4. New Spacefarers

The space domain has evolved rapidly in the past decades. An expanding ecosystem of private actors is lowering the costs of space technologies with continued miniaturization,277 and high capacity of innovation.278 There has been an uptake in space programs in developing countries as technologies become more accessible, particularly with the rise of open-source models for systems, as well as entirely customizable system builds. CubeSats are well within the capabilities of most nations, due to their affordability and simplicity.

Space ambitions serve as inspiration and stimulus to the next generation, particularly those entering STEM fields. A space sector promotes science and mathematics in schools and tertiary education. In general, involvement in space programs requires education investment and upskilling the workforce to develop capacity for engagement in space activities. Developing economies stand to benefit from increased participation in space programs, leading to diversification of workforces, which could have an impact on brain drains in the longer term.279 Space programs are a major source of national pride. Entering the league of spacefaring nations opens opportunities and elevates a country’s status in the eyes of the world. In addition to enhancing international status, participation in space can boost national security as countries adopt their own space-based systems for military uses and national critical infrastructure. Generally, safety, security, disaster management are powerful drivers for space activity in emerging spacefaring countries. For example, in the Philippines, where typhoons are a significant issue, disaster management is a focus area for space technology development.280

Space access enables countries to pursue sovereign capabilities, reducing dependence on major spacefaring nations. Countries seek access to the space domain to safeguard their sovereignty, for example by increasing national security in handling their own communications, or deploying satellites with Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities.

As more countries establish space programs, there is potential for new national identities to emerge, both among the populace and as conceived by governments curating the image for international space business. There is a possibility that space programs could enable a shift from ethnic and tribal identities, towards a collective sense of national identity. This could cause

CubeSats are well within the capabilities of most Otnations ”

he 277 Lim (2018). 278 Wrench (2019). 279 This direct link has yet to be established in a study examining the direct effects of space program uptake on long-term workforce brain drain. r 280 International Space University (2017) Aress: A Roadmap for Emerging Space States. https://isulibrary.isunet.edu/doc_num.php?explnum_id=1350 EQUITABLE ACCESS TO SPACE co INTERPLANETARY INITIATIVE

a loss in cultural heritage in some societies, but there is also the potential for healing internal divisions and conflict.

As more actors enter the space domain, there is greater potential for sharing the costs of research and development, as well as joining established space programs. Emerging space players will also have the opportunity to "leapfrog" certain technology and development phases, jumping directly to the latest technologies.281 In Myanmar, 4G cellular network services proliferated throughout the country, connecting many remote areas and generating more demand for high bandwidth.282

As more countries establish space programs, there is likely to be a general “spill over” effect, as space technologies drive technological development in other industries, such as mineral or chemical processing. The impact of the Apollo mission on the wider industry of the United States is an example of these wider longterm benefits of space programs. In general, joining space could boost the quality of technology production as national industry adopts higher quality standards and applies high-tech knowledge beyond the space domain.283

Spacefaring countries can also benefit from “spin-off” and “spin-in” space technologies (see box on right). “Spin-off” sees technologies developed for space usages have direct applicability to terrestrial technologies.284 The concept of “spin-in” describes a process of technologies developed outside the space sector serving uses within it.285 Both of these concepts offer strong arguments for investment in space technology.

Spin-off and spin-in

“Spin-off” is a process in which technologies developed specifically for space are applied to other uses. The most frequently cited example of spin-off is Memory Foam, which was developed to protect test pilots during flight. Today, Memory Foam is used in an array of household items.286

“Spin-in” technologies are developed for uses on Earth, with applicability to the space sector. For example, equipment used in the textile industry was used to solve engineering challenges in space relating to the use of long tethers.287

281 Yayboke, Erol, William Crumpler, Wiliam A. Carter (2020) The Need for a Leapfrog Strategy. CSIS. 10 April 2020. https://www.csis.org/analysis/need-leapfrog-strategy 282 Holmes, Mark (2020) Telcos talk Bluntly about Satellite’s Backhaul Future. Via Satellite. https://interactive.satellitetoday.com/via/july-2020/telcos-talk-bluntly-about-satellites-backhaul-future/ 283 Brichta, Michal (2021) Spin-In and Procurement Support as Key Components for Industry Development in Emerging Space Countries. 2 December 2021. Mary Ann Liebert. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/space.2021.0014 284 Simpson, Michael (2010) Spin-Out and Spin-In in the Newest Space Age. International Space University https://iisc.im/wpcontent/uploads/2016/07/Spin-Out-and-Spin-In-Simpson.pdf 285 Ibid. 286 Kennedy Space Center (2018) NASA Spinoffs – Everyday Products from NASA. https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/blog/nasa-spinoffs 287 Simpson (2010).