Inus Goussard Thesis 2014 by Inus Goussard

LIVING FOOD MACHINE

The design of a Centre for Resilient Urban Food Systems in Sunnyside, Tshwane.

DECLARATION The design of a Centre for Resilient Urban Food Systems in Sunnyside, Tshwane. By MARTHINUS HERMANUS JOHANNES GOUSSARD Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree: MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: ARCHITECTURE [PROFESSIONAL] The Department of Architecture FACULTY OF ENGINEERING: TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Thesis administrator: Prof. Gerald Steyn Thesis mentor: Mr. Phillip Crafford November 2014 I, Marthinus Hermanus Johannes Goussard 209292653, am a student registered for the course: M.Tech. Degree of Architecture [Professional] for the study year of 2013. I hereby declare that I am fully aware that plagiarism (the use of someone elseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work without permission and /or without acknowledging the original sources) is wrong. I confirm that the work submitted for assessment for the above course is my own unaided work except where I have stated explicitly otherwise. I have followed the required conventions in referencing thoughts, ideas, and visual material of others. For this purpose, I have referred to the Tshwane University of Technology report writing standards. I understand that the Tshwane University of Technology may take disciplinary action against me if there is a belief that this is not my unaided work or that I have failed to acknowledge the sources of the ideas or words in my own words.

ABSTRACT A substantial proportion of the African population is deprived of access to safe and reliable food. Since the advent of cultivation to support human settlement, development of farming practices has significantly altered the relationship between man and nature. This is evident in the linear processes adopted in human systems, as opposed to the cyclic nature of the natural environment. The industrialisation of the global food network alienated communities from food production through rapid urbanisation and subsequent segregation. Farmland has been extensively eroded, with long supple chains resulting in an energy intensive and wasteful system. As cities encroach on former industrial wastelands, the lack of available land informs the prediction that human settlement patterns will become increasingly urban in nature. Many people in Tshwane currently live with long-term malnutrition. Throughout South Africa, food insecurity is growing most rapidly in formal urban areas; referred to as food deserts due to their inherently limited access to food. Designing urban environments for local food security has become imperative. Drawing currently disconnected industrial processes into the inner city by way of mixed-use industrial ecology can generate a new cultural paradigm regarding the relationship between the city and the systems that sustain it.

In response, this dissertation presents the design of a research centre to promote a resilient urban food network in Sunnyside, Tshwane. An architectural intervention at a hyperlocal level, by way of agripuncture, aims to inspire urban regeneration on a large scale; reconnecting the city, its people and industry. This intervention counteracts fragmentation and resource depletion. Context and nature driven design principles inform a building that actively engages with its ever-evolving local identity. Conscious tectonic expression stimulates a sense of interconnectedness between people and their urban environment. Appropriate geo-climatic technology is combined with local building materials and labour. Human scale and movement patterns are considered to enhance integration of both the physical and cultural layers of the city. A combination of high- and low-intensity cultivation methods is integrated into the building to create a balance between optimised crop yield and community participation and education. The holistic integration of systems, people and the built environment aims to create a building that is not merely a machine for living in, but a living machine.

ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to Mr Phillip Crafford, for your dedicated mentorship and patience throughout the process of completing this dissertation. To Mel Stander, thank you for your valued guidance in the logical structuring of this document. Congratulations to my fellow students, you started this dissertation, selflessly shared your knowledge throughout, and completed it with me. I must also thank Tshwane University of Technology for the financial support I received in completing this degree. Bets le Roux, my mother, you provided me with the opportunity to pursue my passion for architecture and selflessly supported me throughout. Thank you, I love you. Johann le Roux, my fiancĂŠ, you inspired me to take the leap and finish what I had started. Thank you for your unconditional love and support throughout this journey.

III

CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION [1-11] 1.1 outline brief – 1 1.2 CURRENT SITUATION AND PROJECT MOTIVATION – 3 1.3 STATUS QUO: BUILDING INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE – 5 1.4 RESEARCH AND DESIGN STRATEGY – 9 1.4.1 Interviews – 10 1.5.

ARGUMENT – 11

1.6. LIMITATIONS – 11 1.7.

DELIMITATIONS – 11

2. ISSUES OF CONCERN [12-24] 2.1. PROXIMITY: RECONNECTING FOOD, PEOPLE AND THE CITY – 12 2.1.1 Industrialisation as Spatial and Social Divide – 13 2.1.2 Reconnecting the Parts – 13 2.1.3 Mixed-Use Integration through Industrial Ecology – 13 2.1.4 Local Proximities and Identity – 14 2.1.5 Urban Agripuncture – 15 2.1.6 Proximity: Design Principles Gathered – 15 2.2. FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION – 16 2.2.1 Form Follows the Machine – 17 2.2.2 Form Follows Nature – 17 2.2.3 Form Mimics Nature: Biomimicry – 17 2.2.4 Biomimetic Tectonic Intelligibility – 18 2.2.5 Human Scale – 19 2.2.6 Movement as Experience Generator – 19 2.1.7 Form: Design Principles Gathered – 19

2.3. TECHNOLOGY: A LIVING FOOD MACHINE – 20 2.3.1 Urban Agriculture – 21 2.3.2 Appropriate Technology – 21

2.3.3 Vertically Stacked Farm – 22 2.3.4 Productive Green Roof – 23 2.3.5 Systems Integration – 23 2.3.6 Technology: Design Principles Gathered – 23 2.4. CONSOLIDATED ISSUE-BASED DESIGN PRINCIPLES – 24

3. PRECEDENT AND CASE STUDIES [25-39] 3.1 HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE: LOW-INTENSITY PRODUCTIVE ROOFTOP – 25 3.1.1 Motivation – 25 3.1.2 Overview – 25 3.1.3 Findings – 25 3.1.4 Applied Design Criteria – 25 3.2 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE: LOW-TECH COMMUNITY CENTRE – 27 3.2.1 Motivation – 27 3.2.2 Overview – 27 3.2.3 Findings – 27 3.2.4 Applied Design Criteria – 30 3.3 URBAN AGRICULTURE: HIGH-INTENSITY COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE – 31 3.3.1 Motivation – 31 3.3.2 Overview – 31 3.3.3 Findings – 31 3.3.4 Applied Design Criteria – 32 3.4 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE: HIGH-TECH RESEARCH SHARING – 33 3.4.1 Motivation – 33 3.4.2 Overview – 33 3.4.3 Findings – 33 3.4.4 Applied Design Criteria – 34 3.5 Solar and Contextual Carving – 35 3.5.1 Motivation – 35 3.5.2 Overview – 35 3.5.3 Findings – 35

3.5.4 Applied Design Criteria – 36 3.6 Green Over the Grey – 37 3.6.1 Motivation – 37 3.6.2 Overview – 37 3.6.3 Findings – 37 3.6.4 Applied Design Criteria – 38 3.7 SUMMERY OF APPLIED DESIGN CRITERIA – 39

4. CONTEXT AND SITE APPRAISAL [40-60] 4.1 Site Selection: Exploring the Point of Agripuncture 4.1.1 Africa – 40 4.1.2 South Africa – 40 4.1.3 Gauteng Province – 40 4.1.4 City of Tshwane – 42 4.1.5 Pretoria Inner City – 44 4.2 SUNNYSIDE: POINT OF AGRIPUNCTURE 4.2.1 Context and History – 46 4.2.2 Geography and Climate – 48

– 40

– 46

4.3 Site Analysis – 49 4.3.1 Immediate Site Proximities – 50 4.3.2 Robert Sobukwe Street – 54 4.3.3 Walkable Site Proximities – 55 • Public Open Space – 56 • Water – 57 • Access Routes – 58 • Education and Agricultural Bodies – 59

5. DESIGN CRITERIA [61-71]

5.2 PROGRAMME AND ACCOMMODATION – 63 5.2.1 Food Process – 63 5.2.1.1 Cultivation (16.5% of community requirement) – 64 Low Tech Rooftop – 64 • • High-Tech Indoor – 64 5.2.1.2 Processing – 65 5.2.1.3 Storage – 66 5.2.1.4 Distribution – 66 5.2.1.5 Consumption – 66 5.2.2 Education – 68 5.2.2.1 Private Learning Spaces – 68 5.2.2.2 Public Learning Spaces – 68 5.2.3 Technology – 69 5.2.3.1 Energy – 69 • Organic Waste to Energy – 69 • Solar Energy – 70 • Wind Energy – 70 • Geothermal Energy – 70 5.2.3.2 Water – 71 5.2.4 Basement Parking – 71

6. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT [72-95] 6.1. URBAN INTERVENTION – 72 6.1.1. Walkable Community Intervention – 72 6.1.2. Future Vision for the Inner City – 74 6.2. DESIGN CONCEPT – 75 6.3. MASSING EXPLORATION – 76 6.4. LAYOUT EXPLORATION AND BUILDING PROGRAMME – 84 6.5. SPATIAL AND TECTONIC EXPLORATION THROUGH SECTION – 90

5.1 FOOD DEMAND – 61 5.1.1 Study Area Population – 61 5.1.2 Fruit and Vegetable Requirements – 61 5.1.3 Study Area Food Production Potential (83,5% of community requirement) – 62 V

7. TECHNICAL REVIEW [95-113] 7.1. MATERIALITY – 95 7.2. STRUCTURE – 96 7.3. TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS – 102 7.3.1 Organic Waste to Energy – 102 7.3.2 Solar and Wind Energy – 103 7.3.3 Geothermal Energy – 104 7.3.4 Water Treatment and Storage – 105 7.4. DETAILING – 106

8. DESIGN RESOLUTION [114-134] 9. CONCLUSION [135-139] 9.1. REFERENCES – 136

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 outline brief

Fig. 02_Urban ecology. Image by Author [2014]

Food forms an integral part of the basic foundation of human development psychology (Maslow, 1987). Yet, a large proportion of the African population is food insecure with many people in Tshwane also living with chronic malnutrition (Department of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 2005), severely undermining the attainment of their most fundamental of needs Throughout South Africa, poverty and food insecurity are growing more rapidly in urban areas than in rural settlements. For every hungry person living in an informal urban settlement, there are two living in a formal urban settlement (Department of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 2005). The industrialised food system has extensively eroded farmland. People have been alienated from the production process through rapid urbanisation and segregation, resulting in an energy intensive and wasteful system (Cockrall-King, 2012). With a lack of available land as cities rapidly encroach on their industrial wastelands, the future of the human environment is most certainly urban (United Nations, 2004). Designing urban ecology for local food security has become critical. Fig. 01_Maslowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hierarchy of needs. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 03_Urban food insecurity. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 04_Sunnyside resilient and productive urban food system. Image by Author [2014]

This dissertation presents the design of a research centre for urban food production in Sunnyside, Tshwane. The aim of the centre is to facilitate a resilient and productive urban food network through research and education. Living laboratories are to be programmed into the building through appropriate building integrated agriculture technology. This will allow researchers to experiment with production yields, while students and the public are educated through an interactive experience. The proposed facility responds to an increasing need for food security in the South African city by exploring the following issues: â&#x20AC;˘ Proximity of interrelated parts as a measure to reconnect food with the city and its people. â&#x20AC;˘ Integrating agriculture with a building as a unique opportunity of giving form to an innovative productive building type. â&#x20AC;˘ Employing context appropriate technology as a driver to challenge the food production status quo. Closer proximity between the city, its people and industry can potentially counteract fragmentation and resource depletion (Coleman, 2005). The principle of industrial ecology integrates urban and natural systems with industrial systems to absorb waste back into the cycle as energy (Garner et al, 1995). This allows for mixeduse industrial integration of the food system into the urban fabric. Reinterpretation and application of the local architectural language should inform a building that engages its ever evolving local identity (Brislin, 2012). Borrowing from the concept of acupuncture, agripuncture is envisaged to integrate an agricultural solution at a hyperlocal level (Miller, 2011).

