û ukewya fy[;rs fdf´pr~ û
ITIHAS DARPAN Volume XVIII (1) (Varsa Pratipadã)
vad 18 (1) (o"kZ çfrink)
foÙe laor~ 2070] dfy;qxkCn 5115] bZloh lu~ 2013 Vikrama Samvat 2070, Kali Yugãbda 5115, i.e. 2013 CE
Editor :
T.P. Verma Sub-Editor:
Gunjan Aggrawala
ukewya fy[;rs fdf´pr~
Aiol -artIy #ithas s<kln yaejna ckck lkgc vkiVs Le`fr Hkou] ^ds'ko&dq×t*] >.Msokyku] u;h fnYyh&110 055
AKHILA BHÃRATIYA ITIHÃSA SAMKALANA YOJANÃ Baba Sahab Apte Smriti Bhawan, 'Keshav Kunj', Jhandewalan, New Dehi-110 055
ITIHAS DARPAN Volume XVIII (1) (Varsa Pratipadã)
Vikrama Samvat 2070, Kali Yugãbda 5115, i.e. 2013 CE
Published by:
Akhila Bhäratéya Itihäsa Saàkalana Yojanä Baba Sahab Apte Smriti Bhawan, 'Keshav Kunj', Jhandewalan, New Dehi-110 055 Ph.: 011-23675667 e-mail: abisy84@gmail.com © Copyright : Publisher Subscription: Institutions : $ 3,000.00 (Fifteen Years) Individual : $ 2,000.00 (Fifteen years) Subcription be sent by D.D. or cheque in favour of 'Itihas Darpan', to Sri Balmukund Pandey Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana, Baba Sahab Apte Smriti Bhavan, 'Keshav Kunj', Deshbandhu Gupta Marg, Jhandewalan, New Delhi -110 055 Please add $ 30.00 for collection charges incase of out station cheque.
This Journal is a referral volume. Typescripts whether in the form of articles or notes or book reviews, offered for publication, should be sent to the editor at Prof. Thakur Prasad Verma 397-A, Ganga Pradushan Niyantran Marg, Bhagwanpur, Varanasi-221 005 We prefer CD/DVD of the article with details, including illustrations, preferably in MS Word or e-mails (tpverma2003@yahoo.co.in, abisy84@gmail.com) with illustrations and tables etc. The editors are not responsible for the opinions expressed by the contributors.
QSSN 974-3065X
fo'ooU| Lokeh foosdkuUn dh lk¼Z&'krh (150oha t;Urh) ij vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk&ifjokj dh iq"ikŽfy %
Lokeh foosdkuUn dks vknjkŽfy * ijeiwT; Jh ekèkojko lnkf'kojko xksÿoÿdj (Jh xq#th) (f}rh; ljla?kpkyd] jkÔªh; Lo;alsod la?k) gs Kku&T;ksfr ! Hkkjr ds jksx dk lqLi"V funkudj vH;qn; dk ekxZ crkusokys fganw&lekt ds oSHko&izklkn dh uhao] èkeZ] laLÑfr] mldk ,dkRecksèkd rÙoKku gh gks ldrk gS] dsoy vkfFkZd ;k jktuSfrd lw=kcUèku ughaµ bl lR; dh ?kks"k.kk djusokys] reksxq.k O;kIr vr,o vdeZ.; ,oa izeÙk fganw&lekt dks lUekxZ izn'kZudj rstLoh deZ;ksx dk lUns'k lqukusokys] mPpuhprkfn HksnHkkoksa esa foèoald] O;fäek=k esa ukjk;.k dk n'kZudj mldh lsok djus dk vkns'k iznku djusokyh egkfoHkwfr ! Hkkjr dh ijkèkhu voLFkk esa Hkh lalkjHkj mlds rÙoKku dk t;&t;dkj djokusokys txn~xqjks ! thou ds izR;sd {ks=k esa ijdh;ksa dk vaèk vuqdj.kdj viuh cqf) dk [kks[kykiu] ghurk] nklrk izdVdj Hkkjr dks vHkkjrh; tM+okn dh vksj ys tkusokys ew<+ fganqvksa ds rFkkdfFkr usrkvksa ds us=kksa esa ¹ fnukad 10 tuojh] 1950 dks Lokeh foosdkuUn ds tUe&fnol ij mudh ikou Le`fr dks lefiZr 'kCn&lqeuk×tfy] ^Jhxq#th % lexz n'kZu*] [k.M 3] i`‚ 85&86 esa ladfyr
LokfHkeku dk iz[kj vÀu Mkydj mUgsa txkusokysµ Hkkjr gh lalkj dk ijexq# gSµ bl lR; dks fl) djusokys gs fo'ooU| egkReu~ ! vkt fQj ls ijkuqdj.k ,oa vèkkfeZdrk ds iFk ij pyusokys] ekuo ls i'kqRo izkIr djusokys pkjksa vksj QSy jgs gSaA vkt vkidk iq.; Lej.kdj vkils ge èkeZ vkSj lUekxZ dk iFk&izn'kZu pkgrs gSaA vkids vk'khokZn ls vkt ds vKku'kwU; voxq.kksa dks u"Vdj] Hksnjfgr lw=kc) fganw&lekt izcy ,oa LokfHkekuiw.kZ gksdj vius egku~ lkaLÑfrd xq.kksa dk iqu#Tthoudj izR;sd O;fä dks lq[kiw.kZ thou izkIr djk nsrk gqvk lalkj ds lEeq[k LièkkZ'kwU; 'kkfUre; lektthou dk vkn'kZ [kM+k dj ldsxkA bl mfí"V dks ikus ds fy, ge vkids mikld ;gh ojnku ek¡xrs gSa fd gekjk lEiw.kZ thou bl egku~ mRFkku&dk;Z esa O;rhr gks] ekxZ esa vkusokys d"V Hkh lq[knk;h gks ldsaµ ,slh geesa yxu gks vkSj ftl Hkkjrekrk dk vkius tx esa lUeku c<+k;k] mldh lsok esa geyksxksa dk thou lefiZr gksA izHkq! vkids Le`frfnol ds volj ij ;s dqN 'kCniq"i :[ks&lw[ks tSls gh gksa] viZ.k dj jgk gw¡A ;g vYi iwtk LohÑr gksA
jkÔªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds dhfrZ&LrEHk ije iwT; MkWñ ds'kojko cfyjke gsMxsokj vkfoZHkko % 01 vçSy] 1889_ fuokZ.k % 21 twu] 1940 (vk| ljla?kpkyd] 1925&1940)
ije iwT; Jh ekèkojko lnkf'kojko xksGoGdj ¼Jh xq#th½ vkfoZHkko % 19 iQjojh] 1906_ fuokZ.k % 05 twu] 1973 (f}rh; ljla?kpkyd] 1940&1973)
ITIHAS DARPAN Volume XVIII (1) (Varsa Pratipadã)
Vikrama Samvat 2070, Kali Yugãbda 5115, i.e. 2013 CE
CONTENTS ¹ ¹ 12345678910111213-
Lokeh foosdkuUn dks vknjkŽfy Jh ekèkojko lnkf'kojko xksÿoÿdj (Jh xq#th) J¼k&lqeu % MkWŒ f'kdkjhiqjk jaxukFk jko (MkWŒ ,lŒvkjŒ jko) Jh ckyeqdqUn ik.Ms; fuxekxe&foe'kZ MkWŒ /khjsUnz >k Vedic roots of Hinduism and Hellenism Prof. D.N. Tripathi Writing in the Vedic age, Harappan and Açokan writing Prof. T.P. Verma Śramaëism as Dissent and Protest against Brähmaëical Orthodoxy Prof. S.R. Goyal Megalithic Culture: A prelude to the subsequent economic growth in peninsular India and the Deccan Dr. G.K. Lama
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr çksŒ jktho jatu mik/;k; Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk ,oa mldk çFke v/;k; (lkfgfR;d jpuk&çk:i % ,d lekykspuk) çksŒ nhucU/kq ik.Ms; tSu&vkxe ^uk;k/kEedgkvks* esa ikSjkf.kd ,oa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ Jh Nxuyky cksgjk ^egkoLrqvonku* esa cksf/klÙo dk thou&n'kZu vkSj egk;kuh&ckS¼ksa ds fof'kÔ nk'kZfud&fl¼kUr MkWŒ Ï".kdkUr f=osnh çkphu Hkkjr esa L=h/ku&foe'kZ vkSj mlds izHksn lqJh cchrk dqekjh leqnzxqIr ds bykgkckn&LrEHkys[k esa of.kZr ukxnÙk dh igpku MkWŒ vkseizdk'k yky JhokLro Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha, VS 1525 Dr. Arvind Kumar Singh Composite Images of Sürya in Oòiçan Art Rusav Kumar Sahu
3 7 9 12 40 60 67 77 90 96 100 106 112 116 127
14-
vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi % èkkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa Jh f'ko'kadj
134
15-
Controbution of Dogra Rulers for the development of Jammu & Kashmir state Dr. Jawahir Abass Bhat
149
16-
fcgkj fdlku&vkUnksyu dk ,d v/;k; vkSj jkgqy th MkWŒ chŒdsŒ JhokLro
155
¹
Book Review
1- Geography, People and Geodynamics of India in Puräëas and Epics : A Geologist's by Dr. K.S. Valdiya : Prof. T.P. Verma
¹
2- MkWŒ lrh'k pUæ feÙky&Ïr ^Lokeh foosdkuUn dh bfrgkl&n`fÔ* % MkWŒ jRus'k dqekj f=ikBh vfèkos'ku&lekpkj 5
159 172 175
Contributors of this Volume 1-
MkWŒ èkhjsUæ >k {ks=h; laLÏr&foHkkx izeq[k] Hkkjrh f'k{kk lfefr] ^izsedqŽ*] foa/;okfluh iFk] dnedqvk¡] iVuk&800 003 (fcgkj)
2-
Prof. D.N. Tripathi 'Leela Nilayam', 99-A, Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur-2730 09, U.P.
3-
Prof. Thakur Prasad Verma Professor (Retd.), Deptt. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University; Residence : 397-A, Ganga Pradushan Niyantran Marg, Bhagwanpur, Varanasi-221 005
4-
Prof. S.R. Goyal Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of History, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur (Rajasthan); Residence : 41-A, Sardar Club Scheme Jodhpur-342 001 (Rajasthan)
5-
Dr. G.K. Lama Asst. Professor, Deptt. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University
6-
çksŒ jktho jatu mikè;k; iwoZ izksQslj] dSalj&'kks/k] rcjht+ fo'ofo|ky;] rcjht] bZjku_ laiknd] ^foKku&dFkk*] vkokl % ^foKku*] ifjlj dksBh dkds ckcw] nsodkyh ekxZ] QSt+kckn&224 001 (mŒizŒ)
7-
çksŒ nhucUèkq ik.Ms; iwoZ foHkkxk/;{k] dyk] bfrgkl ,oa Ik;ZVu&izcU/k] dk'kh fganw fo'ofo|ky;] okjk.klh_ }kjk] izksŒ vEcjh'k ik.Ms;] edku laŒ Mh&27] xq# tEHks'oj ;wfuoflZVh vkWQ+ lk;al ,.M VsDuksykWt+h] fglkj&125 001 (gfj;k.kk)
8-
Jh Nxuyky cksgjk ^cksgjk&fudsr*] cksgjk x.ks'k ekxZ] mn;iqj&313 001 (jktLFkku)
9-
MkWŒ Ï".kdkUr f=osnh lsokfuo`Ùk izkè;kid] izkphu Hkkjrh; bfrgkl&foHkkx] fefFkyk fjlpZ baLVhV~;wV] njHkaxk_ fuokl % dcMk?kkV] iksŒ% ykyckx+&846 004 (fcgkj)
10-
lqJh cchrk dqekjh 'kksèk&Nk=k] bfrgkl&foHkkx] yfyr ukjk;.k fefFkyk fo'ofo|ky;] njHkaxk (fcgkj)
11-
MkWŒ vkseçdk'kyky JhokLro iwoZ jftLVªhdj.k&vf/kdkjh] iqjko'ks"k ,oa cgqewY; dykÏfr] 12&ch] ihŒlhŒ cuthZ ekxZ] ,yuxat] bykgkckn (mŒizŒ)
12-
Prof. Arvind Kumar Singh Professor & Head, Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior-474 011 (M.P.)
13-
Sri Rusuv Kumar Sahu UGC-J.R.F., P.G. Deptt. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar-751 004
14-
Jh f'ko'kadj ;wŒthŒlhŒ usV] 'kks/k&Nk= (funsZf'kdk % MkWŒ T;ksfr :gsyk)] dyk&bfrgkl&foHkkx] dk'kh fganw fo'ofo|ky;] okjk.klh&221 005 (mŒizŒ)
15-
Dr. Jawahir Abass Bhat Shalipora ( Katrasoo), Tehsil & District Kulgam-192 232 (Jammu & Kashmir)
16-
MkWŒ chŒdsŒ JhokLro lgk;d&izkè;kid] bfrgkl&foHkkx] MkWŒ gfjflag xkSj dsUnzh; fo'ofo|ky;] lkxj (eŒçŒ)
17-
MkWŒ jRus'k dqekj f=ikBh 'kksèk&lgk;d] Hkkjrh;&iqjk.k&vè;;u&laLFkku] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk] ckck lkgc vkiVs&Le`fr Hkou] ^ds'ko&dqŽ*] >.Msokyku] u;h 6 fnYyh&110 055
J¼k&lqeu
MkWŒ f'kdkjhiqjk jaxukFk jko (,lŒvkjŒ jko) lsokfuo`Ùk gq,A Hkkjrh; iqjkrÙo losZ{k.k esa dk;Z djus ds nkSjku mUgksaus if'peh ,oa nf{k.k Hkkjr ds dbZ egÙoiw.kZ iqjkrkfÙod LFkyksa dh [kkst dh ftuesa jaxiqj] vezsyh] Hkxrjs] guwj] ,gksy] dkosjhiV~Vue~ ,oa flaèkq?kkVh&;qx ds xqtjkr ds izfl) cUnjxkg&uxj yksFky lfEefyr gSaA bu [kkstksa us u dsoy flaèkq&?kkVh dh lH;rk ij izdk'k Mkyk] oju~ bl lH;rk dh vfLrRo&fo|ekurk rFkk ekuo ds fodkl esa blds ;ksxnku&lacaèkh dbZ HkzkfUr;ksa dks Hkh lekIr fd;kA Jh jko rktegy ,oa fd+yksa ds :i esa Lekjdksa ds laj{k.k ls Hkh lEc) jgs FksA lu~ 1980 esa Hkk‚iq‚ losZ{k.k ls lsokfuo`Ùk gksus ds ckotwn muls losZ{k.k ds egkfuns'kd ds :i esa dk;Z djus dk vuqjksèk fd;k x;k FkkA MkW‚ jko dh igy ij jk"Vªh; leqnz&foKku laLFkku ¼xksok½ us lu~ 1981 esa lkeqfnzd iqjkrÙo ij 'kksèk&dsUnz [kksykA bl izdkj MkW‚ jko Hkkjr esa lkeqfnzd iqjkrÙo lkslk;Vh ds laLFkkid Fks A
MkWŒ f'kdkjhiqjk jaxukFk jko 1922&03 tuojh] 2013 fo'oizfl) Hkkjrh;&iqjkrÙoosÙkk] Hkkjr esa lkeqfnzd iqjkrÙo ds iz.ksrk] Hkkjr ds izFke flaèkq?kkVh cUnjxkg&uxj ^yksFky* lfgr vusd gM+Iik&LFkyksa ds mR[kuu&dk;Z ds usr`RodÙkkZ ,oa }kjdk uxjh ds [kkstdÙkkZ MkW‚ f'kdkjhiqjk jaxukFk jko ¼,l‚vkj‚ jko½ dk 91 o"kZ dh vk;q esa ikS"k Ñ".k "k"Bh] c`gLifrokj] dfy;qxkCn 5114] rnuqlkj fnukad 03 tuojh] 2013 dks caxyw#&fLFkr muds fuokl ij fuèku gks x;kA muds fuèku ls lewps iqjkrÙo&txr~ esa ,d viw.kZuh; {kfr gqbZ gSA Jh jko dk tUe lu~ 1922 esa gqvk Fkk A mUgksaus eSlwj fo'ofo|ky; ls i<+kbZ iwjh djus ds ckn cM+kSnk jkT; ds iqjkrRo&foHkkx esa dk;Z fd;kA lu~ 1948 esa mUgksaus Hkkjrh; iqjkrÙo losZ{k.k esa dk;Z izkjEHk fd;k] tgk¡ og fofHké {kerkvksa esa dk;Z djrs gq, lu~ 1980 esa
MkW‚ jko us ,d ntZu ls vfèkd iqLrdsa vkSj 70 ls vfèkd 'kksèk&izcUèk fy[ksA mUgksaus ;wjksi] vesfjdk ,oa :l dh ;k=kk,¡ dha vkSj ogk¡ ds fo'ofo|ky;ksa esa O;k[;ku fn;sA og dsykM+h laxzgky; ds vè;{k vkSj ^dsykM+h laxzgky; ds Hkksti=k&vfHkys[kksa dh fooj.k&lwph* ds laiknd Hkh Fks A mUgksaus ^t+uZy vkWQ+ esjhu vkfdZ;ksykWt+h* dk Hkh laiknu fd;kA thou ds vfUre le; rd og }kjdk] ikSaiqgkj vkSj xksok dh iqjkrkfÙod [kkstksa&lacaèkh ekxZn'kZu esa vR;Ur lfØ; jgsA MkW‚ jko vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk ls Hkh lEc) jgs vkSj vkSj mldh jk"Vªh; dk;Zdkjh lfefr ds vkefU=kr lnL; FksA ;kstuk us lu~ 2007 esa mUgsa laLFkku dk izfrf"Br ^MkW‚ fo".kq Jhèkj okd.kdj iqjLdkj* nsdj lEekfur fd;k FkkA Jh jko ds fuèkuksijkUr Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu lfefr ¼dk'kh&izkUr½ }kjk ;kstuk ds mikè;{k MkW‚ nsoh izlkn flag ,oa MkW‚ Bkdqj izlkn oekZ ds usr`Ro esa muds vfLFk&dy'k dks dk'kh ykdj oSfnd eU=kksPpkj ds chp xaxkth esa izokfgr fd;k x;k vkSj mUgsa J)k×tfy vfiZr dh x;hA bldk lekpkj dk'kh ds lekpkj&i=kksa esa izdkf'kr gqvk FkkA flaèkq&fyfi dk vè;;u % loZrkseq[kh 'kksèkdrkZ MkW‚ jko us oSKkfud&n`f"Vdks.k ds lkFk jgL;e; flaèkq&fyfi dks le>us dk iz;kl fd;k vkSj rRlacaèkh viuk vUos"k.k izdkf'kr fd;kA flaèkq&fyfi ds lcaèk esa mudk er gS fd vkjfEHkd 7 gM+Iik&laLÑfr ¼2500&1900 bZ‚iw‚½ dh flaèkq&fyfi esa 390 fpÌ Fks]
8
ftuesa yxHkx 40 ekSfyd fpÌ FksA fdUrq ijorhZ gM+Iik&laLÑfr ¼1900&1600 bZ‚iw‚½ dh flaèkq&fyfi esa flQZ+ 20 ekSfyd fpÌ jg x, FksA bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk fd ijorhZ flaèkq&fyfi o.kZekykRed cu pqdh FkhA ;g dSls gqvk\ MkW‚ jko dk ekuuk Fkk fd ;g if'pe ,f'k;k dh lsesfVd&fyfi ds izHkko ls gqvkA mUgksaus dukuh vkSj fQ+uhf'k;u&tSlh mÙkjh lsesfVd&fyfi;ksa ds ladsrksa esa vkSj ijorhZ flaèkq&fyfi ds ladsrksa esa lkE; Hkh [kkstkA bruk gh ugha] mUgksaus lsesfVd O;×tuekyk ds èofuekuksa dh lgk;rk ls gh ijorhZ flaèkq&fyfi ds 20 fpÌksa dh o.kZekyk dks i<+us dk iz;Ru fd;kA MkW‚ jko dk dguk Fkk fd ijorhZ flaèkq&fyfi dh o.kZekyk esa 14 ;k 15 O;×tuk{kj gSa vkSj 5 Lojk{kjA ge tkurs gSa fd lsesfVd&fyfi;ksa esa Lojk{kj ugha FksA ysfdu ;wukfu;ksa us mÙkjh lsesfVd&fyfi ds vkèkkj ij viuh Hkk"kk ds fy, tc u;h fyfi cukbZ] rks mlesa mUgksaus Lojksa ds fy, fpÌ cuk fy, FksA MkW‚ jko dk vè;;u ;fn lgh gS] rks gesa dguk iM+sxk fd ijorhZ gM+Iik&laLÑfr ds yksxksa us Hkh ,slk gh fd;k FkkA bl flaèkq&o.kZekyk dh fyfi D;k Fkh\ vius vè;;u ls MkW‚ jko bl fu"d"kZ ij igq¡ps fd flaèkq&yksxksa dh Hkk"kk Hkkjksih;&ifjokj dh rFkk Hkkjr&bZjkuh oxZ dh FkhA lkFk gh mUgksaus ;g Hkh tkudkjh nh fd tks 360 'kCn mUgksaus [kksts] muesa 30 'kCn Hkkjksih;&Hkk"kk ds ugha gSaA blls MkW‚ jko bl ifj.kke ij igq¡ps fd flaèkq&fyfi dh Hkk"kk osn dh izkphu laLÑr&Hkk"kk ls i;kZIr lkE; j[krh gSA MkW‚ jko us dqN eqgjksa ij ^jktk* ds fy, ^iky*] ^ikyd*] ^=k* vkfn 'kCnksa dh Hkh [kkst dhA mUgksaus flaèkq&o.kZekyk dk lsesfVd&fyfi;ksa ds lkFk lkE; n'kkZus ds fy, tks rkfydk nh gS] mlesa mUgksaus czkãh&fyfi ds dqN v{kj fn, gSaA vr% yxrk gS fd czkãh&o.kZekyk ijorhZ flaèkq&o.kZekyk ls cuh FkhA ij MkW‚ jko us ;g Hkh Lohdkj fd;k fd flaèkq&fyfi nk;ha vksj ls ck;ha vksj fy[kh tkrh FkhA }kjdk uxjh dh [kkst % izkphu dky esa Hkkjr ds rVksa ij vusd le`) cUnjxkg ,oa uxj fLFkr FksA buesa egkHkkjr&dky dh uxjh }kjdk Hkh FkhA blds leqnz esa foyqIr gks tkus ds ckn muds vo'ks"kksa dks loZizFke Hkkjrh;&ok;qlsuk ds ik;yVksa us leqnz ds Åij ls mM+ku Hkjrs gq, ns[kk Fkk vkSj mlds ckn 1970 esa tkeuxj ds xt+sfV;j esa bldk mYys[k fd;k x;k FkkA lu~ 1979&*80 esa MkW‚ jko ,oa muds ny us 560 ehVj yEch }kjdk dh nhokj dh [kkst dh vkSj fofHké pht+ksa dk irk yxk;kA ogk¡ mUgsa 250 fdyksxzke dk ,d yaxj] ,d eqnzk vkSj ml le; ds cjru Hkh feysA lkxj&rV ij dh xbZ [kqnkbZ ds nkSjku cUnjxkg ds tks vo'ks"k feys] muls ;g Hkyh&Hkk¡fr izekf.kr gqvk fd }kjdk&cUnjxkg dh cukoV egkHkkjr esa fd, x, o.kZu ds vuqlkj gh FkhA iqjLdkj ,oa lEeku % 1- ^tokgjyky usg: Q+syksf'ki* ¼flaèkq&fyfi dh O;k[;k ds fy,½
[Vol. XVIII (1)
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67-
¼,Q~‚vkbZ‚vkbZ‚ dk jk"Vªh; iqjLdkj] 1991½] ^Mh‚ fyV~‚* ¼eSlwj fo'ofo|ky;½] ^'krkCnh Lo.kZ&ind* ¼dukZVd&ljdkj ds iqjkrÙo&foHkkx] eSlwj }kjk½] ^MkW‚ fo".kq Jhèkj okd.kdj iqjLdkj* ¼ckck lkgc vkiVs Lekjd lfefr }kjk] 2007½] ^oYMZf'ki VªLV vokMZ* ¼lkeqfnzd iqjkrÙo esa vf}rh; ;ksxnku ds fy,½] ^dukVZd jkT;ksRlo ,okMZ* ¼iqjkrkfÙod [kkstksa ds fy,] dukVZd&ljdkj }kjk½] ^xqIrk Qkm.Ms'ku vokMZ* ¼}kjdk dh [kkst ds fy,½ bR;kfn
izeq[k iqLrdsa % 1- ^fMLdojh vkWQ+ yksFky* ¼1961½] 2- ^,Dldsos'ku ,V vejsyh ¼, {k=ki&xqIr Vkmu½* ¼okWY;we 18 vkWQ+ cqysfVu ¼cM+kSnk LVsV E;wft+;e ,.M fiDpj xSyjh½ ¼1966½] 3- ^b.Ml fLØIV fMl,QsjsM* ¼1971½] 4- ^yksFky ,.M n b.Ml flfoykbt+s'ku* ¼cEcbZ] 1973½] 5- ^VªsMh'kuy isfUVaXl vkWQ+ dukZVd* ¼1980½] 6- ^n fMl,QsjesaV vkWQ+ n b.Ml fLØIV* ¼1982½] 7- ^yksFky % , gM+Iiu iksVZ Vkmu* ¼2 okWY;wEl½] ¼okY;we 78 vkWQ+ esekW;lZ vkWQ+ n vkfdZ;ksykWft+dy losZ vkWQ+ bf.M;k½ ¼fnYyh] 1985½] 8- ^MkWu ,.M MsoksY;w'ku vkWQ+ n b.Ml flfoykbts+'ku* ¼fnYyh] 1991½] 9- ^U;w ÝfUV;lZ vkWQ+ vkfdZ;ksykWt+h* ¼gsjkl eseksfj;y ysDplZ½ ¼cEcbZ] 1994½] 10- ^n ykWLV flVh vkWQ+ }kjdk* ¼fnYyh] 1999½] 11- ^esfju vkfdZ;ksykWt+h bu bf.M;k* ¼fnYyh] 2001½] 12- ^vYQkcsV xSyjh % v{kje~ ¼fyfiohfFkdk½ dSVykWx* ¼2004½] 13- ^,Dldsos'ku vkWQ+ jaxiqj ,.M vnj ,DlIyksjs'ku bu xqtjkr* bR;kfn blds vfrfjä vusd xzUFkksa dk laiknu vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk&ifjokj MkW‚ ,l‚vkj‚ jko dks viuh fouez J)kÀfy lefiZr djrk gSA
µckyeqdqUn ik.Ms; (jkÔªh; laxBu&lfpo] vŒHkkŒ bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk)
>k] MkW‚ èkhjsUnz] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 7&9] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
fuxekxe&foe'kZ MkWŒ èkhjsUæ >k *
çk
3- vkUohf{kdh ;k rdZfo|kµ vkUohf{kdh rdZfo|k dks dgrs gSaA bldh ifjHkk"kk U;k;Hkk"; esa nh xbZ gSµ
phu Hkkjro"kZ ds Kku&foKku o laLÑfr ds tkToY;eku LrEHk loZKkue; osn gSaA osnksa esa Hkwr] HkO; o Hkfo"; ds leLr Kku&foKku o fo|kvksa dk lexzrkiw.kZ fooj.k ns[kus dks feyrk gSA izkphu Hkkjrh; Kku&foKku dk pje mRd"kZ ;ksxk/kkfjr o eU=kksa ds }kjk ifjfuf"Br :i esa n[kus dks feyrk gSA osnksa ds ckn ds dky esa Hkkjrh;&fo|kvksa dk fodkl nks :iksa eas gqvkµ fuxe vkSj vkxeA
^izR;{kkxekH;ka bZZf{krL; vuqbZ{k.k vUoh{kk r;k izorZrs bfr vkUohf{kdhA* bl ifjHkk"kk ds vkyksd esa vkt ds leLr vkfo"dkj vk tkrs gSa] D;ksfd izk;% vkfo"dkj izR;{k ds vk/kkj ij vuqekuksa ls fudkys x, gSaA ;s lHkh rdZfo|k ds varxZr vk tkrs gSaA
fuxe&fo|k,¡ % ftu izfl) pkSng ;k vBkjg izkphu fo|kvksa dh x.kuk dh tkrh gS] os fuxe fo|kvksa ds Hksn gSaA blds varxZr pkj osn] pkj miosn] Ng osnkax rFkk n'kZu] bfrgkl] iqjk.k o ;Kµ ;s pkj mÙkjkax vkrs gSaA vU;=k pkSng fo|kvksa ds i'pkr~ vkUohf{kdh] =k;h] okrkZ vkSj n.Muhfrµ bu pkj foHkkxksa dks tksM+ nsus ls Hkh ;g ;g la[;k vBkjg gks tkrh gSA la{ksi esa budk ifjp; bl izdkj gS %
4- iqjk.kµ O;kdj.k dh O;qRifÙk ds vuqlkj ^iqjk.k* 'kCn dk vFkZ ^iqjkHkoa* vFkkZr~ iqjkuh ?kVuk,¡µ gksrk gSA ^iqjk*µ ;g vO;; in gS] ftldk vFkZ gS vR;Ur izkphu gksukA mlls ^Hko*µ bl vFkZ esa ^V~;q* izR;; djus ij ^iqjk.k* 'kCn fl) gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ vR;Ur izkphudky esa tks dqN gqvk] mls iqjk.k dgrs gSaA iqjk.k dgrs gSa fd lalkj dks izÑfr us cuk;k gS] ftlesa vius vuqdwy ifjorZu djus dk vkns'k osn nsrk gSA ftu vBkjg fo|kvksa dh ppkZ dh xbZ gS] muesa iqjk.k dk uke izFke gSA ;Fkkµ
1- osnµ mi;qZä fuxe&fo|kvksa esa izFker% pkj osn ew/kZU; LFkku j[krs gSaA pkj fo|kvksa eas =k;h in ls ftu rhu osnksa o mlds vaxHkwr vFkoZosn;qä pkSFks osn dks lHkh us fo|kvksa dh x.kuk esa lcls iz/kku ekuk gSA
^iqjk.k U;k; ehekalk/keZ'kkL=kkú fefJr%A osnkLFkkukfu fo|kuka /keZL; p prqnZ'kAA* 5- U;k;µ U;k; fo|k gh vkUohf{kdh gSA
2- okrkZµ okrkZ 'kCn dk vFkZ o`fÙk dk mik; gS] vFkkZr~ ftlesa fHké&fHké o.kks± dh o`fÙk ds mik; crk, x, gksa] ogh okrkZfo|k FkhA ;g vkt dh (Job oriented course) o`fÙkewyd f'k{kk FkhA ¹ {ks=kh; laLÑr&foHkkx izeq[k] Hkkjrh f'k{kk lfefr] ^izsedq×t*] foa/;okfluh iFk] dnedqvk¡] iVuk&800 003 ¼fcgkj½] pyHkk"k % 09939467860
6- ehekalkµ ehekalk osn ds okD;kFkZ dks le>us dk 'kkL=k gS vkSj osn&opuksa dks ljy Hkk"kk esa lc yksxksa dks le>kus ds fy, LorU=k 'kkL=k gSA 7- /keZ'kkL=kµ ;s gekjs Le`fr&xzUFk gSa] ftuesa ns'k] dky ,oa ik=k ds vuqlkj lekt&O;oLFkk ds fu;e&d+kuwu] vkpkj&fopkj rFkk yksd&O;ogkj dk izfriknu fd;k x;k gSA 9
8- vaxfo|k,¡µ osn ds Ng vax gSaµ f'k{kk] dYi]
10
[Vol. XVIII (1)
O;kdj.k] fu#ä] T;ksfr"k vkSj NUnA d- f'k{kkµ ml fo|k dk uke gS] tks osn&eU=kksa rFkk _pkvksa ds mPpkj.k dh fof/k fl[kkrh gSA [k- dYiµ ;g osnksä fof/k;ksa dh lcds le>us ;ksX; O;k[;k gSA x- O;kdj.kµ 'kCn&lk/ku dh izfØ;k crykrk gSA ?k- fu#äµ ;g Hkk"kk dk foKku nsrk gS vkSj LFkku&LFkku ij oSfnd 'kCnksa dk fuoZpu Hkh djrk gSA ³³- T;ksfr"kµ ;g xzg&u{k=kksa dh fLFkfr o rkjkvksa dh fo|k gSA p- NUnµ og fo|k gS tks osn ds fHké&fHké nsorkvkas ds ladsr izrhd dks izdV djrk gSA ;g ea=kksa ds iz;ksx o fofu;ksx dks Hkh crkrk gSA bu vaxksa vkSj mikaxksa dh lgk;rk ls gh osn dh xEHkhjrk dks le>k tk ldrk gSA vkxe&fo|k,¡ % fuxe&fo|kvksa dh rjg gh tks vkxe&fo|k,¡ gSa] mudk Hkh izk;ksfxd {ks=k vR;Ur gh foLr`r gSA vkxe&fo|kvksa ds eq[; Hksn gSaµ dYi] fl)kUr] lafgrk] rU=k] ;key vkSj MkejA buesa ls ^dYi* dks ^vkEuk;* Hkh dgk tkrk gSA bfrgkl vkSj muds izdh.kZ fo"k; ^fl)kUr* ds varxZr vkrs gSaA o`f"V vkfn dks tkuus ds fufeÙkkas dk v/;;u ^;key* dk fo"k; gSA vusd izdkj ds vfHkpkj&flf);k¡ vkSj mudk fuorZu ^Mkej* dgykrk gSA ef.k eU=k vkSj vkS"kf/k;ksa dh foy{k.krk dk Kku o iz;ksx djuk ^ra=k* dk fo"k; gSA ra=k&fo|k ds gtkjksa Hksn&izHksn Hkkjro"kZ es fodflr gq,A ;s leLr vkxe&fo|k,¡ izkÑfrd inkFkks± ls lac) gSa] vr% bUgsa ^izkÑr fo|k* Hkh dgk tkrk gSA blds vfrfjä buls lEc) vU; fo|k,¡ Hkh Hkkjro"kZ esa O;oâr gksrh Fkha] ftUgsa ^fnO; fo|k* dh laKk nh tk ldrh gSA ;ksxkH;kl ls vkRecy ds QyLo:i fnO; lkeF;Z ls ;s fo|k,¡ izkIr dh tkrh FkhaA ;kSfxd fØ;kvksa ds }kjk eu dk la;e djus ls v"Vflf);kas dh izkfIr gksrh FkhA muds uke gSaµ vf.kek] efgek] xfjek] yf?kek] izkfIr] izkdkE;] bZf'kRo vkSj of'kRoA 1- vf.kekµ bl flf) ds izkIr gks tkus ij 'kjhj dks ladYiek=k ls NksVs&ls&NksVk :i fn;k tk ldrk gSA 2- efgekµ bl flf) ls O;fä vius 'kjhj dk
foLrkj ladYiek=k ls dj ysrk gS] og cM+s&ls&cM+k :i /kkj.k djus es leFkZ gks tkrk gSA 3- xfjekµ bl flf) ls O;fä vius 'kjhj ds fdlh Hkh vax dks vR;Ur gh Hkkjh cuk ldrk gSA 4- yf?kekµ bl flf) dh lgk;rk ls 'kjhj dks bruk gydk cuk;k tk ldrk gS fd foekukfn dh lgk;rk ds fcuk Hkh O;fä vkdk'k esa lapj.k dj ldrk gSA 5- izfIrµ bl flf) dh lg;rk ls O;fä ,d txg gh fLFkr gksrk gqvk Hkh nwj dh ?kVuk dk n'kZu gh ugha] vfirq mudks izHkkfor Hkh dj ldrk gSA 6- izkdkE;µ bl flf) dh lgk;rk ls O;fä lHkh inkFkksZ dks viuh vko';drkuqlkj <ky ysrk gSA mldh xfr esa dksbZ vojks/k ugha gksrk gS] og vizfrgr loZ=k fopj.k dj ldrk gSA 7- bZf'kRoµ bl flf) ds izkfIr gksus ij O;fä viuh vHkh"V bPNkvksa dh iwfrZ ladYiek=k ls gh dj ldrk gS vkSj vU; fdlh dks Hkh iznku dj ldrk gSA 8- of'kRoµ bl flf) ds izkIr gksus ij izcy&ls&izcy iq#"k o izk.kh dks vius o'k esa fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;s eu ds la;e ds QyLo:i izkIr gksusokyh fo|k,¡ gSaA buds vfrfjä bfUnz;&la;e ls vkB izdkj dh fnO; n`f"V dh flf) gks tkrh gS ftuls vrhr o vukxr dk Kku] vR;Ur nwjLFk rFkk vfrØkUr inkFkZ dk n'kZu o 'kCn&Jo.k] leLr izkf.k;ksa dh ok.kh o 'kCnKku] nwljs O;fä ds ekufld Hkkoksa dk Kku] vkS"k/kksa ds izHkko dk Kku o rkjkvksa ds izHkko dk Kku gksrk gSA bu v"Vflf);ksa ds vfrfjä eu ds la;e ls igyh flf) gSµ vR;Ur ijks{k lÙkk vFkkZr~ nsorkvksa dk izR;{k n'kZu izkIr gks tkrk gSA blls fonzksfg;ksa dh 'kfä u"V djus dh 'kfä izkIr gksrh gS] ftls ^vfHkpkj* Hkh dgrs gSaA bldh rhljh flf) ds Kku ls O;fä vkRek dk n'kZu o xeu&ekxZ Hkh Tkku tkrk gSA prqFkZ flf)izkIr O;fä e`r iq#"kksa dh izfrÑfr o Nk;k&iq#"kkas dk n'kZu djk ldrk gSA iape izdkj dh flf) ds QyLo:i mls fnO;n`f"V fey tkrh gS vkSj og cSBs&cSBs f=kyksd&n'kZu dj ldrk gSA NBh izdkj dh flf) ^ek;kO;keksgu* gS] ftlds }kjk cSBs&cSBs fdlh dh e`R;q o thou dk izn'kZu fd;k tk ldrk gSA lkroha fo|k ^miJqfr* ;k ^jkf=kfo|k* dgykrh gS] ftldks tkuusokyk O;fä vR;Ur xqIr /ku ;k jgL;ksa dk irk tku ysrk gSA vkBoha fo|k laLdkjk/ku
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
fuxekxe&foe'kZ
gS ftldk Kkrk nqfu;k ds leLr Kku&foKku dks Lor% gh tku ysrk gSA izk.kksa ds la;e ls Hkh vkB izdkj dh fo|k,¡ izkIr gksrh gSaµ 1- dk;O;wg] 2- ijdk;izos'k] 3- izk.klagkfj.kh] 4e`rlathouh] 5-LFkk.kwTTkhouh] 6- Nk;kxzg.kh] 7vkÑfrifjofrZuh rFkk 8- fyaxifjofrZuhA blh rjg eU=k&cy ls Hkh vkB izdkj dh flf);k¡ izkIr gksrh gSa] ;Fkkµ 1- likZd"kZ.k] 2- vfXuLrfEHkfu] 3v{k¸;dj.kh] 4- fuxzgkuqxzglkeF;Z] 5- iq=ktuuh] 6- izko`"k.;k] 7- vkiksuI=kh; rFkk 8- e/kqfo|kA buds vfrfjfä vkS"kf/k;ksa ds izHkko ds cy ij vkB izdkj dh fo|k,¡ fodflr gqb±] ;Fkkµ 1- e`rlathouh 2lathodj.kh 3- fo'kY;dj.kh 4- la/kkudj.kh 5- fMEcizlfouh 6'kY;dj.kh 7- egkS"kf/k rFkk 8- cykfrcykA buds vfrfjä ;U=kk/kkfjr vkB izdkj dh fo|k,¡ izkphu Hkkjr esa izpfyr Fkha] ;Fkkµ 1- fnO;foeku fo|k] 2iq"id foeku fo|k 3- lkSHkfoeku fo|k] 4- lwrfoeku fo|k] 5g;Z'o foeku fo|k 6- Iyo foeku fo|k 7- ve`rxoh vkSj 8f'kyklUrj.kh fo|kA bl izdkj izkphudky esa Hkkjro"kZ esa xq#dqyksa esa v"Vkn'kµ ^iqjk.kU;k;ehekalk/keZ'kkL=kkú fefJr%A osnLFkkukfu fo|kuka /keZL; p prqnZ'k%AA* fo|kvksa ds vfrfjä vaxfo|kvksa dk v/;;u Hkh O;ofLFkr jhfr ls djok;k tkrk FkkA bgykSfdd thou dh lkFkZdrk gsrq euksfoKku] vFkZfoKku o vkS"kf/kfoKku rFkk fofo/k fo|kvksa dk izk;ksfxd Kku muds thou esa djk;k tkrk FkkA ukuk iqjk.k o fuxekxe dk v/;;u izkphudky esa vfuok;Z:is.k gksrk FkkA
11
Tripathi, Prof. D.N., Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.10-37, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Vedic Roots of Hinduism and Hellenism Prof. D.N. Tripathi *
induism and Hellenism are basic concepts at the root of the perennial philosophy of the civilized world and it is the 'Indian ness' and the 'Hellene ness' of the two great civilizations which were responsible for the growth of the basic tenets of the Oriental and Occidental civilizations respectively. Yet, both the religions are not properly understood because their nature and the basic forms have not been properly understood or analyzed. Since Hellenism and Hinduism represent the real spirit and values of the two different worldviews of the Indo-European people living in two extremes of the geographical horizons of the IndoEuropean world, and that they have a long tradition and history much of which still survive in their cultures, it is pertinent to investigate the origins and development of these two great traditions in order to see why the spirit of Hellenism is lost in the country of its birth whereas the spirit of Hinduism still exists in India. The purpose of the present paper is to analyze the circumstances for the origin and growth of both the religions in their respective geographical areas on the basis of archaeological and historical studies done in this area during the last fty years. Meaning of Hellenism The term Hellenism is derived from the ancient Greek word 'Hellinsmos' meaning 'to speak or act Greek'. Though the meaning of this term is fairly well established by common usage, it is in itself ambiguous. It normally denotes the ancient Greek culture in all its phases; for long before the 4th century BC it is possible to detect Greek inuence *
'Leela Nilayam', 99-A, Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur-273 009, U.P.
in many parts of the world from Spain to Southern Russia, from Gaul to the Carthaginian territories of North Africa. For the purpose of present study Hellenism is dened as a body of humanistic and classical ideals (also described as 'Classical Humanism') associated with ancient Greece (specically developed by the Greek cities in the 5th and 4th centuries BC) and including reason, the pursuit of knowledge and the arts, moderation, civic responsibility, and bodily development (a revival of Hellenism fostered by some British Victorians). It is more than a century ago that the speculations and astonishing discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann opened the way for archaeological research into the prehistoric period of Greek Civilization. Today, on the basis of both direct and indirect evidences, we are in a position to form an image of the remotest past of Greek world- a world that once belonged to the sphere of mythology. Researches and excavations carried out throughout the area extending from Thrace and Macedonia to Cyprus and Crete have produced a prodigious quantity of objects dated to the Stone and Bronze Ages. The limits that once circumscribed Greek prehistory have thus been enormously extended and, crossing the threshold of our age, it is now possible to enter the vanished world of Pleistocene. Light has been cast on ages formerly obscure, on unknown periods and phases of time, and the true depths of the prehistory of the country have been revealed. It is generally accepted that every civilization, even such as brilliant one as that of the classical era in Greece, must rst be regarded as the outcome of the tradition. The study of this tradition, 12 without preconceived limits, is therefore imperative.
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
Vedic Roots of Hinduism and Hellenism
As Blegen (1928), one of the most distinguished scholars in the eld of prehistoric Greece, has pointed out, the 'Greek-ness' of the Myceneans is not without consequence. 'The denite recognition of the Myceneans as Greeks', he says, “calls for something more than mere passing mention. Let it be an early stage in the history of that race, perhaps before Hellenic speech had yet been fully evolved. Nonetheless it demonstrates the inherent strength of the Greek people and their astonishing power of survival; they still exist and ourish today, retaining their distinctive character, their language, and their exclusiveness along with their cohesiveness, despite intense individualism. Apart possibly from the Chinese, there are few, if any, other comparable peoples in their tenacity to endure. In their long history they have at least three times blossomed out into world leadership in culture: in the Late Mycenaean Age, in the Classical period, and in the heyday of the Byzantine Empire”. Blegen probably did not know the tenacity of the Indian culture ? The exceptional duration and continuity of the tradition of Greek civilization means we have to go back in time as far as possible in order to discern its roots. The term Hellenism is derived from the ancient Greek word 'Hellinsmos' meaning 'to speak or act Greek'. Though the meaning of this term is fairly well established by common usage, it is in itself ambiguous. In very Late Greek literature, with special reference to the Jews (e.g. the Septuagint and the Book of Maccaliees) it implies the adoption not only of the Greek language but also of Greek manners. Elsewhere it denotes the ancient Greek culture in all its phases; for long before the 4th century BC it is possible to detect Greek inuence in many parts of the world from Spain to Southern Russia, from Gaul to the Carthaginian territories of North Africa. However, the term Hellenism, as applied by the German historian Droysen, has come to be used most commonly of the later stages of Greek culture, from the date of Alexander's conquest to the nal passing of those who were inuenced by Greek culture were people who, though non-Greek by birth, had adopted the Greek language and way of life. The principal center of such inuence was the city of Alexandria, which affected the whole of the known world from Western Europe to India. Thus the term Hellenism broadly refers to the fusion of Greek culture with the older cultures of Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt during the
13
three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. From this cultural fusion developed the idea of the ecumene (inhabited world) belonging to all civilized men. A man was a Hellene if he spoke Greek and shared in Greek custom and law, regardless of where he lived. A new dialect, Koine (common Greek), became universal. Ultimately this fusion led to the composite cultures of the Roman Empire in the East. Hans Jonas (1963, p.10) has distinguished four historical phases of Greek Culture: (1) before Alexander, the classical phase as a national culture; (2) after Alexander, Hellenism as cosmopolitan secular culture; (3) Later Hellenism as a pagan religious culture; and (4) Byzantinism as a Greek Christian culture. The transition from the rst to the second phases is for the most part being explained as an autonomous Greek development. In the second phase (300 BC- rst century AD) the Greek spirit was represented the great rival schools of philosophy, the Academy, the Epicureans, and above all the Stoics, while at the same time the Greekoriental synthesis was progressing. The transition from the third phase, the turning to religion of ancient civilizations as a whole and of the Greek mind with it, was the work of profoundly un-Greek forces which, originating in the East, entered history as new factors. Between the rule of Hellenistic secular and the nal defensive position of the late Hellenism turned religious lie three centuries of revolutionary spiritual movements which effected this transformation, among which the Gnostic movement occupies a prominent place. For the purpose of present study Hellenism is dened as a body of humanistic and classical ideals (also described as 'Classical Humanism') associated with ancient Greece (specically developed by the Greek cities in the 5th and 4th centuries BC) and including reason, the pursuit of knowledge and the arts, moderation, civic responsibility, and bodily development (a revival of Hellenism fostered by some British Victorians). I have considered only the rst phase of the Greek culture of Hans Jonas. Mathew Arnold (1875) has correctly applied it to that form of culture, or ideal of life, of which ancient Greek is taken as a type. He considers that the great movement of Renaissance was an uprising and reinstatement of man's intellectual impulses and Hellenism. It is more than a century ago that the
14
speculations and astonishing discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann opened the way for archaeological research into the prehistoric period of Greek Civilization. Today, on the basis of both direct and indirect evidences, we are in a position to form an image of the remotest past of Greek world- a world that once belonged to the sphere of mythology. Researches and excavations carried out throughout the area extending from Thrace and Macedonia to Cyprus and Crete have produced a prodigious quantity of objects dated to the Stone and Bronze Ages. The limits that once circumscribed Greek prehistory have thus been enormously extended and, crossing the threshold of our age, it is now possible to enter the vanished world of Pleistocene. Light has been cast on ages formerly obscure, on unknown periods and phases of time, and the true depths of the prehistory of the country have been revealed. It is generally accepted that every civilization, even such as brilliant one as that of the classical era in Greece, must rst be regarded as the outcome of the tradition. The study of this tradition, without preconceived limits, is therefore imperative. As Blegen (1928), one of the most distinguished scholars in the eld of prehistoric Greece, has pointed out, the 'Greek-ness' of the Myceneans is not without consequence. “The denite recognition of the Myceneans as Greeks”, he says, “calls for something more than mere passing mention. Let it be an early stage in the history of that race, perhaps before Hellenic speech had yet been fully evolved. Nonetheless it demonstrates the inherent strength of the Greek people and their astonishing power of survival; they still exist and ourish today, retaining their distinctive character, their language, and their exclusiveness along with their cohesiveness, despite intense individualism. Apart possibly from the Chinese, there are few, if any, other comparable peoples in their tenacity to endure. In their long history they have at least three times blossomed out into world leadership in culture: in the Late Mycenaean Age, in the Classical period, and in the heyday of the Byzantine Empire”. Blegen probably did not know the tenacity of the Indian culture? The decisive argument in favor of this view was the great achievement of Michel Ventris's decipherment of the Linear B script. There can be little doubt now that the tablets written in the Greek language have become almost historical documents thanks to his efforts. They offer a denitive basis for
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the identication of the Hellenic character of the Mycenaean civilization. The exceptional duration and continuity of the tradition of Greek civilization means we have to go back in time as far as possible in order to discern its roots. Hinduism: Meaning and characteristics Hinduism is the title applied to that form of a religion, which prevails among the vast majority of the present population in India. Bràhmaõism, which is the term generally used to designate the higher and more philosophical form of modern Hinduism, is more properly restricted to that development of the faith which, under the Bràhmaõa inuence, succeeded to Vedism, or the animistic worship of the greater powers of Nature. The term 'Hindu' is entirely a linguistic one, which denotes the people who were living beyond the eastern side of the river Sindhu. Hinduism did not give this name to Hindus. The foreign writers and travelers gave it to the people living in India or Hindusthàn. A common term for the ancient Aryan settlements in the Panjàba was 'the Seven Rivers' (sapta-sindhavaþ). The name 'Hindu' appears in the form of 'Hindus' in the inscription on the monument of Darius Hystaspes near Persepolis in c. 486 BC; 'Hod(d) u' in the later Hebrew literature and in the modern form in Herodotus (circa 440 BC). It seems that due to the phonetic change the term Sindhu changed into Hindu and the foreign travelers and writers designated the land beyond the 'Si§dhu' or Indus as the land of Hindus or Hindusthan in later times. No where do we nd this appellation for India in the ancient literary tradition of India. The term always referred to the people, whether Muslims, Christians, Parsãs or any other races, who came and lived in India. These people evolved a view of life, a social structure, economic institutions, political system, the morality, the religion and philosophy, the art and literature, the science and commerce etc., in a long process of experiences since the ègvedic period until now. This value and view of life is known as Hinduism. (Tripathi, 2004, p.7) Thus Hinduism is not a form but a concept. It is not a religion but a life behavior. It is not a communal sect for Hinduism has no single prophet, single god, single book, single philosophy and faith but the people who lived in a geographical, political and cultural boundary known as Hindustan or India. Hinduism includes all religious sects— Buddhism, Jainism, Vaiùõavism, øhaivism, Sikh, Pàrsã, Muslim
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and Christian who live in India and follow their religious principles and worship their god without any restrictions. Hinduism accepts them all who believe in Vedas or abuses the Vedas in their philosophical or religious doctrines. In short, Hinduism is the realization of values, in theory and practice. Religion is the realization of only the ethical values preter-social and social. In preter-social is included the super human and subhuman whereas in social there is a correlational human and gregational human. Hinduism is a value-loaded predicate. Value is one word for 'subject's attitude to object'. Attitude in its turn is analyzed as 'disposition to regulate the responses to'. The term 'value' therefore means subject's disposition to regulate the response to objects. As such values are subject-object relations. (Tripathi, 2004, p.8) Interrelationship of Hinduism and Hellenism Scholars differ vehemently on the question of the inuence of Hellenism on Hinduism or vice-versa. However, it is true that the evolution of philosophy, religion, and mythology has gone along parallel but independent paths. The grand poetry of the Vedas, the epics and dramas of the succeeding epochs, the religious and philosophical speculations, the learned grammatical analysis of Pàõini and Pata¤jali, mathematics, all the rich, brilliant and intellectual achievements of ancient Indians, are though akin to the Greeks in many ways, but are more richly endowed. All these studies were developed much before the Hellenic culture came into existence. The question does not interest itself solely to the Indianist and the Hellenist, but to all those who are interested in tracing the evolution of the antecedents of their modern culture and civilization, the different phases of our national culture and progress. It is a curious fact that few races have disappeared so utterly in India as the Greeks. The origin of the Greek religion should be ultimately traced to India. The myth of Zeus, his contest with Prometheus and his human passions and attributes point to Indian sources, particularly to Indra in the Vedas. The name Kronos may have been derived from the Sanskrit word kåaëo (creating for himself) and has nothing to do with Chronos 'time'. Megasthenese tells us a good deal about the Hindu representative of Dionysius to whom Arrian calls Siva Dionysius. The character of the
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Prometheus-myth has been conclusively proved to be of Indo-European character by Kuhn. (Banerjee,1995, p.277). If the name Athena really corresponds to the Sanskrit Ahana, the dawning and Athenaia to ahania 'the day bright', as Max Müller supposes, we may also regard her as Indo-European goddess. Hermes, the messenger and the right hand of Zeus, is identical with Sarameyos, the names of the two dogs of Yama, the mythic watch dogs in the Veda. The Hindu gods and goddesses may have certain similarities with the Greek gods and goddesses which seems to come out of the common Indo-European origin of both the cultures. Moreover, the Hindu theory of the idol is in sharp contrast with that of the Greeks. To the former human form is merely the ephemeral clothing of the soul, in which, unhappily, it is forced to linger for a time. The worship that substituted idols for idealforms has to be traced back to the end of the Vedic period. It is not however a mark of early Bràhmaõism, nor is it a pronounced feature of the age of Buddha. The Logos doctrine of the Greeks seems to have been imported from India. In the Bràhmaõic period, the ègvedic vāk, speech, becomes more and more like the Greek Logos and in this period it may truthfully be said, that 'Word was god'. In Greece, on the other hand, the conception of Logos begins with Heracleitus, and then passes on to the Stoics; is adopted by Philo; becomes a prominent feature of neo-Platonism; and reappears in the Gospel of St. John. It is legitimate to infer that Heracleitus might have received the idea indirectly from the contemporary Indian philosophers. There is also similarity between the other forms of early Greek and Hindu philosophy. “Both Thales and Parmenides were anticipated by Hindu sages and the Eleatic school seems to be but reexion of the Upaniùads. The doctrines of Anaximander and Heracleitus are not known rst in Greece and they are evidently borrowed from India. Before the sixth centuries BC, all the religious –philosophical ideas of Pythagoras were current in India” (vide L.von Schroeder, Pythagoras, quoted in Banerjee, 1995, p.281). Thus it is clear that the blending of the two peoples, indigenous and Indo-Europeans gave birth to Hellenism. The Indo-Europeans entered Greece with certain personal already evolved deities. We nd that anthropomorphism was the strongest bias of the Hellenes' religious imagination which was
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effaced by the forms of faith and speculation from the East. As against the Greek religion, which has many things in common with the Hindu religion, the Greek philosophy differs to some extent from it. The Greeks had no sacred books, like the Vedas, which dictated to him any views concerning the origin of the world or the constitution of Nature, and which he would have considered immoral to disbelieve. In fact when Heracleitus boldly declared that 'neither god nor man made the Kosmos' there was no authoritative Greek myth or theological dogma to gainsay him. (Banerjee, 1995, p.286) Out of the great philosophers of the sixth century, Pythagoras, Empedokles, Xenophanes and Heracleitus- were also directly concerned with the philosophy of religion, with speculations on the Nature and the true denition of the godhead. But the main trend of their speculations ran counter to the anthropomorphic theory of divinity; and they tend to dene god not as a person, but rather as the highest spiritual metaphysical, or even physical power or function of the universe; and there is a common tendency in the sixth century philosophy to depart from the theistic to pantheistic. It is a highly suggestive fact however, that the dawn of the scientic speculation in Greece should coincide with a great religious movement in India when the doctrines of Buddha gathered up the scattered beliefs of Bràhmaõical polytheism into one energetic synthesis of Buddhism. The monotheistic tendency is visible in Greece as elsewhere, and the gods gradually lose their independent autocratic position under Zeus, who in later systems is identied intelligence and Goodness. We nd a lot of things in common between these two great civilizations. This denitely indicates that the ideas and the language that both of them share between themselves must have come into existence due to close contacts. The differences are simply apparent and can be attributed to the local ecological and environmental differences and the time depth that must have elapsed in between. Indian and Greek civilizations have common elements in their early phases as well. The earliest evidence of the origin of any religion in a particular civilization is to be seen in its cosmological myths. There are many common cosmological myths in the whole of Indo-European world, particularly in India and Greece. I have tried to examine the Greek and
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Hindu views on the origin of cosmos and its relationship with man - the two fundamental aspects of any religion or philosophy. This discussion has led me to conclude that both Hinduism and Hellenism have common roots in the Vedic culture. Types of Cosmogonic Myths: Cosmogonic myths may be classied into the following types according to their symbolic structures: (a) Creation from nothing; (b) from chaos; (c) from a cosmic egg; (d) from world parents; (e) through the process of emergence; and (f) through the agency of an earth divers. Cosmogonic myths are seldom limited to any one of these classications; several symbolic typological forms may be present in one myth. For example, in the Viñëu Purāëa, the creation myth shows how Viñëu evolves from the primordial reality of Prakriti; how Viñëu as a boar dives into the waters to bring up earth for the creation (earth diver); how the creation is produced from austerities and meditation; how creation results from the churning of the primordial ocean. There is in addition the symbolism of the cosmic egg as a meaning of the creation. The classication of myths into these types is thus meant not to be a stricture of limitations but rather to emphasize a dominant motif in the myth. Among primitive races, a cosmogony is portrayed as a single act of creation in time, with the world emerging or being shaped from one, or a few very simple, principles or elements. In Western culture the rst chapter of Genesis provides the best known of such creation myths and the rst attempt at a philosophical cosmogony was by Thales of Miletus. But in India several millennia before him sound philosophical cosmological myths were narrated by the Vedic seers. Cosmogonic and Cosmological Myths of IndoEuropeans Cosmogony is concerned with the origin of the universe, whether religious, mythical or scientic; whereas Cosmology is the worldview of a people, a system by which the constituent elements of their universe are related with one another. It is to be contrasted with eschatology, which describes the end of the universe. Now a days it is considered as a
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branch of philosophy more as a subdivision of metaphysics or a scientic study of the origin and structure of the universe based on such things as the spectral investigation of the distribution of elements throughout the universe and the study of the red shift associated with the recession of the galaxies. The word cosmogony is derived from the combination of two Greek terms, kosmos and genesis. Kosmos refers to the order of the universe and/or the universe as an order. Genesis means the coming into being or the substantial change in the process, a birth. Cosmogony thus has to do with myths, stories, or theories regarding the birth or creation of the universe as an order or the description of the original order of the universe. One type of narrative portraying meanings and description of creation of the universe is the cosmogonic myth. These myths, which are preserved in almost all traditional cultures, usually depict in imaginative religious space and time that exist prior to the universe as a normal habitation for human beings. The beings who are the actors in this primordial time are divine, superhuman, and supernatural, for they exist prior to the order of the universe as known by the present generation of human beings. Cosmogonic myths in their narrative form give a rhetorical, stylistic, and imaginative portrayal of the meaning of creation of the world. These myths set forth a tonality and stylistics for the modes of perception, the organizing principles, and provide the basis for all creative activities in the cultural life. While these myths are always specic to the cultures in which they are found, it is possible to classify them in various ways. One may classify them according to cultural-historical strata in which they appear; thus, one might place together myths from hunter-gatherer cultures, or from early Neolithic cultures, agricultural societies, and so on. Myths may also be classied in terms of specic religion or cultural-geographical area (e.g., ancient Near Eastern, Hindu myths, etc.), or in terms of linguistic groups (e.g., Indo-European myths). Vedic Cosmogony Indian cosmogonic myths are particularly important for understanding myths of the Indo-European world because they have a long tradition of many millennia (From Ågveda to Purāëas) and are varied. Mythology is a unique subject. It fascinates and
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generates interest which remains unabated even in the face of all sorts of progress in civilization. It goes on exerting unnoticed on the mind of man an inuence, which leaves indelible marks on his life and thoughts. Mythology is in fact the most natural language of religion and philosophy. In India the Vedic myths and legends faithfully portray the stages of developments in religious conviction and philosophical speculations. They are the fountainhead of an extraordinarily rich cultural tradition. Man is by nature curious. He is always eager to know of things that come to his notice. He tries to nd out the cause of every object, action or phenomenon due to the inherent inquisitiveness of his mind. He observes, imagines, argues, learns from his experiences and draws conclusions. All our modern achievements, nay, even all that distinguishes a man from other creatures, are the results of this curiosity of man. The word myth, legend and folklore are more or less synonymous, in as much as they all signify a certain stock of traditions handed down from generation to generation. The word 'myth' primarily means a word or speech in Greek, but it has come to take on its special sense of fancy and therefore it is used for such narrations or tales as are connected with gods, natural phenomena, supernatural powers and heroes. In other words, "myths in common parlance savours of what is untrue, unreal, all the same it has a hold on man's imagination"1 Needless to say that every culture has a 'likely story'. Given the inadequacy of discursive logic, story telling remains the only alternative to articulate what is basically inarticulable. The retelling of the likely story renews people's link with the Beyond and helps them maintaining openness of their soul to the experiences of the Beyond. Only on this basis a culture succeeds in renewing the revitalizing itself. However, the likely story of creation differs from culture to culture. The Vedic civilization, too, has a 'likely story' of creation, a story described as Sriñti Vidyā, knowledge pertaining to creation, a bhavavritta. But for all this, however, the Vedic Sriñti Vidyā offers a very rich fare of cosmological thinking as compared to cosmogonical stories prevalent in other cultures. (Roy, 1999) The process of one becoming many is the process of creation in Vedic Cosmogony. The source of the maker of this Universe is universally
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acclaimed to be an entity that is all pervasive but avyaya (inexhaustible), anirukta (inexplicable or undeclared), aparimita (immeasurable, apeiron in Gk.), etc. The process of creation begins when apeiron, as Plato puts it, is bounded by peras (limits). The Boundless, the avyaya, idea (eidos) to use the Platonic term, assumes many names (nāma) and forms (rūpa) and becomes embodied idea (enhylon eidos). This can happen in two alternate ways. First, the Boundless is a creator who makes use of materials that are already available but only in an incompletely fashioned form for creating this universe himself standing outside it; he is a demiurge or a deus ex machima. Alternatively, the creator is not outside this creation; the Boundless is the one substance which transforms himself into many modes of being. These many modes constituting the universe are considered to be either a pariëāma (transformtion) or a vivarta (transguration) of the One. In either case, the universe is pervaded by the One. This One pervades the universe, to be sure. But does it exhaust itself fully in the universe it creates ? If it were to do so, the universe confessedly would become God with no room left for him. In contradistinction to this, God does create the world but does not fully exhaust himself. As a matter of fact, in the Vedic cosmogony, the Brahmana, the creator of this universe, is supposed to be catuñpada (having four legs); only one of his legs manifests as this universe, the idam sarvam, or tode ti. This idam sarvam does not fully reveal what is beyond it. That is why the Vedic seers treat the sensible world only as praket, the sign of apraket, of what is beyond our senses, the unmanifest reality; that is a visible symbol, or eikon, to use a Platonic term, of what is invisible. But what is a symbol is both like and unlike what it stands for. Apart from signifying something else, something other than what they substantively, in and by themselves, are, symbols also refer to something which they in reality are not. It is because of this 'distortion tendency' intrinsic to symbols, in Gadamer's words, that prevents a smooth and spontaneously enlightening transition 2 from praket to apraket. Greek Cosmogony and Cosmology Cosmogonic and cosmological myths (concerned with the origins and nature of the universe)
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represent an attempt to render the natural world comprehensible in human terms. The most widely accepted account of these origins is found in Hesiod's Theogony, which postulates that creation began from Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of this void emerged Ge or Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (Tartarus), and Darkness (Erebus). Without any male involvement, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the sky) who then proceeded to fertilize her. From that union were born the Titans (including Zeus's father, Cronus), the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires ('Hundred-Handers'). Cronus ('the wily, youngest and most terrible of [Gaia's] children' castrated his father and became the ruler of the gods, with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort and the other Titans as his court. Eventually, Cronus was unseated by his son Zeus in an epic battle (the Titanomachy), which resulted in the triumph of the Olympians and the banishment of Cronus and the Titans to the depths of Tartarus. The earliest Greek aesthetic thought considered theogony (myths of the origins of gods) to be the prototypical poetic genre— the prototypical mythos (myth)—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, was also the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the rst thing he does is to sing the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving cosmic origin story, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function. Theogony, as a genre, was the subject of many poems, though the vast majority of them have been lost, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris and other legendary seers. These poems, which were of tremendous signicance in ancient Greek religion, were used in private ritual purications and mystery-rites. These rites (and the religious poems pertaining to them) were so central to Greek religious thought that traces of them can be found in the writings of Plato and the later Neo-Platonist philosophers. Myths of origin represent an attempt to render the universe comprehensible in human terms. Greek creation myths (cosmogonies) and views of the universe (cosmologies) were more systematic
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and specic than those of other ancient peoples. Yet their very artistry serves as an impediment to interpretation, since the Greeks embellished the myths with folktale and ction told for its own sake. Thus, though the aim of Hesiod's Theogony is to describe the ascendancy of Zeus (and, incidentally, the rise of the other gods), the inclusion of such familiar themes as the hostility between the generations, the enigma of woman (Pandora), the exploits of the friendly trickster (Prometheus), or struggles against powerful beings or monsters like the Titans (and, in later tradition, the Giants) enhances the interest of an epic account. According to Hesiod, four primary divine beings rst came into existence: the Gap (Chaos), Earth (Gaea), the Abyss (Tartarus), and Love (Eros). The creative process began with the forcible separation of Gaea from her doting consort Heaven (Uranus) in order to allow her progeny to be born. The means of separation employed, the cutting off of Uranus' genitals by his son Cronus, bears a certain resemblance to a similar story recorded in Babylonian epic. The crudity is relieved, however, in characteristic Greek fashion by the friendly collaboration of Uranus and Gaea, after their divorce, in a plan to save Zeus from the same Cronus, his cannibalistic sire. According to Greek cosmological concepts, the Earth was viewed as a at disk aoat on the river of Ocean. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens like a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Natural ssures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades, home of the dead. The Nature of Greek Myths, by G.S. Kirk,3 divides myths into 6 categories, 3 of which are coming into being or creation stories. These categories are: 1. cosmological 2. tales of the Olympians, and 3. those about the early history of men. Here we will be focusing mainly on the rst, the cosmological -- ancient Greek stories of the creation of the world out of the primordial goo. In Rise of the Olympians, we may read about (2) the coming into being of the Olympians, and in Prometheus, and about (3) the creation of human beings. There isn't one standard story about the primordial goo or rst substance. The main
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contenders for the primordial substance are not goo, but Sky (Uranus/Ouranos) and a kind of emptiness, referred to as either the Void or Chaos. What came next must have sprung from these rst things. Chaos The nature of Chaos changed over time, creating either the specic bodies of the cosmos, or the cosmos itself and order. "Chaos - in one ancient Greek myth of creation, the dark, silent abyss from which all things came into existence. According to the Theogony of Hesiod, Chaos generated the solid mass of Earth, from which arose the starry, cloud-lled Heaven. Mother Earth and Father Heaven, personied respectively as Gaea [Gaia] and her offspring Uranus [Uranos], were the parents of the Titans. In a later theory, Chaos is the formless matter from which the cosmos, or harmonious order, was created." Uranus and Gaia One account of the beginnings comes from 4 Apollodorus' Library . Who exactly Apollodorus was remains a mystery, although he may have lived around the second century BC, which puts him much closer than us to the main writers to whom the ancient Greeks turned for religious information, Homer and Hesiod. Here's Apollodorus' version of the cosmogony: Sky (Uranos) was the rst who ruled over the whole world. And having wedded Earth (Gaia), he begat rst the Hundred-handed.... After these, Earth bore him the Cyclopes.... But them Sky bound and cast into Tartarus.... And he begat children by Earth, to wit, the Titans ... and youngest of all, Cronus....But Earth, grieved at the destruction of her children, who had been cast into Tartarus.... Void rst; then Eros and Earth An earlier (7-8th century BC) version of the story (referred to above) comes from Hesiod, author of Theogony and Works and Days. In Theogony the Void or Chaos existed before anything else. Then came Earth (Gaia) and Eros (god of love or desire). Out of the Void or Chaos came Darkness (Erebus) and Night (Nyx); from Night, Light and Day. Earth produced the Sky (Uranus) to cover herself. Then, by coupling they produced an enormous brood, including Oceanus (Ocean), Themis (Law), Mnemosyne (Memory), Phoebe, Cronus, the Cyclopes/Cyclops (producers of Zeus'
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thunderbolt) and the 50-headed monsters, Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes (the Hecatoncheires). Not a very natural parent, Uranus took pleasure in preventing any of his children from seeing the light of day. He insisted that Gaia (Mother Earth) keep them locked up. Growing within the bowels of Mother Earth, the children of Uranus and Gaia caused great physical and emotional pain for Gaia. Eventually she could take it no longer and so she created a new metal. From the metal, Gaia fashioned a sickle, which she gave to her boldest offspring, the Titan Cronus (Saturn). The next time Uranus came to make love to Gaia, which he did by stretching out all over the Earth, Cronus sprang up from his hiding place, brandished his sickle, and attacked and castrated father Uranus. Additional offspring sprang from the spilled blood and organ of Uranus: Giants, Erinyes (Furies), Meliae -- and most spectacularly, Aphrodite, who was born from the foam. Norman O. Brown explains in his translation 5 of the following section of the Theogony, the etymology of the name Titans for these 12 children of Earth and Sky (Cronus, Rhea, Iapetus, Oceanus, Hyperion, Themis, Thea, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Coeus, Tethys, and Crius): Great Father Sky called his children the Titans because of his feud with them; he said that they blindly had tightened the noose and had done a savage thing for which they would have to pay in time to come. (Lines 209-210) ...And they did have to pay. Just as Uranus (Sky) suffered at his son's hands, so would Cronus at the hands of his offspring, Zeus. But that's another story. Having discussed the Vedic and Greek concepts of cosmogony, let us now examine some of the Vedic cosmogonical myths and their manifestations in the Proto-Indo-European archaeology and see how these Vedic myths form the very substratum of the Indo-European cosmogonical myths from which Hinduism and Hellenism developed in due course of time. Cosmogonical and cosmological images of Old European Civilization Marija Gimbutas (1970) has used term Proto-IndoEuropean Culture for the Kurgan Culture during the
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Fifth, Fourth and the Third Millennia BC and has given a chronological table of the cultural complexes (Table 1) of the Central and Eastern Europe, which she calls 'Old Europe', (Map 1) ) during this period. I am using these terms in the same sense and accepting the dates given by her. Gimbutas (1974, pp.89 ff.) has described in detail various conventionalized and abstract ideograms, recurring on gurines, stamp seals, dishes, cult vessels, and as part of the pictorial decoration of vases and house walls which explain the cosmogony and cosmology of the people of that period as well the functions of the deities it sustained. She has divided the symbols into two basic categories: those related to water or rain, the snake and the bird; and those associated with the moon, the vegetal life-cycle, and the rotation of seasons, the birth and growth essential to the perpetuation of life. The rst category, according to her, consists of meanders, and spirals. The second group includes the cross, the encircled cross and more complex derivations of the basic motif which symbolically connects the four corners of the world, the crescent, horn, caterpillar, egg and sh. The cosmogonic myths of the IndoEuropean speaking peoples may be varied but there are also a sufcient number of common elements to suggest the existence of an underlying Proto-IndoEuropean myth or myths whose general structure can be at least partially recovered. Mallory (1997, p.129) has divided creation myths of the IndoEuropeans into two broad categories- a cosmogonic myth that explains the origin of both the physical and social worlds, and a 'foundation' myth that is more directly associated with the origins of mankind (anthropogenic) or the establishment of specic peoples. We will be discussing in this paper only the rst type which deals with the origin of the physical world. However, before discussing specic cosmological creation myths of the Indo-Europeans in general, let us examine the specic nature of the Vedic and Greek cosmogony. Vedic cosmogonical Myths and Proto-IndoEuropean Archaeology More than 30,000 miniature sculptures of clay, marble, bone, copper and gold along with enormous models of temples and actual temples have been reported in recent years from some 3000 sites of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic era in South Eastern
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Europe and the Mediterranean area (see Map 2). Marija Gimbutas has identied various
cosmogonical and cosmological images of moon, bull, snake, sh and primordial Egg in them.6
Map 1: Chalcolithic Europe in the fth millennium BC (After Gimbutas, 1974)
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Map 2: Chalcolithic cultures of the Mediterranean World (After Gimbutas, 1974)
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These archaeological images are well dated on the basis of the radio-carbon analysis and their
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calibration with dendrochronology in circa 6500 to 3500 B.C. (see Table 1)
Table 1: Chronology of Southeastern Europian sites. The given year represents true age, i.e., radiocarbon dates into true age on Suress conversion calibration curve (after Gimbutas, 1974, p.15)
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The cosmogonical and cosmological images could be better explained and appreciated on the basis of the study of Vedic literature and Puràõas which have a long tradition. Much has been written on the date of various works of the Vedic literature. While some scholars have attached a label of high antiquity to them, others have placed them not much farther from the historical period of written records. Hermann Jacobi and Shankar Balakrishna Dixit have xed the date of the Śatapatha Brāhmaëa in 7 3000 BC on the basis of the astrological calculation of a verse in it.8 Winternitz too 'agreed with them when he placed the beginning of the Brāhmaõa tradition in 2000 or 3000 BC9 On the basis of the date of the Brāhmaõas the date of Sa§hitās may be placed in the tenth to sixth millennium BC I would like to draw the attention of scholars to the fact that the well dated Proto-Indo-European images of southeastern Europe are really the material manifestations of the Vedic mythological concepts and legendary ideographs. None will doubt the fact that the Vedic literature is the rst written record of the human race consisting the best thinking regarding the origin of universe, religion and philosophy carrying traditions of thousands of years. The exact parallels of the Vedic legendary concepts are found in these archaeological records and, as such, it would not be incorrect to place the beginnings of the Vedic tradition in the sixth millennium BC rather than in the third millennium BC. The following parallels drawn from the ProtoIndo-Europeans art motifs, the Vedic ideograms and mythological concepts will certainly justify such an assumption. Primeval Water Stories regarding the creation of the universe found in the Indo-European and non-Indo-European mythologies represent stages of a long process of development. Because of their primeval character they are considered to be very old. Ethnological parallels form the shing and hunting societies indirectly prove the Paleolithic origin of the cosmological ideas centering around water, waterbird, egg, etc. During the Neolithic and the following Chalcolithic periods, stories of creation became quite complex as are seen in the vase paintings and frescoes of these periods. The primeval elements of the universe were conceived as
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water. The abstract paintings on Cucuteni vases from Sipintsi, Western Ukraine (mid-fourth millennium BC) reveal the formation of the world. 10 In a number of Cosmogonic references of the Vedic literature and the legends regarding the 'Primeval Waters' (The Flood Legend) are well known from the Brāhmaõa literature. The water is identied with breaths (Prāëaþ). All gods and water are also identied with 'Amrita' which is the lifegiving element. According to Taittirīya Saàhitā, too, there was nothing but the waters in the beginning over which Prajāpati oated on a lotus leaf.11 This idea is quite compatible with those expressed in the Purāëas. In the Purāõas Nārāyaõa and Viñëu are described as lying on the ocean of waters. They also describe waters as 'Ekärëava12 Nidhi' or 'Yugāàtara Toya'. These ideas of creation of the universe from water have their roots in the Vedic mythology and this ideogram is quite parallel to the art motifs of southeastern Europe dated in the fourth millennium BC. Primordial Egg 13 In one of the abstract vase-paintings of Cucuteni the idea of the formation of the world and the beginning of life from egg, in the midst of which a germ resided, is quite clear. In the painting a plant within an egg is painted over the vase. The egg is enveloped in water shown by encircled lines. The snake winds across or around the cosmic egg (see g. 1). The idea of a primordial egg or vulva is likewise expressed in sculptures. The Lepenski Vir (Northern Yugoslavia) stone sculpture in the shape of an egg with an engraved vulva design dating 14 around 6000 BC.
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Cosmic snake and cosmic egg compositions painted on Late Cucuteni vases from Sipintsi, western Ukraine, c. mid-fourth millennium BC
Quartered egg and disc motifs on black-on-red-painted Late Cucuteni vases from Sipintsi, western Ukraine. Mid-fourth millennium BC
Fig. 1 : Design over the body of Cucuteni Vase showing eggs with a germ (lens) South Eastern Romania c. 4000 BC In the Vedic cosmogony the creation of the universe is said to have taken place from the 'Hiraëyagarbha' or the 'Golden Egg'. Mahīdhar explains the concept of 'Hiraëyagarbha' as Prajāpati existing in the embryo of Brahma in the form of an egg which was golden in color from which a male (Prajā) sprang into being before all living creatures came into existence. 'Prajāpati' is 'Hiraëyagarbha' says the 15 Śatapatha Brāhmaëa and we have seen in the legend already discussed that the mundane egg forms an important stage in the cosmogony of the Brāhmaõas. Hiraëya, i.e., the pulsating life of the impregnated egg is called the seed of Agni who meditated upon water and, united with them, cast seed into them. Śatapatha Brāhmaëa says that Prajāpati completed the span of one year in this form and then stood up and broke open the golden egg. This narration is enough to prove that the Proto-Indo-European images and Vedic ideograms are quite compatible with each other in form, concept as well as in date.
The Snake The snake and its abstracted derivatives, the spiral, are the dominant motifs of the art of old Europe throughout the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods until the Minoan civilization, the sole inheritor of the Old European culture. The Chalcolithic Butmir, Cucuteni and East Balkan peoples created large bulbous vessels, adopting the snake form. Spiral was the basic ornamental compositions of this period. This art motif reaches its peak in the form of unied symbolic and aesthetic expressions in 5000 BC. A coiled pottery snake decorated with incised zigzag and punctuated design was found at the early Vinca settlement of Predionica. The entire inner surface of a ritual dish with holes from Kukeva Mogila in Bulgaria is covered by a snake coil.16
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Fig. 2 Snake and disk motif from Habaset, Moldivia (After Gimbutas, 1974)
Fig. 3; Painted snake on a Late Cucuteni vase from. Bilcze Zlote (detail). First half of fourth millennium BC
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A formidable horned-snake modeled in relief winds around a Neolithic pot from the site of Suvedol-Dibel in Pelagonia. Snake, their bodies marked by dots or comb-like stamps, have been found incised on a number of vases from the Vinca mound. Snake motifs of potporang at Vrsnic yielded 17 curling snakes. The snake was consequently mythologized, attributed with a power that can move the entire cosmos; can make the world roll with the energy of their spiraling bodies. The belt of the earth is sometimes symbolized by snakes and plant motifs. The organization of the motifs thus demonstrates that the imagery is genuinely cosmogenic. (Fig. 5)
Pottery snake from Predionica at Pristina, Yugoslavia. Early Vinca. End of sixth millennium BC
Fig. 5: Snakes coiling across 'rain torrents'. Painted abstract design on a Classical Cucuteni vase from Vladimirovka, Southern Bug Valley, western Ukraine. End of fth millennium BC
Fig. 6: Terracotta Snake heads as decoration of cult vessels Porodin, Southern Yugoslavia, Neolithic, Starcevo
Fig.7: Statuette of a Snake Goddess c. 1600–1500 BC or early 20th c. BC
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Fig.8: The Minoan Snake Goddess. Palace of Knossos. c. 1600 BC
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Fig. 9: Minoan Snake Goddess with a bird's Beak Painted on leg of an alter table. Phaistos , Proto-palatial period, early 2nd Millennium BC.
eyes) seemed to imply that they were intelligent, that they lived by reason and not instinct, and yet their thought-processes were as alien to humans as their ways of movement.
Fig. 10: One of the 17 coiled snakes found in the so-called "room with the idols" in Mycenae. c. 13th BC
Snakes were central to many mythologies because of their perceived quality of being both familiar and exotic. The behaviour of snakes and their facial features (e.g. the unblinking, lidless
Snakes were a common feature of many creation myths. In ancient Indian myth, the droughtserpent Ahi or Vritra swallowed the primordial ocean and did not release all created beings until Indra split the serpent's stomach with a thunderbolt. In another myth, the creator Brahmā slept on the coils of the world-serpent Śeùa (or Ananta the endless; a part of Viùõu, the child of the primordial waters). Śeùa in turn was supported on Kūrma (another part of Vishnu) and when Kūrma moved, Śeùa stirred and yawned and the gaping of its jaws caused earthquakes. Greek cosmological myths tell of how Ophion the snake incubated the primordial egg from
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which all created things were born. In Egyptian myth, the state of existence before creation was symbolized as Amduat, a many-coiled serpent from which Ra the Sun and all of creation arose, returning each night and being reborn every morning. The Great Goddess often had snakes as her familiarssometimes twining around her sacred staff, as in ancient Crete18 - and they were worshiped as guardians of her mysteries of birth and regeneration. Town Shrine at Gournia Post-Palatial (LM IIIB) bench sanctuary located near highest point of settlement, close to its center. This small (3 m. x 3 m.) shrine belongs neither to a palace nor to any other large building, but is rather a self-contained architectural unit approached by a cobbled road leading up the hill from the west. The lack of associated pottery makes the dating of this shrine somewhat uncertain, but it probably was last used in the LM IIIB period. There was a low bench along its right-hand (southern) wall. In the northeast corner was a plastered tripod 'table of offerings' around which were placed four 'snake-tubes', the base of a fth 'snake-tube' resting on the tripod 'table of offerings' itself. Found in the debris of the rooms was a bell-shaped female gurine, around whose body is twined a snake. Two snakes also twist around one of the 'snake-tubes'. Fragments of other human gurines were found, as well as four terracotta birds and two terracotta snakes' heads. Sanctuary Complex to West of Central Court at Knossos To the north of the Lobby of the Stone Seat, two storage chambers oriented east-west open off of each other in a fashion comparable to the organization of the pillar crypts just described. The southern (the Room of the Tall Pithos) is unremarkable, but under the oor of the second (Temple Repositories) were found two empty, shallow cists below which were two larger and considerably deeper cists lled with MM III pottery in the uppermost 1.10 m. of ll and with fragmentary cult paraphernalia and greasy earth containing carbonized botanical material and stag horns in the lowest 0.40-0.50 m. The cult items include three largely preserved 'snake goddesses' of faïence as well as fragments of others, miniature votive robes in faïence, faïence plaques of a cow and a wild goat nursing their young, shells, crystal, ivory, and faïence inlays, stone 'tables of offering', a marble cross, scraps of gold foil etc.
