BA3 HUMANITIES ELECTIVES ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORIES OF ARCHITECTURE KIM FÖRSTER ISOBEL CURRIE - (17101320) OUTLINE HOW THE EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURE FROM AN UNDERSTANDING OF HUMANISM IS DIFFERENT TO THAT OF HOW IT HAS EVOLVED FROM A POST-HUMAN PERSPECTIVE
Throughout history architecture has been shaped by evolving ontological, epistemological and cosmological arguments that have either centred the human, celebrating their agency, creativity and consciousness, or challenged and blurred the boundaries between the human and non-human. Architecture from a humanist perspective has been designed to rationalise civilisation away from the barbaric savagery of the premodern era and advocates a growing economy which allows for societal organisation and human progress. By decentring the human, post-human architecture understands that design must blur the boundaries between human, non-human and technology and cease to celebrate economic growth and human advancement. Not doing so creates a further divide between humans and the living environment, resulting in mass consumerism, pollution, deforestation, waste of the Earth’s resources and exploitation of animals as a commodity. This essay aims to track the evolution of architecture designed from a humanist and posthumanist perspective, whilst also explaining their differences. Before the modern era, architecture was designed with an understanding of post-humanism, as due to the lack of intellectual and technological advancement, the boundaries between human and non-human were less distinct. Humanism was the catalyst for progression from the middle ages into the modern era. It allowed for societies to move on from the barbaric past in favour of achievement, pleasure, eloquence and intellect. The architecture was influenced by humanism as design began advocating the perfection of man and his capabilities. Societies progressed away from their primitive nature, and the notion of humanism brought the revival of interest in Greek and Roman beliefs. Roman architect, engineer and author Vitruvius used the human form as the model of perfection and was one of the first people to exercise humanistic thought. He wrote on the ideal proportions of the human body and how they should be implemented into the design, “Since nature has designed the human body so that its members are duly proportioned to the frame as a whole… perfect buildings must have members in the exact symmetrical relation”. (Vitruvius, Pollio, & Morgan (1960)c.1) It is interesting to note here the description of nature to have designed the human body, thus meaning that humans were still aware of their connection and reliance on nature. Traditionally humanists reject the belief in God, however, some of the first prominent figures of humanism were highly regarded by the church such as Petrarca, who was a poet and scholar considered to be the “Father of humanism” (Editors, B 2014). Religious and intellectual liberty saw the separation of humans with nature, exemplified in the book of Genesis, which introduces the first notions of human exceptionalism:
“Then God said, “Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and overall the creatures that move along the ground.” (Book of Genesis, 950 BCE)
Figure 1- The plan of early Renaissance church “Sant’ Andrea, Mantua.”
Note the shift from the writings of Vitruvius viewing nature as the creation, to the writings of The Book of Genesis, which suggested that God was the image of man and ruled over Earth. The advent of the Renaissance brought forth Italian Polymath, Leonardo Da Vinci, creator of the Vitruvian man, which was inspired by Vitruvius’ theory of the human body being the model of perfect proportion. Architecture was influenced by this cultural movement of the Renaissance and buildings were designed to imitate the human form. For example, the crossshaped form of the renaissance Church was to represent man with outstretched arms, “Since the perfectly proportioned church is aemulatio of the human body, which in turn is a miniature of the cosmos, the individual being beholding the church, experiences an internal almost involuntary sense of the rightness of God’s whole creation” (Guthrie. S (1993) Figure 2- Da Vinci’s “Vitp.148). Human metaphysical consciousness and agency were ruvian man” understood to have separated humans from non-humans, resulting in architecture that celebrated such superiorities. As technologies were not as advanced and population not as high as the industrial era, the humanistic movement of the Renaissance did not force architects to design consciously of the non-human eco-system as their imprint on it was mainly inconsequential. Architecture designed from a post-human perspective reflected and advocated human’s capabilities and rationality during the industrial revolution. In contrast, architecture designed from a humanist perspective sought to revert to the premodern