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Volume 47, No. 2 May-July 2007

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Indian Council for Cultural Relations Azad Bhavan Indraprastha Estate New Delhi-110 002 E-mail: africa.quarterly@gmail.com Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers of India Regd No. 14380/61

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Indo-Egyptian ties across the centuries

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Celebrating ‘Ghana at Fifty, India at Sixty’

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Dahej in India and lobola in Zambia

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In Conversation: Neera-Kapur-Dromson

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Sino-Indian synergy in Francophone Africa

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Indo-Mauritian relations on a new high

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IBSA foreign ministers meet in New Delhi

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Indian Journal of African Affairs Volume 47 No. 2, May-July 2007

INDIAN COUNCIL FOR CULTURAL RELATIONS NEW DELHI

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contents

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IN FOCUS: INDO-EGYPTIAN TIES ACROSS THE CENTURIES

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A.K. Pasha chronicles time-tested ties between India and Egypt since ancient times and their continuing vitality in modern times.

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NEWS & EVENTS: IBSA FOREIGN MINISTERS MEET IN NEW DELHI

Foreign ministers of India, Brazil and South Africa met in the Fourth Trilateral Commission of the IBSA Dialogue Forum to intensify cooperation among the three countries ahead of their second summit to be held in Johannesburg later this year.

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MILESTONES: CELEBRATING ‘GHANA AT FIFTY, INDIA AT SIXTY’ Shubha Singh provides an overview of India-Ghana ties and recent efforts to add more economic muscle to the traditional friendly ties between the two countries.

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CULTURE WATCH: DAHEJ IN INDIA AND LOBOLA IN ZAMBIA

Kamini Krishna makes a comparative study of the emergence and social consequences of the dowry system prevalent in India and the Zambian practice of lobola.

8 NEWS & EVENTS: Pranab Mukherjee launches pilot projects of Pan-African Network

External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee launched the pilot projects of PAN in Addis Ababa that will bring benefits of tele-education and tele-medicine to the 53-nation continent.

62 IN CONVERSATION: Neera Kapur-Dromson

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ENERGY DIPLOMACY: SINO-INDIAN SYNERGY IN FRANCOPHONE AFRICA

With prices high and the Middle East in turmoil, Africa’s oil reserves are more alluring than ever.

Vidhan Pathak explores the possibilities of cooperation between India and China in the oil-rich Francophone Africa.

A fourth-generation Kenyan of Indian origin and author of the book entitled ‘From Jhelum to Tana’, Neera Kapur-Dronson, speaks to Manish Chand about the mingling of Indian and Kenyan cultures and languages, and the need for Kenyans to understand Indian culture.

76 INCREDIBLE INDIA: Kumarakom Backwater Paradise

Kumarakom nestles on the shores of the Vembanad, a salt water lagoon which opens out through a narrow outlet to the Arabian Sea some 80 km north at Kochi and is also fed by a network canals — the backwaters.

66 BOOKS & IDEAS FOCUS ON BUSINESS: TRADE PUTS INDO-MAURITIAN RELATIONS ON A NEW HIGH

Rashmi Kapoor on the need for reinventing age-old ties between India and Mauritius in tune with new currents of economic globalisation.

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70 DOCUMENTS 78 CONTRIBUTORS

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Printed and Published by Pavan K. Varma Director-General Indian Council for Cultural Relations Azad Bhavan, Indraprastha Estate New Delhi - 110002 Editor: Manish Chand Cover Photo: Hamer Tribe women, Ethiopia

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The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), founded in 1950 to strengthen cultural ties and promote understanding between India and other countries, functions under the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. As part of its effort, the Council publishes, apart from books, six periodicals in five languages –– English quarterlies (Indian Horizons and Africa Quarterly), Hindi Quarterly (Gagananchal), Arabic Quarterly (Thaqafat-ul-Hind), Spanish bi-annual (Papeles de la India) and French bi-annual (Recontre Avec l’Inde).

Africa Quarterly (Indian Journal of African Affairs) is published every three months.

The views expressed in the articles included in this journal are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICCR. All rights reserved. No part of this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any from or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the permission of the ICCR.

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ISBN 0001-9828

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■ From the Editor’s Desk

An Indian Summer in Africa

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frica is in the process of redefining its identity and its place in an emerging world order. As the continent searches for new technologies of empowerment and focuses on building peace and stability — a prerequisite to realising its full potential — its time-tested relations with India are set to play a bigger role in its emergence as an influential global player.

This edition of Africa Quarterly captures this new mood of hope and renascence in Africa and covers a broad canvas encapsulating India’s burgeoning relationship with five African countries representing different regions in the continent — Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritius and Libya — and explores the possibilities of cooperation between the world’s two emerging powers — India and China — in the crucial energy sector in the continent.

India’s age-old civilisational ties with Egypt and the continued vitality of their bilateral ties is the master-theme of A.K. Pasha’s comprehensive essay that weaves back and forth in time from ancient kinship between the Nile and Indus Valley cultures to robust trade and shared perspectives between the two countries on global issues in modern times. The famed camaraderie between India’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Egypt’s iconic leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, based on shared ideals and vision of a non-aligned world free from antagonistic power blocs, continues to resonate to this day and set the tone and tenor of the bilateral relationship that is being continually revitalised by new economic forces at play. There are new political and strategic calculations that are set to give more muscle to this important relationship.

“As an influential member of the world community, India regards Egypt as a major force for peace and stability, directly through its central role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and as a keen advocate of principles India shares in the global arena, specially at the U.N., Non-Aligned Movement, G-15 and the World Trade Organisation,” writes Pasha. “Egypt has always been and will remain of great political significance to India.

Both at the official and unofficial levels, relations have undergone a sea change,” says the author.

This year also marks another important milestone in IndiaAfrica relations: Ghana, the first Saharan country in Africa to gain independence, is in the middle of golden jubilee celebrations of this defining event in her history that coincides with India’s 60th year of independence. In her article “Celebrating Ghana at Fifty, India at Sixty”, Shubha Singh traces the blossoming of ties between the two countries over the last five decades dating back to the first visit by Ghana’s charismatic leader Kwame Nkrumah to India in 1961. Trade has now become the main engine of bilateral ties with Ghana showcasing its private sector as the driving force of its economic growth, writes Singh.

This business-centred approach has in fact come to define

India’s overall relationship with Africa — a trend which is exemplified by the marked upswing in India-Mauritius commercial ties in recent times. Arguing for the need for reinventing age-old ties between India and Mauritius, the Indian Ocean island nation that is home to a large and influential Indian diaspora, in the context of globalisation, Rashmi Kapoor writes about “a new pragmatism” that has come to define bilateral relations. This pragmatism is solidly grounded in new economic realities of an increasingly interlinked global economy. “Mauritius is an emerging market for Indian products and enterprises. For Mauritius India is an example of how democracy and development can fuse harmoniously. There is now a greater mutual inter-linkages between economy, security and strategic interests,” writes Kapoor.

More business between India and Africa is a natural extension of tremendous mutual goodwill between them that harks back to the shared fight against colonialism and is now reflected in the common quest to create a more democratic and representative world order. This has also opened up limitless possibilities of cooperation in cutting-edge technologies with India more than willing to share its proven prowess in IT. Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee’s recent visits to Ethiopia and Libya underscored India’s continued stake in the development of the continent. During his visit to Addis Ababa, the minister launched the pilot projects of the Pan-African Network that will bring benefits of telemedicine and teleeducation to 53 countries of the continent. Placing it in the broader context, he aptly described it as “a positive example of South-South cooperation which uses IT and space technology and generates a multiplier developmental effect”, and underlined the themes of technology transfers and human resource development as key themes of India’s engagement with the continent.

Any account of India’s robust engagement with Africa can’t be complete without an appreciation of the role of the Indian diaspora in the nurturing and development of their adopted homelands. Neera Kapur-Dromson, a fourthgeneration Kenyan of Indian origin, has penned an insightful book “From Jhelum to Tana” to do precisely that. In an interview with Africa Quarterly, the author speaks about the mingling of Indian and Kenyan cultures and languages, the contribution of the Indian diaspora in awakening political consciousness among Africans and the need for Kenyans to move beyond Bollywood and clichés to understand Indians and their culture better. “It is important for people to know where and what backgrounds they come from,” she says. If we know where we come from, we will know where we are going. Priceless words of wisdom for cohabiting in a multi-cultural globalised world.

Read on, and feel free to share your opinions and critiques.

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Manish Chand

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Pranab Mukherjee launches pilot projects of PAN

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xternal Affairs Minister India ready to spur ties with Asian Association for Regional Pranab Mukherjee, recently SAARC, Africa Cooperation and stressed on the need to back from Africa, notched India has offered to take up unilateral step up physical, economic and peopleanother milestone on July 6 in the con- steps to liberalise trade, visa and to-people connectivity in the region. tinent by launching the pilot Mukherjee also touched upon projects of the Pan-African the successful 14th SAARC Network in Addis Ababa that Summit hosted by India from will bring benefits of tele-eduApril 3 to 4 that saw the inclusion cation and tele-medicine to the of Afghanistan in the South Asian 53-nation continent. “This is grouping. He told the panel about a positive example of two important agreements signed South-South cooperation which during the Summit — on estabuses IT and space technology lishment of the SAARC food and generates a multiplier bank and South Asian University, developmental effect,” external affairs ministry Mukherjee said in the Ethiopian spokesperson Navtej Sarna said. capital after launching the proMukherjee also highlighted jects, an external affairs ministry India’s growing partnership statement said. with African countries including Meanwhile, the Indian govkey initiatives in the field of techernment approved Rs. 542 nical cooperation, human crore ($120 million) for India’s resource development, investdream project in Africa aimed ment, trade and peacekeeping at bridging the digital divide operations. The Pan-African among the countries of the cone-network project, being tinent. “Our bilateral relationbuilt with Indian assistance ship is to be further diversified and aimed at bridging the and expanded,” Mukherjee said digital divide and bringing benein a statement as he wrapped up fits of tele-education and telehis four-day visit to Ethiopia. medicine to the 53-nation During Mukherjee’s visit, African continent, came in for a India and Ethiopia signed five India’s External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee in a special mention. file photo. Ethiopia conveyed its ‘strong support’ for pacts and agreed to cooperate India’s claim for a permanent seat in an expanded against international terrorism India-Zimbabwe ties United Nations Security Council. including cross-border terrordeepen: Envoy ism. The two countries also agreed to The Indian government The outgoing Indian Ambassador to sustain common positions on climate has approved change and the U.N. reforms.

Zimbabwe Ajit Kumar has said that In a significant gesture of solidarity India and Zimbabwe have deepened Rs. 542 crore for its with Ethiopia and Africa, Mukherjee bilateral relations and boosted dream project in Africa their forcefully reiterated India’s support economic cooperation. which is aimed at for the “legitimate demand” of Africa Kumar was quoted by The Herald as for a permanent seat in the U.N. saying that in 2006 the two countries bridging the digital Security Council. signed an agreement to implement divide among the Ethiopia reciprocated conveying its a $5-million support for the small African countries. “strong support” for India’s claim to a perand medium enterprises sector manent seat in an expanded Security of Zimbabwe.

Council. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles tourism with SAARC countries even Kumar said machines worth Zenawi accepted Indian Prime Minister as it plans to intensify its relations with $2.8 million had been distributed to Manmohan Singh’s invitation to visit the Africa, the statement said. technical colleges in Zimbabwe and are Chairing a meeting of the awaiting installation. country in November.

An Indian parliamentary delegation Consultative Committee on External Also, India is set to establish Indowill soon visit Ethiopia to promote Affairs, Mukherjee spoke about India’s Zimbabwe Technology Center at the exchange of ideas for strengthening offer to take up “asymmetrical respon- Harare Institute of Technology and democratic institutions in the country. sibilities” in the eight-member South Bulawayo Polytechnic. !

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India, Ethiopia sign 5 pacts to intensify relations

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ndia and Ethiopia on July 5 signed five pacts to intensify their relations as Addis Ababa came out strongly in favour of India’s bid for a permanent seat in the UNSC. The agreements were signed in the presence of External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee, who was on a fourday trip to Ethiopia, and his Ethiopian counterpart Seyoum Mesfin. Three agreements were signed — on bilateral investment protection, establishment of a joint ministerial committee and foreign office consultations between the two countries. Two more pacts were signed in the area of science & technology and education. !

LIST O F A GREEMENTS/MOU S ! Agreement between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Government of the Republic of India on the Establishment of Joint Ministerial Commission. ! Protocol for Consultations between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia and the Ministry of External Affairs of India. ! Agreement between the two governments on cooperation in the field of science & technology. ! Agreement between India and Ethiopia for the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments. ! Exchange Programme between India and Ethiopia in the field of education.

Pranab talks with heads of Indian missions

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out in detail the country’s policy on the development and intensification of traditionally close, cooperative and mutually beneficial relations with the countries of the region.

The conference addressed major themes including bilateral relations, India-Africa partnership, Africa and the World and enhancing India’s development partnership with Africa.

“Many useful suggestions emerged from the discussions and these will help to further develop and fine-tune India’s overall policy of partnership towards Africa that covers

political, cultural, trade and economics, science and technology, defence, health, agriculture and other spheres,” the official spokesperson of the conference said.

Mukherjee was on a tour of Ethiopia at the invitation of his Ethiopian counterpart Seyoum Mesfin. Envoys of Tanzania, Congo, South Africa, Kenya, Namibia, Botswana, Senegal, Madagascar, Cote d’iVoire, Mauritius, Seychelles, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Nigeria, Mozambique and Ethiopia attended the meeting. !

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‘G4, AU may agree on UNSC plan’

ward and negotiations will start,” she said. “Then negotiations by definition about giving and taking and eventually coming to a common position will happen. I do not see the G4 position as the position that will eventually have to be the position that all of us take.”

“Nor do I see the African position as the position that must be the outcome after negotiations. The outcome will be somewhere in between,” she said.

Two years ago, the AU had rejected an appeal to join the G4 grouping of Brazil, India, Japan and Germany as it was proposed to expand the Council to 25 members with six new permanent seats without veto power and four non-permanent seats. !

xternal Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee stressed on July 5 the need for Indian missions in the sub-Saharan countries to provide assistance in times of need to desi communities residing in their territories of accreditation.

At a meeting with the 18 Indian envoys in the sub-Saharan countries, Mukherjee emphasised on the security of expatriate Indians as the issue has assumed significance in the wake of the recent abduction of Indians in Nigeria and the volatile situation in many African countries. Mukherjee also spelt outh Africa has raised hopes for a reconciliation between the G4 countries and the African Union (AU) over a common plan for expansion of the U.N. Security Council while stressing that the only issue blocking it was “veto power”.

“I think the big countries have the same approach to the reform of the Security Council, that is to be more representative and more democratic.

We also agree that it has to be expanded and the expansion should be both in permanent and non-permanent categories,” South African Foreign Minister Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma told reporters on July 17 at a joint press conference with her Indian and Brazilian counterparts Pranab Mukherjee and

Celso Amorim, respectively. “If we look at Africa’s position, the major difference is around the question of the veto. The rest is more or less the same.

Africa’s view is that the veto must be abolished. If it is not abolished, all permanent members must stay it,” she said alluding to the 53-nation AU’s insistence on retaining veto powers for prospective members of an expanded Security Council.

“But this is Africa’s position. The G4 has its position. I think once there is a negotiating forum at the U.N., each group will put its position for-

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IBSA Foreign Ministers meet in New Delhi

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh (second from right) with Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim (extreme left), South Africa’s Minister of Foreign Affairs Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma (extreme right) and India’s External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee.

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oreign ministers of India, Brazil and South three countries through “acceptable forward-looking Africa (IBSA) met in the Fourth Trilateral approaches which are consistent with their respective Commission of the IBSA Dialogue Forum on July 17 national and international obligations”. in New Delhi to intensify cooperation among the three coun“The three IBSA countries have the same approach tries ahead of their second summit to be held in Johannesburg towards the U.N. Security Council. We all agree that the later this year.

U.N. Security Council needs to be expanded in both perIndia’s quest for global civil nuclear cooperation got a fil- manent and non-permanent categories,” South African lip with Brazil and South Africa showForeign Minister Dlamini-Zuma told ing their willingness to back New Delhi IBSA DIALOGUE FORUM reporters at a joint press interaction with in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). her Brazilian and Indian counterparts.

“We are having cooperation from Brazil and South Africa in “As for the AU and the G4, the only difference is on the NSG. Unless the 123 civil nuclear agreement (with the issue of veto,” she said, alluding to the 53-nation AU’s insisU.S.) is finalised, the NSG can’t formulate its position. One tence on retaining veto powers for prospective members of has to follow the other,” External Affairs Minister Pranab an expanded Security Council.

Mukherjee told reporters at a joint conference with his “Once the discussions start at the U.N. we can start negocounterparts Celso Amorim of Brazil and Nkosazana tiations. It won’t be a G4 versus AU but the outcome will Dlamini-Zuma of South Africa. be something in between,” she stressed.

Both Brazil and South Africa are important members of The AU plan envisages a 26-member U.N. Security the NSG. “The ministers agreed to explore approaches to Council with six new permanent veto-wielding seats of cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy under which Africa would have two, and five non-permanent seats appropriate IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) of which it will bag the same of seats. safeguards,” said a joint communique issued at the end of India and other G4 countries have been engaged in negothe IBSA trilateral meet of the foreign ministers of India, tiations with the AU to present a common plan for expandBrazil and South Africa. ing Security Council before the U.N. General Assembly.

Underlining the “inalienable right to states” to pursue However, their efforts have not been successful largely nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, the ministers “reaf- because of disunity and internal divisions among the AU firmed their will to intensify such cooperation” among the countries over the issue. !

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Libya backs India for permanent seat in UNSC

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ndia’s demand for a permanent seat in an expanded focused on the need for reforming the U.N., especially the U.N. Security Council received a strong backing Security Council. It was in this context that Gaddafi backed from Libyan leader Muammar Al Gaddafi soon after India’s candidature for the Security Council seat.

Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee called During Mukherjee’s visit, India and Libya signed several on him at his desert camp near the coastal town of Sirte. agreements including one on promoting investments and “Col. Gaddafi reiterated that India has a right to have a per- another on ramping up their cultural ties. Once a pariah in the manent seat on the U.N. Security Council,” a statement by eyes of the West, Muammar Gaddafi has transformed Libya Libya’s external affairs ministry said. as a friend of the U.S. and Europe by According to Gaddafi, “the sky is the renouncing terrorism and dismanlimit for cooperation between the tling his country’s programmes to two countries”, it said. Mukherjee develop nuclear weapons and other handed over a letter from Prime weapons of mass destruction.

Minister Manmohan Singh inviting In response to the move, America Gaddafi to visit India during an lifted economic sanctions in 2004 hour-long meeting with him on before striking Libya off its list of terMay 28. “The Libyan leader said he rorism sponsors in 2006. looked forward to visiting India.”.

Mukherjee’s thrust in Libya was on Mukherjee was on his first visit consolidating the already burgeoning here after assuming office in 2006. ties in the energy sector and expandThe visit was crucial as it is, in 23 ing cooperation in education, infrasyears, the only top-level meeting tructure and IT. Indian companies between the two countries. Last was have significant presence in the of then Prime Minister Indira Libyan energy, hydrocarbon, power Gandhi in April 1984. and IT sectors. These linkages have Mukherjee and Gaddafi held increased in the last three years. wide-ranging discussions “in a very Libya is also keen on drawing warm and cordial atmosphere”, the upon India’s expertise in the smallstatement said. and medium-enterprises sector, “Traditional friendship between which can be harnessed to boost the the two countries, India’s support for Saying that ‘the sky is the limit for cooperation country’s economic reform process between India and Libya’, Libyan leader Libya’s position and principled oppoand entrepreneurship training. sition to sanctions were recalled.” Muammar Al Gaddafi supported New Delhi’s Mukherjee’s visit took place four claim to a permanent seat on the UNSC. “Bilateral cooperation, particularly in months after Petroleum Minister the oil & petroleum sectors and human resource development, Murli Deora visited Tripoli and discussed India’s interest in was discussed. “While discussing regional issues, Mukherjee revamping oil refineries in the country. Indian Oil compabriefed the Libyan leader on developments in the SAARC, nies have already won exploration licence for six oil blocks composite dialogue process with Pakistan, relations with in Libya.

Beijing and the trilateral India-Russia-China dialogue.”

The two dignitaries also discussed specific areas of coop“India’s relations with Africa and greater cooperation in this eration. Libya showed keen interest in tapping the Indian regard were also discussed. Col. Gaddafi said he himself would experience in implementing city gas projects in New Delhi work towards cementing Indo-African partnership,” the and Mumbai, while India offered assistance to set up such statement said. On international issues, the discussions projects in Libya. !

‘FIFA 90 Minutes for Mandela’ on his 89th birthday

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ome of the biggest names in football, in or off field, took to the pitch in a packed Cape Town stadium in Johannesburg on July 19 for a game honouring former South African president Nelson Mandela on his 89th birthday.

Barcelona striker Samuel Eto’o,

former European Player of the Year Ruud Gullit and George Weah, former FIFA Footballer of the year, were among the stars who stepped out for the ‘FIFA 90 Minutes for Mandela’ match between an Africa XI and Rest of World XI that ended in a 3-3 draw.

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South African star defenders Lucas Radebe and Mark Fish along with France’s Christian Karembeu were also in the line-up.

The mood at the Newlands Stadium was festive. Blaring ‘vuvuzela’ horns and loud cheers greeted the stars as they rotated on and off the field. !

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Uganda, Mozambique boost India-Africa project

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he CII Conclave on “India Africa Project Partnership: Strengthening Partnerships” was inaugurated by President Museveni and the Indian Minister of State for External Affairs Anand Sharma in Kampala. The Conclave notched another success for the platform. The President expressed his satisfaction at the business-to-business (B2B) dialogue that the forum supports.

Anand Sharma appreciated the Conclave’s initiative to promote partnerships with African businesses and take the lead in working with the African nations.

The 27 industry members, lead by Sanjay C Kirloskar, Chairman and Managing Director of Kirloskar Brothers Limited participating in Uganda & Mozambique, have found opportunities to take forward discussion with potential partners besides opportunities to network with the relevant ministers. The Conclave was attended by several country delegations. Delegations from Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda and the East African Community (EAC) held talks with the Indian industry members.

Meanwhile, the Conclave at Mozambique was attended by ministerial delegations from Namibia, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia and business delegations from Madagascar and Mauritius.

Over a hundred one-on-one meetings in Uganda and Mozambique have opened new areas of partnerships for the Indian industry. The interactions threw up focused opportunities in the

AFRICA T OURS Uganda (June 28-29, 2007): Anand Sharma, Minister of State for External Affairs, delivered the key note address at the Conclave on IndiaAfrica Project Partnership 2007 which was inaugurated in Kampala by the President of Uganda, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, on June 28. Sharma, who was on a two-day visit to Uganda, was received by Deputy Prime Minister of Uganda, Kirunda Kivejinja, and acting Minister of Foreign Affairs, Henry Oryem Okello.

Angola: Sharma visited Angola from June 8 to 9 at the invitation of Joao Bernardo de Miranda, Minister of External Relations, Government of Angola. This was of significant importance as this was the first ministerial level visit from Indian side in the last 17 years. Sharma was received at the highest level in the Angolan polity. Immediately upon his arrival in Luanda, Sharma called on the President of the Republic of Luanda, Jose Eduardo dos Santos. The successful visit of the Indian Minister of State has set the tone for enhanced multisectoral engagement between India and Angola in the fields of oil, mining, agriculture and infrastructure.

Anand Sharma, Minister of State for External Affairs.

Meet with South African President Thabo Mbeki: Sharma called on Thabo Mbeki at the Presidential Residence in Pretoria on May 21. They had a wide-ranging discussion on bilateral relations and also the trilateral engagement in the IBSA context. Mbeki described relations with India as “historic” and “strategic”. President Mbeki fully endorsed the significant decisions arising out of the International Conference on “Peace, Non-violence and Empowerment: Gandhian Philosophy in the 21st Century” held in New Delhi from January 29 to 30. Mbeki underlined the need for India and South Africa to continue to work together in multilateral forum with a view to ensuring that the structures reflected contemporary realities and not the power balance of the past. Sharma thanked the South African Government for their support for India’s candidature to the U.N. Security Council. Sharma also delivered the keynote address at the CII Conclave on Project Partnerships in Johannesburg. !

sectors of biodiesel, agro-processing energy, power distribution and plant and machinery requirements in several sectors. The latent need for human resource development was expressed by the ministers addressing the Conclave.

The forum has given expression to several specific opportunities and has strengthened the platform. The interaction and deliberations have been intensive and are sure to produce tangible results in the near future. !

Togo sports minister among 21 dead in chopper crash

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t least 21 people, including Togo’s minister for sport, were killed when a helicopter shuttling passengers to the international airport in the capital of Sierra Leone caught fire as it came in to land, reports said on June 4.

One of the two Ukrainian pilots

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survived the accident after jumping out of the burning helicopter. However, he was in critical condition, Ukrainian UT-1 TV news reported.

Most of the passengers were Togolese who were returning to the airport after watching Togo play Sierra Leone in an Africa

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Cup of Nations football match in the capital of the West African state, Freetown.

None of the national team members were said to be on the flight.

However, Togo’s Sports Minister Richard Attipoe was killed in the crash, according to Sierra Leone’s Standard Times newspaper. !

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No consensus on United States of Africa yet

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frican leaders were unable to agree on the way forward to a plan that would see a common foreign and defence policy from Cairo to the Cape after a three-day summit focusing on the idea.

The ninth African Union (AU) summit in Accra, Ghana, that ended on July 10, had been extended by several hours to allow the 53 member states to forge a resolution on the continental government, but all they agreed upon was to create a commission that would study the idea and set up a road map.

A rift had emerged half way through the summit between backers of the continental government, including Libyan leader Moamer Gadaffi — who championed the idea — and heads of state from Africa’s eastern and southern parts, who said they would prefer to remain in regional blocs.

“In Uganda, we are not in favour of forming a continental government now,” Uganda’s President Yoweri Museveni told Kenya’s independent Daily Nation.

Museveni, like Lesotho’s Prime Minster Bethuel Pakalitha Mosisili,

Durban pays tributes to Indian origin anti-apartheid leader Sewpersadh

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ich tributes were paid to George Sewpersadh, the anti-apartheid leader of Indian origin in Durban, with mourners describing him as a people’s hero during the dark days of apartheid. Sewpersadh, an African National Congress (ANC) stalwart died in Durban at the age of 70 from cancer.

“His life was selfless and we know that he was greatly influenced by India’s freedom leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru,” said Pius Langa, Chief Justice of South Africa, on June 12.

Sewpersadh, a lawyer by profession, was the former president of the

Natal Indian Congress (NIC) and later became vice-president of the United Democratic Front, the online edition of SABCnews reported.

Born into a middle class family in Durban in 1936, Sewpersadh became involved in the anti-apartheid movement from an early age. He started started his political life while studying law at the then University of Natal.

He joined the NIC at the age of 20.

People recalled how Sewpersadh was detained and banned many times but he did not stop fighting against apartheid. He was also remembered for using his legal profession for the benefit of the poor. !

said Uganda was more comfortable with linking itself to similar, neighbouring countries before joining a continental federation.

Proponents say a strongly united Africa is the best way for the continent where more than half the population lives on less than one dollar a day, to uproot itself from poverty.

Liberalising trade within Africa and doing away with entry visas would be a start, but Africa could act as a unified trading bloc when coming up against the U.S. and the EU. !

2 Indian engineers abducted in Nigeria freed after 25 days Lagos (Nigeria)/Guwahati: Two Indian engineers kidnapped by gunmen in Nigeria were released on June 12 after remaining in captivity for 25 days , family sources said.

“My son Debashish Kakoty and his colleague Sunil Dave of Maharashtra were released by their captors.

Negotiators have handed them over to the local police,” Ajit Kakoty, a retired professor, told Indo-Asian News Service by telephone from Sivasagar in eastern Assam.

Suspected militants took hostage Debashish Katoky, 32, a fire expert hailing from Sivasagar, and Dave from their residence in Nigeria’s oil capital Port Harcourt on May 19. !

Africa restricts AIDS, set to post 6.2% growth this year

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frica will probably show economic growth of 6.2 percent, a slower spread of the HIV/AIDS virus, fewer wars and kleptocrats this year.

“Africa is showing a clear upwards trend as a result of various reforms.

We are looking towards the future positively,” said Cynthia Carroll, Chief Executive Officer of Anglo American — the world’s third-biggest mining group.

Speaking during the World Economic Forum, Carroll announced that Anglo-American would invest $3.5 billion over the next five years in the continent.

Yet there can be no mention of an all-clear signal for Africa — the world’s biggest social welfare case. The secondlargest continent is rich in resources, but only accounts for 2.2 percent of the world trade and still registers too little growth in order to reduce widespread

May-July 2007

poverty. There is a lack of money for education, infrastructure and health system. Two-thirds of the 850 million Africans depend on agriculture, which in view of climate change can barely produce enough to live on.

“In many countries presently on a growth course, a lack of welltrained specialists is slowing down that trend,” said John Page, Chief Economist for the Africa region at the World Bank. !

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INDO-E EGYPTIAN ties across the centuries A.K. Pasha chronicles time-tested ties between India and Egypt since ancient times and their continuing vitality in modern times.

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ndia and Egypt have had deep political, saddled with partition and faced attacks from neighbouring economic and cultural relations throughout China and Pakistan. Both have faced a similar number of history. Being well-connected through wars and have been struggling to regain their stability both land and sea, they were each other’s and prosperity. Realising the importance of Egypt, Nehru took witnesses in the ups and downs before and the initiative and forged close ties, and the Egyptian leader after the Raj. In fact, some of the oldest Gamal Abdel Nasser reciprocated. recorded maritime contacts have been Egypt drifted after 1973 and established close ties with the between India and Egypt. Both countries, U.S. after making peace with Israel even as India managed to despite suffering several invasions, have retain autonomy in its foreign policy. managed to retain the innate vitality of their civilisations — Since 1991, with economic liberalisation, India has also been the Nile and Indus Valley. The two civilisations have made striving hard to have close ties with the U.S. Both India and Egypt outstanding achievements in all have been working to strengthen their Egyptian Pharaonic civilisation bilateral ties and the level of political fields, which have been shared with the rest of the world. Many has been historically linked with exchanges have increased. This has civilisations like the Dilmun, given a new dimension to their ties.

Indian culture and the Hindu Magan and Summerian have flourEconomic cooperation has strengthreligion. Ancient Egyptians ished in West Asia, but it is only ened in a number of fields and Indian Egyptian civilisation, along with worshipped the same gods as investments in Egypt are reaching India’s, that has a history of unbroken unprecedented levels.

Indians did. There is a unique continuity in the world.

Political and economic interaction resemblance in the building of The Egyptian Pharanoic civilisais not the only indicator of bilateral tion has been historically linked with relations. A strong cultural peopletemples and their architecture.

Hinduism — a religious tradition to-people bond is also a must.

Paintings and sculptures are that originated in the Indian subconGiven their long cultural links, the tinent. It is to be noted that the very similar. Both appear to have relations in the future — built upon ancient Egyptians worshipped the shared a long history of vibrant this strong foundation — would defsame gods as Indians. interaction which has continued initely get stronger.

There is a unique resemblance in This article makes a modest into the modern period. their temples and architecture. attempt to analyse in a historical conPaintings and sculptures are also simtext the political, economic and culilar. People of both countries have shared a long history tural ties between India and Egypt — countries which have the of vibrant interaction which has well continued into the mod- potential to contribute as major powers to peace, security and ern period. stability in their respective regions.

Egypt was familiar with Indian textiles. During the Roman period, Egypt was an important trade link and India prospered Historical Background by exporting spices and other products to it. Also, there was an outflow of gold from Rome to India which later became a The oldest known civilisation identified by historians worldmatter of concern for the Romans. wide is beyond doubt the Nile civilisation. In terms of ancientThe colonial domination of the Indian Ocean since 1500 ness, the Indus and Mesopotamian civilisations follow. Both affected both countries, which were later colonised. These the Nile and Indus Valley civilisations were in constant touch were the “lost five centuries” and, as the phrase suggests, both through land route, the Tigris- and Euphrates-based civilisalagged behind. However, after independence, both countries tion and sea. have established close ties in virtually all fields.

Historians talk about deep relations between India and While Egypt had to face Western-Israeli hostility, India was Egypt since time immemorial. “The Indus civilisation was

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Q U A R T E R L Y

India’s Taj Mahal appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World in an Internet poll which claimed to record a 100 million votes. There is also an honorary member in the new club — the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt, the only surviving landmark from the original ancient wonders.

built on the same primary inventions as the Nilotic and Mesopotamian. Its authors may even have included men of the same racial types.”1 Writes Dr. M.A. Murray: “The kind of men in Punt, a semi-mythical place as depicted by Hatshepsut’s artists, suggests an Asiatic rather than an African race, and the sweet-smelling woods point to India as the land of their origin. A voyage from Egypt to India by coasting vessels would have been quite feasible as the ports for the Indian trade existed along the south coast of Arabia.”2 India’s recorded interaction with Egypt started in the third millennium BC. In ancient Egypt, perfumes utilising various Indian aromatics played an important role during prayers, which in turn led to brisk trade. The Ishmaelites, who bought Joseph from his brothers, were en route for Egypt with an unspecified range of spices. On their way, they saw some Ishmaelites coming from Galaad with camels, spices, balm and myrrh to Egypt.3 The Egyptians were fond of aromatics and they procured them from Punt. The Egyptians sent the first recorded merchant fleet to Punt for aromatics, which continued to supply the substance to the temples and God-kings of the Nile Pharaohs for thousands of years. The first-known maritime trip to Punt took place during Pharaoh Sahure reign (24912477 BC). Besides, it is well known that Egyptian mummies were wrapped in Bengal muslin. Some writers have tried to establish a close link between Egypt and parts of Bengal in India. The similarities led historians to conclude that there was a conquest of Bengal by the heretic kings of Egypt of the Eighteenth Dynasty who were driven out of Egypt by the orthodox school of Amon worshippers sometime between 1358 and 1355 BC.4 Around 1500 BC, the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut sent a naval expedition to Punt. This is still visible on the walls of the temple of Dier al-Bahri carved at the orders of the Queen around 1495 BC. A fleet of five ships with mariners, rowers and steersmen passing through a huge water body is shown in the carvings. These ancient sailors brought back to Egypt from the land of Punt “all goodly fragrant woods of God’s-land, heaps of myrrh resin along with fresh myrrh trees, ebony, pure ivory, green gold of Emu, cinnamon wood, kheyst

wood, ihmut-incense, sonter-incense and eye-cosmetic. The list also included monkeys, dogs, skins of the southern panther and natives and their children”.5 The mariners also brought fragrant plants for the temple gardens. The Queen also sent a mission to India, perhaps seeking to establish commercial and diplomatic ties. Not only did this initiative lead to the direct maritime contact several centuries before Christ, it also showed the capability of Egyptian sailors to navigate the Red Sea by studying the Arabian Sea monsoons to reach India, Sri Lanka, and perhaps beyond.

From modern Somalia, the ancient Egyptians continued a voyage of more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) southwards. The Egyptian ships also carried Indian products like silk, perfumes, spices, medicines, rare fruits, sandalwood, incense and other items not available in the Nile valley. It is to be noted that the Egyptian sailors must have observed the Indian festival of lights (Diwali) because Egypt also has a similar state festival which is celebrated for nine days. According to Hassan El Zayyat, this unique interaction is a proof “that the ships sailing to India not only served the purpose of commerce, but were also the carriers of Indian culture”.6 Ramses III also sent an expedition to Punt. That Indian spices were a favourite of the Egyptians is clear by the discovery of ‘dhania’ — the umbelliferous fruit of the coriander plant — in the tombs of the Pharaohs, especially Ramses’. It was confirmed in 1975-76 at Musee de L’ Houmme in Paris, after long years of research, that the spices came from the south of India. The Pharaohs were obsessed with the concept of eternal life and for preserving a human body they used pepper as the main ingredient. “It was in all likelihood the supreme metaphysical importance of this end that accounts for the Egyptians’ extraordinary efforts to obtain spice all the way from India.”7 It is to be noted that pepper was inserted not only in the nose of the Pharaoh, but elsewhere also. Researchers have found traces of the spice in the abdominal cavity too. Clearly, ancient Egyptians were familiar with the spice.

According to archaeological evidence, there were similarities in a number of methods applied in both India and Egypt to certain activities such as fishing, boat construction, measuring and weighing.