The form of the building and integration with the context must, ideally, mimic natural processes. Planted surfaces as productive landscapes assist in climate control of the building envelope. Materials, structure, and function are integrated to reflect natural process as design inspiration. Tectonic expression of biomimetic design principles is imperative to establish a sense of interconnection between the building user and context (Richards, 2001). To become an extension of physical and cultural urban systems, the building will anticipate human scale and movement. Fig. 05_Proximity, food and technology. Image by Author [2014]

Appropriate technology promotes a geo-climatic response in conjunction with the use of local building materials and construction techniques (Benninger, 2002). The holistic integration of systems, people and the urban fabric will inform a building that is not merely a machine for living in, but a living machine. Vertical stacking of greenhouses are to be adopted to provide high yield food production. Low intensity community rooftop gardens engage the local community. Organic waste generated by the community and building offer substantial untapped potential for the production of compost, fertiliser and energy. Solar, wind and geothermal energy are also to be harvested. Water obtained from grey-and rainwater sources and from the nearby Walker Spruit are to be treated on site.

1.2 CURRENT SITUATION AND PROJECT MOTIVATION

Fig. 06_2010-2012 Food insecurity. Image by Author [2014]

According to The World Food Summit of 1996, food security exists “when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.” From 2010 to 2012, 12.5% of people in the world and 22.9% of the African population were reported to be food insecure. Although South Africa’s food resources were more than adequate to feed the entire country, a large number of the population was still vulnerable to extensive food insecurity due to deprived access to food. Many people in Tshwane also lived with chronic longterm malnutrition that hindered development potential, economic growth, safety security and community forming. This in turn weakened the possibilities of reducing poverty in our communities (Department of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 2005). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposes that food, as part of our basic physiologic needs, forms an integral part of the foundation of human development psychology (Maslow, 1987). During the 1930’s, the industrialisation of the global food system, fuelled by an abundance of oil, was exported to the world as a ‘Green Revolution’ aimed at eliminating world hunger. Subsequently, farmland worldwide has been eroded and exhausted to keep up with population growth. By 2012, it was estimated that 90% of global arable land was already being cultivated. On the other hand, nutritional value of crops has diminished dramatically while food related diseases have increased substantially. Through economically driven industrial agriculture, 75% of the biological diversity of food crops has been destroyed. Presently, climate change is taking its toll on specialised global food production systems. With concentrated production of mono-crops in specialised regions, failure in just one region could results in a worldwide food crisis (Cockrall-King, 2012). Modern agriculture consumes 70% of the fresh water available, at an average of 5000l per industrial eater per day. The United Nations has identified scarcity of fresh water as the defining socio-economic factor in the coming century (United Nations, 2006). 3

Fig. 07_Industrial agriculture timeline. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 08_Industrial agriculture negative outcomes. Image by Author [2014]

Society has become completely dependent on the use of abundantly available fossil fuel to provide its food. However, peak oil is devastating the Green Revolutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to deliver cheap food for all, as shown by increases in global food prices. As a result of industrialised food production the human diet has changed more during the last 50 years than in the 10 000 before that. A capitalist philosophy drives the mass production food machine and has almost completely exterminated community involvement in favour of enriching a few. It also facilitates rapid urbanisation, creating further separation between people, food and industrial wastelands. The absence of a transparent food system is stripping mankind of the vital knowledge it needs to feed itself. The supermarket as the face of the industrial supply chain has expatriated localised food distribution through the cleverly marketed image of convenience (Cockrall-King, 2012). Fig. 09_Urban future. Image by Author [2014]

Displacement of the remaining small scale farmers contributes to an unprecedented migration to cities. Currently, more than half of the world population reside in cities and it is estimated that 80% of the world population will live in an urban environment by 2050 (United Nations, 2004). Urban sprawl in the city of Tshwane and around the world contributes to a phenomenon referred to as food deserts; high density urban cores that house large low-income populations and offers limited access to food (Department of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 2005). Due to global trends of industrialised urbanisation and food insecurity, it has become critical to design urban ecology to provide for local food security. Addressing a constitutional right to food security, the proposed Food Security Policy for the City of Tshwane outlines the importance of raising the level of nutrition and access to food of, especially, vulnerable members of the society. One solution to address food security, without further encroaching on the few remaining natural ecosystems of the world, is through urban agriculture (Despommier, 2011). 4

1.3 STATUS QUO: BUILDING INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE A short development history of building integrated agriculture illustrates how the state-of-the art of the proposed building type has evolved.This offers a better understanding of patterns that may guide future development in the field. 1909: The earliest known drawing of building integrated agriculture is published in Life Magazine. The building depicts vertically stacked homes that cultivate food for their own consumption (Piccolino, 2013). 1922: Le Corbusier develops Immeubles-Villas; a series of isolated stacked apartments with private open green balconies (Gallagher, 2001). 1972: SITE proposes a concept titled Highrise of Homes; a modular tower structure with an infill of private homes and potted landscaping that resembles a stacked suburbia (Site, n.d.). 1989: Kenneth Yeang envisions Vegetated Architecture; high rise mixed-use buildings as cities in the sky with productive open green space integrated throughout. His Mesiniaga Tower of 1992 encapsulates this design vision (Mulder, 2013). 1999: Dr Dickson Despommier reinvents building integrated agriculture with his concept of the Vertical Farm; commercial production in stacked greenhouse skyscrapers nestled within the urban environment (Despommier, 2011). In 2009, Sky Greens Farms built the first working commercial prototype, featuring stacked vegetable production in rotating towers (Rosenfield, 2012). Recent advances in building integrated agriculture technologies have enabled a growing number of working commercial prototypes to be built throughout the world. While substantial increases in theoretical design interventions indicate a growing global interest in building integrated agriculture (Piccolino, 2013). 5

Fig. 10_Building integrated agriculture timeline. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 11_Urban agriculture network. Image by Architecture and Food. Available at: http://www.architectureandfood.com/

Today, building integrated agriculture can be defined as a combination of horticulture and architecture by way of engineering. Controlled indoor environments allow for increased crop production and quality. Despite the high cost of land and a lack of arable land in most urban areas, the opportunity exists to produce large quantities of food within the built environment. A study of New York City, for example, reveals that conservative commercial green house production on unused rooftops can feed the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population more than three times over (Droege, 2009). Urban and peri-urban food production through productive landscapes and building integrated agriculture already feed one quarter of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban population (Despommier, 2011). Urban agriculture offer advantages to farmers, such as increased demand, proximity to distribution networks and an abundance of cheap resources like organic waste and waste water (Cockrall-King, 2012). Factors that limit extensive implementation of building integrated agriculture are difficulties with appropriate site selection, zoning restrictions and lack of distribution networks and integration of technology. Continued research, development and testing through working examples are required to drive future applications (Droege, 2009). Both a high value speciality food network and household network for own consumption should be developed for the City of Tshwane. The success of the proposed urban food network will rely on improved support services that promote community and micro enterprise involvement (Department of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 2005).

horticulture

Fig. 12_Building integrated agriculture. Image by Author [2014]

architecture

engineering

Fig. 13_Building as research platform. Image by Author [2014]

â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is a dire need to strengthen links between research, training and implementation to maximize farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s benefits from implementation services. Subsequently, Tshwane should strive to create a platform where researchers, trainers, and extension could interact to synergise programme planning and implementation.â&#x20AC;? building integrated agriculture

The design of the proposed building aims to provide the platform for research, education and implementation that is essential for the development of resilient urban agriculture. Reintroduction of urban food networks offer unique spatial, social and environmental opportunities for architects (Viljoen, 2012). These opportunities will be explored throughout the dissertation to inform a design intervention capable of evolving with the state-of-the-art of agritecture. 8

Fig. 14_Design process diagram. Image by Author [2014]

1.4 RESEARCH AND DESIGN STRATEGY In Table 01 a brief summary of the research methodology, methods, techniques and desired outcomes for each research component is shown. A better understanding of the current situation, regarding food production, highlighted issues of concern related to proximity, building form and appropriate technology is required. Historical analysis of building integrated agriculture creates an understanding of patterns that may guide future development. The state-of-the-art of building integrated agriculture reveals possible constraints for practical implementation of building integrated agriculture.

Fig. 15_Interviews. Image by Author [2014]

1.4.1 Interviews

Interviews were conducted with a number of professionals to aid in resolving the various problems regarding constraints in the scope of the project. The following people provided valuable insight and significantly contributed to the outcomes of this dissertation: [1] Ben Safronovitz: Hydroponic specialist at Perfect Grow in Krugersdorp [2013]. Mr Safronovitz provided a detailed explanation of the complete hydroponic growing system during a tour of the Perfect Grow facilities. He confirmed the viability of organic hydroponics through his on-going experiments in excluding fossil fuel products from food production. He insisted that knowledge accessibility needs to be improved in order to further the commercial hydroponic farming industry in South Africa. [2] Caleb Harper: Registered architect with a masters degree from MIT. He is the founder of the CityFARM research group at the MIT Media Lab in Cambridge, USA [2014]. Harper leads a multi-disciplinary group of architects, engineers, urban planners, economists and botanists in the exploration and development of urban agricultural systems. The CityFarm prototype is a small faรงade-integrated hydroponic module used for experimentation. During a visit to the project, Harper explained the relevant technology of controlled environment agriculture. He also elaborated on the wider impact of urban agriculture on the built environment and the subsequent role of agritecture in its community. [3] Cenette Dippenaar: Registered landscape architect with a masters degree from the University of Pretoria. She is a director and principal landscape architect at Design Node in Tshwane [2014]. Dippenaar assisted in formulating a workable approach for living water treatment and storage interventions along Walker Spruit. She also provided valuable information on building integrated vegetation technologies. Her extensive knowledge of the inner city green space guided the formulation of an urban vision with the proposed building as central hub. [4] Mabule Mokhine: BSC degree in mathematical modelling from UNISA. He is the executive director for The GreenHouse Project in Johannesburg [2013]. Mr. Mokhine shared knowledge of the day to day functions of a walk-in demonstration centre. A tour to their nearby rooftop garden on an existing residential building also provided information on low tech productive interventions. [5] Martin Smith: Registered international engineer. He heads the Environmentally Sustainable Design team and is also the mechanical service leader at Aurecon in Tshwane [2014]. Smith assisted with holistic integration of building systems relating to water, waste, energy and climate control.

1.5. ARGUMENT

1.6. LIMITATIONS

The argument is that the proposed Centre for Resilient Urban Food Systems could provide an educational platform to support a collaborative urban food production network within the City of Tshwane. A resilient and productive urban society can be stimulated by the reintegration of food, the city and its people; by drawing proximities of interrelated parts closer; by developing productive building integrated architecture; and by integrating appropriate local technologies. Drawing detached industrial processes into the inner city by way of industrial ecology can generate a new consciousness regarding the role of industrial programmes in sustaining everyday city life. The envisaged urban environment has the potential to improve inner city food security and overall wellness, and create numerous employment opportunities. Underutilised buildings and land can be regenerated and the waste, water and energy systems of the city could be integrated to improve efficiency.

The ideal scope of data collection is limited due to a lack of established local precedent. Research is complemented by way of foreign examples to inform the design. Crop yield-, energy- and water usage data for different cultivation methods vary due to changing spatial and climatic growing conditions. Presented data is based on models that bare the closest resemblance to the conditions selected for this dissertation.

1.7. DELIMITATIONS Due to a shared interests in urban agriculture, it can be deduced that the City of Tshwane, in joint venture with the Agricultural Research Council, Agri SA, the CSIR and the universities in Tshwane, could become a feasible client for the proposed project. It is assumed that the selected site will become available for development and that demolition of existing structures will be possible. It is noted that current zoning restrictions on the site does not allow for mixed-use industrial integration or for an organic waste-to-energy facility. For the purpose of this dissertation, it is assumed that these restrictions can be overcome. Advanced technological systems inform architectural design and are not resolved to completion.

The urban framework and open green space design will not be resolved to completion, but serve to illustrate intent for greater contextual integration.