life, which was integrated with non-human life. The notion of the human body, its relation to the universe and subsequently its influence on architecture, was transformed by the technology of the industrial revolution, posing epistemological, ontological and cosmological challenges. The growing economy and technological advancements brought forth the Enlightenment era, which was an intellectual movement in Europe relying on man’s rationality. Romanticism arguably sought to respond to the rationality, urbanisation, industrialisation, secularisation and consumerism of the modern Enlightenment era through reconnection of the human to nature. Both movements brought different forms of architecture which responded to theories on human’s position in the ecosystem and echoed similar post humanistic movements in the 21st century. The industrial revolution began with the mining of coal in Britain, which also marked the start of the Anthropocene, suggesting Britain to be the historical homeland of global warming (Wrigley, 1967). Instead of having a focus on the liberal arts and intellectual thinking like that of the Renaissance, the Industrial revolution sought to improve the lives of humans through efficiency and economic growth. Economic progress, along with the invention of the steam-engine allowed for population growth which determined increasing demand, fuelling the capitalist society which relied on long hours, inequality, debt and consumerism, still prevalent in today’s society. As a result of this, urbanisation began, and people started to move to the cities in the hope of finding more significant opportunities for wealth. Cities became densely populated with factories and slums, distancing people from nature, decontextualising produce such as meat and creating a society blinded by human progression. Citizens of the city lived in a dark, polluted environment caused by the burning of coal, which John Ruskin appropriately named, the ‘devils’ darkness’ (Orpington: Allen, 1884). If architects had designed with an understanding of post-humanism, the absence of human exceptionalism would have
Figure 3This illustration by Gustave Dore in 1872 shows the heavily polluted city with densely packed housing due to the increasing population.
halted such growth. The incorporation of the living environment and wise utilisation of technology would have held back the wastage of earth’s resources and destruction of eco-systems. Architects inspired by the Enlightenment designed with an understanding of humanism as they valued human reasoning and celebrated economic and technological advancement. The Enlightenment movement reasoned about metaphysics in an epistemologically unstable world, along with human’s connection to nature, addressing religion and ontology. In focusing on the arguably humanist thinkers of the Enlightenment, we see architecture further designed to celebrate human knowledge and the utilisation of technologies to enhance human capabilities. Enlightenment philosopher, Rene Descartes came up with the anthropocentric theory of cartesian dualism which saw the separation of the human mind to the body and the maxim “I think therefore I am” (Descartes, (1998)) explicitly defining the importance of human’s consciousness. This theory, amongst many others, was influential for architectural design and resulted in structures which celebrated the superiority of the human mind to its surroundings. Donna Haraway challenges this theory from a post-humanist perspective, by stating that non-human animals are also capable of understanding and enacting ‘human social interactions’ (Haraway, 2008) and thus challenges the anthropocentric notion of human consciousness being dominant. Abstract geometric forms were favoured over the designs of the ancients as architects inspired by the Enlightenment: Étienne-Louis Boullée and Lewis Cubbitt designed strikingly abstract neo-classical utopian projects, stripping the building of natural ornamentation forbearing those of 1920’s Modernism (Vidler 1995). The anthropocentric theories of the Enlightenment were emulated by the modernist era, both following a period of economic growth and mechanisation. Boullée stresses how architecture is the ‘product of the mind’, (Boullée, Rosaneu, (1976)), and in his Cenotaph for Newton (1784) was a megalomaniacal design consisting of a 150-metre wide sphere. The spherical form coincidentally imitates that of the globe, whilst the interior imitates the night sky through perforations in the shell allowing light to penetrate through, showing engineering’s capability to recreate nature. The structure, which eventually wasn’t built, exemplified the sublime but also epitomised anthropocentrism fuelled by human intellectual advancement. Similar projects include the two arches of Lewis Cubitt’s Kings Cross Station in 1852 which functionally highlighted the relationship to the two train sheds they cover, exemplifying the high ambitions of Victorian