole which cannot be taken apart. It must be studied as such. Looking from this perspective, three systems emerge.

Production System Conversion Sub-System Control Sub-System

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Production System: Production system is a system whose function is to convert a set of inputs into a set of designed outputs.

Input

Men, Materials, Money, Machines, Methods, Market, Matter, Minute, Milieu

Transformation

Layout Tools Materials Handling

Output

Goods Services

Comparison Actual Vs. Planned (Feed Back) Conversion Sub-System: Conversion Sub-System is a sub-system of the larger production system where inputs are converted into outputs.

Control Sub-System: Control Sub-System is a sub-system of the larger production system where a portion of the output is monitored for feedback to provide remedial action, if required.

. What is the meaning of Production Management?

Production management is the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling production activities of an organizing for the actual transformation of elements of inputs in to finished goods.

Production Management Meaning: Production management refers to the application of management principles to the production function in a factory. In other words, production management involves application of planning, organizing, directing and controlling to the production process, Definition: “Production Management deals with decision making related to production processes so that the resulting goods or service is produced according to specifications, in the amounts and by the schedule demanded and at minimum cost�

- E.S. Buffa

According to this definition, design (planning) and control of production system are the two main characteristics of production management.

The definition given by E.S.Buffa is simple, clear and exhaustive. It explains the following important aspects of production management.

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•

It is a decision making managerial function

•

The decisions are made regarding the production processes required for converting the raw material into finished products used

•

The production or output should be according to specifications, in the specified quantities, as per the schedule and at minimum cost.

Define Production Management.

In the words of E.L. Brech “Production management is a process of effective planning and regulating the operations of that section of an enterprise which is responsible for the actual transformation of materials in to finished products”.

E.S. Buffa defines “Production management deals with decision making related to the production process so that the resulting goods and services are produced according to specifications in amounts and by the schedules demanded and at a minimum cost”.

H.A. Harding “production management is concerned with those processes which convert the inputs into outputs. The inputs are various resources like Raw Materials, Men, Methods etc., and outputs are the goods and services”.

. Explain the types of production. Or Explain the Manufacturing system.

There are fundamentally three types of production system.

Continuous Production System.

Intermittent Production System.

Combined or Mixed Production System.

Production Systems

Continuous or Flow Production

Intermittent Production

Combined Or

Mixed Mass Production

Process Production

Assembly Production

Analytical

Job

Batch

Production

Production Production

Synthetic

Continuous Production: Involves continues or almost continuous physical flow of materials using special purpose machines and produces the standardized items in large quantities.

Example: Petrochemical, Sugar, Fertilizer Industries, Assembly lines, chemical plants, cement manufacturing, bottling plants of liquors. The continuous production can be further divided in to two more categories as

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PRODUCTION MANG.

5 Mass and Flow line production Process Production and Assembly Production.

Mass and Flow line production: o

In this types of continuous production, only one type of product or a maximum of two or three

types are manufactured in large quantities. o

In mass production, the factory is tuned to large scale and continuous production where the

machineries are also designed for range of products.

Process Production: o

In these methods of production, the entire factory is completely integrated at all stages without

any isolated items of equipments to produce a certain rate of a specific product, the flow which is continuous through the factory. o

This system is used for the manufacture of those items whose demand is continuous and high.

o

Here single raw material can be transformed into different kinds of products at different stages of

the production process. o

Example: Processing of Crude oil in refinery- we get kerosene, gasoline etc., at different stages

of production.

Assembly Production: o

In assembly process, two or more components are combined to manufacture a finished product.

o

Manufactured parts are joined into sub-assemblies or final assemblies. Such process is employed

in assembling automobiles, radio sets, television sets, bicycles, watches and cameras etc., o

Assembly line is a flow production which was developed in the automobile industry in the U.S.A. a

manufacturing unit prefers to develop and employ the assembly line because it helps to improve the efficiency of production.

Advantages: •

Reduce the labour cost

•

Reduced material handling

•

Minimum wastage

•

Higher return on investments

•

High accuracy

•

Simple control process.

•

Heavy loss during slack demand period

•

Rigid maintenance and upkeep of machines

•

Customers’ tastes cannot be met as only one standard product is

Disadvantages:

manufactured.

•

Difficult to adjust to new situations and specification

•

Special purpose machine tools are required.

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Intermittent Production: In this system the goods are manufactured specially to fulfill orders placed by customers rather than to stock. Here the flow of materials is intermittent.

Facilities are flexible enough to handle a wide variety of product and sizes Example: Manufacture of large turbo-generators, turbines, boilers, construction of bridges etc., Job Production or Unit Production: o

Job production is the production of single complete unit by pne operator or a group of operators.

o

In this type, project is considered as one operation and work is complete on each product before proceeding on to next.

o

Example: Dam Construction, Ship Building etc.,

Batch Production: o

In batch production, items are processed in lots or batches and a new batch is undertaken for production only when the work on all items of a previous batch is completed.

o

In fact, batch type production can be considered as an extension of the job production.

o

Best example for batch production is Chemical industry, Printing press etc.,

Advantages: •

Demand can be discontinuous

•

All operational stages may not be balanced

•

Adjusting to new situations and specifications is possible

•

Item can be manufactured according to order.

•

Cost per unit of production is more

•

Elaborate sequencing and scheduling is required

•

High investment is required.

Disadvantages:

Combined or Mixed Production: The high volume multiple product situations are likely to employ a mixed production strategy that combines both continuous and intermittent production systems.

Example: In manufacturing parts fabrication is often organized on line or continuous basis.

Define Productivity.

Productivity is the efficiency in industrial production to be measured by some relationship between outputs and inputs.

Relationship between the results and means employed or to be more specific, between the product and the factors used for obtaining it P=O/I

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Where, P= Productivity, I=Input, O=Output Productivity is also defined as the ration between O/P and I/P.

. Explain about the function of production management. Or Explain the components of Production function in detail.

Production management is essentially Planning, Controlling of production function. The functions of a production management even though vary with the nature of the products can typically have following commodities. Management of production can be described in terms of eleven components as follows.

Production Planning: It is the main concern of the production manager. It facilities the supply of goods at the appropriate time to execute orders received by the company. It also helps to control over the production process.

The function of production planning involves the decision when, what, how and why to produce the goods.

Production Control: After planning, the next responsibility of the production managers is to control the Manufacturing After production Planning and Control, the next important function of a production manger is to ensure manufacturing or production of finished goods in conformity with the plans.

Plant Layout and Material Handling: The physical arrangement of manufacturing components and the equipments of handling the materials during production process have considerable effect on cost of production.

Plant layout pertains to the arrangements of the machines and the equipments in such a manner so as to maintain the smooth flow of production without any interruption.

An effective plant layout aims at efficient material handling which in turn reduces wastages of men and materials.

Industrial engineering: Production manager is also responsible to carry out the periodic work study, following method study or work measurement technique for systematic investigation of activities in order to ensure effective use of human and materials resources.

Manufacturing or production activity also needed to be supported by design and development, which not only includes designing tools, Jugs, Fixtures (this is done by independent tool department in large organization) but also involves R & D activities for innovative product design and changes.

Inter department coordination: A production manager is also required to maintain contacts with other departments like marketing department with regards to production plan, personal department for man power availability and training and material department for procurement of raw materials and other components.

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Maintenance and Replacement: Production manager is also responsible for time maintenance of plant and machineries to minimize machines down time and consequent loss of the production.

Instead of break down maintenance i.e. to attend plant and machineries only, when they become functional, we presently use modern concept “total productive maintenance� i.e. present breakdown totally.

Maintenance and replacement involves selection of optimal maintenance policy to ensure higher equipment availability at minimum maintenance and repair cost.

Material Management: A production department is responsible for the control over the cost of production which he achieves through reducing wastage of materials.

To achieve this, he is to determine the economic lot size, EOQ, Order Level, so that the problems of over and under stock of materials may not arise.

Productivity Improvement: It is one of the important functions of production management. It has to apply various productivity tools focusing on men, machines and materials or even on a combination of these so as to enable him to study, analyze and improve their (man, machine, materials) productivity.

To achieve the excellence in manufacturing: To achieve excellence in manufacturing to gain competitive edge over the others, production managers should keep in mind then follow the five goals.

1. Through amount of work to be done in a particular time 2. Inventory should come down 3. Cycle time should come down 4. Yield should go up 5. Operating expenses should come down. . Explain the scope of Production Management.

The scope of Production Management includes Activities relating to analysis and controlling of product system Activities relating to analysis and controlling of production operations after the production system has been activated.

Activities related to the production system designing: The activity concerns the production of tools and designs, development and installation of the equipments and the selection and optimization of the size of the firm.

Selection of plant location, Plant Layout, Materials Handling System are the functions of production engineering. Besides, the human factor problems and research and development are also considered.

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The scope of production management is very wide. It companies all activities right from design and layout of production facilities till finishing the product for dispatch to ware house or customers.

Production management looks after each and every step in the process of production. Also it establishes a harmonious relation ship between the products, the plant the conversion process and the people so as to achieve predetermined targets.

The scope of product management can be explained thorough production decision also. An efficient and successful production manager has to make important decisions in the following areas.

Plant location and layout Product design and development Plant engineering-equipment and tool design, manufacturing techniques and process design.

Industrial engineering-work study, job design, methods engineering etc., Capacity management demand forecasting, delivery schedule, resources allocation Production planning and control input planning, scheduling, dispatching and expediting.

Quality control-specifications, standards, inspection and testing.

Inventory management – purchasing, store keeping, recording, and inventory control.

Maintenance, servicing, replacement, preventive checking.

Activities relating to analysis and control of production: The main activities related to analysis and control of production system is production planning and control.

Production planning: It includes preparation of short tem production schedules, a plan for manufacturing the finished and semi finished stock, specifying hoe the production resources of the concern are to be employed over some future time in response to the predicted demand for the products and services.

Production control: After planning, the next managerial production function is to control the production according to the production plan, because production plan cannot be activated unless they are promptly guided and controlled.

The production manager has to assign work review work progress and check and remove discrepancies, if any, in the actual and planned performances.

The production manager has to look after the control activities at three levels.

Control of static inventory such as raw materials, purchased parts, finished goods and supplies through the inventory control techniques.

Control flow of work in progress through production control.

Importance of Productions and Operations Management In the past, the motive behind the production/operations was only ‘profit’. But, the scenario has changed slowly. The customers, now enjoys a good position and is said to be the ‘king’. This change can be attributed to the following factors:

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-

Growth of technology

-

Availability of variety of products

-

Quality consciousness

-

Globalisation

These factors have made the manufacturers to frame careful policies and procedures to add value to the product at lower cost.

Production Function Production Management is essentially planning, organizing, and controlling of Production function. The production function depends on various factors affecting production namely Land and natural resources, labour, capital and enterprise.

The Production function establishes relationship between the quantity of various inputs and the quantity of the output.

Algebraically, a production function can be represented as Y = f (C1, C2, C3, ……Cn) where Y = Output which depends on C1, C2, C3…….Cn = Quanitities of inputs Thus, Production function involves a wide range of activities from plant location to the packing of products to be distributed by the marketing divisions.

Following are the components/activities of production function: Planning Product selection and design Process selection and Planning process Facility location Factory layout and Material handling Capacity Planning Forecasting Production Planning Organising (viii) Work study and job design Controlling (ix) Production Control (x) Inventory control (xi) Quality control (xii) Maintenance and replacement (xiii) Stores and Maintenance 1. The Product: The Organisation must be capable of producing the product to

customers satisfaction

with quality.

2. The Plant: Plant means both buildings & equipment required to manufacture a product 3. The Process: Process includes the technical, Organisational needs of the product and the people within the organization.

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4. The Programme: Programme means scheduling the entire process of production like setting timetable 5. The people: Production depends upon people. Production Manger should socially try to bring better communication in organization, Workers participation, work conditions, environment, motivation, training etc.

6. The Policy: Production is an integral part of Corporate Policy that deals with framing production policies.

The 14 Components/Functions of Production in detail 1. Product selection and design: Right kind of product should be selected and proper designing is very essential for the success of an organization. Techniques like value analysis can be used in achieving good design.

2. Process Selection and Planning:

Process selection includes decisions regarding choice of

technology, equipment, machines, materials handling systems, mechanization, automation etc.

Process planning involves detailing of processes of conversion of resources and their sequences.

3. Facilities Location: Suitable plant location will result in continuous production.

4. Capacity Planning: Capacity planning means assessing the availability of resources and environment in order to meet/match future demand. Inadequate capacity will lead to poor service while excess capacity results in low productivity. Both these situations should be avoided.

5. Production Planning: Production planning involves the decision of when, what, how and why to produce the goods. Production planning will direct the organization to achieve its predetermined goals.

6. Production control: Planning is to be followed by control. While planning helps to achieve the goal, control helps to achieve the same in an efficient manner. Production control is accomplished by scheduling, routing, dispatching, inspection, checking, Maintenance etc.

7. Quality control: Quality control is responsible for producing goods as per specification by preventing defects. It relies on feedback and corrective measures.

8. Method Analysis: It is the study of various methods (Ways of doing works), analyzing them and choosing the best one.

Method analysis helps to improve productivity by minimizing cost of

production.

9. Inventory control: Inventory control means the control over the stock (raw materials, work-inprogress and finished products). It involves determination of Economic ordering quantity (EOQ) , reorder levels, stock issues etc.

10. Plant Layout and Materials Handling: Plant Layout deals with arrangement of facilities ( Personnel, equipment, machines) in a manner to encourage smooth flow of production without any interruption.

Materials handling deals with proper handling of materials during movement, Packaging and storing.

11.Work Measurement: Work measurement is the application of techniques like Time Study and Motion study to establish standard time required to carry out a Specific job at a defined level of performance by a qualified worker.

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12.Maintenance and Replacement: Maintenance means the act of retaining the

plant/items in

good operating conditions. It may be preventive maintenance or Breakdown maintenance. Replacement means replacing the worn-out items/machineries so that production is carried out efficiently & Smoothly 13. Cost reduction and Cost control: Production management should aim to reduce cost of production at all times.

14. Stores and Warehousing: Production Management also deals with the physical storage of goods called as storage Maintenance which is vital for achieving the goals of the organization. Stores may be centralized or decentralized.

Warehousing performs both physical storing and distribution functions. It also maintains goods in proper condition until it is delivered to customers.

Production Management also deals with other functions like Industrial Engineering, Safety Measures, and Incentive Plans to workers, Codification of products etc.

Thus, the functions of

Production Management are varied in nature and it represents all the purposeful/valuable activities in the organization.

Scope of Production Production Management, in the earlier days was associated only with factory related activities.

But as Competition arose, the scope of Production Management extended to Quality Control, Maintenance and Replacement, Mechanization, Automation and so on.

The various activities that form scope of Production function can be studied in two broad areas – (i) designing or formulation of production system and (ii) analyzing and controlling of production operation after production system has been activated.

I) Activities relating to designing of Production

This includes activities like designing of tools,

development and installation of equipment, selection of optimum size of the firm, use of techniques concerned with work environment, motion study process analysis, layout of plant, material handling and time study. Also importance has to be provided to two main factors (i) human factors and (ii) Research and development activities.

II) Activities relating to Analysis and control of activities: This includes all decisions regarding production administration. The activities are (i)

Production Planning:

Production Planning includes preparation of short-term production

schedules, plan for raw materials, deciding as to how the resources are employed etc. (ii)

Production Control:

Production plans have to be properly guided and controlled.

For this

purpose, there is some review of work, checking of deviations and rectifying mistakes.

Production control activity is done at three levels (i) Inventory control (ii) Control of flow of materials (control over purchasing) (iii) Control of work –in- progress (iii)

Quality control: Quality Control can be ensured through techniques of

inspection and

control.

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statistical

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Brief history of Production management The Histo-Map: A Timeline of OM Developments

In the same time zone: The U.S. is supplier to the world and the leader in batch production systems in France, Servan-Schreiber wrote that American managerial dominance was a serious threat.12 Quality control standards were established by the U.S. government for military acquisitions.

Management Science (MS)-Solving complex problems-1950s-1990s: Operations Research (OR) and Management Science (MS) quantitative methods for solving resource allocation problems: OR and MS introduce major extensions of scientific management. The methods include linear programming, queuing theory, and inventory theory.

International linkages for sourcing, fabrication, assembly and marketing, as well as managing currencies; information systems based on networks of computers and global telecommunications alter the way that work is done. The systems approach is extended to all functions within the fIrm and to all partners along the supply chain, including suppliers and customers.

THE HISTORY OF P/OM (P/OM - Production and operations management) The capability of P/OM processes to deliver goods and services has changed in steps or - stages over time. The study of the history of OM production transformation processes allows us to determine which events triggered these stages of production theory. The ultimate goal is to learn the theory, understand it,

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and possess the advantages that accrue for being literate.

THE HISTORY: OF THE IMPROVEMENT '-- OF P/OM TRANSFORMATIONS Literacy in OM requires an understanding of how the OM field has developed with respect to the transformation process and, thereby, productivity, quality, and variety. The stages of history have moved production and operations capabilities from custom work through high-speed continuous output systems.

Attention shifts from custom crafts, which are art-based, to the theory of production, which has evolved over time. This theory consists of six steps and a potential seventh one. There is an emphasis on manufacturing because the theory evolved from the production of goods, but it lends itself to service operations.

Figure 2-3 depicts OM history in a timeline chart. Dates mentioned are approximate because it is not possible to pinpoint exactly when each contribution was made.

The flexibility concept joins computers and equipment in the bank, plant, pr plane. This revises the way that machines operate.

Overview of Production Management Production management Strategies For sustained growth and maintaining market leadership, long-range production plans and strategies are essential. Competition ITom abroad has upgraded the status of manufacturing as a strategic weapon to achieve comparative ;ompetitiveness in India. There is a significant development in this regard since 1980s. The key result areas identified in manufacturing are those of flexibility, quality, rapid changeover by core standardisation alld process trade-offs.

Advancement made in electronics and information technologies have introduced new capabilities in the manufacturing operations. This has also altered the traditional meaning of concepts such as learning curve, etc.

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The success stories of several small but high-technology firms in less advanced countries like Sweden, Holland and Switzerland have shown that these firms neither depended on traditional strategic planning staff nor on huge Research & Development. Japan, Taiwan and Korea have exhibited the importance of entrepreneurship in business strategy. Koreans have also shown the advantage of mobilising institutional support. The Japanese experience I has clearly highlighted the necessity of innovation not only in Research & I Development but also in production management.

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND GLOBALIZATION – INFORMATION SYSTEMS Information systems provide the necessary data about customer needs so that operations management can supply the required services.

Both services and manufacturing are increasingly responsive to-and controlled by information systems.

Therefore,

knowledge

of

computers,

computer

programming,

networking,

and

telecommunications is essential in both the manufacturing and service environment.

Schools of business include both goods and services under the term operations, whereas industrial engineering departments are still inclined to teach "production" courses. Nevertheless, there is inevitable convergence of both to an information dominated workplace. Operations is the familiar management term for an information systems environment, so the word "operations" fits nicely.

Programming and maintenance (both service functions) have become increasingly important to manufacturing. Further. distinguished service industries as transportation, banking, entertainment, education, and health care. In that regard, note the following trends for manufacturing: 1. The labor component (the input of blue-collar workers) has been decreasing as a per cent of the cost of goods at an accelerating rate for over 50 years.

2. The technological component as a percent of the cost of goods has been increasing for many years.

In the past 20 years, this effect has become multiplicative, with computers controlling sophisticated and costly equipment across vast distances via satellites and networks. programmers (sometimes called gold-collar workers) and white-collar supervisors add to growing sales and administrative (overhead) costs, which have to be partitioned into the cost of goods. These costs are an increasing percent of the cost of goods. Traditional methods for assigningthese-c6sts can lead to detrimental OM decisions. New accounting methods, called activity-based costing (ABC), should be used to improve overhead accounting.

4. The systems approach requires communication between functions and the sharing of what used to be (and still are, in many traditional firms) mutually exclusive databases.

5. The technology of the twentieth century is moving rapidly into retirement along with a lot of executives who grew up with its characteristics. It's a neW ball game with new players who feel free to deal with the distinction between services and manufacturing as well as between operations and production in their own way. lTm:ritioners now have stepped into the twenty-first century, but they have yet to get accustomed to it.

It is a good bet that the taxonomy of the twenty-first century will categorize production as a subheading

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under operations, and services will be an integral part of manufacturing.

When a discussion applies equally well to both manufacturing and services, it is often referred to as P/OM. As explained earlier, it is increasingly common to call it OM. In this text, OM will be used to describe both manufacturing and services. P/OM will be used only in situations where the manufacturing component is critical and conclusions are

The databases of marketing and sales, OM, R & D, engineering, and finance are cross linked when advantageous. That sharing is crucial to enabling the systems approach to work. There are many examples of both manufacturing and service industries where shared databases have been installed and utilized successfully.

PRODUCTION STRATEGY AND COMPETITIVENESS - DEVELOPING BUSINESS STRATEGY – COMPETITIVE PRIORITIES LONG RANGE STRATEGIES •

An imaginative and pragmatic national policy

•

A strategic goal of manufacturing with emphasis on flexibility, quality,

•

rapid change-over and process trade offs

•

An effective leadership to give quick response to changing market

•

conditions.

•

Emphasis on technological excellence and entrepreneurial skills.

•

Innovation in production management and process technology.

•

Globalisation of industry.

•

Effective management of technology

•

An aggressive marketing strategy and risk-taking ability

•

Goodwill inside and outside the organisation.

MEDIUM RANGE STRATEGIES •

1. Location and layout

•

2. Product selection and technology

•

3. Capital selected and investment

•

4. Capital investment and planning

•

5. Flexible strategy overproduction

•

6. Standardisation of design

•

7. Rationalisation of product line

•

8. Economy of size and variety

•

9. Aggregate production planning

•

10. Inventory policy and planning

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Production and Materials Management 1. Codification and standardisation of components 2. Work study and ergonomics 3. Value analysis and cost controls 4. Indigenisation and self reliance 5. Organisation development 6. Performance budgeting 7. Flexible organisation structure and effective co-ordination

Short range Tactics 1. Production scheduling 2. Make or buy decisions 3. Purchase, stock control and verification 4. Quality control and audit 5. Value analysis and cost reduction steps 6. Maintenance, safety and replacement 7. Vendor rating and evaluation 8. Stress and time management 9. Incentive and motivation

WORLD CLASS MANUFACTURING Artisans, Apprentices, and Trainees - The Beginning The Renaissance 'period (1300s-1600s) signaled a surge of intellectual and productive vitality in Europe, That surge swept away the dark ages and fostered accomplishments in the arts and sciences centered around artisans, apprentices, and craft guilds. Production transformations were by hand, and output volumes were very small.

Before the Industrial Revolution began (around 1770), craft guilds emphasized pride of workmanship and training for basic manual operations with appropriate hand tools. The shoemakers' children learned from their fathers and mothers. Process techniques were handed down from generation to generation.