2. ISSUES OF CONCERN Three issues of concern are presented and analysed in this dissertation. Analysis based outcomes inform the formulation of relevant issue-based design criteria. Issues identified for further investigation include: 2.1. Proximity: Reconnecting food, people and the city; 2.2. Form follows function; and 2.3. Technology: A living food machine.

2.1. PROXIMITY: RECONNECTING FOOD, PEOPLE AND THE CITY â&#x20AC;&#x153;We are all co-producers.â&#x20AC;? Carlo Petrini (Cockrall-King, 2012) In an ecosystem, tight-knit groupings of interrelated parts develop relationships that allow for optimised and seamless flow of energy, from one level to the next. There is a significant difference between the linear processes adopted in human nature, compared to the cyclic nature of the environment (Despommier, 2011). Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 16_Proximity of food, people and the city. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 17_Industrial ecology. Image by Author [2014]

2.1.1 Industrialisation as Spatial and Social Divide

Less than a hundred years ago, the social and economic context of communities were imbedded in one another. The beginning of agriculture led to events that would permanently alter the relationship between man and nature. Industrialisation subsequently replaced human interaction in the process of production, resulting in social alienation that reduced the individual to a spectator. Society has converted from subsistence to capitalist consumerism, a linear model capable of excess and waste (Lyson, 2004). Increased industrial specialisation fuelled the development of mega urban areas that became increasingly disjointed from the systems that supported them; solidifying the divide between areas of production and areas of consumption. An out-of-sight, out-of-mind mentality forced industry into wastelands on the urban periphery to lessen its effects of pollution and waste on the rest of the city (Cockrall-King, 2012).

2.1.2 Reconnecting the Parts

It is widely considered that the resources sustaining the food network, including oil, water, arable land and even farming knowledge, are in rapid decline. The monolithic industrial network is especially vulnerable because of its long-distance, fossil-fuel dependent supply chains. Without infinite inputs, humanity will have to re-evaluate the current system by addressing proximity of the interrelated parts (Cockrall-King, 2012). We are indeed retransitioning, moving from a linear vision of the world as machine, back to a cyclic and evolving ecological vision (Richards, 2001). Synthesising interrelated parts can also offer a counteraction to urban fragmentation and isolation (Coleman, 2005).

2.1.3 Mixed-Use Integration through Industrial Ecology

The reductionist approach of strict mono-functional zoning failed to anticipate the complexity of the urban fabric, and is now considered to be a major contributor to urban sprawl and segregation. By the turn of the 21st century, planning paradigms started shifting towards integrated land use. A fine-grained mixed environment is considered as a crucial element in establishing urban vitality. It facilitates increased pedestrian activity, social interaction and equality (Hirt, 2007). Mixed-use smart growth development is considered to be especially appropriate for the South African context. Our urban landscape is still largely affected by the socio-cultural and economic impacts of colonialism, apartheid, industrialised segregation and democratic reform. Each of these development phases has weaved distinct heritage layers into our cities. Sensitive response to these cultural layers is essential for inclusive spatial reform (Ramabodu et al, 2007). Integration of industrial land into commercial and residential areas is conventionally not desired due to associated health hazards and negative social perception. Industrial ecology studies the physical, chemical, and biological interactions within cyclical industrial systems; in which nothing with available energy or useful material is lost. It attempts to provide a new conceptual framework for integrating urban and natural systems with industrial activity (Garner et al, 1995). It is envisaged that the principles of industrial ecology will render the proposed agricultural programme suitable for mixed-use integration within an inner city area.

Fig. 18_Local proximities and identity. Image by Author [2014]

2.1.4 Local Proximities and Identity

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Architecture should facilitate Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s homecomingâ&#x20AC;? Aldo van Eyck (Hertzberger et al, 1982). In the early 20th century, Le Corbusier defined the concept of a building as a machine for living in. It was an attempt to free society from an overburdening sense of the past by creating a new architectural language (Brooker, 2005). Cultural identity, however, creates a sense of belonging at the root of our humanity. This sense of rootedness has been eroded by global standardisation, leading to neutralisation of the productive scale of variety across the world. Architecture that stems from place and memory has the capacity to nurture a spirit of local identity (Brislin, 2012). Such architecture does not indulge self-interested monologues, but engages in narrative with its inherited urban setting (Pallasmaa, 2012). The idea is not to romanticise historical context by assuming that it is inherently good, but to evolve its positive design aspects by means of critical analysis. Sensitive contemporary reinterpretation and application of rich architectural tradition can positively engage with an ever evolving local identity. A local order is engendered into buildings through years of adaptation to socio-cultural conditions, climate, available materials and technology. It informs an architectural language that communicates cultural values. Orienting attention towards heritage structures can further promote a sense of urban memory (Benninger, 2002). The use of local and recycled building materials and construction techniques is proposed to enhance a sense of inherited craft in the construction industry. The term locavore was coined in 2007 to describe a person interested in consuming locally grown food (Cockrall-King, 2012). The proposed building will aid in creating a culture of responsible local consumption.

Fig. 19_Urban agricpuncture. Image by Author [2014]

2.1.5 Urban Agripuncture

Cities are multi-layered systems in a continuous state of flux that are confronted with challenges endemic to the very concept of their urbanism. Therefore, cities involve interventions as dynamic as life itself. For the purpose of this dissertation, an adaptive framework called urban acupuncture will be considered to address these challenges. Borrowing from the concept of acupuncture, urban renewalists suggest that revitalisation at a hyperlocal level can spark a process to reverse largescale urban deterioration. Large urban frameworks tend to be less effective because they fail to expressly include communities (Miller, 2011). The building as acupuncture needle can root into the smallest of cracks in the urban fabric to relieve tension and eventually breathe new life into the city. An integrated agricultural programme will serve to investigate urban agripuncture as a means to engage the collective intellect of the neighbourhood.

2.1.6 Proximity: Design Principles Gathered

Tight knit proximities of people, city and industry in a closed loop system offer a counteraction to fragmentation and resource depletion. Industrial ecology provides the framework for the envisaged mixed-use industrial integration, while cultural and contextual proximities can foster a sense of local identity and stewardship. The concept of urban agripuncture will inform a building integrated agricultural solution at a hyperlocal level capable of igniting urban regeneration. 15

2.2. FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION â&#x20AC;&#x153;It is the prevailing law of all things organic, and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of all things human and all things superhuman, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the lawâ&#x20AC;? (Sullivan, 1896).

Fig. 20_Form. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.1 Form Follows the Machine

“Our century first invented the machine and then took it as a life model.” Folco Portinari 1989 (Cockrall-King, 2012) Le Corbusier’s ideal of integrating architecture with the machine age led to the creation of purism; buildings were refined, simplified and stripped of all ornament. His concepts of standardisation suggested that the building industry should adopt the processes of the automotive mass production industry. The aim was for architectural production to be as efficient as factory line assembly. The building was reduced to a machine for living in (Gallagher, 2001). Louis Sullivan revealed his opinion “form is derived from function” in 1896 when he explored a functional building type that had never existed before – the skyscraper. The skyscraper’s stacked spatial organisation, combined with practical functional requirements informed Sullivan’s concept regarding form and function (Crus, 2012). These principles reflected the spirit of the age. In much the same way, advances in building-integrated agriculture provide a unique opportunity; to give form to a productive building type that has only recently taken shape.

Fig. 21_Form follows the machine. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.2 Form Follows Nature

Despite his conviction for a machine aesthetic, Le Corbusier believed that his architecture could re-connect people and nature. Social and historical context may have been overlooked in his pursuit of machine precision. Yet, principles regarding use, function, structure and the resultant appearance of Le Corbusier’s free plan connected the building with its social and historical context through visual integration (Brooker, 2005). Frank Lloyd Wright evolved the relation between form and function, stating that form and function are one. With this he acknowledged natural precedent, asserting that form and function in architecture is an extension of natural principles (Cruz, 2012). Design principles derived from Wright’s theories include: • A building should be integrated with its site. • A building should reflect natural simplicity and unity through form and composition that result from a holistic integration of material, structure, and purpose. • Materials should be selected according to- and reflect structural and aesthetic function.

Fig. 22_Form follows nature. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.3 Form Mimics Nature: Biomimicry

The term biomimicry was first defined in 1962 as a scientific application. It refers to a method in which biological forms, processes and systems are mimicked. Other related, nature inspired, design principles are defined below (Pawlyn, 2011): • Bio-utilisation physically includes nature as part of a building to benefit from symbiotic relationships. • Biomorphism draws inspiration from nature’s eccentric forms through symbolic association. • Biophilia alludes to the instinctive bond between human beings and other living things. Form follows function, and building function can be derived from natural processes. Industrial ecology mimics natural processes within the food production system. For the purpose of this dissertation, it can be derived that form should follow the food production system. People, food and architecture can coexist as a living machine. It should be noted that pure scientific application of natural principles will not spontaneously result in good architecture. Other design principles, as explored through this dissertation, will also be incorporated to produce a balanced design outcome.

Fig. 23_Form mimics nature. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 24_Biomimetic tectonic intelligibility. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.4 Biomimetic Tectonic Intelligibility “The voice of nature loudly cries, And many a message from the skies, That something in us never dies.” Robert Burns 1790 (Burns et al, 1938)

The essence of architecture is not only the effective creation of space, but also the manner in which it is comprehended (Norberg-Schulz, 1980). According to Louis Sullivan, form instils identity in each part of nature so that we are able to distinguish each part from the other. Natural form does not only serve to distinguish, but also inherently reflect functional purpose (Cruz, 2012). Wilson’s biophilia hypothesis, concerning aesthetic appreciation, notes the fundamental pleasure that humans experience in response to nature and its patterns. Experiencing nature offers resonance with both interconnection with deeper life patterns and coevolution as part of an on-going process. The essence of beauty can thus be defined as a sense of union drawing us beyond isolated individuality (Richards, 2001). Architecture that reflects its true nature can become accessible to human desire and imagination by remaining intelligible to its occupants (Coleman, 2005). Responsible use of natural resources is enhanced through transparency of physical utilities and services. In this way, people become aware of urban technical systems that support civil society (Benninger, 2002). If the proposed programme and spatial expression is derived from biomimetic principles, it may be deduced that appreciation of the building’s tectonic expression could instil consciousness in the very same way that nature instils consciousness. The building becomes an extension of nature, like a tree growing from the earth, and its users become intertwined with their context through experience.

Fig. 0#_Biomimicry Design Spiral. Image by Carl Hastrich. Available at: https://cdn4.iconfinder.com/data/icons/ionicons/512/icon-eye-128.png

Fig. 26_Movement. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.5 Human Scale

Architecture can become part of its urban environment through the design criteria as set out so far. Ultimately, building- and urban form should facilitate comfortable physical human activity. Intelligent Urbanism promotes street level pedestrian oriented spaces based on the measurements and proportions of the human body. The following principles were derived from Intelligent Urbanism and inform design for human scale (Benninger, 2002): • Building masses that step down to human scale in open public spaces. • Landscaping of open space to provide a buffer against large building masses. • Designing thresholds for sensitive integration of open spaces and the building mass. • Creating imaginable public realms as opposed to the building as image through façadism and monumentality. Fig. 25_Human scale. Image by Author [2014]

2.2.6 Movement as Experience Generator

Buildings are fundamentally stationary objects designed to accommodate movement (Rasmussen, 1962). Humans are constituted of an interlaced interaction of body, consciousness and spatial experience (Brislin, 2012). A body can only experience space as an active entity if it is allowed to move freely in and around such space. Movement allows for an understanding of the physical as a symbiosis between body, action and space. The building user becomes an extension of space and space an extension of the body’s action. Hence the space ceases to be a mere container for the body but becomes animated through movement (Perez de Vega, 2010). The following design principles, to animate the building through user experience, are explored: • Building layout and integration with the context should allow for ease of public access and user comfort (Alexander et al, 1977). • Legibility of public and private space can be achieved by means of visual and physical degrees of permeability (Dara-Abrams, 2008). • The concept of rhythm stems from art forms involving movement and time where motions are adjusted so that the one gives rise to the next. Proportions and uniformity of progression in architecture results in rhythmic legibility (Rasmussen, 1962).

