Combatting Food Insecurity:Growth & Effectiveness of SalvationArmy Food Banks in Developed Countries

COMBATTING FOOD INSECURITY: The growth and effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks in developed countries.

By Caitlin Hallett, Policy Intern. 2015

International Social Justice Commission

CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………………………………………..……………….3 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………8 LIST OF TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND GRAPHS……………………………………………….........9 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………10 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND THE BIBLICAL MANDATE FOR FOOD ASSISTANCE…………………....15 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………………...22 FOOD SECURITY/INSECURITY……………………………………………………..........24 FOOD POVERTY, POVERTY AND HUNGER……………………………………..……....24 FOOD ASSISTANCE AND FOOD BANKS………………………………………………...26 CALCULATING THE GROWTH OF FOOD BANKS…………..………………………...…28 EFFECTIVNESS AND EMPOWERMENT.………….……….……………………………..30 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………33 GROWTH OF FOOD BANKS……………………………………………………………..35 FOOD BANKS AS A RESPONSE TO AUSTERITY ………………………………………..37 THE WORKING POOR – CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS………………………………...41 THE RIGHT TO FOOD AND FOOD JUSTICE…...……………………………………….. 41 THE DARK SIDE OF FOOD BANKS……………………………………………………...45 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENAL SUSTAINABILITY……………………………………...46 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………...……48 TYPE OF RESEARCH AND SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS…………………………….50 DATA COLLECTION……………………………………………………………………..50 QUESTIONNAIRES……………………………………………………………………...51 1

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DATA ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………………52 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPROVAL………………………………………….53 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ...…………………………………...………...……. 54 RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………………56 SURVEY 1 – OFFICERS, EMPLOYEES AND VOLUNTEERS INVOLVED IN ADMINISTERING FOOD ASSISTANCE…………………………………………………………………………...……….. 58 PARTICIPATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION…………………………..…... 58 TYPES OF FOOD BANK OR FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAM…………………………...59 PERCEPTIONS OF OFFICERS, EMPLOYEES AND VOLUNTEERS…………………….…60 THE GROWTH OF FOOD BANKS………………………………………..……………....63 EMPOWERMENT………………………………………………………………………..64 ADVOCACY AND PARTNERSHIPS………………………………………………….…...66 EVANGELISM AND SALVATION STORIES……………………………………………....70 SURVEY 2 – RECIPIENTS OF FOOD ASSISTANCE……………………………………………….73 PARTICIPATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION…………………………...…...73 TYPES OF FOOD BANK OR FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAM…………………………...74 EXPERIENCES OF RECIPIENTS…………………………………………………………..75 LIFE CIRCUMSTANCES…………………………………………………………………..77 IMPACT OF THE SALVATION ARMY…………………………………………………….77 POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS…………………………………………………………...78 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………79 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………89 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………...….….92 APPENDICES……………..……………………………………………………………...………99

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Isaiah 58:6-10 (CEV) “I’ll tell you what it really means to worship the LORD. Remove the chains of prisoners who are chained unjustly. Free those who are abused! Share your food with everyone who is hungry; Share your home with the poor and homeless. Give clothes to those in need; Don’t turn away your relatives.”

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This study investigates the perception of officers, volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance regarding the growth of Salvation Army food banks, explores their effectiveness in regards to empowerment, sustainability and reducing food insecurity and explores the experiences of food banks recipients. There has been a dramatic increase in the demand for food assistance in many developed 1 countries and regions from North America to Europe to Australia/Oceania.2 Annually, 60 million people turn to food banks in developed countries which is comparative to the entire population of France or Italy, representing about 7.2 percent of the entire population of all developed countries.3 This research project is timely and critical as food banks are the primary modality to meeting this demand and combating hunger within vulnerable populations and are a significant part of Salvation Army ministry and programs.4 It is likely that the need for food banks will remain high and continue to increase in the future. This is why a concerted effort is taken throughout this research project to determine how the Salvation Army approaches this social injustice and how it can expand its effectiveness in bringing “soup, soap and salvation” to the lost, last and least in its communities. The study involved the distribution of two online surveys; one to officers, volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance and a second survey to food bank recipients within developed, English speaking, countries where The Salvation Army has an active ministry. 193 responses were included in the final analysis for survey 1 and 25 for survey 2. Results were gathered via Survey Monkey, an online database for data collection and results were 1

The term developed country is used throughout this paper to describe a country that has a very high Human Development Index. The term developed country is used rather than high incomes country as it incorporates multiple facets of development rather than solely measuring development through economics. High income countries are defined as countries that have a gross national income per capita of above US $12, 734 in 2014 as calculated using the Atlas method; therefore high income countries may also be considered developing countries. “Country and Lending Groups,” The World Bank Group, last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups#High_income 2 Ugo Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries,” Centre for Social Protection, Institute of Development Studies, no. 415 (January 2013): 2013, accessed April 15, 2015 https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp415.pdf 3 Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” 4 Sharon I. Kirkpatrick and Valerie Tarasuck, “Food Insecurity and Participation in Community Food Programs among Low-Income Toronto Families,” Canadian Journal of Public Health, 100, no. 2 (March/April 2009): accessed April 15, 2015, Medline. 5

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collated and organized using Microsoft Excel. Results are presented in a qualitative and descriptive form. Graphs are used to complement the data. Results indicate that there has been an increase in the number of recipients utilizing food banks and that Salvation Army food banks are somewhat effective at empowering individuals. The stories of salvation and evangelistic elements included in food assistance programs that were identified in the results are a testament to the work of the Holy Spirit. However, the need for a paradigm shift from a welfare approach to an empowerment approach that enables individuals to have the skills, resources, knowledge and opportunities necessary to move out of intergenerational poverty and lead lives of dignity is crucial for Salvation Army food banks to continue to be effective. From the results and discussion, the following 7 recommendations are made to benefit future policy and practice endeavors regarding Salvation Army food banks. 1. Inspiring a paradigm shift and a shift in organizational culture from a welfare approach to an empowerment approach which equips recipients with skills and knowledge to overcome the injustices that they are facing and advocate for themselves would assist Salvation Army food banks in being more effective. 2. The capacity of food assistance programs to provide recipients with choice over the food they are provided with should be expanded so that any negative emotional responses are limited and recipients can be treated with dignity and respect. 3. The type of food assistance program should incorporate a holistic approach to meeting the needs of the community/recipients, should be tailored and individualized and attempt to utilize the higher degrees of Longweâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s framework of empowerment. This includes equipping and skilling officers, employees and volunteers with knowledge on how to empower recipients to move out of intergenerational poverty. 4. The Salvation Army should consider how it can best empower recipients through the idea of consciousness/awareness raising so that recipients can know their human rights, identify oppressive structures and practices and address issues of inequality in their community. 5. Further training in community development and how to address issues of poverty in the local community as well as advocacy training would be beneficial. This includes raising awareness of current territorial models addressing intergenerational poverty. 6. Sharing stories of salvation widely as a result of engagement with Salvation Army food assistance programs and the various evangelical elements that officers, employees and volunteers use would be beneficial and increase the effectiveness of the Salvation Army in â&#x20AC;&#x153;growing saints and serving suffering humanity.â&#x20AC;? 7. Further research and better data collection methods would be beneficial to improve the reliability and validity of the research and provide a stronger evidence base for 6

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advocacy to governments particularly regarding the relationship between austerity and food banks.

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ACKNOWLEGMENTS Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Captain Kathy Crombie for her continuous support of my research project, her encouragement, advice and immense knowledge. Her guidance has assisted me in completing my first major research project and her friendship has made me a better person. I could not have imagined having a better mentor for my time at the International Social Justice Commission. I would like to thank the rest of the ISJC team: Colonel Geanette Seymour, Lt. Colonel Dean and Eirwen Pallant for their leadership, Majors Victoria and William Edmonds for their spiritual guidance, Dr. James Read for his insights and encouragement and Kimberly Ivany, Robert Docter and Luke Cozens for their love and grace throughout the year. My sincere thanks go to The Salvation Army for the opportunity to undertake an internship with the ISJC and also to Commissioner William Cochrane for allowing me to return early to Australia to complete my research because of extenuating family circumstances. I would also like to thank Harlem Temple Corps, Ringwood Corps, my family and friends for supporting me spiritually throughout the year and being my inspiration. I would especially like to thank my grandfather, mentor and confidant Don Ellis, who was promoted to glory in the final stages of this research project who faithfully served God and The Salvation Army for over 65 years. Finally, to the author and perfecter of my faith, Jesus who has new mercies for me every day and is abundantly faithful, all the glory and honor is yours.

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LIST OF TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND GRAPHS TABLE 1: Definitions of food banks……………………………………………………………..26 TABLE 2: Number of food bank recipients by developed country…………………………….28 TABLE 3: Food justice……………………………………………………………………………42 TABLE 4: Survey 1 – Percentage of participants by country of residence……………………56 TABLE 5: Survey 1 – Percentage of participants by rank………………………………………56 TABLE 6: Survey 1 – Mean and mode………………………………………………………….61 TABLE 7: Survey 1 – Participants responses on how their Corps or food assistance program engages in advocacy…………………………………………………………………………….65 TABLE 8: Survey 2 – Percentage of participants by country of residence…………………….71 TABLE 9: Survey 2 – Percentage of participants by age group………………………………71 TABLE 10: Survey 2 - Percentage of participants by household composition…………………71 TABLE 11: Ife’s foundational and valuing the local principles of community development…81 TABLE 12: Territorial models, tools and resources…………………………………………….84 DIAGRAM 1: Longwe’s (1991) framework of empowerment………….………………………29 DIAGRAM 2: Survey 1 – Participants’ responses based on Hodgson’s (1995) model of advocacy…………………………………………………………………………………………63 GRAPH 1: Survey 1 - Type/s of food bank or food assistance program overseen by officers, employees and volunteers……………………………………………………………………...57 GRAPH 2: Survey 1 - Perceptions of officers, employees and volunteers administering food assistance………………………………………………………………………………………..60 GRAPH 3: Survey 2 – Type/s of food bank or food assistance received…………….…………72 GRAPH 4: Survey 2 – Experiences of recipients receiving food assistance………………..….74

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INTRODUCTION

“The right to food is not a right to be fed, but primarily a right to feed oneself with dignity.” – Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

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There has been a dramatic increase in the demand for food assistance in many developed5 countries and regions from North America to Europe to Australia/Oceania.6 Annually, 60 million people turn to food banks in developed countries which is comparative to the entire population of France or Italy, representing about 7.2 percent of the entire population of all developed countries.7 This research project is timely and critical as food banks are the primary modality to meeting this demand and combatting hunger within vulnerable populations and are a significant part of Salvation Army ministry and programs.8 It is likely that the need for food banks will remain high and continue to increase in the future. This is why a concerted effort is taken throughout this research project to determine how the Salvation Army approaches this social injustice and how it can expand its effectiveness in bringing “soup, soap and salvation” to the lost, last and least in its communities. Engaging in research and critical thinking on issues of global social justice is one of the five goals that form the basis of the International Social Justice Commission’s (ISJC) strategic plan. The need for research in the area of food banks particularly around austerity and its relationship with food banks was raised by General Andre Cox under the research priority area of poverty, education and sustainable development. Considering the advocacy work that the ISJC engages with at the United Nations, this research is significant as Member States adopted the Post-2015 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September 2015. Many of the goals and targets of the SDGs are related to combatting food insecurity and hunger, particularly goal 2: “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.” 9 5

The term developed country is used throughout this paper to describe a country that has a very high Human Development Index. The term developed country is used rather than high incomes country as it incorporates multiple facets of development rather than solely measuring development through economics. High income countries are defined as countries that have a gross national income per capita of above US $12, 734 in 2014 as calculated using the Atlas method; therefore high income countries may also be considered developing countries. “Country and Lending Groups,” The World Bank Group, last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups#High_income 6 Ugo Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries,” Centre for Social Protection, Institute of Development Studies, no. 415 (January 2013): 2013, accessed April 15, 2015 https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp415.pdf 7 Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” 8 Sharon I. Kirkpatrick and Valerie Tarasuck, “Food Insecurity and Participation in Community Food Programs among Low-Income Toronto Families,” Canadian Journal of Public Health, 100, no. 2 (March/April 2009): accessed April 15, 2015, Medline. 9 “Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 12

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In a recent United Nations briefing10, Member States identified that one of the most effective methods of advocacy by civil society is to provide governments with high quality research from the grassroots to aid in intergovernmental negotiation processes. The ISJC is uniquely positioned to do this and fulfil its goal of raising strategic voices to advocate with the world’s poor and oppressed. Through engaging in research and implementing advocacy initiatives at the national and international level that are founded in data the Salvation Army has the potential to transform lives, reform society and embark on kingdom building through positive social action. This research is also significant considering General Andre Cox has recently joined more than 30 leaders from major world religions and heads of global faith-based organizations to launch a call to action to end extreme poverty by 2030. He has done this by signing the statement: Ending Extreme Poverty: A Moral and Spiritual Imperative. 11 The aim of this Moral Imperative statement is to inspire social and practical will and commitments from others to combat poverty. Although this statement refers to absolute or extreme poverty, the necessity of this research still exists. General Andre Cox (2013) recently stated “As the leader of a Salvation Army that today ministers in 126 countries I want to call again for a renewed fight against hunger…In the developed world, Salvation Army food banks and feeding programs and helping the most vulnerable people. Sadly, these wonderful programs are only scratching the surface of the problem.” 12 This call to a renewed fight against hunger is complemented by the General’s vision and dream for The Salvation Army in which he states, “I dream of an Army that truly reflects the mind of Jesus in our commitment to the poor and the marginalized,” and “I am dream of an Army that shuns the dependency culture.” 13

http://docs.googlecom/gview?url=http://sustinabaledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1579SDGs%20Pro posal.pdf+embedded=true 10 Department of Public Information (DPI), Non-Government Organizations (NGO) Briefing. Where would the agreed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) be without civil society? And where do we go from here? United Nations, New York. August 8, 2015. 11 Salvationist, “General Calls for New Fight to End Hunger”, last modified 2013, accessed April 15, 2015, http://salvationist.ca/2013/12/general-calls-for-new-fight-to-end-hunger/ 12 Salvationist, “General Calls for New Fight to End Hunger”, last modified 2013, accessed April 15, 2015, http://salvationist.ca/2013/12/general-calls-for-new-fight-to-end-hunger/ 13 The Salvation Army, “The General of The Salvation Army – I dream,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://www.salvationarmy.org/thegeneral/dream 13

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The need for this research is also important as there is limited data available regarding the growth of Salvation Army food banks in developed countries. Academic research from these countries is able to inform and guide the efficacy of food banks; however the effectiveness of food banks within The Salvation Army has not been explored. Latest figures indicate that there were approximately 1053 feeding centers internationally within The Salvation Army in 2014 both within developed and developing countries.14 However this information does not provide data regarding the number of recipients, details of the recipients’ experiences of food insecurity or the social circumstances that led them to seek assistance. The data also does not provide information regarding the food assistance program or the segregation of data between developed and developing countries. This study therefore investigated the perceptions of officers, employees and volunteers who are involved in the administration of food assistance regarding the growth of Salvation Army food banks, explore the effectiveness of food banks in regards to empowerment, sustainability and reducing food insecurity and compare and contrast the experiences of food bank recipients. The primary research question was:  What is the growth and effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks? Secondary questions included:  What is the effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks in regards to empowerment and sustainability?  How effective are Salvation Army food banks in reducing food insecurity?  What are the experiences of food bank recipients who receive food from The Salvation Army?