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The Minoan Snake Goddess Represented by the MM III 'Snake Goddesses' of the Temple Repositories at Knossos as well as by some of the later bell-shaped terracotta gurines of the LM III period, this particular goddess is usually considered to be a household divinity and interestingly does not appear on seals. The Snake Goddess was one of the Minoan divinities associated closely with the snake cult. She is called also Household Goddess due to her attribute of the snake, which is connected with welfare of the Minoan house. But the snake is also symbol of the underworld deity, so the Snake Goddess is related to chthonic aspects too. Evans, the excavator of the Palace of Knossos, tried to nd parallels in the Egyptian religion and linked the Snake Goddess with an Egyptian Goddess of the Nile Delta, Wazet (Wadjyt). From his point of view the attribute of goddess - snake - was a form of underworld spirit, which had a domestic and a friendly signicance. Nilsson 1971 holds a snake as personication of the Snake Goddess and he believed that her chthonic form is one of the aspects of the Great Mother. But at the present time there are discussions about the functions of the Snake Goddess. A small offering vessel of the Pre-Palace period in the shape of a female gure with a snake coiled around her body from Koumasa came to light between some grave goods. But the other ritual gurines of the Snake Goddess were found in the Temple Repositories of the Knossos palace and public sanctuaries in Gournia, Khania and Gortyn, where she was worshiped. Unknown provenience is the Snake Goddess made from ivory and gold (in the Boston museum) and a small bronze goddess with coil of snakes (in the Berlin Museum). Totally different ritual objects of the Snake Goddesses came from sanctuaries of the Post-Palace period (1400-1100 BCE). They are made from cheaper material - terracotta - in the position with raised hands, extremely stylized in accordance with the manners of this period. Their symbol - a snake is often mixed with the other sacred signs: horns of consecration or birds. It is possible that the worshiping of the Minoan Snake Goddess was in some context to the rebirth, resurrection or renewal of the life. This cult was ourishing mainly in Knossos of the Newpalace period and in the Post-Palace public
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sanctuaries. It is sure, that mainly Knossos' idols, made from faience with a high artistic level, had an important function in the Minoan religion. We have to take into consideration, that the material of the New-Palace Snake Goddesses - faience symbolized in old Egypt the renewal of life, therefore it was used in the funeral cult and in sanctuaries.
which clearly demonstrates the cosmogonical nature of the snakes. According to the Taittirīya Saàhitā23 in one of His creations 'Prajāpati' created the snakes rst and then the birds; but according to Jaiminīya Brāhmaëa.24 He created rstly the snakes and then the sh and thereafter the birds. Thus, the above Vedic references clearly demonstrate the cosmogonic nature of snakes.
The Post-Palace Snake Goddesses, worshiped in the small public sanctuaries, kept probably a more popular role. These ritual objects were inuenced by the Mycenaean culture. Their attribute of the snake had a strong signication in the belief system of all Aegean regions at this time. The terracotta models of painted snakes were found in the Cult Center of Mycenae and the motif of snakes appear between the decoration of vessels for funeral cult from the Late Mycenaean cemeteries in the mainland and in the islands Rhodos, Kos and Cyprus.
The Fish The usual symbolism connected with the sh ranges from its being an emblem of the vulva, or the phallus, to a symbol of the soul or the 'mystic ship of life'. By microscopic analysis of engravings on Megdalenian bone objects, Marshak has recently shown that sh (salmon) and snake typically appear in the context of a seasonal manifestation representative of early spring and frequently in association with new shoots, young animals and 25 ibexes. The sh is also inseparable from the form of a phallus since the phallus offers a visual and kinesthetic comparison with the sh and snake (cf. a baton head from Gorge d' Enfer in Dordogne). An engraving in the Magdalenian cave of Lortet shows 26 sh nuzzling a reindeer's genitals. Many a thousand years later, in Greek Geometric art, the sh continued to be portrayed hanging on the genitals of horses; the sh is also placed with the womb of the Bee Goddess painted on a Beotian vase around 700 27 BC. Its role there must have been related to the shape of a bee and is associated with the head of a sacricial bull.
The symbol and spirit of the Minoan Snake Goddess took in the Greek mythology many different features. The snake had a protective and benecial role on the shield of Athena, it represented the chthonic power connected with the Goddess of Earth, it was the attribute of Asklepios, probably due to its knowledge about the herb of rebirth, resurrection and eternal youth and generally it was the symbol of superhuman power of the god. Snakes were regularly regarded as guardians of the Underworld or messengers between the Upper and Lower worlds because they lived in cracks and holes in the ground. The Gorgons of Greek myth were snake-women (a common hybrid) whose gaze would turn esh into stone. In Indian myth nāgas and nāginis were human-headed snakes whose kings and queens lived in jewel-encrusted underground or underwater paradises and who were perpetually at war with Garuóa the Sun-bird. Parallels to the Indo-European snake motifs in the Neolithic-Chalcolithic periods may be seen in 19 the Vedic ideograms. In the Ågveda snake is symbolized as re which is a generative element. At 20 several places in the Aitareya Brāhmaëa the earth has been described as 'snake-queen'. The Śatapatha Brāhmaëa21 clearly states that the universe is like a snake and that the whole universe rolls with the earth. Maitrāyaëi Saàhitā22 describes the whole universe as an abode of snakes in different forms
Fig. 12; Egg- or fish-shaped sculpture of sandstone trom Lepenski Vir. (A hybrid woman and fish?) c. 6000 or earlv sixth millennium BC
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Fig. 12: Fragment of a vessel in the form of a sh. Vinca civilization. Mala Grabovmca near Leskovac. Central Yugoslavia
Fig. 13: Egg-shaped stone head of a Fish Goddess. Lepenski Vir II
Fig. 14; Anthoropomorphized Fish Goddess of stone with head, arms and breasts chisclled out. Mouth and eyes are those of a sh. The nose is human. Lepenski Vir II. Early sixth millennium BC.
Fig. 15: Stone sculpture of a sh-faced water divinity from Lepenski Vir. Zigzags, diamonds and chevrons represent streams of water. Early sixth millennium BC
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In the Neolithic art the sh assumes the shape of an egg and is anthropomorphized. This is exemplied by the sculptures recently discovered at Lepenski Vir near the Iron Gates in northern Yugoslavia.28 There, in the late seventh and early sixth millennium BC, shing and hunting peoples had dug their houses into the bank of the Danube, houses which had trapezoidal oor plans provided with rectangular hearths sunk below the oor level, lined with stones, and outlined with thin slabs of stone set vertically in a pattern of continuous triangles. Large stone sculptures were placed in the lime-plaster oors in front of the hearths. Fifty-four of these monumental sculptures, most of them twice as large as human head, were found, and fteen of them reveal half-human and half-sh features. Geometric ornaments are pecked on many of them while others are plain. All appear to possess aspects of the human gures, the sh, or the egg, and were probably selected for this reason. The shape of the river boulder had a signicance of its own; the artist did not alter this, but only gave it the features of the mythical being he venerated. He added the mouth and large round eyes of a sh and the nose and eyebrows of a man. The mouth with downwarddrooping corners makes the facial features stern, even dramatically tense, but it is doubtful whether the painful grimace was really what the Lepenski Vir artist sought to portray; the sternness results from a peculiar combination of sh and human features and does not necessarily reect the artist's conscious intent.29 In his book on Lepenski Vir, D. Srejovic calls one of the egg-shaped and sh-shaped sculptures 'Danubius'. The name implies a male river divinity, but does the sculpture really represent a male and awe-inspiring god? Geometric motifs engraved on stone sculptures, such as zigzags, interconnected lozenges each with a dot in it, chevrons and labyrinthine designs on round stones with depressions (probably used for sacrice) are related to the symbolism which appears as aquatic divinities associated with cosmogonical imagery. The Lepenski Vir statuary seems to represent a divinity of a feminine gender. One of the sculptures has female breasts which incorporates aspects of an egg; a sh and a woman. Marija Gimbutas thinks that she could have been a 30 primeval creator or a mythical ancestress. Standing at the hearth she was probably a guardian of the house also. These monumental sculptures have been
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found only here in the Iron Gates region of Danube, and they may well be specically connected with the cult practices of a people whose main concern and subsistence was shing. Fish efgies, however, have been found elsewhere in the Neolithic sites where farming activities were evident. Even in the ourishing civilization of Vinca the sh must have played a part of mythical imagery, since some cult 31 vessels were formed in the shape of a sh. The Indo-European sh seems to be material manifestation of shes in the Vedic literature in specic contexts. Ågveda32 describes sh as a water species and Taittirīya Saàhitā and Jaiminīya Brāhmaëa33 clearly states that 'Prajāpati' created serpentiles (Snake-sh) rstly. 34
The Śatapatha Brāhmaëa describes in detail how a sh preserved the seeds of species and saved Manu Prajāpati for creation after the Great Flood. The incarnation theory of Purāëas also followed the theory of 'Great Flood' and mythologies concerning it as narrated in the Vedic literature. According to the Purāõas when the Flood receded Brahmā (Prajāpati) got incarnated in the 35 form of a sh (Matsyāvatāra) in the deep sea. According to R.C. Dixitar, the mythology of the 'Great Flood' found in the Hebrew, the Babylonian and Sumerian literature has its roots in the Vedic mythology.36 This story in different forms is repeated 37 in the Purāëas and the Epics. In the Avestā also we get the narration of the 'Great Flood' in a different form.38 Thus, it is clear that the association of sh with the creation of the universe is not only attested by the archaeological nds of the South-Eastern European countries in the proto-Indo-European and Indo-European contexts but also in the Vedic and other Indo-Iranian literary texts. Puruñmedha - the dismemberment of a divine being One another cosmogonic myth of the IndoEuropeans which is centered on the dismemberment of a divine being - either anthropomorphic or bovine - and the creation of the universe out of its various elements. Such myths are there in the Old Norse, Old Irish, Old Russian, Celtic and Germanic sources. Greco-Roman traditions offer us Ovid's account of Atlas in the Metamorphoses (4.655-662) which relates how giant's beard and hair become forests, his bones become stone, his hands the ridges of mountains, etc. Some such myths are to be seen
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in the Middle Persian Sken Gumanig Wizar (16.820) of the ninth century AD. But the earliest comes from the Puruña Sūkta of the Ågveda39 which describes how Puruña, the (primeval) 'man' was divided so that his eyes became the sun, his mouth the re, his breath became the wind, his feet the earth, etc. Mallory (1997, p.130) has argued that one can discern iconographic representation of the IndoEuropean creation myth in the stone stelae of the early Bronze Age in the Alpine region. Here, he claims, 'there is a long tradition of expressing mythic concepts in stone at sites such as Val Camonica and some of the stelae, which depict a possible sunburst at the head and repeated elements such as weapons, have been interpreted, on grounds far more obvious to the proposer than others, as clear reections of the original cosmogonic or Puruña gure.
Fig. 16: Cosmogony North Italian stela from Bagnolo which has been interpreted as a purusastela, e.g., the sun is placed in the highest registrar and is seen as an alloform for the 'eye', the weapons have been claimed to represent the multi-armed nature of the primeval giant.
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The idea of human sacrice has its roots in deep prehistory, in the evolution of human behavior. Mythologically, it is closely connected, or even fundamentally identical with animal sacrice. Walter Burkert has argued for such a fundamental identity of animal and human sacrice in the connection of a hunting hypothesis which traces the emergence of human religious behavior to the beginning of behavioral modernity in the Upper Paleolithic (roughly 50,000 years ago). There is archaeological evidence of human sacrice in Neolithic to Eneolithic Europe. Retainer sacrices seem to have been common in early Indo-European religion. For example, the Luhansk sacricial site shows evidence of human sacrice in the Yamna culture. Human Sacrice in Ancient Greece Turning to ancient Greece, three cases of human sacrice are analyzed: a ritual example, a mythical case, and one in which myth and ritual are interrelated. Other than three possible sites in Crete, dated to the pre-Hellenic Minoan civilization, and allusions to the practice in classical mythology, archaeologists have been unable to nd any evidence that ancient Greeks practiced human sacrice. [The deus ex machina salvation in some versions of Iphigeneia (who was about to be sacriced by her father Agamemnon) and her replacement with a deer by the goddess Artemis, may be a vestigial memory of the abandonment and discrediting of the practice of human sacrice among the Greeks in favor of animal sacrice]. Many scholars have suggested a possible analogy with the story of Isaac's attempted sacrice by his father Abraham in the Bible, which was also stopped at the last minute (though it had rst been encouraged) by divine intervention. Thus, it is clear that the Greeks did in fact commit human sacrices as a major component of their religious beliefs and activities. The Greek's belief in Dionysus, the god of crop fertility, was a signicant element in these sacrices. Dionysus symbolized esh and blood as bread and wine. An annual worship held in his name was to insure crop fertility. This was a common practice for many societies throughout Ancient Greece, including the Myceneans. The Myceneans were a powerful civilization who sacriced humans in honour of the Olympian gods and archaeological evidence has been found to back these claims. The Mycenean civilization practiced this as
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well as many other forms of human sacrice: "The burnt offering altar was often used in Mycenean rituals, and became a major form of practice. This form of human sacrice was used late, almost until the end of the Mycenean civilization. "The burnt offering altar was a large, grill-like structure where prophets placed hot coals. The altar placed on the chest of the strongest warrior in town, the usual subject of this ritual. The sacrice would be long and grueling, and the victim would not die until the prophets nished their praying to the gods. The Myceneans are mentioned in the Homeric poems as a powerful civilization. They sacriced humans in honor of the Olympian gods, and archeological 40 evidence has been found. Numerous ancient texts describe human sacrices and other forms of ritual killing: in 480 BC Themistocles sacrices three Persian captives to Dionysus; human scapegoats called pharmakoi are expelled yearly from Greek cities, and according to some authors they are killed; Locrin girls are hunted down and slain by the Trojans; on Mt Lykaion children are sacriced and consumed by the worshipers; and many other texts report human sacrices performed regularly in the cult of the gods or during emergencies such as war and plague. Archaeologists have frequently proposed human sacrice as an explanation for their discoveries: from Minoan Crete children's bones with knife-cut marks, the skeleton of a youth lying on a platform with a bronze blade resting on his chest, skeletons, sometimes bound, in the dromoi of Mycenaean and Cypriot chamber tombs; and dual man-woman burials, where it is suggested that the woman was slain or took her own life at the man's funeral. If the archaeologists' interpretations and the claims in the ancient sources are accepted, they present a bloody and violent picture of the religious life of the ancient Greeks, from the Bronze Age well into historical times. However, I feel that such an interpretation has to be accepted with caution. In many cases alternative, if less sensational, explanations of the archaeological interpretations are possible; and it can often be shown that human sacrices in the literary texts are mythical or that late authors confused mythical details with actual practices. Whether the evidence is accepted or not, the references quoted above do present a fascinating glimpse into the religious thought of the ancient Greeks.
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Evidence for Human Sacrice Evidence that suggest the Minoans may have performed human sacrice has been found at three sites: (1) Anemospilia, in a MMII building near Mt. Juktas, interpreted as a temple, (2) an EMII sanctuary complex at Fournou Kori in south central Crete, and (3) Knossos, in an LMIB building known as the 'North House'. Protopalatial Sanctuary at Anemospilia (Archanes) Excavated in the summer of 1979, this four-room building set within a low enclosure (temenos) wall serves as a reminder that our views about a past culture may be subject to sudden and drastic change as the result of a single new discovery. The building, oriented roughly to the cardinal points and entered from the north, lies on the northern slopes of Mt. Iuktas some seven kilometers south of Knossos. In plan, it consists of an east-west corridor at the front off of which open three non-connecting rectangular rooms oriented north-south. In the east room were found large numbers of clay vessels containing agricultural produce, many of them arranged on a series of three steps, perhaps an altar, at the back (south) end of the room. In the central room, more vases containing agricultural produce were found. These too tended to be located toward the south (rear) end of the room, in the vicinity of a raised platform on which were found two terracotta feet, all that remained, in the excavators' opinion, of a cult statue made mostly of wood, only the carbonized remains of which were actually discovered. Near the statue and its base, part of the limestone bedrock was left exposed above oor level rather than being cut down and the excavators identify this outcrop as a 'sacred stone' over which blood offerings may have been poured. In the west room, three skeletons were found in positions which indicated that all three had met a violent end: (1) An 18-year-old male, the skeleton so tightly contracted that he is considered to have been trussed in a fashion comparable to that of the sacricial bull on the Ayia Triadha sarcophagus, was found lying on his right side on a platform in the center of the room. Among his bones was a bronze dagger 0.40 m. long, on each side of which was incised the frontal head of a boar. Close, beside the platform (or sacricial altar) had stood a pillar with a trough around its base, the trough probably designed to catch the blood from animal (and human) sacrices. The dead youth's bones were discolored in such a
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way (those on his upper/left side being white, those on his lower/right side being black) as to suggest to a visiting physical anthropologist that the youth, estimated to have been 5' 5" tall, had died from loss of blood. (2) A 28-year-old female of medium build was found spread eagled in the southwest corner of the room. (3) A male in his late thirties, 6' tall, was found on his back near the sacricial platform, his hands raised as though to protect his face, his legs broken by fallen building debris. On the little nger of his left hand he wore a ring of silver and iron. On a thong around his wrist he wore a stone seal on which the intaglio device was a boat. In the corridor constituting the front room of the building, aside from rows of still more vessels containing agricultural produce, was found a fourth skeleton, too poorly preserved for sex and age to be determinable. Scattered widely around this body were found 105 joining fragments of a bucketshaped clay vessel bearing a red-spotted bull in relief as decoration on one side. This was the only vase of the roughly four hundred vessels recovered from the building to be found littered over such a wide area, and the excavators theorize that it was dropped in the corridor by the fourth person when (s)he was felled by the collapsing debris of the building. The sanctuary was destroyed by re, probably as the result of an earthquake, at the end of MM II, possibly in the same earthquake which destroyed the Old Palaces at Knossos and Phaistos at this time. The collapsing roof and masonry of the upper walls killed three of the four individuals found within the structure, but the eighteen-year-old was probably already dead. A somewhat similar isolated shrine of the same period, although lacking the dramatic artifactual and human nds of the Anemospilia sanctuary, was excavated in the 1960's at Mallia. Not all agree that this was human sacrice. Nanno Marinatos says the man supposedly sacriced actually died in the earthquake that hit at the time he died. She notes that this earthquake destroyed the building, and also killed the two Minoans who supposedly sacriced him. She also argues that the building was not a temple and that the evidence for sacrice "is far from ... conclusive." Dennis Hughes concurs and also argues that the platform where the man lay was not necessarily an altar, and the blade was probably a spearhead that
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may not have been placed on the young man, but could have fallen during the earthquake from shelves or an upper oor. Sanctuary of Fournou Kori At the sanctuary-complex of Fournou Kori, fragments of a human skull were found in the same room as a small hearth, cooking-hole, and cookingequipment. This skull has been interpreted as the remains of a sacriced victim. Site of Western Extension to Stratigraphical Museum at Knossos In a LM IB context in excavations just to one side of the Royal Road some distance northwest of the Little Palace at Knossos, 327 children's bones were found in a burnt deposit in the basement of a building christened the North House. Originally attributed to between eight and eleven children provisionally aged between ten and fteen years old, between 21% and 35% of these bones, which included skull fragments as well as other bones, all found in an unarticulated heap, exhibited "ne knife marks, exactly comparable to butchery marks on animal bones, resulting from the removal of meat. Cannibalism seems clearly indicated. Among possible interpretations are ritual usage (otherwise unexampled in the open town of Knossos) and lack of all other food because of poisoning or other deleterious effect of gases or fall out from intense activity of the volcano of Thera." Subsequent analysis has revealed that the bones in fact need belong to no more than four individuals, two of whom can be quite precisely aged by means of their teeth to eight and twelve years. Some phalanges (nger or toe bones) from young humans, a human vertebra with a knife cut, some marine shells, some shells of edible snails, and burnt earth were found lling a pithos in the "Cult Room Basement", a room across a corridor from the "Room of the Children's Bones" in which the cache of 327 children's bones were found. The context within the pithos suggests that some portions of young children were cooked together with a variety of other edible substances. Together with the major concentration of children's bones were also found some sheep bones including articulated vertebrae. One of the latter had a cut mark in a position indicating that the beast's throat had been slit, so that sheep sacrice may have been connected with the death and dismemberment of the children, whom forensic experts have established to have been in perfect
36
health at the time of their deaths. There is unfortunately no method by which these skeletons can be accurately sexed, so we remain ignorant as to whether they belonged to boys, girls, or both. Could there be some connection between these butchered children, the youths and maidens who jump bulls in Minoan representational art, and the tribute of Athenian boys and girls paid to the legendary king Minos to which Theseus, the heroic Athenian prince, put a stop with the loving help of Minos' daughter Ariadne by killing the monstrous Minotaur?
Minoan symbolic labrys of gold, second millennium BC, many have been found in the Arkalochori cave. Human sacrice and Mycenaean religion Mycenaean religion certainly involved offerings and sacrices to the deities, and some have speculated 41 that their ceremonies involved human sacrice based on textual evidence and bones found outside tombs. In the Homeric poems, there seems to be a lingering cultural memory of human sacrice in King Agamemnon's sacrice of his daughter, Iphigenia; several of the stories of Trojan heroes involve tragic human sacrice. This, however, is not based on rm archaeological evidences and seems to be all speculation. Archaeological Evidence of Human Sacrice in India
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In ancient India we can follow the traditions of human sacrice from the earliest texts up to modern times, where especially in eastern India goddesses, such as Kālī, were long worshiped with human victims. Reference to Puruùamedha in the ègveda has been discussed above (see n.39). A reference to such a sacrice is available in other Vedic literature as well. Archaeological evidence to such a practice is also available. We would be discussing two important archaeological sites in this regard, viz. Kauśāmbī in Uttar Pradesh and Purola in Uttarakhanda. Kauśāmbī While excavating the defence walls of the eastern gate of Kauśāmbī, the primary aim of the excavator, G.R. Sharma of Allahabad University, was to study the defences that surrounded Kauśāmbī. What was more surprising was the discovery of a massive brick altar in the shape of a ying bird (Syena) outside the rampart wall. This seemed, to the excavator, to be a site of human sacrice (the Puruñamedha) whose features he thought closely tallied with what was known about such rituals in Vedic literature. Probably it attracted the attention of Sharma because it was located at the foot of the outer edge of the fortications that formed his primary focus. Sharma assigned it the date of 2nd Century BC (Śunga Period). Within the alleged ve layers of the alter 'a large number of human skulls and bones of animals of different species, meticulously arranged' were found. (Sharma, 1960, p.118) In layer I the excavator found , inter alia, a 'human skull', 'the shell of a tortoise' and 'the iron model of snake'. (Sharma, 1960, p.122, Pl.III). Layer III 'yielded the largest number of bones with a preponderance of human bone': 'three complete human skulls, ten skull pieces and other skeleton material' (Sharma, 1960, p.122, Pl.IV). Summarizing, Sharma states that 'there is sufcient evidence to conclude that this re-alter was piled up for the performance of the Puruñamedha. (Sharma, 1960, p.126). However, Lal (1985) states that the so-called Ñyenachiti at Kauśāmbī is a brick mass fallen from
the revetment of the defenses into the adjacent moat. Schlingloff has objected to Sharma's identication of the basis of the historicity of human sacrice. Romila Thapar also does not agree to his identication.42
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Purola An ancient massive brick altar at Purola in Uttarkashi District in the Central Himalayan region was identied by a team of archaeologists in 1986'88.43 The remains of the brick altar structure are situated on the left bank of river Kamal, a tributary of the major river Yamunā in the Purola town. Earlier ndings by geologists and archaeologists in the region, including remains of a temple structure at Lakhamandal, śyenachiti at Jagatgrām and Challis rock edict of the Aśoka regime are well 44 documented. The rst reference of brick–iñöikā appears in Yajurveda for construction of altars of different geometrical shapes and sizes to perform specic rituals. The excavated altar structure at Purola is in fact a śyenachiti measuring 24 m x 18m east-west direction and bears the shape of an eagle or hawk (the Garuòa according to Hindu mythology). Various sizes of burnt bricks are reported for the construction of the śyenachiti, ranging from 80 cm x 50 cm x 11 cm to 50 cm x 50 cm x 11cm or even smaller. Conclusion On the basis of a detailed study of the representation of Primeval Water, Primordial Egg, Snake and Fish in the Proto-Indo-European and Indo-European art forms of circa 7000 BC to 4000 BC, Marija Gimbutas has rightly concluded that these representations are denitely associated with the cosmological myths of the Indo-European people. The parallels drawn from the Vedic literature and Avestā regarding the creation of the universe simply conrms the cosmogonic and cosmological associations of the above art motifs in the IndoEuropean contexts. A further study of the animals, plants and trees, both in the Indo-European art and Vedic literature, reconrms the above parallelisms. It would, therefore, be not a mere fancy to conclude that the Vedic cosmological myths provide the foundational concept to the artistic representations found in the Old Europe of seventh and fth millennium BC. Keeping in view the proto-IndoEuropean and Indo-European art representations discussed above it would not be unfair to conclude that Hinduism in India and Hellenism in Greece located at the two extremes of the Indo-European World have common roots in the Vedas. Evidences of human sacrice (Puruñamedha) and worship of snake goddess are available in the Vedic literature as well as in the archaeological ndings of the Minoan-
37
Mycenaean Civilization. Cosmological afliations of Puruña (Cosmic Man) and snake in the Vedic literature are crystal clear. Minoan Mycenaean archaeological evidences provide a proof of human sacrice and worship of snake goddess. Since the cosmological afliation of Snake in the archeological representations of the Old Europe discussed above has been admitted, and that the archaeological evidence of a North Italian PuruùaStella from Bagnolo clearly provide us a proof of the concept of Cosmic Man (Prajāpati) of the Vedas, it would be logical to conclude that not only Hellenism but the entire Indo-European concept of cosmology and cosmogony of Old Europe has developed from the Vedas. So far as Hellenism is concerned, we have already seen the interrelationship of Hinduism and Hellenism in the eld of religion and philosophy from the sixth century BC onwards. These similarities are not simply accidental but are there due to the origin of both the religions from a common source i.e., the Vedas. Since a number of basic tenets of the Hinduism and Hellenism are common in the later phase of both the great civilizations and that both belong to the family of the Indo-European languages, it would be logical to surmise that both Hinduism and Hellenism have common roots in the Vedic culture. Acknowledgement: I am grateful to the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi which enabled me to present this paper at the Eighteenth International Congress of Vedānta (July 16-19,2009), Center for Indic Studies, University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth, MA, USA, by providing the required nancial assistance for travel to USA. References: 1. MacDonnell (1995), Vedic Mythology, p.1. 2. See: Roy, Ramashraya, 1999. 3. See, Kirk, (1990). 4. See: Frazer, (1921). 5. See: Brown (1953). 6. Gimbutas, Marija, The Gods and Goddess of Old Europe, London; 1974 7. Dixit, Shankar Balakrishna, Bharatīya Jyotiùa Śāstra, 1963, pp.136-40. 8. Śatapatha Brāhmaõa, 2.1.2.2-3
^vFkSrk ,o Hkwf;"Bk ;RÑfÙkdkLrn~HkwekuesoSrnqiSfr rLekRÑfÙkdkLokn/khr A ,rk g oS izkP;S fn'kks u P;oUrsA lokZf.k g ok vU;kfu u{k=kkf.k izkP;S fn'k'P;oUrs* 9.
Winternitz, M., History of Indian Literature, 1972,
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New. Delhi, Part I, pp.294-300. 10. Gimbutas, op.cit, p.99, g. 51. 11. Taittirīya Sa§hitā, 5.6.4.2
^vkiks ok bne vklé lfyyeso l iztkifr%A iq"dj i.khZ okrks·ysyh;rA* 12. ègveda, 10.190.1 ^rr% leqnzks v.kZo%*( (cf. Yajurveda, 23.63; Vālmikīya Rāmāyaõa, Yuddha Kāõda, 104.23; Mahābhārata, Bhīshma Parva, 1.24; Vāyu Purāõa, 7.57-58 ^,dk.kZos HkoUR;kiks%A* 13. Gimbutas, op.cit., pp. 103, 124, gs 57 and 84. 14. Ibid, p.103, g. 68. 15. Śathapatha Brāhmaõa, 10.1.4.9
^rLeknkgq rLeknkgqfgZj.e;% iztkifrfjfr rFkSoSrn~;tekuks :ieso fgj.e;eUrr vkReu% dq#rs* (see also, ègveda, 10.121.1; Taittirīya Sa§hitā, 5.5.1.2 16. Gimbutas, op.cit., p.96, gs 54-55. 17. Ibid, pp.94, 96, gs. 58-60. 18. See, Nilsson (1971), Ch. IX Idols and Cults. For The Snake Goddess and the Domestic Cult of the Snake Goddess see p.321; The House of Snakes, p.325 and the Nature of the Snake Goddess, p. 329. 19. ègveda, 2.7.6
^lfiZjklqfr% izRuks gksrk ojs.;%* 20. Aitareya Brāhmaõa, 5.2.3, ^b;a oS liZjkKh;a fg liZrks jkKh;a ok*( Taittirīya Brāhmaõa, 2.35, ^nsok oS likZ%A
rs"kkfe;¡a jkKhA* 21. Śathapatha Brāhmaõa, 7.4.1.25
^bes oS yksdk% likZLrs gkusu losZ.k liZfUr* 22. Maitrāyaõīya Sa§hitā, 2.7.201-3.
^ueks vLr liZsH;ks ;s ds p i`fFkoh euqA ;s vUrfj{ks ;s fnfo rsH;% loZsH;ks ue%AA ;s b"koks ;krq/kkukuka ;s ouLifruke~A ;s·ojs"kq 'ksjrs rsH;% loZsH;ks% ue%AA ;s veh jkspus fnoks ;s ok lw;ZL; jf'e"kqA ;s vIlq "knkafl pfØjs rsH;% loZsH;ks ue%AA* 23. Taittarīya Sa§hitā, 3.1.1.1. 24. Jaiminīya Brāhmaõa, 2.228. 25. Mashak, A; The Cognitive Beginning of Man's First Art, New York; 1972, pp.169 ff. 26. Henze, Carl, Mythes et Symboles Lunaires, Anverse, 1932, p.113. 27. Gimbutas, op.cit., pp.84, 110 g. 141 28. Srejovic, D., Europe's First Momumental Sculptures, New Discoveries at Lepensky Vir London; 1972. 29. Gimbutas, op.cit., pp.108-109, gs 72-76. 30. Ibid, p.110, g. 75. 31. Ibid., g. 74. 32. ègveda, 10.68.8 33. Jaimanīya Brāhmaõa, 2.228 34. Śathapatha Brāhmaõa, 1.8.1.1-2
^euos g oS izkr%A eRL;% ik.kh------ vkS?k bek% lokZ iztk fuokZs<+k rrLRok ikjf;rkLehfrA* 35. Agrawal, V.S., The Study of Matsya Purāõa, Varanasi. 36. Dixitar, R.C., Matsya Purāõa : A Study, p.14. 37. Mahābhārata: Bhīshma Parva; 1.24; Karna Parva 95.5; Matsya Purāõa, 2.3. 38. Vendidad 2.40; Yast 19.28; see also Bhattachary, N.N.,1971 39. ègveda, 10.90.13-16
^pUnzek eulks tkr'p{kks% lw;ksZ vtk;rA Jks=kk}k;q'p izk.k'p eq[kknfXujtk;r Ï 13 Ï ukH;k vklhnUrfj{k¤'kh".kksZ |kS% leorZrA in~H;ka HkwfefnZ'k% Jks=kkÙkFkk yksdk¡ vdYi;u~ Ï 14 Ï lIrkL;klu~ ifjèk;fL=k% lIr lfeèk% Ñrk%A nsok ;n~;Ka rUokuk vcèuu~ iq#"ka i'kqe~ Ï 15 Ï ;Ksu ;Ke;tUr nsokLrkfu èkekZf.k izFkekU;klu~A rs g ukda efgeku% lpUr ;=k iwosZ lkè;k% lfUr nsok% Ï 16 Ï 40. See: Petropoulou, 2008: 41. R.J. Buck, 'Mycenaean Human Sacrice,' Minos 24 (1989) 131-137. 42. Schlingloff, 'Menschenopfer in Kauśāmbī', IndoIranian Journal 11 (1968-69), p.188; Romila Thapar (2000), 'The Archaeological Background to the Agnicayan Ritual', p.27 43. Nautiyal, K.P. and Khanduri, B. M., Purātattva: Bull. Indian Archaeol., 1988–89, 19, 68–69. 44. Nautiyal, K.P. et al., Purātattva: Bull. Indian Archaeol., 1986–87, 17, 11–14; see also Current Science, Vol. 85, NO. 10, 25 November 2003. References and Further Readings Anthony Flew, 1979 : A Dictionary of Philosophy, London, Pan Books. Baker, H.T., 2007 : 'Human Sacrice, Puruùmedha construction-Agnicayana, Konds, Kaushambi, In Bremmer, 2007, pp. 179-228. Bannerjee, G.N., 1995 : Hellenism in Ancient India, New Delhi, Mittal Publications. (First Published in 1921) Bhattacharya, N.N., 1970 : History of Indian Cosmogonical Ideas, New Delhi, Munshi Ram Manohar Lal. Blackburn, Simon, 1994 : The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, New York. Blegen, Carl W, 1928 : Ziguries : A Prehistoric Settlement in the Valley of Cleonae, Cambridge, Mass. Bremmer, J. N., 2007 : The strange world of human sacrice, Leuven: Peeters Akademik, pp.186 ff. Brown, Norman O. 1953: Hesiod: Theogony, Prentice Hall , New Jersey. Frazer, Sir James George (Translator), 1921 :
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Apollodorus. The Library. Loeb Classical library Volumes 121 & 122. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. Gimbutas, Marija, 1970 : 'Proto-Indo-European Culture: The Kurgan Culture during the Fifth, Fourth, and Third Millennia BC.' in George Cardona, et. al. (edts.): Indo-European and Indo-Europeans, 1970, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Gimbutas, Marija, 1970 : 'Proto-Indo-European Culture: The Kurgan Culture during the Fifth, Fourth and Third Millennia BC.' in George Cardona, et. al. (eds.): Indo-European and Indo-Europeans, 1970, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Gimbutas, Marija, 1974 : The Gods and Goddess of Old Europe (7000-3500 BC), Myths, Legends and Cult Images, London, Thames & Hudson. Hans Jonas, 1063 : The Gnostic Religion, Boston, Beacon Press. Hastings, James (ed.), 1959 : Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, New York Hughes, Dennis D, 1991 : Human Sacrice in Ancient Greece, Routledge, New York Kirk, G. S., 1990 : The Nature of Greek Myths. Penguin Books,London. Lal, B.B., 1985 : 'The So-called Syenachiti at Kausambi : A Fallen Brick Mass,. Purātattva, No. 15 (1984-85), pp.95-104. MacDonnell, A. A., 1995 : Vedic Mythology, Motilal Banarasidass Publications, Delhi Mallory,J.P. & Adams, D. Q. (eds.), 1997 : Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, London, Fitzroy Dearborn. Matthew Arnold, 1875 : Culture and Anarchy, London Miller, Jeanine, 1985 : The Vision of the Cosmic Order in the Vedas, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nilsson, Martin P., 1971: The Minoan – Mycenaean Religion and its Survival in Greek Religion (2nd ed.), Biblio and Tannen, New York Pande, U.C., 1992 : The Cosmogonic Legends of the Brāhmaõas, Gorakhpur. Parpola, A., 2007 : 'Human sacrice in India in Vedic Times-Agnicayana, Prajāpati, Varuõa' , In Bremmer, 2007, pp.157-178 Petropoulou, Maria-Zoe, 2008 : Animal Sacrices in Ancient Greek Religion, Judaism, and Christianity, 100BC-AD 200, Oxford University Press, Oxford Roy, Ramashraya, 1999 : Beyond Ego's Domain : Being and Order in The Vedas, Delhi, Shipra Publications. Sharma, G.R, 1960 : The excavations at Kauśāmbī (1957-59): The defences and the Syenaciti of the
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Puruùamedha, Dept. of Ancient History, Culture & Archaeology, University of Allahabad. Shashtri, Motilal, 1950 : History of Indian Cosmogonical Ideas, New Delhi, Munshi Ram Manohar Lal. Thapar, Romila 2000 : Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History, New Delhi, Oxford University Press. Tripathi, D.N., 2004 : Hinduism and Hellenism, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Rashtrapati Nivas Yadava, B.R., 1987 : Vedic Cosmogony, Aligarh, Vigyan Prakashan.
Verma, Prof. T.P., Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.38-57, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Writing in the Vedic Age, Harappan and Açokan writing Prof. T.P. Verma *
system as there are ample evidences that this was the Vedic civilization and we Indians are the direct inheritors of legacy. Thirdly, connected with this is the question of the circumstances that led to the creation of a script in third century before Christian era by Aśoka which we know today as Aśokan Brāhmī.3
Preamble: n the present paper we discuss the question of art of writing during Vedic period, the Harappan writing system and creation of a script by Aśoka. All these topics are related to the knowledge of writing by the Hindus in antiquity.
A Writing in the Vedic Age
It is generally believed that writing in India began in the Maurya period when Aśoka created a script in the third century BCE. His mode of address in edicts appears to conrm the conviction that he was inspired by the inscriptions of Achaemenian kings of Iran. According to Bühler the antiquity of art of writing in India, i.e. Aśokan Brāhmī, might go to as far back as fth century BCE; many others who worked on the subject have been hovering around him. Bühler eliminated the possibility of writing in the Vedic age by saying that the sacred literature of the Aryans was not committed to writing because the Hindus do not believe writing and passed on their scripture by words of mouth from generation to generation.1 At the same time he analysed the Vedic literature and noted that “there is nothing to bar the conjecture, repeatedly put forward, that, even during the Vedic period MSS. were used as auxiliaries both in oral instruction and 2 on other occasions.” But only the former part of his opinion got currency and little has been done on the latter. Here we intend to discuss the question of the knowledge of art of writing in the Vedic period. Connected with this is question of Harappan writing *
397-A, Ganga Pradushan Niyantran Marg, Bhagwanpur, Varanasi-221 005; e-mails: tpverma2003@yahoo.co.om, thakurpverma@gmail.com
Popularity of Art of Writing in Ancient India: Ancient literatures of the Hindus show that there was a consciousness about writing. There were no less than eighteen scripts prevalent in India at least in the third century BCE. They have also included names of scripts prevalent in other parts of Asia as well. This goes to prove that the Hindus were conversant with the art of writing since much earlier than this period. The Jain work Samavāyāìga-sūtra, dated to about 300 BCE, contains a list of eighteen scripts while another Jain work called the Paëëavaëā-sūtra of about 180 BCE also enumerates 4 names of eighteen scripts. But the latter list slightly differs in names. This is not due to some discrepancy but was on account of the time gap between the two lists which rather goes to conrm the popularity of the art of writing in India. We can imagine that the time gap must have been much wider. The European scholars, due to their biblical bias of chronology have very miserly and conservative in dating Hindu literature. Even according to this estimation there can be no doubt that, in the third century BCE, when Aśoka was ruling, there were prevalent as many as eighteen writing systems. We have used this fact to visualise 40
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that Aśoka did not create a script for him in a void. It also revealing that the Buddhist work, Lalitavistara, translated into Chinese in 308 CE contains names of as many as 64 scripts, showing the fast increasing popularity of art of writing in India. This also goes to prove that Aśokan script also must have included in the lists of Paëëavaëāsūtra and the Lalitavistara. As indicated above the Hindus were acquainted with the scripts of the then civilized countries in Asia. Dr. Raj Bali Pandey has analysed these names and noted that there are many names in these works that point towards the scripts of other countries of Asia including scripts of the Chinese, the Greeks, the Hūõas, the Daradas, the Khasyas (i.e. Śakas?) and the people of Uttarakuru, etc.5 This again shows that Indians were much more conscious about writing than any other civilization of the contemporary world. This also negates the well propagated opinion of Bühler that “… the Hindus even at present, in spite of a long continued use of writing, esteem the written word less than the spoken one, because they base their whole literary and scientic intercourse on oral communications, and because, especially in scientic works, writing 6 and MSS. are mentioned very rarely.” Notwithstanding the propaganda of Western scholars it is obvious that in the time of Aśoka the art of writing was quite popular. Obviously, all the writing systems of India must have found their base in the Sanskrit varëamālā. They were not to feel crippled for the lack of systematic sound systems like the scripts of West Asia and Iran. This is to be underlined that phonetic arrangement of the cuneiform writing system of Iran, under the Achaemenian kings, was also mostly based on Sanskrit varëamālā (though with only 23 signs), as most of the words used in their inscriptions are derived from Sanskrit, a common heritage of both the cultures since Vedic times. This fact has never been prominently emphasised by Western scholars. Evidence from Ancient Literature: 7 Bühler points towards a number of evidences in favour of prevalence of writing during the Vedic age. According to him “Among Vedic works, the Vasiùñha Dharmasūtra, according to Kumārila (about A.D. 750) originally belonged to a school of the ègveda, and which is younger than the lost Mānava
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Dharmasūtra but older than the existing Manusa§hitā, offers clear evidence for widely spread use of writing during the Vedic period. Vasiùñha in XVI, 10, 14-15, mentions written documents as legal evidence, and the rst of these sutras is a quotation from an earlier work or from traditional lore.” Bühler further refers to “… Pāõini's grammar, which belongs to the Vedāìgas, contains, besides the terms yavanānī mentioned above, the compounds lipikara and libikara, writer (III, 2, 21)…. In addition to these few certain passages, the latter Vedic works contain some technical terms such as akñara, kāëòa, paöala, grantha, &c., which some scholars have quoted as evidence for writing. … Similarly, opinions are much divided with respect to the force of some other general arguments for the early use of written documents and MSS., drawn from the advanced state of Vedic civilisation, especially from the high development of trade and the complicated monetary transactions mentioned in the Vedic works, from the use of prose in Brāhmaõas from the collection, the methodical arrangement, the numeration, and the analysis of the Vedic texts, and from the grammatical, phonetic, and lexicographic researches in the Vedāìgas.” But his European prejudice compels him to deny all these evidences by the remark “Though some of these points, especially the rst and the last, undeniably possess considerable weight, they have yet not gained general recognition, as will always happen if an argumentum ex impossibli is used, even if it should be supported by fuller special enquiries than Sanskrit scholars have hitherto devoted to these subjects.” On the other hand he admits that “… on the other hand, there is nothing to bar the conjecture … that, even during the Vedic period, MSS. were used as auxiliaries both in oral instruction and other occasions.” He further supports this by adding “… as an argument in favour of this conjecture it is now possible to adduce the indisputable fact that the Brāhmī alphabet has been formed by phonologists 8 or by grammarians and for scientic use.” But, as we will presently see, the Aśokan Brāhmī initially was not devised 'for scientic use' as supposed by Bühler but it was created by some genius in the Mauryan court to record the dictates of the emperor which was in the local language spoken in the Pātaliputra region of Magadha and not for
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writing Sanskrit with complicated conjuncts. This is evident from the steeply falling number of inscriptions after the death of Aśoka. This situation continued during the centuries that followed. Aśokan Brāhmī was used for writing Prākrit languages in inscriptions of Khāravela in Orissa and of the Sātavāhanas of Andhra and Maharashtra, and also by the people who donated in construction of Stūpas like Bharhut and Sānchi. I have dealt with the subject in my work on post-Aśokan Brāhmī script.9 It was the Kardamaka dynasty of Rudradaman who used this script for writing his famous Junagarh Rock inscription in chaste Sanskrit prose. In other parts of country it took time to adopt it for writing Sanskrit language. Importance of Akñara: Writing is visual form of spoken speech, and therefore there are two basic elements in any writing system: i) sound and ii) sign. It is only the Vedic civilization where language was systematically analysed phonetically. They have determined the smallest unit of their language and called it akùara, meaning further phonetic division of which is not possible. At a later stage it acquired the name varõa. Every akùara was phonetically analysed and classied in accordance with the place of its pronunciation in the mouth with the help of tongue. The Hindus fully recognised the role of the vocal cord in the throat also. This came to be known as akñara-samānāya and/or varõa-samāmnāya. Once the phonemics of a language is determined there can be no problem in creating a writing system by providing visual sign to each phoneme. Vedic Prātiśākhyas are the treatises on phonemics. Çikùā, one of the vedāìgas is devoted to the teaching of pronunciation of Vedic texts. No other civilization could even touch the fringes of their achievement in this eld. The European scholars failed to recognise this basic factor of writing system consequently their enquiry has gone in wrong direction. They give emphasis to the visual signs which is the secondary element in a writing system. Obviously, there had been no systematic work in the eld of phonetics in any other civilization of antiquity. They derived the Aśokan Brāhmī writing with squinting eyes by comparing individual signs on the pattern of West Asian scripts. Pre-Ågvedic Language in Taittirīyasaàhitā:
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In the Vedic literature there is evidence about the pre-ègvedic language which was codied by Indra. This must have been the primordial language used by the early man. In India we call it Prākrit (natural) as against Sanskrit (rened or cultured). It is a wrong assumption that the Prākrits evolved after the Sanskrit.10 The Taittirīyasaàhitā relates a page of early history of humanity when people spoke natural language and were not restricted by grammatical rules. There seems some sort of chaos prevailing in word pronunciation and sentence construction. It is pertinent to point out that man descended on this earth with fully developed organs of speech in his body and he got speech through divine inspiration. Language is always associated with the thinking process; simply producing sound from the throat, as is done by all other species of animals, cannot be considered language. However the story narrated in the Taittirīyasaàhitā (6.4.7.3) is quite interesting for the study of language among human beings. There it is said that 'In ancient times speech was without grammar (avyākåt). Then the devāù asked Indra to codify this speech for them. Indra wished for a boon that 'Vāyu should hold it (=speech) in the middle for him. Then Indra codied the speech (vāg) by holding it in the middle by Vāyu.11 Hence language is called aindravāyavaù.12 Here the help of Vāyu 'to hold the speech in the middle' is of seminal importance in the history of linguistic studies because this is the rst ever mention to codify a language and create a grammar for it by analyzing it phonetically. The grammar of Indra (Aindra-vyākaraëa) is well known but only a little has survived to us. This incident of codication should be visualised as the immense work of surveying and sorting out spoken language/s and standardize (i.e. to rene) it. This primordial language, as stated above, was some sort of Prākrit which was desired by the Devas to be rened (Sanskrit) by Indra who is known as the rst grammarian. Indra undertook the job and systematically analysed and standardized it. The help of Vāyu in the process clearly indicates that the language was phonetically analysed. In this process, rst the spoken phrases might have been analysed into words then these words would have broken into smallest units which were called 'akñaras' (i.e. nondestructible) or, phonetically further division of which is not possible.13 These, later on, were given the name varëa (the coloured ones) when the
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process of writing with ink came into vogue. The whole alphabet was collectively called 'Akñara Samāmnāya' and 'Varëa Samāmnāya' (or, Varëamālā). The initial varõa was 'a'. The Taittirīya Prātiśākhya denes 'varõa' as 'That describe and pronounced are varõa beginning from 'a'.14 Thus the concept of varõamālā, with vowels and consonants came into existence where every consonant was supplied with the initial vowel 'a' because a 'varõa' could not be uttered without the help of a vowel; and 'a' was the initial vowel, other varõas are its extension or vikriti. This is the most scientic arrangement that has come to us without much modication since millennia. The vedāìga called 'Śikùā' and Prātiśākhyas are devoted to the phonetic analysis where the place of the origin of each individual 'akùara' in the mouth was determined. It is to be noted that in the process of speech the tongue plays vital role. The exible tongue in human mouth differentiates him from other animals and this special organ is enumerated as one of the ve karmendriyas (work organs). In many languages it has become the synonym of language. All other animals and birds cannot use their tongue to produce sounds that can be called a language. Language necessarily involves thinking process. This is the quality that separates man from animal. It is wrong notion that man acquired/learned language through imitation of animals and birds. It is also futile and waste of labour to train animals to learn language. This was long recognised by Vedic people and entire ègveda is full of praise of speech because the åñis (seers of hymns) realised its importance at very early stage of human history.15 The ègvedic people were acquainted with 'akùara' because every verse was metered by counted 'akùaras'. There are in all fteen meters used in the ègveda, like Triùñubh (4x11 akùaras), Gāytarī (3x8) and Jagatī (4x12), etc., this shows that the 'akùaras' have already been identied in words and dened and codied by Indra by the time when these hymns were composed. The phonetic science of the Vedāìga 'Śikùā' is a denite proof of the existence and use of a complete system of 'varõamālā' in the period of Ågveda. This science had reached culmination in the Prātiśākyas of different branches of Vedic studies. So far only six of these have come to us.16 It is important to note that in this counting of 'akùaras' in a verse 'mātrā' i.e. time taken in
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pronunciation of long vowels is not considered; this is later development with the classical Sanskrit which made the job easy. In pre-ègvedic times this cumbersome exercise was done by Indra as mentined in the Tittirīyasa§hitā. The Aindravyākaraõa (grammar of Indra) was very comprehensive and compared to ocean. Devabodha, a commentator on the Mahābhārata has noted the size of the grammar of Pāõini was a cow-hoof in comparison with the grammar of Indra which was like an ocean.17 However, we can conclude that to create a writing system based on a perfect alphabet is no problem. It was created by the Vedics but without compromising with the pronunciation. This, perhaps, made the script cumbersome that resulted in its going into oblivion, as explained below. Evidence of Writing in the ègveda: There are two stages of writing that were prevalent in ancient world. It, perhaps, began with incising letters on hard material or impressing on wet clay tablets as we nd in ancient civilizations of West Asia. In the ègveda the word 'takñaëa' is used for writing. ègveda (IX. 97. 22), refers to 'incise speech' (takñat vāk). This mode of writing continues even today. During the Buddhist period Vinayapiñaka mentions the word 'chinda' for incising. Bühler notes “The Pārājika section of the Vinayapiñaka (3, 4, 4) declares that Buddhist monks shall not “incise” (chind) the rules which show how men may gain heaven, or riches and fame in the next life, through particular modes of suicide. From this passage it follows (1) that the ascetics of pre-Buddhistic times used to give their lay-disciples rules, incised on bamboo or wooden tablets concerning religious suicide, which ancient Brahmans and Jainas strongly recommended, and (2) that the knowledge of the alphabet was widely spread among the 18 people.” These instances of incision referred by Bühler can be applied to the writing in the Vedic period because manuscripts might have been incised on some durable material. The practice of incision continues till date as metal plates like copper etc were and are still used for donation and eulogies. As said earlier, perhaps, till this stage the alphabet was known as akñara. The word varëa (colour) for letter is unknown in the ègveda. This can be seen in the light of Harappan writing incised on steatite seals
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etc. This practice of incising letters continued for writing on tāòa-patras, and on metals like copper and gold etc. in historical period. This explains the absence of the terms varëa (for letters) and lipi (for writing) in the Vedas. At a subsequent stage writing with colour began and then akñara acquired the name varëa. Now the use of wet colour or ink can be gleaned responsible for the words like lipi, libi, likha, lekhā, lekhaka &c. European scholars vainly were in search of the word lipi for writing in Vedic literature and declared that the Vedic people had no writing system. It is a modern myth created by Europeans that word lipi was borrowed from Iranian word dipi. The word likha was used for painting pictures also; the practice still continues. Women folk use this word for painting on wall at ceremonies like marriage etc. Śrotriya Akñaras: We have found the word Śrotriya for writing in literature which denitely shows that the Vedic priests had their own system of writing and that was known only to a very selective group of people. This system continued till at least the Gupta period. This writing was called 'Śrotriya akñarāëi' in the drama 'Mudrārākùasa' of Viśākhadatta ascribed to the Gupta period. In the rst act of the drama a disciple of Cāõakya hands him over a 'mudrā' (seal) of Rākùasa. This triggers a plan in latter's mind to trap Malayaketu an ally of Rākùasa through it. He prepares a letter in this writing of the Vedic brāhmaõas (Śrotriya akñarāëi) and asks his disciple to get it rewritten, because of its obscurity, in the prevalent script of his times in the hands of Śakañadāsa. Here Cāõakya says 'Śrotriya akùaras, though written with much effort, are of denite pronunciation' (Śrotriyākñarāëi 19 prayatnalikhitānyapi niyata-sphuöāni bhavati). Here he points out two features of the Śrotriya system of writing: i) this was written with much effort or care, and ii) it had denite pronunciation. This shows that there was a system of writing till, at least, the Gupta period that was used by the Vedic priests, i.e. the Śrotriya brāhmaõas. It had become very scares by the time of Viśākhadatta and only a few could read and write it; Cāõkya and Śakañadāda were few among them. The 'Śrotriya' writing system perhaps was very complicated one for they emphasise on correct pronunciation. It must
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be noted here that the Vedic brāhmaõas never favoured the Vedas to be committed to writing because it was feared that through this the exact meaning of the Vedas might be lost forever.20 In this context we may recall Bühler's contention that 'even during the Vedic period, MSS. were used as auxiliaries both in oral instruction and on other occasions.'21 This is not unlikely. Let us again repeat that with the classication akùaras by Indra, the creation of a system of writing was not a difcult job. If there is an instance of 'takñaëa' of vāk in the ègveda22 and if there is an allusion in AV of 'placing the Veda in the 23 box from which it was taken out' and if there is an 24 allusion of 'seeing the vāk' there can be no bar in assuming that writing was known to the Vedic people for profane literature, if not for the sacred hymns. The Sanskrit language has complicated conjuncts that require special skill and attention for writing. If we can scare our mind from writing Vedic hymns it is not difcult to imagine that in other walks of life writing was a necessity for the advanced society of the ègvedic period. Even then emphasis on correct pronunciation of the language cannot be ruled out in all writing systems. The evidence of Śrotriya writing, cited above, is indicative of the fact that it was used by the Vedic priests for writing Vedic literature other than the saàhita portion. Today we use diacritics to emphasise hrasva, dīrgha and plut pronunciations while writing Vedic hymns in Nāgari script. We know that Nāgari was evolved from the Aśokan Brāhmī which was created for writing Prākrit languages, not for Sanskrit. Gradually it was adopted for writing Sanskrit by creating new signs. The diacritics to pronounce Vedic hymns are adopted these days. However, a few years ago a sign to write the guà or gvaà was used in printing which resembled the inverted Greek letter omega with a dot above. Now it has been abandoned in modern printing. A similar sign frequently appears in the Harappan script. But we are not sure if the guà sign has something to do with Harappan script. Brāhmī tops all the lists found in literature that shows its importance and sacred nature. This was the most revered script of ancient India. The Bhagavatīsūtra begins with the salutation to the Brāhmī (ëamo bambhiye liviye). The Jaina tradition
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relates that this script was invented by èùabhanātha to teach his daughter Baàbhī. In China also there is a tradition about Brāhmī. The Chinese encyclopedia Fa-Wan-Su-Lin (composed in 668 CE) notes that the invention of writing was made by three divine powers; the rst of these was Fan (Brahmā), who invented the Brāhmī script, which runs from the left to the right; the second divine power was Kia-lu (Kharoñöha) who invented Kharoùñhī, which runs from the right to the left, and the third and the last important was Tsam-ki, the script invented by whom runs from the top to the down. The encyclopedia further informs that the rst two divine powers were 25 born in India and the third in China. That India and China were in mutual contact is evident from this evidence; we have already noted mention of Chinese script in the Jain lists. But the most important issue is the identication of the Brāhmī script of these lists; no doubt it was the most respected name among writing systems of Asia. Undoubtedly it was used in writing sacred scriptures of the Hindus, that may be the Veda itself, and/ or, alternately related literature. It is tempting to relate this name with the writing system discovered from Harappan civilization because there are denite proof that it was the Vedic civilization. But, however, there is one difculty in this assumption. The Harappan script is found written on seals that were used for trade and commercial purposes. This deters us from giving the sacred name Brāhmī to it. As this is evident from a large number of scripts prevalent in ancient India it is no wonder if the Harappan writing was another variety of the script of Vedic specie.
B The Harappan Script Great Controversy: The Harappan script remains undeciphered even after ninety years of its discovery. After several years of efforts some Western scholars have accepted failure. In their desperate article 'The Collapse of the Indus Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization” (in Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 11:) three frustrated scholars, Steve Farmer, Richard Sproat and Michael Witzel declared in 2004 that the Indus symbols might not have been intended to encode speech at all, but might instead be a system of religious,
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political and social symbols not tied to any particular language. And that the Indus Civilization was not in fact literate and never used a linguistic system of writing. However, no one can object to having such opinion in academic world, but the problem arises when they try to imposes their researches and compel others to follow it. There are at least two such instances which we wish to put before the readers. 1. Instance of Dr. Bryan K. Wells: I received an email on March 9, 2012 from Dr. S. Kalyanaraman of Chennai which reveals the incident that happened with Dr Bryan K. Wells of Harvard University. Dr. Kalyanaraman writes: As I read through Bryan K. Wells, 2011, Epigraphic approaches to Indus writing, Oxford and Oakville, Oxbow Books, some disturbing points emerge, related to academic prejudices in adjudicating a student's contributions. In the Foreword to the book, C.C. LambergKarlovsky, makes some incisive observations and comments on how Bryan's doctoral dissertation was dealt with in the academic setting of Harvard University: “Bryan Wells…came to Harvard as a graduate student intent on continuing his study of the Indus Civilization and its script…He was, and remains, committed to the idea that the Indus script represents writing and its decipherment will lead to an understanding of its texts and language. He did not think that at Harvard his dedication to this goal would meet with resistance. It did. This volume is a substantially revised edition of his doctoral dissertation. Bryan's dissertation committee consisted of myself as Chair and Dr. Richard Meadow and Prof. Michael Witzel. A near nal draft of his dissertation was rejected by Meadow and Witzel. Bryan was required to return from Germany to confront and ostensibly to correct and address its shortcomings. The basic problem was the Prof. Witzel, inuenced by Steve Farmer, had concluded that the Indus script was neither writing nor representative of language. Steve Farmer believes the Indus signs to be magical symbols. In light of Prof. Witzel's strong commitment to the non-writing nature of the Indus script Bryan's effort was deemed spurious and unacceptable. Richard Meadow, less strident in his view as to the nature of the Indus script, nevertheless advised Bryan to 'tone down' his view that the Indus represented 'writing'. Approximately six weeks were spent a Prof. Witzel balked at any mention of the Indus being a script and having a logo-syllabic nature. He insisted that Bryan sub statute the word 'marks' or 'symbols' for script. He was initially in opposition to the entire thesis. A Professor's opinion, which, in this case is a minority view within the profession, should never be used to
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[Vol. XVIII (1) impose or prevent an alternative hypothesis from being addressed by a Ph.D. candidate. It was not as if Bryan was addressing an untenable, absurd hypothesis. He was to spend weeks of uncertainty, anxiety, and, in a state of near depression he puzzled over what to do. The consternation endured and expenses incurred effects his entire family. ” (pp.xiii-xv)
2. Instance of Lucy Zuberbühler: The other instance occurred in November 2011 when the news on internet spread about a graduate dissertation on Indus manuscript by one Lucy Zuberbühler of University of Bern. It is entitled “A Comparison of a Manuscript with the Indus Script” (2009). This generated stir among academic circles. This manuscript in seven lines on a rugged piece of birch bark belongs to the Sultani Museum in Kabul, established by a gold trader by the name of Ahmad Shah Sulatni 'only ve years ago'. Its photograph is exhibited in the 'Western Himalaya Archive Vienna 2009' from which Lucy produced her thesis. The MSS. was found contained in a wooden box on the lid of which there is a sixteenth century painting of three horsemen playing polo. (Figs. 1-2) The writer of the thesis holds “This could possibly indicate that the inscribed object dates from the same time period, which would not necessarily imply, that the text itself was not an Indus script composition. It would merely mean that the text was perhaps repeatedly copied over time from an Indus original.” The other important feature, as anyone can note from the attached gure, is that there appear several layers of the birch bark, as seen from the bottom left corner photograph which, on scientic treatment of material may reveal some more pages of writing. (Fig. 3) The publication of this dissertation on internet was while welcomed in some academic circles, the trio of these Western scholars was not happy. There can be no objection to the conclusion they reached; but problem arises when someone expects that his disposition should be followed by all other scholars in the world. Steve Farmer declared on the internet that “The girl who wrote the thesis (Lucy Zuberbühler) herself has posted on the List, sending a note to me and Richard Sproat saying that she knows it is forgery and apologizing for all the trouble this has stirred up.” Obviously, it is not difcult to imagine what might have happened behind the curtain because in her very balanced 55 page dissertation there is not a
single line that slightly indicates this supposed knowledge of 'forgery'. On the contrary she writes (p. 13) “A radiocarbon dating test would be able to ascertain the age of the artifact, but none could be performed in conjunction with this bachelor thesis. Therefore, it is also impossible to establish whether or not the object is in fact a forgery. For this reason the artifact will simply be assessed as if it were authentic and all scenarios remain open.” But, however, such assertions could not stop the zeal of research on the Kabul manuscript (and Indus script) because one Mr. Daniel F. Salas published a note with gures in October 2012 on internet which runs as follows: I have been asked is the Kabul manuscript a forgery. The Kabul manuscript's rst line shows a direct inuence of the Indus Valley seals, there are ve exact matches much show a relationship to the humped bull seals. For the manuscript to be a forgery the forger would have to dig up Indus seals and to string them together, here the question is when was the manuscript written, was it written before there was a knowledge of Indus Valley or before excavating in 1920s. My thoughts are the manuscript was older than 1920 and ties to the humped bull validate the author as having prior knowledge that is impossible to make up or create a forgery.
He then gives a comparison of written text on a humped bull seal and signs from the rst line of the manuscript. (Fig. 4) Obviously the claim of the manuscript being a recent forgery, say of 2005 is ludicrous. We the Direct Inheritors: In this context we must point out that the people of India are the direct inheritors of legacy of Indus writing. For example, I myself have used a wooden plank called takhtī during my childhood for learning alphabet at primary stage. Similar takhtīs (writing tablets) in terracotta have been discovered from 26 Mohenjodaro (g. 5). That this type of writing tablet continued through the ages is attested i) by a third century BCE terracotta plaque from Yamuna Nagar, which depicts a child pointing out one of the Brāhmī alphabets written on a takhtī, (g. 6); and ii) a copperplate with inscription of Gupta age found from Chainpur village near famous Muõóeśvarī 27 hillock, (Fig. 7) published by the present author, also is of similar shape, and iii) a copperplate of the Maukharī king Īśānavarmā in sixth century writing 28 (Fig. 8).
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This continuity of writing material leaves no doubt that Harappan practice of writing continues till date and that those who declared in 2004 that 'the Indus symbols might not have been intended to encode speech at all, but might instead be a system of religious, political and social symbols not tied to any particular language' are frustrated scholars. Their assertion that 'the Indus Civilization was not in fact literate and never used a linguistic system of writing' is ridiculous. We conclude our discussion on Indus writing with the remark that we would have to wait till its decipherment. There is no doubt that the Indus civilization continues till date with many of its features.
C The Aśokan Brāhmī From the above discussion it is evident that during the ègvedic age there might have prevalent more than one script as we know for certain that several writing systems were in use in the 300 BCE, and also that names Brāhmī and Śrotriya for scripts point out towards this fact. This assertion gains ground that the vedāìga called Śikùā and the Prātiśākyas of the different Vedas have scientically analysed the phonemes of the Vedic language that resulted in recognition of akùaras. With the existence of a well developed and scientic alphabet there can be no difculty in creation of a writing system by devising signs for them. The other writing systems of ancient world have given preference to the signs only and neglected the sound analysis of their languages resulting in poor phonetic representation in script. We have also seen that the Harappan tradition of writing on wooden plank continued through the ages till present period showing the continuity of art of writing from that period. The lists of a number of writing systems in the Jain and the Buddhist literary sources go to prove that Bhāratīya society was literate since the ègvedic times. It is irony of history that the only writing system that has survived to us was devised quite late in the reign of King Aśoka of the Mauryan dynasty. George Bühler, the rst scholar who produced a rst systematic treatise on the subject, selected the name Brāhmī for this script from the lists mentioned above. The reason for the survival of the Aśokan script was its simplicity which was
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created to record the verbal edicts of the Emperor in local dialect spoken in the Pataliputra region of Magadha. The reason for extinction of other scripts can be discerned in their complicated nature emphasising on correct pronunciation of the Sanskrit words. This resulted in their falling into disuse gradually. Creation of a new script by Aśoka: In the following pages we are propounding entirely a new thesis for the origin of the Aśokan Brāhmī script. Here we will discuss the circumstances that instigated Aśoka to devise a new script for recording his speech delivered in Varanasi at Sarnath on the occasion of placing the relics of the Buddha on a platform for worship at the culmination of his 265 night-halt pilgrimage with the relics collected from eight original stūpas. The history of Aśoka's visit to Varanasi in the eleventh year of his reign is not found written in the history books but it is a truth that has been deduced by the present author from his Minor Rock Edicts. It is the Ahraurā edict which reveals that on this occasion he placed the relics of Buddha on a platform for worship and delivered a sermon that 'dhaàma will increase at least by one and a half times' and that 'every one, big or small, can attain svarga by following dhaàma'. This was the most glorious moment in the history of our country because this inspired Aśoka to decide for the creation of a new writing system which we know today as Aśokan Brāhmī. He was so enthusiastic with this event at Sarnath, Varanasi that he decided to record the account of this 256 night-halt pilgrimage as well as his speech on hard material like rocks and pillars throughout his empire. But obstacle in the endeavour was that he insisted on writing in the local language in which he had delivered his famous speech; not in Sanskrit, the language of administration. For this he had to create a new writing system, nay, at least two systems that we know today as Brāhmī and Kharoùñhī. Among these the former was adopted to writing in roughly the present territories of independent India, i.e. Bhārata while other, Kharoùñhī, carved its way in present Pakistan and Afghanistan up to Central Asian countries. Aśoka's Ahraurā Edict: However, Aśoka's visit to Varanasi (Sarnath), as stated above, is inferred from his Minor Rock Edict
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(MRE) at Ahraurā near Varanasi. Here Aśoka records in the last sentence “This sermon (sāvana) was delivered (by me) (while) on tour of 256 nighthalts (when) Buddha's relics were placed on this platform (and worshipped)'29 (esa sāvane vivuthen due sapaànā-lāti-sati aà maà[che] Budhasa salīle āloòhe[ti]. This eleven line epigraph is one of the most damaged MREs of Aśoka but fortunately the last ve lines are preserved which are of utmost historical importance. Here the mention of 'this platform' (aà maàche) is very important because it points out that the event took place somewhere in the vicinity. Ahraurā is the nearest natural rocks in the neighborhood of Varanasi (about 35 kms.). It needs no imagination to note that the king is referring to Sarnath where he is known to have established the Dharmarājikā-stūpa with the relics of the Buddha. Near the site of the engraved inscription in Ahraurā is a modern temple of Bhāõóārīdevi. This deity might have been in worship at the time of Aśoka and name Bhāõóārīdevi is betting this fertile piece of land which is surrounded by hills. Aśoka perhaps selected this spot for his inscription for it was frequented by pilgrims. For his other edicts also only such places were selected. In this paper we have liberally based on the available data in Aśokan inscriptions to reach conclusions but these are not against the norms of historical thinking for deriving inferences, therefore these are now the part of the history that could not be recorded so far. For example no scholar has speculated about the date (tithi) of the beginning and end of the pilgrimage of Aśoka but we have pointed out a plausible tithi. Similar is the case with the circumstances that lead to the decision of creating a new script to record this event. Prevalence of good number of scripts in about 300 BCE was also known from the Jain and Buddhist sources since Bühler published his work on palaeography of India in the last decade of nineteenth century but no one has ever utilised this information to pointed out that this was the period when Aśoka was ruling and that his script was not created out of nothing. We are also rst to point out that there are two elements in any writing system, i.e. sound and sign, and it is the phonetic analysis that is vital for any writing system, and that with a scientic varõamālā, it is not difcult to create a new form of writing; that is exactly what Indians have been doing since the time
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of ègveda. But, however, they were too insistent on maintaining phonetic elements in writing for which they devised difcult combination of signs. On the other hand the script created at the instance of Aśoka was initially quite simple without much emphasis on depiction of low and high pitch of pronunciation and complicated conjuncts of Sanskrit language. A word about the chronology of the promulgation of Aśokan edicts will be pertinent here. It is admitted by many that the Minor Rock 30 Edicts were the earliest to be engraved. The set of fourteen Rock Edicts, being recollections of the king about his efforts towards dhaàma during his reign, were drafted and engraved next and the Pillar Edicts were the last in the series. The language of edicts shows that these were dictates by the emperor. It was the Māgadhī of Päöaliputra region. But it would be wrong to assume that this was the ofcial language of the Maurya administration during Aśoka's time, and that Sanskrit was not used as advocated by H.C. Raychaudhuri while dealing with the date of Arthaśāstra.31 The ofcial language of the administration during Maurya period was Sanskrit as evinced by Arthaśāstra of Kauñilya. Archaeology of Sarnath: The two stūpas at Sarnath are remains of Aśoka's pilgrimage to Varanasi which was administered directly from Magadha since the time of Bimbisāra 32 and Ajātaśatru. This was the reason Aśoka addresses to the Mahāmātras of Pāñaliputra in his Sarnath pillar edict, not to the local authorities. This pilgrimage of 256 night-halts at various places in his empire culminated at Sarnath where he placed the relics of the Buddha on a platform (maïcha) at the spot which is now known as Dharmarājikā-stūpa on a stūpa was raised to mark the spot. Now the stūpa has extinct, only the foundation remains. This is situated to the south of the Mūlagandha-kuñī from where the Lord Buddha is said to have turned the Wheel of Law into motion (Dharma-chakra pravartana) a few centuries earlier. Another platform was built about a hundred metre to the east of this place for the Emperor to address the people on the occasion. From here Aśoka delivered the famous Sermon (sāvana), recorded in all his MREs, and wished that the Dharma will increase at least one and a half times. This desire-making platform was perpetuated by building a stūpa called the Dhamekha (=Dharmekùā or desire for Dharma)
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which is at present the most dominating structure at Sarnath. Cunningham had excavated Sarnath from December 1834 to January 1836. It is said that he bored a hole into this stūpa and found no relics deposited inside. Only, at the depth of three feet from the top he discovered an inscribed stone containing the famous Buddhist formula 'ye dhammā hetu pabhavā' etc. in 6th century script.34 Thus the Dhamekha is only a commemorative stūpa. The desire of Dharma (dharmekùā) by Aśoka preserved in the name Dhamekha lingered in the memory of the people though the event attached with this is forgotten. Perhaps the yearly melā on Buddha Pūrõimā day is a continuum of the event. (Fig. 9) As per our estimation the Ahraurā was the rst ever edict of Aśoka engraved on a rock. Though copies of this edict were sent throughout the empire but Ahraurā is the only edict to mention the original intent. Professor K.K. Thaplyal has noted that seventeen copies of this record were known to have come to light from different parts of the country till 2009. The eighteenth one was discovered by a team of scholars of J¤āna Pravāha, Varanasi, on 15th of January 2009 from Ratanpurwa, Bhabua district of Bihar, on the UP-Bihar border in Kaimur ranges. 35 This is the 18th MRE of Asoka. The Sahasram in Rohtas district (Bihar) and the Ratanpurwa in Bhabua district (Bihar) are recovered with more or less complete text but the Ahraurā MRE in Mirzapur district of UP is much damaged, perhaps because it is so close to the habitation. Only 5 last lines of this eleven line epigraph are preserved and most of the lines from 1 to 6 are damaged. The Discovery of Ahraurā MRE: The discovery of Ahraurā edict was announced by Prof. G.R. Sharma of Allahabad University in news papers on 11th November 1961. However, Prof. A.K. Narain of Banaras Hindu University claimed that it was discovered and reported by R.G. Pandey of ASI much earlier. Prof. Narain published an article in the Bhāratī, (Research Bulletin of College of Indology, Banaras Hindu University) No. 5 Part I (1961-62) pp. 97-105. Prof. V.V. Mirashi also contributed an article in the same issue on pp. 13540. Later Prof. D.C. Sircar treated the subject in his detailed article in Epigraphia Indica volume XXXVI (1965-66), pp. 239-48. According to Professor Sircar “The great
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importance of the Ahraurā version of Minor Rock Edict I is that it begins and ends differently from any of the other known versions. Unfortunately, as indicated above, the earlier part of the record is damaged, so that it is not possible to determine the correct reading of this section; but it is a matter of great satisfaction that the reading of the concluding part, which is of exceptional interest, is beyond 36 doubt.” Thus undoubtedly this is the earliest edict of Aśoka but before we proceed on the subject it is necessary to talk about the 256 night-halts pilgrimage of Aśoka that inspired him to take steps that greatly inuenced the course of history of India. Background of Aśoka's Pilgrimage: In his 13th RE Aśoka recalls that 'in the 8th year of his reign he conquered Kalinga, and in this war one hundred thousand people were killed and one and a half times of these one hundred thousand people were displaced.' His heart-felt grief over this misery of the people and the futility of conquest by war is 37 recorded in this RE. This, again, is reected in the administrative instructions given to the Mahāmātras of Tosali in his separate Rock Edict. And in Samāpā, 38 modern Jaugada, there is another separate RE. These two separate edicts give a glimpse of Aśoka's mind on this tragedy. That Tosalī was the capital of Kalinga, and that was visited by Aśoka, is conrmed by the Hathigumpha inscription of Khāravela. Here it is claimed that three hundred years ago 'Nandarāja' excavated a canal and brought it to Tanasuliya (Aśoka's Tosalī) the capital.39 I have identied this Nandarāja with Aśoka because his grandfather Chandragupta is repeatedly called Nandānvaya (a scion of Nanda family) in the Mudrārākñasa Nāöaka of Viśākhadatta. In later Indian literature also the Mauryas are known as belonging to the family of the Nandas.40 Aśoka contemplated on the issue for almost two years. This inclination towards spirituality attracted him to the teachings of the Buddha. But, as a king, he preferred his duties towards his people than his personal spiritual gains (mokña) by becoming a monk. He made several changes in his personal life style and eating habits. But however there seems some confusion about the dates of his pilgrimage of 256 night-halts, the subject of all his MREs. We have mentioned that he conquered Kalinga in his eight year. In the eighth
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Rock Edict he states that in the tenth year of his reign he visited Bodh-Gaya and from where he begins the dharma-yātrā or pilgrimage41 (of 256 night-halts). This is conrmed by his confession (recorded after the end of the pilgrimage) that 'I have been upāsaka since more than two and half a year (adhikāni aòātiyāni vasāni ya hakà upāsake) but could not do much effort towards Dharma for one year (no tü kho vāòaà prakante husaà ekaà saàvacharaà) but since more than a year I have done much after coming to the Sa§gha (sātireke tu kho sàvachare yaà mayā saàghe upavīte bāòaà ca me palakàte) (Brahmgiri version). This gives a fair account of the period of 'more than two and half a year'. Out of this period he was not so active for a year, then he came to Sa§gha (i.e. Sa§bodhi) and from there he started for the pilgrimage (dharmayātrā) of 256 night-halts with the relics of the Buddha that culminated at Sarnath on the BuddhaPūrëimä night, the birthday of the Lord. This is the subject matter of all his MREs with minor variations. Thus the pilgrimage of Aśoka took place in his eleventh regnal year. There seems some error of calculation when Dr. Sircar asserts that it took place in the thirteenth regnal year. Dr. D.C. Sircar restores the fragmentary Ahraurā MRE with the help of Sahasrām and Rūpanāth versions as follows “sādhikā [ni aòhatiyāni aà upāsake sumi na] cha bāòhaà palaka§te [,] [saàvachhale sādhike aà sumi hakaà saàgha upeta bāòhaà] cha palakaàte [,].” He elaborates it as follows: “These two sentences show that, when the edict was promulgated, Açoka had been an upāsaka (lay follower of the Buddha) for a little over two and a half years, that he was not zealous [in the matter of Dharma at rst] and that he became zealous [in the matter of Dharma] for a little over one year [about the end of the said period of a little over two and a half years]. Thus there is mention here of three periods of time, (1) rst giving the whole period from his initiation into Buddhism down to the date of the edict as more than two and a half years, (2) the second referring to the initial period of his inaction without specifying its length, and (3) the third mentioning the period characterized by his zealous activity in relation to Dharma, the length of 42 which is given as more than a year.” Thus it is clear that 256 days of pilgrimage are included in this 'two and a half years' period; perhaps, it can be
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allotted to the period 'more than a year' (saàvachhale sādhike). Real Purport of Number 256: The number 256 days is indicative of a well chalked-out programme for the royal pilgrimage. On calculation these 256 night-halts come to 8 months and 16 days, i.e. 17 fortnights or 18 uposatha days if we include the starting day. We may also assume that he perhaps planned it to begin from Bodh-Gaya on the rst uposatha day, and, to conclude on the eighteenth uposatha, i.e. on 256th night, at Sarnath. Certainly it was planned to fall on the uposatha day of Buddha Pūrõimā, i.e. the birth day of the Buddha. If so, the pilgrimage must have started on the uposatha day of the month of Äśvina so that the eighteenth uposatha should fall on the full moon day in the month of Vaiśākha, the birthday of the Buddha. D.C. Sircar clearly missed the real purport of the number 256 days because he calculated under the inuence of the Christian calendar. However, his calculation is like this: “... that Aśoka began to promulgate his edicts relating to Dharma twelve years after his coronation, i.e. in the thirteenth year of his reign, and that Minor Rock Edict I was one of the earliest edicts, if not the earliest one, issued by the Maurya emperor. Thus the present edict was issued in Aśoka's thirteenth regnal year when he was away on a pilgrimage which had already lasted 256 days, i.e. a little over eight and a half months, or nearly three fourths of a lunar year of three hundred and fty four days.”43 Obviously Sircar, calculating on the basis of the Christian calendar, failed to realize the religious importance of 256 night-halts. He further notes that “Minor Rock Edict I is the only inscription of Aśoka which states that he set out on a long tour of pilgrimage, in the course of which the edict was promulgated, and the Ahraurā version of the edict is the only Aśokan record which states that the pilgrimage was undertaken immediately after the installation of the relics of the Buddha on a platform no doubt for worship.”44 (Emphasis is in the original) He claries this statement by asserting that the venue of the worship of relic was in the capital and holds that “According to Buddhist tradition, Aśoka built the Aśokārāma at Pāñaliputra and no less than 84,000 Buddhist monasteries in various cities 45 within his empire.” Under this impression he twists
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the statement of the king that 'the pilgrimage was undertaken immediately after the installation of the relics of the Buddha'. Nonetheless the MREs of Aśoka vary in minor details but never neglect to mention four things: 1. King's association with Buddhism since last two and a half years but he could not do much effort; 2. People of Jambudvipa were instructed in Dha§ma by the king himself and those who did not know about the gods were amalgamated with them (amisā devā misā kaöā). He was so ardent with this achievement that he mentioned in his speech (sāvana) that all, small or big, can make effort to dharma and attain svarga, and that dharma will increase by at least one and a half times; 3. That, this edict should be written on rocks (pavtesu), on stone pillars (silāöhabhe) as well as on pillars of buildings (sālāöhabhe); 4. This sermon was delivered by him while he was on 256th night-halt tour at Sarnath. But however, it should be noted that the Ahraurā version of MRE does not mention the third point. This is indicative of the fact that the idea of recording this incident throughout his empire occurred the emperor after the promulgation of the Ahraurā edict. Therefore, Sircar is not right when he says that the pilgrimage was undertaken immediately after the installation of the relics of the Buddha' (at Pāñaliputra). It is not like that. The Ahraurā edict does not slightly indicate that 'the pilgrimage was undertaken immediately after the installation of the relics of the Buddha'. Rather it specically announces that 'this sermon (sāvane) (was delivered by me while I am) on 256 night (days) tour when the relics of the Buddha are placed on this platform (aà maïce). This pilgrimage was undertaken by Açoka during his thirteenth regnal year, as accepted by Sircar, and the Buddhist tradition of building 'Aśokārāma at Pāñaliputra and 84,000 monasteries' must be taken as reminiscence or 'an event of the past'. We cannot escape the fact that the Ahraurā edict mentions the happenings at Sarnath. There are two reasons to relate this incident with this place. Firstly, Ahraurā is in the vicinity of Sarnath and not of Pataliputra, and therefore this was the venue of the placement of the Buddha's relics 'on this platform'. Secondly, we know for certain that the relics of the Buddha were recovered from the Dharmarājikā-stūpa at Sarnath. The existence of the Dhamekha-stūpa also is a evidence as we have
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pointed out the origin of its name. These two facts go against the view of Prof. Sircar. It will be most natural to think for Aśoka to have given preference to the place from where the Lord had 'turned the Wheel of Law' for concluding ceremony of his pilgrimage. It need not remind that only four places are considered holy that are connected with Buddha's life: i) Lumbini (his birth place), ii) BodhGaya (place of enlightenment), iii) Sarnath (declaration of his doctrine), and, iv) Kuśīnārā, where he attained Nirvāõa. It will be in the tness of things to think that this pilgrimage started from Bodh-Gaya and culminated at Sarnath; the remaining two places also might have included in the itinerary. Archaeologists are aware that the relics of the Buddha were deposited in the Dharmarājikāstūpa in a stone-box at Sarnath. V.S. Agrawala, in his booklet Sarnath for ASI, notes “As a matter of fact, a stone box was found inside this stūpa containing a relic casket with some relics and ashes. The relics were thrown into the Ganga at the instance of Jagat Singh. The casket has since disappeared, but the stone box is preserved in the Indian Museum.”46 In its third revised edition (Hindi) Achyutananda Jha adds “At present only its (Dharmarājikā-stūpa's) ruins are existing because in 1794 men of Babu Jagat Singh destroyed it. At that time a round stone casket was found inside it at the depth of 8.25 meters.”47 Thus the claim of Sarnath for the display of the relics on a platform has archaeological support. The concluding sentence of the Ahraurā edict runs as “esa sāvane vivuthen duve sapaàna lāti sati a§ maïce budhasa salīle āloòheti ”.48 It simply means “This Sermon (was delivered by me) from the camp (vivuthena) on two hundred and ftysixth night (-halt) and the relics of the Buddha were placed on this platform (a§ ma¤ce).” Here 'aà maïce' (this platform) denotes the Dharmarājikā stūpa at Sarnath where the relics of the Buddha were placed for worship and Aśoka delivered his famous 'sāvana' (sermon) from another platform which is now called the Dhamekha stūpa. Prof. Sircar has twists his translation of the sentence by adding several connecting phrase that runs as “This declaration (has been made by me while I am) on a tour (of pilgrimage) for 256 nights (i.e. days) since the relics of the Buddha ascended (i.e. were caused to be installed by me on) the
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platform (for worship).” (Emphasis is in the original). Obviously this translation is done to suit his contention. Perhaps Dr. Sircar is conscious of this concoction because he tries to justify his interpretation by saying “The above sentence may be compared with the two concluding sentences of the Sahasrām version which runs as follows: iyaà cha sävane vivuthena [,] duve sapaànā-lāti-satā vivuthā ti 256 [,] (Sanskrit idaà cha śrāvaëaà vyushitena [mayā śrāvitam], dve shaöpaïchāshadrātri-çate vyushitaù [aham] iti—256); and “And this declaration [has been made by me while I am] away on a tour [of pilgrimage]. [I am] away on a tour [of pilgrimage] for two hundred fty-six nights--50 256.” We need not comment on this twist which is obvious; but it should be pointed out that there is one fundamental difference between the Aharurā edict and the remaining ones: the former mentions the conclusion of the pilgrimage while the rest were prepared later as information copies of the same. It need not emphasise that the pilgrimage of Aśoka, undertaken in his thirteenth regnal year, was a grand success that exited him to make it the subject matter of all his MREs. We agree with Prof. Sircar's chronological scheme of two and a half years except his contention that the journey of 256 days started after placing and worshiping the relics of the Buddha on platform from the capital Pāñaliputra. We have no information about the starting point of this pilgrimage but can conclusively say that the whole trip was a calked out. The tradition knows that Aśoka exposed the original stūpas of the Buddha, collected relics and made 84 thousand stūpas and monasteries over them. He could not have missed to build one at the place where the Lord had preached his First Sermon, i.e. Sarnath. Thus it is logical to think that his long pilgrimage of 256 days was planned in such a way as to culminate there. It does not require much imagination that it must have began from a place like Bodh-Gaya, nearer to the capital, where the Lord got enlightenment. He had a Dharma-yātrā 51 from this place in his tenth regnal year. Certainly the Sarnath ceremony was designed to fall on Buddha's birthday i.e. Vaiśākha Pūrõimā night, i.e. 256th night was the Buddha Pūrõimā. We will elaborate this shortly. Hence, the importance of this pilgrimage is erdent. In his RE VIII Açoka records the aims and
objects of a pilgrimage and enumerates ve purposes of dhaàma-yātrā; i) to have darśana of the Brāhmaëas and śramaõas and give dāna to them; ii) have darśana of the elders, i.e. Theras and arrange funds for their livelihood; iii) to meet the people (janas) of the janapadas; iv) to instruct them in dhaàma; and, v) to answer their queries (about dhaàma).52 This was the agenda that he followed in his religious tour of 256 days. Reection of the above objectives can be seen in his Rūpnāth MRE which is better preserved. There he says: “Devana§piya said thus: Since last two and a half years I am upāsaka. I could not do much effort. But now more than a year have lapsed I came in the fold of the Sa§gha and am doing much effort. During this period in the Jambudvīpa, i.e. in my empire, those deities who were not known were made known to the people (i.e. people were preached about dharma: (amisā devā misā kaöā). This is the result of effort (pakamasa). It is not that only big people can achieve this; even small people can get abundant svarga through effort (palakama). For this purpose savanas (sermons) are arranged so that the 'big' and the 'small' should do effort. The bordering people should also know that the results of this effort are ever lasting. Thus purpose (aöhe) (of dharma) will increase; it will increase one and a half times. [Then he desires that] it should be written on the hills, (or rocks, pavatesu) accordingly. Where there are building pillars (sālā öhabhe) and stone pillars (silā öhabhe) [in stone buildings or in caves or in houses? or free standing pillars] it should be written. With this religious script (dhaàma lipi) you should send an ofcer on tour (on encampment) all over the area of your operation. This sermon was delivered (by me) while on tour of 256 (night's encampment), or living out of 53 home (vivāsā).” The Ahraurā inscription is unique in the sense that 'this sāvana (sermon) (was delivered by me) from the camp (vivuthen) on (the conclusion of the Dharma-Yātrā lasting for) two hundred and fty-sixth night(-halts) when the relics of the Buddha were placed on this platform.' There is no instruction in this epigraph to write it on rocks or pillars etc. or there is no instruction for his ofcers to go on tour for its propagation, etc. Thus it would be in the tness of situations to think that perhaps up
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till the conclusion of this pilgrimage Aśoka had no idea of propagating this sermon throughout his empire, or even of recording it on permanent objects. Obviously the idea occurred to him after he had ordered this edict to be written at Ahraurā. Here we see the germs of creation of a new writing system to record his speech. Creation of a New Script for Edicts: The most important corollary of this pilgrimage was the creation of a script with entirely new signs. It was Bühler who suggested the name Brāhmī for the Aśokan script because he found this name at the top of all lists of writing systems and, at that time this was the only known script in India from which majority of scripts have evolved. Now with the discovery of the Harappan writing system the situation has changed. Under new circumstances the latter seems stronger claimant for the name Brāhmī. Returning to the Aśokan Brāhmī script we know that individual shapes of the letters of this script were derived from the simple geometrical signs like line, angle, triangle, square and circle etc. “Tracing back the development or evolution of the Brāhmī script when we reach to the second century BC, we feel that we are not far from the original source from which the Aśokan Brāhmī was 54 derived”. “The simple primitive angular form of Aśokan script shows that it was not long before that this script was invented.”55 The appreciation of Isaac Taylor runs as follows: “Bold, simple, grand, complete the characters are easy to remember, facile to read and difcult to mistake, representing with absolute precision the gradual niceties of sound which the phonetic analysis of Sanskrit grammarians had discovered in that marvelous idiom. None of the articial alphabets which have been proposed by modern phonologists excel it in delicacy, ingenuity, exactitude and comprehensiveness.”56 The Sanskrit varëamālā existed in the time of Pāõini, a few centuries before Aśoka is undisputed. Although Bühler suggested the existence of script in the fth century before the Common Era no one believes that Aśokan Brāhmī was used by Pāõini, the writer of Añöādhyāyī. Thus the present varõamālā was there in common use before the time of Pāõini who reorganized it in a new phonetic order in the Māheśvra-sūtras. With the existence of a scientically arranged varõamālā
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the existence of a script cannot be denied. The mischievous argument advanced by European scholars that instruction in Vedic period was given orally and that they never felt the necessity of writing system because 'they had already brought to perfection another and very excellent method (i.e. learning by heart) of handing down literary productions'57 was motivated by Euro-centric thinking and under-rating of Vedic civilization. It is still believed by many that no script was known to the Vedic people. They easily side tracked the information that Indians used a large number of writing systems in 300 BCE i.e. during the time of Aśoka these scripts were prevalent; and who knows this was included in these lists of scripts in Buddhist and Jain literature. No doubt the Aśokan script was created at the instance of the emperor as put forward above. As it is possible to trace forward the evolution in signs of Aśoka's Brāhmī, so also it is possible to trace back its history from almost any stage. In the process of tracing back when one reaches the edicts of Aśoka one feels that he is not far from the original source, although Bühler and many others have traced several varieties of Aśokan letters. But these variations can be attributed to individual mannerism of the scribes. The simple angular form of Aśokan script shows that it was created during his reign. Actually the name Brāhmī was high jacked by Bühler for the script of Aśoka. It was simply because the Harappan writing was not before him. We have already discussed the issue earlier. The historical importance of this event has never been fully assessed. It proved to be the turning point in the history of India because Aśoka resolved to put to writing his sermon in a script that was created at his instance. Thus he initiated the tradition of writing for the people in a script now called Brāhmī (and Kharoùñhī also) that was evolved from the existing Sanskrit varëamālā. Aśoka started the tradition of writing the achievements of kings of stone, which, in due course of time was adopted by other kings who ourished after him. Not only this, the script was adopted by the people in general for its simplicity and also because they could write their own language with this. Its simplicity proved its strength and all other writing systems gone into oblivion because of, we can say now, their most complecated nature.
