Forests for the People

ENVIRONMENT | HISTORY

Advance praise for Forests for the People “The Weeks Act of 1911 is one of the twentieth century’s most significant environmental laws. Few recall its powerful impact on once-cutover eastern forests, though their flourishing condition today is compelling evidence of its significance. Forests for the People probes this remarkable recovery and offers an engaging account of the Weeks Act’s complex legacy; it rightly warns that we are not yet out of the woods.”

— Char Miller, W. M. Keck Professor of Environmental Analysis, Pomona College “Forests for the People both deepened and broadened my understanding of and appreciation for the eastern national forests and the struggle to create and manage them.

By providing the first comprehensive history of the Weeks Act and then, through case studies, carefully examining the challenges of implementing the law over the last century, the authors have helped frame the discussion for managing all our national forests in its second century.”

—James G. Lewis, Forest History Society Christopher Johnson writes about conservation issues and is the author of This Grand and Magnificent Place: The Wilderness Heritage of the White Mountains.

David Govatski is retired from the US Forest Service after a career as a forester, silviculturist, and fire management officer on several national forests.

Cover design by Maureen Gately Cover photos courtesy of iStockphoto.com

Washington | Covelo | London www.islandpress.org All Island Press books are printed on recycled, acid-free paper.

Forests for the People

At the turn of the twentieth century, widespread clearcutting resulted in ecological ruin and devastating fires in America’s eastern forests and led to the passage of the Weeks Act in 1911, protecting millions of acres of these forests. Forests for the People tells the extraordinary story of how a diverse coalition of citizens, organizations, and business and political leaders worked to create a system of national forests in the eastern United States, drawing lessons from and examining the vital issues facing American forests today to illuminate new paths to better forest management.

Johnson and Govatski

Forests for the

People The Story of America’s Eastern National Forests Christopher Johnson and David Govatski

Forests for the People

Forests for the People The Story of America’s Eastern National Forests

Christopher Johnson David Govatski

Washington

Covelo

London

Copyright © 2013 Island Press All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 2000 M Street NW, Suite 650, Washington, DC 20036 Island Press is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Johnson, Christopher, 1947 September 13– Forests for the people : the story of America’s eastern national forests / Christopher Johnson, David Govatski. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-1-61091-009-5 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-61091-009-5 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-61091-010-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-61091-010-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Forest reserves—East (U.S.)— History—20th century. 2. Forest conservation—East (U.S.) I. Govatski, David, 1949– II. Title.

SD428.A2E27 2012 333.75’110974—dc23 2012030240 Printed on recycled, acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Keywords: Island Press, Allegheny National Forest, Appalachian, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, Clarke-McNary Act, conservation, eastern national forests, endangered species, forest, forest fire, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Gifford Pinchot, Green Mountains, Green Mountain National Forest, Hiawatha National Forest, Huron-Manistee National Forests, hydraulic fracturing, Holly Springs National Forest, invasive species, John Weeks, Lake States, Monongahela National Forest, New Deal, Ottawa National Forest, Pisgah, prescribed burn, stream flow, timber, timber famine, U.S. Forest Service, Weeks Act, White Mountains, wilderness, Wilderness Act of 1964, wolf

To our wives, Kathi and Barbara; to Chris’s parents, Charles and Jacqueline; and to the forest champions who made the eastern national forests possible and care for the forests today

Contents

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1 Part I

How the Eastern National Forests Were Saved 9

1 The Disappearing Forests of the White Mountains 11 2 Trees to Build the Lake States 31 3 A Forest Crisis in the Southern Appalachians 51 4 Building a Forest Conservation Movement 71 5 Legislation at Last: The Weeks Act 93 6 Creating the Eastern National Forests 117 Part II

Issues Facing the Eastern National Forests Today 141

7 Holly Springs National Forest: A Study in Forest

Management Reform 145 8 Florida’s National Forests: A Revolution in

Prescribed Burning 167 9 Monongahela National Forest: Wilderness at Heart 187 10 Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness: Preservation

versus Multiple Use 207 11 Ottawa and Hiawatha National Forests: The Return of

the Wolf 229 12 Allegheny National Forest: The Challenges of Shale Oil

Drilling 249 13 Michigan’s National Forests: The Invasion of the Emerald

Ash Borer 273 14 National Forests of Vermont and North Carolina: Loving

the Forests to Death 293

Conclusion 315 Notes 325 Selected Bibliography 361 About the Authors 379 Index 381