2.1.7 Form: Design Principles Gathered

Building integrated agriculture provides the opportunity to explore the innovative form of a productive mixeduse building type. Nature as precedent can actively connect the proposed building form with its context through the mimicry of natural processes, while symbiotic integration of living natural systems directly benefit the building. Holistic integration of material, structure, and purpose will reflect the adopted natural simplicity. Tectonic legibility of these biomimetic design principles can strengthen a sense of interconnection with our context. However, a pure scientific application of natural principles will not result in architecture that is comfortable for humans. Architecture that also anticipates human scale and movement can become an extension of both physical and cultural urban systems.

2.3. TECHNOLOGY: A LIVING FOOD MACHINE â&#x20AC;&#x153;Technology marries surface and depth. It reveals and uncovers the imagination of events. It is that power to realise the imaginative depths of the world.â&#x20AC;? Robert Romanyshyn 1989 (ROMANYSHYN, 1989) Clayton Christensen coined the term disruptive technology in 1997. Disruptive technology requires refinement and may not yet have an established practical application. It interrupts the present to instigate future change. Building integrated agriculture as disruptive technology has the potential to advance the food production status quo (Despommier, 2011).

Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 27_Living food machine. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 28_Urban agriculture process. Image by Author [2014]

2.3.1 Urban Agriculture

Fig. 29_San Diego Farm Tower. Image by Brandon Martella. Available at: http://www.evolo.us/architecture/san-diego-farm-tower-brandonmartella/

It is now believed that cities have the capacity to produce their own food and recycle the waste they generate all within their own boundaries. Urban agriculture can be defined as an industry that produces, processes and distributes food based on the demands of consumers in the immediate urban community. It is the integration of food production techniques into buildings and landscapes utilising water, energy and waste from the vicinity. It is not only prevalent in developed countries, but many flourishing examples exist in cities in developing countries (Viljoen et al, 2012). Due to the architectural nature of this dissertation, the focus is on building integrated productive interventions. The building should not merely be a machine for living in, but evolve into a living machine.

2.3.2 Appropriate Technology

Appropriate technology promotes the application of building materials and construction techniques that are consistent with the specific context. Human abilities, the geo-climatic environment and availability of local resources all influence technology. An appropriate fit between technology and local conditions is desired (Benninger, 2002). A better understanding of building integrated food systems is required; to apply the design principles of industrial ecology and to strike a balance between technology and community. Hence high-tech indoor interventions are explored to provide maximum yields, while low intensity rooftop production allow for community accessibility in the South African context.

Fig. 30_Vertical farm. Image by Author [2014]

2.3.3 Vertically Stacked Farm

High-tech controlled-environment agriculture is already being applied throughout the world. Substantial technology improvements over the last ten years have revolutionised methods for indoor crop production. Urbanising these methods via building integrated agriculture is the next logical step. Reengineering the horizontal greenhouse typology by means of vertical stacking is considered to be a viable solution within the urban landscape (Despommier, 2011): • Soilless farming significantly reduces the weight and water requirements for production and requires much less space than traditional outdoor farming. This allows for a more economic vertical configuration. • Low-energy artificial light and interior distribution of sunlight via fibre optics and collection mirrors now enable photosynthesis in the deeper spaces that are typically associated with stacked configuration. • Controlled indoor environments do not allow for natural ventilation. Specific humidity and temperatures are maintained for optimum plant growth, while air quality is regulated to prevent the spread of plant diseases. Harvesting passive energy from the earth can assist with mechanical ventilation to reduce energy inputs. Soilless farming technologies selected for the indoor environment agriculture programme include: Drip irrigation: nutrient rich water is dripped onto • plant roots. Hydroponics: plant roots are immersed in • nutrient rich flowing water. Aeroponics: nutrient rich water is sprayed onto • plant roots. • Aquaponics: nutrients for plant growth are obtained from fish excrement. 22

Fig. 31_Soilless farming technologies. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 33_Systems integration diagram. Image by Author [2014]

2.3.4 Productive Green Roof

The low-intensity concept of 19th century French intensive agriculture has been selected as a model for the proposed community rooftop gardens. Stone walls protected crops from the elements while storing heat during the day, and releasing it into the gardens at night. The ground was built up as raised beds for heat retention and drainage. Glass-topped canopies were widely used to allow sun penetration and heat retention. Horse manure, a waste product of the contemporaneous transportation system, was used as fertiliser. These microclimates extended the growing season, and allowed for early ripening of crops (Cockrall-King, 2012). The planting of green roofs are ideal for urban environments with limited open green space and offer the following added advantages (Wong, 2007): • Reduction of building energy use by providing shelter, insolation and thermal mass. • Reduction of urban air pollution. • Enhancing urban quality of life by extending public open green space.

2.3.5 Systems Integration

According to Despommier (2011, 179), a comprehensive building-integrated agricultural programme will include the following in close proximity: • Food Process: - Germination; - Cultivation; - Processing; - Cold Storage - Distribution through a market and restaurant. • Quality control laboratory to monitor food safety, nutrition and diseases. • Offices for management. • Eco tourist/education centre. • Energy. • Waste. • Water.

Fig. 32_Low-intensity Productive Green Roof. Image by Author [2014]

2.3.6 Technology: Design Principles Gathered

Appropriate disruptive technology can advance the food production status quo by implementing context appropriate techniques. Vertical greenhouse stacking is considered to be a viable solution for high yield production within the urban landscape, while low intensity community rooftop gardens will include the local community. Evolution of system- and people integration results in a building that is not merely a machine for living in, but a living machine.

2.4. CONSOLIDATED ISSUE-BASED DESIGN PRINCIPLES Issue-based principles gathered to inform the design of the proposed centre for resilient urban food systems include: • Flow of energy that is optimised and seamless. • Synthesis of interrelated parts as corrective to fragmentation and isolation. • Human interaction in food production. • A mixed environment that is fine-grained to promote vitality. • Industrial ecology to facilitate mixed-use industrial integration. • Engagement with evolving local cultural identity through: - Sensitive response to socio-cultural layers; - Use of local and recycled materials. • Industrial ecology to facilitate mixed use industrial integration. • Agripuncture to engage the neighbourhood. • Form that reflects the spirit of the age. • Integration of building and context. • Simplicity through holistic integration of material, structure, and purpose. • Material selection to reflect structural and aesthetic function. • Mimicry and integration of biological forms, processes and systems. • Tectonic legibility to promote a sense of interconnection with context. • Design for human scale: - Building mass steps down to human scale in open public spaces; - Landscaped open space to provide a buffer for large building masses; - Threshold design for sensitive integration of open spaces and building mass; - Imaginable public realms as supposed to the building as monument. • Human movement to animate the building: - Ease of public access and user comfort; - Legibility of public and private space; - Rhythmic legibility. 24

• • • • • •

Disruptive technology to advance the food production status quo. The building as living machine. Use of appropriate contextual technology: - Building materials; - Construction techniques; - Skills; - Geo-climatic environment; - Availability of local resources. High-intensity vertical greenhouse stacking for optimised yield: - Soilless farming to reduce weight and water requirements; - Low energy artificial light and interior distribution of sunlight; - Passive energy from the earth to assist with mechanical ventilation. Low intensity community rooftop gardens to engage the community. Integration of waste, water and energy systems.

3. PRECEDENT AND CASE STUDIES A study of conceptual and existing, local and international buildings is conducted to reveal how related issues of concern are resolved. A detailed analysis of selected projects guide the formulation of project-applicable design criteria for the proposed Centre for Resilient Urban Food Systems. The applied design criteria from the study is presented as a conclusion of this chapter, and used as a guide to resolving the issues of concern.

3.1 HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE: LOW-INTENSITY PRODUCTIVE ROOFTOP Project Name: Private rooftop garden Design: Author Location: Pretoria, RSA Date: 2012-2014 Project Type: Low-intensity productive rooftop

3.1.1 Motivation

Fig. 34_Private rooftop garden. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 35_Understanding natural processes of food production. Image by Author [2014]

My own rooftop garden is used a as case study to demonstrate first-hand experience with low-intensity food production as means of supplementing fresh herbs and vegetables into my diet. It is also a declaration of my commitment to gain knowledge and an understanding of the natural processes of food production.

3.1.2 Overview

The garden consists of 20 pots, ordered around the periphery of a 3500mm x 9000mm rooftop balcony. An organic potting mix, formulated for herbs and vegetables is used. Plants are watered by way of drip irrigation on a timer, and fertilised with bought organic fertiliser.

3.1.3 Findings

No specific yield data has been captured during this study. Different crops are planted in different groupings throughout the year, to experiment with improved yields. The garden is able to sustain the herb and spice requirements for a household of two adults. Plants include coriander, basil, thyme, rosemary, lemongrass, capers and chillies. Leafy vegetables, such as rocket, spinach and lettuce are also grown in adequate quantities, with little effort. Other thriving crops include tomatoes, strawberries, beans, and peas. Interaction with the environment, and orchestrating change in that environment positively affects the psyche, and is proof of the impact that humans have on the environment. This realisation, nurtures a sense of responsibility towards living things (Nuallรกin, n.d). The balcony is an extension of the main living space and is often used for socialising with guests. Two tables in the middle of the space allow for outdoor dining and interaction between people and the food process from cultivation to consumption. This has stimulated curiosity and sharing of knowledge and even plants and produce between friends.

Fig. 36_Private rooftop garden section and crops. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 37_Worm bin. Image by Halifax Garden Network. Available at: https://halifaxgardennetwork.wordpress.com/tag/ stackable-worm-bin/

3.1.4 Applied Design Criteria

• Gardening as an interactive measure to reconnect people with food. • Appropriate technology: Water management. Waste to compost and fertiliser. • Sharing of knowledge to improve practice and yields. • Social experience of food process from cultivation to consumption.

3.2 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE: LOW-TECH COMMUNITY CENTRE Project Name:

Design: Location: Date: Project Type:

GreenHouse People’s Environment Centre CBS Architects Johannesburg, RSA 2002 Demonstration, outreach and information hub for sustainability

Fig. 38_GreenHouse people’s environment centre people. Image by Author [2014]

3.2.1 Motivation

A case study about GreenHouse People’s Environment Centre investigates principles of resource and information sharing within a densely populated, economically underprivileged urban core, within the South African context.

3.2.2 Overview

The centre is located in Joubert Park in Johannesburg, and is administrated by a South African non-governmentassociation called the GreenHouse Project. The centre aims to be an educational platform for the local community, by inspiring sustainable practices through examples.

Fig. 39_GreenHouse people’s environment centre recycling. Image by Author [2014]

3.2.3 Findings

An existing potting shed was converted into offices and a training centre, using recycled building materials. The immediate surroundings were also developed into permaculture gardens and a recycle centre that support local waste reclaimers. An office building demonstrates inventive sustainable construction practices and materials. The final phase of the project is renovation of the Victorian conservatory. The centre focusses on empowering small businesses, and intervening at a community scale. At the date of the interview, one active rooftop garden had already been affiliated with the centre. This garden is on top of a residential building in the nearby Johannesburg central business district. (Mokhine Interview, 2013).

Fig. 40_GreenHouse peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environment centre conservatory. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 41_GreenHouse peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environment centre zero waste. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 42_Growing Green rooftop vegetable garden. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 43_GreenHouse people’s environment centre cultivation. Image by Author [2014]

3.2.4 Applied Design Criteria • • •

Sharing knowledge through working integrated examples. Centre as a hub for a resilient urban agricultural system accessible to the average community member. Recycling building materials, elements of buildings or even adaptive reuse of entire buildings.