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References : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Bühler, G. Indian Palaeography, reprinted in Indian Studies: Past and Present, Vol. 1, No. 1, October, 1959, pp.18-20. Ibid The conjectural date of the Mauryas in fourth-third centuries BCE is unacceptable to us but we are following here only to avoid confusion. Ibid p. 15. Pandeya, Raj Bali Indian Palaeography, p.26 Bühler, op. cit. p. 18. Op. Cit. p.17-18. Ibid p. 18. Verma, T.P. The Palaeography of Brāhmé Script in North India: (from 236 B.C. to 200 A.D.), Varanasi, 1971, chapters 2, 3 and 4.
10. ^laLÑra uke nSoh okxUok[;krk egf"kZfHk%A* 11. ^rLek nsoekg okXoS izkP;O;kÑrkonr~ rs nsok bUnzeczoqu beka
uks okpa O;kdqfoZfr lks czohr~ oja o`.kS eáa pSoS"k p lg x`ákrk bfr rLeknSUnzok;o% lg x`árs rka bUnzks eè;rks ··oØE; oØE; O;kdjksr~ rLekfn;a O;kÑrk okxq|rs rLekr~ lÑfUnUnzk; eè;rks x`árs f}okZ;os }kS fg l ojkoo`.khr~ Ï* µrSfÙkjh;lafgrk ¼6-4-7-3½ 12. Vāgvā aindravāyavaþ. Maitrāyaëīyasaàhitā, 5.58. 13. Na kùarantītyakùarāni. Yajuñabhūùaëù parīkñā öīkā. 14. ^o.;ZUrs O;äa èoU;Ur bfr o.kkZ vdkjkn;%* —Quoted in Dr. Indra ^izkfr'kk[;ksa esa iz;qä ikfjHkkf"kr 'kCnksa dk
vkykspukRed vè;;u*] okjk.klh] 1973] i`‚ 1 15. In the study of history Europeans have thoroughly neglected this aspect because there is no place for the man who possessed language. The European scholars content themselves by calling varëamālä a syllable, inferior to alphabetic writing. 16. Dr. Indra, op. cit. p.2 and 4 of Bhūmikā. 17. ^;kU;Ttgkj ekgsUnzkn~ O;kls O;kdj.kk.kZokr~A injRukfu fda rkfu lfUr ikf.kfuxks"ins Ï* —Quoted in ^Hkkjrh; foKku
oSHko*] 2009] okjk.klh] i`‚ 139] iknfVIi.kh 18. Op. Cit., p.19 19. Mudrā Rākùasam of Viśākhadatta, Varanasi (Reprint 2001), Act 1. 20. It is matter of regret that this over emphasis resulted in exact pronunciation and exact meaning of the Vedas have been lost forever. This unlashes the arbitrary interpretations. 21. Op. Cit., p.18. 22. ^r{k|nh eulks osurks okd~* µ_Xosn] 9-97-22 23. ^;LekRdks'kknqnHkjke osna rfLeéUrjo nèe ,ue~* µvFkoZosn]
19-72-1 24. ^mr Ro% i';u u% nn'kZ okpa---- fo llzs tk;so iR; m'krh
lqoklk%* µ_Xosn] 10-71-4 25. Pandeya, R.B., Op. cit., p.25. 26. Lal, B.B., The Sarasvatī Flows On, New Delhi, 2002, p.132, g. 4.70. 27. Verma, T.P. 'The Chainpur Copperplate and the Muõóeśvarī Inscriptions, Itihas Darpan, Vol. XIV (1), 2009, pp. 69-78 and gures. 28. Thaplyal, K.K. and Srivastava, V.N., 'Maukhari Nareśa Īśānavarmā kā Devakalī Tāmrapatra', Bulletin of Museum and Archaeology, UP, Vol. 4142, 1988, pp.77-86 and gure. 29. 'Aà maïche' means 'this platform'. The word 'aà' occurs in the same sense in 4th RE, line 12 of Kalasi version and the 4th RE, line 17 of Mansehra version. 30. Barua, B.M. Açoka and His Inscriptions, Part I, Calcutta, New Delhi, 1968, p.16. 31. The Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, (1951) pp.285 ff. 32. Ibid, p.20 and 23. 33. Sircar, D.C., Select Inscriptions, (1965), Calcutta, p.72. 34. Bhikshu Dharmarakshita, Sāranātha (Hindi) 1961, Varanasi, p.105-06. 35. Verma, T.P., 'The Discovery of the Ratanpurawa Minor Rock Edict of Aśoka' Itihas Darpan, Vol. XIV (1) 2009, pp.62-68; Thaplyal, K.K., A New Aśokan Inscription from Ratanpurwa, 2009, Varanasi. 36. Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XXXVI, p.240. 37. Sircar, D.C. SI, I, p.35; RE XIII. 38. Ibid, p.40-44 and p.44-46. 39. Ibid, p.213 ff. 40. Cf. T.P. Verma's article 'Can Aśoka be identied with Nandarāja of the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela ?', in Prāgdhārā, No. 6, Journal of the U.P. state Archaeological Organization, pp.185-88. 41. RE VIII, ^lks nsokuafi;ks fi;nlh jktk nlolkfHkflrks larks
v;k; lacksfèkaA rsuslk èkae;krkA* 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.
Sircar, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XXXVI, p.244 Ibid, p.242 Ibid, p.245 Ibid, p.245 Ibid Sārnāth, Published by Department of Archaeology, India, 1956, p.11. Sāranātha (1992, 3rd edition), (Hindi) p.13. Sircar, D.C. Ep. Ind. Vol. XXXVI, p.247 Ibid, p.248 Ibid, p.244 For VIII Rock Edict, see Sircar, SI, I, pp.27-28. Ibid. Sircar, D.C. SI, I, p. 48 Verma, T.P., 'Fresh Light on the Origin of Brāhmī Alphabet' Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda,
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Writing in the Vedic Age, Harappan and Açokan writing
Vol. XIII, No. 4, June 1964, p.360. 56. Verma, T.P., Palaeography of Brāhmī Script in North India, Varanasi, 1971, p.8. 57. Taylor, The Alphabet, Vol. II, p. 289; quoted in my article in JOI, vol. XIII, July 1964, p.366. 58. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, pp.112-13; quoted in The Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, 1951, p.584.
Bibliography: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
_Xosnlafgrk rSfÙkjh;lafgrk eqnzkjk{kle~ egkdfofo'kk[knÙkiz.khra] okjk.klh] iqueqZfnzr] 2001 eS=kk;.khlafgrk Barua, B.M. (1968) Aśoka and his Inscriptions, Part I, Calcutta-New Delhi, 1968 Bühler, G. Indian Palaeography reprinted in Indian Studies: Past and Present, Volume I, No.1, October 1959. Dharmarakshita, Bhikshu, (1961), lkjukFk] okjk.klh Indra, Dr. (1973), izkfr'kk[;ksa esa iz;qä ikfjHkkf"kd 'kCnksa
dk vkykspukRed vè;;u] okjk.klh 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Lal, B.B. (2002) The Sarasvatī Flows On, New Delhi Lucy, Zuberbühler (2009), A Comparison of a Manuscript with the Indus Script, University of Bern. Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.) (1951) The Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.) (1951) The Vedic Age, fourth impression, 1956, Bombay Pandey, R.B. (1957) Indian Palaeography, Varanasi Sachau, Edward C, Alberuni's India, rst Indian reprint, 1964. Sircar, D.C. (1965) 'Ahraurā Inscription of Aśoka', Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 36, pp.239-248. Sircar, D.C. (1965) Select Inscriptions, Volume I, Calcutta. Sudyumn Acharya, (Ed.) Hkkjrh;&foKku&oSHko]
okjk.klh] 2009 18.
19. 20. 21.
Thapalyal, K.K. and Srivastava, V.N. (1988), ^ekSf[kjh&ujs'k bZ'kkuoekZ dk nsodyh rkezi=k*, Bulletin of Museum and Archaeology, UP, Volume 41-42, pp. 77-86. Thapalyal, K.K. (2009), A New Aśokan Inscription from Ratanpurawa, Varanasi. Verma, T.P. (1964) 'Fresh Light on the Origin of Brāhmī Alphabet' Journal of Oriental Institute, Baroda, Volume XIII, No. 4, June 1964. Verma, T.P. (1971) The Palaeography of Brāhmī Script in North India (from 236 B.C. to 200 A.D.),
22.
23. 24.
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Varanasi. Verma, T.P. (1995-96) 'Can Aśoka be identied with Nandarāja of the Hathīgumpha Inscription of Khāravela ?' Prāgdhārā, No. 6, Journal of the UP State Archaeological Department, pp.185-88. Verma, T. P. 'Discovery of the Ratanpurawa Minor Rock Edict of Aśoka, Itihas Darpan, Volume XIV (1), pp.62-68. Verma, T.P. 'The Chainpur Copperplate and the Muõóeśvarī Inscription, Itihas Darpan, Volume 14 (1) pp.69-78.
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Fig. 1: Indus Manuscript and the container box. Photograph of the artefect with wooden box and lebel. Media identity number SN05 1000, 7805 in : Western Himalaya Archive, Vienna, 2009
Fig. 2 Birch-bark manuscript in Harappan Script. Photograph of lower portion of mss. Media identity number SN05 1000, 7086 in: Western Himalaya Archive, Vienna, 2009
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Fig. 3 : Left bottom corner of the manuscript showing different layers with traces of writing. Partial enlargement of bottom left-hand corner of media identity number SN05 1000, 7086 in : Western Himalaya, Vienna, 2009
Fig. 4 : Indus seal and specimen from the manuscript showing similar sequence of letters
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Fig. 5: Mohenjo-daro: Writing tablets (takhtīs) represented in terracotta. Mature Harappan
Fig. 6 : A third century BCE Terracotta plaque. It shows a child pointing out one of the Brāhmī alphabets written on takhtī.
Fig. 7 : Copperplate inscription (Gupta period) written on wooden shape writing plaque
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Fig. 8 : Copperplate inscription (6th century CE) on the similar shape plaque
Fig. 9 : The Site plan of Sarnath showing the site of Dharmarājikā-stupa (left) and Dhamekh-stupa (right)
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Goyal, Prof. S.R., Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.58-64, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Çramaëism as Dissent and Protest against Brähmaëical orthodoxy Prof. S.R. Goyal *
Meaning and Nature of Çramaëism ramaëism was an integral part of ancient Indian religious life and Çramaëa sects and religions had become an important part of Indian religious tradition by the sixth-fifth century B.C.—almost as important as the Vedic or Brähmaëical religion, if not more. But the origin and early growth of some features of Çramaëism can be traced back more than two millennia before Christ, though it is rather difficult to be sure whether or not Çramaëism had a pre-Vedic and non-Vedic origin. The difficulty in answering this question arises from the facts that many features of Çramaëism are found in the earliest strata of the Vedic literature and the nature and components of Çramaëism continued to change and transform in the course of its growth and development. The term çramaëa became popular with Buddhism and Jainism though the Taittiréya Äraëyaka uses it to denote a particular class of sages.1 In the Båhadäraëyaka Upaniñad it is used with the term Täpasa.2 Gradually it became a general term for the monks of the various heterodox sects. The Dégha Nikäya, the Indica of Megasthenes and the inscriptions of Açoka indicate that the heterodox sects claimed for the Çramaëas equality of status with the Brähmaëas. Let us start our enquiry of ancient Indian Çramaëism with the characteristic of Çramaëa sects of the age of the Mahävéra and Buddha and then try to find out, if we can, since when these characteristics are traceable in our sources—linguistic, literary and * Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of History, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur (Rajasthan); Residence : 41-A, Sardar Club Scheme Jodhpur-342 001 (Rajasthan)
archaeological. Of the Çramaëa sects of the sixth-fifth centuries BC, Buddhism and Jainism occupy the foremost rank. Along with them there were other sects which have left no independent literary documents. They are frequently criticized by the Buddha and Mahävéra in their discourses. These discourses do not always represent their best side; probably they do not always represent even the correct picture of their doctrines. The common features of all these sects, which differentiate them from the orthodox Brähmaëical tradition, seem to have been the following : 1. The Çramaëas generally believed in the nivåtti (other-worldly) ideal as opposed to the pravåtti (this-worldly) ideal of the Vedic Brähmaëical society. Consequently they observed a set of different ethical norms. 2. The Çramaëas were traditionally wanderers. Indeed wandering constituted an important part of their discipline. 3. Besides wandering, the Çramaëa sects believed in tapas or physical austerities and brahmacarya (celebacy). 4. They observed the practice of begging of food (bhikñäcaryä ). 5. The Çramaëas organised themselves into monastic orders (saàgha) which revolved round a preceptor usually called Arhat or Térthaìkara. Usually a set of more liberal rules were prescribed for the laity. 6. As against the Brähmaëical system, they could take to a life of renunciation any time after crossing the age of minority without fulfilling their social and domestic obligations. 7. Çramaëa sects usually believed in the Saàsäraväda (theory of transmigration) and 60
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Karmaväda (theory of karma) and practiced a detached life with a view to liberating themselves from the bondage of the world. They did not regard ritual and sacrifices as essential for human well-being or for their final liberation. 8. They did not believe in caste system, denied the superiority of the Brähmaëas as a caste and admitted into their gaëa or saìgha, at least theoretically, everybody irrespective of his caste, gender and äçrama. 9. They generally denied that there existed an allpowerful god or that the universe was created by him. And lastly; 10. They challenged the authority of the Vedas as divinely revealed texts. All these characteristics of Çramaëism are found in greater or lesser degree in almost all the Çramaëa sects of the age of Mahävéra and the Buddha, though emphasis given on each of them differed from sect to sect. Their attitude to the concepts of transmigration and karmaväda was also not always similar. They differed on these questions from the Brähmaëa thinkers and also with each other. Çramaëism and Nivåtti Ideal An intertwining of Pravåtti and Nivåtti ideals seems to have been a feature of Indian religious tradition from the very beginning. Writing some time in the pre-Christian era the author of the Manu-smrti observed : 'pravåttam ca nivåttam ca dvividham karma Vaidikam'. (12.88). Later on in the Introduction to his commentary on the Gétä, Çaìkaräcärya also observed that the Vedic religion is two-fold—Pravåtti dharma and Nivåtti dharma ('Dvividho hi Vedokto dharmaù Pravåttilakñaëo Nivåttilakñaëaca').3 Scholars like Jacobi and Oldenberg basically accept this thesis and attribute the rise of the Nivåtti dharma (gnostic and ascetic tradition) to a reformist school within the Vedic tradition and regard Buddhism and Jainism as continuations of this reformist tendency. Some others such as S.K. Chatterji and R.P. Chanda believe that the two tendencies may be attributed to different ethnic traditions— Äryan and non-Äryan, the ascetic tradition being the contribution of the latter. Some other historians feel that the ascetic movement arose as a result of the break up of tribal economy and other socio-economic changes which were concomitant with the Second Urban Revolution.4 According to G.C. Pandey, however, it would not be correct to think of Pravåtti and Nivåtti as belonging to two different ethnic and historic strata. Even in the Indus Civilization, he argues, one can discern
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both these tendencies—Pravåtti dharma in the worship of Mother-Goddess and fertility cult and Nivåtti dharma in the worship of Paçupati and Yogic tradition. However, he also admits that the Vedic religion was 'in the beginning essentially Pravåtti dharma but later on partly through its own inner evolution and more through the influence of the Muni Çramaëas it developed Nivåtti dharma as a tendency within its fold.'5 Çramaëism as a Tradition of Wanderers According to V.S. Pathak, like the Greek telos and the Vedic caraëa, the Çramaëas originally belonged to a tradition of wanderers.6 After a study of the cognate words in Indo-European languages, he has come to the conclusion that the primary meaning of Çramaëa, Samana, is a wanderer, a peripatetic, and that the wandering or peripatos was regarded as a religious practice and that Çramaëa practice was current in the proto-Vedic period. Like the Çramaëa the Vedic Caraëa, from the root cara, to move, was also originally an organization of the Vedic wanderers. But unlike the Çramaëa the Vedic Caraëas were devoted to various gods, whom they invoked and to whom they offered oblations. Thus, the primary meaning of Caraëa was a group of wanderers from which the secondary connotation of persons moving and dwelling together i.e., establishing temporary colonies devoted to various gods, developed. Thus, in the Ågveda supplicant desires to have an accommodation in the divine Caraëa, in the heavenly enclosure where the king Vaivasvata rules. In the Çatapatha Brähmaëa after the completion of the Samiñtha-Yajuñ sacrifice, the invited gods are dismissed to their respective Caraëas— Vyavasrijatiyatra yatra yeñäm caraëam.7 Again, in the same work it is stated that the Caraëa of Rudra is beyond the Mujävat mountain. Then, Caraëa also expresses the specific manner of performing rites of devotion and sacrifice to the deities. These religious practices were transmitted and remembered through generations. And lastly, the Caraëas were transformed in the Vedic assemblies, where different recensions of the Vedas were studied and taught. Like Sanskrit cara the Greek word telos also originally indicated the early Greek organization of wanderers. Initiation rite was performed for admission. And like Caraëa it eventually became a group of priests with their social and mystic rites.8 Tapas (Austerities) as a Feature of Çramaëism An essential feature of Çramaëism was tapas, that is
62 austerities. It was unknown to Ågvedic religion though it was gradually imbibed from the non-Vedic sources by the later Brähmaëism.9 Tapas was different from Yajïa in that by the latter were attained worldly success, wealth, children and heaven while the former helped in obtaining mystic superhuman faculties. Later, the gods were also supposed to perform tapas as they were expected to offer sacrifices.10 At several places in the Atharvaveda çrama occurs along with tapas. Moreover, in the various sects from the Äjévikas to Buddhists, austerities were accepted in varying measures as the core conduct of discipline, indicating thereby that they formed a part of the primitive Çramaëa tradition. The word tapas indicates selfdiscipline through bodily torture. Tapas in this sense may not be confused with tapas meaning heat. It has two different meanings derived from two different roots.11 There is hardly any evidence of asceticism or physical mortification as a religious practice in the Ågveda. However, in the Atharvaveda, it was recognized as a path of spiritual realization. In the primitive Çramaëa tradition asceticism or tapa was, of course, an important element. Brahmacarya and bhikñäcaryä as features of Çramaëa Discipline Positively speaking the primitive Çramaëa tradition was also characterized by brahmacarya (Brahmacäréya). At least this may be asserted with some confidence that brahmacarya was the most essential and integral part of the Çramaëa discipline. In the Pälé literature, Brahmacäréya is mentioned almost as a synonym of Sämanya or the essence of Samana.12 Expressing the attainment of the Çramaëa status, a verse frequently occurs in the Nikäyas which means : "The birth is eliminated, the discipline of Brahmacäréya is successfully completed. There is nothing beyond." Again, criticizing the false doctrines, it is argued that if they are accepted as true, we would be compelled to accept the absurd position that Çramaëya can be obtained even without Brahmacäréya. Rhys Davids, and following him B.M. Barua, even held the view that "the order of Çramaëas or bhikkñus originated from Brahmacäréns." Though like the Brähmaëas, the Çramaëas observed the practice of begging the food (bhikñäcaryä ), yet in the Çramaëa tradition brahmacarya had a quite different connotation. In the beginning among the Brähmaëas the term
[Vol. XVIII (1) 'brahmacarya' meant the observance of certain rules requisite for the study of the Vedas and the one who studied them near a teacher was called Brahmacärén. The first stage of human life thus attained the name of brahmacaryaçrama. But in the Aupaniñadic age, Brähmaëa came to mean the Ultimate Truth. Therefore, now brahmacarya came to signify living a particular system of life conducive to the attainment of the highest truth.13 In the Çramaëa tradition also the term Brahmacäréya was identified with the way of life leading to the Ultimate Truth. Thus, while the original meaning of the term was expressive of an äçrama, the new meaning denoted the spiritual exertion and training of anyone coming from any class or caste in the context of the ascetic code. It is generally in the latter sense that it is used in the Buddhist literature. The life that a Çramaëa, seeker of the truth, had to lead in this stage was naturally not an easy-going one. It involved difficulties regarding his food, clothing, shelter, etc. which led to the belief that self mortification and severe austerities were the only source of emancipation. Devadatta's demand to introduce more strict rules in the Buddhist saìgha might have been motivated by a genuine feeling occasioned by the general atmosphere around him in the midst of which the Buddhist monastic rules appeared very worldly and relaxed.'4 The Jainas, viewing from their own standpoint, accused the Buddhists of a luxurious living because the Buddhist doctrine of the 'Middle Way' tended to minimize the hardships involved in Brahmacäréya. Here a reference may be made to the Brahmacäré cult of the Ågveda. According to R.N. Dandekar,15 it had close affinity with Rudra and phallus worship. They are mentioned in the Brahmacäré Sükta of the Atharaveda (11.5). The views that the Sükta refers to the Vedic student or Brähmaëa or sun have been challenged by Dandekar. According to him, the object of the Sükta is the glorification of a cult which was known as the Brahmacäré cult. Its members followed a life of rigorous discipline, clothed themselves with heat (garma), stood up with fevour (tapas)16 and acquired special virile powers. Many of their features remind one of the Rudra-Çiva cult. For example, the Brahmacäré is described as being followed by the Gandharvas (11.5.2) whose association with RudraÇiva is well-known (cf. the Keçi-Sükta of the Ågveda). The most striking evidence in this connection is the description of the Brahmacäré as the possessor of great penis (båhacchepa) and the
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sprinkler of the seed (retaù siïcati). It makes it quite clear that his cult was a part of the culture complex to which the Rudra and Liìga worship belonged. From the above discussion it is quite obvious that in the Middle Vedic Age, that is in the age of the Later Saàhitäs and Brähmaëas, Liìga worship became comparatively more popular and despite its non-Vedic origin began to claim increasingly greater recognition among the Vedic Äryans themselves. The Ågvedic åñhis prayed (Ågveda, 7.21.5), 'let not the 'Çiçnadevaù' enter our sacrificial paëòäla'. This and other such derogatory references to Çiçnadevaù are most likely to the phallic worshippers of the Indus Civilization. But gradually along with the transformation of the personality of Rudra, ideas concerning phallic worship found entry in the Vedic religion. The Taittiréya Äraëyaka (2.7) refers to Vätaraçana sages who were Çramaëas and Ürdhvamanthis. According to Säyana, the term Ürdhvamanthi means Ürdhvaretäs i.e. 'one whose semen goes up'. It obviously indicates their claim of control over sexual passions and reminds one of the description of the Vrätyas in the Païchaviàça Brähmaëa as samanécameòhra (one whose penis hangs low through control of passion) and of the Brahmachärés as båhacchepa (possessors of great penis). The increasing popularity of the Liàga worship in the Vedic age is indicated by some other passages of the Atharvaveda. At one place (10.8) it describes the Skambha as co-extensive with the universe and comprehends in him the various parts of the material universe and also the abstract qualities. In this connection it is said that he who knows 'the golden reed (vetas) is the mysterious Prajäpati'. Significantly, the word vetas used here in the sense of reed has been used in the sense of membrum virile in the Ågveda (10.95.4-5) and the Ç.B. According to Rao,17 "It is the same Skambha that has given birth to the story of Siva's appearance as a blazing fire between Brahmä and Viñnu when they were quarreling about the superiority of one over the other." There are also many phallic ideas and rites depicted in the Vajasaneyé Saàhitä, Taittiréya Saàhitä, Maiträyaëi Saàhitä and the Çatapatha Brähmaëa. In the Çvetaçvatara Upaniñad (4.11.5.2) Rudra is described as the Lord of Yonis thus indicating his close association with the worship of Yoni, and indirectly with the worship of Liìga. Concepts of Tértha and Térthaìkara In contrast to the theocentric telos and charaëa, the
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Çramaëa organization revolved round the preceptor called Arhata and Térthaìkara. In the Ågveda, arhan in general connotes the idea of worshipful, venerable, but in particular it denotes Agni as the proto-type of human priest, who officiates at the worship of the gods. In Pälé and Ardhamägadhé, arhata is an enlightened being, a spiritual teacher analogous to a prophet. According to Buddhaghoña, "arhatahood consists in the destruction of the spokes of world wheel." Likewise, in the Dhavalä-öékä arhata is explained as ari-hananät. "On account of destroying the spiritual enemies in the form of blemishes", arihanta is so called. This in itself is historically significant. The concept of Térthaàkara is also of remote antiquity. Tértha originally meant a ford or a bridge. According to V.S. Pathak, the concept of Térthaìkara is a non-Ågvedic and pre-Ågvedic concept. Since it is found in the majority of the Çramaëa sects, it might have been a part of the primitive Çramaëa tradition. In the Çramaëa tradition arhata-Térthaìkara singly enjoys the high status which is shared together by the priests and gods in the Vedic caraëas. The Vedic priest leads the yajamäna to the god. The arhataTérthaìkara leads the seeker to himself or to his own teachings. It is almost a blind alley which stops at the arhata-Térthaìkara who through his teaching ensures the progress of his follower in his journey beyond the miserable world. In the Vedic fold, it is only in the Upaniñads that the importance of guru is accepted, but there too he occupies the pedestal with God— yathä deve tathä gurau.'18 Monasticism Çramaëism is essentially asceticism which developed into monasticism. In the early period most of the renouncers 'left' society as individuals. Many characters of the Mahäbhärata such a Vidura and Dhåtaräñöra, numerous thinkers of the Upaniñads, some sensitive souls like Buddha and Mahävéra (before they established their own orders) and the Sarmanes and Brachmanes described by the historians of Alexander (who did not belong to any particular sect) were all individual renouncers. Thus, the terms Çramaëa and the like denoted an individual who opted out of society, renounced social responsibilities and put himself in isolation. Such a person took upon himself the goal of discovering and becoming identified with the ultimate reality by resorting to austerity (tapas) and meditation (dhyäna). An individual renouncer who thus isolates himself totally is lost to society and other ascetics.
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But the parivräjakas and Çramaëas of the Upaniñads and later periods had, for various reasons, to identify themselves as groups rather than move about singly as individual wanderers. The social trends in the mid-first millennium BC were not always helpful to wanderers. They were often seen as people escaping social responsibilities. In such a situation individual renouncers could confront their critics as members of a sect and its leader could act as a powerful head of such a sect. The social ineffectiveness of the actions of individuals was made obvious by the effectiveness of the group. But in order to be effective as a group a physical habitation for it was necessary. This led to the evolution of the monasteries. The evolution of monasteries began with the need for a permanent residence during the rainy season when mendicancy was difficult. Such residences gradually acquired stability in the form of äräma, a park endowed by an individual to the saìgha, such as the Ämbavana of Jévaka at Räjagåha. Ultimately the settlements of bhikñhus expanded into vihäras or regular monastic complexes.
sedentary, often living in hermitages sometimes with their families, although claiming to conform to celibacy all the same. These came to be called Vaikhänasas.20 Brähmaëa orthodoxy was not sympathetic to city-dwellers and restrictions were placed on snätakas visiting cities. The wanderers were often the dissidents. "The questioning of the orthodox tradition had started prior to this period, but what was new was the emergence of various sects such as the Nirgranthas, the Äjévakas and later the Buddhists, not to mention various Cärväka sects as well. The dissidence of these groups was, however, qualitatively different since they were not individual dissenters but had organized their dissent into sects."21 Whereas the individual ascetics were figures of loneliness working out their salvation each one for himself, the Çramaëa sects were concerned about other people and this concern was expressed in their desire to lead others along the path which they had found. Inherent in this social concern was the realization of the importance for the search for truth which required a guide, Arhata or Térthaìkara.
In the Buddhist saìgha, the general assembly of monks was the supreme authority and even its head had to accept its decision. Every ordained monk was a member of the saìgha and all monks living within the jurisdiction of a particular monastery had to be present at the uposathä assembly. Ownership of property vested with the saìgha and never with the individual monk. The monastery was not the place for those seeking absolute freedom. For them asceticism in isolation was preferable.'19 The monastery provided an alternative only to those who opted out of social obligations but were willing to abide by the discipline of the group life.
Protest against the authority of the Vedas and the Idea of God Indian philosophy is usually divided between the 'orthodox' and 'unorthodox' schools. This distinction is drawn in terms of their acceptance or nonacceptance of the authority of the Vedas. In philosophy it means that "the Vedas contain the ultimate philosophical truth, and that the test of the truth of a philosophical position is whether or not it is in accordance with what is written in the Vedas."22 But on the question of what constitutes the Vedas different religious and philosophical schools differ radically. The authoritative Vedas themselves were originally thought to be only three in number (Trayé). Later, the authority of the Atharvaveda, the fourth Veda, began to be accepted. In any case, the Vedas were always held to be plural in number.' 'Moreover, their authority was not equally or securely established even in the Vedic age. Further, on the most conservative estimate, it took them at least a thousand years to assume their present form. It is obvious that during this time their authority was never such as to preclude the possibility of making further additions to them. This proves that at that time their authority could not have been absolute. In later ages even among those who believed in their authority, there was always a difference of opinion regarding the portion of the Vedas which was to be regarded as authoritative, and regarding which subject matter, and for what purpose. The Mémäàsä,
In the Later Vedic literature terms such as tapasvé, çramaëa, saànyäsé, parivräjaka, yogé, etc. occur more commonly. They are suggestive of renunciation, or casting aside one's social obligations, of the taking on a life of austerity, and above all of wandering from place to place. The term parivräjaka is also often applied to young men who, having finished their education took to a life of wandering for a brief period before becoming householders. They were different from parivräjakas wandering in groups under the direction of a teacher or others loosely affiliated to some sect. Many wanderers lived on the outskirts of towns while those of a markedly ascetic disposition retired to places more isolated. Some Brähmaëa ascetics were
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for example, does not only deny the Upaniñads the privilege of being counted among the corpus of Vedic authority, but also contends that any utterance which is not a pure injunction, that is, either a command or a prohibition, is not to be considered as Veda."23 The Vedänténs, on the other hand, recognize the authority of the Upaniñads, but not of the Upaniñads alone. They also recognize the authority of the Gétä and the Brahmasütra, which are definitely not regarded as a part of the Vedas by anybody. Equally, they give scant recognition to the authority of the non-Aupaniñadic portion of the Vedas. Thus, for Vedänta as well as for Mémäàsä, the term Veda is restricted not only to certain portions of the classical Vedic literature, but also to some of the their contents or subject-matter. The Vedas, in this way, enjoy only a very circumscribed authority, even for Mémäàsä and Vedänta.24 No wonder if the Çramaëa sects did not subscribe to the apauruñeyatva of the Vedas. The Buddhists as well as the Jainas have attacked the authoritativeness of the Vedas in many other ways. They argue that the Vedas refer to particular persons and places and hence could not be prior to these. They sometimes also preach obviously faulty doctrines and hence cannot be regarded as authoritative. The human authorship of the Vedas may be clearly deduced from the fact that they speak of passions, violence and falsehood. The argument that the Vedas have no author because none is remembered proves precisely nothing except the failure of the memory of the person giving this argument. If someone fails to remember something it does not follow that something did not exist. The Vedas themselves speak of their human authors. The various Vedic recensions are thus ascribed to different sages like Kaëva etc. Obviously they are human compositions like other compositions. The doctrine of the apauruñeyatva of the Vedas rests on the assumption that they are texts revealed by God. But the Jainas and the Buddhists oppose the doctrine of theism as much as the authenticity of the Vedas. They not only argue for a personal authorship of the Vedas but also deny their authority. They seem to hold that "Religious faith requires an authentic revelation but that does not need to be identified with the Vedas. Nor is it necessary that the revelation should proceed from the creator of the universe. To be authentic the revelation should come from a person who is fully knowledgeable about spiritual matters and is free
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from all motivation except that of compassion and helpfulness towards suffering humanity." The Buddhists and the Jainas thus accept omniscient human teachers as the source of their religious scriptures and do not feel the need of accepting the existence of God for that purpose. It is thus clear that the atheism of the Çramaëa sects relates only to the idea of a personal creator of the world not to the idea of a religious saviour. The Buddha and the Jina are in one sense hardly to be distinguished from God. They are omniscient as also the saviours of mankind and are in this sense exactly like God in His aspect of grace. Therefore, it may be held that 'Çramaëic atheism is not a variety of irreligion but of religion. It faces the evil and suffering of life squarely attributes it to human failings rather than to the mysterious design of an unknown being. It stresses the inexorableness of the moral law. No prayers and worship are of any avail against the force of Karman. It emphasizes self-reliance in the quest for salvation. Man needs to improve himself by a patient training of the will and the purification of feelings. Such purification leads to an inward illumination of which the power is innate in the soul or the mind. This is quite different from the Vedic view where illumination comes from outside, either from an eternally revealed word or from the grace of god. Çramaëism represents a sterner variety of religion where the consolation of a personal god is replaced by the guidance of a spiritual teacher which must be practiced by the individual himself on the basis of his own resources."25 References : 1.
Taittiréya Äraëyaka, 2.7 ('Vätaraçana ha vä åñayaù çramaëi ürdhvamanthino babhüvuù'). 2. Bådäraëyaka Upaniñad, 4.3.22. 3. Gétä, Çankara's Commentry, Gétä Press edition, p.1. 4. For references see Pande, G.C., Çramaëa Tradition : Its History and Contribution to Indian Culture, Ahmedabad, 1978, pp.4-5. 5. Pande, G.C., Studies in the Origins of Buddhism. Allahabad. 1957, p.261. 6. Cf. Pathak, V.S., his Preface in S.R. Goyal's A History of Indian Buddhism, Meerut, 1987, pp.xiii-xxiii. 7. Even now after the recitation of a kathä gods are requested to retire to their respective abodes. 8. Pathak, op. cit., p.xv. 9. Cf. Jain, Bhagchandra, 'Antiquity of Çramaëa Cult', 'World Buddhism, XV, No. I, pp. 3 ff.; also 'Asceticism' in ERE, Vol. II. 10. Chakraborty, H., Asceticism in Ancient India, Calcutta, 1973, p.9, n. 18. 11. Pathak, op. cit., p.xvii. 12. Ibid., p.xvi.
66 13. Cf. Pande, G.C., Origins, p.331. 14. Mishra, G.S.P., The Age of Vinaya, New Delhi, 1972, p.40 15. Dandekar, R.N., Rudra in the Veda, Poona, 1953, pp.6-7 16. Cf. the description of the Indian ascetics as seen by Alexander's historians. 17. Rao, T.A.G., Elements of Hindü Iconography, II, i, Madras, 1914, p.571 18. Pathak, op. cit., p.xx 19. Thapar, Romila, Ancient Indian Social History, Hyderabad, 1978, p.87 20. Ibid., p.69 21. Ibid 22. Daya Krishna, Indian Philosophy—A Counter Perspective, Delhi, 1996, p.8. 23. Ibid, pp.8-9 24. Ibid 25. Pande, G.C., Çramaëa Tradition, p.73
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Lama, Dr. G.K., Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.65-74, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Megalithic Culture: A prelude to the subsequent economic growth in peninsular India and the Deccan Dr. G.K. Lama *
he period from c. 1000 BC to 300 BC in South India and the Deccan was marked by the presence of Megalithic cultures. The term 'megalithic' is derived from the Greek words μέγας (megas), i.e., huge and lithos, i.e., stone. The Megaliths are thus structures built of large, undressed or roughly dressed stones erected normally in the memory of the dead and occur generally above the ground. These monuments have been discovered from various regions of the Indian subcontinent and reveal a great variation in their forms and structures, yet they represent, in the Indian context, a homogeneous culture dominated by two key elements:
Sangam literary traditions in Tamil Nadu, on the other. It may be noted that in south India there has been no Copper-Bronze Age but only the Iron Age that emerged straight from the Neolithic stage. One reason for it may be the paucity of copper as against the iron sources which occur in Hyderabad and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesha, Bellary and Dharwar districts of Karnataka, and Salem and Tiruchirappalli of Tamil Nadu.
(a) Use of iron tools and weapons and, (b) Familiarity with a polished and well-red pottery called black-and-red ware. The food-grains and artifacts found at the Megalithic sites indicate that the people followed for their subsistence agro-pastoral and hunting activities. They also indulged in craft activities and were procient in making objects of various metals which, besides iron, included gold, silver and copper/bronze. Though the origin, chronology and authorship of the Megalithic cultures are still being debated, their historical signicance lies in the fact that they represent the earliest iron-using communities in south India. More signicantly, they provide an important evidence of linkages between the southern Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures on one hand and the early historical period, characterized by the Sàtavàhana rule in the Deccan and the
* Asst. Professor, Deptt. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University
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Distribution of the Megalithic monuments and their structural forms Since 1823 when Babington published for the rst time an account of the Megalithic tombs in the Malabar region of Kerala, a number of new sites with a variety of Megalithic structures have been reported from all over India except the IndoGangetic plains, the Rajasthan desert and the parts of Gujarat. These are, however, largely concentrated in the region of peninsular India and the Deccan i.e. south of River Narmadà. Mårti (1994: 4-5) who has recorded about 2000 Megalithic sites from south India alone points out that maximum of these are located in Karnataka which has 665 sites, followed by Tamil Nadu with 607 sites, Andhra Pradesh with 300 sites, Kerala with 270 sites and Maharashtra with 91 sites. Among the important Megalithic sites reference may be made to Adichanallur and Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu; Porkalam in Kerala; Brahmagiri, Hallur, Maski, Saüganakallu, Tekalakota and Banahalli, close to the Kolar mines, in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda and Yelleshwaram in Andhra Pradesh; and Naikund, Mahurjhari, Junapani, Talakghat, Khapa, all around the town of Nagpur in Maharashtra. In northern India, these are found located in Allahabad-Mirzapur-Varanasi region of eastern Uttara Pradesh, Almora in
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Uttaranchala, Gufkaral and Burzahom in Kashmir, and Leh in Ladakh. The Megalithic structures are also reported from the Baluchistan area in Pakistan. In north-east of India, i.e., Assam and Meghalaya, the Megaliths constitute a part of a tradition still living among the natives. The Megalithic monuments distributed over a wide area reveal a great amount of regional variations in their structural forms and burial arrangements. Many burials contain only a few fragmentary bones whereas in some instances none is found. There is also evidence of multiple skeletons in one single burial. The structural forms of the Megalithic monuments have been classied by Krishnaswami, Allchin and others in different types. These include: (a) Cist-circles, i.e., burial chamber excavated in a rock or a box-like cofn of stone formed of slabs on sides and covered on the top by one or more horizontal slabs, surrounded by stones in the form of a circle; (b) Cairn-circle, i.e., pile of stones heaped up in the form of circle to mark a memorial or a tomb; (c) Menhirs, i.e., an upright stone standing alone or in alignment with others; (d) Dolmen, i.e., a tomb made by laying a large at stone across several upright stones; (e) Sarcophagi, i.e., legged urns of pottery, decorated with animal heads, containing human bones. One such urn has been found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. In Kerala, there are some typical forms of Megalithic monuments called Topi-kal/kallu and Kudai-kal. In Topi-kal a conical stone with wide circular base rests on four upright stones or pillars making a square below the balanced stone. Kudaikal (lit. umbrella stone) on the other hand refers to a hood-stone which without any support rests directly on the ground to conceal the burial below it. In the Deccan, the most dominant form of Megalithic burial is the Cairn-circle. In Kashmir, Menhirs form a single form of megalithic monuments, whereas pits carved in rocks are more common in Mirzapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Megalithic monuments similar in forms and shapes to those found in India have also been
reported from other eastern and western parts of the world, but the inter-relationship between them, if any, is not clear. Some scholars such as Leshnik assign these similarities to the migration of people from foreign land to India (Leshnik.1974:84), but many scholars today favour the idea of an indigenous origin of the Megalithic structures of south India. K.A.R. Kennedy on the basis of skeletal studies rules out the possibility of any large scale migration of people into south India from outside during this period (Kennedy.1992:57). Parpola argues that the Indian Megaliths may have been Aryan in origin while Soundararajan attributes them to the local non-Aryan people (Soundararajan.1985:9-14). The debate on the origin of the Megaliths is still on. Chronology Chronologically, no denite time period can be assigned to this culture. A number of C14 dates available from Megalithic sites broadly fall between the range of late second millennium BC and the early centuries of the Christian era. McIntosh (1985: 469), on the basis of combined analysis of radiocarbon dates and the tool-types, dates this culture from 1100 BC to 100 BC. U.S. Murti (1994:5) assigns it to a period from c. 1200 BC to 300 BC, and adds that the Megalithic traditions continued to linger on up to the early centuries of the Christian era. He prefers to divide the whole Megalithic period into two broad phases – early phase up to 500 BC, and later phase from 500 BC onwards, and argues that it was only after the sixth century BC that the use of iron became more prominent in the economic activities, leading to agricultural and artisanal progress in southern India. Material Culture The material culture of the Megalithic people is reected in their pottery types, metallic objects and the food-grains obtained from various sites in peninsular India and the Deccan. One of the chief features of the Megalithic Cultures is the use of black-and-red ware. It is made of ne paste and is wheel-turned and well-polished. It reects advancement in ceramic technology, and includes such types of wares as bowls, lids and dishes. A signicant aspect of the Megalithic pottery is the occurrence of grafti marks on some of the pots. B.B. Lal once pointed out that these marks are very similar to the characters found on the Harappan
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seals and therefore, there could be a close relationship between the Megalithic and the Harappan cultures. However, the process and the factors of this relationship are not clear. It has been argued that these could be just potter's marks. Another distinctive element of the Megalithic culture of peninsular India is the plentiful use of tools and weapons made of iron. These include a wide range of artifacts for different purposes such as hoes, sickles and axes for agriculture; dishes and tripod-stands for domestic use; chisel and nails for artisanal activities; and, swords, daggers, spears and arrow-heads for war and hunting. The daggers had tangs (a long projecting point of a handle). Among other noteworthy nds reference may be made to headornaments of horses from Mahurjhari, near Nagpur in Deccan. These are made of copper sheets with iron-knobs. The evidence of a furnace built of curved bricks from Naikund, near Nagpur, and of a large quantity of iron slag i.e., rough waste left after smelting iron, from Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu suggests that iron smelting was a local activity in these areas. Mårti (1994: 42) refers to no less than 68 iron smelting sites in south India. The high percentage of pure iron found in the iron artifacts from Deccan indicates a great professional skill on the part of the local ironsmiths (Deo. 1985: 22]. The culture of south Indian Megalithic people is sometimes described as the “Iron Culture of South India”. The iron arrowheads and spearheads from Hallur (Distt. Dharwar, Karnataka) have been dated, on the basis of C14 dates, to around 1200 BC. The earlier assumption that the beginning of iron in India should be associated either with the coming of the Aryans from northwest or with the supposed dispersal of Hittite monopoly of iron technology from West Asia should now be discarded. Chakrabarti argues that, as iron artifacts found in southern and central India are of an earlier date than those recovered from northwestern India; India may be accepted as a 'separate' and 'independent' center of iron technology during ancient times (Chakrabarti.1991:22). Besides iron, the objects of gold, silver, copper/bronze, though found on a lesser scale, indicate that the Megalithic artisans were procient in working out these metals as well. The items of
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gold such as bangles, rings, earrings and beads have been recovered from various sites including Adichanallur (Tamilnadu), Maski (Karnataka), Nagarjunikonda (Andhra Pradesh), Mahurjhari and Junapani (Maharashtra). Studs and beads of silver have been reported from Junapani and Nagarjunikonda (Thapar. 1994:7). The copper objects such as bangles and dishes have also been found from many sites. Copper lids of dishes with nials (tops) in the form of perching birds have been recovered from Khapa, near Nagpur and Adichanallur. The Megalithic people also used beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian and agate as ornaments. Beads of shell and horn have also been found at some sites. Settlement Pattern A close analysis of their settlement pattern would show that the Megalithic people preferred to choose areas which could offer them necessary resources required by them. Thus, their settlements are found located near either a hilly area which could provide them stone for their graves, or the mining area from where they could obtain iron, gold or other metals for their tools, weapons and ornaments, or a waterfed region which could offer them an opportunity for agricultural activities (Deo. 1985:94).The structural remains at Brahmagiri, Paiyampalli, Hallur, etc., indicate small patches of oor with post-holes. It suggests that the Megalithic people lived in modest forms of houses made of timber. The size of the settlements varied from one hectare to eight hectares. It may indicate some sort of hierarchy of settlements. Murti has identied 26 large settlements which, as he believes, could have served as regional centers of political or economic power (Murtri.1994:47). The habitational sites of the Megalithic people discovered so far are, however, much less in number than their burial sites. The reason for it is not clear. Leshnik (1974) takes it to indicate pastoral or semi- settled agriculturist way of life of the Megalithic people but others believe that it could be because of lack of intensive regional survey. Socio-Economic Features The subsistence economy of Megalithic people was based on mixed agro-pastoral activities and their diet included agricultural products as well as hunted animals. The evidence, though limited, suggests that while people in central India produced items like
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wheat, barley and lentil those in farther south cultivated rice, millet, green gram, etc. The frequency of rice in southern sites may suggest that the Megalithic people in south India took more to rice eating than those in central India. Smaller oor area of the houses, limited quantity of food-grains and comparatively much smaller number of agricultural tools such as sickle and hoes in comparison to spears and arrowheads found at the Megalithic sites indicate that the people were basically pastoral people with limited or marginal agricultural activity (Deo.1985:90). But the available evidence suggests that the Megalithic society was composed of various social groups which, besides hunters and agriculturists, included specialized groups of artisans and craftsmen such as potters, ironsmiths and goldsmiths who could not have survived without some surplus production. The evidence of storage jars from certain sites also supports it. It seems the Megalithic people in the beginning followed a pastoral way of life but later, particularly after 500 BC, when they started using iron on a larger scale, there was a gradual progress in the eld of agricultural and artisanal activities, particularly in the riverine tracts. In archaeology, the visible material remains of the past are treated as an index to the invisible socio-economic life of the Pre-historic societies. Thus, the objects found at the Megalithic sites throw light not only on the technological skills and craft activities of the people, but also help us in gaining some insight into their social organization. For example, the presence of gold ornaments, distinctive iron daggers with copper hilt, embellished lids of copper dishes, arrowheads and horse ornaments in the graves clearly imply that the person buried was not only economically important but also enjoyed special political or social status, may be as a chief or a warrior, in comparison to the persons in other graves with minimal of funeral objects. While analysing of grave goods U.S. Murti argued that the Megalithic people of south India had probably a “ranked society” dominated by a “chief”. He is also of the view that the high percentage of adult males in the graves may in all probability indicate a patriarchal nature of the society in which males occupied a special social status. However, in view of the lack of complete data, it is not possible to draw a full and nal picture of the Megalithic society. The question of economic or cultural
contacts among contemporary Megalithic societies or between Megalithic and non-Megalithic societies also remains unclear. But the presence of non-local goods in certain graves does suggest some economic alliance or gift-exchange between different local chiefs. It is possible that the Megalithic people with their mastery over metallurgy might have entered into some sort of exchange relationship with the non-Megalithic people to procure the semi-precious stones or other goods in return for iron tools and weapons. It is noteworthy that many of the Megalithic sites are situated on the ancient highways or trade routes, and it is likely that some of these may have served as centers of regional trade or exchange. In this context, the presence of a large number of minor rock-edicts of A÷oka in the region of south Indian Megaliths is quite signicant as these may indicate an attempt on the part of the Mauryan king to collect and exploit the south Indian resources for the benet of his empire. The funerary goods placed systematically along with the dead bodies are indicative of people's faith in burial rituals and their belief in life after death. It is pointed out that ancestor worship is an important medium to claim and sustain the power of the succeeding chief and, therefore, it is possible that the megalithic graves represent the prevalence of ancestor worship among the people. But it is just a surmise. Prominent Megalithic Sites in India Adichanallur It is an urn burial site of the south Indian Megalithic Complex and is situated in Dist. Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu. It was rst excavated by Alexander Rea between 1885-1905 and later, in 2004 by the Archaeological Survey of India. It has brought to light a total of 157 urns out of which 57 are found intact. The complete body of a dead was put in the urn covered with another urn in a “twin-pot” system. The artifacts found along with the skeletons include pottery, particularly black-and-red ware, copper bangles and earrings, and iron spearheads. Urns were inserted after cutting the rocks in the form of a pit, obviously with the help of iron implements. The site is believed to have been an important industrial centre. It is evident from the presence of a large number of iron tools and weapons which include axes, hoes, spades, and swords having different forms of blades. The remains of a potter's kiln and a smith's workshop have also come to light. The gold ornaments found
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in the graves include a diadem worn on the head. The evidence of gold diadem is intriguing as gold does not occur at Adichanallur nor at any nearby place, and must have been brought from outside as a result of exchange or trade contact. An important discovery is that of an urn having a grafti or a short inscription in Tamil-Brahmi script dated to around 500 BC. Brahmagiri It is situated in the Chitradurga district of Karnataka, South India, where a set of A÷okan minor rock edicts (third century BC) were discovered. Excavated by Wheeler in 1947, it has revealed a sequence of three cultural periods: Period I- Neolithic-Chalcolithic, (early 1st millennium to 2nd century BC); Period. II- The Megalithic culture (2nd century BC to the rst century CE); Period. III- ândhra-Sàtavàhana, (middle of the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE). The Megalithic period is characterized by the use of iron implements and weapons such as sickle, knife, sword, spear and arrowheads. The pottery is well polished black-and-red ware. Grafti are frequently noticed on the pottery. Rouletted ware is also reported in the debris. Among ornaments shell-bangles and beads of shell, terracotta and jasper have been found. An important feature of the Megalithic Culture is the disposal of the dead in stone cist i.e., an excavated pit enclosed by a circle of stones, containing funeral goods in the form of iron implements, beads etc. Burzahom It is situated on an ancient lake-bed, locally known as karewa, about 2 km from the Dal Lake and 16 km north-east of Srinagar in Kashmir. It is primarily a Neolithic site but has also revealed the evidence of menhirs associated with the Megalithic Cultures. Burzahom, excavated in 1960s, is better known for its unique pit-dwellings, a developed bone tool industry and human-cum-animal burials. The earliest cultural phase at the site is dated to 2800 BC (calibrated). The people used to live in pits cut into the natural soil. These pits are circular or oval in plan, narrow at the top and wide at the base. Some of the deeper ones are provided with steps. Postholes on their periphery suggest a thatched roof as a protective cover against the bad weather.
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Cunningham and Sutherland who reviewed the socalled pit dwellings in Kashmir argue that these pits were meant for storing only. Among lithic components of the site mention may be made of chisels, pounders, mace-heads, and most importantly harvesters which are rectangular in shape with a crude cutting edge and two or more holes on either side. Bone tools are most prolic and form a diagnostic trait comprising harpoons for shing; needles, daggers and arrowheads for hunting; and scrapers for treating hides. There is no direct evidence of the cereals grown, but a stone quern found in a pit does indicate the use of food grain in their diet. The remains of animal bones of cattle, sheep and goat, along with the presence of shhooks indicate that hunting and shing were an important source of subsistence. The site has reported numerous human and animal burials. Humans were mostly buried in pits dug into the house oors. A hole in the skull of a skeleton suggests the ancient practice of trepanning, may be to draw out an excessive uid. An interesting feature of human burials is that sometimes pet animals such as dogs are found buried along with the dead in the same pit. Some burials reveal animals placed in a planned manner. It may have an association with some ritual practice. The animals represented in the burials are antler deer, humped cattle, wolf, goat, sheep, etc. The horse is missing completely. Among other important nds, reference may be made to about 2000 carnelian and agate beads found in a pot. There has also been found a stone slab with an engraving depicting a hunting scene in which an antler deer is being pierced from behind with a long spear by a hunter while an arrow is being shot by another hunter from the front. Hallur It is situated on the left bank of the river Tungabhadra in Dharwar district of Karnataka. The site excavated by Nagaraja Rao in 1960s represents two cultural phases : a. Neolithic-Chalcolithic and b. Megalithic. The rst phase is marked by the use of polished stone axes, stone blades and copper shhooks whereas the Megalithic burials contain blackand-red ware together with arrowheads, spearheads,
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knife-blades made of iron and also beads of bone, carnelian and gold. The vegetal remains of millet and the animal bones of cattle and sheep indicate a pastoral form of economy for the Megalithic people. A noteworthy feature of Hallur antiquities is the C14 dating of 1100 BC (1300 BC when calibrated) for the iron objects found here. It is taken as an indication of an early use of iron in south India. It was argued that early growth of iron industry in the south could be possible because of the fact that it has many iron sources whereas the supply of copper is greatly restricted (Korisettar.2002: 186). Mahurjhari It lies 150 km west of Nagpur in the state of Maharashtra. It along with Junapani, which lies close to it, marks an important Megalithic site where a number of stone-circled burials of different dimensions have been found. These burials normally contain one skeleton but in some cases more than one body is buried. These burials have also yielded black-and-red ware, objects of iron, copper and gold objects, etched and unetched beads of agate and carnelian. The iron tool-kit comprises at rectangular axes, lances and spears. There have also been found horse face-masks (blinkers) of copper sheets with iron knobs riveted to it. Maski It is situated on a tributary of the River Tungabhadra in Raichur district of Karnataka. It has revealed a set of A÷okan Minor Rock Edicts which signicantly mention the name of A÷oka as their author. Archaeologically, the site is important for the remains of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic and the Megalithic Cultures. Neolithic Culture dated to latter half of the second millennium BC is dominated by microliths and ground stone implements. The raw material used for them includes chert, agate and carnelian. Copper has a restricted presence. The pottery is mostly plain though there are also some painted pieces. Animal remains include those of sheep, goat and cattle. It is followed by the Megalithic culture which is represented by the introduction of blackand-red ware and iron. Iron is well represented in the burials as well as in the habitational deposits. The objects include lances, arrowheads and daggers. Among the beads of various materials, one of gold
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has also been found. The Megalithic period is assigned to the 1st millennium BC. Naikund It lies 45 km north-east of Nagpur in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. It is a Megalithic habitation site and has yielded a number of stone-circle graves. The people lived in circular huts having wooden posts to support a thatched roof. The antiquities found here include iron daggers, spears, axes, blackand-red ware as well as the charred grains of wheat, common pea, lentil and black gram. The remains of horse and its copper ornaments have also been reported. The site offers an important evidence of iron-smelting. It is conrmed by the presence of the remains of a furnace built of curved bricks and a clay pipe for blowing in the air. Around the furnace is found iron slag and a fragmentary iron axe. S.B. Deo opines that the site came to be occupied rst by the Megalithic people in around the 7th century BC. Paiyampalli It is situated in the north Arcot region of Tamil Nadu. The excavations conducted here in 1960s have revealed an overlap of Neolithic with Megalithic cultures. The lower levels have yielded Neolithic tools and implements whereas the upper levels contain Mesolithic black-and-red ware and the related antiquities. The tools of the Neolithic period consist of bone and stone implements, former being represented by points and scrapers, and the latter by stone blades, mace-heads and axes. Querns, pestles, pounders have also been found. No metal is reported in the Neolithic levels. In the Megalithic period, however, iron is used profusely for making sickles, knives, spearheads, arrowheads, etc. The use of gold ornaments by the Megalithic people is attested by the recovery of a stone mould of a goldsmith. The beads of semi-precious stones and shell have also come to light. The Megalithic people lived in circular or long houses of thatched roof supported by wooden posts. Their burials consisted of stone-circles, and these have revealed a deposit of iron weapons and black-and-red pottery. The subsistence economy of the people during both Neolithic and Mesolithic periods appears to be agriculture and cattle rearing, supplemented by hunting and shing. The radiocarbon dates of Megalithic phase at the site range from 7th century BC to 4th century BC. Piklihal
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It is located in Raichur district, about 25 km west of Maski in Karnataka. It is an extensive site where Allchin noted the remains of an essentially Neolithic habitation with ash mound. The material remains related to the iron-using megalith people have also been reported. In the Neolithic period, which is divided into early and later phases, people domesticated cattle, sheep and goat and cultivated millet and pulses. They used hearths for cooking and saddle querns for grinding. There is also some evidence of the use of copper for bowls. NeolithicChalcolithic period overlaps with the Megalithic Culture which is marked by the use of black-and-red ware and iron object such as sickle, knife and arrowheads. The site has also revealed rockpaintings, bruising and engravings on the hillock. These paintings are mostly in red ochre and depict, besides animals, dancing human gures, and belong to Pre-historical as well as Historical periods. Sanaganakallu This site is situated 5 km north-east of the town of Bellary in Karnataka. Excavated in 1960s, it has brought to light a cultural sequence from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic and has also yielded the Chalcolithic and Megalithic material remains. The hills of the area contain number of rock bruising or sketches depicting gures of men, animals and birds. Palaeolithic period is represented by chopper-chopping and ake tools. It is followed by a microlithic industry of the Mesolithic phase marked by quartz akes and lunates. The Neolithic phase reveals houses having circular oors with post-holes at the edge to support the roof above. The stone tools which belong to this phase are axes, chisel and blades, and these are made on chert and chalcedony. The beginning of the Neolithic is dated to c. 1600 BC. The Megalithic evidence is found overlapping with the Neolithic culture and is marked by the use of black-and-red ware. Other important discovery of the site is the ash mounds containing heaps of burnt cattle dung. Robert Foote for the rst time associated these ash mounds with the Neolithic culture. Later, Allchin suggested that these were cattle-camps of the Neolithic people. Recently, K. Paddayya has argued that these were habitation sites of the sedentary pastoral people. The debate on the nature and character of the ash mound
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is still on. Takalghata It lies 32 km west of Nagpur in the state of Maharashtra. It, along with Khapa which lies close to it, marks an important Megalithic site of the Vidarbha region. Takalghata is a habitation site whereas Khapa is a burial site. The excavations have revealed the presence of typical Megalithic pottery i.e., black-and-red ware with grafti. Its shapes include bowls, lids and dishes. There is also evidence of etched and unetched beads of carnelian and agate. The iron artifacts include at axes and daggers. The animal bones encountered in the excavations have been identied as those of cattle, pig and horse. Copper dishes with lids with a top having motifs of perched birds have also been reported. The Megalithic burials at the nearby site of Khapa reveal that sometimes more than one person were buried in the same grave. Another interesting feature of the Khapa burials is that sometimes horse along with its face-mask (blinkers) and mounting gadgets was also buried by the side of the dead. The date assigned to the Megalithic Culture in central India is around 7th -6th century BC. Tekkalakota It is located in the Bellary district of Karnataka, south India. Excavated by Nagaraja Rao in 1960s, it is predominantly a Neolithic-Chalcolithic site with some remains of the Megalithic period. The Neolithic culture has been divided into two phases : (i) Early (1700 BC – 1600 BC) and (ii) Later (1600 BC – 1500 BC). The later one has the evidence of the use of copper. The site has revealed not only wellpreserved foundations of circular huts but also a large quantity of faunal remains including those of domestic cattle, sheep and deer. Charred bones indicate that meat was roasted. There is no evidence of cereals but the cultivation of horse gram is attested. The artifacts recovered in the excavations include copper implements and gold ear-ornaments, beads of steatite and semi-precious stones, besides microliths (lunates and trapezes) made on chert and chalcedony, and ground and polished axes. Bone tools consist of scrapers, points and borers. Antlers were also used as tool. The rock shelters near the site contain petroglyphs (rock-carvings) depicting bulls, dogs and humans. It is pointed out that
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Neolithic-Chalcolithic Culture of the site exhibits some afnity with the Chalcolithic Cultures of central India and the Deccan. Concluding Remarks In short, the Megalithic Cultures, though marked by diversity in time and space, are signicant because of the use of black-and-red pottery and the development in the eld of metal technology, particularly that of iron. The people followed for their subsistence a mixed agro-pastoral economy. The presence of specialized groups of artisans such as blacksmiths, goldsmiths, potters, etc., suggests that the Megalithic people did produce some agricultural surplus to meet the needs of their professional artisans. The signicance of the Megalithic cultures also lies in the fact that it forms a prelude to the subsequent economic growth in peninsular India and the Deccan during the early centuries of the Christian era. References: 1. Chakrabarti, D.K.1988. Theoretical Issues in Indian Archaeology. New Delhi. 2. Deo, S.B.1985. 'The Megaliths: Their Culture, Ecology, Economy and Technology', in S.B. Deo and K. Paddayya (eds.), Recent Advances in Indian Archaeology, Pune. 3. Kennedy, K.A.R. et al .1992. Human Skeletal Remains from Mahadaha, A Gangetic Mesolithic Site, Cornell University. 4. Leshnik, L.S.1974. South Indian Megalithic Burials. Wiesbaden. 5. Mc-Intosh, J.R. 1985. 'Dating of the South Indian Megaliths', in South Indian Archaeology , Naples. 6. Moorti, U.S.1994. The Megalithic Culture of South India: Socio-Economic Perspectives. Varanasi. 7. Soundara Rajan, K.V.1985. 'Middle Palaeolithic in India' in Archaeological Perspective of India since Independence. K.N. Dikshit (ed.).New Delhi. 8. Thapar, B.K. and A.K. Sharma (1994), 'Indian Megaliths in Asian Context'. National Museum, New Delhi.