engineering. This contrasted to the natural ornamentation of facades that neogothic architecture incorporated (Hopkins, 2014, p.120). The Industrial Revolution caused a movement in how humans viewed themselves, they were inspired by the advanced mechanisation of society and valued human reason over anything else which resulted in architecture advocating human exceptionalism. In comparison to architects being inspired by the Enlightenment, those inspired by romanticism were arguably post-humanist thinkers as they sought refuge in the purity of nature and viewed themselves as small components of a much larger eco-system. Architecture influenced by this movement sought to imitate natures grandeur and return to the ideals of pre-modernist society. The influential romantic poet, William Wordsworth rejected everything mechanical and industrial that was aiding economic growth. He wrote about the sublimity of nature which is exemplified in Friedrichs painting Wanderer above a sea of
Figure 4- An ink on paper depiction of the “Cenotaph for Isaac Newton”
fog (c.1818). This painting shows the emotions of being in awe of nature’s greatness and man’s comparatively small existence, along with the terror and potential threat of abusing nature. The figure stands as if he has conquered the landscape, but also stands alone, seemingly naïve to the power of his surroundings. This movement is reflected in architecture through the revivalist style. Relating to Vitruvius’ claim the nature made man, the temples of the ancient antiquity represented a clean and non-polluted society which the functionalism of heavily engineered mills and bridges didn’t. Along with this, the gothic revival came as part of a larger movement of the picturesque which celebrated landscape gardening and featured natural ornamentation. The styles incorporated irregularity to make buildings look as if they were more natural as a response to the need to return to nature. A notable Architect was Augustus Pugin who designed the houses of Parliament in the Gothic revival style to mirror the countries past which idolised a pre-industrial society that didn’t depend on expanding growth. This neglect of industrialisation and return to the past echoes the presentday theory of post-humanist philosopher, Isabelle Stengers, suggesting how a ‘return to the cave’ (Stengers, 2009, p.24) would save the Earth from the disastrous effects of climate change. Although to blur the boundaries between human and nonhuman is a post-human motive, the use of technology that the romantics rejected was solely to increase human capabilities and economic growth and not to wisely utilise it in favour of sustaining a healthy environment which is shown in the posthuman projects explained further on. Enlightenment thinkers could be coined as post humanists, as some celebrated the ontological theories of man becoming decentred and boundaries between human and nature blurred. French philosopher Michael Foucault explains how the Enlightenment and humanism are in a state of tension (Smart, B (ed.) 1994), as the movement stressed the agency and consciousness of man rationally making sense of the world, whilst rejecting previous humanist conceptions of science and religion. Scientists such as Darwin began studying the living environment to reveal the origins of humans which heavily influenced culture and architecture and saw design incorporate the non-human through wise utilisation of technologies. Darwin’s scientific literature ‘The origins of species’ was accepted in the late 19th century and was a monumental shift from the human exceptionalism of religious belief that man was designed by God, as it suggested that humans derived from animals. The human body became decentralised and barbaric animalistic nature recognised, resulting in a re-evaluation of what it meant to be human (Clark, 2011). The combination of the mechanisation of the industrial revolution, the romantic’s emphasis on the reconnection with nature and new theories on the origins of man, saw a radical change in architecture and resulted in biophilic space in the densely populated cities starting to emerge as parks coined by Frank Olmstead as “Lungs of the city”(Olmstead, 1990). This contrasted with the dense urban architecture of the industrial revolution. Parks appeared in retaliation to the unhealthy living conditions the burning of coal and urban lifestyle produced and exemplified how a reconnection to nature would improve health. The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton in 1851, was arguably a combination of post-humanist and humanistic thought. The innovative engineering of glass and cast-iron housed the exhibition of material culture the industrial revolution provided, while being inspired by the structure of giant water lilies and holding an array of plant species alongside
Figure 5- Friedrichs painting Wanderer above a sea of fog (c.1818)
Figure 6- Sketch of the French capitals of Reim.