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Between 200 BC and 200 AD, an Indian colony existed in Hadhramauti merchants who had dominated the spice trade, Alexandria which was intellectually capable of influencing the especially in the Red Sea area. King Kaniskha was familiar Hellenistic scholars and philosophers of the city. Ashoka the with Rome. The description of India by Roman Apuleius (124 Great sent an Indian diplomatic mission to the Ptolemaic court AD) is interesting: “The Indians are a people of great populain Alexandria. In 600 BC, the Achaemenians — who tion and vast territories situated far to our east, where the stars ruled from Iran, and controlled Egypt and Sind –– built a canal first rise at the ends of the earth, beyond the learned Egyptians linking the Nile with the Red Sea which was beneficial for and the superstitious Jews, Nabataean merchants and flowingtrade between India and Egypt. The trade under the Pharonic robed Parthians, past the Iruraeans (Palestine) with their mearulers, or otherwise, greatly ger crops and the Arabs rich in influenced both societies. As perfumes — wherefore I do we have seen earlier, a culture not so much wonder at the is carried from one civilisation Indian mountains of ivory, harto another. vests of pepper, stockpiles of When people move from cinnamon, tempered iron, place to place along the trade mines of silver and smelted routes, they carry ideas, philosstreams of gold: nor the ophy, religions, customs, traGanges, the greatest of all rivers ditions, rituals as also books, and the King of the waters of handicrafts and artistic items the Dawn, running in a hunwhich help people in different dred streams…”9 During the second half of societies to understand each the first century AD, a Greek other. Due to the long sea sailor living in Egypt sailed to coast, both India and Egypt India through the Red Sea and derived considerable revenues along the coasts of the Arabian from trade in ancient times. As Sea and recorded his experiduring the modern period, culences in a book called ‘The ture and civilisational aspects Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’. followed trade and commerce The book, a pilot’s guide to between India and Egypt in The Red Sea served as a beneficial trade link between India and Egypt in the 6th century BC. sailing in the Indian Ocean, ancient times too. elaborates on each step of the long Besides maritime contacts between In the 6th century BC the and perilous sea journey and also India and Egypt, there existed considAchaemenians, who ruled highlights the ports and harbours to erable trade through the land route via from Iran, and controlled Egypt halt at, besides detailing what goods Iran, Oman, Aden and Palestine. For to acquire and what to sell over there. the ancient period, one has to rely on and Sindh –– built a canal The water body between the Red direct archaeological evidence like linking the Nile with the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian seals made of ivory, stone and terraSea that was beneficial to Ocean and beyond is called the cotta which were used in those lands, Erythraean Sea. The Romans, who besides the use of Indian or Egyptian trade between India controlled Egypt, sent ocean-going names for such items. In the second and Egypt. ships to India. A Greek sailor named century BC, an Indian sailor offered Hippalus discovered the annual cycle to show the Romans (who were ruling Egypt) the shortest direct sea route to India. Ptolemy of monsoon, which was the secret of navigation in the Indian Euergetes II (145-116), the Roman ruler of Egypt, welcomed Ocean. The Romans apparently called at any one of the 19 the proposal and directed Eudoxus, a Greek explorer from Indian ports in which, in the words of the Periplus, “great Cyzicus, to set out with the Indian across the high seas to ships sail… due to the vast quantities of pepper and malaIndia. The Greek made two trips to India to buy spices and bathron”. It clearly reveals extensive trade ties between India other eastern luxuries which Ptlomey seized.8 This was a turn- and Egypt as Roman and Indian ships sailed to coasts all along ing point in ancient Indo-Egyptian maritime links as it her- Oman, Yemen and to the Red Sea — and the Horn of Africa, alded direct trade contacts under the Greco-Egyptian dynasty known in ancient times as Cape Guardafui or Cape of Spices of the Ptolemies. It declined with the demise of Cleopatra. — carrying, among other items, sugar, pearls, precious stones, Earlier maritime contacts were not regular because the sea spices, unguents and cotton clothes, all of which were in great journey was long and arduous as the small ships had to sail demand. Indians had settled for trade in many of these ports along the coast and were often targeted by pirates. on the sea coast. Aden and the Socotra Island had a colony of When the Roman Emperor Augustus annexed Egypt in 30 Indian merchants.10 Many Indian kings, especially from South BC he built new ports on the Red Sea and dug wells along the India, sent trade missions to Roman Emperor Augustus around caravan routes crossing the desert from the Nile to the Red Sea. 26 BC as also during subsequent periods. Indian goods were The Romans soon subjugated the Nabateans and the carried up to the Red Sea coast and from there to Alexandria.

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A F R I C A The Gangas of Talakad in South India had flourishing trade with the Roman Empire and this is corroborated by the recent discovery of a large number of Roman coins in the temple town of Muduktherai on the banks of the Kaveri which must have been sent for Indian goods shipped to Alexandria as similar coins were discovered there.

Thus, both India and Egypt not only had direct trade ties but Egypt, especially Alexandria in that country, became the entrepot for Indian goods to Europe. The Romans, with help from the Egyptians, exported to India glassware, works of art, tin, Mediterranean coral —much prized in India for its imputed magical properties — and bullion.

They brought back from India ivory, pearls, tortoise shells, diamonds, onyx, agate, crystal, amethyst, opal, beryl, sapphire, ruby, garnet, bloodstone, emerald, carnelian, linen, textiles, wheat grains, handicrafts and many handmade art products.

Silk from China was also brought via India. Parrots, tigers, rhinoceroses and elephants were also brought from India.

But it was clearly the Indian spices which were the main attraction, along with costus, nard and cloves. The ancient Egyptians visited India frequently not only for the goods they needed but also to sell Egyptian products in the vast Indian market. It is recorded that Ptolemy II (285-246 BC) exchanged ambassadors with the Mauryan Emperors Chandragupta II and Ashoka.

Alexandria in Egypt, ruled by Ptolemaic and Roman rulers and thus being a cosmopolitan city, was not only a major trading centre but far ahead of Rome and Athens culturally.

Alexandria became the chief port of the Nile delta. The route from Alexandria to Rome was the most heavily trafficked trade route of the ancient world. Few weeks of the voyage brought prized goods, including much sought-after spices, to Rome’s great port at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. The distance was about 5,000 miles from India.

Thus, Alexandria was not only a place where traders from all parts of the world met but the cosmopolitan city also attracted scholars from all over the world, especially India. Besides the trade ties between India and Egypt, the Egyptian mind was also influenced by Indian mysticism, especially the doctrine of rebirth. The ties in historical period were further intensified during the Roman period. As more and more Persians began to take interest in commercial activities, direct Indo-Egyptian trade relations in the second and third century AD declined.

Although the discovery of monsoonal winds in 44 AD had changed the maritime contacts between the two countries and the volume of trade had increased in the first century AD with around 120 ships travelling to India every year for various products, the contacts decreased subsequently due to decline in Roman power in the aftermath of the invasions by barbarians (Franks, Visigiths and Alamannis) who shattered the prosperity and order on which trade with India depended. The Gothic invaders, who dismembered the western Roman empire, dealt a severe blow to trade with India.

This decline persisted for about 1,000 years, but sporadic demand for Indian goods sustained despite invasions and disruptions. During the period of Pliny the Elder (23-79), Rome’s cosmopolitan tastes had reached such a pitch that he talks of the flavours of Egypt and India appearing in Roman

Q U A R T E R L Y

kitchens.11 Egypt and India greatly benefited from trade with the Roman empire and, as one writer said: “The money flowed out to foreigners.”

Gold and silver Roman coins reached India in great quantities as is explicit in the vast archaeological discoveries, particularly in South India. Pliny the Elder apparently “complained that India swallowed up the colossal sum of 50 million sesterces per annum — all for the sake of pepper and other ‘effeminate’ eastern fripperies. India and its luxuries were turning Rome into a city of wimps”. India and its pepper became almost paradigmatic. To Pliny the Elder, the voyage to India was no more than a grubby quest for loot, “and so India is brought near by a lust for gain”.12 After the reign of Caracalla (211-217), Roman coins declined in India. Soon the Roman empire suffered one disaster after another which affected the eastern traffic. Moreover, the Red Sea area passed under the control of the Blemmyes, a hostile African tribe, and Rome’s direct trade route via Egypt was disrupted.

But the Byzantine state maintained even in the sixth century a customs official at Clysma on the Gulf of Suez, and a famous Greek-Egyptian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes travelled to India around 550 AD. The transformation was already visible as Syrian, Latin and Hebrew were the languages used by the merchants all along the spice routes. Socootra Island, situated at the Bab El Mandeb near Yemen, was an important link for Indo-Egyptian trade.

The memory of this trade still survives in western India, especially among the people of coastal Gujarat who worship goddess Sakotri Mata, named after Socootra Island.13 The spread of Islam under Amr-ibn-al-As in major parts of Egypt brought Arabs from the heart of the Arabian Peninsula to a country where idolatry and temples existed. Pharonic culture was widespread despite the growth of Christianity, but modest trade, especially Egyptian imports of Indian textiles, continued.

Fragments of Indian fabric were found at Al Fustat near Cairo which functioned as a major trading centre in Egypt.

Initially, the direct maritime trade contacts between India and Egypt appear to have declined with the rise of Islam as the Arabs from Oman, Yemen and others like Persians began to interact with Indians on a larger scale, thus converting the Indian Ocean into a Muslim lake. Muslim merchants, especially Arabs, were now firmly established from Malacca to Malabar to Maghreb to China. The Arab traders and mariners (Muslims) now controlled land and sea routes and used camels and ships to transport goods. The Jews were also active. But Indian goods, especially spices, continued to reach Cairo in modest quantities for onward transmission to Europe in return for furs and amber from the Baltics; and slaves, timber and metals from the Alps and the Balkans.

Says a writer, “Pepper has perhaps been the oldest continuous link between India and Egypt and also between Asia and Europe and one that has survived, battered but intact, ever since.”14 Under these circumstances, Alexandria once again became the terminus of transcontinental trade as it was during the Roman period. Trade ties between India and Egypt were revived through the Red Sea and once again there was brisk trade. During this period the “Syrian”, i.e. Byzantine, merchants (Constantinople still remained the capital of the

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Eastern Roman empire. It was taken over by the Turks in saffron, mustard, cassia, garlic, musk, ginger, pearls, crystals 1453) and the Jewish traders also began to play an important and Sanbazaj (used for polishing stones). Wine and scents role in the trade between India and Egypt. The Jews were were imported from Egypt. uniquely placed as a link between Christians and Muslims.

Many Arab-Egyptian merchants settled on India’s western Many writers refer to a loose alliance of Jewish merchants coast like Gujarat, Konkan and the Coromandel coast. Jeddah known as the Rhadanites, whose name appears in the ‘Book now became an important link for trade between India and of Routes’ composed around 850 AD by Ibn Khordabeh, Egypt because the trade was now in Arab hands, besides its Director of Posts to the Caliphs in Baghdad. proximity to Mecca — the pilgrimage centre for Muslims The Jews were present all along the old silk route from Gaul from all over the world. A large number of Indian scholars visto China. Interestingly, the arrival of Muslims (Islam) at the ited parts of the Arab world, especially Baghdad, the capital of gates of Arles and Marseilles (France) and Saint Peter’s Basilica the Abbasid Empire, taking with them their works in Sanskrit in 846 propelled the Jews to prominence even as Charlemagne on astronomy, mathematics and medicine which were later and his Frankish nobles were forced to rely on Jewish mer- translated into Arabic and Greek. Gradually, Islam began to chants for their luxuries. influence India first through Arab traders in the coastal areas Due to their new role, Christian persecution of Jews virtu- and later from Sind, Persia and Central Asia. ally stopped, as also forced conversions which were common During the Fatimid period in the 10th century AD, the during the Merovingians-Frankish dynasty (476-750 AD) in Egyptian merchants were famous as El Karemia and traded Europe. It must be noted that one of the oldest surviving mostly in Indian spices. These merchants used to stay in India decrees of the Venetian Senate forbade Jews from travelling on for long periods and marry Indian women. They also played board Venetian ships.15 The Jewish presence was noticeable an important role in spreading Islam in India. These Egyptian due to the Fatimid Dynasty’s (969-1171 AD) connections with spice merchants came to be known as Bohras (so called after Maghreb areas. Like the Romans, the Fatimids encouraged bahar-spices or bahar, meaning outside). The Bohras still are trade through the Red Sea by maintaining a strong navy and a very important Indian trading community in Egypt and are providing security to merchants from an important link between the two Gradually, Islam began to all over the world. Says a writer: countries. According to Sahar Abdel “Cairo was then embarking on the Aziz Salem, the Fatimids’ zeal to influence India. During the period of its greatest commercial spread Islam in India indicates their Fatimid period, the Egyptian splendor, drawing commerce, merdesire to preside over the trade merchants also played an chants and travellers like filings to a through the Indian Ocean. This magnet. Alexandria regained the strengthened the economy of the important role in spreading position it had occupied in classical Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, while Islam across the country. antiquity as Europe’s chief point of weakening that of the Abbasids (in access to the exotic goods of the Baghdad).18 He also argues that 16 East.” In 996 AD, a traveller to Cairo counted 160 mer- many Indian traders also visited Egypt as “Indian penetration chants from Amalfi alone. Nahray ibn Nissim, a Tunisian Jew into the Red Sea might have also taken place in the Fatimid settled in Egypt, was dealing in products as diverse as Spanish period when relations between Egypt and India were very tin and coral, Moroccan antimony, Indian spices, Armenian close and friendly, since they combined both commercial and clothes, rhubarb from Tibet and spikenard from Nepal. The spiritual interests”.

Jewish trade connections came to light from the remarkable It appears Mohammed bin Tughluk Shah, known as the collection of business papers belonging to Jewish merchants, Sultan of India, as also of Sind, Makran, Mogadishu and Sri which were discovered at a synagogue in Old Cairo. The doc- Lanka, sent a ship to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Al Naser uments, letters, etc., cover the period from 1000 to 1250 AD. ibn Qalaun loaded with precious presents and diamonds, but The commercial contacts of the genizah (Cairo) Jewish failed to reach Cairo as the King of Yemen looted it. This merchants, under the trading guild known as the Karimis, clearly reveals that Indian ships were famous in the Red Sea, existed through their agents from China through India to Aden and along the Arabian coast.

Morocco and were an important link between India and Egypt.

Egypt, under the Fatimids, flourished due to the brisk trade The intermediaries in most cases were Jews themselves. Says with India. Indian influence is seen in Egyptian mosques, espeK.N. Chaudhri: “Business was done by consigning goods to cially in the design of the minaret, as large numbers of Indian friends and relatives in Fustat or Aden, while the principal ships carried Muslims for Haj and to other holy places. Egypt remained in India. It is significant from the point of view of continued to the extent possible its interaction with India in commercial organisation that the leading Jewish merchants of trade and other fields. The entire Gulf region, Arabian the period with business connections in distant countries did Peninsula and North Africa, including Egypt, was undergonot find it necessary to travel with their own goods.”17 The ing rapid transformation under Islamic rulers and this affectmajor items imported from India were spices, but also includ- ed the cultural relations as the Indian society was also undered were sandalwood, camphor, cloves, nutmegs, cubebs, going similar changes across the country under Muslim rulers. coconuts, flaxen and cotton fabrics, ivory, pepper, lead, Kutla Spanish rabbi Benjamin of Tudela visited Alexandria in 1160 drug, bamboo, cane, precious stones, cardamom, cinnamon, AD and found European merchants — like Italians, Catalans, aloes, marjoram, myrrh, galangal, mastic, vermilion, parrots, Frenchmen, English and Germans — rubbing shoulders with

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merchants from all over the world. This is interesting in the tionship between these events and the rhythm of long-distance background of the fierce religious wars in Europe. trade through the Red Sea is not quite clear but the CairoThe Fatimids encouraged trade as they needed customs Alexandria trade network, however, remained open”, although duties. Egypt also continued to be the link to the extent pos- it did not witness the brisk trade it used to in early periods. sible between India and Europe, and interaction with India was It is interesting to know how an Egyptian historian of the very lucrative especially in spice trade and other fields. During 15th century AD, Al-Qalqashandi, appreciates India: “India is 1170-1260 AD, the Fatimids in Egypt were replaced by the a big and wide country having enormous wealth. The king Ayyubid rulers under whom the total volume of trade declined lives with pomp and glory. Its ocean is full of pearls, its earth as the European traders began to take active interest, thus with gold and its mountains with rubies and emeralds. Its valincreasing their share. Moreover, the sea route to India became leys have fragrance of sandalwood and camphor. The people are bestowed with wisdom. Peace and justice can be seen in vulnerable to pirates and growing incidence of taxation.

Some wealthy Egyptian merchants began to buy protection the entire country.” Another modern Egyptian scholar, Abu from rulers in the coastal regions to keep their ships safe from Zohra, in his book ‘Mohaderat Fi Muqarinat al Adyan’ opines pirates. The role of Jewish merchants — who could speak about ancient Indian religions: “Indians have a glorious hismany languages — increased all along the routes from tory. They were possessed of civilisation and culture in older Alexandria, Jeddah, Aden, Muscat, Basra and Bushier, to the days. The history of their civilisation is so old that one remains Indian coast. This may also have partly increased the European unable to trace its origin.”20 Soon, the crucial areas through which trade between India volume of trade with the East and hence contributed someand Egypt was to pass came under the Ottoman Empire and what to the decline in Indo-Egyptian trade.

Egypt soon came to be ruled by The Fatimids encouraged trade this led to disruption in commercial transactions due to political troubles. the Mamluks (1260-1517 AD) and The most significant development the devastation of the region from as they needed customs duties.

Persia to Palestine and the downfall Egypt also continued to be the came in the Indian Ocean where the Portuguese, under Vasco da Gamma, of the Abbasids in Baghdad (1258) link to the extent possible and with the help of an Arab pilot, due to the Mongol invasion between India and Europe, and landed in Calicut on May 21, 1498. enhanced the importance of Cairo in the trade through the Red Sea area. interaction with India was very The arrival of Europeans in South The attacks and the prominent role lucrative especially in the spice India drastically changed the entire scene concerning trade, politics and of Saladin in defeating the Crusaders trade and other fields. After the control of colonies. led him to contain the growing role The Portuguese met two stunned of Frankish merchants in gaining Fatimids fell to the Ayyubid resident Tunisian merchants who direct access to the Red Sea and limrulers during 1170-1260 AD, the spoke Genose and Castilian. Da ited their interaction to the North total volume of trade declined. Gamma also met Italian merchants African and Mediterranean ports. who had reached Calicut by the land Despite restrictions placed by the Pope on Christian traders for their purchases from Muslim route. On March 8, 1500, Portuguese Admiral Pedro Alvares countries, merchants from Geneo and Venetia did trade Cabral came to Calicut with 13 huge ships and a thousand through Alexandria. The Egyptians conducted trade through strong crew. Cabral demanded the expulsion of all Muslim “safe conduct passes”. The Mamluk rulers assured security to merchants (Arabs, Persians, Indian-Muslim merchants from merchants. It appears that during the 14th century, Egypt and Gujarat, and so on). When the ruler Zamorin refused, Cabral the surrounding areas went through a difficult period due to seized a large and heavily laden Arab ship preparing to sail to economic disruptions and the consequent decline in trade Egypt through the Red Sea. He ordered two-day heavy bombardment of Calicut, mainly due to the Black Death in 1347 AD. Religion again destroying most ships and the port. “The Portuguese seized came in the way of Indo-Egyptian trade as in 1322.

The Pope excommunicated many leading citizens of Venice or sank all Muslim shipping they lay their hands on; Muslim for their dealings with Muslim rulers and for some time a merchants were hung from the rigging and burned alive in papal ban prevailed which slowed down trade with Egypt. view of their families ashore… Calicut’s fate was just a taste This had repercussion on trade with India as well. The trade of things to come. In the years that followed, similar treatment simply passed into the hands of Armenian merchants from was revisited on the city and other Malabar ports… all to the Turkey to Persia to India. The Armenian port of Lajazzo strategic end of establishing a royal monopoly over trade in the became the link for Europe, reducing Egypt’s importance. Indian Ocean.”

The new rulers of the Indian Ocean henceforth ordered The Black Death (Bubonic plague –– Rattus rattus in Egypt), which devastated agriculture and adversely affected the traders of all nations to require a permit to sail waters they had Egyptian population, also scared away foreign traders. This freely sailed for time immemorial. “The goal was nothing less disease always originated from the coast, and went up into the than to make the Indian Ocean a Portuguese lake. All cominterior, wrote Procopius. Every freighter and galley shuttling petition would be taxed or blown out of water.”21 Soon they from India to Egypt and from Alexandria to Byzantium was began to take over the spice trade in the entire Indian Ocean potentially a “death ship”.19 Says a writer: “The exact rela- region. The Portuguese King Mauuel crowned himself as

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‘Lord of Guinea, and of the Conquest, the Navigation and cation lines between London and India. British desire to Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India’. strengthen their grip over India was facilitated by their conThe new masters of the seas now ordered Venetian mer- trol over Egypt.25 The Suez Canal, which is in Egyptian terchants to buy spices from Lisbon. Soon, there was drastic ritory and opened for traffic in 1869, was an important link in reduction in the supply of spices to Cairo and Alexandria — the British transport lines. Since then, the canal has proved to the traditional markets to which Indian traders supplied via be a vital link between India and Egypt, although the British Aden and the Red Sea. Since the Turks were also at war with tried to strain relations between the two ancient civilisations. major parts of Europe, this led to a rise in the price of spices due to shortage of supply. All this greatly undermined the tra- Political Relations ditional Indo-Egyptian trade contacts and hence had an impact The bond between the people of the two countries was on the cultural and other ties as well.

The Ottoman Sultans were unable to control the growing established on a common ground — anti-British struggle.

Portuguese hold over vital ports, which sent the crucial spice Both had common experiences in their nationalist fight for trade shipping away from Egyptian/Arab merchants as the independence. This led to the launching of nationalist moveprice of spices went up due to war, scarcity of supplies and dis- ments in both the countries almost simultaneously. In Egypt, location of the regular shipping between Malabar and the Red Saad Zaghlul Pasha, through the Wafd party, worked for indeSea. Along with the Egyptian merchants, the Red Sea route pendence. In India, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, was also busy with Persian traders from the Gulf and also the Maulana Azad and many others intensified the freedom strugseafaring Omani Arabs. “After a few disrupted decades, as the gle through the Indian National Congress (INC). The two parties and their leadership mainshock of the early Portuguese conquests reverberated back down the Britain feared a French invasion tained continuous contact with each other. Nehru, who took keen interspice routes, Alexandria and Venice by way of Egypt. In fact, Tipu est in India’s foreign relations, was staged a comeback. In the 1560s, Sultan, South Indian ruler of anxious to relate the Indian struggle there were so many spices for sale in Mysore, looked for French help for freedom to a wider anti-colonial Alexandria that a Portuguese spy sugmovement. In this regard, he particgested that the Portuguese should against the British during the ipated in the international Congress abandon the Cape route altogether latter part of the 18th against imperialism held in Brussels and ship their spices via the Levant in century. After defeating Tipu in in February 1927. order to cut costs.

During the interwar period, So great was the flow of illicit 1799, the British — with the Nehru visited Egypt several times spices through the Portuguese blockhelp of Indians — took over and maintained close ties with Wafd ade that there was speculation that much of the Arab world.

Party leaders and invited them to the Portuguese viceroy was in tacit attend INC’s annual sessions. revolt against the King.”22 The religious bigotry and excessive violence earned the Portuguese During a meeting with the visiting Egyptian Wafd delegation many enemies. Other Europeans followed the Portuguese in to India, Nehru said: “Our peoples had much in common — their quest for spices, colonies, slaves and wealth. Egypt, how- close intercourse from the dawn of history, the exchange, ever, regained its place as the prime intermediary between even in remote ages past, of ideas and cultures and merchanEurope, India and the Far East for the supply of spices. “By dise, and then, in the modern period of history a common unknown means and ferried by unknown hands… spices struggle for freedom against a common imperialism.”26 Soon after the Second World War both India and Egypt arrived… in the souks of Cairo and Alexandria and thence to the markets of Europe like so much cosmic driftwood.”23 came to share views on the Palestine issue, but could not preArab dhows conveyed them across the Indian Ocean to the vent the emergence of Israel in 1948. Once Turkey and Iran Persian Gulf or the Red Sea. — two prominent Islamic states — recognised Israel, India also “From any one of a number of ancient ports — Basra, did so in September 1950, even though the Egyptian governJeddah, Muscat or Aquaba — the spices were transferred onto ment had urged postponement of recognition till the issue of one of the huge caravans that fanned out across the deserts to the Palestinian refugees was clarified. Despite the Indian decithe markets of Arabia and onto Alexandria and the Levant.”24 sion on Israel, Nehru refused to establish diplomatic ties with Since Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, Britain took Israel. Maulana Azad played a key role in bringing India and keen interest in the West Asian region as it was then estab- Egypt closer and also made Indo-Arab relations a cornerstone lishing its grip over India and feared a French invasion by way of India’s foreign policy. of Egypt. It must be pointed out that Tipu Sultan, the South He had started a journal called ‘Al-Hillal’, named after an Indian ruler of Mysore, looked for French help against the Egyptian journal, from Calcutta (now Kolkata) and visited Al British during the latter part of the 18th century. After defeat- Azhar in Egypt several times, thus establishing close ties with ing Tipu in 1799, the British — with the help of Indians — prominent Egyptians. This made him advocate closer ties with took over much of the Arab world. In 1839, the British occu- Egypt. He also viewed Egypt to be the centre of Arab-Islamic pied Aden in Yemen and subsequently in 1882 they brought learning and the cultural capital of the Arabs. Addressing the Egypt under their control basically to protect the communi- Conference for Cultural Cooperation between India and

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Asian countries in New Delhi on August 21, 1949, Maulana In this context, it would not be way out of line to point out Azad, India’s first Education Minister, said: “Political alliances that soon after the U.K. joined the Baghdad Pact, Egypt signed are based on a spirit of bargaining, while cultural contacts the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with India on April deepen mutual understanding.”27 In July 1952, a fundamen- 5, 1955, which stated that “there shall be perpetual peace, tal change took place in Egypt with the dethroning of King friendship and brotherly relations between India and Egypt Farook and the emergence of Gamal Abdel Nasser as the and between their respective peoples”. Nehru attached great strongman of the new regime. importance to his friendship with Egypt as he viewed Cairo This was an event of momentous significance for Egypt to be the key to the success of India’s policy towards the Islamic and a landmark in the history of the Arab world as it was world and the Arabs in particular. poised to have far-reaching consequences by changing the He also saw this friendship as strengthening India’s claim very basic structure of the region’s politics. Both India and as a secular country, especially in Pakistan-related issues. Soon Egypt began to move towards each other impelled by forces Egypt declared that Kashmir was an integral part of India and within and outside. In that “Suez was as dear their desire to contain to Egypt as Kashmir the USSR, the West was to India. The put pressure on the Egyptian media blastArab states to join ed Pakistan and its their military alliances close alliance with the like the Middle East U.S. by branding the Command in 1951, latter as the number the Middle East one enemy of Cairo Defense Organisation and Arabs”.30 The Pakistani press in 1953 and the became very appreBaghdad Pact in 1955. hensive of the close Nehru attacked the relations between Baghdad Pact and said India and Egypt. In it “had in fact created Both Gamal Abdel Nasser (left) and Jawaharlal Nehru came to have similar an editorial, Pakistani in West Asia far views on numerous world issues. newspaper Dawn greater tension and said: “Nasser’s hatred of Egypt and conflict than ever before. It has cerNehru sympathised with the love of Bharat and its Nehru is an tainly put one country against another among countries that were friendly to Arab nationalism represented by attitude of mind not warranted by Nasser as the urge of the Arab facts but conditioned by intense one another”.28 Both Nasser and Nehru came to have similar views on people, while describing Nasser bias and blind prejudice the source numerous world issues. Egypt came to of which may well be examined by follow a non-aligned policy abroad and as ‘the most powerful symbol of a psychiatrist. It is nevertheless a Arab nationalism’. Identity of a secular policy at home. matter of deep regret that in the Nehru sympathised with Arab views of this turbulent egoist not views brought the two states nationalism represented by Nasser as the blood of Islam should seem to politically, economically the urge of the Arab people, while flow but the turbid waters of the and culturally closer. describing Nasser as “the most powerNile. Nasser will never be our ful symbol of Arab nationalism”.29 friend; he will never think in terms Nehru was also impressed by Nasser’s secular policies. of Islam.31 At the 1964 nonIdentity of views between the two leaders brought the two aligned summit in Cairo, Nasser and Lal Bahadur Shastri, states politically, economically and culturally closer. Nehru India’s new Prime Minister after Nehru’s death in 1964, estabwas keen on having extensive cultural ties with Egypt in order lished close rapport. to give substance to the already existing political ties. In supDuring the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war, Nassser worked hard porting Nasser’s “Arab nationalism”, Nehru cemented the to see that the Arab League did not condemn India or declare ties between India and Egypt. In fact, relations had become it as an aggressor and the final communiqué expressed only warmer as early as 1953 when Nehru stopped by in Cairo on “great disquiet” and urged the two South Asian states to end his way to and back from the Conference of Commonwealth the war. Although Nehru and Nasser exchanged a good many Prime Ministers. official visits, Shastri was not driven by Nehru’s passion and, Even before 1947, this had been a consistent feature of in fact, some Arab progressives were not particularly fond of Nehru’s trips abroad. Nehru made another trip to Cairo in him. Heikal blamed Shastri for the cooling of relations February 1955. It is through these visits and meetings that the between New Delhi and Cairo. Many observers read too idea of non-alignment had a decisive impact on Nasser. His much into Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s decision of not showing up talks with Nehru left a lasting impression about the numer- in Cairo while on her first visit to the U.S. as India’s Prime ous merits of following a non-aligned policy.

Minister in early 1966. However, during her state visit to

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Egypt in October 1967, she strongly condemned Israel’s attack Israel, but India opposed it at the NAM summit in Havana, on Egypt and demanded Israeli withdrawal from Arab lands. Cuba. Sadat’s decision to sign a peace treaty with Israel in She also asked for the reopening of the Suez Canal.

1979 led to Egypt’s isolation and a decline in its influence in She came down heavily on Israel which made the press in the Arab world. This was reflected in the downward trend in Cairo describe her as “one of the symbols of peace in the Indo-Egyptian relations as well. It would be unrealistic to world”.32 It is true that Nehru placed great emphasis on believe that bilateral relations can be insulated from the Nasser in the West Asian region and this largely continued dynamics of a changing world. This applies not only to until Nasser’s death in September 1970. This made Indo- changes created by external impulses, but also internal develEgyptian ties appear as Indo-Arab relations. The emphasis on opments in each country over a period of time. The assassiIndo-Egyptian ties perceptibly declined in the wake of nations of Anwar Sadat in 1981 and Mrs. Indira Gandhi in Nasser’s disastrous defeat in the 1967 war and more especial- 1984 drove many to conclude that an era of good Indoly after his death in 1970.

Egyptian relations had come to an end.

Nasser’s death, many observers felt, loosened the strong But one should remember that Indo-Egyptian relations are links that bound the two countries. Implicit in this perception multi-faceted, healthy and rest on a solid foundation of hisis the feeling that after the Nehru-Nasser era, relations torical and strong cultural linkages. They share national aspibetween the two countries, although still characterised over- rations and often have a common say on most world issues all by friendship and warmth, were somewhat lacking the sub- significant to both states. By the mid-1980s, the level of interstance of their heyday. Although this is largely taken to be the action between India and Egypt existed in virtually all fields conventional wisdom and a feeling of human activity which is sufficient ‘Egypt is, in many ways, very shared by intellectuals and experts in enough ground for optimism. different from India, and both countries, this is perhaps a too During President Hosni Mubarak’s facile and simplistic view of the relatenure, relations considerably Britain has been there for a tionship between the largest country improved because India continued comparatively short period and to accord a high place to Egypt in its in the Arab world and the secondyet there are numerous parallels foreign policy. Egypt has always been largest country in Asia.

The cordial relationship between and common features in the two and will remain of great political sigthe two countries continued in the nificance to India. Both at the official countries. The nationalist initial period of President Anwar and unofficial levels, relations have movements of India and Egypt undergone a sea change.

Sadat and Mrs. Indira Gandhi. In October 1970, India’s External have adopted different methods, Affairs Minister Sardar Swaran Singh Cultural Relations but fundamentally the urge to visited Egypt to offer condolences to national freedom is the same the new leaders of Egypt.

Jawaharlal Nehru in his famous There seemed no reason for any book Glimpses of World History wrote: and the objective is the same.’ change in the cordial and intimate “Egypt is, in many ways, very differ— Jawaharlal Nehru ent from India, and Britain has been relations between the two states.

India had all along supported the there for a comparatively short periEgyptian/Arab position on the issue of Israeli withdrawal from od and yet there are numerous parallels and common features Arab lands and the restoration of the legitimate rights of the in the two countries. The nationalist movements of India and Palestinians. This was reiterated during the October 1973 war. Egypt have adopted different methods, but fundamentally the Soon, differences emerged among Egypt, Syria and other Arab urge for national freedom is the same and the objective is the states over the peace process. India’s policy was not to take sides same. And the way imperialism functions in its efforts to supin intra-Arab disputes. press these nationalist movements is also much the same. So The so-called lack of warmth in Indo-Egyptian ties in the each of us can learn much from the other’s experience.”33 The 1970s was, among others reasons, due to the slow fading away INC and the Wafd Party used the boycott of Royal of issues like anti-colonialism, Sadat’s preoccupation with the Commissions as a vital weapon in the struggle for freedom — Israeli peace process and his emphasis on domestic recon- the Miler Commission in Egypt and the Simon Commission struction. More significantly, the 1973 oil price hike pushed in India.

Both India and Egypt were in contact through Islamic India to focus more on the Gulf States due to its energy needs, which was crucial to the primary task of economic develop- reformers as well. Jamaluddin Afghani, who stayed in Egypt ment. Under the Janata government (1977-79), led by Morarji for long years, inspired the Egyptians to a great revival and preDesai, there was fear that India may reorient its pro-Arab pol- pared them to throw off the imperialist yoke. Also, while on icy and the secret visit of Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe a visit to India, he inspired Indian Muslims to fight against British domination and conspiracies. Indian leaders who visDayan to Delhi added to the belief.

However, the new government soon removed apprehen- ited Egypt included Dwarkanath Tagore, grandfather of sions in the Arab states about any shift in India’s foreign pol- Rabindranath Tagore, in 1845. Rabindranath Tagore also icy. Also, Egypt was sought to be expelled from the passed several times through Egypt and, on one of his visits, Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) due to its peace treaty with King Fuad of Egypt presented him valuable Arabic

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manuscripts for the Islamic Department of the Vishwa Bharati 1955-56. In January 1953, a seminar was held in New Delhi University at Shantiniketan. on the ‘Contribution of Gandhian Outlook and Techniques It must also be mentioned that many Indian students went to the Solution of Tensions Between and Within Nations’, in to the Al Azhar University for further studies and, in 1937, which Dr. Mohammed Hussein Heykal, former President of Mahatma Gandhi, while welcoming a delegation from Al the Egyptian Senate, and others participated. Delhi University Azhar, said: “We should invite professors from Egypt and you conferred an honorary doctorate on Dr. Heykal. The famous should invite those from India, so that we may develop cul- Egyptian archaeologist, Professor Abu Bakr, was also given a tural contacts.”34 India always used to emphasise that both D. Lit. by Delhi University in January 1964.

India and Egypt are the inheritors of two glorious and ancient Dr. C.D. Deshmukh, Vice Chancellor of Delhi University, civilisations. Moreover, India also highlighted that it has the said: “By honouring Professor Abu Bakr we seek to rememthird-largest Muslim population in the world who have all the ber the past in the context of the compulsions of the present rights on a par with other citizens. India’s first ambassador to day world, which are once again drawing India and Egypt Egypt was a Muslim who died in that country. together after the lapse of centuries of isolation.”37 A number It also sent several other distinguished Indians, academics of art exhibitions depicting Indian and Egyptian works have and historians, as ambassadors. The list includes Dr. A.A.A. been kept in both states. In 1952, the All India Fire Arts and Fayzee, who worked hard to strengthen Indo-Egyptian cul- Crafts Society organised an exhibition in Cairo.

Inaugurating the exhibition, Dr. Taha Hussein, Egypt’s tural ties. As Fayzee said: “Many Indians and Muslims are studying at Al Azhar and other institutions. This is evident Education Minister and the author of ‘Future of Culture in proof of a cultural and religions rapprochement between our Egypt’, said: “The Indian forms of art are most appealing to two peoples.”35 Soon a cultural agreement was concluded the Egyptian mind and find a responsive chord in the Egyptian which led to the flow of artists, writsoul. I thank them for their initiative Many observers read too much and I pray to God that the cultural ers, scholars, journalists, exchange of books, periodicals, films, music and into Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s decision bonds between India and Egypt may dance groups, art shows, exhibitions become stronger and more endurnot to make a stop in Cairo on and other types of cultural exchanges. ing.”38 Music and dance groups, her first visit to the U.S.in 1966. especially ballet and folk dance Nawab Ali Yavar Jung and K.M. Pannikkar also served as ambas- But during her state visit to Egypt troupes, have been regularly visiting sadors, among many others. in 1967, she condemned Israel’s each other’s cities.

Indian films, which are very popEgypt’s first ambassador to India, attack on Egypt and demanded ular in Egypt, are shown at regularly Ismail Kamel Bey, underlined the Israeli withdrawal from Arab organised film festivals. Indian films need for closer cooperation in the often bag awards at the Cairo and field of culture to supplement the lands. She also asked for the Alexandria film festivals. close political and economic ties reopening of the Suez Canal.

Similarly, Egyptian films with between the two states. Maulana English subtitles take part in Indian Azad took the initiative to bring out a quarterly Arabic journal projecting Indian culture in the film festivals and are awarded prizes. Many film personalities like Shivaji Ganesan, M.G. Ramachandran, Shabana Azmi Arab world — ‘Thaqafatul Hind’.

This helped India in building a favourable image in the and Amitabh Bachchan have visited Egypt, while many othEgyptian mind. Sheikh Mammon al Shinwa, Rector of Al ers have received prestigious awards in the country. In 1953, Azhar, and journalists like Dr. Mahmoud Azmi of Al Ahram an Indo-Egyptian foundation (now Egypt-India Friendship and Hussein Abdu Fath, president of the Egyptian Press Association) was established.

The foundation is actively working to strengthen IndoSyndicate, visited India in early 1954 and wrote favourable artiEgyptian ties. Nasser inaugurated the Indo-Egyptian friendcles on India in Egyptian papers.