3.3 URBAN AGRICULTURE: HIGH-INTENSITY COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE Project Name: Sky Greens Design: Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore and Sky Greens Location: Singapore, Singapore Date: 2012 Project Type: High-intensity commercial urban greenhouse farm

3.3.1 Motivation

Fig. 44_Sky Greens greenhouse. Photo by Kalinga Seneviratne. Available at: http://i.unu.edu/media/ourworld.unu.edu-en/article/5340/ VerticleFarmPlot.jpg

Fig. 45_Sky Green process. Image by Author [2014]

The precedent study on Sky Greens vertical farm serves to illustrate a good, working example of a high-intensity urban, commercial greenhouse. A study of the complex indoor growing environment and its relation to other building integrated processes is conducted to better understand process driven spaces and their relationships.

3.3.2 Overview

The vertical farm is the first working commercial prototype, featuring stacked vegetable production in rotating towers, and uses minimal land, water and energy (Rosenfield, 2012).

3.3.3 Findings

The stacked production technology was developed as private-public sector collaboration, with the aim of promoting sustainable urban farming techniques. Sky Greens is also actively involved in formal and practical education programmes in Singapore, and reintegrates ex-offenders in society, by providing them with jobs. Yields of up to 10 times more per unit area than traditional farming methods are achieved, resulting in significant reduction of wasteful use of land resources. Through a controlled indoor environment, year round production, with reliable harvests is made possible. Biomimetic principles inform high-tech solutions to achieve sustainability. The hydraulic system simultaneously waters and powers rotation. The farm applies sustainable water management practices, and organic waste is composted and used as fertiliser (Sky Greens, 2011).

Fig. 46_‘A-Go-Gro’ rotating grow tower diagram. Image by Studio Greens. Available at: http://www.permaculturenews. org/images/Vertical_Farming_VF_illustration.jpg

Fig. 47_‘A-Go-Gro’ rotating grow tower. Photo by Rasha Lala. Available at: http://www.beyondjugaad.com/vertical-farming-givesagriculture-new-direction/

3.3.4 Applied Design Criteria

• Sharing of knowledge through community interaction at different educational and community levels. • A controlled environment, vertically stacked production model is favourable for increased yields. • Holistic integration of all building systems including waste, energy and water.

3.4 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE: HIGH-TECH RESEARCH SHARING Project Name: CityFARM @ MIT Media Lab Design: Maki and Associates Location: Cambridge,MA, USA Date: 2009 Project Type: Mixed-use, cross-disciplinary intellectual community

3.4.1 Motivation

Fig. 48_CityFARM urban agriculture façade. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 49_MIT Media Lab lobby. Image by Author [2014]

This case study on the integration of the MIT CityFARM urban agriculture façade, into the MIT Media Lab building, examines high-tech productive building integration. The arrangement and visual connection of interrelated spaces is studied to determine design elements that enhance collaboration and information sharing.

3.4.2 Overview

CityFARM is part of the City Science Initiative at MIT Media Lab, and is focussed on research involving social, economic, environmental, and technological design of optimised urban food systems.

3.4.3 Findings

The MIT CityFARM team comprises a multi-disciplinary group of professionals and academics, who develop advanced food production systems. Current project research demonstrates the potential to reduce water consumption by 98% while eliminating chemical pesticides and fertilisers. Through their initiative, called “grow it HERE and eat it HERE”, they aim to reduce environmental impacts while creating jobs and increasing urban accessibility to nutritional food. Their Open Ag project provides a platform for sharing and advancing global agricultural knowledge. The CityFARM urban agriculture façade is currently integrated into the MIT Media Lab building. The façade is a combination of existing research, with possibilities for façade integration of existing buildings (Harper Interview, 2014). Observation and on-site analysis of the MIT Media Lab revealed laboratories and clusters of offices, arranged around a central atrium. Transparency of both the interior partitions and the building envelope encourage visual interaction.

Fig. 50_CityFARM process. Image by Author [2014]

3.4.4 Applied Design Criteria • • •

Sharing of knowledge through an inter- disciplinary open global platform. Active high tech building integrated food production research laboratory. Transparent interior atria and building envelope to encourage interaction.

3.5 Solar and Contextual Carving Project Name: Design: Location: Date: Project Type:

Solar Carve Tower

Studio Gang Architects New York City, NY, USA Anticipated Design Completion - 2015 Mixed-use

Fig. 51_Solar Carve Tower. Image by Studio Gang Architects. Available at: http://studiogang.net/work/2010/solarcarve

3.5.1 Motivation

The case study on the Solar Carve Tower evaluates design principles that generate building form and mass by way of solar and contextual response.

Fig. 52_Solar and contextual carve concept vs solid extruded mass. Image by author [2014]

3.5.2 Overview

Studio Gang developed the solar carving as part of their tall building research, in order to sculpt building form using the incident rays of the sun. The proposed Solar Carve Tower is a mixed-use tower planned next to New York Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acclaimed elevated railway, High Line Park. Instead of designing a building for standalone iconic status, the project aim is to actively enhance and engage public space.

3.5.3 Findings

The design challenges traditional tower form, where simple orthogonal extrusion is typically applied to achieve maximum density. Instead, the mass is sculpted according to sunlight, air, and views. A planted terrace is added on the same level as the bordering High Line Park, merging public and private open space. Subtractions to the tower mass result is an additional 200 solar hours of exposure on the park and newly created terrace (Menocal, 2013).

Fig. 50_CityFARM process. Image by Author [2014]

Fig. 53_Sunnyside solar analysis. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 55_Solar and contextual outcome. Image by Studio Gang Architects. Available at: http://studiogang.net/work/2010/solarcarve

3.5.4 Applied Design Criteria

Fig. 54_Solar carving. Image by Studio Gang Architects. Available at: http://studiogang.net/work/2010/solarcarve

Carving the building mass: • To create public open space linking a building to the urban fabric. • Based on the sun’s path to enhance public open space. • As a response to contextual urban scale.

3.6 Green Over the Grey Project Name:

Design: Location: Date: Project Type:

Asian Crossroads Over the Sea Building

Emilio Ambasz Fukuoka, Japan 1994 Mixed-use

Fig. 56_Green over the grey. Image by author [2014]

3.6.1 Motivation

Investigation of the ACROS Building shows a sensitive synthesis between built form and public open green space. It aims to reconcile the manmade with the organic, natural environment.

3.6.2 Overview

The south side of the building is an extension of the adjacent Tenjin Central Park as a series of terraced green roofs that ascent the full height of the building. The northern façade of the building faces the financial district, and presents an urban character with a formal entrance. The result is intelligible expression of the relationship between tectonics and function.

3.6.3 Findings

Ambarsz applied his philosophy of “green over the grey” to his design. The philosophy involves giving back green space to the city, which the building would otherwise have subtracted. The planted roofs also aid in alleviating the urban heat island effect. The stepped terraces blur the distinction between horizontal and vertical, and glazed sections in the vertical plane, fragmenting the building mass, and bringing diffused natural light into the interior. The stepped terraces face the park, giving the roof an additional function as outdoor amphitheatre. A wedge-shaped element over the atrium entrance of the building pierces the planted terraces, and doubles as ventilation shaft for the floors below. The urban façade is made of stripped glass that reflects passers-by, animating them as part of the building. It also allows views into the interior, dematerialising the building mass. Overhangs are an extension of the architectural language, rather than an attachment to provide cover, and delineate the entrance while enhancing the continuation of the urban street edge (Velazquez, 2012).

Fig. 57_Terrached green roof. Available at: http://www. travellersbazaar.com/green-architecture-the-acros-fukuoka-building-ofjapan.html#.VEU-XPmUcg0

Fig. 59_ACROS atrium. Image by David Koiter. Available at: https:// www.flickr.com/photos/davidkoiter/6248186595/

Fig. 58_ACROS diagram. Image by author [2014]

David

Koiter

3.6.4 Applied Design Criteria • • • • • •

Tectonic expression of agro-urban integration. Building roof as extension of public open green space: To alleviate heat island effect. To enhance interaction with urban environment as an outdoor auditorium. As a community garden for education and food production. Visual public interaction through transparency and reflection of the building envelope. Solar chimneys for passive ventilation and vertical expression. Transparent fragmentation of the building mass to allow for diffused natural daylighting. Building overhangs: As extension of architectural language. To define public entrance. To enhance continued urban street edge. To provide cover.

3.7 SUMMARY OF APPLIED DESIGN CRITERIA Design criteria from the study to guide in resolving the issues of concern are as follows: • • •

Living food production laboratories on both low and high tech levels: - Community rooftop gardens and edible landscaping. - Controlled environment vertical stacked production. Visual public and private interaction through transparency and reflection. Tectonic expression of agro-urban integration.

• Building mass and form a result of solar and contextual response to enhance public space and natural daylighting. • Building roof as extension of public open green space. • Building overhangs: - As extension of architectural language. - To define public entrance. - To enhance continued urban street edge. - To provide cover . • Recycling of building materials, elements of buildings or even adaptive reuse of entire structures. •

Holistic building technology integration on both low and high tech levels: - Water harvesting and management. - Waste to energy and fertiliser. - Energy harvesting and management. - Passive ventilation.

4. CONTEXT AND SITE ANALYSIS

4.1 Site Selection: Exploring the Point of Agripuncture 4.1.1 Africa

Rapid city expansion is inherently moving toward the megacity scenario, where the future fabric of the built environment depicts a certain urban landscape (Nouvel, 1997). It is predicted that virtually all of the global population growth between 2011 and 2050, will be concentrated in urban areas in developing coutries. By 2050, 65% of the African population will be urban dwellers (United Nations, 2011).

4.1.2 South Africa

South Africa is located close to some of the most undernourished countries in Africa and the world. The countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position, infrastructure, and growth in research and industrialised development, sets the stage for its natural leadership role in Africa (Gelb, 2001). This, in turn, will encourage South Africa to share information and distribute urban agricultural knowledge, with its African neighbours.

4.1.3 Gauteng Province

Gauteng is South Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic powerhouse, gateway to Africa, and most industrialised and urban province. It houses the Agricultural Research Council, numerous other agricultural organisations, national government departments, and has a diverse and advance academic network. Well-developed infrastructure and markets, scarce vacant arable land, and inadequate access to irrigation water limit horizontal agricultural expansion in the province. The development for alternative practices, such as organic farming and high-intensity production under artificial conditions, are worthy of consideration. This puts Gauteng in a unique position to facilitate research and development of urban agriculture, in South Africa (The Gauteng Agricultural Development Strategy, 2006).

Fig. 60_World hunger map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 0#_Worm bin. Image by Halifax Garden Network. Available at: https://halifaxgardennetwork.wordpress.com/tag/ stackable-worm-bin/ Fig. 62_Gauteng population and agriculture. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 61_African urbanisation. Image by author [2014]

4.1.4 City of Tshwane

While no comprehensive food insecurity mapping is available for Gauteng, the Gauteng 20-year Food Security Plan (2012) analyses data by the Gauteng Department of Health, to identify Tshwane-based settlements, namely Atteridgeville, Soshanguve and Mamelodi, as the three top priority areas for intervention in Gauteng. The above mentioned Agricultural Research Council and national government departments are all located in Tshwane, and the city is also home to four major Universities. An Integrated Agricultural Development and Support Strategy for the City of Tshwane (2005) has the following aims:

â&#x20AC;&#x153;To facilitate the development of a robust agricultural sector in Tshwane, promote information sharing and dissemination, promote programmes and projects that enhance an inclusive and aggressive model of agricultural development whilst maintaining focus on sustainability, empowerment and poverty eradication.â&#x20AC;?