Ac k n o wl e dg m e n t s

In writing Forests for the People, we have benefited from the knowledge and wisdom of dozens of people who are active in the forest conservation movement. They answered questions and guided us to the information and resources that were so critical in writing about America’s eastern national forests. We sincerely appreciate the advice and support that Char Miller provided. For part I, in which we relied primarily on library research, we would like to acknowledge the valuable assistance of two people at the Forest History Society in Durham, North Carolina: Jamie Lewis, the historian, and Cheryl Oakes, the librarian. Also providing valuable sources were the Weeks Memorial Library in Lancaster, New Hampshire; Sarah Jordan and Terry Fifield at the White Mountain National Forest; the Northwestern University Library; the University of Chicago Libraries; the Research Center at the Minnesota Discovery Center; the Tuck Library at the New Hampshire Historical Society; and Rauner Special Collections at the Dartmouth College Library. We also thank Marcia Schmidt Blaine of Plymouth State University for sharing information about some of the key players in the movement to save the White Mountains.

On-site research was invaluable to writing part II, and we benefited greatly from the knowledge of people in the U.S. Forest Service, state agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and citizen-activists. Larry Chambers, a media relations officer for the Forest Service, put us in contact with personnel in various national forests. At Holly Springs National Forest, Joel Gardner, Caren Briscoe, and Buddy Lowery of the U.S. Forest Service provided us with substantial information. In addition, Ann Philippi, Andy Mahler, Joe Glisson, and Ray Vaughan all took the time to recount for us the events that led to reform in timber-harvesting practices in Mississippi.

In Florida, Steve Parrish, Mike Herrin, Chuck Hess, David Dorman, and Mike Drayton of the U.S. Forest Service shared their extensive information about prescribed burning. In West Virginia, Mary Wimmer, Beth Little,

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and Mike Costello readily shared their experiences in protecting wilderness in the Monongahela National Forest.

In Minnesota, Kate Surbaugh provided us with numerous contacts on the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, including Bill Hansen and Bruce Kerfoot. Chel Anderson of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources guided us through the ecology of the area, and Paul Dancic and Kevin Proescholdt afforded us with additional insight into the protection of the Boundary Waters. In our research on wolf recovery in Michigan, Tom Weise, Pat Hallfrisch, and Jess Edberg all shared their experiences.

In researching oil shale drilling in the Allegheny National Forest, we benefited enormously from the assistance and knowledge of Cathy Pedler and William Belitskus of the Allegheny Defense Project, and Vincent Lunetta of Pennsylvania State University helped us focus on the most salient issues regarding hydraulic fracturing. Therese Poland of the U.S. Forest Service in Michigan shared her extensive knowledge of the emerald ash borer and pointed us toward critical sources. And, in bringing our story to completion in Vermont and North Carolina, we would like to thank Jamey Fidel of the Vermont Forest Roundtable, David Brynn of Vermont Family Forests, and Brent Martin of the Wilderness Society.

We also availed ourselves of the expertise of several professionals.

Carmine Fantasia helped us locate several of the photographs and other images, designer Chris Clark created the graphs, and cartographer Chris Robinson drew the maps. For reviewing and commenting on parts of the manuscript, we want to thank Jamey Fidel, Joel Gardner, Mike Herrin, Jamie Lewis, Cathy Pedler, and Mary Wimmer for their insightful suggestions.

Finally, we owe a huge debt of gratitude to Barbara Dean, Erin Johnson, and the staff of Island Press for their unstinting support and numerous supportive suggestions that helped guide us through the writing of this book.

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Introduction

On August 9, 1902, two camp counselors in their early twenties led eight young men from Camp Moosilauke, New Hampshire, on an ambitious backpacking expedition into the White Mountains, which lay to the east.

The two counselors were Knowlton Durham, of Columbia University, and Benton MacKaye, a young forester from Massachusetts who, nearly twenty years later, would brainstorm the idea for the Appalachian Trail.

Their journey would take them through the Lost River valley and into the Pemigewasset basin, through Crawford Notch, up Mount Washington and the other Presidentials, and then back to Camp Moosilauke.

They tramped east and, on August 12, entered the vast basin of the Pemigewasset River, cradled between Franconia Notch and Crawford Notch. A logging train carried them for four miles along the East Branch of the Pemigewasset. When the train reached its terminus, they hopped off and continued on foot, following an abandoned railroad track.

Slowly they climbed to a ridge that rewarded them with spectacular views. To the north, the mountains rose and fell toward Crawford Notch.

To the south lay the Sandwich Range, which in 1902 was still a remote section of the White Mountains. The views were wondrous, but Mac­ Kaye and Durham also spotted ugly patches of land that lumber operators had cleared completely of trees. MacKaye was appalled at how thoroughly the sides of the mountains had been stripped. “The beauty of this

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region,” he later wrote, “the wildest of the White Mountains, was in great part destroyed, the slashes of the lumbermen branding the mountains like unsightly scars on a beautiful face.”1 The sight left him heartsick.