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Fig. 1: Principal Megalithic sites of India
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Fig. 2: Megalithic types: 1.Menhir 2.Dolmen 3.Topi-kal 4.Kudai-kal 5.Cairn-circle 6.Multiple hood-stone 7.Series of M
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lw;ksZikluk ^g;flj* ds uke ls dh tkrh Fkh rFkk dq.Myh ekjs ukx] tks mÙkjh feò ds lezkVksa ds eqdqV esa vafdr jgrk Fkk] dks ^gsjlhlql* dgk tkrk FkkA bu 'kCnksa esa vk'p;Ztud :i ls tks lkE; gSµ ogh Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr ds izHkko dk |ksrd gSA blh izdkj lksiku;qä (stepped) fijkfeMksa dk fuekZ.k ¼2686&2613 bZ‚iw‚½ 'kqYclw=kksa dh x.kukvksa dks vk/kkj cukdj fd;k x;k 2 FkkA feòh&oSfnd laLÑfr dk loZizFke mPNsn jkseuksa] rnqijkar] bZlkb;ksa us vkSj lewy u"V djus dk dk;Z bLyke us fd;kA okLro esa /keZ&ifjorZu ls vkpkj&fopkj esa ifjorZu gksrk gS] ijUrq mldk ewy Lo:i cpk jgrk gSA dq'k}hi vFkok vÝhdk ds lkFk ;gh ?kfVr gqvkA ijUrq mudh iqjkdkyhu laLÑfr ,d uohu dysoj /kkj.kdj vkt Hkh lrr gSA
lfjrk uhy feò dks nks Hkkxksa esa foHkä djrh gSµ fuEuHkwryh; mÙkjh {ks=k ,oa ioZrh; Å¡pkbZ ij fLFkr nf{k.kh {ks=k esaA mÙkjh {ks=k ds jktkvksa dh /otk ij liZ@ukx cuk jgrk Fkk rFkk nf{k.kh jktdqy dk izrhd ';suµ ckt&i{kh ^gksjsl* FkkA dkykUrj esa bu nksuksa {ks=kksa ds ,dhÑr gks tkus ij ;g izrhd&fpÌ Hkh ,dhÑr gksdj ckt ds paxqy esa iats esa Q¡ls ukx&liZ ds :i esa LFkkfir gqvkA2
bZlkb;ksa dh gh Hkk¡fr eqlyekuksa us bl egk}hi ds okfl;ksa dks nkl cukdj jkseuksa dh Hkk¡fr fo'oHkj esa cspkA dkykUrj esa Hkkjr esa os xqyke eqlyeku cuus ds ckn efyd vacj&tSls ot+hj cus vkSj ,d nwljk Hkkjr ds dksad.k&{ks=k ds tathjuxj dk lqYrku cu cSBkA3&v
';su vFkok x#M+ ds iats esa ncs liZ dh dYiuk feò esa dSls igq¡ph] blds fo"k; esa mudk izkphu lkfgR; ekSu gSA rF;r% ;g dFkk Hkkjrh;ksa ds lkFk ogk¡ xbZ gksxhA dkj.k gS fd fourk ,oa dnzq ds oa'ktksaµ x#M+ vkSj ukxksa dh ppkZ egkHkkjr ,oa Hkkxoriqjk.k esa of.kZr gS ,oa budh ppkZ rSfÙkjh;lafgrk ,oa 'kriFkczkã.k esa Hkh fo|eku gSA2
iqjkdky ls gh Hkkjrh;tu vk/kqfud bZjku] bjkd+] vjc] iyLrkbu&bt+jk;y] feò rFkk dq'k}hi ds vU; Hkkxksa esa okl djrs FksA bu rF;ksa dh vksj bafxr djrs gq, ,MoMZ iksdkWd us viuh iqLrd ^bf.M;k bu xzhl* esa fy[kk gSµ ^feòoklh vius dks lw;Zoa'kh ekurs gSa] lw;Z dh mikluk djrs gSa vkSj euq dks viuk vkfniq#"k ekurs gSaA ;gh rF; muds izkphu *3&vk i=kdksa ls Hkh Li"V gksrk gSA
egkHkkjr esa x#M+ }kjk liks± ds fouk'k ds mijkar] mudk 'kkYeyh o`{k ij foJke djuk] dq'k}hi ds lqekyh ns'k dh vksj ladsr nsrk gSA ;g Hkh mfüf[kr gS fd ukxyksd esa ¹ iwoZ izksQslj] dSalj&'kks/k] rcjht+ fo'ofo|ky;] rcjht] bZjku( laiknd] ^foKku&dFkk*] vkokl % ^foKku*] ifjlj dksBh dkds ckcw] nsodkyh ekxZ] QSt+kckn&224 001 ¼m0iz0½( nwjHkk"k % 05278&240176( lpyHkk"k % 9838382420
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fFk;kslksfQdy lkslk;Vh ds laLFkkid duZy vYdkV ds 'kCnksa esa] ^vkB gt+kj o"kZ iwoZ Hkkjrh;ksa us feò esa vkdj 4 Hkkjrh;&lH;rk dk foLrkj fd;k FkkA blh rF; ds izfr/ofu
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ok;qiqjk.k esa Hkh fo|eku gSµ ^vax}hia ;o}hia ey;}hi eso pA 'ka[k}hia dq'k}hia ojkg}hi eso p Ï* ,slh ekU;rk gS fd dq'k}hi jkepUnzth ds iq=k }kjk 5 'kkflr FkkA yadkifr jko.k ds lacaf/k;ksaµ ekyh ,oa lqekyh dk Hkh bl }hi ls laca/k Fkk] D;ksafd vkt Hkh vÝhdk esa ^ekyh* vkSj ^lqekyh* ds uke ls ns'k fo|eku gSaµ ^tEcqekys% lqekys'p nnkg Hkoua rr%A*
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dq'k}hi&fLFkr feò dh laLÑfr ds v/;s;rkvksa ds vuqlkj feò dk izFke jktoa'k] tks 3100 bZ‚ iw‚ esa LFkkfir gqvk Fkk] ds yksx feu ¼euq½ dks viuk iwoZt ekurs FksA bl jktoa'k ds ukS vFkok nl jktkvksa dh ppkZ gS] ftudk vfUre lezkV~ ^d* uke/kkjh FkkA7 ;g rF; Hkkjrh;&eUoUrj dh lR;rk dks fl) djrk gS] D;ksafd pk{kql euq ls NBosa eUoUrj dk izkjEHk gqvk FkkA pk{kql blds loZizFke iztkifr Fks rFkk iztkifr n{k vfUreA lEHko gS fd ;g iztkifr n{k feòh&mPpkj.k esa ek=kk ^d* 'kCn }kjk O;ä fd;k x;k gks] D;ksafd og ^d* /ofu n{k ds mPpkj esa e/;LFk gSA8 FkkWel eksfjl us vius xzUFk esa Hkkjr ds dq'k}hi ds lkFk laca/kksa ij i;kZIr izdk'k Mkyk gSA mUgksaus fy[kk gS] ^Hkxoku~ ij'kqjke us vius firk tenfXu dh gR;k dk izfrdkj {kf=k;ksa ls ysus ds fy, dq'k}hi ds ujHk{kh&ujs'k ØO;kf/kifr dk Hkh lagkj fd;k FkkA yksfgr lkxj dk fuekZ.k ;q) esa lagkj fd, x, {kf=k;ksa ds jä ls gqvk FkkA ØO;kf/kifr ds fe=k dSd;] ftls ;wukuh&bfrgkldkj ^vksjh;UVsl* (Orentes) ds uke ls Lej.k djrs gSa] us Hkh ij'kqjke ls ;q)dj e`R;q dk oj.k fd;k FkkA blds mijkUr ij'kqjke us dqfVy ds'kksa ds u`i egk';ke ,oa ';keeq[k] tks voZns'k esa jgrs Fks vkSj laHkor Cysfel (Blemys) vkSj vkjkdl ds ukeksa ls tkus tkrs Fks] Hkh nh?kZdky rd ;q)dj ijkLr gksdj ij'kqjke ds 'kj.kkxr gq,A ij'kqjke us bUgsa lfjrk dkyh&uhy ds lehiorhZ {ks=k esa okl djus dk funsZ'k fn;kA ;gh dFkk laf{kIr :i esa feò ds dfo 9 uksuql (Nonnus) }kjk of.kZr dh xbZ gSA vk/kqfud vÝhdk ds bFkksfi;k uked ns'k esa Hkkjrh;ksa ds clus dh ppkZ djrs gq, ;wukuh&bfrgkldkj b;wlsfc;l vkWQ+ lht+sfj;k ¼263&339½ us fy[kk gS fd ^fla/kq unh ds rV ds oklh 10 Hkkjrh; feò ds lehi bFkksfi;k esa cls FksA* Hkkjrh;ksa ds feò esa okl djus ds lUnHkZ esa csax 'kos
dk dFku /;krO; gS] ^vfr izkphudky ls Hkkjrh; feò dh uhy unh ds rVorhZ {ks=kksa esa cls FksA Lor% feòokfl;ksa dk vuqeku gS fd muds iwoZt fdlh vU; vn~Hkqr ns'k ls vk, FksA ;g fgan egklkxj ds rV ij clk iar vFkok ia[r ns'k Fkk tks Hkkjr ds vfrfjä dksbZ vU; ns'k ugha gks ldrkA11 Hkkjr ls feò ds iqjkdkyhu lEidks± dh ppkZ ls lEc) gS ogk¡ dk ,d f'kykys[k] ftlds vuqlkj feò ds lezkV~ 'kadjkg (Shankarah) vkSj mldh jkuh gki'ks iqV (Hapshe Put) us vius jkT; ds iztktuksa dks ukSdkvksa ij cSBkdj tyekxZ ls iar uked ns'k&Hkkjr&dh ;k=kk ij Hkstk FkkA ;g yksx egkHkkjr&of.kZr fla/kqlkSohj] ^vksfQj* (Ophir) uked LFky ij <+kbZ o"kks± rd jgus ds i'pkr~ vius ns'k lksus&pk¡nh] e;wj&ia[k] fofo/k izdkj ds jax vkSj O;k?kz&peZ ysdj okil x;sA muds feò igq¡pus ds iwoZ lezkV~ dh e`R;q gks pqdh FkhA ;g 12 ?kVuk 1800 bZ‚iw‚ dh gSA ¹mYys[kuh; gS fd e;wj dsoy Hkkjr esa gh ik;k tkrk gSA µlaikndº vÝhdk ds vU; HkwHkkxkssa dh Hkk¡fr Hkkjrh;ksa ds laca/k vk/kqfud ftEckCos&jksMsf'k;k ls Hkh izkphudky ls FksA ,slh ekU;rk gS fd ozkR;{kf=k; tu ^>ü* gksdj vÝhdk ds jksMsf'k;k&{ks=k esa x, Fks ftUgksaus twyq&;ks)kvksa dks tUe fn;kA bl rF; ds izek.k esa Jh dk'khukFk rSyax ysys us ^xqtjkrh* uked if=kdk ds vDVwcj] 1922 dh ^nhiefydk&vad* esa fy[kk gS fd ,srjs;czkã.k esa of.kZr gSµ ^ikfjo`rkUÑ".kk×NqDynrks e`xkUe".kkjs Hkjrks·nnkPNrEc}kfu lIr 13 p HkjrL;S"k nkS%"kUrsjfXu% lkphxq.ks fpr%---* bl ea=k ij lk;.kkpk;Z ds Hkk"; dk vuqokn fuEuor~ gSµ ^nq";Ur ds iq=k jktk Hkjr us e".kkj uked ns'k esa lqo.kZ vyadkjksa ls ;qä cM+s 'osr nk¡rokys gkfFk;ksa ds ,d lkS o`Un nku esa fn;sA bl egku~ gfLrnku ls jktk Hkjr dks egkdeZ dh mikf/k feyhA* ftl o.kZu esa ;g ea=k vkrk gS] ogk¡ ij ik¡p vkSj ea=k gSa vkSj vfUre ea=k dh O;k[;k gSµ ^egkdeZ HkjrL; u iwoZs ukijs tuk% fnoEeR;Z bo gLrH;ka uksnkiq% i×p ekuok---A* vFkkZr~] ,slk egkdeZ jktk Hkjr ds u rks iwoZtksa us fd;k Fkk vkSj u muds ckn fdlh vU; usA5 ,d iz'u tks lgt gh ekul
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
dks vUnksfyr djrk gS] fd ;g gkfFk;ksa ls ;qä fo'kky lqo.kZ;qä {ks=k e".kkj dgk¡ gS\ ^eSU;q,y vkWQ+ ft+;ksxzkQh* ls Kkr gksrk gS fd nf{k.k vÝhdk esa ftEckCos esa ^e".kk* uked LFkku gS tks vc ^e'kksukyS.M* dgk tkrk gS] ;gk¡ ij iwoZdky dh gh Hkk¡fr vkt Hkh lqo.kZ&v;Ld izpqj ek=kk esa fo|eku gS rFkk ml {ks=k ds HkXu Hkouksa ds vo'ks"k izkphu lH;rk dk ladsr nsrs gSaA gkfFk;ksa ds >q.Mksa ds fy, ;g {ks=k pfpZr gSA14 laLÑr Hkk"kk esa ^j* 'kCn ds yksi gks tkus ds ifj.kkeLo:i ;g LFkku e".kkj ls ifjofrZr gksdj Øe'k% ^e".kk* vkSj ^e'kksuk* vkSj Hkwfe dk okpd ^yS.M* 'kCn ls la;qä gksdj ^e'kksukyS.M* cu x;kA bl {ks=k ds izkphu okfl;ksa ds laca/k esa Hkfo";egkiqjk.k dk dFku iBuh; gSµ ^jFkkØkUrs ujk% Ñ".kk izk;'kksfoÑrkék%A vkeekalHkqtk losZ'kwjk% dqafpr ew)Ztk% Ï* vFkkZr~ ;gk¡ ds euq"; ¼twyq tu½ dkys] foÑr eq[kokys] dPpk ekal [kkusokys] ?kqa?kjkys ckyksaokys ohj gksrs gSaA5 bl izdkj la{ksi esa dq'k}hi esa Hkkjrh;ksa dh rhu Li"V /kkjk,¡ igq¡phaA vkfndky] >ü&dky] Hkjr&dky vkSj mlds ckn dh /kkjkvksa ds lkFk] ml ns'k ds okfl;ksa ls tks feJ.k gqvk] 5 ogh bl ns'k ds ^feò* uke dk dkjd cukA feò ds izkphu ukeksa] ;Fkkµ ^dfer* vkSj ^gfi* dk mn~Hko Hkh dqe`rµ dkyh e`nkµ feêh vkSj gfi&vi~ ls gS tks ty dk lwpd gS] ls laca/k j[krk gSA ;s nksuksa 'kCn ijks{k esa 5 lfjrk uhy ls tqM+s gq, gSaA lfjrk uhy dk mn~xe % feò dh lfjrk uhy Hkkjr dh lqjlfjrk xaxk dh gh Hkk¡fr ifo=k ekuh tkrh gSA ;g fo'o dh izeq[k ufn;ksa esa ,d gSA bl unh dk mn~xe ;wjksih;&'kkL=kKksa ,oa vUos"kdksa ds fy, ,d leL;k FkhA blds mn~xe ds fo"k; esa vusd vUos"kdksa }kjk fofHké /kkj.kk,¡ izfrikfnr dh xbZ FkhaA ijUrq os uhy unh ds mn~xe ds fo"k; esa loZLohdk;Z u gks ldhaA vUr esa iÉiqjk.k esa bl unh ds mn~xe dk tks fooj.k fn;k x;k Fkk] ogh lR; fl) gqvkA fczfV'k&vUos"kd tkWu gSfuax Lisds (John Hanning Speke : 1827-1864) Hkkjr dh bZLV bf.M;k dEiuh esa dk;Zjr FksA mUgsa duZy fixMh us tks lwpuk nh Fkh] mlds lkFk mUgksaus ,d Hkw&ekufp=k] tks iÉiqjk.k ds fooj.k ds vuqlkj
79
cuk;k x;k Fkk] Hkh fn;kA mlesa of.kZr Fkk fd pUnzfxfj igkfM+;ksa ls uhy unh izdV gksrh gSA tkWu Lisds us blh dks vk/kkj cukdj vius vUos"k.k ds mís'; dks lQy cuk;k rFkk iqjkdkyhu Hkkjrh;&vUos"kdksa ds iz;kl dh Hkwfj&Hkwfj iz'kalk dhA15 blh lUnHkZ esa ;g ppkZ lehphu gksxh fd Hkkjrh;&tu iqjkdky ls feò dks JhjkepUnz ds iwoZt egkjkt vt ds uke ls lEc) djrs FksA3v iqu% /;ku ;ksX; rF; laLÑr dk 'kCn ^uhy* gS tks uhy o.kZ dk |ksrd gSA bl 'kCn dk uhy unh dss fy, O;oâr gksuk gh bl rF; dk lwpd gS fd vjch&Hkk"kk vFkok izkphu feòh&Hkk"kk esa ;g 'kCn ugha Fkk( ;g Hkkjrh;ksa dh nsu gSA oSls Hkh Hkkjr esa izkphudky ls uhy ds ikS/kksa (Indigofera tinctoria) dh Ñf"k uhyk jax cukus gsrq dh tkrh FkhA bulkbDyksihfM;k fczVSfudk ¼vkaXy fo'odks'k½ Hkh ^uhy* 'kCn 16 ds laLÑr ls mn~Hkwr gksus ds rF; dks Lohdkj djrk gSA feò ds izeq[k nsoksa dk mn~Hko % feò ds izeq[k nsoksa dk mn~Hko Hkh ogk¡ ds okfl;ksa }kjk oSfnd tuksa dh Hkk¡fr [kxksyh; fi.Mksa ds] xzg&u{k=kksa ds nh?kZdkfyd fujh{k.k vkSj mudh xfr ls mRié ifjorZuksa dk ifj.kke gSA17 Hkkjrh;&T;ksfr"k dh lqnh?kZ ijEijkuqlkj eaxy] 'kqØ] vkSj loksZifj lw;Z vkSj pUnzek egÙoiw.kZ gSa D;ksafd ;s lHkh 18 izR;{k nso gSaA izkÑfrd n`'; fo"k; gaSA feò dh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr ds dkj.k ogk¡ eaxy xzg rhozrk ls pedrk gqvk iUnzg o"kks± rd yxkrkj fn[krk jgrk gSA ;g viuh nh?kZo`Ùkh; d{kk esa xfr djus ds dkj.k i`fFkoh ds vUrfj{k esa brus gh o"kks± ds vUrjky ij iqu% izdV gksrk gSA 'kqØ xzg Hkh blh izdkj feò ds uHke.My esa n`f"Vxkspj gksrk gSA eaxy xzg ds i`fFkoh ds lehi vk tkus ds ifj.kkeLo:i mlds xq#Rokd"kZ.k ls i`fFkoh dh xfr izHkkfor gksdj 360 fnuksa ds o"kZ dks tUe nsrh gS vkSj mlds viuh d{kk esa i`fFkoh ls nwj gks tkus ds dkj.k i`fFkoh ds o"kZ esa 5 fnuksa dh c<+ksÙkjh gks tkrh FkhA bl izdkj dHkh o"kZ 360 rks dHkh 365 fnuksa dk ekuk tkrk FkkA rF;r% ;g nksuksa o"kZ feò esa iqjkdky ls gh izpfyr Fks vkSj ogk¡ ij ,dhÑr iapkú 687 bZ‚iw‚ esa gh LohÑr gqvk FkkA19 ty&Iykou ds mijkar i`fFkoh ds ty ls Øe'k% izdV
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[Vol. XVIII (1) 20
gksus ds fo"k; esa tks vo/kkj.kk oSfnd ok³~e; esa fo|eku gS mlh izdkj dh vo/kkj.kk izkphu feò esa Hkh izpfyr FkhA ty&rÙo dks os ^uqr* (Nut) dgrs Fks rFkk /kjk ^xsc* (Geb) FkhA tks nso bl /kjk dks vUrfj{k esa fLFkjrk iznku djrk Fkk] og ^'kq* (Shu) 'kCn ls lEcksf/kr gksrk FkkA ty&Iykou ds mijkar eaxy xzg feò ds uHke.My esa dkQ+h Li"V vkSj lehi n`f"Vxkspj gksrk FkkA mldh tks Nk;k fnu esa i`fFkoh ls fn[krh Fkh] og ^nqvkr* (Duat) dgh tkrh FkhA ekU;rk Fkh fd ;g nqvkr uqr ds 'kjhj esa okl djrk gSA eaxy xzg ij vusd ioZr vkSj e#Hkweh; {ks=k esa fo|eku fo'kkydk; fooj] feòokfl;ksa dks ekuo dh vk¡[k dh Hkk¡fr fn[krs FksA blh dkj.k mudh dYiuk ds foLrkj us f{kfrt ¼eaxy ds lUnHkZ esa½ ij fLFkr ^gksjsl vke v[ksr* (Hores am Akhet) dks tUe fn;kA ;g nso gksjsl ekuo dh vk¡[k ds :i esa fpf=kr fd;k x;k FkkA ¼ns[ksa fp=k 1½ eaxy xzg dk mÙkjh /kqzo yxkrkj 15 o"kks± rd feò dh Hkwfe ds lEEkq[k jgrk FkkA ifj.kkeLo:i /kjk ds leqnz esa Tokj dh rjaxksa us leqnzh pêkuksa ds fNnzksa dks vk?kkr }kjk pkSM+k dj fn;k gksxkA bu vusd fNnzksa ls èkjk ds xHkZ esa ty ds izfo"V gks tkus ds ifj.kker% tks foLQksV }kjk rIr ykok leqnz ds Åij fudyk gksxk] mldks ns[kdj feò ds iqjkdkyhu mikldksa us vkò dh] vkslhfjl ¼xzhd 'kCn½ dh (Asar =k Osiris) dYiuk dh gksxhA feò dk muds izkphu uxj FkhCl dk vknj.kh; nsork ^vrsu* (Aten) vFkok ^vkequ* (Amun) oSfnd bUnz vkfn ds led{k FkkA Hkkjrh;ksa dh Hkk¡fr gh feòoklh iqutZUe esa iw.kZ vkLFkk j[krs FksA e`R;q ds mijkar ifjofrZr vkRek dks ^[kuqe* (Khnum) uked nsork dk laj{k.k izkIr gksrk FkkA ;g Nk;k esa ^nqvkr* (Duat) esa okl djrk FkkA ;g feòh&fp=kksa esa HksM+ ds lj;qä fo'kkydk; iq#"k ds :i esa fpf=kr fd;k x;k FkkA feò ds nso&ifjokj esa gksjl (Horus) ';su:ih nsork gS] tks vUrfj{k esa O;kIr jgrk gS rFkk ;g pUnzekµ bZfll (Isis) dk iq=k ekuk tkrk FkkA vkslhfjl (Osiris) feò dk izeq[k nsork FkkA bldh ekrk uqr (Nut) FkhA blds tUe ds le; vkdk'kok.kh gqbZ Fkh fd fo'o dk fuekZrk mRié gks x;k gS tks dkykUrj esa feò dk jktk gksxkA blus feò esa lH;rk vkSj f'kYiKku dk izpkj djus ds mijkar fo'o ds vU; ns'kksa dks lqlaLÑr cukus dk dk;Z
izkjEHk fd;kA bl gsrq og vusd ns'kksa esa x;kA mldh vuqifLFkfr esa mldh iRuh bZfll (Isis) jkT;&dk;Z ns[krh FkhA viuh 28&o"khZ; ;k=kk ds mijkar feò okil vkus ij lsr (Set) us vius 27 lg;ksfx;ksa dks ysdj vksflfjl dh gR;kdj] mlds 'kjhj dks ,d lanwd esa cUndj uhy unh esa Mqcks fn;kA vius ifr dh gR;k dh lwpuk ikrs gh bZfll] mldh yk'k dh [kkst esa fudy iM+hA mls irk pyk fd og lanwd lfjrk uhy ls cgrk gqvk ckbCyksl (Byblos) uked LFkku ij tk igq¡pk gS ftlij ,d beyh dk o`{k mx vk;k gSA lanwd ml o`{k ds rus ds Hkhrj FkkA ogk¡ tkus ij bZfll dks Kkr gqvk fd ml o`{k ds rus dks jktk us vius Hkou esa LrEHk ds :i esa yxk fy;k gSA jktk ls bZfll dh cgqr izkFkZuk ds mijkar mls rus ds e/; fLFkr lUnwd izkIr gqvkA ml lanwd esa fLFkr 'ko dks ysdj feò okil vkus ij bZfll vius iq=k gksjl dh [kkst djus pyh x;hA blh e/; lsr (Set) us iqu% vksflfjl ds 'ko dk pkSng VqdM+ksa esa dkVdj leqnz esa cgk fn;kA ijUrq bZfll us isikbjl (Papyrus) dh uko ij cSBdj ml leqnz dh ;k=kkdj vksflfjl ds 'kjhj ds lHkh vaxksa dks ¼ek=k mlds f'k'u dks NksM+dj½ izkIr dj fy;kA bZfll dh leqnz&;k=kk dk mRlo 5 ekpZ dks 'kjn _rq ds vUr gksus ij vkt Hkh euk;k tkrk gSA dkykUrj esa gksjl us vius fir`gUrk dh gR;k dj nhA vksflfjl dk izkphure fp=k feò ds lezkV~ ukjesj (Narmer : 3300-4000 BCE) ds dky dk gS 19 tks iw.kZr% lajf{kr gSA feòh&lH;rk ds v/;s;rkvksa dk ekuuk gS fd vkslhfjl ds tUe ds le; gqbZ vkdk'kok.kh lEHkor% c`gLifr xzg ij gq, mYdkfi.M ds vk?kkr ds dkj.k mRié gq, czãk.Mh; /kwy&d.kksa dh o"kkZ ls tqM+h gS] ftldh ppkZ fo'o ds izR;sd izkphu lH;rk esa gS vkSj bl ?kVuk us vusd feFkdksa dks tUe fn;k FkkA ,d vuqeku ds vuqlkj bl ?kVuk ds dkj.k rhu gtkj o"kks± rd i`fFkoh ij O;kIr /kwy&d.kksa us czãk.Mh; 19 liZZ&'ks"kukx dh dYiuk dks Hkh tUe fn;k gksA vkslhfjl ds vaxksa dks 14 [k.Mksa esa dkVdj leqnz esa folftZr djus dh feòh&dFkk Hkkjrh;&lUnHkZ es iztkifr n{k ds frjLdkj ls {kqC/k lrh ds izk.k&R;kx vkSj blds mijkUr f'ko }kjk muds 'kjhj dks ysdj urZu RkFkk fo".kq }kjk muds 'kjhj dks 21 Hkkxksa esa dVdj iwjs Hkkjr esa fc[kj tkus ls vrho lkE;rk j[krh gSA vlEHko ugha fd Hkkjrh;ksa ds lkFk lrh dh dFkk us feò esa igq¡pdj ifjofrZr Lo:i /kkj.k dj fy;k gksA21
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
21
21 izkphu feò dk nso&ifjokj % izkphu feò ds nsoksa vkSj nsfo;ksa dh fo'ks"krk Hkkjrh; nso&nsoh ifjokj dh gh Hkk¡fr gSA Hkkjrh;&lUnHkZ esa vUrj ek=k bruk gS fd i'kq vkSj i{kh] tks nso&nsoh ifjokj ls tqM+s gSa] muds okgu gSa vkSj ,d&nks mnkgj.kksa dks NksM+dj dksbZ Hkh Hkkjrh;&nso vFkok nsoh i'kq&i{kh eq.M;qä ugha gSaA
vequ (Amun) % feò dh izkphu uxjh FkhCl dk vkjkè;&nsorkA ;g lw;Z ls la;qä gksus ds mijkar ^vequ&jk* dgk tkrk FkkA izkjEHk esa czãk dk ,d :i ekuk tkrk FkkA dkykUrj esa ;g nso uhyo.khZ ysdj] eksj eqdqV/kkjh gksdj Ñ".k dk feòh&izfr:i cu x;kA vkur (Anat) % lhfj;k;h mn~Hko dh <ky vkSj ij'kq/kkjh nsohA Hkkjrh;&nsoh nqxkZ dh led{kA
csl (Bes) % flagLo:i dk y?kqdk; nsork tks liks± ls j{kk djrk FkkA efgykvksa ds izlo esa lgk;dA
,sntks (Edjo) % feò ds MsYVk&{ks=k dh ukxnsohA eqdqV/kkjh nsoh tks jktk dh j{kk djrh FkhA xsc (Geb) % Hkwfe dk nsork urq (Nut) dk ifrA gkih (Hapy) % ck<+ ¼ty&Iyoku½ dk nsork tks lj ij isikbjl fy, fpf=kr jgrk gSA
gkFkksj (Hathor) % xks&LdU/k/kkfj.kh] nsoh] fefEQl] dwlsl] xsosyhu vkfn {ks=kksa esa iwT;A
vuwfcl (Anubis) % ;g vuiw (Anpu) uke ls Hkh Le`r gSA Ük`xkyksa] eeh lajf{kr djusokyksa rFkk udZ dk nsorkA
gkresfgr (Hatmehit) % esUMsl dh eRL; nsoh tks dHkh&dHkh eNyh dks lj ij fy, fpf=kr dh tkrh gSA ;g nsoh lqesj esa vkdj feò esa Lohdk;Z gqbZ gksxh rFkk lEHkor% ;g pfpZr fQ'keSu ¼eRL;korkj½ ds Lo:i ifjorZu dk ifj.kke gksA
vuqdsr (Anuket) % ^vku Dor* uke ls Hkh Le`r] feò ds vkloku {ks=k ds if{k;ksa dh eqdqV/kkj.kh nsohA vkjlkQsl (Arsaphes) % bls ^gsjh'ksQ* (Heryshaf) Hkh dgk tkrk FkkA ;g HksM+&es"k ds lj;qä nsork FkkA vkrsu (Aten) % lw;Z ds fi.M dk nsork tks vk[ksukrsu (Akhenaten) }kjk iwftr FkkA
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gsdsr (Heqet) % nknqjksa dh nsoh tks izlo&ihM+k esa fL=k;ksa dh lgk;d gksrh FkhA bZfll (Isis) % fo'onsoh] vksflfjl dh cgu vkSj iRuh rFkk gksjl dh ekrkA 'kok/kkuksa dh jf{kdk feò ds ^Qsyh* uked LFkku dh izeq[k mikL; nsohA pUnzek dk izfr:iA ¼ns[ksa fp=k 9½
vrqe (Atum) % laf{kIr esa rqu (Tun)] ghfy;ksiksfyl dk nsork tks lw;Z ds leku Fkk rFkk ;g iq#"k&Lo:i esa fpf=kr fd;k tkrk FkkA
nsoA
ckLrsr (Bastet) % ^okLr* (Bast) uke ls Hkh Le`r ethj&fcfü;ksa dk nsork] ftldh mikluk cqcklfrl {ks=k esa gksrh FkhA
ekr (Maat) % lR; vkSj drZO;fu"Bk dh nsoh tks lj ij 'kqrqeqZxZ ds ia[kksa dh /kkj.k djrh FkhA
[kuqe (Khnum) % iqutZUe ls lacaf/kr
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[Vol. XVIII (1)
eksUFk (Month) % feò ds jktkvksa dk ';su&lj;qä] ;q) dk nsorkA eqr (Mut) % vkequ ds iRuh] izkjEHk esa x`)ksa dh nsoh] dkykUrj esa L=kh&:i esa fpf=krA usQsjrqe (Nefertum) % dey dk nsork] eksEQsl esa ikrg ds iq=k ds :i esa iwftr] Hkkjrh; fo".kq ds led{k] deyksa dk eqdqV/kkjh iq#"k :i esa fpf=krA
ikFk (Path) % esefQl dk tud] nso&f'kfYi;ksa dk nsork] Hkkjrh; iztkifr fo'odekZ ds led{kA Dokns'k (Qadesh) % lhfj;kbZ&mn~Hko dh flag ij lokj nsoh] Hkkjrh; flagokfguh nqxkZ dh led{kA js (Re) % jk ds :i esa Hkh Le`r losZ'oj oSfnd lw;Z bUnz ds led{kA
usgscdkÅ (Nehebkau) % liks± dk nsork] ekuo&:i esa gksjl dh vk¡[kksa lfgr fpf=krA jsusuwVsV (Renenutet) % izté ,oa vé dh nsoh] tks lw;Z vFkok liZ/kkfj.kh L=kh ds :i esa fpf=kr dh tkrh Fkha uhFk (Neith) % ^usr* uke ls Hkh lEcksf/kr] izkphu lkbl esa iwT;] yky eqdqV&/kkj.kh] <ky vkSj rhjksa ls lfTTkr] 'koksa dh jf{kdk nsoh] tks ;wukfu;ksa dh ,fFkuk (Athena) nsoh ds :i esa Lohdkj dh x;hA usf¶+Fkl (Nephthys) % ^usosrgsr* uke ls Le`r bZll dh cgu feò dh pkj lajf{kdk dk nsfo;ksa esa ls ,d] 'koksa dh jf{kdkA uwu (Nun) % izkjfEHkd fo'o dk v'kkfUr dk nsorkA
uqr (Nut) % vkdk'k dh nsoh] xsc dh iRuh] uXu /kuq"kkdkj vUrfj{k/kkj.kh :i esa fpf=krA
js'ksQ (Reshef) % lhfj;kbZ&mn~Hko dk ;q) dk nsorkA lk[kesr (Sakhmet) % ikrsg dh flag LdU/k/kkj.kh nsoh tks js ds 'k=kqvksa dk fouk'k djrh FkhA
lsyfdl (Selkis) % lw;Z ds nkgd rki ls lEc) o`f'pd nsohA feJ dh pkj&lajf{kdk nsfo;ksa esas ,d] 'koksa dh jf{kdk ftls flj ij o`f'pd fy, fn[kk;k tkrk FkkA ls'kkr (Seshat) % fo|k RkFkk jktdh; vfHkys[kksa dh nsohA ljLorh ds led{kA
vksuwfjl (Onuris) % udZ dk nsork] nSoh vk[ksVdA
lsr (Set) % fouk'k dk nsork] f'ko ds led{kA
vksflfjl (Osiris) % e`R;q vkSj iqutZUe dk nsork] fp=kksa esa e`r jktk ds :i esa n'kkZ;k tkrk FkkA
'kw (Shu) % ok;q dk nsork ftlds fp=k i`fFkoh ¼xsc½ dks vkdk'k ¼uqr½ ls vyx djrs gq, feyrs gSa] Hkkjrh; ok;q nso dk led{kA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
lkscd (Sobek) % f'k'kqekj&?kfM+;kyksa dk leLr izkphu feò esa iwftr nsorkA
Fkksfjl (Thoeris) % nfj;kbZ ?kksM+ksa dh nsoh] jkfu;ksa esa izlo lEié djkusokyh iwT; nsohA
FkksFk (Thoth) % cxqys ds lj ;qä nsoh&nsorkvksa dh ys[ku esa lgk;d vkSj ys[ku deZ dh tUenkrk] Hkkjrh; ljLorh ds led{kA bl nso&nsoh ifjokj dh lwph esa izeq[k nsoksa dh gh ppkZ laf{kIr esa dh xbZ gS] vU; xkS.k nsoh&nsorkvksa dh lwpuk vartkZy ij miyC/k gSA izkphu feò ds oSfnd iqjksfgr % izkphu lH;rkokys ns'kksa xzhl] jkse] eslksiksVkfe;k dh Hkk¡fr feò ds iqjksfgrx.k eqf.Mr lj jgrs FksA os efUnj esa izfrfnu rhu ckj Lukudj 'kjhj ij pUnu ds v"Vuke fpÌ ¼ns[ksa fp=k 2½ /kkj.kdj /koy oL=k] igudj] /kwi&lqxfU/k ls efUnj dks ifo=k djus ds mijkar mlesa izos'k djrs FksA efUnj izfrfnu lw;ksZn; ds le; [kksy fn, tkrs Fks vkSj iqjksfgrtu ;K dh vfXu dks izTTofyrdj mlesa vkgqfr Mkyrs FksA vkpeu vkSj izR;sd LoPNrk&deZ esa uhy ds ty gh iz;ksx fd;k tkrk FkkA fofHké Jsf.k;ksa esa dk;Z dks laiknu djus gsrq c¡Vs iqjksfgrtu ewfrZ dks oL=kkHkw"k.kksa vkfn ls lfTTkr djrs FksA fo'ks"k voljksa ij ewfrZ;k¡ efUnj ls ckgj ykbZ tkrh Fkha vkSj muds ihNs Hkätu ok|&;a=kksas] ;Fkkµ ck¡lqjh vkfn ctkrs] xkrs gq, pyrs FksA e/;kÌ esa efUnj ds dikV cUn dj fn, tkrs Fks tks la/;k dks iqu% Hkätuksa gsrq [kqyrs FksA ;gh izFkk Lisu ds dfMt (Cadiz) uxj ds bZfll efUnj esa Hkh izpfyr FkhA bl RkF; dk mYYks[k dfMt ls izkIr f'kykys[k esa Li"V :i ls fd;k x;k 3v gSA vius 'kjhj ij v"Vuke fpÌ feòh&lezkV~ Hkh /kkj.k djrs Fks ¼ns[ksa fp=k 3½A fijkfeM dk fuekZrk] ftldk uke nsoslj Fkk] dh laxzgky; esa j[kh izfrek esa v"Vuke fpÌ /kkj.k 3v fd, gq, gSA ¼ns[ksa fp=k 2½ iqjksfgrx.k nsoksikluk dh vof/k esa czãp;Z&ikyu djrs FksA
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feò dh /kkfeZd izFkk,¡ % fo}kuksa dk ekuuk gS fd izkphu feò vkSj Hkkjr dh /kkfeZd jhfr;ksa esa i;kZIr lekurk gS rFkk vusd Hkkjrh;&ikSjkf.kd uke feòh&nUrdFkkvksa esa lqjf{kr gSaA feò&fot; djus ds mijkUr fldUnj ¼vy{;sUnz½ ftl izfl) egknso ds efUnj esa n'kZu djus x;k Fkk] og LFky vkt ^vysDtsf.Mª;k* dgk tkrk gSA22 bl LFkku ij bLyke Lohdkj djus ds mijkUr Hkh fó;k¡ iq=k&izkfIr gsrq izkFkZuk djus tkrh gSaA12 izkphu feò dh f=kewfrZ dh dYiuk] iqutZUe] cgqnsookn] prqo.khZ lekt Hkkjr dh gh Hkk¡fr FkkA jktk vf/kdka'kr% czkã.k vFkok {k=kh; o.kZ&ls gksrs FksA uhy unh dk ty xaxk dh gh Hkk¡fr ifo=k ekuk tkrk Fkk rFkk blh lfjrk ds rV ij vkeksu dk efUnj FkkA ;g Hkh ekU;rk gS fd mÙkjh feò ds nsoLFkku] nf{k.kh feò ds nsoLFkkuksa ls vf/kd izkphu gSa 12 rFkk Hkkjr dh gh Hkk¡fr fL=k;k¡ lekt esa lEekfur FkhaA Hkkjr dh gh Hkk¡fr egknso ds efUnj ds lEEkq[k uUnh o`"k dh izfrek gksrh Fkh ¼ns[ksa fp=k 4½] ftls bLykeh& vkØkUrkvksa ds feò ds leLr efUnjksa ds /oLr djrs le; u"V dj fn;kA12 izkphu feò esa liZ dh vo/kkj.kk % ukx nSoh; 'kfä dk izrhd gS] blh dkj.k ;g feò ds lezkVksa ds eqdqV ij fpf=kr fd;k x;k gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 6½A ,d vU; fp=k esa vkslksfjl ,d liZ ds lkFk /kjk ij 'k;u djrk fn[kk;k x;k gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 5½] tks 'ks"kukx dh 'k¸;k ij ysVs fo".kq vkSj mudh ukfHk&dey ij fojkteku czãk dh dYiuk ds lekukUrj gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 7½A bruk gh ugha] feò esa 'ks"kukx dk ,d 19] 3v fo'kky efUnj Hkh fo|eku FkkA feò ds ukSdk&xeu dk mRlo % izkphu ekU;rkuqlkj bZfll vius ifr vksflfjl ds 'kjhj ds leqnz esa fc[ksjs x, Hkkxksa dks 'kjn _rq esa 5 ekpZ dh] iksikbjl dh uko ij cSBdj [kkstus fudyh Fkh] mlh dh Le`fr ds miy{; esa ;g mRlo feò esa euk;k tkrk FkkA ¼ns[ksa fp=k 9½ bl mRlo esa lHkh fp=k&fofp=k lqUnj oL=k /kkj.kdj 'osr oL=k/kkjh] eqf.Mr ds'k iqjksfgrksa ds lkFk] ok|ksa dks ctkrs gq, pyrs FksA iqjksfgrksa ds gkFkksa esa i'kq&eq[kokyh ewfrZ;k¡ gksrh Fkha tks bl ;k=kk dh lekfIrij lfjrk uhy esa izokfgr dj nh tkrh 3v FkhaA Ñ".kksikluk feò ls ysdj vjc] lhfj;k]
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[Vol. XVIII (1) 12
eslksiksVkfe;k vkfn ns'kksa esa izpfyr FkhA dkykUrj esa Ñ".k dk izR;kjksi.k ^vkequ* esa gks x;kA og uhyo.khZ] eksj eqdqV/kkjh 22 gksdj] bl ukSdk xeu mRlo dk eq[; nso cu x;k FkkA blh lUnHkZ esa vk/kqfud bjkd+ }kjk JhÑ".k ds izdkf'kr Mkd&fVdV nz"VO; gSA izkphu feò esa Hkh JhÑ".k ds efUnj jgs gksaxs] D;kasfd ,slk of.kZr gS fd Ýsap&;q) ds le; fczfV'k&Hkkjrh; flikfg;ksa us feò esa JhÑ".k dk efUnj ns[kdj mudh iwtk dh 24 FkhA blh lUnHkZ esa ;g dguk lehphu gksxk fd caxyk Hkk"kk esa Ñ".k dk ^Ñ"Vks* mPPkkj.k gh ^ØkbLV* vkSj ^fØf'p;u* 'kCnksa 12 dk tud gSA mudk ^bZlk* uke Hkh bZ'k&izsfjr yxrk gSA feò ds ^jke* uke/kkjh lezkV~ % Jhjke ds uke dk izpkj oSf'od FkkA20 dq'k}hi bl rF; ls vNwrk ugha jgk FkkA jke dk mPPkkj bFkksfi;k dh Hkk"kk essa ^jgke* fd;k tkrk FkkA dqN dkyksijkUr bl 'kCn ls ^j* dk yksi gksdj dsoy ^gke* jg x;kA ;g rF; bFkksfi;k dh d{kk 8 ,oa 10 dh iqLrdksa esa mfüf[kr Fkk fd bFkksfi;k ds yksx dq'kkbr gSaA dq'k& jke&iq=k dq'k dh iztk gSaA Hkkjr ds Lokeh Ñ".kkuUn th us tc bfFk;ksfi;k ds lezkV~ gsys flyklh (Haile Selassie I : 1930-1974) ls HksaVdj mUgsa ^;g ,d vuks[kh iqLrd gS* dgdj HksaVLo:i ^jkek;.k* migkj esa nh] rks mls ns[kdj lezkV~ us dgk Fkk] ^ge bfFk;ksfi;kbZ yksxksa ds fy, jke dh tkudkjh dksbZ u;h ckr ugha gS] D;ksafd ge yksx dq'kkbr gSaA*3v jke dh vej xkFkk ds izHkko ds dkj.k gh fo'o ds vU; vusd ns'kksa dh Hkk¡fr feò dss izkphu lezkVksa ds uke jke ls lEc) gSa] ftudh lwph bl izdkj gSµ 1234567-
ijes'k jkes'ksl~ I (Paremessu Ramesses I, Menpehtyre : 1295-1294 BCE) jkes'ksl~ II (Ramesses II the Great, Usermaatresetepenre : 1279-1213 BCE) jkes'ksl~ III (Ramesses III, Usermaatremeryamun : 1184-1153 BCE) jkes'ksl~ IV (Ramesses IV, Hekamaatresetepenamun : 1153-1147 BCE) jkes'ksl~ V (Ramesses V, Usermaatresekheperenre : 1147-1143 BCE) jkes'ksl~ VI (Ramesses VI, Nebmaatremeryamun : 1143-1136 BCE) jkes'ksl~ VII (Ramesses VII, Usermaatresetepenre
89101112-
: 1136-1129 BCE) jkes'ksl~ VIII (Ramesses VIII, Usermaatreakhenamun : 1129-1126 BCE) jkes'ksl~ IX (Ramesses IX, Neferkaresetepenre : 1126-1108 BCE) jkes'ksl~ X (Ramesses X, Khepermaatresetepenre : 1108-1099 BCE) jkes'ksl~ XI (Ramesses XI, Menmaatresetepenptah : 1099-1069 BCE) jkes'ksl~ (Ramesses : 1350 CE) 25
feò dh flapkbZ&O;oLFkk Hkkjrewyd Fkh rFkk iqjkdky ls gh Hkkjr ls elkyksa] ghjs] tokgjkr] jax] yksgk] gkFkhnk¡r dh oLrq,¡] dNq, dh gìh] pUnu dh ydfM+;k¡] lkxkSu vkfn vU; ydfM+;k¡ feò Hksth tkrh FkhaA bl lUnHkZ esa ek=k bruk dguk gh i;kZIr gksxk fd bt+jk;y (Israel) ds lezkV~ lksykseu (Solomon : 961-922/970-931 BCE) dh thouksi;ksxh 3v oLrq,¡µjRu] lqo.kZ vkHkw"k.kkfn lHkh Hkkjr ls tkrh Fkha rFkk vÝhdk egk}hi ls Hkh vusd izdkj dh ydfM+;k¡ vkSj vU; oLrq,¡ Hkkjr vkrh FkhaA fo'o izfl) lkseukFk&efUnj dh Nr] ftldk fuekZ.k rRdkyhu ujs'k dqekjiky }kjk djk;k x;k Fkk] 26 vÝhdk ls yk, x, dk"B&LrEHkksa ij fVdh FkhA u`flagkorkj ,oa fLQaDl (shesheankh)&'kh'khva[k % Hkkjrh;&ok³~e; esa of.kZr fgj.;df'kiq gh feò ns'k dk fujadq'k vkSj pfpZr 'kkld fuejksn Fkk ftldks iqjk.kksa us ^fue;kZn* dgk gS] ftlds vR;kpkjksa ls og leLr {ks=k] tks vk/kqfud bjkd+ rd 9 O;kIr Fkk] esa =kkfg&=kkfg FkhA blh fuejksn us lfjrk dqeqnorh tks dkykUrj esa b;w¶jsV~l ds uke ls fo[;kr gqbZ] ds rV ij cls okosy uked uxj esa ,d Å¡ps cgq[k.Mh; xksykdkj Hkou Vkoj dk fuekZ.k 12 u{k=kksa ds v/;;u djus gsrq djk;k FkkA blh Vkoj ds fouk'k 9 dh dFkk ls lEc) gS u`flagkorkj dh dFkkA FkkWel esfjl dh vko/kkj.kk gS fd flag jkf'k ds lw;Z dh n'kk esa pØokr vkSj vkdk'kh; rfM+r ds vk?kkr ds dkj.k bl ckosy ds Vkoj dk fouk'k gqvk gksxk tks dkykUrj esa u`flagkorkj dh dFkk ls tqM+ x;k vkSj le; ds lkFk eslksiksVkfe;k ls ysdj rqdhZ] lhfj;k] vjc vkfn {ks=kksa esa izpfyr gks x;kA Hkkxoriqjk.k ds vuqlkj fgj.;df'kiq ds iq=k izËkn dh fo".kqHkfä ls Øksf/kr gksdj mlds firk us vius Hkou ds LrEHk dks bafxr djrs gq, dgk Fkk fd D;k blesa Hkh Hkxoku~ gSa\
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
izËkn ds ldkjkRed mÙkj us mlds Øks/kkuy dks nhIr dj fn;kA Øks/kkfrjsd esa fgj.;df'kiq ds ml LrEHk ij eqf"V&izgkj djrs gh& ^rnSo rfLeféunks·frHkh"k.kks cHkwo ;suk.MdVkgeLQqVr~A ;a oS Lof/k".k;ksixra Rotkn;% JqRok Lok/kkekR;;eú esfujs Ï*27 ml [kEHks esa ,d cM+k Hk;adj 'kCn gqvkA ,slk tku iM+k fd ekuks czãk.M gh QV x;k gksA og /ofu tc yksdikyksa ds yksd esa igq¡ph rc mls lqudj czãkfn dks ,slk tku iM+k fd ekuks muds yksdksa dk izy; gks jgk gksA ml [kEHks ls Hkxoku~ ujflag izdV gks x, vkSj mUgkssaus fgj.;df'kiq dk isV vius u[kksa ls QkM+dj ekj MkykA ;g Hkkjrh;&euh"kk ds fpUru dk ifj.kke Fkk fd ftlus tyIykou ds mijkUr fuejksn&fue;kZn&fgj.;df'kiq ds dqÑR;ksa dks mlds }kjk fuekZ.k djk, x, fo'kky LRkEHk ckosy ds Vkoj ds /oal dh ?kVuk dks u`flag&:i/kkjh fo".kq dh dYiuk esa fijksdj feò rd vU; Hkkjrh;&vorkjksa ds Hkk¡fr igq¡pk fn;k] D;ksafd FkkWel eksfjl ds vuqlkj u`flag ds iwoZorhZ vorkj ;Fkk eRL;] ojkg vkSj dwekZorkjksa dh Nfo izkphu feò ds fp=kksa esa fcfEcr gSA9 u`flag fLQaDl (Snks) ds :i esa feò ds fijkfeMksa ds lEeq[k LFkkfir gS ftls ^'kh'khva[k* (Shesheankh) ;k thfor vkRek ekuk tkrk gSA fLQaDl ;wukuh&Hkk"kk ds ^fLQaxksa* (Sphingo) 'kCn ls mn~Hkwr gS] ftldk vFkZ mesBuk] ejksM+uk vFkok nckuk Hkh gksrk gSA ;g 'kCn u`flag:ih fo".kq ds }kjk fuejksn fgj.;df'kiq ds 'kjhj dks u[kksa ls nckdj] mesBdj] vUr dj nsus dh Jqfr dks ijks{k :i ls ladsr djrk gSA fLQaDl&u`flag dh izfrek Hkkjrh;&efUnjksa ls ysdj ;wuku esa] bZjku] bjkd+ rFkk jkse vkfn ns'kksa ds izkphu f'kYi esa fdf×pr ifjofrZr :i esa fo|keku gS tks bl u`flagkorkj dh dFkk dks foLrkj nsrh gSA feò ds fo'kkydk; fLQaDl fijkfeMksa ds izgjh ds leku gSaA fo}kuksa dh /kkj.kk gS fd fijkfeMksa ds fuekZ.k feò ds izkphu ujs'kksa ds 'koksa dks] muds ifjokj ds izeq[k lnL;ksa ds 'koksa dks lajf{kr djus ds mís'; ls] eeh&:i esa lqjf{kr djus dh n`f"V ls fufeZr fd, x, FksA ijUrq bl vo/kkj.kk ls lHkh fo}ku~ lger ugha gSa] D;ksafd dksbZ foosdoku lezkV~ bruk vf/kd /ku ek=k vius 'ko ds laj{k.k gsrq O;; ugha dj ldrk FkkA
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,d vU; vo/kkj.kk bu fijkfeMksa dks jktdh; izklkn vFkok nqxZ ekuus dh gS] ftlesa fdlh dkj.ko'k feò ds lezkVksa ds 'ko lqjf{kr j[k fn, x, gksa] D;ksafd izR;sd fijkfeM esa lezkVksa ds 'ko eeh&:i esa lajf{kr fd, x, izkIr ugha gksrsA12 ;g nwljk n`f"Vdks.k vk/kqfud oSKkfud&n`f"V ls fijkfeM&fuekZ.k ds mís';ksa ij fopkj djus ds fy,] vf/kd rF;ijd yxrk gSA ;g loZekU; rF; gS fd eaxy xzg dk lw;Z dh lehiLFk d{kk ls fnu esa i`fFkoh ds lehi vkus ds dkj.k mlds xq#Rokd"kZ.k ds izHkko ds QyLo:i] Hkwe/; lkxj ds ty dk Lrj 5]000 QhV rd c<+dj mÙkjh Hkkjrh;&rVksa rFkk vÝhdk ds fuEuorhZ {ks=kksa esa ck<+ dh fLFkfr mRié dj nsrk FkkA ml le; ,slk izrhr gksrk Fkk tSls izHkkfor {ks=k leqnz esa lekfgr gks tk;sxkA blh n`f"V ls lHkh leqnz&rVorhZ ns'k] tSlsµ eslksiksVkfe;k vkfn us leqnz ds fdukjs ekuo&lqj{kk gsrq lqn`<+ eksVh nhokjksa] ck¡/k vkfn dk fuekZ.k fd;k FkkA fijkfeM tuthou dh lqj{kk ds izcy vk/kkj Fks] D;ksafd os ty ds osx ls izokfgr ugha gks ldrs Fks HkwdEi ls vizHkkfor Fks rFkk tulkekU; buesa nh?kZdky rd ck<+ ls lqjf{kr jg ldrs FksA uhy ds tyLrj ds ?kVus ds mijkUr yksx iqu% bu fijkfeMksa ls ckgj vkdj vius dk;ks± esa iwoZ dh Hkk¡fr yx tkrs FksA tula[;k dh o`f) ds lkFk fijkfeMksa dk fuekZ.k Hkh c<+rk x;kA19 lUnHkZ&lwph % 12-
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eRL;iqjk.k % Hkwxksy dk foLr`r o.kZu] izdk'kd % xhrkizsl] xksj[kiqj] o"kZ 58 la[;k 1] i`‚ 377] 1984 bZ‚ dqekj] MkW‚ v#.k % ^fgLVkfjdy VªsMh'ku vkWQ+ bf.M;k ,.M vkfdZ;ksykWt+h ,u bafVxzsVsM LVMh*] izdk'kd % _f"k ifCyds'ku] 3611@15 uojax dkyksuh] f=kuxj] fnYyh&110 035] i`‚ 7]9 ,oa 30( 2012 bZ‚ ¼v½ vksd] iq#"kksÙke ukxs'k % ^oSfnd fo'o&jk"Vª dk bfrgkl*] Hkkx&3] izdk'kd % fganh lkfgR; lnu] 2 ch‚Mh‚ pSEclZ 10@54 ns'kcU/kq xqIrk jksM] djksyckx] u;h fnYyh&110 005 i`‚ 273&274] 284] 288] 285] 278] 2012 bZ‚( ^izhLVl vkWQ+ ,uf'k;aV bftIV* ¼vUrjtky½ ¼vk½ iksdkWd] ,MoMZ % ^bf.M;k bu xzhl*] izdk'kd % tkWu ts xzhfQu ,.M dEiuh] yUnu] i`‚ 178] 222] 1852 bZ‚ duZy gsujh LVhy vYdkWV % ^n fFk;kslksfQLV*] ekpZ 1881 bZ‚] i`‚ 123 'kekZ] ia‚ j?kquUnu % ^OkSfnd lEifÙk*] izdk'kd % fot; dqekj xksfoUnjke gklkuUn] 4408 u;h lM+d] u;h fnYyh&110 006]
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i`‚ 349] 396&397] 2003 bZ‚ Jhen~okYehfdjkek;.k] lqUnjdk.M] 54-11] izdk'kd % xhrkizsl] xksj[kiqj&273 005] fo‚la‚ 2063 ¹Hkkjrh;&dkyx.kukuqlkj Jhjke dk dky ,d djksM+ ,D;klh yk[k o"kZ iwoZ ekuk tkrk gSA MkW‚ Bkdqj izlkj oekZ us bldks egk}hih; fopyu ds fl)kUr ls tksM+k gS] ftlds vuqlkj fdlh le; vkWLVªsfy;k] Hkkjrh;&egk}hi] vÝhdk rFkk esMkxkLdj }hi ijLij tqM+s gq, FksA vk'p;Z ugha fd ^ekyh* vkSj ^lqekyh* uke mlh dh Le`fr dks latks, gq, gSaA µlaikndº ,ejh] MCY;w‚ch‚ % ^vkfdZd bftIV*] izdk'kd % isaxqbu] i`‚ 30&39] 45] 1963 bZ‚ lUnHkZ 2] i`‚ 10 eksfjl] FkkWel % ^n fgLVªh vkWQ+ fganqLrku] bV~l vkV~Zl ,.M bV~l lk;al* ¼1795 bZ‚½] iqueZqnz.k % uojax cqd lsYl ,.M ifCy'klZ] vkj‚ch‚ 6] bUnjiqjh] u;h fnYyh&110 012] Hkkx 2] i`‚ 98&99] 25&29] 1982 bZ‚ µvxzoky] xaqtu % ^izkxSLykeh vjc esa fganw&laLÑfr*] ^bfrgkl niZ.k*] 15 ¼2½] 42&68] 2010 bZ‚ ns'kik.Ms;] xaxk/kj jko] ds'kojko ¼jko lkgc½ % ^Hkkjr ,l lhu ,.M uksu ckbZ QkWjsulZ*] Lok/;k; e.My] vkuUnkJe] lwjr] i`‚ 20] 1950 bZ‚ ^n fFk;kslksfQLV* % i`‚ 123] 1881 bZ‚ ,oa lUnHkZ 12] i`‚ 403 vksd] iq#"kksÙke ukxs'k % ^oSfnd fo'o&jk"Vª dk bfrgkl* Hkkx&2 i`‚ 400&405] 270] 287] 399] 409] 2012 bZ‚
,srjs;czkã.k] 39-4-23 ^xksYM fMikftLV bu e'kksukyS.M* % lsUVªy ftEcokos ¼vUrjtky½ Lisds] tku gkWikfdal % ^tuZYk vkWQ+ n fMLdojh vkWQ+ n lkslZ vkWQ+ fjoj uhy*] i`‚ 3 rFkk fofy;e CySdmM ,.M lUl] bfMucjks ,.M yUnu 1863 bZ‚] bysDVªkfud ,Mh'ku vUrjtky ,oa lUnHkZ 3 ^bulkbDyksihfM;k fczVSfudk*] [k.M&8] i`‚ 205 mik/;k;] MkW‚ jktho jatu % ^_XoSfnd xzg&u{k=kksa ls lEc) dqN rF; ,oa feFkd*] ^bfrgkl niZ.k* 7 ¼1½] 4&9] 2012 bZ‚ lEiw.kkZuUn] MkW‚ % ^fganw nso&ifjokj dk fodkl*] izdk'kd % fe=k izd'ku izkbosV fy‚] bykgkckn] i`‚ 20] 1964 bZ‚ ,djeku] t+kWu % ^ekbFkksykWt+h bftfIV'ku&QjekesUV ,.M dkvksl* ¼vUrjtky½ mik/;k;] MkW‚ jktho jatu % ^lsrq leqnze~*] ^bfrgkl niZ.k* 16 ¼1½] 21 & 27] 2011 bZ‚ ^xkWM~l ,.M xkWM~sl vkWQ+ ,af'k;saV bftIV* ¼vUrjtky½
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fo;ksju LVhxjuk ekSxul ÝsMfjd QMhZusaM] dkmUV % ^n Fkksxksuh vkWQ+ n fganwt fon ns;j flLVe vkWQ+ fQykWlksQ+h ,.M dkWLeksykWt+h*] izdk'kd % ,u ,ls ifCy'kM] ckbZ tkWu eqjs] yUnu] i`‚ 41] 1844 bZ‚ feJ] foHkq % ^txékFk ÝkWe bf.M;k Vw bftIV*( ^n vujksYM lkxk vkWQ+ dq'kkbV~l* ¼vUrjtky½ fgaxsUl] xkWMÝs % ^n dsfYVd MªbM~l*] izFke izdk'ku 1827 bZ‚] iquizZdk'ku % dsflatj ifCyf'kax] i`‚ 12] 1993 bZ‚ cDys jkWcVZ cVZu % ^n bjhxs'ku oDlZ vkWQ+ bf.M;k*] bZ ,.M ,Q ,u Liksu }kjk izdkf'kr] i`‚ 4] 1905 bZ‚ eqfu ØkfUr lkxjth % ^Hkkjrh;&f'kYi ,oa fp=kdyk esa dk"B dk mi;ksx*] ^dY;k.k* o"kZ 24] la[;k 1] 1950 bZ‚] ^fganw&laLÑfr&vad*] izdk'kd % xhrkizsl] xksj[kiqj] i`‚ 707
Hkkxoriqjk.k] 7-8-16
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
87
fp=k 1 % eaxy xzg dh Hkwfe ij fLFkr 3 Tokykeq[kh ioZrksa us gksjsl ds us=k dh dYiuk dks tUe fn;k FkkA ;g {ks=k vkt Hkh eaxy dh lrg ij Li"V fn[krs gSa rFkk Fkkjsfll cYt dh vkÑfr ';su ds pksap dh Hkk¡fr gSA
fp=k 2 % felz ds rhljs jktoa'k ¼2686&2613 bZ-iw-½ ds le; fufeZr fijkfeM dk ekufp=k cukusokys LFkifr nsolj ¼nsos'oj½ dk fp=kA mlds 'kjhj ij HkLe rFkk pUnu dk v"Vfpg~u Li"V gSA
fp=k 3 % pUnu dk v"Vfpg~u/kkjh felz dk ,d izkphu Qjkvks
fp=k 4 % felz ls izkIr uUnh dh dkaL; izfrek
88
[Vol. XVIII (1)
fp=k 5 % liZ ds lkFk vkslhfjl
fp=k 6 % ijes'kw jkes'kl II ds eqdqV ij fpf=kr ukx
fp=k 7 % >hy esa csM+s ij cSBk vkslhfjl vkSj ty ls fudyrk uhyksRiyA 18 ;g fp=k czãk ds dey ij fLFkr gksus dh dYiuk dk mÙkjorhZ gSA
fp=k 8 % bZfll dh leqnz&;k=kk
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
dq'k}hi ,oa feò dk oSfnd vrhr
89
fp=k 9
THE ISIS OMNIA OF EGYPT A majestic whole-length gure of ISIS OMNIA. or universal nature personied, the India Isa, and Grecian Ceres; it is exhibited in proof of the identity of the Indian, with the Egyptian and Grecian character. She bears on her head the lunar crescent; her robe, covered with stars, represents the rmament : she bears in one hand a sistrum, emblematical of the elements, and in the other a basket of grain, as the prolic parent of all things; and the stands with one foot on the ocean, the other on the earth; the whole depicted as she is described by Apuleius to have appeared, and been seen by himself, in the Eleusiniam mysteries. 'The History of Hindostan: Its Arts, and Its Sciences, as Connected with the History of the Other Great Empires of Asia, During the Most Ancient Periods of the World', Vol. I, p.1, Published by W. Bulmer and Company, 1795; 'The Monthly review', by Ralph Grifths, G. E. Grifths, 1796
ik.Ms;] izks‚ nhucUèkq] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 88&93] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
JheÚxoåhrk ,oa mldk çFke vè;k; (lkfgfR;d jpuk&çk:i % ,d lekykspuk) çksŒ nhucUèkq ik.Ms; *
Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk vfHk/kku&foe'kZ en~Hkxon~xhrk mu 18 v/;k;ksa dk lefUor ukedj.k gS tks egkHkkjr ds Hkh"eioZ ls vfHkfgr 6Bsa ioZ ds v/;k; 25 ls 42 vFkok v/;k; 23 ls 40 rd ¼Øe'k% egkHkkjr ds nks fHké ikB&Hksnksa dh ijEijk ds vk/kkj ij½ izkIr gSA ewy egkHkkjr esa bu v/;k;ksa ds lefUor :Ik dks fdlh vfHk/kku ls lEcksf/kr ugha fd;k x;k gSA lkFk gh ;g Hkh /;ku nsus dh ckr gS fd tks Hkxon~xhrk vyx ls fyf[kr vFkok izdkf'kr :i esa izkIr gS] mlesa egkHkkjr ds ioZ ,oa v/;k; ugha mfüf[kr gksrsA
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Hkxon~xhrk ds izR;sd v/;k; ds vUr esa bls ^czãfo|k izLrqr djusokyk mifu"kn~ xzUFk* dgk x;k gS ftlesa ;ksx'kkL=k ds fofHké v/;k; Ñ".kktZqu&laokn ds vax ds :i esa mfYyf[kr gq, gSaµ ^Jhen~Hkxon~xhrklwifu"kRlq czãfo|k;ka ;ksx'kkL=ks JhÑ".kktZqulaokns -----·/;k;%A* egkHkkjr ds Hkxon~xhrk&va'k dk mi;Zqä izdkj dk ukedj.k ,oa foHkktu dc gq,] ;g izkekf.kd rkSj ls dguk vklku ugha gS] fdUrq blds ladsr ekgkRE;&dFku ds dqN 'yksdksa esa vkHkkflr gksrs gSaA ekgkRE;&dFku ds fuEufyf[kr 'yksd Li"V gh xhrk dks egkHkkjr ls vyx djds mls xzUFk :i fn, tkus dk ladsr djrs gSaµ
^Hkkjrke`rloZLoa fo".kksoZD=kkf}fu%l`re~A* egkHkkjr dks ^Hkkjr* uke ls tkuk tkrk gS] ;g egku~ xzUFk igys ^t;*] fQj ^Hkkjr* vkSj ckn esa ^egkHkkjr* dgk x;kA egkHkkjr ds mi;qä 18 v/;k;ksa ds vyx fd, x, va'k dks xhrk uke fn;k x;kA ekgkRE;&dFku ds dbZ 'yksd bls xhrk ds :Ik esa mfYyf[kr djrs gSaµ ^xhrk/;;u'khyL; izk.kk;keijL; pA* ^lqÑn~xhrkEHkfl Lukua lalkjeyuk'kue~A* ^ikFkksZ oRl% lq/khHkksZäk nqX/ka xhrke`ra egr~A* ^Xkhrkxúksnda ihRok iqutZUe u fo|rsA* ekgkRE;&'yksd xhrk dks ^'kkL=k* dh laKk Hkh nsrs gSaµ ^xhrk lqxhrk däZO;k fdeU;S% 'kkL=kfoLrjS%A* ^Xkhrk'kkL=kfena iq.;a ;% iBsRiz;r% iqeku~A* ^,da 'kkL=ka nsodhiq=kxhresdks nsoks nsodhiq=k ,oA* xhrk ds leLr 18 v/;k;ksa esa ftl xw<+ jgL;e; Kku dk mins'k gS] Ñ".k us ml vius vkSj vtZqu ds dFkksidFku dks ^/keZe; laokn* dgk gSµ ^v/;s";rs p ; bea /kE;± laokneko;ks%*1 vkSj bl 'yksd ds ^vko;ks%* ¼ge nksuksa½ dks Li"Vrk nsrs gq, lat; us Øe'k% nks LFkkuksa ij ^oklqnso&ikFkZ* ,oa ^ds'koktZqu* laokn dgk gSµ ^bR;ga oklqnsoL; ikFkZL; p egkReu%A 2 laoknfeeeJkS"ken~Hkqra jkseg"kZ.ke~ Ï* ^jktUlaLe`R; laLe`R; laoknfeeen~Hkqre~A
¹ iwoZ foHkkxk/;{k] dyk] bfrgkl ,oa Ik;ZVu&izcU/k] dk'kh fganw ds'koktZqu;ks% iq.;a â";kfe p eqgqeZqgq% Ï*3 fo'ofo|ky;] okjk.klh( }kjk] izks‚ vEcjh'k ik.Ms;] edku la‚ tks i;kZ; 'kCnksa ds iz;ksx ls oLrqr% ^Ñ".kktZqulaokn* Mh&27] xq# tEHks'oj ;wfuoflZVh vkWQ+ lk;al ,.M VsDuksykWt+h] fglkj&125 001 ¼gfj;k.kk½ 90 gh gS] ftldk iz;ksx xhrk ds izR;sd v/;k; ds vUr esa feyrk
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
JheÚxoåhrk ,oa mldk çFke vè;k;
gSA ekgkRE;&'yksdksa ds ^;k Lo;a iÉukHkL; eq[kiÉkf}fu%l`rk*] ^fo".kksoZD=kkf}fu%l`re~* rFkk ^nsodhiq=kxhre~*&tSls va'k xhrk dks Hkxon~xhrk ds :i esa izLrqr djrs gSa ftldk vk/kkj xhrk ds 'yksd 18-64 ,oa 18-75 esa izkIr Øe'k% ^loZxqárea Hkw;% Ük`.kq es ijea op%* ¼loZ xksiuh;ksa ls vfr xksiuh; ije jgL;;qä esjh ok.kh lquks½ ,oa ^;ksxa ;ksxs'ojkRÑ"”.kkRlk{kkRdFk;r% Lo;e~* ¼;kxs'oj Ñ".k dk ;ksx&laaca/kh dFku izR;{kr% lquk½ tSls okD;ka'k tku iM+rs gSaA xhrk ds 'yksd 18-63] 64] 68 esa ^Ñ".kktZqulaokn* dks ^ijexqájgL;e;Kku* dgk x;k gS ftl Kku dk laca/k czãfo|k vkSj mldk laca/k mifu"kn~&xzUFkksa ls gksrk gS] blh dkj.k xhrk ds v/;k;ksa ds vUr esa bls ^czãfo|k* vkSj ^mifu"kn~* dgk x;k gSA xhrk dks ^;ksx'kkL=k* dgus dk vk/kkj Hkh ^;ksxa ;ksxs'ojkRÑ"”.kkRlk{kkRdFk;r% Lo;e~*4 ls feyk gSA fdlh Hkh xzUFk ds vyx ls fy[ks x, ekgkRE; ,oa izk:Ik iznku djusokys laEcaf/kr xzUFk ds va'k ijorhZ ys[ku gksrs gSaA vr% xhrk ds ^vFk* vkSj ^bfr* okys va'k ijorhZ ;ksxnku gSaA xhrk&ekgkRE; iÉiqjk.k dk va'k gSA iÉiqjk.k 'yksdksa ds vfrfjä xhrk ds 18 v/;k;ksa ds ikB ds QyizkfIr dk foLrkj ls o.kZu izR;sd v/;k; ds lkFk vyx&vyx dFkkvksa dks tksM+dj of.kZr djrk gSA ;g yksd esa xhrk ds izfr fodflr vknjHkko dk lwpd gSA egkHkkjr ds Hkh"eioZ ds 18 v/;k;ksa ds lefUor :i dks iÉiqjk.k ds vk/kkj ij dksbZ vfHk/kku fn, tkus dh ckr lehphu ugha yxrhA gk¡] ^Jhen~Hkxon~xhrkekgkRE;* 'kh"kZd bl ckr dk Li"V ladsr djrk gS fd Xkhrk dks ^Hkxon~xhrk* dgus ls Hkh vkxs c<+dj ^Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk* dgk tkus yxk FkkA egkHkkjr&;q) ds izkjEHk esa Ñ".k }kjk fn;k x;k mins'k egkHkkjr ls fudydj ,d vyx Lo:Ik izkIr dj pqdk Fkkµ bl ckr dk vkjfEHkd funsZ'k Hkkxoriqjk.k ds ,d lUnHkZ ls feyrk gSA ;q)ksijkUr gfLrukiqj ls Ñ".k ds lkFk }kjdk x, vtZqu ds iqu% okil vkus ij Ñ".k ds Lo/kke&xeu dk fooj.k ;qf/kf"Bj dks lqukrs le; vtZqu dks egkHkkjr&;q) ds vkjEHk esa Ñ".k }kjk fn;k x;k mins'k Lej.k gks vk;kA Hkkxoriqjk.k ds jpukdkj O;kl us ;g ckr lwr ds }kjk dgykbZ gSA lwr us Ñ".k ds mins'k dks Kku&xhr ¼^xhra Kkue~*½ dh laKk nh gSµ 5
^Xkhra Hkxork Kkua ;ÙkRlaxzkeew/kZfuA*5
91
Hkkxor ds bl lUnHkZ ls xhrk&ekgkRE; ds ,d 'yksd dk va'k ^,da 'kkL=ka nsodhiq=kxhre~* dk rkyesy cSBrk gSA Hkkxor esa vkxs ;g ckr dgh xbZ gS fd dk;Z&O;Lrrk ds dkj.k izekno'k foLe`r ml Kku ds Lej.k gksus ij vtZqu czã&lEink ls ;qä gks x,] ek;k dk vkoj.k Hkax gqvk vkSj xq.kkrhr voLFkk dks izkIr gks }Sr ds la'k; ls eqä gksdj mudk lw{e 'kjhj Hkax gqvk vkSj os 'kksd ,oa tUe&e`R;q ds pØ ls loZFkk eqä gks x;sµ ^dkydeZreks#)a iquj/;xeRizHkq%A*6 ^fo'kksdks czãlEiR;k lafNé}Srla'k;%A 7 yhuizÑfruSxZq.;knfyúRoknlEHko% Ï* blls feyrk&tqyrk dFku xhrk&ekgkRE; ds ,d 'yksd dk gSµ ^Xkhrk'kkL=kfena iq.;a ;% iBsRiz;r% iqeku~A fo".kks% ineokIuksfr Hk;'kksdkfnoftZr% Ï* bl izdkj Hkkxor ls ,d ,slk izkekf.kd lUnHkZ feyrk gS tgk¡¡ egkHkkjr&;q) ds izkjEHk ds le; Ñ".k }kjk vtZqu dks fn, x, mins'k dks xhr ¼xhrk½ ds :Ik esa Lej.k gksus dk mYys[k gSA ;gk¡ czã&lEink ¼czãlEir~½ dh 'kCnkoyh xhrk 8 ds nSoh&lEink ¼^lEina nSohe~* ½ ls esy [kkrh gSA Hkkxor esa vtZqu ds czã&lEink ¼eks{k½ dh izkfIr dh ckr dgh xbZ gS tks 9 ^ekesoS";R;la'k;%* ¼Hkäksa esa xhrk ikB djusokyk½ fu%lUnsg 10 eq>dks gh izkIr gksxk ,oa ^'kqHkk¡YyksdkUizkIuq;kRiq.;deZ.kke~* ¼xhrk Jo.k djusokyk½ mÙke deZ djusokys Js"B yksdksa dks izkIr gksxkµ tSls dFkuksa dk vk/kkj fy, gq, gSA Hkkxor ds mifjfYyf[kr nks 'yksdksa ds lUnHkks± ds izdk'k esa ;g dguk lehphu gksxk fd Hkkxor dh jpuk ds le; rd xhrk vyx ls ,d eks{kiznk;h /kkfeZd xzUFk ds :Ik esa ekuk tkus yxk FkkA lEHkor% Hkkxoriqjk.k dh Hkk¡¡fr gh xhrk dks Hkh Hkxor~ xhrk ¼Hkxon~xhrk½ dgk tkus yxk vkSj ftl izdkj Hkkxor dks ^Jhen~Hkkxor* dgrs gSa] mlh izdkj vknj vkSj lEekuiwoZd xhrk dks Hkh ^Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk* dgrs gSaA iÉiqjk.k esa xhrk ds ekgkRE; dh rjg Hkkxoriqjk.k dk Hkh ekgkRE; of.kZr gSA Li"V gh Hkkxor dh jpuk iÉiqjk.k dh iwoZorhZ gSA Hkkxor dk jpukdky bfrgkldkjksa }kjk 9oha&10oha 'krh bZloh ekuk tkrk gSA Hkxon~xhrk dk loZizkphu Hkk"; vk| 'kadjkpk;Z dk gSA Li"V gh vk| 'kadjkpk;Z] ftudk dky 8oha 'krh bZloh ekuk tkrk gS] mlds igys gh Hkxon~xhrk
92
[Vol. XVIII (1)
dk xzUFk&:i vfLrRo esa vk pqdk Fkk tks lkfgfR;d jpuk ds :Ik esa bfrgkldkjksa dh n`f"V esa prqFkZ&i×pe 'krh bZ‚iw‚ esa jps x, egkHkkjr xzUFk dk vax gS ftldk laLdkfjr :i xqIrdky ¼prqFkZ&i×pe 'krh bZloh½ dk gS tks vkt gesa izkIr gSA bl izdkj prqFkZ&i×pe 'krh bZloh ls 7oha 'krh bZloh rd Hkxon~xhrk dk Lo:Ik fufeZr gks pqdk Fkk tks ;ksx'kkL=k ds :Ik esa czãfo|k ds laiknukFkZ mifu"kn~ ds led{k FkhA Hkxon~xhrk ds xzUFk&:Ik esa vfLrRo xzg.k djus ds dky ds lUnHkZ esa ,d ckr vkSj /;ku nsus dh gS fd Hkkxoriqjk.k dk ^xhra Kkue~* dk lUnHkZ egkHkkjr xzUFk ds ml Lo:i ds ckn dk gS tc bldh laKk dsoy Hkkjr FkhA Hkkxor esa O;kl us Hkkxor ds iwoZjfpr vius xzUFk dk uke ^Hkkjr* dgk gSµ ^HkkjrO;ins'ksu ákEuk;kFkZ'p iznf'kZr%A n`';rs ;=k /kekZfn L=kh'kwnzkfnfHkjI;qr Ï*11 ^ftKkflra lqlEiéefi rs egn~Hkqre~A 12 ÑrokUHkkjra ;LRoa lokZFkZifjc`afgre~ Ï* vr% Hkkxorokyh xhrk ¼^xhra Kkue~*½ egkHkkjr ds iwoZ ds dysojokys ^Hkkjr* xzUFk dk vax FkhA bl vk/kkj ij xhrk ds xzUFk&:Ik&fofuekZ.k dk le; 7oha 'krh bZloh ds igys ekuk tkuk pkfg;sA egkHkkjr esa Hkh"eioZ ds 18 v/;k;ksaokys ^Ñ".kktZqulaokn* ds vfrfjä dbZ mins'kkRed va'k gSa ftUgsa vkt ds egkHkkjr esa ^xhrk* vfHkfgr fd;k x;k gSA mnkgj.kkFkZµ ^vuqxhrk*] ^galxhrk* bR;kfnA ,slk yxrk gS fd egkHkkjr dh vU;kU; xhrkvksa dh Hkk¡¡fr gh Hkkxor esa lUnfHkZr ^Ñ".kktZqulaokn* okyh xhrk dks Hkh ,d vfHk/kku nsdj ^Hkxon~xhrk* dgk x;kA vkt tks Hkxon~xhrk gesa izkIr gS] mldh dqy 'yksd&la[;k 700 gS ftlij vk| 'kadjkpk;Z us Hkk"; fy[kk gS] fdUrq dksydkrk ds v}Sr vkJe ds Lokeh xEHkhjkuUn ¼1889&1988½ ds vuqlkj ^bl ckr ds izek.k gSa fd izkphu 13 izfr;ksa esa 'yksd&la[;k 745 FkhA* xks.My ¼egkjk"Vª½ ds jktoS| thojke dkfynkl 'kkL=kh ¼vkpk;ZJh pj.krhFkZ egkjkt % 1881&1978½ us 745 'yksdksaokyh Hkxon~xhrk dh 14 Hkksti=k&ik.Mqfyfi lu~ 1937 ,oa 1966 esa izdkf'kr dh gS] ftldh ,d izfr dSfyQksfuZ;k fo'ofo|ky; esa gSA Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k;&laca/kh foe'kZ
Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke 'yksd dh ppkZ egkHkkjr ds Hkh"eioZ ds ;q)kjEHk ds iwoZ ds o.kZuksa&laca/kh v/;k;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa lkfgR; ds jpuk&izk:Ik dk /;ku j[krs gq, fd;k tkuk lehphu gksxkA dq#{ks=k esa ;q) djus gsrq dkSjoksa vkSj ik.Moksa ds vkeus&lkeus [kM+s gksus ds iwoZ nksuksa jktoS| thojke dkfynkl 'kkL=kh nyksa ds 'kwjohjksa ,oa mik[; lSfudksa dk fooj.k vkpk;ZJh pj.krhFkZ egkjkt lat; }kjk Hkh"eioZ ds 1881&1978 dbZ v/;k;ksa esa fn;k x;k gSA v/;k; 19 ds vkjEHk esa /k`rjk"Vª us iwNk gS fd dkSjoksa dh 11 v{kkSfg.kh O;wgc) lsuk dks ns[kdj ;qf/kf"Bj us vYi la[;kokyh ik.Mo&lsuk dk fdl izdkj izfrO;wgu fd;kµ ^v{kkSfg.;ks n'kSdk p O;w<k n`"V~ok ;qf/kf"Bj%A dFkeYisu lSU;su izR;O;wgr ik.Mok% Ï*15 bl iz'u ls ;g Li"V gS fd dkSjo&lsuk O;wgc) gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ik.Mo&lsuk vHkh O;wgc) gks jgh Fkh vkSj ;g le; lw;ksZn; ds iwoZ dk jgk gksxk D;ksafd vxys v/;k; esa /k`rjk"Vª us lat; ls lw;ksZn; ds le; iz'u fd;k fd dkSu&lk ny gf"kZr ;k Eykueq[k gS vkSj izFke izgkj fdl vksj ls fdlus fd;kµ ^Lkw;ksZn;s lat; dsuqiwo± ;q;qRloks â";ek.kk boklu~A Ekkedk ok Hkh"eus=kk% lehis Ikk.Mok ok Hkheus=kLrnkuhe~ Ï ds"kka t?kU;kS lkselw;kSZ lok;w ds"kka lsuka 'okink'pHk"kUrA 16 ds"kka ;wuka eq[ko.kkZ% izlék% lo± ásrn~ czwfg rÙoa ;Fkkor~ Ï* vc iz'u ;g mBrk gS fd Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k; ds izFke 'yksd dk D;k vkSfpR; curk gS ftlesa ;q) dh bPNkokys dkSjoksa vkSj ik.Moksa us D;k fd;k iwNk x;k gSA 19osa v/;k; esa nksuksa i{kksa ds O;wgc) lsukvksa dk mYys[k gks pqdk gS vkSj 20osa v/;k; esa ;q) ds vkjEHk ds fnu lw;ksZn; ds le; ^;q;qRloks --- Ekkedk ok ---- Ikk.Mok* Hkh mfYyf[kr gSA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
93
JheÚxoåhrk ,oa mldk çFke vè;k;
Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k; ds izFke 'yksd ds prqFkZ ikn esa ^fdedqoZr* ¼D;k fd;k½ bruk gh vf/kd dgk x;k gSA bl ^D;k fd;k* dk ;fn fo'ys"k.k fd;k tk,] rks ^O;wgc) ik.Moksa dks ns[kdj nq;ksZ/ku dk nzks.k dks nksuksa i{kksa ds 'kwjohjksa dk ifjp; nsuk] 'ka[k/ofu;k¡] vtZqu dk eksg gksuk vkSj fuokj.kµ ;s rhu gh ÑR; gq,A blds fiNys v/;k; esa ^ik.Moksa dh O;wg&jpuk* dk lUnHkZ Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k; ds f}rh; 'yksd ds ^O;wgc) ik.Moksa dks ns[kdj nq;ksZ/ku dk nzks.k dks nksuksa i{kksa ds 'kwjohjksa dk ifjp; nsuk* ?kVuk&Øe dh n`f"V ls Lo;eso tqM+rk gSA blds fy, /k`rjk"Vª ds iz'u dh vko';drk ugha gS vkSj ^;q;qRloks --- Ekkedk ok ---- Ikk.Mok* tSls iwoZ&iz;qä 'kCnksa ds lkFk rks fcYdqy gh ughaA ,slk Hkh ugha gS fd fcuk iz'u ds v/;k; 'kq: ugha gksrsA egkHkkjr esa ,d gh iz'u ds mÙkj esa dbZ&dbZ v/;k; vk, gSaA bu folaxfr;ksa ds vk/kkj ij ;g /kkj.kk curh gS fd 'kk;n Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k; dk izFke 'yksd ml le; tksM+k x;k tc Hkxon~xhrk vyx xzUFk ds :i esa izknqHkZwr dh x;hA ftl izdkj Hkxon~xhrk ds izFke v/;k; dk izFke 'yksd dFkk&/kkjk esa vViVk&lk gS] mlh izdkj ml iz'u dk lat; }kjk fn, x, mÙkj esa ^gs] jktu~!* ;k ^egkjkt!*&tSls lEcks/ku dk u gksuk rFkk lat; ds gh mÙkj esa nq;ksZ/ku ds dFku dk lekos'k gksuk mfpr ugha yxrkA 'yksd 2 ds ckn ^nq;ksZ/ku mokp* gksuk pkfg, FkkA 'yksd 11 rd nq;ksZ/ku dk dFku pyrk gS vr% mlds ckn 12osa 'yksd ds igys ^lat; mokp* gksuk pkfg,A 12osa 'yksd ls 21osa ds izFke ikn rd lat; dk dFku gSA Hkxon~xhrk ds 'yksd 3 esa nq;ksZ/ku ik.Moksa dh lsuk dks cM+h Hkkjh lsuk ¼^egrh pewe~*½ dgrk gS tcfd ik.Moksa dh lsuk 7 v{kkSfg.kh vkSj mldh viuh lsuk 11 v{kkSfg.kh dh FkhA bl ckr dk mYys[k /k`rjk"Vª us egkHkkjr esa igys gh dj fn;k 17 gS fd mldh lsuk ^v{kkSfg.;ks n'kSdk* 11 v{kkSfg.kh vkSj 18 ik.Mo&lsuk ^vYi* FkhA nq;ksZ/ku }kjk 7 v{kkSfg.khokyh ik.Moksa dh ^vYi* lsuk dks 'yksd 3 esa cM+h Hkkjh lsuk ¼^egrh pewe~*½ dguk vkSj vkxs pydj 'yksd 10 esa mls i;kZIr cy ¼^i;kZIra --- cye~*½ dguk rFkk 11 v{kkSfg.khokyh viuh lsuk dks mlh 'yksd esa ¼^vi;kZIra --- cye~*½ dguk iz'u [kM+s djrk gSA vuqokndksa us ^vi;kZIr* dk vFkZ ^vts;* vkSj ^i;kZIr* dk vFkZ ^thrs tkus esa lqxe* dgk gS] fdUrq dbZ v/;srk bu 'kCnksa dks Øe'k% ^de*
vkSj ^vf/kd* dk gh cks/kd ekurs gSaA ^i;kZIr* dk vFkZ ^thrs tkus esa lqxe* xzg.k djus esa ik.Moksa dh lsuk dks ^egrh pewe~* dgus dk vFkZ Li"V ugha gksrk vkSj ik.Moksa dh lsuk dks ^egrh pew* dgrs gq, dkSjo&lsuk dks ^vts;* dguk Hkh lgh ugha yxrkA ik.Mo&i{k ds ohjksa dks nq;ksZ/ku us 'kwj] fo'kky /kuq"kokys] egkjFkh] oh;Zoku~ vkSj ujiqaxo&tSls fo'ks"k.kksa ls foHkwf"kr djrk gS ¼blds lkFk gh lat; us HkhedeZ djusokys vkSj vijkftr&tSls fo'ks"k.k Hkh mfYyf[kr fd;k gS19½] fdUrq vius i{k ds ohjksa dks lkekU; fo'ks"k.k nsrs gq, 'kL=k&lfTtr ;q)&fo'kkjn 'kwjohj ek=k dgrk gS tks mlds fy, vius thou dk R;kx fd, gq, gSaA20 'yksd 1-11 esa nq;ksZ/ku vius lHkh ohjksa dks ^Hkh"e dh j{kk* ¼^Hkh"eesokfHkj{kUrq HkoUr% loZ ,o fg*½ dk funsZ'k djrk gSA bl 'yksd dk ;g dFku Li"V gh ;q) ds ifj.kke ds izfr nq;ksZ/ku dk la'k; izfr/ofur djrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd mls viuh Hkh"e }kjk jf{kr 11 v{kkSfg.kh dh lsuk 7 v{kkSfg.khokyh ik.Moksa dh lsuk ls de cyorh ¼^vi;kZIra rnLekda cya Hkh"ekfHkjf{kre~*21½ yxrh gSA 'yksd 3 ls ysdj 10 rd nq;ksZ/ku xq# nzks.k ls vius i{k ds egkjfFk;ksa ds ifjp; ,oa nksuksa i{kksa ds cy ls lacaf/kr ckrsa dj jgk Fkk] fdUrq 'yksd 11 esa og ;dk;d Hkh"e dh j{kk ds fy, leLr ohjksa dks funsZ'k nsus yxrk gSA oLrqr% Hkh"e ds o`)Ro ds dkj.k nq;ksZ/ku dk viuh fot; ds izfr la'k; gSA 'yksd 12 ds ^dq#o`)% firkeg%* esa dq#o`) dk ^o`)* 'kCn nq;ksZèku }kjk fo'ks"k iz;kstu ls gh iz;qä fd;k x;k gSA nq;ksZ;u dk la'k; gh gS ftlds dkj.k 'yksd 119 esa ik.Moksa ds Hksjh ?kks"k us /kkrZjk"Vªksa ds ân; dks fonh.kZ dj fn;k ¼^l ?kks"kks /kkrZjk"Vªk.kka ân;kfu O;nkj;r~*½ ,slk dgk x;k gSA ;fn ,slk le>k tk; fd nq;ksZ/ku viuh lsuk ds yksxksa esa lrdZrk vkSj lé)rk dh vfHko`f) ds mís'; ls viuh lsuk dks vi;kZIr dgrk gS rks Hkh bl foijhr dFku dk vkSfpR; ugha yxrkA Hkh"e dh o`)koLFkk dks ysdj egkHkkjr&;q) ds izFke fnu ik.Mo&lsukifr 'osr ls yM+rs gq, mudh lqj{kk dk lUnHkZ rhu ckj vk;k gSA Hkh"e dh j{kk ds fy, ;q)kjEHk ds le; gh nq;ksZ/ku us 5 egkjfFk;ksaµ nqeZq[k] ÑroekZ] Ñikpk;Z] 'kY; ,oa fofoalfr dks yxk;k Fkkµ ^nqeZq[k% ÑroekZ p Ñi% 'kY;ks fofoalfr%A Hkh"ea tq x q i q j klk| ro iq = ks . k pks f nr%A ,rSjfrFkSxqZIr% i×pfHkHkZjr"kZHk% Ï*22 23
24
vfHkeU;q vkSj 'osr us Hkh"e dks Hkkjh Vôj nh FkhA
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[Vol. XVIII (1)
'osr ds Hkh"k.k ;q) dk vuqeku bl ckr ls yxrk gS fd mlus tc vius Hkzkr`gUrk 'kY; dks e`R;q ds eq[k esa Mky j[kk Fkkµ 25 ^enzjkteHkhIlUrks e`R;ksnz±"VªkUrja xre~* ftls cpkus ds fy, c`gæy] dksly] t;Rlsu] #DejFk] foUn] vuqfoUn] lqnf{k.k vkSj t;nzFk&tSls egkjfFk;ksa dks tkuk iM+k Fkkµ ^rekirUra lEiz s { ; eÙkokj.kfoØee~ A rkodkuka jFkk% lIr leUrkr~ i;Zokj;u~ Ï*26 'osr ls yM+us ds fy, nq;ksZ/ku Lo;a Hkh"e dks lkFk ysdj x;k FkkA ,d le; 'osr ds Hk;adj ;q) ds dkj.k Hkh"e vdsys iM+ x, Fks] lkFk ds lHkh ;ks)k vius cpko ds fy, lsuk ds fiNys Hkkx esa pys x, Fks vkSj j{kkFkZ egkjfFk;ksa esa ls 27 Hkh"e ds ikl esa dksbZ ugha FkkA nq;ksZ/ku us Hkh"e dh j{kk ds fy, 'osr dks nwljh rjQ vkdf"kZr fd;k FkkA 'osr us Hkh"e dks 28 ihNs <dsy fn;k] bl volj ij nq;ksZ/ku cgqr nq%[kh gqvk FkkA 29 'osr us Hk;adj ;q)dj Hkh"e dks ?kk;y fd;kA 'osr us jFk dk /ot dkV fxjk;k Fkk rc nq;ksZ/ku us le>k Fkk fd Hkh"e ekjs 30 x,] fdUrq ikl vkdj nq;ksZ/ku us mudh j{kk dh vkSj Hkh"e vxzlj gks ldsA iwjh dkSjo&lsuk Hkh"e dh j{kk esa yxhA vkB egkjfFk;ksa dk j{kk&?ksjk cuk;k x;kA dkSjo&lsuk rckg FkhA nq;ksZ/ku nq%[kh FkkA 'osr us iqu% Hkh"e dk jFk u"V dj fn;k Fkk vkSj mlds izgkjksa ds pyrs egkjfFk;ksa dks nwljh ckj fQj ;g 31 yxk Fkk fd Hkh"e ekjs x;sA 'osr ds Hkh"e ij Hkkyk&izgkj ds le; dkSjoksa esa gkgkdkj ep x;k FkkA 'osr }kjk Hkh"e dh jFk ij xnk&izgkj ds le; Mj ds ekjs os jFk ls dwn x, FksA 'kY; vkfn lgk;rkFkZ vk;sA nzks.k] 'kY; vkSj Ñikpk;Z mudh j{kk esa 32 jgsA o;kso`) firkeg ds ;q) dk mi;Zqä fooj.k dsoy blfy, mifLFkr fd;k x;k gS fd lEHkor% nq;ksZ/ku dks ,slh ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk vuqeku ;q) ds iwoZ jgk gksxkA nq;ksZ/ku Mjk&Mjk lk tku iM+rk gS vkSj mldk la'k; gh o`) firkeg dh rqyuk esa ;qokoLFkkokys cy'kkyh Hkhe }kjk jf{kr ik.Mo lsuk dks i;kZIr cyorh vFkkZr~ Hkkjh iyM+sokyh ^egrh* lsuk dgyokrk gSA ,d ckr vkSj /;ku nsus dh gS fd nq;ksZ/ku vius i{k ds ek=k 8 ¼vkSj vU; izfr;ksa ds ikB&Hksn ds vk/kkj ij ;fn t;nzFk dks tksM+ fy;k tk; rks 9½ 'kwjohjksa ds uke fxukrk gS ¼nq;ksZ/ku dks ysdj dqy 10 ;ks)k½] tcfd ik.Mo&lsuk ds 19 ;ks)kvksa dk mYys[k mlus fd;k gS vkSj 'ka[k/ofu ds ek/;e ls Kkr 7 ;ks)kvksa dks tksM+ fy;k tk,] rks dqy 26 ;ks)kx.k
mlds lkeus FksA egkHkkjr&;q) ds vkjEHk ds le; dk ;g fp=k.k nq;ksZ/ku dh eu%fLFkfr dks ck/; djrk gS vkSj og ik.Mo&lsuk dks egrh vkSj cyorh ekurs gq, viuh O;Fkk dk izdVhdj.k xq# nzks.k ls djrk gSA /;ku nsus dh ckr gS fd nq;ksZ/ku ik.Moksa ds fxuk, x, ohjksa dks ^egkjFkh* ¼^loZ ^loZ ,o 33 egkjFkk%* ½ dgrk gS vkSj vius i{k ds ohjksa dks mlds fy, tku nsusokys 'kwj dgk gS tks 'kL=k&lfTtr vkSj ;q)&dyk ds vPNs tkudkj ¼^'kw ^'kwjk% enFksZ R;äthfork%A ukuk'kL=kizgj.kk% losZ 34 ;q)fo'kkjnk% Ï* ½ lkfgfR;d o.kZuksa esa vkxs vkusokyh ?kVukvksa vFkok gksusokys ifj.kke ds ladsr lwfpr djus dh fo/kk gksrh gSA nq;ksZ/ku ds la'k; dks blh :i esa izLrqr fd;k x;k gSA Hkxon~xhrk ds 18osa v/;k; ds 'yksd 78 esa Li"V dj fn;k gS fd ftl i{k esa Ñ".k gSa] mlh dh fot; gksxhµ ^;=k ;ksxs'oj% Ñ".kks ;=k ikFkksZ /kuq/kZj%A r=k JhfoZt;ks Hkwfr/kzZqok uhfreZfreZe Ï* ;gha ugha] bl nwjxkeh ifj.kke dks lat; us egkHkkjr ds Hkh"eioZ ds 21osa v/;k; esa gh ladsfrr fd;k gSµ 35
^;rLÑ".k% rrks t;%*35 Hkxon~xhrk esa 'kwjohjksa ds mYys[k dh n`f"V ls ;g folaxfr Hkh mYys[; gS fd nq;ksZ/ku us ik.Mo&lsuk ds izeq[k 'kwjohjksa ds fooj.k ¼'yksd 3 izFke ikn ls 6 rd½ esa Ñ".k] ;qf/kf"Bj] udqy] lgnso] f'k[k.Mh] lkR;fd ,oa fojkV ds iq=kksa dks ugha fxuk;k gSA Ñ".k] ;qf/kf"Bj] f'k[k.Mh] lkR;fd] udqy vkSj lgnso dk mYys[k lat; }kjk ik.Mo i{k ds 'ka[k/ofu djusokys izeq[k ohjksa ds ukeksYys[k ds le; vkrk gS ¼'yksd 15 ls 17½] fdUrq 'osr ds mYys[k dk /;ku mUgsa Hkh ugha vkrk tcfd fojkV ds rhu iq=kksa esa ls 'osr us egkHkkjr&;q) ds izFke fnu ds lsukifr ds :Ik esa usr`Ro fd;k Fkk vkSj ml fnu ds ;q) dk og nq/kZ"kZ ;ks)k FkkA lUnHkZ % 12345678-
Hkxon~xhrk] 18-70 ogh] ƒŠ-‰† ogh] ƒŠ-‰ˆ ogh] 18-75 Hkkxoriqjk.k] 1-15-30 ogh] 1-15-30 ogh] 1-15-31 Hkxon~xhrk] 16-3
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
910111213-
ogh] 18-68 ogh] 18-71 Hkkxoriqjk.k] 1-4-29 ogh] 1-5-3
151617181920212223242526272829303132333435-
egkHkkjr] Hkh"eioZ] 19-1 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 20-1&2 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 19-1 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 19-1 Hkxon~xhrk] 1-15]17 ogh] 1-9 ogh] 1-10 egkHkkjr] Hkh"eioZ] 47-2&3 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 47-7 ,oa vkxs ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 47-43 ,oa vkxs ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 47-47 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 47-46 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-28&29 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-41 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-46 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-53 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-55&65 ogh] Hkh"eioZ] 48-77] 84] 86] 89] 96 Hkxon~xhrk] 1-6 ogh] 1-9 egkHkkjr] Hkh"eioZ] 21-12]14
JheÚxoåhrk ,oa mldk çFke vè;k;
'Bhagavad Gītā with the commentary of Çaìkaräcärya, Published by Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, p.XVII, 1997 14- 'Śrī Bhagavad Gītā: 745 verses, bhojapatrī Gītā, with introduction, complete English translation, and various readings', Published by Shri Bhuvaneshwari Pith and Shri Bhuvaneshwari Prakashan, The Gondal Rasashala Aushadhashram, Gondal-360311, Gujrat, 1990, 328 pages
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cksgjk] Nxuyky] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 94&97] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
tSu&vkxe ^uk;kèkEedgkvks* esa ikSjkf.kd ,oa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ Nxuyky cksgjk *
Hkk
jrh;&laLÑfr esa euq"; dks Js"Bre cukus ds fy, vR;Ur izkphudky ls nks vk/;kfRed ijEijk,¡µ Je.k&ijEijk vkSj czkã.k&ijEijk lkFk&lkFk fodflr] iüfor&iqf"ir gksrh pyh vkbZ gSa rFkk nksuksa us ,d&nwljs dks izHkkfor gh ugha fd;k oju~ ,d&nwljs esa ?kqy&feydj Hkkjro"kZ dh laLÑfr vkSj Kku&lEink dks 'kr&lgò xqf.krdj lkjs fo'o esa QSyk;k gSA Hkkjrh;&ok³~e; ds lHkh Js"B xzUFk Je.k vkSj czkã.k&ijEijk ds egku~ iq#"kksa] _f"k;ksa] vgZrksa ds egku~ dk;ks±] mís';kas vkSj thou&pfj=kksa ls Hkjs iM+s gSaA Je.k&ijEijk ds izFke rhFk±dj _"kHk dks czkã.k&ijEijk esa fo".kq ds 24 vorkjksa esa LFkku izkIr gSA _"kHk&iq=k Hkjr dks izFke pØorhZ lezkV~ vkSj mUgha ds uke ij bl jk"Vª dk ^Hkkjro"kZ* uke loZekU; gSA blh izdkj e;kZnk iq#"kksÙke Jhjke] egkohj guqeku] oklqnso Ñ".k] egkeqfu ukjnth] O;kl th] 'kqdnso th vkfn vusd Js"B egkiq#"kksa dk pfj=k&fp=k.k tSu&xzUFkksa esa vusd LFkkuksa ij fd;k x;k gSA ;g Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr dh egku~ fo'ks"krk gS fd ;gk¡ Kku ds Js"B òksrksa vkSj ijEijkvksa dk vknj fd;k x;k gS ftlls ;g ns'k 'kkfUr] le`f) vkSj ekuo&dY;k.k dk ekxZ fn[kkusokyk fo'oxq#&in dks izkIr ,dek=k ns'k FkkA ^gekjk /keZxzUFk gh lR; gS] bls ekuusokys cUns gh thfor jgus ;ksX; gSa] vU; lHkh er dqÝ o vU; erkoyEch dkfQ+j vkSj Uk"V dj fn, tkus ;ksX; gSaµ ,slh ,dkaxh] dêj /kek±/k ekU;rkokys lekt vkSj jk"Vª ftl izdkj lkjs fo'o ds fy, [+krjs dk dkj.k curs tk jgs gSa] ,sls esa Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr ds lHkh /keZ&n'kZu lkSgknzZ vkSj izse dk vuqie mnkgj.k izLrqr djrs gSaA tSu&vkxe ^blhHkklh;kbZ* esa ¹ ^cksgjk&fudsr*] cksgjk x.ks'k ekxZ] mn;iqj&313 001 ¼jktLFkku½( lpyHkk"k % 09414164970
18 oSfnd _f"k;ksa ds mins'k ladfyr gSaA izLrqr vkys[k esa tSu&vkxe ^uk;k/kEedgkvks* ds 19 v/;;uksa esa ls dbZ v/;;uksa ds ikSjkf.kd ,oa ,sfrgkfld egkiq#"kksa ds izkIr lUnHkksZ dk mYys[k fd;k tk jgk gSA ^uk;k/kEedgkvks* ds ^vojdadk* uked 16osa v/;;u esa ¼egf"kZ½ ukjn dk o.kZu izkIr gksrk gSA ikSjkf.kd xzUFkksa] jkek;.k] egkHkkjr ¼gfjoa'kioZ] 54-7&12½ rFkk yksdeq[k dh vusd dFkkvksa esa ukjn dk tSlk o.kZu vkrk gS] oSlh gh fo'ks"krkvksa] oSlh gh os'kHkw"kk] vkdk'kxkfeuh fo|k] oh.kkoknu] ;gk¡ dh ckr ogk¡ vkSj ogk¡ dh ckr ;gk¡ fepZ&elkyk yxkdj ukjnfo|k dk ;FkkrF; o.kZu uk;k/kEedgkvks ds 16osa v/;k; ^vojdadk* dh 175oha xkFkk esa fd;k x;k gSµ ^be p .kadPNqüukj,&nal.ks.k vbHkí, fo.kh, varks&varks ; dyqlfg;, eT>RFk&mofRFk, ; vüh.k&lksefi;nal.ks lq:os veby&lxy ifjfg, dkyfe;pEesmÙkjklax jb;oPNs n.M&de.Myq&gRFks tM+kemM+&fnrflj, téksob; x.ksfÙk;&eqatesgyk&okxy/kjs gRFkd;&dPNHkh, fi;xa/kOos /kjf.kxks;jIigk.ks laoj.kkoj.kh vkso;.kqIi;f.k&ysl.khlq ; ladkef.k&vkfHkvksfx&i..kfr&xef.k FkafHk.khlq ; cgwlq foTtkgjhlq foTtklq foLlq;tls bBBs jkeLl ; dsloLlA ra HkxobZ iôef.ka xx.k&xe.knPNa mIibvks xx.kafHkya?ka;rks&xkekxkj&uxj [ksM+&dCcM+&eMac&nzks.keq[k&iê.k&lackg&lgLleafM;a fFkfe;esb.kh;a fuCHkj t.kina olqga vksyksbars jEea gfRFk.kmjs mokx, iaMqjk;Hk.kkafl >frosxs.k leksob,A* vFkkZr~] ^mlh le; dPNqy ukjn ik.Mojktk ds Hkou esa iw.kZ osx ds lkFk mrjsA os ns[kus esa vfr Hknz vkSj fouhr Fks] ysfdu dHkh&dHkh dyq"k&ân; gks tkrs FksA og ek/;LFk&ozr dks miyC/k vkSj vkfJrksa dks lkSE;] fiz;n'kZu vkSj lq:i FksA vefyu] 96 v[k.M oL=k igus gq, FksA mudk ân; Ñ".ke`x ds peZ ls
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
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tSu&vkxe ^uk;kèkEedgkvks* esa ikSjkf.kd ,oa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ
lq'kksfHkr FkkA gkFk esa n.M] de.Myq vkSj eLrd tVk&eqdqV ls nhfir FkkA og ;Kksiohr] x.ksf=kdk] eaqt&es[kyk vkSj o`{kksa dh Nky igus gq, FksA gkFk esa dPNfHk oh.kk Fkh] og laxhrfiz;] Hkwfepj izkf.k;ksa esa iz/kku] laoj.kh] vkoj.kh] voiruh] mRiuh vkSj 'ys".kh rFkk laØe.kh] vfHk;ksfxuh] izKfIr] xeuh vkSj LrfEHkuhµ bu fo|kvksa ls foJqr ;'kokys rFkk jke vkSj ds'ko ds b"V Fks] og xxu&xeu esa n{k] Hkxorh izØe.kh fo|k dks vkefU=krdj vkdk'k esa mM+s] xxu dks yk¡?krs gq, gt+kjksa xzke] uxj] [ksV] dcZV] nzks.keq[k] iÙku vkfn ls ifjef.Mr esfnuhry ,oa tuinksa ls ladqy olq/kk dk voyksdu djrs gq, gfLrukiqj igq¡psA* ik.Moksa us ekrk dqUrh lfgr dPNqy ukjn dk Lokxr muds lkeus tkdj fd;k] oUnukdj v?;Z] ik| vkSj vklu ij fojkteku fd;k] dqUrh o ik.Mo ukjn th dh ckr ij /;ku ns jgs Fks] mudh i;qZiklukdj vH;qRFkku dj jgs Fks] ijUrq nzkSinh us mUgsa vla;r&vfojr&vizfrgr]vizR;k[;kr&ikidekZ tkudj ukjn th dks u vknj fn;k] u mudh ckr ij /;ku fn;k vkSj u gh i;qZikluk dhA ^r, .ka lk nksobZ nsoh dPNqy ukjk;a vLlat;a vfoj;a vIifMg;iPpD[kk;ikoeafr dêq uks vk<kb uks ifj;k.kb uks vCHkqësbZ uks iTtqoklbZA*1
2