Two Indian press delegations visited Egypt — one in 1950 ship society in Delhi soon after the Bandung conference and and the other in March 1955. Welcoming the first delegation, Dr. Zakir Hussein was the first president of the society. The the Rector of Al Azhar said: “Egypt and India are two old first cultural agreement between India and Egypt, signed on brotherly countries. Time will prove their brotherhood and September 25, 1958, by Dr. Mahmud Fawzy, Egypt’s Foreign friendship and further unite them. Muslims and Hindus must Minister, and R.K. Nehru, India’s ambassador to Egypt, is still live together and work for the prosperity of India.”36 In the basis of cultural relations between the two states.

September 1952, India’s Vice President Dr. S. Radhakrishnan This agreement has been improved upon and renewed sevvisited Egypt and called for close cooperation in the field of eral times. The Cultural Exchange Program (CEP), signed cultural exchanges. Dr. Kalidas Nag, who led a three-man cul- from time to time, has over 65 articles covering the entire tural delegation in 1949, gave a series of lectures in Egypt on gamut of relations in the cultural field. This is one of the most India. More and more Indian and Egyptian students began to extensive CEPs India has signed with an Arab country. enroll at each other’s universities.

Cultural ties flourished between India and Egypt during the The September 1958 cultural agreement between the two Nehru-Nasser era. Although the Egyptian leader lost a close nations further intensified the ties. Dr. K.N. Raj was invited friend with the demise of Nehru in 1964, Indo-Egyptian by the National Bank of Egypt to give a series of lectures in friendship was undeterred as it was not the result of “only the

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personal regards” between Nehru and Nasser. mats to India like Dr. Nabil el Araby, Dr. Noaman Gallal, Dr. President Mubarak’s visit to India during the NAM con- Mustafa El Fiki, Dr. Amre Moussa, Adel El Gazzar, Mahmoud ference in 1983 and Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Cairo in 1985 gave Allam, Dr. Mohamed Khairuddin Abdel Latef and Dr. a boost to Indo-Egyptian ties. Rajiv Gandhi, during his visit, Mohammed Abdel Hamid Higazy, signified the importance said: “Along the passage of time this interaction between he attached to New Delhi.

Egyptian and Indian culture has never ceased to exist, rather The new CEP was concluded during the visit of Egypt’s it has grown deeper and wider in recent and contemporary his- Foreign Minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit on December 16, 2006, tory.”39 Just as great Indian and Egyptian minds have inter- which provides for cultural exchange programmes specifying acted and lofty ideas have flowed in the past, close interaction concrete activities and exchanges from time to time. Hundreds in the contemporary period is bound to succeed in various of Indian students and experts have gone to Egypt and, likefields with no major political problems existing between the wise, Egyptians have come to India, especially to universities, two countries at present. conferences, and so on. Under the CEP, many Egyptian stuEgypt and India as leaders of NAM should, in line with the dents have acquired skills and degrees from Indian universi“sweeping changes” in international relations, focus more on ties and institutes. economic cooperation among the countries of the South. In the The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC), aftermath of these visits, the first meeting of the Indo-Egyptian established in 1964, has also benefited Egypt. From 1986 to Joint Commission was held in Delhi in November 1985.

2004, more than 150 Egyptian candidates have imparted Economic cooperation, which had advanced technical skills to India.40 declined during the Sadat period, has President Mubarak’s visit to India Both the countries have decided on a number of measures to further picked up considerably and India during the NAM conference in now exports a host of engineering 1983 and Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to strengthen the interaction between scholars, artists, intellectuals, among goods to Egypt. Egypt has traditionCairo in 1985 gave a boost to others. A four-day seminar in Cairo ally been one of India’s most important trading partners in Africa. India Indo-Egyptian ties. Rajiv Gandhi, in September 1991, which focused imports oil and oil products from during his visit, said: ‘Along the on Indo-Egyptian historical and cultural relations, was the continuation Egypt. Egyptian diplomats, although passage of time this interaction of this process which was formally pleased with the growing political contacts, express dismay at the same between the Egyptian and Indian initiated in 1958. Among others, participants in the seminar included Dr. time and emphasise the need for culture has never ceased to Najma Heptullah, then Deputy matching economic cooperation in exist; rather it has grown deeper Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha; Dr. order to strengthen bilateral ties.

M.C. Joshi of the Archaeological India has been having a favourable and wider in recent and Survey of India; Dr. L.P. Sihare, forbalance of trade for many years and contemporary history.’ mer Director General of the Egypt is keen to have a more balanced National Museum; and Professor trade with India. The selection of Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali as the Secretary General of the United M.S. Agwani, renowned expert on the area and former ViceNations (U.N.) was a clear indication of the success and rich Chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi. The papers were published in a book entitled ‘India and harvest of Egyptian diplomacy.

The appointment of Amre Moussa as Secretary General with Egypt: Influences and Interactions’ (1993).

This was followed by the setting up of the Maulana Abul the Arab League, the Nobel Prize for Dr. Ahmed Zewail and the appointment of Dr. Mohammed El Baradei as head of the Kalam Azad Centre for Indian Culture (MACIC) in Cairo on International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) show the signifi- Republic Day (January 26) in 1992. This came hand-in-hand cance of Egypt in the global scene. Egypt derives its strength with India deciding to establish diplomatic relations with mainly from its unique geographic location which undoubtedly Israel. According to some observers, Egypt wanted India to makes it the focal point of international interaction. Geopolitically, postpone the decision till the time a settlement was concludEgypt sits at the gateway of three continents and the Suez Canal, ed between Israel and the Palestinians.

MACIC was established for a much wider exposure to which is a strategically important waterway. Despite the end of the Cold War, the world remains a volatile place with regional Indian culture in Egypt, and since then the consortium has acquired a high reputation in the cultural and intellectual circonflicts that have global dimensions and repercussions.

As an influential member of the world community, India cles of Egypt. It has a well-stocked library of more than 5,000 looks to Egypt as a major force for peace and stability, directly books which are widely used by the Egyptians, including many through its central role in the Arab-Israeli Peace Process and research scholars from different Arab and Egyptian universias a keen advocate of principles which India shares in the glob- ties and institutes, journalists, and members of the Indian al arena, especially at the U.N., Non-aligned Movement community. Besides Hindi and Urdu classes, the centre also (NAM), G-15 and World Trade Organisation (WTO). Dr. organises regular Yoga workshops.

It also organises Indian cultural weeks on films, books exhiGhali, an ardent admirer of India, has through his numerous visits to India contributed to the growing friendship between bitions, painting competitions, seminars, lectures, etc. In 2000, the two states. President Mubarak, by sending eminent diplo- MACIC organised Indian Cultural Weeks all over Egypt (in

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the 26 governorates) in which thousands of Egyptian students (IDSA), Ford Foundation, among other institutes. A number took part. These included film shows, book exhibitions and of scholars have been coming to India from Al Azhar as well. painting competitions. Certificates were given to all the par- Indian scholars have also been visiting Egyptian institutes, espeticipants and prizes awarded to the winners. Every year, cially the Cairo University, American University in Cairo, Al MACIC organises painting competitions for school children Ahram Centre for Political and Strategic Studies, Centre for during the birthdays of Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Azad and Middle Eastern Studies, Alexandria University and Ibn Jawaharlal Nehru.

Khaldoun Centre for Development, thereby contributing to the The prizes are given to the winners on November 14 — strengthening of Indo-Egyptian cultural ties. A large number of Children’s Day. This has become extremely popular over the Indian scholars at JNU, Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) years. A renowned Egyptian personality is invited for the func- and other universities conduct research on different aspects of tion along with many other dignitaries from both the Egyptian Egypt producing many books and research articles. and Indian communities. The centre also hosts the EgyptMention must also be made of the contribution made by India Friendship Association (EIFA) programmes. MACIC Dr. Mohammed Hassan El Zayyat, former Foreign Minister has an auditorium where popular Indian films are screened reg- of Egypt, in strengthening Indo-Egyptian ties. Dr. Zayyat was ularly. The centre is also the nodal agency for implementing closely associated with the Nehru and Indira Gandhi the Indo-Egyptian Cultural Exchange Program which has been Memorial Trusts in India and was President of EIFA. He in existence since 1958. Until recently, prominent intellectu- delivered the 1983 Maulana Azad Memorial lecture in Delhi als were appointed by ICCR as Directors of MACIC. for ICCR on Indo-Egyptian relations, which was published Dr. Ismet Mehdi Latif (1992-95) of the Central School of by ICCR as ‘India and Egypt: Modern Relations Between two Foreign Languages (CIFL), Hyderabad, was the first Director Ancient Nations’ (1984). Prominent Egyptian intellectuals of MACIC followed by Dr. S.A. Rahman (1996-98) of the who have visited India include Dr. Abdel Moneim al Nemir, Centre for Arabic and African Studies (CAAS), School of former minister of Awaqaf, Ibrahim al Nafey, editor of Al Language, Literature and Culture Ahram; Mohammed Odah, Dr. Academic exchanges further Studies (SLLCS), JNU; Professor Abdel Moneim Said Aly, Director, strengthened Indo-Egyptian Aftab Kamal Pasha (1999-2002), Centre for Political and Strategic Chairman, Centre for West Asian cultural ties. Since then, several Studies, Al Ahram, Cairo, editor of Al and African Studies (CWAAS), Akhbar, and many others.

Egyptian scholars have been and Director, Gulf Studies, School The India International Centre regularly visiting India to of International Studies, JNU. Mr. organised a two-day seminar on Kanchan Gupta, a journalist, also ‘India and West Asia: History, participate in the seminars held the position for a brief period.

Culture and Society’ (March 1-2, organised by JNU, ICSSR, At present, it is headed by Dr 2002) in New Delhi, where promiIDSA, Ford Foundation, and Basher Ahmed of nent Egyptian historian Dr. Mostafa CAAS, SLLCS, JNU. The annual el Abbadi was also present. other institutes. A number of budget of MACIC is The papers have been published scholars have been coming Rs. 1.5 crore. in a book ‘History, Culture and to India from Al Azhar as well.

In 1995, the Centre for Asian Society in India and West Asia’ Studies of Cairo University, organ(2003). The ICCR invited Justice ised a seminar in Egypt wherein several scholars from India Mohamed Said Al Ashmawi to deliver the 1992 Maulana Azad took part. The papers were published in a book entitled ‘Egypt Memorial lecture on ‘Religion and Politics’. and India in the Post-Cold War World: Comparative Similarly, Dr. Boutros Boutrous Ghali was invited to delivParadigms’ (1996). In 1996, CWAAS/SIS/JNUS organised er the 1993 Maulana Azad lecture on ‘Current World the second Indo-Egyptian conference in New Delhi in which Challenges as Reflected in the United Nations Today’. scores of Egyptian scholars, including the Director of the Together with the 1983 lecture by Dr. Zayyat, Egypt is the only Centre for Asian Studies Dr. Mohammed El Syed Selim, par- country from where three distinguished scholars were invited ticipated. The papers were published in a book entitled ‘Indo- by ICCR, reflecting the pride of place Egyptian intellectuals Egyptian Perspectives: Global and Regional Concerns’ (1999). occupy in India. The visits by former Prime Ministers The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), Narasimha Rao to Egypt in October 1995 and I.K. Gujral in New Delhi, also organised an Indo-Egyptian seminar at the October 1997, along with the two visits by Vice President prestigious India International Centre in New Delhi on Krishna Kant for the G-15 Summit, Cairo, in 1998 and 2000, September 10 and 11, 1996, where three prominent Egyptian indicate the vibrant and active nature of Indo-Egyptian ties. scholars participated. The papers have been published in a book This will provide the political impulse needed for expediting entitled: ‘The Role of India, Egypt and Other Developing cooperation and bringing to fruition a whole host of proposals Countries in the Emerging International Order’ (1999). and initiatives that have already been signed. Here, one must All these academic exchanges further strengthened Indo- note that the traffic from Egypt to India has been less than the Egyptian cultural ties. Since then, several Egyptian scholars have other way round. Egypt’s President Hosni Mubarak was awardbeen regularly visiting India to participate in the seminars organ- ed the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International ised by JNU, ICSSR, Institute of Defence Studies and Analyses Understanding and Peace for the Year 1995. Although he has

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been promising to visit India for quite sometime now, this has Economic Relations not materialised despite best efforts by Indian diplomats and political leaders.

A major part of India’s trade passed through the Suez Canal.

It appears the Egyptians have some reservations like India The post-Suez period saw an increase in the Indo-Egyptian spurning Egypt’s attempt to mediate on Kashmir and trade. In order to facilitate trade, the State Bank of India opened Babri Masjid demolition issue, BJP’s policy towards Indian an export account with the National Bank of Egypt.

Muslims and growing strategic and military ties between India Egypt’s defeat in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and Nasser’s and Israel. Although Fathi Suroor, Speaker of the People’s death in September 1970 led to a decline in Egypt’s influence Assembly, visited India on the occasion of the 50th anniver- in the region. India was compelled to reorient its policy from sary of the Indian Parliament in March 2003, and Dr. Najma one of heavy reliance on Cairo to other power centres like Heptuallah, then Deputy Chairperson of Rajya Sabha, visited Riyadh. The Bangladesh crisis and the 1971 Indo-Pak war had Egypt several times, greater political a major impact on India’s ties with A large number of politicians, thrust is needed to hasten and the Arab world. The new Egyptian strengthen activities in all areas. journalists and experts who President Anwar Sadat’s preoccupaA large number of politicians, visited Egypt include Dr. Omar tion with the liberation of Sinai, his journalists and experts who visited growing friendship with Riyadh and Abdullah, Minister of State for Egypt include Dr. Omar Abdullah, mounting differences with Moscow then Minister of State for External External Affairs (2001), Jaswant constrained him to follow a policy of Affairs (2001), Jaswant Singh, then Singh, External Affairs Minister “neutrality” and “passive posture” External Affairs Minister (2001), towards India. Egypt’s posture during (2001), Prof. Y.K. Alagh, former the 1971 crisis brought to India the Prof. Y.K. Alagh, former Vice Chancellor of JNU and Minister of Vice Chancellor of JNU and harsh reality of there being little to State for Planning and Programme choose between the progressive and Minister of State for Planning Implementation (2002), and Prof. conservative Arabs in their stand on M.S. Agwani, Ex-Member National and Programme Implementation issues affecting the nation’s security.

Minorities Commission (2002).

(2002) and Prof. M.S. Agwani, However, during the 1973 ArabIt shows that the potential for furIsraeli war, India supported Egypt Ex-Member National Minorities ther Indo-Egyptian cultural cooperaand said that unless Israel withdraws Commission (2002). tion exists. Mention should also be from all Arab lands there could be made of the need to open an Egyptian no negotiations.

Cultural Centre in India for which promises have been made by The so-called lack of warmth in Indo-Egyptian ties in the top Egyptian officials, but the centre is yet to take shape.

1970s was, among other reasons, due to issues like anti-coloA comprehensive framework for bilateral cultural cooper- nialism losing their relevance, Sadat’s preoccupation with the ation already exists. What is needed on the one hand is a Israel peace process and his emphasis on domestic recongreater political impulse and a “delivery mechanism” to struction. More significantly, the 1973 oil price increase by translate declarations of intent into action and expedite OPEC prompted India to focus more on its relations with the action where it is slow. While existing Indo-Egyptian ties are Gulf states, especially in the wake of India’s energy needs mature, enormous possibilities exist which need to be har- which were crucial for economic development. So far, India’s nessed. Many other innovative ways could be found to push economic interaction was mainly concentrated with Egypt, through useful initiatives to widen and deepen Indo-Egyptian Iraq and Sudan. cultural relations.

The acute balance of cash situation, caused due to increase in

India-E Egypt Bilateral Trade (1965-1 1970)

26

Year

Indian Exports To Egypt

Indian Imports from Egypt

Total Bilateral Trade

Balance of Trade

1965-66

Rs. 2,707 lakh

Rs 1,919 lakh

Rs 4,626 lakh

Rs 788 lakh

1966-67

Rs. 2,499 lakh

Rs 2,030 lakh

Rs 4,529 lakh

Rs 469 lakh

1967-68

Rs. 2,150 lakh

Rs 2,678 lakh

Rs 4,828 lakh

Rs 528 lakh

1968-69

Rs. 2,181 lakh

Rs 4,141 lakh

Rs 6,322 lakh

Rs 1,960 lakh

1969-70

Rs. 3,463 lakh

Rs 2,169 lakh

Rs 5,632 lakh

Rs 1,294 lakh

May-July 2007

A F R I C A oil prices and new opportunities by way of exports, investments and labour, made the Gulf very important.41 India’s response to the Camp David Accords, concluded by Sadat with Israel, was “uncritical but guarded”. In fact, New Delhi didn’t openly endorse or condemn the accords.

Both Presidents, Carter of the U.S. and his Egyptian counterpart Sadat, sought India’s support for the Camp David Accords of 1978-79.

One reason cited for the incoherent Indian response to the Camp David Accords was the Egyptian factor. Although India wanted to steer clear out of any intra-Arab disputes, it still valued its friendship with Cairo and all efforts were directed towards preventing Egypt’s isolation. No wonder India went to great lengths to prevent Egypt’s suspension from NAM. Prime Minister Morarji Desai told Cuban President Fidel Castro that he would stay away from the NAM Summit, in Havana, if any effort was made to exclude Egypt from the conference. Nevertheless, Sadat’s decision to sign the bilateral peace treaty with Israel in 1979 led to Egypt’s isolation and decline in its influence over the Arab world.

This was also reflected in the downward trend in IndoEgyptian relations. However, economic cooperation, which had declined during Sadat’s period, picked up considerably and India now exports a host of engineering goods to Egypt. Egypt has traditionally been one of India’s most important trading partners in Africa. India imports oil and oil products from Egypt. Egyptian diplomats, although pleased with the growing political contacts, at times express dismay and emphasise the need for matching economic cooperation in order to genuinely strengthen bilateral ties. India has had a favourable balance of trade for many years, and Egypt is keen to have a more balanced trade with India.

Since President Mubarak became the new Egyptian leader, relations did improve as India continued to accord a high place to Egypt in its foreign policy. President Mubarak’s visit to India during the NAM Conference in 1983 and Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Cairo in 1985 gave a boost to Indo-Egyptian ties, especially economic cooperation. While Indo-Egypt trade in 1960-61 was only Rs 13 crore, it rose to Rs 130 crore in 1988-89.

Trade and technical cooperation was lagging behind due to political ties. Now, economic cooperation has picked up under Mubarak, and since then India has been exporting a host of engineering products to Egypt besides the traditional goods.

Dr. Ghali, who was Minister of State for Foreign Affairs and subsequently made U.N. Secretary-General, was an ardent admirer of India, and through his numerous visits to India, he contributed to strengthening Indo-Egyptian ties.

To strengthen economic cooperation, India and Egypt signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in 1983 envisaging greater cooperation in industrial, technical and economic fields. This was in addition to the 1977 bilateral trade agreement providing for the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status, and the Tripartite Agreement between India, Egypt and Yugoslavia — first signed in 1967 for a period of five years and subsequently renewed a number of times until 1998.

There were a total of 108 items listed in the agreement.

Another protocol for technical cooperation was signed

Q U A R T E R L Y

between the Egyptian Central Agricultural Cooperative Union and Indian Agricultural Cooperatives with the purpose of increasing cooperation between the two countries in the agricultural and technical fields. Until 1990, India’s exports to Egypt were tea (Egypt was the largest buyer of Indian tea), electrical and non-electrical machinery, iron and steel, transport equipment, auto parts, bicycles, electric fans, transmission lines, towers and mechanical pumps — especially Kirloskar pumps — and a host of other engineering goods. Indian imports from Egypt are mainly rock phosphate, urea, aluminum, synthetic fibres and oil. For years, India enjoyed a favourable balance of trade. Anxious to reduce the trade imbalance, Egypt is now attaching considerable importance to India for expansion of trade, even though the bulk of its trade is dominated by the U.S. and other European states. Egypt derives its strength mainly from its unique geographic location which undoubtedly makes it the focal point of international interaction. Geopolitically, Egypt sits at the gateway of three continents and the strategically important waterway — the Suez Canal. The most interesting thing about Egypt is that it has a fairly large number of skilled workers in the region whose potential can be harnessed for rapid economic development of both Egypt and India. Egypt also came to be seen as a gateway for Indian products to the entire Mediterranean region. Economic cooperation mainly focused on industrialisation, agricultural research and production technology of some of the major crops. Joint ventures in energy, bio-technology, software, engineering, communications, pharmaceuticals, medical supplies and equipments are also being explored in the private sector.

Despite the end of Cold War, the world remains a volatile place with regional conflicts like Palestine and Iraq that have global dimensions and repercussions. As an influential member of the world community, India looks to Egypt as a major force for peace and stability, directly through its central role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and also as a keen advocate of principles which India shares in the global arena, especially at the U.N., NAM, G-15 and WTO. The disintegration of USSR after the Cold War and the emergence of Pan American Union in the WANA region, together with India’s mounting economic problems, propelled the Rao government to initiate economic liberalisation. Even though Egypt had initiated “infitah” (open door economic policy) in the early 1970s, it was only in 1991 that both India and Egypt accepted the Structured Adjustment Program (SAP) of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Both countries initiated policies to reduce public expenditure by reducing subsidies.

The privatisation of public sector enterprises was also kicked off. The budget deficit was reduced as was inflation. This was achieved at high social cost affecting the standard of living of the people and unemployment rates shot up. The effects of globalisation also had an impact, as the state — provider of basic social needs — came to be seen as a facilitator of the free market economy. In Egypt, rural poverty loomed as agriculture was neglected. The income distribution gap widened and wages fell. The poor were weakened and the rich became richer.

May-July 2007

27

I N

F O C U S

India-E Egypt Bilateral Trade 1988-2 2005 Year

Indian Exports To Egypt

Indian Imports from Egypt

Total Bilateral Trade

Balance of Trade

1988-89

-

-

Rs 130 cr.

-

1990-91

Rs 177.37 cr.

Rs 78.76 cr.

Rs 255.76 cr.

Rs 98.61 cr.

1991-92

Rs 198.77 cr.

Rs 164.56 cr.

Rs 363.33 cr.

Rs 34.21 cr.

1992-93

Rs 330.72 cr.

Rs 255.22 cr.

Rs 585.94 cr.

Rs 75.50 cr.

1993-94

Rs 379.58 cr.

Rs 214.87 cr.

Rs 594.45 cr.

Rs 164.71 cr.

1994-95

Rs 376.19 cr.

Rs 716.73 cr.

Rs 1,092.92 cr.

Rs -340.54 cr.

1995-96

Rs 541.15 cr.

Rs 242.56 cr.

Rs 1,026.27 cr.

Rs 298.59 cr.

1996

Rs 744.32 cr.

Rs 256.96 cr.

Rs 1,001.29 cr.

Rs 487.36 cr.

1997

Rs 941.1 cr.

Rs 754.9 cr.

Rs 1696.08 cr.

Rs 186.27 cr.

1998

Rs 1,198.02 cr.

Rs 672.74 cr.

Rs 1,870.77 cr.

Rs 525.23 cr.

1999

Rs 1,086.9 cr.

Rs 950.58 cr.

Rs 2,037.50 cr.

Rs 136.33 cr.

2000

Rs 926.28 cr.

Rs 642.59 cr.

Rs 1,556.76 cr.

Rs 295.80 cr.

2001

Rs 1,147.88 cr.

Rs 1,017.88 cr.

Rs 2,165.76 cr.

Rs 129.99 cr.

2002

Rs 1,475.49 cr.

Rs 1,662.21 cr.

Rs 3,137.70 cr.

Rs - 186.71 cr.

2003

Rs 1,291.88 cr.

Rs 1,877.75 cr.

Rs 3,169.64 cr.

Rs - 585.87 cr.

2004

Rs 1,643.11 cr.

Rs 2,741.21 cr.

Rs 4,384.33 cr.

Rs - 1,098.10 cr.

2005

Rs 1,073.87 cr.

[ in six months excluding oil]

The major post-Cold War shift in India’s foreign policy in West Asia North Africa (WANA) region was the establishment of diplomatic ties with Israel in January 1992. The aftermath of the Madrid peace conference and growing rapprochement between the Arabs and Israelis propelled India to attend the West Asia peace talks, for which the Israeli condition was “full ties”.

Defence cooperation and terrorism were also cited. Procuring spare parts for Soviet-built arms took priority and Israel emerged as a major supplier of arms. Apparently, Egypt wanted India to postpone its establishment of diplomatic ties with Israel until a reasonable settlement was reached between Israel and the Palestinians. Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leader Yaseer Arafat also stressed that he would have preferred India establishing ties “slowly” to help PLO attain its objectives in the Arab-Israeli peace talks. He pointed out that many Arab states, which had no diplomatic ties, were also involved in the peace process.42 To neutralise Egyptian opposition in this regard, India

28

decided to establish the Maulana Azad Centre for Indian Culture in Cairo on January 26, 1992, in the same month when ties were being established with Israel. India’s Foreign Minister Madhavsinh Solanki visited Cairo and, along with Egypt’s Foreign Minister Amre Moussa, fixed a target of $400 million for the two-way trade. The target was to be achieved by 1994.

Despite the visits by Indian Prime Ministers P.V. Narasimha Rao in October 1995 and I.K. Gujral in October 1997, followed by two visits by Vice President Krishan Kant for the G-15 summits in 1998 and 2000 in Cairo, IndoEgyptian ties were clouded by burning issues like Kashmir and Babri Masjid. BJP’s policy towards Indian Muslims and growing Indo-Israeli military and strategic ties added fuel to the fire.

All this led an Indian expert to conclude that “with the NAM in disarray and with the Palestine issue losing its high moral ground in India’s foreign policy agenda, there has hardly been any other significant political issue — either at the international

May-July 2007

A F R I C A or regional level — to necessitate a high-profile political entente between India and Egypt, like during the Cold War period. Egypt does not seem to enjoy any strategic importance in India’s foreign policy calculation in the changed international scenario”.43 Nevertheless, India on July 24, 1997, nominated Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak for the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding for the year 1995, keeping in view the contribution of the Egyptian leader to the Arab-Israeli peace process. Mubarak is yet to visit India to receive the prestigious award. Dates were fixed twice, but later cancelled. With lack of push at the political level, both countries appear to be salvaging what is possible through economic cooperation and trade.

In this regard, a partnership agreement between the two countries was initiated in Cairo in May 1999. This was during the first meeting of the India-Egypt Joint Business Group — an umbrella agreement focusing on bilateral industrial cooperation for setting up of joint ventures (JVs) with builtin exchange of expertise. To further boost the bilateral economic cooperation, a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) is being negotiated with the aim of taking bilateral trade from $1 billion to more than double that amount.

Since 2002, trade has been in Egypt’s favour due to increase in India’s oil imports. A new Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement is also being negotiated. At present, Egypt Air operates two flights (now increased to seven per week) from Cairo to Mumbai via Sharjah in the UAE, and both are holding Air Connectivity Talks. Also, a Merchant Shipping Agreement is being negotiated, and the Tourism Cooperation Agreement has been ratified by both.44 India has emerged as one of the largest investors in Egypt with a total investment of over $2 billion in about 50 projects.

The largest has been the Alexandria Carbon Black (ACB) set up by the Grasim India (Aditya Birla Group) in 1994. It exports bulk of its product used in tyres and tubes, generating nearly $61 million in savings. Also, in September 2003, a new acrylic fibre plant, adjacent to ACB, was established. Other significant players with major investments are Asian Paints, The Oberoi Group, Thapars, Dabur, ESSEL, Niletex, Auto Tech Engineering, Kirloskars, IFFCO, UTI, Ranbaxy, Ashok Leyland, GAIL, HDFC, ONGC, NIIT and many more.

Many IT firms are active in Egypt and this field has rich potential to boost trade and economic cooperation.45 In November 2005, Indian Farmers and Fertilizers Cooperative (IFFCO) formed a joint venture with El Nasar Mining (ENMC) for a phosphoric acid plant at Edfu, Upper Egypt, at a cost of $325 million. IFFCO will buy back the entire output for its DAP plant at Kandla in Gujarat. Egypt’s ENMC, the largest rock phosphate mining company, will supply rock phosphate — the basic raw material for the project. Essar Gujarat has a Rs. 90 crore export order from Alexandria National Iron and Steel, the largest steelmaker in Egypt. Essar will supply two lakh tonnes of hot briquette sponge Iron (HBI) to the Egyptian company. ONGC Videsh has acquired 50 percent in the North Zafarene area, near the Gulf of Suez, for oil exploration. The Thapar Group is also set to sell its sodium Tripoli Phosphate plant in Karnataka to an Egyptian firm. Both bilateral trade and Indian investments

Q U A R T E R L Y

in Egypt are growing at a very fast rate, with the latest being a $300 million investment by the Reliance Group in the petrochemical sector in Egypt. Booming trade, investments and economic exchanges has led to an increasing number of Indian tourists in Egypt.

The number of Indian tourists has been growing strongly over the past few years, with sixty thousand arrivals by 2006, a 50 percent increase from 2005. In recognition of the huge potential of the Indian market, the Egyptian Tourism Authority opened an office in Mumbai in April 2006. In December 2005, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the Sethusamudran Corporation, India, and the Suez Canal Authority, Egypt, for mutual cooperation.

The agreement will be in force for five years, and can be reviewed for a similar period by mutual agreement. Egypt would provide information, expertise and technological advancement. The Suez Authority would help India manage and maintain the Sethu channel, besides helping out with the collection of toll. The Egyptian Telecom major Orascom has taken a 19 percent stake in Hutch Telecom and this access to India is important for Orascom since other telephony markets are witnessing saturation.

All these factors cement the trade and economic cooperation between India and Egypt. Indian expertise is utilised to modernise steel plants in Egypt. New areas of cooperation are emerging in railroad, fertiliser, pharmaceutical and agro-based industries. There is a huge potential for more trade and investments. Even though political ties have not been at their best, bilateral trade and economic cooperation is steadily increasing.

The policy of free trade followed by the two countries, has contributed to diversifying and broadening of fields of economic cooperation by giving a much bigger role to the private sector since 1991.46 Dr. Mohammed Higazy came to India as the new ambassador of Egypt on September 13, 2006, and has been tirelessly working to improve relations with India. Dr. Tarek Kamel, Egypt’s Minister for Telecommunications and Information Technology, came to India on November 29, 2006. He led a 55-member delegation of officials and business persons, mainly from the IT sector, and signed five MoUs for mutual cooperation in ICT research and development, training, Internet security, postal services, telecom regulations and policies with his counterpart Dayanidhi Maran. He also held talks with representatives from NASSCOM, Infosys, Wipro and other leading IT companies. Satyam also agreed to open a branch office in Cairo.

The second visit was by Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit on December 16, 2006. He came for the fifth meeting of the India-Egypt Joint Commission, cochaired by Pranab Mukherjee. Both signed a Partnership Agreement, according to which Foreign Ministry officials would now be meeting bi-annually to review the progress of initiatives and projects agreed upon. This was the first visit by an Egyptian Foreign Minister since 1997, and the visit gave a strong boost to bilateral cooperation. It was also agreed that both countries would hold cultural weeks after signing off a CEP. Also, an Executive Program of Science and Technological

May-July 2007

29

I N

F O C U S

Cooperation was signed. It was a two-year work plan (2007-2008) on agricultural cooperation between the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the Egyptian Agricultural Research Centre. In the field of tourism, India agreed to allow Egypt Air seven flights per week from the present figure of two.

The number of Indian tourists visiting has gone up to 75,000 every year. Egypt’s Foreign Minister also met Onkar Singh Kanwar, former President of FICCI. The third visit was by Ahmed Darwesh, Egypt’s Minister of e-Governance and Administrative Development who came in the first week of December 2006 on a five-day visit. He held talks with M.A.A. Fatmi, India’s Minister of State for HRD, and visited Hyderabad and met many captains of the IT sector. Describing Egypt’s relations with India on a political level as “best” and “exemplary”, he expressed his desire to develop ties in the field of IT and HRD on a par with political relations. He said Egypt could be the gateway to Europe, Africa and the region for Indian products, and that both could work in partnership and collaboration in IT and telecom without competition. Darwesh further clarified that Egypt wanted “collaboration with India, not competition”.

Egypt’s Minister of Social Security Dr. Ali Moselhi was on an official visit to Delhi from January 11 to 14, 2007, to attend the Ministerial Conference of Afro-Asian Rural Development Organisation (AARDO).

From the Indian side, the Secretary (East) from MEA visited Egypt on November 19, 2006, for political consultations. Sonia Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party, paid a visit to Egypt this year. Company officials from Essar group, NASSCOM and Satyam also visited Egypt.

Trade figures also show significant progress as the volume increased to $1.5 billion in 2006 and is coming close to $2 billion for the year 2007. Both countries have promised to lift bilateral trade to $6 billion by 2010.47 Conclusion Egypt has witnessed genuine development in all fields since the 1952 revolution. Economic planning, land reforms, a

strong public sector, strides in education, agricultural progress, industrial development and significant social reforms were all initiated by Nasser.

Although far from being like India, Nasser fostered a secular society. Despite the Suez crisis, disintegration of United Arab Republic (UAR) and military intervention in Yemen, Egypt was well on its way to becoming a developed Arab country but for the 1967 war and subsequent defeat at the hands of Israelis.

After Nasser’s death in 1970, Sadat was too preoccupied to retrieve the lost territories and instead opted for an alliance with the U.S. Following Sadat’s assassination in 1981, Mubarak, in order to maintain the unpopular peace treaty with Israel and continue the flow of aid in various forms from the U.S., has not favoured a full-fledged democratic political system, which most Egyptians crave.

Full democratisation, less reliance on the U.S. and a balanced foreign policy in general can enable Egypt to regain its rightful place as a major power in the Arab world. Egypt’s peace with Israel needs to be emulated by other Arab states and India should work with Egypt to accelerate the search for Arab-Israeli peace.

The Palestinians, with Egypt’s help, can rebuild their society.

This is essential for peace, security and stability in this crucial region. India should share its development experience and technology with Cairo.

Egypt’s strategic location, experience in peacemaking with Israel, human resources, the Suez Canal and growing oil and gas deposits make the bilateral ties all the more important for India.

Although India is keen to join the Arab-Israeli peace process, it has become imperative to coordinate its efforts with Russia, China and regional states like Egypt.

To regain genuine respect, India must not only continue to support the Palestinian cause and work with countries like Egypt to bring about an end to Israeli occupation, but also ensure that Palestinians get justice.

Non-resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict will lead to more violence and instability in an area where India has vital interests.

Undoubtedly, close ties with Egypt will further India’s national interest.

Notes and References 1. Childe, The Most Ancient East, p.208, cited in Sudhansu Kumar Ray, Prehistoric India and Ancient Egypt (New Delhi: Cambridge Book and Stationary Store, 1956) p.39 .

2. Shereen Ratnagar, Encounters: The Westerly Trade of the Harappan Civilisation (London: OUP, 1980) 3. Jack Turner, The History of a Temptation (New York: Vintage Books, 2005) pp.204 4. A. Murray, The Splendour that was Egypt (New Delhi: Cambridge Book and Stationary Store, 1956), p.xxi .

5. Maqbul Ahmad, Indo-Arab Relations: An Acount of India’s Relations with the Arab World from Ancient up to Modern Times (New Delhi : ICCR, 1969); Turner, n,3, pp.238-9 6. Ray n.1, p.7-12 ; Shereen Ratnagar, Understanding Harappa Civilisation in the Greater Indus Valley (New Delhi: Tulika, 2001).; 7. Mohammed Hasan el Zayyat, India and Egypt : Modern Relations between two Ancient Nations (New Delhi : ICCR, 1984) p.12 ; Turner, n.3,pp.147.; Turner, n.3, pp.147.

8. See also Abdulla el Madani, " Arabian Gulf during the British Era: The Impact of India ", in NN Vohra ed., History, Culture and Society in India and West Asia (New Delhi: Shipra, IIC, 2003) p.109; Turner, n.3, pp.62.

9. Saryu Doshi " Influences and Interactions ", in India and Egypt: Influences and Interactions (New Delhi: Marg Publications,

30

May-July 2007

A F R I C A ICCR, 1993) p.xiii; and Sir George Watt, The Commercial Products of India (London: 1908).; Turner, n.3.pp.63-64.

10. Zayyat, n.4, p.14 ; 11. Ray, n.1, p.38; Turner, n.3, pp.238-39.

12. Ibid, p.11 and 13; S. Maqbul Ahmad, India and the Neighbouring Territories (Leiden: 1960); Turner, n.3, pp.82 13. SM el Mansouri, Art and Culture of India and Egypt (Calcutta : KL. Mukhopadhyay, 1959) p.46.

14. Ibid., p.48; M A. Saleem Khan, Early Muslim Perception of India and Hinduism (New Delhi : South Asian Publishers, 1997). Turner, n.3, pp.66.

15. Ibid, p.49 ; NA Faruqi, Early Muslim Historiography: A Study of Early Transmitters of Arab History from the Rise of Islam to the end of Ummayyed Period, 612-750 (Delhi: 1979). Turner, n. pp.96-7.

16. M.K. Dhavalikar, Early Contacts, in Doshi, n. 4, p.50. see also S. Maqbul Ahmad, Indo-Arab Relations (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1969). Turner, n., pp.104.

17. K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Occan: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (New Delhi : Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1985) p.59.

18. Doshi, n. 4, p.xiv; see also Sahar Abdel Aziz Salem, ‘Commerce and one Faith’, in Doshi, n.4, p.96.

19. Salem Khan, n.8, p.102; Tara Chand, Influences of Islam on Indian Culture (Allahabad: The Indian Press, 1965); Turner, n.3, pp.180-1.