Figure 7- a photograph of the Crystal Palace interior.
free-flying parrots, monkeys, turtles and a baby hippopotamus (Studio, A. ed, 2020). 21st-century post-humanist philosophers stress the importance of inter-species design as blurring the boundaries between human and non-human is the first step in appreciating and sustaining the living environment. However, although the Crystal Palace encouraged inter-species design, it also celebrated capitalist consumerism which is derived from humanistic thought subsequently fuelling economic growth and thus creates environmental damage. The landscapes of the industrial revolution encouraged architects to design with an understanding of post humanism. Although designs were still centred around human progression, they advocated the need nature connectedness. Architecture designed from a romanticist understanding of post-humanism in the 19th century sought to decelerate man’s progression and opposed that of the 20th century which saw architecture designed to accelerate man’s progression. Architecture was designed from the need to keep up with the competition of post-war economic globalisation, resulting in the advocation of human-centred design. The modernist architecture of the 20th century exaggerated the need to incorporate nature into design. However, with technology becoming increasingly advanced, architects utilised it to increase human capability and agency. The shock of the great wars sparked the fundamental need for a new way of living to heal the human condition which resulted in a wave of humanist architecture that centred man in aid of progression. New technologies made life more efficient and had become an extension of the body to keep up with the economic competition of modern-day capitalist society. Humanism was replaced with functionalism as cities were rapidly re-developed, and Modernism aimed to tackle economic inequality by producing cheap, mass-produced and functional architecture, alike the urbanisation of cities in the industrial revolution. New innovative technologies of glass, reinforced concrete and steel designed around the needs of the modern-day human, entrenched in the pressures of progress and concerned with waste and the economics of the building. Designs were functional and reflected the increased mechanisation of society, with the notorious modernist architect Le Corbusier stating that ‘A house is a machine for living in’ (Corbusier 1986, p.124). Although Corbusier integrated technology into an architectural design which could arguably be posthumanism, he did so with the interest of improving human lives and so remained faithful to anthropocentrism. In 1948, Le Corbusier echoed the works of Leonardo Da Vinci in creating “The Modular man”, which was an anthropometric scale of idealised proportions, ultimately encouraging human-scale architecture. Le Corbusier did not blur the boundaries between human and non-human, he used technology to heal the human condition, taking dominion over technology with the aim of it enhancing human capabilities. For example, in his project Unité d’Habitation, completed in 1952 in Marseille, Corbusier sought to rationalise architecture as an instrument to delineate a social system as a system of reason and enforce functionality and economy to aid human achievement (Wikiarqitectura, 2020). In visualising a utopia of boundless human progression, he advocated man’s significance like that of Boullée. He rejected the need to object to economic growth in favour of saving the human condition which ultimately lead to prioritising human needs over the living environment.