The General of The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Year Book 2015, (United Kingdom, London, Salvation Books, 2014). 14

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SOCIAL JUSTICE AND BIBLICAL MANDATE FOR FOOD ASSISTANCE

“The Salvation Army serves with a cup of cold water in one hand and the Gospel in the other hand.” – Billy Graham

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This chapter describes the social justice lens and theological perspective that is applied throughout this research and provides an overview of the biblical mandate for food assistance. Social justice acknowledges the inherent dignity and worth of the individual and refers to equal, economic, political and social rights and opportunities for all. Social justice is often linked to human rights and employs principles of economic, social and political empowerment so that individuals can have full participation and control over decisions that affect their lives.15 The term social justice is a relatively recent concept that surfaced in Western thought and political discourse after the industrial revolution, European revolutions in the mid-1800s and the development of socialism.16 However, social justice is a consistent theme in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, a central theme in Christian faith, and a crucial component of the ministry of The Salvation Army. The following excerpt is from The Salvation Army, New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga territorial position statement on social justice is useful in understanding social justice. “Social justice is found when a society enables all its members to participate in and have access to the social, cultural, political and economic resources that define a normative way of life for that society. Social justice is absent when groups of people within a society are excluded from or have very limited access to social, cultural, political and economic resources, compared to the majority of that society. Social justice is related to, but is wider than, human rights. People may have their human rights respected and upheld, but still be excluded from participating in or accessing the resources of their society.”17 This means people everywhere have access to food security, shelter, health care, opportunities for education and employment, freedom of religion and press, good governance and social order, fair treatment in courts and human rights to thrive while contributing to the wellbeing of others. 15

“The International Forum for Social Development Social Justice in an Open World. The Role of the United Nations” Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Social Policy and Development. Last modified 2006. Accessed April 6 2015. http: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/ifsd/SocialJustice.pdf 16 “The International Forum for Social Development Social Justice in an Open World The Role of the United Nations,” Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 17 “Social Justice,” The Salvation Army, New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga Territory. 2005. Last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/about-us/position-statements/social-justice 17

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Although there are many parallels between a human rights approach to social justice and a Christian understanding of social justice, a Christian understanding of social justice comes from a realization and recognition of God’s Kingdom and character and the God given dignity and worth of every human being. The notion of social justice includes embracing the code of loving your neighbor as yourself. It is about being moved by conviction and compassion to respond to what people lack. 18 In light of its biblical mandate and its heritage, The Salvation Army is committed to upholding social justice in all societies and between societies. This research attempts to address how food banks are engaging in social justice.19 The Old and New Testaments highlight the reality of poverty and hunger in the world but also exemplify how Christians are to respond with love and grace since much of Jesus’ ministry and teaching while he was on earth involved food. This is demonstrated in Deuteronomy 15:11 “There will always be some Israelites who are poor and needy. That’s why I am commanding you to be generous with them.” It is further demonstrated when Jesus said “You will always have the poor with you” (Matthew 26:11.) Providing food assistance is a tangible way for The Salvation Army to fulfil this biblical mandate and its mission, “to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ and to meet human needs without discrimination” in order to reveal God through the process of providing food. The Salvation Army has long engaged in food assistance since 1874 and the establishment of soup kitchens in the East End of London called “Food for Millions.”20 In 1889, The Salvation Army was able to serve thousands of meals to dockworkers on strike near the west India Docks. The men were striking due to unfair treatment and pay and The Salvation Army’s provision was a significant factor in the improvement of their working conditions. Funds from the sales of The War Cry in Australia were sent to London to assist the dockers’ strike highlighting The Salvation Army’s role in advocacy and food provision.

Don Posterski, Jesus on Justice, Living Lives of Compassion and Conviction – A Biblical Action Guide, World Vision Canada, 2013. Mississauga, Canada. 19 “Social Justice,” The Salvation Army, New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga Territory. 2005. Last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/about-us/position-statements/social-justice 20 Henry Gariepy, Christianity in Action, The International History of The Salvation Army (Michigan, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2009). 18

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By 1890, the Social Reform Wing of The Salvation Army was established; identifying that salvation from sin and social concerns was the dualistic mission of The Salvation Army.21 As The Salvation Army spread across the world so did social service provision, food assistance to the hungry and the “serving of suffering humanity” by Salvationists. The idea of “Soap, Soup and Salvation” as put forward by William Booth reminds Salvationists that they must offer a holistic approach to helping those in need before offering them the Bread of Life, Jesus Christ. The Salvation Army’s mission was once described by Billy Graham as “The Salvation Army serves with a cup of cold water in one hand and the Gospel in the other hand,” which adequately describes the dual mission that Salvationists are encouraged to embark on. In being disciples of Christ, a Salvationist’s mandate is to “serve suffering humanity” and “go straight for the souls and for the worst” and food assistance programs provide an opportunity for these to be met. William Booth’s comment further reiterates this “all social activity of the Army is the outcome of the spiritual life of its members. All social service must be based on the spiritual or it will amount to little in the end.” 22 The imagery of Isaiah 65: 17-25 of the “glorious new creation” that is to come with the return of Jesus highlights how hunger was not part of God’s original plan for humans. This scripture describes a new earth where there will be no more weeping and distress, where infants will live longer than a few days, an old person will live out a lifetime, where houses will be built and vineyards planted and where offspring will be blessed by the Lord. This is very similar to the description of the Garden of Eden in Genesis, where Adam and Eve were able to flourish and be well nourished. However, due to the fall they were cast out from the garden because of their sin and had to work for food, resulting in hunger becoming a reality. Throughout the Old Testament, scripture describes the provision of food to the poor and hungry through laws given by God for the Israelites to follow in order to live just and righteous lives. This is seen in Leviticus 19:9-10 and Leviticus 23:22 “When you harvest your grain, always leave some of it standing along the edges of your fields and don’t pick up what falls on the ground. Don’t strip your grapevines clean or gather the grapes that fall off the vines. Leave them for the poor and foreigners who live among you. I am the Lord your God.” The laws for the year of the Sabbatical which are detailed in Exodus 23:11, also included provision for the poor and hungry allowing them to gather all the crops that they will need. 21

Roger J. Green, War on Two Fronts, The Redemptive Theology of William Booth (Georgia, Atlanta, Salvation Army Supplies-Southern, 1989). 22 Dean Pallant, “Keeping Faith in Faith-Based Organizations – A Practical Theology of Salvation Army Health Ministry (Wipf & Stock Publishers, OR, U.S.A, 2012). 19

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The narrative of Joseph and Pharaoh in Exodus demonstrates how food banks existed from early biblical times. Joseph is called upon to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams and warns Pharaoh about the need to store food in preparation for times of famine. This story teaches the importance of being good stewards and to prepare and provide for those in need. Scriptures in Isaiah 58, James 2 and 1 John 3 affirm that true worship to God, faith and love comes from living out socially just, righteous and holy lives and providing food to others is a practical way of doing this. Furthermore, Jesus’ words in Matthew 25:35 “Whenever you did it (fed the hungry, welcomed a stranger, clothed the naked) for any of my people, no matter how unimportant they seemed, you did it for me” emphasizes that providing food is much more than a physical act but provides Christians with an opportunity to connect with Christ and engage in a heavenly exchange. Isaiah 30:18 describes God as a God of justice, who exercises justice for the orphan and the widow and who loves the strangers, providing them with food and clothing (Deuteronomy 10:18). To know God’s character is to live out holiness and justice (Jeremiah 22:13-16 and 1 John 4:8) especially towards the poor and the hungry but also to recognize the inherent dignity and worth of all people. Genesis 1:27 and Galatians 3:28 acknowledge that all people are made in the image of God and are equal through Jesus Christ. This has implications for providing food assistance as all recipients should be treated with dignity and grace and should be offered justice and not just a handout. The Gospels demonstrate how Jesus used meals as opportunities for teaching and ministry and to share deeper truths about himself and the Kingdom of God. Jesus often had meals with tax collectors, sinners or the sick (Matthew 9:10-13 and Mark 14:1-9) and He also shared meals with friends (Luke 10:38-42). The Last Supper (Luke 22:7-20) encourages believers to remember the Lord giving his life for us and in Hebrews 10:25 Christians are encouraged to not give up meeting together. Food assistance programs in the form of community meals can be crucial opportunities for ministry and for these scriptures to be lived out. The actions of the early church in Acts 4:32-37 and Acts 2:42-47 demonstrate how the community of believers showed love for each other through sharing their possessions, land, property and food for the edification of the church. The message from Paul to the Church in Galatia also emphasizes the need for the Church to be the servant community, “My friends, you were chosen to be free. So don’t use your freedom as an excuse to do anything you want. Use it as an opportunity to serve each other with love. All that the Law says can be summed up in the command to love others as much as you love yourself” (Galatians 5:13-14).

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The act of being in fellowship and community together over food or a meal, allows Salvationists to recognize that every meal may be hallowed, whether in the home or with a congregation. The love of God motivates Salvationists to be used by God to extend His grace to others as this is a natural response to His love and grace extended to them. Christians are called to be like Christ and show his love. Providing food to others is one way that this can be demonstrated.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

“"The King will reply, 'Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me.'” – Jesus (Matthew 25:40 NIV)

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This chapter establishes the theoretical framework for the study by defining and discussing important terms and concepts. The first section of the chapter discusses food security/insecurity. The second section discusses food poverty, hunger and absolute and overall poverty. The following section discusses food assistance and defines food banks. The final section discusses what is meant by growth and effectiveness in relation to the research questions. Food security/insecurity The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing “when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life,” 23 and was reasserted in the Declaration of the 2009 World Summit on Food Security.24 Food insecurity refers to “limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire foods in socially acceptable ways”.25 According to this definition, food banks and food assistance programs are not socially acceptable ways to acquire food in the developed world. Recipients of food assistance are not considered as those experiencing starvation but are rather food poor when using definitions of food security/insecurity. These recipients either lack financial access to purchase food or are not aware of how they can provide the next nutrient dense and culturally acceptable food for themselves and their families. Money allocated for food is often the most flexible part of the budgets of vulnerable people. This means that when the money allocated for food is used for other expenses, individuals can easily become hungry and in need of food assistance. Food poverty, poverty and hunger Food poverty refers to a lack of access to healthy and affordable food and is guided by the concepts of food security/insecurity and hunger.26 Hunger is a subjective experience that is a painful sensation caused by a lack of food.27 As the term hunger is often politically and

“Food Security,” World Health Organization, 1996 World Food Summit, last modified 2015, accessed April 24, 2015. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/ 24 “Declaration on the World Food Summit on Food Security,” FAO, 2009, Rome. 25 S. A. Andersson, “Core Indictors of Nutritional State for Difficult to Sample Populations”. Life Science Research Office. The Journal of Nutrition, 1990, accessed April 15, 2015. 26 Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, “Chapter 1: Hunger in the Rich World, Food Aid & the Right to Food Perspectives” in First World Hunger Revisited. Food Charity or the Right to Food? edited by Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmillan, London, U.K:2014). 27 S. A. Andersson, “Core Indictors of Nutritional State for Difficult to Sample Populations” 24

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emotionally charged, academics often prefer the term food security, which will be used throughout this paper. In 1995 as part of the Copenhagen Declaration, the United Nations adopted two definitions of poverty28. These are absolute poverty and overall poverty – sometimes referred to as relative poverty which views poverty in terms of the minimum acceptable standards of living. Absolute poverty was defined as a “condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services.” Overall poverty takes various forms, including: “lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclusion.” “It (poverty) is also characterized by lack of participation in decision making and in civil, social and cultural life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many developing countries, pockets of poverty amid wealth in developed countries, loss of livelihoods as a result of economic recession, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social institutions and safety nets. This is sometimes known as relative poverty.” Poverty measures often use income as an important or the only indicator of deprivation, reflecting the notion that economic deprivation is a main defining characteristic of being poor. It is common practice to have a “poverty- line” separating poor from the non-poor, or the poor from the extremely poor. The most widely cited figure is a measurement developed by the World Bank, which defines extreme poverty as living on $US 1.90 a day.29 Due to the significant economic disparity between developed and developing countries and understandings of the implications of food insecurity, this research focused on the growth and effectiveness of food banks in developed countries. This is supported by literature from 28

“World Summit for Social Development Programme of Action – Chapter 2 - Eradication of Poverty,” Economic and Social Development at the United Nations, http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/wssd/textversion/agreements/poach2.htm 29 World Bank. See http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-globalpoverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 accessed 0831 EST 05 October 2015

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Gentilini (2013) that suggests that any data gathered or policy implications should be carefully considered when making comparisons. Food assistance in developing countries is likely to be the difference between life and death due to starvation and malnutrition, whereas this is not so for the majority in developed countries who access food banks. The term developed country is used throughout this paper to describe a country that has a very high Human Development Index (HDI). The term “developed country” is used rather than “high incomes country” as it incorporates multiple facets of development rather than solely measuring development through economics. High income countries are defined as countries that have a gross national income per capita of above US $12, 734 in 2014 as calculated using the Atlas method. Therefore high income countries may also be considered developing countries.30 The Human Development Index (HDI) is a multidimensional and international measure of human development using three dimensions as used by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). These dimensions include: a long health life (as measured by life expectancy at birth), being knowledgeable (as measured by the mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 and expected years of schooling for children of school entering age) and having a decent standard of living (gross national income per capita). A multidimensional measure to poverty and deprivation such as this is broadly understood to be a capabilities approach. This approach defines poverty as the lack of key capabilities to ensure adequate functioning in a given society. This may be the capability to access food, health care, employment, education, be involved in political decision making etc. Such a measure allows for a number of factors, including external factors, such as political, societal and environmental factors to be taken into account. The HDI measure was used as part of the inclusion criteria for the participating countries in the research. Food assistance and food banks Food assistance refers to the measures that attempt to provide aspects of food security and address hunger. Food assistance attempts to provide access to and the consumption of adequate, safe and nutritious food for vulnerable populations so that they can live and maintain a healthy life.31 There are multiple modalities used to provide food assistance to the hungry in developed countries, the most common being food banks. The U.S.A is an exception to this as 1 in 7 30

“What is the World Bank Atlas Method?” The World Bank Group, n.d. accessed September 22, 2015. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378832-what-is-the-world-bank-atlas-method 31 “The Post-2015 Development Agenda and the Millennium Development Goals. Food Security and the Right to Food,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015. http:// http://www.fao.org/post-2015-mdg/14-themes/food-security-and-the-right-to-food/en/ 26

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Americans are enrolled in a Federal government hunger program - the Supplementary Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) formerly known as food stamps.32 A food assistance program may take the form of food parcels or hampers, provision of vouchers or gift cards for grocery stores, food stamps, prepared meals consumed on site (e.g. community meals, soup kitchens etc.), prepared meals to take away, community development related program such as a food purchasing program, schools based food program, meals in residential facilities, prepared meals provided by food vans, a community garden and a café. The term “food bank” has different meanings and functions in various countries. In academia, the warehouse and frontline models are the two most common approaches. According to the warehouse model, food banks are places where food is stored, provided to charitable welfare agencies and then parceled for recipients to take away, prepare and eat or used as part of a meal program.33 In comparison, the frontline model describes food banks as organizations established by community groups to coordinate the collection and redistribution of donated foods to those in in need on a voluntary and ad hoc basis.34 For the purposes of this research, the term “food bank” refers to any form of food assistance program that is offered at a Salvation Army Corps or social services center and these terms will be used interchangeably. In addition it is beyond the scope of this research to explore the growth and effectiveness of Salvation Army food assistance programs that are specifically administered during natural disasters or emergency crisis situations. This research instead focuses on those experiencing overall poverty. The table below attempts to summarize and explain the definitions of food banks in the eight countries investigated in this research.

Janet Poppendieck, “Chapter 13: Food Assistance, Hunger and The Welfare State in the U.S.A”, in First World Hunger Revisited. Food Charity or the Right to Food? edited by Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmillan, London, U.K. 2014). 33 Hannah Lambie-Mumford and Elizabeth Dowler, “Rising use of “food aid” in the United Kingdom,” British Food Journal, 116, no. 9 (September 2014): accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. 34 Valerie Tarasuk, Naomi Dachner and Rachel Loopstra. “Food banks, welfare, and food insecurity in Canada,” British Food Journal, 116, no.9 (2014): accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. 27

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TABLE 1: Definitions of food banks Country

Approximate Warehouse or Government funding National Association year the National front line model arrangements Name Association commenced

Australia

1994

Warehouse model.

Canada

1980s

Frontline model.

Denmark

2009

Republic of Ireland

1989

Netherlands

2002

New Zealand

1989

United Kingdom

United States of America

Commonwealth funding with some State and Territory funding. No government funding.

Foodbank Australia (FBA).

Blended warehouse and frontline model. Blended warehouse and frontline model.

No government funding.

The Food Bank (fodevareBanken).

No government funding but does receive food from the E.U. F.E.A.D programme.

Blended warehouse and frontline model. Blended warehouse and frontline model.

No government funding.

No national association but Cross Care â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Dublin Food Bank is the largest food bank in the ROI. Dutch Food Bank.

2004

Blended warehouse and frontline model.

No government funding.

1967

Warehouse model.

No government funding due to SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program).

No government funding.

Food Banks Canada (FBC).

No national association. The Salvation Army has the largest network of food banks. No national association but the Trussell Trust Food Bank is the largest food bank in the U.K Feeding America.