Tshwane should endeavour to establish a platform to facilitate this strategy. For the purpose of this dissertation, Tshwane is considered as the desired location for the proposed Centre for Resilient Urban Food Systems. The design criteria, as identified through the issues of concern, as well as the research presented, lead to the exploration of possible sites in Tshwane, where these issues could be addressed within a local context. Population density and unemployment data from the 2011 South African census highlights the Pretoria CBD, and the informal settlements of Mamelodi to the east, and Atteridgeville to the west, as areas with the highest concentration of economically vulnerable people. 42

Fig. 63_Tshwane population density, unemployemnt and transport. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 64_Tshwane movement. Image by author [2014]

4.1.5 Pretoria Inner City

In 2000, the Pretoria metropolitan area was renamed the City of Tshwane; however the Pretoria CBD still holds the same name. The concentration of poverty is shifting from rural to urban areas, and chronic food insecurity is prevalent in southern African urban centres (Frayne, 2009). Urban agriculture presents an opportunity to uplift poor and vulnerable city dwellers, who otherwise struggle to find employment. The Tshwane Inner City Development and Regeneration Strategy (2006) defines the inner city area as the functional and symbolic heart of South Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capital city. It is outlined as a strategic focus area, with potential for maximum impact to serve as catalyst for greater metropolitan regeneration. Data obtained from the Gauteng City-Region Observatory show significant movement patterns in Tshwane that route through the Pretoria CBD area. Spatial concentration also allows for more efficient utilisation of infrastructure and social facilities. It may be deduced that an intervention in a densely populated, formal, intra-urban landscape can be highly effective in meeting the requirements of this dissertation, within the City of Tshwane context. Figure 63 shows the Tshwane ring rail system, which connects the abovementioned vulnerable areas, with the inner city as the nucleus. The proposed Ring Rail Development Project (Venter, 2000) defines the ring rail as one of the strongest existing transport corridors in Tshwane. In 2000, approximately 22% of the Tshwane population lived within 1km of the ring rail. The projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s integrated approach of land use and socio-economic development, aims for inner city densification as a measure to discourage further urban sprawl. Proximity of vital educational facilities, including approximately 30 schools and three universities, as well as the Tshwane Fresh Produce Market, further highlights the importance of reactivating the ring rail. It is proposed that the historical influence of the rail on urban fragmentation can be reversed through its reactivation as part of an integrated post-industrial urban food network. 44

Fig. 65_Formal urban agricultural intervention. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 66_Inner city pedestrian movement and energy. Image by author [2014]

Urban fragmentation as a result of industrialisation was formalised in the 1944 Town Planning Scheme, when mono-functional zoning was introduced in Tshwane. The effects are still prevalent today (Jordaan, 1987). The Tshwane Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (2012) aims to â&#x20AC;&#x153;restructure our fragmented, inequitable and inefficient urban form to create more equitable, efficient and environmentally and financially sustainable urban dispensation.â&#x20AC;? The framework encourages highdensity, mixed-use zoning that integrates compatible land uses. Furthermore, rapid urban expansion is currently encroaching on industrial peripheries, forcing us to reimagine typologies where production and living can coexist. Therefore, further exploration for possible sites is informed by a study of elements of urban fragmentation, and proximity of mono-functional residential zones, offering opportunity for productive mixed-use integration within the urban edge. Figure 66 illustrates inner city pedestrian activity that translates into a human energy layer in the urban fabric. Areas with the greatest activity include the Pretoria Railway Station, with a strong link to the immediate area around Church Square, and the pedestrianised portion of Church Street to the east. There is also significant activity around Marabastad and Robert Sobukwe Street in Sunnyside. The Apies River and Nelson Mandela Drive create a barrier that restricts movement between the CBD and Sunnyside to the east. Fig. 67_Nelson Mandela Drive and Apies River barrier. Image by author [2014]

4.2 SUNNYSIDE: POINT OF AGRIPUNCTURE Historically, the Apies River created a natural boundary between the city and adjacent farmlands, and sub-urban areas to the east. Today, these former farmlands are known as the suburbs of Arcadia and Sunnyside (Bolsman, 2001). The addition of Nelson Mandela Drive as an activity spine along the river edge further enhanced this natural boundary, demarcating the inner city. There are numerous planning initiatives that focus on east-west integration to bridge the boundary (Loots, 2007). A general Robert Sobukwe Street upgrade is indicated in the Mandela Development Corridor Framework (GAPP Architects and Urban Designers, 2009), but the scope is not defined in detail. A conceptual link, connecting the activity of the Pretoria CBD with that of Sunnyside, is illustrated in figure 66.

The densification strategy of The Tshwane Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (2012) stresses the importance of high-density residential areas that are pedestrian friendly, public-transport orientated, and offer a variety of economic and social opportunities. Further proximity analyses densely populated residential inner city clusters, contained within 500m walkable zones, are shown in figure 67.

Fig. 68_Walkable densely populated inner city clusters. Image by author [2014]

The research supports Sunnyside as an ideal point of Agripuncture, to house the proposed centre for resilient urban food systems: The site is proposed, based on the following findings: • Proximity to a high-density, vulnerable population in a formal urban settlement that is ideal for pedestrian-friendly, public- transport orientated development. • Proximity to supporting research, education and government-based institutions. • Proximity to the proposed reactivated ring rail, which connects with the Tshwane Fresh Produce Market and informal settlements of Mamelodi and Atteridgeville. • Offers unique opportunities for mixed use industrial integration as a mono-functional residential zone. • Farmland heritage strengthens the concept for a progression of history, by introducing a post- industrial productive layer in the urban landscape. • Catalytic nature of the centre will assist in establishing east-west integration, to bridge the Mandela Corridor and reconnect Sunnyside to the inner city.

4.2.1 Context and History

The grid was used as measure to create order in 19th century South African town planning. It was imposed on nature as an attempt to tame it, in turn creating the boundaries for civilisation in an effective and rational settlement. In Pretoria, the urban grid on a north-south and east-west axes originated in Church Square (Meiring, 1955). The axes were orientated according to the cosmic path of the sun and natural openings in the mountain ranges. This grid has remained a legible historic element in Pretoria.

Fig. 69_Changing angles of Sunnyside street grids. Image by author [2014]

As Pretoria expanded outward, it was eventually confronted by its natural boundaries: the north and south ridges, and the east and west rivers. Sunnyside originally consisted of various farms, bought and developed at the same time as the expansion of the city. This is still evident in the neighbourhoodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing angles of the street grids. The economic boom of the mid-20th century marked Sunnysideâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s high density explosion to eventually become the major housing precinct within the inner city. It now boasts a predominant multi-storey, residential apartment block typology, creating a memorable structural expression and material honesty (Banham, 1996). However, the farmhouse heritage was eradicated in favour of functionalist ideals, imposing a universal man-made order on Sunnyside. The promise of air, views, and natural light for the individual units did not always translate equal qualities for the masses at street level below (Transcik, 1986). Functionalist solar response typically resulted in solid, short east and west facing faĂ§ades on the northsouth axis of Sunnyside. Residential interaction with the street was compromised to accommodate modern transportation (Norton, 2008). This is evident in the typical Sunnyside apartment block construction, where private ground floor space has been dedicated to parking. Urban sprawl on an east-west axis resulted in ever-widening movement corridors along these axes, which now cut through Sunnyside to connect distant eastern suburbs to the CBD. These fast-moving vehicle arteries further fragmented the city blocks of Sunnyside. Further observation and analyses of the neighbourhood also reveal the restrictive impact of security barriers on the integration of the urban fabric.

Fig. 70_Typical Sunnyside apartment building analysis. Image by author [2014]

4.2.2 Geography and Climate

Pretoria is situated in the transitional belt, between the lower-lying Bushveld to the north, and Highveld plateau to the south, in a subtropical, protected valley defined by the Magaliesberg hills. The hills trap heat and protect the city from wind, resulting in a low average wind speed of only 3m/s. Wind can be expected from the northeast during summer and, from the northwest during winter. The city has a dry and humid climate, with long rainy summers reaching average temperatures of between 18 °C and 29 °C, with an extreme recorded high of 42°C. Average rainfall per annum is 570mm. Winters are cool, dry and short, with average temperatures between 10 °C and 15 °C. Frost is common just before dawn, with winter temperatures that can drop to below freezing.

4.3 Site Analysis

Fig. 71_Site selection. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 72_Contextual analysis of immediate site proximities Image by author [2014]

4.3.1 Immediate Site Proximities

The site is a consolidated stand, consisting of six stands with existing buildings of varying uses. It is located on the northern side of Robert Sobukwe Street, where the street terminates against Bourke Street to the east. The Bronberg Church is a visual landmark at this termination point. It is also at this point where the Sunnyside street grid changes direction, and the alignment of Robert Sobukwe Street and Spuy Street is fractured, creating tension in the urban fabric. Leyds Street frames the western boundary of the site. Figure 72 shows building typology and height of the immediate surrounding context. An existing Shoprite retail outlet, on the south-western corner of the site, serves as urban memory to community food access, stemming from the early 1960s. A Shell petrol station is located in the middle of the site, with access from Robert Sobukwe Street. This signifies the prevalence of automotive transport domination in the area. The south-eastern corner of the site is occupied by a retail and office mixeduse building. Two typical Sunnyside apartment buildings of two and four stories respectively lie directly north of the mixed-use building.

Fig. 73_Shop(rite)?. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 74_Analysis of existing buildings on the site. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 75_Robert Sobukwe Street analysis. Image by author [2014]

4.3.2 Robert Sobukwe Street

Today, as over the past 50 years, the main activity in Sunnyside takes place around this commercial axis and activity spine. Robert Sobukwe Street can be interpreted as a vital extension of the CBD into residential Sunnyside. Street activation, by way of ground floor retail, is evident in the vibrant pedestrian character of the street. Office space or apartments above further strengthens the mixeduse programme. Introduction of the proposed productive mixed-use industrial programme into a predominantly mono-functional residential zone is considered most sensitive, if integrated into this existing commercial street. Buildings line up with the pavement, resulting in a continuous, strong urban edge, with overhanging canopies and Jacaranda trees that soften the threshold. Site analysis reveals that pedestrians tend to linger in areas that offer shade and seating, yet this is in short supply along the street. Demographics range from students, to families and elderly people.

4.3.3 Walkable Site Proximities

An exploration of proximity of public open space, water, accessibility, and education in relation to the site, is analysed to formulate a framework for walkable integration surrounding the site.

Fig. 76_Walkable site proximities. Image by author [2014]

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Public Open Space

This section analyses public open space surrounding the site, as a result of the design criteria, to establish integration of the built and natural environment. The Tshwane Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (2012) stresses the importance of a wellmanaged, defined, and integrated open space network. Specific design intervention for the local development of the inner city includes: • Enhanced pedestrian walkways • Design for safety and security • Street furniture and lighting • Accessibility for all Jubilee Park, the blue networks of Walker Spruit and the Apies River, and the Robert Sobukwe streetscape are defined as the most significant points of intervention surrounding the site.

Fig. 77_Proximity to public open space. Image by author [2014]

â&#x20AC;˘ Water

An analysis of available natural water sources, to support food production on and around the site, is conducted in order to inform the design of an integrated water management system. The blue networks of Walker Spruit and the Apies River are in close proximity to the site. A geographic study reveals that Walker Spruit, to the east, lies at a higher elevation than the site and that water could passively flow down to the site from here, via gravity. A reservoir is proposed at this location, where Spuy Street intersects Walker Spruit. For the purpose of this dissertation, it is assumed that a water treatment and storage strategy, to ensure safe food production, can be implemented along Walker Spruit. Magnolia Dell is defined as a suitable area to introduce a living natural water treatment plant.

Fig. 78_Proximity to water. Image by author [2014]

â&#x20AC;˘

Access Routes

As a response to abovementioned urban frameworks, this analysis focuses on public-transport orientated movement strategies. Major east-west road connections include Park Street and Francis Baard Street 500m to the north, and Jorrisen Street and Kotze Street 200m to the south. Troye Street and Steve Biko Road are located 400m to the west of the site, and provide north-south connections. An informal taxi rank is located on the north-western boundary of the site, in Leyds Street. It is proposed that this link be retained to ensure effective access to surrounding public transport networks. Leyds Street connects to the proposed reactivated Tshwane ring rail at Devenish Street Station, located 750m to the south. This connects the site with the greater metropolitan area and the rest of Gauteng, via rail. The first phase of the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) system, linking Hatfield to the CBD, is currently under construction. The route runs in an east-west direction, in Jorrisen Street and Kotze Street, with a station located 200m to the south of the site, on the corner of Kotze Street and Bourke Street.