Flash forward to the late 1980s and the pine forests of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, the Carolinas, and Mississippi, the habitat of the endangered redcockaded woodpecker. More than 75 percent of existing populations of the bird inhabited these piney woods, and wildlife biologists had identified more than two thousand colonies, which consisted of a mating pair and one or two other birds.

The population of the woodpecker had been declining dramatically in recent years, and wildlife advocates criticized U.S. Forest Service management practices, claiming that the agency allowed timber harvesters to clear-cut, or cut every tree in a stand, reducing the birds’ habitat and further endangering the existing populations. John W. Thompson, a former manager of Johns Manville’s industrial forests who had become a dedicated bird-watcher after his retirement, argued for increased protection of the woodpecker’s habitat.

The U.S. Forest Service listened and, by the early 1990s, modified its management of the forests in an effort to protect the woodpecker. In Homochitto National Forest in Mississippi, forest managers directed timber harvesters to thin out stands of forest and leave the most mature trees for the birds to build their nests. The U.S. Forest Service also modified timber-harvesting practices in other southern forests, managing some 250,000 acres of national forest to protect the habitat of the woodpecker.2 Between the time of Benton MacKaye and John Thompson, a revolution had transformed attitudes and policies toward America’s forests. In 1900, most Americans regarded the forests as a resource that could not possibly be exhausted, and loggers were cutting massive amounts of timber in the East, South, and Great Lake states. Gifford Pinchot, Theodore Roosevelt, Benton MacKaye, and others in the forefront of America’s forest conservation movement warned, however, that the rapid logging would ultimately destroy the nation’s forests. In the first decade of the twentieth century, activists joined with conservation-minded legislators to press for legislation to protect the forests. They triumphed in 1911, when President 2

Introduction

William Howard Taft signed the Weeks Act, which for the first time provided the federal government with the power and resources to purchase privately owned forestlands for the purpose of protecting them. That law made possible the creation of most of the national forests east of the 100th meridian, or 100 degrees west longitude. This imaginary line, which runs through the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, is the traditional division between the amply watered lands of the eastern United States and the arid lands of the West. 3 In this book, Forests for the People, the term eastern is used in its broadest sense to distinguish the national forests that lie east of the 100th meridian. The U.S. Forest Service administers these forests in two regions: the Eastern Region, or Region 9, which reaches from Maine as far west as Minnesota and as far south as Missouri; and the Southern Region, or Region 8, which stretches from Virginia south to Florida and west to Oklahoma and Texas. (Puerto Rico’s El Junque National Forest is in the Southern Region.)

The regions include fifty-two national forests, encompassing more than twenty-five million acres in twenty-six states. Of these national forests, forty-one have lands acquired under the auspices of the Weeks Act.4 These forests carpet the ancient mountains of New England, ride the spine of the Appalachians south to Georgia, and reach into the swamplands of Florida.

They stretch across the Piedmont of the Carolinas and Virginia, the rolling hills of southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the Ozarks of Arkansas.

They comprise the formidable north woods of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

Part I will tell the story of how America’s eastern forests were saved in the early twentieth century and how the system of national forests was created in the East, South, and Lake states. Then, part II will examine eight current issues facing the eastern national forests, using a case-study approach. Each case study has been carefully selected to shed light on a larger challenge facing the eastern national forests: Chapter 7, “Holly Springs National Forest: A Study in Forest Management Reform,” examines the debates surrounding timber harvesting in Mississippi.

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Chapter 8, “Florida’s National Forests: A Revolution in Prescribed Burning,” explores the development and use of prescribed burning on Florida’s three national forests.

Chapter 9, “Monongahela National Forest: Wilderness at Heart,” explains how the Wilderness Act of 1964 and other wilderness legislation have affected the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia.

Chapter 10, “Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness: Preservation versus Multiple Use,” examines the debates surrounding the creation of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in the Superior National Forest in Minnesota.

Chapter 11, “Ottawa and Hiawatha National Forests: The Return of the Wolf,” discusses the the recovery of the wolf population in the two national forests in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula and examines the implications of changing attitudes about wildlife.

Chapter 12, “Allegheny National Forest: The Challenges of Shale Oil Drilling,” explores the controversies surrounding drilling for oil and natural gas in the Allegheny National Forest in western Pennsylvania.

Chapter 13, “Michigan’s National Forests: The Invasion of the Emerald Ash Borer,” examines the growing problem of invasive species as reflected in the rapid spread and destruction caused by the emerald ash borer in Michigan’s Huron-Manistee National Forests.