Calculating the growth of food banks Despite the numerous difficulties when attempting to calculate the overall growth of food banks in developed countries, data from the countries participating in this research supports that there has been a dramatic increase in food assistance in the past decade. A detailed explanation of this is follows in Chapter 4, Empirical Background. Some of the difficulties in attempting to calculate the overall growth of food banks in developed countries include the differing reporting systems, the numerous organizations and stakeholders involved, the various food assistance models and programs adopted in

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each country and the diverse capacities of organizations to provide the needed data. 35An example of this is in Europe where food insecurity commonly refers to skipping a meal with meat, chicken or fish every second day. In contrast in the United States of America, food insecurity refers to “reports of multiple indicators of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake”.36 It is generally accepted that estimates on the number of food banks recipients are conservative and that the actual number is likely to be much higher. These numbers are not an accurate measure of food insecurity as these numbers do not include people who do not have access to food banks due to transportation issues, do not receive food due to waiting lists or queues or choose to remain hungry rather than seek assistance from food banks due to fear of stigma and shame. Food bank use as measured by the number of recipients, does not provide a very useful or accurate indicator of food insecurity within developed countries, however is useful as a proxy indicator.37 Due to these complexities, the research focused on measuring growth based on the number of recipients, either families or individuals who receive food assistance per week so that it can serve to support or refute the current literature. The following table outlines the number of food bank recipients by developed country, percentage of total population and public social expenditure38. TABLE 2: Number of food bank recipients by developed country. Country

Year

Belgium Bulgaria Canada Czech Republic

2011 2011 2012 2011

Number of recipients 205, 000 255, 121 882, 188 15, 000

Recipients as % of total population (2010) 1.9 3.4 2.6 0.1

Public social expenditure as % of GDP (2011) 29.6 NA 18.3 20.9

Ugo Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” “Definitions of Food Security,” United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, last modified 2014, accessed 17, April 2015, http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-securityin-the-us/definitions-of-food-security.aspx 37 Michael O’Brien, “Chapter 8: Privatizing the Right to Food: Aotearoa/New Zealand,” in First World Hunger Revisited. Food Charity or the Right to Food? edited by Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmillan, London, U.K. 2014) pg. 110 38 Ugo Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” pg. 9 36

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Estonia Finland France Greece Hong Kong Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxemburg Malta Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain United States Total

2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2009 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2009 -

95, 394 422, 000 3, 642, 991 402, 200 3, 800 1, 073, 637 90, 000 3, 380, 000 220, 000 180, 000 495, 937 1, 547 25, 000 3, 200, 00 478, 191 2, 835, 433 715, 343 254, 618 1, 667, 770 37, 000, 000 57, 092, 170

7.1 7.9 5.8 3.5 0.1 10.8 2.0 5.6 0.1 8.0 14.9 0.3 6.0 8.4 4.5 11.1 13.1 12.5 3.6 11.9 7.2

18.8 28.6 32.1 23.5 NA 21.8 23.5 27.6 NA NA NA 22.5 NA 20.7 25.2 NA 18 24 26 19.7 -

Effectiveness The effectiveness of food banks in this research refers to the ability of a food assistance program to empower recipients, be sustainable and address food insecurity in the community. The terms efficacy and effectiveness are used interchangeably. Empowerment Empowerment for the purpose of this research refers to: “the process by which people gain control over the factors and decisions that shape their lives. It is the process by which they increase their assets and attributes and build capacities to gain access, partners, networks and/or a voice, in order to gain control. "Enabling" implies that people cannot "be empowered" by others; they can only empower themselves by acquiring more of power's different forms. It assumes that people are their own assets, and the role of the external agent is to catalyse, facilitate or "accompany" the community in acquiring power.”39

“Community empowerment,” World Health Organization, last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/track1/en/ 30

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Longwe’s (1991) framework of empowerment is used to summarize and analyze the results.40 This framework stresses the importance of gaining control over decisions and resources that determine the quality of one's life and suggests that aspects of ‘lower’ degrees of empowerment are a prerequisite for achieving higher ones. DIAGRAM 1: Longwe’s (1991) framework of empowerment

The welfare degree: where basic needs are satisfied. This does not necessarily require structural causes to be addressed and tends to view those involved as passive recipients. The access degree: where equal access to education, land and credit is assured. The conscientisation and awareness-raising degree: where structural and institutional discrimination is addressed. The participation and mobilization degree: where the equal taking of decisions is enabled. The control degree: where individuals can make decisions and these are fully recognized. The sustainability of a food bank is based on Swisher and Monaghan’s (2014) three principles underpinning sustainable community development.41 These principles are environmentally sound, economically productive and socially just.

“Understanding and operationalizing empowerment,” Luttrell, Quiroz, Scrutton & Bird, Overseas Development Institute, last modified 2009, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5500.pdf 41 “Sustainable Community Development,” Swisher & Monaghan, University of Florida, last modified 2014, accessed September 22, 2015. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/CD/CD02100.pdf 31

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For the purposes of this research the definitions of these principles are as follows: Environmentally sound: The program focuses on reducing any detrimental impacts on natural resources and environment. Economically productive: The program has the financial and human resources to be sustainable. Socially just: The program acknowledges the inherent dignity and worth of the individual, promotes equal economic, social and political empowerment so that individuals have full participation and control over decisions that affect their lives and generates long lasting change. Hodgson’s (1995) model of advocacy is also used to summarize the results and assist in developing recommendations. 42 Hodgson’s model is best described as a continuum and encompasses: Case or issue based advocacy: work is focused with individuals or small groups such as families in a task centered way. Systemic or cause advocacy: knowledge from individual cases contributes to collective advocacy for systemic change to legislation, policy or practice. Passive advocacy: involves the advocate speaking up for someone else. Active advocacy: the person is empowered to speak for oneself. Participants and recipients For the purposes of this study the participants in survey 1 will be referred to throughout the results, discussion and conclusion as participants. Participants in survey 2 will be referred to as recipients to distinguish between the two groups of participants.

“Effective Advocacy in Social Work,” Dalrymple &Boylan, SAGE Publications, last modified 2014, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/58102_Dalrymple_&_Boylan.pdf 32

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LITERATURE REVIEW

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The right to adequate food is realized when every man, woman and child, alone or in community with others, has the physical and economic access at all times to adequate food or means for its procurement.â&#x20AC;? - General Comment 12 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR)

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This chapter provides an overview of existing literature regarding the growth and efficacy of food banks in Australia, Canada, Denmark, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the U.K and the U.S.A. It also discusses food banks as a response to austerity and the working poor as factors pertaining to growth. The right to food and food justice, the dark side of food banks and food the social and environmental sustainability of food banks are also explored as aspects relating to efficacy. The growth of food banks in Australia In Australia, food banks have expanded to a network of seven food banks and associated distribution centers since the establishment of the first food bank approximately twenty years ago.43 Despite the adverse economic effects of the Global Financial Crisis, Australia has experienced economic prosperity44 in recent years and yet the need for food assistance has increased.45 Data from Food Bank Australia in their 2013 report End Hunger, states that 66% of charitable welfare agencies reported an increase in demand for food.46 This is coupled with a lack of resources to meet the needs of the recipients. 35% of charitable welfare organizations stated that due to lack of funding they were unable to assist all recipients that were in need of food. 29% stated that this was due to insufficient food and 21% suggested this was due to insufficient human resources and staff. Alarmingly, 80% of charitable welfare agencies reported not having enough food to meet the current demand. The growth of food banks in Canada Ten years after the establishment of Canada’s national association for food banks, Food Banks Canada (FBC), over 9000 food banks mainly in Quebec and Ontario were providing good assistance to approximately 690,000 recipients per month.47 This figure rose to the highest recorded with 882, 000 monthly recipients supported by 4,558 charitable welfare organizations, a growth of 23 percent in 2012.48 Last year, this figure dropped slightly to 842,

Sue Booth, “Chapter 2: Food Banks in Australia: Discouraging the Right to Food” in First World Hunger Revisited, Food Charity or the Right to Food, edited by Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmillan, London, U.K:2014). 44 Sue Booth and Jillian Whelan. “Hungry for Change: The Food Banking Industry in Australia,” British Food Journal, no. 9 (June, 2014), accessed June 12, 2015. 45 “End Hunger in Australia,” Foodbank Australia, last modified, 2013, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.foodbank.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Foodbank-End-Hunger-Report-2013.pdf. 46 “End Hunger in Australia,” Foodbank Australia. 47 “Hunger Count,” Canadian Association of Food Banks, Toronto, 1997. 48 “Hunger Count,” Food Banks Canada, Toronto, 2012. 35

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191 with approximately 1/3 of those recipients being children. 49 While the growth in food bank use is influenced by economic and social policy factors including unemployment, over the last 15 years the number of recipients of food assistance in Canada has not dropped below 700, 000 per month.50 Growth of food banks in Denmark and the Republic of Ireland The number of recipients of food assistance in Denmark has increased from 761, 904 in 2012 to 1,015,105 in 2013; this is a growth of approximately 30%.51 Due to the growth of recipients and demand for food the Food Bank (fodevareBanken) in Copenhagen expanded and opened another branch in Jutland to provide food to charitable welfare organizations.52 Similarly, the main distributor of food to charitable welfare organizations in the Republic of Ireland, Crosscare, has established four new community food banks in Blanchardstown, Bray, Swords and Tallaght. There are plans to open more food banks in Carlow and Cork to manage the demand for food. Crosscare estimates that 60 families per week receive food from each food bank.53 Growth of food banks in the Netherlands Despite a growth in the economy, the percentage of people depending on food assistance has reportedly risen in the Netherlands to 11%.54 The Amsterdam food bank in 2012, reported a 20 percent increase in one quarter with a 10 percent increase in recipients per month.55 Since the first food bank in 2005 in Zuidoost, 50 food packages were distributed weekly which has increased to 1000 food packages with about 2500 recipients. The number of regional food banks has also increased to twelve.

“Hunger Count,” Food Banks Canada, last modified 2014, last accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.foodbankscanada.ca/getmedia/76907192-263c-4022-856173a16c06dd2f/HungerCount_2014_EN_HR.pdf.aspx (accessed June 12, 2015). 50 “Hunger Count,” Food Banks Canada. 51 “FodevareBanken,” FodevareBanken, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.foedevarebanken.dk/ 52 “Food redistribution in the Nordic region, experiences and results from a pilot study,” Ole Jorgen Hanssen et., al. last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://norden.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:784307/FULLTEXT01.pdf 53 “Food Bank Ireland,” last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.centreforglobaleducation.com/blog/foodbankIreland 54 “Food banks are helping to make support for the poor a matter of charity again,” Peter Verschuren, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.dutchnews.nl/features/2015/03/food-banks-are-helping-tomake-support-for-the-poor-a-matter-for-charity-again/ 55 “Amsterdam food bank: ‘explosive increase, ’”Expatica Communications, last modified 2012, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/country-news/Amsterdam-food-bank-explosiveincrease_330326.html 36

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Growth of food banks in New Zealand Charitable welfare organizations in New Zealand continue to report growing use of food banks. This includes The Salvation Army, which operates the largest national network of food banks through their 63 community ministry centers. The 2013 figures of food bank recipients were the highest on record with 56,398 food parcels distributed to 28,399 families. This is a 6% increase since 2010. The Salvation Army’s South Auckland Community Centre distributed almost 9,500 parcels in 2014, which was a 10% increase on 2013.56 Growth of food banks in the U.K. Data from the United Kingdom highlights that there has been a significant increase in food assistance over a short period of time. The Trussell Trust Foodbank Network, which is the U.K’s largest food bank, reports rising numbers of food parcels distributed from under 41, 000 in 2009-2010 to over 900,000 in 2013-2014.57 U.K. Oxfam and Church Action Poverty’s report, ‘Walking the Breadline’,58 estimates that in 2013, more than a half a million people were dependent on food assistance from charitable welfare organizations. This report also suggested that regardless of how fast food banks grow in the U.K., they are unable to meet the scale of the need for food. Growth of food banks in the U.S.A A high demand for food assistance is regularly reported by the charitable welfare agencies of Feeding America. Data that is collected by Feeding America once every four years, demonstrates that food assistance is growing and crucial at meeting the needs of individuals and their families. 1 in 7 Americans receive food assistance from Feeding America with approximately 46.5 million individuals receiving food assistance.59 There has been an increase of 46% in the number of recipients since 2005. About 5.7 million different people, or 1 in 50 Americans, receive emergency food assistance from the Feeding America system in any given week, an increase of 27% since 2005.60 Food banks as a response to austerity 56

“A mountain all can climb: A state of the nation,” Alan Johnson, The Salvation Army Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/sites/default/files/uploads/20150211SOTN2015%u20update%20WEB/pdf 57 Hannah Lambie-Mumford and Elizabeth Dowler, “Rising use of “food aid” in the United Kingdom,” British Food Journal, 116, no. 9 (September 2014): accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. 58 N. Cooper and S Dumpleton, Walking the Breadline: The scandal of food poverty in the 21st century Britain, 2013, Oxfam, Oxford. 59 “Hunger in America 2014, Executive Summary,” Feeding America, last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/our-research/hunger-in-america/hia-2014-executivesummary.pdf 60 “National Report Prepared for Feeding America 2010,” Mathematica Policy Research Inc., last modified 2010, accessed June 12, 2015 file:///C:/Users/ISJC.User2/Downloads/feeding_america_251.pdf 37

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The 2008 Global Financial Crisis and following economic uncertainty resulted in vast social spending cuts in many countries which served to widen the income inequalities between the rich and poor. This was coupled with the world food crisis and ongoing instability of global food markets as well as inadequate, reduced or stagnate incomes and rising food, fuel and housing costs.61 These factors are attributed to the growing number of people in developed countries who are dependent on food assistance. There is an array of underlying causes of food insecurity that differ for each recipient of food assistance. It has been suggested that the factors that constrain food purchasing have rarely been addressed by government policy and a significant contributor to the growth of food banks are government austerity measures in developed countries.62 Austerity describes a range of neo-liberal policies and measures employed by government to reduce its public spending and often the consequences of these policies result in reducing public services and funding, outsourcing services to private or non-government organizations, entrusting local governments to provide income and welfare support in an effort to bring the budget to surplus.63 Austerity measures are often deemed necessary for some developed countries to promote economic growth and maintain a high standard of living as a way of compensation for over borrowing and debt. However despite the intentions of the governments to boost their economies, austerity measures have had detrimental economic and social effects in the Eurozone, U.S.A and U.K. According to the 2014 report, Unmasking Austerity: Lessons for Australia64 the economic and social effects of austerity include:  “5.5 million young people are unemployed in the European Union alone.  2.2 million public sector job losses have followed deep cuts in public spending in the U.K, U.S.A and Spain alone.  Cuts in wages, benefits and pensions have reduced take-home earnings by up to 20%.  Public services and the welfare state are being reconfigured to embed marketization and privatization in parallel with austerity. 61

“Food Statistics Pocket Book: In Year Update,” Defra, last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/307106/foodpocketbook2013update29apr14.pdf 62 Sharon I. Kirkpatrick and Valerie Tarasuk, “Food insecurity and participation in community food programs among low income Toronto families, Canadian Journal of Public Health, 100 vol. 2 (2008): accessed April 15, 2015. 63 “What is austerity?” St Vincent de Paul Society, last modified 2015, last accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.vinnies.org.au/page/Publications/National/Articles_Reports_Speeches/What_is_austerity/ 64 “Unmasking Austerity: Lessons for Australia,” Peter Whitfield, last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.adelaide.edu.au/wiser/docs/WISER-ESSU_UnmaskingAusterity2014.pdf 38

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

 

Despite public spending cuts, governments are widening corporate welfare through financial aid to the private sector, deregulating markets and increasing the role of business in public policy making. Health services have suffered closures and patients face increased charges and longer waiting times. Austerity has increased poverty and widened inequality and public spending.” 65

In developed countries, food banks are often considered a last resort safety net and are ill equipped to address the complex and structural economic systems and social policy factors that contribute to food insecurity due to austerity measures.66 According to research by Loopstra and Stuckler, (2015)67 austerity measures are fueling the rise of food banks in the United Kingdom rather than the opposing arguments that growth is attributed to the expansion of food bank operations or recipients taking advantage of food that is freely available.68 Food assistance has been one of the main ways that churches have responded to austerity with churches making large scale and compassionate responses through the provision of food.69 The next section attempts to summarize the Salvation Army’s responses to austerity in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to their government’s austerity measures or the need for their governments to strengthen the welfare state. The Salvation Army reports and comments highlight the detrimental effects of the ongoing erosion of the welfare state and identify the connections between housing unaffordability and insufficient income support payments and the demand for food assistance. The U.K. Territory states that while The Salvation Army is not opposed to welfare reform, there are concerns that austerity measures and efforts to reduce welfare dependency by the government have pushed more individuals into hardship and crisis. The U.K. Territory acknowledges their personal experience of being overstretched, which echoes the experiences of other non-government organizations and their role as being the safety net to

“Unmasking Austerity: Lessons for Australia,” Peter Whitfield Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” 67 Rachel Loopstra and David Stuckler, “Austerity, sanctions and the rise of food banks in the United Kingdom,” British Medical Journal, 350 (2015). 68 Rachel Loopstra and David Stuckler, “Austerity, sanctions and the rise of food banks in the United Kingdom.” 69 Helen Cameron, “The Morality of the Food Parcel: Emergency Food as a Response to Austerity,” Practical Theology, 7 no.3 (September 2014). 66