Fig. 79_Proximity to access routes. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 80_Proximity to education and agricultural bodies. Image by author [2014]

â&#x20AC;˘

Education and Agricultural Bodies

Formal educational institutions and agricultural bodies have been mapped to explore possible integration of the proposed centre as a measure to extend knowledge sharing in the community. Mapping extended beyond a walkable radius as it is envisaged that public transport can enable educational interaction outside of the immediate community.

The context and site analysis serve to better comprehend the specific context and inform programmatic exploration, and further design intervention. A walkable community intervention and future vision for the inner city is presented as part of the design development.

5. DESIGN CRITERIA The design criteria are presented to expand and refine the design brief. The population, nutritional requirements and food production potential of the study area is analysed to determine sizing the various components of the facility. The programme and accommodation is then defined in terms of the food system, and educational and technological spatial requirements.

5.1 FOOD DEMAND 5.1.1 Study Area Population

For the purpose of this dissertation, the study area is defined within a 400m walking distance from the site. Population density data is based on the 2011 South African census, mapped by the Gauteng City-Region Observatory, and is analysed to determine the population of the study area at around 15 500 people.

5.1.2 Fruit and Vegetable Requirements

The minimum recommended daily fruit and vegetable intake per day is 400g. This figure is based on World Health Organization guidelines (Stephens, 2011). For the purpose of this dissertation, 500g per person per day was used to compensate for any possible shortcomings in the production system. Based on the information provided above, the fresh fruit and vegetable requirement for the study area will be as follows: 15500 people x 500g per person per day x 365 days per year = 2790 Tons per year

Fig. 81_Study area population and fruit-and vegetable requirements. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 82_Study area food production potential. Image by author [2014]

5.1.3 Study Area Food Production Potential (83,5% of community requirement) •

Desired yield for low-intensity rooftop production: Due to varying scope and conditions, no concise yield data is available for this type of production. By analysing a variety of low to medium-intensity production techniques, a conservative desired yield of 50kg/m²/year is selected to aid with calculations.

•

Desired yield for intensive indoor production: A&B Hydroponics International offers an indoor hydroponic, vertical rotating growing system, suitable for production of leafy vegetables and herbs, tomatoes, mushrooms, strawberries, eggplant, melon, and cucumbers (A&B Hydroponics International, 2014). According to data obtained for different crops, production yields of between 150 and 380kg/m²/year are achieved using their system. A desired yield of 200kg/m²/year is selected for the purpose of this dissertation, to represent a conservative intermediate for a wide variety of crops.

Mapping of buildings with flat roofs and adequate solar exposure reveals 40 000m² of rooftop space in the study area, which would be feasible for food production. To achieve the yearly production requirement of 2 790 tons, an average yield of about 70kg/m²/year is required. It can thus be deduced that a semi-intensive productive intervention, on the existing available rooftop area, would be able to meet the fresh fruit and vegetable requirements of the study area: 40 000 m² x 70kg/m²/year = 2 790 tons per year 62

5.2 PROGRAMME AND ACCOMMODATION Fig. 83_Programme and accomodation diagram. Image by author [2014]

5.2.1 Food Process

The food production programme of the facility consist of areas for indoor and rooftop cultivation, processing, cold storage, distribution and consumption.

Fig. 84_Food process diagram. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 85_Food cultivation process diagram. Image by author [2014]

5.2.1.1 Cultivation (16.5% of community requirement) • Low Tech Rooftop French Intensive Agriculture is still in use today, and its interpretation in the South African context is illustrated by the design development and resolution. A combination of five terraced community gardens, of 240m² each, is provided. Each garden includes a garden store, with water and fertiliser storage tanks. The gardens are accessible to the public, as an extension of the proposed open green space network.

Rooftop community gardens:

1 200 m²

Using the desired yield of 50kg/m²/year, the facility rooftop gardens aim to produce 60 tons per year. This translates to approximately 230kg of produce per business day, divided between five community gardens that all produce a wide variety of crops. Due to the relatively low yield of varied crops, it is not feasible to process this produce within the facility. Farmers could use the produce to supplement their family diets, or to sell directly to the community. The use of bicycles with trailers as farm vehicles to distribute produce is emerging in urban farming practices throughout the world (Rio, 2013). A bicycle depot is provided in the basement, to enable community garden farmers economic and easy access to the community.

• High-Tech Indoor High-tech controlled environment agriculture is provided in the form of four stacked greenhouses, with an approximate floor area of 500m² each. This will allow to experiment with different crop types, conditions, and cultivation technologies. Current leading technologies selected for soilless cultivation include drip irrigation , hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics. Separate ablution and shower facilities, double-lock entryways with control rooms, plant areas with machinery and water, and fertiliser storage and mixing tanks are incorporated in each greenhouse cluster. Application of the design criteria, as set out above, is illustrated through design development and resolution. Indoor greenhouses:

2 000 m²

Using the desired yield of 200kg/m²/year, the facility greenhouses are able to produce 400 tons a year.

Fig. 86_Food processing process diagram. Image by author [2014]

5.2.1.2 Processing

Processing facilities are designed to accommodate the study area’s annual fruit and vegetable production capacity of 2 790 tons. This translates to approximately 10,5 tons that need to be processed per business day. Using peppers, that typically have some of the lowest crop densities at around 250kg per m³ (Annexure #), the maximum daily volume of production is 42m³. 1,5m high daily stacking of crops allows ease of handling in processing areas, and result in a daily area requirement of 28m². To accommodate processing of the crops produced from both inside the building, and the community, two processing rooms of 150m² are provided. Harvesting produce when ready for consumption, and immediately distributing it to the neighbouring community, eliminates the need for chemical processing and extensive packaging. Thus, simple mechanical processing lines, with grading and washing equipment, followed by human trimming are used. To allow for a variety of crops to be processed at any given time, three processing lines can be accommodated per processing room. Research of typical commercially available processing lines reveals an average processing capacity of 0,5 tons per hour. Thus, the predicted processing capacity of the facility can reach 24 tons per day. The additional capacity, beyond 10,5 tons per day, will facilitate spikes in processing demands or possible mechanical failure of machinery. Spaces for the receiving of produce and quality control, as well as staff hygiene are also provided.

Processing: Receiving and quality control: Staff hygiene: 65

300m² 40 m² 40m²

5.2.1.3 Storage

5.2.1.4 Distribution

To accommodate receiving and dispatch of crops, a cold room of 250m² is provided. The additional space allows for circulation of machinery to move stacked produce around. Control offices, with double-lock weather lobbies will help insulate the space during dispatch and receiving operations. The cold store should be in close proximity to the processing and distribution areas.

Fig. 87_Food storage, distribution and consumption process diagram. Image by author [2014]

Cold storage is provided to store produce before it is processed, and again until it is distributed. With the aim of distributing food as soon after harvesting as possible, storage is provided for no more than two week’s fresh fruit and vegetables. Using crop production and density data, the maximum required storage volume for a two week period is determined as 420m³. 3m, bi-weekly stacking of crops in the storage area results in an area requirement of 140m².

Cold storage: Receiving/dispatch/security offices:

250 m² 25m²

Fresh fruit and vegetables will be distributed via a fresh produce market, with a direct link to the cold storage . The market consists of stalls, selling local fruit and vegetables, as well as stalls that prepare fresh meals. Seating areas are provided throughout the market to allow public consumption of food. The market is designed as open and inviting to the public, and has seamless street integration. Food-related retail, including a butcher, dairy shop, bakery and general grocery store is also provided as part of the Robert Sobukwe Street edge. These stores will provide the community with local products to make up some of their non-fruit and vegetable dietary requirements.

Fresh Produce Market: Butcher: Dairy: Bakery: General Grocery Store:

700 m² 100 m² 80 m² 80 m² 80 m²

5.2.1.5 Consumption

On-site food preparation and consumption will be housed in a public restaurant. Seating capacity is determined through an analysis of surrounding restaurants in the City Of Tshwane. It has been decided that the restaurant should cater for 250 patrons, to balance intimacy with economic feasibility. The restaurant will signify the final leg of the envisaged urban food system, to display responsible and healthy preparation and consumption. Therefore, it is proposed that food preparation form the transparent heart of the dining experience. The restaurant should be visually and physically integrated with the streetscape, and the market below. A staff dining and pause area would also be served from the restaurant. Visual interaction of staff and public dining areas further enhance public-private interaction. Operational integration with the on-site fresh food market and food-related retail is also essential in providing the restaurant with fresh local produce.

Kitchen, bar, ablution, office, store room: 265m² Dining and seating: 535 m²

Fig. 88_Food market process diagram and street interaction. Image by author [2014]

5.2.2 Education

Fig. 89_Education movement diagram. Image by author [2014]

The food education programme of the facility consists of private learning and research spaces, and a public auditorium, exhibition space and library. A lobby and breakout space provide public-private interaction.

5.2.2.1 Private Learning Spaces

As a result of the concept of socially constructed knowledge, there has been a growing interest in designing social learning spaces. The drive for increased participation in education has the consequence of greater diversity. Open-plan, technology-rich spaces have to respond with a variety of microenvironments that appeal to all types of learners while encouraging conversation and interaction (Watson, 2007). Private social learning spaces for the research and implementation of urban agriculture are provided to accommodate 80 people. Amongst this population are students, lecturers, researchers and staff members, who are also responsible for managing and monitoring the facility. A personal workstation, with a computer for every user, private meeting rooms, and ablution and kitchen facilities are included. Balancing the public-private security barrier with visual interaction is explored trhough further development. Learning spaces:

1 200m²

5.2.2.2 Public Learning Spaces

A lobby and breakout space, with direct and transparent street access, welcomes visitors and links the auditorium, library, exhibition space, and research facility. The space acts as a platform for informal interaction of the public and private building staff. An auditorium is designed to seat 150 people. A library provides a total of 100 seats, accommodating 30% of the students and researchers, as well as 75 members of the public. 50 out of 100 library seats have computer and internet access. Flexible exhibition space educates the public about current technologies and issues regarding urban food production. An exhibition store and workshop has a direct link to the exhibition space and allows for storage and assembly of exhibition material out of public sight. Public ablutions are calculated according to the National Building Regulations of South Africa.

Lobby/breakout space: Auditorium: Exhibition space: Exhibition store/workshop: Library:

400 m² 300m² 250m² 65m2 400m²

Fig. 90_Organic waste to energy process diagram. Image by author [2014]

5.2.3 Technology

The energy and water systems that support the facility are described below. Organic waste is processed to produce electricity, compost and liquid fertiliser, and solar-, wind and geothermal energies are harvested. Water from the building and Walker Spruit is treated and stored on site.

5.2.3.1 Energy

Calculations of building integrated renewable energy reveal a potential of 3025kWh per day.

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Organic Waste to Energy

Organic waste is a valuable resource of renewable energy. The concept of waste is not part of natural ecosystems, but is part of the same natural loop where energy is recovered to regenerate life (Despommier, 2011). For the purpose of this dissertation, a KOMPOGAS anaerobic digestion system is investigated for processing organic waste. Organic waste is collected and foreign matter removed by screening and sorting. The waste is then shredded and stored in an indoor transitional storage area with adequate capacity, to ensure automatic fermentation. Waste is then transformed into compost and methane gas, by micro-organisms, in horizontal fermentation tanks. The methane gas is extracted and used for on-site electricity generation. Fermentation tanks are delivered as premanufactured, weatherproof units, and are typically placed outside. These tanks form part of the visual industrial expression of the proposed building. Presses separate the sludge from the fermentation tanks, into organic compost and liquid fertiliser. This valuable resource eliminates the need for oil-based fertiliser. To neutralise odours, compost is aerated in a maturing hall through odour control systems, containing biofilters (Evergreen Energy Corporation, 2007).