;kfo gksRFkkA*2 bl xkFkk esa ukjnth ds ckjs esa tks izfl) gS fd os viuk vuknj djusokys dk vfu"V fd, fcuk ughsa NksM+rs] ,d ckr dks fepZ&elkyk yxkdj nwljs LFkku ij igq¡pkus] >xM+k djokus esa] lkjs yksd esa dgha Hkh tkus gsrq vkdk'kxkfeuh fo|k ds Kkrk FksA blh izdkj dk fp=k.k jkek;.k] egkHkkjr] iqjk.kkfn esa izkIr gksrk gSA izkphu Hkkjr esa _f"k&egf"kZ lHkh jktkvksa dks muds drZO;ksa ds izfr ltx jgus fd izsj.kk nsrs jgrs FksA ukjnth tc gfLrukiqj esa ik.Moksa ls rFkk /kkrdh[k.M esa vojdadk igq¡prs gSa] rc jktk iÉukHk ls mlds jkT;] jk"Vª] dks"k] dks"Bkxkj] cy] lsuk] turk] uxj vkSj var%iqj ds fo"k; esa tkudkjh izkIr djrs gSA mUgsa tgk¡ Hkh tks lq/kkj visf{kr gksrk gS] ml deh ds fo"k; esa jktk dks lko/kku djrs gSaA jktk ds LoHkko] O;ogkj esa dksbZ U;wurk gks] rks mlds izfr Hkh mls mins'k djrs gSaA vojdadk&ujs'k iÉukHk dks vius var%iqj dh jkfu;ksa ds lkSUn;Z vkSj vius oSHko ij cM+k vfHkeku FkkA og ukjnth ls dgrk gS fd ^^vki lkjs yksd esa vusd }hiksa] uxjksa vkSj vusd jktkvksa ds vUr%iqj esa tkrs gSa] D;k vkius esjs&tSlk var%iqj dgha ns[kk gS\** rks ukjnth mldk ?ke.M nwj djrs gq, dgrs gSa] ^^iÉukHk ! rw rks dwie.Mwd ds leku gS**µ ^lfjls .ka rqea imeukHkk! rLlvxM+níqjLlA*
rc dPNqy ukjn ds eu esa bl izdkj dk vkUrfjd] fpfUrr] vfHkyf"kr euksxr ladYi mRié gqvkµ ^vksg! ;g nzkSinh nsoh :i&yko.;] ;kSou rFkk ik¡pksa ik.Moksa ds dkj.k xfoZr gks jgh gS] blfy;s u eq>s vknj nsrh gS] u esjh ckr ij /;ku nsrh gS] u i;qZikluk djrh gS] vr% ;g mfpr gksxk fd eSa nzkSinh dk dqN vfu"V fofiz; d:¡!* ,slh laizs{kkdj ukjnth us ik.Moks ls tkus ds fy;s iwNk o mRiruh fo|k dk vkàokudj mRÑ"V] Rofjr] piy] p.M] 'kh?kz] m)r] osxiw.kZ] fuiq.k fo|k/kj xfr ls yo.kleqnz ds chpkschp gksrs gq, iwoZ dh vksj eq¡gdj mM+us yxsµ
bl izdkj os iÉukHk dks nzkSinh ds vn~Hkqr~ :i&yko.; dh tkudkjh ns mlds eu esa vklfä txk nzkSinh dk vigj.k djokdj vius vuknj dk cnyk ys ysrs gSaA ik.Moksa ,oa JhÑ".k }kjk nzkSinh dh xos"k.kk ds nkSjku os JhÑ".k dks nzkSinh dh tkudkjh Hkh cM+s mis{kk Hkko ls nsrs gSa fd /kkrdh[k.M esa jktk iÉukHk ds var%iqj esa eSaus nzkSinh&tSlh L=kh ns[kh gSA JhÑ".k rqjUr dg mBrs gSa fd ^^yxrk gS ;g lc vkidk gh fd;k&/kjk gS**µ
^r, .ka rLl dPNqü ukj;l bes;k:os vT>fRFk, fpafr, ifRFk, e.kksx, ladIis leqIifTtRFkk&vgks .ka nksobZ nsoh :os.k ; tksOo.ks.k ; yko..ks.k; iapfga iaMosfgavoRFk)k lek.kh eea uks vk<kbZ uks ifj;k.kb uks vCHkqëb uks iTtoklbA ra ls;a [kyq ee nksobZ, nsoh, fofIi;a djasÙk, fr dêq ,oa laisgsb laisgsÙkk iaMqjk;a vkiqPNqb] vkiqfPNrk mIi;f.k foTta vkokgsb vokgsrk rk, mfôëk, rqfj;k, poyk, p.Mk, flX?kk, mìq;k, tkb.kk, Ns;k, foTtgjxbZ, yo.kleq)a eT>a eT>s.ka iqjRFkkfHkeqgs ohbZobma i;Ùks
bl izdkj uk;k/kEedgkvks esa of.kZr ?kVukvksa esa dqN fHkérk gksus ds ckotwn ,sfrgkfld ik=kkas ds xq.ko.kZu esa vU; 'kkL=kksa ls lekurk izkIr gksrh gSA blh izdkj O;kl th ds iq=k 'kqdnsoth dk mYys[k Hkh uk;k/kEedgkvks ds ^'kSyd* uked ik¡posa vè;;u esa izkIr gksrk gSA blesa 'kqdnsoth dk egku~ ifjozktd ds :i esa o.kZu fd;k x;k gS vkSj mudh rhFk±dj vfj"Vuseh ds f'k"; 'kSyd eqfu ds lkFk /keZppkZ dk mYys[k
^r, .ka d.gs oklqnsos dPNqükukj;a ,oa o;klh&rqCHka pso .ka 3 nsok.kqfIi;k! ,;a iqOodEea*
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izkIr gksrk gSµ ^rs.ka dkys.ka rs.ka le,s.ka lq, ukea ifjOok;, gksRFkkfjmOos;a&ttqOos;a&lkeos;a vFkOo.kos;a lfërar dqlys la[kle, yë)s iapte iapfu;etqÙka lks;ewy;a nlIi;kja ifjOok;x/kEea] nk.k/kEea] p lks;/kEea] p frRFkkfHkls;a p vk?kosek.ks i..kosek.ks] /kkmjRr&oRFk&ioj&ifjfg,&frnaM&dqafM;&NÙk&Néky;&vadql&dsljh& gRFkx, ifjOok;xlgLls.ka lf)a laifjoM+s ts.kso lksxf/k;k rs.kso mokxPNbA*4 vFkkZr~] ml le; vkSj ml dky esa 'kqd uked ifjozktd gq,] tks _Xosn] ;tqosZn] lkeosn] vFkoZosn vkSj "kf"Bra=k esa dq'ky] lka[;n'kZu ds eeZK] ik¡p ;e] ik¡p fu;e ls ;qä] nku/keZ] 'kkSp/kEkZ] rhFkkZfHk"ksd] nl izdkj ds ifjozktd&/keZ dh iz:i.kk djrs gq,] xs#, oL=k] f=kn.M] de.My] N=k] f=kdkf"Bdk] rkEcs dh vaxwBh vkSj ,d oL=k&[k.M /kkj.k fd, ,d gt+kj ifjozktdksa ds lkFk lkSxaf/kdk uxjh esa vk;sA ckblosa rhFk±dj Hkxoku~ vfj"Vuseh o oklqnso JhÑ".k ppsjs HkkbZ FksA vfj"Vuseh ds firk leqnzfot;th ,oa JhÑ".k ds firk olqnso th lxs HkkbZ FksA Hkkjrh;&ifjokjksa esa fdruh /kkfeZd LorU=krk ,oa lfg".kqrk Fkh] bldk ;g ToyUr mnkgj.k gS fd ,d gh ifjokj ds vfj"Vuseh tSu&rhFk±dj cus vkSj Hkxoku~ JhÑ".k lukru ijEijk esa fo".kq ds vkBosa vorkjA ^uk;k/kEEkdgkvks* ds ik¡poas v/;;u ^'kSyd* esa xkFkk 2 ls 6 rd }kjdk uxjh] jsord ioZr vkSj JhÑ".k ds jktifjokj dk lqUnj o.kZu gSA oklqnso JhÑ".k dk jkT; mÙkj esa oSrk<~;fxfj ls ysdj nf{k.k lkxji;±r lEiw.kZ nf{k.kk)Z Hkkjr esa FkkA dqcsj }kjk fufeZr }kjdk mudh jkt/kkuh Fkh tks ukS ;kstu pkSM+h] ckjg ;kstu yEch lk{kkr~ LoxZrqY; FkhA }kjdk ds bZ'kku dks.k esa jsord ioZr Fkk tks vfj"Vuseh Hkxoku~ dk fogkj&LFky Fkkµ
[Vol. XVIII (1)
lksyLlga jkbZlkgLlh.ka iTtquikeksD[kk.kka v)qB~Bk.ka dqekjdksMh.ka lkacIikeksD[kk.kka lB~Bh, nqnar lkgLlh.ka] ohjls.kikeksD[kk.kka ,ôohlk, ohjlkgLlh.ka egkls.kIikeksD[kk.kka NIik.kk, cycxlkgLlh.ka] :fIif.kIikeksD[kk.ka cÙkhlk, efgyklkgLlh.ka] v.kaxls.kk,IikeksD[kk.ka] v.ksxk.ka xf.k;klkgLlh.ka] v..kslh cgw.ka bZlj] ryoj ekMfca; dksMqfca; bCHk] lsfë ls.kkob lRFkokgifHkbZ.ka] os;M~Mfxfj] lkxj isjarl ; nkfg.kë&HkkjgLl ckjobZ, u;fj, vkgsoPpa iksjsoPpa lkfera] ;fëra] egrjera] 6 vk.kk&bZlj ls.kkoPpadkjsek.ks ikysek.ks fogjbZA* vFkkZr~] ml }kjkorh uxjh esa oklqnso Ñ".k fuokl djrs Fks] os ogk¡ leqnzfot;&izeq[k n'kn'kkgks±] cynso&izeq[k ik¡p egkohjksa] mxzlsu&izeq[k lksyg gt+kj jktkvksa] iz|qEu&izeq[k lk<+s rhu djksM+ dqekjksa] 'kkEc&izeq[k lkB gt+kj nqnk±r ;ks)kvksa] ohjlsu&izeq[k bôhl gt+kj ohjksa] egklsu&izeq[k NIiu gt+kj cyokuksa #fDe.kh&izeq[k cÙkhl gt+kj efgykvksa] vuaxlsuk&izeq[k gt+kjksa xf.kdkvksa vkSj vU; cgqr&ls bZ'oj] ryoj] ekMfcad] dksMfcad] bZH;] Js"Bh] lsukifr] lkFkZokg vkfn dk oSrk<~;fxfj ls leqnzi;±r nf{k.kk)Z Hkkjr vkSj }kjkorh uxjh dk vkf/kiR;] iksjiR;] LokfeRo] HkrZRo] egrjRo] vkKk] ,s'o;Z vkSj lsukifrRo djrs gq, fogkj djrs FksA izkphu Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr esa lHkh fopkj/kkjkvksa] /kkfeZd ekU;rkvksa ds fy, fdruk ikjLifjd lkSgknzZ jgrk Fkk] bldk mnkgj.k Lo;a oklqnso JhÑ".k FksA }kjdk uxjh dh ,d /kuk<~; efgyk ^FkkoPpk* dk iq=k ckblosa rhFk±dj Hkxoku~ vfj"Vuseh ds ikl nhf{kr gksuk pkgrk FkkA nh{kk&lekjksg ds vk;kstu ds fy, FkkoPpk us oklqnso JhÑ".k ds ikl fuosnu fd;k fd esjs bdykSrs iq=k ds nh{kk vfHkfUk"Øe.k&lekjksg esa vki mls N=k] eqdqV vkSj p¡oj iznku djsaA rc JhÑ".k us mlls dgkµ ^vPNkgh .ka rqea nsok.kqfIi,! lqfuOoqrfolRFkk vg..ka l;eso FkkoPpkiqÙkLl nkjxLl] fuD[ke.klôkja dfjLlkfeA*
^rs.ka dkys.ka rs.ka le,.ka ckjorh ukea u;jh gksRFkk ikb.kifM+.kk;;k mnh.knkfg.kfofR..kk uotks;.kfofRFk..kk nqokyltks;.kk;kek] /k.kob&eb&fufEe;k pkeh;j&ioj&ikxkjk ukukef.k&iapo..kdfolhlxs lksfg;k vydkiqjh ladklk ieqb;&iôhfy;k iPpD[ka nsoyksxHkw;k Ï rhls .ka ckjobZ, u;fj, 5 cfg;k mÙkjiqjfRFkes fnlhHkk,jsorxs ukea iOo, gksRFkk Ï*
blds ckn JhÑ".k os uxj esa ;g ?kks"k.kk djokrs gSa fd FkkoPpk&iq=k ds lkFk tks Hkh nhf{kr gksuk pkgrk gks] mlds ifjokj ds Hkj.k&iks"k.k ,oa ;ksx{kse dh ftEesnkjh esjh gksxhA
^rRFk .ka ckjobZ, u;jh, d.gs ukea oklqnsos jk;k ifjolbZA ls .ka rRFkleq)fot;IikeksD[kk.kka nl.ga] nlkjk.ka cynsoikeksD[kk.kka iap.ga egkohjk.kka] mXxls.kIikeksD[kk.kka
blh v/;k; esa 'kqdnsoth vkSj vfj"Vuseh ds f'k"; vk;Z FkkoPpk iq=k dh /kkfeZd ppkZ dk jkspd o.kZu gSA ,d&nwljs ds nk'kZfud&fopkjksa ij ppkZ vkSj mUgas le>rs gq,
vFkkZr~] gs nsokuqfiz;s! rqe vk'oLr jgksA eSa Lo;a vkids ckyd dk vfHkfu"Øe.k&laLdkj d:¡xkA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
tSu&vkxe ^uk;kèkEedgkvks* esa ikSjkf.kd ,oa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ
ijLij vknj&lEeku nsus dk jkspd ,oa rF;iw.kZ o.kZu gSA blh izdkj 16osa v/;;u ^vojdadk* esa JhÑ".k vkSj ik.Moksa dk o.kZu izkIr gksrk gSA nzkSinh ds iwoZtUeksa dk o.kZu] dkafiY;iqj esa nzkSinh ds Lo;aoj dk o.kZu] gfLrukiqj dh jktlHkk ,oa ogk¡ fueU=k.k Hkstus dk o.kZu] fojkVuxj esa dhpd dk o.kZu] Lo;aoj esa vk, gq, vussd jktkvksa ds vkokl Hkkstukfn dh O;oLFkk] nzkSinh ds Lo;aoj esa tkus gsrq rS;kj gksdj ftu&efUnj esa tkdj n'kZu] iwtk ,oa ik.Moksa ds lkFk fookg dk o.kZu miyC/k gksrk gSA JhÑ".k dk u`flag&:i /kkj.k djus dk o.kZu] yo.k leqnz ,oa mls yk¡?kua rFkk ik.Moksa }kjk ik.Mq eFkqjk uxjh dk fuekZ.k vkfn dk jkspd o.kZu bl v/;k; esa izkIr gksrk gSA blh izdkj ^eüh* uked v/;;u esa rhFk±dj efüukFk dk thouo`Ùk rFkk ^môhr.kk,* uked v/;;u esa jktx`guxj] Jsf.kd jktk] muds iq=k ea=kh vHk;dqekj dk o.kZu ^rLl.ka lsf.k;Ll iqÙks uank, nsfo, vÙk, vHk; ukea dqekja gksRFkkA* ex/k ds ik'oZ esa gh vax ns'k dh jktèkkuh pEikuxjh ,oa ogk¡ ds jktk dkSf.kd dk o.kZuµ ^rRFk.ka pEik, u;jh, dksf.k, ukea jk;k gksRFkkA* exèk jkT; dh oSHkoiw.kZ thou&'kSyh ,oa lqO;ofLFkr jkT;&O;oLFkk dk o.kZu izkIr gksrk gS tks ,sfrgkfld :i ls bl dky ds ckjs esa tkuus dk ,d cgqr cM+k ek/;e gSA vko';drk blds vUos"k.k ,oa 'kks/k&[kkst dh gS] ftlls ?kVukvksa rRdkyhu egkiq#"kksa vkSj lekt&thou dk O;ofLFkr rkjrE;rkiw.kZ fp=k.k lkeus vk ldsA lUnHkZ % 123456-
uk;kèkEedgkvks] xkFkk 189 ogh] xkFkk 190 ogh] xkFkk 231 ogh] ik¡pok¡ v/;;u] xkFkk 52 ogh] ik¡pok¡ v/;;u] xkFkk 3 ogh] ik¡pok¡ v/;;u] xkFkk 6
99
f=kosnh] MkW‚ Ñ".kdkUr] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 98&103] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
^egkoLrqvonku* esa cksfèklÙo dk thou&n'kZu vkSj egk;kuh&ckS¼ksa ds fof'kÔ nk'kZfud&fl¼kUr MkWŒ Ï".kdkUr f=osnh *
r
Fkkxr cq) ds lRdeZ dks jkspd dFkkvksq ds ek/;e ls vfHkO;ä djus dk tks lkfgfR;d dkS'ky gS] mls ge ^vonku* ds uke ls tkurs gSaA ckS)kas dh ghu;kuh ,oa egk;kuhµ nksukas gh ijEijkvkas ls tqM+s gq, vonku ik, tkrs gaSA ;g LFkkiuk Hkh x<+h tkrh jgh gS fd ^vonku* vFkok laLÑr dk ^vinku* 'kCn okLro eas lehphu] f'k{kkRed] ohjrkiw.kZ dk;Z ,oa lRdeZ dk Hkku djk nsrk gSA vonkukas esa ikjEifjd Hksn Hkys gh yf{kr gks jgs gkas] ij bUgas lh/ks cq)opu dh Js.kh eas ugha j[kk tkrkA bfrgkldkjkas dh [kkst ;gh gS fd bl rjg ds foiqy lkfgR; ds gksus ls Hkkjr tSls ns'k dh ckSf)d psruk eas ,d fo'ks"k rjg dk ifjorZu fn[kkbZ nsus yxk FkkA ;g ladsr Hkh feyrk gS fd bl rjg dh lkfgfR;d lEink fdaok fojklr dks lajf{kr j[kus esa mu ekr`dkvksa dk cgqr cM+k ;ksxnku Fkk ftUgsa dqN&dqN vUrjky ij dbZ txgksa ls ladfyr fd;k x;k FkkA ;g lEHkkouk Hkh cuh gqbZ gS fd vonkuksa dk ladyu djds mUgsa ys[kc) djus esa ftu yksxksa fd #fp gksrh Fkh] mUgsa ^vonjukFkZ dksfon* vFkok 1 ^vonkfud* dgk tkrk FkkA egk;kuh&iaFk ds vonkuksa esa lokZf/kd [;kfr ^cksf/klÙokonku* vFkkZr~ ^vonkudYiyrk* dh jgh gSA dk'ehjh dfo {ksesUnz us cksf/klÙo ds ikou pfjr dks 108 vonkuksa esa foHkkftr djds mls iwjh lkt&lTtk ds lkFk izLrqr fd;k FkkA egk;kfu;ksa ds nk'kZfud&fpUru dh [kwch ;g gS fd izkf.k;ksa dks nq%[kksa ls eqä djus ds fufeÙk gh cksf/klÙo ckj&ckj tUe yssrs gSaA mUgsa vius fuokZ.k dh fpUrk ugha gksrh] D;ksafd os tu&tu ¹ lsokfuo`Ùk izkè;kid] izkphu Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl foHkkx] fefFkyk fjlpZ baLVhV~;wV] njHkaxk( fuokl % dcMk?kkV] iks‚% ykyckx+&846 004 ¼fcgkj½ 100
ds fuokZ.k ds izfr lefiZr gksrs gSaA buds egku~ dk;Z gh vonku ds izfrik| dgs tkrs gSaA egk;kfu;ksa us cq) dks yksdksÙkjoknh dHkh ugha ekuk FkkA tu&tu ds =kkrk ds :i esa mUgha dk cksf/klÙo ds :i esa vorj.k gqvk Fkkµ bl fl)kUr ds izfr egk;kfu;ksa dh vVwV J)k fn[krh gSA vinku izÑR;k nks ijLij fojks/kh [kses esa c¡Vk gqvk gSA ^vonku'krd* ghu;kuh&iaFk dk efgeke.Mu djrk gS rks ^fnO;konku* esa laØe.k&dky dh /kkfeZd ekU;rkvksa dk fu:i.k gqvk gSA {ksesUnz dh ^vonkudYiyrk* vkSj ^egkoLrq* iwjh rjg ls egk;kuh&iaFk ds mPpkn'kks± ls izHkkfor gksusokys vonku ekus tkrs gSaA ckS)&fo/kkuqjkxh tuksa }kjk nksuksa gh iaFk ls tqM+s gq, vonkuksa ds ,sfrgkfld fodkl&Øe dks dbZ izek.kksa ds vk/kkj ij foosfpr djus dk iz;kl gqvk gSA2 egk;kuh&iaFk ds dfri; fof'k"V nk'kZfud&fl)kUrksa dk foospu ^egkoLrq* vonku esa iwjh lexzrk ls fd;k x;k gSA egkdk';i vkSj egkdkR;ku ds chp tks yEck layki gqvk Fkk] mlesa cksf/klÙo dh nl Hkwfe;ksa ds Lo:i vkSj mlds nk'kZfud&vk/kkj dks dsUnz esa j[kk x;k FkkA egkdk';i dh fpUrk cq)&opu dh ekSfydrk dks cuk, j[kus dks ysdj dgha T+;knk ifjyf{kr gks jgh FkhA os mu mik;ksa ds vuqlU/kku esa yxs Fks ftuds }kjk /kEe vkSj la?k ds {kj.k dks izHkkoh <ax ls jksdk tk ldrk FkkA vr,o /keZ&lkezkT; ds vf/k"Bkrk cq) ds pfjr dk c[kku djrs jguk izklafxd gks x;k FkkA egkdkR;ku us iz'uksÙkj&'kSyh esa n'kHkwfe vkSj mlls tqM+s gq, nk'kZfud&fl)kUrksa dh tks O;k[;k dh gS og vius&vkiesa vn~Hkqr vkSj peRdkj ls ifjiw.kZ dgh tk ldrh gSA gessa bldk cks/k gksuk pkfg, fd n'kHkwfe;ksa dh ppkZ dk lh/kk laca/k cksf/klÙo dh fofo/k voLFkkvksa vkSj muds lkalkfjd vfLrRo
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
^egkoLrqvonku* esa cksfèklÙo dk thou&n'kZu ---
dks efgekef.Mr djus ds flok; fdlh vkSj ls ugha gSA cksf/klÙo us vius iwjs thou esa ,d&,d djds ftl mRd"kZ dks izkIr fd;k Fkk] mlh dk ekue.Mu n'kHkwfe;ksa ds ek/;e ls fd;k x;k gSA egk;kfu;ksa us bldk xEHkhj fpUru djds ;gh fu"d"kZ fudkyk Fkk fd ,d pj.k dks iwjk djus ds ckn gh cksf/klÙo us nwljs pj.k esa izos'k fd;k FkkA mudh ;gh iz/kku p;kZ FkhA vfHkizk; ;g fd n'k rjg dh Hkwfe;ksa dh miyfC/k dks ikus ds ckn gh cksf/klÙo lkalkfjd izkf.k;ksa ds eqfänkrk ds :i esa Lo;a dks LFkkfir djus esa lQy gq, FksA ^egkoLrq* vonku ,d ls ysdj n'kHkwfe rd ds Lo:i vkSj mldh miyfC/k;ksa dks vuks[ks vankt+ esa izLrqr djrk gSA3 egk;kfu;ksa dh bl fl)kUr ds izfr vVwV J)k jgh gS fd cksf/klÙo dh Hkwfe dk dksbZ fuf'pr dky&fu/kkZj.k ugha fd;k tk ldrkA vkSj ;g dYikUr rd vius Lo:i dks xzg.k djrh gSA bl lalkj esa gesa tks dqN fn[kkbZ ns jgk gS] og mudh dkYifud vFkkZr~ [kf.Mr Nfo ds vfrfjä dqN vkSj ugha gSA ijUrq lkalkfjd n`f"V ls le>us dk tks vk/kkj gekjs ikl pkfg,] ogh Hkwfe ds :i esa oxhZÑr gksdj izdV gksrh jgrh gSA fQj Hkh bldh izkekf.kdrk dks ysdj ge vk'oLr ugha gks ldrsA ;gh dkj.k gS fd egk;ku&iaFk esa cksf/klÙo dh Hkwfe dks ^vifjfer* dgk x;k gSA os Lo;a vius gh foosd ls bldh lhek,¡ fuf'pr djrs gSaA 'ks"k cph gqbZ tks oLrq gS] og lalkj ds lkeus izdV ugha gksrhA rkRi;Z ;g fd bldk T;knk&ls&T;knk Hkkx izPNé gh jgrk gSA gekjs ikl ek=k ;gh ,d gydk&lk ladsr gS ftlds lgkjs Hkwfe ls cksf/klÙo ds laca/k dks tksM+dj mudk ekuo)Zu djrs jgrs gaSA4 egk;ku bl vkn'kZ dks lkeus j[krk gS fd cksf/klÙo dk iwjk thou gh R;kx dh ijkdk"Bk ij igq¡pk gqvk FkkA HkkSfrd txr~ dks mUgkasus pUnz&lw;Z dh rjg mn~Hkkflr fd;k FkkA5 vonkuksa esa nl rjg dh Hkwfe;ksa dk ftl 'kSyh esa fp=k.k gS] mlh ls cksf/klÙo dh fHké&fHké fpÙko`fÙk;ksa dk gesa ifjKku gks tkrk gSA izFke Hkwfe og Fkh ftlesa R;kx] d#.kk] vifjPNsn] veku] loZ'kkL=kk/;kf;rk] foØe] yksdkuqKk vkSj /k`fr&tSls xq.kksa dk fodkl gqvk FkkA nwljh Hkwfe iqutZUe dh lEHkkoukvksa dk R;kx djk nsrh gSA cksf/klÙo dh ;g Hkwwfe dqN fo'ks"k rjg ds dkj.kksa dks ysdj egÙoiw.kZ gks tkrh gSA dke] jkx ls iw.kZ foeqfä ds Hkko dk mn; gksrk gSA /ku dekus ls ysdj ykHk dekus rd dh bPNk dk yksi gks tkrk gSA dksbZ Hkh dkeuk fpÙk dks fopfyr ugha dj ikrhA cksf/klÙo dk vfuR; oLrq ls dksbZ laca/k ¼jkx½ ugha jg ikrkA vk?kkr lgus
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dh {kerk ls laié os n`<+ cqf)okys gksrs gSaA R;kx esa vrqyuh; gksrs gSaA yksd&O;ogkj esa Hkh mudh xgjh #fp ns[kh tkrh gSA fpÙk esa lE;d~ lEcq) gksus ds Hkko dk mn; gksrk gSA cksf/klÙo egk;kfu;ksa us ;g Hkh izpkfjr fd;k gS fd pkjksa gh }hiksa esa cksf/k cuus dh izsj.kk Lor%LQwrZ gqvk djrh FkhA cksf/klÙo esa yksdfgr dh vnE; ykylk FkhA ijfgr ds fy, os ^vohfp* uked ujd esa Hkh tk ldrs FksA izk.kh pkgs tSlk Hkh gks] mlds nq%[k ,oa osnuk dh mis{kk djds vkxs c<+ tkukµ ;g muds thou dk y{; ugha FkkA os lcds fy, FksA vius&ijk;s dk Hksn muds eu esa ugha FkkA tkfr] tjk] ej.k vkSj 'kksdµ bUgsa lkalfjd Hk; dgk tkrk gSA iwjh n`<+rk ds lkFk budk lkeuk djrs gq, gh vkxs c<+uk gSA cksf/klÙo fdlh nwljs ds fufeÙk gh budk lkeuk djrs gq, ns[ks tkrs gSaA ;gh mudk foØe vkSj cy gSA blh ls os ^iq#"k flag* ds uke ls tkus tkrs gSaA6 egk;ku&iaFk bl fo'okl ls c¡/kk gqvk gS fd izFke Hkwfe esa cksf/klÙo nq"dj dk;Z dks iwjk djus ds fy, lkalkfjd laca/kksa dh mis{kk dj nsrs gSaA muds eu esa viuh Hkk;kZ vkSj iq=k ds izfr Hkh O;kekssg ugha jg tkrkA nq%[kh vkSj vkÙkZ izk.kh gh muds fy, lk/; gks tkrk gSA loZLo viZ.k dj nsus ds ckn Hkh muesa nSU; Hkko ugha ns[kk tkrkA7 vc ;g ekuus esa fdlh dks vkifÙk ugha gks ldrh fd cksf/klÙo dk iwjk thou gh ije R;kx vkSj vFkd ijkØe dk i;kZ; cu x;k FkkA mUgsa dksbZ izrkfM+r djrk jgs ;k muij Øks/kµ os eS=kh Hkko dk yksi ugha dj ldrs FksA ;kpd dks ns[krs gh mudk eu izlé gks tkrk FkkA8 f}rh; Hkwfe esa izos'k djus ds ckn cksf/klÙo izkf.k&dY;k.k ds fy, lé) gq, FksA muesa thoksa ds izfr dksey vkSj fgrdkjh Hkkouk dk Hkh fodkl gqvk FkkA deZ esa tq>k:iu vk;k FkkA lnk vlk/kkj.k vkSj mér fØ;kvksa esa yhu jgrs FksA eu esa u rks ladksp vkSj u gh ik[k.M dk Hkko mfnr gqvk FkkA pawfd cksf/klÙo esa deZ dh 'kq)rk Fkh] vr% LoHkko Hkh papy ugha FkkA mUgas gj iy r`fIr dk ,glkl gksrk gh jgrk FkkA muds fy, izk.kh&lq[k ls c<+dj dqN nwljk lk/; ugha FkkA9 fpÙk dh voLFkk lnk ,d&tSlh ugha jgrhA blh ls lkalkfjd Hkwfedk esa fofo/krk vkSj u;kiu ifjyf{kr gksrk gSA egk;kuh bl fo'okl ds dk;y jgs gSa fd cq)] /kEe] vkSj la?k esa fopyu dh fLFkfr cksf/klÙo ds fy, lá ugha gksrh FkhA izkf.k;ksa ds m)kj ds fy, bUgha rhuksa ds izfr fu"Bk mUgssa fujUrj izsfjr djrh jgrh FkhA 'kjhj dk ,d&,d vax Hkys gh fNn tk,] ij rc Hkh mudk eu fopfyr ugha gqvk FkkA ;gh fpÙk vkSj la;e dh
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ijkdk"Bk FkhA egk;kfu;ksa dk vuwBk n'kZu deZ ds okLrfod Lo:i ij gh vk/kkfjr FkkA blds izfr lefiZr gksus ls eu dks lPpk vkuUn feyk djrk FkkA cksf/klÙo fdlh ,d ds dHkh ugha FksA os ^loZtu fgrk; loZtu lq[kk;* dks ysdj pyusokys FksA muesa nEHk vkSj ekRl;Z ls iwjh rjg vyx gksdj nku nsus dh izo`fÙk FkhA vnÙk nku muds eu dks Hkkrk ugha FkkA fdlh ds izfr nqHkkZouk O;ä ugha djrs FksA bl rjg cksf/klÙo dk eu lnk izkf.k;ksa ds lq[k ds fy, cspSu jgrk FkkA nwljs ds /kkfeZd fo'okl ds izfr Hkh muds eu esa fdlh rjg dh voKk dk Hkko ugha FkkA10 cksf/klÙo us vkpj.k dh e;kZnk dks dk;e j[kus ds fy, dke xq.k dk loZFkk R;kx dj fn;k FkkA lkalkfjd thou esa ftruh rjg ds nwf"kr Hkko gSa] muls vius dks vyx djds cq)Ro dks izkIr djuk dksbZ lk/kkj.k dke ugha gSA izR;sd cq) ds lkFk cksf/klÙo dh dksbZ izfr}fU}rk ugha FkhA thou esa YkkHk ;k lRdkj dh bPNk dk ugha jg tkuk gh cq)Ro dk okLrfod xq.k FkkA ijekFkZ ds fpUru dks NksM+ fdlh vkSj esa mudk eu jerk gh ugha FkkA rkRi;Z ;g fd cksf/klÙo ds Hkhrj ftl rjg dk oh;ZZ vFkkZr~ ijkØe dk rst Nqik Fkk] og fdlh vkSj ds fy, ugha] cfYd èkeksZRFkku ds fy, fgrdkjh fl) gqvk FkkA r`".kk vkSj m}sxdkjh dke ls mudk eu L[kfyr ugha gksrk FkkA cksf/klÙo ls c<+dj dksbZ nwljk loZn'khZ ugha gks ldrk FkkA fdlds eu esa D;k py jgk gS] bldk ifjKku mUgsa vklkuh ls gks tkrk FkkA fdlh ds ikl vuUr Hkksx bdëk Hkh gks tk,] rc Hkh eu Mxexkrk ugha FkkA ldy Hkksx dk nku nsdj os iwjh rjg ls fufyZIr gks tkrs FksA11 rhljh Hkwfe cksf/klÙo dh ije R;kxokyh Hkwfe cu tkrh gSA mudk eu fdlh vkSj txg ugha HkVdrkA txr~ ds ftrus Hkh izk.kh gSa] mudks lq[k igq¡psµ ;gh mudh ,dek=k vfHkyk"kk jgrh gSA egk;kuh bl fpUru dks egÙo nsrs gSa fd ?kkl vkSj dkB ,d txg ij bdëk gks rks vfXu 'kkUr dSls gks ldrh gS\ blh rjg vius pkjksa vksj Hkksx&lkexzh fc[kjh gks rks fQj dke ;k r`".kk ls NqVdkjk dSls fey ldrk gS\12 izKkoku~ O;fä vius ikl yksHk dks QVdus ugha nsrkA leLr nks"kksa dk mi'keu Kku ds lgkjs fd;k tk ldrk gSA ,slk gksus ds ckn eu ifo=k gks tkrk gS vkSj rc ,slh gh fLFkfr esa O;fä yksxksa ds fy, iFk&izn'kZd dk mPp LFkku gkfly dj ysrk gSA13 egk;kfu;ksa ds vuqlkj ,d&,d djds pkSng ,slh Hkwfe;k¡ Fkha] ftuij pyrs gq, cksf/klÙo pkSFkh Hkwfe esa izos'k djrs FksA ;s lkjs&ds&lkjs vkpkj ,d rjg ls uSfrdrk ds cks/kd gqvk djrs
[Vol. XVIII (1)
FksA Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr esa vkpkj dh ftl ifo=krk dks egÙo fn;k tkrk jgk gS] mlds ihNs dqN fo'ks"k dkj.k gksrs FksA cksf/klÙo fdlh ds fy, ijk;s ugha FksA muds dne ikfi;ksa ds m)kj ds fy, gh vkxs c<+s FksA egk;kuh vius bl dFku ij Hkh dk;e gSa fd fdlh dh HkykbZ dj nsus ds ckn tc eu izlé gks tk,] rks le>uk ;gh pkfg;s fd ge cksf/kekxZ ls vfèkd nwj ugha jg x, gSaA cksf/klÙo dks ysdj ftl rjg dh LFkkiuk x<+h xbZ gS] mls egk;kfu;ksa ds xEHkhj nk'kZfud&fpUru dk izfrQy dguk pkfg;sA cksf/klÙo dh lnk'k;rk ls vkS/ks eq¡g ujd esa fxjs gq, yksxksa dks lq[k igq¡pk FkkA ;gh dkj.k gS fd Lo.kZ&tSls nedus vkSj lw;Z dh rjg mn~Hkkflr gksusokys bl egkekuo dh nsorkvksa us Lrqfr dh FkhA 32 y{k.kksa ls ;qä iw.kZ iq#"k dsoy cksf/klÙo dks NksM+ dksbZ nwljk ugha FkkA os bfUnz;ksa ds v/khu ugha Fks vkSj LoHkko esa Le`fr rFkk fou; dk vn~Hkqr esy FkkA14 egkoLrq esa ik¡p ls ysdj nl Hkwfe rd dh dFkkvksa dk tks foLrkj feyrk gS] mlesa cksf/klÙo ds Js"B deZ ,oa muds xkSjo'kkyh O;fäRo dk gh fo'ks"k :i ls c[kku gqvk gSA iwjk&dk&iwjk ckS)&leqnk; bl izlax ls vkºykfnr gksrk jgk gS fd cksf/klÙo us ml ekrk ds xHkZ ls tUe fy;k Fkk ftlesa :i vkSj xq.k dk vuks[kk esy FkkA egk;kuh bl fo'okl ls Hkh c¡/ks gSa fd ekrk dh dks[k esa cksf/klÙo dk tks va'k iy jgk Fkk] mldk vkJ; ;ksfu u gksdj ihB gqvk djrk FkkA mldh mnj ls Hkh nwjh FkhA cksf/klÙo ds xHkZLFk gksus ds ckn ekrk dh p;kZ,¡ ckf/kr ugha gksrh FkhaA vIljk,¡ mudh iwtk ds fy, bl /kjk ij mrjrh FkhaA euksgj ok| ctus yxrs FksA bl voLFkk esa Hkh cksf/klÙo fufoZdkj Hkko esa jgk djrs FksA mudh ekrk vfgalk vkSj czãp;Z&ozr ds ikyu esa yhu jgrh FkhaA e| dk lsou ugha djrh Fkh vkSj u dHkh eq¡g ls dBksj opu gh fu%l`r gksrk FkkA vfné ls nwj jgrh FkhaA pqxyh vkSj feF;k opu ls nwj jgrh gqbZ og fufyZIr thou O;rhr djrh FkhaA15 cksf/klÙo dh ekrk ds eu esa bZ";kZ ;k }s"k dk Hkko ugha FkkA izkf.k;ksa ds izfr n;k ,oa eS=kh ds Hkko dks cuk, j[kus esa gh mUgksaus viuh ln~xfr ns[kh FkhA thoup;kZ esa feF;kn`f"V ds fy, dksbZ LFkku ugha FkkA16 ckS)ksa ds mHk; iaFk esa izR;sd cq) ds fl)kUr dk fu:i.k gqvk gSA ;g mu x`gR;kxh&laU;kfl;ksa ds lewg dk cks/k djkrk gS tks vkRedsfUnzr gksus ds lkFk lkFk viuh lEcksf/k ds jgL; dks xksiu cuk, j[kus esa lQy gq, FksA ckS)ksa dh ;g /kkj.kk ckj&ckj O;ä gksrh jgh gS fd izR;sd cq)ksa us dsoy
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
^egkoLrqvonku* esa cksfèklÙo dk thou&n'kZu ---
vius ls gh lEcksf/k ds ekxZ dk vuqlU/kku fd;k FkkA bl fufeÙk os fdlh 'kkLrk ds ikl ugha x, FksA mUgksaus dHkh ;g ugha pkgk fd dksbZ mUgha dh rjg dh p;kZ dk vuqdj.k djrs jgus esa vijk iwjk thou [kik nsA Lo;a eas izcq) izR;sd cq)ksa dh dYiuk dh dksbZ lhek ugha FkhA crk;k ;gh x;k gS fd ;s ewd Hkko esa jgrs Fks vkSj lkFk gh vrqy cy ls Hkjs gksrs FksA futZu LFkku esa budk Hkze.k xS.Ms dh rjg gksrk FkkA iw.kZ lEcksfèk ds izkIr gksus rd ls lalkj dk R;kx ugha djrs FksA ijUrq cq) dh rjg ;s ik¡p rjg ds p{kqvksa ls laié ugha gksrs FksA ckS)&n'kZu esa bldk fopkj gS fd ik¡p rjg ds p{kq gh fdlh dks izKkoku~ cukus esa lgk;d fl) gksrs gSaA17 egkoLrq esa ;g izlax fdf×pr~ foLrkj ls ys[kc) gqvk gS fd izR;sd cq)ksa ds izfr yksxksa dh xgjh vkLFkk ns[kh tk jgh FkhA buds vo'ks"kksa ij Lrwiksa dk fuekZ.k djkdj yksx vius&vkidks /kU; le> jgs FksA18 egkoLrqvonku ds voyksfdrlw=k esa cq) dh ekj&fot; ls lacaf/kr m)j.kksa dh Hkjekj ns[kh tk ldrh gSA cq) us ftl ^izrhR;leqRikn* vkSj ^e/;eizfrink*&tSls fof'k"V nk'kZfud&fl)kUrksa dk izfriknu fd;k Fkk] mldk chtea=k blh lw=k esa varyhZu fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA ckS)&lqÙkksa ds voyksdu ls Hkh ;gh Li"V gksrk gS fd ekj&fot; ds ckn gh cq) us bl vuwBs fl)kUr dks izpkfjr djuk 'kq: fd;k FkkA l`f"V vkSj thou dh oLrqfu"B leh{kk ds fy, cq) }kjk mifn"V pkj rjg ds vk;ZlR; gh izrhR;leqRikn dk ewyk/kkj dgs tkrs gSaA nq%[k leqn;] nq%[kfujks/k vkSj nq%[kfujks/kxkfeuhizfrinµ ;s pkj vk;ZlR; nk'kZfud&foospu ds dsUnz&fcUnq ekus tkrs gSaA bl thou dh ckr gh D;k] ;g iwjk&dk&iwjk lalkj gh nq%[ke; gSA tUe] thou vkSj e`R;qµ ;s ,d&,d djds nq%[k ds dkj.k gh gSaA nwljh vksj {kh.krk] jkx] o`)koLFkk] fiz;&fo;ksx] vfiz; dk lkFk] bPNk dh iwfrZ dk gksuk ;k ugha gksukµ bu lcds ewy esa dsoy r`".kk u gks rks nq%[k Hkh {k.kHkaxqj gSA bPNk,¡ vFkkZr~ r`".kk u gks rks nq%[k Hkh mRié ugha gksxkA blds dkj.k dh [kkst djsa rks dkj.k ls dk;Z dh mRifÙk dk fl)kUr vFkkZr~ izrhR;leqRikn dks le>uk dfBu ugha gksxkA19 cksf/klÙo us ;gh dgk Fkk fd euq"; ds thou esa ftl rjg ds mFky&iqFky eph gS] mldk dkj.k vkSj dqN ugha cfYd vfo|k gSA ;g ugha gksrh rks laLdkj] foKku] uke:i] "kMk;ru vkSj Li'kZ bR;kfn dk izknqHkkZo Hkh ugha gksrkA Li'kZ gh osnuk dks mRié djrk gS vkSj varr% ;gh thou ds HkkSfrd miknkuksa ls euq"; dks ck¡/k nsrk gSA dqy feykdj miknku ds dkj.k ls gh ,d tUe dk ugha] cfYd vusd tUeksa dk varghu pØ 'kq: gks tkrk gS vkSj fQj
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blls dHkh eqfä ugha feyrhA euq"; dh tkfr dk fu/kkZj.k Hkh blh ls gksrk gSA tjk] O;kf/k] ej.k ds vfrfjä fdlh dks dqN ugha feyrkA vuUr nq%[k] ØUnu vkSj vojks/k gh bldh fu;fr gSA20 ckS)kxeksa esa izfrikfnr nk'kZfud&fl)kUr dk fupksM+ ;gh gS fd nq%[k esa gh thou dh mRifÙk vkSj blds var dh dgkuh Nqih gS ftls ^izrhR;leqRikn* ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA ;g izrhR;leqRikn ftls ^gsrqokn* Hkh dgk tkrk gS] ,d ,slk fojy ckS)&nk'kZfud fl)kUr gS ftlds }kjk dkj.k ls dk;Z&ijEijk dk lw=k [kkstk tk ldrk gSA ;g fl)kUr bl ;FkkFkZ dks lkeus j[krk gS fd ,d oLrq dh mRifÙk nwljs ij fuHkZj djrh gSA rkRi;Z ;g fd ,d dkj.k ds vk/kkj ij ,d dk;Z dk tUe gksrk gS vkSj fQj ;gh dk;Z&dkj.k feydj ,d fHké izÑfrokys vxys dk;Z dh mRifÙk dk lgk;d cu tkrk gSA ;g vkil esa dk;Z&dkj.k dk tSlk laca/k gS] og rks Lo;a esa ifjorZu'khy vFkok ifj.kfr'khy gSA21 la;qäfudk; esa cq)&opu dk ;gh lkj la{ksi izLrqr fd;k x;k gS fd igkM+ ds Åij ewlyk/kkj o"kkZ ds tkjh jgus ij ty uhps cgdj dUnjk esa pyk tkrk gS ;k vU; xàjksa dks Hkj nsrk gSA buds Hkj tkus ds ckn ukys cg fudyrs gSa vkSj fQj ,d&,d djds nzksfM+;kas ;k NksVh&NksVh ufn;ksa dk izokg 'kq: gks tkrk gSA ;s NksVh&NksVh ufn;k¡ cM+h ufn;ksa dks Hkjrh gSa vkSj bUgha dk izokg lkxj esa tkdj yhu gks tkrk gSA ;gh fLFkfr dk;Z&dkj.k ds lkFk gSA22 ckS) ekurs gSa fd izrhR;leqRikn tSlk fof'k"V fl)kUr leLr ekuo&tkfr ds fy, ijedY;k.kdkjh gSA le>us dh ckr ;g fd mRifÙk u Lor% gksrh gS vkSj u fcuk fdlh gsrqvksa ds] cfYd ;g izR;;ksa dk vkJ; ;k mudk lkFk ikdj gh vius 'kh"kZ dk Li'kZ dj ysrh gSA izrhR;leqRikn&tSls nk'kZfud&fl)kUr dk ;gh izLFkku&fcUnq gSA izR;;] gsrq dkj.k] funku] leqnk; vkSj mn~Hko vkfn 'kCn ,d rjg ls leku vFkZ esa gh iz;qä gksrs jgs 23 gSaA ckS)&lqÙkksa ds dbZ ,sls lUnHkZ gSa ftueas dkj.k vkSj dk;Z&fl)kUr dh foLr`r foospuk gqbZ gSA iwoZ] orZeku vkSj Hkkoh thou esa tgk¡ tSlh folaxfr;k¡ gSa] mudh O;k[;k djrs gq, cq) us fHk{kqqvksa ls ;gh dgk Fkk fd vfo|k ds izR;; ls laLdkj gksrs gSa] laLdkj&izR;; ls foKku ¼vius fo"k; dh psruk½] foKku ds izR;; ls uke&:i ¼eu ,oa 'kjhj½] uke :i ds izR;; ls "kMk;ru ¼"kMsfUnz;k¡½] "kMk;ru ds izR;; ls Li'kZ] Li'kZ ds izR;; ls osnuk] osnuk ds izR;; ls r`".kk ¼mRdV vfHkyk"kk½]
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r`".kk ds izR;; ls miknku ¼vklfä½] miknku ds izR;; ls Hko ¼vfLrRo½] Hko ds izR;; ls tkfr ¼iqutZUe½] tkfr ds izR;; ls tjk] ej.k] 'kksd ,oa nq%[k mRié gksrs gSaA bl iwjs o`Ùkkar dk ;gh fufgrkFkZ gS fd izR;;okn ¼gsrqokn½ ds vk/kkj ij gh nq%[k LdU/k dk leqnk; gksrk gSA bls gh ge ^izrhR;okn&fl)kUr* dk uke nsrs gSaA Li"Vr% izrhR;okn dk ekSfyd fl)kUr cq) }kjk mifn"V pkj vk;ZlR; ls gh lEiq"V gqvk FkkA buesa ls izFke vkSj f}rh; ¼vfo|k vkSj laLdkj½ iwoZtUe ls laca/k j[kusokys orZeku tUe ds dk;ks± ds dkj.k gSa vkSj nq%[k leqnk; ds Lo:i gSaA FkksM+h xgjkbZ ds lkFk fopkj djds ns[ksa rks tkfr vkSj tjk&ej.kµ ;s orZeku thou ls tqM+s gksus ij Hkh Hkfo"; ds thou ds dkj.k cu tkrs gSaA eglwl djus dh ckr rks ;gh gS fd lEiw.kZ pØ esa dksbZ Hkh iwoZ&dk;Z ds fy, dkj.k dgk tk ldrk gSA dk;Z&dkj.k dk ;g laca/k bl lalkj esa lrr izogeku cuk jgrk gSA nk'kZfud&Hkk"kk esa ;gh HkopØ gSA bls dqN vfèkd Li"V djrs gq, ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vfo|k vkSj laLdkjµ ;s nksuksa feydj gekjs iwoZtUe dh jpukRed 'kfä;ksa ¼dke&Hkko½ dk rkuk&ckuk cquk djrs gSa vkSj iqu% ;gh Øe orZeku tUe ¼mRifÙk Hko½ ds fy, Hkh nqgjk;k tkrk gSA ;g Lohdkj fd, tkus esa fdlh rjg dk fojks/k ugha gksuk pkfg, fd gekjs orZeku thou ds foKku] uke&:i] "kMk;ru] Li'kZ vkSj osnukµ ;s lc mlh ds foikd Lo:i gSaA blds ckn gekjs orZeku thou dh dfM+;k¡ r`".kk] miknku vkSj Hko ds :i esa mRié gksrh gSa vkSj rc ;s Lo;a gh deZHkko dk LFkku xzg.k dj ysrh gSaA ?kqek&fQjkdj bUgha dk foikd Hkfo"; esa iqutZUe dk dkj.k curk gSA HkopØ dk ;g flyflyk dHkh ugha #drkA blh dkj.k ls ckj&ckj tUe vkSj ej.k gksrk gSA Hkkjr ds vU; n'kZu tho&vkRek ds vfLrRo dks Lohdkj djus dh ckr djrs gSaA vkf[+kj ;g vkRek gS D;k\ izR;sd /keZ viuh fof'k"V nk'kZfud&'kSyh ds lkFk bldh O;k[;k Hkys gh djrk jgs( ij ckS)&n'kZu dsoy vukReokn ds vfrfjä dqN vkSj ikfjHkkf"kr djus dh eu%fLFkfr esa ugha fn[krkA cq) us pkj vk;ZlR; ds vfrfjä e/;eizfrink ds Lo:i ij Hkh xgu fopkj fd;k FkkA bls n'kZu dh eguh; vkSj fof'k"V ijEijk dk cks/kd dgk tkuk pkfg;sA egkoLrq esa ;g izlax ,d ckj fQj ls iqujko`Ùk gqvk gS fd rFkkxr iq#"knEelkjFkh gksdj lE;d~ lEcksf/k ds fy, fpÙk dh ,dkxzrk ij vfèkd cy ns jgs FksA izKkoku~ gksus ds ckn gh pkj
[Vol. XVIII (1)
vk;ZlR; dks Bhd ls le>k tk ldrk gSA nq%[k vkSj nq%[k&fujks/kxkfeuh izfrir~ dks eu ds Hkhrj cSBk fy;k tk, rks dkj.kkas dks tkuuk dfBu ugha jg tkrkA r`".kk lewy u"V gks tk,] rks fQj fdlh rjg dk nq%[k gekjs thou ds fy, vojks/kd ugha cu ldrkA24 ftu yksxksa dk ijkØe vPNk ugha] dsoy nwf"kr dk;Z esa yxs gSa os nq%[k vkSj blds mi'keu ds ekxZ dks dnkfi le> ugha ik;saxsA iq.;oku~ dh lekf/k gh Qynk;h gksrh gSA mlh dh izKk thou ds ewy rÙo dk Hksnu djus esa l{ke gks ldrh gSA pawfd cq) izKkoku~ vkSj oh;Z;qä Fks] blhfy, os nq%[kksa ls eqä gks x, FksA25 lkjukFk ds blh iru fexnk; esa /keZpØ dk izorZu djrs le; cq) us /kEe fou; dh LFkkiuk ds fy, e/;eizfrink dh gh mi;ksfxrk loZekU; ?kksf"kr dh FkhA blds vkyEcu ls fojkx dk Hkko iSnk gksrk gS tks vUrr% nq%[k&fujks/k dk dkj.k cu tkrk gSA oLrqr% e/;eizfrink vkSj dqN ugha cfYd cq) }kjk Hkkf"kr vkB rjg ds ekxks± ls gh lEiq"V gksusokyh fLFkfr dk uke gSA26 lUnHkZ % 1- foLr`r fooj.k ds fy, nz"VO;] vonku'krd ij fy[kh MkW‚ ih‚,y‚ oS| dh Hkwfedk] fefFkyk fjlpZ baLVhV~;wV] njHkaxk }kjk izdkf'kr] f}rh; laLdj.k] 2002 bZ‚ 2- nz"VO;] 'k=kq?u izlkn feJ] ^egkoLrqvonku esa izfrfcfEcr izkphu Hkkjr* ¼'kksèk&izcU/k½] njHkaxk] 2009] Hkwfedk] i`‚ vkSj vkxs 3- egkoLrqvonku I] i`‚ 88] 'yksd 16&17 4- ^HkwfeLrFkk vifjferk iztkurk izdkf'krk Lo;a vfuo`Ùkcqf)ukA izorZrs rFk ifj'ks"kHkwfe"kq lkekU;ladsrkuka fu:i.ka Ï* µegkoLrqvonku] 1-78 5- ^R;kxsu R;kx lEiék cksf/klÙok egk;'kk%A yksdka p vfHkjkspUrs pUnzHkkuqfjo va'kqeku~ Ï* µogh] 1-78 6- ^;sukUrjs.k ijekFkZfonqZHkkokfe ra vUrja ;fn vohfpxrks olkfeA ra vH;qisfe u p ra izfrlagjkfe loZKrk;s izf.kf/ka bfr fu'p;ks es Ï* µogh] 1-82 7- ^Hkk;k± fiz;ka âfnlq[kka'p lqrka f'kjkafl us=kkf.k pkHkj.kokgufoLrjka'pA nÙok u foJea misUR;Fk nSU;rka ok Ï* µogh] 1-83
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
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^egkoLrqvonku* esa cksfèklÙo dk thou&n'kZu ---
ogh] 'yksd 2 ogh] I] i`‚ 90 ogh] 'yksd 07&16 ogh] i`‚ 101] 'yksd 16&24 ^u tkrq r`.kdk"Bsfg Toyu% 'kkE;rs Toyu~A u tkrq miHkksxsH;% r`".kk dkes"kq 'kkE;fr Ï* µogh] 1-93 ^Hkkfr yksdxq#% lrka vuqxrks·fuf{kIrHkkjks 'kqfp% bfr Ï* µogh] 1-95 ogh] i`‚ 114] 'yksd 01 ^,'kk lekfn;kfe izk.ksfg vfgala czãp;± pA fojekfe pkI;fnék e|knfuc)opukPp Ï i#"kopukPp ujojizfrfojekfe rFkSoa iS'kqU;kA vu`ropukPp ujifr fojekfe v;a ee NUnks Ï* µogh] 1-145 ^ijdkes"kq p bZ";k± u latus"¸ka ukfi vfHknzksga Hkwrs"kq eS=kfpÙkk feF;kn`f"Va p fotgkfe Ï* µogh] 1-145 ^cq)kuka pkuqRiknk; izR;sdcq)k yksds mRi|fUr cq)kuka nf{k.ks;k rw".khd'kksHkuk ,dpjk [kM~xfo"kk.kdYik ,da vkRekua nesfUr ifjfuokZ;fUr--- Ï* µogh] 3-414 foLr`r fooj.k ds fy, nz"VO;] 'k=kq?u izlkn feJ] iwoZfufnZ"V] i`‚ 43&404 ^bna p nq%[ka v;a p leqn;% rFkk fujks/kks vFk ekxZJs"BksA befLea lUrs izknqHkksZfr befLea u"Vs bna vLra ,fr Ï* µegkoLrqvonku] 2-345 ogh II] i`‚ 223] 'yksd 163&164 MkW‚ loZiYyh jk/kkÑ".ku] ^Hkkjrh;&n'kZu* ¼izFke Hkkx½] i`‚ 341 la;qäfudk; ¼ewy½] mifjLllqÙk] 12-23 Hkjr flag mik/;k;] ^ckS)&n'kZu rFkk vU; n'kZu*] i`‚ 375 egkoLrqvonku II] i`‚ 185 ogh ^bekS fHk{ko% }kS% izozftrL; vUrkS ,rs p fHk{koks mHkkS vUrkouqixE; rFkkxrL;k;ZfLea /keZfou;s e/;ek izfrink izfrenk vuqlacq)k p{kqdj.kh;k milek;s laorZfudk fufoZnk;s fojkxk;s fujks/kk;s Jke.;k;s lacks/kk;s fuokZ.kk;s laorZfr Ï* µogh] 3-331
105
dqekjh] cchrk] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 104&109] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
çkphu Hkkjr esa óhèku&foe'kZ vkSj mlds çHksn cchrk dqekjh *
&/ku ds fo"k; esa ew/kZU; 'kkódkjksa ds chp iwjh rjg ls lgefr dk Hkko ugha gSA uoO;kgrkvksa ds lkFk ?kjsyw mi;ksx essa vkusokyh oLrqvksa dh [ksi oj ds ?kj Hkssts tkus dk izpyu bl ns'k esa lfn;ksa ls jgk gSA lk;.k ds vuqlkj oSfnd lUnHkks± esa iz;qä gksusokyk ^ogrq%* 'kCn mlh dk Hkku djkrk gSA ijUrq ysUeSu bls ,d rjg ds fookgjFk ds :i esa ikfjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA FkksM+h xgjkbZ ds lkFk lkspas rks lk;.k dk vFkZ gh Bhd yxrk gS D;ksafd bldh lEiqf"V vU; lk{;ksa ls Hkh gqvk djrh gSA euq }kjk Hkh ;gh ladsfrr gS fd o/kw dks ?kj&ckj pykus ftu lkefxz;ksa dh [ksi mldk firk igq¡pkrk Fkk] mls ^ikfj.kká* dgk tkrk FkkA uoO;kgrk,¡ bldh ns[kHkky esa izfr{k.k viuh rRijrk fn[kkrh jgrh FkhaA Vhdkdkjksa dk Hkh ;gh dguk gS fd bu reke lkefxz;ksa ds mi;ksx esa oj&o/kw lk>hnkj jgk djrs FksA tSfeuh rSfÙkjh;lafgrk esa fn, x, ,d m)j.k ds vk/kkj ij bl rF; dks fu:fir djrs gSa fd fó;ksa ds ikl viuh futh lEifÙk gqvk djrh FkhA es/kkfrfFk us euq ds vk/kkj ij ;gh LFkkiuk x<+h gS fd iRuh }kjk vftZr tks dqN Hkh gS] og ifr dk gks tkrk gSA bldk fcYdqy Bhd&Bhd vFkZ fudkyk tk, rks JqfrokD; >wBk fl) gks tk;sxkA euq ds dFku dk lh/kk vfHkizk; ;gh gS fd fó;k¡ Lokfeuh rks gks ldrh Fkha] ij /ku ds O;; esa mudh bPNk&vfuPNk dk dksbZ eksy ugha FkkA dbZ rjg ds lk{;ksa dk ;gh fupksM+ gS fd vkjfHHkd dky esa fó;ksa ds ikl lEifÙk ds uke ij tks dqN Hkh gksrk Fkk] og mUgsa fookg ds le; HksaV esa vfiZr dh xbZ oLrqvksa ds vfrfjä dqN nwljk ugha FkkA bl nk;js esa vkHkw"k.k vkSj mÙke dksfV dk ifj/kku 'kkfey FkkA ;g
óh
¹ 'kksèk&Nk=kk] bfrgkl&foHkkx] yfyr ukjk;.k fefFkyk fo'ofo|ky;] njHkaxk ¼fcgkj½ 106
ckr Hkh viuh txg lgh gS fd ?kj ds Hkhrj mi;ksx esa vkusokyh ftruh Hkh oLrq,¡ Fkha] muij fó;ksa dk gh vf/kdkj gqvk djrk FkkA dqN le; chrus ij Le`frdkjksa us FkksM+s&ls ifjorZu ds lkFk fó;ksa ds lEifÙk&vfèkdkj dk leFkZu djuk 'kq: dj fn;kA izkjfEHkd /keZlw=kksa esa ,d nwljh gh ckr lkeus vkrh gSA vkiLrEc iwokZpk;ks± ds er ls vyx tkdj blh O;OkLFkk dks ekU; Bgjkrs gSa fd vkHkw"k.k gks ;k dksbZ nwljh pht] ftls óh ds firk ;k HkkbZ }kjk HksaV ds rkSj ij iznku dh xbZ gks] rks mlij mlh ds vf/kdkj dks NksM+ fdlh vkSj dk ekU; ugha gks ldrkA cks/kk;u dk earO; rks ;g fd dU;kvksa dks viuh ekrk dk vkHkw"k.kkfn izkIr rks gksrk gh gS] blds vfrfjä mUgsa ikjEifjd fo/kku ds rgr dqN vkSj Hkh izkIr gks ldrk gSA ofl"B dk ;g dguk gS fd fookg ds le; ekrk dks mlds ifjtuksa }kjk tks dqN Hkh vfiZr fd;k x;k jgrk gS] og lh/ks iqf=k;ksa ds vf/kdkj esa pyk tkrk gSA 'ka[k dh bl ?kks"k.kk ls Li"V gks tkrk gS fd fookg ds lHkh izdkjksa esa dU;kvksa dks vkHkw"k.k nsdj fonk djus dk fu;e izHkkoh ekuk tkuk pkfg;sA euq us ftl iqjkuh mfä dks m)`r fd;k gS] mls Bhd&Bhd ikfjHkkf"kr djuk dfBu gSA ijUrq bldk vfHkizk; ;gh gS fd /ku ds mi;ksx ,oa mlds O;; dks ysdj óh lnk vius ifr ij gh fuHkZj jgk djrh FkhA dkSfVY; rd vkrs&vkrs óh&/ku dk vk/kkj igys ls dgha vfèkd O;ofLFkr gksus yxk FkkA fookfgrkvksa ds xqtkjs ds fufeÙk ifr }kjk ns; /ku ij mUgha dk vf/kdkj gksrk FkkA ;g ckr Hkh vius esa fo'ks"k egÙo j[krh gS fd vkHkw"k.k&tokgjkr bR;kfn ds uke ij óh ds ikl ftruk dqN lafpr jgrk Fkk] mlh ls mldk LokfeRo Hkh izdV gqvk djrk FkkA dkSfVY; ds dFku dk lh/kk vfHkizk; ;gh gS fd óh/ku OkkLro esa nks rjg dk gksrk Fkkµ 1- fookg&dky esa izkIr gksusokyk vkSj 2- iqu%
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
çkphu Hkkjr esa óhèku&foe'kZ vkSj mlds çHksn
mlds ckn dk fn;k x;k /kuA eglwl djus dh ckr ;g fd rFkkdfFkr óh/ku ds Hkhrj eq[; :i ls rhu fo"k; lekfgr gSaµ 1- óh/ku D;k gS] 2- óh/ku ij óh dk vf/kiR; ,oa 3óh/ku dk mÙkjkf/kdkjA bu rhuksa gh fo"k; ds ckjs esa fHké&fHké er izdk'k esa vk, gSa vkSj lh/ks rkSj ij óh/ku&laca/kh fookn cM+k gh my>k gSA óh/ku dh bl ifjHkk"kk ds vfrfjä fdlh vU; /keZ'kkódkj us dgha dksbZ foLr`r fopkj ugha fn;k gSA xkSre us blls lacaf/kr rhu lw=kksa dk fo/kku Hkys gh fd;k gks] ijUrq budh foLr`r foospuk ls os loZFkk vyx jgs gSaA dkSfVY; ds dFku ls gekjs fu"d"kZ dgha vfèkd Li"V ,oa rkfdZd vk/kkj dks izkIr djrs gSaA iRuh dks mldk ifr xqtkjs ds uke ij ftruh jde vnk djrk gS] mldh lhek nks gt+kj i.k ls vfèkd ugha gks ldrhA ijUrq vkc/; ¼vkHkw"k.kkfn½ ds fy, dksbZ lhek fu/kkZfjr ugha dh tkuh pkfg;sA dkR;k;u vkSj O;kl dh n`f"V ls ,d óh vius ekrk&firk] HkkbZ ,oa lxs&lacaf/k;ksa ls óh&/ku ds :i esa nks gt+kj i.k rd dk /ku rks izkIr dj ldrh gS] exj vpy lEifr dk FkksM+k&lk Hkkx Hkh mls ugha fn;k tk ldrkA Le`frpfUnzdk vkSj O;ogkje;w[k&tSls fucU/k&xzUFk bl O;oLFkk ds fgek;rh gSa fd óh dks fn, tkusokys nks gt+kj i.k dh lhek okf"kZd HksaV rd gh lhfer gSA dnkfpr~ bls ,d gh ckj pqdk fn;k tk,] rks fQj fdlh rjg dk izfrcU/k ykxw ugha gks ldrk vkSj ,slh fLFkfr esa óh blls Hkh vfèkd jde ikus dh vf/kdkfj.kh le>h tk;sxhA mls vpy lEifÙk dk dqN Hkkx Hkh ns fn;k tk,] rks bls vuqfpr ugha ekuk tk ldrkA py&vpy lEifÙk ij óh dk vf/kdkj fdu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ekU; gks ldrk gS] bldk dkSfVY; us fo'kn fopkj fd;k gSA óh&/ku dk okLrfod vFkZ gS óh dk lEifÙkA /keZ'kkódkjksa us bldk fufgrkFkZ ml /ku ls fudkyk gS tks fookg ds le; óh dks fHké&fHké rjhdksa ls izkIr gqvk djrk FkkA /khjs&/khjs blesa visf{kr foLrkj gkssrs jgus dh ckrsa Hkh dgh xbZ gSaA óh&/ku dh lcls cM+h fo'ks"krk rks ;gh gS fd xkSre ls ysdj vc rd ;g izFker% mUgha esa U;Lr ekuk tkrk jgk gSA ijUrq lkspus dh ckr ;gh gS fd óh&/ku dh lokZf/kd izkphu ifjHkk"kk euq ds flok; fdlh vkSj dh ugha gSA bl rjg fookg ds le; vfXu dks lk{kh ekudj fn;k x;k] fonkbZ ds le; vfiZr vkSj ekrk&firk ls izkIrµ ;gh N% izdkj dk eq[; óh&/ku gSA euq us blh lwph esa ,d vkSj Hkh rjg dk /ku tksM+
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fn;k gS ftls ^vUok/ks;* ¼ckn esa feyusokyh HksaV½ dgk tkrk FkkA ukjn] ;kKoYD; vkSj fo".kq dh óh/ku&laca/kh ekU;rk,¡ blh ls esy [kkrh gSaA Le`frdkjksa ds chp dkR;k;u dh igpku ,d ,sls Le`frdkj dh jgh gS ftudk óh/ku&laca/kh fopkj lkjxfHkZr gh ugha] cfYd ,d lhek rd ukjh&LokrU=; dk ifjpk;d Hkh dgk tk ldrk gSA euq] ;kKoYD;] ukjn ,oa fo".kq ds dFku ls vlger u gksrs gq, Hkh dkR;k;u us óh&/ku ds laca/k esa viuh futh LFkkiukvksa dks x<+us dk iz;kl fd;k gSA ladsr blh rjg ds gSa fd fookg ds le; óh dks ftrus rjg ds Hkk.M ¼cjru½] Hkkjokgh i'kq] nq/kk# xk;] vkHkw"k.k ,oa nkl&nkfl;ksa dk viZ.k gksrk Fkk] mu lcij lh/kk vf/kdkj mls NksM+ fdlh vkSj dk ugha gksrk FkkA dkR;k;u us óh&/ku dh tSlh ifjHkk"kk x<+h gS] og fucU/kksa vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd nk;Hkkx ds fy, Hkh Lohdk;Z ekuh xbZ gSA ferk{kjkHkk"; vuqlkj ^v/;kofºud* HksaV dk og izdkj Fkk ftls dU;kvkssa dks fonkbZ ds le; vfiZr fd;k tkrk FkkA ijUrq nk;Hkkx ,oa vU; ds fopkj ls blds varxZr ml HksaV dh x.kuk gksrh Fkh ftldk viZ.k ekrk&firk dh vksj ls gksrs jgus dk fjokt pyk vk jgk FkkA p.Ms'oj ds fooknjRukdj ls irk pyrk gS fd bl dksfV dk /ku o/kw dks ml le; izkIr gksrk Fkk tc og firk ds ?kj izLFkku dj jgh gksrh FkhA 'olqj bl èku dks mls Lusgo'k iznku djrk FkkA okpLifr ds fooknfpUrkef.k ls irk pyrk gS fd ;g /ku óh dks f}jkxeu ds le; izkIr gksrk FkkA nk;Hkkx esa ^nksákHkkj.k dfeZ.kke~* dks nwljs <ax ls le>k;k x;k gSA x`g&fuekZrkvksa vkSj Lo.kZdkjksa }kjk óh dks /ku blfy, fn;k tkrk Fkk fd og vius ifr dks u;h jpuk ds fy, izsfjr djsA O;kl ekurs gSa fd bl rjg dk /ku fdlh óh dks blfy, fn;k tkrk Fkk fd ifr ds ?kj pys tkus ds ckn mldh vfHkyk"kk,¡ iwjh gks tk;saA dkSfVY; ds vfrfjä nwljs Le``frdkjksa dk Hkh ;gh dguk gS fd o`fÙk ¼Hkj.k&iks"k.k½] vkHkw"k.k] 'kqYd] _.k&C;kt ys&nsdj óh&/ku gh dgk tkrk FkkA óh ds ikl bu reke phtksa ds izPNé Hkksx dk vf/kdkj jgrk FkkA dnkfpr~ ifr ds Åij dksbZ ladV [kM+k gks tk,] rks mls Hkh buds Hkksx dh NwV nh tk ldrh FkhA óh&/ku ds fo"k; esa vcrd dh ;gh /kkj.kk gS fd ifr ds mÙkjkf/kdkjh Hkh mldk c¡Vokjk ugha dj ldrsA fQj Hkh ;fn os gB ij mrk: gks tk,¡] rks bls ikiÑR; ls vyx dqN vkSj ugha dgk tk ldrkA dgha&dgha óh&/ku ds fy, ^lkSnkf;d*µ ;g ,d rjg dk uohu 'kCn py fudyk FkkA
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izdkjkUrj ls ;g óh&/ku gh gqvk djrk FkkA vfèkdrj Le`frdkjksa dk ;gh dguk gS fd fookfgrk ;k vfookfgrk óh dks mls ifr] ekrk&firk],oa nwljs lacaf/k;ksa ls tks dqN Hkh /ku izkIr gksrk Fkk] mlh ds fy, ;g 'kCn iz;qä fd;k tkrk FkkA nk;Hkkx dh rjg vfHkuo okpLifr ds fooknfpUrkef.k esa Hkh ;gh fl)kUr fu:fir gqvk gS fd ^lkSnkf;d* ds nk;js esa ;|fi vpy lEifÙk dks lfEeyr rks ugha fd;k x;k Fkk( ijUrq blds Hkhrj mu lHkh rjg dh lEifÙk;ksa dks varyhZu le>k tkrk Fkk ftUgsa óh ,d&,d djds vius ifr ls izkIr djus esa lQy gksrh FkhA 'kkódkjksa dh n`f"V esa ;g O;oLFkk viuh txg ls fMxh ughsa FkhA ifr ds xqtj tkus ds ckn óh vpy lEifÙk dk fo?kVu ugha dj ldrh FkhA dkSfVY; Hkkjrh;&lekt ds bl ;FkkFkZ ls gesa voxr djkrs gSa fd ifr dh e`R;q ds ckn ftl óh esa /keZHkko ls thou fcrkus dk ladYi ,d rjg dk vkdkj xzg.k dj ys] rks mls igys dh j[kh xbZ lEifÙk] vkHkw"k.k vkSj ngst ds :i esa feys gq, lkekuksa ds HkksX;kf/kdkj ls oafpr ugha fd;k tk ldrkA óh&LoHkko dk ;FkkFkZijd foospu djrs gq, dkSfVY; us ;g Bhd gh dgk gS fd larku ikus dh bPNqd óh ;fn iqufoZokg dj ysrh gS] rks igysokys ifr ds /ku ij mldk vf/kdkj lekIr ekuk tk;sxkA ijUrq blds fy, 'olqj vFkkZr~ ifjokj ds eqf[k;k dh lgefr dks izkIr djuk vko';d le>k x;k FkkA ladsr ;gh gS fd ,slh fó;k¡] tks 'olqj dh lgefr fy, fcuk iqufoZokg dj ysrh Fkha] mUgsa igys ifr ls izkIr /ku dks ykSVkus ds fy, ck/; gksuk iM+rk FkkA dkSfVY; dk ;g lq>ko Hkh Bhd yxrk gS fd ?kjokyksa dh jk; ls óh dk fookg dnkfpr~ vius gh fdlh lxs&laca/kh ds lkFk gkssrk gS] rks ,slh fLFkfr esa mls igys ifr dk /ku okfil djus ds fy, ifjtu fu;er% ck/; le>s tk;saxsA bl rjg nwljs ifr dk oj.k djusokyh óh ¼;fn lcdqN fo/kku ds vuq:i gqvk gks½ dk /ku mlds u;s ifr }kjk lqjf{kr le>k tk;sxkA Le`fr;ksa es óh&/ku ds laca/k esa ftl rjg dk fopkj gqvk gS] mlds eaFku ls ;gh fu"d"kZ fudkyk tk ldrk gS fd vkjEHk esa tgk¡ blds N% Hksn Fks] os dqN le; ckn ukS eku fy, x;s FksA dkR;k;u rd vkrs&vkrs óh&/ku ds varxZr py&vpyµ nksuksa gh rjg dh lEifÙk dh x.kuk 'kq: gks xbZ FkhA bl rjg ds /ku dks ikfjHkkf"kr djus ds fy, Vhdkdkjksa ,oa fucU/kdkjksa us YkEck&pkSM+k oäO; nsus esa fdlh rjg dh f<ykbZ ugha cjrh gSA ferk{kjkHkk"; ds vuqlkj fdlh Hkh rjg
[Vol. XVIII (1)
dk /ku óh&/ku gks ldrk gSA blds òksr D;k jgs gSa] bls ysdj dksbZ Nkuchu ughsa dh tk ldrhA thewrokgu ds nk;Hkkx esa óh&/ku mls dgk x;k gS ftldks nku esa nsus] foØ; djus vkSj lkFk gh ifr dh jksdVksd ls ckgj tkdj mldk izPNé Hkksx djrs jgus esa óh fdlh ds }kjk ckf/kr ugha dh tk;A ukjn dh lVhd fVIi.kh rks ;gh gS fd vpy lEifÙk dks NksM+dj 'ks"k ftrus Hkh rjg ds m|e gSa] muls izkIr gksusokys /ku&YkkHk esa óh dh fgLlsnkjh Li"V fn[ks rks bls gh óh&/ku dk nt+kZ fn;k tk ldrk gSA ijUrq bl ij Hkh x+kSj djus dh vko';drk gS fd mÙkjkf/kdkj ds :i esa izkIr gksusokyk /ku] HksaV esa nh xbZ oLrq vFkok f'kYi&deZ ls mikftZr /ku esa óh dk Hkkx fdlh Hkh n`f"V ls tk;t ugha Bgjk;k tk ldrkA óh&/ku D;k gS vkSj blij óh ds vf/kdkj dks fdl fu;e ds rgr ekU; Bgjk;k tk,] ;g bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS fd lEifÙk dk mn~xe vFkkZr~ mldk òksr D;k gS\ izkfIr ds le; mlds ¼óh½ fLFkfr D;k Fkh ¼og dqekjh] l/kok ;k fo/kok Fkh½\ ;g ckr Hkh ns[kh tkrh Fkh fd óh ds Åij fdl rjg dh ijEijk,¡ vkSj jhfr&fjokt gkoh gSaA dkR;k;u us ;g Li"V dj fn;k gS fd lkSnkf;d /ku ij dsoy óh dk gh vf/kdkj cuk jgrk FkkA blds nku&minku vkSj foØ; ds laoS/kkfud vf/kdkj ls mls oafpr ugha fd;k tk ldrk FkkA ,d 'kCn esa dgsa rks ;g /ku foifÙk ds fuokj.k ls fufeÙk gh óh dks mlh ds lxs&lacaf/k;ksa }kjk Lusgo'k fn;k x;k jgrk FkkA bl dksfV ds /ku esa py&vpy lEifÙk lekfo"V jgrh FkhA oS/kO;&tSlh nk:.k foifÙk dks >syusokyh óh viuh et+hZ ls bl /ku dk O;; dj ldrh FkhA dkR;k;u us ;g crk;k gS fd ifr iRuh ds /ku ds fy, izfrKkc) dqN fo'ks"k dkj.kksa ls gqvk djrk FkkA og e`R;q dks izkIr gks xbZ rks mlds }kjk /kkfjr _.k dks ;k rks ifr vkSj ugha rks iq=k pqdkus ds fy, uSfrd n`f"V ls ftEesokj le>s tkrs FksA ijUrq Le`frdkjksa dh bl /kkj.kk dks ysdj Hkh gesa lksp&fopkj djuk gksxk fd ;g fu;e mlh fLFkfr esa izHkkoh ekuk tk,xk tc fo/kok ifr ds ?kj esa gh 'ks"k thou O;rhr djus dk ladYi ysdj ek;ds dh vksj #[k djus ds vius fopkj dk iwjh rjg ls R;kx nsA Le`frpfUnzdk vkSj O;ogkjizdk'k&tSls fucU/kksa dk rks ;gk¡ rd dguk gS fd ikS=kksa ,oa izikS=kksa dks Hkh óh&/ku YkkSVkus ds fy, vkxs vkuk gksxkA ;g ekeyk Hkh csgn laosnu'khy ekuk x;k gS fd óh ds pfj=k esa fopy gksus ls óh&/ku dk dksbZ nkok ekU; ugha gks ldrkA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
çkphu Hkkjr esa óhèku&foe'kZ vkSj mlds çHksn
fooknfpUrkef.k vkSj O;ogkjizdk'k esa óh ds O;fHkpkfj.kh cu tkus ij mls óh&/ku ls oafpr dj nsus esa fdlh rjg dk nks"k ugha ns[kk x;k gSA óh&/ku dk mÙkjkf/kdkj fdls izkIr gks] bls ysdj oSpkfjd erHksn vkt Hkh cuk gqvk gSA 'kkódkjksa dk ,d fo'ks"k oxZ ;gh ekurk vk;k gS fd óh&/ku dk mÙkjkf/kdkj lcls igys dU;kvksa dks fey tkuk pkfg;sA bldk fufgrkFkZ ;gh fudkyrk gS fd óh&/ku esa iq=kksa dh vis{kk iqf=k;ksa dks vfèkd izkFkfedrk nh tk jgh FkhA tSls&tSls le; chrk] oSls&oSls dfri; ys[kdksa us óh&/ku ds dqN izdkjksa esa dU;kvksa ds lkFk&lkFk iq=kksa dks Hkh lgHkkxh cukus ij cy nsuk 'kq: dj fn;k FkkA bldk ,d dkj.k rks óh/ku esa foLrkj gS rks nwljk ;g fd dqN yksxksa ds eu dks ;g ugha Hkk;k fd fó;k¡ fo'kky lEifÙk dh Lokfeuh cu mUgsa vk¡[ksa fn[kk;saA dgha&dgha yksdkpkj ,oa ns'kdky dk izHkko Hkh gkoh gksrk gqvk ut+j vkus yxk FkkA fucU/kksa us bldk [kqyklk dj fn;k gS fd mudh O;k[;k,¡ yksdkpkj ls ijs ugha gSaA dkSfVY; us ;g Li"V dj fn;k gS fd nwljs ifr dk oj.k dj ysusokyh óh dks u rks mlds igys ifr dk /ku feyk djrk Fkk vkSj u mÙkjkf/kdkjA bl rjg dh otZuk mlh óh ij ykxw Fkh tks fcuk ifjtuksa dh vuqefr ds iqufoZokg djus dk fu.kZ; ysrh FkhA vycÙkk iqufoZokg ls Lo;a dks vyx j[k nsusokyh óh dks lkjs&ds&lkjs vf/kdkj Lor% izkIr gks tkrs FksA lekt ds Hkhrj ;g fu;e Hkh ykxw Fkk fd ftl óh dks igys ifr ls iq=k iSnk gksus ds ckn Hkh iqufoZokg djus dk fu.kZ; ysus esa fdlh rjg dk ladksp ugha gksrk Fkk] mls óh&/ku ls vyx dj fn;k tkrk FkkA ijUrq igys ifr ls iSnk gq, iq=k dks lEifÙk&vf/kdkj ls oafpr ugha fd, tkus dk fu;e izHkkoh le>k tkrk FkkA dkSfVY; dk ;g dFku Hkh fu;ekuqdwy izrhr gkssrk gS fd ,d ls vfèkd iq=k ds ckn Hkh óh nwljs ifr dk oj.k djus ls ugha fgpds rks ,slh fLFkfr esa mlds óh&/ku esa vfèkd o`f) dh NwV nh tk ldrh gSA dqN&dqN ladsfrr ;gh gksrk gS fd bl rjg dh O;oLFkk ds tkjh jgus ls iqf=k;ksa dh vis{kk iq=kksa dks /ku dk vfèkd Hkkx izkIr gksus yxk FkkA 'kkódkjksa us ;g lq>k;k gS fd ,d óh dbZ ifr;ksa dk oj.k dj ldrh gSA blh dkj.k ls mlds dbZ iq=k Hkh gks ldrs gSaA vc ,slh fLFkfr esa muds chp ftl Øe ls fir`deZ dk c¡Vokjk gks] mlh ds vuqlkj óh/ku dk Hkh foHkktu fd;k tkuk mfpr dgk tk ldrk gSA dkSfVY; us óh dks bruh NwV vo'; nh gS
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fd og nwljs ifr dk oj.k djds Hkh pkgs rks vius v/khu ds óh&/ku dks iq=kksa ds chp foHkkftr dj ldrh gSA 'kkódkjksa us ;g dgus esa fdlh rjg dh f<ykbZ ugha cjrh gS fd óh dks mlds ikl mÙkjkf/kdkjh ds uke ij u iq=k gks vkSj u iq=kh] rks ikfrozR; /keZ dk ikyu djds og 'ks"k thou fdlh vkJe esa fcrk ldrh FkhA /;ku nsus dh ckr ;g gS fd ,slh fLFkfr dk lkeuk dj jgh óh dks viuh futh lEifÙk ls thou pykus dk vfèkdkj cuk jgrk FkkA ,rnFkZ mlds fo#) fdlh rjg izfrcU/k ykxw ugha fd;k tk ldrk FkkA dkSfVY; us viuh ea'kk dks Li"V djrs gq, dgk gS fd lkekU; fLFkfr esa óh ds ifjtu mlds /ku dk O;; ugha dj ldrs FksA vycÙkk ifjokj ds lkeus tc dHkh dksbZ xEHkhj ladV iSnk gksrk Fkk] rHkh óh/ku dk O;; fd;k tk ldrk FkkA earO; ;g fd óh tks dqN cpkdj vius ikl j[krh Fkh] varr% ogh mlds thou dk voyEc cu djrk FkkA ;gk¡ rd fd foifÙk ls ifjtuksa dks mckjus esa varr% ;gh /ku lgk;d Hkh gksrk FkkA bl iwjs dFku dk fupksM+ ;gh gS fd óh tcrd thfor jgrh] rcrd óh&/ku ij ,dek=k mlh dk vf/kdkj gksrk FkkA mldh e`R;q ds ckn gh nk;kn mldk va'k xzg.k dj ldrs FksA ,d nwljk fo/kku ;g Fkk fd ifr ds thfor jgus ij óh&/ku mlds iq=k&iqf=k;ksa ds chp foHkkftr gks ldrk FkkA dkSfVY; dks ns[kus ls ;gh yxrk gS fd óh&/ku ds c¡Vokjs esa iq=kkssa dks dgha vfèkd izkFkfedrk nsus dh ckr mBkbZ tk jgh FkhA dnkfpr~ ;s nksuksa u gksa rks óh&/ku ij dsoy ifr dk vf/kdkj ekU; gksxkµ bl rjg dh /kkj.kk dkSfVY; us O;ä dh FkhA fdlh&fdlh lUnHkZ esa ;g fopkj Hkh O;ä gqvk gS fd firk ds ?kj ftruk Hkh 'kqYd óh dks izkIr gqvk gS vkSj blds vfrfjä fookg&dky esa ftruh Hkh HksaV&lkefxz;k¡ mls gkfly gqbZ gSa] mu lcesa ckU/koksa dk va'k lqjf{kr jgk djrk gSA óh&/ku esa fdldk fdruk Hkkx ekU; gksuk pkfg;s] bls ysdj Le`frdkjksa dk dksbZ ,d rjg dk fopkj lkeus ugha vk;k gSA ;g izlax vusd lUnHkks± esa foosfpr gksrk jgk gS fd óh&/ku esa dqekjh dU;kvksa dks loZizFke vkSj mlds ckn ,slh fookfgrkvksa dks] ftudh vkfFkZd fLFkfr Bhd&Bkd ugha] mUgsa vfèkd va'k fn;k tk ldrk gSA euq bl fu;e dk gokyk nsrs jgs gSa fd ekrk ds ugha jgus ij lgksnj Hkkb;ksa vkSj cgukas ds chp vkil dh esy ls /ku dk c¡Vokjk ,d leku fd;k tk ldrk gSA Lusgo'k ekr`èku dk dqN Hkkx iqf=k;ksa dh iq=kh ¼nkSfg=kh½ dks Hkh ns fn;k tkrk gS rks bls vuqfpr O;ogkj dk
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|ksrd ugha dk tk ldrkA euq us ;g Hkh Li"V dj fn;k gS fd N% izdkj dk óh&/ku ekrk ds ej tkus ds ckn gh mlds iq=k&iqf=k;ksa ds chp foHkkftr gksuk pkfg;sA Vhdkdkjksa us bls dbZ rjg ls ikfjHkkf"kr fd;k gSA loZKkukjk;.k ds vuqlkj ekrk dh lEifÙk dk vFkZ gS ikjEifjd vkèkkj ij ekU; èku ds vfrfjä dqN nwljs rjg dh lEifÙk dk cus jgukA c`gLifr ds er ls lger gksrs gq, ;g dgk x;k gS fd lxs HkkbZ vkSj dqekjh cguksa dks ,dlkFk óh&/ku dk mÙkjkf/kdkj izkIr gksrk Fkk tcfd fookfgrk cgusa dsoy FkksM+k&lk Hkkx gh izkIr djus dh vf/kdkfj.kh le>h x;h Fkha ¼dqüwd ds er ls Hkkb;ksa dk ,d&pkSFkkbZ Hkkx½A49 euq }kjk ;g fo/kku Hkh vuqeksfnr gqvk gS fd czã] nSo] vk"kZ] izktkiR; ,oa xkU/koZ&of/k ls O;kgh tkusokyh óh lUrkughu gh ej tkrh gS rks mlds ikl óh&/ku ds uke ij tks dqN Hkh gS] mlij ekrk&firk dk vf/kdkj ekU; gks tkrk gSA50 ;kKoYD; ds vuqlkj dU;k,¡ ekrk dk /ku ikrh gSa vkSj muds ugha jgus ij gh iq=kksa dk mlij LoÙo dk;e gks ldrk gSA lkekU;r;k óh&/ku ij iqf=k;kas dk gh vf/kdkj ekU; gqvk djrk gS( ij larfrfoghu dh voLFkk esa mlij ,dek=k vf/kdkj ifr dks NksM+dj fdlh vkSj dk ugh gks ldrkA51 ukjn dk er dqN yhd ls gVdj gSA oLrqr% ekrk dk /ku rks iqf=k;ksa dks gh feyuk pkfg;sA dnkfpr~ ;s chp esa gh e`R;q dks izkIr gks tk,¡] rks ;s /ku mUgha dh lUrku dks ns fn;k tk; rks ;gh O;ogkj Bhd ekuk tk;sxkA 'ka[k vkSj fyf[kr dk vkàku ;g gS fd ekrk dh lEifÙk lgksnj Hkkb;ksa ,oa cguksa ds chp cjkcj&cjkcj foHkkftr dj fn;k tkuk pkfg;sA c`gLifr óh&/ku ds foHkktu esa dqekjh dU;kvksa dks izkFkfedrk nsus dh ckr djrs gSaA fookfgrk,¡ Lusgo'k gh dqN ikus dh vfèkdkfj.kh le>h xbZ gSaA ijk'kj óh&/ku ij igyk vf/kdkj dqekjh dU;kvksa dk gh ekurs gSaA ijUrq tgk¡ ;s ugha gSa] ,sls ifjokj dh fookfgrk dU;kvksa vkSj iq=kksa ds chp óh&/ku dk ,d cjkcj fgLlk c¡V tkuk pkfg,A nsoy bl fu;e ds i{k esa [kMs+ gSa fd óh ds ej tkus ds ckn mldk óh&/ku iq=k&iqf=k;ksa ds chp leku :i ls foHkkftr fd;k tk, vkSj blesa fdlh ds Hkh ugha jgus dh fLFkfr esa gh Øe'k% ifr] ekrk] Hkzkrk ;k firk dks iznku fd;k tk ldrk gSA óh&/ku ds mÙkjkf/kdkj ds laca/k esa dkR;k;u dk fopkj vR;Ur gh lehphu dgk tk;sxkA blesa l/kok cguksa dks Hkkb;ksa ds lkFk gh Hkkx feyuk pkfg;sA óh&/ku ds foHkktu esa ;g d+kuwu fo'ks"k :i esa izHkkoh dgk x;k FkkA iqf=k;kas ds ugha jgus ij gh iq=k dks óh&/ku dk ekfyd le>k tk ldrk gSA ekrk&firk dh jt+keanh ls iq=kh dks
[Vol. XVIII (1)
py&vpy lEifÙk dk ftruk Hkh Hkkx fn;k tkrk Fkk] ;fn og lUrkughu gksdj gh ej tkrh Fkh rks mlij fdlh vkSj dk ugha cfYd HkkbZ dk vf/kdkj gqvk djrk FkkA /keZ'kkóksa ij fy[kh xbZ Vhdkvksa ls blh /kkj.kk dks cy feyrk gS fd óh&/ku ds dqN fo'ks"k rjg ds izdkjksa esa iq=k dh vis{kk iqf=k;ksa dks gh vfèkd egÙo fn;k tk jgk FkkA iq#"k dh lEifÙk ,oa óh ds mÙkjkf/kdkj ds laca/k esa ftl rjg dk oS"kE; fn[krk gS] mldk dksbZ Bksl dj.k gesa Kkr ugha gkssrkA vycÙkk ferk{kjk esa bl ;FkkFkZ dk fu:i.k gqvk gS fd iq=kh esa pwafd ekrk dk va'k vfèkd jgrk gS] blh ukrs óh&/ku esa mls vfèkd Hkkx ikus dk vf/kdkj ekU; gks tkrk gSA bldk ewy dkj.k dnkfpr~ ;g gS fd firk dh lEifÙk esa iq=kksa ds jgrs iqf=k;ksa dks Hkkx ikus dk vf/kdkj ugha curk FkkA Bhd blh rjg ekrk ds ikl tks óh&/ku gksrk Fkk mlesa iqf=k;ksa dks NksM+ fdlh vkSj dh fgLlsnkjh ugha curh FkhA dqekjh dU;k dk viuh ekrk dh lEifÙk esa ftruk vf/kdkj curk Fkk] mls ysdj ferk{kjk ,oa vU; Vhdkdkjksa&fucU/kdkjksa }kjk izfrikfnr er esa fdlh rjg dk fojks/k ugha gSA cks/kk;u dk vuqlj.k djrs gq, ferk{kjk esa bldk leFkZu fd;k x;k gS fd dU;k ds ej tkus ij lcls igys mlh ds lxs Hkkb;ksa dks mldk /ku feyk djrk gS] rRi'pkr~ ekrk vkSj mlds ckn firk ,d&,d djds mlds ekfyd cu ikrs gSaA dgha&dgha firk ds ugha jgus ij dU;k dk /ku mlh ds fudVre lfi.M dks vfiZr dj nsus dh ckrksa dk Hkh leFkZu fd;k tkrk jgk gSA ;kKoYD; dh n`f"V esa fookg izfrJqr gks tkus ds ckn ;fn dU;k dh e`R;q gks tk,] rks mlds Hkko oj dks 'kqYd ;k vU; fdLe dh HksaV dks okfil dj nssus dk fu;e izHkkoh gks tkrk gSA fdUrq ;g rHkh ekU; gksxk tc dU;k&dqy ds O;; ,oa vius O;; dks ?kVkdj ftruh jkf'k 'ks"k cprh gS] mls gh vknku&iznku dj nsus ds fy, mHk; i{k ds chp lgefr cu tk;sA ferk{kjk esa dqekjh dU;k dk gh ugha] vfirq cfYd óh&/ku ds vkSj Hkh dbZ izdkjksa dk d+kuwu ds nk;js esa jgdj iwjs foLrkj ds LkkFk fopkj fd;k x;k gSA ;g ekuk x;k gS fd fookg ds vuqeksfnr <ax ls gksus ij Hkh laarku ds vHkko esa óh&/ku Øe ls ekrk ;k firk dks izkIr gks ldrk gSA bu nksuksa ds ugha jgus ij gh ;g lfi.Mksa dks izkIr gks ldrk FkkA vfHkizk; ;g fd firk ds lfi.Mksa ds óh ds ifr dks rFkk ifr ds vHkko esa ifr ds lfi.Mksa dks ;g /ku izkIr gks ldrk gSA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
çkphu Hkkjr esa óhèku&foe'kZ vkSj mlds çHksn
fHké&fHké iqf=k;ksa ls mRié ikSf=k;k¡ viuh firkegh dh lEifÙk lh/ks :i esa ikrh gSa rks mUgsa leok; :i esa fjDFk feyrk gSA ;g O;oLFkk Hkh ekU; jgh gS fd uhp tkfr dh óh ds larkughu ej tkus ds ckn mldk óh&/ku mPprj tkfrokyh lkSr dh iq=kh dks izkIr gks ldrk gSA iqf=k;k¡ u gksa] rks ,slh fLFkfr esa gh blds iq=kksa dk vf/kdkj ekU; le>k tk;sxkA /keZ'kkóksa }kjk dh xbZ foLr`r foospu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd óh&/ku ds mÙkjkf/kdkj ds laca/k esa iq#"k&èku ds mÙkjkf/kdkj&laca/kh fu;eksa dks ykxw ugha fd;k tk ldrk FkkA dksbZ Hkh O;fä lEifÙk NksM+dj ej tk,] rks mlh ds iq=k ,oa ikS=k ,dlkFk mÙkjkf/kdkjh ?kksf"kr fd, tkrs gSaA ;gk¡ iq=k gh vius firk dk izfrfuf/kRo djrk gSA ijUrq óh&/ku ds lkFk nwljk gh fu;e ykxw gksrk gSA óh ds ej tkus ds ckn mldk ,d gh iq=k vkSj ,d gh ikS=k gkss rks iq=k dks gh iwjk&dk&iwjk óh&/ku feyk djrk gS tcfd ikS=k dks fu;er% dqN Hkh izkIr ugha gksrkA nk;Hkkx O;fHkpkfj.kh iq=kh dks fdlh Hkh rjg dk lEifÙk&laca/kh vf/kdkj lkSais tkus dk leFkZu ugha djrkA ijUrq ferk{kjk dks ns[kus ls ;gh yxrk gS fd j[kSy] os';k ;k O;fHkpkfj.kh ?kksf"kr dj nh xbZ iq=kh dks Hkh ml fLFkfr esa mÙkjkf/kdkj lkSaik tk ldrk gS tc mlds flok; larku ds uke ij fdlh nEifÙk ds ikl u iq=k gS vkSj u iq=khA lUnHkZ % 123456789101112131415-
gkoZMZ vksfj;UVy lhjht+] Hkkx&8] i`‚‚753 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 937 euqLe`fr] vè;k; 9] i`‚11 euqLe`fr 8-416 ij es/kkfrfFk dk Hkk"; vkiLrEc/keZlw=k] 2-06-14-9 cks/kk;u/keZlw=k] 2-2-3-43 ofl"B/keZlw=k] 17-46 laLdkjizdk'k] i`‚ 851 euqLe`fr] 8-416 dkSfVY; vFkZ'kkL=k ¼dkS‚v‚½] 3-2-14] j?kqukFk flag] dkSfVY; vFkZ'kkó dk fganh&vuqokn] Hkkx&1] i`‚ 583 ^bR;frxºueqä izt% óh/kue~*µ nk;Hkkx] 4-3-42 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 938 dkS‚v‚] 3-2-16&18 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 938 foLr`r fooj.k ds fy, nz"VO;] latho u;u >k] ^izkphu Hkkjr esa O;ogkj&fu:i.k] vizdkf'kr 'kks/k&izcU/k] njHkaxk] 2002] i`‚
16171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758-
76&77 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 938 euqLe`fr] 9-194 ogh] 4-195 ukjn&nk;Hkkx] i`‚ 8 ;kKoYD;Le`fr] 2-143&144 fo".kq/keZlw=k 17-18 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 939 euqLe`fr] 9-200 Le`frpfUnzdk] 2] i`‚ 282( fooknjRukdj] i`‚ 511 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 940 dkS‚ v‚] 3-25 ogh] 3-2-26&27 ogh] 3-2-29 ogh] 3-2-30 ogh] 3-2-31 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 941 ukjnLe`fr] 4-28( 13-8 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 942 dkR;k;uLe`fr] 916 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 943 ogh dkS‚ v‚] 3-2-32&33 ogh] 3-2-34&35 ogh] 3-2-36 ogh] 3-2-37 ogh] 3-2-38 ogh] 3-2-39 ogh] 3-2-40 ogh] 3-2-41 ogh] 3-2-44 ogh] 3-2-45 euqLe`fr] 4-192&193 ogh] 4-195 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 943 euqLe`fr] 4-196&197 ;kKoYD;Le`fr] 2-144&146 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 944 ;kKoYD;Le`fr]2-117 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 945 ;kKoYD;Le`fr] 2-146 /keZ'kkó dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`‚ 945 ogh ogh] i`‚ 945&946
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JhokLro] MkW‚ vkseizdk'k yky] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 110&113] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
leqæxqIr ds bykgkckn&LrEHkys[k esa of.kZr ukxnÙk dh igpku MkWŒ vkseçdk'k yky JhokLro *
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eqnzxqIr ds bykgkckn izLrj LrEHkys[k esa vk;kZoÙkZ dh fot; ds lUnHkZ esa of.kZr gS fd mlus #nznso] efry] ukxnÙk] pUnzoeZu] x.kifrukx] ukxlsu] vP;qr] ufUnu] cyoeZu vkfn vk;kZoÙkZ ds vusd 1 'kkldksa dk mUewyu dj fn;k Fkkµ ^#nznsoefryukxnÙkpUnzoEeZx.kifrukxukxlsukP;qrufUn cyoEekZ&|usdk¸;kZoÙkZjktizlHkks)j.kksn~o`Ùk izHkkoegr% ----A* mYys[kuh; gS fd vk;kZoÙkZ ds 'kkldksa ds lUnHkZ esa muds LFkku&fo'ks"k ds ckjs esa vfHkys[k esa dksbZ lwpuk izkIr ugha gksrh] tcfd nf{k.kkiFk ds 'kkldksa ds lUnHkZ esa muds LFkkuksa dk Hkh mYys[k fd;k x;k gSµ2 ^dkslydegsUnz egkdkUrkjd O;k?kzjkt dkSjkyde.Vjkt iS"Biqjd egs U nz f xfj dkS ê w j d LokfenÙkS j .MiYydneu dk×ps ; d& fo".kq x ks i koeq ä duhyjkt oS ú s ; dgfLroEeZ ikydks x z l s u nSojk"Vªddqcsj dkSLFkyiqjd /ku×t; izHk`fr lOoZnf{k.kkiFkjkt--A* ¼fp=k&1½A vr% nf{k.kkiFk ds jktkvksa ds lUnHkZ esa mudh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr dk o.kZu gksus ds dkj.k mudh igpku vis{kkÑr vf/kd lgt gS] fdUrq vk;kZoÙkZ ds 'kkldksa ds lUnHkZ esa muds jkT;ksa ,oa mudh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr dk mYys[k u gksus ds dkj.k izk;% bfrgkldkjksa us vusd fDy"V dYiuk,¡ dh gSaA vk;kZoÙkZ ds 'kkldksa }kjk 'kkflr HkkSxksfyd {ks=k dh igpku ds fy, vU; lk/kuksa] ;Fkkµ flôs] eqnzk] eqnzkø vFkok lkfgfR;d lk{;ksa dk lgkjk ysuk iM+rk gSA ¹ iwoZ jftLVªhdj.k&vf/kdkjh] iqjko'ks"k ,oa cgqewY;dykÑfr] 12&ch] ih-lh- cuthZ ekxZ] ,yuxat] bykgkckn ¼m‚iz‚½] lpyHkk"k % 09389922362] bZ&esy % sgeography@gmail.com 112
tgk¡ rd vk;kZoÙkZ ds 'kkldksa esa ^ukxnÙk* dh igpku dh ckr gS] mYys[; gS fd dkS'kkEch ls ^ukxnÙk* ukekafdr ,d e`.eqnzk izkIr gqbZ gS] ftlij 'ka[k vkSj ukx dk vadu gS rFkk 3 czkãh fyfi eas ys[k ^ukxnÙk* nk;sa ls ck;sa mRdh.kZ gS ¼fp=k&2½A eqnzk&ys[k dh fyfi yxHkx pkSFkh 'krkCnh bZ‚ dh gS vkSj leqnzxqIr dk vfHkys[k Hkh blh dky dk gSA vr% leqnzxqIr ds vfHkys[k esa of.kZr ^ukxnÙk* dh igpku dkS'kkEch ls izkIr e`.eqnzk ds ukxnÙk ls dh tk ldrh gSA ,slh fLFkfr esa eqnzk&izkfIrLFky ds vk/kkj ij ^ukxnÙk* dks dkS'kkEch dk 'kkld Lohdkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl lUnHkZ esa ;g Hkh mYys[kuh; gS fd dkS'kkEch ls ^¼Jh½ #nz* ukekafdr ,d rkez&flôk ik;k x;k gS tks orZeku esa jkT; laxzgky; ¼y[kuŽ esa lqjf{kr gSA blds iqjksHkkx ij czkãh fyfi esa ^¼Jh½ #nz* ys[k gS rFkk i`"BHkkx ij uUnh ds lkFk f'ko dk vøu gS4 ¼fp=k&3½A bl flôs ds ^Jh#nz* dh igpku leqnzxqIr ds vfHkys[k esa of.kZr ^#nznso* ls dh xbZ Fkh vkSj flôs dh izkfIr&LFky ds vk/kkj ij #nznso dks dkS'kkEch dk 'kkld ekuk x;k FkkA5 dkS'kkEch ls izkIr ,oa jkT; laxzgky; ¼y[kuŽ esa lqjf{kr ^¼Jh½ #nz* ukekafdr bl flôs ls leqnzxqIr ds vfHkys[k esa of.kZr ^#nznso* dh dkS'kkEch ds 'kkld ds :i esa igpku fd, tkus ds lUnHkZ esa fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gS fd cukoV ds vk/kkj ij ;g flôk dkS'kkEch dk flôk izrhr ugha gksrkA mlds i`"BHkkx ij uUnh ds lkFk f'ko dk tks vøu gS] og gfj;k.kk esa izkIr gksusokys ^dksr* flôksa ¼fp=k&4½ ds i`"BHkkx ls feyrk&tqyrk gSA blh izdkj ^Jh#nz* ds flôs ij tks ef.kekyk (dotted circle) iznf'kZr gS] ogh dksr&flôksa ij Hkh izkIr gksrh gSA bl lUnHkZ esa ;g Hkh mYys[; gS fd lqusr ¼yqf/k;kuk]
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
leqæxqIr ds bykgkckn&LrEHkys[k esa of.kZr ukxnÙk dh igpku
iatkc½ ls ^Jh#nzL;* ukekafdr ,d e`.eqnzkø ¼fp=k&5½ izkIr gqvk gS]6 ftldh fyfi foosP; ^¼Jh½#nz* ukekafdr flôs ls i;kZIr lkn`'; j[krh gSA blls ;g lEHkkouk vkSj vf/kd izcy gks tkrh gS fd jkT; laxzgky; ¼y[kuŽ esa lqjf{kr ^¼Jh½#nz* ys[k;qä flôk dkS'kkEch dk u gksdj if'peh {ks=k vFkkZr~ gfj;k.kk&iatkc ls lacaf/kr gSA izks‚ ds‚Mh‚ cktis;h us >w¡lh ls ^#nznso* dh eqnzk ds feyus dk mYys[k fd;k gS7] fdUrq mUgksaus eqnzk ij mRdh.kZ v{kjksa ,oa mudh fuekZ.k&'kSyh rFkk izrhd&fpg~uksa vkfn ds lUnHkZ esa dksbZ lwpuk ugha nh gSA vr% #nznso ds eqnzk dh lwpukek=k ds vk/kkj ij fdlh izdkj dk fu"d"kZ fudkyuk dYiuktU; gh vf/kd izrhr gksrk gSA flôksa ,oa eqnzkøksa ds lUnHkZ esa fopkj.kh; gS fd ,sls lk{; O;kikj vFkok vU; dkj.kksa ls nwj&nwj rd gLrkUrfjr gksrs jgrs gSa] fdUrq eqnzk lkekU;r;k vius ewy LFkku ij gh jgrh gSA bl vkyksd esa dkS'kkEch ls ukxnÙk 'kkld dh eqnzk&izkfIr ds vk/kkj ij ;g vuqeku vf/kd laHkkO; gS fd ^ukxnÙk* dkS'kkEch dk gh 'kkld FkkA lUnHkZ % 1234-
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fp= laΠ1
fp= laΠ2
fp= laΠ3
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leqæxqIr ds bykgkckn&LrEHkys[k esa of.kZr ukxnÙk dh igpku
fp= laΠ4
fp= laΠ5
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Singh, Dr. Arvind K., Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.114-124, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: V.S. 1525 Prof. Arvind Kumar Singh *
he inscriptions under discussion are engraved on the rocks and pedestals of Jaina images at Gwalior fort (26º13', 78º12'), which is famous for its impregnable condition, water management, art, culture, trade, military activities, and remains of numerous temples and sculptures as well inscriptional and literary references signify its importance as a tértha. The rock cut Jaina reliefs, caves and sculptures distributed all around the hill of Gwalior eminently confirm the hallowed status of Gwalior. In general, they are divided in five groups: Urvähé, south-western, northwestern, north-eastern, and south-eastern.1 In general, they are built or excavated during the Tomara rule, by and large from the time of Vikramadeva to the times of Kértisiàha. It is not possible to discuss hundreds of Jaina inscriptions of fort here, so the concentration is on fifteen inscriptions of the particular year (VS 1525), of the time of Tomar ruler Kértisiàha that are engraved in the south-eastern group of Jaina caves.