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the safety net. This is attributed to the State shifting the responsibility of providing welfare to charity organizations.70 Mitch Menagh, the Director of Homelessness Services at The Salvation Army in the U.K, at two special fringe events at the Labour Party Conference in Manchester in 2011 and 2014, highlighted how austerity measures have negatively affected service delivery and the need for multi-sectoral partnerships. “The reality for us today is that we have fewer beds available and fewer services across our service. We’ve had to reduce staff hours, we’ve had to make staff redundant and reduce levels of direct support to clients.”71 His comments are further supported by reports from the Australian Territories and the New Zealand Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit. The New Zealand Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit released a report in 2015 entitled, “A Mountain All Can Climb: A State of the Nation Report” which states that the demand on Salvation Army food banks for food parcels has fallen by 2% during 2014. However at the South Auckland Community Ministry Centre in 2014 there was an increase in the distribution of food parcels by 10%.72 Although this appears to be an improvement since 2013, the report states that progress in this area is temperamental due to housing affordability and the costs of rental accommodation. Many individuals choose to go without adequate food so that they can pay their housing and utility costs. This relationship between food insecurity and housing is highlighted consistently throughout The Salvation Army’s responses. The report states that “Auckland’s housing shortage just gets deeper and deeper…The Auckland (building consent) numbers are woefully inadequate in the face of the recent migration surge.” The housing is not affordable in both Auckland and Christchurch for those who are at the bottom of the labor market and this is creating overcrowding and poor health outcomes for these communities. The report suggests that the economic stability of New Zealand is likely to be threatened by the continuing increase in price of housing and highlights that the government’s response and reforms have been insufficient73. 70

“Welfare reform,” The United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory of The Salvation Army, last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://uki-test.salvationarmy.org/uki/welfare_reform 71 “We call on Labour to commit to eradicating rough sleeping,” The United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory of The Salvation Army, last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://news.salvationarmy.org.uk/we-call-on-labour-commit-eradicating-rough-sleeping 72 “A mountain all can climb: A state of the nation,” Alan Johnson, The Salvation Army Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit. 73 “A mountain all can climb: A state of the nation,” Alan Johnson, The Salvation Army Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit. 40

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In Australia, the Southern and Eastern Territories released a report, “The National Economic and Social Impact Survey 2015”, which called for a shift in social policy direction led by the Federal Government to address ongoing disadvantage across their communities. It also highlights that The Salvation Army is providing the safety net for many.74 Their survey provides a snapshot of the characteristics and life experiences of 2406 individuals who receive Emergency Relief services in 262 Salvation Army support centers in Australia75. Their survey indicated that the majority of the respondents experience some form of financial hardship and disadvantage with 25% going without at least one substantial meal a day. 34% of the respondents’ children going without fresh fruit and vegetables a day and 16% of the respondents’ children going without at least one meal a day, with meat, chicken or fish or vegetarian equivalent. Overall, 67% of respondents experienced extreme housing stress, paying more than 50% of their income for accommodation. The Salvation Army in Australia is advocating for an increase in the current income support allowances so that individuals can meet the daily costs of living as income support allowances have not increased with inflation. They argue that insufficient welfare payments have served to widen economic inequality and poverty. The working poor – Changing demographics Although there are political and structural factors contributing to an increase in food bank use, there are more specific individual life and social circumstances such as family breakdown, debt, domestic and intimate partner violence and sickness that are also causative. Recipients not only include “the homeless, elderly, chronically poor and other vulnerable groups but increasingly food banks are supporting single-headed households, divorced or separate individuals, students, the working poor and even the former middle class family members with sporadic income and growing indebtedness.76 The right to food and food justice The right to food and food justice are two key components that should be taken into account when administering food assistance. The right to food is defined through various mechanisms including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 25 and the

“National Economic and Social Impact Survey, Key Findings 2015,p7” The Salvation Army Southern and Eastern Territories, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/who-weare/Publications-reports-submissions/Reports--Submissions/LatestReports/National-Economic-and-SocialImpact-Survey-2015/Summart/Key-Findings 75 “National Economic and Social Impact Survey, Key Findings 2015,” The Salvation Army Southern and Eastern Territories. 76 Ugo Gentilini, “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.” 41

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Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as well as recognized in international law. Article 25 states that “everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for health and wellbeing of himself and of his family including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.”77 The right to food is built on the human right for an individual to be free from hunger. It emphasizes an individual’s right to have their minimum daily nutritional intake and for this to include a standard of adequacy, measured by quality, quantity and cultural sensitivity and acceptability and for the individual to acquire their food through dignified means. The right to food is officially defined in General Comment 12 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), “The right to adequate food is realized when every man, woman and child, alone or in community with others, has the physical and economic access at all times to adequate food or means for its procurement.”78 This is further clarified in paragraph 8 which explains that the food must be culturally appropriate and meet the dietary needs of individuals which includes being of adequate quality and quantity. The U.N. Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food further explains that the right to food is “the right to have regular, permanent and unrestricted access either directly or by means of financial purchases to quantitatively and qualitatively adequate and sufficient food corresponding to the cultural traditions of the people to which the consumer belongs and which ensure a physical and mental, individual and collective fulfilling and dignified life free of fear.”79 The right to food is also recognized in international law and in international instruments. (See Appendix A.) The Voluntary Guidelines on the Right to Food, Guideline 3, Strategy 1 encourages the adoption of a national human-rights based strategy by governments, including poverty reduction strategies where necessary to promote the right to food.80 It also emphasizes the importance of states, international organizations, civil society, the private sector and all 77

“The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ “The right to food: The human right to adequate food,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 www.fao.org/righttofood/right-to-food-home/en/ 79 “About right to food,” Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.fao.org/righttofood/about-right-to-food/en/ 80 “Voluntary Guidelines to support the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security,” Food and agricultural organization of the United Nations, 2005, Rome. 78

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relevant non-governmental organizations and other stakeholders in promoting partnerships and capacity building to promote the right to adequate food. The right to food requires governments to develop accountability mechanisms including national plans, strategies and the setting of targets, indicators and monitoring systems to ensure that food systems are sustainable.81 The right to food is also highlighted in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Post-2015 Development Agenda that Member States agreed to in September, 2015 at the United Nations.82 6 of the 17 proposed goals relate directly to combatting food insecurity and hunger, particularly goal 2: “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.”83 The six goals in the Post-2015 Development Agenda that relate to combatting food insecurity and hunger are:  “Goal 1: End poverty in all forms everywhere.  Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages.  Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.  Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.  Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”84 Despite 160 Member States of the United Nations ratifying the right to food, the need for charity and food banks is growing and the responsibility for feeding the hungry is being shifted to civil society organizations. This highlights the need for governments at the national level to address hunger and food insecurity through domestic public policy. However, food insecurity in developed countries is rarely on the political agenda because of the visible and tangible work of food banks that reassure the public that food insecurity is not a significant issue85. In response to the increase, the term food justice has emerged in 81

“Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sustainabledevelopmentgoals 82 “Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://docs.google.com/gview?url=http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1579SDGs%20Pro posal.pdf+embedded=true 83 “Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 84 “Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 85 Sue Booth and Jillian Whelan, “Hungry for Change: The Food Banking Industry in Australia.” 43

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discussions about food security, hunger and food banks in developed countries, with many civil society organizations, States, activists and researchers using a model, framework or principles of justice when feeding the hungry. Food justice is a “transformation of the current food system including but not limited to eliminating disparities and inequities.”86 This occurs through four methods: trauma/inequity, exchange, land and labor. A food assistance program that engages in food justice is aware of how power is unequally distributed in society and how to empower and rebalance power inequities.87 The program critically considers when it is useful to engage other stakeholders, analyses and evaluates their capacity and effectiveness at catalyzing systematic and structural change and ensures democratic and collective participation at all levels.88 Practicing food justice in planning, implementing and evaluating food assistance programs is crucial to promoting and protecting the dignity and rights of those who receive food. Many organizations struggle to apply and convert the overarching concepts and methods of food justice into practical and concrete action. They may label or identify that their program is engaging in food justice but not truly be using these concepts or methods which highlights the importance of assessment and evaluation.89 The table below outlines these four methods involved in food justice programs. TABLE 3: Methods Involved in Food Justice Trauma/inequity: Acknowledging and confronting historical, collective social trauma and persistent race, gender and class inequalities. - Recognizes structural relations of power as necessary to confront race, class and gender privilege. - Acknowledges the collective traumas and remembers that the history and expression of trauma varies locally and is fueled by the power of global hierarchies of privilege. Enacts policies that repair past injustices and trauma that are still felt today. Exchange: Designing exchange mechanisms that build communal reliance and control. - Forges new exchange mechanisms that build communal reliance through cooperation, trust and sharing economies. Land: Creating innovative ways to control, use, share, own, manage and conceive of land, and ecologies in general, that place them outside the speculative market and the rationale of extraction. 86

Kirsten Valentine Cadieux and Rachel Sloaim, “What does it mean to do food justice?” Kirsten Valentine Cadieux and Rachel Sloaim, “What does it mean to do food justice?” 88 Kirsten Valentine Cadieux and Rachel Sloaim, “What does it mean to do food justice?” 89 Kirsten Valentine Cadieux and Rachel Sloaim, “What does it mean to do food justice? “Journal of Political Ecology, 22, (2015). 87

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Creates equitable ways to access, manage and control land and other resources and understands resources in a more than human relational context. - Applies agro-ecological land use practices that benefit other than human life as well as human society. - Builds on diverse knowledge systems to grow food, make change and sustain societies. Labor: Pursuing labor relations that guarantee a minimum income and are neither alienating nor dependent on (unpaid) social reproduction by women. - Compensates fairly, protects and supports the value of all labor. Source: Kirsten Valentine Cadieux and Rachel Sloaim, “What does it mean to do food justice?” 2015. The dark side of food banks Food assistance can meet the physical need of hunger, however many recipients of food experience negative emotional responses such as shame and anger due to the stigmatization that they experience from volunteers.90 The features of the food parcels such as the quality of the food, the interactions at the food banks with volunteers as well as their social status within society induce these negative emotions. The content of the parcels received can heighten their experience of poverty and feelings of unworthiness. This is because the quality of the food that they are provided with can be past the expiry date, damaged or stale. Recipients are often expected to be grateful for what they are provided, regardless of the nutritional value of the food or the ability to make a meal out of the ingredients provided.91 The positive emotional experiences that some recipients experience such as feeling accepted and developing a social network,92 are often contradicted by the descriptions provided by recipients that explain that the process of receiving food assistance as degrading and undignified. Furthermore, many recipients do not seek food assistance from a food bank until they are desperate due to fear of humiliation, stigma and guilt.93 Complaining about the quality or quantity of the food is often interpreted as a sign of antisocial attitudes and a lack of real need for food donations.

Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” British Food Journal. 116, vol. 9 (2014). Emerald Insight. 91 Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 92 Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 93 Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 45

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Due to Good Samaritan laws, food can be donated to food banks and distributed to recipients without it having to pass nutritional, health or safety standards. 94 The donor is exempt from any social and legal responsibility should a recipient suffer sickness or ill health after consuming such food. Many food banks require recipients to wait in long lines or turn them away hungry. Food banks often do not take into consideration people who may have dietary requirements due to physical needs such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, celiac disease and allergies. Likewise, many food banks often do not take into consideration people who may have dietary requirements due to religious reasons. Social and environmental sustainability While evidence suggests that food banks are able to meet the immediate need of hunger in the short term, food banks are unable to reduce food insecurity, meet the increase in demand for food and contribute to food security and sustainability unless they incorporate food justice95. The reality is that many food banks are only reaching a small proportion of people experiencing food insecurity96. Although food banks can act as a gateway to social service provision and engagement for recipients, for example providing access to legal or health services and building positive trusting relationships with vulnerable members of the community97, food banks rarely have the capacity or resources to address the underlying issues of poverty or hunger98. The increase in the use of food banks in developing countries is often attributed to a culture of dependency that is created between food banks and food bank recipients. It is often misunderstood that the food provided by food banks is an ongoing dependable source of food provision.99 Describing food banks as the ‘pantry of the welfare sector’ can persuade society to perceive that issues of food security will be resolved if more food is available. However, more food does not address the underlying factors contributing to food insecurity or enable recipients to be empowered to better their life circumstances.

Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 95 Valerie Tarasuck, Naomi Dachner and Rachel Loopstra, “Food banks, welfare, and food insecurity in Canada,” British Food Journal, 116 no. 9 (May 2014) accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. 96 Kirkpatrick and Tarasuck, “Food Insecurity and Participation in Community Food Programs among LowIncome Toronto Families.” 97 Sue Booth and Jillian Whelan, “Hungry for Change: The Food Banking Industry in Australia,” British Food Journal no.9 (June 2014): 116, accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. 98 Hannah Lambie-Mumford and Elizabeth Dowler, “Rising use of “food aid” in the United Kingdom.” 99 Booth and Jillian Whelan, “Hungry for Change: The Food Banking Industry in Australia,” 46

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Weighing up the environmental sustainability of food banks with an individual’s right to adequate food is often difficult, especially as there is growing awareness of global food waste in both developed and developing countries. As a social issue, food insecurity and hunger could be easily solved in developed countries. This is because there is plenty of food and often an overabundance due to agricultural policies resulting in over production. Often food banks are considered a socially desirable solution to waste. Therefore momentum is gaining in politics regarding the interconnection between food waste and meeting the demand for food in developed countries. An example of this are the laws that were recently passed in France, barring shops from destroying food as it approaches it sell by date and the impetus for the European parliament to follow suit.100 Although this solution is often seen as an environmental friendly and sustainable solution, this intervention of using food waste to supply food banks greatly benefits food retailers and businesses. This is because it reduces costs to food retailers and businesses as they have reduced charges in land fill, storage and transport. Academics101 suggest that food banks are unlikely to be eliminated despite their ineffectiveness at reducing food insecurity because of the financial benefits to the private sector. Food banks have often served to de-politise hunger and food security in developed countries; especially because of the momentum food waste is gaining as a solution. Warshawsky, (2010)102 argues that food retailers and businesses are not suitable advocates for those experiencing food insecurity because of the economic benefits that they experience through using food banks. Providing food waste to food banks does not fulfil the right to adequate food or food justice, especially as this food is considered scrap, unsellable and will be likely to pass the expiry date by the time the recipient receives the food and is able to prepare it.

100

“Campaign to cut supermarket food waste reaches European parliament,” The Guardian, last modified 2015, accessed July 7, 2015 http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/07/campaign-to-cut-supermarket-foodwaste-reaches-european-parliament 101 Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 102 Hilje Van Der Horst, Stefano Pascucci & Wilma Bol, “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” 47

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METHODOLOGY

“Staring us in the face is the desperate plight of the poor. We don’t need statistics to tell us that. They are flesh and blood people like ourselves, often out of work, forced out of rented premises, without money and without food.” – General Eva Burrows

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This chapter describes the research and outlines methods that were used to select participants, design the questionnaires, collect and analyze data in order to answer the research question, “What is the growth and effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks?” It also describes the ethical considerations, ethics approval and limitations to the research. Type of research and selection of participants According to Alston and Bowles, (2003)103 there are three main purposes of research and two of those purposes are relevant to the research questions proposed. These are exploring social phenomena (exploratory research) and describing various aspects of the social world (descriptive research). This research is both exploratory and descriptive and takes a qualitative approach. The study involved the distribution of two online surveys; one to officers, volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance and a second survey to food bank recipients within developed, English speaking, countries of The Salvation Army. As this research is qualitative, there is no claim that the results can be generalized to the wider population of The Salvation Army; however, they may provide insight and justification for future research. Purposive sampling was used as participants were recruited from developed, English speaking countries, in which the Salvation Army has an active ministry. Inclusion criteria consisted of countries where 85% of the residents speak English and score 80-100 on the Human Development Index. These countries are therefore considered ‘developed’ countries. These countries were Australia, Canada, Denmark, the Republic of Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (see Appendix B and C for more information.) Data collection The territorial commanders of the 8 countries selected received an email from the Director of the ISJC Lt. Colonel Dean Pallant and a letter from Policy Intern, Caitlin Hallett explaining the research study and asking for their assistance to disseminate the online surveys. The letter explained that there were 2 surveys, one for officers, volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance and another for food bank recipients. Both surveys included an information sheet and consent form.