From a transformation point of view, this was good management of the labor inputs. The use of apprentices improved productivity in the artisans' shops because the less skilled (and lower paid) apprentices did much of the preliminary work. This freed the master craftsmen to devote their time to the activities requiring higher skills. On-the-job training produced a continuous stream of greater skills.

Apprenticeship still has significance for many service functions. Great chefs almost always are the pupils of great chefs. The formula would seem to reside in the balance of art and science. When the important knowledge resides in the minds and hands of skilled workers, then the percent of art is high and the percent of science is low. Over time, this percentage has shifted in manufacturing so that engineering, technology, and computer programming play an increasing role.

The art element is disappearing, which means d at the valuable know-how now resides mostly in the minds, not in the hands, of the critical workers. It used to be that the tool and die department was crucial

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to the success of metal-working companies, and the best die makers were considered artists. (Tools and dies are the shape formers in the Metal working businesses.)

Now, computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) are primarily science, and the old industrial arts are giving way to the new programming arts. This Also is happening in service industries and is an effect that can be expected to accelerate in the future. )

Interchangeable Parts (lP) - Production Theory's First Step Eli Whitney invented the concept of interchangeable parts fot the fabrication of rifles around 1780, which coincides with the dates usually given forrhe beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The notion of interchangeable parts was the catalyst around which new methods for production transformation began to develop. These methods spawned and supported the Industrial Revolution.

Whitney was not the sole inventor of interchangeable parts. In France, Nicolas LeBlanc had invented the same OM concept. Neither Whitney nor LeBlanc knew about each other's ideas. Whitney obtained government contract for "ten thousand stand of arms." The contract was awarded because of his newly developed production capabilities.

The concept of interchangeable parts is defined as follows: It allows batches of parts to be made, anyone of which will fit into the assembled product. For example, headlights, fenders, tires, and windshield wiper blades are not specially made for each car. One 60watt bulb is like another and does not have to be fitted to each socket. The reason that the parts are interchangeable is that each one falls within the design tolerances.

Machines that could produce parts to conform to the designer's tolerances were the keystone.

Hand labor, better suited to custom work, began to be replaced by machinery.

The effects of this change hastened the Industrial Revolution. Within a short time, IP was I an accepted part of the production transformation process being applied to the manufacture of rifles, sewing machines, clocks, and other products.

1776, Adam Smith saw that the use of the division of labor as a means of increasing productivity was market volume dependent. The pin factory that he studied had sufficient production volume to warrant specialization. The production transformation process was revolutionized-combining worker specialization with interchangeable parts changed all of the productivity standards. Expectations were raised to new levels.

Scientific Management (SM) - Production Theory's Second Step Frederick Winslow Taylor (1865-1915) introduced scientific management, the numerical measurement and analysis of the way work should be done. One of his landmark studies dealt with the speed and feed rates of tools and materials for metal cutting. Other studies focused on how to lay bricks and how to move iron castings. Taylor's testimony at hearings concerning the setting of rational railroad fees for shipments in interstate commerce brought national prominence to his analytic methodology.

This step in production theory added the idea that the transformation processes could be

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improved by studying and simplifying operations. This view required rationalizing the job, the workplace, and the workers. Strangely, it had been overlooked until the turn of the twentieth century. Finding economies of motion and putting materials near at hand These industrial engineering ideas, often called methods engineering, have proved to be as useful for service applications as for manufacturing. Called the father of "scientific management,"

Sequenced Assembly (SA) Production Theory's Third Step In 1912, Henry Ford developed sequenced assembly, which allows assembly to tenuous flow shop process. Timing must be perfect so that what is needed for a arrives on time. Ford developed the sequenced assembly process as a continuous function line for automobiles, changing the pace from batch to continuous set assembly. he serialized flow shop was born. The key was learning to achieve synchronal control of the process flows. The moving assembly line required a high level potent interchangeability. Ford succeeded in achieving complete synchronization process flows.

By means of the principles of interchangeability, division of labor, and flow synchronization, Ford altered the production transformation process. He changed the perception of productivity standards and goals in a conclusive way. In so doing, he built an industrial emptive that helped the United States become the world leader in productivity. The United States continues to maintain its lead,12 although other nations-especially those considered to be less developed countries-have been improving their productivity consistently.

Ford's contribution to production theory and to the revision of the transformation process had a major impact on the Japanese automobile industry. It also affected other industries of many kinds all over the world. There was a new rhythm to the transformation process. Contrast U.S. and Japanese production processes in the 1980s. The major portion of production and operations activities in the United States utilized batch processes. Batch the small lots does not lend itself to the kind of synchronization that applies to the automobile industry or the continuous flows of chemical processes.

When the Japanese export industry began to compete aggressively in global markets, they chose to shun batch-type production systems. Instead they elected to specialize in high-volume, serialized flow shops, which extended the concept and application of assembly synchronization to manufacturing and assembly systems.

Statistical Quality Control (SQC) - Production Theory's Fourth Step Interchangeable parts required manufacturing methods bat made batches of parts conforming to tolerance limits. Shewhart developed the theory of statistical quality control (SQC) that enabled manufacturing to design and control processes that could achieve these objectives. SQC was focused on the producer's ability to control the variability of the process that was making the parts that had to fit within the specified tolerance limits. For the first time, the output of the transformation process could be stabilized and controlled. This was a major contribution to production theory.

Walter Shewhart's major work, which was published in 1930, described his concepts about why SQC works and how to apply it.13 Deming and Juran also participated in the development of SQC theory and later on played a crucial role in its implementation and dissemination. 14

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The United States was the first country that consistently used SQC, which it did through the 1940s and the early 1950s., but by 1960 the majority of SQC users were in Japan. U.S. organizations reported that they had dropped SQC to make cost reductions. Quality was considered good enough to replace costly staff departments with inspectors at the end of the production line. By the 1980s, however, under great competitive pressure from quality-driven Japanese organizations, many U.S. companies restored SQC and enhanced it with broader concepts into total quality management (TQM) activities.

Organizations like Motorola and Xerox are considered to be pioneers leading the development of TQM within the framework of the systems approach. The total quality management approach applied to the production transformation system integrates the goals of productivity and quality. It represents a major step forward in the theory of production and an organizational feat to have gained broad acceptance at all levels.

The next three steps are in formative stages, and their impact on productivity cannot be fully evaluated at this time.

Lean Production Systems (LPS) - Production Theory's Fifth Step Outing the 1970s~1990s, Japanese organizations spearheaded by Toyota, Mazda, Nissan, Honda, and Mitsubishi developed a new kind of production methodology called lean provocation systems. These systems combine a deep understanding of quality with a desire to be fastest and a fanatical distaste for all kinds of waste.

The flexibility concept joins computers and equipment of many other kinds, including assembly-line processes and office machines. It also is possible and often desirable to include human beings in the network. Flexibility can be applied to information systems’ flexible information systems (PIS) and to flexible office systems (FOS) as well as to FMS. The capability to produce small numbers of many varieties includes extensive application of systems thinking to integrate marketing needs and OM scheduling abilities. Using marketing forecasts, OM managers decide what to make, but the decisions are constrained by the FMS menu, which was predetermined at the planning stage.

The need to produce increased variety is market-driven. The transformation process has to be able to change over from making one thing to another, quickly and inexpensively. A great deal of effort is going into altering the transformation process so it can deal with the goal of increased variety. Technology and methodology must enable nearly instant setups and changeovers from one model to another to satisfy market demands. The payoff will be increased productivity of the joint production-marketing system, as exemplified by customized jeans.

Levi Strauss has put the customer directly in touch with the factory. "Sales clerks at an original Levi's store can use a personal computer and the customer's vital statistics to create what amounts to a digital blue jeans blueprint. When transmitted electronically to a Levi's factory in Tennessee, this computer file instructs a robotic tailor to cut a bolt of denim precisely to the customer's measurements.

Global Competition: Year 2007 Plus-Production Theory's Seventh Step

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It is conjectured that in the future the transformation process will continue increasing in complexity and productivity. On a worldwide scale, a broad range of goods should be within the spending capabilities of more people. More management will be needed to plan and control the systems. More operations managers will be required with far fewer workers on the prouction line. More people will be sharing services-such as education and health care-that are mutually rewarding. Onerous service tasks will be relegated to service robots. Hopefully, people will have more time to spend their money as they wish.

The input-output production transformation model will be internationalized. The costs of the inputs and the values of the outputs will be affected by dozens, if not hundreds, of different currencies. Managing currencies will be part of the transformation process. The euro is a good model for other regional currencies.

.

Information systems will be based on international networks of computers. Global telecommunication systems will transmit conversations. that are spoken in 80 different languages. Translation will be accomplished by language-capable computers with voice language recognition. Voice response in the appropriate language will be the norm.

The systems approach will extend to all functions within the organization and all partners along the supply chain, including suppliers and customers. Production transformation processes will require the best of management while decreasing burdensome labor components. Substantial productivity increases will be required.

CAD (computer-aided design) terminals communicate design specifications for the construction of planes and ships to an integrated computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) network that reaches throughout the manufacturing system.

Time wasted was singled out. Every effort was made to use pre-engineering of products and process design to maximize quality achievements, minimize variability, and do it all as rapidly as possible. Part of being lean was being fast-in production. The Japanese were not fast in reaching decisions. For the most part, the export industries became lean producers with high-output volume targets, minimum cycle times, and rapid new product development.

The Japanese auto industry has been leading in the development of bin and fast production systems. Toyota's production planners, who were architects of the revised production system, stated that Toyota's ideas were a continuation of the concepts that Henry Ford

Flexible Production Systems {FPS} Computer technology and production machinery technology are two distinct areas of technological development.

There developments were quite primitive in the 1960s and 1970s. The step is predicted by many; rejected by few. The real issue is how long it will take to co The initial thrust was in manufacturing. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) designed to produce a high variety of outputs at low cost. CAD/CAM technology is used to design and manufacture many different such as semiconductors, automobile grills, and aircraft parts. John Deere has invent lions of dollars in the creation of CAD/CAM systems for the manufacture of tract

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UNIT – II PLANT LOCATION Introduction: Proper and well planned industrial location and plant layout is an important managerial decision. It is a long term decision making it almost impossible to consider any changes in the location later on. As such, the performance of an enterprise is considerably affected by its location.

The location of an industry is as important as the choice for the location of an office or a shop in a city or locality.

. Define Plant.

Plant is any factory or workshop where a company manufactures its products.

. Define Plant Location.

It is generally concerned with comparison, evaluation and selection of a suitable physical place for setting up a suitable factory or workshop to carry out manufacturing activities to produce goods and services.

. Explain about the importance of the Plant Location.

Plant location is of paramount importance, both for a new enterprise as well as for the existing ones. The fundamental objectives of an organization are to maximize its profits. Profits can be increased either by increased sales or by decreasing cost of production is possible. When the firm is of optimum size and when the industry is located at an appropriate site where all kinds of production economics are available.

Selection of the suitable location is very important due to the following reasons.

Location of plant partially determines the operating and capacity cost. It determines the nature of investment costs to be incurred and also the level of many operating costs.

Each prospective location implies a new allocation of capacity to respective market area.

Location fixes some of the physical factors of the overall plant design etc., heating and ventilation requirements, storage capacity for raw materials, taking into consideration their local availability, transportation needs for raw materials and finished goods, power needs, cost of labour, taxes, land construction, fuel etc., Location helps to deliver the product at a cheaper price and thus helps to combat competition.

The existing firms seek new locations in order to expand their capacity or to replace the existing facilities. The increase in demand for the company’s products can given rise to the following decisions.

Whether to expand the existing capacity and facilities.

Whether to look for new locations for additional facilities Whether to close down the existing facilities to take advantages of new location.

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•

Location of Plant of an organization is an important Operations management decision.

•

Plant location means “deciding a suitable location, area, place etc where the Plant or factory will start functioning”

•

A Plant is a place, where men, materials, money, equipment, machinery etc are brought together for manufacturing products.

•

It is a long-term decision making and it is almost impossible to consider any changes in the location later on. Also the performance of an enterprise is considerably affected by its location.

•

The degree of significance for the selection of location for any enterprise mainly depends on its size and nature.

•

Plant location involves three major activities (iii)

Selection of proper geographic region (regional factors)

(iv)

Selection of appropriate locality within the region (community factors)

(v)

Selection of specific site within the locality (Site factors)

. Write about the objective of the Plant Location.

Reduced capital investment and operating cost: o

An ideal location should have the objective of reducing capital investment. For instance, if location is at a place where raw, materials are readily and conveniently available in the quantity.

o

So desired, the plant can operate with minimum inventories on hand, requiring lesser investment in storage buildings and lesser amount of investment in inventories.

Ensuring effective plant layout: o

Plant layout and plant location are interdependent and influence each other. The facilities available in the near by areas, the topography of the land, the climate and geographical conditions and several other factors influence the plant location.

o

An ideal location should reduce the inconvenience and cost. For instance, if the subcontracting and repair facilities are readily and cheaply available in the area, the managers may decide to get some of the parts manufactured by these sub-contracts and may not establish any elaborate repair shop, resulting in lesser investment in buildings and equipment and causing lesser problems in plant layout.

Coordination with government policies: o

While selecting location managers should first consider whether the government will issue license to start a factory at proposed location.

o

Moreover, what will be the policy of the government regarding establishment of factories in a particular region should also be considered.

Employee welfare and public needs: o

The non-economic objectives of enhancing employee welfare and catering to public needs should also be served by plant location.

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If a place is selected, where educational, recreational, medical, and religious and such other needs of employees are met properly, the employees will be contended and will have high morale.

o

If an area is selected for plant location, it will throw open employment opportunities to the local public who will welcome such a decision.

o

Selection of the site, in a highly congested area will be resented by the public.

Security: o

It is one of the important objectives. The plant should be free from the foreign attack, anti social elements and should not be prone to floods, earth quakes etc.,

o

A location with any one of the above factors will be regarded as extremely poor, even though other social and economic factors may be very favourable in establishing a factory there.

Concept of Facility Location •

Traditionally, location theorists have dealt with industrial plant/factory location.

•

However, the concept of plant location has now been generalized into that of facility location, since the facility could include a production activity or service system.

•

The term ‘plant’ has been traditionally used as synonymous to a factory, manufacturing or assembly unit. This could include fertilizer, steel, cement, rice milling plants, textiles, sugar mills, rubber factories, breweries, refineries, thermal or hydro-electric nuclear power stations etc

•

However, with the enlarged scope of a facility, this term can now be used to refer to banks, hospitals, blood banks, fire stations, police stations, warehouses, godown, depot, recreation centers, central repair workshop etc.

•

At a lower level order, facility would mean machines, equipment, desks, workshop, canteen, emergency etc

•

Thus, it can be stated that a facility could mean almost any physical object relevant to location analysis.

FACTORS INFLUENCING/AFFECTING PLANT LOCATION •

Hardly any location can be ideal or perfect. Hence one has to strike a balance between various factors affecting plant location which are discussed below:

•

These factors can be qualitative as well as quantitative.

•

Qualitative factors can be measured in terms of some qualitative criteria namely adequate, good, significant etc.

•

Quantitative factors can be measured on cost or some other quantitative basis like labour, material, housing, land, transport etc.

•

In general, “a plant should be located at a place where the inhabitants are interested in its success, the product can be sold profitable and the production cost is minimum”

•

In particular, the choice of plant location should be based on following considerations.

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. Explain about the factors influencing Industry or Plant location.

One of the early decision that an entrepreneur has to make is the choice of a location fro his/her business. The governing principle is that the organization should sell goods most profitably and manufacturing them with the least expenses. The various types of factors associated with the location of an enterprise have a significant impact on the operations of an enterprise and its costs structure. These factors can be qualitative as well as quantitative.

Quantitative factors can be measured in terms of some qualitative criteria namely, adequate, good, significantly viz, types of labour, Union activity, recreation facilities, climate etc., Quantitative factors can be measured on cost or some other quantitative basis viz, labour, materials, housing, land, transport etc., The fundamental factors which have to be considered in deciding the location of a plant for functioning profitably are given below.

Factors relating to Buying: Nearness to the raw materials: o

The cost of obtaining raw materials is an influencing factor on location. The importance of nearness to raw materials varies greatly wit the nature of the business. Two sub-divisions of this factor are to be considered in this regard.

One is the assurance of a constant and immediate supply, with out dependence on transport or weather conditions.

The other is the fact that the cost of transporting bulky raw materials from a long distance may add so much to the cost of production as to make the business unprofitable.

o

For example, the location of the cotton textile industry in Mumbai, jute in Calcutta, iron and steel in Jamshedpur, was influenced by this factor.

Accessibility to raw materials: o

The presence in abundance of any material is not sufficient in itself for finalizing the location.

o

The location must also be easily accessible. The climate should be moderate and adequate transport facilities should be available. The workers who are engaged in getting the raw materials should have sufficient supplies of food and water.

Factors related to manufacturing: Availability of labours: o

Labour supply refers to the number of skilled and unskilled person who are available for the kind of work to be done. Labour supply is perhaps the most important of all the factors, especially the supply of the skilled labour.

o

The important points under this heading can be summarized as follows.

What kinds of skills are required?

Will a large number of people be needed?

What are the likely levels of competition with others firms in the vicinity?

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Nearness to the potential market: o

Marketing of its product efficiently is also an important of an enterprise. If the plant is located near the market then the management can be keep close touch with the changes in market environment and formulate its production policies accordingly. But the reduction in marketing costs still remains an important consideration for location to be near the market.

o

Also in case of factory being nearer to the market the risk of damage in transportation, loss of the demand due to change in fashion etc., is also reduced.

Example: Glass, Chemical and Drug factories are mainly affected by this consideration.

Near to the source of power: o

The source of energy for turning the wheels of industry has a decisive influence in plant location and the development of industrial centers.

Transport and communication facilities: o

Transport is very important for bringing raw materials, fuel from different places. Also transport is required to supply the finished products to markets.

o

The region well connected with rail, road, water and air transport system is considered to be more appropriate.

o

The economic factors governing plant location, transport costs are very important. It is possible to obtain the materials and market finished goods only with the help of an effective transport net work.

Availability of services: o

Service includes (a)Gas, (b)Electricity, (c)Water (d)Drainage (e)Disposal of wastes (f) Communication.

o

Certain industries use considerable quantity of water, e.g. industries of food preparations, laundry, chemical and metal plating etc.,

Ready accessibility to repair shop: o

This factor is important mainly in the case of small-scale industries with plenty of orders on hand and a breakdown of its machinery will incur loss in business and bring down its image.

o

Hence, repairs have to be carried out immediately and work completed at the stipulated time.

Availability of amenities: o

A location which provides good extern amenities – housing, shops, community services, communication services, communication system- is often more attractive than one which is more

Safety requirements: o

Some important production units may present or may be believed to present potential dangers to the surrounding neighbourhood.

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For example, nuclear power stations, chemical and explosives factories are often considered dangerous. Location of such palnts in remote areas is desirable.

Adequate fire fighting facilities: o

Fire may originate from within or outsider the plant. Internal fire can be controlled with fire fighting appliances but it is difficult to control agencies causing fire from outside. A site with adequate fire fighting facilities is, therefore desirable.

Availability of educated personnel and research facilities: o

New industries as well as the development and expansion of those already established hinge on research and investigation to develop products and improve methods.

o

More over, the profitable operation of industry is dependent on a constant supply of educated and trained personnel.

o

To provide both, existence of educational institutions and research agencies is essential.

Integration with other group of companies: o

New enterprise owned or operated by a single group of companies should be located that its work can be integrated with the work of the associated establishments.

Suitability of land and climate: o

Soil and climate have direct bearing upon the type of activity that can be undertaken in any area in its early development. Climate has a great influence on the industry activity.

o

A cool invigorating climate develops the best type of industrial workers. Inhabitants of very hot climate are less efficient as industrial workers.

Labour building and planning regulations: o

A plant has to build in such a way that the manufacturing processes are carried on with minimum expenditure of time and material.

o

Also, there must be ample scope for addition or rearrangement, so that they can be carried out without stoppage of work. Availability of low cost land is most desirable for putting up a factory.

Specific plant site-selection factors: o

The specific site cannot be selected until both region and community have already been chosen.

o

Only then can management turn to selecting a specific site. The following factors should be considered in this respect.

Plot of land: •

Must be large enough to hold the present plant.

•

Leasing- long term lease must be available

•

Cost price is very important

•

Topography, soil mixture and drainage must be suited.

Transportation facilities Proximity to police and fire stations Adequacy of water and power supply.

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Primary Factors i) Availability of Raw Materials: An ideal location is one where the main raw materials required to manufacture the product is adequately available. This will ensure regular supply of raw materials and also reduce transportation costs. Also some industries by nature will be forced to locate themselves near raw materials sources.

Ex. Iron & Steel industries at Jamshedpur have been located close to coal fields since it uses coal in large quantities.

Sugar industries are located near to sugar cane growing places as sugarcane loses its weight during transportation. ii) Nearness to the Potential Market: All producers wanted to sell their products in the market. If the plant is located very close/near to the potential market, it can reduce transportation cost and also reduce damages and wastages. Also it can ensure prompt supply of finished products to consumers.

Nearness to market is thus an important factor in the case of industries producing light, delicate and perishable goods:- ex. Glass, chemicals, drug factories, food products, fashionable goods having changing demand etc. iii) Transport Facilities: Transport is very important for bringing raw materials, fuel from different places and for distributing finished products etc. Hence any region, which is well connected with rail, roadways, waterways and air transport system, should be selected for plant location. The producer has to choose a speedy and cost effective means of transportation. It should be remembered that transportation cost should remain fairly small in proportion to the total cost.

Also if the raw materials are bulky and their value is low, then greater importance has to be given to transportation. In such cases plant should be located near to raw materials. Ex. Bricks, cement, wood etc.

An industry tends to be alive located at places which have developed means of transport.

Faridabad in Haryana is an excellent example. It is well served by both rail and road transport. It lies on the mainline between Mumbai and Delhi. iv) Supply of Labour: Location depends on availability of productive labour force also because it is one of the most important inputs in an industrial enterprise. Stable labour force of right kind, of adequate size (number) and at reasonable rates (cheap labour) are few factors which govern plant location. If the supply of labour is not regular, manhours and machine hours are lost forever. The importance of labour supply has been reduced due to mechanization. But still machines cannot do anything without the skilled labourers.

Hence producers should try to regularize the supply of

rawmaterials by reducing strikes or lockouts, absenteeism, labour turnover etc. They should try to achieve lower labour cost per unit of production.

Ex. Crackers industries at Sivakasi Glass industries at Firozabad v) Power: Power is an essential for the process of production. Coal, electricity, oil and natural gas are the sources of power. All industries must have sufficient and regular supply of power if continuity in production is to be maintained. Usually heavy industries like machine tools, coal mining, iron & steel are located near sources of power.

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Ex. Iron & Steel industries at Jamshedpur are located near to coalfields.

Aluminium extraction industries are located where electric power is available. vi) Supply of capital:

Industries require capital for initial promotion and expansion.