Kértisiàha (1459-1480 C.E.) was a famous Tomar ruler mentioned in inscriptions as mahäräjädhiräja and his kingdom is referred to as vijayaräjya, 'a victorious kingdom' which he had been able to establish (pratiñöhäpaka). Interestingly, in one of the inscription (no. IX) his title is mentioned mahäräjädhiräja Çré Hindü Suraträëa indicating investiture on him of the title of the “Sultäna”. This is significant in view of the fact that this title was exclusive to the rulers of the major contemporary ruling houses of Delhi, Malwa, Jaunpur, etc. It seems that during his reign when rivalry and war ensured between Jaunpur and Delhi, Gwalior remained neutral. He was apparently in a position to launch on diplomatic moves because of his good standing with Jaunpur and Malawa which eventually had successfully reduced threat from Delhi. Thus, his reign was safe from attacks from all sides and this situation developed only after he had been successful in warding off the attack by Sultana Hussain Shah of Jaunpur in 1466-'67 CE2
The south-eastern group occupies the eastern face of the cliff. The caves are locally identified as those belonging to 'Eka-patthara-ké-bävaòé'. They are distributed along the whole face of the cliff covering a distance of a kilometre from the natural spring well (Bävaòé) on the south up to the northern end containing the Gaàgülä Täla, on the top. The total number of caves with their religious characteristic feature of architecture and sculptures are pointed out as 26. Most of the inscriptions of this group are dated from VS 1525 to 1530 which indicates the intense speed by which the work was done.
The inscriptions under discussion are important as they record the family of worshippers and tradition of the bhaööärakas3 who appreciably participated in the progress of Jainism. In the medieval period, bhaööäraka tradition was associated with the Vaihärika tradition of Jainism. Indranandé in his Nétisära expresses the merit of bhaööäraka as “sarvaçästra-kaläbhijïo nänä-gachchhäbhivar ddhakaù / mahämanäù prabhäbhävé bhaööäraka itéçyate //”. In fact the term bhaööäraka was used for an absolute position in Vaihärika tradition that was governed by teacher-disciple relationship. This tradition was universal in both the sects- Çvetämbara and Digambara. The earliest references of the bhaööäraka tradition go back to ninth century CE It seems that in the beginning there was a Müla-saàgha
* Professor & head, Deptt. of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior474 011 (M.P.); e-mail: aks_archju@yahoo.co.in 116
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Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: VS 1525
from which different bhaööäraka-péöhas were originated owing to the differences in due course of time. It is recorded in the Nétisära that Çvetapaöagaccha was emerged from Müla-saàgha in the beginning, and then Käñhöhä-saàgha, Yäpanéyasaàgha Sena-saàgha, Nandé-saàgha, Siàha-saàgha and Deva-saàgha appeared correspondingly.4 It is also believed that the Gaëadhara tradition of Térthaìkara Mahävéra played a vital role in the beginning of bhaööäraka tradition of medieval period. Possibly, due to this reason the main bhaööäraka tradition introduced itself with the word gaëa, such as Balätkära-gaëa, Sena-gaëa, Läöa-Bägaòa-gaëa. The life style of bhaööäraka in Jaina society was entirely different from those of the Çramaëamunis. The bhaööärakas were religious sovereign, called Räjaguru, constructed and lived in monasteries and temples, received lands in gifts, maintained agriculture, and administered a comfortable life like a king, used palanquin (pälaké), Gädé, umbrella (chhatra), whisk (chämara) as well gold and silver in garments. Their paööäbhiñeka ritual was celebrated superbly like räjyäbhiñeka ceremony. Moreover, they were managing different térthas, show miracles and carried out religious tour in different parts of the country. Relation between different bhaööäraka traditions was convivial. Contemporary rulers were influenced by their knowledge and virtues and provided patronage them. The significant work of the bhaööäraka was to establish temple, inaugurate and install images and associated with the writing, copying and preserving the Jaina literature. The bhaööäraka tradition played a significant role in the medieval history of Jainism, not only in the unification of Jaina community but also in the preservation and development of Jaina religion, art and culture. Gwalior region encounters the consequence of bhaööäraka tradition from tenth century CE Of the different bhaööäraka traditions, Käñöhä-saàgha and Balätkära-gaëa were more influential in the region. In the inscriptional evidence Käñöhä-saàgha is finds mention for the first time in the Dubkund stone inscription of VS 1152, which refers the installation of Caraëa-pädukä of Mahäcärya-varya Devasena.5 The earlier historical reference for Mäthura-gaccha is found in the books of äcärya Amitagati (Saàvat 1050-73). Their teacherdisciple relationship was in the form of DevasenaAmitagati-Nemiseëa-Mädhavasena and Amitagati. Other ancient äcärya of this gaccha was Amarakérti
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(Saàvat 1144-47). His tradition was in the form of Çäntiñeëa-Amarasena-Çréñeëa-Caàdrakérti and Amarakérti. Third äcärya was Chatrasena (saàvat 1166), fourth Guëabhadra (Saàvat 1226) and fifth was the disciple of Dharmakérti named Lalitakérti (Saàvat 1234). The medieval Mäthura-gaccha tradition was initiated by äcärya Mädhavasena. His two disciples Udhdharasena and Vijayasena started two different traditions. Of them, Udhdharasena was followed by Devasena, Vimalasena, Dharmakérti, Bhävasena, Sahasrakérti, Guëakérti, Yaçaùkérti, Malayakérti, Guëabhadra, and others, while Vijayasena was followed by Nayasena, Çreyäàsasena, Anantakérti, Kamalakérti, Kshemakérti, Hemakérti, Kamalakérti, Kumärasena, Çubhachaàdra, Hemachaàdra, Yaçaùsena and others6. Of the paööävalé of Käñöhä-saàgha and Mäthura-gaccha, the influence of bhaööäraka Guëakérti of Uddharasena tradition is witnessed in Gwalior. Several Jaina images of Gwalior were installed and Jaina literature was written by him. His follower Yaçaùkérti was a disciple for a long time and was paööäséna mostly for seven years, contributed a lot. Other bhaööäraka tradition of Gwalior was Balätkära-gaëa, the earlier references of which are known from Karnataka. Later on Kuàdakuàdaanvaya was related with it. The ancient bhaööäraka of its north Indian branch might be Basantakérti. He was followed respectively by Viçälakérti, Çubhakérti, Dharma, Ratnakérti, Prabhä, and Padmanandé. Three disciple of Padmanandé established three different bhaööäraka traditions. Of them, Çubha initiated the Delhi-Jaipur branch, which is related to Gwalior. After him, Jéna, Prabhäkérti, Devendrakérti and Narendrakérti in that order became bhaööäraka. Apart from bhaööärakas, Paööita Raidhü was a great scholar of Gwalior, installed several images and composed numerous literary works.7 The language of the inscriptions is Sanskrit and the script is Nägaré. In general, the spots for writing the inscriptions are cut in deep and made smooth, however, at some places it is written over the rough chiselled surface. I. Pärçvanätha Image Pedestal Inscription The inscription is engraved on the pedestal of Pärçvanätha image in cave no. 1.8 Several letters of line 1 and some of the letters of other lines are now worn out. As for the palaeographic peculiarities, the sign for medial ü in Paharü (l. 3) is attached to the right middle of the letter in curve joined with rightward hook form, as in developed forms.
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Interestingly, some words are written in full form but in recurrence its abbreviated form are used, such as bha for bhööäraka (l. 1), saà for saàghädhipati (l. 3), pu for putra (l. 4), and dvi for dvitéya (l. 3). The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 varñe Caitra sudi 7 Wednesday which correspond to 30 March 1468 C.E.
2- L; rRiês Hkêkjd Jhft.kpanz ;rh'ojk;%----------d JhflagdhfrZ 'kq/kh ojk% Ï rs"kkeqins'kkr~ Ï Jhxksikpy egknqXxsZ JhrksejkUo;s Ï egkjktkf/kjkt JhdhfrZflagfot;jkT;sA HkO;ka Mkekjs yC/kizfr"Bka Jhb{okdqoa'kksÒok%A xksykjkMsfrlaKdkA la?kkf/kir;% Ï JhÏ
It refers to bhaööäraka Çré Prabhädeva of Mülasaàgha, Kuàdakuàda-anvaya, Sarasvatégaccha, and Balätkära-gaëa and his bhaööäraka tradition. He was followed by Çré Padmanandé whose disciple was Çré Çubha, who was followed by Çré Jiëa. An image of PärÇvanätha was installed from his inspiration, in the reign of Tomar ruler Kértisiàha. The installation and adoration of the image was done for the welfare of sovereignty, family members and others by Maàòé and his family members including wife, son and daughter, who had affinity with famous Ikshväku clan, Òämära, and Güläräòa. Some of the names of family members are now broken out. Saàghädhipatis Mäëika, Açvapati, Kusaräja, and Jüji were the son of mother Muhäräçré while the name of father is not readable. Of these, saàghädhipati Mäëika married with Lañaëaçré had four sons, saàghädhipati Vanü, Harasiàha, Paharü, and Kumuda. His son, saàghädhipati Vanü married with two wives Hulü and Vijayaçré, while Harisiàha married with Manaçré and Çivaçré, Paharü with Méraçré, and Kumuda with Manaçré. The name of the mother and wife of Mädhava is Dhinamä and LäòamaÇré respectively. His elder son Uddharaëa married with Mäëikyaçré and younger Déva with Ñémaçré. Kusaräja had two wives Lühava and Vérä, a son Vuddhaseëa, and a daughter Haramä. Jüji with wife Raisé had sons Maüòena and Çré Kuvarä. Maüòe was married with Ratnaçré. It is also recorded that the worship of Pärçvanätha brings peace, health, welfare, prosparity, longevity, social welfare and achievements of wealth, family, etc. At the end the name of Paëòita Haripäla is engraved, who might be the writer of the inscription as well as sculptor of the image.
3- ------Hkk;kZ eqgjkJh rRiq=kk% la- ekf.kd la- v'oifr ladqljktA la- tksft Ï la- ekf.kd Hkk;kZ y"k.kJh rRiq=kk% laouwA gjfla?kA ig:A dqeqn Ï ouw Hkk;kZ gqyks f}- fot;Jh Ï gfjfla?k Hkk;kZ euJh JhRok floJhA ig: Hkk;kZL; ehjJhA dqeqnpanz Hkk;kZlqR;kS euJhA iq=k Ï
TEXT (Plate 1)
1- --------fl)sH;% Ï JheRijexaHkhjkaL;ks lnkeks?k;L;kuaA-------ftu'kklus Ï2Ï LofLr Ï laor~ 1225 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn ¼7 cq/kokjL;rh½ ewyla?ks ljLorhxPNs cykRdkjx.ksA Jhdqandaqnkpk;kZUo;s Ï Hkêkjd JhizHkkpanznso% Ï rRiês Hkêkjd JhiÉuafnnsok Hk- 'kqHkpanznsok% Ï
4- --------fo Hkk;kZA f/kuek iq=k ek/ko Hkk;kZ yksMeJh iq=kA m)j.k Hkk;kZ ekf.kD;Jh f}rh;=kkL; nsopanz Hkk;kZA "kseJhA dqljkt Hkk;ksZ yksgo f}rh; Hkk;kZ ohjk iq- oqðls.kA iq=kh gjek Ï tksft Hkk;kZ jblh iq- eaMsu Jh dqojk Ï eaMs Hkk;kZ jRuJh Ï la?kLos vrJhuZeks Ï ,rs"kka e/;s la?kkf/kir;% Ï 5- -------Hkwir;% Looa/kq futiq=kikS=kkSlg Jhik'oZrhFksZ'oja fuR;a fo'kq)~;ka iz.keafr ÏÏ Jh'kkafrjLrq f'koeLrq t;ksLrq fuR;ekjksX;uEozr;iqf"Vle`f)jLrqA dY;k.keLrq lq[keLrq fdewfnjLrq nh?kkZ;qjLrq dqyxks=k/kualq[kLrq Ï bfr Jhjkto/;ZSHkoarq iztk% lqf[kuks HkoarqA rL;ks o)Zrka Ï Jh Ï 6- iafMr gfjiky II. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock to the left of the Pärçvanätha image of the cave no. 1.9 Since, the proper attention is not given for writing the inscription some of the letters are not obvious. The date of the inscription is mentioned in lines 1-2 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 7th April, 1468 CE. It records the installation of image for the social welfare by sädhu Känü, son of Rasäladäsa, and grandson of sädhu Lañana and his wife Lañanäçré who belonged to Güläräòa-anvaya and the bhaööäraka was Siàhakérti. TEXT (Plate 2)
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laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pSr lqfn 15 xqjkSA Jhewyla?ks Hkêkjd lha?kdhfrZnso xksykjkMkUo;s lk y"kusd Hkk;kZ y"kukJh iq =k jlkynkl Hkk;kZ------
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Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: VS 1525
6- iq=k rs"kka lk dkuw yksdLoagkjs 7- djkfira fuR;a izuefr III. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock to the side of the above inscription no. B.10 It is also written carelessly. The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 that corresponds to 7 April 1468 CE It records the bhaööäraka Siàhakérti of Mülasaàgha and the daily worship of the image by Mänadeva. The family of Mänadeva belonged to Golläräòa-anvya. In the family, Sädhu Bhaupära was married with DharaÇré had son sädhu Sopära, who with wife Räsä had son Trailokadäsa. He with wife Haradevé had son Premadhara. The names of the father and mother of Mänadeva are given as Rodha and Käneivarä. TEXT (Plate 3)
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laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 Jhewyla?ks Hkêkjd lha?k& dhfrZnso xksYykjkMUo;s lk HkkSikj HkktkZ /kjJh iq=k lk lsikj Hkk;kZ jklk iq=ksu =kSyksdnkl Hkk;kZ gjnsoh iq& =ksuA izse/kj rs"kka jks/k Hkk;kZ dkubojk iq=ksu ekunso iz.kears fuR;e~ ueL;kS
IV. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock to the right of the Pärçvanätha image of the cave no. 111. The date of the inscription is mentioned in lines 1-2 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 7 April 1468 CE. It mentions Malayakérti of Käñöhäsaàgha and Mahätho of bhaööäraka Guëakérti-ämnäya and Jaisaväla-anvaya along with his wife Somä, five sons and other persons. The purport of the inscription is not clear due to the mutilation in last five lines. TEXT (Plate 4)
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laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 xqjkS Jhdk"Bkla?ks l- e& y;dhfÙkZ Hkêkjd xq&
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.kHknznsokEuk;s tSlok& ykUo;sA lk egkFkks Hkk& ;kZ lksek iq=k 5 vk- lkja& x foyqpu panJh d;qj flgwA lk lkjax Hkk;kZ y'kks iq=k lk ekyk Hkk;kZ panikyks -------- lk pan -----lk Hkkd Hkk;kZ Hkx iq=k dkds--------- fiz;< oh lk jkt fnonklk-------------Jh iq.;keqfula Ï Jh;a
V. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock to the side of the above inscription no. IV. Some of the letters of lines 6-7 are not comprehensible. The date of the inscription is mentioned in lines 1-2 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 07th April, 1468 CE. It records the construction work and daily worship by Käläséta and others of Güläräòaanvaya and Jaisaväla family as well as mentions sädhu Malayakérti of Käñöhäsaàgha. TEXT (Plate 5)
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laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 xqjkS Jhdk"Bkla?ks lk ey;dhfrZnso xksykjkMk rnUo;s tSloky-------gk iq=k infe--------dk& yklhrks lgoans dkjki;fr fuR;a iz.kefr
VI. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock to the right of the Çäntinätha image of the cave no. 8.12 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 7 April, 1468 CE, the day was full moon. Only four lines of the upper portion of the inscription are now preserved, rest of the portion is damaged. The conserved portion records the name of the ruling king Kértisiàha, his father Òuàgrendra
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and Käñöhä-saàgha.
3TEXT (Plate 6)
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LofLr Jh lOoZKk; Ï laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 iwf.kZek;ka xqjkS Jh xksikypynqxksZ rksej oj oa'kkUo;s egkjktkf/kjkt jk¼tk½ ¼Mqaxjsa½ nznsoLrnzkT;su Hkksax.k|ef.kEegkjktkf/k& ¼jkt dhfrZflag½ nsojkT;s izoÙkZekus Jhdk"Bkla?ks-------
VII. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock of the left wall in cave no. 1213. The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7 Wednesday that corresponds to 30th March, 1468 CE. The purport of the inscription is to record the installation and worship of the enormous image of Yugädinätha for the welfare of society and others in the reign of Kértisiàha, when saàghädhipati Hemaräja was paööäséna. It commence with the adoration of ädinätha followed by date. After mentioning the fort of Çré Gopächala and Tomar dynasty it eulogizes the king Kértisiàha, the son of Òuàgrendra. Further it refers the bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saàgha, Mäthura-anvaya and Puñkara-gaëa namely Hemakérti, Kamalakérti, Çubhacaàdra and also mention the installation äcärya Raidhü. After that, inscription contains the information regarding several members of Agrota-anvaya and Garga-gotra. Of them, sädhu Manä, sädhu Cauàòe, sädhu Pälhä, and sädhu Kaulä were in relation of father and son respectively. Saàghädhipati Ñemaräja and saàghädhipati Hemaräja were the sons of Kaulä and sädhvé Rüpä. Saàghädhipati Ñemaräja with his wife Jauëähé has a son named Madana. The name of Hemaräja two wives are given as Dhanaräjahé and Madaëasiré and his son was saàghädhipati Kumaru who also had two wives, namely Välhähé and Lahuvara and a son Rähacaàda. Saàghädhipati Bhojä married with Ratanapälahé, while third son, Nänü had three wives, namely Ghogharahé, Bhävasiri, and Läòasiri. TEXT (Plate 7)
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vksa Ï Jh vkfnukFkk; ue% Ï laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 7 cq/kokljs Ï JhxksikpynqXxsZ rksejoa'kkUo;s Ï egkjktkf/kjkt jktk JhMqaxjsanznsoLrRinks|ksr HkkLdjizfrertkxtoa/;usdu`ipØekSfy&
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ef.kpqaforikniÉkstk%A vusdeeaMys'oj 'kj.kifoitj%A dfydkypØoÙkhZA {kfr"kfr Jhdh& fÙkZflagnsojkT;izoÙkZekus Ï Jhdk"Bkla?ks ekFkqjkUo;sA iq"djx.ksA Hkêkjd JhgsedhfÙkZnsokLrRiêa Hkêkjd JhdeydhfÙkZnsokLrRiês ckyozEgpkfjozrLujRukdjk% 'koozEgjgL;kFkZ=k dk& O;izHkkdjk%A Hkêkjd Jh'kqHkpanznsok% izfr"Bkpk;Z iafMr jS/kw d`riknlsok% Ï rnkEuk;s v& xks=kdkUo;s xXxZxks=ks lk/kq euk rL; iq=k lk/kq pkSaMs rL; iq=k lk/kq ikYgk rRiq=k lk/kq dkSyk r& L; Hkk;kZ lk/oh :ik rRiq=kkS la "ksejkt la gsejkt ukekukSA la "ksejkt Hkk;kZ tkSgk.kh r& Riq=k lk- enuA la?kkf/kifr gsejkt Hkk;kZ /kujktgh f}rh;k en.kfljhA rRiq=kk% la dqe# rL; Hkk;sZ }sA izFkek okYgkgh f}rh ygqojk iq=k jkgpanz%A la HkkstkHkkZ jru& ikyghA r`rh;iq=kkdqyHkkjr/kqja/kj% la?kkf/kifr ukuwA rL; Hkk;kZ 3 ?kks?kjghA f}& rh;ka HkkoflfjA r`rh;k ykMflfj Ï ,rs"kkae/;s lalkj'kjhjHkksxfojDrsuA ijks& idkjdj.krRijs.kks ftuizfr"Bkdj.kkfTtZrrhFksZ'kxks=ks.kA ftuizHkkoukax Hkk& oukaxHkkj /kqja/kjS.kk prqfOoZ/k nkuizh.kulqjr#.kkA f=kdkyiz.kr fnaxoj xq& #.kkA vklé HkêsuA la?kkfèkifr JhgsejktsuA Jh;qxkfnukFk ftus'ojL; egk& dk;seka izfreka fuEekZI; iqu% izfr"BkI; fo'kq)~;k HkfDra iz.kr fljek fuR;a iz.kefr {ksea lOoZiztkuka izHkorq cyoku~ /kkfEeZdks Hkwfeiky% dkys dkys p lE;do"kZuqeI;& Ï ok O;k/koks;karquklka nqfHkZ{k lkSjokfj{k.kefi txrkaekHkou~ thoyksdks tSusanz /kEeZp& Øizogrlrr la?kslkSjO;iznkf; Ï1Ï 'kqHka Hkorq prqfoZ/ks la?kL; Ï ys"kdikBd;ksjk;sA
VIII. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the front rock of the cave no. 13. Here, the surface of the rock was not finished smooth before writing the inscription. The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7 Wednesday that corresponds to 30th March, 1468 CE.
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: VS 1525
The purport of the inscription is to record the day by day worship by Dhanü, wife of sädhu Gaviëu who belonged to Jaisaväla-anvaya and bhaööäraka Guëabhadra-ämnäya. TEXT (Plate 8)
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laor~ 1525 pS=k lqfn 7 cq/ks Jhdk"Bkla?ks Hk xq.kHknzkEuk& ;s tSlokykUo;s lk xfo.kq Hkk;kZ /kuks fuR;a iz.kefr
IX. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the back rock wall to the right of the Saàbhavanätha image in cave no. 13.15 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 7th April, 1468 C.E. The inscription records the reign of Hindü sultän Kértisiàha of Gwalior fort and mentions four bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saàgha, namely Guëakérti, Yaçaùkérti, Malayakérti, and Guëabhadra in relation with teacher-disciple respectively. Further, it mentions the members of Guëabhadra-ämnäya and Jaisaväla-anvaya. Sädhu Çrédhara had six sons with wife Varañiëi. They were sädhu Gajü, sädhu Arjuna, sädhu Sahajana sädhu Sakatü, sädhu Käle and sädhu Lähaòa. Of them, sädhu Arjuna and his wife Galo had four sons, namely sädhu Halä, sädhu Maàòe, sädhu Gavä, and sädhu Läòama. Sädhu Halä married with Haro and had three sons Karamü, Ajü and Aòhü. Maàòe was married with Liçü. The name of Gavä two wives are Caàdo and Viëä and of son is Tilakacaàda. Sädhu Läòama had son Abhayacaàdra with wife Paàthü. It is said in lines 11-12 that sädhu Gavä daily worshipped the image of Saàbhavanätha. In the end of the inscription, the name of Ghäòama, son of sütradhära Malaya is recorded who probably did the engraving work of the inscription as well as sculpted the image. TEXT (Plate 9)
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laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 xqjkS Jhxksikpy nqxsZ egkjktkf/kjkt Jhghanwlqj=kk.k JhdhfÙkZ& flagfot;jkT;sA Jhdk"Bkla?ks Hk- Jhxq.kdhfÙkZ& nsok% Hk- ;'k%dhfÙkZnsok% Hk eySdhfÙkZ Hkêkjd Jhxq.kHknznsokEuk;s tSlokykUo;s lk/kq Jh/kj Hkk& ;kZ ojflf.k iq=ks 6 lk- xktw lk- vtqZu lk- lgtuA lk-
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7- ldrw lk- dkys lk- ykgM Ï lk- vtqZu Hkk;kZ xyks 8- iq=k 4 lk- gyk lk- eaMs lk- xok lk- ykMeA lk- gyk 9- Hkk;kZ gjks iq=k 3 djew vtwA v<wA eaMs Hkk;kZ fy"kks 10- xok Hkk;sZ 2 panks fo.kk iq=k frydpanA lk- ykMe Hkk& 11- ;kZ iaFkw iq=k vHk;panz Ï lk/kq xok bna laHkoukFk izfr& 12- ek fuR;a iz.kefr Ï lw=k/kkfj ey; iq=k ?kkMe Ñra Ï X. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the front rock wall of cave no. 13.16 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7 Wednesday that corresponding to 30th March, 1468 CE. The purport of the inscription is to record the installation of Pärçvanätha image by paëòita Pateddharma. He was the son of Pate and Haàsauti. Pate was the son of Laöhä and Saumiti, who in turn was the son of sädhu Dhäjata with wife Läjai. They were associated with Padmävaté and Çubhacaàdraämnäya of Käñöhä-saàgha. The place Padmävaté is modern Paväyä. TEXT (Plate 10)
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laor~ 1525 pS=k lqfn 7 cq/ks Jh dk"Bkla?ks Hkêkjd 'kqHkpanznsok& Euk;s iÉkorhiqjL;nzusdksfi lk /kktr Hkk;kZ yktS iq=k yBk rÒk;kZ lkSfefr rRiq=k iafMr irs rÒk;kZ galkSfr iq=kL;s iafMr irs)eZ Jhik'oZukFk izfr"BkI;& l deZ{k;kFkZ fuR;a iwt;fr ursLreA
XI. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the upper rock wall to the back of the Jina image in cave no. 13.17 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 that corresponds to 7th April, 1468 CE. The inscription records the reign of Kértisiàha, Tomar king of Gwalior fort, and mentions four bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saügha, Mäthura-anvaya and Pushkara-gaëa namely Kñemakértti, Hemakértti, Kamalakértti, and Çubhacaàdra in relation with teacher-disciple respectively. Further, it mentions that the family of
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sädhu Asaräja that belonged to Agrotaka-anvaya and Raidhü-ämnäya, who installed the image and worship it every day. Of the family members, Sädhu Asaräja with wife Ladho had two sons. First son, sädhu Jévadä wife was Meghähé, and second son Chäüdä married with Holähé had two sons, namely Mätikä and Udharaëä. TEXT (Plate 11)
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flf) laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 Ï Jh xksikpyegknqXxksZ jktkf/kjkt JhMqax& jsanznsok rRiq=k JhdhfÙkZfla?k izoÙkZek.ks Ï Jhdk"Bkla?ks ekFkqjkUos iq"djx.ks Ï Hkêkjdk% Jh{ksedhfÙkZnsok%A LrRiês Hkêkjd JhgsedhfÙkZnsok%A rRiês Hkêkjdk% JhdeydhfÙkZnsok% Ï rRiês Hkêkjdk% Jh'kq& Hkpanznsok% ia jS/kw rnkEuk;ks v& xzksrkdkUos lk/kq vljkt Hkk;kZ y?kks iq=k 2 lk th& onk Hkk;Z es|kgh f}rh; pkank Hkk;kZ gksykgh iq=kkS 2 ekfrdk m/kj.kk ukek& ukS ,rkS lOos lqHke~ ukuk fufeÙka dkjkfi& ra izfrek fuR;a iz.ke& fr 'kqHka ekaxY;jLrq Ï
XII. Rock Inscription The inscription is engraved on the back rock wall to the right of the head of Çäàtinätha image in cave no. 14.18 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7, Wednesday that corresponds to 30th March, 1468 CE. The inscription commence with the adoration of Çäàtinätha and records the reign of Kértisiàha, Tomar king of Gwalior fort and mentions five bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saàgha, Mäthura-anvaya and Puñkara-gaëa namely Kñhemakértti, Hemakértti, Kamalakértti, Çubhacaàdra, Yaçaùsena in relation with teacher-disciple respectively. Further, it mentions the family of sädhu Vajahu that belonged to Raidhü-ämnäya, Agrota-anvaya and Goila-gotra. Sädhu Väsuka had two sons with different wives, from first wife Nälhé son sädhu Harasé and from second wife Rälhé son sädhu Mahatä. Odä was the son of sädhu Dhatä and Suvä. Odä had two sons,
Cähaàa and Narasiàha from wife Dhanäpä. Sädhu Harasé with wife Karamä had three sons, sädhu Hariräja, sädhu Patiräja and sädhu Näthü. Saàghädhipati Patiräja with wife Dhanü had four sons. First son, saàghädhipati Chädä with wife Palho had three sons, Bharahü, Arjuna and Udharaëa who were saàghädhipati. Second son, Ñemala with wife Delhé had four sons with saàghädhipati title. They were Madanu, Ghaëä, Raëä, and Jagahä. Third son, bhaööa saàghädhipati Udhara with wife Ñemä had son saàghädhipati Uta. Fourth son of Patiräja was bhaööa saàghädhipati Palhä who from wife Védho had sons Parvata and saàghädhipati Dhäraëa. At the end it is recorded that Patiräja installed huge ratnatraya of Çäàtinätha, Kuàthunätha and Aranätha for karmakñayärtha. TEXT (Plat 12)
vksa Ï19 LofLr Ï Jhers 'kkafrukFkk; ue% 'kkfUrfo/kkf;us =kSyksD;slke lnk;egq ;L;& 2- flZrka{k;s Ï1Ï la 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 7 cq)okljs JhxksikpyegknqXxsZ egkjktkf/kjkt JhdhfÙkZ& 3- fla?kjkT;le;s Jhdk"Bkla?ks ekFkqjkUo;s iq"djx.ksA Hkêkjd Jh{ksedhfÙkZnsok% rRiês Hk- gsedhfÙkZnsok% 4- rRiês Hk- deydhfÙkZnsok% rRiês Hk- lqHkpanznsok% rRiês Hkêk Jh;'k%lsusu fy"kkaI; iafMr jS/kw rnkEuk;s 5- vxzksRdkUo;s xksbyxks=ks lk otgq Hkk;kZ 2 ukYgh iq=k lk gjlh f} jkYgh iq=k lk egrk lk /krk egkHkk;kZ lqok iq=k 6- |ksnk Hkk;kZ /kukik rrks iq=k oksfgiq pkgMq ujfla?kq lk gjlh Hkk;kZ djek iq=k 3 lk gfjjkt lk ifrjkt r`- lk ukFkw 7- la ifrjkt Hkk;kZ /kuks iq=k 4 iz la pknk Hkk;kZ iYgks iq=k la Hkjgw la vtqZu la m/kj.k Ï f} la "ksey Hkk;kZ nsYgh iq=k 4 la en& 8- uq la ?k.kk la j.kk la txgk Hkê la m/kj Hkk;kZ "ksek iq=k la mrHk la iYgk Hkk- fo/kks iq=k ioZr la /kkj.k ,rs"kka e/;slh 9- ifrjkt Jh'kkafrukFk JhdqaFkqukFk JhvjukFk bfr jRu=k; egkdkO; dkjki;fr izkI; deZ{k;fr fufeÙka fuR;e iz.kefr 10- lqHkeLrw Ï Ï ekaxY; nnkb Ï Ï 1-
XIII. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the back rock wall to the right of the head of Puñpadanta image in cave no. 15.20 The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7, Wednesday that
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: VS 1525
corresponds to 30th March, 1468 CE. The inscription records the reign of Kértisiàha, Tomar king of Gwalior fort and mentions three bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saàgha and Mäthuraanvaya namely Hemakértti, Kamalakértti and Çubhachaàdra in relation with teacher-disciple respectively. Further, it mentions the family of Agrota-anvaya, Métama-gotra and the resident of Vädikä. Sädhu Kälü had four sons, Déëaka, Sotä, Sanü and Haläkñaù. Sädhu Déëaka with wife Äñé had five sons, Ghéhlä, üdhä, Mahäräja, Tejä, and sädhu Leü. Sädhu Mahäräja with wife Koööé had four sons, Äòhü, Räma, Ajayaräja, and sädhu Säja. Sädhu Äòhü with wife Syämä had two sons, Mäëika, and sädhu Vani. Daily worhip was done by sädhu Rämacaàdra's wife Mahli, sädhu Ajayaräja, and sädhu Säjä. The inscription was engraved by Cidrüpa, son of Ghäöama. TEXT (Plate 13)
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vksa Ï LofLrA Jhftuk;ue% Ï laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 7 cq/kokljsL;fl Jhxksikpy egknqXxsZ egkjktkf/kjkt Mqa& 2- xjsUnz------------rRiq=k JhdhfÙkZfla?kjkT;izoÙkZekus Jhdk"Bkla?ks ekFkqjkUo;s iq"djx.ks ¼Hkêkjd Jh{ksedhfÙkZnsok%½ 3- rRiês Hkêkjd JhgsedhfÙkZnsok rRiês Hkêkjd JhdeydhfÙkZnsok rRiês Hkêkjd Jh'kqHkpUnznsok----------4- rRiês Hkêkjd JhgsedhfÙkZnsok rRiês Hkêkjd JhdeydhfÙkZnsok rRiês Hkêkjd Jh'kqHkpUnznsok----------5- rnkEuk;s vxzksRdkUo;s ehrexks=ks okfndkokLrO; lk/kq dkyw rRiq=k pRokfj ts"V iq=k nh.kdL; 6- f}rh; iq=k lksrk r`rh; luw ukek'prqFkksZ gkyk{k% Ï lk/kq nh.kdL; Hkk;kZ vk"kh rRiq=k iapks ts"Bks 7- ?khg~yk f}rh; Å/kk r`rh; egjkt'prqFkksZ rstk iape lk ysÅ Ï lk/kq egkjktdL; Hkk;kZ dksêh rRiq=k 8- ts"Vks lk vk<w f}rh; jke r`rh; vtSjkt'prqFkksZ lk lktkA lk vk<wdL; Hkk;kZ L;kek rRiq=k }kS ts"V Ï 9- ekf.kdA y?kq iq=k lk ofu Ï ukekukS lk jkepanz HkktkZ efg~y; Ï lk vt;jkt lk oys lk lktk HkktkZ lohJh 10- ,rs lOosZ fuR;a iz.kefr Ï ia ?kkVe Ï iq=k fpnwzi fy"kra Ï 'kqHka Hkor~ Ï ekaxY;Jh---------XIV. Åñhabhanätha Image Pedestal Inscription This inscription is engraved on pedestal of the image
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of Åshabhanätha in cave no. 1722. The date of the inscription is mentioned as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 15 Thursday that corresponds to 7th April, 1468 CE. The inscription records the worship of the image of Ädinätha by Gopé, his two wives Jhoòé and Tajo, Jimä his wife Paöérava and other members of the family, who belonged to Dhara-gotra, Agrotaanvaya and ämnäya of the bhaööäraka Guëabhadra of Käñöhä-saàgha.
TEXT (Plate 14 )
1- JheékfHkruwtkrsA o`"kdsuq/oZek;q/k% o`"kHk% 'kkafrnks fuR;a ,sdlk/kksfUor 'kra laor~ 1525 o"ksZ pS=k lqfn 15 xqjkS Jhdk"Bkla?ks Hkêkjd Jhxq.kHknznsokEuk;s vxzksRdkUo;ks /kjxks=ks---------Hkwtnk dkslhtnk Hkk;kZ lgkSJh iq=k gjsdfi ekjlw Hkk;kZ Vkts iq=keS|s xksih Hkk;sZ >ksMh rtks ftek Hkk;kZ iVhjo losZ fuR;a izu;afr Jh vkfnukFk Ï XV. Rock Inscription This inscription is engraved on the rock of right side in cave no. 19. The date of the inscription is mentioned in line 1 as saàvat 1525 Caitra sudi 7 Wednesday that corresponds to 30th March, 1468 CE. The purport of the inscription is to mention the installation of image for karmakñhaya. It records the reign of Kértisiàha, Tomar king of Gwalior fort and mentions bhaööärakas of Käñöhä-saàgha, Mäthura-anvaya and Puñkara-gaëa namely Hemakérti, Kamalakérti, Çubhacaàdra and muni Basaàtakérti in relation with teacher-disciple respectively. Further, it mentions the family of sädhu Séhadeva that was related to the ämnäya of Basaàtakérti, Pauravägväòa and belonged to Pätatäpurot-patho. Of the family members, Sädhu Séhadeva with wife äiti had three sons, Vaniatihi, Valübhiva and Sävani. Sävani had two sons from wife üëa. Of them, Laòaü was married with Malikä while Suddä was married with Payo. TEXT (Plate 15)
1- flf)A laor~ 1525 pS=k lqfn 7 cq)okljs xksikpy egknqxsZ egkf/k& 2- jkt JhdhfÙkZflagjkT;izoÙkZek.ks Ï Jhdk"Bkla?ks ekFkqjkUo;s iq"djx.ks HkVk& 3- jd ia JhgsedhfÙkZnsok%A Lr rRiês Hkêkjd
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JhdeydhfÙkZnsok%A Lr rRiês Hk& êkjdk% Jh'kqHkpanznsok%A eqfu clardhfÙkZA ijL; rnEu;sA ikSjokXokMk& fu; ikrrkiqjkRiFkksA lk/kq lhgnsok Hkk;kZ xkbfrA iq=kk% ofu v& frfFk oywf=ko lk ofuA Hkk;kZ ÅBk iq=kkS 2 izFkek yMÅA Hkk;kZ e& fydk nqokjksA ,rkS lk lqík Hkkjk i;ks ÅnworL;kR;fn& u; izfrek dkjkfirka dEeZ{k;kFkZ Ï 'kqHka eaxyk; Ï
Notes and References: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. 15.
16.
17.
See A. Cunningham, ASIR, II, pp.364-367. B.D. Misra, Forts and Fortresses of Gwalior and its Hinterland, Delhi, 1993, pp.41-43. D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p.52: one explanation as a title of the Jaina religious teacher. Nemichandra Shastri, Térthaìkara Mahävéra evaà Unaké Äcärya Paramparä, IV, 1992, p.358. A.K. Singh, 'Dubkunda sthita Jaina Mandira evaà Abhilekha', in Jina Jïana, 2005, p.133. Vidyadhara Joharapurkar, Bhaööaraka Sampradäya, 1958, p.246. Raja Ram Jain, Raidhu Sahitya kä Älocanätmaka Pariçélan, Patna, 1974. This has been noticed in the Annual Report of Archaeological Department, Gwalior State (GAR) (VS 1984/ CE 1927-28), No. 27; Gwalior Räjya ke Abhilekha (GRA),VS 2004, No. 301; A.R.Ep. 196162, No. 1524. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 35; GRA, No. 300; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1514. ? This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 37; GRA, No. 302; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1516. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 38; GRA, No. 299; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1513. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 32; GRA, No. 296; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1519. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 26; GRA, No. 293; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1525. Expressed by a symbol. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 33; GRA, No. 297; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1510 suggested date is 1505 (Çaräbhra-viçikha-kshmä somavära). This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 34; GRA, No. 294; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1522. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 30; GRA, No. 295; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No.
1518. 18. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 28; GRA, No. 292; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1523. 19. Expressed by a symbol. 20. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 29; GRA, No. 291; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1517. 21. Expressed by a symbol. 22. This has been noticed in GAR, (VS 1984/ CE 192728), No. 36; A.R.Ep. 1961- 62, No. 1515.
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
Gwalior Jaina Inscriptions of the time of Kértisiàha: VS 1525
Plate 1: Pàr÷vanàtha Image Pedestal Inscription (arrow)
Plate 2: Rock Inscription
Plate 3: Rock Inscription
Plate 4: Rock Inscription
Plate 5: Rock Inscription
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Plate 6: Rock Inscription
Plate 7: Rock Inscription
Plate 8: Rock Inscription
Plate 9: Rock Inscription
Plate 10: Rock Inscription
Sahå, Rusah Kumar, Itihas Darpan [Vol. XVIII (1) Varùa Pratipadà, VS 2070, i.e. 2013 CE], pp.125-132, ISSN 0974-3065 Akhila Bhàratãya Itihàsa Sa§kalana Yojanà, New Delhi
Composite Images of Sürya in Oòiçan Art Rusav Kumar Sahu *
category.1
Introduction: he present paper deals with the recent documentation of Sürya images undertaken to various temples of Oòiçä (Odisha) as part of author's Doctoral Research project. In this connection field work has been carried out to Bhubaneswar, Puri, Konark, Palia, Sambalpur and some remote areas of the state of Odisha. The survey yielded some unique features of Sürya in terms of art, iconography and the placement of the deity in the exterior wall of the Kaliìgan temple. In Odisha regarding the iconography of the deity, Sürya has been carved into four broad categories (I) standing images of Sürya without any chariot, (II) seated images of Sürya without a chariot, (III) Sürya riding on a chariot and (IV) Sürya riding on his horse. The images of the first two varieties are found in most of the formative phase temples of Odisha. In the first category, the god represented in a simple standing pose devoid of any chariot or attendants. Mostly he holds the stalk of a full-blossomed lotus in each hand and assumes a rigid frontal pose, i.e., samabhaìga. He is usually dressed in a heavy northern type garment, with heavy boots, truncated crown etc. The images of this variety are found in Paraçurämeçvara and Svarnajäleçvara temples in Bhubaneswar. The seated images are found in padmäsana without any attendant figure and with conventional body ornaments like necklace, yajïopavita, girdle, armlets, crown, etc. The images from Lakùmaëeçvara, Parasurämeçvara, Svarnajäleçvara and Çobhaneçvara temple of Niali belong to this category. The presiding deity of Koëärka Sun temple might be of this * UGC-J.R.F., P.G. Deptt. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar-751 004; email: sahuroshank@gmail.com; Mob.: 09692496849
The most popular and complex type of images depict the god riding a chariot found in the late formative, transitional and mature phase temples of Bhubaneswar as evident from the images of Vaitäla, Värähé, Mukteçvara and Liìgaräja temple. The style of riding the chariot varies from place to place. In one mode of depiction, the Sun is shown from his hips upward with legs disappearing into the chariot. In the second mode Surya is depicted as seated in padmäsana on his chariot and in the third mode the Sun stands in samabhaìga on his chariot. The last variety of Sun images riding a horse is found from the grand Sun temple of Koëärka in the northern pärçvadevatä niche. Apart from this, Sürya (Ravi) has been carved in the Navagraha architrave of a temple. The above stylistic development of Sürya is not only confined to Bhubaneswar but also to the other parts of the state. These four categories of Sürya images were carved anywhere in the temple like vimäna, jagamohana, nädamaëòapa and bhogamaëòapa of a temple whereas in a vertical order Sun-god has been placed in the bäda, gaëdi and mastaka of a temple.2 Though the concentration of Sun images facing towards the east is more, there are evidences of facing towards the rest three directions as well.3
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However, the composite images make their appearance from the late-formative phase temples of Odisha as evident from the Ardhanäréçvara image carved in the western wall of Vaitäl temple in Bhubaneswar dating back to 8th century AD. But the composite forms of Sürya start occurring from the Somavaìçis period (10th/11th century AD) onwards. The images of Hara-Sürya, SüryaNäräyaëa, Sürya-Narasiìha and Sürya-Lokeçvara, Märtaëda-Bhairava, Viraïchi-Näräyaëa or Sürya-
128 Brahmä are extremely popular in Odisha but the composite images of Sürya-Buddha, Sürya-Vinäyaka are not found in the art tradition of the state.4 Concept and antiquity of composite figures: The religious history of India is the story of amalgamation and assimilation of various creeds and at different periods of time has laid the path to their superiority over the others. Attempts at reconciliation between the rival creeds were being made even from the very early period, when some of them had not come into being, and the others that had originated, were systematised. The sentiment is beautifully expressed in the famous couplet of Dérghatamas hymn of the Ågveda (1.164.46-47) long before the evolution of these cults and it never lost its force in subsequent times. From the early times, the worship of divinities in individual or composite forms had been prevalent in India. The earliest archaeological evidence of the cult objects comes from the Harappan period. The genesis of the syncretistic divinities could be traced back to these sites, which produced numerous examples of composite Li§gayoni motifs. These objects are believed to be the combined form of Çiva and Çakti. The availability of the female figurines representing the mother-goddess and the Harappan seal in which Çiva is shown seated in the form of Paçupati leads one to believe that both were under worship individually as well as in composite form of li§ga and yoni.5 The syncretism became popular after Gupta period due to the Täntric influence in which the multiplication of deities both in Buddhism and Hinduism started. Within the Hinduism, multiplication among the various gods and goddesses also started. According to the Païchäyatana püjä, as described by Monier Monier Williams,6 in the 19th century five stones or symbols believed to be permeated by essence of the five chief deities were the black stone representing Viñëu, the white stone representing Çiva's essence, the red stone representing Gaëeça, small pieces of metal representing Durgä or Pärvaté and a piece of crystal representing the Sun. All the five symbols are placed on a round open metal dish, called Païchäyatana and are arranged in different methods according to the preference to any one of the five deities at the time of worship. The païchäyatana worship or païchadevopäsanä finally laid to the construction of païchäyatana temples in Odisha as well as the other
[Vol. XVIII (1) parts of the country. In most of the païchäyatana temples of Odisha Sürya has been carved in the subsidiary temples located mostly in the northwestern corner. The artists might have aware that the Maga Brähmaëas coming from the north-western part of the country were responsible for the growth and development of Sun cult in India for which they carved.7 The same ideology was translated into practice by the artists in the Indian plastic art and several images displaying composite forms of the deities were created from time to time in the past. Though the syncretic ideology already had its germs in the Ågveda, as pointed out earlier and was further developed in Atharvaveda, which contains a few passages (13.4.1-5) which equate Indra, Väyu, Rudra, Agni, Yama, Dhätä and Vidhätä. In the Puräëic literature Sürya has been invoked often as a supreme god, with other gods like Brahmä, Viñëu and Çiva as his manifestations. As for example, the Skanda Puräëa clearly pronounces that the Sun-god is Brahmä, Viñëu and Çiva, all combined. The same text in the Vaiñëava Khaëda (3.4-5) emphasises the point further by combining the forms of Viñëu, Çiva, Durgä, Gaëeça and Sürya. With this literary background, the composite forms can broadly be classified under three heads, the determinant factor being the sex of the deities of the composite images: (i) forms combining two male deities, (ii) forms combining a male and a female deity, and (iii) forms combining two female deities. The first category includes the images of Hari-Hara, Hari-Brahmä, Märtaëda-Bhairava, Sürya-Lokeçvara, Sürya-Narasiàha, Sürya-Buddha, Hara-Sürya, etc. Under the second category will come the images of Ardhanäréçvara, Ardhalakñhmé-Hari and ÇaktiGaëapati. The third category images include PärvatéLakñmé and of Lakñmé-Sarasvaté and a few others such types mostly noticed from Buddhist iconography of the Vajrayäna phase. A slab depicting five deities in a row expresses the same tendency to respect different cult icons. Beginning from the left side, the seated deities are Indra, Brahmä, Çiva, Viñëu and Sürya. As Gaëeça is absent, the panel cannot possibly be associated with the Païcopäsanä of the Smärta, but the depiction of cult icons side by side indicates the liberal religious atmosphere of the times.8 Hara-Sürya: A chlorite image of Hara-Sürya displayed in the
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Koëärka site museum (Fig. 1) is notable for its iconography9. Another beautiful sculpture having the images of Jagannätha, goddess Durgä and Çivaliàga are on one platform to which the king Narasiàhadeva-I who is the builder of the Sun temple paying homage to the deities shown the religious assimilation of Odisha in 13th Century AD This image is also displayed in the same museum. The image of Hara-Sürya stands in samapada position on a triratha chariot drawn by seven horses. Aruëa, the legless charioteer sits in front of the feet of the deity and drives the chariot. The God has four hands, the upper two hands are missing but they evidently carried two lotus flowers which can be seen above his shoulders. He holds a trident in his lower right hand while the lower left hand is in the varada pose. The god wears boots, girdle, high crown necklace and other ornaments. He is flanked on either side by an attendant holding sword and shield. At his back there is an elaborate trefoil arch, on the sides of which are four female figures holding garlands and cämaras. At the top of the arch, there is a kértimukha flanked by two gandharvas bearing conch shells. At the top corner of the slab are two vidyädharas flying with garlands. The image in question definitely syncretistic image of Çiva-Sürya as Sürya is often identified with Çiva. The Ekämra Puräëa identifies Çiva with Sürya while prescribing prayer to Bhäskareçvara Çiva of Bhuvaneçwar. The Ädityahådaya declares that there is no difference between Äditya (Sürya) and Çiva. From the passage of Ekämra Puräëa, the identification of Çiva with Sürya is evident and the same notion may have been at work in carving this sculpture of Koëärka. Another beautiful image of Hara-Sürya in seated posture (Padmäsana) is found in the beki, right above the central rähäpaga of Megheçvara temple in Bhubaneswar dated to 13th century (Fig. 2). The deity is facing towards east and holding lotus in his left hand and trident in the right. The image is crowned with kériöa mukuöa and wears sacred thread. The Gäyatré mantra itself is conceived as Brahmä, Çiva and Viñëu in the morning, mid-day and evening respectively each of the deity shines resplendent within the solar orb. The clear connection of Sürya with Viñëu as Näräyaëa hailing from different parts of India is well known but the composite figure of Sürya and Çiva are very few. One such figure noticed by Hiralal, which is a six armed
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composite image found at Madhia in Bundelkhand region.10 The figure holds in two of his left hands a trident and a lotus, the third in varada pose and other one holding a lotus. Its legs are clad with shoes; the boot and lotus is solar feature while the trident indicates the Çaivite feature. Sürya-Näräyaëa: Sürya, the god of light and lustre has been variously described in the Ågvedic hymns. Sometimes he was called as the beautiful celestial bird “Garutman” or a “white brilliant steed brought by “Uùas”, the goddess of dawn. From these descriptions of the concepts of Garuòa, the vehicle of Viñëu and Tarakùya, the horse mount of the Sun-god originated. This further led to the development of the idea of the Sun-god moving on a chariot driven by seven horses is frequently found in the post Vedic literature.11 Viñëu on the other hand enjoyed a prominent position in Vedic literature. There is a school of thought which believed that Viñëu, who became popular in the Brähmaëical cults, was in vogue during the period contemporary to the beginning of Christian era was different from Vedic Viñëu.12 The feet associated with him in Vedic literature relates to his having traversed the whole universe in three strides. These three steps in course of time developed in to myths on the dwarf incarnation of puräëic Viñëu. Sakapuni, one of the Vedic commentators, interpreted these three steps as a course of solar deity, through the three divisions of the universe, the god being manifest in three fold forms, as Agni on earth, Indra or Väyu in atmosphere and Sürya in the sky. Both the deities namely, Sürya and Viñëu are very much interconnected and there should be no surprise if both of them are projected in composite form of plastic art. According to Arunäbha, another commentator of Vedic literature, the three steps of Viñëu indicate the different positions of the Sun at its rising, culminating and setting. The idea underlying this solar explanation is evidently incorporated in a dhyäna wherein Viñëu is conceived as Näräyaëa is described residing in the orb of the Sun. Thus the idea that Viñëu is the Sun appears to have been maintained in the worship of Sürya-Näräyaëa13. Gopinath Rao speaks of a bronze image of Sürya-Näräyaëa from Belur, which is preserved in Madras Museum.14 The image belongs to Hoysala
130 period and has four hands, two of which carry a conch and a wheel. The Hoysaleçvara temple at Halebidu and Chanakeçvara temple at Belür have this composite figure. Similar types of images are carved on the exterior wall on the later temples of Odisha. There is a bronze image of Sürya-Näräyaëa seated over a horse is displayed in the Odisha State Museum located in Bhubaneswar. The temple within Badasantha mañha, located in Märkaëdeçvara Sahi in Puri, there is an image of Sürya-Näräyaëa along with other Vaiùëavite gods and goddesses which are worshipped in the sanctum sanctorum. Some of the sculptures of Koëärka as well as the other places of Odisha reflect the spirit of religious toleration which prevailed in medieval Odisha. In Koëärka, the close connection between Viñëu and Sürya is brought out in one composite sculpture. Only the lower half of the original image is four-armed. It carries a çaàkha (a well-known emblem of Viñëu) in the lower right hand. The attribute of the lower left hand is indistinct. The boots clearly establish links with Sürya. The image thus combines the features of Sürya and Viñëu. The tilak mark on the forehead of the western raha niche Sürya of the main temple is also another sign of the association of Viñëu with Sürya. Sürya-Narasiàha: One of the unique figures of Sürya-Narasiàha is enshrined in a modern structure on the foothill of Gandhamädana hills towards the northern side of Nåisiàhanäth temple in Bargarh district (Fig. 3) of western Odisha.15 The image is carved in high relief in grey sandstone depicts Narasiàha as standing on a triratha (three projection) pedestal in samapadasthänaka (erect) posture, flanked by two female attendants, one to the right holding a lotus and the other to the left with a flywhisk. The four armed lion- faced god exhibits in his upper right and left hands a lotus and a conch and in the lower right a gadä with left hand in varada pose. The deity is sparsely ornamented and in addition to his usual vanamälä (prominent garland), wears armlets, bangles and necklaces of simple designs and a short dhoté (cloth) reaching up to the knee. But what is most striking, is the pair of gumboots the ends of which reach up to the knee and their ends are conical at the centre. This particular feature makes this image unique, because among the Brähmaëical deities, it is only the Sun-god who wears boots and that too only in the north Indian art.16
[Vol. XVIII (1) Another image of Sürya-Narasiàha, can be seen on the lintel of the entrance doorway of the Gangädhareçvara temple at Kotakola near the Buguda town of Ganjam district which is famous for the Viraïchi-Näräyaëa temple. Like the previous one, this is also unique. This is in high relief, made of stone; the god is seen engaged in killing Hiraëyakaçyapa by his normal pair of hands standing on a platform of a ratha drawn by seven horses, by his left leg, which is slightly bent, trampling another demon, apparently the demon of darkness. The emblems in the upper hands are not clear, but the one in the left may be a lotus. Here again the solar element is articulated in the seven horsed chariot, a feature of the iconography of Surya in north- Indian art. Both the images represent a blending of two divinities Viñëu and Sürya and thus belong to the class of syncretistic image like Harihara, Ardhanäréçvara and Märtaëda-Bhairava. These two images of Sürya-Narasi§ha have made significant contribution to our knowledge of Brähmaëical iconography. Aesthetically both the examples are of different workmanship and are removed from the temples of adjacent area. The pillar like legs, stylised manes and moustaches and the rigid stance of the god in the first instance and almost similar features together with his lifeless, almost petrified, posture of killing the demon in the second tend to assign them to the folk-tribal tradition which was, and still is, relatively predominant in the area they belong to. On the basis of associated temple, we can assign them to 10th century AD17 Sürya-Brahmä: An interesting image hailing from Mahendra (Dinajpur in Bangladesh) shows iconographic features of the two gods: Brahmä and Sürya. It has six hands of which the principal ones holds lotus flowers similar to those of the images of Sürya. But the four remaining hands show the varada-mudrä, the akñamälä, the abhaya-mudrä and the kamaëdalu. Moreover, the image is shown standing on a pedestal (presumably of a chariot) drawn by seven horses, and is accompanied by almost all the associate figures usually noticed in a Sürya image.18 Though not a single specimen of SüryaBrahmä is discovered in Odisha, both the gods are present in the kalyänasundara panel of Paraçurämeçvara (Fig. 4) and Svarnajäleçvara temple
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in Bhubaneswar dating back to 7th century AD The presiding deity of Viraïchi-Näräyaëa of Palia in Bhadrak district is four-faced image of Sürya holding two full-blown lotuses in his either hands and the seven horses are carved at the base (Fig. 5). The local people worshipped the deity as Lord Brahmä, the creator of the universe. The deity who cures the skin disease of Binchi (like leprosy) is called ViraïchiNäräyaëa. In Odisha, there are three temples of this god in Bhadrak, Ganjam and Nayagarh district respectively. Märtaëda Bhairava or Çiva-Bhäskara: This composite form depicts Çiva and Sürya. In India, this form is popularly known as MärtaëdaBhairava whereas in Nepal it is known as ÇivaBhäskara. The fact that the rising Sun dispels darkness not only portrays the factual position of his physical properties, but also serves as a paraphrase of several Vedic verses. In one of the inscriptions from Nepal, however, a Gnostic gloss, the light shed by the Sun is considered to be that of knowledge and the darkness (in the minds of people) as illusion.19 In Indian context, features of the Sun-god are traceable in many cult deities. But the composite icons combining Çiva with Sürya are very few. One such image from Panna district of Madhya Pradesh depicts the god holding in the two left hands a trident, a lotus and the third hand in varada-mudrä.20 One of the right hands is broken, while the other two hold a lotus and a deer symbol. Its legs are clad in shoes and it is quite likely that the seven horses with their driver are present below. The boots on legs and the lotuses in the hands are unmistakably the solar symbols, while the trident and deer symbols indicate the Çiva aspect of it. A bull is carved on the left corner, which indicates that the sculptor intended to combine both the gods. The figure is carved in the centre of a door lintel of a ruined temple. A mutilated sculpture (Acc. no. 217) belonging to the 6th century AD preserved in the Bhärata Kalä Bhavana, Varanasi, represents Märtaëda-Bhairava. It has two different types of hairdo. The right side of the head has curly hair, while the left side has matted locks. The right ear is adorned with ratna-kuëdala, but the left ear has çaàkha-kuëdala. The partially surviving right hand carries a lotus, while the left one is broken.21 A unique syncretic image, in which Sürya and Çiva are combined, is preserved in the V.R.S. Museum, Rajshahi22 which has been identified as
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Märtaëda Bhairava. A three faced and ten armed image of this combined deity, belonging to 12th century AD found from Manda (Rajshahi), contains the usual accessories found in the well-developed type of Sürya in eastern India. Its central face is placid, the side ones being fierce, its two pairs of hands are broken, but the full blown lotuses in one pair are quite distinct, the back hands which are preserved, carry from right onwards, a khadvaìga, a trident, a Çakti, a nélotpala, a òamaru and a snake. Flames rise from its head and shoulders. The dhyäna-mantra of a particular variety of Sun (Märtaëda) appearing in the Çäradätilakam conforms to its iconographical features. The Bhägavata Puräëa goes on to testify that there is no difference between Sürya and Çiva. The depiction of boat along with the god Bhairava in the Sun temple of Koëarka, probably, symbolizes the world sea, for crossing which the grace of god has been required. The three headed Bhairava was wrongly identified with Brahmä by earlier scholars. C. Shivaramamurthi identifies one of the images as Märtaëda Bhairava. The identification of these images with Märtaëda Bhairava is supported by the Çäradätilakam and the Hayaçérña Päïcharätra.23 Like the Çäkta divinities, Sürya may have been associated with the maritime trade of Odisha. In an inscription from Nirmand (Himachal Pradesh) Çiva has been identified with Sürya under the name of Mihireçvara. There is hardly any doubt that the worship in its Täntric form laid particular emphasis on the identity of Sun with Çiva. Possibly his idea led to the development of the composite deity Märtaëda Bhairava whose description is found in the Çäradätilakam. In the Kälikä Puräëa the Sungod has been referred to as Märtaëda-Bhairava. Another image of Rudra-Bhäskara displayed in the sculpture gallery of Madhya Pradesh state museum at Bhopal (Fig. 6). Sürya Lokeçvara: The Ashutosh Museum of Calcutta University preserves a fragmentary sculpture datable to the 11th century AD from Odisha, which represents the composite form of Sürya-Lokeçvara. But from which part of Odisha that image was retrieved is not mentioned. The sculpture exhibit the influence of the Sürya cult that had exercised in Buddhism. The deity is possibly ten-armed, six of which are broken. In the remaining four hands, two right ones hold a noose and a full blown lotus, while the left two hold lotus stalk besides an indistinct object. The miniature figure of Dhyäné-Buddha Amitäbha is shown seated
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over the raised curl of the jaöämukuda indicating Lokeçvara character of the deity. The full-blown lotuses held in two parallel hands on either side is a feature emphasising the Sun icon. Conclusion: Apart from the four varieties of Sürya images in Odisha, the syncretic images like Hara-Sürya, SüryaNarasiàha, Sürya-Näräyaëa, Märtaëda-Bhairava, Viraïci-Näräyaëa, Sürya-Lokeçvara carved in the temple art of Odisha towards the later part of Somavaàçés period possibly due to the religious toleration between Çaivism and Vaiñëavism. That does not mean that Sürya is not associated with the Çäkta temples. But the presence of Sürya in the pärçvadevatä niche of Värähi temple at Caurasi proves the importance of him in a Devé temple. In terms of art, architecture and iconography, the Suncult reached its climax in the grand Sun temple of Koëärka in 13th century AD. More and more research and field work is required to discover these unique aspects of Sun-god. Acknowledgements: The author expresses his grateful thanks to the University Grant Commission, New Delhi, for providing financial support as a part of Junior Research Fellowship. The author is also beholden to Prof. Sadasiba Pradhan for his moral support and kind cooperation for the preparation of this article. The author is also thankful to Santosh Kumar Mallik of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Asim Amitabh Pradhan, Bibhuti Bhusan Satapathy and M.J. Ambuj of Utkal University, Sachin Kumar Tiwary of Patna University and Shubha Majumder of Calcutta University for their unflinching assistance during the documentation of Sürya images in Puri, Bhadrak, Baud and Ganjam district. References: 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Boner, A., et al., New Light on the Sun temple at Koëärka, Varanasi, 1972, Pls. 7a, 49, 76. Sahu, R.K., 'Stylistic Development of Sürya in Temple Art of Bhubaneswar', Proceedings of the National Seminar on River Valley Civilization of Chhatisgarh and New Researches in Indian Archaeology, Directorate of Culture and Archaeology, Raipur, 2012, p. 290. Ibid. Nagar, S. L., Sürya and Sun Cult (In Indian Art, Culture, Literature and Thought), New Delhi, 1995, p.196. Nagar, S.L., Composite Deities in Indian Art and Literature, New Delhi, 1989, pp.1-5. Williams, Monier Monier, 'Religious Thought and Life in India', pp. 411-12. Personal communication with Prof. A.L. Srivastava
8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
of Lucknow University, on 17.01.2012. Behera, K.S., Koëärka, The Heritage of Mankind, Vol. II, New Delhi, 1996, p.224. Padhy. K.P., 'Composite Figure of Hara-Sürya in Koëärka Museum', Expressions in Indian Art (Essays in memory of M.C. Joshi) Vol. I, Ed. B.R. Mani and Alok Tripathi, Delhi, 2008, pp.199-202. Ibid. Ågveda, 1.115.3-4; VII, 60-3, VII, 63-2. Banerjea, J.N., Development of Hindü Iconography, Calcutta, 1956, p. 385. Nagar, S.L., Composite Deities in Indian Art and Literature, p. 60. Rao, T.A.G., Elements of Hindü Iconography, I, Pt. II, Madras, 1914-15, p. 316, Pl. XCIV. Chauley, G.C., Monumental Heritage of Odisha (Art, Architecture, Culture and Conservation), Delhi, 2004, pp. 80. Majumdar R.C. and K.K. Dasgupta, Comprehensive History of India, III, 2, New Delhi, 1982, p. 885. Chauley, G.C., op.cit., pp. 80-82. Bhattacharya, D.C., Iconology of Composite Images, New Delhi, 1980, p. 20. Nagar, S.L., Sürya and Sun Cult (In Indian Art, Culture, Literature and Thought), p.199. Banerjea, J.N., op.cit., p. 216. Biswas T.K. and Bhogendra Jha, Gupta Sculptures in the Bhärata Kalä Bhavan, Varanasi, 1985, p. 51. Banerjea, J.N., op.cit., pp. 549-50 Behera K.S., op.cit., p. 216.