103

Margaret Alston & Wendy Bowles, “Research for Social Workers – An Introduction to Methods” 2nd Edition, (Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, Australia: 2003). 50

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Territorial commanders were asked to send the online web links to both the surveys electronically to officers, volunteers and employees who engage in food bank or food assistance programs throughout that territory. It was requested that these surveys were to be completed by August 17, 2015. Once this deadline approached the surveys were closed. Officers, volunteers or employees were asked to complete survey 1 and then recruit food bank recipients within their program to complete survey 2. In order to increase the response rate, additional emails were sent to contacts of the ISJC inviting participation. Officers, volunteers or employees who participated were asked to provide any statistics, reports or documentation that they thought would be useful. Some territorial representatives were contacted and asked if they could also supply additional information. This was done by using normal communication processes in The Salvation Army. It was also acknowledged that selection bias may occur when officers, volunteers or employees ask food bank recipients to complete the surveys. Participants were asked to complete an online survey consisting of a range of multiple choice and short answer questions. The survey was about 20 minutes in duration and the information collected was non-identifiable and anonymous. Some demographic questions such as country of residence, age, gender and household composition were asked. The data was collected and aggregated in a non-identifiable manner. The data collected was stored online within the ISJC’s survey monkey account, which is password protected. The results of the study were stored online and at the ISJC’s premise. Questionnaires The questions in both surveys were based on General William Booth’s seven principles from his book “In Darkest England and the Way Out,” which he felt were crucial to any social services scheme or provision within The Salvation Army. Lieutenant Colonel Paul Bollwahn provides a contemporary interpretation of these principles104 which assisted in the formulation of the survey questions. These principles are: 1. Programming must lift up and facilitate change at the personal level whenever matters of character or conduct are at the root of individual or familial dysfunction.

104

The Salvation Army, “Communion with the Poor,” last modified 2010, accessed 17 April, 2015, http://www.esummit.org/conference/Communion-with-the-Poor.html

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2. Effective intervention must include strategies that alter social circumstances and outside forces as they contribute to suffering. 3. The scale of the intervention must, by design, be commensurate with the human outcomes and life changes sought. 4. Effort must be sustained over time, sufficient to support long-term growth. 5. Efforts must be specific, measurable, realistic, feasible, and motivating yet practical in every sense. 6. Intervention must not unintentionally injure those it is intended to benefit. 7. While assisting one individual or population, our intervention must not negatively impact the well-being of others. These seven principles were divided into three themes: advocacy, empowerment and sustainability. Survey 1 also included two additional themes; growth and evangelism. The decision to use qualitative questions when asking about the growth of food banks was due to the numerous difficulties that could occur when attempting to calculate the growth of food banks in developed countries quantitatively. The Salvation Army does not have an international database with food bank statistics and although databases may exist in individual countries, it can be difficult to compare this data. This is because of differing reporting systems, the numerous stakeholders involved, the various food assistance models adopted in each country and the diverse capacities of each corps or social services program to provide the needed data105. Likert scales were used in both surveys because they are a universal method for survey collection, are commonly understood, quantifiable and are a psychometric measurement of attitudes and perceptions. Since it does not require the participant to provide a simple and concrete yes or no answer, it does not force the participant to take a stand on a particular topic, but allows them to respond in a degree of agreement; this makes question answering easier on the respondent. The survey also comprised of some yes or no and open-ended questions (see Appendix D for both surveys.) Data analysis For the purpose of this research, results were gathered via Survey Monkey, an online database for data collection and results were collated and organized using Microsoft Excel. Results are presented in a qualitative and descriptive form with graphs to complement the data. Incomplete responses were removed and deemed incomplete if the question presented as a Likert scale was unanswered. The Likert scale question in survey 1 was question 8 and was question 7 in survey 2. 105

Gentilini, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries.â&#x20AC;? 52

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Ethical considerations and approval This next section identifies and discusses a number of ethical issues that are inherent in the study. a) Conflict of Interest The following statement outlines that there was no personal conflict of interest in conducting this study. “I, Caitlin Hallett, the primary researcher, have been a Salvationist and Corps member for my entire life. I have volunteered and worked for The Salvation Army in their social services in Australia and have provided food assistance to people in need. There is no dependency relationship between myself and any of the participants of which I am aware”. b) Respect for persons - Informed consent, voluntary participation and withdrawal rights. At the beginning of the online survey, participants were provided with an information sheet outlining their rights as well as a consent form. The information sheet included the purpose and aims of the research study. Participants were informed that they would be asked to complete an online survey which consisted of a range of multiple choice and short answer questions of approximately 20 minutes duration. The participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and were provided with their withdrawal rights. They were able to do this by exiting the online survey. They were informed that they would not be able to withdraw their data after completing the survey as it was collected anonymously. Participants could choose to refuse to answer questions by clicking next on the online survey. This information was provided to them in the information sheet along with the right to omit or refuse to answer or respond to some questions if so desired. Participants were also asked to consent to participate in the research. The consent form stipulated that the participant must be over the age of 18 to participate. Their right to ask questions about the procedures or survey was provided along with the contact details of the researcher and supervisor. - Confidentiality and anonymity The data collected was non-identifiable and anonymous. Some demographic questions such as country of residence, age, gender and household composition were asked. The data collected was stored online within the ISJC’s survey monkey account, which is password protected. The results of this study are stored online and at the ISJC’s premise.

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- Feedback Participants were informed that the results of this study will be published and used to inform policy, future research and program initiatives within The Salvation Army. Participants were informed that a copy of the publication of the study will be available to participants on request. c) Justice and beneficence - Benefits and Harms There were limited risks to participants by taking part in this study. Careful consideration was given when formulating the survey questions to ensure that they were not distressing, invasive or prone to triggering harmful memories. Some questions within survey 2, the recipient’s survey, did ask the participants about their experiences, for example whether they have experienced shame or embarrassment when attending a food bank. However these questions were intentionally presented in a Likert scale so participants do not have to give details regarding the emotions they have experienced. The benefits of the study are that it can provide more comprehensive information regarding the growth and effectiveness of food banks within The Salvation Army that can be used to inform policy, future research and program initiatives. This may indirectly benefit the participants. This study was approved by the ISJC research ethics team on June 22nd 2015. It was suggested that the letter explaining the research, emphasized that recipients should not be coerced to participate and should be able to independently complete the survey in English without assistance. This recommendation was adhered to (see Appendix E for the approval documentation.) Limitations of the research An effort was made to confine potential biases throughout the research, however some limitations did occur. As the study was confined to English speaking, developed countries with a HDI of 80-100, not all Territories across the world had an equal chance of participating in the study. A concerted effort was made to use the terms ‘food bank’ and ‘food assistance’ simultaneously and interchangeably. This is because the response rate and results were likely influenced by the term ‘food bank’ having various meanings in each of the countries involved in the research. A delimitation of this study was the lack of focus on the working poor and their relationship with food bank use. 54

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The sample size for both surveys was small but particularly for survey 2 which enquired about the experiences of recipients receiving food assistance from The Salvation Army. A significant factor contributing to the low response rate was the timing of the territorial commanders receiving the correspondence from the ISJC. Emails were sent to contacts of the ISJC to encourage greater participation which also increased the likelihood of selection bias. The emails and letters were sent in June 2015 and it is likely that many of the territorial commanders and their staff were preparing for or at the International Congress in London at this time. The Denmark territory stated that they were not able to provide information and participate due to their staff working at summer camps. The survey was an online survey and not a hard copy/paper survey. It relied on officers, employees and volunteers allowing recipients to have access to a computer and the internet which may not have occurred in some cases, therefore limiting the response rate. There is likely to be some selection bias as officers, employees and volunteers were asked to recruit recipients to complete survey 2. There were some limitations to designing the surveys as the ISJC was using a free version of Survey Monkey, the online database used to generate the surveys. This meant that the surveys were limited to 10 questions and that questions had to be shortened or adapted to fit within the confines of the software. As this study is exploratory and qualitative research and uses grounded theory, the results were coded by the primary researcher and therefore are subjected to researcher bias.

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RESULTS

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food assistance should be provided as a matter of right, rather than charity, in order to ensure human dignity.â&#x20AC;? (Ziegler et al, 2011)

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This chapter summarizes the results for both survey 1 – officers, employees and volunteers involved in administering food assistance and survey 2 – recipients of food assistance from The Salvation Army. Survey 1 – Officers, employees and volunteers involved in administering food assistance. Participation and demographic information In total 209 responses to survey 1 were received, however due to incomplete data 16 responses were removed. 193 responses were included in the final analysis. Participants who did not answer question 8 were excluded. 53% of participants were female and 47% were male. 1 participant did not indicate gender. All participants consented to participate in the study. The tables below present the percentage of participants by country of residence and the percentage of participants by rank. TABLE 4: Survey 1 - Percentage of participants by country of residence. Percentage of participants 51% 16% 15% 11% 5% 2%

Country of residence United States of America United Kingdom New Zealand Canada Australia Other: Guam, Republic of Marshall Islands and Bermuda.

TABLE 5: Survey 1 - Percentage of participants by rank. Percentage of participants 44% 22% 17% 11% 3% 2% 1%

Rank Employees Majors Captains Lieutenants Envoys Volunteers Other: Executive Director Services, social worker.

Community

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Types of food bank or food assistance program Participants were asked to select the type of food bank or food assistance program that they oversee or are involved with. 187 out of 193 participants completed this question. Participants were able to select multiple options as well as describe other food assistance programs that were not listed. The three largest responses were food parcels or hampers (172), prepared meals consumed on site (e.g. community meals and soup kitchens) (91) and provision of vouchers or gift cards for grocery stores (73). The lowest responses were community garden (12), school based food program (10), café (10) and food stamps (7). Participants that selected “other” indicated that they oversee or are involved in: - Food pantries - Food boxes - Passing out donated food from markets - Provision of vouchers for larger food banks (e.g. Trussell Trust) - Provision of vouchers for nearby food establishments - Provision of food at Salvo Connect sites - Provision of food hampers in the interim while individuals wait to attend a larger food bank - Senior food distribution - Grocery recovery program - Kitchen workshops and cooking on a budget - Donating food to Salvation Army hostels for the homeless The graph below from Survey 1 summarizes the responses.

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Graph 1: Survey 1 -Type/s of food bank or food assistance programs overseen by officers, employees and volunteers

200 180

172

160 140 120 91

100 73

80 60

40 20

21 10

0 Other (please specify)

Cafe

Community garden

Prepared meals provided by food vans

Meals in residential facilities

Schools based food program

Community development related (e.g. food purchasing program)

Prepared meals to take away

Prepared meals consumed on site (e.g. community meals, soup kitchenâ&#x20AC;Ś

Food stamps

Provision of vouchers or gift cards for grocery stores

Food parcels or hampers

Perceptions of officers, employees and volunteers Officers, employees or volunteers who are involved in the administration of food assistance were asked to select the most appropriate response (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) to a series of statements. 193 participants responded to this question with varying response rates for each individual statement. Some key findings include: ď&#x201A;ˇ 72% of participants agree that there has been a significant increase in the number of food assistance recipients at the Corps or social services program over the last 5 years. 60

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  

     



 



40% of participants agree and 29% disagree that the food assistance program is sustainable and well-funded at their Corps or social services program. 52% of participants agree that the main focus of their food assistance program is to address hunger. 78% of participants agree that recipients are provided with the food that is available and have little choice over what is provided in comparison to 11% of participants who disagree. 51% agree that the Corps or social services program offers complementary programs and ministries that are holistic and focused on capacity building. 45% of participants agreed that they would benefit from further training in community development and addressing issues of poverty in the local community. 70% disagree that there are unlimited financial and human resources for their food assistance program to continue to be sustainable in the future. 73% agree that the aim of the food assistance program is to empower recipients to address poverty. 88% agree that many of their food bank recipients are experiencing inter-generational poverty. 51% disagree that their food assistance program generally allows recipients to have autonomy and choice over the food they are provided with in comparison to 5% who strongly agree. An equal percentage of participants agree, neither agree nor disagree (neutral) and disagree (31%) that their food bank recipients are involved in other programs, activities and ministries within their Corps or social services program. 28% agree, 27% neither agree nor disagree (neutral) and 30% disagree that they are aware of models being implemented by the Territory that address inter-generational poverty and empowerment. 80% of participants disagree that very few food bank recipients repeatedly visit our Corps or social services program for food assistance. 39% of participants agree that in their role they feel adequately equipped with skills and knowledge to help recipients move out of poverty in comparison to 22% that disagree and 26% neutral (neither agree nor disagree). 68% of participants agree that changes to government welfare policies have greatly impacted our food bank recipients in comparison to 8% of participants who disagree.

The graph below from survey 1 summarizes the responses.

Graph 2: Survey 1 - Perceptions of officers, employees andJustice volunteers International Social Commission administering food assistance ď&#x201A;ˇ

impacted our food bank recipients in comparison to 8% of participants that disagree.

There has been a significant increase in the number of food assistance at the summarizes Corps or social the services program Therecipients graph below responses. over the last 5 years.

12%

36% 36%

17%

GRAPH 2: Survey 1 - Perceptions of officers, employees and volunteers administering food 5% 40% assistance. 26% The food assistance program is sustainable and well funded. 29%

26%

The main purpose of our food assistance program is to address hunger.

52%

11% 9%

26%

Recipients are provided with the food that is available and have little choice over what is provided.

49%

11% 13%

24%

The Corps/social services program offers complementary programs and ministries that are holistic and focused on capacity building.

51%

17% 18%

I would benefit from further training in community development and addressing issues of poverty in the local community.

1% 3%

There are unlimited financial and human resources for our food assistance program to continue to be sustainable in the future.

45%

30%

7% 8%

19%

45%

25% 20%

The aim of our food assistance program is to empower recipients and to address poverty.

53%

14% 12%

42%

I am aware that many of our food bank recipients are experiencing inter-generational poverty.

10%

3% 5%

The food assistance program generally allows recipients to have autonomy and choice over the food they are provided with.

16% 14% 14%

51%

Our food bank recipeints are involved in other programs, activities and ministries within our Corps or social services program.

31% 31% 31%

3% 8%

I am aware of models being implemented by the Territory that address inter-generational poverty and empowerment.

28% 27% 30%

Very few food bank recipients repeatedly visit our Corps or social services program for food assistance.

9% 8%

49%

31% 7%

In my role I feel adequately equipped with skills and knowledge to help recipients move out of poverty.

22%

26% 28%

Changes to government welfare policies have greatly impacted our food bank recipients.

2% 0%

46%

23%

8% 10%

20%

30%

39%

40%

50% 62

Strongly agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

60%

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The growth of food banks Participants were asked three questions regarding the growth of Salvation Army food banks. 187 participants answered this question. When asked â&#x20AC;&#x153;approximately how many people receive food assistance from your Corps/social program per week?â&#x20AC;? this number varied from 0 to 4800 individuals or 200-300 families per week. Some participants answered other and explained that this was because the information was unknown or that the number of recipients depends on the time of year and seasons. The table below summarizes the mean (average) of the responses based on whether the participant referred to the number of individuals or families their food assistance program feeds per week. When a participant responded with a range, for example 50-100 individuals per week, the median was used to assist in calculating the mean. The table also includes the mode, the most reoccurring number that was provided. TABLE 6: Survey 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mean and mode The mean response for individuals was: 197 The mode response for individuals was: 50

The mean response for families was: 85 There was no mode response for families.

76% participants reported that they had seen an increase in the number of recipients in the last 5 years, in comparison to 18% of participants who had not observed an increase. 6% of participants stated that they were unsure, that this information was unknown or that because they were new to their appointment, they were unable to comment. Participants were also asked what factors they felt had contributed to an increase in food bank use. Many participants provided a list of multiple factors which included natural disasters, ill health, changes to the population, dependency, the economy and high cost of living, unemployment and underemployment, homelessness and increase in rent prices, poor decision making, poverty, changes made by external agencies and internal changes. Unemployment and underemployment, including changes to the job market, a lack of increase of the minimum wage, an increase in the number of working class and middle class recipients and the globalization of industries such as manufacturing were the most reoccurring factors. The economy and high cost of living, including increased food and utility costs was the second most commonly cited factor. Changes to the welfare system and government austerity measures, including decreased financial and food based benefits (for example food stamps/SNAP), reduced services,

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sanctions and delays in processing applications for benefits were also identified as factors contributing to the increase in recipients over the last five years. Empowerment Participants were asked how the food assistance programs offered at their Corps or social program empower recipients to change their social circumstances. They were asked to provide an example of an individual or family that has had their social circumstances improved after receiving food assistance. 151 participants answered this question. As mentioned, Longwe (1991)’s framework of empowerment is useful in summarizing the results. This framework stresses the importance of gaining control over decisions and resources that determine the quality of one's life and suggests that aspects of ‘lower’ degrees of empowerment are a prerequisite for achieving higher ones. The welfare degree: where basic needs are satisfied. This does not necessarily require structural causes to be addressed and tends to view those involved as passive recipients. The access degree: where equal access to education, land and credit is assured. The conscientisation and awareness-raising degree: where structural and institutional discrimination is addressed. The participation and mobilization degree: where the equal taking of decisions is enabled. The control degree: where individuals can make decisions and these are fully recognized. The majority of the participants’ responses reflected that recipients are empowered through welfare and access degrees to then participate and gain control of their circumstances. No responses reflected the conscientisation and awareness-raising degree. Some participants stated that their food assistance program did not empower recipients. Some responses included:  “They don’t really. In fact, I believe that we do not provide enough case management to help people get out of their poverty and that constantly handing our food enables them to stay impoverished because it doesn’t force them to make changes.”  “They really don’t. We would love to change this but don’t know how.”  “I don’t believe it does. I think we offer a band aid solution to a bigger problem.” In contrast, others described food assistance as welfare and reflected the welfare degree view of empowerment. Their responses included:  “The food assistance clients receive at the social services program helps alleviate food costs so they are able to pay for other needed expenses such as rent and utilities.” 64

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 

“Food assistance frees funds to pay bills.” “We keep people alive. Living people have a better chance of changing.”