Therefore

capital market must be well developed in industrial centers. The capital market mobilizes small savings of the people for the purpose of industrialization. Hence developmental banks and financial institutions must be looked for near industries Secondary Factors vii) Facilities/Services/Amenities: Availability of the following services will also influence location: Gas, Water, Drainage, Disposal of Waste, Communication, Good Housing Facility, Theatres, Restaurants etc. viii) Natural Factors: land, water, climate, source of raw materials are some of the natural factors to be considered for some industries like cotton textiles, sugar and jute. The climatic conditions (humidity, temperature and atmosphere) play a vital role in location of certain industries like cotton, jute which requires humid climate. Likewise agricultural products like tea, coffee, rubber, jute etc requires a particular type of soil and climate.

Topography also exercises an important influence on location. For instance, mountains and plateaus have a retarding influence on industrial development ix) Political Factors: Government influence the development of industry by providing political stability and also subsidies. Lack of political stability affects location of industries.

The government may give such facilities as development rebate, tax exemptions, price subsidies, banking, insurance etc. By giving these facilities, the government may bring about development of industries in backward areas. x) Government Support: The Government of India has been influencing plant location in a number of ways. Some of these are licensing policy, Freight Rate policy, establishing a unit in the public sector in a remote area and developing it to attract other industries, institutional finance and government subsidies xi) Historical and Religious Facilities /Factors: Some industrial cities are of historical importance.

Some capital cities have religious importance – ex. Benares, Prayar, Kolhapur, Nasik etc. Industries grow at these regions due to their historical importance. xii) Initial Start and Goodwill: Some industries get located at that place at their earlier stages. Ex. Jamshedpur – has now developed into industrial city (iron & steel industry) xiii) Personal Factors: There are entrepreneurs specially small industrialist, who locate their plants purely on personal grounds disregarding other factor. For ex. Mr.Ford started manufacturing cars at Detroit because it was his native town and at present it is the biggest car manufacturing center in India. xiv) Other Factors: The following factors also affect the location of industrial unit: -

strategic factors like dangers of air attacks

-

availability of free fire fighting facilities

-

availability of recreational, medical & educational facilities

-

Quality of life because of facilities like schools, hospitals, post office etc enjoyed by the community

-

Community attitudes.

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-

Ecological and environmental considerations

-

Regional aspirations of people and their political satisfaction

-

Integration with other group of companies

-

Regional restrictions

-

Competition between states

-

Research facilities

Factors Influencing Industry Or Plant Location A) Selection of Region - Availability of Raw materials

B) Selection of Community - Availability of Labour

- Nearness to Market - Availability of power

- Civic amenities to workers

C) Selection of Site - Soil, Size & Topography - Disposal of Waste

- Existence of complementary

- Transport facilities

& competing industries

- Suitability of Climate

- Finance & Research facilities

- Government policy

- Availability of water & fire

- Competition among states

fighting facilities - Local taxes & restrictions - Momentum of early start - Personal Factors

SELECTION OF SITE (URBAN, RURAL OR SUB URBAN) There are broadly three possible alternatives for the selection of site in a locality. (i)

City/Urban area (ii) Rural area (iii) Sub urban area

City/Urban area: Urban area enjoys some typical advantages against rural/suburban areas.

Advantages: 1. Good transportation facilities available for movement of raw materials and finished products by rail, road, air & water 2. Good communication facilities 3. Banking, credit, insurance facilites are available 4. Sufficient storage facilities like cold-storage are available 5. Ample availability of skilled and unskilled workers 6. Facility of ancillary and service units around industrial areas.

7. Availability of potential market 8. Developed training institutes 9. Educational, medical & recreational institutes 10. Availability of several research institutes 11. Certain specific municipal service facilities are available only in city areas like water supply, drainage, fire fighting facilities etc Disadvantages: 1. Cost of land is very high when compared to rural areas

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2. even at high cost, sufficient land is not available 3. Cost of labour is relatively high due to high standard of living 4. Rate of labour turnover is very high due to more number of competitors in the urban area 5. Trade union movement is very strong in city area. Hence there are sre more strikes, lockouts in urban areas.

6. Various types of taxes are levied in city areas. Also the rates are relatively high. For ex.

Octroi is only levied in urban area.

7. Certain municipal restrictions put constraints and they involve extra costs due to height of building, waste disposal, elimination of air pollution etc 8. The industrialization in the city area gives birth to slums and dirty residences that creates the typical problems of sanitation and health.

Rural area: some industrialist also prefers rural area.

Advantages: 1. Comparing to city area, the land is available at cheaper rates 2. Large plots of land are available which can be developed for factory site, office building etc 3. Horizontal arrangement of plant is possible 4. Provisions can be made for further expansion 5. Due to lower standard of living, the rates of labour are relatively lower 6. The industrial relations between labour and management are relatively amicable 7. The local taxes found in city areas are practically non-existent in rural areas 8. Slums and dirty residences are not found in rural areas. Rural are offers good healthy work environment to workers.

9. Due to lack of congestion, there is no danger of fire caused by surrounding units.

10. Rural area does not become a target area for attacks during war time.

Disadvantages: 1. Transportation facilities are not good.

2. Better means of communication like post & telegraph, internet, fax etc are not available 3. Banking, credit, insurance facilities are not available 4. Storing & warehouse facilities are also not available 5. Advantage of ancillary & service units is not available 6. Rural areas are far from market areas. So distribution cost is high.

7. Absence of developed training institute 8. Not easy to get skilled workers in rural areas 9. Municipal facilities like water supply, drainage, fire fighting facilities not available 10. Absence of recreation facilities, good educational institution, medical facilities etc.

Suburban area: Both city and rural area are the two extremes for location. The better choice in such circumstances may be suburban area that is in the outskirts of City area.

Advantages: 1. Land is available at cheaper rates as compared to urban areas

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2. Adequate land area is available 3. Infrastructure facilities like transport, banking, water supply are developed 4. As city and rural areas are nearby, both skilled and unskilled labour is available.

5. It is possible to tap the advantages of training institutes, research institutes etc which are available in nearby area 6. Nearby city area provides market for the goods produced. Also the ancillary facilities can be made use of from city area 7. Educational institutions, medical, recreational facilities are available in suburban area itself.

Disadvantages: Suburban area may be converted into city area in the development process with all the merits and demerits of city area.

PLANT LOCATION TRENDS Presently, the traditional factors like nearness to Raw material, labour supply etc have no significant say in the location of industries. This change in location trend is due to the following •

Substitution of raw materials

•

Network of electrification

•

Development in transportation & communicaton

•

Mobility of labour

•

Persuasive policies of government for balanced regional development The recent trends in the selection of industrial location can be described as follows:

(1) Priority for the suburban areas: Sub-urban areas are preferred for industrial location nowadays because sufficient land will be available at cheaper rates when compared to cities. Also industrial policy of the government does not permit the establishment of a new unit or expansion of existing unit in city area. Moreover transportation, communication and other infrastructural facilities are developed in the suburban areas.

(2) Establishment of Industrial Estates: Several factories are concentrated in one area for sharing a common benefit and is known as industrial estates. The government of India has planned National policies separately for development of industrial estates.

The development of industrial estates is the responsibility of state government. In each state, the State industrial development corporation (SIDCO) has developed many industrial estates. Also private entrepreneurs and chamber of commerce also developed many industrial estates. The state government offers so many facilities to industries that start in such areas and hence industrial estates also affect location (3) Industrial development in Backward areas: Both the central government and state government have notified certain areas as backward areas. In order to develop these areas, both the governments offer various assistance like tax holidays, financial support, cheaper land and power, cash subsidies etc., in order to improve these areas. Such developmental activities will also affect the location of industry.

(4) Decentralisation of industries:

The industrial policy of the government does not support

concentration of industrial units in one area. Hence location has to be decentralized thereby reducing congested industrial environment.

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(5) Increased role of government in the decision of location of industries: Presently both state and central government concentrates in regional & backward area development.

OBJECTIVES IN PLANT LOCATION •

Reduced capital investment and operating costs

•

Ensuring effective plant layout

•

Coordination with government policies

•

Employee welfare and public needs

•

Security

When a Location Decision arise?

The existing firms seek new locations inorder to expand their capacity or to replace existing facilities. The increase in demand for company’s product may give rise to the following factors: -

whether to expand the existing capacity and facilities

-

whether to look for new locations for additional facilities

-

whether to close down the existing facilities to take advantage of new locations.

Relocation: The shift of the location of plant to some other place is known as relocation.

TYPES OF LOCATIONAL DECISIONS 1. Location of production units or plants for the conversion of inputs into finished products 2. Location of service units which provides assistance to production units 3. Location of distribution and retail units for dispersion of production to market 4. Location of procurement centers to assemble necessary inputs in the selected site 5. Location of ware house facilities.

COST FACTOR IN LOCATIONAL ANALYSIS The fundamental objective of locational analysis is to maximize the profits by minimizing the total cost of production associated with production process.

Total cost = Fixed costs + Operational costs Fixed cost = Land, Building, Machines etc Operational cost = Expenditures on inputs, transformation process and distribution of output

The total cost of location will vary from place to place.

Selection of Lowest Cost Site R1 M

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R1, R2 = Two available sources of raw material supply M = One place of Market or Consumption L = Location of Factory

Suppose if L is at M, only freight on raw materials will be paid If L is at R1,R2 there will be distribution charges If intermediate place is selected for location , both incoming & outgoing freight will be paid.

Hence in actual practice, a comparison should be made of each element of total cost as if location is done at each of these alternative places. Then, site which gives minimum total cost per unit, in the absence of any other important consideration should be chosen.

The location analysis can be divided into two categories I)

Involving Quantitative factors a) Comparitive cost chart b) Least cost center analysis c) Break Even Analysis d) Dimensional Analysis

II) Comparison of Qualitative factors I)

QUANTITATIVE FACTORS The economic objective of locational analysis can be summarized as follows Profits = Revenue – Total costs a) Comparitive cost chart: A comparitive chart of total costs involved in setting up a plant of desired size is prepared.

Total cost

A

B

C

D

Locations

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Consider 4 locations A,B,C,D and five factors 1,2,3,4,5 on which choice of location depends.

Some unit of output is chosen and cost per unit of output associated with various factors at each location is listed. The total cost for each location is then added and is represented by the height of the column for each location.

The location for which the total cost is minimum is selected.

The cost summary chart has the advantage of clarity in presentation and comprehensibility. However, the analysis is restricted to certain specified factors only. b) Least cost center analysis:

Here we consider the transport costs associated with

various locational alternatives. The limitations of this analysis is that -

the choice of plant location is assumed to be entirely dependent upon the minimization of transport cost.

-

transport costs are assumed to be linearly related to distance involved.

C) Break even analysis: this analysis can be done numerically as well as graphically. The procedure for lcoational breakeven analysis graphically involves the following: i)Determination of fixed costs and the variable costs associated with each locational alternative ii) plotting the total cost lines for all locational alternatives on the same graph. iii) Determining which location has the lowest total cost for the expected level of output.

Assumptions of this Analysis: a) Fixed cost remains constant for a range of probable output b) The required level of output can be closely estimated and c) Only one product is involved

Mathematically, BEP = Fixed

Cost / contribution per unit

d) Dimensional Analysis: Dimensional analysis is a technique for comparing the merits of several available locations. It does this comparison by assigning them rating from 1 to 100 as per the desirability For ex.

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Factors

Location A

Land

Location B

20

Building

30

50

30

Labour

25

40

Community Relations

60

30

Cost of Transportation

80

40

------------

---------

215

170

Location B is better than A as it scores are less meaning less cost (from cost point of view) If costs and relative weightages are given the analysis can be done as given below: Factor

Costs

Weight WLA

WLB

Location A Location B Land

20000

30000

1

20000

30000 Building 50000 Labour

40000

2

100000

150000 30000

2

30000

80000 60000

----------

----

-----150000 170000 Here location A is attractive than location B

Let us consider n factors in our analysis and two sites A and B. Dimensional analysis is then comparision of alternatives sites on the basis of both tangible and intangible costs.

Thus if

CA1,CA2,CA3,……….., CAn are the different cost associated with site A CB1,CB2,CB3,………..,CBn are the different cost associated with site B W1,W2,W3,……..,Wn are weightages given to cost items

Then the relative merit is given by

CA1

CA2

CA3

CAn

CB1

CB2

CB3

CBn

If relative merit is greater than unity (one), then location B is better than A.

II)

COMPARISION OF QUALITATIVE FACTORS Qualitative factors related to location analysis are also known as intangible factors. These are factors for which cost cannot be assigned ex. Lack of good schools, union activity, community attitude etc. These factors can be injected values like adequate or inadequate, significant or

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insignificant, good, excellent etc. However, it assumes a good deal of knowledge about each site and so it is not useful in all situations. This can be done by a) Drawing a comparitive chart for various locations Factors

Location A

Location B

Labour supply

Adequate

Excellent

Recreation

Good

Very Good

Union Activity

Significant

Not Significant

Education

Good

Very Good

Here location C appears to be attractive. b) Ranking and Weight Method: here various factors are assigned weights according to their importance in locational analysis. Also ranking are given. Then weights are multiplied with the corresponding rank and total of these products over all the factors for each location is calculated. The location having maximum total is considered to be most suitable.

(Note: It is observed that location selected on the basis of quantitative factors may not tally with that based on comparison of qualitative factors.

In case both the choices agree then the final selection is made otherwise the management may make a subjective choice. Generally cost criterion is given preference.)

MULTI PLANT LOCATION ANALYSIS: In a single plant location problem we are concerned with the selection of location with minimum cost. Whereas in the multi-plant-location problem, we must select the location which, when added to existing locations, should minimize the cost of entire system. Each of the potential must be assessed not on its own merits alone but in the context of a multiplant situation.

PLANT LAYOUT INTRODUCTION: Plant layout is one of the most important factors for a new industrial enterprise, after deciding the location of the plant. It pertains to planning of the space available for all the activities and facilities associated with manufacturing with a view to enable the plant to function effectively.

•

The word layout is used to indicate the physical disposition of the facilities of plant and of the various parts of the plant.

•

Proper arrangement of facilities is necessary to achieve a smooth flow of products.

•

Once location of plant is decided, the next step is to design the layout.

•

Layout pertains to planning of the space available for all activities and facilities associated with manufacturing with a view to enable the plant to function effectively.

•

Definition: In the words of James Lundy, “It identically involves the allocation of space and the arrangement of equipment in such a manner that overall operating costs are minimized”

•

Development of proper layout requires proper planning.

•

Plant layout is a joint work of both disciplines, namely engineering and management.

•

Planning the layout is a continuous process

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•

A good layout results in comforts, convenience, safety, efficiency, compactness and profits.

•

A poor layout results in congestion, waste, frustration and efficiency.

•

Development of good layout depends on a series of decisions taken on location, capacity, facility, manufacturing methods and material handling.

•

Layout begins with location and continues through three further levels, namely i)

layout of departments within the site

ii)

layout of items within the department

layout of individual work places

Write do you mean by Plant Layout?

The word ‘Plant Layout’ is an amalgam of two words: Plant and Layout. The term ‘Plant’ refers to machinery, equipments, and physical facilities for production. The term ‘layout’ denotes the arrangement of facilities in a particular work station.

. Definition of Plant Layout.

In the words of James Lundy, “It identically involves the allocation of the space and the arrangement of equipment in such a manner that overall operating costs are minimized”.

“Any arrangement of machines and facilities is a layout. Just as any house plan is a plan.”

“Plant layout involves the arrangements development of physical relationship among building, equipment and production operations which will enable the manufacturing process to be carried on efficiently”.

“Plant layout the arrangement of machines work areas and service area with in a factory”

WRITE ABOUT THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PLANT LAYOUT. The principle of the objectives of a proper plant layout is to maximize the production at the minimum cost. The objectives should be kept in mind while designing a layout for a new plant as well as while making necessary changes in the existing layout it should be planned with the following objectives in mind.

Economy in materials handling: o

Economy in handing of materials work-in-progress and finished stock.

Optimum utilization of resources: o

Ensuring optimum utilization of men, materials, equipment and space available.

Better inventory control: o

Minimizing work-in-progress and maximizing inventory turnover. The material should move rapidly through the plant and the points of congestion should be eliminated to have low levels f inventory.

Good work flow: o

Minimizing changes of delay and eliminating bottle necks in the production system.

Ensure a good work flow avoiding accumulation of work at vital points.

Efficient control:

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Ensuring efficient supervision and production control.

Avoidance of changes: o

Avoiding frequent changes so that production programme is not upset, causing the cost of production to rise.

Safety: o

Ensuring safety for the workers by eliminating or atleast minimizing the chances of accidents.

Better services: o

Providing adequate services centers at convenient locations.

Higher morale: o

Boosting up of the employees morale by providing incentives and also comforts while at work.

Flexibility: o

Ensuring flexibility of the layout for future changes and requirements.

To achieve these objectives, a close co-ordination between him/her with the production manager is very important.

Write about the characteristics of an efficient Plant Layout.

The designing of a plant layout should be such that it should maximize the return and minimize the cost of production. The following are the characteristics of plant layout.

Smooth flow of production: o

There must be a smooth flow of production. Raw materials and workers must have access to each machine with out any difficulty and delay.

Maximum utilization of available space: o

An efficient plant layout, such that may utilize the maximum of the space available.

Facilities the movement of men, materials and machines etc., o

There must be sufficient space left in between different machine so that raw materials, workers and machines move very easily from one place to another, with out the fear of accident.

Involves minimum handling: o

The various machines in a good layout must be arranged in such a manner that the product of one operation may pass in to the next operation with a minimum of handling. It will reduce wastage of raw materials and labour hours.

Provides better working conditions: o

A good plant layout must have facilities such as water, ventilation, retiring room etc, in the plant. It should also safe guard the health of the workers.

Flexibility: o

A good layout must be flexible enough so as to incorporate any change in the management policies. It must be capable of incorporating, with out major changes, new

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equipment to meet technological progress or increase the production requirements or to eliminate waste.

Location of stores: o

Te stores in a plant must be located in such a place from where raw materials, tools, equipment and other materials may be supplied to the departments concerned easily, with out and delay.

Facilities supervision and control: o

The position of the workers must be arranged in such a way that it facilities supervision, coordination and control.

Provision of safety: o

There must be complete safety for workers engaged on a machine. Necessary instruction must be given to them about the risks involved while working in certain type of machines.

Provisions of factories act must be followed in real spirit.

Coordination and Integration: o

There must be an efficient coordination and integration among men, materials and machines, so that their maximum could become a possibility.

. Write about the characteristics of poor Layout. Or Write about the symptoms of poor layout.

The symptoms of bad or poor layout are as follows.

Congestion of the machines, materials, part assemblies and even workers.

Excessive number of work-in-process Poor utilization of space Long material flow lines Excessive handling by skilled workers and increased handling costs Increase in maintenance time Long production cycles Delay in delivery schedules Increase in handling costs Difficulty experienced in supervision and control Increase in breakage of materials and products.

Write about the advantages of good layout.

The advantages of a good layout can be studied from the stand point of the worker, labour cost, other manufacturing costs, production control, supervision and capital investment.

To the worker: o

Reduction in the effort of the worker.

o

Fewer material handing operations

o

Extension of the process of specialization

o

Ensuring maximum efficiency

o

Better working condition and reduction in the number of accidents.

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In labour cost: o

Reduction in the number of workers

o

Increase in production per man-hour.

o

Reduction in the length of haul

o

Minimum lost motion between operations

In other manufacturing costs: o

Maintenance and tool replacement costs are reduced

o

Spoilage and scrap is minimized

o

Greater saving in the waste of raw materials consumption

o

Saving motive power

o

Effective cost control

In production control: o

Provision of adequate and convenient storage facilities

o

Increased pace for production

o

Achievement of production targets unfailingly

In supervision: o

Helps in easing the burden of supervision

o

Reduces the level of inspection and this minimizing the cost of inspection.

In capital investment: o

Investment in machinery and equipment is reduced because of Increase in production per machine Utilization of idle machine time Reduction in the number of operation per machine.

o

Permanent investment is kept at the minimum

o

Floor space and shop areas required for manufacturing are reduced.

OBJECTIVES OF GOOD LAYOUT i)

Facilitates the manufacturing process

ii)

Reduce material handling

iii)

Maintain flexibility of operations

iv)

Maintain high turnover of work in process

v)

Improves productivity

vi)

Make economical use of floor area

vii)

Efficient control (supervision)

viii)

To provide safety from accidents

ix)

Better services

x)

Better Inventory control

xi)

Optimum utilization

xii)

minimization of waste

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PRINCIPLES /CRITERIA/FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT LAYOUT The main objective of an enterprise is to maximize the production. What exactly is an efficient or perfect layout cannot be defined precisely. However, the following criteria should be satisfied for an effective plant layout.

•

Maximum Flexibility: A good layout is one which is flexible (i.e) it can be modified to meet the changing circumstances. It must be capable of alteration without much cost, time or wastages.

•

Maximum Co-ordination: layout should co-ordinate all operations (i.e) it should integrate men, materials, machines etc to achieve effectiveness.

•

Maximum use of volume(cubical space): A good layout should use the space effectively (i.e) horizontal, vertical space should be used. Also third dimensional (height) has to be used. For ex.

Conveyors can be made run on top (height above personnel) to use space effectively.

•

Maximum Visibility: There should not be any hiding places in the layout. Visibility of raw materials and finished goods will account for good supervision and control.

•

Maximum Accessibility: All servicing and maintenance points should be easily accessible without causing any difficult to production process. Machines and workers should move easily from one place to another.

•

Minimum distance) movement: (The layout should be planned in such a way that there must be least movement of goods and workers. Movement which add to the cost of the product without adding to its value should be avoided

•

Minimum Discomfort: The layout must be designed in such a manner that it causes minimum discomfort to the working force. Poor lighting, excessive sunlight, heat, noise, bad odour(smell) etc to be avoided. The statutory (legal) requirements of Factories Act, 1948 should be followed.

•

Minimum Handling: Handling should be minimized by using conveyors, lifts, trucks etc. Materials being worked on should be kept at working height.

•

Efficient Process Flow: Efforts should be taken to ensure that materials flow in one direction only.

The use of gravitational force in certain type of processing can lead to substantial savings in energy and time.

•

Safety, Security and Satisfaction: A good layout should give due considerations to worker’s safety, security and should provide him better satisfaction

•

Identification:

Wherever possible, working groups should be provided with their ‘own’ working

space. The need for a defined space with which a person can identify himself can enhance one’s morale and job satisfaction •

Sequence: Machinery and operations should be arranged in a sequential order.

•

Minimum Investment: The layout should result in savings in fixed capital investment, not by avoiding installation of necessary facilities but by proper use of available facilities

Write about the principle and criteria of plant layout.

The main objective of an enterprise is to maximize the production and minimize the cost. The process of plant layout may be said to be an effective one in so far as to help minimize movement of machine and personnel, facilities the manufacturing process and reduces the cost of production.