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Fig.1: Hara-Sårya, Konark Museum
Fig.2: Hara-Sårya, beki of Maghe÷vara temple
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Fig.3: Sårya-Narsi§ha, Bargarh District
Fig.4: Brahmà and Sårya in Kaylansundara panel
Fig.5: Vira¤chi-Nàràyaõa image, Palia
Fig.6: Rudra Bhaskara, Bhopal Museum
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vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi% /kkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa f'ko'kadj *
i`"BHkwfe % Lrj ds xzkeh.k vkSj tutkrh; bykdksa esa /kkrq&dyk dh ,d fof'k"V ijEijk jgh gSA ;gk¡ ds /kkrq&f'kfYi;ksa us /kkrq&dyk dks fof'k"V vkSj fofo/k :iksa esa izLrqrdj ns'k ds yksdf'kYiksa ls le`) {ks=kksa esa viuh ,d vyx Nfo cuk yh gSA cLrj dh yksd&laLÑfr ogk¡ ds yksxksa ds lkekftd rFkk izkÑfrd i;kZoj.k dh lkdkj izLrqfr gSA ;gk¡ dh /kkrq&dyk blh dM+h dks ,d lqUnj vkSj fofo/krk ;qä vk;ke nsrh gSaA bl ek/;e esa vkdkfjr LFkkuh; f'kYi bldh izkphurk vkSj dyk dh HkkokRed Js"Brk dks Hkh vfHkO;ä djrs gSaA cLrj yEcs le; rd vius Lora=k vkfnoklh&laLÑfr ds fy, tkuk tkrk jgk gSA bl {ks=k dh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr] tks vR;Ur nqxZe vkSj tfVy gS] bldh bl ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa cjkcj lg;ksx djrh jgh gSaA ;gk¡ ds vkfnoklh izÑfr ds lehi viuk mUeqä thou thrs gSa tks dHkh&dHkh buds Hk; dk dkj.k Hkh curh gSA vfro`f"V] vdky] egkekjh buds vUnj vKkr ds izfr vkLFkk dk lapkj djrs gaSaA ;gh Hk; bUgsa /keZ vkSj nSoh; Lo:iksa ds dYiuk ds fy, izsfjr djrk gSA vU; {ks=kksa ds leku gh cLrj ds yksd vkSj vkfnoklh&/keZ dk ;gk¡ dh yksddyk ls xgjk laca/k gS vkSj ;g laca/k rc vkSj izxk<+ vkSj ?kfu"B gks tkrk gS tc ;g buds lekt vkSj thou dks O;ofLFkr djus dk ek/;e cu tkrk gSA bl /keZ ls lacaf/kr mRlo vkSj deZdk.M budh dykvksa ds fy, ,d mi;ksxh i`"BHkwfe dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA lkFk gh buds thou esa vkuUn vkSj mRlkg dk lapkj djrs gaSaA ¹ ;w‚th‚lh‚ usV] 'kks/k&Nk=k ¼funsZf'kdk % MkW‚ T;ksfr :gsyk½] dyk&bfrgkl&foHkkx] dk'kh fganw fo'ofo|ky;] okjk.klh&221 005 ¼m‚iz‚½] bZ&esy % shankarshiv87@gmail.com
fla/kq&lH;rk Hkkjr dh lcls izkphu uxjh; lH;rk ekuh tkrh gSA bls dk¡L;;qxhu lH;rk ds varZxr j[kk tkrk gSA /kkrqvksa ds izpyu ds lkFk gh ekuo us ,d u;h izdkj ds oSKkfud&izxfr dh vksj ns[kuk izkjEHk fd;kA fla/kq&lH;rk dh urZdh dh ewfrZ vkSj cLrj ds izkjfEHkd <ksdjk&f'kYi esa i;kZIr lekurk ns[kh tk ldrh gSA bl ewfrZ dh ck¡g ij cus NYys lEHkor% <ksdjk&i)fr esa gh cuk, x, FksA vkt Hkh cLrj esa ewfj;k xks.M&vkfnoklh&fó;k¡ bl izdkj ds xgus igurh gSaA Hkk"kk&ifjokj dh n`f"V ls NÙkhlx<+ dh tutkfr;k¡ rhu oxks± esa foHkkftr gSaµ eq.Mk] nzfoM+ rFkk vk;ZA buesa ls nzfoM+&ifjokj dh Hkk"kkvksa esa dqM+[k] xks.Mh rFkk ijth&Hkk"kk,¡ NÙkhlx<+ esa vkt Hkh cksyh tkrh gSaA ,e‚,l‚ vUnzsukso dk ekuuk gS fd ikfd+Lrku ds dykr rFkk gfjiqj {ks=k] DosVk rFkk djkph {ks=k ds lkFk lhek ls yxs gq, vQ+xkfuLrku esa czkgqbZ uked nzfoM+&ifokj dh Hkk"kk cksyh tkrh gSA czgqbZ NÙkhlx<+ esa iz;qä nzfoM+&ifjokj dh Hkk"kkvksa dk ewy mRl gSA NÙkhlx<+ ds vk/kqfud nzfoM+ksa ds iwoZt fla/kq ?kkVh&{ks=k ls rhu /kkjkvksa esa ;gk¡ vk;sA igyk dchyk dqMqjo ;k vksjk¡o&Hkkf"k;ksa dk Fkk tks 2500 bZ‚ iw‚ esa NÙkhlx<+ vk;kA nwljk dchyk xks.MhHkkf"k;ksa dk gS] tks bZlk iwoZ 1500 bZ‚ iw‚ esa NÙkhlx<+ vk;k rFkk rhljk dchyk ijthHkkf"k;ksa dk gSa ftldk inkiZ.k 1200 bZ‚ iw‚ esa gqvkA vUnzkukso dh mä dkyx.kuk Hkk"kkfoKku ds ekU; fl)kUr ^Hkk"kk dkyØe foKku* ij vk/kkfjr gS vkSj blij fookn dh dksbZ xaqtkb'k ugha gSA bl izdkj ;g fuf'pr rkSj ij dgk tk ldrk gS fd NÙkhlx<+ ds dchys fla/kq ?kkVh&lH;rk ds laokgd jgs gSaA fo'ks"kKksa dh ekU;rk gS fd mä lH;rk 2300 bZ‚ iw‚ ls 1750 bZ‚ iw‚ rd Qyh&Qwyh Fkh vkSj mldk thoudky 500 o"kks± rd jgkA blls ;g Hkh vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd mä vof/k rd ;g lH;rk NÙkhlx<+ esa Hkh 135
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[Vol. XVIII (1)
fodflr gqbZ gksxhA rnuqlkj NÙkhlx<+ esa gM+Iikdkyhu lH;rk dk izos'k gqvk vkSj og ;gk¡ ds iwoZ&izpfyr uO;ik"kk.k;qx dh lH;rk ls ?kqy&fey x;hA mä i'p&gM+IIkk&laLÑfr 1800 bZ‚ iw‚ ls 1000 bZ‚ iw‚ rd NÙkhlx<+ esa fodflr gqbZ tksfd dkcZu&14 dh frfFk&x.kuk ls fl) gksrk gSA blh ds ckn NÙkhlx<+ esa ,d u;s ;qx dk izkjEHk gksrk gS] ftls ge ^ykSg&;qx* dgrs gSaA ljxqtk ds vksjk¡oksa esa ohj jktk dM+[k ,d feFkdh; uk;d gS rFkk mUgha ds usr`Ro esa vksjk¡o tutkfr fla/kq ?kkVh ls cfgxZeudj NÙkhlx<+ vk;hA ^dM+[kM.Mh* ¼vksjk¡o dk xkFkk egkdkO;½ esa bldk mYys[k ckj&ckj gqvk gSµ ^jh uUgSa iqj[kj jgspj js fla/kq ?kkVh rh bfÙk;jAA* vFkkZr~ gekjs iwoZt fla/kq ?kkVh ls mrjdj ljxqtk vk;sA cLrj ds ^fyaxksikVk* uked xkFkk&egkdkO; esa Hkh of.kZr gS fd xksM+ks ds lkaLÑfrd uk;d fyaxks ds usr`Ro esa xksM+ cLrj vk, FksA pØdksV ds fNUnd ukx jktoa'k ¼760&1324 bZ‚½ Hkh viuh mRifÙk fla/kq ?kkVh ls ekurs gSaA cLrj ds egkik"kk.kh thoUr laLdkjksa ls ;gh lR; mn~?kkfVr gksrk gS ¼'kqDy % 30&32%2007½A mi;Zqä mnkgj.kksa ls ;g fl) gksrk gS fd fla/kq&lH;rk dk laca/k NÙkhlx<+ ls jgk gS rFkk ogk¡ dh dyk vkSj laLÑfr us bl {ks=k ds fodkl dks izHkkfor fd;k FkkA blls ;g Hkh lEHko gSa fd ogk¡ dh /kkrq&dyk Hkh bl {ks=k esa izpfyr gqbZ gksA NÙkhlx<+ esa ijEijkxr :i ls rhu tkfr;k¡ /kkrq&f'kYi dk fuekZ.k dj jgh gSaA cLrj ds /kM+ok] ljxqtk ds ekykj rFkk jk;x<+ ds >kjk&dykdkj bu f'kYiksa dk fuekZ.k dj jgs gSaA cLrj ds /kkrq&dykdkjksa dks ^?kM+ok* dgk tkrk gSA ;g tkfr yxHkx iwjs cLrj&{ks=k esa QSyh gqbZ gS] ijUrq dks.Mxk¡o esa budk fo'ks"k ladsUnz.k gSA txnyiqj esa igys dkQ+h la[;k esa ?kM+ok fuokl djrs Fks] ijUrq vc ogk¡ izk;% dksbZ ?kM+ok&dykdkj ugha jgrkA dks.Mkxk¡o esa ;g ,d y?kq|ksx dk :i ys pqdk gSA fot; ¼2005 % 165½ us txnyiqj esa xaxk eq.Mkikjk] ?kM+okikjk vkSj cSyk ckt+kj esa ?kM+ok&yksxksa ds fuokl dk mYys[k fd;k gS] ijUrq cLrj esa {ks=k dk;Z ds nkSjku bu LFkkuksa ij eSaus dksbZ ?kM+ok&ifjokj ugha ns[kkA ^?kM+ok* 'kCn dk vFkZ vkdkj x<+us ls mRié gqvk ekuk tkrk gS vkSj ;g uke mUgsa rk¡cs vkSj dk¡ls dh vkÑfr;k¡ cukus ds dkj.k fn;k x;k gSA budh mRifÙk ds ckjs esa vusd dgkfu;k¡ gSaA ;s ledkyhu jktk }kjk lcls igys f'kYidkj ds :i esa lEekfur gq, FksA dqN {ks=kksa esa bUgsa ?kkfl;k]
dlsj] ekUxu vkSj fo'odekZ dgk tkrk gSA budh mRifÙk ds ckjs esa jgL; cjdjkj gSA dqN yksx ;g ekurs gSa fd ;s eq[;r;k cLrj ds gh gSaA vkSj dqN yksx ,slk ugha ekurs gSaA muds yksdfo'okl] jgu&lgu vkfnokfl;ksa ls ugha feyrs gSa vkSj cLrj ds vkfnokfl;ksa ds chp budh fLFkfr fuEu Js.kh dh gSA cLrj ds fofo/k Hkkxksa esa jgusokys ?kM+ok fofo/k Hkk"kk,¡ cksyrs gSaA vcq>ekM+ esa vcq>ekfj;k ,oa vcw>ekM+ ds ckgj ekfj;k] xks.Mh] gYch] Hkrjh] nksjyk vkSj NÙkhlx<+h cksyrs gSaA tks yksx ?kksVqy&ijEijk ds ikl jgrs gSa] bldk O;ogkj djrs gSaA tks ?kM+ok cLrj dks viuk ewyLFkku ugha ekurs] os viuh mRifÙk dks mM+hlk ls ekurs gSaA LFkkuh; vuqJqfr ds vuqlkj lSdM+ksa lky igys tc jktk us viuk egy cuok;k rks mUgksus nsoh nars'ojh dh ewfrZ cukus ds fy, vksM+hlk ls ik¡p ?kM+ok&ifjokjksa dks ;gk¡ cqyok;k vkSj ;gk¡ clk;kA ;g fopkj dsoy ,d ifjokj dk gSA Jh eukgj vius ys[k esa crkrs gSa fd ?kM+ok viuh f'kYidyk ls lacaf/kr dksbZ dFkkud ugha tkursA muds vuqlkj :Fk jhosUl vkSj ehjk eq[kthZ us buds ckjs esa fdlh dFkkud dk ft+Ø ugha fd;k gSA LFkkuh; f'kYidkj t;nso c?ksyh ,d dgkuh crkrs gSa] ;|fi ;g fdlh vU; ugha nqgjk;k gSA ;g dgkuh ,d izkxSfrgkfld ekuo ls tqM+h gqbZ gS ftlesa ,d f'kdkjh dk müs[k gSA ml f'kdkjh dks igkM+ ij ,d vkx fn[kkbZ nsrh gS ftls ns[kdj og ogk¡ tkrk gS vkSj ogha ls ,d Bksl pedrk VqdM+k ys vkrk gSA mls igkM+ ij eglwl gksrk fd ogk¡ njkj IkM+ jgh gS] tks lEHkor% xehZ ds dkj.k gSA ml fofp=k VqdM+s dks og viuh xqQ+k esa ys vkrk gS rFkk vius ikl j[k ysrk gSA mldh ftKklk mls ioZr ij iqu% tkdj ckjhd fujh{k.k djus ds fy, izsfjr djrh gSA ogha mlus e/kqeD[kh dk ekse] nhed ds ck¡ch dh feêh vkSj /kkrq dks ns[kdj orZeku le; ds ^e/kqfPN"V fo|k* dk vuqeku yxk;kA mlus bl fo|k esa iz;ksx vkjEHk fd;k vkSj nUrs'ojh ekrk dh izFke izfrek dk fuekZ.k fd;k ¼euksgj % 1996 % 77½A bfYou dk ekuuk gS fd ?kM+ok tkfr ;gk¡ 1704 bZ‚ ls gSA LFkkuh; vkfnoklh bUgsa ?k`.kk dh n`f"V ls ns[krs gSa ¼1947 % 13½A dsnkjukFk Bkdqj us vksM+hlk ls vk, gq, yksxksa esa ?kkfl;k tkfr dk mYys[k fd;k gSa ¼1908 % 40½A fxzxlu egksn; ds vuqlkj /kkrq ;k dk¡ls dh <ykbZ djusokys dks fganw vkSj ekfj;k yksx ?kkfl;k cqykrs gSaA ;g uke bUgsa e/;Hkkjr esa NksVkukxiqj vkSj vksM+hlk esa dgha fn;k x;k gS tgk¡ ;s vNwr vkSj uhp tkfr
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi% /kkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa
ds :i eas tkus tkrs gSaA ;g tkfr ?kkl dkVus vkSj ?kksM+ksa dh ns[kHkky dk dke djrh Fkh] tcfd buesa ls dqN yksx ckyksa ds fy, ;k tqykgksa ds dj?ks ds fy, daf?k;ksa dk fuekZ.k djrs FksA cLrj esa] tgk¡ ;s izf'kf{kr dykdkj gSa] ewfj;k yksx bUgas vR;Ur frjLdkj dh n`f"V ls ns[krs gSa] ogha ekfj;k yksx bUgsa ^?kM+ok* dgrs gSaA ckgjh 'kkjhfjd cukoV esa ;s vkSj muds ewfj;k iM+kslh FkksM+s fHké gSaA ,slk yxrk gS fd ;s bl vkfnoklh&lekt esa u;s :i esa lekfgr gq, gSaA jksgsYyk O;kikjh vkSj t+ehUnkfj;ksa dk izcU/k djusokys ?kkfl;k yksxksa dks ekfj;k&vkfnokfl;ksa ls iSls olwyus ds fy, j[krs FksA ,slk blfy, gS fd ekfj;k yksx ;g ekurs gSa fd ?kkfl;k&tSls uhp tkfr ds ?kj ds ikl vkus ls ?kj dh ifo=krk Hkax gksrh gSa vkSj muds xUnh mifLFkfr ds fy, #i;s pqdkus gksrs gSa ¼fxzxlu % 1938 % 179½A ekbdy iksLVy vkSj tSfju dwij ds vuqlkj ^?kM+ok* 'kCn dh mRifÙk lEHkor% ^?kM+k* 'kCn ls gqbZ gSA ;s yksx iqjkus VwVs crZu ls u;s crZu cukrs Fks ¼2000 % 81½A vferkHk ljdkj vkSj lehjk nklxqIrk ds vuqlkj ?kM+ok 'kCn dh mRifÙk ^xyuk* 'kCn ls gqbZ gS] ftldk vFkZ gksrk gS fi?kyuk] D;ksafd ;s /kkrq dks xykdj Mksdjk&dyk cukrs gSa ¼1996 % 82½A ;g /kkrq&<ykbZ dh vR;Ur izkphu izfØ;k gS tks e/;Hkkjr ds dbZ {ks=kksa ds f'kYidkjksa }kjk viukbZ tkrh gSA e/;izns'k] vksM+h'kk] if'pe caxky] fcgkj esa ,sls yksdf'kYidkj jgrs gSa] tks LFkkuh; yksxksa ds fy, /kkfeZd mi;ksx dh oLrq,¡ cukrs gSaA ^Mksdjk* 'kCn dh mRifÙk ^Mksdjk Mkej* vkfnokfl;ksa ls Hkh ekuh tkrh gSA ;g tkfr yxHkx 400 o"kks± ls ^e/kqfPN"V fo|k* esa èkkrqvkas dh <ykbZ djrh vk jgh gSA bldk izkjfEHkd mnkgj.k eksgutksanM+ksa ls feyh urZdh dh ewfrZ gS] ftlls irk pyrk gS fd Mksdjk ;k csyesVy rcls iz;ksx esa vk jgk gS ¼czkslj] 2009 % 12½A xks.Mh esa Mksdjk dk vFkZ gksrk gS iqjkukA cw<+s&cw<+h dh tksM+h dks Hkh cLrj esa Mksdjk dgk tkrk gSA LFkkuh; Mksdjk&f'kYidkj t;nso c?ksyh dk Hkh ekuuk gS fd ;g dyk fla/kq&lH;rk ls tqM+h gqbZ gSA rduhd % cLrj ds xzkeh.k bykdksa esa jgusokys f'kYidkj dHkh&dHkh vius dq'ky gkFkksa ls ,sls :iksa dk l`tu djrs gSa tks 'kkL=kh; dyk dh mRÑ"V Ñfr;ksa dks Hkh ekr nsrh gSaA ;g yksdf'kYi blfy, Hkh T+;knk egÙoiw.kZ gks tkrh gS D;ksafd ;s Ñfr;k¡ csgn vfodflr vkSj vkfne midj.kksa ls cukbZ tkrh gSa ftlesa T+;knkrj dykdkj dk ijEijkxr dkS'ky gh dke vkrk gSA cLrj ds yksdf'kYidkj vius xzkeh.k vkSj tutkrh; {ks=kksa esa feyusokyh
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izkÑfrd lkexzh ds ek/;e ls gh bu Ñfr;ksa dh jpuk djrs gSa ftlls budk thoupØ Hkh pyrk jgrk gS vkSj i;kZoj.k dk larqyu Hkh cuk jgrk gSA cLrj ds yksdf'kYi dk Lo:i vkSj lkekftd fLFkr mruh gh egÙoiw.kZ gS ftruh fd budh fuEkkZ.k&izfØ;k] tks bu f'kYiksa dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk gSA budh fuekZ.k&izfØ;k vkSj rduhd ds v/;;u ds fcuk bu Ñfr;ksa dk iw.kZ ewY;kadu lEHko ugha gSA Mksdjk&f'kYi dh fuekZ.k&izfØ;k % Mksdjk ;k csyesVy&f'kYi NÙkhlx<+ dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ gLrf'kYi gSA blh dyk ds ekè;e ls loZizFke ckgjh {ks=kksa ds yksxksa dk /;ku cLrj ds le`) yksdf'kYiksa dh vksj vkÑ"V gqvkA bl {ks=k esa e/kqfPN"V&foèkk ls bu Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gSA NÙkhlx<+ esa jk;x<+] cLrj vkSj ljxqtk ft+ys ds /kkrq&dykdkj mÙke izdkj ds csyesVy&f'kYiksa dh jpuk djrs gSaA ijEijkxr :i ls cLrj ds ?kM+ok] ljxqtk ds ekykj rFkk jk;x<+ ds >kjk tkfr ds yksx Mksdjk&dyk dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA ;s lHkh dykdkj e/kqfPN"V&foèkk eas bu Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa] ijUrq lHkh LFkkuksa ds dykdkjksa ds dke esa dqN ekSfyd vUrj gSA ;g vUrj buds }kjk iz;ksx dh tkusokyh lkexzh vkSj fuekZ.k&izfØ;k esa gSA blds lkFk bu LFkkuksa ij ijEijkxr fuekZ.k&izfØ;k vkSj orZeku fuekZ.k&izfØ;k esa Hkh vUrj gSA orZeku le; esa ekax ds vuqlkj vkSj tkx#drk ds dkj.k budh rduhd esa vUrj vk x;k gSA bl vk/kkj ij buds fuekZ.k izfØ;k dks nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSµ 1ijEijkxr fuekZ.k izfØ;k ,oa 2- x+Sj&ijEijkxr vFkok vk/kqfud fuekZ.k&izfØ;kA ijEijkxr fuekZ.k&izfØ;k % Mksdjk&fuekZ.k ds fy, igys lacaf/kr vkÑfr dh ,d izFkeÑfr ¼dksj½ cukbZ tkrh gSA bls cukus ds fy, feêh] xk; ds xkscj] /kku dh Hkwlh dks 2%1%1 esa feykdj ,d feJ.k cukrs gSaA dqN LFkkuksa ij xk; ds xkscj ds LFkku ij cdjh dh yhn Hkh feykrs gSa tks xk; ds xkscj dh vis{kk T;knk vPNh ekuh tkrh gSA dqN tu feJ.k esa /kku dh Hkwlh ds LFkku ij ckyw feykrs gSaA jk;x<+ ds >kjk vkSj ljxqtk ds ekykj /kku dh Hkwlh feykrs gaS tcdh cLrj ds ?kM+ok T+;knkrj ckyw feykuk ilUn djrs gSaA bls cukus ds fy, igys unh ds rygVh dh feêh dks ckjhd dwV ysrs gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 1½A ;fn cdjh dh yhn feyk jgs gSa rks bls ikuh esa vPNh izdkj fHkxksdj xwFkus ds ckn feêh esa feykrs
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gSaA bl feJ.k dks vPNh izdkj xwFkrs gSaA vPNh izdkj xwFkdj rS;kj gksus ds ckn ;g feJ.k bruk eqyk;e gks tkrk gS fd vklkuh ls bls fdlh Hkh :i esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA bls ^euekVh* dgk tkrk gSA vc blls bfPNr vkÑfr dh izFkeÑfr cukbZ tkrh gSA ;g ,d lk/kkj.k Ñfr gksrh gS vkSj blesa vk¡[k] ukd vkSj vU; vfHkizk; ugha gksrs gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 2½A rS;kj gksus ds i'pkr~ bls /kwi esa lw[kus ds fy, NksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds euekVh ls izk;% 30 lseh rd ds f'kYi cuk, tk ldrs gSa] ijUrq tc blls Hkh cM+k ewfrZ&f'kYi cukuh gks rks unh dh feêh ds LFkku ij pkoy ds [ksr dh feêh yh tkrh gSA blls FkksM+k T+;knk ek=kk esa /kku dh Hkwlh feykbZ tkrh gS rFkk blls ewfrZ dk igyk dksj cuk;k tkrk gSA blds ckn ckyw vkSj feêh dk feJ.k yxk;k tkrk gSA ekse dh rS;kjh % blds i'pkr~ ekse ds /kkxs ds fy, e/kqeD[kh dk ekse yk;k tkrk gSA e/kqeD[kh dk ekse LFkkuh; taxyksa esa i;kZIr ek=kk esa miyC/k gSA vPNs dke ds fy, ekse dk 'kq) gksuk cgqr t+:jh gSA vr% ekse dks vkx ij ,d crZu esa xyk;k tkrk gSA vc bls LoPN lwrh diM+s esa B.Ms ikuh esa Nkuk tkrk gS] ftlds i'pkr~~ ekse dks fdlh Hkh v'kqf) ls cpk;k tkrk gSA vc ekse dks ^fipdh* uked midj.k esa j[kdj nck;k tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 3½A ;g ,d ;a=k gksrk gS ftlesa uhps Nsn cus gksrs gSaA blesa ekse dks Mkydj Åij ls nckus ls uhps ij ekse ds /kkxs fudyrs gSaA bl /kkxs dks ,d ydM+h ds LVS.M ij yVdk fn;k tkrk gS] ftlls ;s vkil esa fpids ugha vkSj lh/ks cus jgsaA cLrj esa 'kq) e/kqeD[kh dk ekse ?kM+ok yksxksa }kjk mi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk jgk gS] ijUrq ljxqtk ds ekykj vkSj jk;x<+ ds >kjk jsftu dk iz;ksx e/kqeD[kh ds ekse ds fodYi ds :i esa djrs gSaA vksMh+'kk ds ijEijkxr f'kYidkj ekse esa jsftu feykrs gSaA blds lkFk gh os bl rduhd esa dqN vkSj Hkh iz;ksx djrs gSaA 'kq) ekse vkSj jsftu ls rS;kj Ñfr;ksa esa dqN vUrj jgrk gSA 'kq) ekse vklkuh ls ckgj fudy tkrk gS tcfd jsftu iwjh rjg ckgj ugha fudyrk gS vkSj vius fu'kku NksM+ nsrk gSA jsftu dh vis{kk ekse dh lrg fpduh gksrh gSA ljxqtk ds ekykj yksx /kqou ;k jsftu dk iz;ksx T;knk djrs gSaA jsftu rS;kj djus dh fof/k % jsftu ;gk¡ lky ds o`{k dh ydM+h ls izkIr fd;k tkrk gSaA blds fy, bls csgn NksVs VqdM+ksa esa rksM+k tkrk gS vkSj vkx ij mckyk tkrk gSA mcyrs le; gh blesa ljlksa ds rsy dks
[Vol. XVIII (1)
/khjs&/khjs feykrs gSaA 2 fdyks jsftu esa yxHkx 1-5 fdxzk rsy feyk;k tkrk gSA tc feJ.k mcyus yxrk gS] rks blesa yksgs dh xeZ NM+ Mkyrs gSaA tc og vkx idM+ ysrk gS rks ekuk tkrk gS fd jsftu rS;kj gks x;k gSA vc bls ikuh esa Mkydj B.<k fd;k tkrk gSA B.<k gksus ij bls NksVs VqdM+ks esa rksM+ fy;k tkrk gS vkSj dks;ys dh vk¡pij gYdk xeZdj blls /kkxs cuk fy, tkrs gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 4½A ekse vFkok jsftu ds /kkxs cu tkus ds i'pkr~ bls vkÑfr ds Åij yisVk tkrk gSA ,d&ds&ckn&,d /kkxs dks dksj ij dq'kyrkiwoZd yisVk tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 5½A tc /kkxk iwjh lrg dks vPNh izdkj <d ysrk gS rks bls fpduk fd;k tkrk gS vkSj Ñfr ij ekse dh ,d fpduh lrg cuk nh tkrh gSA bl le; izk;% dykdkj /kwi esa cSBrk gS ftlls ekse xehZ ikdj vklkuh ls fpduk gks tk,A bl xehZ ls dksj vkSj ekse vPNh izdkj xeZ gks tkrs gSa vkSj vkil esa fey tkrs gSaA lrg dks vPNh izdkj fpduk djus ds ckn dykdkj vU; vo;oksa ij viuk /;ku dsfUnzr djrs gSaA vc ekse ds /kkxs ls gh vU; vyadj.k] xgus] vfHkizk; vkSj vU; midj.k cuk, tkrs gSaA gfFk;kj vkSj flj Bksl ekse ds cuk, tkrs gSaA vk¡[k] ukd vkSj vU; vfHkizk; Hkh blh ls cuk, tkrs gSaA ;g fØ;k laié gksus ds ckn /kkrq ds lqpk# izokg ds fy, ekse dh NksVh Mf.M;k¡ tksM+h tkrh gSaA ;g M.Mh ml rjQ+ yxkbZ tkrh gSA ftl rjQ+ ls /kkrq dk izokg vkÑfr esa djuk gksrk gS vkSj dqfYg;k tksM+uh gksrh gS ;g ekse dh M.Mh bruh eksVh j[kh tkrh gS fd /kkrq vklkuh ls dksj esa izfo"V gks ldsA vc iwjs vkÑfr dks fpduh feêh dh ,d iryh ijr ls <dk tkrk gSA blds i'pkr~ /kku dh Hkwlh vkSj nhed ds ck¡ch dh feêh dh ,d eksVh ijr ls vkÑfr dks <d nsrs gSaA ;g vkf[+kjh ijr blfy, yxkbZ tkrh gS fd /kkrq ds ncko ls vkÑfr u QVs vkSj ;g dBksj cuh jgsA blds i'pkr~ bls lw[kus ds fy, NksM+ nsrs gSaA vc dksj ij dqfYg;k tksM+us dk dke 'kq: gksrk gSA /kkrq ds fy, jkLrk cukus ds fy, feêh dh uyh dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA blds Åij dk Hkkx NksVh dqfYg;kuqek gksrk gSA ikbi ds Åijh fgLls dks ekse ds Åijh fgLls ls tksM+k tkrk gS rFkk Åijh fgLls dks dhiuqek dqfYg;k lsA vc ,d ck¡l dh iryh M.Mh dks blds chp Mkyk tkrk gS ftlls dh ekse rd lh/kk jkLrk cu tk,A tc ;g lw[k tkrk gS rks M.Mh fudky yh tkrh gSA vkÑfr ds fy, tks ekse iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] mls igys gh rksy fy;k tkrk gSA /kkrq vkSj ekse esa 10%1 dk
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi% /kkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa
vuqikr jgrk gSA ;fn ekse ,d xzke gS] rks 10 xzke /kkrq fy;k tkrk gSA bl dke eas izk;% tks /kkrq fy;k tkrk gS] og LFkkuh; ckt+kj ls VwVs&QwVs crZu ds :i esa [kjhnk tkrk gSA ,sls crZu LFkkuh; ckt+kj esa de nke esa fey tkrs gaS] ijUrq bldk eryc ;g ugh gSa fd dykdkj /kkrq ds ekeys esa vlko/kkuh cjrrs gSaA os cM+h lko/kkuh ls vPNh /kkrq dk p;u djrs gSa vkSj vPNh izdkj ds /kkrq dk gh iz;ksx djrs gSaA bu /kkrqvksa dks igys NksVs&NksVs VqdM+ksa esa dkVrs gSaA vkSj bls igys ls tksM+s x, dhiuqek dqfYg;k esa j[k nsrs gSa rFkk Åij ls nwljh dqfYg;k ls <ddj /kku dh Hkwlh vkSj feêh ls vPNh izdkj ls tksM+ nsrs gSaA blds mijkUr <ykbZ ds fy, ,d iwjh vkÑfr rS;kj gks tkrh gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 6½A <ykbZ dh HkV~Bh % cLrj esa ?kM+ok&dykdkjksa }kjk iz;ksx dh tkusokyh ijEijkxr HkV~Bh Hkwfexr gksrh gS vkSj vfXu fNnz lh/kk csyukdkj gksrk gSA bldk fupyk fgLlk gok vkusokys ,d jkLrs ls tqM+k jgrk gS] ftls Hkwfe ds vUnj ls [kksndj cuk;k tkrk gS tks ,d vksj ls HkV~Bh ls tqM+k jgrk gSA HkV~Bh ds vUnj dk fgLlk xk; ds xkscj ls vPNh izdkj ls yhik jgrk gS vkSj iwjh rjg ls LoPN j[kk tkrk gSA gok vkus dk nwljk fgLlk /kkSaduh ls tqM+k jgrk gSa tks izk;% xk; ;k HkSal ds peM+s dk cuk gksrk gSA <ykbZ % <ykbZ bl izfØ;k dh lcls egÙoiw.kZ dM+h gksrh gSA NksVh&lh ykijokgh iwjs dk;Z dks cjckn dj ldrh gSA blds fy, HkV~Bh esa lky ds ydM+h dh dks;ys dh ,d ijr yxkbZ tkrh gSA blij vkÑfr;ksa dks lh/kk j[kk tkrk gSA lcls uhps dqfYg;kokyk fgLlk gksrk gS D;ksafd bls gh lcls vf/kd vk¡p dh t+:jr gksrh gSA vc blds Åij ydM+h dks bl izdkj ls j[krs gSa fd og vkÑfr dks lh/kk [kM+k j[ksA uhps ydM+h dk dqUnk lw[kk gksrk gS rFkk Åij dh ydM+h dk dqUnk gjk gksrk gS tks vk¡p dks T+;knk gksus ls jksdrk gSA ;fn vk¡p vf/kd gks tk,xh] rks og feêh dh vkÑfr dks rksM+ ldrk gSA idkus dh izfØ;k nks ls rhu ?k.Vs pyrh gS vkSj bl nkSjku vkx dks yxkrkj gok nh tkrh gSA idkus dh izfØ;k ds nkSjku yxkrkj lko/kkuh cjrh tkrh gS vkSj cM+s /;kuiwoZd bl izfØ;k dh ns[k&Hkky dh tkrh gSA tc /kqvk¡ fudyuk iwjh rjg cUn gks tkrk gS vkSj vkÑfr xU/kd ds leku ihyh gks tkrh gS rks dykdkj fpeVs vkSj lM+lh dh lgk;rk ls eksYM dks mBkdj fgykrs gSa vkSj fQj iyV nsrs gSaA vc dqfYg;kokyk Hkkx Åij
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vk tkrk gS vkSj /kkrq uhps tkdj ekse }kjk NksM+s x, LFkku dks Hkj nsrk gSA ,d ?k.Vs rd mls B.<k gksus fn;k tkrk gSA fQj blij ikuh fNM+drs gSa rFkk vPNh izdkj B.<k gksus ij bls rksM+dj ewfrZ dks fudky ysrs gSaA fQfuf'kax % tc vkÑfr dks lk¡ps ls fudky fy;k tkrk gS] rc fQfuf'kax dk dk;Z vkjEHk gksrk gSA dkQ+h gn rd <ykbZ vPNh vkrh gS] dsoy dqN fudys gq, LFkku rFkk gok ds cqycqyksa dks Bhd fd;k tkrk gS rFkk budks Hkjk tkrk gSA blds mijkUr vkÑfr dks unh ds fdukjs ys tkdj ckyw ls jxM+rs gSa ftlls fd vkÑfr esa ,d lkQ+ vkSj pednkj eqyk;e izHkko vk tk,A Mksdjk&dyk esa x+Sj&ijEijkxr rÙo % vius 'kks/k&dk;Z ds nkSjku eSaus cLrj esa yEcs le; rd {ks=k&dk;Zdj dyk esa yEcs le; ls vk, ifjorZuksa dk ckjhd v/;;u fd;kA Mksdjk&dyk dh ijEijkxr rduhd esa dbZ ifjorZu vk x, gSaA ;g ifjorZu lkexzh] midj.k] fo"k;] rduhd] ekaxµ lHkh esa vk, gSaA vc Mksdjk&Ñfr;ksa dh ekax cLrj ds ckgj cM+h la[;k esa gksus yxh gSA bl dkj.k mu dykdkjksa dks rsth ls Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djuk gksrk gSA ijEijkxr rduhd esa rsth ls vkSj cM+h la[;k esa Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k ugha fd;k tk ldrkA blh dkj.k ijEijkxr rduhdksa esa dqN ifjorZu vk, gSaA vc bl dyk esa e'khuksa dk iz;ksx Hkh gksus yxk gSA igys cLrj ds f'kYidkj 'kq) ekse dk iz;ksx djrs Fks] ijUrq vc ;gk¡ ds dykdkj cM+h la[;k esa jsftu dk iz;ksx djus yxs gSaA izk;% ekse vkSj jsftu dks cjkcj ek=kk esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA lk/kkj.k Ñfr dk fuekZ.kdj mls ekse ls <dus vkSj fQj nhed dh ck¡ch dh feêh yxkus rd dh izfØ;k leku jgrh gS] ijUrq vc /kkrq dks dqfYg;k esa j[kdj vkÑfr ls ugha tksM+k tkrk gSA vc blds LFkku ij ,d dhiuqek lajpuk cukdj NksM+ nh tkrh gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 7½A blds i'pkr~ /kkrq dks vyx ls ,d fo'ks"k izdkj ds ik=k esa HkV~Bh esa fi?kyk;k tkrk gS vkSj dyNqyuqek ;a=k ls blesa /kkrq Hkj fn;k tkrk gSA vkÑfr esa /kkrq Hkjus ls igys mls vPNh izdkj ,d HkV~Bh esa idk;k tkrk gSA vkÑfr dks idkus rFkk /kkrq dks xykus ds fy, ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dk dks;yk e'khu }kjk rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 8½A blds fy, /kku dh Hkwlh rFkk iqvky dks ,d e'khu esa vk/kk tyk;k tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 9½A fQj fpduh feêh esa feykdj ,d nkc e'khu ls dks;yk cuk fy;k tkrk gSA
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vc <ykbZ ds i'pkr~ Ñfr dk ckyw ls ugha jxM+k tkrk gSA vc bls ^Qjuh* uked ;a=k ls jxM+k tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 10½ vkSj fQj cfQax&e'khu ls pedk;k tkrk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 11½A e'khuksa ds iz;ksx gksus ls dyk esa cgqr ifj"dkj vk x;k gSA dbZ Ñfr;k¡ rks vkfnoklh&dykdkjksa }kjk cukbZ xbZ yxrh gh ugha gSaA vc ;s dykdkj vkfnoklh nsoh&nsorkvksa ds vfrfjä fofHké LFkkuksa ls tqM+h Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djus yxs gSaA ;s fganw&/keZ ls tqM+s nsoh&nsorkvksa dh vkÑfr cukus yxs gSaA orZeku esa cuusokyh vkfnoklh&nsoh&norkvksa dh Ñfr;ksa esa Hkh igys dh rqyuk esa dkQ+h ifj"dkj vk x;k gSA lHkh ijEijkxr ?kM+ok&f'kYi vkfnokfl;ksa ds fy, cuk, tkrs gSaA bu ij cus vfHkizk;ksa] tSlsµ pk¡n] lwjt vkfn ds eryc crkus esa os leFkZ ugh gksrs gSaA os dsoy bruk crk ikrs gSa fd ewfj;k yksx bls pkgrs gSaA vkSj ewfj;k yksxksa ds vuqlkj ;s izrhd blfy, cuk, tkrs gSa D;ksafd buesa nSoh Hkko fn[kk;s tk ldsaA dqN yksxksa ds vuqlkj ;s pUnzoa'kh; jktkvksa ds O;fäxr fpg~u gSaA cLrj ds ?kM+ok&f'kYidkjksa }kjk ewfrZ ds vfrfjä /kkfeZd mRiknksa esa rqjgh ,d izeq[k mRikn gSA bldk mi;ksx /kkfeZd R;ksgkjksa] tSlsµ 'kknh&fookg] /kkfeZd vuq"Bkuksa vkSj eq[; :i ls tqyqlkas esa fd;k tkrk gSA blds vfrfjä dy'k vkSj uqdhyk 'kh"kZ Hkh cuk;k tkrk gS] tks tqyqlksa esa iz;qä gksusokys >.Ms ds 'kh"kZ ij yxk;k tkrk gSA ;g dk"B&LrEHk dsoy okf"kZd mRloksa ij gh fudkyk tkrk gSA Mksyh ,d nwljh izeq[k /kkfeZd Ñfr gS] ftlds fuekZ.k esa ?kM+ok lg;ksx nsrs gSaA blh Mksyh esa nsoh dh ewfrZ j[kh tkrh gS] ftlesa ihry dh ?kafV;k¡ yxkbZ tkrh gSaA cLrj ds ?kM+ok&f'kYidkj ijEijkxr :i ls /kkfeZd vkfnoklh&nsoh&nsorkvksa dh ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k djrs jgs gSa] ftuesa ls dqN mnkgj.k fuEuor~ gSaµ nars'ojh nsoh % nsoh nars'ojh cLrj dh vf/k"Bkr` nsoh gSa rFkk og cLrj ds egkjkt dh dqynsoh Hkh gSaA budk ,d efUnj cLrj ds jktegy ds ckgj Hkh cuk;k x;k gSA dqN fo}kuksa dk ekuuk gS fd cLrj dh ?kM+ok&dyk esa cuusokyh izFke ewfrZ nsoh nUrs'ojh dh gh FkhA fo'kky Hkw&Hkkx esa QSys cLrj dks ;fn nsoh&nsorkvksa dh Hkwfe dgsa rks vfr'k;ksfä ugha gksxhA ;gk¡ gj xk¡o ds vius nsoh&nsork gksrs gSaA ydM+h dh ikydh esa flUnwj ls lus vkSj jax&fcjaxs Qwyksa dh ekyk ls lth fofHké vkÑfr;ksaokyh vkd"kZd nsfo;ksa dh ewfrZ;k¡ izR;sd ^nsoxqM+h* esa ns[kus dks fey tk,¡xhA lEiw.kZ cLrj dh vf/k"Bkr` nUrs'ojh nsoh gSa tks ;gk¡ ds
[Vol. XVIII (1)
dkdrh;oa'kh; jktkvksa dh dqynsoh gSaA bUgsa 'kfä dk izrhd ekuk tkrk gSA 'kaf[kuh vkSj M+duh unh ds chp esa nsoh nUrs'ojh dk HkO; efUnj gSA ,slk ekuk tkrk gS fd cLrj ds nUrsokM+k ft+ys esa nsoh dk ,d nk¡r fxjus ds dkj.k ;gk¡ nsoh nUrs'ojh uke ls izfrf"Br gqb±A cLrj dh ,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe ij n`f"Vikr djus ls irk pyrk gS fd jktk izrki#nz nso ds lkFk nsoh nUrs'ojh vka/kzizns'k ds okjaxy jkT; ls ;gk¡ vk;haA eqx+yksa ls ijkLr gksdj jktk b/kj&m/kj HkVdus yxs FksA os nsoh ds egku~ lk/kd Fks] vr% os nsoh dh 'kj.k esa x;sA rc nsoh dk funsZ'k gqvk dh ek?k 'kqDy iwf.kZek ds fnu rqe ?kksMs+ ij lokj gksdj viuh fot;&;k=kk izkjEHk djksA tgk¡ rd rqEgkjh fot;&;k=kk gksxh] ogk¡ rd rqEgkjk ,dPN=k jkT; gksxkA jktk ds fuosnu ij nsoh ek¡ us muds lkFk pyuk Lohdkj dj fy;k] ijUrq ;g 'krZ j[kh fd jktk ihNs eqM+dj ugha ns[kasxsA vxj mUgksaus ihNs ns[kk rks nsoh vkxs ugha c<s+axhA nsoh ds ?kq?k:¡vksa dh vkokt+ ls muds vkxs c<+us dk vkHkkl gksrk jgsxkA bl izdkj jktk us fot;&;k=kk vkjEHk dh vkSj nsoh muds lkFk&lkFk pyus yxhaA tc jktk dh lsuk M+duh vkSj 'ka[kuh unh dks ikj djus yxh] rc ckyw esa ik¡o ds /kalus ds dkj.k nsoh ds ik;y dh vkokt+ vkuh cUn gks x;hA rc jktk us ihNs eqM+dj ns[kk vkSj blds mijkUr nsoh ogha izfrf"Br gks x;haA ckn esa jktk us muds fy, ,d HkO; efUnj dk fuekZ.k djk;k vkSj muds uke ij nUrsokM+k uxj clk;kA cLrj eas Hkh dksbZ iwtk&vpZuk vkSj R;ksgkj nsoh nUrs'ojh dh iwtk ds fcuk laié ugha gksrhA dSFkjhu gSdj ¼2000 % 145½ us nUrs'ojh dh ewfrZ dks dsoy gkFkh ij cuk, tkus dk mYYks[k fd;k gS] ijUrq eSaus {ks=k&dk;Z ds nkSjku ,slh vusd ewfrZ;ksa dk irk yxk;k tks >wys ij Hkh cukbZ xbZ gSaA dHkh&dHkh mUgsa vU; nsoh&nsorkvksa ds lkFk Hkh cuk;k tkrk gSA nsoh nUrs'ojh dh ,d izeq[k vkSj izHkko'kkyh ewfrZ cLrj ds izfl) f'kYidkj t;nso cgksyh ds firk efudjke ?kM+ok us cukbZ gSA ewfrZ esa nsoh dks N=k;qä gkSns esa egkor ds lkFk fn[kk;k x;k gSA gkSns dks /kkrq dh yVduksa ls lqUnjrkiwoZd ltk;k x;k gSA gkFkh dks Hkh blh izdkj ltk;k x;k gSA gkFkh ds iSj esa ifg;s Hkh yxk, x, gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 12½A ekoyh nsoh ekoyh nsoh cLrj dh nwljh lcls cM+h nsoh gSa ysfdu budk lEiznk; fofHké {ks=kkas esa fHké&fHké ukeksa ls tkuk tkrk gSA cLrj ds vfrfjä budk izHkko NÙkhlx<+ ds vU; {ks=kksa esa Hkh
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi% /kkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa
ns[kk tkrk gSA {ks=kdk;Z ds nkSjku eSaus dbZ iqtkfj;ksa vkSj xk¡ookyksa ls lk{kkRdkj ds }kjk bl nsoh ds fo"k; esa dbZ tkudkfj;k¡ izkIr dhaA jktLFkku ls vkusokys O;kikjh viuh Hkw&nsoh dks ^ekoyh* uke ls tkurs gSaA ogk¡ ekoyh dk vFkZ ekrk gksrk gSA bUgha ds izHkko esa cLrj ds vkfnoklh viuh nsoh dks ^ekoyh ekrk* dgus yxsA cLrj ds txnyiqj esa ekoyh ekrk dk efUnj gSA ekoyh ekrk dk lEiznk; nsoh nUrs'ojh ls Hkh iqjkuk ekuk tkrk gSA ekoyh ekrk dks nsoh nUrs'ojh nsoh dh cqvk vFkkZr~ muds firk dh cgu crk;k tkrk gSA cLrj ds cM+s fgLls esa ekoyh nsoh dks Hkw&nsoh vkSj ekr`nsoh ds LFkku ij Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA ijUrq tgk¡ ;g ugha gS] ogk¡ iqjkuk lEiznk; gh izpfyr gSA dqN xks.M&dFkkudksa esa ;g dgk x;k gS fd xks.M&nsork ykxhx<+ vkSj njnekx<+ ls vk, gaS tks xks.Mksa dh iqjkuh jkt/kkuh gSA tcfd nUrs'ojh vkSj ekoyh ekrk okjaxy ls vkbZ gSaA ekoyh nsoh dk uke fdlh Hkh xks.M&dFkkud eas ugha vk;k gS] tcfd cLrj ds dFkkudksa esa ekoyh nsoh dks nUrs'ojh ls lacaf/kr crk;k x;k gS] tks dkdrh;&'kkldksa ds lkFk okjaxy ls cLrj vk;haA ;g dFku dqN ckn dk izrhr gksrk gS] tc rkywjeqÙkkbZ] ekoyh vkSj nsoh nUrs'ojh dks ,dlkFk izLrqr fd;k x;k ¼egkoj % 2011 % 105½A n'kgjs ds fnu ekoyh ekrk vkSj nsoh nUrs'ojh dh Mksyh dks txnyiqj yk;k tkrk gSA bYohu us bu nsfo;ksa ds lkFk vU; nsorkvksa dks cLrj yk, tkus dk mYys[k fd;k gSA ekoyh nsoh dh iwtk vkfnoklh leqnk; ds yksx f'kdkj ij tkus ls iwoZ rFkk lqjf{kr ykSVus ij djrs gSaA budh iwtk ^foTtk; inqe* ;k chtcqVuh mRlo ds igys Hkh dh tkrh gSA ^/kqjok* vkSj ^Hkrjk ijn* mRlo] tks lkewfgd f'kdkj ds leku gh gS] ds volj ij ekoyh vkSj Hkw&nsoh dh iwtk djrs gSaA izfl) ekuo'kkL=kh osfj;j bYohu us ekoyh ekrk dks ^ekoyh jkbZ* dgk gS vkSj budk fuokl vUrkx<+ vkSj nUrsokM+k esa crk;k gSA ;g uke mUgksaus ogk¡ nsorkvksa ls lacaf/kr bdV~Bs gq, xhr esa dgk gS vkSj mUgsa vPNs ^tksgkj* ls larq"V djus dh ckr dgh gS ¼bfYou] 1947 % i`‚ 177½A ekoyh ekrk dks izk;% ?kksM+s ij cuk;k tkrk gS rFkk muds gkFk esa ryokj fn[kkbZ tkrh gSA yksd vkSj vkfnoklh&/keZ esa nsfo;ksa dks izk;% gkFkh vkSj >wys ij fn[kkus dh ijEijk jgh gS] ijUrq bl nsoh dks ?kksM+s ij fn[kk;k tkuk gh blds fof'k"V ijEijk dk mnkgj.k gSA ekoyh ekrk dh vf/kdka'k ewfrZ;k¡ ?kksM+s ij lokj izkIr gqbZ gSa] ijUrq dqN mnkgj.k >wys vkSj gkFkh ij Hkh gSa] mnkj.kkFkZµ
141
¼d½ vius cLrj {ks=k&dk;Z ds nkSjku eSaus dks.Mkxk¡o esa ,d dk;Z'kkyk esa ekoyh dh ,d csgn dykiw.kZ ewfrZ ns[khA bl ewfrZ esa mUgsa ,d >wys ij Hkaxkjke nso ds lkFk cuk;k x;k gSA >wyk cgqr gh vkd"kZd vkSj dykRed gSA bls ,d f=kdks.k :i esa la;ksftr fd;k x;k gSA >wys ds 'kh"kZ Hkkx ij N=k gS ftlds uhps lw;Z dh iz[kj vkÑfr gSA f=kdks.k ds nksuksa f'kjksa dks yisVrs gq, nks liks± dh vkÑfr gSA >wys ij nksuksa nsoksa dks fLFkjrkiwoZd cSBs gq, fn[kk;k x;k gS rFkk nksuksa nsoksa ds flj ij esa Qu;qä liZ cus gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 13½A ¼[k½ ekoyh ekrk dh ,d nwljh ewfrZ ?kksM+s ij lokj gSA nsoh vius nkfgus gkFk esa ryokj idM+h gqbZ gSaA nsoh gkj rFkk eqdqV ls lq'kksfHkr gSaA nsoh dk dwV Lo:i iwjh rjg cLrj&'kSyh esa fufeZr gqvk gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 14½A ijnsf'ku ekrk ;k catkfju ekrk % vius {ks=k&dk;Z esa fofHké iqtkfj;ksa us eq>s bl nsoh ds fo"k; esa crk;kA muds vuqlkj ;g nsoh cLrj ds ckgj ls vkbZ gSaA budh mRifÙk LFkkuh; ugha gS] vFkkZr~ ;s cLrj ds LFkkuh; nsodqy ls ugha gSaA buds ,d gkFk esa eqxsZ dh dyxh vkSj nwljs gkFk esa [kIij fn[kkus dk fo/kku gSA blds lkFk gh budk izHkke.My Hkh dkQh cM+k vkSj izHkko'kkyh cuk;k tkrk gSA ijnsf'ku ekrk dh ,d ewfrZ cLrj ds txnyiqj&fLFkr ekuo laxzgky; esa laxzghr gSA nsoh dks catkjksa dh os'kHkw"kk eas fn[kk;k x;k gSA muds nksuksa gkFkksa esa [kIij gS] budh izHkkoyh dks dkQ+h iz[kj :i esa cuk;k x;k gS vkSj buds 'kh"kZ ij Hkh ,d [kIij cuk;k x;k gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 15½A rsyafxu ekrk % rsyafxu ekrk dks Hkh rsyqxw ¼vka/kzizns'k½ ls vkbZ gqbZ nsoh ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA rsyqxw&'kkldksa dk cLrj ij cgqr le; rd izHkko jgk] blh dkj.k rsyqxw&yksxksa ds lkFk mudh tks nsoh cLrj esa vkb±] mUgsa ^rsyafxu ekrk* dgk x;kA nsoh dh tks vkÑfr ?kM+ok&dykdkj }kjk cukbZ tkrh gS] mldk izfrek&y{k.k yxHkx O;ofLFkr gSA nsoh ds ,d gkFk esa f=k'kwy vkSj thHk ckgj fudyh gqbZ cukbZ tkrh gS tcfd muds ,d gkFk esa [kIij fn[kk;k tkrk gSA dHkh&dHkh [kIij muds 'kh"kZ ij Hkh fn[kk;k tkrk gSA mudh izHkkoyh dks lqUnjrkiwoZd ltk;k tkrk gSA bl nsoh dks lqUnj vkHkw"k.kksa ls foHkwf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA bUgsa gkj] dj/kuh vkSj lqUnj eqdqV ls vyaÑr cuk;k tkrk gSA blds vfrfjä cktcawn] dM+s vkSj lqUnj >weds Hkh nsoh ds dkuksa esa
142
fn[kk, tkrs gSaA dHkh&dHkh bl nsoh dks vius f=k'kwy }kjk vius thHk dks Nsnrs gq, fn[kk;k tkrk gS vkSj bl izdkj dh ewfrZ;ksa esa buds nwljs gkFk esa ryokj gksrh gSA bl izdkj ds izfrek&y{k.k eas mUgsa ^dkyh rsyafxu* dgk tkrk gSA ;g Lo:i rsyafxu ekrk ls T;knk jkSnz gksrk gSA rsyafxu ekrk ds nksuksa Lo:i vkfnoklh xqfM+;ksa ij ik, tkrs gSaA bl nsoh dks dkyk cdjk] dkyk eqxkZ vkSj HkSals dh cfy nh tkrh gSA nsoh ;|fi rsyqxw&lEiznk; ls gSa] ijUrq cLrj esa budks lHkh vkfnoklh iwjh J)k ls iwtrs gSaA dkyh dadkyh dk ,d cM+k efUnj txnyiqj esa ekoyh ekrk ds efUnj ds lkFk cuk;k x;k gSA ¼d½ rsyafxu ekrk dh nks lqUnj ewfrZ;k¡ eSaus vius {ks=k&dk;Z ds nkSjku xk¡o ds ,d nsoxqMh+ esa ns[khaA bu nksuksa ewfrZ;ksa dks ns[kus ls gh cLrj es gks jgs Mksdjk&dyk ds izxfr'khy fodkl dk vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gSA ns[kus ls gh ;s ewfrZ;k¡ iwoZorhZ ewfrZ;ksa ls dkQ+h ifj"Ñr yxrh gSaA nsoh dks cgqr gh O;ofLFkr izfrek&y{k.k ds lkFk fn[kk;k x;k gSA nsoh dks LFkkud eqnzk esa [kM+s gq, cuk;k x;k gS rFkk mudh ihB ij nks >.Ms yxs gq, gSa ftlij pUnzek dh vkÑfr cuh gqbZ gSA nsoh ds ,d gkFk esa f=k'kwy rFkk nwljs gkFk esa eqXnj ds leku dksbZ 'kL=k gSA catkfju ekrk ds leku budk Hkh izHkke.My fo'ks"k :i ls iz[kj cuk;k x;k gS rFkk blds Åij N=k O;ofLFkr fd;k x;k gSA nsoh dks ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dk oL=k iguk;k x;k gS ftldh uhoh ihB rd yVdh gqbZ gSA blh ds ikl lw;Z dh vkÑfr cuh gqbZ gSA nsoh dks fo'ks"k izdkj ds vkd"kZd eqdqV ds lkFk fn[kk;k x;k gS ¼ns[ksa fp=k 16½A [k.Mk dadkfyu [k.Mk dadkfyu cLrj dh ,d izeq[k nsoh gSaA xks.M&vkfnokfl;ksa esa ;g nsoh fo'ks"k :i ls cfy ;k [+kwu dh nsoh ds :i esa izpfyr gSA buds jkSnz Lo:i vkSj 'kh?kz Øksf/kr gks tkusokys LoHkko ds dkj.k vkfnoklh Hk; ds dkj.k fo'ks"k :i ls budh iwtk djrs gSaA ;g nsoh ,d gkFk esa fo'kky [kM~x vkSj nwljs gkFk esa [kIij fy, jgrh gSaA dHkh&dHkh nsoh ds thHk dks ckgj fudys gq, fn[kk;k tkrk gSA ,slh ewfrZ;ksa esa mUgsa Øksf/kr fn[kk;k tkrk gSA dHkh&dHkh buds nksuksa gkFkksa esa [kM~x fn[kk;k tkrk gSA ,slh fLFkfr esa [kIij muds flj ij fn[kk;k tkrk gSA bl nsoh dh mRifÙk vlqj&lEiznk; ls ekuh tkrh gS vkSj os e/;Hkkjr ds vxkfj;k tutkfr esa fo'ks"k :i ls iwftr gSaA
[Vol. XVIII (1)
cLrj ds iqtkfj;ksa ds vuqlkj [k.Mk dadkfyu rsyqxw&{ks=k ds lHkh yksdnsorkvksa dh ek¡ gSaA dqN yksxksa dk ;g Hkh ekuuk gS fd ;g nsoh ejkBk yksxksa ds lkFk ;gk¡ vkbZ FkhaA ;g nsoh cLrj dh vR;Ur izHkko'kkyh nsoh gSa tks bruh 'kfä'kkyh vkSj vkØked gSa fd nsork Hkh buls Mjrs gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 17½A 'khryk ekrk % cLrj ds vkfnoklh&/keZ esa fganw&/keZ dk xgjk izHkko jgk gSA blh dkj.k fganw&/keZ ds dbZ nsoh&nsork vkfnoklh&leqnk; esa Hkh iwts tkrs gSa] ijUrq ;g dguk cgqr dfBu gS fd vkfnokfl;ksa us bUgsa fganqvksa ls viuk;k gS ;k fganqvksa us bUgsa vkfnokfl;ksa ls viuk;k gSA cLrj vkSj iwjs NÙkhlx<+ esa 'khryk ekrk dh iwtk] NksVh ekrk@pspd uked chekjh dk izdksi gksus ij dh tkrh gSA 'khryk ekrk vkSj NksVh ekrk ds laca/k esa cLrj esa ,d dgkuh izpfyr gS tks lalkj dh mRifÙk ls lacaf/kr gSA bl dFkkud ds vuqlkj izy; ds le; dsoy nks cPps díw ds [kksy ds vUnj Nqidj cp ik, FksA ^egkiwjc* us bu cPpksa dks cpk;k vkSj lqjf{kr LFkku ij ys x;sA tc cPps cM+s gks x,] rks mUgksaus bUgsa vkil esa 'kknh djus dks dgk ftlls lalkj dk fodkl gks ldsA pw¡fd os vkil eas HkkbZ&cgu Fks] blfy, mUgksaus 'kknh djus ls bUdkj dj fn;kA rc egkiwjc us 'khryk ekrk ls dgk fd os bu cPpksa dks NksVh ekrk dk nkx+ ns nsaA ,slk djus ds i'pkr~ mUgksaus nksuksa dks vyx&vyx LFkkuksa ij NksM+ fn;kA tc cgqr lkyksa ckn os ,d&nwljs ls feys rks NksVh ekrk ds nkx+ ds dkj.k ,d&nwljs dks igpku ugha ik;s vkSj bl izdkj nksukas dh 'kknh gks x;hA 'khryk ekrk dh iwtk lky esa ,d ckj lHkh vkfnokfl;ksa }kjk dh tkrh gSA ?kM+ok yksx budh ewfrZ dks diM+ksa ls iwjh rjg <dk gqvk cukrs gSa ¼ns[ksa fp=k 18½A isUnjokfuu ;k f>Vdw&feVdw % f>Vdw&feVdw cLrj ds vkfnokfl;ksa ds nSfud thou esa izpfyr lcls izeq[k nsork gSaA ;s nsork tksM+s ds :i esa cLrj esa cgqr izpfyr gSaA dks.Mkxk¡o esa rks buds uke ls ,d dk;Z'kkyk Hkh cuh gqbZ gS] ftlesa Mksdjk&Ñfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gSA ;s nsork eq[; :i ls dks.Mkxk¡o] ds'kdky] Hkkuqiwjh vkSj txnyiqj esa fo'ks"k :i ls izfl) gSaA bl tksM+s esa nsoh dks ^xIikxksflu* vkSj ^xksf.Mu ekrk* ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA tc og vius ifr ds lkFk fn[kkbZ iM+rh gSa rks mUgsa ^f>Vdw&feVdw* ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA bUgsa ^xksf.Mu Mksdjh* ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA f>Vdw nsork gksus ls iwoZ ,d ydM+gkjs Fks]
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vkfnoklh cLrj dk ?kM+ok&f'kYi% /kkfeZd Ïfr;ksa ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa
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Contribution of Dogra rulers for the Development of Jammu & Kashmir state Dr. Jawahir Abass Bhat *
momentous era began around 1846 AD in the history of Jammu and Kashmir state when the Britishers transferred Jammu and 1 Kashmir state to Maharaja Gulab Singh. Thus not only the present state of Jammu and Kashmir was founded, but this historical event was accompanied by the changes which were quite modern in nature. Before the onset of Dogra rule in Jammu and Kashmir it was like a medieval country, its society was presenting a traditional picture. After the coming of Dogras the changes began to take place in almost every aspect of Kashmiri life. The Dogras worked for the development of roads and communication which helped in breaking down the isolation of Kashmir. The Dogra rulers developed modern education in Jammu and Kashmir which brought a great change and not only washed off the ignorance but produced people of capacity and character, modern education enabled them to look for their rightful place in the community of nations. The Dogras worked for the welfare of the people of state. The last ruler of the Dogras Maharaja Hari Singh worked as a social reformer for the people of Jammu and Kashmir. There was hardly any department of the life which the Dogras did not try to develop. Contribution of Maharaja Gulab Singh (18461857 AD) The founder of Jammu and Kashmir State Maharaja Gulab Singh was busy with the consolidating of his territories and did not pay too much attention towards other elds.
The most important reform instituted by the Maharaja Gulab Singh was the rationing of rice to the city population. Due to its being cut off from the rest of India by high mountains Kashmir was experiencing shortage of food grains every now and then. The difculties of the city population were doubly aggravated by the cornering of the grain by unscrupulous dealers. In order to meet this situation the Maharaja established a rigid monopoly of rice 2 and had sold it at a xed price to the citizens. The shawl department (Dagshawl) was a pressing problem and needed the immediate attention of the Maharaja. The Shawl – weavers combined and struck work on 6th June, 1847 AD and asked for a permit to emigrate in body to the Punjab. The Maharaja called their leader to meet him and after inquiring into their grievance issued orders for their redress. Now the shawl weavers had to pay only according to the actual work done by him on the loom and could change his employer at 3 will. He was now no longer a serf. Maharaja Gulab Singh was a devout Hindu. He prohibited the killing of cows in the state and laid the foundations of a religious trust called Dharmarth. He built numerous temples in Jammu and Srinagar and was also the founder of a new 4 town, Purmandal, near Jammu.
Contribution of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (18571885 AD) Maharaja Ranbir Singh's rule was an 'age of consolidation and enlightment'. Schools and colleges were opened. Maktabs and Pathshalas were revived. Libraries were established. He codied laws and promulgated the Ranbir Panel * Shalipora ( Katrasoo), Tehsil & District Kulgam-192 Code. Subsidies were granted to repair mosques and 232 (Jammu & Kashmir), Mob.: 09697399074, email: jawahirabass786@gmail.com 149 Churches. He was also patron of literature and great
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builder of temples. He worked for the development of roads and communication in the state. Maharaja Ranbir Singh established the rst press in the sate for the printing of books. It was known as Vidya Vikas Press located at Jammu. He is credited with the founding of Translation Bureau for the translation of books from various languages. The idea behind it was to prepare ready made books for students reading in various schools which he got opened at various towns in the state. In this way books on geology, geography, history, physics and other subjects written in English were got translated 5 into Hindi. Maharaja Ranbir Singh started two schools on modern lines, one at Jammu and another at Srinagar. The Jammu school was opened in the early sixties of the nineteenth century and was up to matriculation. Provision was made in this school for the teaching of English, Sanskrit, Law, Ayurveda, Tibi and Persian. In law classes state laws were taught. A school for training of patwaris was also opened. The products from Ayurveda and Tibia classes were recruited in the state dispensaries. Persian education was imparted up to Munshi standard. The Srinagar School was opened in 1874 AD and was up to middle standard. In Srinagar school education was imparted in Persian and Sanskrit. There was also a separate department for the teaching of Arabic students.6 Development of Roads and Communication The revolutionary undertaking namely the building of the Jhelum Valley road in Sep. 1880 was started by Maharaja Ranbir Singh when he appointed Mr. Alexander Atinson as engineer for its construction.7 The work on the road was started in 1881. By the middle of 1883 only 25 miles of road was completed, 21 miles on Kohala side and 4 miles on the Baramulla side. By 1885 road from Kohala to Baramulla was nearing completion but was nally completed in 1890. The journey from Baramulla to Srinagar however continued to be 8 performed by boat or by ponies. The cart road from Jammu to Kashmir via, Banihal, also received the attention of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. A suspension bridge over the Chenab at Ramban was constructed which have with stood the strain of over a century of its over-use before being replaced by the modern slab bridge few years ago. Along with the building of the Jehlum
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valley and Banihal roads many former bridle–paths in the valley were converted into roads for cart trafc. A bridge was built by the local engineers and the steel used in its construction was brought from the mines of Reasi district. Adequate funds were provided in the state budget for the repairs and 9 widening of roads every year. The rst stretch of metalled road constructed in the state was Suchetgarh to Jammu Tawi. This was done in 1876 when the prince of wales (afterwards king Edward VI) visited Jammu. Special attention was also paid towards the maintenance of bridges and the construction of new ones. The boat bridge on the Tawi towards the south on the road leading to Sialkot, was renewed and reconstructed so as to remain open all the year round except a couple of Monsoon months. A brick bridge was constructed on the Tawi river opposite Rampur Rajaori. Bridges in Kashmir valley were also repaired.10 The transportation and communication improved the number of annual visitors and tourists to the state. Post Ofce Ranbir Singh realized the efciency of the postal system established in British India. In order to introduce such a system in his state he sought the help of the Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab, who visited Jammu in1865, accompanied by the Postmaster - General of that Provence.11 Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced modern postal system in Kashmir. He increased Dak chowkis from 38 to 136 with two runners at each Chowki, with a view to speed up postal communication to meet the needs of the people.12 Health and Medical services Medical and health services were also made available to the people. A regular Medical Department was established and the closing years of the reign of Ranbir Singh record setting up of 27 hospitals 9 were located in Jammu city and 18 in wazarats and tehsils. He established three dispensaries each at Ladakh and Gilgit and Iskardu. The Maharaja encouraged Ayurvudic and Unani systems of medicines in the state. A number of medical books were compiled and translated in Dogri. Afterwards the Maharaja also introduced the Allopathic system and appointed Dr. Bakhshi Ram as head of the department. Patients were given free treatment and
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indoor patients were provided free lodging and beddings and clothing according to the season. Statistical gures for the year 1882-84 show that 1,33,647 indoor patients were treated in these hospitals in two years, besides 81,678 outdoor 13 patients. Contribution of Maharaja Pratap Singh (18851925 AD) Mahraja Partap Singh's accession to the gaddi is landmark in the history of modern Kashmir. During his long reign of 40 years several progressive reforms were carried through. The land revenue was properly assessed and xed in cash for a denite number of years and the share claimed by the state was greatly reduced. A rst- rate cart road down the Jhelum valley and another over the Banihal Pass were built, linking the valley with the rest of India. Heavy taxes on trade were reduced. A scheme for drainage of the valley, reclaiming wasteland and preventing oods was put into operation. Srinagar, Jammu and few more towns were electried. The administrative machinery was completely over hauled and a humble beginning was made in giving representation to the people in the two municipalities of Srinagar and Jammu. Land and Revenue Settlement The foremost and benecial reform which completely changed the out look of the peasants and gave them a new hope and incentive that was the land settlement and revenue assessment carried through by Walter Lawrence. Lawrence carried on his settlement operations in a systematic way. He drew up a map of every village on a scale generally of 24 inches to a mile in order to show more accurately every eld on the map. An assessment produced all the facts were recorded in a prescribed form relating to each eld concerning area, class of land , source of irrigation number and kind of trees , revenue payable, etc.14 The most important events of Maharaja Pratap Singh's reign were the revenue settlement of Kashmir. It was in 1887 that Andrew Wingate started his settlement operations in Kashmir. During his stay in Kashmir he made the survey of two tehsils in the Valley, namely Lal and Phak. He was an efcient and diligent ofcer who seems to have clearly understood the root cause of the sufferings of Kashmiri people. He found the cultivators having no rights either to his land or his crops. Wingate
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recommended a survey and new settlement of all cultivable land in the state, reduction in taxation, drastic changes in revenue machinery , more rights to peasants including hereditary and proprietary ownership of land and abolition of forced labour.15 Abolished of Begar or Forced Labour The Kashmir valley, surrounded by high mountains and in the absence of any other transport, necessitated the employment of large numbers of men for carrying essential commodities into or out of the valley. And during any large scale military venture huge armies of porters were requisitioned from the countryside. As Kashmir fell into the hands of unscrupulous conquerors and tyrants, payments to these porters was not made and the custom of forced labour or begar developed consequently. The earliest mention of begar is in the Rajataragini (5.172-174 ) when king Shankarvarman employed villagers to carry the baggage and supplies of his armies. There is a mention of begar also in the time of Sultan Zain-al-abidin (1420-1470) as well as during the many succeeding Sultans. During the Mughal rule this developed into regular institution, particularly when huge armies of porters were required to carry the baggage of the emperors and their retinue during their frequent visits to the valley then followed the Afghans and the Sikhs rule and these harsh masters were most unscrupulous in the employment of forced labour. The feeble attempts made by Maharaja Gulab Singh towards mitigating some of its rigorous practice, however, did not 16 improve matters. The Maharaja Partap Singh decided in 1891 to abolish beggar. But at the same time it was felt that the transport arrangements of the valley would collapse. Begar had prevented any labour class to grow and it would take at least few years for it to come into existence to tide over the period a transition, a scheme was formulated to do away with the most objectionable features of begar at once, and at the same time prevent a collapse of the transport system.17 The state council framed the rules for controlling the labour required for carriage of essential commodities in the state by labourers. A labourer was to be paid 5 rupees per month.18 In 1906 the wages was increased to 8 rupees per month and as by the time voluntary labour was forthcoming, the use of force in recruiting it was
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given up. It was only in 1920 that begar was abolished completely.19 Development of education It was during the reign of Maharaja Pratap Singh that modern education in Kashmir took shape. He established schools on the syllabus pattern of the Punjab University. The rst high school of this type was the Ranbir High School at Jammu. The expansion of education steady continued in this time. In 1890 there were ten schools, one high school at Jammu and one middle school at Srinagar and 8 primary schools. The Srinagar middle school opened in 1874 with provision for the teaching of Sanskrit and Persian. In 1901 the number of schools rose to 87. By 1911 the number of schools rose to 373 and by 1921 the 20 number was 1,175 when the total role was 32,971. Special attention was paid towards the education of Muslims in Kashmir. Maharaja took number of measures for promoting education among the Muslims.21 In 1916 Maharaja Pratap Singh invited Sir Henry Sharp, the Educational commissioner, Government of India to suggest various ways and means of extending educational 22 facilities for the Muslims in Kashmir. The Maharaja Partap Singh adopted the food control part scheme under which the part of revenue was collected in kind and distributing it to the city population at a cheap rate, which gave birth to the food control which was ever since handled the collection and distributing of food grains in the 23 valley. After the accession of Maharaja Partap Singh to the gaddi the efforts were made to set up sericulture industry and run it on a commercial scale and in a scientic and extensive manner. In 1921 over 50,000 rears of silk worms in the villages and 5,000 labourers in the factory at Srinagar produced over one lakh kilograms of raw silk annually.24 The state established a Department of Agriculture and Horticulture in 1907 and from 1908 a member from Kashmir sat on the Board of Agriculture of the Government of India.25 The rst industry has ourished since then and with the passage of time has acquired a leading position in the export trade of Kashmir. Contribution of Maharaja Hari Singh (1925-1947
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AD) Maharaja Hari Singh ascended the throne on the death of his uncle Maharaja Pratap Singh on 23rd Sep. 1925. He raised a luminous stop on the rmament of reformation in the Indian history. His reign was primarily an 'age of reformation'. The depressed classes in the state were subjected to great humiliation. Harijans were not allowed to drew water from a common well or tank and their children could not study at schools where as upper class children received education. Maharaja Hari Singh ordered that no discrimination should be shown to the depressed classes in the Govt. institutions and threw open all public wells, tanks, temples and schools to them. Maharaja Hari Singh made formal procla mation on Oct. 31st, 1932, in which he declared that the Harijans would be allowed to enter and worship 26 in all temples. The decision of Maharaja Hari Singh earned him the unprecented credit of being the rst ruler in India to have taken such a bold step for emancipation of the Harijans. Maharaja Hari Singh soon after his accession to the throne enacted a law in 1928, called the Infant Marriage Prevention Regulation, under which the age of marriage for girls was xed at minimum of 14 years and for boys a minimum of 18 years. If anyone was found following the pernicious practice of marrying the child below these ages or sided or abetted such marriages, he was imprisoned for one year with or without a ne which could extend up to $1,000. At the same time, this law forbade incomplete marriages by providing that a man above 50, marrying a girl below 15 would make the man and his father in law besides their accomplices, liable to be punished with imprisonment up to four years with or without a ne which could be extended to $ 2,000. This salutary measure paved the way for ending the child and unequal marriages and thus it brought peace and happiness to the 27 people of the state. Maharaja Hari Singh launched an all out crusade against the illiteracy in the state for the purpose promulgated the compulsory education act in 1930 which made it obligatory for all children living in the state to receive free primary education in the numerous newly established schools where poor and deserving students were provided with text
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
Contribution of Dogra rulers for the Development of J. & K. State
books, uniforms and all other articles of stationery free of cost. In 1925 AD the number of schools was only 706 and it rose to 2,158 by 1945.28 Under the compulsory education act, parents were prohibited from sending their under-age children to karkhans (small scale factories) to earn their livelihood by learning various arts and crafts. Those parents who dared defy this prohibition were served with notice and subsequently taken to task under the law. The Maharaja took keen interest in prevailing upon the Muslim children to join the schools. Thirty one special teachers were appointed 29 to teach them Arabic and Muslim theology. Maharaja sanctioned 500 scholarships each of $ 5 30 per month for Muslims and other helpless children. In 1927 a young Muslim graduate from Srinagar was deputed to America for higher training in 31 engineering. Two years later in 1929, two more Muslim students one from Kashmir and another from Jammu were sent to England for education in 32 law to obtain the degrees of Bar-at-law. No stone was left unturned by Mahraja Hari Singh to spread the light of modern scientic education throughout the state. Maharaja Hari Singh reformed the whole medical system in Jammu and Kashmir. He constructed central medical hospital building in Jammu at the cost of $ 35 Lakh. About one hundred hospitals and dispensaries were opened for the T.B. patients. Many students were granted scholarships for getting medical training in foreign countries and 33 were later given appointments in the state. Maharaja Hari Sigh made a law in 1941 for the prohibition of the polygamy and it was considered a 34 crime for a woman to keep more than one husband. Maharaja Hari Singh passed another law in 1944 AD for the prostitution suppression. It was very difcult to execute this law because many women were involved in this profession. But the Maharaja Hari Singh was determined to do away this curse. So he adopted measures by which these unfortunate and out cast women would either be absorbed in respectable families or were given training in some kind of handicraft which could make them economically self supporting.35 References : 1.