20. Andre Wink, Al Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World vol.I (New Delhi: OUP, 1999).

21. Chaudhuri, n.11, p.59-60; Turner, n.3, pp.20.

22. Ibid, p.67; See also Mawlana Syed Sulaiman Nadwi, Indo-Arab Relations: An English Rendering (Hyderabad: The Institute of Indo-Middle East Cultural Studies, 1962); Turner, n.3, pp.22, 42, 45-47.

23. National Herald (Delhi) 28 September 1992.

24. Riyaz Punjabi and A. K. Pasha, ed, India and the Islamic World (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers 1998) p.97; MS Agwani, ‘India and the Arab World’, in BR Nanda, ed, Indian Foreign Policy: The Nehru Years (New Delhi : 1976), pp.72-3.

25. A. K. Pasha, ‘Indo-Egyptian Cultural Relations: Retrospect and Prospects’, in Zohurul Bari, Ed, Modern Egypt: Culture, Religion and Politics, (New Delhi: Shipra Publications, 2003) pp.199; see also Saryu Doshi, Ed; India and Egypt: Influences and Interactions (New Delhi: Garg Publications, ICCR. 1993).

26. A. K. Pasha, ‘Nehru and the Crises in West Asia’ Détente, Vol. IX, no. 1, May-June 1990, p.p.4-9; AAA Fayzee, Introducing the Middle East (Mysore, 1970).

27. MS Agwani, ‘Nehru and the Arab World’, Secular Democracy, Nehru Number, 1976, p. 171; MS Agwani, ‘India and the Arab World’ in B R Nanda, Ed; India Foreign Policy: The Nehru Years, (New Delhi : 1976) pp.72-73; Hari Sharan Chhabra, Nehru and Resurgent Africa (New Delhi: Africa Publications, 1989).

28. A. K. Pasha, Egypt’s Relations with Soviet Union: The Nasser and Sadat Period (Aligarh: CWAS AMU, 1986).

29. A. K. Pasha, Egypt’s Quest for Peace (New Delhi:

Q U A R T E R L Y

National Publishing House, 1994).

30. A. K. Pasha, ‘Indo-Egyptian Relations: Retrospect and Prospect’, Third Word Impact, Vol.11, no.23, November 1991, pp.23-27.

31. Madam M. Sauldie, ‘India’s Economic Relations with North (Arab) Africa’, Africa Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 2, JulySeptember 1970, pp.115-120; 32. R K Srivastava, ‘India’s Relations with the Arab East, 1947-64’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kanpur, 1976.

33. A. K. Pasha, Arab-Israeli Peace Process: An Indian Perspective (New Delhi: Manas, Publications, 2000) 34. P R Mudiam, India and the Middle East, (London: British Academic Press), p. 56.

35. K R Singh, ‘India and WANA’, in Bimal Prasad, Ed; India’s Foreign Policy: Studies in Continuity and Change (New Delhi: Vikas, pp.247-59).

36. A. K. Pasha, India and West Asia: Continuity and Change, (Delhi: Gyan Sagar, 1999) pp.43-46.

37. Ibid, pp.47-51 see also Richard J. Kozicki, ‘India and the Arab World after Indira Gandhi: Continuity in Foreign Policy’, Arab-American Affairs, Fall, 1985, no. 14, pp.1-17.

38. A. K. Pasha, ‘Rediscovering old bonds with Egypt’, The Pioneer, 23 December 1991; T.P. Bhat, ‘Indo-Egyptian Economic Relations: Perspectives and Perceptions’, in G. Pant, Ed, Indo-Egyptian Perspectives (New Delhi: SIS, JNU, 1999) pp.127-136.

39. Baher M. Allam, ‘ Effects of Economic Reform Program on the Deficits of State Budget in Egypt’, in Proceedings of the India-Egypt Seminar: ‘The Role of India, Egypt and other Developing Countries in the Emerging International Order’, (New Delhi : ICSSR, 1996) pp.13-30 40. Boutros Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York, Random House, 1997), pp.80-81; 120, 214, 257, 278.

41. P R Mudiam, India and the Middle East, (London: British Academic Press), p. 56. 42.. K R Singh, ‘India and WANA’, in Bimal Prasad, Ed; India’s Foreign Policy: Studies in Continuity and Change (New Delhi: Vikas, pp.247-59).

43. A. K. Pasha, India and West Asia: Continuity and Change, (Delhi: Gyan Sagar, 1999) pp.43-46.

44. Ibid, pp.47-51 see also Richard J. Kozicki, ‘India and the Arab World after Indira Gandhi: Continuity in Foreign Policy’, Arab-American Affairs, Fall, 1985, no. 14, pp.1-17.

45. A. K. Pasha, ‘Rediscovering old bonds with Egypt’, The Pioneer, 23 December 1991; T.P. Bhat, ‘Indo-Egyptian Economic Relations: Perspectives and Perceptions’, in G. Pant, Ed, Indo-Egyptian Perspectives (New Delhi: SIS, JNU, 1999) pp.127-136.

46. Baher M. Allam, ‘ Effects of Economic Reform Program on the Deficits of State Budget in Egypt’, in Proceedings of the India-Egypt Seminar: ‘ The Role of India, Egypt and other Developing Countries in the Emerging International Order’, (New Delhi: ICSSR, 1996) pp.13-30 47. Boutros Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York, Random House, 1997), pp.80-81; 120, 214, 257, 278.

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CELEBRATING ‘Ghana at Fifty, India at Sixty’ Shubha Singh provides an overview of the India-Ghana relationship and recent efforts to add economic muscle to traditional and friendly ties between the two countries.

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nce known as the Gold Coast, their economic and commercial ties. In 2002, Ghana’s Ghana celebrated its Golden President John Agyekum Kufuor visited India with a sizeable Jubilee on March 6 under the business delegation that helped boost bilateral ties. Several theme ‘Championing African documents including the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Excellence’. The government Protection Agreement, the Protocol on Foreign Office has announced year-long Consultations and the Cultural and Scientific Exchange Golden Jubilee celebrations of Programme were signed during his visit in 2002.

Ghana’s independence. The The visit gave a momentum to bilateral economic relations year also marks the 50th setting into motion a series of interactions at a time when India anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic ties between was just focusing on Africa. At about the same time, Ghana was India and Ghana. India is credited also in the process of positioning its India’s first Prime Minister with being one of the first countries private sector as the engine of the to open a diplomatic mission in country’s economic growth. In New Jawaharlal Nehru welcomed Accra after Ghana became the Delhi, President Kufuor made a Ghanaian leader Nkrumah in first country in Saharan Africa to strong pitch to Indian businessmen, New Delhi, saying: ‘We have attain independence. urging them to invest in Ghana. He India and Ghana have a close highlighted Ghana’s stable environbeen drawn in particular to the relationship. The African nation ment which has made it an attractive new countries of Africa and I gained freedom from the British gateway to the South-western earnestly hope that in the future African markets and other landlocked colonial rule 10 years after India.

This makes the celebrations special. countries in the hinterland. The visit these bonds of friendship and Also, the solidarity between India also provided an opportunity to repcooperation will grow to the and Ghana and their struggle against resentatives of the Ghanaian private advantage of both… new urges sector to meet Indian entrepreneurs. the oppressive British rule have created a strong bond between the are moving the minds and hearts In tandem, a revitalised Pantwo. This liaison between the two African vision evolved in July 2002 of millions and millions of people nations forms the theme for a joint with the inauguration of the African (in Africa). We wish them well.’ celebration called ‘Ghana at Fifty, Union and the establishment of the India at Sixty’. comprehensive economic recovery In 1961, Ghana’s charismatic leader Dr. Kwame Nkrumah programme under the New Partnership for African became the first African dignitary of an independent country Development (NEPAD). In the same year, the Indian govin the continent to visit India. India’s first Prime Minister ernment also launched its ‘Focus Africa’ programme for deepJawaharlal Nehru welcomed Nkrumah in New Delhi, saying: er economic interaction with African countries.

“We have been drawn in particular to the new countries of India’s ‘Focus Africa’ programme aimed at enhancing trade Africa and I earnestly hope that in the future these bonds of with Africa through the integrated efforts of the government, friendship and cooperation will grow to the advantage of the trade promotion councils and the apex chambers of both… new urges are moving the minds and hearts of millions commerce. In 2003, India set up the India-Africa Fund to alloand millions of people (in Africa). We wish them well.” cate $200 million in credit to various projects designed President Nkrumah’s visit was the bedrock for strong India- to promote African economic integration under the Ghana bilateral relations. framework of NEPAD. The bond has grown. In fact, there has been an upswing in In 2004, India established the Techno Economic

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May-July 2007

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Q U A R T E R L Y

Ghanaian President John Kufuor lights the independence flame to mark 50 years of independence from the British rule in 1957.

Approach for Africa and India Movement, or the TEAM-9 concept, comprising nine nations. The group included India and eight West African nations — Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Mali and Senegal. The TEAM-9 programme created a mechanism for India’s cooperation with these countries to facilitate the transfer of technology, assist in imparting training and share expertise for specific projects.

Under the programme, India has taken up bilateral projects as well as bigger regional projects that cover several countries. As a TEAM-9 country, Ghana can also draw on the concessional credit of $500 million that India has offered for socio-economic development projects in these countries.

A pioneer in the West African region, Ghana’s economic performance and political stability in recent years make it a model for political and economic reforms in Africa. It is set to position itself as the “gateway to West Africa”. In this regard, the government of Ghana has initiated a programme to provide facilities and incentives to attract foreign investment. In 2006, India extended a line of credit for $250 million and an agreement was signed between the EXIM Bank and the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) for various projects in the ECOWAS region.

Addressing the Regional Conclave on India-Africa Project Partnership in Accra on May 25, 2006, President Kufuor said that the Ghana-India relationship pre-dated Ghana’s independence. “India’s contribution is growing by leaps and bounds at both government and business levels. At present, India is the second largest investor in the Ghanaian economy

with 491 businesses. This is a sharp increase from the 143 figure in 2003. The benefits that Ghana has derived from the (bilateral) relationship over the years have certainly contributed markedly to our infrastructure and social development. I have no doubt that they are contributing to the increasing investor confidence in recent times,” President Kufuor said.

The Ghanaian government’s thrust on attracting foreign direct investments led to a 27 percent increase in FDI during 2004. In terms of the number of projects, most foreign investors in Ghana are Indian. Over the past few years, there has been a steady increase in bilateral trade between the two countries. The trade between the two countries went up by 66 percent in 2003-2004. While Indian imports from Ghana increased by 72 percent, Indian exports to Ghana rose by 65 percent.

With a sharp increase in commercial and economic ties, there has been a regular exchange of high-level government delegations as well as visits by business delegations and export promotion councils. India’s major exports to Ghana include drugs and pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, machinery and instruments, cosmetics and toiletries, cotton yarn, ceramics, wheat, rice, transport equipment, tractors, marine products, machine tools and electronics. Ghana now imports almost 50 percent of its pharmaceutical requirements from India, while Indian imports from Ghana include teak, cashew nuts, oil seeds, metal ores and scrap, pearls and semi-precious stones.

Although Ghana is a major exporter of cocoa and a source of diamonds, India has throughout imported both these items from the UK. However, India has begun direct imports of the two products from Ghana in recent years.

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M I L E S T O N E S Leading Indian companies as well as public sector organisa- Hospital in the Eastern Region. The Indo-Ghana Kofi Annan tions have established themselves in Ghana. At present, Centre for Excellence for Communications and Information RITES, TCIL, Water & Power Consultancy Services, Tata Technology in Accra is an exemplary model of cooperation International, Ashok Leyland, Kirloskar Brothers and Eicher between the two countries.

Tractors are operating in Ghana. TCIL has undertaken a $50India provided state-of-the-art technical infrastructure, million project for the installation of Copper Access Network built super computer ‘param padma’, provided course and a contract for installation of pay phones in Ghana. material, curricula and experts for training, while the Recently, a delegation from the Jute Manufacturers Ghanaian government provided land and building for the Association visited Ghana. The fallout — Indian jute bags are project. And in keeping with the character of the institute, now being imported by the Ghanaian cocoa industry. The the Indo-Ghana Kofi Annan Centre was inaugurated Gems and Jewellery Export Promotion Council also sent a del- jointly by President John Agyekum Kufuor and the egation to Ghana which resulted in a new trend — Indian dia- then Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee, in mond merchants purchasing rough diamonds directly from December 2003.

Ghana instead of doing so from London and Antwerp.

The centre has been successful. It trained 700 The two sides have also initiated discussions for diamond students in less than two years from its inauguration. Since mining in Ghana. ONGC Videsh has signed a memorandum then it has grown into an important regional institute of understanding with the Ghana National Petroleum for information technology, and draws students from the Corporation for exploration, development and production neighbouring countries. of offshore oil reserves. The government in Accra has The centre has begun outreach programmes for identified India as a source of appropriate technology for educational institutions, besides organising technology transGhanaian enterprises. fer seminars and workshops in other countries of the region.

Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) While primarily focusing on climate modelling, it has also programme, launched almost four decades ago, has been undertaken consultancy assignments in ICT, health, smallan important vehicle for putting into and medium- industrial sectors and use its developmental experience and research projects. The centre has also ONGC Videsh has signed expertise for other developing couna pact with the Ghana National organised special training for students tries. Under the ITEC programme, from Liberia and developed a cusPetroleum Corporation for India has provided technical assistomised training capsule for the tance to Ghana in the areas of human Gambia and Sierra Leone exploration, development resource development, food processgovernments. and production of offshore ing, biotechnology, entrepreneurship India extended a bilateral line of oil reserves. development, small business crecredit of $15 million for rural ation, rural industry and income genelectrification projects and another erating programmes for women entrepreneurs. India has also $27 million to help finance poverty alleviation projects, purprovided training facilities to Ghanaians at its premier institutes chase of buses for the transportation sector, tractors and other in various fields. About 300 trainees from Ghana have visited agricultural implements.

India in the past five years for training in various areas that also A section of the road to Cape Coast is being constructed included IT. under the India-NEPAD programme. Under the TEAM-9 India and Ghana have also had long-standing military coop- programme, India extended a credit line of $60 million of eration especially in military training. Officers and cadets from which the Ghanaian government plans to utilise $30 million Ghana’s defence forces have attended courses at most of the for the construction of a new presidential complex in Accra Indian defence institutes, and many of them have risen to being built by Indian companies. The foundation stone of the senior levels in their country’s armed forces. Almost the entire building was laid in May 2006. top level of Ghana’s defence forces has attended at least one Once completed, the new complex will allow the presidefence training course in India. dential offices to move out of the historic Osu Castle. Also, India is involved in three vital sectors of growth in Ghana Ghana — together with Ethiopia, South Africa and Mauritius — telecommunications, information technology and devel- — is a part of the pilot phase of the Pan-African Network proopment of transport infrastructure. Besides, both governments ject undertaken by India. have an agreement in the health sector.

The project is intended to provide seamless and In 1995, the Indian government set up the Narasimha integrated satellite, fibre optic and wireless network which Rao Eye Clinic at the Keta Government Hospital in the will eventually connect all the countries of the African Volta Region. It also provided a mobile eye clinic to reach out Union and bring them benefits of tele-medicine and to remote areas. tele-education. The Ghanaian government has successfully Indian eye specialists worked at the eye clinic for two years, introduced economic reforms and stabilised the country’s econtreating patients as well as training Ghanaian doctors. The omy. In the past half decade, ties between India and Ghana have Indian government sent another eye specialist on deputation gathered momentum. This has revitalised traditional friendly to work at the Akim Oda Eye Centre at the Government ties and added economic weight to a growing relationship.

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Sino-IIndian SYNERGY in Francophone Africa With prices high and the Middle East in turmoil, Africa’s oil reserves are more alluring than ever. Vidhan Pathak explores the possibilities of cooperation between India and China in the oil-rich Francophone Africa.

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raving oil to sustain their econom- economic alliance to the concrete Sino-Indian energy coopic growth, both India and China are eration in Francophone Africa, and puts China and India in scrambling to lay their hands on the demand side and Francophone Africa in the supply side of overseas oil fields. Competition the diversified world energy regime. from the West and Japan has forced the archrivals to join hands in the Introduction national interest, as both — located in the extended demand zone of the During the 1990s, the world witnessed a significant shift in present world oil regime — depend energy consumption patterns, and oil became a dominant extensively on external sources to ensure a steady supply of source of energy. Major developing countries of Third World, energy. This hastens the need for acquiring overseas oil fields. like India and China, now require urgent attention because In their search, both are entrenching themselves as major their economic activities are becoming more and more depenplayers to undertake a trans-national process of exploration, dent on oil. Both India and China have been witnessing a production and transportation of oil in different regions. steady increase in their energy consumption for many years Burying the 1962 hatchet, together they have managed to turn now. Increasing economic growth, characterised by high their much vaunted rivalry for industrial activity, has been the main Partnership with Asian countries reason behind the ever-increasing oil acquiring oil and gas assets in the Third World into a partnership that demand. Though consumption of like India and China through a could well alter the basic dynamics of coal accounts for a major share of the conscious choice on the part of total energy use, imported petroleum the global energy market. the Francophone African oil-rich takes an irreplaceable position in both Francophone Africa has become an important source of hydrocarbons India and China. Also, even as the countries would definitely help in recent years. The strategic oil economic growth rate of China and reserves in this region makes it a part boost oil production in the region. India may be different, their energy of the extended supply zone of the oil consumption is almost equal. No regime. The region comprises many countries with surplus oil doubt, their strategy plays a crucial role in energy security. reserves, but with varying degrees of refining capacity. This In fact, their energy strategies may also have similarities as depends on the levels of technological know-how that the both countries have similar patterns of energy use. respective countries are capable of utilising to the advantage of Any traditional approach to attaining energy security may their oil industries. In fact, this is where might lie the poten- not be a solution to a possible energy shock, or shortage of suptial of trans-nationalised exploration, extraction and trans- ply. This requires a comprehensive plan which can act in a portation of oil reserves. Through a conscious choice on the multi-dimensional way — investing in energy resources part of the Francophone African oil-rich countries, partnership abroad, developing existing domestic energy resources, invitwith Asian countries like India and China would definitely ing foreign direct investment to develop renewable resources help boost oil production in the region. and, above all, creating a well-structured network of regional The French-speaking region has emerged as a geo-strategic energy cooperation. region, with oil as a line of linkage. This paper attempts to In Afro-Asian economic interdependence, oil has added locate the region in the larger context of the diversified world another dimension. Asian powers’ demands for energy mateoil regime. It is worth noting that the Afro-Asian economic rial to feed their booming economies have led them to seek oil alliance has given birth to a major oil force operating on the supplies from African countries, including the oil-rich basis of economic interdependence in the post-Cold War era. Francophone region. The 9/11 terrorist attacks have further This paper underlines the logical extension of the Afro-Asian propelled the oil-seeking countries, like India and China, to

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U.S. President George W. Bush with his Gabonese counterpart, Omar Bongo, in the Oval Office (left). A hoarding of Chinese Premier Hu Jintao with Omar Bongo, in Gabon. The country is more prosperous than most nearby countries, with a per capita income four times the average for Sub-Saharan Africa. This is in large part due to offshore oil production that has produced substantial wealth, although the distribution of income from this industry is extremely unequal. Gabon was a full member of OPEC from 1975 to 1995.

diversify their supply lines away from West Asia, and closer to Africa. At the same time, African countries, including Francophone states, require technology and investment to revamp their oil sector, which in effect would trigger the much sought-after pace in the growth of their economies. It is precisely due to this need that the presence of countries like India and China could also spin an economic miracle for these states.

Though not fully explored, Francophone Africa has emerged as a significant supplier of energy in the global hydrocarbon market. However, the new importance given to these countries is essentially due to the ever-changing geopolitics of global energy. These countries are being eyed by the West as African oil constitutes 8 percent of the world’s oil resources.

The post-Cold War world order, based on economic interdependence, has created a context for an Afro-Asian alliance, the success of which is going to be determined by the unfolding process of globalisation of oil. In fact, this newly evolved AfroAsian oil-based interdependence comes up as a relatively less asymmetrical alternative to the existing pattern of linkages between Western oil firms and the oil-rich African countries.

Thus, within this oil-determined Afro-Asian interdependence, Sino-Francophone African oil deals constitute a major elementary line.

India, being a part of the expanded demand zone of the world oil regime, is also in the process of entrenching itself in Francophone Africa. Francophone African countries, including Cote d’Ivoire, are a major oil supply zone for China and

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India to compete and cooperate under the overarching constraint of the present regime. Thus, in this diversified world oil regime, if China has emerged as a major player in the Francophone African oil fields, then it finds another co-player in India, which competes and cooperates with China for acquisition of energy material in the expanded supply zone comprising Francophone Africa. India and China, the most aggressive shoppers of oil and gas assets in the world, and normally archrivals in the race for overseas oil fields, have finally come together to pursue their energy security in the global arena. Both appear to have realised that their rivalry was leading to sharp hikes in oil equity prices. They have been leading competitors for stakes in oil and gas projects around the world.

So far, the two nations have been outbidding each other for some overseas projects. China takes the edge when it comes to bidding as it clinches the deal at any cost, while Indian companies — all public sector undertakings (PSUs) — have to justify, as per government norms, that their investment provides at least a 12 percent rate of return. Thus, in the changing context, India and China are reducing their intense former competition to acquire oil and gas blocks around the world, and are moving towards cooperation instead. In fact, China and India can compete for oil in the new version of the Great Game or they can break the rules of power politics and step up cooperation. An assessment of the India-Francophone Africa energy profile along with China’s is essential for any analysis of the strategic cooperation between India and China

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A F R I C A in the region. This is done in subsequent sections of this paper.

India's Energy Profile

Q U A R T E R L Y

sive dependence on a region for a country with high imports is not a sound strategy. Therefore, India needs to have diverse sources of supply, and Francophone Africa could be a reliable option.

India, as has been mentioned above, is located in the extended demand zone of the present world oil regime. India’s daily India’s Energy Diplomacy consumption of crude is almost 2.2 million barrels, and it is experiencing year-over-year consumption growth in excess of Traditionally, India did not have a comprehensive long8 percent. In fact, it recently replaced France as the sixth- term and holistic energy policy. Energy has rarely been countlargest oil-consuming nation in the world. Estimates indicate ed in Indian security concerns and seldom been factored in its that oil imports to India would have met only 75 percent of its foreign policy. The urgency of making a consistent and comtotal oil-consumption requirements in 2006. According to prehensive energy policy was felt after the end of the Cold War, Indian officials, “if the Indian economy maintains its robust and at end of the Gulf war. The foreign office has since appregrowth, it could be consuming 7.4 million barrels a day by ciated the need to sensitise Indian foreign policy to the grow2025”. India’s foreign exchange expenditure on import of ing demands of energy imports. ‘Hydrocarbon vision 2025’, crude and petroleum products in 2004-05 stood at $29,266 the Indian government’s policy document, is an important million. The figure was put at $20,383 million in 2003-04, and result of subsequent deliberation, and has recognised the chal$17,581 million in 2002-03. Hydrocarbon energy resources lenge of hydrocarbon security for the country with the prime also play an important role for countries like India to sustain objective of making available oil and gas at competitive prices. industrial growth. At present, oil and Due to a relatively limited domestic India’s forex expenditure on gas constitute 41 percent of India’s supply of oil and gas, the domestic import of crude and petroleum total commercial energy requireenergy policy has to be supplementment, and it is estimated that by ed with a proper foreign policy and products in 2004-05 stood at 2024-25, the share would increase to oil diplomacy to provide adequate, $29,266 million. The figure was 45 percent. In 2001-2002, India’s stable and assured hydrocarbon supput at $20,383 million in 2003-04, ply. India has gone for a two-pronged petroleum and natural gas demands, including gas deficit, were 138 MMT strategy of oil procurement with suband $17,581 million in 2002-03. and 151 Million Standards Cubic stitution of oil “imports” as the prime Hydrocarbon energy resources Metre per day (MSCMD), respectarget of its energy policy. Internally, also play an important role in tively, and would be nearly 368 it has tried to unleash the production MMT and 391 MSCMD by 2024potential of the oil sector through a sustaining industrial growth. At 25. The estimated hydrocarbon number of measures, including present, oil and gas constitute resources in India are in the order of financial decontrol, increase in R&D 41 percent of India’s total 28 BMT (205 billion barrels), and expenditure and facilitation of private presently under upward revision. commercial energy requirement, and foreign investment in both Based on the new data of Director exploration and production of oil and it is estimated that by 2024-25, from supply fields already discovered.

General of Hydrocarbons (DGH), estimates for the hydrocarbon the share would soar to 45 percent. Externally, India is diversifying its resources have been revised to 32 procedure of acquiring oil resources BMT. The Indian economy is growing at a brisk pace. The by going for “equity oil”. In order to increase its share in globgrowth of the economy would automatically lead to growth al “equity oil”, it is in the process of making its PSUs more in energy consumption as gross domestic product (GDP) is competitive to undertake production activity in overseas oil directly proportional to energy consumption. Though the per fields. capita consumption of primary energy and hydrocarbons in India has taken a policy decision to participate in the proIndia is among the lowest in the world, it is bound to increase duction process in overseas oil fields as part of its strategy to steeply with the expansion of the economy. In India, the respond to the dramatic rise of its oil import bill and the stagdemand for hydrocarbons is growing at the rate of 6.5 to 7 per- nation of its oil production. This decision will definitely bencent per annum. Thus, securing stable oil supplies will increas- efit India’s economy. Firstly, it will transform India’s status ingly become a security priority for the country. India has a from a mere consuming partner to a producing partner in the challenge at hand to ensure a strategic oil stock to sustain its global oil business, thus ensuring a steady inflow of energy. growing economy. Moreover, it has to meet the increasing Secondly, it will improve fiscal balance as “oil import” condemand for oil without further adding to the fiscal imbalance, tributes significantly to India’s fiscal deficit. Thirdly, it will which has been created due to huge “oil imports”. This need make Indian oil firms internationally competitive in the field for energy security is obsessing India. of extracting oil resources from foreign lands. The concern Large oil and gas reserves, geographical proximity and his- with oil exploration, and cooperation with oil producing zones torical links have turned the Persian Gulf countries into prin- of the world, is acquiring prime importance in India’s trade and cipal suppliers of hydrocarbons to India. However, the exces- foreign policy perspectives. India, being heavily dependent on

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Then Minister of State for Commerce and Industry, Rajiv Pratap Rudy, during a conference on ‘Focus Africa’, organised by the Federation of Indian Export Organisations (FIEO) and Associated Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ASSOCHAM) on May 2, 2002 in New Delhi.

the Gulf, needs to explore other alternatives. However, a comprehensive policy formulation is yet to take shape for the promotion of an alternative course. Here, Africa appears to be the most conducive and appropriate alternative, provided India does its homework on African infrastructural requirements, and provides the technical infrastructural help and training facilities to all the African oil-producing countries for oil exploration. By doing this, India can prove its utility and can have mutual dealings with the concerned countries. However, certain constraints should also be taken into account as regards India’s policy formulation, which has arisen due to international focus, particularly of America and Europe, on African energy resources. America and Europe have already jumped into the oil exploration process. Here, India will have to make a dent, and it can do so by cashing in on its historical linkages with Africa.

This also underlines the importance of exploration and mutual requirement in the area of oil cooperation between India and China, in Africa. Emerging constraints due to increasing interests of American and European powers and their strategies for African oil has enabled India to formulate a policy framework for cooperation with China in Africa.

Thus, the need for energy security has raised the possibility of competition and confrontation between India and China.

Though India has been importing oil from African countries, both Indian and African interests demand that their consumerproducer exchange be transformed into an energy partnership, especially when African oil and gas is getting interlocked

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to the global hydrocarbon security regime. The synergy between hydrocarbon-deficit India and energy-surplus Africa makes an obvious case for partnership. Thus, India is working on an elaborate energy procurement plan through its energy diplomacy in the region. The Government of India, in the year 2001-02, introduced the ‘Focus Africa’ plan to strengthen Indo-African cooperation in the areas of trade, investment, technology transfer and energy security.

Francophone Africa: Energy Profile There are 25 French-speaking countries in Africa and the term ‘Francophone Africa’ is generally used to denote countries where a substantial number of people speak French. Here, French culture is deeply rooted and distinctive, and the region has become an important source of hydrocarbons in recent years. The strategic oil reserves of the region have situated it in the extended oil supply zone, and have provided it a supranational status. A country-specific survey on the oil fields of the region could perhaps be the starting point for any assessment of the geo-strategic importance of Francophone Africa.

African countries hold 8 percent of the world’s oil reserves, accounting for 11 percent of world oil production. Of the eight billion barrels of crude reserves discovered worldwide in 2001, seven billion were in West and Central Africa.

Francophone countries, within West and Central Africa, have the largest concentration of oil. Thus, Francophone Africa as an oil region occupies a vital place in the world energy map.

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A F R I C A

Q U A R T E R L Y

In Francophone North Africa, Algeria is one of the most The 2000 oil and gas discovery in the Talsint region, near the prominent oil surplus countries, and its production is on border with Algeria, raised hopes that the country could cut the rise. It has a target of touching two million barrels per day its energy import bill and also attract fresh investments. (bbl/d) by 2010. According to the ‘Oil and Gas Journal’ (OGJ), Chad’s oil production has grown rapidly since the compleAlgeria has an estimated 11.4 billion barrels of oil reserves as tion of the Chad-Cameroon pipeline. According to the BP of January 2006.

Statistical Review of World Energy June 2005, Chad has oil Though the country has produced oil since 1956, analysts reserves of 900 million barrels and it produced approximateconsider Algeria underly 249,000 bpd in 2005. explored.

Algeria’s Oil production was nonNational Council of existent in landlocked Energy believes that the Chad prior to 2003, but country still has a vast with the completion of hydrocarbon potential. the Chad-Cameroon Over the last few years, pipeline in July 2003, the there have been fresh oil country has been proand gas discoveries in the ducing oil. In fact, region, largely by foreign Chad’s production levels companies. Algeria’s have climbed steadily. As average crude producChad is landlocked, the tion during 2005 was country’s petroleum 1.35 million bbl/d. With production depends on 445,000 bbl/d of lease its ability to access intercondensate and 290,000 national markets bbl/d of natural gas plant through the Chadliquids, Algeria averaged Cameroon pipeline proabout 2.08 million bbl/d ject. Chad is expected to of total oil production receive $3.5 billion in oil during 2005, which is up revenues during the first steadily from 1.93 mbl/d The Ourhoud oil field, formerly called Qoubba, is located south of Anadarko’s 10 years of exports, in 2004 and 1.86 mbl/d field in Hassi Berkine, and was discovered in July 1994. It is the second-largest increasing annual govoil deposit in Algeria and overlaps Blocks 404, 405 and 406. in 2003. Algeria’s crude ernment revenues by production is running well above its more than 50 percent. Recent high In Francophone North Africa, OPEC quota of 894,000 bpd as of oil prices have also added to Chad’s Algeria is one of the most January 1, 2006. Algeria’s oil sector, annual revenues. unlike the majority of producers in prominent oil surplus countries, The Democratic Republic of the Organisation of Petroleum and its production is on the rise. Congo (DR Congo), having estimatExporting Countries (OPEC), has ed reserves of 1.5 billion barrels, ranks It has a target of touching been open to foreign investors for Sub-Saharan Africa’s fifth-largest oil more than a decade.

2 million barrels per day (bbl/d) producer after Nigeria, Angola, Algeria has experienced a signifiGabon and Equatorial Guinea. by 2010. According to the ‘Oil cant influx of foreign investment in Congo’s crude oil production has and Gas Journal’ (OGJ), recent years, but it still has many oil quadrupled over the past two fields which need additional foreign Algeria has an estimated decades, from 65,000 bbl/d in 1980 to capital and enhanced oil recovery an average of 280,000 bbl/d in 2000.

11.4 billion barrels of oil (EOR) investment. In the coming Production has declined recently, reserves as of January 2006. years, it is likely that Algeria’s oil prolargely due to lower production at duction capacity would rise with mature fields and delays in bringing recent oil discoveries as the country plans to increase invest- new fields online. Crude production averaged as low as ments in exploration.

235,500 bbl/d in 2004, but is expected to rebound when new Algeria should also see an increase in crude exports over the fields, including the Libondo, Tchibeli, Litanzi, and Yanganext few years following the substitution of natural gas for oil Sud, come online and offset reduced output at more mature in domestic energy consumption. fields. The majority of Congolese crude production is locatAnother Francophone North African country, Morocco, ed offshore and is heavily reliant on foreign personnel and has oil reserves of two million barrels and gas reserves of 43 technology. Under Congo’s production sharing agreements billion cubic feet (bcf), according to January 2005 estimates. (PSAs), foreign partners carry out exploration and developAs many of the country’s sedimentary basins have not been ment during an agreed period of time — usually three years explored, Morocco may have additional hydrocarbon reserves. for each phase, finance all investment costs, and recover invest-

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E N E R G Y

D I P L O M A C Y

ments when production begins. Oil is exported through petroleum producers in the region.

Congo’s main port, Pointe-Noire, which has little spare capacGabon is Sub-Saharan Africa’s fifth-largest oil producer at ity and badly needs expansion. Although most of Congo’s approximately 233,000 bpd. It is also the fifth-largest exporter crude oil exports are destined for Western Europe, mainly of crude, and falls behind Nigeria, Angola, Sudan and France; and the U.S., the country has sought to extend its sales Equatorial Guinea with over half of its crude exports (126,000 to Asian markets. bpd) going to the U.S. The remaining exports go to Western Cote d’Ivoire has emerged as one of the prominent oil-rich Europe and Asia. According to OGJ, Gabon had oil reserves states in Francophone Africa. It has oil reserves of 100 million of 2.5 billion barrels as of January 2005. Compared with barrels, according to January 2005 estimates of OGJ. Only 7 Gabon’s 1997 peak of 371,000 bpd, the oil production in 2005 percent of the country’s oil and gas wells are onshore. About has declined 37 percent. Gabon’s forecasted oil consumption 86 percent are in shallow marine areas and 7 percent in the in 2005 is 10,700 bpd, with net oil exports of approximately deep offshore. Production is, at present, just under 33,000 222,300 bpd. Gabon’s largest oil field, Rabi-Kounga, produces bpd, coming mainly from the Calgary-based wells. Other oil around 55,000 bpd, which is much below its 1997 peak of fields of the country include deepwater Block CI-400 and 217,000 bpd. Another offshore field is Etame, which produces Block CI-26, which contain the newly approximately 25,000 bpd, according to producing Espoir belt. First production August 2005 estimates. Other oilfields from the Espoir field occurred in early in Gabon include Atora, Tchatamba, 2002. Espoir’s recoverable reserves are Toucan, Olowi, Pelican, Lucina Douka estimated at 93 mb of oil.

Marin, Panga Marin blocks, Gamba Production at the field, which has a and Niungo. The Atora onshore field, life expectancy of 20 to 25 years, is with an estimated 100 million barrels of expected to peak out at 28,000 bpd of reserves, is producing 20,000 bpd. High oil. In 2003, oil was discovered in the oil prices have helped raise Gabon’s Acajou prospect, which is located on GDP growth in 2005. license CI-26. Block CI-40, Côte Crude exports account for approxid’Ivoire’s first deepwater oil field, lies mately 60 percent of the government’s eight kilometre south of the Espoir budget, and more than 40 percent of field, and is estimated to have 200 milthe country’s GDP. However, oil lion barrels of recoverable oil reserves. exports are expected to decline in the The newly discovered Baobab oil field, coming years as a result of decreased situated off the coasts of Jacqueville, domestic oil production. In an effort to about 100 km southwest of Abidjan, increase production, Gabon’s Oil came online by mid-2005 and began Ministry has increased the number of pumping at a rate of 45,000 bpd, later exploration permits offered to peaking out at 60,000 bpd. Recoverable investors. During the April 2000reserves on Block CI-11 are estimated January 2001 licensing round, Gabon Sudanese President Omar El-Beshir (centre) to be 210 million barrels of oil. Several offered 27 blocks, but response from inaugurates a new pipeline in the central Sudanese other blocks in Côte d’Ivoire include town of Higleig on May 31, 1999. In the same international petroleum companies was offshore block CI-01, which contains year, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the disappointing. The government then the Kudu, Eland and Ibex fields; Block last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus. decided to focus on smaller indepenCI-02, which contains the Gazelle field; and CI-105, Côte dent firms. The latest licensing round, in late 2006, was to d’Ivoire’s first deepwater offshore block. In December 2003, focus on Gabon’s unexplored deep- and ultra-deep waters. the government of the Côte d’Ivoire attempted to attract new In 2001, petroleum and petroleum products accounted for investors to its petroleum sector. To bolster their case for new 78 percent of Gabon’s total export earnings. In 1976, French investments, the representatives of the government and petroleum firm Elf established a commercial oilfield in shalPetroci emphasised the region’s potential for petroleum pro- low water near the Nigerian border. Following this, four oil duction with newly available seismic data. Sixteen new fields came on stream in 1997-98. petroleum blocks, both onshore and offshore, were made In Equatorial Guinea, petroleum was discovered for the available to interested companies. Moreover, no deadline was first time in 1984, when Spain’s Respol discovered the offshore set for new bids.

Alba gas and condensate field.

The present estimate in the Gulf of Guinea region provides a pessimistic view of the region, as a proper seismic survey and Francophone African Countries’ Oil Diplomacy exploration work is yet to be done in a large area of the basin.