Others described how their food assistance program was able to empower through providing recipients with access to services such as budgeting classes, life skills courses, case management, education and employment and therefore gain control over decision making in their lives.  “We are working on starting budgeting and ESL classes. We also want to start celebrate recovery meetings and increase opportunities for volunteering to help people build or rebuild good work habits if they have not worked for extended periods of time.”  “We are implementing the Pathway of Hope program and are really working towards helping people see the needs that can be addressed to help them live within their finances. We also have a budgeting program that has helped several people make great changes in their lives to avoid needing our service in the future.” There were a number of responses that reflected participation and mobilization as well as creating a sense of community and belonging. One participant wrote, “The recipient can pick out the food they need rather than just handing out what we think they need. Our meals provided each week give us the opportunity to build relationships and provide needed direction. We give them the opportunity to give back through volunteer work and help feed others. This gives them a sense of belonging and empowers them to reach out to others.” Another wrote, “We provide meals not so much as a way to alleviate hunger but to allow interaction and networking among the disenfranchised of the community. We have seen people who are unwilling to talk with others and unable to access many of the resources available to them because of the social awkwardness become more willing and able to communicate with others.” One participant wrote, “We are a small corps and refer to other agencies in town for budgeting and counselling when we need. We have the Positive Lifestyle Programme at our Corps and offered this. One mother finally entered our building and asked for food, letting me know that her husband would be so embarrassed for The Salvation Army to know that he was unable to feed his family. I listened to her story and their family started attending our Corps. We helped them work through their struggles and we dedicated their baby and healing took place. They both started getting involved in the Corps and worshipped with us until he was able to get a promotion in another town. We still keep in contact with the couple and their spiritual journey is going well.”

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An additional degree not included in Longwe’s framework is spiritual empowerment – assisting the person to experience salvation in Jesus Christ and dignity. Participants noted that their food assistance programs empower recipients to change their social circumstances as they receive access to services and gain greater control over their lives but also experience salvation, attend the Corps and become soldiers. One participant wrote, “We have one couple who lost their jobs, became homeless, came to eat at our program, got involved, volunteered and eventually took a job working in the kitchen. They are so grateful for The Salvation Army and to the Lord for seeing them through the hard times. They are committed to their ministry and are filled with passion to help others. Food creates community and community opens hearts to the love of Christ.” Advocacy and partnerships Participants were asked three questions regarding how their Corps or program engages in advocacy work, what engagement with government or collaboration they have and how they use this engagement to alter the social and political factors influencing a recipient’s need for food assistance. Almost 1/3 of participants did not believe that their Corps or food assistance program engaged in advocacy work to address the underlying issues of food insecurity in their local communities. A select few noted that this was an area in need of improvement and that they were determining ways that this could occur. Hodgson’s (1995) model of advocacy can be used to best explain the remaining participant’s responses. This encompasses:  Case or issue based advocacy: where work is focused with individuals or small groups such as families in a task centered way.  Systemic or cause advocacy: where knowledge from individual cases contributes to collective advocacy for systemic change to legislation, policy or practice.  Passive advocacy: where the advocate speaks up for someone else.  Active advocacy: where the person is empowered to speak for oneself. 2/3 of responses by the participants were descriptions of passive case based and passive systemic advocacy. Few of the responses reflected active advocacy and empowering an individual to speak and advocate without the assistance of an officer, employee or volunteer. Diagram 2 indicates on a continuum the responses provided by the participants, reflecting that majority of the responses indicated passive advocacy.

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DIAGRAM 2: Survey 1 – Participants’ responses based on Hodgson’s (1995) model of advocacy.

The table below demonstrates by way of responses the two major forms of advocacy indicated - case-based and systemic advocacy. TABLE 7: Survey 1 – Participants’ responses to how their Corps or food assistance program engages in advocacy.



 



CASE BASED ADVOCACY “We look at the key factors of what is happening (to the recipient) whether it be financial or social issues and then look at achievable goals step by step.” “We advocate for and solicit direct financial/material resources to support the people we serve.” “Through our budget service concerning debt repayments and assessing entitlements, negotiating better financial plans and also through our social work engagement to consider wider social issues such as housing, mental and other issues.” “We have hosted nutritional education classes for both children and adults that teach the participants how to make healthy, low-cost meals. We also utilize the Pathways of Hope program to help foster change in lives.” “We run the local foodbank and secure funding for it, as well as planted community gardens, encouraged

 

  



SYSTEMIC ADVOCACY “We are involved in many community based programs, service groups and non-profits.” “We cooperate with our social service units, where instead of duplications in services, we instead complement our services to attain a wider reach, focus on our organization’s advantages and expand ministry work and self-help programs.” “Through engagement with local media and council.” “By partnering with agencies designed to reduce waste and manage food availability.” “We are part of the county community health and welfare resource group and are active members. I have been a part of hospital committees dealing with food and nutrition issues.” “We participate in a community food council and national efforts such as Stamp Out Hunger and Feeding 67

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families to get chickens, advocate for work and income were needed.” “I give people advice on how they can grow their own vegetables in their garden and help from others in the community, also about the cooking course that is running at the Corps.” “We support participants at disability assessments and write letters of support regarding sanctions lifted from welfare benefits.” “Sign posting to relevant organizations, giving guidance about debt and money management and access to the internet.”



     

America.” “We work with SPPU on an ongoing basis and advocate for client families and individuals with numerous government departments.” “We are willing to speak to benefits office on behalf of people in food poverty where they benefit problems.” “I am member of the Trustee meetings of the food bank.” “Working with the Council of Churches.” “We are in many collaborations and committees in our community.” “We participate in surveys and speak with political officials…” “We constantly meet with local and regional agencies to bring to light the importance of working to alleviate poverty. We are committed to assisting our clients with not only food parcels but helping change their lives.”

There were a number of participants who identified advocacy work to be public education and community awareness initiatives. Some examples were continual networking and street outreach in promotion of services, raising awareness of recipient’s stories, raising the profile of issues surrounding food poverty which could be relate to welfare benefits, family breakdown and substance misuse, inform agencies and businesses about the services and trying to be a voice in the community to those that need it. When asked about engagement or collaboration with other churches or non-government organizations in relation to food banks, 25 participants reported that they do not engage or collaborate with other churches or non-government organizations. The majority of the remaining participants described their engagement and collaboration in terms of receiving and distributing food or referrals from other churches or non-government organizations. Other participants wrote that they regularly meet monthly with like-minded services and collaborate and partner with a variety of services for training and information sharing. Examples of the types of services included government, health, mental health, corrections and housing.

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When asked about Corps engagement in partnerships with such groups, and how this engagement attempts to alter the social and political factors that influence the recipient’s need for food assistance, 40% of participants reported that their engagement does not do this. Participants responded that “we meet immediate needs rather than long term planning” and that “we work at the grass roots level and don’t know how to go about this.”’ Other responses included:  “I am not sure how this (our engagement) alters the social and political factors at all. The problem is as Jesus said that the poor will always be with you.”  “Mostly the engagement is about providing food. Connecting people with other services through our food bank program to address the wider problems causing poverty is something we do internally at first and may refer to other agencies if required.”  “The poor will always be with us. Our government supplies many ways to obtain food and compassion people grow food for others and also organize pantries and fund raising.  “We are not political.”  “We are advocates but not policy makers.” Participants’ responses suggest an awareness that there is a need to engage with other organizations. One participant wrote, “This is something we need to do. To discuss with other agencies, not just within our organization, how we are attempting to address social and political factors such as the “ice epidemic: in our local communities and beyond.” Some responses suggested how engagement with partners assists in altering social and political factors. These included:  Finding out what other organizations offer and gaining better referrals.  Writing joint submissions and letters to government.  Ensuring there is less duplication and competition for social services and that The Salvation Army is able to take the lead in various advocacies and ministerial works.  Working collaboratively with local government to grow resources.  Trying to fill the gaps.  Tapping into other programs for support and learning better ways to better equip the client to eat more nutritionally and economically.  Lobbying members of parliament and raising awareness about the impact of benefit cuts on people.  Educating and empowering to break the chains of dependence on need for assistance programs.

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   

Minimizing the amount of families and individuals needing assistance and clients who are falling in between the gaps. Seeking to keep the issues surrounding food security in the forefront of local political discussions. Keeping records of needs and submit them to government. Keeping the government, churches and non-government organizations accountable.

Other responses included: “In New Zealand we have The Salvation Army Social Policy and Parliamentary Unit to advocate at a central government level. They often survey and collect information at the ground level and represent this at a national level on our behalf.” “They also do a number of analyses and reports on social issues that impact our families.” “The Army has a respected place in the community after years of faithful and compassion service; this offers us the chance to use these built up relationships with local government.” “Ultimately we need to figure out how to empower people to use their God given gifts to serve the community.” “We will lobby our local counsellors and members of parliament for change when all other avenues draw blanks. Perhaps we should go there first!” Evangelism and salvation stories Participants were asked whether the food assistance program includes any evangelical elements and to share a story of salvation through a recipient’s engagement. Many participants also shared methods that are used to share the Gospel. 169 participants answered this question. Approximately 17% of the participants who responded to this question stated that their food bank or food assistance program does not have any evangelical elements, in comparison to 82% that indicated their program does have evangelical elements. Some participants identified the need to improve on this and others answered that they were not aware of stories of salvation. This was attributed this to being new in their appointment, not being permitted to by their food distributor or that they had prayed with or for people but were unaware of the eternal outcome. Many stated that food bank recipients attend their Corps or volunteer in their Corps programs. One participant remarked that “over ½ of our Sunday worshippers came to us 70

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through one of our feeding programs.” Offering prayer, sharing written gospel materials, providing the War Cry, bibles and other Salvation Army publications, tracks, sharing grace over a meal and devotional times are just some examples of the evangelical elements participants report they share with recipients. Some specific responses describing the evangelistic elements to their programs included:  “We work hard at being around to interact with individuals coming in for services and being available to council and pray and educate them on all our Corps and The Salvation Army has to offer.  “All of our programs are run in such a way that we have time to build relationships and have meaningful conversation/ allowing a client to open up over a coffee/tea in a welcoming environment allows us to respond as to why we do what we do. Through conversation, when prompted by the Spirit, we have no hesitation in speaking about Jesus. When clients are at their lowest point and share, we have something to offer them and we find that opportunity exciting.”  “Everything we do is unapologetically done in the name of Christ without requiring any recipient to be or become a Christian… If an expression of interest is receiving support of an evangelical nature is noted our spiritual care coordinator and/or other Christian employees are more than happy to assist.  “Clients are offered the opportunity to talk about their relationship with Christ and to pray with staff or just put a note in the prayer box.”  “We have on occasion recently tried to use the faith-based facilitation methodology. When time allows we try and explain that Jesus aid he came to bring life in all its fullness and this motivates what we do. When time and occasion allows we offer to pray for people and their situation.  “Absolutely…however we are gentle and respectful, looking to ensure we are not making people feel uncomfortable.”  “In the summer we distribute free lunches to children and share with them bible lessons and fames. As part of this overall program, many children have either accepted or recommitted to their relationship with Jesus.  “We do it out of love as Jesus would. This is a clear message that we and our partners put across.” Some examples of salvation stories that were reported include:  “A volunteer witnesses and experienced much love and compassion and was encouraged to attend dinner and bible study. She started to attend women’s ministry and received Christ as her Saviour.”

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“Mary* came to the soup kitchen one day with her little children. After being served and treated with care and attention, her little daughter turned to her and said, “thank you Mom for bringing me to this nice restaurant.” Seeing the happiness in her child’s life, she decided to come back. She got engaged and started to volunteer, the Gospel was presented and she accepted Christ. As a result she decided to start coming to church and made The Salvation Army her church.” “Carol* came to our food pantry during a time of need in her life. We introduced her to our different corps programs and she got saved at one of our services. Her children received the Lord and now they are junior soldiers at our Corps.” “Brad* after years of contact with our teams, started attending the Corps. He asked God for forgiveness and help and change began to happen. He was assisted in getting housing and became a soldier. He was promoted to glory a few months ago, clean and sober with a powerful Christian testimony.” “We have a client who has been coming to the soup kitchen for years. In the beginning she came for the meal. In recent periods she came for companionship and conversation. My wife befriended her and was able to pray and lead her to Christ. She attended the Corps for the last year or so of her life as a dedicated adherent worshiping and taking part in the activities of the Corps.” “I just finished having a session with a woman who came in about 18 months ago for the first time. She is now attending the Corps with her 3 children and wants to become a soldier. God is good!” “We started a love in a backpack program (food packs to help feed children over the weekend) in partnership with a local feeding program in a park. After one year in operation – from 20 families served (representing over 60 people) 6 have visited the Corps, 3 are regular in Corps programs and 1 family has become adherent and junior soldiers in our Corps. “We have had many salvations and we have just started a church congregation that developed out of the community in the food program. We have seen many of our clients from the food program attend church and have seen a number of people accept Jesus in their lives. This included a family of 3 who are regular attendees of our food program and were linked into our church and a couple of weeks ago accepted Jesus into their lives.” (* name has been changed to protect the recipients’ identity)

Other comments included:  “Our employees and volunteers are quick to identify people who demonstrate spiritual/emotional need during food pantry interviews which inevitably leads to spiritual counselling by the Corps Officer with the client’s permission. We have also seen 72

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a regular flow of people (volunteers and recipients) from our weekly soup kitchen program via the soldiery’s involvement in devotions, prayer and interaction before and during the meal.” “There have been many instances of people having a heart change for God. It is true if you get food for the body, you get food for the soul.”

Survey 2 – Recipients of food assistance Participation and demographic information 56 individuals responded to survey 2. However due to incomplete data 31 responses were removed and 25 responses were included in the final analysis. Recipients who did not answer question 7 were excluded. 56% of recipients were female and 44% were male. All recipients consented to participate in the study. The tables below present the percentage of recipients by country of residence, age group and household composition. TABLE 8: Survey 2 - Percentage of recipients by country of residence. Percentage of recipients 40% 12% 36% 4% 8%

Country of residence United States of America United Kingdom New Zealand Canada Australia

TABLE 9: Survey 2 - Percentage of recipients by age group. Percentage of recipients 12% 16% 24% 36% 8% 4%

Age group 21-30 years 31-40 years 41-50 years 51-60 years 61-70 years 71-80 years

TABLE 10: Survey 2 - Percentage of recipients by household composition. Percentage of recipients 4% 4% 4%

Household composition Single with children Group (unrelated adults) Group (related adults) 73

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36% 24% 28%

Single without children Couple with children Couple without children

Types of food assistance or food banks received Recipients were asked the type/s of food bank or food assistance they received. Recipients were able to select multiple options. 21 of 25 recipients answered this question. The highest response was food parcels or hampers (19), followed by food stamps (6) and vouchers or gift cards for grocery stores (5). Prepared meals consumed on site and community garden were selected twice and school based food program, meals in residential facilities, prepared meals provided by food vans and cafĂŠ were selected once. No recipients selected community development related food assistance. There were two responses for other, these included community outreach and food reclamation program. The graph below from survey 2, summarizes the results.

Graph 3: Survey 2 - Type/s of food bank or food assistance received 19

5 2

Other (please specify)

Cafe

Community garden

Prepared meals provided by food vans

Community development related

Prepared meals to take away

Prepared meals consumed on site

Food stamps

Vouchers or gift cards for grocery stores

Meals in residential facilities

Schools based food program

2 Food parcels or hampers

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

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Experiences of recipients Recipients were asked to select the most appropriate response (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) to a series of statements regarding their experiences of attending a Salvation Army food bank. All 25 participants responded to this question. Some of the key findings were:  21 of 25 recipients answered this question. 40% agreed that over the last 3 months they had needed food assistance frequently, 44% agreed that over the last 6 months they had needed food assistance frequently and 38% agreed that over the last 12 months they had needed food assistance frequently.  22% of recipients strongly agreed and 22% strongly disagreed that they had been provided with opportunities and skills to improve their social circumstances.  68% of recipients strongly agreed and 27% agreed that they are treated with respect and dignity by workers and volunteers when they receive food assistance. No recipients selected strongly disagree or disagree for this statement.  45% of recipients agreed that members of their family had received food assistance in the past.  59% of recipients agreed that most of the time the quantity of food that they receive is enough and the food is nutritious and healthy.  19% of recipients strongly agreed and 19% disagreed that workers or volunteers had offered to talk about God or Christianity with them.  65% of recipients agreed that asking for food assistances makes them feel embarrassed or shameful.  43% of recipients strongly agreed that their social circumstances have improved since receiving food assistance.  96% disagreed that the food they receive is of poor quality and is unhealthy.  24% of recipients strongly agreed, agreed and disagreed that they do not receive food assistance regularly.  30% of recipients agreed that they are involved in other programs, ministers and activities run by The Salvation Army and 29% disagreed. The graph below from survey 2, summarizes the responses.