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Maximum flexibility: o

A good layout will be one which can be modified to meet the changing circumstances. It must be capable of incorporating with out major changes, new equipment to meet technological requirements or to eliminate waste.

Maximum coordination o

Layout must be considered as a whole and not in parts. It should be the bluest print for coordinating all operations.

Maximum use of volume: o

Maximum use f volume available should be made. For an example, converters can be run above the height of personnel at work and tools and equipment can be suspended from the ceiling. This principle is particularly true in stores where goods can be stocked at considerable height without any inconvenience.

Maximum visibility: o

The position of workers should be so arranged that there is no difficulty in supervision, coordination and control. There should not be any no ‘hiding places’ in to which goods can be mislaid. Raw materials and finished goods must be visible at all times, which will help in reducing pilferage.

Maximum accessibility: o

All servicing and maintenance points should be readily accessible without causing any hindrance to the production process. There must be sufficient space between different machines and workers should move easily and comfortably from one place to another.

Minimum (Distance) Movement: o

The layout should be so planned that there must be the least movement of goods and workers. Movements which add to the cost of the product with out adding to its value should be avoided.

Minimum Discomfort: o

The layout must be designed in such a manner that may causes minimum discomfort to the working force. Poor light, excess sunlight, heat, noise, vibration and bad odour should be avoided or minimized. The statutory requirements of eth Factories Act 1948 should be followed.

Minimum handling: o

The best handling is no handling but however, it should be reduced to minimum by the use of the conveyors, lifts, chute, hoists and truck.

Safety aspects: o

A layout should be free from causing any danger to machine operators working on the machines. Care must also be taken for the safety of passers-by. Adequate precaution against fire, moisture, theft and general deterioration should be taken in the original layout.

Efficient process flow:

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Work flow and transport flow should not cross. Every effort must be made to ensure that materials flows in now directions only and a layout which does not conform to this will experience considerable difficulties.

Identification: o

Where ever possible, working groups should be provided with their ‘own’ working space.

The need for a defined ‘territory ‘ i.e., provision of a space with which a person can identify himself/herself enhances ones morale.

. Explain about the steps or the procedures involved in planning layout.

The following steps are necessary for developing a layout plan for a new enterprise.

Fixing of objectives: o

The first step in designing a layout plan is to set the goals with regard to capacity, production, flexibility and plan for future expansion.

Collection and compilation of data: o

The second step is collection of necessary data regarding operations to be carried out to make a product, space available, dimensions of the space, the machines to be used or processes to be employed, nature of manufacturing operations and the sequence to be followed.

o

Collection of data must be followed by the preparation of operation process chart, machine data cards and templates of production machinery and materials handling equipment.

Formulation of an over all plan: o

The next step in the development of layout will be to prepare an overall plan, including the flow of production, arrangement of service activities and the most suitable type of building.

o

A floor plan may be prepared for grouping the machines either on the basis of product or line pattern or on functional pattern.

o

Then the type of building needed must be considered keeping in view of the layout plan and the location of the plant.

o

This should be followed by a tentative plot plan arrangement suited to the plant layout of the building and long run utilization of the sites should be prepared.

Service activities: o

The next step in planning a layout is to decide the location of service activities keeping in view the facility of the manufacturing process and the convenience of workers.

o

This includes decisions about development of material handling system, location of shipping and receiving areas, the maintenance shop, power plant, office and facilities for employee and convenience.

Building specification: o

The next step will be to fix the building specification i.e floor space required, load capacity of the floor, ceiling heights, location of partitions, size and location of doors and windows.

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Layout for individual machines: o

The planning for individual machine work stations or plans should also be prepared in relation to the access or work in process for repair and maintenance of plant and for services such as electricity, gas, high pressure air etc

Preparation of layout Drawings and Test run: o

The last step in designing a layout plan is to prepare layout drawings and necessary supporting charts developed by the engineer should be submitted to the management.

o

If the plan id approved by the management, the preparation for trial production should be made on acquiring or constructing the building and after installing the plant and a machinery.

o

If the management does not approve the plan, it should be revised in the light of suggestions made by the management or if the test run requires certain modifications in the model, necessary adjustments should be made in it.

. Explain about the factors influencing the plant layout.

The following are some important factors which influence the planning of an effective layout to a significant level.

Nature of the product: o

The nature of the products to be manufactured will significantly affect the layout of the plant.

o

Stationary layout will be most suitable for heavy products while a line layout will be best for the manufacture of light products because small and light products can be moved from one machine to mother very easily and therefore, more attention can be paid to machine locations and handling of materials.

Volume of the production: o

Volume of production and the standardization of the product also affect the type of layout.

o

If standardized commodities are to be manufactured on a large scale, line type of layout may be adopted.

o

If the production is made on the order of the customers, the functional layout is a better option.

Basic Managerial policies and decision: o

The type of layout depends very much on the decision and policies of the management to be followed in producing a commodity with regard to size of the plant, type and quality of the product, scope for expansion to be provided for the extent to which the plant is to be integrated, amount of stocks to be carried at any time, type of facilities to be provided for employees, etc.

Nature of the plant location: o

The size, shape and topography of the site at which plant is located will naturally affect the type of layout to be followed in view of the minimum utilization of space available.

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Type of Industry Process: o

This is one of the most important factors influencing the choice of type of plant layout.

Generally, the type of layout, particularly the arrangement of machines and work centre and the location of workmen vary according to the nature of the industry to which the plant belongs.

o

For the purpose of layout, industries may be classified in to two broad categories: Intermittent Continuous.

Types or methods of production: o

Layout plans may be different according to the methods of production proposed to be adopted. Any of the following three methods may be adopted for production.

Job order production Batch production Mass production.

o

In job production, goods are produced according to the orders of the customer and the production cannot be standardized. The machines and equipment can be arranged in a manner to suit the need of all types of customer.

o

Batch production carries the production of goods in batches or groups at intervals. In this type of manufacturing, the product is standardized and production is made generally in anticipation of sales.

o

In mass production of standardized goods line layout is the most suitable form of plant layout.

Nature of the machines: o

Design and specifications of materials, physical and chemical properties of materials, quantity and quality of materials and combination of the materials are probably the most important factors to be considered in planning a layout.

Climate: o

Sometimes, temperature, illumination and air are the deciding factors in deciding the location of machines and their establishment.

Nature of materials: o

Design and specification of materials, physical and chemical properties of materials, quantity and quality of materials and combination of the materials are probably the most important factors to be considered in planning a layout.

Type of machine and equipment: o

Machines and the equipment may be either general purpose or special purpose. In addition, certain tools are used. The requirements of each machine and equipment are quite different in terms of their space, speed and material handling process and these factors should be given proper consideration.

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Human factor and working conditions: o

Man is the most important factor of production and therefore special consideration for his safety and comforts should be given while planning a layout.

o

Specific safety aspects such as obstruction-free floor, not exposing workmen to hazards, emergency exit points etc., should be provided for.

o

The layout should also provide for the comforts to the workers such as provision of rest rooms drinking water, lavatory, and other services etc.

o

Sufficient space is also to be provided for free movement of workers.

Service centers: o

Every layout must have a provision for the men and equipment to lubricate, repair or even replace the parts of the machine to avoid plant deterioration.

o

Other service facilities which require attention includes steam lines, water pipelines, electricity wires, sewage and waste disposal.

Characteristics of the building: o

Shape of a building, covered and open areas, number of stores, facilities of elevators, storing place, parking area and so on also influence the layout plan.

o

In most of the cases, where a building is hired, layout is to be adjusted with in the space available in the building.

EXPLAIN ABOUT THE TYPES OF PLANT LAYOUT. Or What are the types of plant layout? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each plant layout?

There are three basic types of plant layout.

Product or Line Layout.

Functional or Process Layout Stationary Layout and Combined or Mixed Layout (Group Layout).

Plant Layout

Product or

Functional or

Line Layout

Process Layout

Stationary Layout

Combined or Mixed Layout

Product or Line Layout: Product or Line layout is the arrangement of machines and equipment in a line or a sequence in which they would be used in the process of manufacture of the product or group of related product or group of related products.

In this layout, materials are worked out in to finished stock through a series of integrated operations that is arranged in a line.

The machines under this plan may be arranged either in ‘U’ shape or in shape of a line.

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Suitability: This layout is best suited to manufacturing carrying out continuous mass production where raw materials are fed at one end and the finished products are taken out at the other end.

There may be a separate product line for each type of product using different types of machines or using machines of the same type.

Advantages: The advantages of product layout may be summarized as follows: Smooth flow of production: o

This plan ensures steady flow of production with economy because bottlenecks or stoppage of work at different points of production is eliminated.

Mechanization of material handling: o

Since machines are arranged in sequence of operations, the continues flow of materials in a line through mechanical devices like conveyors is ensured.

Economy in manufacturing time: o

Since materials are fed at one end of the machines and finished product is collected at the other end, there is no transportation of raw materials backward and forward.

Saving in material handling: o

Since machines are arranged in sequence of operations, materials move from one machine to another automatically and hence no transportation costs for machine to another automatically and hence no transportation costs for movement of materials are involved till the process of manufacture is completed.

Lesser work-in-progress: o

The work-in-progress is minimum and negligible under this type of layout because the process of production is direct and uninterrupted.

Easy inspection: o

Because the production process is integrated and continuous.

Introduction of production control: o

The continuous nature of production enables the management to introduce and enforce production process of production is direct and uninterrupted.

Maximum utilization of available space: o

Under this type of layout, machines are arranged in sequence of operations and it makes the maximum utilization of men, machines and materials.

Effective utilization of available resources: o

This type of layout provides for effective utilization of men, materials, machines because of (i) Minimum possible movement of workers from one place to another

o

(ii) lesser work in progress

o

Mechanization of materials handling.

Production control greatly simplified: o

Visual control replaces much of paper work because of which fewer forms and records are used. As the work is checked on and off the production line, fewer work orders, inspection tickets, time tickets are issued, reducing clerical costs.

o

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Disadvantages: o

Expensive: this type of layout is costly because machines under this system are arranged in sequence of operations and not according to functions.

o

Inflexible: This system is quite inflexible as the operations are performed in sequence; adjustment in the course of production cannot be made with out much difficulty.

o

Difficulty in Supervision: Since there are no separate department for various types of work, specialization in supervision is also difficult.

o

Stoppage of work through breakdown: Any break down in any of the machines along the line can disrupt the entire operations.

o

High labour cost: under this system, labour cost is high as: Absenteeism may create problems because every worker is a specialist of his/her own work or specialists on a particular machine.

By performing activities of repetitive nature along assembly line.

As machine play a dominant role in production under this system.

o

product layout involves the arrangement of machines in one line, depending upon the sequence of operations.

o

Materials are fed into first machine and finished product comes out of the other end.

o

Ex. Motor –Car production Sugar cane production

o

This layout is in shape of straight line or U

Machine A

o

Machine B

Machine C

Once a machine is in line, it cannot perform any operation which is not designated in the sequence of operations.

o

All machines required to balance the particular product line are arranged in a sequential line but not necessarily in the straight line.

o

To make this layout successful, the work-load on various machines must be balanced

o

This process of getting even loading at each stage of production is called line balancing

o

In this type of layout, product is dominating over the process

Suitability o

continuous flow of production with few items of production

o

items should not require frequent changes

o

for standardized products

o

operation time for different process are almost equal

o

Uninterrupted supply of materials

o

Reasonably stable product demand

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Advantages: o

reduced material handling cost

o

mechanization of material handling is possible due to handling between fixed points.

o

Line balancing may eliminate idle capacity

o

Facilitates better production control

o

Requires less floor area per unit of production

o

Shorter operating cycle due to shorter and speedier movement of materials

o

Effective quality control’

o

Facilitates implementation of group incentive scheme for workers

Disadvantages o

highly inflexible

o

breakdown of one single machine in the line interrupt the entire production flow

o

expansion is difficult

o

benefits of specialized supervision is not possible

o

it is difficult to implement individual incentive schemes

o

expensive layout.

Functional or Process Layout: o

This system is based on the functions performed by a department. Under this system of layout, machines or equipment of the same functions are grouped together in a separate department.

o

In other words, separate department is established for each specialized operation of production and machines relating to such functions are assembled there.

o

The specialized department works for all the lines of production. For example, welding equipment may be placed in one place.

o

All machines performing similar type of operations are grouped at one location. For ex.

All lathes, all drilling, all welding etc., in the shop will be clustered in their like groups.

o

In this layout, the process rather than the product has the dominating role

o

Separate department is established for each specialized operation of production and machines relating to such functions are assembled there.

These specialized

departments works for all the lines of production.

Suitability o

Continuous type of production

o

Products are not standard ones

o

Machines are expensive

o

Job order type of production

o

Small quantities are to be produced

Advantages: o

Flexibility: The process layout is known foe its flexibility. Changes in operations as well as their order can be made at any time without distributing the existing layout.

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Scope for expansion: the capacities of different lines can be expanded under this type of layout

o

by adding new machines and labour.

Maximum utilization of equipment: Process layout necessitates fuller utilization of machines

o

and equipment because general purpose machines are used commonly for all departments.

Lower financial investment: this type of layout requires lesser financial investment in machines

o

and equipment because the general purpose machines, which are usually of low costs, are used.

Better working conditions: Process layout facilities installation of machines and equipment in

o

different areas without any dependence on other operations sequences.

High output rate: Process layouts are less vulnerable to breakdown. Machine breakdown in a

o

process layout holds up production only on that particular machine and the whole process does not come to a standstill.

Enhances the over all skill of workers: workers are highly skilled as they are aware of

o

operating all machines – small or big in the group.

Disadvantages: Inefficient materials handling: Efficient material handling is difficult to practice in process layout

o

because fixed path material handling equipment such as conveyer belts, chutes etc., cannot be put to use.

Dis-economy to floor space: This type of layout requires more floor space than the product

o

layout because a distinct department is established for each operations.

High inventory investment: Compared to line layout, inventory investments are usually higher in

o

case of process layout.

High cost of Supervision: Under process layout, cost of supervision is high because

o

The number of employees per supervision is less which results in reduced supervisory span of control.

The work is checked only after each operation is completed.

Other disadvantages: The manufacturing process has a longer duration under process layout

o

because of strict inspection after each operation.

Stationary Layout: o

Under this type of layout, materials remain at a fixed place and the complete job is done at a fixed station.

o

Men and machines are moved to the place of materials for the necessary operations.

This type of layout is suitable for big industrial machines, ship buildings etc.,

Advantages: o

Flexible: This layout is fully flexible and is capable of absorbing any sort of changes in product and process. The project can be completed according to the needs of the customers and as per their specifications.

o

Lower labour cost: People are drawn from functional departments. They move back top their respective departments as soon as the work is over.

o

Saving time: The sequence of operations can be changed if some materials do not arrive or if some workers are absent, since the job assignment is so long,

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Different sets of people can operate simultaneously on the same assignment performing different operations.

o

Occupation of lesser floor space: it requires less floor space because machines and equipment are in moving positions and there is no need of fixing them. This arrangement is the most suitable way of assembling large and heavy products.

Disadvantages: o

Nature of product: Compared to product or process layout, capital investment is higher in this type of layout. Since a number of assignments are taken, investment is heavy in materials, men and machines.

o

Preliminary investment: Higher initial amount for investment in machines and equipment is required in product or line type of layout whereas in process layout, comparatively, lower initial investment is sufficient.

o

Volume of production: Process layout is used for a large number of products where similar machines and equipment are used for the manufacturing of each product, so the volume per product is low.

o

Flexibility: Process layout is flexible because necessary alteration or change in sequence of operations can easily be made as and when required without upsetting the existing layout plan.

Effect of breakdown Floor space Manufacturing time Materials handlings equipment and costs Supervision Control and coordination

Combined or Mixed Layout (Group Layout): o

A mixed layout is a combination of process and product layout. Mixed layout is generally used When the company’s product contains a lot of components and parts When the product requires to be produced in different types and sizes.

o

In mixed type of layout, the parts are produced on facilities arranged in process type of layout and they are assembled using the product type of layout.

o

Another concept of mixed type of layout is called cellular in which the facilities are clubbed together in to cells to utilize the concepts, principles and approaches of group technology.

o

The layout makes it possible to adopt high degree of automation even if the product demands are not stable. In this layout, the facilities are grouped into cells which are able to perform similar type of operations for a group of products.

o

Group technology: concept of group technology is the replacement of traditional job shop practice. In group technology, operations of the job and the sequence are analyzed to form certain families of jobs.

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Group technology is the out come of the realization that many problems are similar and that by grouping them, a single solution can be found to a set of problems, thus saving time and effort.

iii) Fixed Layout -

Also called as Stationary/static/project layout

-

In this type of layout, the material or major components remains in a fixed location and tools, machinery, men are brought to this location.

-

Complete job is done at fixed station.

-

Generally few input tends to be static (fixed) while others are moving.

Suitability -

big industrial machines

-

Hydro electric turbines

-

Ship building

-

Locomotive industry

-

Aircraft/spacecraft assembly etc

Raw materials

Aircraft Assembly

Advantages -

men and machines can be used for a wide variety of operations

-

lower labour cost

-

least movement of materials

-

flexible

-

saves time

-

occupies less floor space

-

worker identifies himself with the product & takes pride in it when the work is completed.

Disadvantages -

higher capital investment

-

not suitable for small products in large quantities

. Explain about the importance of Plant Layout.

The following are the importance of the plant layout Maximum utilization of the available space.

Facilities the movement of men, materials and machines etc., Location of stores.

Provision of safety.

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Facilities supervision and control Coordination and integration.

Provides better working conditions.

Better inventory control etc., SPACE REQUIREMENTS/ AREA ALLOCATION Plant layout deals with the allocation of the total floor area for various facilities and departments.

Space is required in each work station for equipment, tools, loading work, machines, temporary material storage etc According to James Lundy, “overall plant areas are generally about 150 to 200 sq.ft per employee for light/small manufacturing operations, 500 sq.feet for medium manufacturing and as high as 1000 sq.ft for process industries�. This is just a guideline. In fact modern production systems require separate solutions with regard to space requirements.

There are a number of factors/guidelines that should be considered for area allocation: i)

Area should be allocated after considering the need for future expansion and required flexibility.

ii)

Maximum use of 3-D space to allocate area

iii)

Area allocation is done for point of use storage and centralized storage

iv)

Area should be allocated for aisles

v)

Also provision has to be done for column spacing

Space Determination/Space Calculation In the layout planning process the space is allocated to different activities. The requirement of space by a facility has a close relationship to equipment, material, personnel and activites.

Two major methods that are being used for space calculations (i) Space based on present layout and (ii) production center method. i) Space based on present layout:

This approach is suitable when the proposed layout is to be

developed for an existing product. While determining the space consideration has to be given for * Operating equipment * Storage * Service facilities

*Operators

Allowance must be made for space between machines for operator movement, work-in-process, maintenance etc. ii) Production Centre Method: The space for each production center is determined including the space for machines, tools, access to aisle, maintenance etc. In this method, actual arrangement of equipment is considered for space calculation. The departmental space is then calculated by multiplying it with the number of production centers in that department.

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UNIT –III PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL (PPC) . Define Planning: Planning may be defined as the determination of a course of action to achieve the desired result. It involves the determination of objectives and planning of operations in terms of policies, plans and budgets, which will establish the most advantageous course for the organization.

. Define Control.

Control may be defined as the monitoring of performance through a feed back by comparing the result achieved with the planned targets so that performance can be improved through proper corrective action.

. Define Planning.

Production planning is a predetermined activity. It is predetermination of manufacturing requirements such as manpower, materials, machines and Manufacturing process.

. Define Product Planning.

Ray wild defines “Production planning is the determination, acquisition and arrangement of all facilities necessary for future production of products. It represents the design of production system. Apart from planning the resources, it is going to organize production based on the estimated demand for company’s products and establish the production programme to meet the targets set using the various resources”.

. What are the characteristics of the production planning?

Production planning is a universal production activity.

Production planning is the basis and pre requisite of production control.

Production planning includes routing of a production activities and layout production facilities such as building, machines etc., Production planning may be short term or medium term or long term Production planning can be done t three levels viz., factory planning, process planning and operation planning. . What are the importances of planning for production process?

The necessity for careful planning of production operations arises from importance factors: o

Modern production has become increasingly complex, requesting systematic “thinking through” of the process in advance.

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Production processes always involve the element of time in varying degrees. In the initiation of production anticipation of probable future utilizes and calculation of probable future costs of probable changes must always be taken in to account.

o

Successful production aims at the most economical combination of resources, which requires planning as a means of effecting cost control.

. Write the meaning of Production Control.

The production control is the function of management which plans, directs and controls the materials supply and processing activities of an enterprise. So that specified products are produced by specified methods to meet an approved sales programme. . Define Production Control.

The British standards institute defines the term production control to include the following: o

The production plan or planning and Scheduling

o

Machine or labour utilization or dispatching

o

Stock control

o

Manufacturing control or routing and

o

Progress

. Write about the objectives of production control.

Issuing the necessary orders to the proper personnel through the prescribed channels for affecting the plan.

To ensure availability of the means of carrying out the orders- the materials, machines, tools, equipments and manpower in the required quality at the required time.

To ensure carrying out of the orders by the personnel so that goods are produced in the required quantities of the specified quality at the predetermined time.

FUNCTIONS . What are the functions involved in production control?

The following factors are involved in the practice of production control.

Control activities: o

This is done by releasing manufacturing orders through dispatching. Thus, plans are set in motion at the assigned time.

Control of materials movement: o

The time at which material is received from the supplier, and issued to the plant is observed and a close watch is kept on its movement from one plant to another to ensure that this movement is in accordance with the production cost.

Availability of tools in controlled: o

Steps are to be taken to ensure that tools specified in the production plan are available as and when required.

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Quantity produced is controlled: o

Work-in-process at pre determined stages of production is observed to determine that right quantity of specified quality work is processed.

Control of replacement: o

Quantity of raw materials and work-in-process which fails to pass each stage of inspection is observed. Provision is made to issue replacement orders for each material for work.

Labour efficiency and control: o

Time taken on each unit of work-in-process is observed and recorded. Comparison of time is made with the time allowed in scheduling.

. Define Production Planning and Control.

According to Gordon B. Carson, “Production planning and control consists of the organization and the planning of the manufacturing processes routing, scheduling, dispatching and inspection, coordination and the control of materials, methods machines, tooling and operating time. The ultimate objective is the organization of the supply and movement of materials and labour, machine utilization and related activities in order to bring about the desired manufacturing results in the term of quality, time and price”.

. Write the Production Planning and Control.

Production planning and control is the direction of the coordination of the firm’s materials and physical facilities towards the attainment of pre-specific production goals in the most efficient available way. . What are the main elements of Production Planning and Control? Or Explain about the functions of production planning and control.

During the course of planning and controlling the production process, the following elements or techniques should be followed in phased manner. We may also call them production planning and control functions.