The average Gauteng resident produces about 100kg of organic waste per year (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). If organic waste from only the study area were used, roughly 1 550 tons of waste would be available per year, for energy production. That would translate to roughly 750kWh/d. As a measure to maximise energy production from renewable sources, the area for organic waste collection is extended to a 1km radius, including a population of 50 000 people. This would result in a 5 000 ton per year facility, with gross electrical power production of 2 500 kWh/d (Evergreen Energy Corporation, 2007). Area requirements for the organic waste-to-power plant are set out below. Control room: Receiving, conditioning and intermediate storage: Fermentation tanks and gas-to-energy plant: Maturing hall:

6m² 225m² 200m² 225m²

•

Solar Energy

Transparent solar panel canopies are placed above the community green roofs as a measure for capturing energy from the sun, and aidin producing a microclimate to extend the growing season. These solar canopies are also placed above the outdoor fermentation plant area. Renzo Blaza, from SolarPV Projects in Tshwane, assisted with information for the design of the solar system. For the selected project, the solar array’s ideal orientation for optimum yield, is due north, with a pitch of 29°. The estimated solar irradiation in Sunnyside is 2 420kWh/ m²/Year (Blaza Interview, 2014). The green roofs and fermentation plant provide a total available solar collection area of 1 400m². This allows for an array of 460 x 265W modules, capable of producing an average of 525kWh/d.

Fig. 91_Solar energy. Image by author [2014]

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Wind Energy

Pretoria has a low average annual wind speed of only 3m/s. Investigation of wind turbine design for low wind speed urban areas reveal significant advances in this technology. However, power generated by a single urban wind turbine would be negligible when compared to the rest of the above mentioned energy production figures for the project. It is proposed that the turbine should be situated at the pinnacle of the building’s roof, to pump water to a reservoir. This can also serve as platform for technology testing relating to low wind speed urban areas.

Fig. 92_Wind energy. Image by author [2014]

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Geothermal Energy

Geothermal heat pumps harness the energy of the earth. A liquid-filled loop is buried in the earth, in close to the building. This loop either absorbs, or relinquishes heat (Despommier, 2011). It is proposed that this method be applied to assist with heating and cooling of the building.

Fig. 93_Geothermal energy. Image by author [2014]

5.2.3.2 Water

An advantage of controlled-environment agriculture is that the systems can be designed to form a closed loop, with no polluting of agricultural runoff and significant improvements in water efficiency (Despommier, 2011). Water for cultivation is harvested from grey and rainwater, and from the nearby Walker Spruit. On-site water treatment and management is based on the living machine principle. Water is collected in a settling tank and filtered to remove solids. Then, the water flows through a series of wetland cells that are alternately flooded and drained to create a series of tidal cycles, much like natural wetlands. The final polishing stage of filtration and disinfection renders water potable and suitable for agricultural use (Living Machine, S.a.). Water is stored in a reservoir at the highest point of the building in order to deliver water to the rest of the building, via gravity.

Fig. 94_Water treatment and storage process diagram. Image by author [2014] 71

5.2.4 Basement Parking

Basement parking is provided for about 70 vehicles. The aim is to reduce the municipal requirement in order to promote carpooling, and the use of public transport and bicycles.

6. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

6.1. URBAN INTERVENTION 6.1.1. Walkable Community Intervention

The opportunity to reconnect the pedestrian activity of Pretoria CBD with that of Sunnyside, by bridging the barrier created by the Apies River and Nelson Mandela Drive, was identified through the urban analysis. Proximity to major road connections and public transport links provide an alternative to automotive movement through Robert Sobukwe Street. In response to this study, it is proposed that the automobile should be removed from Robert Sobukwe Street, to create a vibrant and walkable retail street. Further analysis of public open space, water, and education, in close proximity to the site; inform edible and walkable community integration as illustrated in figure #. Cycle lanes are also introduced to promote the use of alternative transport, and to distribute fresh produce and organic waste throughout the community.

Fig. 95_Walkable community intervention urban plan. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 96_Walkable community intervention zones sections. Image by author [2014]

6.1.2. Future Vision for the Inner City

Urban agripuncture, as catalyst for future urban regeneration on a larger scale, led to the exploration of alternative points of intervention in the inner city area. These locations are proposed as food production and distribution, and educational community hubs located within walkable distances from each other. A productive edible and walkable layer is weaved into open spaces between the proposed hubs, and into the links connecting the interrelated parts of the proposed inner city network.

Fig. 97_Future vision for the inner city. Image by author [2014] 74

6.2. DESIGN CONCEPT

Fig. 98_Design concept. Image by author [2014]

The design mimics cyclic natural processes to create a building that is a living food machine, integrated at the heart of a resilient urban food network with a research-and educational programme, by drawing closer the proximity between food, people, the city and the technological processes that sustain the urban landscape. The facility specialises in the cultivation, processing, distribution and consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables to engender a culture of local consumption, while cultural and contextual architectural inspiration enhances a sense of local identity. Building form is derived from a contextual and solar response, to enhance the existing, and to create new public open space; with the building roof as extension of edible open space. The building further sets out to become an extension of the urban community through intelligible tectonic expression, response to human scale, and user experience through designing for movement. The aim is to enlighten the community about urban agriculture, in order to inspire a future of building integrated agriculture within the city.

6.3. Massing Exploration

Fig. 99_Basic massing. Image by author [2014] 76

Fig. 100_Edible public square and reconnecting the grid. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 101_Solar carve for sunlight on edible square. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 102_Building height. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 103_Street interaction and stepped community roof gardens. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 104_Solar study. Image by author [2014]

A winter solar study of the building mass reveals that the edible square is exposed to sunshine throughout most of the day. Fruit trees will provide shade against direct sunlight during hot summer days. A human sundial in the square encourages community interaction and creates consciousness about the importance of sunshine in the process of photosynthesis and food production.

Fig. 105_Solar carve for enhanced northern sunlight penetration. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 106_Vertical shafts and rhythm. Image by author [2014]

6.4. LAYOUT Exploration AND BUILDING PROGRAMME

Fig. 107_Layout exploration. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 108_Site layout exploration. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ Fig. 109_Ground floor at: layout exploration. Image by author [2014] public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 110_First floor and indoor cultivation layout exploration. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 111_3D Explosion of building programme. Image by author [2014]

6.5. SPATIAL AND TECTONIC EXPLORATION THROUGH SECTION

Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at:human http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ Fig. 112. Market section scale and threshold. public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf Image by author [2014]

Fig. 113. Market section. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 114. Indoor cultivation section. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 0#_World Hunger Map 2014. Image by United ations World Food Programme. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/ public/documents/communications/wfp268726.pdf

Fig. 115. Library section. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 116. Vertical shaft section. Image by author [2014]

7. TECHNICAL REVIEW

7.1. MATERIALITY Recycled brick, reclaimed from the buildings demolished on site, is used to preserve a local sense of place and urban memory and to reflect the cyclic design intent of the project. Not diverting the building rubble to landfills conserves energy and eliminates the need to import new material for construction. Off-shutter concrete and galvanised steel are sourced locally to realise low embodied energy and to visually integrate the building with the surrounding built environment. The high thermal mass of brick and concrete also aid in regulating a comfortable indoor environment in the Tshwane climate. Honest expression of these durable materials eliminates the need to apply an additional layer to achieve the desired finish; reduces maintenance during the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifespan; and reflects materiality through intelligible building tectonics. The use of timber introduces a warm and tangible natural layer to the building; increasing user comfort. Employing local labour ensures community involvement in the construction of the centre, and may foster a sense of ownership and civic pride.

Fig. 117. Materiality collage. Image by author [2014]

7.2. STRUCTURE

Fig. 119. Structural diagram. Image by author [2014]

The building massing and layout result in deep floor plans that are connected through a series of central cores and enclosed by a sloping building envelope. Typical modernist structures follow a pattern of stacked floor plates supported by a vertical core and columns, while the building envelope usually takes the form of an attachment. An analysis of typical core and column structures reveals the potential to significantly reduce the amount of interior columns necessary by constructing the building envelope as part of the structure. Buckminster Fuller based the concept of the diagrid exoskeleton in architecture on the triangle, which acts as model for the coordination of natural systems. The diagrid’s inherent strength lies in its configuration of triangles that do not easily collapse under pressure applied to any one point, as each side is supported by its neighbour (Volner, 2011). A precast concrete diagrid is selected as part of the structural system for the proposed centre to:

• Create a stiffer and more efficient structure; • Enhance daylight penetration of the façade; • Simplify and expedite the construction process; and • Express the structural tectonics of the building.

Fig. 118_Seattle Library Structural Diagrams. Image by Magnusson Klemencic Associates and Arup. Available at: https:// architectureinmedia.wordpress.com/2008/03/07/sketches-structural-

Fig. 120. 3d Structural explosion and beam details. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 121. Structural model. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 122. Diagrid edge section, elevations and connection details. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 0#_Seattle Library Structural Diagrams. Image by Magnusson Klemencic Associates and Arup. Available at: https:// architectureinmedia.wordpress.com/2008/03/07/sketches-structural-

Fig. 123. 3D Diagrid explosion detail. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 124. Diagrid detail section. Image by author [2014]

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7.3. TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS 7.3.1 Organic Waste to Energy

Fig. 125. Organic waste to energy 3D process diagram. Image by author [2014]

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7.3.2 Solar and Wind Energy

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Fig. 126. Solar and wind energy 3D perspective. Image by author [2014]

7.3.3 Geothermal Energy

Fig. 127. Geothermal energy 3D process diagram. Image by author [2014]

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7.3.4 Water Treatment and Storage

Fig. 128. Water treatment and storage 3D process diagram. Image by author [2014] 105

7.4. DETAILING A full set of working drawings is not required for the purpose of this dissertation. Instead, the focus is on the detailing of a selected portion of the building only; the fresh produce market and the private learning and community roof garden above. The detailing of the precast concrete structural digrid is shown in section 7.2 above. Further detailing includes the basement retaining wall, gutters and the community green roof.

Fig. 129. Site plan and study area. Image by author [2014] 106

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Fig. 130. Section A. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 131. Basement retaining wall edge section. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 132. Concrete gutter detail. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 0#_Seattle Library Structural Diagrams. Image by Magnusson Klemencic Associates and Arup. Available at: https://architectureinmedia.wordpress.com/2008/03/07/

Fig. 133. Mild steel gutter detail. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 134. Section B. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 135. Skylight and green roof details. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 136. Structural glazed skyligt 3D assembly. Image by author [2014]

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8. DESIGN RESOLUTION

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Fig. 137. Basement plan. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 119. Structural diagram. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 138. Ground floor plan. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 139. First floor plan. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 140. Second floor plan. Image by author [2014]

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118

Fig. 141. Third floor plan. Image by author [2014]

Fig. 142. High-tech grow floors 6 & 7. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 143. North elevation. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 144. East elevation. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 145. South elevation. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 146. West elevation. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 147. Section A. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 148. Section A 3D. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 149. Western sun screens. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 150. South-western perspective during the day. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 151. South-western at night. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 152. North-western perspective. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 153. East perspective. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 154. South-eastern perspective. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 155. North-eastern perspective. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 156. Market perspective. Image by author [2014]

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Fig. 157. Edible square perspective. Image by author [2014]

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9. CONCLUSION

The design fulfils the principle aim of the dissertation; it creates the platform to facilitate a collaborative and resilient urban food network through research and education. A culture of local production and consumption is stimulated in Sunnyside, by reintegrating food with the city and its people. Sustainable technologies mimic cyclic natural processes in order to facilitate a mixed-use industrial programme. As a result, formerly dethatched industrial processes are drawn into the inner city through high density productive building integrated architecture. The building becomes a living food machine; integrated at the heart of the urban food network; it evolves as a conscious extension of the urban context through intelligible tectonic expression. The opportunity to develop the field of building integrated agriculture is illustrated throughout this dissertation. It is envisioned that, through understanding and engaging in the process, the community can become enlightened about urban agriculture, and a future of building integrated agriculture within the city could be inspired.

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