The area possesses 3.5 percent of the world’s total crude Francophone Africa has come up as an alternative to the trapetroleum, out of which about 96 percent is concentrated in ditional oil-producing region, West Asia, on the supply side two countries of the region — Nigeria and Cameroon. of the world oil regime. The interaction between trans-nationHowever, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea are also important al oil firms and oil surplus states in Africa has certainly facili-

40

May-July 2007

A F R I C A

Q U A R T E R L Y

Francophone Africa: Country-wise Oil Profile Countries

Proven Reserves

Production

Consumption

Net Exports

Refining Capacity

Algeria

11.4 bb

2.08 mn bpd

242,400 bpd

1.84 mn bpd

450,000 bpd

Benin

8.2 mb

1,000 ppd

13,050 bpd

-12.05 mn bpd

0.0 bpd

Burkina Faso

0.0 mb

0.0 bpd

8,870 bpd

-8,870 bpd

0.0 bpd

Chad

0.9 bb

250,000 bpd

2,000 bpd

24,8000 bpd

Not Available

Cote d’Ivoire

100 mb

35,541 bpd

17,000 bpd

18,541 bpd

65,200 bpd

DR Congo

1.5 bb

235,500 bpd

6,000 bpd

229,500 bpd

21,000 bpd

Gabon

2.5 bb

23,3000 bpd

10,700 bpd

222.3 mn bpd

17,300 bpd

Guinea

0.0 mb

0.00 bpd

8,730 bpd

-8,730 bpd

0.0 bpd

Mali

0.0 mb

0.0 bpd

4,070 bpd

-4,070 bpd

0.0 bpd

Mauritania

200.0 mb

0.0 bpd

24,130 bpd

-24,130 bpd

0.0 bpd

Morocco

2 mb

-

-

-

-

Niger

300.0 mb

0.0 bpd

5,030 bpd

-5,030 bpd

0.0 bpd

Senegal

700 mb

0.00 bpd

32,200 bpd

32,200 bpd

27,000 bpd

Togo

0.0 mb

0.00 bpd

11,870 bpd

-11,870 bpd

0.0 bpd

(Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government NB: bb=billion barrel, mb=million barrel, bpd=barrel per day)

tated the exploration and extraction of oil as well as the growth of oil revenues. The oil-rich countries in Africa, including Francophone states, preferred Asian investors to the Western ones in their oil sectors as a matter of foreign policy. They find negotiation with the newly trans-nationalised Asian oil firms as being a relatively less asymmetrical alternative to the existing pattern of linkage with the Western oil firms. This shift in foreign/energy policy postures of the oil-rich African states is manifested in a series of recent acquisitions of “equity oil” in various parts of the continent by Asian oil firms, mostly from India, China and Malaysia. The Asian oil firms compete and collaborate among each other like their Western counterparts while beginning their operations in the African oil fields. In the process, oil-rich African states are finding a wider choice for making their foreign policy modernisation of the oil sector on the one hand and its liberation from the asymmetrical linkage with the Western oil firms on the other. Within this larger context of Afro-Asian energy interdependence, India’s venture for oil in Francophone Africa can be located.

Francophone Africa-India Energy Cooperation Francophone Africa has become an important source of hydrocarbons for the world, and India, in recent years.

American oil companies are making a beeline for this oil-rich region, where Chinese oil firms have already made a mark.

India does not want to be left behind. In this regard, India’s ONGC Videsh has invested in Cote d’Ivoire. ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) and OIL have signed production contracts in many oil fields of the world, including Block CI-112 of Cote

d’Ivoire. OVL has acquired 23.5 percent of the participating interest in Block CI-112 of Cote d’Ivoire, which is emerging as a promising area with its high hydrocarbon concentration.

Oil and gas fields have been established, and major oil companies are participating in the upstream activities. Block CI112, measuring about 4,116 sq. km, is situated in southeastern offshore side of Cote d’Ivoire. Another block, San Pedro, situated 40 km from the coast at water depth of approximately 5,740 feet, has also been identified. A 3-D seismic survey has been carried out on the prospect of these oil fields. San Pedro consists of several fault blocks.

One such block, C-north, is being planned to be explored first. Considering the potential that the Francophone West African region offers, India launched its ‘Team-9 initiative’ in March 2004. The initiative is expected to diversify sources of India’s energy security. Thus, energy diplomacy has taken priority in India’s foreign policy towards this region.

India is vying for energy resources in some of the unstable parts of Africa, such as Sudan, where India has invested $1.5 billion. In July 2004, OVL signed a $194-million contract with the Sudanese government for the construction of a 741-km petroleum product pipeline from Khartoum refinery to Port Sudan. At present, Khartoum refinery is owned by the Sudanese government and China’s CNPC. While India is nowhere near China on the international energy stage, it is conceivable that India could become a major player in the near future, thus posing as a force to reckon with in the global oil market. Reliance Industries, India’s largest private sector oil firm, is in talks to acquire energy assets in Nigeria, Chad, Angola, Cameroon, Congo and Gabon.

May-July 2007

41

E N E R G Y

D I P L O M A C Y

Furthermore, attempts by both India and China to engage “rogue states”, such as Sudan, in order to access their energy resources is undermining attempts by the West to isolate these regimes. The quest for energy resources on the world stage could eventually be added to the outsourcing debate as an area of contention between China-India and the West. Thus, the need to access energy resources on the world stage can be as much a catalyst for conflict as it can be for cooperation.

The China Factor Indian energy diplomacy in Francophone Africa cannot ignore the competition with China, and its ramifications. The Chinese factor is quite evident in India’s energy diplomacy in Francophone Africa. Once the largest oil exporter in Asia, China became an importer of oil in 1993. Driven by a surge in economic growth, China’s growth in oil consumption is now running close to 8 percent a year and, as a result, it is now a major importer. According to Petrol World statistics, Beijing imports one-third of its oil supplies, accounting for as much as 7 percent of the world demand at 5.46 million barrels a day. By 2045, China is projected to depend on imported oil for 45 percent of its energy needs. It became the world’s second-largest consumer of petroleum products, after the U.S., in 2003, surpassing Japan for the first time, with a total demand of 5.56 mbpd. China has emerged as the formidable competitor to the West and Japan on the supply side of the expanded world oil regime. EIA projects China’s oil demand to touch 12.8 million bbl/d by 2025, with net imports of 9.4 mbpd.

As the source of around 40 per cent of the world’s oil demand growth over the past four years, Chinese oil demand is a significant factor in world oil markets. With the expectation of growing future dependence on oil imports, China has been acquiring interest in exploration and production abroad. But after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the subsequent upheaval throughout West Asia, China is actively trying to diversify its supply lines away from West Asian crude. Consequent to this, China is focusing on oil fields of African and Central Asian countries. The geographic position of China is an advantage in regard with its energy strategy. China borders Russia and the energy-rich Central Asian states on one side, while it has the South China Sea on the south, which is the main energy transportation route to South Korea and Japan. Though China is planning to maintain production of about 3.1 billion barrels a day to limit its energy imports, depending only on domestic oil reserves will not be a long-term practical option. Moreover, China’s plans for the establishment of strategic reserves to store up to 18 million tonnes of oil will keep its energy imports on for the near future.

China’s West-East pipeline, which is to be built from

Kazakhstan to Xinjiang and then to Shanghai, will bring the energy from Kazakhstan to the east coast of China. China has leapfrogged Japan to become the No. 2 oil importer, after the U.S. Before 2003, China’s major chunk of oil came from the Middle East. Since Iraq’s fall, China has re-evaluated and begun a feverish pace of oil diversification. Now Sudan and Angola provide a major share, with West Africa supplying 19 percent of imports. The recent trip of U.S. President George W. Bush in July 2003 to West Africa caused alarm in Beijing, especially when Sudan was also made a “human rights” target. Beijing sees this as a global “oil cold war” in every respect.

Therefore, China is now focusing on oil fields of Francophone African countries and has recently expanded its traditional relationships with them. Africa supplied 28. 7 percent of China’s total crude oil imports in 2004 and in the first 10 months of 2005, Chinese companies have invested a total of $175 million in African countries, primarily in oil exploration projects and infrastructure. In 2000, Beijing established the China-Africa Cooperation Forum (CACF) to promote investment and trade with 44 African countries. In some countries, it has even begun to challenge the American influence.

In 2003, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, accompanied by Chinese oil executives, visited several oil-producing Francophone African states, including Algeria and Gabon.

Also, China has been working closely with governments in the Gulf of Guinea as well as with the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo and Niger.

Thus, Francophone Africa as an oil-rich region, occupies a vital place in the energy map of China. China has transformed itself from an importing partner to a production partner in the region. China’s state-owned oil firm Sinopec has signed a production agreement in the oil sector of Cote d’Ivoire, which is one of the prominent oil-rich states in Francophone Africa.

Cote d’Ivoire is the starting point as far as China’s investment in Francophone African “equity oil” is concerned. Following are oil-rich countries like Mauritania, DR Congo, Mali and others. They are the countries in which China has a long history of trade partnership. However, China also finds a co-player in India, which competes and cooperates with it in the pursuit for energy acquisition in Francophone Africa.

India-China Energy Cooperation To gain access and manage control over oil, fierce competition among states and contending oil firms has acquired enhanced significance. The “oil politics” is not only going to shape power and capabilities of the states, but also determine the new pattern of coalitions of power that will emerge in

Comparative Oil Profile of China and India Countries

Proven Reserves

Production

Consumption

Net Exports

Refining Capacity

China

18.3 bb

.62 mn bpd

6.53 mn bpd

2.91 mn bpd

4.65 mn bpd

India

5.4 bb

0.83 mn bpd

2.52 mn bpd

1.68 mn bpd

2.25 mn bpd

(Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government)

42

May-July 2007

A F R I C A

Q U A R T E R L Y

world politics. Both India and China are oil-deficit countries seas oil sources in 2005. Hurt, India began to seek cooperation depending extensively on the acquisition of oil from external with China on energy. India’s ONGC jointed hands with CNPC sources. In their search for energy material, newly emerging and won the bid for Petro-Canada’s stakes in Al-Furat Petroleum supply zones have become meeting grounds for the two coun- Company in Syria by 2005-end. At the core of Sino-Indian enertries. Both are entrenching themselves as major Asian players gy partnership is the proposal for OVL and CNPC to place joints to undertake trans-nationalised process of exploration, pro- bids in Third World. Thus, Indian and Chinese oil firms are comduction and transportation of oil. The nature of interaction peting and collaborating with each other while beginning their that emerges between two countries in overseas oil fields is that operations in different oil fields. In 2003, OVL participated in the of “competitive-cooperation”. They compete because both production process at the Greater Nile valley in Sudan, where are located in the extended demand side of the present world CNPC was already a co-producer. Here, OVL held 25 per cent oil regime, and they cooperate because they are relatively new share, while CNPC has 40 percent. Further, in December 2005, players of the globalised world energy regime, where the U.S., both companies successfully bought the al-Furat oil fields in Syria Japan and the the West European powers are already existing and, at present, are reportedly working for an acquisition in dominant players of the demand zone.

Russia’s Udmurtia Republic. China’s State-owned oil-firm Thus, competitive-cooperation is the contour of engage- Sinopec entered into a production agreement in the oil sector of ment between India and China in the oil sector, while both Cote d’Ivoire. In December 2004, India’s OVL, Oil India Limited operate under the wider process of so-called globalisation of oil. (OIL) and China’s Sinopec signed a pact for the production proIndia-China energy partnership is based on the readiness of ject in Block CI-112 off the western coast of Cote d’Ivoire. The both countries to proactively secure the energy sources by percentages of stakes of the three oil firms are 21.15, 10.35 and investing in the oilfields abroad 27, respectively. This is the first Stake Holders in the Block CI-112 African deepwater exploration — in Africa, Central Asia and the Middle East. India and venture for all three StateName of the company Participating Interest China took a key step towards owned firms. Recently, OVL 30% enhanced energy cooperation Vanco Cote d’ Ivoire Ltd and SIPC (a subsidiary of by creating a framework Sinopec) jointly acquired SINOPEC 27% whereby their State-owned oil Colombian Oil Assets, 21.15% and gas companies can evolve OVL Omimex de Colombia Ltd. and submit joint bids for acquifrom Texas-based Omimex OIL 10.35% sition of assets in Third World.

Resources Inc. In fact, India and 5% Besides the umbrella of an Petroci China have emerged as overall memorandum of formidable competitors to the (Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government) understanding signed by industrialised West and Japan.

India’s Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas Mani Shankar Aiyar and China’s National Development and Reforms Conclusion Commission Chairman Ma Kai, five company-specific MoUs were signed to begin the process of cooperation inoperaIn the era of globalisation, the process of exploration, productionalising. India showed its readiness to extend and receive tion and transportation of crude has been globalised. Both the partnership with China in upstream exploration and produc- demand and supply zones of the world oil regime have also been tion as well as downstream activities such as refining and petro- diversified. On the demand side, countries like China and India chemicals, marketing of petro-products, transmission and city have emerged as formidable competitors to the industrialised distribution of gas, and laying of national and trans-national West and Japan, and on the supply side Francophone African energy pipelines. Among the MoUs signed was one between countries, along with Central Asian countries, have emerged as ONGC Videsh Ltd and the China National Petroleum an alternative to the traditional supply zone of West Asia. The 9/11 Corporation for timely exchange of information. Once Indian terrorist attacks made oil-seeking countries move their supply and Chinese companies join hands, there will be no targets lines away from West Asia, and bring them closer to alternative beyond them. oil surplus regions. Bigger West Asian oil fields were also cornered Analysts say cooperation would give India and China negoti- years ago by the Western oil giants. That left India and China ating muscle. In fact, energy cooperation between India and China scrambling for oil fields in Francophone West Africa, Caspian Sea is a ‘natural’ outcome of their fast-growing trade and increasing and Central Asia. political cooperation. Among regions identified by India and Thus, New Delhi and Beijing have to unite to push forward China for testing out a coordinated energy strategy are Africa, a new phase in their energy diplomacy, as both set out to quench Central Asia, Latin America and the Middle East, where the two, their increasing thirst for oil and gas fields abroad. Further, the rather than hunting individually, are working on pacts between prospects of the Sino-Indian energy cooperation could pave the their governments and among their companies to jointly pursue way for the creation of an Asian energy market with major geopooil and gas fields. This is an implication of India's interest in litical consequences for the Western oil giants. Indeed, Sinostrengthening cooperation with China in the energy sector. India Indian partnership in oil and gas could well serve as the foundalost biddings to its Chinese competitor CNPC for some over- tion for an Asian Energy Union.

May-July 2007

43

F O C U S

O N

B U S I N E S S

Trade puts Indo-M Mauritian relations on a NEW HIGH Rashmi Kapoor on the need for reinventing age-old ties between India and Mauritius in tune with new currents of economic globalisation.

“The commerce between India and Africa will be of ideas and services, not of manufactured goods against raw materials after the fashion of western exploiters.”

— Mahatma Gandhi

importance, India is engaging with the countries of Africa for mutual growth and development. Both the regions are trying to overcome the debilitating effects of resource impoverishment, sluggish growth and denial of broad legal rights imposed by the legacy of colonialism, racial discrimination and ecohis paper is an inquiry into the nature nomic exploitation. Saddled with these ubiquitous problems and substance of current Indo- and hoping to find pragmatic solutions, India and Africa have Mauritian relations. More specifical- tried to construct a relationship on the twin pillars of peace and ly, it is an attempt to answer whether development. Both perceive a need to march together to the India and Mauritius are resolutely tune of geo-economics. The age-old political goodwill and amity moving towards politico-diplomatic, between India and Africa has now been extended to economic military and economic engagement advancement in Africa. It has been facilitated by complemenwith a new perspective. In brief, are tarities of resources of both the regions (Kapoor 2006:56). we truly witnessing a shedding of The past few years have seen sustained high-level Indian India’s role as an ‘elder brother’ towards becoming equal part- interaction with the countries of the African continent. The ners in the development process? special priority attached to the region Mauritius is an island country of with which our ties have been timePassing from the rhetoric of common spiritual and cultural heritage to Africa. Though a microstate, it is tested was underlined by the visit of becoming economic partners has of great importance for India due Indian Prime Minister Manmohan provided new opportunities as well as Singh in 2005 to Namibia, South to its strategic position and challenges to both. India and Africa and Mauritius.

Mauritius need to prepare to meet The foreign policies of India and historical ties. The ties between these challenges and avail of the countries of Africa are a reflection India and Mauritius have evolved opportunities for mutual benefit. of these sentiments. India’s Africa and adapted to changing times. policy in the post-Cold War era After an overview of the historical context and elaborating on the main appears revolve around five mantras The 18th-century supplier of characteristics of Indo-Mauritian — promoting economic cooperaslaves, India became a relations, this paper argues that tion, engaging the people of Indian India’s relationship with Mauritius facilitator of indentured labour to origin, preventing and combating has clearly shown signs of change and terrorism, preserving peace and Mauritius in the 19th century. new orientations. In a changing assisting the African defence forces world environment characterised by globalisation, Indo- so as to promote faster and more inclusive environmentally Mauritian relations are no longer determined by cultural, sustainable growth (Beri 2003). diplomatic and geo-political factors but predominantly by ecoMauritius, although a microstate, is of great importance nomic considerations. for India due to its strategic position and historical ties. The Asia may become the new hegemon1, spurred by impres- ties between India and Mauritius evolved and adapted with sive industrial and economic growth (Leigh 2006:14). The changing times. A supplier of slaves in the 18th century, recent trajectories of China and India suggest strongly that India soon became a facilitator of indentured labour to these states will play a more powerful role in the world in the Mauritius in the 19th century. Progeny of Indian indentured coming decades (Berlin 2006). India’s better economic poli- labour to Mauritius helped establish a sustained inseparable cies and a diplomacy emphasising realism assures India’s ascent bond between India and Mauritius. These bonds were fur(Huang and Khanna 2003; Bendersky 2004; Prestowitz et al. ther reinforced by the personal ties between the Indian lead2004; Cohen 2001; Nayar and Paul 2003; C. Raja Mohan ers and the leaders of Mauritian liberation movements in the 2003). Taking advantage of its strong position and enhanced twentieth century.

T

44

May-July 2007

A F R I C A The close political and cultural ties continued and strengthened after the independence of both the countries. To a great extent it can be attributed to persons of Indian origin who constitute two-thirds of Mauritian population. It is important to emphasise that Mauritius is often said to be an extension of India, ‘a Mini India’, outside India. A new meaning of the idea of the geographical reach of a country is emerging as it extends its borders imaginatively to accommodate a diaspora and create virtual communities bonded by common origin (Sharma 2007). Thus, India is no longer geo-politically contained in South Asia as it was during the Cold War period (Berlin 2006).

Bilateral ties are in the process of reinvention as the world of today is generically different from the times when Mauritius and India were reeling under the yoke of colonial domination.

The change of relations must be viewed in the context of globalisation and specially against the backdrop of India’s emergence as a major global power.

Globalisation can be understood as “the multiplicity of linkages and interconnections between the states and societies which make up the modern world system” (McGrew and Lewis 1995:23 ). Globalisation is not a new sentiment.

During the 1990s, perestroika (economic liberalisation) and glasnost (political democratisation) gave a big push to globalisation and more specifically to economic globalisation.

These forces favoured the creation of a unipolar world order politically, but an economically interdependent world forming a world wide web. The Cold War system was characterised by one overarching feature: division symbolised by a single word — the wall. The globalisation system is different. It does have one overarching feature: integration, characterised by a single word — the web (Friedman 1999:8 ).

The global economy matured as there was enough movement of goods and information from continent to continent to create a global market, and global arbitrage in products and labour (Sharma 2007:9). No country of the world could remain immune to these massive changes.

India began opening up its markets to foreign competition only in the 1990s. Large-scale trade liberalisation and investment openness became one of the key issues of the economic reforms carried out in India since then (Kong & Sakthivel, 2004). It was in consonance with the structural adjustment programme being carried out across the globe. India’s global brand image moved from a poor impoverished nation with out-dated socialist ideas and a Victorian bureaucracy to one of a tech-savvy, globalised 21st century intellectual power (Gupta 2006). India’s domestic-led developments, which is widely considered to be sustainable, is spawning several globally competitive firms (Khanna & Huang 2003).

Mauritius also embarked on a process of reform and diversification of its economy. It moved from being a mono crop sugar economy to one exporting manufactured products. It adopted a market-oriented development strategy promoting trade liberalisation in the 1980s and pulled in foreign direct investment (FDI) to build export processing zones. In the 1990s it further consolidated its tourism industry and diversified into information, communication and computer technologies. It has revised its investment and fiscal incentive pro-

Q U A R T E R L Y

grammes to attract further FDI in an attempt to shift from labour intensive, low technology industries to skills and capital-intensive industries (Rubeinnstein & Eaker 1999). Its success in this area can be attributed to a combination of factors, including attractive foreign investment incentives, stable political and macroeconomic climate, a business-friendly environment with highly supportive bureaucrats and low levels of corruption, entitlement to international protectionism agreements, and a supply of versatile, highly literate and multilingual labour (Boojihawon). But more importantly, one key element has been its ability to be responsive to the demands of the global economy. More distinct has been its effectiveness in adapting to global changes, relying mostly on its entrepreneurial instincts while penetrating into economic areas promising viable growth and development (ibid).

Globalisation has not come without new challenges. The continuous pressure exerted by developed states on developing states in the World Trade Organisation has forced them to open their markets to foreign companies while giving the latter equal footing with local ones (Ackbarally 2007). This has lead to a decline in the preferential margins of Mauritius on its traditional markets and has exposed the economy to the global competition (WTO Trade Policy Review Body: Mauritius-2001). For Mauritius, the dismantlement of MultiFiber Agreement on clothing and textiles that gave Mauritian items preferential access to the EU and U.S. markets was another shock. Recent reforms of the EU sugar regime to cut sugar prices by 36 percent are another set back (ibid).

The other constraints faced by the manufacturing industry in Mauritius were the rapid growth of real wages in comparison with the rate of production, failing competitiveness of Mauritian exports and erosion of the comparative advantages in terms of labour intensive activities. Besides, diversification was limited on account of a narrow resource base and a small domestic market. Its remoteness and insularity from major markets further impeded the development of Mauritius (ibid).

In an interview, Mauritius Prime Minister Dr Navinchandra Ramgoolam emphasised that these challenges have resulted in shift of emphasis from diversification of economy within Mauritius’ own economic space in the past to expanding economic space beyond its frontiers.

Outward investment has thus become a prominent aspect of investment policy. Also, Mauritius realised that India’s growth paradigm, although different from the other Asian giants is more suitable to the Mauritian system. These reasons inspired Mauritius to take advantage of India’s competitive edge in economy and knowledge to bolster its economic interests. The challenges of globalisation for India and Mauritius provided both the countries with an opportunity to engage in mutually beneficial economic cooperation (collective self reliance, in the words of Julius K. Nyerere)2 whereby were able to use their complementary strengths to achieve common goals of building prosperous and self-reliant societies.

In the new economic world order, Mauritius’ links with India must look beyond the triumvirate3 — colonialism, culture and curry to gaining technology, training and trade as engines for fortifying the existing ties.

May-July 2007

45

F O C U S

O N

B U S I N E S S

TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND MAURITIUS (2000-06) US$ Million S.No

YEAR 2000-2001

2001-2002

2002-2003

2003-2004

199.75

162.91

164.36

203.02

2004-2005 2005-2006

EXPORTS TO MAURITIUS 1

% Growth

2.

India’s Total Export

3.

% Groth

4.

% Share

NA

-18.44

0.89

23.52

44,560.29

43,826.73

52,719.43

63,842.97

258.20

199.43

27.18

22.76

83,535.94 103,090.54

NA

-1.65

20.29

21.10

30.85

23.41

0.45

0.37

0.31

0.32

0.31

0.19

6.17

3.26

16.13

7.14

7.19

7.33

-4.73

2.02

IMPORT FROM MAURITIUS 1.

% Growth

2.

India’s Total Import

3.

% Growth

4.

% Share

NA

-47.15

394.58

-53.26

50,536.46

51,413.29

61,412.13

78,149.61

NA

17.4

19.45

27.25

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.01

205.92

166.17

180.50

210.57

111,517.44 149,165.73 42.70

33.76

0.01 Negligible

TOTAL TRADE WITH MAURITIUS 1.

% Growth

2.

India’s Total Trade

3.

%Growth

4.

% Share

265.38

206.77

26.03

-22.09

NA

-19.30

8.62

16.66

95,09

95,240.01

114,131.56

141,992.58

0.15

19.84

24.41

37.37

29.33

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.14

0.08

195,053.38 252,256.27

BALANCE OF TRADE Exchange Rate: (1U.S.$ Rs.)

+193.58 45.6844

+195.48 159.69

148.23

47.3953

45.9513

+192.10 251.01

44.2735

44.9315

Source: Compiled From the Data of the Government of India, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Department of Commerce (3/5/2007)

It must be emphasised that a large population of Indian origin in Mauritius has consistently provided the underpinning for the development of Indo-Mauritian ties. Indo-Mauritians never had a total or a complete break from their Indian roots (Kapoor 2004). This fact creates an inimitable bridge between India and Mauritius (ibid).

Promoting Economic Cooperation It was one of the key aims of India to consolidate strong economic ties with Mauritius and use its relative economic strength for the development of Mauritius on a mutually beneficial basis4 (Dubey 1990:37). The sub-continent for the last 20 years has positioned itself as one of the major economic and commercial partners of Mauritius. India engaged Mauritius through technical assistance, training, trade and FDI. The economic interaction was extended beyond trading to investment flows, joint ventures, projects and consultancy services. India stands out as a major supplier to Mauritius, in consumer goods as well as heavy machinery. Apart from these, India also tops the list of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) sources for Mauritius in sectors as diverse as consumer goods, pharmaceuticals, textiles, petroleum product distribution, banking and information and communication technologies, outpacing the UK and France on the list. India offers a more

46

balanced blend of technical know-how and financial assistance (Bhujun 2007).

Technical Assistance India has been extending technical assistance to Mauritius under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme initiated in 1964 and the Special Commonwealth Africa Assistance Plan (Beri 2003). This involves training (civil and military); projects and project-related assistance such as supply of equipment, consultancy services and feasibility studies; deputation of experts; and study visits of senior officials/decision makers to India (ibid). The fastest growing segment of ITEC has been consultancy and project assistance. This involves preparation of feasibility studies, project reports, setting up pilot projects and research centres in the agricultural sector, etc (ibid).

Trade Despite the long history of trade with Mauritius, India remained a small trading partner for years in the pre-liberalisation era. At that time India was one of the largest agricultural producers while Mauritius was the largest importer of agricultural goods. Still India’s share in the export of agri-

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cultural goods to Mauritius was very low (Ranjan 1998). India- alising trade in goods and services and to facilitate joint venMauritius trade could not match the level of the political and tures. This was on top of the existing Double Taxation cultural ties despite historical trade links due to the shortage Avoidance Agreement5 between the two countries (Tribune News Service). The FTA may also bind the region in a bond of foreign currency and infrastructural under-development.

After liberalisation, India’s competitiveness in both labour of free trade agreements that will include countries like Sri intensive sectors and in capital intensive products lines has Lanka, Mauritius and Singapore further bringing mutual ecoreduced its dependence on trade with industrialised countries. nomic benefits to these countries (ibid). A Bilateral It has opened more opportunities of trade with other devel- Investment Promotion Treaty and a Double Taxation oping countries like Mauritius. On account of compelling cul- Agreement enabled India to get a massive foreign direct tural affiliations and an underlying political will, India made investment inflow — a total of Rs 38,024 crore during the special efforts to enlarge areas of economic cooperation with past 13 years from Mauritius (ibid). The Double Tax Mauritius. In the 1980s and 1990s both the countries gave Avoidance Treaty that links the two countries has provided several incentives to each other to promote trade relations. both Indian and foreign investors to use Mauritius as a conBesides, the Mauritian market is at a stage of development duit to channel investment in India (Bhujun 2007).

The trade data between India and Mauritius is still not very where Indian products might offer the most appropriate price impressive as compared to India’s total volume of trade. The data to quality ratio (The Hindustan Times 2002).

The next phase of growth in Indo-Mauritian trade occurred for the period 2000-06 shows great fluctuations in both exports with the change in the attitude of Indian government when it and imports. Indian exports to Mauritius have always far exceeded imports from offered 20 years tax Mauritius. Exports treaty, additional to Mauritius, howlanding rights, conever, showed a great version of revolvdip during the periing funds and speod 2001-02. Imports cial incentives to from Mauritius persons of Indian were never large origin in Mauritius but a substantial (Ranjan 1998). increase can be seen Another big during the same boost resulted period (2002-03) when Mauritius when exports to diversified its econMauritius dipped. omy by developing The balance of linkages with local trade has always business services so Mauritian Prime Minister Navinchandra Ramgoolam (second from left), with (from left) Vestas RRB Indian Ltd Managing Director Rakesh Bakshi, ASSOCHAM President been positive, in as to position itself Anil K. Agarwal; and Lupin Ltd President (Corporate) Harish Narula, at a meeting favour of India. as a regional tradwith Indian businessmen in New Delhi on October 24, 2005.

The signing of ing centre (Ranjan 1998:13). The legislative and regulatory framework for off- the Comprehensive Economic Co-operation and Partnership shore and free market activities was initiated in 1992. The Agreement (CECPA)6 between India and Mauritius will mark objective was to continue industrialisation, modernisation and a turning point in bilateral trade relationship. It will open the diversification of the economy by creating an environment for door for free exchange of goods and services while increasing ‘flexible specialisation’, albeit by maintaining a pragmatic capital flows. This multi-pronged instrument comprises a approach towards adopting policies (Mauritius: Country Free-Preferential Trade Agreement between the two countries, and also numerous other tools to promote investment Report 1991:25).

From the mid-1990s, organisations like the Confederation and facilitate trade in goods and services as well as help techof Indian Industries (CII), the Associated Chambers of nology diffusion (Bhujun. 2007). The CECPA will facilitate Commerce and Industry (ASSOCHAM), the Federation of a closer interaction of both economies and will also facilitate Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the exploration of opportunities in third countries to a qualitatively Federation of Indian Exporters’ Organisation (FIEO) after higher level and a consolidation of strategic partnership with identifying Mauritius as one of the thrust areas in Africa, Mauritius (Singh 2005). This will help provide India with a launched programmes to promote economic and business beachhead or entrepot for other African countries.

In the area of industry, India has tried to promote Mauritian cooperation (Beri. 2003). These chambers have also entered self-reliance through the transfer of intermediate technology into a slew of joint business agreements with Mauritius.

In recent years, India in a bid to intensify its economic rela- with a Triple ‘A’ Tag: appropriate, adaptable and affordable tions with Mauritius, signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) (Ministry of External Affairs Report:133). India is willing to in 2005. The agreement is aimed at strengthening economic carry out a joint survey and joint exploitation of EEZ of cooperation between the two countries. It was aimed at liber- Mauritius to explore the existence of hydrocarbon reserves.

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Indian Exports To Mauritius

Imports From Mauritius

India tops the list of FDI sources for Mauritius in sectors as diverse as pharmaceuticals, textile, petroleum, products, banking and information technologies, outpacing the UK and France (Indo-Mauritius Joint Statement. 2005).

Another new sector indispensable to the growth and prosperity of Mauritius is information technology. It will help Mauritius diversify its economy. The cyber tower at Ibene and Vivekananda Centre are a symbol of cooperation between two countries. It will fulfill Mauritius’ vision of making information and communication technology (ICT) the fifth pillar of the economy and will provide a forward looking orientation to economic ties.

This has come with a realisation that India's growth has been powered by knowledge sector.

Power of knowledge and culture is tremendous. Joseph Nye7 calls it ‘soft power’. India could achieve the outcomes it wanted in the global scenario because other countries wanted to follow this new paradigm of power. Alvin Toffler (1990:156) while discussing three main kinds of power — violence, wealth and knowledge asserts that knowledge can be used negatively or positively but most importantly transformatively.

India’s knowledge sector is progressing by leaps and bounds

by using the power of knowledge to harness favourable outcomes from adverse situations. Many countries have shown an eagerness to replicate the Indian experience. Mauritius wants to emulate this paradigm of power to accelerate the process of diversification of its economy.

India is setting up a centre of excellence in Mauritius to help it transform into a knowledge hub in the fields of medicine, engineering and IT. India is committed to capacity building and development of human resource in Mauritius for which it has raised the training slots to 75 under the ITEC programme (Indo-Mauritius Joint Statement. 2005).

Foreign Direct Investment Liberalisation and opening up of the economy since 1990s has made India an attractive destination for foreign investments even as many Indian firms have started to invest abroad on a very large scale. FDI8 is central to India’s integration into global production chains, which involves production by MNCs spread across the world (Economic Survey 20034:143). To increase India’s growth rate and facilitate technological progress, the Indian government has liberalised FDI in

Top Ten Investing Countries in India, According To FDI Inflows 1991-2005 ($ Billion) Country Cumulative Mauritius USA The Netherlands Japan UK Germany Singapore France S. Korea Switzerland Total FDI Inflows

Aug 1991March 2002 6.632 3.188 0.986 1.299 1.106 0.908 0.515 0.492 0.594 0.325 23.829

2002-03 0.788 0.319 0.176 0.412 0.340 0.144 0.038 0.112 0.039 0.093 3.134

2003-04 0.567 0.360 0.489 0.078 0.167 0.081 0.037 0.038 0.024 0.045 2.634

2004-05 1.127 0.668 0.267 0.126 0.101 0.145 0.184 0.117 0.035 0.077 3.754

2005-06 1.760 0.356 0.068 0.098 0.196 0.052 0.164 0.008 0.057 0.064 3.348

Inflows 10.874 4.891 1.986 2.013 1.91 1.33 0.938 0.767 0.749 0.604 36.704

Source: Reserve Bank of India, 2006 February

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India’s Foreign Collaborations with Mauritius Pre-liberalisation Years Nos.

1992 -

0

1993 8

1994 8

Post-liberalisation 1995 1996 1997 71 95 141

1998 101

1999 146

2000 205

Total 775

Source: Prof. Krishan Kumar: Foreign Collaborations in India: A Study of Patterns in the Pre and Post-liberalisation Era. P5.

almost all areas, up to 100 percent equity (Shah 2005). Most Indian FDI is going to developing countries due to geographical, economic and social proximity and also due to the need for securing Indian natural resources, including industrial, energy and agricultural assets (Hay 2006:16).

FDI started flowing into India particularly in the post1990s era. From 1991-01, only five countries — USA, UK, Mauritius, South Korea and Japan — accounted for a major share of total FDI in India (Kong & Sakthivel 2004:29). From just 5 percent during 1991-96, Mauritius’ share increased to 15 percent in 1997-01 (ibid). According to data for 1991-2006, Mauritius is the biggest source of FDI for India. Mauritius has been the main investor with 30 percent of the total inward FDI, followed by the U.S. contributing about 13 percent of total inward FDI , Japan (5.5 percent), the Netherlands (5.4 percent), United Kingdom (5.2 percent), Germany (3.6 percent), Singapore (2.6 percent), France (2.1 percent), then South Korea and Switzerland.

Ten countries account for 86.1 percent of approved Indian FDI abroad since 1996 (Hay 2006:16). Mauritius with 8 percent ranks third after Russia and USA. This special relation of India with Mauritius may be attributed to the strong Indian diaspora in Mauritius and also with some round tripping9 investments and financial transfers. Most of the investment credited to Mauritius is actually from American companies seeking to take advantage of its lower withholding taxes or exemptions on payments of royalties, dividends, technical service fees, interest on loans and capital gains by Indian joint venture companies under the terms of the DTTA between India and Mauritius (Gale 2006).

In the pre-liberalisation era, India did not have any foreign collaboration with Mauritius. But in the post-liberalisation period, the foreign collaborations of India and Mauritius swelled to 205. NRIs have engaged in a big way in the postliberalisation era (Kumar:6). India entered into collaborations with Mauritius for reasons other than importing technology to build an industrial base or bridge the technological gaps — it wanted to offer a greater variety of choice in products and services to the customers (ibid). This is the major paradigm shift in the post-liberalisation period. In terms of collaborations in India, Mauritius is the seventh largest country following USA, Germany, Britain, Japan and Netherlands. If Indian collaborations by value are seen then Mauritius ranks second with 15 percent share in foreign equity after USA with 25 percent equity shares (ibid).

Peace and Security India is strategically located vis-a-vis both continental Asia

and Indian Ocean Region (Ministry of Defence, Annual Report 2004-5). This fact is of crucial importance for India’s security as “most of the conflicts since the end of the Cold War have also taken place in and around the Indian Ocean region” (Prakash 2005). The potential role of external powers in the Indian Ocean region is cause for some anxiety. There is an increasing tendency of extra-regional powers to resort to military interventions in Indian Ocean littoral countries to contain what they see as a conflict situation (Berlin 2006).

Organised crimes, human and drug trafficking, environmental degradation, refugee flow, illegal immigrants and poverty constitute non-military threats to security in the Indian Ocean region (Porter 1997).

Moreover, India is dependent on foreign oil for 70 percent of its total consumption. Energy security for India is a primary a strategic concern and so it has to protect its offshore oil and gas fields in the Indian Ocean (Berlin 2006). Besides, India’s giant step on the path to an outward looking economy has prompted a fresh look at the region. The region’s prospects for sustained economic growth rates, the shift towards a more open economy, coupled with a large middle class market makes it increasingly attractive (Porter 1997). Substantial nontrade intra-regional linkages in the form of FDI, technical collaborations, franchising, joint ventures and other forms of strategic alliances are facilitated by Indian Ocean region (ibid).