These are Routing Loading Scheduling Dispatching Follow up or expediting

. Write about the objectives of Production Planning and Control The principal objectives of the production planning and control are as follows: Quality of the output: o

The most important objectives of production planning and control is to ensure the safe and economical manufacture of desired products in required quantity and in quality.

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Plant utilization: o

To ensure maximum plant utilization so that productivity of highest degree can be achieved.

Process efficiency: o

To maintain maximum process efficiency by proper coordination

Delivery of goods: o

To deliver the products to the customers whenever they are needed.

Maintenance of inventories: o

To maintain an adequate supply of finished goods and having sufficient work in progress ensure that deliveries are made to the customers who may want the product in less than the manufacturing time.

Flexibility: o

To maintain flexibility in manufacturing operations so that an occasional rush job can be taken care of.

Effectiveness of work: o

Production planning and control ensures the right man for the right job, at the right place, at the right time on right wages and salaries so that maximum effectiveness is obtained.

Absenteeism: o

Production planning and control can be introduced to minimize and regulate the absenteeism.

Team spirit: o

To develop the team spirit and feeling of brother hood among workers is another aim of production planning and control.

Ideas for new methods: o

Production planning and control aims at giving encouragement to the workers for new idea and new methods.

Reduced Supervision: o

The other objectives of Production planning and control is to reduce supervision by creating interest in work amongst workforce.

Reduced Waiting time: o

Production planning and control aims at reducing waiting time arising due to want of materials, tools, equipment, supervision, inspection deliveries etc.,

•

Planning and Control are two basic interrelated managerial functions.

•

Planning is pre-operation activity while control is post-operation function.

•

Planning sets the objectives, goals, targets on the basis of available resources and constraints.

•

For translation of these objectives, goals and targets into reality, it is necessary to install control.

•

Such assessment can be made effectively only when some standards of performance are set in advance while planning.

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Controlling is made by comparing the actual performance with these preset standards and deviations are ascertained and analysed.

•

Effective control presupposes some sort of planning.

•

Thus planning and controlling are intimately related. Both of them are so closely related that they are treated as Siamese twins.

Production Planning: Production planning is an essential prerequisite to production control. It involves management decisions on the resources that the firm requires and the selection of these resources. This sort of planning is necessary so that the goods are produced at the appropriate time and at least possible cost.

Production Control: Production control is a facilitating service to manufacturing. It co-ordinates all the production operations by collecting the relevant information about various types of inputs and outputs and by making necessary adjustments in them. It directs and checks the progress of work.

Production Planning and Control ( PPC ) •

PPC may be defined as the direction and co-ordination of the firm’s material and physical facilities towards the attainment of pre-specific production goals in the most efficient available way.

•

According to Gordon B. Carson, “PPC consists of the organization and the planning of the manufacturing processes, routing, scheduling, dispatching and inspection, co-ordination and the control of materials, methods, machines, tooling and operating time. The ultimate objective is the organization of the supply and movement of materials and labour, machine utilization and related activities inorder to bring about the desired manufacturing results in the terms of quality, time and price”

Objectives of PPC •

Determine the nature and magnitude of various inputs to manufacture the desired output

•

To ensure safe and economical manufacture of desired products

•

To ensure maximum plant utilization so high productivity is achieved.

•

To maintain maximum process efficiency by proper co-ordination.

•

To deliver products to customers whenever needed

•

To maintain sufficient inventory

•

To maintain flexibility in manufacturing operations

•

To minimize and regulate absenteeism

•

To develop team spirit among workers

•

To reduce supervision

•

To reduce waiting time

•

To ensure smooth production by removing bottlenecks(problems) in production process

•

To minimize cost of production

•

To ensure maximum utilization of all resources

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•

To establish routes and schedules for all work

•

The ultimate objective is to ensure profit for the enterprise

PPC Functions /Elements of PPC

Routing Product development & design

Dispatching

Materials

Inspection

Sales forecasting & Estimating

Estimating

Methods Factory layout, Equipment policy

Expediting Pre-planning production

Machines & Equipment Manpower

Loading & Scheduling

Evaluation

Pre planning

Planning

Control

1) MATERIALS: Planning for the procurement of raw materials, components and spare parts in the right quantities and at right time. The function includes specification of materials, delivery dates, standardization, procurement and make or buy decisions.

2) METHODS: Choosing the best method of processing from several alternatives.

It also includes

determining the best sequence of operations (process plans).

3) MACHINES & EQUIPMENTS:

This function involves analysis of available production facilities,

equipment down time, maintenance policy, maintenance schedules, tools, maintenance of tools etc 4) MANPOWER: Planning for appropriate manpower having appropriate skills and expertise.

5) ROUTING (PROCESS PLANNING) : -

Routing means determining the selection of path route through which raw material should follow to get transferred into finished product.

-

Routing will also provide the sequence of operations to be adopted while manufacturing

-

In other words, routing means determination of most advantageous path to be followed from department to department and from machine to machine till raw material gets its final shape.

-

Thus routing determines, what work must be done, where and how the work has to be done.

-

Definition: Kimball and Kimball defines routing as “the selection of paths or route over which each piece is to travel is being transformed from raw material into finished product”

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The practice of routing rose out of the demand for a more systematic method to carry out the work.

-

The objective of routing is to determine the best and cheapest sequence of operations and to ensure that the sequence is followed

-

To be successful, routing requires that Route Clerk should have thorough knowledge of the product and the manufacturing equipment. He should also have complete knowledge of capacity and characteristics of every machines and process.

Routing Function: The routing function includes -

fixation of path to travel, giving due consideration to appropriate layout

-

Temporary storage locations for raw materials, components, semi finished goods etc

-

Breaking down operations into small jobs

-

Deciding set up time and process time for each operation.

Routing Procedure i)

The finished products are analysed from manufacturing view in order to decide how many components can be made in the plant and how many can be purchased from outside ( Make Or Buy decision)

ii)

Parts list and Bill of Materials are prepared showing the name of the part, quantity, material specifications, amount of material required etc. The necessary materials can thus be preserved.

iii)

Machine’s capacities, their characteristics and operations that must be performed at each stage of manufacturing are established. Then they are listed in proper sequence on the Operations Sheet and Route Sheet.

Route Sheet -

A Route sheet is a document providing information and instructions for converting the raw materials into finished products.

-

A route sheet contains complete description of the item to be manufactured, the details of each operation required in the manufacturing process, the set up time and standard operation time etc.

-

The route sheet also specifies the machines to be used and the possible alternatives also.

-

It also indicates stage wise inspection to be performed

-

It specifies tools requires for operation

-

It gives detailed drawings of parts, sub parts and final assemblies

-

It contains specifications of raw materials to be used

-

It also gives cutting speed, depth of cut etc

-

More precise specifications of manufacturing methods are given in the Operations Sheet which tells in greater detail about how the operation has to be accomplished.

Advantages of Routing -

Efficient use of available resources

-

Reduction in manufacturing cost

-

Improvement in quantity and quality of the output

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Provides a basis of scheduling and loading

6) ESTIMATING: Once the overall method and sequence of operations are fixed and process sheet for each operation is available, then the operation times are estimated. Establishing operation times leads to fixation of performance standards both for workers and machines.

7)LOADING AND SCHEDULING Loading: -

Loading is the process of assigning specific jobs to men, machines and work stations on the basis of their capacities

-

Loading requires the following information : Total work load, capacity of each worker and machines, availability of raw materials, labour and machines, due date specified by customers

-

A loading chart is prepared showing the planned utilization of men and machines.

-

The purpose of loading is to achieve maximum possible utilization of productive features and to avoid bottlenecks in production.

-

Overloading and underutilization of capacity are to be avoided

-

Machine loading is the assignment of specific jobs to specific machines keeping in view the priorities and machine utilization.

-

Loading also helps to complete each operation by the specified date.

EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL. The main functions of production planning and control are explained below.

Materials: o

Raw materials, finished parts and bought out components should be made available in required quantities and at required time to ensure the correct beginning and end for each operation resulting in uninterrupted production.

Methods: o

This function is concerned with the analysis of alternatives and selection of the best method with due consideration to constraints imposed.

o

Developing specification and determination of sequence of operations for the processes are important aspects of production planning and control.

Machines and Equipment: o

This function is related with the detailed analysis of available production facilities, equipment down time, maintenance policy, procedure and schedule.

Manpower: o

To maintain the availability of appropriate man power on appropriate machines at the right time.

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Process Planning (Routing): o

It is concerned with selection of path route which the raw materials should follow to get transferred into finished product.

Estimating: o

Once the overall method and sequence of operations are fixed and process sheet for each operation is available, then the operations times are estimated.

Loading and Scheduling: o

Scheduling is concerned with preparation of machine loads and fixation of starting and completion date for each of the operations. Machines have to be loaded according to their capability of performing the given task and their capacity.

Dispatching: o

This is the execution phase of planning. It is the process of setting production activities in motion through release of orders and instructions. It authorizes the start of production activities by releasing materials, components, tools, fixtures and instruction sheets to the operators.

Expediting: o

This is the control tool that keeps a close observation on the progress of the work. It is a logical step after dispatching which is called follow up or progress.

Inspection: o

It is a major control tool. Though the aspects of quality control are elements of a separate function, it is important to production planning and control, both for the execution of the current plans and its scope for future planning.

Evaluation: o

This stage is crucial to the improvement of production efficiency. A thorough analysis of all the factors influencing the production planning and control helps to identify the weak spots and the corrective actions with respect to pre planning and planning will be effected by a feedback.

. Explain the principles of production planning and control.

Type of production determines the kind of production planning and control system needed.

Number of parts involved in the product affects expenses of operating production planning and control department.

Complexity of production planning control functions varies with the number of assemblies involved.

Time is a common denominator for all scheduling activities.

Size of the plant has relatively little to do with the type of the production planning control system needed.

Production planning control permits “Management by Exception�.

Cost control should be a by product of the production planning and control function.

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The highest efficiency in production is obtained by manufacturing the required quantity of the product, at the required time by the best and cheapest method. Production planning and control is a tool to coordinate all manufacturing activities in a production system.

. Explain the steps or process in production planning and control.

The steps or process in production planning and control are Routing: o

Routing determines in advance what will be done on product part as well as where and how it will be done. It establishes the paths sequence of operations. It gives us the list of operations. It gives us the list of operations required to manufacturer each item.

Routing process: o

The article is analyzed to find out which parts or components can be made or bought.

o

The article is analyzed to find out what materials are needed.

o

The manufacturing operations and their sequence will be determined.

o

The quantity to be manufactured in any one lot or order will be found out.

o

Production control forms e.g.: production order, route sheets, job cards, inspection cards, tool tickets etc., will be prepared.

Scheduling: o

Involves fixing priorities for each job and determining the starting and finishing time for each operation, the starting and finishing dates for each part.

Objectives of scheduling: o

Ensure maximum utilization of the plant at minimum cost.

o

Ensure that requirement of power and its distribution.

o

Possess up to date information regarding availability of materials expected date of delivery.

Dispatching: o

The previous two steps, namely – routing and scheduling represents the planning activities.

The real production starts when permission is granted to commence the operations. The dispatching function involves the actual granting of permission to proceed according to plans already laid down.

In dispatching, order are issued in term of their priority a determined in scheduling and work is assigned to operations.

The dispatch section of the production planning and control department is responsible for the following. o

Checking the availability of materials and then taking appropriate action to have it transferred from the man stores to the point at which it is first needed.

o

Ensuring that all production aids are ready when required and then having them issued to the manufacturing department.

o

Informing the process section that production is commencing.

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Informing the production supervision when manufacture is to be started.

Expediting: o Once production has been set in motion. It is necessary to check that is it proceeding according to the plan. o

The follow up function of the production planning and control ensures that production proceeds along expected lines.

o Follow-up might be considered either that this is unnecessary or that it is a admission of inefficiency. o Generally speaking, production is assumed to progress as expected. But there may be a difference between what is expected and what has happened. o The difference may be due t o any of the following reasons: Materials may be delivered late or may not be delivered at all.

Associated departments may have fallen behind in their own production Strike and acts of god may completely hold up the manufacturing process.

Machine and tool break down be more frequent or more extensive than anticipated.

There may be errors in drawings. . Explain about the objective s of the plant maintenance.

1. The objective of plant maintenance is to achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working conditions at lowest possible cost.

2. Machines and other facilities should be kept in such a condition which permits them to be used at their optimum capacity without any interruption.

3. Maintenance division of the factory ensures the availability of the machine, buildings and services required by other section of the factory for the performance of their function at optimum return on investment.

4. To ensure that the there is no interruption between or in the work flow process.

. Explain about the functions of plant maintenance: 1. Inspect buildings and fixed equipment at such intervals that will insure detection of deterioration and the need for repairs.

2. Keep systematic records of inspection and records.

3. Inspect machinery and equipment in such intervals.

4. Make sure the repairs, renewals or replacements.

5. Making emergency repairs.

6. Suggest the updates, changes and improvements, etc.

. Explain about the types of Maintenance: Maintenance can be classified into the following categories 1. Planned maintenance 2. Predictive maintenance 3. Routine maintenance

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4. Breakdown maintenance 5. Preventive maintenance 1. Planned Maintenance: In planned maintenance work can be well planned in advance. It undertakes maintenance of all machineries, equipments, tools in a plant in a systematic manner.

Planned maintenance can be undertaken when the operations are running or after the operations are stopped.

In general planned maintenance forecast the work contained in future job, determines the best method to be adopted and skills required for its execution.

Estimate the time, material and cost involved in jobs and programmes the specific time periods on basis of priority.

2. Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance is a new type of preventive maintenance. It involves the use of sensitive instruments to predict trouble.

It goes by the principle prevention is better than cure. Some of the sensitive instruments are vibration analysis, amplitude meters, audio gauge, pressure temperature and resistance gauge are used to predict trouble.

Protective maintenance is used to measure condition periodically and this enables maintenance people determine the need for and time for over all.

Maintenance system

Planned Maintenance

Unplanned maintenance

Preventive maintenance Corrective maintenance

Running Maintenance

Shutdown maintenance

Breakdown maintenance

Emergencey maintenance

Shutdown maintenance

2. Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance is a new type of preventive maintenance. It involves the use of sensitive instruments to predict trouble.

It goes by the principle prevention is better than cure. Some of the sensitive instruments are vibration analysis, amplitude meters, audio gauge, pressure temperature and resistance gauge are used to predict trouble.

Protective maintenance is used to measure condition periodically and this enables maintenance people determine the need for and time for over all.

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3. Routine Maintenance: Routine maintenance can be also called as scheduled maintenance. This includes activities such as periodic inspection, cleaning, lubrication and repairs of production equipments after their service life.

Routine maintenance can also be classified as a) Running maintenance b) Shutdown maintenance a) Running maintenance: Here the maintenance work carried out while the equipment is in the operating condition. Eg. Greasing, lubrication, the bearings cleaning the dust accumulated in the machinery, etc. b) Shutdown maintenance: Here the maintenance work is carried out only when the machine is out of service.

Eg. In sugar manufacturing industries, the maintenance will be done only when the machines are shutdown due to non-availability of raw material during some seasons.

4. Breakdown or corrective maintenance: The repair work undertaken after the failure of machine or equipment. Eg. An electric motor will not start; a belt is broken, etc.

The replacement of the torn belt in case of breakdown maintenance, we call the technicians to correct the problem.

It includes, 1. Failure of lubrication 2. Minor faults 3. Sounds, heating 4. Failure to replace worn out parts 5. Neglected cooling systems

Preventive maintenance: . Definition preventive maintenance.

Preventive maintenance consists of routine actions taken in a planned manner to prevent breakdowns.

Lubrication and inspection are the two constituents of preventive maintenance. Lubrication ensures long and safe working of the equipment without mishaps.

Preventive maintenance activities

Direct activities

Indirect activities

1) Cleaning of the equipment 1) Condition monitoring 2) Lubrication to prevent water 2) Failure statistics

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68 3) Adjustment to limit wear

. Explain about the functions and forms of preventive maintenance.

The functions of the preventive maintenance is sub-divided as i)

Preventive maintenance of production department

ii)

Preventive maintenance of plant services

Forms of preventive maintenance: a) Time based preventive maintenance: It refers to conducting maintenance at regular intervals. b) Eg. Every two months, etc. c) Work based preventive maintenance: Maintenance performed after a set number of operating hours of volume of work produced. d) Opportunity based preventive maintenance e) Condition based preventive maintenance

. Explain about the objectives and limitations of preventive maintenance: 1. To minimize the possibility of unanticipated production interruptions by locating or uncovering any condition which may lead to it.

2. To make plant equipment and machines always available and ready for use.

3. To maintain the value of the equipment and machinery by conducting periodic inspection repairs, over hauling, etc.

4. To reduce the work content of maintenance jobs 5. To ensure safety of life and limbs of the workmen.

6. It may appear to be expensive.

7. But it is highly beneficial 8. The data for preventive maintenance will have to be built up gradually and the system should be refined depending on the data collected.

Scheduling: -

Scheduling may be called as the time phase of loading

-

Scheduling determines the programme for the operations.

-

In scheduling, order of sequence of each operation and their starting time and finished time is decided so the required materials, machines etc may be kept ready as personnel schedule.

-

Scheduling is the process of prescribing ‘when’ each operation in a production process is to be executed.

-

In other words it involves designing the timetable of manufacturing activities indicating the time required for the production of units at each stage.

-

Definition: In the words of Kimball & Kimball “Scheduling is the determination of the time that should be required to perform each operation and also the time necessary to perform the entire series as routed making allowance for all factors concerned”

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Scheduling depends upon a number of factors ex. Routing, the method of production, quantity of production, transportation of raw materials, production capacity, probable date of delivery specified by customers etc.

SCHEDULING Routing and Scheduling can be easily understood by the example on Railways: A railway map shows the route for passengers that the trains follow and the stations on that route.

This is what is known as ‘Routing’. Similarly, railway timetable gives the exact timing at which all the trains start and the time they take to reach at various stations and how long they halt there. It is known as ‘scheduling’.

Information required to draw production schedules: a) Date of delivery as mentioned by customers in his order b) Past production records c) Production capacity of the plant and d) Availability of equipment, materials and specialized skills.

Procedure for Scheduling i)

Preparation of job schedules which specify the time required for each operation

ii)

Assign ‘start’ and ‘finish’ dates to each of the operation on the job schedule.

iii)

Post each schedule into the load chart

iv)

Setting delivery date for an item

Kinds of Scheduling: There are three types of Scheduling: a) Master Schedule b) Operation Schedule c) Detailed operation schedule

Master Schedule shows the dates on which production items are to be completed. It is a weekly or monthly break-up of production requirements for each product. Whenever any order is received, it is accommodated first in the master schedule considering the availability of the machines and labour. Thus, it helps production manager for advance planning and to have check over the production rate and efficiency.

After preparing the master schedule, Operation schedule is prepared which assigns definite time period to a particular operation.

Detailed operation scheduling is still an elaborate operation schedule breaking the operation into various processes and specifying the time required for each operation.

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Techniques used in scheduling: The scheduling uses various techniques like Gantt chart, CPM & PERT techniques etc Maintenance scheduling . Definition Maintenance scheduling: Scheduling refers to the timings and sequence of operations. It is an important segment of production planning and control activity (about which we have studied already).

Scheduling of a maintenance job basically deals with answering the following two questions: 1) Who should do the job 2) When the job is to be done or started.

. Explain about the reasons for scheduling of maintenance: The scheduling of the plant maintenance is desirable for the following reasons.

1) Scheduling facilities the optimum use of the highly paid maintenance staff. Proper scheduling reduces the illness of maintenance crew.

2) The plant maintenance equipment can be utilized effectively through scheduling their use.

3) It eliminated undue interruptions in the production flow.

4) Maintenance works scheduled during night, week-end day, holiday, etc can ensure smooth flow of production operations.

5) Proper scheduling of maintenance services eliminates the chances of abrupt breakdowns and equipment failure.

6) It is sometimes necessary to maintain the sequence in providing the plant maintenance service.

7) Eg. Clearance of clogged pipes and waste disposal, scheduling of activities in the proper sequence in the maintenance schedule.

. Explain about Information required for scheduling: The schedule must obtain the knowledge about the following aspects. i.

Man power availability

ii.

Man hour backlog on current and unfinished jobs

iii.

Availability of the equipment or area where the work has to be performed.

iv.

Availability of special tool, special equipments, jobs and fixtures, special facilities and handling or lifting equipments and cranes.

v.

Availability of external manpower and their capabilities.

vi.

Date of commencement and expected date of completion of the job.

vii.

Past schedules and charts for reference.

. Explain about Principles of scheduling: a)

Scheduling should be based upon pre-planned methods and scientifically determined time standards

b)

Scheduling system should be clear, precise and simple

c)

Maintenance schedules should have the concurrence of production staff

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71

Scheduling should be prepared in two stages, master schedule and production schedule.

The major schedules are prepared much in advance to intimate all the departments concerned and to meet the production targets.

The production schedules are maintained to record day –to-day events.

e)

Schedule should be kept flexible by incorporating sufficient non-priority jobs.

ROUTING ROUTING (PROCESS PLANNING) : -

Routing means determining the selection of path route through which raw material should follow to get transferred into finished product.

-

Routing will also provide the sequence of operations to be adopted while manufacturing

-

In other words, routing means determination of most advantageous path to be followed from department to department and from machine to machine till raw material gets its final shape.

-

Thus routing determines, what work must be done, where and how the work has to be done.

-

Definition: Kimball and Kimball defines routing as “the selection of paths or route over which each piece is to travel is being transformed from raw material into finished product”

-

The practice of routing rose out of the demand for a more systematic method to carry out the work.

-

The objective of routing is to determine the best and cheapest sequence of operations and to ensure that the sequence is followed

-

To be successful, routing requires that Route Clerk should have thorough knowledge of the product and the manufacturing equipment. He should also have complete knowledge of capacity and characteristics of every machines and process.

Routing Function: The routing function includes -

fixation of path to travel, giving due consideration to appropriate layout

-

Temporary storage locations for raw materials, components, semi finished goods etc

-

Breaking down operations into small jobs

-

Deciding set up time and process time for each operation.

Routing Procedure i)

The finished products are analysed from manufacturing view in order to decide how many components can be made in the plant and how many can be purchased from outside ( Make Or Buy decision)

ii)

Parts list and Bill of Materials are prepared showing the name of the part, quantity, material specifications, amount of material required etc. The necessary materials can thus be preserved.

iii)

Machine’s capacities, their characteristics and operations that must be performed at each stage of manufacturing are established. Then they are listed in proper sequence on the Operations Sheet and Route Sheet.

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Route Sheet -

A Route sheet is a document providing information and instructions for converting the raw materials into finished products.

-

A route sheet contains complete description of the item to be manufactured, the details of each operation required in the manufacturing process, the set up time and standard operation time etc.

-

The route sheet also specifies the machines to be used and the possible alternatives also.