Graph 4: Survey 2 - Experiences of recipients receiving food assistance International Social Justice Commission 16%

Over the last 3 months I have needed food assistance frequently.

12%

Over the last 6 months I have needed food assistance frequently.

17%

0% 0%

30%

22% 68%

27%

14% 9%

45%

14% 18%

Strongly agree 27%

Agree Neutral Disagree

19% 24% 29% 19% 25% 25%

5% 5%

10%

0% 0% 0%

59%

9% 5%

Asking for food assistance makes me feel embarrassed or shameful.

19%

29%

Strongly disagree

40%

43%

5% 43%

I do not regularly receive food assistance. 5%

I am involved in other programs, ministries and activities that are run by The Salvation Army.

25%

22%

Workers or volunteers have offered to talk about God or Christanity with me.

The food I receive is of poor quality and is unhealthy.

38%

16%

Members of my family have received food assistance in the past.

My social circumstances and life has improved since receiving food assistsance.

20% 16%

I have been provided with opportunities and skills to improve my social circumstances.

Most of the time the quantity of food that I receive is enough and the food is nutritious and healthy.

44%

12%

Over the last 12 months I have needed food assistance frequently

I am treated with respect and dignity by workers and volunteers when I receive food assistance

44%

12% 16% 16%

53%

24% 24% 19% 24% 19%

5% 14%

30% 29%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

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Life circumstances Recipients were asked three questions about the factors in their life that resulted in the need for food assistance from The Salvation Army, whether government welfare policies have impacted their life and for a description of these impacts. 21 of 25 participants completed this question. The key factors that recipients identified were unemployment, financial difficulties and lack of income, homelessness and the cost of rent, substance dependence, unexpected large financial expenses such as medical and travel costs and car repairs, relationship breakdown, prison, not receiving or a delay in government welfare benefits or food stamps and poverty. One recipient wrote “it’s hard to get a good job that pays the bills.” 12 recipients indicated that changes to government welfare policies have impacted their lives whereas 9 indicated that these policies have not. When asked to describe the impact, recipients stated that they are not eligible for government welfare assistance and that decreased support from the government has contributed to housing and food being unaffordable. A decrease in food stamps in the U.S.A was listed as an example. Impact of the Salvation Army Recipients were asked whether their social circumstances had improved since going to The Salvation Army to receive food assistance and to describe any impact. 21 of 25 recipients completed this question. 15 recipients selected yes that their social circumstances had improved and 6 selected no. Recipients wrote that they were able to “continue with a fully belly,” gained the nutrition they needed, were able to find employment and offset some of their living costs. The responses reflected how recipients use food assistance to offset their living costs to prevent homelessness or going without utilities. One recipient stated that “(Because I receive food assistance) I don’t need to buy food/personal care products; I have more money to be able to cover the rent and bills so I don’t need to take out loans or get into debt.” Another wrote “I am able to offset income/food stamps. I receive a daily lunch and often receive food bags and referrals to other sites.” Recipients also explained that they felt less embarrassed, received the support they needed in crisis and described feelings of encouragement and being treated with dignity. One wrote 77

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“The Salvation Army welcomes me and treats me like a real being. They respect me and show me opportunities.” Potential improvements Recipients were asked whether they thought The Salvation Army could do better to help their circumstances or other people in need of food assistance. The recipients’ responses reflected their desire to have more choice over the type and quantity of food received and for The Salvation Army to engage in better outreach and mobile forms of food assistance, advocacy and assist recipients with finding employment. One recipient provided the following suggestion: “More fruit and vegetables, make accessing food assistance easier for people without anyone to refer them and give more information about The Salvation Army/Christianity and how to get involved.” Recipients identified the need for The Salvation Army to explore food preferences before making parcels, suggested the inclusion of particular foods such as fruit, vegetables, meat and fish as well as greater quantities. Another stated that “they (The Salvation Army) want us to be accountable for our actions, but for some people just day to day living is a big problem. It’s not that they don’t understand but $20 is a big deal and the cost of fuel to get about. Maybe they could be more mobile, come to our area, rather than us go to them.” Other responses included, “help change the government so they can help people like me,” and “be much more proactive in confronting government over welfare and employment issues.”

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DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

“If we are to better the future, we must disturb the present.” – Catherine Booth

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This chapter discusses the implications of the results and provides recommendations to improve the effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks. The results do reflect an increase in the number of recipients of food assistance and the literature suggests that this will continue in the future. Community development principles that could be employed by officers, employees and volunteers to improve the effectiveness of their food assistance program are discussed. The results suggest that Salvation Army food banks are somewhat effective at empowering recipients to overcome their social circumstances and there were encouraging stories of hope and salvation shared in both surveys. This chapter identifies areas where The Salvation Army could be more effective at providing â&#x20AC;&#x153;soup, soap and salvationâ&#x20AC;? to the lost, last and the least. Due to the small sample sizes, the discussion and recommendations incorporate the results from both surveys. Growth and Sustainability Although it is acknowledged that calculating the growth of food banks is a complex process, the literature and the findings of this study, strongly suggest that there has been an increase in the number of recipients presenting at food banks in each of the 8 countries included in the research. Survey 1 indicated that 72% of officers, employees and volunteers agree that there has been a significant increase in recipients over the last five years. Furthermore, approximately 40% of recipients agreed that over the last 3-12 months, they needed food assistance frequently which suggests that their circumstances leading to needing food assistance have not been addressed. The literature also suggests that a significant contributor to the growth of food banks are government austerity measures and if these measures are to continue, an increase in food bank recipients will also occur. This has implications for policy and program initiatives, especially as 1/3 of officers, employees and volunteers surveyed disagreed that the food assistance program was sustainable and well-funded. The reality that there has generally been a significant growth in food bank use and that this growth is expected to continue at a rapid rate, suggests that Salvation Army territories and Corps need to plan for how they can cater for this increase with the aim of reducing dependency and fostering independence. Inspiring autonomy and independence but also providing a community where people can belong to a community, grow in their faith and serve Jesus is paramount. For this to occur there must be a paradigm shift from a welfare approach to an empowerment approach, which will equip recipients with skills and knowledge to overcome the injustices that they are facing and advocate for themselves.

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Imbedding community development principles like those proposed by Swisher & Monaghan (2010)106 as mentioned (environmentally sound, economically productive, socially just) as well as Ife’s foundational principles and principles of valuing the local107 into food assistance programs are essential to ensure their sustainability and ability to effectively address intergenerational poverty and the factors contributing to the need for food assistance. Many of these principles overlap with food justice and would be useful for officers, volunteers and employees to consider when thinking about the potential growth and sustainability of their food bank program. The following table provides a brief definition of these principles and it would be useful for those involved in the administering of food assistance to reflect upon whether they are adhering to these principles. TABLE 11 – Ife’s foundational and valuing the local principles of community development108 Ife’s foundational and valuing Definition the local principles Holism Using a broad systemic perspective to understand a particular issue in a community. Diversity Ensuring there are inclusive structures and processes that celebrate diversity. Balanced Development Ensuring that all 8 aspects of development are kept in mind when implementing a program, these are: social, economic, political, cultural, environmental, personal and survival development. Interdependence Encouraging and celebrating interdependence, strengthening interconnections and mutual reliance, breaking down individualism and discouraging unhealthy dependence. Addressing structural Ensuring structural oppression is not being reinforced and Disadvantage addressing issues of class, gender, race/ethnicity, age, disability and sexuality. Addressing discourses of Identifying and deconstructing discourses of power and disadvantage understanding how these discourses effectively privilege and empower some people while marginalizing and disempowering others. Needs definition Assisting a community to identify their needs and articulate their needs. Human Rights Working towards a culture of human rights where human rights are a focal point. Assets Based Focusing on the strengths and assets of the community 106

Swisher & Monaghan “Sustainable Community Development.” Jim Ife, “Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice,” (Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Australia: 2013), 268-286 108 Jim Ife, “Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice,” 107

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Valuing Local Knowledge

Valuing Local Culture

Valuing Local Resources

Valuing Local Skills Valuing Local Processes

rather than deficits. Identifying and validating local knowledge and expertise, assessing the extent of the expertise and realising the role it can have. Validating and supporting local culture whilst keeping other principles such as human rights, sustainability and addressing structures or discourses of disadvantage in mind. Encouraging a participatory culture. Utilizing local resources rather than relying on external support such as financial, technical, natural and human resources. Value and maximize the skills that existing community members have. Refraining from imposing structure or processes from outside the community and remembering that community development is context specific.

Food insecurity and empowerment As previously noted, food banks are considered socially unacceptable ways of acquiring food in developed countries as they are perceived as charity rather than food justice. In this way, they are often considered as inhibitors to reducing food security as they promote dependency and a welfare mentality in both recipients and providers. The ability for a food assistance program to reduce food insecurity is dependent on its ability to employ food justice and community development principles and empower the recipient to have power and control over the decisions that affect their lives. The responses of the majority of officers, employees and volunteers surveyed reflected their view that recipients are empowered through the welfare and access degrees of Longwe’s framework of empowerment. The type of food assistance programs most commonly offered by officers, volunteers and employees also reflected the welfare degree of Longwe’s framework. Understanding empowerment through the welfare degree is somewhat problematic as it generates a hand out or entitlement mentality, creates dependency and does not address the underlying factors contributing to food insecurity. Encouraging food assistance to be seen as a “hand up” rather than a “hand out”, as a gateway to accessing services such as budgeting classes, life skills courses, case management, education and employment opportunities as well as means of creating a sense of community and belonging is crucial. The types of food programs that would utilise the higher degrees of this framework such as community garden, community development

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program, school based food programs are not being used frequently by officers, employees and volunteers. As no responses reflected the awareness raising degree of Longwe’s framework, it is presumed that the officers, employees and volunteers surveyed were unaware of how to empower recipient’s to address the structural or institutional discrimination that they may be facing which contributes to their current situation. Providing education and training on advocacy, social justice, addressing unfair systems and structures and community mobilisation may assist with this so that officers, employees and volunteers can apply this to their own settings. Ensuring that recipients are provided with resources, opportunities, vocabulary, knowledge and skills to increase their control over decision making in their lives is crucial to decreasing dependency on food assistance programs.109 Ife110 describes the idea of consciousness/awareness raising as “because of the often unquestioned legitimacy of oppressive structures and discourses, people have come to accept oppression as somehow normal or inevitable, and will not even be able to acknowledge or label their own oppression; the experience of oppression is therefore unconscious. Therefore the need to raise levels of consciousness, is to allow people the opportunity to explore their own situations and the oppressive structures and discourses that frame their lives, in such a way that they can act to bring about change.”111 This is an important role that officers, employees and volunteers can provide for recipients so that recipients can learn to advocate independently and understand their human rights. The recipients who were surveyed indicated their desire to have more choice over the type and quantity of food received. As a Church whose ministry is motivated by the love of God, all recipients should be treated with love, dignity and grace and provided with food that they can choose, that is healthy and meets any special dietary or nutritional requirements. 78% of participants in survey 1 agreed that recipients were provided with the food that was available and had little choice over what was provided. 65% of recipients in survey 2 agreed that asking for food assistance made them feel embarrassed or shameful. Chapter 3 highlighted the detrimental emotional effects that recipients can feel when receiving food assistance due to the features of the food provided such as the quality and their interactions with volunteers at food banks.

109

Jim Ife, “Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice.” Jim Ife, “Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice.” 111 Jim Ife, “Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice.” 163 110

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Although this may be difficult to achieve due to funding arrangements or because food sources or products are donated, Salvation Army food banks should strive as much as possible towards providing as much autonomy over the food provided and should always treat recipients with dignity and respect. Almost half of the officers, employees and volunteers surveyed agreed that they would benefit from further training in community development and addressing issues of poverty in their local community. A significant amount of participants also indicated that they were unaware of territorial models addressing intergenerational poverty. This suggests that further training in these areas would be of benefit and increase the effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks. In the last five years, International Headquarters (IHQ) and Territories in some developed countries have created overarching philosophical and practice models as well as tools and resources to address the underlying factors contributing to hunger, food insecurity and inter-generational poverty through taking a spiritual, holistic and building capacity approach. The “Faith-based facilitation model,112 Doorways113 and Pathway of Hope114 are examples of such models. However the implementation and evaluation of some of these models are still in the early stages. The table below details these models. Greater promotion and championing of these models would likely improve the knowledge and application of these models at the grass root level. TABLE 12: Territorial models, tools and resources. Models, tools and resources FaithBased Facilitatio n Model

Territory

Definition

International A way of helping Headquarters people think, talk, explore and respond to their issues in light of faith.

Key features

This is a five step review process: 1. Identify an issue that needs to be reviewed. 2. Describe and analyze the events and issues. 3. Reflect and evaluate, think through the factors that have emerged and share ideas and responses. 4. Decide and plan on courses of action.

112

The General of The Salvation Army, “Faith-based Facilitation,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://www.salvationarmy.org/fbf/home 113 The Salvation Army Australia Southern Territory, “Doorways: Holistic, Integrated, Capacity Building,”, last modified 2012-2014, accessed April 15, 2015, https://www.sarmy.org.au/Social/Doorways/ 114 The Salvation Army USA, “Pathway of Hope,”, last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://centralusa.salvationarmy.org/emi/Pathwayofhope 85

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Doorways

Pathway of Hope

Australia Southern and Eastern Territories

A holistic, integrated and capacity building approach to community services/welfare. It addresses the underlying factors that lead to poverty, addiction and disengagement. U.S.A. Central Involves Territory – targeted services being rolled to families out in the striving to break other U.S.A. free of interTerritories. generational poverty, through a case management and strengths based approach.

Food Poverty Toolkit

United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory115

Provides guidelines on how best to serve your community through food distribution

Hamper of Hope

Australia Southern Territory116

Provides a grocery bag and a specific information

115 116

5. Translate decisions into action. Includes: •Early intervention •Capacity building and developing health and wellbeing •Trusting relationships •A client centered approach •Strengths based approach •Culturally appropriate •Effective partnerships

Includes: 1. Mapping it out: Meeting with a caseworker to develop a personalized action plan. 2. Staying on track: Charting your progress and seeing success with a case worker on a regular basis. 3) Passing the six month mile marker: Seeing where you are at six months and decide what’s next on your journey. 4) Looking ahead: Celebrating your successes. Adjusting any further goals. Encouraging others. Includes five questions that each corps and center will need to consider: 1. Who is it we are willing to help? 2. Given the resources at our disposal, what is our responsibility? 3. How can we make recipients feel welcome? 4. How can we prevent this handout trapping the recipient in the problems they face? 5. How can we make the benefit system serve social justice? Includes a list of suggested items and handy hints when purchasing food to donate. This includes ensuring the food donated is nonperishable, donating ring tinned foods instead

Sourced from the Public Relations Department of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory. Sourced from the Public Relations Department of Australia Southern Territory. 86

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sheet to individuals who would like to donate food to The Salvation Army.

of foods that need can openers and avoiding no name brands.