India and Mauritius have shared a common concern to support the Indian Ocean zone for peace and have regularly voiced objections to the U.S. base on Diego Garcia (Prasad 2000:193). In 1971, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution calling for the Indian Ocean to be declared a “Zone of Peace”. Though Bowman (1991:150) believes that Mauritian support for the Indian Ocean “Zone of Peace” was really more rhetoric than reality given its cordial with the superpowers and cordial relations with France.

It remains an awkward point in Indo-Mauritian relations as it was Mauritius, through its ceding of the Chagos Archipelago to Britain, which gave the U.S. military an access to the Indian Ocean region (ibid).

Now the Indian government has discarded its traditional rhetoric about the Indian Ocean as a “Zone of Peace” (Berlin 2006). Gupta (2006) believes that India by and large accepts the structure and order of the international system and only wants to improve its own power potential and status within it. India wants world peace and freedom as that is critical to its internal development and national security objectives... and India naturally wants to have a say in world affairs” (ibid).

To increase its influence in the region, India advocates a gradual integration of the countries of the region. Towards that India is forging a web of partnerships with certain littoral

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states and major external powers in the region and is acquiring more “strategic space” and “strategic autonomy” and is creating a safety cushion for itself (Porter 1997). She seeks to advance a broad economic and security interests with these countries. Regional organisations can help in promoting both.

This new regionalism is guided by principles of free trade and competition and is market driven and outward looking10 (Rao 2001). They establish economic dialogue and cooperation with objectives of improving market access through trade liberalisation and the facilitation of freer and enhanced flows of goods, services and investments in the region. At the same time it may address the issues of poverty and unemployment and so has the potential to reduce non-military security threats (Porter 1997).

A hostile power dominating the Indian Ocean could be harmful to trade and security for both Mauritius and India (Appadorai & Rajan 1985:10). To counter the influence of hostile powers in the Indian Ocean region, strong ties between India and Mauritius are of considerable importance and their participation in constructing strong regional ties is even more crucial.

Assisting the Mauritian Defence Forces India’s link with Mauritius is also deepening in the area of defence cooperation. Owing to its circumscribed size, Mauritius is unable to maintain a complete defence system. Its internal security is maintained by their police force. But for external security it does not have sufficient manpower or resources and neither does it have a military training institute.

They are not in a position to challenge external forces operating in the area. This compels them to depend upon outside powers for security (Mohanty 2000:191).

Indian military diplomacy includes a continuing programme of surveillance of the Mauritius’ exclusive economic zone since mid-2003 (Ministry of External Affairs Report).

In 2005 India reiterated its commitment to defence, security and sovereignty of Mauritius (Singh 2005). India has promised to supply defence equipment needed to strengthen its naval and air surveillance capabilities. Besides these India has agreed to supply to Mauritius an advanced light helicopter, an offshore petrol vessel and a coastal surveillance radar system to strengthen its security forces (The Hindu 3/11/05).

Indian officers are also imparting military training to Mauritian defence personnel (Beri 2003). The training covers fields such as security and strategic studies, defence management, artillery, electronics, mechanical, marine and aeronautical engineering, anti-marine warfare, logistics management and qualitative assurance services (ibid). During the period 1990-91 to 2000-2001, officers and JCOs from Mauritius were provided training by the Indian Army under the ITEC program. India has supplied patrol crafts (SDB Mk-2 type) to Mauritius (ibid).

Indian Naval ships make regular visits to the Mauritian shores and an MoU has been signed by which the Indian Navy will undertake a survey of the coastal areas of Mauritius (Hindustan Times 28/20/05). The Indian naval ship Savitri

50

visited Mauritius in 2004. The visit of the ship was a reaffirmation of India’s commitment to provide Mauritius with defence assistance, particularly in training personnel and for the surveillance of the vast Mauritian Exclusive Economic Zone (Alam 2004). INS Savitri meets Mauritian interests as it has a wide ranging role to secure the national maritime interests of Mauritius (ibid).

Alam (2004) hopes that maritime cooperation will deepen in the coming years along with diversification and expansion of the other shared interests and goals that both nations have, ranging from increased trade and business investments through the CECPA to cultural interaction following the establishment of the Mahatma Gandhi Institute, Upadhaya Training Centre, World Hindi Secretariat and the Rajiv Gandhi Science Centre in the Mauritian capital.

Engaging the People of Indian Origin Mauritius has been strongly influenced by and has strong affection for British and French institutions and cultures — perhaps a hangover of the colonial past. But India is far more important for her as the majority of the population of Mauritius is of Indian origin (Bowman 1991:148). The people of Indian origin in Mauritius have a composite personality. They combine the spirit of the Indian culture, the essence of western culture and the soul of a Mauritian — a real nationalist Mauritian (Kapoor 2004). This unique element of ‘Indianess’ in Indo-Mauritians acts as an energiser of cultural relations between India and Mauritius. A major share of India’s financial aid to Mauritius has been apportioned for supporting cultural ties. Economics and politics are important but the significance of educational and cultural linkages cannot be undermined as they provide fertile fields for positive interaction in forming cooperation and harmony (Sharma 2007).

Cultural associations provide forums for people-to-people interaction and hence can be the most potent vehicle for exchanging ideas and values. Cultural and educational diplomacy in India has been promoted by the Indian Council of Cultural Relations.

It involves the task of bringing Mauritius closer to the people of India through greater bilateral interaction between the two regions at all levels — school, college and university.

Internally, it increases popularity of African studies in our country (Beri 2003).

Active cultural exchanges with Mauritius have taken place both under officially sponsored programmes and through a wide non-official network of numerous socio-cultural organisations of Indo-Mauritians, engaged in the task of keeping Indian culture and languages alive. Within and outside the cultural exchange programme, regular exchange of artists and cultural troupes take place between the two countries.

Promotion of Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Marathi and Urdu is also taken up (Ministry of External Affairs 2005). The government of India is trying to harness cultural affiliations to engage the people of Indian origin (PIO) in Mauritius to help bolster economic ties between the two countries in the postCold War era (Beri 2003).

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economic partnerships are most vibrant (ibid). There is tremendous potential in this region for exports and setting up businesses in Africa. India is eyeing this opportunity in Africa Mauritius is one of the few countries in the world to have through Mauritius.

The India-Mauritius-Africa trade route seems to hold passed a tough anti-terrorism law, which considers even ‘moral support’ to terrorism as a crime (Ministry of External Affairs interesting prospects. Mauritius is not perceived as hostile for 2005). Manmohan Singh and the then prime minister of business as it has a mix of advantages for foreign investors: a Mauritius Paul Raymond Berenger signed a bilateral agreement democracy, a finance hub where investments are protected and relating to international terrorism and security on good port facilities (Sant 2007). So Mauritius can be used as a March 31, 2005 at Port Louis, Mauritius. The agreement stated stepping-stone into Africa. Mauritius is seen as a success story that Mauritius and India have long recognised the threat posed to by both African and Indian businessmen (Darga 2007). international peace and security by the spread of international Mauritians have a better knowledge of the African terrain, the people and have some existing frameworks for cooperation that terrorism, both by non-state actors as well as sponsoring states.

The agreement envisages the creation of a Joint Working can aid Indian ventures in Africa. Mauritius can help them Group (JWG) to oversee bilateral cooperation in fighting inter- identify promising sectors and find lucrative business oppornational terrorism and associated threats. As per the agreement, tunities. Despite many opportunities, Africa is an unknown the signatory countries will seek to identify international link- territory for a vast majority of Indian investors while in some ages between groups responsible for perpetrating, supporting, countries Indian businessmen suffer from a negative percepfunding or sponsoring terrorist activities, particularly against tion of being shrewd and uncompromising bosses and partMauritius or India (Ministry of External Affairs 2005). ners (Sansepeur 2007).

All major Indian companies who want to invest in Africa are Mauritius and India will cooperate with each other by carrying already operating in Mauritius. Africa out investigations, arrests, deportaMauritius is not perceived as can benefit from having these compations, extraditions and prosecution of hostile for business as it has a nies on hand in Mauritius so as to start identified terrorist suspects (ibid). having a more meaningful and develThe JWG will explore the means to mix of advantages for foreign prevent the flow of funds to terrorist investors: a democracy, a finance oped economic relationship with India (Ranarivelo 2007). Also, networks, especially through nonhub where investments are Mauritian businessmen represent the banking channels, and will also seek to deny access of terrorist groups to protected, and good port facilities perfect combination of African and Indian cultures and European manarms, explosives or radioactive subso Mauritius can be used as a ners. Mauritians therefore bridge the stances (ICWA, Foreign Affairs stepping-stone into Africa. cultural gap and naturally act as a culReports 2005). tural facilitator between Indians and The joint statement issued at the conclusion of the state visit to India of Mauritius Prime Africans (Darga 2007).

Bhujun (2007) feels that Mauritius has since early 2000 Minister Navinchadra Ramgoolam in October 2005 reasserted the earlier sentiment that Mauritius and India condemns gathered new experience in the field of power generation. The the scourge of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and Centrale Thermique de Belle Vue in the northern region of reaffirms their total engagement in the fight against terrorism the country generates electricity by burning bagasse.

Mauritians have now sufficient experience to enable them to under the aegis of the United Nations. run or even set up such power plants in African countries where a huge quantity of biomass is available either from sugar India-Mauritius-Africa Trade Route cane or corn crops. They might not be bringing capital, but The strategic position of Mauritius makes it an intermedi- they can share expertise in setting up a joint venture with ate destination for all major Indian companies who want to Indian partners. “Mauritius thus offers the interface and the invest in Africa. Mauritius has the means to act as a link knowledge of the market whilst India might bring in the between Africa and India in domains like agriculture and food investment” (ibid).

Mauritius is a famous tourist destination promising beauprocessing, education, infrastructure development, information and communication technology (ICT) and small and tiful beaches and a well-developed tourist infrastructure — an area in which Indians can learn a thing or two from them. medium enterprises.

Mauritius belongs to two strong and developing African Indian investors are seeking opportunities to invest in such regional blocks: the Common Market for Eastern and areas in Africa. Mauritian partners can assist India in designSouthern Africa (COMESA) and the Southern African ing hotels and daily management whilst Indian partners bring Development Community (SADC). Within the COMESA, funds to invest in Africa.

Joint collaborations between India and Mauritius will be set Mauritius already has very strong economic and commercial links (Bhujun 2007). Mauritius’ position in SADC is even up to sell or produce goods and services for African soil. In view more crucial. Mauritius sees SADC as the regional organisa- of its core competencies, strategic location and trade agreetion that best serves its economic interest and within which ments at multilateral and regional levels, Mauritius could serve Preventing and Combating Terrorism

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as a hub for Indian investors for the Mauritian market while Indo-Mauritian Relations - A New Orientation facilitating access to other markets through regional economic blocs, such as (COMESA and SADC) as well as the India and Mauritius are rapidly integrating their economies.

European and the U.S. markets through Contonou The enhanced links between them imply deep geo-political, Agreement and the AGOA11. economic and cultural ramifications. The Mauritian aspiration Bhujun (2007) asserts that Mauritius will not benefit to be first African ‘tiger’ economy and India’s enormous size in terms of job creation. But this should be balanced by and sizzling economy with emerging megamarkets and micro greater revenues that will be derived when investment customers have brought about a massive change in mutual perflows and business ideas are channelled through Mauritian ception of each other. Earlier the extent of dependence on the firms before landing in the final African destinations. The North was substantial and the potential of other developing Indian textile exporters may take advantage of the opportuni- countries remained relatively untapped. These realities did ty to export goods to the U.S. not encourage diversification of without restrictions, through the economy or trading partners. But African Growth and the contemporary geopolitical Opportunities Act (AGOA), nature of their economies comsigned in 2000 (Beri 2003). pelled both the countries to leverMauritius is one of the 17 counage their strengths for global tries of Africa which has qualiadvantages. They became aware fied for exporting to the U.S. of the need to further diversify through AGOA. from the traditional growth Put together, cultural affiliaengines of the U.S. and other tions, security concerns and developed countries to trading economic cooperation form the with the countries of the South. tripod on which IndiaThis has translated the ideals of Mauritius ties rest. collective self-reliance into realiEarlier, it was cultural ties ty, enabling India and Mauritius between Mauritius and India that to engage in bilateral and even in mostly drove bilateral ties trilateral ties for mutual benefits. between the two countries (Haer India is not just competing 2007). Shyam Saran, a former globally but is going out and Indian foreign secretary, has said acquiring companies abroad. that the new Indian diplomacy Today the mantra is “seek on the island has passed from the beyond your borders” in areas stage of celebrating the common where one has a competitive cultural heritage to achieving advantage. India’s myriad advaneconomic ambitions. tages include a sturdy manufacEconomic cooperation can, turing base, cheap and skilled A 2005 file photo of Mauritius Prime Minister, Dr Navinchandra however, only be achieved if labour force and a well-develRamgoolam, with his wife Veena Ramgoolam, in Shimla. He the Indian Ocean Region mainwas in India to promote tourism between the two countries. oped ICT sector. Resilience and tains peace and security. stability of its political and other Mauritius is geographically a part of Africa, culturally affiliat- institutions and harmony between its decentralised economed to India and emotionally dependent on Europe. This three- ic and political arrangements also have contributed to India’s pronged split personality of Mauritius makes it inclined to competitive strength. These factors have enabled growing these regions differently. numbers of international companies to choose India as a globEurope and the U.S. have shown an intense interest al manufacturing and outsourcing hub. in Mauritius due to its strategic location, even providing Benefits to Mauritius are significant as the trade opportupreferential treatment so as to gain leverage in the Indian Ocean nities with India provide it with a huge market which is growregion. Their presence in the region may escalate tension and so ing rapidly due to its expanding middle class. The highly develneeds to be checked. oped information and technology sector can help Mauritius Security is one of the most compelling factors for India to sus- diversify its economy and improve its economic growth. tain a strong alliance with Mauritius and contain outside Besides, India can provide Mauritius an access to regions such powers. Thus the ties between the two countries make perfect as the Gulf, SAARC and CIS with which India has economgeo-strategic sense as it will advance both economic and ic ties. Also, there is a growing body of literature suggesting that security interests. But the significant fact is that both India India’s economic structure is largely complementary (service and Mauritius recognise that their development can only be oriented) to Mauritian economy (light manufacturing) with promoted through economic cooperation that subsumes significant areas of mutual gain. The range of existing comsound political, security, cultural and social ties. plementariness between Mauritius and India is substantial but

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has still not been fully exploited. The CECPA will provide the resource in hospitality sector (Soni 2006). Medical tourism is groundwork for a significant expansion and intensification of proving to be an important avenue of cooperation. More foreconomic ties. Earlier, Indian companies mostly grabbed big- eign investment from Mauritius is being channelised into the ger chunks of existing markets or looked for markets for off- infrastructure sector, electrical equipment, telecommunicashoring, or designed market strategies centered around big tions, fuels, cement and gypsum products and in financial and cities. Now businesses are focusing on market development non-financial services sectors (Kumar 2006). India is an attracand creating demand for their products in newer areas, often tive destination for foreign capital in general but is a promising reducing the centrality of major cities. market for asset management in particular (Wilder 2005).

Indian and Mauritian markets are at a very early stage of The result of these initiatives has been reinvention, enrichdevelopment. Both the countries are trying to provide con- ment and buttressing of an old relationship where economic cessions on goods of bilateral interest through the Preferential ties are going to play an increasingly predominant role. A cruTrade Agreement while increasing the frequency of business cial element in consolidating and sustaining this emerging interactions so as to enhance trade. Enterprises in both the economic relationship would be to set up mutually beneficial countries are leveraging their strengths together in order to tap targets and operationalise already signed agreements. Also it is the huge business process offshore (BPO) markets abroad, imperative to share current information and address percepparticularly the French BPO market. tion gaps and mindsets that are dampening the tempo and The very competitive economy of Mauritius can provide scope for economic cooperation between India and Mauritius.

India with beachheads for new businesses and an entrepot for Traditional economic and commercial ties are to be strengthother countries of Africa. Acknowledging this strength of ened and newer areas of joint collaborations explored.

Mauritius, India has pursued the mantra of ‘projecting Mauritius as an investment hub for Indian firms’. Indian com- Conclusion panies are identifying and occupying beachheads for early success for deeper penetration of the Mauritian market and to India’s Mauritius policy shows both change and continuserve as a launch pad for the African market. For example, ity. The earlier era of shared struggle against colonialism and Arvind Mills Ltd., set up a joint venture company with common cultural links has now been reinforced and bolstered Mauritius based Ganesha Ltd. (Mukherjee 2003). Through by a new pragmatism and a subtle realisation of new chalthe latter, Arvind Mills entered the lenges facing India and Mauritius.

In an ever-changing world Mauritian market. It has adopted the The synergies between the two sides Mauritian route for export and are mutually reinforcing. Mauritius is environment characterised by import of readymade apparels. De the emerging market for Indian globalisation, the Indo-Mauritian products and enterprises. For Beers Centenary, an arm of the diarelations are no longer mond conglomerate has set up a joint Mauritius, India is an example of venture with Hindustan Diamond how democracy and development determined by diplomatic, Co. to invest in the prospecting and can fuse harmoniously. There is now geo-political or socio-cultural mining of diamonds in India (Business a greater mutual understanding of factors but are largely spurred interlinkages between economy, Line). The Mauritius-based Indian Seed Holding Ltd., (ISHL), has security and strategic interests. There by new economic realities. bought the already established are hopeful signs that economic Hindustan Lever Ltd. (HLL) seed imperatives are gradually becoming business in India, by using the companies’ customer segment much more important in driving relations as India is experias beachheads that gave them an operational base and broad- encing robust economic growth and Mauritius is determined ened its marketing efforts to include local wholesale customers to diversify both its economy and trading partners. in their retail chains.

The gradual strengthening of the Mauritius economy has Trade in services between the two countries is exploring stirred India into shedding its role of ‘elder brother’ to that of newer areas such as telecommunications, constructions and closer economic engagement and parity of status with this related businesses, which have shown great potential. The two Indian Ocean country. Advantageous strategic position, hiscountries are also exploring ways to lower barriers to the move- torical linkages and nature’s endowments have given ments of business, people and professionals and to encourage Mauritius a new confidence to enter into a relationship with Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRAs) on regulatory and India as an equal partner in the development process. other certification mechanisms, including professional qualiStressing on trade instead of aid or assistance and the change fications (CECPA Annual Report. 2004-5:103-4). There are in the direction of trade towards other developing countries recommendations of setting up of campuses by the Indian expresses Mauritius’ determination to take advantage of an educational institutions in Mauritius to serve Mauritius and increasingly globalised economy. the regional markets of Africa.

Hence, in a changing world environment, the IndoIndia and Mauritius are exploring investment opportunities Mauritian relations are no longer determined by diplomatic, in the area of tourism infrastructure, expertise for the preser- geo-political or socio-cultural factors but are largely spurred vation of heritage buildings and the development of human by new economic realities.

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B U S I N E S S End Notes

1. James Leigh (2006) believes that it portends a new world order in which the U.S. fades out and Asia as a conglomerate, consisting mainly of Russia, China, Japan and India, may vie for supremacy with the other looming superpower of Europe, and the PanArab-Islamic civilisation.

2. Castro, Fidel. 1983. The World Economic & Social Crisis, Reports to the Seventh Summit Conference of Non-Aligned Countries, p. 211- 216. It is in this background that a widely shared view has been emerging that the Third World countries should co-operate among themselves for mutual benefit (‘collective self-reliance’ in the words of J.K. Nyerere) and to avoid exploitation by the developed countries and the multinational corporations supported by them.

3. Rao Inderjeet Singh. 2006. “India and Africa Ready to Embrace Global Destiny”. This is in fact the new triumvirate of technology, trade and training that underpins the architecture of IndiaAfrica relationship and has given a new resonance to South-South cooperation.

4. Dubey, Ajay Kumar. 1990. p.37. It was recommended that strong economic bonds among the countries of South be created and consolidated while making use of India’s relative economic strength for the development of these countries on mutually beneficial basis.

5. DTAAs are generally expected to fulfill the following objectives: Facilitate investment and trade flow, prevent discrimination between taxpayers, provide fiscal certainty to cross border transactions and contribute to attainment of national development goals.

6. Bhujun, R. 2007. The CECPA, whilst being a powerful bilateral instrument to enhance trade and economic ties between the two countries, is also an inventive collaborative effort which will ultimately make Mauritius the ideal step-stone for India to Africa economic route. It will provide India with a beachhead or entrepot for other African countries.

7. Joseph Nye. 1990. Soft power is the exercise of power through attraction, convincing or co-opting rather than through coercion or payments p.190-95.

8. FDI means investment in the physical assets rather than financial assets and its long term investment plan (Shah. 2005). FDI is thought to be growth enhancing mainly through the capital and technological know-how that it brings into the recipient country.

9. Choudhury, G. (2007). “Round tripping” or “treaty shopping” refers to routing of investment by a resident of one country through another country back to his own country.

Indian entities are moving money out of the country and then getting it back into India through what is known as GBC1 companies incorporated in Mauritius, in the process gaining from capital gains exemptions available for companies based there.

10. Rao, R.V(ed.). (2001). Rao believes that the earlier regional cooperation associations were inward looking. Regional co-operation was chosen by the post-colonial developing countries as a strategy to overcome their dependence on the developed west. Their objective was both political autonomy and economic self-sufficiency. New Regionalism, on the other hand, is guided by the principles of free trade and competition. The more recent associations are therefore market driven and outward looking. Contemporary regionalism is not antithetical to globalisation whereas its earlier variants were. Unlike the cold war regional groups, which were drawn along geographical lines, new regionalism is transcending geographical boundaries.

11. Nnadozie, E. (2004). Nnadozie says that the Africa Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA) spells out U.S. policy towards Africa. The AGOA authorises the U.S. government to pursue a foreign policy that seeks to promote stable and sustainable economic growth and development in Africa through trade, investment, debt reduction, technical assistance and infrastructure development.

Although not purely a trade bill, the AGOA greatly emphasises trade in a way that portrays the policy as being fundamentally and uniquely trade-oriented and designed to promote a trade-led African development policy.

References Ackbarally, N. 2007. Economy-Mauritius: Globalisation “Gobbles Up the Plankton.”

IPS/GIN www.globalinfo.org/eng/reader.asp?ArticleId=48305 — 15k.

Agreement signed between India and Mauritius during the visit of Dr. Manmohan Singh in Mauritius. 2005. Ministry of External Affairs. New Delhi.

Alam, M. B. 2004. “India and Mauritius: Maritime Cooperation on the Upswing”. Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. New Delhi.

Appadorai, J. & Rajan, M.S. 1985. India’s Foreign Policy and Relations. New Delhi:South Asian Publishers.

Beri, R. 2003 “India’s Africa Policy in the Post-Cold War Era: An Assessment” in Strategic Analysis. Vol.27. No.2.

Bhujun, R. 2007. “Triangular Cooperation Mauritius-IndiaAfrica: The Mauritian perspective”. L’Express. Bilaterals. Org.

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Boojihawon, D.K. “Globalisation and Entrepreneurship in Developing Countries: Mauritius: An Agenda for Study”.

Marketing and Strategy Research Unit. Open University Business School. Open University. Milton Keynes. http://www.business.ulster.ac.uk/research/intlbusiness/ConfC D/Papers/138FinalPaper.pdf.

Bowman, L.W. 1991. Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean. London: Westview Press.

Darga, A. 2007. in Bhujun, R. “Triangular Cooperation Mauritius-India-Africa: The Mauritian perspective”. L’Express.

Bilaterals. Org. Donald, L.B. 2006. “India in the Indian Ocean.” Naval War College Review. Vil.59. No.2.

Dubey, Ajay Kumar. 1990. Indo-African Relations in the PostNehru Era (1965-1985). Delhi: Kalinga Publications

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A F R I C A Duk Ahm Kong & S. Sakthivel. 2004. “A Study on Foreign Investment in India Since 1990s”. International Area Review.

Vol. 7. NO. 2.

Economic Survey, 2003-4. website:http://indiabudget.nic.in.

P.143.

Friedman, T. 1999. The Lexus of Olive Tree: Undertanding Globalisation. New York: Anchor Books. P.8.

Government of India, Annual Report, 1999-2000. 2000.

Ministry of External Affairs; New Delhi. P. 97-98.

Gupta, Amit. 2006. “India’s Soft Power” in Indian Foreign Affairs Journal. Vol.1. No. 1. P.45-57.

Haer, P.S. 2007. in Bhujun, R. “Triangular Cooperation Mauritius-India-Africa: The Mauritian perspective”. L’Express.

Bilaterals. Org. Hay, F. 2006. “FDI and Globalisation in India.” Paper presented at the international conference on ‘The Indian economy in the era of financial globalisation.’ at Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. Paris. 28-29 September 2006.

Hindustan Times. 2005. New Delhi. 28/10/2005.

Huang, Y & Khanna. T. 2003. “ Can India Overtake China?”

Foreign Policy (July-August 2003). P.74-80.

ICWA, Foreign Affairs Report. 2005. New Delhi. Vol. 4. Nos 4-6. P.1 India and Africa: Partners in Peace and Progress. External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, www.meaindia.nic.in.

Indo-Mauritius Joint Statement on conclusion of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh’s state visit to Mauritius. 2005.

Port Louis.

Kapoor, R. 2004. “Social Mobility and the Caste System of Indo-Mauritians.” Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of Delhi. Delhi - 110007.

Kapoor, R. 2004. “India and Africa Development Partners.”

Paper presented in the National Seminar on ‘India and Africa: Emerging Scenarios’ held on 21st December 2005 by the Centre for African Studies, Department of African Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi - 110007.

Kong, D.A. and Sakthivel, S. 2004 “A Study on Foreign Investment in India Since 1990s”. in International Area Review.

Vol.7. No. 2. P.21-40.

Kumar, Krishna “Foreign Collaborations In India: A Study of Patterns in the Pre and the Post- liberalisation Era”. Indian Institute of Management. Lucknow, India.

Leigh, J. 2006. “Post-Globalisation: The Asian Superpower in the Making.” In World Affairs. Vol.10. No.2. P.14-34.

“Mauritius”: Country Report. 1991. Washington D.C. P.25.

Mbaku, J.M. & Saxena,S.C. (eds.). 2004. Africa at the Crossroads: Between Regionalism and Globalisation.

Westport, CT: Praeger.

Ministry of Defense, Annual Report 2004-2005 (New Delhi: n.d.). available at mod.nic.in/reports/welcomw.html.

Mohanty, H. 2000. West Indian Ocean Island: Strategic Dimensions of Regional Co-operation. Delhi: Kalinga Publications. New Delhi. P.97-8.

Nnadozie, E. 2004. “Africa at the Crossroads of Globalisation.” in Mbaku, J.M. & Saxena,S.C. (eds.). Africa at the Crossroads: Between Regionalism and Globalisation. Westport, CT:

Q U A R T E R L Y

Praeger.

Nye, Joseph. 1990. Bound To Lead the Changing Nature of American Power. New York: Basic Books Inc. P.190-5.

Porter, I.W. 1997. “The Indian Ocean Rim.” African Security Review. Vol.6. No.6.

Prakash, A. 2005. “Submarine Building Capability Is a Void, Which We Hope to Address,” in Force: The Complete Newsmagazine of National Security, 8 August 2005.

Prasad,S. 2000. India and Mauritius: Relationship of Two Countries. Delhi: Chanakya Publication.

Ranarivelo, B. 2007. in Bhujun, R. “Triangular Co-operation Mauritius-India-Africa: The Mauritian Perspective.”

L’Express.

Bilaterals. Org .

Ranganathan, K.V.K “Indian Joint Ventures Abroad.” http://isidev.ni.in/jvafnl.pdf Ranjan, N. 1998. Indo-Mauritius Economic Relations: 19811995. unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation, CWAAS/SIS/Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi.

Rouse. R. 2002. “Mexican Migration and the Social Space of Postmodernism” in J.X.Inda and R.Rosaldo. (eds.). The Anthropology of Globalisation. USA: Blackwell Publishers Inc. P.157.

Rubeinstein, F. & Eaker, M. 1999. “Mauritius: Can an African Tiger Change its Stripes”. University of Virginia, Darden School Foundation Charlottesville, VA..

Sanspeur, G. 2007. in Bhujun, R. “Triangular Co-operation Mauritius-India-Africa: The Mauritian Perspective.”

L’Express. Bilaterals. Org. Sant, R. 2007. in Bhujun, R. “Triangular Co-operation Mauritius-India-Africa: The Mauritian Perspective.”

L’Express. Bilaterals. Org. Shah, S. 2005. “Trade Dominates Foreign Policy in India”.

Mumbai: Grant Thorton. www.GrantThorton.ca Sharma, K.A. 2007. “India’s External Relations: Role of Education Sector.” Unpublished Report. New Delhi.

Singh, M. 2005. Press Conference by Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh in Mauritius.

Soni, A. 2006. “India and Mauritius to Take Up Joint Marketing on Tourism Destination.” Press Information Bureau - India. 14/2/06. IndiaPRwire.com Stockholm Institute of Peace Research database on arms transfers at http:// first.sipri.org/index.php?page=step3&compact=true The Hindu. 2005. Internet Edition. 3/11/2005.

Thomas Gale. 2006. “India’s Foreign Investment.’

Encyclopedia of the Nations: Asia and Oceania: India Toffler, Alvin. 1990. Powershift: Knowledge, wealth and Violence at the edge of the 21st Century. New York, Toronto: Bantam Books. P.15-6.

Tribune News Service. 2005. “ India to Sign Free Trade Agreement with Mauritius.” Bilaterals.org.

Wilder, B. 2005. “Asset Management Joint Venture in India.”

Press Release. Nikko Asset Management Co. Ltd. Ambit RSM Private Limited. Tokyo. 14/12/2005.

WTO Trade Policy Review Body: Mauritius-2001.

Switzerland.

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Dahej in India and LOBOLA in Zambia Kamini Krishna makes a comparative study of the emergence and social consequences of the dowry system prevalent in India and the Zambian practice of lobola.

D

ahej” is the Hindi word for dowry. The custom has been prevalent in India for ages and refers to the money, goods or estate that in most cases a wife brings to her husband during or before marriage. Lobola (bride price) is a similar practice observed in Zambia but, unlike in dowry, it is always the groom’s family that pays up. Much criticised, the practice is random in Asia as well as Africa. But surprisingly, in both continents — where people of different ethnic groups live together with the custom — it would be wrong to say that such payments guarantee a more secure married life sans conflict, grumbling and violence that are otherwise associated with the institution.

Dowry Traditionally, in the mostly monogamous societies of Europe and Asia, this custom has been practised in the form of dowry and could be considered as the bride’s share of the family inheritance.

According to the Indian ‘Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961’, dowry means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given –– either directly or indirectly — by one party to the other party; or by the parents of either party; or by any other person to either party or to any other person.1 Until the early 20th century, it was common for European families to hire lawyers to draw up formal contracts specifying dowry details. The North

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American tradition of the “hope chest” is synonymous with dowry. In recent times, however, modern women do not like the concept of the “hope chest” — usually stuffed with clothes, silver and linen — tucked away in anticipation of her marriage.

In this age-old tradition, the bride’s mother displays her wedding gifts in the “hope chest’. The custom is dying out in North America.

A majority of the Indian families still support arranged marriages although the concept of “love marriages” also manages to find a home. Love marriages are uncommon because most families do not approve of it. To many people raised in the West, this might sound odd but in arranged marriages brides and grooms come under close scrutiny in several areas — courtesy their in-laws. Generally, a wedding is not settled completely unless the price for the groom is fixed in keeping with his qualifications, looks and family background. Negotiations involve family members and other middlemen. Annoyingly, anything that comes as dowry is non-refundable in case the marriage breaks up. This may be because Indian society was unaware of the concept of divorce until recently.

Bride Price Bride price is most common among polygamous, small-scale, patrilineal societies, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and Native America. It is believed that it is actually a way of showing respect for the bride and her parents. At the same time, it is a sort of compensation to the bride’s family for the loss of her economic services.

Very importantly, it is a way of validating the groom’s right to future offspring. In some societies, children are not considered legitimate if their father has not paid the bride price.

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Women use donkeys to transport water south of Wajir, in Kenya, where food shortages caused by drought threaten millions. Many young rural Africans are forced to postpone marriage as the loss of cattle affects their ability to raise a dowry.

All over the world, Islamic socipractice is called “yuinokin”. This All over the world, Islamic eties follow a system called “maher”, system does not clearly fit the usual which is in line with the bride price. definition of dowry or bride price as societies follow a system “Maher” is fixed by the bride’s famcalled ‘maher’ which is fixed by the Japanese have fused both systems. ily and is negotiable and can be paid When a couple becomes engaged, the bride’s family and is in instalments. The amount is excluparents from both sides formally sively handed over to the bride, and exchange betrothal gifts, thereby negotiable and can be paid in her parents do not have to spend that reinforcing the marital bond between instalments. The amount is money on her wedding. According to the families rather than just the exclusively handed over to the young couple. It is well understood Islamic law, a man marries a woman but a woman does not marry a man, that the gifts, whether in cash or in bride, and her parents do not and hence women have no right to kind, are used to establish a househave to spend that money divorce. At times, women who are hold for the newly wedded couple. on her wedding. However, not getting along well with their husUsually, the first gift comes from the bands can persuade them to agree to groom’s family and the bride’s famiIslamic law does not give a divorce on the condition that she ly merely adds to it. women the right to divorce. return the “maher”.

The parents of marriageable girls in Emergence of Dahej in India Saudi Arabia, in a way, advertise the availability of their daughIn India, arranged marriages are still very common. ters for marriage by hoisting flags in front of their homes. This is conspicuously done to attract prospective grooms to their Normally, if men and women choose their partners themdoorsteps. Most of the time, good-quality and well-advertised selves it is not received well.

Though traditional practices have today taken a bit of a merchandises fetch hefty prices. Conversely, the inferior ones modern shape, there is still need for a lot of the earlier pracfetch unsatisfactory prices.2 Certain societies often compel the groom, who fails to afford tices, including the approval of the family. a bride price due to material wealth constraints, to render The practice of offering dowry (dahej) is said to have its ori“bride service” instead. Here, the groom agrees to work for his gin in a system called “streedhan” — woman’s share in parental in-laws for a set period of time, which may extend to years. wealth. It is believed that in the early days an Indian woman This practice is common among the Yanomami and other had no right to inherit any share of the ancestral property and low-land forest people of South America. “streedhan” was seen as a way by which the family ensured that she had access to some of its wealth. During the Vedic period Betrothal Money (1500–500 BCE), references have been found to the concept of “kanyadan” (gifting of the daughter).3 It has been established Japanese society has its own, but similar, tradition which that the system of dowry was practised even before the Vedic involves the exchange of gifts between the two families. The period by almost every community. Some scholars argue that

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during the early days, the practice of dowry was found only spread among other ethnic groups in Zambia. among the upper-caste and wealthy families, but as time passed it influenced the lower castes too. According Dowry Demand and its Consequences in India to Dharmashastra (a term given to numerous ancient Indian law books), the meritorious act of “kanyadan” is incomIn India, the demand for dowry by the groom’s family is a plete till the groom is given a “dakshina”, mostly in cash. reality even in the 21st century. Although dowry (both giving According to Hindu mythology, any kind of “dan” (gift) is and taking) was legally prohibited in 1961, it continues to be incomplete unless it is supplemented by dakshina (another highly institutionalised. The bridgroom’s family often demands form of gift). a dowry consisting of a large sum of money, furniture, elecInitially, the dakshina was offered out of affection which did tronics, gold and diamonds among other articles. not entail any kind of compulsion or consideration for the There is no denying that Indian women have made conmarriage. The reference to a gift to the groom also appears in siderable progress in the last 50 years, but they still have to one of the oldest epics of India, Ramcharitmanas (translated struggle against many hiccups and social evils in a male-domversion of the Ramayana written in 300 BC)4, where Lord inated society. Several question always come up regarding Rama was offered various possessions by his father-in-law dowry. What happens to dowry? Who owns it, and does it go during his wedding with Sita.5 Taking it at face value, one can to the new home for the newly married couple? The answers say without hesitation that dowry is part of their (Indian) cul- to such questions cannot be straight. The cash and material for ture.6 There are quite a few stories on dowry in Hindu the dowry can be, and mostly is, used and absorbed by the fammythology, and it is interesting to know that the system, which ily members of the groom’s family. Usually, gold and has now taken a turn for the worse in diamonds remain with the bride.