Post humanist design, in opposition to humanist design, stresses the need to dispose of materialist consumerism fuelled by the economy and blur the boundaries between man and technology. In the latter half of the 20th century, human exceptionalism was still prominent; however, in the wake of concerns over neo-liberal globalisation, global warming, poisonous gas, radioactivity and germ warfare, architects began to design more conceptually addressing these issues, and in turn, architecture was designed from a post human perspective. Architects began to incorporate technology into design, not to aid human advancement, but to address the forthcoming global climate crisis. François Dallegret and Reyner Banham’s “Environment Bubble” photomontage/drawing of 1965, shows a technologically mediated, air-conditioned interior with an indeterminate exterior (Lorimer, J 2009). The visualisation suggests a morphology of human, non-human and technology and how it can be a way of disregarding neoliberal consumerism, unlike Corbusier’s motive of economic growth. The montage challenges the traditional idea of subjectivity and objectivity as the humans in the montage appear to be naked suggesting the lack of materialism and return to barbaric animal nature. The bubble separates them from the exterior environment and shows that humans, like animals, live independently without exhausting the Earth’s resources and treating animals as a commodity, suggesting architecture’s ability to reconsider what it means to be human. Projects such as those of the Italian, radical, avant-garde Superstudio also attempted to address neo-liberal consumerism by blurring the boundaries between technology and living beings by creating a “single continuous environment, a world rendered uniform by technology, culture, and all the other inevitable forms of imperialism.” (Lorimer. J, 2009). The group of architects conducted a series of films to raise awareness of the harmful impact of construction on the natural environment (Didero 2017). Instead of designing entirely functional buildings to aid human progression, this new wave of architects became “Objectors to growth/ economic objectors” (Stengers, 2009, p.24) by reconfiguring unjust social division within society and reducing a focus on economic growth which allowed for greater awareness of environmental issues. The goal was a didactic re-establishment of a cultural relationship between objects and users. This meant the elimination of the idea that the object is a rational extension of the human body, aiming to improve the conditions of life and the balance between humans and the artificial human environment (Quesada 2011). Unlike the motives of architecture inspired by the romantic movement, where there was an aim to go back to a pre-mechanised time, architects of the 20th century recognised the dependency on techno-scientific advancements. They sought to embrace them, blurring the boundaries between man and machine, disposing of materialist consumerism and living peacefully amongst nature Present day architecture which is designed from an understanding of posthumanism differs to the humanist work of modernism as it seeks to blur the boundaries between human, non-human and technology whilst moving away from ‘last minute greedy band-aid urban renewal which is producing selfish and soul-destroying building and land use’ (Price, 1989). Unlike the humanist work of architects Le Corbusier and Boullée which sought to celebrate and encourage current socio-politics the post-humanist architectural projects of the Banham’s and Superstudio’s emulate ‘resonance chambers’. This term coined by Isabelle Stengers in her book In
Figure 8The Environment Bubble, photomontage drawing by François Dallegret for Reyner Banham’s “A Home Is Not a House,” 1965. The image depicts environmental anxieties of the 1960’s and the need to abolish the consumer culture which i causing the environmental crisis.
Catastrophic Times: Resisting the Coming Barbarism entails “the production of repercussions” establishing a political message to allow “resources and experimental possibilities for others” (Stengers, 2009 p.153). The projects are conceptual; however, they utilise architecture as a tool in advocating the need to rethink what it means to be human. Unlike the anthropocentric motives of the Vitruvian and modular man, post-human architectural ‘resonance chambers’ create the fusion of the human, non-human and technology, designing for a subject in constant flux and reconnecting eco-systems, resulting in humans having less of an impact on the environment. The humanist design has resulted in a decline of animal populations and plant species which is heavily impacting the ecological system and thus creating disastrous environmental impact. To transcend the theory of Descartes’ human, non–human dualism, looking at the work of anthropologist Eduardo Kohn and German biologist Jakob Johann von Uexküll helps understand semiotics to see the world through connections, not divisions (Tsing, 2015). Uexküll highlights how non-humans are equally as capable as humans as they possess their own forms of language, which have been viewed as one of man’s superior qualities. He describes through the trifold semiotic schema of a tick, and its series of receptors and effectors, allowing us to understand that other beings have ways of communicating that are not through human language.Kohn suggests that this semiosis pervades all living environment and creates anthropology beyond the human, helping dualistic anthropocentric anthropology become monistic (Kohn, 2013). Post humanist architecture which responds to this is exemplified in project/installation ‘Amphibious Architecture’ by Natalie Jeremijenko in 2009. Jeremijenko’s project draws attention to the waterfront and challenges the economically driven anthropocentric architecture. The project is comprised of two networks of floating tubes, one at the Bronx River and one at the East river. The grid of floating tubes has sensors below water which collect information on water quality through dissolved oxygen and the presence of fish through a sonar sensor and hydrophones. Lighting above water responds to those sensors to create a dynamic display of light, connecting the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Omnibus. U, 2009) to make people aware of the ecology of the waterfront. This project redefines the humanistic typology of naval architecture which traditionally consists of large warships or merchant ships that are fuelled by the economy and human social relations, which subsequently also cause oil and gas pollution in the water. Although the project offers a rediscovery of the waterfront, which produces a profit for surrounding buildings, it ceases to create any substantial revenue in itself, disregarding human growth and consumerism. Instead of creating a built environment which can incorporate profit, the project blurs the boundaries between human, non – human and technology acting as a ‘resonance chamber’ which sees ‘life after economic growth’ (Stengers, 2009, p.153).