Advocacy and partnerships The responses of officers, employees and volunteers in regards to advocacy and partnerships highlighted areas that the Salvation Army could improve upon to be more effective in administering food assistance. Approximately 1/3 stated that their Corps or social program does not engage in advocacy work and 2/3 of responses reflect passive forms of advocacy based on Hodgson’s (1995) model of advocacy. Passive forms of advocacy can create dependency and it is significant that none of the response reflected any form of active advocacy. Active advocacy is where the person is empowered to speak for oneself and is reliant on those delivering the food assistance program to empower the person to move along Longwe’s framework of empowerment and provide more than a hand out. When asked about meaningful partnerships with other organisations or churches that attempt to alter the social and political factors influencing a recipient’s need for food, 40% of officers, employees and volunteers surveyed reported that their engagement does not do this. It is notable that some recipients asked for The Salvation Army to “help change the government so they can help people like me,” and “be much more proactive in confronting government over welfare and employment issues.” Providing advocacy and networking training, online resources and mentoring so that those administering food assistance can build meaningful partnerships and empower recipients to advocate for themselves is crucial. Evangelism and salvation stories The results reflected that recipients are often spiritually empowered and 82% of officers, employees and volunteers indicated that their program contained evangelical elements and were able to identify stories of salvation. However, 40% disagreed that their Corps or social services programs offers complementary programs or ministries that are holistic and focused on capacity building and there were mixed responses as to whether food bank recipients are involved in other programs, activities and ministries at the Corps. Although the idea of “Soap, Soup and Salvation” as put forward by William Booth reminds Salvationists that they must offer a holistic approach to helping those in need before offering them Jesus, the mission of The Salvation Army is two-fold, “to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ and meet human needs in his name without discrimination.” Many of the stories 87

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of salvation shared demonstrated relationship building between the recipient and the employee over a lengthy period of time; however it may be of benefit if some of the evangelical elements that were described in the results were shared widely so that officers, employees and volunteers can learn from each other’s experiences and be encouraged. From the results and discussion, the following 7 recommendations are made. 1. Inspiring a paradigm shift and a shift in organizational culture from a welfare approach to an empowerment approach which equips recipients with skills and knowledge to overcome the injustices that they are facing and advocate for themselves would assist Salvation Army food banks in being more effective. 2. The capacity of food assistance programs to provide recipients with choice over the food they are provided with should be expanded so that any negative emotional responses are limited and recipients can be treated with dignity and respect. 3. The type of food assistance program should incorporate a holistic approach to meeting the needs of the community/recipients, should be tailored and individualized and attempt to utilize the higher degrees of Longwe’s framework of empowerment. This includes equipping and skilling officers, employees and volunteers with knowledge on how to empower recipients to move out of intergenerational poverty. 4. The Salvation Army should consider how it can best empower recipients through the idea of consciousness/awareness raising so that recipients can know their human rights, identify oppressive structures and practices and address issues of inequality in their community. 5. Further training in community development and how to address issues of poverty in the local community as well as advocacy training would be beneficial. This includes raising awareness of current territorial models addressing intergenerational poverty. 6. Sharing stories of salvation widely as a result of engagement with Salvation Army food assistance programs and the various evangelical elements that officers, employees and volunteers use would be beneficial and increase the effectiveness of the Salvation Army in “growing saints and serving suffering humanity.” 7. Further research and better data collection methods would be beneficial to improve the reliability and validity of the research and provide a stronger evidence base for advocacy to governments particularly regarding the relationship between austerity and food banks.

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CONCLUSION

â&#x20AC;&#x153;

I give you a new commandment, that you love one another. Just as I have loved you, you also should love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another.â&#x20AC;? - Jesus (John 13:34-35, NSRV)

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There has been a significant increase in food banks in developed countries and the need for food assistance is likely to remain high and increase in the future. This has implications for The Salvation Army as food banks historically and currently form a significant part of its ministries and ability to fulfill its mission of meeting human needs in the name of Jesus without discrimination117. Understanding the growth and effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks in developed countries is paramount to future policy and program initiatives. The current literature suggests that food assistance programs that incorporate community development principles, food justice principles, are sustainable and empower recipients are more likely to promote autonomy and decrease dependency. Understanding the need to tailor and individualize food assistance programs to meet the needs of the community and create an environment of interdependency and mutual reliance rather than dependency is essential. The results indicated that there has been an increase in the number of recipients utilizing food banks and that Salvation Army food banks are somewhat effective at empowering individuals. The stories of salvation and evangelistic elements included in food assistance programs that were identified in the results are a testament to the work of the Holy Spirit. Improving officers’, employees’ and volunteers’ knowledge of existing territorial resources, addressing intergenerational poverty and providing training and education regarding active advocacy would improve the effectiveness of Salvation Army food banks and reduce the growth in number of recipients who receive food assistance. However, the need for a paradigm shift from a welfare approach to an empowerment approach that enables individuals to have the skills, resources, knowledge and opportunities necessary to move out of intergenerational poverty and lead lives of dignity is crucial for Salvation Army food banks to continue to be effective.

117

The Salvation Army, International Headquarters, “Mission,” http://www.salvationarmy.org/ihq/Mission 91

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Foodbank Australia, “End Hunger in Australia,” last modified, 2013, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.foodbank.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Foodbank-End-Hunger-Report2013.pdf. Gariepy, Christianity in Action, The International History of The Salvation Army (Michigan, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2009). Gentilini, U. “Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-Income Countries,” Centre for Social Protection, Institute of Development Studies, no. 415 (January 2013): 2013, accessed April 15, 2015 https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp415.pdf pg. 1-18 Green, R.J. War on Two Fronts, The Redemptive Theology of William Booth (Georgia, Atlanta, Salvation Army Supplies-Southern, 1989). Ife, J. Community Development in an Uncertain World - Vision, Analysis and Practice, (Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Australia: 2013). Jorgen Hanssen, O. et. al., “Food redistribution in the Nordic region, experiences and results from a pilot study,” last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://norden.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:784307/FULLTEXT01.pdf Kirkpatrick, S.I and Tarasuk, V. “Food insecurity and participation in community food programs among low income Toronto families,” Canadian Journal of Public Health, 100 vol. 2 (2008): accessed April 15, 2015. pg. 135-139 Lambie-Mumford H. and Dowler E. “Rising use of “food aid” in the United Kingdom,” British Food Journal, 116, no. 9 (September 2014): accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. pg. 14181425 Loopstra R. and Stuckler, D. “Austerity, sanctions and the rise of food banks in the United Kingdom,” British Medical Journal, 350 (2015). pg. 1-6 Mathematica Policy Research Inc., “National Report Prepared for Feeding America 2010,” last modified 2010, accessed June 12, 2015 file:///C:/Users/ISJC.User2/Downloads/feeding_america_251.pdf Overseas Development Institute, last modified 2009, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5500.pdf Pallant, D. “Keeping Faith in Faith-Based Organizations – A Practical Theology of Salvation Army Health Ministry (Wipf & Stock Publishers, OR, U.S.A, 2012). Posterski, D. Jesus on Justice, Living Lives of Compassion and Conviction – A Biblical Action Guide, World Vision Canada, 2013. Mississauga, Canada. 94

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Riches, G. & Silvasti T., First World Hunger Revisited. Food Charity or the Right to Food? 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmillan, London, U.K: 2014). Salvationist, “General Calls for New Fight to End Hunger”, last modified 2013, accessed April 15, 2015, http://salvationist.ca/2013/12/general-calls-for-new-fight-to-end-hunger/ St Vincent de Paul Society, “What is austerity?” last modified 2015, last accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.vinnies.org.au/page/Publications/National/Articles_Reports_Speeches/What_is_ austerity/ Swisher & Monaghan “Sustainable Community Development,” University of Florida, last modified 2014, accessed September 22, 2015. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/CD/CD02100.pdf Tarasuck, V., Dachner, N. and Loopstra, R. “Food banks, welfare, and food insecurity in Canada,” British Food Journal, 116 no. 9 (May 2014) accessed April 15, 2015, Emerald Insight. pg. 1405 – 1417 The General of The Salvation Army, “Faith-based Facilitation,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://www.salvationarmy.org/fbf/home The General of The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Year Book 2015, (United Kingdom, London, Salvation Books, 2014). The Guardian, “Campaign to cut supermarket food waste reaches European parliament,” last modified 2015, accessed July 7, 2015 http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/07/campaign-to-cut-supermarket-foodwaste-reaches-european-parliament The Salvation Army Australia Southern Territory, “Doorways: Holistic, Integrated, Capacity Building,” last modified 2012-2014, accessed April 15, 2015, https://www.sarmy.org.au/Social/Doorways/ The Salvation Army Southern and Eastern Territories, “National Economic and Social Impact Survey, Key Findings 2015,”last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/who-we-are/Publications-reports-submissions/Reports-Submissions/LatestReports/National-Economic-and-Social-Impact-Survey-2015/Summart/KeyFindings The Salvation Army USA, “Pathway of Hope,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://centralusa.salvationarmy.org/emi/Pathwayofhope

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The Salvation Army, “Communion with the Poor,” last modified 2010, accessed 17 April, 2015, http://www.e-summit.org/conference/Communion-with-the-Poor.html The Salvation Army, “The General of The Salvation Army – I dream,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://www.salvationarmy.org/thegeneral/dream The Salvation Army, International Headquarters, “Mission,” http://www.salvationarmy.org/ihq/Mission The Salvation Army, New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga Territory, “Social Justice,” Last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/about-us/positionstatements/social-justice The Salvation Army, Parliamentary and Social Policy Unit, “A mountain all can climb: A state of the nation,” last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/sites/default/files/uploads/20150211SOTN2015%u20update% 20WEB/pdf The United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory of The Salvation Army, “We call on Labour to commit to eradicating rough sleeping,” last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://news.salvationarmy.org.uk/we-call-on-labour-commit-eradicating-rough-sleeping The United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland Territory of The Salvation Army, “Welfare reform,” last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://ukitest.salvationarmy.org/uki/welfare_reform The World Bank Group, “Country and Lending Groups,” last modified 2015, accessed April 15, 2015, http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups#High_income The World Bank Group, “Overview,” last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview The World Bank Group, “What is the World Bank Atlas Method?” n.d. accessed September 22, 2015. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378832-what-is-theworld-bank-atlas-method United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals,” last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://docs.google.com/gview?url=http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/document s/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdf+embedded=true

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United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Sustainable Development Goals,” last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sustainabledevelopmentgoals United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women,” www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/cedaw.pdf United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “International Covenant on Economic and Social and Cultural Rights,” www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx United Nations Human Rights, Officer of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the Rights of the Child,” www.ohchr.org/en/ProfessionalInterest/pages/crc.aspx United Nations, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, “Definitions of Food Security,” last modified 2014, accessed 17, April 2015, http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/foodnutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/definitions-of-food-security.aspx Valentine Cadieux, K. and Sloaim, R. “What does it mean to do food justice? “Journal of Political Ecology, 22, (2015). pg. 1-26 Van Der Horst, H., Pascucci, S. & Bol, W. “The dark side of food banks, exploring emotional responses of food bank receivers in the Netherlands.” British Food Journal. 116, vol. 9 (2014). Emerald Insight. pg. 1506 - 1520 Verschuren, P. “Food banks are helping to make support for the poor a matter of charity again,” last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.dutchnews.nl/features/2015/03/food-banks-are-helping-to-make-support-for-thepoor-a-matter-for-charity-again/ Whitfield, P. “Unmasking Austerity: Lessons for Australia,” last modified 2014, accessed June 12, 2015 http://www.adelaide.edu.au/wiser/docs/WISERESSU_UnmaskingAusterity2014.pdf World Bank. “World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time: Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030”. 4 October, 2015. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/4world bank-forecasts-globalpoverty-to-fall-below-10-for-frst-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030

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World Health Organisation, 1996 World Food Summit, “Food Security,” last modified 2015, accessed April 24, 2015. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/ World Health Organization, “Community empowerment,” last modified 2015, accessed September 22, 2015. http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/track1/en/ *All photos were taken from The Salvation Army Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, U.S.A and New Zealand Facebook pages and IHQ Flickr account.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A: The right to food in international law and international instruments. The right to adequate food is also recognized in international law in the following articles:  Article 11 (1) of the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) states that “the States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food.”118  Article 11 (2) of the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) recognizes “the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger”. This is to be read in conjunction with articles concerning the right to life Article 3, (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) UDHR, Article 6 (International Convention on Civil and Political Rights) ICCPR, Article 6, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Article 2 the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), Article 4 the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) and Article 4, the African Charter). 119  Article 27 (1) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) recognizes that “the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development”. Article 27 (3) emphasizes that the States Parties to the Convention have the duty to “take appropriate measures” to assist parents in fulfilling their primary responsibility to implement such right, “particularly with regard to nutrition.” Article 24 (2) commits States to combat child malnutrition. 120

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Article 12 (2) of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states that States have to ensure that women have “adequate nutrition during pregnancy and lactation.” 121

There are numerous international instruments that further clarify the meaning of the right to food. These include: 118

“International Covenant on Economic and Social and Cultural Rights,” United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx 119 “International Covenant on Economic and Social and Cultural Rights,” United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.” 120 “Convention on the Rights of the Child,” United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, www.ohchr.org/en/ProfessionalInterest/pages/crc.aspx 121 “Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women,” United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/cedaw.pdf 99

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“The creation of the UN Commission on Human Rights of the post of Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food (2000) whose task it is to ensure that all governments are meeting their obligations ‘to respect, protect and promote’ the human right to food. The establishment by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of its Right to Food Unit and the adoption by the FAO Council and member states of the Voluntary Guidelines on the Right to Food (VGs, 2005). The 2008 adoption by the UN General Assembly of the Optional Protocol on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (OPESCR) making it possible to create a complaints and inquiry mechanism at the international level to strengthen the justifiability of the right to food for individuals for whom this right has been violated”. 122

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Graham Riches and Tiina Silvasti, “Chapter 1: Hunger in the Rich World, Food Aid & the Right to Food Perspectives” in First World Hunger Revisited. Food Charity or the Right to Food? 100

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APPENDIX B: List of developed countries with a very high human development index in which The Salvation Army has an active ministry.

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APPENDIX C: List of English speaking countries, zones, territories and commands. Countries

Name of Territory, Command or Region

Australia

Zone South Pacific and East Asia

Australia Southern Territory, Australia Eastern Territory (T) Canada

Americas and Caribbean Canada and Bermuda Territory (T) Denmark (T) United Kingdom with the Republic of Ireland (T) Netherlands and Czech Republic (T)

Denmark Ireland Netherlands New Zealand

New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga (T) United Kingdom with the Republic of Ireland (T)

United Kingdom United States America

Europe Europe Europe South Pacific and East Asia

Europe Americas and Caribbean

USA Central, USA Eastern, USA Southern, USA Western

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APPENDIX D: Survey 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Officers, employees and volunteers involved in administering food assistance and Survey 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Recipients receiving food assistance

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APPENDIX E: Letters of Invitation to Territorial Commanders, Officers, Employees and Volunteers 6/24/2015 Dear Territorial Commanders, My name is Caitlin Hallett and I am a Policy Intern with the International Social Justice Commission (ISJC) in New York City. The ISJC is The Salvation Army’s strategic voice to advocate for human dignity and social justice with the world’s poor and oppressed. The ISJC also engages in research and critical thinking on issues of global social justice. I am conducting research entitled “Combatting food insecurity and hunger: The growth and efficacy of Salvation Army food banks in developed countries” on behalf of the ISJC and am asking for your assistance. This research topic comes at the request of General Andre Cox. The aims of this research project are to:  Investigate the perceptions of Officers or volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance regarding the growth of food banks within developed countries.  To explore the efficacy of food banks within The Salvation Army in regards to empowerment, sustainability and reducing food insecurity.  To compare and contrast the experiences of food bank recipients within developed countries. This research is confined to the following countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Republic of Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States of America. I have formulated two online surveys to be disseminated. One is for Officers, volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance and the other for food bank recipients. These online surveys contain an information sheet and consent form within them. I ask that the accompanying letter entitled, “Letter to Officers, volunteers and employees” be sent to all who engage in the administration of food assistance within your Territory if possible. This letter includes the weblinks for the online surveys and asks for their completion by August 17, 2015. Your assistance would be greatly appreciated so that The Salvation Army can continue to be effective in bringing “Soup, Soap and Salvation” to the lost, last and least in our communities. If you have any questions or queries, please do not hesitate to contact me at ISJC-Intern@salvationarmy.org or Captain Kathy Crombie at Kathy_Crombie@salvationarmy.org Sincere thanks and blessings,

Caitlin Hallett Policy Intern 117

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6/24/2015 Dear Officers, volunteers or employees, My name is Caitlin Hallett and I am a Policy Intern with the International Social Justice Commission. The ISJC is The Salvation Army’s strategic voice to advocate for human dignity and social justice with the world’s poor and oppressed. The ISJC also engages in research and critical thinking on issues of global social justice. I am conducting research entitled “Combatting food insecurity and hunger: The growth and efficacy of Salvation Army food banks in developed countries” on behalf of the ISJC and am asking for your assistance. This research topic comes at the request of General Andre Cox. The aims of this research project are to:  Investigate the perceptions of Officers or volunteers or employees who are involved in the administration of food assistance regarding the growth of food banks within developed countries.  To explore the efficacy of food banks within The Salvation Army in regards to empowerment, sustainability and reducing food insecurity.  To compare and contrast the experiences of food bank recipients within developed countries. There are two online surveys for completion. Both include an information sheet and consent form. Survey 1 is for any Officer, volunteer or employee who is involved in the administration of food assistance to complete. See this weblink for survey 1: https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/QKYS3QR Once you have completed this survey, I request that you ask as many food bank recipients as you can if they would like to participate in the research without any coercion. Recipients who are able to independently complete survey 2 in English without assistance should be approached. As this is an online survey, I also ask that recipients be provided with computer and internet access to be able to complete the survey. See this weblink for survey 2: https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/QKZSZMY Your assistance would be greatly appreciated so that The Salvation Army can continue to be effective in bringing “Soup, Soap and Salvation” to the lost, last and least in our communities. Please complete these surveys by August 17, 2015. If you have any questions or queries, please do not hesitate to contact me at ISJC-Intern@salvationarmy.org or Captain Kathy Crombie at Kathy_Crombie@salvationarmy.org Sincere thanks and blessings,

Caitlin Hallett Policy Intern 118

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APPENDIX F: Ethics Approval Documentation

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