Indian society, was initially a volun- The dowry problem has assumed This, however, depends on the famtary practice. Gradually, the volunily. The cash is often used by the a dangerous form in India. The tary element disappeared and coerreceiving family for business purposparents of girls have to pay cion crept in. It is clear that the gift, es, family members’ education, and thousands, and sometimes initially offered to a groom out of some times given to the husband’s parental affection, is now called sister. millions in cash to the grooms “dahej”. What was originally intendIn some cases, the transaction of and their greedy parents. When dowry does not end with the actual ed to be a token gift for the groom has the dowry amount is not now been blown out of proportion wedding ceremony as the family of and the issue has found deep roots in the bride is expected to continue givconsidered sufficient or is not Indian society.7 ing gifts on different occasions. forthcoming, the bride is often The dowry problem has assumed a harassed, abused and made to Emergence of Lobola in Zambia dangerous form in India. The parents feel miserable. There are quite a of girls have to pay thousands, and In Zambia, a man must pay the sometimes millions in cash to the few incidences when women bride’s parents a lobola before a cougrooms and their greedy parents. When have even been murdered in ple can marry. The amount is usualthe dowry amount is not considered ly paid in the form of cattle, cash, or sufficient or is not forthcoming, the suspicious circumstances. both. Men and women can choose bride is often harassed, abused and their own partners, but parental conmade to feel miserable. If promised sent is a must. For want of of written records, it is difficult to articles are not given by the parents of the bride, cruel and greedy trace its origin. Chondoka argues that lobola is not a bride members of the groom’s family do not hesitate to take the law into price, but that it is a kind of token of gratitude by the groom’s their own hands and torture the bride. There are quite a few family for the marriage expenses.8 He further argues that tra- instances when women have even been murdered in suspicious ditionally no parents fixed a price for their daughters. circumstances. Official records of these incidents are misleading According to Phiri, most of the tribes in Zambia trace their as they are often reported as accidents or suicides. Every year, there origin to the Luba Lunda diaspora.9 And because their ances- has been an increase in dowry-related deaths, which are undoubtly tors come from the same area, they are likely to practise a sim- heinous crimes committed by cruel and inhuman people. ilar culture.10 Every tribal group did practise some form of Due to the prevalence of the dowry system, many families, lobola, but the coming of the Ngonis from the South — dur- mainly from the middle-classes, do not rejoice at the birth of ing the Mfecane — changed the pattern. a baby girl. The birth of a daughter becomes a nightmare for When the Ngonis extended their area of occupation the parents as she brings along the burden of accumulating to Malawi and Eastern Zambia, they also influenced the dowry for her. Medical science has helped such families by native tribes. making it possible to know the sex of a child while it is still in Ngoni-speaking people transferred cattle, maloolo (lobola) the mother’s womb. This facility of knowing the sex of an to the bride’s family at the time of the wedding, which depend- unborn baby has been abused by some Indian families. ed on the status of the girl’s family. This system gradually Unborn baby girls are not allowed to come into this world by

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A 21-year-old Indian bride caused quite a stir when she stood up and said ‘no’ to the man she was about to marry and his huge dowry demands. Nisha’s father was stockpiling gifts for the groom’s family — washing machines, two home theatre systems, and even a luxury car. When the groom demanded an additional $25,000 on the wedding day, Nisha’s father refused. When Nisha heard of the demand, she did the unthinkable in India. She called the police and had the man she was about to marry arrested. Nisha’s bravery helped women across India take a stand, and more and more women are saying ‘no’ to dowry marriages.

the termination of the fetus. This act of forced termination risks the life of mothers too. As they fail to raise a handsome sum as dowry, many educated and beautiful women fail to get grooms and remain unmarried for life. At times, an educated, young and beautiful girl gets married to an aged, less educated, disabled and unsuitable man just because her parents fail to accumulate enough dowry for a suitable match.

There are many cases where a groom’s family only concentrates on getting enough dowry for their educated, handsome son while undermining the importance of finding an ideal match. Thus, an educated and handsome man may end up being married to an illiterate woman. Such couples usually lead miserable lives and their marriages often break down.

Divorce, which was uncommon in Indian society, is now something you hear of frequently.

However, returning of the dowry never comes into the picture. The bride’s family cannot even force the groom’s family to return the dowry because the practice has been outlawed and both parties face punishment in case they seek legal help.

Also, thinking of remarriage may mean monetary gain for a man as he can expect another round of “dahej” from his new wife. But what about remarriage for a woman? This would again involve dowry for her next wedding. Her parents may even have to pay more the second time.

Lobola and its Consequences in Zambia Until the beginning of the 19th century, most of the Zambian population was agriculture-based, and such tribal hierarchy formed the basis of heritage.11 As is known, before a couple can marry, the man has to pay the bride’s parents lobola. The amount is normally paid in the form of cattle, cash, or

both. Traditionally, different tribes have had different modes of payment depending on their economic activities. For example, cattle among the Tonga, Ila and Ngoni, and cloth or farm implements among the Bemba. Here it can be argued that payment of cattle as lobola was certainly adopted from the Ngonis who invaded the eastern part of Zambia in 1930. The Ngoni social aristocracy most clearly demonstrated that they had a distinctive common culture which was found both in kingdoms and in the secession states.12 In reality, lobola was an element in the social organisation of society. Researches have revealed that marriage payments carry different meanings. They serve the function of binding two families together and also giving certain rights to both parties. This meaning was well understood in traditional society where the payment of lobola secured the position of married women.

In many above-mentioned cases, the purpose has been defeated, as the man — due to his paying of lobola — has claimed the rights to his wife’s labour and the fruits of her labour. It also endorses male dominance in marriage and results in ownership of the wife by her husband. A woman loses all her rights and becomes a legal minor in the custody of her husband.

In most of the tribal groups in Zambia, a woman loses her basic rights to claim her own children if she fails to maintain her married life. This happens due to the same lobola that was paid by her husband. It’s always that the husband becomes the real owner of the siblings. It can be said in another way that lobola is the power to show that a man has ownership over the children.

According to Margaret Read, the children of a lobola marriage contract in Ngoni society belonged to their father and

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could be claimed by him It appears that the payif the marriage broke up, ment of lobola has lost its or on the death of their original intention and mother.13 A similar sysbeauty. Unlike now, men tem exists among the did not claim that since Tonga tribe where they had purchased the men argue that the women they owned child belongs to the them. The practice was father since he has paid made the basis of claiming for the mother.14 Among certain rights and priviLozis of the Western leges, but is instead being Province, the loboba can used to justify the ill-treatbe claimed back if the ment of wives. wedding breaks within a year or two.

Thoughts on Getting Rid of Again, like in other Dowry and Lobola Zambian societies, children always belong to How can India and their father except when Zambia get rid of the they are too young to live insult and exploitation of without the mother or women because of dahej are being breastfed. The and lobola, respectively? same baby can be claimed The Indian Dowry by the father at an Prohibition Act, 1961, appropriate time.There (amended in 1984 and Bhausaheb Bhawar of Jalna district in Maharashtra, India, is out to destroy are 73 tribes in Zambia 1986) prohibits the evil the social evil of dowry on two wheels. Bhawar has requested school and it is not possible practice.16 It would be and college principals for permission to address students and has campaigned against dowry in many states. wrong to say that the to highlight the lobola Government of India took practices of each of them.

The Hindu Code Bill has very long to introduce the Bill as cerThis paper has just cited few tribal tain provincial governments enacted societies as we know that, in Zambia, empowered women with the dowry laws. Sind enacted ‘Sind Deti almost all tribes practise similar traright to property. Now, the status Leti Act’ in 1939, Bihar passed ‘The ditional activities.

It can be said that such traditional of a son and a daughter is equal Bihar Dowry Restraint Act’ in 1950 and ‘The Andhra Pradesh Dowry practices reinforce the inferior status in a family and the girls are Prohibition Act’ came into force in of women. It is also a form of a man’s entitled to an equal share of 1958. However, all the enactments control over a woman to a point their parents’ property. Indian failed to achieve their objective. After where the woman’s body habituates as her husband’s property. There are women have also been granted all these efforts by the state governments, the practice of dowry still some cases where lobola has been asked to be refunded as in the event a special right to divorce. Hence, continues. Though both parties do both men and women in India not acknowledge it for fear of punof a divorce. This causes a lot of difishment under the law, it has now ficulties for the woman as she is have the right to divorce. been realised that such practices canoften forced to stay in marriage just not be prevented by law alone. Both because her kin are unable to return the lobola payments, or for the fear of being castigated by her families involved have to play an important role.

The Hindu Code Bill, under the Hindu succession Act of family.15 It proves that such payments render a woman’s status worthless as she is regarded as her husband’s property.

1956, has empowered women with the right to property. Now, Besides, the system makes men abuse their wives as they the status of a son and a daughter is equal in a family and the know that even if they divorce their wives the children would girls are entitled to an equal share of their parents’ property. be theirs. It is hard to accept that the children would stay with Indian women have also been granted a special right to divorce. the father when they belong to the couple. Children who go Hence, both men and women in India have the right to divorce. through such situations not only miss their mothers but also Hence, in India, both men and women have the right to experience psychological setbacks. To separate a child from his divorce. But passing and implementing a law is one thing and its mother is an act of cruelty. In many cases, a child — whether a absorption in the collective thinking of society is quite a differboy or a girl — needs the mother more than he or she needs the ent ball game altogether. In order to prove themselves equal to father. They are certainly closer to their mother. the dignity of status accorded to them in the Indian

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Constitution, women have to shake off the shackles of slavery behind men abusing their wives. It is high time Zambian and superstitions. There could be different ways to stop such women went against being paid for by men like commodities, inhuman treatment of women in India. For example, both thus commanding full rights over their children. Girls of marwomen and men should be allowed to choose their own part- riageable age should be educated enough and be made aware ners (commonly classified as love marriage in India) keeping a of their rights. They should be kept away from believing in certain cultural dignity. Another measure can be to encourage unnecessary myths regarding marriage. Since the payment of inter-caste marriages. Though the above two ways of getting lobola has lost its original intention, why not maintain good married are being practised in Indian society, it has been accept- things from the traditional practices and avoid those which ed to some extent only by people of the higher classes. prove a hindrance to a dynamic and developing society?

We have to remember that most of the dowry cases involve middle-class Indian families. It has been realised that the deep- Conclusion rooted social evil cannot be eradicated through legislation alone, but it needs to be made aware to the girl through eduThis paper has shown that the payment of “dahej” to a cation. Parents must educate their daughters so she can stand groom in India, or payment of lobola to a bride in Zambia, has on her own feet and fight against the a negative impact on both women Zambia is being modernised, practice. She can prove herself worand children in due course. In either and therefore people must thy and show that she can survive case, “dahej” or labola, the victim is without getting married. Even the accept changes rather than stick always a woman whose position is menfolk must stand against it. neither superior nor equal to that of to the prejudices of traditional Women must show their ability to a man. Certain cultural beliefs, cuspractices. A majority of the earn whatever is expected of them by toms and the socialisation process their families as dowry. have perpetuated gender imbalances. women here are against lobola Those who seek dowry must This is very dangerous for any socias they apprehend it to be the realise that getting something as a gift ety wanting to develop. Both socireason behind men abusing their eties can learn a lesson from some of makes them look low and greedy. If both men and women come togeththe advanced countries like the wives. It is high time Zambian er and stand firm against the practice, United States of America, Canada women went against being paid and those in Europe which practised the day is not far when Indian society for by men like commodities. will be completely free from the evil similar systems but got rid of them practice of dowry. Last but not least, gradually. Following suit, we must the punishment and penalty for also try to eliminate the practice. Though it may a need a social giving and taking dowry should be made very harsh. Also, the revolution and some time, it is certainly not impossible. verdict in dowry-related legal cases must not take very long. Women as brides can show their boldness by refusing to marry This would help society witness the consequences of the evil men who believe in the system of dowry or lobola. Women, deeds being committed in the name of dowry. as mothers-in-law, can also play an important role by refusZambia is being modernised, and therefore people must ing to give and accept anything in the form of dowry. accept changes rather than stick to the prejudices of tradition- Ultimately, the payment should come from both sides, as al practices. A majority of the women here are against the idea happens in Japanese society. This will help maintain gender of being paid lobola because they feel that it is the reason balance, besides protecting her identity.

References 1. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 (Universal Law Publishing Co., Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi:2004) p.3.

2. www.mukto-mona.com/Article Bangladesh by Mohammad Asghar, p.1.

3. K.A. Kunjakkan, F’eminism and Indian Realities’ (Mittal Publication, New Delhi: 2002), p.187.

4. C. Singh and P. Nath, ‘Hinduism’ (Crest Publication House, New Delhi: 1996), p.80.

5. Goswamy Tulsidas, ‘Shri Ramcharitmanas’ ( Gita Press, Gorakhpur), p. 257.

6. S. Butalia, ‘The Gift of a Daughter’ (New Delhi, Penguin Books India: 2002), p. 2.

7. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, p.1.

8. Y.A. Chondoka, ‘Traditional Marriages in Zambia’,

(Ndola Mission Press: 1988), p.15’ 9. B.J. Phiri, ‘A Political History of Zambia, from the Colonial Period to the 3rd Republic’ (Africa World Press Inc. Asmara Eritrea: 2006), p.2.

10. Chondoka, ‘Traditional Marriages in Zambia, p. 158 11. B.J. Phiri, A Political History of Zambia’, p.2’ 12. Margaret Read, ‘The Ngoni of Nyasaland’ (Oxford University Press, London: 1956), p.18.

13. Margaret Read, ‘The Ngoni in Nyasaland’, p.18.

14. Elizabeth Carlson, ‘Marriages and the Family Among the Plateau Tonga of Northern Rhodesia’, (Manchester Uni. Press, 1958), p.228.

15. Women and Law in Southern Africa - Zambia, p.1 16. Dowry Prohibition Act, p.2.

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‘Indian INDIVIDUALITY lost in Kenyan history’ Neera Kapur-Dromson, a fourth-generation Kenyan of Indian origin and author of the book entitled ‘From Jhelum to Tana’, speaks to Manish Chand about the mingling of Indian and Kenyan cultures and languages, and the need for Kenyans to understand Indian culture.

Q: How did you put together this narrative of four generations of your family in Kenya? Were there any written records that helped you write this book?

A: I read many books on and about Kenya — all kinds of books, both historical and narrative. I found little mention of the lives and times of Indians in Kenya. I was a little bothered at first as even in my own family, I did not find any written records. No diaries, with the exception of one or two of my grandmother who started writing late in her life… so I did not have access to immediate firsthand information. However, I talked to a lot of people, especially the older ones who still remember stories narrated to them or what they themselves witnessed.

Some people absolutely refused to part with the information…why talk of old times, they asked me. Let these be buried. With others, information differed each time. However, my mother has been a mine of information. The book then became an absolute priority as I felt that if I don’t do it now, even more will be lost. Amadou Hampate Ba, a very important African writer once wrote, “In Africa when an old man dies, it is as if a library has burnt…” so you can imagine the urgency of the task.

Much of the history written about Kenya was, for a long time, from the Western, mainly the British point of view.

And in these documents, the Indian way of life is quite negligible. Even in memoirs and biographical books, or novels, like those of Karen Blixen (of the ‘Out of Africa’ fame) or Elspeth Huxley, the Indian is shown just as a worker, without family or individuality, an invisible nameless being. The socio-cultural profile had been entirely ignored. That disturbed me. Another good reason for writing this book, I was persuaded. This information gap had

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to be bridged. Fortunately, historians like Dana April Seidenberg and Cynthia Salvadori, socio-political writers like Dharam and Yashpal Ghai, and now writers, journalists and activists like Pheroze Nowrojee, Rasna Warah, Zarina Patel and Zahid Rajan, Salim Lone — all residing in Nairobi — have made contributions to correct our history in Kenya.

However, little has been written about lives of ordinary Indians. That is why I have written a story about simple people living in this part of the diaspora, about their day-to-day lives.

Q: Identity is an important theme in your book. Can you elaborate on what it was for Indians to carve an identity in an alien land?

A: There have been attempts to write about important political figures or personalities like Makhan Singh, a very prominent figure in the trade union movement. But I didn’t want to write about a big political figure. I wanted to talk about daily lives of ordinary Indians living in Kenya, to write about changing patterns in the social and cultural life of the Indian people in Kenya. Above all, I wanted to write about changing identity.

Identity is not a fixed entity; it is never static — beyond the limits of geography, where space and time know no barriers, there identity is cast — in the state of mind. Identity is an ever-evolving process; just like consciousness. In fact, the two are almost intertwined. It is not enough to say that I am of Indian origin or that I am a Kenyan, a woman, married, working, etc. All these are parts or bits of identity, and they evolve with the new experiences in our lives. Even reading a book or listening to a good radio broadcast, or a TV programme can help change thoughts and thus affect one’s identity.

May-July 2007

A F R I C A My own identity has evolved tremendously by writing this book, for example. I have grown by learning about my ancestors’ history. The experiences they went through, what brought them here in the first place, where they came from, what their socio-cultural profiles were, etc. Their language took on words from African languages and vice versa — the Swahili language has many words taken from the Indian languages. Food patterns changed and adapted, as also mannerisms, and to some extent religion.

Communal and caste barriers have always been very strong, but even these have adapted to some extent.

It is important for people to know where and what backgrounds they come from.

Somewhere in my book I have written: My ancestors came from Jhelum to Tana. It took years to understand that I had to make the trip from Tana to Jhelum — a trip in the memory of four generations and three countries. The cycle is now complete. I offer it to the younger generation so that it may realise that a tree whose roots have not dug deep can easily be blown off by the wind — nor will it blossom.

It is equally important to share this history and our changing socio-cultural profiles with Kenyans of African and other origins in order to remove stereotypes and build bridges.

Q: Can you give a brief overview of the history of Indians in Kenya in colonial times? Were they conscious of their political rights?

A: Indians have been going to Africa since perhaps even before 2,000 years. However, so far as the history around the time of the building of the Uganda Railway (as it was then known, around 1880s) is concerned, when the base for the colonial rule was being built, some 32,000 contractual labourers were brought in to work on the rail lines — many from Lahore in the beginning. Many others came on their own, as masons as plumbers, as artisans, etc. They called them ‘coolies’, after the coolies working on the rails in South Africa. Many of these so-called ‘coolies’ left after the construction of the railway was done, many others died due to the dangers and hardships on the building of the rail lines. Most of these early arrivals were very simple people, never ventured out of their small villages. Many were illiterate. They were paid measly salaries, given very little protection to work under the trying conditions of the jungles, of extreme heat, drought, wild animals… you must have heard stories of man-eating lions abounding in the bush and those that ate away several labourers in the camps. They came without wives, without families at first, living in the harshest of conditions.

At first these workers were not at all conscious of any political rights. It took time before they learnt that they were being exploited and that they had to fight for their rights.

My great-grandfather came to Kenya as an adventurer in 1898. Initially he too took up work on the railway, and was also almost taken away by a man-eating lion.

In time, like several other Indians, he too became a ‘dukawallah’ (shop owner). The British didn’t want Indians

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or Africans to have access to the white highlands in the Rift Valley — the richest land in Kenya. Because of this, Indians were forced into laying their hands on other trades like that of clerks, administrators, artisans, plumbers, blacksmiths, etc.

Initially, Kenya, which was then known as British East Africa, was governed from Bombay (now Mumbai) by the British Raj. The laws were those of British India, as were the penal and civil codes, the police systems, the administrative and judiciary systems, the currency, the National Bank of India, etc. It was as if this was another province of India. However, with the arrival of the Boers from South Africa, the new settlers encouraged the rulers to look more towards South African system of governance and rule. A whole system of changes took place during this time, as also the abolition of the rupee.

The second generation of Indians who came later, 1910 onwards, were more educated and some came charged with the politico-conscious climate reigning in India at the time against the British Raj. People like M.A. Desai, Shamsuddeen, A.B. Patel and Justice Channan Singh fought against the colonial rule. They should be known as Freedom Fighters. Others like A.M. Jeevanjee established the East African Indian National Congress. As an editor of ‘The East African Chronicle’ M.A. Desai was an outspoken critic of colonial rule, and especially publicised grievances of the Africans. Others like G. Vidyarthi opened up their printing press for African voices crying for independence and justice in trade union movements, unfair taxes, etc. Also, there was Makhan Singh, a self-proclaimed communist, who founded the Trade Union Movement in Kenya.

Q: What about the politicisation of Africans and Kenyans and their relations with people of Indian origin?

A: The press was a very important medium at the time for politicisation of the people. The Colonial Times, The Daily Chronicle, The Tribune… Those who opened up their presses and papers for the Freedom Struggle were often jailed and had to pay heavy fines. These never deterred them and they always started again.

During the struggle against colonialism, some Indians like M.A. Desai whom I have mentioned above, spoke out openly of the causes of the Africans in their newspapers. He helped them print out leaflets and pamphlets in Swahili. In fact, his office almost became a regular meeting point for African and Indian political activists. Later, G.L. Vidyarthi also opened up his paper, publishing in English, Swahili and other African languages. Vidyarthi was jailed for what was then called ‘seditious’ literature.

Makhan Singh, Eddie Pereira, Pio Pinto, Haroon Ahmed, Pranlal Seth, A.B.Desai and his wife were the ones who put their lives in danger for the cause.

When an underground movement for the Freedom Struggle was formed, known as the Mau Mau, several Indians supported it. Even the newly independent Indian government of Pandit Nehru sympathised with its aims.

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Kenya, Apa Pant, was especially active in this regard.

Diplomatically and financially, he gave full support to the movement. Money, arms and accommodation were given to Mau Mau adherents.

India became the only country to fully support the Mau Mau in the Independence cause. In fact, Senior Chief Koinange made Apa Pant a Kikuyu Elder.

In 1952, Pandit Nehru sent a prominent lawyer and Member of Parliament (MP) Chaman Lall to defend Jomo Kenyatta at the Kapenguria trial. Achroo Ram Kapila, a prominent lawyer in Kenya — along with Denis Pritt, ChamanLal, Fitz DSouza and Jaswant Singh — sided with Jomo Kenyatta during his trial. Jomo Kenyatta was not freed then, but he become the First President of an independent Kenya in 1963. However, soon after independence of Kenya, most of these freedom fighters of Indian origin who were still alive did not to get any political role in the new government and were completely sidelined.

Q: Did Indians face discrimination in Africa?

A: Apartheid in South Africa involved all groups. In Kenya, during the colonial rule, more particularly so during and after the declaration of the so-called Devonshire ‘White Paper’ in 1923, a quasi apartheid system was developed and

started to be implemented to separate Europeans, Asians and Africans to give them different and unequal rights.

Indians were given the role of coolies, babus, traders, dukawallahs, clerks, mechanics, masons, etc. Both the Indians and the Africans were denied access to ownership of land in the best reserved farming lands which later infamously came to be known as the ‘white highlands’. Even residential areas in the capital and other towns were segregated. Schools were segregated… even toilet facilities in public places were segregated, as were hotels, restaurants, clubs, train compartments, etc.

Q: How did India’s independence in 1947 affect Indians in Kenya and Africans in general?

A: The Independence of India was accompanied by the creation of Pakistan. The first consequence was that many Muslims of Indian origin felt sympathetic towards Pakistan, the Hindus, and India. At this time, both the groups were denominated as ‘Asian’. Nowadays this division is less important, and happily I have excellent relationships with both the groups.

Q: Are Indians in Kenya becoming more politicised now?

A: You will find political experts in Kenyans of Indian origin. Remember who was in charge of the Constitutional

EXCERPT: FROM JHELUM TO TANA

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he decision to construct the Uganda Railway was taken in 1895. It was made with Indian knowhow, using Indian materials and labour. Next year, just when the revived Olympic Games were being held in Athens after a gap of several centuries, the British Government of India issued a notification amending the Indian Emigration Act so that Indians could emigrate to East Africa legally. The first batch of 350 Indian coolies arrived at Mombasa in January 1896. Blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, surveyors, draughtsmen, accountants and clerks were also recruited. Tailors, shoemakers, dhobis and cooks — they all came on their own. And, contractors took up the job of recruiting indentured workers for the railway.

Head-hunters were sent to various districts. Lahore, and later Karachi, served as recruitment centers where jamedars did the needful. A number of Indians, especially from Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province, came on their own during this time — mostly as traders. Deployment of British Indian troops in East Africa in that decade strengthened the growing Indian presence in the interior and contributed to future immigration from Punjab, where most of the soldiers originated.

For young Kirparam, migration had been a spontaneous act.

Adventurous, ready to face physical dangers and hardships of life in the unknown, an entrepreneur was in the making. While he was in Karachi buying spices for the shop, he heard about a cold land, but one of golden opportunities, where many Punjabis were heading. It was Vancouver, Canada. There were also tales of adventure and opportunities in “Afreeka”. He had not hesitated. The hundreds of sailing vessels of all sizes and descriptions at the port lured him. The desert winds of the Sind brought relief, and a sense of freedom burst forth from within.

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The port of Karachi already seemed a city of magic and mystery, of an opening and contact with connections to faroff places. Date palm, banana and tamarind — as each tree swayed, Kirparam’s heart sang out in tune to its rhythm, and his vibrant spirit was propelled by the energy of perpetual discovery. He could not be held in captivity and more. Once the decision was made, he did not think of anything else. Not about returning to pack his suitcases, nor of saying his goodbyes. To whom? To his Chacha, or Chachi? His town Miani?

Or to his wife, Hardei? Where was the private time or space?

What would he have said? That I want to get away? That I want to discover? That I want to breathe in my own space? N, not even Hardei would have understood. Kirparam focused his mind fully on the journey. He was ready for the adventure and the new beginning. His new-found maturity necessitated freedom from the shackles of family life; he felt liberated. He could breathe at last.

Orphaned, he had been forced to live and work with his father’s younger brother and his wife — a stingy, highly strung couple. On top of it all, the responsibility of a wife. It was too much, too sudden. He could not cope. He decided to take destiny in his own hands.

Bag, baggage, burdens and family — he left all these behind.

He came alone. Anew. A new place invited a fresh start. A dream. An escape. A quest. A search for himself. With very vague ideas about the future — if any. Actually, he did not even need a reason: it was a primeval urge. With just about enough money to pay for his passage, Kirparam boarded the dhow. A Kotia type, or the bigger Boom, with planks of teak and palm wood tied together with cords of coconut fibre, bound for the east coast of Africa. !

May-July 2007

A F R I C A Review Committee of Kenya? It was none other than Yashpal Ghai. Yashpal and his brother Dharam Ghai had also written a very important book on the socio-political history of Indians of Kenya. The daily newspapers of Kenya contain excellent articles written by journalists of Indian origins.

We have very good lawyers, and jurists, as also social activists and humanitarians of Indian origin who are politically conscious and have contributed to the society. You surely know of people in charge of the civil society who are uniting efforts with fellow Kenyans to improve things. Of course, one cannot ignore that like in all groups, the majority of the people just want to live their lives.

Q: How do you see the relations between Indians and Kenyans now?

A: Do you mean that we are not Kenyans? I feel Kenyan. I want to be looked at as a Kenyan citizen and I support all the efforts of those who do not want tribalism and ethnicism to be used as a divisive tool of the people of Kenya.

In East Africa we have seen too often for political reasons Indians being used as scapegoats of the difficulties and hard life of the majority of the people.

Soon after independence, I remember when I was in school, Indians were made an object of envy, of much hate.

That's because the Kenyans never saw the white man holding big companies. They could only see the Asians because it was the two-tier system built by the British. The Africans were at the bottom of the pile. They could only see Indians having some money and shops (dukas). But they never saw the white man holding big companies and banks.

The present situation is very interesting because the

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young people are getting much more exposure to each other.

Today, the Kenyans of all origins have more access to each other. Another refreshing thing is that the young people don’t have the burden of colonial past. They have the same ambitions, same stories and same expectations.

There is more awareness about Indian culture. From Yoga, Bollywood, the ‘bindi’, salwar-kameez, chapatti, samosas, curries, to the language. The word duka in Swahili comes from ‘dukan’, which means shop in Hindi.

Kali, the name of an Indian goddess, has come to mean terrifying and fierce in Swahili. The word harambee, which is a very important word in Swahili, has a very interesting history. The Indian coolies used to chant Har Ambe — the name of an Indian Goddess — while pulling together to build the railway line in the colonial times. Today, harambee — which means the spirit of solidarity — has become so important that Kenyan parliament is called Harambee House.

Harambee was the most important word coined during Jomo Kenyatta’s time.

Our own spoken versions of Indian languages here — Punjabi, Gujarati, etc — have also taken up words from Swahili. Fagia is for broom, mchungwa for orange, kisu for knife… these are words used on a daily basis.

As an Indian classical dancer, I have already done some joint productions with African tribal dancers, musicians and acrobats. Now, it would be interesting for me to use my book as a point of reference for discussions in schools, colleges and other organisations and groups of all backgrounds in Kenya… and why not elsewhere?

EXCERPT: FROM JHELUM TO TANA

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n the eve of independence, 1,80,000 Asians, most of whom lived in urban centers, calculated their gains and losses. Decisions had to be made fast.

Considerably apprehensive about our future and that of our children, we Kenyan Asians asked ourselves some important questions. Will we be regarded as foreigners in this land that gave us birth, a land that was adopted by our grandparents? Should we continue to stay on, as they had done? Or should we choose the British passport? Until the eve of independence, Kenya, India or even Britain were possible “homes”. The newly independent government gave the Asians two years to decide whether or not they wanted to become citizens. The majority regarded themselves as permanent residents of the country where they lived, saved, invested and eventually retired. Only about 3,500 Asians left immediately — as compared to over 11,000 Europeans out of 53,000. However, processing of applications was slow, perhaps deliberately; many Asians would thus miss the two-year deadline and find themselves on the fence.

They had come a long way in adjusting, readjusting. Once more they were to adjust themselves. To adapt, to react - rather than act — that would be the key. Most Asians tending to remain would become more and more apolitical on the national front. And those who had played active roles were ignored and unsung. Except for Joseph Zuzarte Murumbi, whose

father was Goan and mother a Maasai, not a single Kenyan of Asian origin would be elected to the new cabinet, even though several of them — Makhan Singh, Pranlal Seth, Pio Gama Pinto, J.M. Nazareth, Haroon Ahmed, Fitz de Souza, among others — had played key roles, many at personal risk, for independence. Makhan Singh would be sidelined completely, too radical for the new regime.

Soon after independence, persons of non-African origin would have slim chances, if any, for positions in the PublicService Commission. A policy of Africanization versus Kenyanization would be born even though the newly composed Kenyan Constitution would prohibit discrimination on racial grounds. President Jomo Kenyatta would refer to us as “guests”, as had Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru some years previously!

Despite such remarks made by political leaders, Krishanlal and Muni saw themselves as Kenyan. They decided to stay and adapt to their new situation — as their ancestors had done. Not only because their family was growing, as one more son had been born at the beginning of the year, but they sincerely believed that they belonged here. They had no other home. They were born here, as were their parents. The question of another “home” did not even arise; their going to Britain was never discussed. Neither Krishanlal nor Muni had even visited the country. They did not see any reason to leave, Kenya was their home, as even India could not be. !

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B O O K S

&

I D E A S

A selection of new books on Africa and by African writers from www.africabookcentre.com The Man-Leopard Murders: History and Society in Colonial Nigeria

By David Pratten; 448pp; Edinburgh University Press, U.K.; Hardback; £50 AN ACCOUNT of murder and politics in Africa, and an historical ethnography of southern Annang communities during the colonial period. Its narrative leads to events between 1945 and 1948 when the imperial gaze of police, press and politicians focused on a series of mysterious deaths in south-eastern Nigeria attributed to the “man-leopard society”. The immediate problems of the criminal investigations were whether these were wild-leopard killings or whether they were organised by a cult of killers who could disguise the crime scene to simulate them. Yet, these murders were not only linked to ruses and rituals of the killers but to the broad impact of commercial, Christian and colonial relations on Annang society.

As such the broader historical questions addressed in the book concern debate and conflict over the moral order of Annang society.

A Home from Home: From Immigrant Boy to English Man

By George Alagiah; Abacus, U.K.; 288pp; Paperback; £7.99 NEW IN paperback. George Alagiah was born in Sri Lanka and grew up in Ghana. His family came to Britain in the 1960s. This is his story, going to school in Portsmouth (where his friends were all white and teased him in the shower room for not having a summer tan) and gradually discovering his immigrant identity.

African Literature as Political Philosophy

By M.S.C. Okolo; Zed Books, U.K.; Paperback; £19.99 THE BOOK examines in particular Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah and Petals of Blood by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, but situates these within the broader context of developments in African literature over the past half-century, discussing writers from Ayi Kwei Armah to Wole Soyinka. Argues that these authors have been profoundly affected by the political situation of Africa, but have also helped to create a new African political philosophy.

■ Editor’s Pick Abela: The Girl Who Saw Lions

By Berlie Doherty; Anderson Press, U.K.; 235pp; Hardback; £10.99

The State Vs Nelson Mandela: The Trial That Changed South Africa

By Joel Joffe; 304pp; Oneworld Publications, U.K.; Hardback; £16.99

BE STRONG, my Abela. These are the last words of Abela’s mother in their HIV/AIDS stricken African village, where it seems that to live or to die, to be sick or to be healthy, is just a matter of chance. It takes all Abela’s strength to survive her Uncle Thomas’ scheming to get to Europe, but what will be her fate as an illegal immigrant? I don’t want a sister or brother, thinks Rosa in England, when her mother tells her that she wants to adopt a child. Could these two girls ever become sisters? Is there room in Rosa’s family for an African orphan haunted by lions? Is there room in their hearts? A real-life story from the Carnegie Medal-winning author.

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May-July 2007

IN THE State vs Nelson Mandela, Joel Joffe, who was the defence attorney, gives a blow-by-blow account of the most important trial in South Africa’s history, vividly portraying the characters of those involved, and exposing the astonishing bigotry and rampant discrimination faced by the accused, as well as showing their courage under fire.

A F R I C A

COLLECTOR’S ITEM

History on Their Own Terms: The Relevance of the Past for a New Generation

By Ereshnee Naidu & Cyril Adonis; 66pp; Centre for the study of Violence & Reconciliation, South Africa. Paperback; £11.99

The Rough Guide to African Blues Compact disc; £8.99, including VAT at 17.5 percent AN ANTHOLOGY tracking the resurgent blues consciousness in African music. Tracks: 1.

La Tumchi Anni - Hassan, Mariem 2. Goree - Kane, Nuru 3. Special Rider Blues - Harris, Corey 4.

Mariama Kaba - Traore, Boubacar 5. Mogo Ti Diya Bee Ya - Sangare, Oumou 6. Iriarer - Finatawa, Etran 7. Jaman Moro - Bokoum, Afel 8. Kele Mandi Traore, Rokia 9. Feqer Aydelem Wey - Mesfin, Ayalew & Black Lion Band 10. Sigui - Tounkara, Djelimady 11.

Q U A R T E R L Y

FOCUSES ON themes of life in the new South Africa; reconciliation and the role of memory and forgiveness in the reconciliation process; understandings of the TRC; learning about the past; and sites of learning about the past.

While the report highlights a range of diverse views from participants, a central theme of the report is the inherent link between memory and identity.

Maloyan Devil - Brozman, Bob & Djeli Moussa Diawara 12. Azara Alhai - Rasha 13. Waino Blues - Balde, Daby 14. Bibbe Leydy - Maal, Baaba & Mansour Seck.

Light on a Hill: Building the Constitutional Court of South Africa Edited by Bronwyn LawViljoen; 178pp; David Krut Publishing, South Africa; Paperback; £45

Basadzi Voices: An anthology of poetic writing by young black South African women Compiled by Rose Mokhosi; 85pp; University Of Kwazulu-Natal Press, South Africa; Paperback; £14.99 ROSE MOKHOSI says: “As young black South African women today, we are truly fortunate to have been born into these exciting times, when we have the power to shape our own lives. All thanks go to our rich history, our mothers, fathers and forefathers who led the way, fought the battles and brought us to this point, this time, where we can express ourselves in freedom and celebrate our beautiful African heritage with pride. This collection will give you a glimpse into our thoughts, our experiences, our lives. We hope it will be a source of inspiration to other young South Africans, encouraging them to dream big and live out their dreams. In the words of Hale Tsehlana, we write because it is time - OUR time.”

■ Race, Sex and Western Empire The Sexual Demon of Colonial Power: Pan-African Embodiment and Erotic Schemes of Empire

By Greg Thomas; 200pp; Indiana University Press, USA; Paperback; £11.99 A POLITICAL, cultural, and intellectual study of race, sex and Western empire. Greg Thomas interrogates a system that represents race, gender, sexuality and class in certain systemat-

ic and oppressive ways. By connecting sex and eroticism to geopolitics both politically and epistemologically, he examines the logic, operations and politics of sexuality in the West. The book focuses on the centrality of race, class, and empire to Western realities of gender and sexuality and to problematic Western attempts to theorise gender and sexuality (or embodiment).

May-July 2007

THE NEW Constitutional Court of South Africa was inaugurated in 2004, 10 years after the demise of apartheid and South Africa’s first democratic elections that brought the African National Congress and Nelson Mandela to power. This book celebrates not only the architectural innovations in the structure, such as the large-scale use of a passive heating and cooling system, but the atmosphere and mood of the court, its openness, its ability to convey warmth and dignity at the same time, its reflection of the South African landscape and climate, and its relationship to the surrounding metropolis.

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B O O K S

&

I D E A S

■ Remoralising Society

Ethical Intelligence for Global Well-being Conscience

By Martin Prozesky; 176pp; University of Kwazulu-Natal Press, South Africa ACCESSIBLE book by a leading South African ethics consultant, attempts to show how to draw on the deepest wells of ethical power in the self and in broader value systems, both religious and secular, in order to promote greater, sustainable wellbeing for all. It maps out a putatively global ethic, but draws on examples from the moral and social crises in South Africa: From grinding poverty to corrupt politicians, unscrupulous business people and organised criminal gangs, from sexual violence to armed robberies, war-mongers and thugs in schools.

The Accumulation of Capital in Southern Africa: Rosa Luxemburg's Contemporary Relevance Bond, Patrick & Chitonge, Horman & Hopfmann, Arndt; 211pp; Centre For Civil Society, South Africa A COLLECTION that argues that for more than three centuries, Southern Africa has hosted some of the world’s most intense contests between capitalism and non-capitalist social forms, with capital (in mining, agriculture, industry and services) taking full advantage of slavery, colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid and neo-liberalism to extend its grip.

LATEST COLLECTION from the seasoned South African poet, Mahola, laments the loss of the cultural values of respect and humanity and yearns for reconnection with the rhythms of nature and rural life. He expresses a general disillusionment with “man’s rotten morals”, and is critical of the different standards that apply to rulers and “commoners”. His plea is for an accountable humanity. His is a praise singer’s voice, perfectly attuned to the political and social complexities of the moment, intensely patriotic but also boldly outspoken in its criticisms of leaders and populace alike.