-

It also indicates stage wise inspection to be performed

-

It specifies tools requires for operation

-

It gives detailed drawings of parts, sub parts and final assemblies

-

It contains specifications of raw materials to be used

-

It also gives cutting speed, depth of cut etc

-

More precise specifications of manufacturing methods are given in the Operations Sheet which tells in greater detail about how the operation has to be accomplished.

Advantages of Routing -

Efficient use of available resources

-

Reduction in manufacturing cost

-

Improvement in quantity and quality of the output

-

Provides a basis of scheduling and loading

Routing and Scheduling can be easily understood by the example on Railways: A railway map shows the route for passengers that the trains follow and the stations on that route.

This is what is known as ‘Routing’. Similarly, railway timetable gives the exact timing at which all the trains start and the time they take to reach at various stations and how long they halt there. It is known as ‘scheduling’.

Information required to draw production schedules: e) Date of delivery as mentioned by customers in his order f)

Past production records

g) Production capacity of the plant and h) Availability of equipment, materials and specialized skills.

Procedure for Scheduling v)

Preparation of job schedules which specify the time required for each operation

vi)

Assign ‘start’ and ‘finish’ dates to each of the operation on the job schedule.

vii)

Post each schedule into the load chart

viii)

Setting delivery date for an item

Kinds of Scheduling: There are three types of Scheduling: a) Master Schedule b) Operation Schedule c) Detailed operation schedule

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Master Schedule shows the dates on which production items are to be completed. It is a weekly or monthly break-up of production requirements for each product. Whenever any order is received, it is accommodated first in the master schedule considering the availability of the machines and labour. Thus, it helps production manager for advance planning and to have check over the production rate and efficiency.

After preparing the master schedule, Operation schedule is prepared which assigns definite time period to a particular operation.

Detailed operation scheduling is still an elaborate operation schedule breaking the operation into various processes and specifying the time required for each operation.

Techniques used in scheduling: The scheduling uses various techniques like Gantt chart, CPM & PERT techniques etc

7) Dispatching: This is the execution phase of planning. Dispatching is the process of setting production activities in motion through release of orders and instructions that are already planned under routing and scheduling.

Definition: Dispatching is “release of orders and instructions for the starting of production or any item in accordance with the route sheet and schedule charts�

Functions of Dispatching i)

To check the immediate availability of materials

ii)

To ensure that all production and inspection aids are available

iii)

To assign different work to particular machines, work centers and men

iv)

To issue required material from stores

v)

Release necessary work order, time tickets etc to authorize timely start of operation

vi)

To record start and finish time of each job on each machine or by each manufacturer

vii)

To obtain the appropriate drawing, specification or material list

viii)

Processing information or inspection schedule

ix)

To return the acquired materials and other aids to the correct location

x)

Maintain all production records

xi)

To issue inspection orders

Forms used in Dispatching

a) Work Order: While starting the production, work orders are issued to departments to commence the desired lot of products. The work order consist of the following i)

Name of the product: code number, quantity to be produced

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PRODUCTION MANG. ii)

74 Description of various operations: machine to be used, special instructions in operating the machine

iii)

Departments involved

b) Time cards: Each operator is supplied with this card in which he mentions the time taken by each operation c) Inspection tickets: These tickets are sent to the inspection departments which shows the quality of work required and stages at which inspection is to be carried out.

Afterwards these are returned with the inspection report and the quantity rejected. d) Move tickets: These tickets are used for authorizing over the movement of the material from store to shops and from operation to operation. e) Tools and Equipment ticket: It authorizes the tool department that new tools, gauges etc and other equipments may be issued to shops. f)

Material Requisition form: This form is used to request for materials from stores.

8) Expediting/Follow up/Progressing: After dispatching, it is necessary to have a close observation on the progress of the work. It is called as follow up or progress. The function of follow up section is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a prescribed proforma and to investigate the causes of deviation from the planned performance. This section sees that production is being performed as personnel schedule. It also rectifies errors.

Progressing function can be divided into three parts (i.e) follow up of materials, follow up of workin-progress and follow up of assembly.

Functions of Expediting: i)

Follow up of materials: Material should reach to shops in required time so that production could be started as per the schedule.

ii)

Follow up of Work in progress: For this follow up section sees that a particular product is passing through all its operations from raw materials to final shape as personnel schedule

iii)

Follow up of Assembly: Assembly shops are responsible for assembling the various components. Follow up section sees that all the parts should remain ready for assembling purpose in actual quantities at required time.

9) Inspection: it is a major control tool. It is carried out for confirming that quality is as personnel predetermined standard. During inspection, defective parts are rejected so that only products of good quality should reach to the customers.

To reduce rejections, inspection is done at various stages starting from raw materials to final shape (called quality control). To produce products of good quality, machines and tools are also inspected.

10) Evaluation: This stage is crucial to the improvement of productive efficiency. A thorough analysis of all the factors influencing the PPC helps to identify the weak spots. Then the corrective actions with

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respect to pre planning and planning will be effected by a feedback. The success of this step depends on the communication, data and information gathering and analysis.

Information Requirements of PPC

* The effectiveness of PPC depends to a greater extent upon the accuracy of information it gets from other departments *The following information is vital to the success of PPC function in any organization.

Information 1) Production Programme: - Quantity to be produced,

Sources of Information

Department

Sales orders or any order

Marketing

accepted by the marketing department

- Delivery date, -Variety, models, features etc 2) Quality Standards:

Engineering, design who

Engineering, purchase

Specifications and tolerance

translates customers needs

and stores

into specifications 3) Production Materials:

Drawing and Bill of Material

- Type of materials,

(BOM),

- Quality and quantity,

Material stock cards

PPC / prodcution

- Procurement lead time, - Stock position 4) Tool

Standard and special tools

PPC/ Prodcution

5) Operation Details:

Process sheets,

Industrial

- Sequence of operations,

Load charts,

engineering/production

- Process capability of

Process capability studies

machines and equipments, - Process parameters 6) Standard time for

Work measurement data

PPC/Production

Machine load charts

Production

operation and set up time 7) Starting and finishing date

Schedule charts 8) Progress of work (status

Production reports

Production

of work) Re-engineering: . Definition Re-engineering: Michael Hammer defines re-engineering as the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of the business process to achieve dramatic improvement in critical contemporary measures of performance such as cost, quality, service and speed.

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. Write about the characteristics of Re-engineering: i) It is a process: Re-engineering offers process based approach to strategy rather than market based approach.

The tool concentrates on process activities that convert inputs to output for the customer. ii) It is Redesign Governed: It will not believe in minor improvement through modification. It is going to strike the very few aspect of design. iii) It is Radical: The entire form of the process management change during the re-engineering and this process may not resemble the old one. iv) It is dramatic: The tool is not most useful for marginal improvement of business programme. v) It is customer oriented: The entire process of re-engineering revolves around how to give the customers what they want at the right time and in most efficient manner. . Explain about the needs of Re-engineering: There is universal need to subject all the process of re-engineering. At the macro level, because of the environmental situations and globalization of the economies, the following factors become crucial for survival and development of economies. a. Crisis of energy b. Crisis of conflict c.

Crisis of confusion

d. Crisis of stress e. Crisis of culture At the organization level or micro the factors the re-engineering that process are 1. Intense competition 2. Environmental demands 3. Technological advancement 4. Sinking profitability and market share 5. Declining share prices . Explain about the process of re-engineering: The following procedural can be followed for re-engineering process: 1) Developing a process vision and determining process objectives 2) Defining process to be re-engineered 3) Understanding the current process and critically examining the current process for all aspects 4) Designing the prototype and implementing the new process 5) Stabilization of the new process . Explain about the benefits of re-engineering: 1. Improvements in entire organization as a whole.

2. Better systems and management improvement in the areas or production and service

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3. Taxes advantages of improved technology 4. Improved application of industrial engineering in the areas of a. Organization strategy b. Management functions c.

Plant utilization

d. Quality improvement e. Confidence in competition f.

Creativity in innovation

g. Improvement in customer satisfaction

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UNIT – IV MAINTENANCE INTRODUCTION Machines, buildings and other assets depreciate due to their use and exposure to environmental conditions. Hence it is necessary to maintain them with care. Proper maintenance leads to better capacity utilization of the same asset, thus avoiding investment in additional facilities.

Maintenance is not just a repair function, but is a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to acceptable conditions. This function keeps an eye on the entire production system and facilities.

Maintenance helps in increasing the operational efficiency of plant facilities and thus contributes to the revenue by reducing the operating cost and increasing the quality and quantity of the production.

Maintenance System: Both maintenance system and operation system are the sub-systems of production system and revolve around the production equipment.

INPUT

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance management:

PROCESSING

OUTPUT

ACCUMULATED MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT

MAINTENANCE

MM is concerned with planning and controlling routine, planned and preventive maintenance activities of RESOURCES an organisation. The following diagram describes the components of Maintenance Management cycle.

What How Resource

Resource Requirement of Time

Manpower

Balancing of Resource Requirements against availability

Machines Equipment Materials Money

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Completion target

Plan

Evaluation of Achievement

Action

Measurement of output

Objectives Of Maintenance 1) The main objective of maintenance is to maximize the availability and reliability of all assets 2) To extend the useful life of assets by reducing wear and tear.

3) To keep all equipments in good working condition 4) To ensure a great deal of safety of personnel using the facilities 5) To prevent wastages of spares, tools and materials 6) To ensure specified accuracy to products and time schedule of delivery to customers 7) To keep the production cycle within the stipulated range 8) To help management in taking decisions on replacement or new investment and to actively participate in specification, equipment selection, its erection and commissioning etc 9) To keep equipments safe and to prevent accidents 10) To help management in implementation of suitable procedure for procurement, storage and consumption of spares, tools, consumables etc 11) To reduce the maintenance cost as far as possible 12) To help in training and development of skilled workmen and executives

Scope Of Maintenance Maintenance covers a wide area viz., Plant, Building & surrounding areas, Machines and equipment, supporting facilities & services and house keeping and safety, waste disposal and recycling, environmental protection and pollution control etc.

The major areas of maintenance are Civil, Mechanical and electrical.

Functional Elements Of Maintenance Programme Following are some of the important elements and functions of the maintenance programme Inspection or check ups Lubrication

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Planning and scheduling Records and analysis Training to maintenance staff Storage of spare parts Miscellaneous functions like generation of power & distribution of power Importance Of Maintenance i.

Proper maintenance of plant and equipment is essential for keeping them in good working condition. This would ensure optimum utilization of production facilities and resources.

ii.

The objective of predetermined quantity and quality from various production equipment can be realized only when the equipment is supported by proper maintenance.

iii.

Regular use of equipments over a period of time would cause wear and tear. The gears may become loose, pipes may leak, and lubricant may get dried and so on. Therefore regular inspection, lubrication, repair etc must be undertaken to maintain the reliability and efficiency of equipment.

iv.

Proper maintenance helps to maximize production performance by reducing breakdowns and minimizing loss caused by breakdown

v.

Also, the natural condition like tropical climate and extreme humidity require special upkeep of equipment.

vi.

Proper maintenance results in longer life of machinery

vii.

Maintenance helps to improve reliability of plant and machinery.

Loss Due To Poor Maintenance In the absence of proper repairs and maintenance, the following types of loss may arise: •

Lower Productivity

•

Higher costs

•

Poor Product Quality

•

Destruction of equipment

•

Poor customer relations

•

Poor staff morale

Maintenance Cost Maintenance cost can be classified into direct and indirect costs: Direct Cost: i)

Labour

ii)

Material

iii)

Depreciation on capital equipments and tools used in maintenance

iv)

Inventory carrying cost of spares

v)

Direct external cost for repairs, inspection, testing etc

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Indirect cost i)

Loss in production

ii)

Idle time expenses

iii)

Accident cost

iv)

Overhead expenses chargeable to maintenance operations etc

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE Maintenance can be classified into the following categories: 1) Planned Maintenance 2) Predictive maintenance 3) Routine Maintenance 4) Breakdown maintenance 5) Preventive maintenance 1) Planned Maintenance: In planned maintenance, the maintenance work can be well planned in advance.

Planned

maintenance undertakes maintenance of all machineries, equipments, tools in a plant in a systematic manner.

Planned maintenance can be undertaken when the operations are running or after the

operations are stopped.

In general planned maintenance forecast the work contained in future job,

determines the best method to be adopted and skills required for its execution, estimates the time, material and cost involved in jobs and programmes the specific time periods on basis of priority.

2) Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance is a new type of preventive maintenance. It involves the use of sensitive instruments to predict trouble.

It goes by the principle ‘prevention is better than cure’. Some of the

sensitive instruments are vibration analysers, amplitude meters, audio – gauges, pressure and temperature and resistance gauges are used to predict trouble.

Predictive maintenance is used to

measure conditions periodically and this enables maintenance people determine the need for and time for overhaul.

3) Routine Maintenance: Routine maintenance can also be called as scheduled maintenance.

This includes activities

such as periodic inspection, cleaning, lubrication and repairs of production equipments after their service life. Routine maintenance can be classified as i)

Running Maintenance: Here, the maintenance work is carried out while the equipment is in the operating condition Ex. Greasing, lubrication the bearings, cleaning the dust accumulated in the machinery etc.

ii)

Shut down Maintenance: Here, the maintenance work is carried out only when the machine is out of service (i.e.) after shutting down the equipment or machine Ex. In sugar manufacturing industries, the maintenance will be done only the machines are shut down due to non availability of raw material during some seasons.

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4)Breakdown Maintenance (Also known as Corrective maintenance) -

Breakdown maintenance means the maintenance or repairs are made only after the machine or equipment breaks down.

-

Breakdown maintenance implies that the repairs are made after the machine or equipment is out of order and they cannot perform the normal operation

-

Ex. An electric motor will not start, belt is broken etc

-

Under such conditions, production department calls on the maintenance department to rectify the defect. The maintenance department checks into the difficulty and makes the necessary repairs immediately.

-

After removing the fault, maintenance engineers do not attend the equipment again until another breakdown occurs.

Objectives of Breakdown Maintenance: -

To get the equipment back into operation as quickly as possible in order to minimize interruption to production.

-

To control the cost of repair, including regular time and overtime labour cost

-

To control the cost of operation of repair shops

-

To control the investment in replacement spare parts that is used when machines are repaired.

-

To control the investment in replacement spare machine, which are also called as standby or back-up machines (such backup machines replace the manufacturing machines until the needed repairs are completed)

Causes of Breakdowns: i)

Failure to replace worn out parts

ii)

Lack of lubrication

iii)

Neglected cooling systems

iv)

Indifference towards minor faults

v)

External factors like too low or too high line voltage, wrong fuel etc

vi)

Indifference towards equipment vibrations, unusual sounds coming out of the machinery, equipment getting too much heated up etc

Advantages Of Breakdown Maintenance; i)

It is economical way of maintenance for certain non-critical items whose repair and down time cost are less.

ii)

Breakdown

maintenance

involves

little

administrative

work,

few

records

and

comparatively less number of staff. iii)

There is no planned interference with production programmes

Disadvantages Of Breakdown Maintenance: i)

Breakdowns generally occur at inappropriate time. This might lead to poor, hurried maintenance causing excessive delay in production.

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ii)

Reduction of output

iii)

Faster plant deterioration

iv)

Increased chances of accidents and less safety to both workers and machines

v)

More spoilt material and wastages

vi)

Direct loss of profit

vii)

Breakdown maintenance cannot be employed for those plant items which are regulated by statutory provisions, for example cranes, and lifts, hoists and pressure vessels.

6) Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance goes by the principle “Prevention is better than cure�. Preventive maintenance is basically undertaken to minimize breakdowns. Preventive maintenance can be made while the machines are running or when they are shut down. Two aspects of preventive maintenance being Inspection and Servicing.

Preventive maintenance consists of: i. Proper design and installation of equipment ii. Periodic inspection of plant and equipment to prevent breakdown before they occur iii. Repetitive servicing, upkeep and overhaul of equipments and iv. Adequate lubrication, cleaning and painting of buildings and equipments

Objectives Of Preventive Maintenance: i)

To minimize the possibility of breakdowns by location defaults well in advance

ii)

To make plant, equipment and machinery always available in good working condition.

iii)

To maintain the value of the equipment by periodic inspections, repairs, cleaning, overhauling, lubricating etc

iv)

To maintain the operational accuracy of the machineries and equipments

v)

To minimize accidents and to ensure safety of life to workmen

vi)

To ensure smooth flow of production

vii)

To meet the delivery schedules promptly without any interruptions

viii)

To minimize investment in standby machine

Functional Elements Of Preventive Maintenance: Following are the functions of preventive maintenance program: i)

An inventory of all spare parts needed for the machinery/equipments need to be maintained

ii)

Categorise equipments into critical and non-critical so that the equipments requiring preventive maintenance can be identified

iii)

A well designed inspection system

iv)

A good lubrication system

v)

Maintenance of adequate records and analysis of the same

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vi)

Planning of maintenance work

vii)

Control of maintenance stores and spares

viii)

Replacement of worn out parts before they fail to operate

ix)

Provision of standby machines of critical equipments

Forms Of Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance generally takes four forms [i] Time based, (ii) work based, (iii) opportunity based, (iv) condition based

Time based: It means that maintenance is carried at regular intervals. It is time based rather than work based. Ex. Once in a month, once in a week etc Work based: It means that maintenance is carried out after specified volume of work or after a set of operating hours.

Ex. In case of automobiles, maintenance will be done after 500 kms, maintenance after 10000 copies in photocopiers etc Opportunity based: Here the repair and replacement takes place only when the equipment and machinery is available for maintenance.

Ex. During night times or during holidays Condition based:

Here maintenance is planned and is based on certain conditions Ex.

Replacement of belt when the thickness is reduced to 20 mm

Advantages Of Preventive Maintenance: i)

Reduced break downs

ii)

Less chances of accidents

iii)

Extension of useful life of asset

iv)

Provides greater safety to workers

v)

Low maintenance and repair cost

vi)

Less investment in standby equipment

vii)

Lower unit cost of maintenance

viii)

Better product quality

ix)

Few rejections

x)

Higher productivity

xi)

Improved customer satisfaction

xii)

Improved staff morale

Disadvantages Of Preventive Maintenance; i)

Very expensive during the initial stages

ii)

Administrative work is more with well organized records.

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Difference Between Breakdown Maintenance And Preventive Maintenance.

1) Concept & Meaning:

Breakdown maintenance is the emergency repair which will be

undertaken only when the machine/equipment fails. Preventive maintenance is the routine inspection and service activity carried out before any breakdown occurs in the machine/equipment 2) Primary Objective:

In Breakdown maintenance, immediate repairs is the major focus

whereas in preventive maintenance, the objective is to minimize breakdowns and to ensure that machines/equipment are in good working condition.

3) Cost of Repairs:

Cost of repairs is very high in breakdown maintenance whereas it is

comparatively less in preventive maintenance as there in planned and routine maintenance 4) Accidents & safety to workers: More chances of accidents in breakdown maintenance while accidents are highly minimized in preventive maintenance.

5) Provision of standby maintenance: Provision has to make for standby machines/equipment so that production flow is not disturbed in case of breakdown maintenance. In preventive maintenance there is very minimum need for standby machine 6) Investment in spares: Investment in spares inventory is less in breakdown maintenance as repair work is done only when machines fail. In preventive maintenance huge inventory of spares have to be maintained to enable repair work to be carried during routine inspection.

7) Suitability: Breakdown maintenance is suitable for non-critical machines/equipments while preventive maintenance can be employed for critical and statutory provisions like lifts, cranes etc 8) Unit cost of Production: The unit cost of production is high in breakdown maintenance whereas it is comparatively less in preventive maintenance 9) Administrative work: Very less administrative work in case of breakdown maintenance while record keeping and analysis is more in preventive maintenance 10) Flow of production:

Breakdown maintenance stops the normal work and hence interrupts

production flow whereas preventive maintenance will not disturb the operations Maintenance cost Balance or Optimum Degree of Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance cannot be adopted for all machines/equipments in the shop floor as it incurs huge cost. Hence the decision regarding the appropriate level of preventive maintenance rests on the balance between breakdown & repair cost and Preventive maintenance cost.

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In the above figure, the curve A represents the preventive maintenance cost increases with higher level of preventive maintenance Curve B (Downtime & repair cost) represents the declining cost of breakdown & repairs as the level of preventive maintenance increases.

The total cost curve is the sum of the curves A & B.

The optimum level of preventive

maintenance is determined at the minimum of the total cost curve say Point X. Beyond this minimum point, preventive maintenance is not advisable as the total cost increases.

Maintenance Scheduling: Scheduling refers to the timings and sequence of operations. It is an important segment of PPC activity.

Scheduling of a maintenance job basically deals with answering the following two questions who should do the job? When the job is to be done or started?

Reasons for scheduling of maintenance: Scheduling of plant maintenance is desirable for ht following reasons: i)

Scheduling facilitates the optimum use of the highly paid maintenance staff. Proper scheduling reduces the idleness of maintenance crew.

ii)

Plant maintenance equipments can be utilized effectively through scheduling their uses.

iii)

It eliminates undue interruptions in the production flow. Maintenance works scheduled on night, week-end day, holiday etc. can ensure smooth flow of production operations.

iv)

Proper scheduling of the maintenance service eliminates the chances of abrupt breakdowns and equipment failure.

v)

It is sometimes necessary to maintain the sequence in providing the plant maintenance service.

Eg. Clearance of clogged pipes and waste disposal scheduling facilitates the proper sequence in the maintenance service.

Maintenance schedules lead us to work/job specifications. It is a link between the engineer and

the trade man. It gives guidance in respect of method, and presents a work-load.

Information Required for Scheduling: The scheduler should have knowledge about the following: -

Man power ability.

-

Man hour backlog on current & unfinished jobs.

-

Availability of the equipment or area where the work has to be performed.

-

Availability of proper tools, tackles, spares, consumables, structural and other required materials.

-

Availability of special tools, special equipments, jobs and fixtures, special facilities and handling/lifting equipments and cranes. This should also include labour and time saving devices like use of excavators instead of manual labours for digging etc.

-

Availability of external manpower and their capabilities.

-

Date of commencement and expected data for completion of the job.

-

Past schedules and charts for reference.

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Scheduling Techniques: The first step in job scheduling is to break the total job into smaller measurable elements called activities and to arrange these activities in logical sequence to determine preceding, concurrent and succeeding activities. Concurrent activities can be started together and a succeeding activity can start only when its preceding activity is completed. Further steps of scheduling depending on techniques to be adopted. Bar charts / Gantt charts and network techniques are commonly used in industries / plants.

Principles Of Scheduling: i.

Scheduling should be based upon preplanned methods and scientifically determined time standards.

ii.

Scheduling system should be clear, precise and simple.

iii.

Maintenance schedules should have the concurrence of production staff.

iv.

Scheduling should be prepared much in advance to intimate all the departments concerned and to meet the production targets. The production schedules are maintained to record day-to-day events.

v.

Schedules should be kept flexible by incorporating sufficient non-priority jobs.

Scheduling of Work to Specific Time Periods: Scheduling of maintenance requires concurrence of production personnel to release the machine during the specified time. Scheduling of maintenance work can be done on the basis of the importance of work in relation to production requirements and the duration of machine breakdown and its consequent effects on production and sales programme.