Chapter 14, “National Forests of Vermont and North Carolina: Loving the Forests to Death,” discusses economic development near Vermont’s Green Mountain National Forest and examines the problems of forest fragmentation and parcelization that are consequences of growth.

Although the eastern national forests represent only 13 percent of the entire national forest system, which has about 192 million acres, they are critical to the nation’s natural resources. These forests are very different 4

Introduction

from their vast counterparts in the West. For one thing, they followed a different path to protection than did the western forests, which were still in the public domain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, allowing the federal government to create forest preserves directly from them. In the eastern half of the country, however, most of the forestlands lay in private hands in the early twentieth century, and the federal government had to purchase them from private landowners. The Weeks Act was critical to this process because it created the legal procedures and allocated federal revenues for making the purchases.

The second distinguishing characteristic of the eastern forestlands was their deteriorating ecological condition in the early twentieth century.

Many of the lands had been cut over or burned by massive forest fires, and the U.S. Forest Service undertook a long process of restoring them.

The process of restoration has proven to be enormously successful, adding immeasurably to our understanding of forest ecosystems.

The third distinguishing factor is the proximity of the eastern national forests to large populations. According to the U.S. Forest Service, the Eastern Region includes more than 40 percent of the U.S. population, and the Southern Region encompasses the fastest-growing region of the country, with booming cities from Atlanta to Birmingham. Millions of people live within a day’s drive of an eastern national forest, which translates into heavy recreational use. Many of the forests lie near major cities, and this proximity creates pressures to exploit forest resources, from timber harvesting to oil and natural-gas extraction.

The fourth characteristic setting the eastern national forests apart is their size. Eastern forests are often smaller than their counterparts in the West. Of the top fifty national forests in size, the Superior in Minnesota ranks sixteenth, the Ouachita in Arkansas and Oklahoma ranks twentyseventh, and the Mark Twain in Missouri ranks forty-seventh. The relatively small size of the eastern forests has an effect, intensifying conflicts over their uses. For example, the decision to set aside pine forests in the Homochitto National Forest as habitat for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker affected the timber industry, an effect exacerbated by the national forest having only 189,000 acres. 5 These and other distinguishing

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features of the eastern national forests will be woven into our examination of their history and current issues.

At the heart of our account is a central question: What caused Americans to decide, in the early twentieth century, that the eastern forests were worth protecting and restoring? The answers to that question reveal a great deal about the development of the American conservation movement and, later, the environmental movement. At least three answers suggest themselves, all of which will be woven into our story. First, scientific knowledge about forests expanded greatly throughout the twentieth century, and scientists came increasingly to understand the connection among trees, other vegetation, soil, water quality, air quality, and wildlife. Supporters of forest conservation drew on this growing body of knowledge to persuade the public and legislators that forests were critical environments that had to be protected. The increasing understanding of the ecological role of forests and their relationship to other ecosystems will be a unifying theme of this book.

Second, the American public’s attitudes about nature and the environment changed dramatically, beginning in the late nineteenth century, when conservationists first grew alarmed about America’s rapidly diminishing forests. According to environmental philosopher Max Oelschlaeger in The Idea of Wilderness, through most of American history, the American public took an instrumental view of nature and viewed its attributes in strictly utilitarian terms. Oelschlaeger wrote that “the natural world was analogous to a factory to manufacture an unending stream of products for human consumption, and thus the landscape had only instrumental and not intrinsic value.”6 In the late 1800s, however, increasing numbers of Americans began to view nature as intrinsically valuable, and these attitudinal changes continued throughout the twentieth century as more people embraced outdoor recreation for its physical, social, psychological, and spiritual benefits. The changes in attitude were particularly dramatic regarding forests, which had had negative connotations from colonial days, as when the Puritans regarded the thick forests of New England as the playpen of the devil.

Third, the conservation movement represented a robust expression of 6

Introduction

grassroots democracy. For example, in the case of the Weeks Act, people in New England and the southern Appalachians voluntarily joined together to search for ways to save the eastern forests from being completely savaged. Their voluntary actions reflected the observations of Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America: “Thus the most democratic country on the face of the earth is that in which men have, in our time, carried to the highest perfection the art of pursuing in common the object of their common desires and have applied this new science to the greatest number of purposes.”7 Grassroots democracy was pivotal in protecting and restoring the eastern national forests, and public involvement has continued to play a critical role in influencing the management of the forests. Indeed, the United States has benefited enormously from having a vibrant blend of publicly owned and privately owned forestlands. As the story of the protection and restoration of these forests unfolds, it will become increasingly clear how a healthy network of eastern national forests—owned by and for the public—has benefited the country’s economy, environment, and social health.

Today, these forests provide eloquent testimony to the passion of thousands of citizens who committed themselves to their preservation.

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