■ Trailing AIDS

■ Fiction Omnibus of a Century of South African Short Stories

By Michael Chapman; 900pp; JonathanBall, South Africa; Paperback; £25 MAKES AVAILABLE all the stories from three bestselling anthologies: ‘A Century of South African Short Stories’ (1978); the revised edition (1993); and ‘The New Century of South African Short Stories’ (2004).

Acknowledged talents of the past like Olive Schreiner, Pauline Smith, Herman Charles Bosman, C. Louis Leipoldt and Alan Paton share the pages with writers of the present day: Nadine Gordimer, Es’kia Mphahlele, Hennie Aucamp, Ahmed Essop, Njabulo Ndebele, Peter Wilhelm and others.

Woman at Point Zero

By Nawal El-Saadawi; 128pp; Zed Books, U.K.; Paperback; £7.99 IN THIS book, El Saadawi recounts the life of a woman called Firdaus who was imprisoned and later executed for the murder of a pimp in a Cairo street. The power of the novel comes from its simplicity of form and her direct, almost clipped style stemming from her long work in fighting religious and colonial oppression of women.

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Dancing in the Rain

By Mzi Mahola, 74pp; University of Kwazulu-Natal Press, South Africa; Paperback; £11.99

May-July 2007

More Than Eyes Can See: A Nine Month Journey into the AIDS Pandemic

By Rhidian Brook; 283pp; Marion Boyars; U.K.; Paperback; £8.99 AN ACCOUNT of a ninemonth journey made by the author and his family into some of the World’s HIV/AIDS epicentres. Sent by the Salvation Army to bear witness to the work they were doing in response to the pandemic, Rhidian Brook, his wife and two children, follow a trail of devastation through communities still shattered and being broken by this disease.

A F R I C A

Q U A R T E R L Y

Bestsellers in India Ramachandra Guha’s ‘India after Gandhi’ continues its uninterrupted run of the non-fiction bestseller list while Khaled Hosseni’s novel ‘A Thousand Splendid Suns’ seems to be as popular as his earlier ‘The Kite Runner’ TOP 10: NON-FICTION 1. India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy Author: Ramachandra Guha Publisher: Picador India Price: Rs. 695 2. Military Inc. Inside Pakistan’s Military Economy Author: Ayesha Siddiqa Publisher: Pluto Press Price : Rs. 814 3. The Secret Author: Rhonda Byrne Publisher: Atria Books Price: Rs. 495 4. India’s Unending Journey: Finding Balance in a Time of Change Author: Mark Tully Publisher: Rider Price: Rs. 450 5. The Parliamentary System Author: Arun Shourie Publisher: ASA Rupa Price: Rs. 495 6. The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857 Author: William Dalrymple Publisher: Penguin Books Price: Rs. 395 7. Confessions of a Swadeshi

Reformer - My Years as Finance Minister Author: Yashwant Sinha Publisher: Penguin Viking Price: Rs. 450 8. Reflections in a Sacred Pond Author: Murad Ali Baig Publisher: Tara Press Price: Rs. 295 9. Where have all the Leaders Gone?

Author: Lee Iacocca Publisher: Scribner Price: Rs. 743 10. Einstein His Life and Universe Author: Walter Isaacson Publisher: Simon & Schuster Price: Rs. 865

4. The Reluctant Fundamentalist Author: Mohsin Hamid Publisher: Penguin Viking Price: Rs. 295 5. The Inheritance of Loss Author: Kiran Desai Publisher: Penguin Books Price: Rs. 395 6. Half of a Yellow Sun Author: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie Publisher: Harper Perennial Price: Rs 250 7. The Sleeping Doll Author: Jeffery Deaver Publisher: Simon & Schuster Price: Rs. 458

TOP 10: FICTION 1. A Thousand Splendid Suns Author: Khaled Hosseini Publisher: Bloomsbury Price: Rs. 485 2. On Chesil Beach Author: Ian McEwan Publisher: Jonathan Cape Price: Rs. 486 3. After Dark Author: Haruki Murakami Publisher: Harvill Secker Price: Rs. 486

8. The Quickie Author: James Patterson & Michael Ledwidge Publisher: Headline Price: Rs. 486 9. Chowringhee Author: Sankar Publisher: Penguin Books Price: Rs. 295 10. Measuring the World Author: Daniel Kehlmann Publisher: Quercus Price: Rs. 395

(Source: Bahri Sons, New Delhi, www.booksatbahri.com. All the books listed above are available online)

May-July 2007

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D O C U M E N T S Extracts from New Delhi Ministerial CommuniquĂŠ 2007 of IBSA Dialogue Forum on July 17, 2007 17/07/2007 ! The Minister of External Affairs of India, H.E. Mr. Pranab Mukherjee, the Minister of External Relations of Brazil, H.E. Mr. Celso Amorim, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of South Africa, H.E. Dr. Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, met in New Delhi on July 17, 2007 for the Fourth Meeting of the Trilateral Commission of the IBSA Dialogue Forum.

for peace consolidation projects. With the cases of Sierra Leone and Burundi being examined by the Peace Building Commission in their country-specific configurations, the Peace Building Commission has produced satisfactory results. However, in the year ahead, the Ministers noted the need for the Peace Building Commission to work towards more practical and concrete outcomes from its efforts to promote peace consolidation. In this context, as members of the current Organisational Committee of the Peace Building Commission, the Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to promote further concrete outcomes from the Peace Building Commission in the year ahead.

! The Ministers reaffirmed the IBSA Dialogue as an impor-

tant mechanism for political consultations and coordination on important regional and global developments. The Ministers reconfirmed their determination to play a constructive role in international affairs and to maintain friendly relations with all countries. The Ministers called for enhancing socio-economic cooperation in various sectors among India, Brazil and South Africa, inter alia, by implementation of decisions taken earlier.

! The Ministers also expressed satisfaction on the first year of the

GLOBAL ISSUES GLOBAL GOVERNANCE ! The Ministers stressed the need to make the structures of global governance more democratic, representative and legitimate by increasing the participation of developing countries in the decision-making bodies of multilateral institutions.

! The Ministers recommitted their respective delegations to

! The Ministers reiterated their continued support for the reform

of the United Nations to make it more democratic and responsive to the priorities of its Member States, particularly those of developing countries that constitute the vast majority of its membership.

functioning of the Human Rights Council, created as part of the U.N. reform process in 2006, and expressed their commitment to ensuring that it fulfils the expectations of the international community. Following the establishment of the Peace Building Commission and the Human Rights Council, the U.N. reform process must now concentrate on reform of the Security Council.

the U.N. and its specialised agencies, as well as other multilateral bodies, to remain in close contact with each other and to consult on all issues of significance. ! The Ministers stressed the necessity of reforming the

International Financial Architecture, specially by enhancing the voice and participation of developing countries in the Bretton Woods institutions and expressed concern at the slow rate of progress that has been achieved so far.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

! The Ministers emphasised that the Security Council must,

! The Ministers stressed that achievement of the Millennium

in its composition, represent contemporary realities and not those of the year 1945. Keeping in view that the decisions of the Security Council should serve the interests of the larger United Nations Membership, the Ministers emphasised the need for the urgent reform of the Security Council that would include its expansion in both categories of membership, permanent and non-permanent, in order to render it more democratic, legitimate, representative and responsive.

Development Goals (MDGs) as part of global efforts to eradicate poverty and hunger, required international support. The Ministers noted with concern that commitments undertaken by developed countries for increase in Official Development Assistance (ODA) have not been fulfilled. The Ministers further stressed the need by developed countries to liberalise trade and eliminate subsidies on products of interest to developing countries. The Ministers also reiterated the importance of capacity building and equity and transparency in international economic relations for developing countries to achieve the MDGs, especially sub-Saharan Africa. The Ministers underscored their agreement to work together to eradicate poverty and promote sustained economic growth, sustainable development and global prosperity for all.

! Towards this end, the representation of developing countries

from Africa, Asia and Latin America, as permanent members of the Security Council, is essential. The Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to continue to jointly pursue a decision on the Security Council expansion. In this regard, they noted the ongoing efforts at the United Nations. This commitment will be pursued on an urgent basis, with a view to achieving concrete results by the end of the 61st U.N. General Assembly. ! The Ministers welcomed the operationalisation of the Peace Building Commission in June 2006 and the Peace Building Fund in October 2006. The Ministers noted with satisfaction the Peace Building Commission’s efforts to provide medium and longterm peace consolidation advice to countries emerging from conflict situations, as well as funding from the Peace Building Fund

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INTERNATIONAL TRADE Proposed MERCOSUR-India-SACU Trilateral Free Trade Area ! With reference to paragraph 45 of the First IBSA Summit Meeting Joint Declaration (BrasĂ­lia, 13 September 2006), the Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to implementing the determination of the Heads of State and Government concerning the expeditious establishment of the Working Group to focus on the modalities for the envisaged India-MERCOSUR-SACU Trilateral Free Trade Agreement (T-FTA). In this regard, India,

May-July 2007

A F R I C A South Africa and Brazil support the establishment of the Working Group no later than early September 2007. As members of SACU and MERCOSUR, respectively, South Africa will work with its partners in SACU, and Brazil will work with MERCOSUR’s pro-tempore President with a view to setting a date and place for the first meeting of the Working Group. ! The Ministers noted that while global trade plays an important

role in fostering economic development and fighting poverty, it continues to face important barriers and distortions particularly in the agricultural sector, which affect the overall efforts of developing countries to enhance the well-being of their societies. ! The Ministers urged the WTO members to reaffirm their

Q U A R T E R L Y

more in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. The Ministers also urged that immediate and real effect must be given to commitments on international cooperation in fighting climate change, especially in the areas of adaptation, technology transfer, capacity building and the development of the carbon market. This cooperation should be framed by the need to address unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. ! The Ministers underlined that climate change is a global

phenomenon that requires an international response under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Any new cooperative effort to tackle climate change should not undermine the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol, but rather complement these instruments. GHG mitigation in developed countries is key to address climate change given their responsibilities in causing it. Developed countries must take the lead by making further truly significant commitments at an early date for GHG reductions in the period beyond 2012.

commitments to achieve the necessary agreements, so as to conclude the negotiations of the Doha Development Agenda. The Ministers expressed the view that Brazil, India and South Africa as members of the WTO Group of 20, share the belief that the cornerstone of the current negotiations is the agricultural sector, which is of utmost relevance for the well-being of our most vulnerable populations. In particular, agreement has to be reached to eliminate trade distortions, especially those limiting access to the developed countries’ markets, including domestic support and other forms of internal support instrumented by the developed countries. Meaningful and operable special and differential treatment, which includes development instruments of Special Products and the Special Safeguard Mechanism are vital to address the concerns of developing countries with subsistence and low-income farmers. The Ministers emphasised that any progress towards achieving these aforementioned goals will have a positive impact on the overall process of the Doha Round, in particular in the NAMA and services negotiations.

! The Ministers expressed their satisfaction with the successful launching of the International Biofuels Forum which took place on 2 March 2007 in New York and reaffirmed the importance of the efforts being made in the context of the initiative to promote the establishment of an international market for biofuels.

! The Ministers noted that an effective Aid for Trade pro-

! The Ministers welcomed the forthcoming realisation of the

gramme will enhance growth prospects and reduce poverty in developing countries. As this requires substantial, additional, targeted resources for trade-related programmes and projects, the Ministers urged developed countries to leverage their aid for infrastructural development so that developing countries, particularly LDCs, could benefit from the present level of market access available to them.

Biofuels International Conference to be held in Brazil, in July 2008, to discuss how to enhance international cooperation to promote the production and use of biofuels in the global level. The Ministers mentioned the contribution of biofuels as a cost-effective and immediate measure to address climate change accessible to developing countries.

! The Ministers agreed that in the energy sector lies a strategic opportunity for the IBSA partners to engage in a pioneer and fruitful dialogue among developing countries with a view to strengthen coordination regarding cross-cutting issues such as poverty eradication, climate change, energy security and South-South cooperation.

! The Ministers also expressed their commitment to the trilat! The Ministers underlined that a more open world econo-

my takes into account the promotion of financial flows, notably foreign direct investment, in a way that contributes to the sustainability of development, the transfer of avantgarde technology and the creation of decent employment, all of which are tools for the definitive fight against poverty.

eral work in biofuels and urged the Trilateral Task Team on Biofuels to deepen the discussions aimed at expanding the cooperation of the partners in this field, undertaking joint research on development, production of biofuels and engine redesign so as to enlarge their applications and reduce cost of deployment. ! The Ministers noted that many needed technologies based

CLIMATE CHANGE ! The Ministers noted that climate change is a global challenge with strong economic, environmental and social dimensions. It impacts all countries, but is particularly severe for developing countries, given their vulnerabilities, inadequate means and limited capacities to adapt to its effects. The recent reports of the IPCC have reaffirmed the need for urgent action. The Ministers reaffirmed that at this critical juncture all countries should do

on resource endowments of developing countries (e.g. biomass, biofuels, clean coal) do not yet exist, or are too expensive. Collaborative R&D between developing and developed country R&D institutions can address this gap. Financing can be through a venture capital fund, located in multilateral financial institutions, with the resulting IPRs being held by the fund, and deployed at concessional cost in developing countries. Additionally, there could be collaborative R&D projects

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D O C U M E N T S with sharing of IPRs by the partner R&D institutions.

of ideas, experience, knowledge, technical advances, skills and expertise across a broad range of sectors.

! The Ministers also noted that resources required for adap-

tation are of the same order of magnitude as those for GHG mitigation. For this, resources from the entire carbon market, as is being done on a small scale from the 2% levy on the CDM proceeds should be mobilised. These resources are separate from the provision of new and additional resources to tackle the challenges of adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. The Ministers underlined that diversion of ODA resources from economic growth and poverty alleviation in developing countries for adaptation is not the answer as development is a prerequisite for achieving effective adaptation.

! In order to expand both the strength and the scope of South-

South cooperation, the Ministers resolved to enhance their policy coordination and high-level dialogue on the common challenges faced by developing countries, such as MDGs and international development cooperation, financing for development, market access in the global trading system, fighting environmental degradation and infectious diseases. The Ministers further agreed to enhance South-South cooperation in wide ranging fields, inter alia, trade and investment, S&T, infrastructure, health and education.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

! The Ministers underscored the importance and welcomed the

! The Ministers reaffirmed their shared commitment on

continued discussions on the establishment of a “Development Agenda for WIPO�. The Ministers also emphasised the need for early conclusion of the discussions and incorporation of development dimensions in the work programs of WIPO.

eradication of poverty through sustainable development. The Ministers highlighted the importance of implementing the principles adopted in the Rio Declaration and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, particularly the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Ministers underlined that binding targets for developing countries were inappropriate. Instead, the focus should be on compliance of targets accepted by developed countries.

! The Ministers reaffirmed the understanding enshrined in the Doha Declaration that the TRIPS Agreement does not and should not prevent Members from taking measures to protect public health and that accordingly each member has the right to grant compulsory licences and the freedom to determine the grounds upon which such licences are granted.

BIODIVERSITY ISSUES ! The Ministers noted with appreciation the decisions of the Eighth Conference of the Parties (CoP-8) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Curitiba, Brazil, in March 2006, to complete negotiations of the International Regime (IR) on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) by 2010, and to hold two negotiation meetings of the ABS Working Group prior to CoP-9 to be held in May 2008.

! The Ministers reaffirmed the importance of conservation, protection and sustainable use of genetic resources. They highlighted the need to adopt an international regime to protect and safeguard the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge.

In this context, the Ministers urged the international community to make all efforts to conclude the negotiation process for such an international regime, within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity, by 2010.

! The Ministers recognised that South-South cooperation has

HUMAN RIGHTS ! The Ministers noted that India, Brazil and South Africa as members of the Human Rights Council, share a common vision regarding the promotion and protection of human rights through dialogue and cooperation. Guided by this vision, the three countries actively participated in the institution-building phase of this newly-formed human rights body with a view to making the Council a strong, effective and efficient body capable of promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms for all and introducing a new work culture of cooperation and mutual understanding in the functioning of the international human rights machinery. The Ministers remain committed to continue actively participating in a coordinated manner in the work of the international human rights machinery to pursue the objective of securing effective enjoyment of human rights by all, including vulnerable groups and the implementation of the right to development.

created a stronger collective voice for the countries of the South in the international arena. South-South cooperation has become an integral part of the relations among the developing countries and an important means of promoting the exchange

PEACE AND SECURITY TERRORISM ! The Ministers reaffirmed that terrorism constitutes one

! India, Brazil and South Africa, as founding members of the

Group of Like Minded Megadiverse Countries (LMMCs), agreed to strengthen cooperation and coordination in fostering activities related to South-South cooperation, with emphasis on multilateral negotiations, in particular for ensuring timely, and successful conclusion of the IR on ABS. SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION ! The Ministers reaffirmed the role of South-South cooperation as a continuing process vital to confront the challenges faced by the South, in particular its role as an important tool crucial for fostering and strengthening the economic independence of developing countries and achieving development as one of the means of ensuring the equitable global economic order.

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May-July 2007

A F R I C A of the most serious threats to international peace and security. They strongly condemned terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, committed by whomever, wherever and for whatever purpose. They stressed that there can be no justification, whatsoever, for any acts of terrorism. They emphasised the need for concerted and coordinated action by the international community to realise the objectives of eradicating terrorism in all its forms and manifestations. ! The Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to the full implementation of the measures to combat terrorism outlined in the U.N. Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and the relevant U.N. Security Council and General Assembly Resolutions. They recalled that the Outcome Document of 2005 World Summit had called upon the member states to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism during the 60th Session of the General Assembly, and stressed the importance of finalising early the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism and called upon all states to cooperate in resolving the outstanding issues with the objectives of an expeditious conclusion of negotiations and adoption of this Convention. ! The Ministers emphasised that international cooperation

in combating terrorism should be conducted in conformity with the principles of the U.N. Charter, international law and relevant international conventions.

DISARMAMENT AND NON-PROLIFERATION ! The Ministers reiterated their commitment to the goal of complete elimination of nuclear weapons and expressed concern over the lack of progress in realisation of that goal. The Ministers emphasised that nuclear disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation are mutually reinforcing processes requiring continuous irreversible progress on both fronts, and reaffirmed, in this regard, that the objective of non-proliferation would be best served by systematic and progressive elimination of nuclear weapons in a comprehensive, universal, non-discriminatory and verifiable manner. The Ministers recalled that similar approaches have led to the establishment of internationally legally binding instruments that have banned chemical and biological weapons and are contributing towards the total elimination of such weapons and reaffirmed their commitment to make efforts in the relevant multilateral forums for a universal instrument to ban nuclear weapons and to achieve their complete elimination. The Ministers emphasised the necessity to start negotiations on a phased programme for the complete elimination of nuclear weapons with a specified framework of time to eliminate nuclear weapons, to prohibit their development, production, acquisition, testing, stockpiling, transfer, use or threat of use, and to provide for their destruction. ! In this context, the Ministers also expressed concern over

the inability of the Conference on Disarmament (CD), the world’s single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum, to engage in substantive work. The Ministers noted that several proposals have been made in the CD with regard to a programme of work and reiterated their commitment to work constructively to reach to a consensus taking into account the

Q U A R T E R L Y

concerns of all the Member States. ! The Ministers discussed the threat posed by terrorists and

other non-state actors acquiring nuclear weapons or their related materials and technologies. They reaffirmed their commitment to contribute to multilateral efforts to counter such threats and promote co-operation in this regard and welcomed in this regard the adoption of the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. The Ministers expressed their conviction that the best way to prevent non-state actors or terrorists from acquiring nuclear weapons is the total elimination of such weapons. ! The Ministers expressed their commitment to the univer-

salisation of the Convention for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), as well as to the goal of ensuring their balanced, transparent and effective implementation.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT ! The Ministers expressed concern over the human suffering

and economic impact caused by the natural disasters throughout the world. The Ministers emphasised the need for national efforts to be supplemented by enhanced international and regional cooperation in the sphere of disaster risk reduction, mitigation and management. In this context, the ministers welcomed the establishment of the U.N. Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) in 2005 which has contributed in strengthening the United Nation’s capacity to respond to natural disasters in a predictable and timely manner. The Ministers agreed to explore the possibilities of enhanced cooperation among the three countries through exchange of experiences and expertise in the area of disaster reduction, mitigation and management.

PEACEFUL USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY ! The Ministers took note with satisfaction of the positive con-

tinuing cooperation among their countries at the IAEA and other fora, with a view to ensuring the unimpeded growth and development of peaceful uses of atomic energy, through the supply of technology, equipment and material, under appropriate safeguards, and reaffirmed their will to intensify such cooperation. ! The Ministers reiterated the importance of ensuring that any multilateral decisions related to the nuclear fuel cycle do not undermine the inalienable right of States to pursue nuclear energy for peaceful purposes in conformity with their international legal obligations. ! The Ministers emphasised the need to ensure the supply of

safe, sustainable and non-polluting sources of energy to meet the rising global demand for energy, particularly in developing countries. In this context, the Ministers agreed that nuclear energy could play an important role. The Ministers agreed to explore approaches to cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy under appropriate IAEA safeguards. The Ministers further agreed that international civilian nuclear cooperation, under appropriate IAEA safeguards, amongst countries committed to

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D O C U M E N T S nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation objectives could be enhanced through acceptable forward-looking approaches, consistent with their respective national and international obligations.

REGIONAL COOPERATION THE NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD) ! The Ministers recognised the new trends in socio-economic development in Africa and its growing relationship through the Africa Union and with its partners such as India and Brazil.

The Ministers also recognised the efforts made by the African Union to harmonise the regional economic communities and the closer harmonisation with the NEPAD Programme of the African Union. The Ministers committed themselves to share their development experience among one another in support of these broader objectives of the African Union and look for creating support to regional integration and the development of regional projects keeping in view their own experience. The Ministers agreed to consider partnership with the Pan-African Infrastructure Development Programme’s projects.

REGIONAL ISSUES SUDAN ! The Ministers urged and supported the Government of Sudan, and all parties directly concerned in addressing the internal political and humanitarian situation, in the province of Darfur in an expeditious manner, to alleviate civilian suffering and strengthen necessary political and development structures. The Ministers called on all parties to cooperate in the peace process to finalise the internal Darfur Dialogue, under the auspices of the African Union (AU) and the U.N. ! The Ministers noted the development relating to the U.N.AU hybrid operation in Darfur, in accordance to the Addis Ababa Agreement, signed between U.N., AU and the Sudanese government on 12 June 2007 on the deployment of hybrid forces, which may contribute to the stabilisation of the situation in Darfur and in its political, humanitarian and security dimensions. The Ministers considered that any further measures to be taken in connection to the situation in Darfur should not adversely affect the civilian population, and aggravate the situation on the ground.

IBSA SECTORAL COOPERATION ! The Ministers reviewed the work of the sectoral working groups and adopted their reports. ! The Ministers stressed the need for the Working Groups to meet regularly, while drawing up their Plans of Action with time-bound deliverables.

EDUCATION ! The Ministers welcomed the holding of an Academic Workshop and Working Group in Durban, South Africa, during 29 June-1 July 2007 wherein five areas of cooperation were identified, viz. Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics; Biotechnology, Agriculture and Livestock;

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Sustainable Development; Social Transformation and Empowerment; and Higher Education Studies. The Ministers noted that the IBSA Programme on Higher Education would be signed at the Second IBSA Summit. ! The Ministers noted with satisfaction that the heads of the

Diplomatic Academies of three countries would meet in Brazil in September 2007.

AGRICULTURE ! The Ministers noted that the Joint Working Group on

Agriculture has agreed on developing joint projects and decided to have six sub-groups, viz., (a) Animal Health and Animal Production, (b) Bio-fuels in the context of agriculture, (c) SPS issues, (d) Agro-processing and Agro-business including Food Park, (e) Research and Capacity Building, and (f) Policy issues including Poverty Alleviation. Each IBSA country will lead in two sub-groups. The Ministers urged early identification of joint projects. ! The Ministers stressed that the modalities of communica-

tion through video-conferencing and Internet etc. may be adopted and used frequently.

TRADE & INVESTMENT ! The Ministers also welcomed the Seminar on Technical

Regulations and Standards, organised by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) in New Delhi on 12 July 2007 which was a concrete step to implement the Action Plan on Technical Regulations, Standards and Conformity Assessment Procedures signed during the First IBSA Summit. ! The Ministers welcomed the South African proposal of organ-

ising a Business Meeting during the Second IBSA Summit.

ENERGY ! The Ministers reiterated that energy is a strategic area

for common action. They noted that various areas for future cooperation are: bio-fuels, synthetic/alternate fuels, grid-interactive power, renewable resources like wind power and solar energy, remote areas electrification, energy efficiency and conservation. The Ministers stressed the need to identify specific activities envisaged under the MoU on establishing a Trilateral Task Team on Bio-fuels and report progress at the Second IBSA Summit. The Ministers welcomed South Africa’s proposal to organise the Coal to Liquid (CTL) and/or Gas to Liquid (GTL) Seminar on the margins of the Second IBSA Summit. They also welcomed the commitment to finalise and sign the MoU on Wind Energy Resource at the Second IBSA Summit.

CULTURE ! The Ministers appreciated the offer of Brazil to host the First IBSA Music and Dance Festival in Salvador (Bahia) in October 2007 with the participation of troupes from India and

May-July 2007

A F R I C A South Africa. The Ministers also noted with appreciation the offer of India to invite participation by crafts persons from Brazil and South Africa in the SurajKund Crafts Fair in early February 2008. ! The Ministers welcomed the commitment to enhance

cooperation by concluding a trilateral Memorandum of Understanding to be proposed by South Africa, to identify projects including the timeframes, monitoring and their evaluation for signing during the Second IBSA Summit.

Q U A R T E R L Y

Summit in September 2006 in Brazil and urged to upgrade the website to make it more user-friendly, in particular, for the working groups under IBSA. They also noted that the discussion documents on six identified areas have been exchanged. They urged that additional ways may be worked out for taking forward the sector by formulating working models and approaches to be translated into tangible projects and that the Working Group should meet before the next IBSA Summit.

TOURISM

HEALTH ! The Ministers urged the need for the Health Ministers to meet as soon as possible to approve the Plan of Action developed during the last meeting of the Working Group in Brazil in February 2006. ! The Ministers welcomed the development of a Trilateral MoU in the field of Health and Medicine, to be signed during the Second IBSA Summit, which would be in implementation of the commitment by the Heads of State and Government for collaboration for research and development of AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis diagnostic tools, drugs and vaccines during the First IBSA Summit.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ! The Ministers underscored the importance of Science & Technology cooperation and expressed satisfaction with the progress achieved. They noted that concrete joint research projects in agreed areas of common interest would be undertaken.

They further stressed the need for enhancing research and development collaboration. The Ministers noted the move towards creation of a seed fund of U.S.$ 1 million in each country for collaborative activities. They also noted inclusion of a new area of Antarctic Research in Science and Technology sector.

SOCIAL ISSUES ! The Ministers welcomed the preparation of an integrated IBSA Social Development Strategy which will build on the best practices of the three countries for serving as a blue print for South-South Cooperation. The Ministers noted that a Seminar in this regard will be held in South Africa in October 2007. They welcomed the commitment of the Working Group to work on a trilateral Memorandum of Understanding on Social Development, which may be signed during the forthcoming IBSA Summit.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

! The Ministers noted with appreciation the offer of India to

host a Workshop with participation of 30 tour operators each from Brazil and South Africa.

DEFENCE ! The Ministers agreed that there was significant potential in the sector and that the three countries should work together to enhance cooperation.

IBSA FUND FACILITY FOR ALLEVIATION OF POVERTY AND HUNGER ! The Ministers took note of the functioning of the IBSA Fund Facility for Alleviation of Poverty and Hunger and decided that its functioning and modalities should be comprehensively reviewed and a report submitted within two months for consideration during the Second IBSA Summit.

The review will include identification of criteria for selection of projects. ! In this context, the Ministers also noted the proposals received for assistance from the Fund in respect of capacity building in Timor Leste and the fight against HIV/AIDS in Burundi. They instructed the focal points to examine the detailed proposals for these projects and make concrete recommendations. They agreed in principle that a team from the three countries may visit Burundi for a preliminary investigation.

NEW AREAS OF COOPERATION ! The Ministers took note of the proposal to set up two new Working Groups dealing respectively with Climate Change and Environment, and Human Settlement Development.

They recognised the importance of these sectors and called upon the focal points to consult and revert with concrete recommendations.

SECOND IBSA SUMMIT ! India and Brazil welcomed the offer of South Africa to host the Second IBSA Summit in October 2007.

! The Ministers noted that satisfactory progress has been

made in the sector and that an MoU on cooperation in the field of Public Administration and Governance has been finalised for signing during the Second IBSA Summit.

! The Ministers agreed that the Fifth Trilateral Commission Meeting would be hosted by South Africa on mutually convenient dates in 2008.

INFORMATION SOCIETY ! The Ministers agreed that Information Society is one of the dynamic areas. The Ministers noted the successful launch of IBSA website (www.ibsa-trilateral.org) during the First IBSA

! The Ministers of South Africa and Brazil expressed their

deep gratitude to the Minister of External Affairs of India for convening the Fourth Meeting of the IBSA Trilateral Commission in New Delhi.

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KUMARAKOM Backwater Paradise

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he road from Kottayam in Kerala to the village of Kumarakom is picturesque, thanks to the breathtakingly green countryside it winds through. You pass sleepy village markets, paddy fields that are a smooth carpet of green, tens of thousands of coconut palms, jackfruit, teak, sal, pepper vines, small rubber plantations, and the Meenachal river — made famous by Arundhati Roy’s ‘God of Small Things’ — flowing by for most of the journey. And, at the end of the road, the vast expanse of the Vembanad lake — five miles across and seven miles long.

Kumarakom nestles on the shores of the Vembanad, a salt water lagoon which opens out through a narrow outlet to the Arabian Sea some 80 km north at Kochi and is also fed by a network canals — the backwaters.

As recently as a decade-and-half ago, Kumarakom was just another sun- and rain-drenched Kerala village where nothing much happened. The huge lake made it different from other villages in the vicinity, but few other than the fisherfolk ventured out onto the Vembanad. Having grown up with the lake in the background, the residents did not give it much thought. The Kumarakom-wallah, happy with his sweet toddy and Karimeen (pearl spot fish, the tastiest in the Vembanad), did not think of exploiting the natural beauty that surrounded him.

The last decade has seen all that change. The lakefront is today dotted with resorts and hotels that suit the budgets of middle- to high-end travellers. The resorts brought with them speed boats, water-scooters and water-skiing. They also converted the huge catamarans once used to transport grain from the paddy fields to the markets in Kottayam into house boats complete with living room, bedrooms and a kitchen. These are now hired out to families for up to $125 a day.

Apart from growing paddy — not to mention every other conceivable cash crop that can grow in the tropical climate — the main activity of the villagers is fishing. And it is this that keeps most visitors to this village busy.

Take a stroll along the backwaters and chat up one of the fishermen as he prepares to sail out onto the lake before sunrise. He will, for a few rupees, take you along for a day of fishing. The more tourist-savvy among them have made the trip a virtual guided tour of the lake — one that also pro-

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vides a fascinating insight into the many innovative ways of catching fish.

From simple forms such as angling and throwing a net, he will, if in the right mood, introduce you the art of “spearing” fish using a bow and arrow fashioned out of the skeleton of an umbrella! He will also tell you how the Karimeen, tasty though it is, is a somewhat foolish fish that is easy to catch.

To demonstrate, he will, in his wake, lower a white piece of cloth a metre wide and 20 metres long. The Kari-meen, on seeing the white cloth, buries itself in the slush on the bed of the lake. And the fishermen merely dive in, pick the fish up and toss them into the boat.

By about 10 am, you will be ravenous for a heavy brunch, which can be had cheap at one of the many taverns on the lakefront. A variety of fresh fish and tapioca is the staple diet for locals. But exotic fare such as rabbit meat and frog’s legs are also available.

All washed down with warm, sweet toddy.

The rest of the afternoon is best spent relaxing in the gently swaying catamaran as it puts up its sail to catch the wind blowing back in the direction of the village. Altogether, a happy experience.

Q U A R T E R L Y

TOURIST INFORMATION HOW TO GET THERE

BY AIR: The nearest airport is the Cochin International Airport, which is 70 km away from Muhamma, across the lake from Kumarakom. The Thiruvanthapuram airport is 171 kms away from Kumarakom.

BY RAIL: Nearest railway station is at Kottayam and regular local and express trains connect the city with rest of India.

BY ROAD: State highways and national highways link Kumarakom with the rest of the country.

BEST TIME TO VISIT: Between November and March.

WHERE TO STAY: There are a number of hotels and resorts in the town.

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Q U A R T E R L Y

■ Contributors ■ AFTAB KAMAL PASHA served as Director, Maulana Azad Centre for Indian Culture, Cairo, Egypt during 1999-

2002. He has been Research Fellow at the Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Egypt, during 1985-86. He has been Chairman, Centre for West Asian and African Studies, and Director, Gulf Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His area of specialisation includes West Asian political systems, foreign policy decision making in GCC States, India’s policy towards West Asia and North Africa and Great Powers in the Gulf and West Asian region. He has published twelve books, including Egypt’s Relation’s with the Soviet Union: The Nasser and Sadat Period and Libya in the Arab World: Qadhafi’s Quest for Arab Unity.

■ KAMINI KRISHNA is Lecturer at School of Humanities and Social Sciences, the University of Zambia. She did her

PhD, Masters and B.Ed degree from the Patna University (India). Immediately after obtaining her doctorate degree in Indian History and Archaeology, she proceeded to England where she spent sometime to research in the field of bronze iconography. She authored a book entitled “Bronzes of Early Bihar” and presented papers at international conferences. She also has been signed by the Indian High Commission, Lusaka (Zambia) to do research on Indians settled in Zambia.

■ MANISH CHAND is Editor of Africa Quarterly. He writes on foreign policy, politics, culture and books. His

articles have been published in leading national and international dailies.

■ RASHMI KAPOOR is a lecturer in Swahili in the Department of African Studies, University of Delhi. Her field of

specialisation is African Sociology in general and Swahili language in particular. She has recently visited Mauritius for her field work. She has extensively written on the Indian diaspora in Africa. She is a member of Sudan Study Unit in the Africa studies department of the DU. ■ SHUBHA SINGH is a senior journalist and has worked with two leading Indian newspapers for more than two decades.

She has been writing a weekly column on foreign affairs and politics for over ten years. She has travelled extensively as a journalist, taking special interest in regions that have large settlements of people of Indian origin. She has written two books entitled “Fiji: A Precarious Coalition” and “Overseas Indians: The Global Family”.

■ VIDHAN PATHAK has done his Ph. D on “India’s Relations with Francophone West Africa” from Centre for West

Asian and African Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. At present, he is Executive Joint Secretary of African Studies Association of India (ASA). He has presented a number of papers at international as well as national seminars, and has also written in research journals on international issues, including Indo-African relations, Indian diaspora in Africa and political economy of Africa.

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Note to Contributors Africa Quarterly, published since 1961, is devoted to the study and objective analyses of African affairs and issues related to India-Africa relations. Contributions are invited from outstanding writers, experts and specialists in India, Africa and other countries on various political, economic, social-cultural, literary, philosophical and other themes pertaining to African affairs and India-Africa relations. Preference will be given to those articles which deal succinctly with issues that are both important and clearly defined. Articles which are purely narrative and descriptive and lacking in analytical content are not likely to be accepted.

Contributions should be in a clear, concise, readable style and written in English.

Articles submitted to Africa Quarterly should be original contributions and should not be under consideration by any other publication at the same time. The Editor is responsible for the selection and acceptance of articles, but responsibility for errors of facts and opinions expressed in them rests with authors. Manuscripts submitted should be accompanied with a statement that the same has not been submitted/accepted for publication elsewhere. Copyright of articles published in the Africa Quarterly will be retained by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR).

Manuscripts submitted to Africa Quarterly should be typed double space on one side of the paper and two copies should be sent. A diskette (3 ½” ) MS-Dos compatible, and e-mail as an attachment should be sent along with the two hard copies. Authors should clearly indicate their full name, address, e-mail, academic status and current institutional affiliation. A brief biographical note (one paragraph) about the writer may also be sent.

The length of the article should not normally exceed 7,000 to 8,000 words, or 20 to 25 ( A-4 size) typed pages in manuscript. Titles should be kept as brief as possible.

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Footnote style: In the case of books, the author, title of the book, place of publication, publisher, date of publication and page numbers should be given in that order, e.g. Basil Davidson, ‘The Blackman’s Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation State’, London, James Curry, 1992, pp. 15-22.

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In addition to major articles and research papers, Africa Quarterly also publishes short articles in the section titled News & Events. They may not exceed 2,000 words in length. Contributions of short stories and poems are also welcome.

Contributors to Africa Quarterly are entitled to two copies of the issue in which their article appears in addition to a modest honorarium. Contributors of major articles accepted for publication will receive up to a maximum of Rs. 4,000.

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Indian Council for Cultural Relations Azad Bhavan Indraprastha Estate New Delhi-110 002 E-mail: africa.quarterly@gmail.com Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers of India Regd No. 14380/61

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Indo-Egyptian ties across the centuries

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Celebrating ‘Ghana at Fifty, India at Sixty’

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Dahej in India and lobola in Zambia

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In Conversation: Neera-Kapur-Dromson

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Sino-Indian synergy in Francophone Africa

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Indo-Mauritian relations on a new high

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IBSA foreign ministers meet in New Delhi

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