Figure 9- Jakob Johann von Uexküll’s tick.
Figure 10Photomontage of the Fish SMS project.
From the pre-modern era to the present day, architecture has been influenced by the socio-economic and political culture of its time. Overtime, architecture has responded to the anxieties and excitements of human progression, resulting in an understanding of humanism and post-humanism. Humanist architecture comprises of structures advocating a boundless utopia of economic human advancement through the utilisation of technology. Post-human architects have recognised man’s dependency on technology and instead of advocating a ‘return to the cave’ (Stengers, 2009 p.20) seek to reject the strive for economic growth. This is in favour of creating an environment which allows humans, non-humans and technology to harmoniously co-exist ultimately de-centring the human and highlighting the need for nature connectedness.
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FIGURE 2 Da Vinci, L. (1490). Vitruvian man. [image] Available at: https://leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/submissions/ clabaugh/history/leonardo.html [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 3 -Doré, G. (2020). London illustrations by Gustave Doré. [online] The British Library. Available at: https:// www.bl.uk/collection-items/londonillustrations-by-gustave-dor [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 4 Boullée, E. (1784). [image] Available at: https://images.adsttc.com/ media/images/53a2/6438/c07a/80fe/ d500/01fd/slideshow/N7701015_JPEG_5_5DM. jpg?1403151408 [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 5 David Friedrich, C. (1817). [image] Available at: https://www.artsy.net/ article/artsy-editorial-unraveling-mysteries-caspar-david-friedrichs-wanderer [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 7
Paxton, J. (2020). [image] Available at: https://images.adsttc.com/ media/images/51d5/77fa/b3fc/4bea/ e100/0212/large_jpg/72726216. jpg?1372944376 [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 8 The Environment Bubble, photomontage drawing by François Dallegret for Reyner Banham’s “A Home Is Not a House,” 1965. © Collection FRAC Centre, Orléans. Photographed by François Lauginie.
FIGURE 9 von Uexküll’s, J. (1901). [image] Available at: https://duncanrshaw. co.uk/2016/07/19/each-iot-device-hasits-own-umwelt-a-self-world-and-combining-umwelts-is-the-key-to-successfuliot-services/ [Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].
FIGURE 10 Photomontage with stock images from: https://www.123rf.com/photo_621434_ arm-of-man-in-blue-suit-holding-aphone.html. and https://www.123rf.com/
photo_15879805_an-engraved-vintage-fishillustration-image-of-a-carp-from-a-victorian-book-dated-1883-that-is-no-lo. html The montage exemplifies the ability of the fish in the Bronx river to be able to communicate
1. Session 1 (30/09/19): Introduction, Overview 2. Session 2 (07/10/19): Fossil-fueled Environment 3. Session 3 (14/10/19): Polluted Environment 4. Session 4 (14/10/19): Regulated Environment 5. Session 5 (28/10/19): Concealed Environment 6. Session 6 (04/11/19): Conditioned Enviroment 7. Session 7 (11/11/19): Violent Environment 8. Session 8 (06/01/20): Posthuman Environment 9. Session 10 (13/01/20): Ethno-Botanical Environment 10. Bibliography
ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORIES: APPENDIX
11. Group presentations for each week (sequential)