The maintenance department should schedule the work in terms of a long-term scheduled and a short term schedule each of these schedules would include the following activities on the basis of he information provided by the indicated source.

Time of Schedule

Activities

Sources of Information.

Long-term

Lubrication

Manufacturer’s recommendations.

Inspection

Technical Experience.

Over hauling

History of Machine.

Cleaning

Analysis of Lifespan.

Replacement of

Techno-Economic evaluation.

Machine Short term

Repairs

Inspection reports Complaints of breakdown Analysis or history Techno-economic evaluation

Problems of Maintenance Management: The problems that occur / faced in the maintenance department are as follows:

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1. Determining the optimum degree of preventive maintenance effort for the machine is very difficult.

2. Determining and categorizing the critical equipment is another problem faced by the maintenance department.

3. Scheduling the maintenance work is also a difficult process. Scheduling of maintenance should be in such a way that it is not affecting the production schedule.

4. Rectifying emergency repair in the case of break down is also a difficult task for maintenance department. In the case of product layout the maintenance department personnel’s role is more difficult. They have to make sure that all the machines are available for production all the time.

5. The problems faced by the maintenance department can be summarized in such a way that they have to find answers for the following questions: a. Who should do maintenance? b. What to inspect in preventive maintenance? c.

Where to start maintenance?

d. What to inspect for? e. How often to inspect frequency? f.

When to inspect schedules?

g. Maintenance records. h. Storage of spare parts. i.

Control and evaluation of maintenance.

Re-Engineering or Business Process Re-Engineering (BPR): Definition: Michael Hammer defines BPR as, “The fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of the business process to achieve dramatic improvement in critical contemporary measures of performance such as cost, quality, service and speed”.

Characteristics of Re-Engineering: 1. It is process centered: BPR offers process based approach to strategy rather than market based approach. The tool concentrates on process activities that convert inputs to output for the customer.

2. It is redesign governed: It will not believe in minor improvement through modification. It is going to strike the very aspect of design.

3. It is radical: The entire form of structure of the process management change during the ReEngineering and the Re-Engineering process may not resemble the old one.

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4. It is dramatic: The tool is not much useful for marginal improvement of business performance.

5. It is customer oriented: The entire process of Re-Engineering revolves around how to give the customers what they wants at the right time and in the most efficient manner.

Need for Re-Engineering: There is an universal need to subject all the process of Re-Engineering. At the macro level, because of the environmental situations and internationalization or globalization of the economies the following factors become crucial for survival and development of economies.

They are: 1. Crisis of energy 2. Crisis of conflict 3. Crisis of confusion 4. Crisis of stress 5. Crisis of culture At the organizational level or micro level the factors the favors the Re-Engineering that processes are: 1. Intense severe competition 2. Environmental demands 3. Technological advancement 4. Sinking profitability and market share 5. Declining share prices Steps in Re-Engineering or Process of Re-Engineering: The following procedural steps can be followed for Re-Engineering process: 1. Developing a process vision and determining process objectives.

2. Defining process to be Re-Engineered.

3. Understanding the current process and critically examining the current process for all aspects.

4. Identifying information technology leverage.

5. Designing the prototype and implementing the new process.

6. Stabilization of the new process.

Advantage or benefits of Re-Engineering: 1. Improvements in entire organization as a whole.

2. Better systems and management improvement in the areas or production and services.

Design and operations and improved systems of operation.

3. Takes advantage of improved technology.

4. Improved application of industrial engineering in the areas of: a. Organisational strategy b. Management functions

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Plant utilization

d. Quality improvement e. Creativity & innovation f.

Confidence in competition

g. Improvement in customer satisfaction.

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UNIT – V Work Study Industry everywhere has been striving hard to discover new work methods and techniques which could help produce goods of required quality at reasonable costs. The search has resulted in finding techniques such as work simplification, job design, value analysis and the like. All these are collectively called methods engineering or industrial engineering. The other names used are 'work design', work study, methods analysis and operation analysis. Methods engineering is closely affiliated with the functions of work measurement (or time study) and method study. This chapter is devoted to a detailed discussion of these approaches.

For the sake of simplicity, we use the term work study which comprises two techniques known as method study and work measurement, throughout is cheaper.

Definition of Work Study Work study is defined as that body of knowledge concerned with the analysis of the work methods and the equipment used in performing a job, the design of an optimum work method and the standardisation of proposed work methods. Work study has contributed immeasurably to the search for better methods, and the effective utilization of this management tool has helped in the accomplishment of higher productivity. Work study is a management tool to achieve higher productivity in any organisation, whether manufacturing tangible products or offering services to its customers.

British Standards Institution defines work-study as "a generic tenn for those techniques particularly method study and work measurement which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which lead ,systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency land economy of the situation being reviewed in order to effect improvements".

Work study is also understood as a systematic, objective and critical examination of the factors, affecting productivity for the purpose of Improvement. It makes use of techniques of method study and work measurement to ensure the best possible use of human and material resource in carrying out a specific activity.

Objectives of Work Study The prime function of a work study department is to submit proposals and implement schemes to increase productivity and reduce waste. i.

To recommend and implement the desired improvements in work methods by establishing the most economical way of doing the work.

ii.

Investigation and analysis of existing situation.

iii.

Examination of weaknesses, if any, in the production process.

iv.

Most effective use of the existing or proposed plant.

v.

Efficient use of human efforts.

vi.

Ensuring proper predominance of those employed in production process. vii. Measurement of

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work values. vii.

Initiating and awarding incentive bonus schemes. ix. Setting standards for labour cost and labour cost control documentation

viii.

To standardise the method, material and equipment used in the production process.

ix.

To determine the time required by an ideal (a qualified and properly trained)

operator

to

perform a task at some desired level of performance.

Major Components of Work Study The scope of work study is very wide. Mainly, it incorporates the following: 1. Work simplification or method study, widely known as motion study.

2. Work measurement which is popularly known as time study)

Importance and Significance of Work Study i. It is a means of raising productivity of a factory by reorganization of the work involving little or no capital expenditure on plant and equipment. ii. It is a systematic study where no factor of productions is overlooked. iii. It is a most accurate method of determining the standards of performance on which effective planning and control depend. iv. It results in savings and efficient use of resources by increasing output and reducing scrap. v. Results in improved safety. vi. Reduction in training time. vii. It is a tool which can be applied everywhere.

Basic Procedure of Work Study There are eight steps in performing a complete work-study. They are: 1. Select the job or process to be studied 2. Record from direct observation everything that happens, using the most suitable recording technique so that data will be in the most convenient form for analysis.

3. Examine the recorded fact critically and challenge everything that it contains, considering in turn, the purpose of activity, the place where it is performed, the sequence in which it is done, the person who is doing it the means by which it i!> done.

4. Develop the most economical method, taking into account all the factors.

5. Measure the quantity of work involved in the method selected and calculate a standard time for performing it.

6. Define the new method and the related time so that it can always be identified.

7. Install the new method as agreed standard practice with the time allowed.

8. Maintain the new standard practice by proper control procedure

Position of Work Study in the Organisation Work study department must be given a high position in the factory, so that fue persons working in the

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department may not be influenced by the supervisors working on the floor and their suggestions should be accepted with respect and . acted upon. Work study department generally works as a part of the Industrial Engineering. Department. Since, the Industrial Engineering Department is for fue service of ~e management of an enterprise, therefore, it must be a staff and not a line activity.

The position of the head of the industrial engineering department in relation 10 his/her fellow members of the staff depends upon the following important factors: •

Size of the organisation.

•

Type of organisation and whether managed by the owner himself / herselfor by

•

professionals.

•

Nature of work carried out in the factory.

•

Qualifications, experience, personality, etc., of the chief industrial engineer and those of other department heads.

•

Looking at the above factors, there cannot be any standard chart for organizational structure. A typical organisation chart showing the position of Industrial engineering department is given hereunder:

Production and Materials Management Occasionally, chief industrial engineer is given a place under general manager works. It is due to the reason that general manager works is responsible to increase the overall productivity and by placing the industrial engineering department under him, he can give more importance to the suggestions placed before him. In such case, the organizational structure will be similar to that shown in the chart.

Work Study Expert Certain qualities are expected of a work study expert, however they vary from work to work. Given below are some of the qualities of work study expert.

(A) Qualification (i) Good knowledge of work study techniques. (ii) Good knowledge of different manufacturing processes. (iii) Well qualified and sufficiently trained. (iv) Objective approach to shop floor problems. (v) A strong believer of improvement of works methods tl>.rough work study.

(B) Mental Abilities (i) Mentally prepared and interested to do that work. (ii) Exceptionally good observation power. (iii) Ability to explain very clearly possessing effective communication skill.

Work Study (C) Personal Qualities (i) Being sincere and honest, so as to gain the confidence and respect of those he/she is working

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with. (ii) Tactful in handling all types of situations. (iii) Self-confident, strong will-power and courage. (iv) Leadership capabilities.

Human Considerations in Work Study, Work study will become the powerful management tool to improve productivity only if a good relationship is established between the managers, supervisors and workers. Due consideration should be given to everyone concerned as an individual, and ensure that no one should perceive a threat to his her job security and self-respect. Thus, it is essential to consider the relationship between work study and workers, supervisors and the management as work study is a participative tool for investigation of the work being performed.

Work Simplification and Work Study The process management is key to the success of the product and company. Method study aims to identify the key processes and process parameters. A detailed investigation is carried out to get all the necessary details in order to analyze the existing process and break the process into parts (operations) which helps to plan and control. A detailed analysis with respect to process inputs (men, material, money) and also the process parameters is carried out to improve the process and to get the desired level of output both in terms of quality and quantity.

The work simplification starts with the analysis of the product and a detailed evaluation with regards to whether it can be changed in such a way as to make it easier to produce by reducing waste, eliminating non-value adding operations, design modification, etc. Thus, work study is a powerful tool to make work simplification.

Benefits of Work Study 1. Increased productivity and operational efficiency. 2. Reduced manufacturing costs.

3. Improved work place layout.

4. Better manpower planning and capacity planning. 5. Fair wages to employees.

6. Better working conations 7. Improved work flow.

8. Reduced material

Work Study and Workers As stated earlier, workers' confidence in the sincerity of the management is absolutely essential in the application of work study by an organisation. During the course of application of work study, following factors have to be taken into consideration.

(I) Management must take initiative for holding frequent discussions with workers before commencing work study.

(2) If work study is applied, then workers and their representatives are kept fully informed of the management's intention. All the records of work study must also be made available before them to

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instill confidence.

(3) Work study improves the flow of work and supply of materials. This improves the efficiency of the workers and also their earnings. This aspect will be welcomed by all, especially if they are paid on piece work basis.

(4) Generally, there is a fear of redundancy arising out of the result of work study. There must be definite policy in respect of their retrenchment or transfer to another department. This is a very important factor and must be discussed by the management with the trade unions (5) There may be a strong resistance to changes in methods of work as a result of method study.

The workers must be explained about the new methods and their advantages. Sometimes, experienced and old workers may not be satisfied at all, then as a solution, if the output of this old worker is reasonably satisfactory, they will have to be left alone and the changes are taught to others.

(6) Sometimes, workers hesitate in being timed, because the nearness of someone standing and observing their work disturbs them. In such cases, the position of work study expert must be such that he/she disturbs the worker as least as possible, work study expert must also ensure that before attempting to record time, a worker should become accustomed to his/her presence.

(7) Workers' representatives should be trained in the techniques of increasing the productivity. This will help in their understanding of the importance of work study and they will also be able to explain it to their fellow workers. This will also help them in ensuring that no steps are being taken which may harm them.

Work Study and Supervisor The work study man is going to face difficult problems because of supervisor or foreman's attitude.

Foreman is an authority on the shop floor to all workers and the success of work study in all its phases depends on him totally as it is he who has to cooperate with the work study expert.

Before the work study begins, the whole purpose of work study and the procedures involved in the work study must be carefully explained to the foreman so that he understands exactly what is being done. This facilities the work of work study expert as he/she is going to convey and convince the workers regarding the purpose and benefits of work study.

Thus, it helps to establish trust and gains the acceptability for foreman.

Work Study and Management Two types of difficulties are generally experienced by the management. First, any change in the existing method is an interruption of a comfortable routine way of doing work.

Second, the main difficulty is that when work study experts are active in the ~Ian~ managers may feel that their role in the organisation has been taken up Dythe work study experts and their position has been illegally seized. Sometimes, supervisory staff like, foreman, etc., do not co-operate with these experts which will also results in workers not caring for them and do not make any effort to carry out their suggestions.

We must also note that their will not be any obstruction at all, if all concerned are clear that the work study department is a tool of the management for improving the productivity.

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Relationship of Time and Motion Study to Work Study Both time study and motion study which resulted from the integration of concepts and practices developed by F. W. Taylor and by B. Frank and Lilian M. Gilbreth, are concerned with the systematic analysis and improvement of manually controlled work situations. However, time study is ~. quantitative analysis leading to the establishment of a time standard whereas motion study is a qualitative analysis of a work station leading to the design or improvement of an operation/activity.

WORK MEASUREMENT OR TIME STUDY Definition: Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a quantified workers so carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance.

PROCEDURAL STEPS FOR CONDUCTING TIME STUDY For conducting time study, average workers and average machines are selected. This study is conducted by the time study expert, who should be familiar with all information related to the job and the conditions in which it is being done. The location of the expert should be such that he/she can watch all the operations and movements of the workers without distributing them a suitable distance. He/she performs time study in the following stages: (a) Analysis of Work: The complete job and its operations are split into various elements as discussed in the motion study. These elements are finalized after conducting motion study. In the end, time required for the job preparation, cleaning of machine, and oiling, etc., should also be included. Thus, time study includes all the tasks performed by the workers and not only the effective work. (b) Standardisation of Methods: Before conducting time-study, all the constituents of the job such as materials, equipment, tools, working conditions and methods are standardised. The method should be easy, safe and quickest in the given conditions, so that it can be accepted by workers. (c) Conducting Time study: Time study is done on a printed time study record sheet which is fixed on a board known as Time Study Board. In one corner (generally right hand top comer) a stop watch is placed.

This stop watch should have a decimal scale dial so that it can read up to 0.001 minute.

Objectives of Work Measurement (or Time Study): 1. Comparing alternative methods.

2. Assessing the correct initial manpower.

3. Planning and control.

4. Realistic costing for the product.

5. Deriving and fixing incentives schemes.

6. Finding the delivery date of goods.

7. The cost reduction and cost control.

8. Identifying substandard workers.

9. Training new and weak employees.

Work Measurement (Time Study) Procedure: The basic steps to be followed sequentially for work measurement are: 1. Select:

The work to be studied after having made a preliminary survey.

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2. Record: All the relevant data pertaining to the circumstances in which the work is being done, the methods and the elements of activity in them.

3. Measure:

Each element in measured terms of time over. A sufficient number of cycles of

activity to ensure that a representative picture has been obtained.

4. Examine: The recorded data and time elements critically to ensure that unproductive or random elements are separated from productive elements also examine the recorded times of each element and determine a representative time for each.

5. Compile: A time for the operation which will provide a realistic standard of performance and will include time allowances to cover suitable rest, personnel needs, contingencies etc.

6. Define:

Precisely the series of activities and method of operation for which the time has been

allowed and issued the standard time for the activities and methods specified.

Standard Time: Is the time allowed to and operation to carry out the specified task under specified conditions and at a defined level of performance.

Techniques of Work Measurement: Various techniques of work measurements are: 1. Time Study (Stop watch time study) 2. Work sampling 3. Synthesis 4. Analytical estimating 5. Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS)

i. Time study or Stop watch time study:

Time study is a work measurement technique for

recording the time and rates of working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions. It is also used for analyzing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level of performance.

ii. Work sampling or Activity sampling or Ratio delay study:

A technique in which a large

number of observations are made over a period of time of one or group of machines, processes, or workers. Each operation records what is happening at that instant and the percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or delay occurs.

iii. Synthesis or Synthetic data or The synthesis: A work measurement technique for building up the time for a job or parts of the job at a defined level of performance by totaling element times obtained previously from time studies on other jobs containing the elements concerned or from synthetic data.

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PRODUCTION MANG. iv. Analytical estimating:

98 A work measurement technique, being a development of estimating,

where by the time required to carry out elements of a job at a defined level of performance is partly from knowledge and practical experience of the elements concerned and partly from synthetic data.

v. Predetermined motion time system (PMTS):

A work measurement technique, where by times

established for basic human motions (Classified according to the nature of the motion and condition under which it is made) are used to build up the time for a job at the defined level of performance. The most commonly used PMTS is known as Method Time Measurement (MTM) and work factor (WF) system.

Note: 1. In olden days we call method study as motion study. The reason is, in olden days only the motion

( or movement) of the operator alone is studied.

Where as now the scope is

broadened and we are analyzing various other aspects, apart from motion, hence we are calling motion study as method study. Motion study and method study are now interchangeably used.

2. In olden days we call work measurement as time study. The reason is in olden days we used to develop the time required to complete the job with the help of the stop watch. Later various other techniques are developed hence now we are using the term work measurement rather than time study.

Procedure for time study or Steps in making stop watch time study: Stop watch time study is the basic technique for determining accurate time standards. They may be economical for repetitive type of work steps in taking the time study are:

1. Select the work to be studied.

2. Obtain and record all the information available about the job.

3. Breakdown the operation into elements.

4. Measure the time by means of a stop watch.

5. At the same time, assess the operators effective speed of work relative to the observer’s concept of “normal” speed. This is called Performance Rating.

6. Adjust the observed time by rating factor to obtain normal time for each element.

Observed Time x Rating Normal time = 100 7. Add the suitable allowances to compensate for fatigue, personal needs, contingencies etc, to give standard time for each element.

8. Compute allowed time for the entire job by adding elemental standard times considering frequency of occurance for each element.

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STANDARD TIME AND ALLOWANCES – CALCULATION OF STANDARD TIMES Allowances are added to the normal time in order to arrive at standard title. Various allowances and the reasons for which they are provided are : (i) Process allowance, (ii) Relaxation allowance, (iii) Special allowance Periodic activity allowance and Interference allowance, and (iv) Contingency allowance and (v) Policy allowance. (i) Process Allowance (unoccupied allowance): It is meant to compensate workers for the enforced idleness due to the character or nature of a process or an operation. If idleness had not been enforced, the workers would have earned more. Such idleness is unavoidable when a worker handles a machine which works automatically for a part of the total working time or where a number of workers perform independent operations on the same job and it is not possible to completely balance production line. A worker generally feels discouraged if the idle time becomes a major portion of the total cycle time because even if he/she works at a faster pace rate during the non-idle time, he/she can hardly boost his / her low earnings. (ii) Relaxation Allowance: A worker cannot work continuously like a machine and hence such allowances are provided to him / her in order to satisfy his / her personal needs (like drinking water or having tea, etc.,) and to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of energy spent while performing an operation under exacting working conditions. Rest allowance is a relaxation allowance to a worker to overcome fatigue incurred during working. Excessive fatigue affects badly the performance of a worker. Fatigue is the result of unhealthy working conditions, physical exertion, inconvenient posture, intense concentration, etc. Relaxation allowance may vary from 12% to 20% (or even more) of the normal time them light to heavy work.

Relaxation allowance has two components: (i) Personal needs allowance and (ii)fatigue allowance.

Personal needs allowance is intended to compensate the operator for the time necessary to go away them place of work to attend to personal needs, namely, getting a glass of water, washing hands, etc.

Women require longer personal needs allowance than men. Allowance of 5% for men and .7% for women is considered fair. This represents, out of an eighthour working day, 24 minutes for men and 34 minutes for women respectively.

Fatigue allowance is intended to provide a workman an opportunity to recover from physiological and psychological effects of fatigue caused by carrying out a specified task under specified conditions.

Fatigue allowance for the purpose of assessment may be split into two parts - a constant portion called basic fatigue allowance and a variable portion called variable fatigue allowance. (a) Basic fatigue allowance is allowed to an operator who performs a job seated, who is engaged on light work in good working conditions, and who is called upon to make normal use of his body. An allowance of 4% is considered a fair figure of basic fatigue allowance by experts. (b) Variable fatigue allowance is allowed to an operator who is engaged. on medium and heavy work, who performance work in a posture other than sitting, and who is called upon to work in working conditions which are abnormal and' cannot be improved upon. Variable fatigue allowance, therefore, varies according to the conditions under which a work is performed.

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The reasons for the cause of additional fatigue is given below: 1. performing work in a posture which is other than sitting (Posture).

2.

making restricted movements in cramped surroundings (Motions).

3. Lifting or carrying heavy-weight objects or using force (Weight or using force).

4. performing work in hot and damp surroundings (Thermal conditions).

5. Working in conditions which are affected by presence of non-toxic and or toxic fumes (Atmospheric conditions).

6. Working under unsatisfactory light conditions (Light conditions).

7. Paying close attention to the instruments being used (Visual strain). viii. Working in noisy surroundings (Aural strain) 8. making repeated use of certain parts of the body, hands, arms and legs, etc. (Physical monotony).

9. making repeated use of mental faculties for example performing mental arithmetic (Mental monotony).

Note: Tea breaks should be treated as part of the relaxation allowance. (iii) Special Allowance: They may be temporary are given for activities which are not generally the part of work cycle but are considered essential for performing the work satisfactorily. Special allowances can be classified as periodic activity allowance and interference allowance. (a) Periodic activity allowance: It is for the activities to be carried out periodically during work cycle, for example , setting up a plant, regrinding a lathe too I, etc.

(b) Interference allowance: Machine interference allowances are provided when a worker is looking after two or more machines and stops operating one machine at random or cyclically while he is attending to another (machine). The result of machine stoppages or machine interference, is loss in production or total output. Thus, for no fault of his, the worker suffers because of low output. Interference allowance compensates this aspect. Machine stoppage may be cyclic or random and thus cyclic interference allowances or random interference allowances are specified. Cyclic interferences allowances are generally given to a worker handling more than one automatic machine which have different automatic cycle times. If the worker is attending machine Band the automatic cycle time of machine A is over, naturally machine A will start and the worker is not in a position to attend the same until he makes machine B to start. Random interference allowances are given on machines which stop or have to be stopped due to certain causes occurring at random (e.g., when a yarn breaks in winding).

Factors Influencing Interference Allowance (a) Number of machines per operator: The more the number of machines

assigned per operator,

the greater is the interference allowance. (b) Machine running time: The longer the machine running time, the lesser

is

the

interference

allowance. (c) Ratio of machine time to outside work: The higher the ratio of machine

time to outside work,

the lesser is the interference allowance. (d) Inside work: Higher inside work causes greater loss due to interference.

Methods of Measuring

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Interference Allowance: They are - work sampling, production study, queuing theory and interference theory. (iv) Contingency Allowance: It is a small allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the operator for the time lost due to legitimate interruption and delay which are uneconomical to measure because of their infrequent and irregular (Jccurrences. Some of these occurrences are: a. Total breakage involving removal of tool from its holder, trip to tool crib, filling up breakage report, replacing tool at tool crib, installing tool in its holder, effecting adjustments, etc. b. Obtaining necessary gauges from central pool. c. Filling coolant reservoir from time to time. d. Removal of turning, boring, drilling, etc., by helpers. e. Daily oiling and cleaning by maintenance department. f. Machine stoppages due to untimely movement of parts from previous machine. g. Operator's waiting time for helper or mechanical handling facility.

Method Study – Introduction Methods study

involves critical examination and systematic recording of an existing and

proposed way of doing a job so as to find a better and more efficient method.

It investigates how jobs are done and how the method of doing them can be improved.

Definition: “ A procedure for examining the various activities of problem which ensures a systematic, objectives and critical evaluation of the existing facts and in addition, an imaginative approach when developing improvements.”

Objects of method study: Better design of plant equipment and buildings.

Improved layout of factory and offices.

Better working conditions and environment.

High standards of safety and health.

Improved flow of work.

Better quality.

Greater job satisfaction.

High earnings.

Improved utilization of resources.

Effective material handling.

Efficient processes and procedures.

Optimum Inventory.

Optimum output.

Improved administration.

Waste reduction.

Standardization and rationalization.

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Analytical approach of method study / method study procedure: Method study has six steps: SELECT

-

Analyse of the job.

RECORD

-

Record by means of charts and diagrams all relevant facts about the present method.

EXAMINE

-

Critical examination of all facts.

DEVELOP

-

Develop an efficient and economical method.

DEFINE

-

The new method to be introduced.

INSTALL

-

Installation of new method as a standard practice.

MAINTAIN

-

Maintaining the standard practice.

Asters Method Study Procedure: 1.SELECT:

The work which is worth studying has to be selected and the objectives have to be defined.

The objective may be reduce manufacturing cost, to reduce tiredness to workers etc.

2. RECORD: All the relevant information about the existing method is recorded in detaikl in a chart form.

3. EXAMINE: Critcally examine the recorded events in sequence, This step answers several questions like What is done?, Who does it?, Where it is done?, How it is done?, When is it done? Etc. 4. DEVELOP: Develop the best method as resulting from critical examination and record it.

The

developed method should be practical and feasible, safe and effective, economical and acceptable to all departments.

5. DEFINE: Once a method is developed it is necessary to define the method in proper terms, its advantages etc.

6. INSTALL :

The best method has to be installed.

Installation involves three phases: Planning,

Arranging, and implementing. Installation is complete as soon as new method starts working smoothly.

7.MAINTAIN: Maintain the new method, i.e ensure the proper functioning of the installed method by periodic checks and verifications.

Method Study Method study involves critical examination and systematic recording of an existing and proposed way of doing a job so as to find a better and more efficient method. Method study is known by different names.

They are methods analysis, method engineering and work improvement.

Definition of Method Study Method Study is defmed as "A procedure for examining the various activities of problem which ensures a systematic, objective and critical evaluation of the existing facts and in addition, an imaginative approach when developing improvements". I Method study is a systematic and scientific evaluation of existing and proposed plans and performance of any work system and the evaluation of improvement, through analytical process of critical examination.

There are three different levels and aspects of the application of method , study. a. Method study proper: Method study proper is the broad investigation and improvement of a total department or section, the layout of machines and equipment, working conditions, etc., the flow of

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materials, the movement of men. b. Motion study: Motion study is a more detailed investigation of individual operator, the layout of his bench or machines, his tools, jigs and fixtures, the movements of his body as he performs his work. The study of his environment, body posture, the temperature and noise level of his surroundings. c. Micromotion study: Micro motion study is a much more detailed investigation of rapid movements of the hands and arms. It requires the use of a camera and the analysis of filmed records of hand movements. More details about micromotion study are given in page number 23.8.

Aims (Objects) of Method Study (or Motion Study) i. Better design of plant equipment and buildings ii. Improved layout offactory and offices iii. Better working conditions and environment iv. High standards of safety and health v. Improved flow of work vi. Better quality vii. Greater job satisfaction viii. High earnings ix. Improved utilisation of resources x. Effective material handling xi. Efficient processes and procedures xii. Optimum inventory xiii. Optimum output xiv. Improved administration xv. Waste reduction xvi. Standardisation and rationalisation

Scope of Method Study It can be applied to layout, working conditions, movement, quality standards, design, tools and equipment, material handling, etc.

Possible improvements of method study can be: (i) Short-term Improvements.' These are improvements which can be introduced quickly and economically, could be made trom the existing resources and also for which the management and workmen are prepared. (ii) Long-term Improvement: Improvements that require planning, investment and which that cannot be acceptable at present.

Steps or Procedure for Method Study 1. Break up of Operation of the Job: Make a detailed list of all operations in the present method of manufacturing a job. All the material handling, machine work, and hand work are also included in this detail.

2. Questioning every detail of the Job: The method study expert poses several questions to himself /herself regarding the way in which various operations are to be perfonned and the tools and equipment needed for the game. This is also known as critical examination, that' probes into the following: i. Purpose: What is the purpose of this operation? Does this fulfill the requirements and whether the

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operation can be eliminated? ii. Place: Where is the best place to do this operation? iii. Sequence: When is the best time to do this operation and whether it can be done at the same time as before or is there any other better time?

When will it be more suitable and economical?

IV. Person: Who will do this operation? Who can do it in a better way? v. Means: How this operation can be perfonned i.e., which machines and tools are to be used? Can we make the work easier and safer both for the worker and equipment?

3. Develop a New Met/wd: After considering the above questions, a new and better method is developed. Apart from the above considerations, before finalizing the new method, the following aspects should be taken into accounting the method study. i. Elimination: Every operation or detail of the job should be thought out, i.e., whether an operation can be eliminated without any hann. ii. Combination: In this aspect, it is to be observed that whether two or more operations can be combined without any adverse effect to save operation time. iii. Rearrangement: If rearrangement in the sequence of operation helps in improvisation or in any other aspect, then it should be done. For example, in a factory, the main sequence of operation for a product is given below: (a) assembling,

(b) storage,

(c) inspection and

(d) despatching

In the sequence given above, inspection was carried out before despatching Iwd defective components were being sent back to department for correction. 'After sometime, it is felt that storage before inspection yields unnecessarily more material handling and internal transport of defective components. It can re avoided if inspection is carried out before sending the products for storage.

Then this sequence of operations is rearranged as follows: (a) assembling,

(b) inspection

(c) storage and

(d) despatching

J

iv. Simplicity: If it is found that an operation can be performed in a simple, easy and economical method. (a) Placing the materials, tools and equipment at proper working areas. (b) Using gravity feed hoppers and other material handling equipment. (c) Taking useful work by both hands. (d) Using special jigs and fixtures.

v. Installation of the New Method: After having developed the method~ is necessary to install the new method. The new method must be accept~ or approved by management, supervisors and workers.

Then the worker must be trained to work, according to this new method and their habit must be retained and developed to follow the new method. For sometime, close contact must be maintained (i.e., continuous monitoring) wit~ the progress of the job until it runs satisfactorily.

4. Maintaining the New Method: Once a method is installed, it should ~ maintained il1 its specified

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form, and not allowed to slip back to its old foreman introduction of any other unauthorized changes. For proper maintenance following steps are advised. i. Copies of the job instruction sheets should be distributed to all concerned. These sheets must supply the details for setting up the job and proper operation. ii. Routine checks are necessary to compare what is actually being dam against the job instruction sheets. iii. Selection and training of persons must be done according to the jon specifications for this new method.

ANALYTICAL APPROACH OF METHOD STUDY The detailed procedure for conducting method study is shown in figure 23.1. The following are the steps involved in method study.

Select Record

Analysis of the job

.

-Record by means of charts and diagrams all relevant factor about the present method

examine - Critical examination of all facts develop - Develop an efficient and economical method Define

-

The new method to be introduced

Install - Installation of the new method as a standard practice Maintain - Maintaining the standard practice 1. Selection: Among the basic steps of method study, 'selection' poses the . greatest challenge at the initial stages of any project. The first few days of any project demands exacting analysis in order to clarify and crystal areas for detailed investigation. Though selection of the problem is the prerogative of the management, the basis on which a judicious selection is made, the exact areas for detailed investigation, etc., are all decided by the work study expert.

In minor assignments, like the study of a specific process, selection is a comparatively easy task. In major assignments, however, where the problem is large in magnitude, and wide in scope, a preliminary or diagnostic survey may be called for.

Analytical approach of method study (a) Diagnostic Approach: In major assignments of larger magnitude and wider scope, diagnostic approach is useful in selection of specific areas for investigation. The steps involved in diagnostic approach are as follows: i. Breakdown in the capital structure. ii. Arrange in terms of succession of cost. iii. Make spot checks. iv. Rearrange in succession in order of feasibility of cost reduction and I value added. v. Draw action programme. (b) Consideration in Selection: While selecting the subject for study, the following considerations should be borne in mind: i.

Economic considerations

iii. Human considerations

ii. Technical considerations iv. Economic considerations

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Work Study efforts cost Time and Money: The value of the anticipated results I must commensurate with the efforts put in. Short studies which can yield I appreciable dividends quickly are to be preferred to long term studies whose benefits may be difficult to foresee.

Technical Consideration: It should be ensured that adequate technical knowledge is available with which to carry out the study. Where a large problem

throws up a number of subjects which are

independent of each other, it is better to have small individual studies initiated on each subject. Where a problem I brings to light two or more subjects which are interrelated, independent studies on each might be carried out in the preliminary stages, but later they should be I continuously integrated by coordinating the recording of the different teams I workmen each subject. The critical examination has to be carried out by the: teams a whole. The scope and magnitude of the problem would determine the number of subjects to be studied.

Studies that would lead to better working conditions, improved environment: or increased earnings for the workers must be given due precedence over others. Human considerations: Where resistance to change or reaction is likely to be more, the subject should not be proceeded with until acceptance has been: gained. A spectacular improvement imposed against the will of the staff, can never be effective compared to a modest improvement in implementation with the cooperation of staff.

Field of Choice: The range of jobs which may be tackled by method study vary over a wide area.

However, following areas should be considered first: i. Optimising allocation of any specific resources ii. Design of equipment for man-machine equilibrium iii. Improving the working conditions or environment iv. Reducing the time required for performing the activity v. Improving the layout vi. Minimising movements vii. Quality improvement viii. System improvement ix. Cost reduction x. Customer satisfaction xi. Standardization/Simplification xii. Material handling activities xiii. High accident rate xiv. Excessive overtime xv. Excessive scrap xvi. Too much work-in-progress xvii. Idle labour time/idle machine title

Recording Techniques According to the nature of the job being studied and the purpose for which the record is required, the techniques fall into following categories: I. Charts

2. Diagrams

3. Templates and models

Gives bird's-eye view of process and records, principal operations and inspecting.

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Sequence of activities performed by worker. Sequence of activities performed on materials. Sequence of activities performed by equipment Man type .:. Material type .:. Equipment type 5. Travel Chart: Movement of materials and/or men between departments.

6. SIMO Chart: Activities of worker's hands, legs and other body movements on common Time scale.

7. Flow and String Diagrams

Recording Techniques: According to the nature of the job being studied and the purpose for which the record is required, the techniques fall into the following category: 1. Charts (for process and time records) 2. Diagrams and models (for path of movement records) Charts: Charts are often used to record the facts due to their simplicity and economy.

1. Operation Process Chart

- Gives bird’s eye view of process and records.

(outline process chart)

- Principal operations and inspections.

2. Flow Process Chart * Man type

- Sequence of activities of men

* Material type

- Sequence of activities of material

* Equipment type

- Sequence of activities of equipment

3. Two-handed process chart

- Activities performed by workers two hands.

4. Multiple Activity Chart

- Activities of men / machine on a common time scale to show their relationship

5. Simultaneous

Motion

(SIMO) Chart 6. Travel Chart

Cycle

- Activities of a worker’s hands, legs and other body movements on a common time cycle -

Movement

of

materials

/

men

between

departments.

Diagrams & Models: 1. Flow and string diagrams

- Path of movement of men, materials.

2. Two and 3 D Models

- Work place layout or plant

3. Cycle Graph

- High speed, short cycle operation recording.

Whatever type of chart / diagram is used , the following information should always be provided.

1. An adequate description of all the activities or movements entailed in the method.

2. Whether the present or proposed method is shown.

3. The specific reference to where activities begin and end.

4. The time and distance scales used, where applicable.

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5. An explanation of any abbreviations or special devices.

6. The date of construction of chart or diagram.

CHARTS Process Charts: Operations Process Charts, Outline Process Chart, Flow Process Chart, Two handled Process Chart (Already discussed in Unit II. Please Refer)

Multiple Activity Charts: This chart is similar to Two handed process chart. It is a chart where activities of more than one subject (worker or equipment) are recorded on a common time scale to show their interrelationship.

The Multiple Activity chart is used whenever it is necessary to consider on the same document the activities of a subject in relation to one or more.

By allotting separate bars placed against a common time scale to represent the activities of each worker during the process, the multiple activity chart is drawn. This chart clearly show sup periods of ineffective time within the process.

This type of chart is particularly useful for enabling maintenance and similar work to be organised so that the time expensive equipment out of use can be reduced to minimum. It enables complex processes to be recorded in a simple way for study at leisure.

SIMO chart (Simultaneous Motion Cycle chart)

SIMO chart is a recording technique for micro motion

study. A SIMO chart is a chart based on the film analysis which is used to record simultaneously on a common time scale the therbligs or a group of therbligs performed by different parts of the body of one or more operators. It is the micro-motion form of the man type flow process chart. To prepare SIMO chart, an elaborate procedure and use of expensive equipment are required. This study is justified when the saving resulting from the study will be very high.

Travel Chart: It is in the form of two way table or matrix. The number of backward movements are shown below the thick diagonal line XY anf the forward movements are indicated above the line. This chart represents the movements of materials as they travel in the process of being converted into finished products. It shows the origin of movements, the direction of movements and the destination of materials.

It represents visually useful data for methods study and plant layout.

A travel chart has the following uses: - It shows the mutual dependence of departments and their relative self sufficiency - It is a valuable aid in analyzing and visually showing the flow and end use of materials - It indicates inter-relationships between different product lines.

- It is helpful in planning routes and material handling systems so as to reduce manufacturing cycles.

- It assists in planning location of production department so as to make best use of available floor space.

- It is a device for reducing material handling and labour costs.

- It is useful tool for comparing alternative layouts so as to plan the best layout for the plant.

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Thus a travel chart is complete picture of the travel of materials from the stores room to shipping department.

DIAGRAMS Process charting helps to visualize the sequence of event in a situation, but it cannot illustrate the pattern of movement that men, materials and tools have to follow when a job is being done. Here we find that certain types of diagrams are helpful to indicate visually the path of movement.

Various such

diagrams are discussed below:

i) Flow Diagram: It shows a rough view of the space which shows the location of specific activities carried out, the extent of work areas, mechanics or desks with a connecting set of arrows and lines to indicate the routes of travel followed by workers, materials or equipment. ii) String Diagram: It is a scale plan or model on which a thread or string is used to trace and measure the path of workers, materials or equipments during a specified sequence of events. iii)

Cyclegraph: Some motions require very small time and it is difficult to measure time for these motions accurately but these motions cannot be neglected.

Therefore motions are taken on

picture films with the help of a picture camera. The procedure used for study is called “Micro Motion study”. Small electric bulbs are attached to the fingures, hands, legs, ankles and other parts of the body of the operator and photographs are taken to record the path of the motion with a still camera. The path of light so photographed is called as ‘Cyclegraph”. iv)

Chronocyclegraph: Referring to the above cyclegraph, if an

interrupter is placed in the electric circuit with the bulb and light flashed quickly and off slowly, then the path of bulb in the photograph will appear like pear –shaped dots indicating the direction of motions. The space between the dots will be according to the speed of hand or fingure of the body.

The number of dots will

give the time taken by that part. Such a record is called “ Chronocyclegraph”

SAFETY ENGINEERING OR WORKER SAFETY The main purpose of effective safety programmes in an organization is to present work related injuries and accidents.

An accidents is an unplanned, uncontrolled, unwanted, or unpredictable event or sudden mishap which interrupts an activity or function.

The effects of the most industrial accidents can be classified under the headings: I- Injury -

Including disable, pain and sufferings etc.

D- Damage

-

L- Loss -

Of life, of earnings, of profit of output of time.

E-Emotion

-

To equipment, buildings and markets.

Following injury, pain, death etc.

Principles of safety program: Employee’s safety and health are important concerns in today’s organizations. Occupational health and safety programs should be based on the following principles:

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1. Industrial accidents and disease result from multiplicity of factors, but these have to be traced to their root causes, invariably the fault lies with the management.

2. The most important function of a health and safety programs is to identify the potential hazards, provide effective safety facilities and equipment and take prompt remedial actions.

3. Health and safety aspects are the concern of the top management.

4. Managers and supervisors must be made fully accountable for the health and safety performance in the areas they control.

5. All employees should be given through guidance in safe methods of work.

Health and safety programmes or Strategies for preventing accidents: The following tools / methods can be used to present accidents or to improve health and safety of the workers.

1. Awareness of safety:

The primary aim of any organization safety program is “Accident

Prevention”. Hence major objective of any safety program is to get the employee to “Think safety”.

2. Organisational Commitment: There should be company-ordinated effort from top management to involve all members in their maintenance program.

3. Safety rules: Safety rules are made in order to protect employees free from possible hazards working conditions.

4. Safety Devices: It is the duty of the management to make sure that all the protective devices are properly used all the times to avoid or prevent accidents. Ex. To wear gloves, shoes, helmets etc.

5. Safety training: One way to enhance workers safety is the involvement of all employees at various times in safety training sessions and at committee meetings.

6. Safety Inspection: On a regular basis safety inspection is to be done by a safety committee or by the safety co-coordinators.

7. Control of environmental factors:

Related to the situational factors there are many

environmental factors which need to be considered in any specific strategy for accident prevention.

8. Safety Campaigns:

Safety campaigns mainly aim at generating and maintaining safety

consciousness posters, paintings, boards and slogans are used in many situations.

9. Foreman’s / Supervisor’s training:

Foreman plays and important role in maintaining safety

because it is through him that penalties for not observing safety measures are awarded to the workers. Hence foreman should be trained properly.

MODERN PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT TOOLS The latest developments in the field of production management which revolutionize the field are discussed below: # Business Process Re-Engineering (BPR):

The fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of the

process to achieve dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance such as cost, quality, service and speed.

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PRODUCTION MANG. # Total Quality Management (TQM):

111 Total Quality Management (TQM) is an organization wide

approach to continuously improving the quality of all the organization processes, products and services.

The four fundamentals of TQM being Processes, People, Systems and Management

# Quality Circle (QC):

A quality circle is a small group of employees (8-10) who voluntarily cooperates

to solve problems relating to: Production wastage of materials.

Quality of raw materials, tool, semi-finished and finished goods.

Work environmental, energy consumption.

Scheduling, delay etc.

Maintenance.

Safety and anything that affect these factors etc.

# ISO 9000 Standards (ISO) International Organisaion for Standardisation or International Standards Organisation is an international body which consists of representatives from more than 90 countries.

ISO 9000 series has fix international standards on quality management which are listed below: ISO 9000, ISO 9001, ISO 9002, ISO 9003, ISO 9004

ISO 9001:

Covers quality management and quality assurance in design, development, production,

installation and servicing.

ISO 9002:

Covers quality management and quality assurance in design and development.

ISO 9003:

Covers quality management and quality assurance in final inspection and testing.

ISO 9004:

Guidelines to interpret quality management and quality assurance in internal

management.

# Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS):

A computer controlled process technology suitable for

producing a moderate variety of products in moderate volumes. Features of FMS include the ability to handle variety while reducing the leadtime and inventories; production of specialist designs to meet exact market needs; rapid response to changes in product, more consistent product quality, high initial capital investment, high hardware and software maintenance costs.

# Just In Time (JIT):

JIT or stockless production is a system of production that allows no [or as small

as possible] inventory of raw material, WIP or finished goods. JIT is thus seen as recent method in inventory control.

# Poke a Yoke:

Literally “fool proofing� total quality control technique that fool proof production

from defects.

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# Kanban(Card signal): This system aims at a much tighter control of inventories. Literally it means “Visual records”, a method of controlling material flow through a JIT manufacturing system by using cards to authorize a work station to transfer items to produce materials. # Value Engineering / Value Analysis:

Value engineering is defined as “an organized creative

approach which has for its purpose the efficient identification of unnecessary cost, (ie) cost which provides neither quality nor use nor life nor appearance nor customer features”.

Value = Function/Cost # World Class Manufacturing (WCM): The concern for improving performance continuously and rapidly on time with the increasing global competition is gathering momentum.

WCM concept is of recent origin. The following attributes of the World Class Manufacturing are aimed to fulfill the customer demands: 1. Products with high quality.

2. Products at competitive price.; 3. Products with several enhanced features.

4. Products in a widen variety.

5. Products delivered with short lead times.

6. Products delivered on time.

7. Flexibility in fulfilling products demand. # 5 S Concept: 5 S concept is used for quality improvement and safety purpose.

SEIRE - sort SEITON – set in order SEISO – shine (clean) SEIKETSU – standardize SHITSUKE – sustain # CAD/CAM - Computer Aided Designing/ Computer Aided Manufacturing are software packages used in production process.

Apart from the above tools discussed above plenty of other tools are listed below and their importance in the production management field cannot be ignored.

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) SCM (Supply Chain Management) KAIZEN (Continuous Improvement) TPM (Total Productivity Management) TPM (Total Predictive Maintenance) CNC (Computer Numeric Controlled Machines) CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing) ZERO DEFECT CONCEPT MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning) ROBOTICS. MOTION STUDY Relationship of Time and Motion Study to Work Study

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Both time study and motion study which resulted from the integration of concepts and practices developed by F. W. Taylor and by B. Frank and Lilian M. Gilbreth, are concerned with the systematic analysis and improvement of manually controlled work situations. However, time study is ~. quantitative analysis leading to the establishment of a time standard whereas motion study is a qualitative analysis of a work station leading to the design or improvement of an operation/activity. b. Motion study: Motion study is a more detailed investigation of individual operator, the layout of his bench or machines, his tools, jigs and fixtures, the movements of his body as he performs his work. The study of his environment, body posture, the temperature and noise level of his surroundings.

Aims (Objects) of Method Study (or Motion Study) i. Better design of plant equipment and buildings ii. Improved layout offactory and offices iii. Better working conditions and environment iv. High standards of safety and health v. Improved flow of work vi. Better quality vii. Greater job satisfaction viii. High earnings ix. Improved utilisation of resources x. Effective material handling xi. Efficient processes and procedures xii. Optimum inventory xiii. Optimum output xiv. Improved administration xv. Waste reduction xvi. Standardisation and rationalization

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PRODUCTI ONMANAGEMENT

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