A treaty was signed at Amritsar on 16 March, 1846 between Maharaja Gulab Singh and the British
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.
153
Government according to clause 1 of the treaty, the British Government "transfers and makes over for ever in independent possession to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the heirs male of his body all the hilly or mountainous country with its dependencies situated to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi including Chamba and excluding Lahul, being part of the territories ceded to the British Govt. by the Lahore state according to the provision of Article IV of the treaty of Lahore, dated 4th march 1846.'' In consideration of this transfer the Mahraja had to pay to the British Govt. "the sum of seventy ve lakhs of rupees (Nankashahee)", P.N.K. Bamzai, Culture and Political history of Kashmir, Vol. III (modern Kashmir), M.D. Publication Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1994, p.666 Ibid, p.672 Ibid, pp.672 -673 Ibid, Mohammad Saleem Khan, The History of Modern Kashmir, Gulshan Books, Srinagar, 2006, p.30. G.Rasool and Minakshi Chopra , Education in Jammu & Kashmir, Jay Kay Book House, Jammu, 1998, p.4 Ibid Bi-annual Administrative Report of Jammu & Kashmir State (1882-1883), p.143 Ibid, p.147 S.G.S. Charak, Maharaja Ranbir Singh (18301885), Jay Kay Book House, Jammu,1985, p.90 Bi-annual Administrative Report Of Jammu & Kashmir (1939-1940), pp.155-158 S.D.S. Charak, Mahraja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885 ), Jay Kay Book House, Jammu, 1985, p.92 Ibid Ibid, p.65 Frances, Younghusband, Kashmir, Adam and Charles Black, Edinburg, 1909, p.188 Walter Lawrance, The valley of Kashmir, Asian Educational Services, Delhi, 2005, pp.430-432 P.N.K. Bamzai, op.cit, p.671 Ibid, p.707, Mohmmad Saleem Khan, op.cit, p.128 Kashmir Government Records, le No. 34 of 1891 Kashmir Government Records, le No.77 of 1906 S.L. Seru, History and growth of education in Jammu & Kashmir, Ali Mohammad & Sons, Sringer,1975, pp.35-36 Sharp's Report (1916), pp.41-44 M.I. Khan, History of Srinagar, p.172, published by Cosmos Publications, Srinagar, 1999 Kashmir Government Records, le No. 245 of 1921 P.N.K. Bamzai, op.cit, p.714 Kashmir Government Records, le No. 33 of 1907 Nargis, Nargis Das, Jadid Tarikh-e-Dugger, Srinager,1966, p.743 Jammu & Kashmir Administrative Report, 1945,
154 pp.38-39 28. Jammu & Kashmir Administrative Report of (18891890), p.4, Jammu & Kashmir Administrative Report of 1945-1946, p.100 29. Akbar-i-kashmir, birthday number (Amritsar), p.35 30. Ibid 31. Noor Mohmmad, Tarikh-i-kashmir ki Rozana Dairy (Urdu), p.680 32. Ibid, p.687 33. M.L. Kapur, Mahraja Hari Singh (1985-1961),Hari Anand Publication,1995, pp.35-36 34. Nargis, Nargis Das, op.cit, p.763 35. Somnath Waklu, Hari Singh, The Maharaja, The Man, The Times, National Publishing House, Delhi, 2004, p.63
[Vol. XVIII (1)
JhokLro] MkW‚ ch‚ds‚] bfrgkl niZ.k ¹vad 18 ¼1½] o"kZ izfrink] foØe laor~ 2070] bZloh lu~ 2013º] i`‚ 153&156] ISSN 0974&3065] vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk] u;h fnYyh
fcgkj fdlku&vkUnksyu dk ,d vè;k; vkSj jkgqy th MkWŒ chŒdsŒ JhokLro *
lku&vkUnksyu dh ,sfrgkfld iafä ^jkgqy ds lj ls [kwu fxjs* jktsUnz dkyst+ ¼Nijk] fcgkj½ ds fizafliy izks‚ euksjatu }kjk l`ftr dforkµ ^jkgqy dk [kwu iqdkj jgk* dh izFke ,oa egÙoiw.kZ iafä gSA bldk l`tu mUgksaus 1939 esa fd;k FkkA bl dfork dh fo"k;oLrq mUgsa 1939 ds veokjh&fdlku&lR;kxzg ls feyhA bl fdlku&vkUnksyu dk usr`Ro izfl) fo}ku~ jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u us fd;k FkkA os t+ehu ls tqM+s fdlku&usrk FksA bl lR;kxzg ds nkSjku muij YkkBh ls geyk gqvkA mudk flj QwV x;k vkSj mlls [kwu fxjus yxkA ;g [kwu csdkj ugha x;k vkSj jax yk;kA izks‚ euksjatu us blij tks dfork fy[kh] mlus fdlku&vkUnksyu dks ,d u;k t+ks'k fn;kA turk vkUnksfyr gks mBhA bl ?kVuk ij izdk'k Mkyrs gq, jkgqy th dh fonq"kh iRuh Jherh deyk lkaÑR;k;u us fy[kkµ ^Hkkjrh;&fdlku&vkUnksyu ds bfrgkl esa 24 Qjojh] 1939 bZ‚ dh ?kVuk vfeV :i ls vafdr gqbZ gS] vkSj ;g ,sfrgkfld iafä ^jkgqy ds flj ls [kwu 1 fxjs* bldk izek.k gSA*
lksus dh yadk ty u mBs \ jkgqy dk [kwu iqdkj jgk] c<+us dks gesa izpkj jgk og fo'ofofnr fo}ku vkt 2 g¡fl;k ysdj yydkj jgkA*
fd
bl dfork dh ,d&,d iafä ân;Li'khZ gSA bl dfork esa u dsoy jkgqyth dh fdlku&vkUnksyu esa Hkwfedk vfirq Ñ"kd&leL;kvksa dks ysdj mudh fpUrk,¡ Hkh Li"Vr% ifjyf{kr gksrh gSaA ;g crkrh gS fd fdl izdkj jkgqyth ,d nwjnz"Vk FksA Hkfo"; dh leL;k,¡ D;k gksaxh] ;g mUgksaus viuh Ñfr ^ckbloha lnh* }kjk le>k;k gSA muds fopkj vkt Hkh mrus gh izklafxd gSa ftrus ml nkSj esa FksA 1939 esa fcgkj izkUrh; fdlku&lHkk ds eU=kh Jh vo/ks'oj izlkn flag FksA 1939 esa gh mUgksaus jkgqyth dh fdlku&vkUnksyu esa Hkwfedk ij fy[kh ,d NksVh&lh iqLrd ^jkgqy dk vijk/k* dh Hkwfedk fy[khA bldh vfUre iafä;k¡ vkt Hkh mruh gh lkFkZd gSa ftruh fd 1939 esa FkhaA ;s iafä;k¡ Fkhaµ ^fdlku bls i<+dj vius gd+ dh yM+kbZ ds vkSfpR; dks le>sa] fo}ku~ bls i<+dj viuk drZO;&iFk fuf'pr djsaA*3
ftl izdkj lqHknzk dqekjh pkSgku dh dfork ^cqUnsys gjcksyksa ds eq¡g geus lquh dgkuh Fkh] [kwwc yM+h enkZuh og rks >k¡lhokyh jkuh Fkh* us u dsoy cqUnsy[k.M vfirq leLr Hkkjr dks vkUnksfyr fd;k] mlh izdkj izks‚ euksjatu dh mä dfork us fcgkj dks vkUnksfyr dj fn;kA bl dfork dh dqN egÙoiw.kZ iafä;k¡ fuEukuqlkj gSaµ
izks‚ euksjatu us viuh dfork esa jkgqy dks lk/kq Hkh dgk gS vkSj fo'ofofnr fo}ku~ HkhA bls Li"V djuk vko';d gSA jkgqyth dk ewy uke dsnkjukFk ik.Ms; FkkA iwohZ mÙkjizns'k ds vkt+ex<+ ft+ys ds iUngk xk¡o esa fnukad 09 vizSy] 1893 dks mudk tUe gqvk FkkA4 nt+kZ 3 ds i<+kbZ ds nkSjku mUgsa uokftUnkokftUnk ds bl 'ksj us xgjkbZ rd izHkkfor fd;kµ
^jkgqy ds flj ls [kwu fxjs fQj D;ksa ;g [kwu mcy u mBs \ lk/kw ds 'kksf.kr ls fQj D;ksa ¹ lgk;d&izkè;kid] bfrgkl&foHkkx] MkW‚ gfjflag xkSj dsUnzh; fo'ofo|ky;] lkxj ¼e‚iz‚½
^lSj dj nqfu;k dh xkfQ+y ft+anxkuh fQj dgk¡\ 5 fta+nxh xj dqN jgh rks ukStokuh fQj dgk¡\* 155
bl 'ksj us muds ckyeu ds vUnj nqfu;k ns[kus dh
156
yyd iSnk dhA viuh blh vkdka{kk ds pyrs 1912 esa fcgkj ds Nijk ft+ys ds ijlk eB ds egar ls nh{kk ysdj os dsnkjukFk ls oSjkxh lk/kq nkeksnj nkl cu x;sA6 blds i'pkr~ Hkh os #ds ughaA fofHké /keZ&erksa dks NksM+k&viuk;kA lkFk&lkFk laLÑr] ikyh ,oa ckS)&/keZxzUFkksa dk xgu v/;;u fd;kA mudh fo}Ùkk ds dkj.k dk'kh if.Mr lHkk us mUgsa ^egkif.Mr* dh mikf/k nhA muds ckS)&/keZ&n'kZu ds ,oa laLÑr&Kku dks ns[krs gq, Jhyadk ds fo|kyadkj fogkj us mUgsa vkpk;Z cuk;kA Jhyadk esa gh mUgsa ^f=kfiVdkpk;Z* dh mikf/k nh x;hA7 ;gha ij mudk uke ^jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u* iM+kA jkgqyth us ns'k&fons'k dh ;k=kk,¡ dhaA ns'k&fons'k dh dqy 36 Hkk"kkvksa ds og Kkrk cusA8 bfrgkl ,oa lkfgR; ds fofHké xzaFkksa dh jpuk dhA muds Kku&foKku dk yksgk fo'o ds fo}ku~ Hkh ekuus yxsA9 blhfy, izks‚ euksjatu us mUgksa lk/kq Hkh dgk vkSj fo'ofofnr fo}ku~ HkhA lukru lk/kq] vk;Zlekth] ckS)&fHk{kq cuus ds i'pkr~ vUr esa jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u ekDlZoknh cusA :l&;k=kk ,oa ekDlZokn ds v/;;u ls mudh d#.kk Ñ"kd ,oa et+nwjksa ds izfr tkx mBhA ;g fo'ofofnr fo}ku~ Hkkjr dh Lok/khurk ds fy, Hkh iz;kljr FkkA 1921 esa vlg;ksx vkUnksyu esa Hkkx ysus og Nijk x;sA ogha ij mUgsa tsy Hkh tkuk iM+kA dk¡xzsl ds rÙok/kku esa mUgksaus 1921 ls 1927 rd Lok/khurk ds fy, la?k"kZ fd;kA 1929 ls 1938 ds chp ckS)&/keZxzUFkksa dh [kkst gsrq mUgksaus pkj ckj frCcr dh ;k=kk dhA lu~ 1938 esa jkgqyth iqu% fcgkj vk;sA bl le; fcgkj esa dk¡xzslh&eaf=ke.My dk 'kklu FkkA tks dk¡xzsl igys fdlkuksa&et+nwjksa dh 'kqHkfpUrd Fkh] ogh vc lÙkk esa vkus ds i'pkr~ muds nq%[k&nnZ dks Hkwy xbZ FkhA jkgqy th us bldk fojks/k djus dk fu'p; fd;kA tks jkgqyth dk¡xzslh jg pqds Fks] os vc Ñ"kdksa&et+nwjksa ds fgrksa dh [+kkfrj dk¡xzsl&fojks/kh gks x;sA ml le; mUgksaus fy[kkµ ^eS igys Hkh jktuhfr esa vius ân; dh ihM+k nwj djus vk;k Fkk] xjhch vkSj vieku dks Hkh eSa Hkkjh vfHk'kki le>rk FkkA vlg;ksx ds le; Hkh eSa ftl LojkT; dh dYiuk djrk Fkk] og dkys lsB vkSj ckcqy dk jkt ugha Fkk] og jkt Fkk fdlkuksa vkSj et+nwjksa dk D;ksafd rHkh xjhch vkSj vieku ls turk eqä gks ldrh FkhA vc rks ns'k&fons'k ns[kus ds ckn vkSj Hkh ihM+k dk vuqHko djrk FkkA eSaus Hkkjr tSlh xjhch dgha ugha ns[khA ekDlZokn ds v/;;u us eq>s cryk fn;k fd ØkfUr djusokys gkFk gSa ;gh et+nwj&fdlku] D;ksafd mUgha dks lkjh ;krkuk,¡ lguh iM+rh gSa vkSj mUgha ds
[Vol. XVIII (1)
ikl yM+kbZ esa gkjus ds fy, lEifÙk ugha gSA*10 fcgkj esa dE;qfu"V ikVhZ xS+j&d+kuwuh FkhA blds ckotwn jkgqyth us ogk¡ dE;qfu"V ikVhZ dh LFkkiuk esa egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk;hA bl laca/k esa fcgkj dh dE;qfu"V&ikVhZ ds izFke lfpo lquhy eq[kthZ us fy[kk gSµ ^if.Mr jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u fcgkj esa ikVhZ ds laLFkkid&lnL;ksa esa ls FksA ekDlZokn&ysfuuokn ds fopkjksa ls os igys ls ySl FksA og vusd la?k"kks± ds ohj ;ks)k Fks vkSj iqfyl dh ykfB;k¡ [kk pqds FksA*11 vizSy] 1936 esa y[kuÅ esa ^vf[ky Hkkjrh; fdlku dk¡xzsl* dh LFkkiuk gqbZ] ckn esa blh dk uke ^vf[ky Hkkjrh; fdlku lHkk* dj fn;k x;kA Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh ¼1889&1950½ blds v/;{k cusA jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u Hkh buds lkFk FksA jkgqyth dk ekuuk Fkk fd fdlku&et+nwj&,drk ds fy, dE;qfu"V ikVhZ ,oa fdlku lHkk esa lkeatL; gksuk 12 pkfg;sA muds iz;kl jax yk;sA fdlku lHkk vkSj dE;qfu"Vksa us lu~ 1936 esa jkT; Lrj ij fdlkuksa dks laxfBr fd;kA 1936 ls 1939 ds chp fcgkj esa ^cdk'r vkUnksyu* pykA ^cdk'r t+ehu* mls dgrs Fks ftls eanh ds dkj.k ,oa yxku u ns tkus ds dkj.k fdlkuksa ls t+ehankjksa us ys fy;k FkkA ;|fi ;s t+ehu vc Hkh fdlkuksa ds gh vfèkdkj esa Fkh] rFkkfi os blij 13 cVkbZnkj dh gSfl;r ls [ksrh djrs FksA ,d d+kuwu ;g Hkh Fkk fd yxkrkj 12 o"kZ ftl cdk'r t+ehu ij dksbZ j;Sr ¼fdlku½ [ksrh djs og mldh ^dk;eh* (Occupancy) gks tkrh FkhA oSlk fdlku fQj ftl cdk'r dks ,d lky Hkh tksrsxk] og mldh 14 dk;eh gks tk;sxhA fcgkj esa fdlku lHkk us fdlkuksa esa psruk tkxzrdj mUgsa bl d+kuwu ls voxr djk;kA ijUrq tc fdlku us cdk'r ij vius vfèkdkj dk nkok fd;k] rks t+ehankjksa us lkQ+ bUdkj dj fn;kA pw¡fd muds ikl dksbZ dkx+t+h lcwr rks Fkk ugha] vr% eqdnek os yM+ ugha ldrs FksA vr% fdlkuksa dks cdk'r ij mudk vfèkdkj fnykus fdlku&usrkvksa dks ekspkZ laHkkyuk iM+kA bu usrkvksa us fcgkj ds fuEukafdr LFkkuksa ij fdlku&lR;kxzg 15 dk usr`Ro fd;k µ 1- eaqxsj ft+ys ds cM+fg;k Vky esa dk;kZuUn 'kekZ ¼1901&1965½ us] 2- x;k ft+ys ds [ksM+k esa ;nquUnu 'kekZ ¼1896&1975½ us ,oa] 3- lkju ft+ys ds veokjh ¼vc lhoku ft+ys esa gSS½ esa jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u us Ñ"kd&psruk tkxzr~ djus ds fy, jkgqyth us la?k"kZ gh
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
fcgkj fdlku&vkUnksyu dk ,d vè;k; vkSj jkgqy th
ugha fd;k] vfirq lgt Hkk"kk esa dqN iqLrdsa Hkh fy[khaA ^iapk;rh [ksrh dk ,d iz;kl*] ^dE;qfu"V D;k pkgrs gSa\*] ^thus ds fy,* ,oa ^Hkkxks ugha nqfu;k dks cnyks*&tSlh xEHkhj fpUru'khy iqLrdsa blh Øe esa fy[kh x;haA fdlku ,oa Ñ"kd&vkUnksyu esa Hkkx ysusokyksa dks buls izsj.kk ,oa mfpr ekxZn'kZu Hkh feykA16 Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh] dk;kZuUn 'kekZ] ;nquUnu 'kekZ ,oa jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u tSls Ñ"kd&usrkvksa us fdlku lHkk ds ek/;e ls fdlkuksa ds fgrksa ds fy, viuh ek¡xksa dks l'kä <ax ls izLrqr fd;kA jkgqyth viuh ys[kuh ,oa lfØ; Hkwfedk ds dkj.k fdlku vkUnksyu dh vfxze iafä esa vk x;sA mUgsa mÙkj fcgkj ds lkj.k ft+ys ds fdlku vkUnksyu dks laxfBr djus dh ft+Eesnkjh lkaSih x;hA17 fnukad 02 tuojh] 1939 dks jkgqyth lkju igq¡psA ogk¡ ds fdlku muls feys vkSj t+ehankj pUnzs'oj flag ds vR;kpkjksa ls voxr djk;kA ;gk¡ ^gjh&csxkjh* uked ,d ,slh izFkk Fkh ftlds rgr fdlku dks vius gy&cSy ls igys ekfyd ds [ksr tksrus iM+rs FksA mlds ckn gh og vius [ksr tksr 18 ldrk FkkA veokjh ds fdlku gjh&csxkjh djus dks rS;kj ugha FksA blls Hkh t+ehankj pUnz'ks[kj flag muij tqYe <k jgk FkkA pw¡fd fdlkuksa dks irk Fkk fd vc fcgkj esa dk¡xzslh&ljdkj gS] vr% mlh dk lEcy ikdj mUgksaus gjh&csxkjh ls bUdkj fd;kA mUgsa ugha irk Fkk fd dk¡xzsl t+ehankjksa ij esgjcku gSA dbZ dk¡xzlh Lo;a t+ehankj gSaA Lo;a egkRek xk¡/kh t+ehankj&fojks/kh fdlku&la?k"kZ dks ,d x+yr dne ekurs FksA mUgksaus 1922 esa gh lykg nh Fkh fd ^;fn t+ehankj vkiij mRihM+u djs] rks vkidks FkksM+k&cgqr lg ysuk pkfg;sA ;fn t+ehankj vkidks ijs'kku djsa] rks eSa vius fdlku Hkkb;ksa ls dgw¡xk fd os yM+s ugha] cfYd 19 eS=khiw.kZ #[k viuk,¡A* blh dkj.k Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh us fy[kk gS fd fcgkj ds dk¡xzslh&yhMj rks t+ehankjksa ds iôs vkneh gSSaA mä lHkh ckrsa ls voxr jkgqyth veokjh ds fdlkuksa dk nnZ le>dj 5 tuojh] 1939 dks veokjh igq¡ps vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa dks le>kA lhoku dk lc&fMohtuy eftLVªsV t+ehankj ds i{k esa Fkk] vRk% iz'kklu ls ckrphr dk dksbZ gy ugha fudykA vc jkgqyth ds lkeus ,d gh jkLrk Fkkµ lR;kxzgA bl lR;kxzg dk rkRdkfyd dkj.k ;g Fkk fd ^,d fdlku ds [ksr ls Å[k ¼xék½ dkVuk] t+ehankj us bl fdlku ls ml [ksr dks Nhudj viuh cgqfj;k ¼t+ehankjuh½ ds uke fy[kok
157
fy;k Fkk] vkSj vc og bl [ksr dks viuk [ksr dgrk FkkA20 jkgqyth ds lkFk bl le; dfo ukxktqZu ¼1911&1998½ ,oa jkeo`{k csuhiqjh ¼1899&1968½ Hkh FksA jkgqyth dks irk py x;k Fkk fd t+ehankj us lR;kxzg jksdus ds i;kZIr bUrt+ke dj j[ks gSaA [ksr ij u dsoy yBSr rS;kj Fks vfirq muyksxksa dks dqpyus ds fy, nks gkFkh Hkh [kM+s fd, x, FksA jkgqy vkSj e`R;q ls Hk;µ ;g lEHko gh ugha FkkA og ekSr dks xys yxkuk Mjus ls csgrj le>rs FksA mUgksaus lR;kxzg gsrq 10&10 O;fä;ksa dh 5 Vksfy;k¡ cuk;haA bu Vksfy;ksa dks ckjh&ckjh ls Å[k dkVus tkuk FkkA fnukad 24 Qjojh] 1939 dks izFke Vksyh dk usr`Ro Lo;a jkgqyth us fd;kA ;|fi iqfyl Hkh ogk¡ ekStwn Fkh] rFkkfi og t+ehankj ds lkFk feyh gqbZ FkhA jkgqyth us viuh Vksyh ds lkFk tSls gh vius g¡fl;ksa ls Å[k dVuk vkjEHk fd;k] oSls gh ogk¡ mifLFkr nkjksxk taxcgknqj flag us mUgsa fxj¶+rkj dj fy;kA Bhd mlh le; t+ehankj pUnzs'oj flag ds gkFkhoku dqckZu us ykBh ls jkgqyth ds flj ij okjdj mUgsa ?kk;y dj 21 fn;kA jkgqyth ds flj ls [+kwu fxjus yxkA bls ns[kdj jkgqyth us dgk Fkk fd ^^ek=k esjs flj us gh ugha] cfYd esjs 22 flj ls fxjs [+kwu us Hkh lR;kxzg esa Hkwfedk fuHkk;hA** ;|fi iqfyl us gkFkhoku dqckZu dks Hkh fxj¶+rkj fd;k] rFkkfi t+ehankj 23 ds dgus ij mls NksM+ fn;kA jkgqyth lfgr dqy 52 yksx 24 fxj¶+rkj gq, ftlesa 5 vkSjrsa ,oa 2 cPps Hkh FksA tc jkgqyth lfgr fxj¶+rkj yksxksa dks jLlh ls ?ksjdj Nijk tsy ys tk;k tk jgk Fkk rc jkgqyth ,oa muds lkFkh pqipki ugha FksA os ukjs yxk jgs Fks& ^badykc ft+Unkckn*] 25 ^fdlku jkt dk;e gks* ,oa ^t+ehankj&izFkk dk uk'k gks*A okLro eas ,slk yx jgk Fkk tSls fo'ofofnr fo}ku~ g¡fl;k ysdj yydkj jgk gksA jkgqyth gh ugha mudk [+kwu Hkh iqdkj jgk Fkk fd vkvks c<+ks la?k"kZ djksA jkgqyth us dgk Hkhµ ^^ØkfUr 'kq: gks xbZ gSA badykc ft+Unkckn! ns'k ds fdlkuks] dke djks ,d 26 gks tkvksA** jkgqyth ds flj ij tc ykBh ls okj gqvk] mlh le; muds lkFk jkeo`{k csuhiqjh th us Hkfo";ok.kh dh Fkh fd ,d egku~ euh"kh ds flj ls cgk [+kwu fczfV'k 'kklu ds fy, 27 vfHk'kki lkfcr gksxkA okLro esa ,slk gqvk HkhA jkgqy dk [+kwu iqdkj jgk FkkA izks‚ euksjatu dh ;g dfork lkIrkfgd ^turk* esa izdkf'kr gqbZ vkSj 'kh?kz gh gjsd dh tqcku ij p<+ x;hA tsy ds ckgj jkgqyth ij gq, geys ds fo#) jktuSfrd ekgkSy xeZ gks mBkA fdlku lHkk ds vkàku
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ij 01 vizSy] 1939 dks ^jkgqyth ij izgkj&fojks/kh fnol* euk;k x;kA28 15 vizSy] 1939 dks tsy ds vUnj gh jkgqyth ij eqd+nek pykA mUgsa nQ+k 143 ¼x+Sj&d+kuwuh et+es dk lnL; gksus½ ,oa nQ+k 379 ¼Å[k dh pksjh djus½ ds rgr N%&N% ekg dh dM+h ltk gqbZA29 ykBh ekjusokys dqckZu ij Hkh eqd+nes dk ukVd pykA jkgqyth dk ekuuk Fkk fd ;g rks ek=k eksgjk gS] ltk rks mls feyuh pkfg, ftlds b'kkjs ij mlus ykBh pyk;hA vr% jkgqyth us dqckZu dks fjgk djk fn;kA30 bl vnkyrh Q+Slys dh leLr fcgkj esa rhoz izfrfØ;k gqbZA ,d lR;kxzgh ij yxk, x, Pkksjh ds vijk/k dh yksxksa us [kqys rkSj ij HkRlZuk dhA bl QS+lys dks iw.kZr% vfoosdiw.kZ crk;kA bl fdlku vkUnksyu dh lcls cM+h fo'ks"krk ;g Fkh fd blesa iq#"kksa ds lkFk&lkFk efgykvksa us Hkh t+cnZLr Hkkxhnkjh vafdr dhA Lo;a Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh us fy[kk gSµ ^bl vkUnksyu ls geus cgqr dqN lh[kkA blesa dk¡xzslh&eukso`fÙk dh iwjh >k¡dh gesa feyh--- cs'kd tSls eaqxsj ds fy, dk;kZuUn] vkSj x;k ds fy, ;nquUnu gSa] mlh rjg lkju ¼Nijk½ ds fy, jkgqyth gSa---A*31 vekokjh&lR;kxzg ds nkSjku ,oa i'pkr~ ds vkUnksyuksa eas fcgkj ds fdlkuksa us ,dtqVrk dk tks ifjp; fn;k] og csfelky FkkA Hkkjrh;&fdlku&lHkk dk bls iwjk&iwjk leFkZu feykA jkgqyth ds flj ls fxjk [+kwu O;FkZ ugha x;kA jkeo`{k csuhiqjh th dh Hkfo";ok.kh lR; fl) gqbZA fo'ofofnr fo}ku~ jkgqyth ds [+kwu dh iqdkj ,oa yydkj us u dsoy fcgkj dh dk¡xzslh&ljdkj vfirq fczzfV'k lÙkk dks fgykdj j[k fn;kA blhfy, Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh us muij xoZ vuqHko fd;kA lUnHkZ % 123456789-
deyk lkaÑR;k;u] ^fdlku vkUnksyu*] ^olq/kk*] vad 26] vizSy&twu] 1944] jhok] i`‚ 87 vo/ks'oj izlkn flag] ^jkgqyth dk vijk/k % veokjh lR;kxzg*] fganh dqfV;k] iVuk] 1939] i`‚ 33&34 ogh] Hkwfedk xq.kkdj eqGs] ^egkif.Mr jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u % thou vkSj O;fäRo*] us'kuy cqd VªLV] fnYyh]1993] i`‚ 4 czts'k dqekj JhokLro] ^jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u % ,d bfrgklijd vuq'khyu*] fd+rkc egy] bykgkckn] 2004] i`‚ 1 ogh] i`‚ 5 ogh] i`‚ 12 Ñ".k dqekj xksLokeh] ^Hkk"kk&fpUru*] ^olq/kk*] vad&26] vizSy&twu] 1994] i`‚ 130 jkexksfoUn f}osnh] ^f=kfiVdkpk;Z jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u ds dqN
10111213144516171819202122232425262728293031-
laLej.k*] ^lEesyu&if=kdk*] Hkkx&52] la[;k 1&2] iz;kx] ikS"k&T;s"B] 'kd 1888 ¼1966 bZ‚½] i`‚ 47&48 jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u] ^esjh thou&;k=kk*] Hkkx&2] fdrkc egy] bykgkckn] 1950] i`‚ 494 mfeZys'k] ^jkgqy lkaÑR;k;u % l`tu vkSj la?k"kZ*] ok.kh izdk'ku] u;h fnYyh] 1994] i`‚ 57 ^esjh thou&;k=kk*] Hkkx&2] iwoksZä] i`‚ 543&44 ogh] i`‚ 512 Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh] ^esjk thou&la?k"kZ*] xzUFkf'kYih] u;h fnYyh] 2000] i`‚ 274 ogh] i`‚ 275&279 mfeZys'k] iwoksZä] i`‚ 59 ogh] i`‚ 62 vo/ks'oj izlkn flag] iwoksZä] i`‚ 33&34 egkRek xk¡/kh] ;ax bf.M;k] 18 ebZ] 1922 esjh thou&;k=kk] Hkkx&2] iwoksZä] i`‚ 512 jkgqyth dk vijk/k] iwoksZä] i`‚ 44&45 ogh] i`‚ 45 esjh thou&;k=kk] Hkkx&2] iwoksZä] i`‚ 513 jkgqyth dk vijk/k] iwoksZä] i`‚ 46 ogh] i`‚ 48 ogh] i`‚ 48 f'kodqekj xks;y] ^jkgqy dqekj ds flj dk [+kwu*] vej mtkyk] >k¡lh] 01 flrEcj] 2012] i`‚ 12 mfeZys'k] iwoksZä] i`‚ 63 esjh thou&;k=kk] Hkkx&2] iwoksZä] i`‚ 520 ogh] i`‚ 535 Lokeh lgtkuUn ljLorh] iwoksZä] i`‚ 280
Book Review Book Title : 'Geography, People and Geodynamics of India in Puräëas and Epics : A Geologist's Interpretations'; Author : K.S. Valdiya; Published by : Aryan Books International, Pooja Apartments, 4B, Ansari Road, New Delhi-110 022; Publication Year : 2012; Number of Pages : xxxii+244; ISBN : 978-81-7305-422-8; Price : $ 1,500/- (H.B. Edition), $ 495.00 (Paperback Edition)
of their traditions was broken. The oldest literary sources we have from the ancient Greek world are the works of Homer (c. 700 BC). From the Middle East, the oldest extant books are those of the Hebrew Bible. While parts of the Old Testament are much older, as a whole much of it was redone after 500 BC. It endured the vicissitudes of Egyptian and Assyrian conquests and Babylonian captivity. The Gäthäs of Zoroaster are also old, dating from before the founding of the ancient Persian empire (525 BC), but they are later than the Vedic. They are also fragmentary since their portions were destroyed by the Greek and Muslim conquest of Persia…. While The Egyptian Book of the Dead is much older than these (to 3000 BC), no living tradition or record of its interpretation has survived for us.
his is a welcome endeavour by a renowned geologist like Dr. K.S. Valdiya to assay the puräëic and epic sources on strict scientific norms. This needs courage because during past two and half a century Western Indologists have not only demeaned, denounced and defamed Hindu puräëas but also relegated to the status of academic untouchability. Consequently, many scholars working on Vedas, especially the Ågveda, avoided puräëas and could not fathom the real depths of Indian history and civilization. It is not that the Western savants were not aware of the enormity of puräëic and epic literature and its importance to the history of mankind but it was purposely suppressed to accommodate and establish the sparse biblical literature in the realm of world history. Prof. David Frawley (23) has estimated the literary and archaeological sources of Western world in following words: While we have found some of the written records of the ancient Middle East, they are largely fragmentary and mutilated and their interpretation is often a matter of conjecture. Their cultures passed away and the continuity
This exhausts the literature on which the history and civilization of ancient world is attempted by Western scholars; it is as insignificant as a cow-hoof in comparison with the vast ocean of Vedic, Puräëic and Epic literature. Dr. Valdiya's attempt is welcome to asses puräëas and epics in the light of geodynamics of Indian subcontinent and for this he deserves our congratulations. The book is divided into twelve chapters dealing with geodynamics of Bhäratavarña and its culture profusely supported by quotations from puraëas and epics. Their titles are: 1) Puräëas: The Ancient History, 2) Geography of Modern India and Changes of Landforms with Time, 3) Puräëaland: Position and Extent, 4) Mountains of Bhäratavarña, 5) Rivers of 159
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Bhäratavarña, 6) Flora and Fauna of Bhäratavarña, 7) Peoples of the Puräëaland, 8) Térthas and Holy Shrines, 9) Äçramas and Purs, 10) Tectonic Movements, 11) Understanding of Geology and Knowledge of Engineering and 12) Long Summary of the Book. The first chapter includes treatment of the puräëas and the epics Rämäyaëa and Mahäbhärata. In the very beginning, defining the concept of 'Bhäratavarña', the author notes “The works known as Puräëas indeed chronicle the history of very ancient times, embodying the accounts of the people living in what are today India, Päkistän, Afghänistän, Central Asia, Western Tibet, Nepäl, Bhütän, Bänglädeça and Çré Lankä.” This region he calls 'Puräëaland' in more than one place in the book. He rightly recognised the encyclopedic nature of the puräëas and identifies eleven subjects like architecture, medicine, animal husbandry, astrology, grammar, statecraft, metallurgy etc. that are treated in them. He holds that 'the original text of the Purän is compendium of knowledge embodying in a holistic manner, spiritual, religious, cultural literary, military, financial, historical and geographic aspects.' The epics Rämäyaëa and Mahäbhärata also are given proper treatment. In fact puranas are basically history books. There is no pre-history in the Puranas; all is history, definite and certain, right from the creation of universe and the emergence of man in the seventh Manvantara, i.e. iti+ha+äsa. The human history, from the inception of humanity, is also given fair representation in the five original characteristics (lakñaëas) of the Puranas. As such these are frequently updated and additions of other subjects of social welfare were made quite often to make them real compendium guide for the society, a feature that has been used to demean by Western scholars. In later periods the Puranas assumed encyclopedic nature to meet the exigencies of the Hindu society and compendium of Hindu lifestyle, sciences, philosophy and arts etc. Measures to secure the society through vicissitudes of changing social and political order
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are also prescribed from time to time. Térthayäträ, däna, bhakti, spirituality, varëa-vyavasthä and moral codes in the form of ten aspects of dharma are some of these features. Prof. Valdiya defines Jambudvépa in second chapter (12) and holds “If India (Bhärata) and its surrounding terrains of neighbouring countries -- Päkistän, Afghänistän, Turkmenistän, Uzbegistän, Kyrgystän, Kazäkhastän, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutän, Myänmär, Bänglädeça and Çré Lankä -- are included, the land is indeed a continent -- the Indian continent.” This he rightly identifies with Jambudvép of the Puranas. He identifies five geological divisions of South Asia, including Myanmar. “In the north is the mountain province of the Himälaya, girdling the almost that expanse of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Plateaus and uplands constitute the larger part of the Peninsular India in the south, while coastal plains form a narrow fringe of the triangular Peninsular India. In the far east, the flood plains of the Irrawaddy River make up the long swath of land in the heart of Myänmära, which is bordered in the east by Shan Plateau.” The author gives (14) a vivid geological description of Himälayas and Pämér in following words “There are four latitudinal belts or terrains within the vast expanse of the Himälaya. Each of these belts or terrains has its own distinctive geological setup evolutionary history and geomorphological development. These are the Çiwalik in the south, the Lesser Himälaya and Great Himälaya or Himädri in the middle and the Tethys Himälaya in the north.” About the last region the author holds (16) “The Tethys terrine is made exclusively of sedimentary rock, ranging in age from more than 600 million years to 45 million years. The sediments were deposited in what is known as the Tethys Sea.” He further notes “The Himälaya province ends up against mainland Asia, 30-60 km wide zone of collision of India with Asia demarcating the margin of India. The collision took place 65 to 50 million years ago. The rivers Sindhu and Tsangpo occupy the collision zone…. To the north is the Käräkoram
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that ends up in the Pämér massif, a mountain knot of sorts. These belts belong to an orogenic province older and quite different from the Himälaya.” These observations by a renowned geologist can be interpreted in terms of the Puranic legends concerning orogeny of Himälaya and Pamir beginning from the Great Flood of the seventh Manvantara. The author, in Preface, rightly holds “Profound thinkers and keen observers that they were, the Puranic scholars had fairly accurate idea of the structure of the earth, and the origin, evolution and progression of life on land. They not only knew where the ores occur, but also methods of mining and converting them into metals. They also harnessed the gasses that oozed out from underground sources and burned as flames. They had fairly good grip of the science of engineering of fortifying towns, reclaiming lands from sea, and building bridges across even a sea. They could interpret uncommon signals of geophysical changes and anomalous behaviour of birds and animals; and had the presence of imminent occurrence of natural hazards.” The third chapter deals with the 'Puranaland: Position and Extent'. Here the author observes (32) “The mega-islands are Jambudvépa, Plakña, Shälmalé, Kuça, Krauïcha, Shäka and Puñkara” and holds (33) that according to the Puranas these are “the seven continents we know today-- Eurasia, Africa, South America, North America, Arctic, Australia and Antarctica.” But he leaves the question of identification of these continents with the Puranic ones for the reader to guess. Dr. Valdiya rightly identifies Puranic Meru with Pamir and describes that … “the Meru at the centre of Jambudvépa is the Pamir massif in Central Asia, and the countries described as Ilävritavarña, Ketumälävarña (sic), Hrivarña, Hiranyavarña, Ramyakvarña and Kuruvarña are the Central Asian countries Täjikistän, Turkmenistän, Afghänistän, Sinkiäng (Xinjiäng) Uzbekistan-Kyrgistän and Kazäkhtän, respectively.” Then on the basis of
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Kürmapuräëa and Viñëupuräëa he describes the pattern of drainage of the Pamir massif and the four rivers that issued from Meru in the four cardinal directions. Accordingly “Sitä River originates from the eastern flank of the massif and the Mandär flows through Bhadräshvavarña. Alakanandä flows south to Bhäratvarña. The Suchakshsu or Chakshu flowing west across a number of mountains and through Ketumälävarña, discharges in to a sea. The Bhadrä flowing northwards through Kuruvarña empties itself in the northern sea.” He identifies Suchakshu River with Oxus or Amu Daryä; 'Bhadrä with its Madhudhärä branch' of present Syr Daryä. “The Sétä River is the Tagdumbash branch of the Yärkand River flowing east past Käshgar into the sea of sands-- the Takla Mäkän desert within the Tarim Basin. Bhadräshvarña is the Puranic name of the state now known as Sinkiäng or Xijiäng of the Uighur people in western China.” “The Alakhnandä descended south from Meru” but it might be Gilgit River or Chitral River. These are the four original river systems described in the Puranas issuing from the Meru or Pamir. This happened several million years ago when the Himälayas was still in the process of emerging. Here we really are in the realm of geology and Dr. S.P. Gupta (1979: 9-10) precisely describes the early geodynamics of Central Asia in following words: Thus, in the beginning, some 500 million years ago, a vast sea existed from Western Europe across China and the northern shores of India which was then a separate land-mass. …For over 100 million years sediments brought by river formed huge beds of sedimentary rocks in the sea. Then some 60 million years ago, it is hypothesized, the Indian land-mass collided with the Asian land-mass. The impact crumbled the layers of sedimentary rock along the edges of the two continents, creating a line of colossal mountain ranges, among them the
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Pämérs, the Tien Shan and the Himälayas. The newly formed mountains trapped the sea in north, creating a huge island basin. As the welding of India to Central Asia continued over the next 25 million years, this basin was wedged up by the edge of the Indian land-mass and was drained to the west-- into the present-day Black Sea and the Mediterranean-- leaving Turkestan with only a few large saline “puddles”, among them are the Caspian and Aral Sea. Then followed the period of the creation of fresh-water rivers, such as the Amu and the Syr which, along-with numerous others, now lost or merged, kept on meandering, through their own loads, deposited, cut and re-deposited and to be re-cut once again. Being an accomplished geologist Dr. Valdiya could have gone deep into the Puranic geology, which is very rich in the subject. It could have been a pioneering work for the future researchers in Puranic geology because he as a geologist is in better position to distinguish different geological strata in the formation of the Central Asian and South Asian landmass and various stages of its drainage pattern. Instead he elects to pick up the lists of rivers from the Puranas in different regions of the present Bharat. The Puranas are very elaborate and comprehensive in describing the rivers of greater Bhärata as these are especially sacred for the society. One can also trace a chronological sequence in these lists and discern a historical background. Dr. Valdiya has been quite elaborate in describing them region wise and identifying with the existing ones. He has traced their source of origin and followed their flow till they submerged in another river or in the sea. His sharp eyes do not fail to recognize (89) that in 'the Upper Jurassic age forming of cores of concretion balls or nodules called Shäligräma. He notes that the 'Shivapuräëa describes the Shälgräma (sic) having formed by innumerable insects with sharp teeth forming
circular features.' “The narration that the Gandaki representing the very pious Tulsé will be intimately associated with the Shäligräma is very apt and well-validated by palaeontological evidence.” At the same time he has quoted several passages from the Puranas listing seven river systems (73, 83). Here one expects that as a geologist he will recognise the geological sequence of these lists of rivers and their shifting geographical position in successive lists. In fact the Puranas have recorded more than one list of seven rivers and we can assume that these did exist in different periods geologically. Though it is not possible to determine the geological period of each of these lists their geographical location is not always impossible to distinguish. This may be considered as indication of the shifting geographical gravity of centre of the civilization of people who revised Puranas at different times and ages. Dr. S.P. Gupta's assertion that river courses kept on changing and that some of them 'now lost or merged, kept on meandering, through their own loads, deposited, cut and re-deposited and to be re-cut once again' should be viewed in this light. As we have noted the Puranas and the epics Rämäyaëa and Mahäbhärata being history books were revised time and again contain many lists of rivers that had emerged and lost and re-emerged at different periods of time. Dr. H.H. Wilson, in his Ågveda Saàhitä (volume I, Maëòala I, p. 8283) notes several such lists given below: Seven Rivers-- According to one -Pauräëka legend, the Gaìgä divided on its descent into seven streams, termed as Nalini, Pävané, and Hlädiné, going to the east; the Cakñu, Sétä, and Sindhu, to the west; and the Bhägérathé or the Ganges proper to the south. In one place in the Mahäbhärata, the seven rivers are termed Vasvaukasara, Naliné, Pävané, Gaëgä, Sétä, Sindhu and Jambunadé; in another, Gaìgä, Yamunä, Plakñaga, Rathasthä, Sarayü, Gomaté and Gaëòaké. Dr. Valdiya also notes these names but
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does not specify their geological of historical nature. Obviously these names denote different geological periods and geographical regions that represent various strata of civilization. It is worthy of note that in modern times a different set of seven rivers are enchanted at the time of bath by Hindus, these include rivers of Bharat before partition. (Gaìge ca Yamune caiva Godavari SarasvatiA Narmade Sindhu Kavari jale'smià sannidhià kuruÏ) Thus the historical nature of the Puranas depicting different geological periods should be kept in mind while dealing with them. Such a study might be revealing to trace the shifting centre of gravity of Hindu society. Similar is the case with mountains. The Puranas recognise two types of mountains, the Kula-parvatas and the Kesara-parvatas. The mountains of Central Asia including Himalayas are called Kesara-parvatäù in the Viñëupuräëa (2.2.28). These are also called Varña-parvatäù in the Çivapuräëa and Maryädä-parvatäù in the Kürmapuräëa. Dr. Valdiya has noted these two series (51) but could not differentiate between the two and wrongly includes Himälaya among the kulaparvatas (53) against the Puranic lists. Undoubtedly all the seven kulaparvatas situated in the peninsular India are geologically different from those of the northern mountains; the fact points to the geological talent of the Puranic scholars. Here are some glimpses of geological history discerned from the study of Puranas and epics. Puranic history of life on earth begins with the first Manvantara that evolved gradually in successive Manvantaras till we reach the sixth one that starts from about 429 million years ago. Modern geologists divide it in many geological ages beginning from this Manvantara. It is interesting to have a comparative account of both the sciences. According to Puranas present set of life begins from the seventh Manvantara with the eruption of Meru with the collision of the Indian landmass with Asia. Here follows a brief description of it. Prof. Valdiya talks about 'the zone
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collision of India with the Asia' (16 and 86, fig. 5.6) but nowhere recognizes that the event triggered the process of orogeny in the region. Perhaps western geology does not recognise this. But the Puräëas have records of principal geological events of Jambudvépa (i.e. Asia) in the form of legends right from the emergence of the seventh Manu, the son of Vivasväna about 120 million years ago when the Indian landmass, identified as the Ark of Manu by us, collided with the Asian landmass, both being submerged in the great deluge that occurred during the interglacial period. This was the end of the age of the sixth Manu Chäkshusha that continued from 428.98 million years till 120.53 million years from now (Verma, 2006: Table 1, p. 8). The modern science of geology recognises several changes in the evolution of life and land formations. The Puräëas have recorded this history in the form of legends that can be interpreted with insight in the light of modern scientific researches. To have a better understanding we will attempt to correlate the legends with geological changes as modern geologists have put it. Modern geological studies divide the age of the sixth Manu, from 428.98 million years onwards, into several geological periods. We cite excerpts from the Ultimate Visual Dictionary, 21st Century Supplement. Accordingly (66) “Towards the end of Carboniferous times (363290 million years ago), the earth's continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland collided, resulting in the huge land-mass of Pangaea. Glaciers smothered much of the southern hemisphere during the Permian period (290-245 million years ago), covering Antarctica, parts of Australia, and much of South America, Africa, and India. Ice locked up much of the world's water and large areas of the northern hemisphere experienced a drop in sea-level. Away from the poles, deserts and hot dry climate predominated. As a result of these conditions, the Permian period ended with the greatest mass extinction of life on earth ever.” The next, called Triassic period (245-208 million years ago) … 'marked the beginning of
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what is known as the Age of the Dinosaurs (the Mesozoic era). During this period, the presentday continents were massed together, forming one huge continent known as Pangaea. This land-mass experienced extremes of climate, with lush green areas around the coast or by lakes and rivers, and arid deserts in the interior. The principal form of animal life included primitive amphibians, rhynchosaurs (“beaked lizards”), and primitive crocodilians. Dinosaurs first appeared about 250 million years ago, at the beginning of the Late Triassic period. By the end of the Triassic period, dinosaurs dominated Pangaea, possibly contributing to the extinction of many other reptiles.” The other important reptile species, not so emphasised were the flying pterosaurs, relative of dinosaurs that soared high above them. Pterosaurs ruled the skies, flying over land and sea while the dinosaurs stalked the earth. The Mesozoic ended with the Cretaceous period which lasted from 146 to 65 million years ago. During this period Gondwanaland and Laurasia were breaking up into smaller land-masses that more closely resembled those of the modern continents…. At the end of the Cretaceous period, however, dinosaurs and pterosaurs became extinct. The reason for this mass extinction is unknown but it is thought to have been caused by climatic changes due to either a catastrophic meteor impact with the Earth or extensive volcanic eruptions.
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position. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the Mediterranean Sea and following the migration of terrestrial animals between Africa and Western Europe. India's collision with Asia led to the formation first of the Pamir massif and then of the Himalayas. This period has also been characterized by alternating cold (glacial) and warm (interglacial) periods.
It is interesting to note that the extinction of dinosaurs (reptiles, called serpents in the Puranas) and pterosaurs (flying reptiles i.e. garuòa of the Puranas) can be alluded to in the Puranic legend of Vinitä, the mother of serpents and Kadru, the mother of Garuda. Both are said to be the daughters of Prajäpati Kaçyapa and rivaled each other for hegemony over the earth resulting in extinction of both the species.
The continental drift theory reveals that the Indian landmass has been the most mobile among all the continents. It travelled about 9000 km distance from Antarctica and finally collided with the Eurasian landmass. This started orogenic activity and Pämér (Meru) and other mountains of Central Asia were created. These are called 'Kaseru' or 'Maryädä-parvataù' and are of different geological nature as compared to the peninsular mountains which are called 'Kula-parvatäù'. The check in kinetic movement of the Indian landmass caused its anticlockwise rotation and its eastern portion also started subducting under the Eurasian landmass giving rise to the Himälayas. This resulted in many geological changes in the Indian continent. Firstly it became a subcontinent. Secondly the South Sea became the eastern sea now called the Bay of Bengal. Thirdly a 'Fore Deep' was created to the south of the Himalaya that later became the plain of Ganga. This depression is called the 'Uttara-samudra' and 'Saumyasindu' in twelfth century copperplates (Verma, 2010. 82). The Agastya legend drinking the sea water is related with this sea in Vanaparva (chapter 105) of the Mahäbhärata. This was a geological event because when the sage was asked to release the water after the demons were killed he said 'it is consumed, do something else'. Then from the next chapter of the Vanaparva of the Mahäbhärata begins the history of bringing Ganga on (new lytormed) earth.
The Cretaceous period was followed by the Tertiary period (65-1.6 million years ago) was characterized by a huge expansion of mammal life. By the beginning of this period, the continents had almost reached their present
The other legend of Agastya is related with the stagnation of the mountain Vindhya. This also is a geological event. There (Mahäbhärata, Vanaparva, chapter 104) it is said that Vindhya started soaring high in competition
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with the Meru which was then the highest mountain on earth (i.e. before the emergence of Himalaya). Actually this was a false rise resulted by the kinetic check of the Indian landmass. The term Agastya is derived of two words 'aga' means mountain and 'stha' means 'to stop'. It is said that Agastya was one of the two earliest sages in history, the other being Vasiñöha his brother. The South Indian legends relate that he reached Kerala via Dvärakä. Here it may be pointed out that Dvarakä of Kåñëa submerged in to the sea after the Bhärata war. The attached map (Fig. 2) shows that most of the west coast has gone under sea at different periods and that there must have been a land route via the delta of Indus to Dvärakä from Mery. The cluster of Harappan sites around the mouth of Indus as well as the Kathiawar peninsula indicate that these regions might have been connected by land. The theory of continental drift shows that Indian continent was once joined on its eastern side with Australia and on the western it was attached with Africa and Madagascar. Its orientation also was different at various stages. See changing orientation of the Indian continent in the attached map (Fig.1). What is now the eastern coast of Orissa was once the South Sea. In the Rämäyaëa this is mentioned at least in two places. (Verma, 2006: 44). The present author holds this to be the geological position during the age of Rama. Prof. Valdiya (90) has also referred to the Skandapuräëa twice mentioning the rivers Mahanadi and Suvarnarekha (also called Suvarnamukhi) meet the South Sea (Dakshiëodadhi), obviously on the coast of Orissa. This goes to show that the Puranas and the epics recorded this geological position of the South Sea as contemporary existence. It is also interesting to note that Indians were aware of a North Sea also. A Gahadavala period (12th century) copperplate inscription refers to Uttara-samudra and Saumya-sindhu for the Gandaka Depression of the northern part of eastern U.P. and western Bihar. (Verma, 2010: 82). Thus the collision of the Indian landmass
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with that of Asia was a geological phenomenon that caused the eruption of Meru, the Pamir. The Puranic scholars have figuratively described this as the Ark of Manu being tied at the top of Meru. This Ark can be nothing else than the Indian landmass. This was accompanied by deluge that may be explained in terms of modern geologists' perception of glaciers melting down and a rise in the sea level. Since this incident is associated with the emergence of humanity many ancient civilizations remembered and narrated this in different versions. Dr. Valdiya has rightly pointed out the geological precedence of Pamir (Meru) to that of the Himalaya and observes (16) “To the north is the Käräkoram that ends up in the Pamir massif, a mountain knot of sorts. These belts belong to an orogenic province older and quite different from the Himalaya.” In an attempt to correlate with the Puranic history he notes (105) “Around the Meru Parvat, presently known as Pamir, it may be recapitulated, the semicircular territory was Ilävrittavarña in Puran times.” But in the map on p. 84 he places 'Sumeru' area around Kailäsa in the Himalaya. Here not only the earliest episodes of human history were enacted but also 'Dänavas' and the 'Ailas' (descendents of Ila, the eldest daughter of Manu) were living together and had marital relations. Püru, the youngest son of Yayäti, who inherited the mighty Aila kingdom, was the son of Çarmishöhä, the daughter of the 'Dänava' king. These 'Dänavas' can be regarded as the predecessors of later Iranians who remember to have come from Airyanem Vaejah which I am inclined to identify with Ilävarta or Ailanäà Vartaù. Interestingly the Celts also claim to be the progeny of Danu (Verma, 2011. 163 ff.). We have another incident to claim the geological precedence of Meru or Ilävartavarñaa. Meru was the earlier abode of Çiva when Saté, the daughter of Dakña Prajäpaté, was his consort. The Matsyapuräëa (11. 44-45) calls this region as Çaravaëa which I have
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identified with the river and valley of Zeravshan in Central Asia. In the Ågveda this region is called Çaryaëävat where Soma used to grow. (Verma, 2012: 182) The Himalaya started emerging after Meru. The identification of present Sri Lanka by Prof. Valdiya (61-61, 194, 207 etc) with that of the Rämäyaëa period is not tenable on geological norms. Geologically this island was a part of the main Indian landmass (Fig.2). The Sangam literature repeatedly mentions submergence of land into the sea. The Mahäbhärata also mentions such an event about Dvärakä, as noted above. The submergence of the southern part of Dhanushkodi township in 1948-48 along a WNW-ESE trending fault is an event of our life time. Besides, there is no literary or historical tradition linking this island with the Rämäyaëa episode. The present Sri Lanka is called Tambapanni in Açokan edicts, so also in the Greek literature of the first century BCE. This name can be derived from its shape that resembles a betel leaf (tämbüla+parëa). No one knows at which time it assumed this name. It is to be noted that in Telugu dictionaries 'lanka' means an island. The learned professor claims (61) that “The Prasravan Giri appears to be the Puräëic name of the 1525-1647-m Nallamalai-Velikonda Hills … The Välmiki Rämäyan mentions the name of Vindhyagiri in connection with the Ändhra Pradeça mountains. The geologists know that in terms of the age as well as in rock formations, the mountains of the Cuddapah Basin of Ändhra Pradesh, including the Nallamalai, are correlated closely with those of the Vindhya Basin. This possibly explains the inadvertent naming of the Ändhra mountains. May be Välmiki was aware of the rock types and of the contemporaneity of the Vindhya and Nallamalai.” Then ignoring the great distance between Vindhya and southern part of Kerala the author notes (62) “Evidently, from Ändhra Pradeça they (the Vanara party) went to the Malaya Giri-- the present Cardamom Hills
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through the Anaimalai Hills, forming the southern Sahyädri Range. The Mahendra Parvat lay at the southern extremity of the Malaya, overlooking the Tämraparni River on the one side and the sea on the other.” To press his point the author links together three verses from two different kandas of the Rämäyaëa that are unconnected to each other. This is a most difficult postulation for the Vanara search party to travel thousands of kilometers from coastal Andhra to the southern tip of the Sahya Mountain in Kerala; and though even this also is called Mahendra Parvata it is neither the convenient point nor the nearest one to go to Sri Lanka. Instead the Ramesvaram could have been better option for the party to cross the sea. On the other hand the Mahendragiri of Rämäyaëa is on the coastal Andhra where the party was in search of Sétä. Välméki cannot be blamed for “inadvertent naming of the Andhra mountains” and it is unwarranted to say that “Välméki was aware of the rock types and of the contemporaneity of the Vindhya and Nallamalai”. The poet of the Rämäyaëa has given a minute, detailed and vivid account of the movement of the search party and he describes how they entered the Åkña-bil, i.e. a cave-hole and with the help of the pious lady, Tapasviné, came out on the sea coast (IV.52). Here she points that 'this is the Vindhyagiri, that is the Prasravaëa-çilä and this is the ocean Mahodahi.' (Verma: 2006. 43). This sea was then the South Sea not only in Rämäyaëa but also in the SkandaPuräëa as quoted in the work under review (90). This statement shows that at that time all the three were within a visible distance that could be pointed out by index finger. The Mahendragiri is still on the Andhra coast known by this name. A sixth century inscription of the Later Guptas mentions this feat of Hanuman from Koçavardhana, another name of this mountain (Goyal: 1987. 125 and 128). So far as the janapada of Kiñkindhä is concerned it said in the Brahmapuräëa (27. 60-63) that it is located in the Vindhya region. This Kiñkindhä also finds mention in as capital of the seventh century Guhila kings in at least three inscriptions
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(Goyal: ibid. 177-83). These traditions should not be ignored while dealing with the geography of Rämäyaëa. The geological aspect of this should also be considered. The Mahendragiri must have been on the sea shore during the Rämäyaëa period but now it is several kilometers away from it. It is now for the geologists to decide how much time will require filling this gap by the loess brought by the rivers. Here it is noteworthy that while there are literary references of submersion of land on the western coast of India the eastern coast is noted for reclaiming land from the sea because majority of rivers of the peninsula flow in the Bay of Bengal. As discussed above the geological evidence of continental drift theory points out that there was time in antiquity when the present Bay of Bengal was oriented southwards, then it was called the South Sea. Prof. Valdiya has noted this in some quotations but could not understand the real significance of this Puranic knowledge. Obviously he is guided by the western chronology of history which compresses all historical events within ten centuries and about half of which period is reserved for nothing. Their prehistory now extends in two million years (till sixth decade of the last century this period was only one lakh years) and during this prolonged period man struggles for civilization. In fact western of history is based on ignorance, imaginations and speculations by a people who after the tyrannical suppressive rule of the Romans became victim of the ignorant clergy who tried everything to keep their followers away from knowledge. Enlightened after sixteenth century they found within three centuries in commanding position in all the continents through brut power. This behaviour is reflected in the world history written by them. Their treatment with the conquered civilizations became pattern of world history in where every human movement is perceived in terms of invasion only. The Old Testament served as
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model for chronology. This faulty chronological scheme has tremendously influenced the minds of Indians also who are unable to comprehend the traditional Puranic chronology supported by the sciences of geology, zoology, astronomy & c. However, the tradition accepts Rama to have flourished in the Tretäyuga of twentyfourth Mahäyuga i.e. about 18 million years BP. Al-beruni also reached this date after calculation (Sachau: 4). The map (Fig.1) showing positions of the Indian continent at different periods definitely shows that the present bay of Bengal was earlier the South Sea as recorded in the contemporary work of Rämäyaëa as well as in the Skandapuräëa. There are zoological references also in literature to prove this great antiquity of the age of Rama. Sundarkäëòa of the Rämäyaëa records that while Hanuman was searching Sétä in Lanka he saw four tusk elephants on the gate of Rävana's palace. Another mention of this animal comes from the chapter 27 (11-12) of the same käëòa. The existence of four tusk elephant cannot be dismissed as a fancy of the poet Välméki who was a contemporary of Rama. Paleontological science records the existence of this animal with the name Mastodontoidae or Mastodonte about 38 million years ago and extinct by 15 million years ago. According to Rämäyaëa this animal not only existed but also was tamed and used for riding. The Bhägavatpuräëa (8.8.4) also mentions fourtusked elephant, the Airävata that emerged from the ocean. These are zoological evidences of the antiquity of the age of Rama besides the geological ones cited above. Now we conclude this discussion after pointing out some anomalies in modern thinking about the River Sarasvaté. Hundreds of articles and several dozens of books have been written during last two centuries but all of them appear to ignore literature and geology. Due to this tremendous interest in the river and ignoring the literary and cultural context we have lost track of broader historical perspective of this river. It needs no emphasis that Sarasvaté was the most
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prominent river of cultural importance in the Ågvedic Age. It can be compared with the present culture of the Hindus that can be called as the Age of River Ganga. Both the ages are linked together but latter starts after the former gives way to it. Geologically speaking, as specified above, the Ganga civilization begins after the Fore Deep to the south of Himälaya dried and became habitable and the Mahajanapadas of Pancäla, Kosala, Käçé and Videha were established in the Ganga plain. These regions do not figure the Ågveda. There is a sharp contrast between the Sarasvaté civilization and that of the Ganga valley. Geographically the former extends from Shortughai in north Afghanistan to Gujarat in the south and up to the west of Ganga in the east. This is the region that is called the 'Sadana of Vivasvän' in the Nadi-Sükta of the Ågveda (X.75) where three sets of seven rivers (SaptaSindhus) used to flow. Sarasvaté is undoubtedly the most praised river in Ågveda. Archaeologically also this civilization is distinct from that of the Ganga valley marked by the NBP ware and Punch Marked coins that geographically cover the whole subcontinent. Linguistically also the Ågveda is quite different from the Sanskrit of Puranic period. It cannot just be a fancy of the Puranic people to devise infallible method to preserve every word of the Vedas with original accent in human brain taperecorders and employ a group of people in the society to devote their life for generations to come. In spite of these differences all efforts were made to keep the current of continuity undisturbed. The story of Videgha Mäthava can be viewed as a connecting event between the two phases of the same culture. Videgha, the son of Mitha (Videha and Mithila are names of the region that were named after these two personalities) starts from the River Sarasvaté and reaches the River Sadänérä beyond which was the marshy land that he selects it for inhabiting his people. Evidently he left his Harappan settlement in the Sarasvaté valley that had become ecologically inhospitable for human
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habitat. While Sarasvaté is a mighty river in the Ågveda its image in the Puräëas and epics is that of a dry river. The Ågveda (VII.95.2) states that Sarasvaté issues from the mountain and flows into a sea. In the same work (III.33.2) two other rivers, Çutudré and Vipäça also are stated to go to the sea. Obviously this sea cannot be the Arabian Sea; was the Rajputana Sea that now has converted into the Thar Desert. It is strange that geologists have avoided referring to this sea although a prominent geologist notes that 'The large tract of low country, forming Rajasthan west of Aravallis' contains 'marine, fossiliferous deposits of Mesozoic and Cainozoic ages' (Wadia: 4). The Rajasthan Sea was a reality and it dried up, not because it was drained into the Arabian Sea but because it dried up of its own during several millennia of its existence. It is now called Thar Desert, i.e. a desert that resembles a plate on account of its being shallow by the debris brought by the mighty Himälayan rivers Sarasvaté, Dåñadvaté, Çutudré, Vipäça, Yamuna and many others. It is still a unexhautable source of salt for the continent. The tradition relates Sarasvaté was carrying fire (Vaòavänala) with it and deposited it into the sea. (See Skandapuräëa, Prabhasakhanda). Though it is said to have deposited it in the sea at Prabhasa this narration must be viewed in relation to the Rajasthan Sea which is now the Thar Desert. The course of Sarasvaté, and also of Dåñadvaté on which the last site is the Kalibangan, end in Rajasthan and there is no trace of it up to Prabhasa in Gujarat. But modern historians have dragged Sarasvaté, through dotted lines, or even continuous line up to the Arabian Sea via Cholistan in Pakistan, i.e. the western borders of the Thar Desert. This phenomenon of drying of the Thar Desert continued for several millenniums and disturbed the ecological balance of the Harappan (Särasvata) civilization. Our archaeologist under the influence of Western chronology, are dating this civilization very miserly. It is little more than a joke when they proclaim that Sarasvaté started drying up before
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1900 BCE. Valdiya (27) is no exception as he claims 'This river vanished sometime around 3800±100 years ago'. This modern estimation of archaeologists negates literature because it has already dried up during the Mahäbhärata war in 3138 BCE.
Ganga civilization took over after its extinction. This delineation is produced here on the geological history and legends described in the Puranas and the epics. This is also supported by the Vedic literature including Saàhitas and Brähmaëas.
Balaräma, the elder brother of Kåñëa opted to go on a pilgrimage along the river Sarasvaté instead of fighting for any one group. This episode is related in the Çalyaparva (chapters 34 to 39) of the Mahäbhärata. He started his pilgrimage to the source of Sarasvaté from the territories of the Kurus (Kuruëäà vaiçase, 35.21), then the verse 37 of the same chapter notes that he reached Kurukñetra. The following 49 verses relate the story of Candra being removed of his curse after bathing in the Prabhäsa-kñetra; and from the verse 87 Balrama resumed the pilgrimage from the tértha Camsodbheda on Sarasvatié. Obviously the story of Candra is a modification in praise of that tértha and should not be accepted as a part of Balarama's pilgrimage. It is specifically stated that he took bath at Camsodbheda because here the Sarasvaté seems to have re-appeared, as the name suggests. Then he proceeds to next tértha called Udupäna (36.2 and 53) where he could not get sufficient water for bathing and satisfied by touch (upaspåçya) only. Probably this was then only a dry well (36.25 and 33). Next he visits the place known as Vinaçana. Here also, he only touched the water (37.2) and did not bathe. The other térthas mentioned in the chapter are difficult to trace. The next two chapters eulogize Sarasvaté by connecting with other rivers of the Ganga valley to establish their sanctity. This narration proves that the River Sarasvaté had become dry by 3138 BCE when the Bharta War was fought.
This geological outline of Puranic history is discussed here because I, as a student of history, feel indebted to this excellent work of Prof. Valdiya. The author is basically a geologist with great experience but little background in history. This attempt by him provides a preliminary survey of the immense Puranic material on geology and opens avenues for future researchers. His pioneer work in the field will prove torchbearer for generations to come. However, the author has shown insight and there are many positive flashes in the book that I could not highlight in this review. Prof. Valdiya has put in immense labour in collecting material from the Puranas and the epics and interpreted them intelligently.
Harappan civilization was dependent on the ecology of the Särasvata (Rajputana) Sea and it diminished and finally vanished with it. This geological fact was a reality of India's ancient past and all other reasons for its extinction are just guess and speculation. This civilization was dominated by the River Sarasvaté as described in the Ågveda and the
The book is well produced and worth its price. It is printed on art paper and illustrations are of high quality. There are however many proof errors in the Nagari quotations from the Puranas. Use of diacritics in modern geographical names could have been avoided. Let us hope many more articles and works on the subject from the lucid pen of Prof. Valdiya.
Bibliography: 1.
David Frawley, Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization, Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2003 (Reprint).
2.
Goyal, S.R. Maukhari-Puñybhüti-Chälukya yugéna Abhilekh, 1987, Jodhpur.
3.
Sachau, Edward C, Alberuni's India (First Indian Reprint 1964), New Delhi, volume II, p. 4.
4.
Ultimate Visual Dictionary, 21st Century Supplement, London, New York etc. 1999, revised edition. This edition published in
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2005. 5. 6.
Verma, T.P. (2006) The Science of Manvantaras, Bengalore, 2006. Verma, T.P. (2009) 'Ågveda ke Nadé-sükta kä Bhaugolika Adhyayan, Mänaviké, Vol. I, No. 1 (July-Dec. 2009), pp. 135-145.
7.
Verma, T.P. (2010) 'Daradagandakidesha ka Bhugarbhika Ithasa', Itihas Darpan, 15 (1), pp. 82 ff.
8.
Verma, T.P. (2011) 'The Ethno-linguistic Identity of Celts: the Vedic People' Itihas Darpan, 16 (2), pp. 163-178.
9.
Verma, T.P. (2012) 'Geography of Soma: the
Cradle of Human Civilization', Itihas Darpan, p.177 ff. 10. Wadia, D.N. (1998) Geology of India, (eventh reprint, 1975 fourth edition) New Delhi, p. 4. 11. Wilson, H.H. Ågveda Saàhitä, Volume I, Sanskrit Texts, English translation and notes according to H.H. Wilson and Bhäñya of Säyaëäcärya, edited and revised with an exhaustive introduction and notes by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi, Delhi, 1997.
—T. P. Verma
Fig.1 : Northward travel of Indian continent and its anticlockwise rotation at different stages.
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Fig.2 : Map showing shallow water on the west and south coast suggesting Sri Lanka once being part of Indian landmass.
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ls muds dk;kZUr rd dh Li"V >k¡dh ek=k 6 i`"Bksa eas lesV nh gksA ^---Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl ds bl ladVe; laØkafrdky eas] ftl egkiq#"k us /keZ] lekt vkSj jk"Vª esa lef"V&eqfä ds egku~ vkn'kZ dks izfrf"Br fd;k] vkt muds vkn'kZ dks ?kj&?kj igq¡pkus dh vko';drk izcy :i ls eglwl gks jgh gSA* Hkwfedk dh ;g iafä iqLrd ds mís'; dks Li"V dj nsrh gSA iqLrd eas Lokeh th dss tUe ds fy, iz;qä fganw&frfFk] foØe laor~ o dfy;qxkCn dk iz;ksx bfrgkl esa py jgh Hkwy&lqèkkj dh vksj /;ku fnykrs gSaA Hkwfedk esa Lokeh th dh dgh xbZ dqN cgqr gh egÙoiw.kZ ckrsa m)`r gSa] tSlsµ ik'pkR; lH;rk ds xoZ ls fnXHkzkUr Hkkjrokfl;ksa dks lukru fganw&/keZ ds iFk ij ykSVus dk vkàku djuk gksxkA--- ;g dkSu&lh f'k{kk gS tks vkidks igyk ikB i<+krh gS fd vkids ekrk&firk vkSj iwoZt ew[kZ gSa vkSj vkids vkjk/; nsoh&nsork 'kSrku!* vkfnA Hkwfedk esa ;g è;ku fnyk;k x;k gS fd yxHkx ,d 'krkCnh ds fczfV'k 'kklu us og vk?kkr fd;k Fkk ftls vcrd ds Øwj vkØkark Hkh ugha dj ik, FksA Hkkjr ds eu dks rksM+us dk dk;Z fczfV'k&ys[kdksa] bfrgkldkjksa] f'k{kkfonksa] iknfj;ksa] fe'kufj;ksa o 'kkldksa us lQyrkiwoZd fd;k FkkA Hkwfedk esa fy[kh ,slh fdruh gh ckrsa Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl&fpUru ds izfr Lokeh th dh n`f"V dk voyksdu djkrh gS lkFk gh ^fganw&jk"Vª*µ bl 'kCnkoyh dk izFke iz;kssx lEHkor% Lokeh th us fd;k Fkk] ftKklk mRié djrh gSA MkW‚ lrh'k pUnz feÙky ,d iz[;kr bfrgklfon~ gSa vkSj bldk n'kZu bl iqLrd esa Hkh loZ=k fn[kkbZ iM+rk gSA mUgksaus Lokeh th dks bfrgkl ds ,d f'k{kd ds :i esa izLrqr djus dk vrqyuh; dk;Z bl iqLrd ds ek/;e ls fd;k gSA Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl dh vusd ewy folaxfr;ksa] tSlsµ vk;Z&vkØe.k fl)kUr] vk;Z&nzfoM+ fookn] Hkkjr izkphure~ jk"Vª ugha gS] Hkkjr dh dksbZ ,sfrgkfld lkexzh ugha gS vkfn tfVy leL;kvksa ij] ftuls vkt Hkh bfrgkl ds fo|kFkhZ ds eu esa HkVdko gS] Lokeh foosdkuUn ds fopkj rF; vkSj rdZ ds vk/kkj ij ekxZ iz'kLr djrs gSaA iqLrd dh ;s izkjfEHkd ,sfrgkfld ppkZ bl NksVh&lh iqLrd dks foLrkj nsrh gSA
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ys[kd us Lokeh th dks ewyr% Hkkjr dk ,d vk/;kfRed rFkk lkaLÑfrd ;qxiq#"k ekuk gS] lkFk gh iqLrd esa fofHké 'kh"kZdksa ds ek/;e ls Lokeh th dh Hkkjr dh izfr ,sfrgkfld n`f"V dks js[kkafdr fd;k gSA bfrgkl dh O;kid ifjHkk"kk ds ek/;e ls ys[kd us Lokeh th dh bfrgkl&n`f"V dks Li"V fd;k gSA Lokeh foosdkuUn dksbZ ¼is'ksoj½ bfrgkldkj ugha Fks] ysfdu mUgksaus ml le; ds bfrgkl&xzUFkksa dk iSuk fujh{k.k fd;kA oLrqr% mUgsa ^bfrgkl&la'kks/kd* dgk tk ldrk gSA mUgksus is'ksoj bfrgkldkjksa dh /kkjk ds foijhr osnkfn Hkkjrh;&xzUFkksa dks vikS#"ks; ?kksf"kr djrs gq, mUgsa fo'o dk izkphure ok³~e; crk;kA ;gk¡ rd fd fo'o /keZ laln esa Hkh mUgksaus osnksa dh vikS#"ks;rk ij foLrkj ls izdk'k MkykA ik'pkR; bfrgkldkjksa] ;gk¡ rd fd dqN Hkkjrh;&bfrgkldkjksa us Hkh Hkkjrh;&xzaFkksa dh ,sfrgkfld lkexzh ds :i esa vusns[kh dh rFkk osnksa vkSj iqjk.kkfn dks udkjus dk iz;kl fd;kA bl fo"k; ij iqLrd esa Lokeh th rFkk Hkfxuh fuosfnrk ds fopkjksa }kjk fczfV'k&bfrgkldkjksa dh dVq vykspuk fuf'pr gh ;g lkspus ij ck/; djrh gS fd tc gekjs Kku vkSj bfrgkl ds òksr osn] iqjk.kkfn xzaFk lk{; ds :i eas miyC/k gSa rks ge mUgsa diksy&dfYir D;ksa ekurs gSa\ fo}ku~ ys[kd us Lokeh th fd fopkjksa ds ek/;e ls bl fonzwi fLFkfr dks lkeus ykus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA ^vaxsztksa }kjk fyf[kr foÑr bfrgkl ls gekjk bfrgkl foÑr ugha gksuk pkfg,] D;ksafd og dsoy Hkkjr ds iru dh dgkuh dgrk gS*µ Lokeh th ds bl okD; ls bfrgkl dh okLrfodrk dk ifjp; ys[kd us cM+s gh lEiw.kZ rjhds ls djk;k djk;k gSA Lokeh foosdkuUn Hkkjro"kZ ds lEHkor% igys ,sls fo}ku~ Fks] ftUgksaus vaxzst+ksa dh dwVuhfr dks le>dj muds ^vk;Z&vkØe.k&fl)kUr* dk izcy fojksèk fd;kA ml dky esa] tc Lokeh n;kuUn ljLorh ¼1824&1883½ ,oa yksdekU; ckyxaxkèkj fryd ¼1856&1920½&tSls oSfnd fo}ku~ Hkh vaxzst+ksa ds >k¡ls esa vk x, Fks] Lokeh th us fcuk Hkzfer gq, Hkkjr ls ysdj ;wjksi vkSj vesfjdk rd dk izokldj bl fopkjèkkjk dk [k.Mu fd;kA ^fo'o&jk"Vªksa eas Hkkjr* uked 'kh"kZd ds ek/;e ls ys[kd us Lokeh th ds mu fopkjksa dks js[kkafdr fd;k gS ftlesa Hkkjr vkSj ;wjksi dh rqyukRed fLFkfr lkeus vkrh gSA ^tc ;wuku dk vfLrRo ugha Fkk] jkse Hkfo"; ds vU/kdkj ds xHkZ esa fNik gqvk Fkk] rc vk/kqfud ;wjksiokfl;ksa ds iqj[ks taxyksa esa
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jgrs Fks vkSj vius 'kjhjksa dks uhys jax ls jaxk djrs FksA ml le; Hkh gj Hkkjrh; lfØ; FkkA* Bhd blh fLFkfr dk o.kZu Jh lqUnjyky dh izfl) iqLrd ^Hkkjr esa vaxzst+h&jkt* esa Hkh feyrh gS] tgk¡ 17oha 'krh ds bafXyLrku ds 'kgjksa ds gkykr dks c;ku djrs gq, izfl) bfrgkldkj Mªsij fy[krk gS fd 'kgjokyksa dk fcNkSuk Hkwl dk ,d FkSyk gksrk Fkk] rfd;s dh txg ydM+h dk ,d VqdM+k gksrk FkkA tks 'kgjokys [kq'kgky Fks] os peM+s ds diM+s igurs Fks tks xjhc Fks os vius gkFk vkSj iSj ij iqoky dh iqfy;k yisVdj vius dks lnhZ ls cpkrs FksA xjhcksa ds fy, oS| u FksA lQ+kbZ dk dksbZ bUrt+ke Fkk gh ughaA ftl rsth ds lkFk chekjh mu fnuksa reke :iksa esa QSyh Fkh] mlls bl ckr dk lkQ+ irk pyrk gS fd yksxksa esa nqjkpkj fdrus Hk;adj :iksa esa QSyk FkkA ;fn ge ml le; ds vaxzst+h&ys[kdksa dk fo'okl djsa rks fookfgr ;k vfookfgr] bZlkbZ&iknjh ;k ekewyh x`gLFk] iksi fy;ks X ls ysdj ds xyh ds fHk[keaxs rdµ dksbZ oxZ ,slk ugha Fkk tks bl jksx ls cpk gksA fdlku viuh t+ehu dk ekfyd ugha gksrk FkkA lkjh dkSe bruh vui<+ Fkh fd ikfyZ;kesaV ds gkml vkWQ+ ykM~Zl ds cgqr&ls esEcj u i<+ ldrs Fks u fy[k ldrs FksA bZlkbZ&iknfj;ksa esa Hk;adj nqjkpkj QSyk gqvk FkkA [kqys rkSj ij dgk tkrk Fkk fd bafXyLrku esa ,d yk[k ,slh vkSjras gSa ftUgsa iknfj;ksa us [kjkc dj j[kk gSA* blds foijhr Hkkjr ds xkSjo dk lVhd o.kZu Lokeh th ds fopkjksa ds ek/;e ls izLrqr djus dh ys[kd dh ;g dyk bfrgkl ds {ks=k esa gh ugha] vfirq lEiw.kZ ifjn`'; esa nwjxkeh izHkko NksM+rh gSA /kek±rj.k vkSj fons'kh&dqlaLÑfr;ksa ds fo"k; dks mBkrs gq, iqLrd eas Lokeh th ds fopkjksa dks Li"V :i ls izLrqr fd;k x;k gSA ^mUgkasus eqgEen lkgc dks lekurk dk lUns'kokgd dgkA ijUrq eqleyekuksa dks lokZf/kd lkEiznkf;d ,oa ladh.kZ cryk;kA* ;s iafä;k¡ vR;Ur gh fopkj.kh; gSaA lkFk&gh&lkFk Lokeh th dk izpfyr okD; fd ^tc ,d Hkh O;fä fganw&/keZ ls ckgj tkrk gS] rks mlls gekjk ,d O;fä gh de ugha gksrk] vfirq ,d 'k=kq Hkh c<+rk gSA*µ /kkfeZd fonwzirk dk n'kZu djkrk gSA vaxszt+ksa ds Øwj vR;kpkjksa vkSj "kM~;U=kksa dk o.kZu Hkh 'kh"kZd ds ek/;e ls fd;k x;k gSA /kkfeZd o lkekftd lq/kkjksa ds Lokeh th ds iz;klksa dks o.kZu] fganw /keZ vkSj ^fganw* 'kCn dh ifjHkk"kk bl iqLrd dks lEiw.kZrk iznku djusokyh o fganw&lekt dks izk.kok;q nsusokyh gSA
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fó;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa Lokeh th ds fpUru dk laf{kIr fooj.k nsrs gq, ys[kd us muds fopkjksa ls ukjh&'kfä ds izcy :i dks Li"V djus dk vR;Ur lQy iz;kl fd;k gSA Lokeh th us Hkkjrh;&lektn'kZu dk ewyk/kkj efgyk dh izfr"Bk rFkk mls laLdkjksa dk loksZPp LFky cryk;k gSA ^Hkkjr esa óh&thou dk vkjEHk vkSj var ekr`Ro esa gh gksrk gS] fo'o esa ^ek¡* uke ls ifo=k vkSj dksbZ uke ugh gksrk*µ bu fopkjksa ds ek/;e ls ys[kd us vrhr gh ugha] cfYd orZeku dh n'kk vkSj ukjh dh fn'kk dks le>kus dk lQy iz;kl fd;k gSA Lokeh th }kjk Hkkjr ds bfrgkl dks tkuus dk vkàku rFkk Hkkjr dh vkRek ^/keZ* dk o.kZu orZeku dks u;h fn'kk iznku djrk gSA Lokeh th us ik'pkR; txr~ dk mís'; O;fäxr Lokèkhurk] Hkk"kk] vFkZdjh fo|k vkSj vk; jktuhfr cryk;kA tcfd Hkkjr dk mís'; eqfä] Hkk"kk] osn vkSj mPp R;kx cryk;kA Lokehth dh bl bfrgkl&;k=kk dk vfUre 'kh"kZd gS ^jk"Vª&izsjd Lokeh foosdkuUn*A MkW‚ feÙky th us bl 'kh"kZd ds ek/;e ls Lokehth ds thou ds vYidky dh rwQ+kuh dk;kZof/k dk iszj.kknk;h o.kZu fofHké mnkgj.kksa ds ek/;e ls fd;k gSA vUr esa mUgksaus Lokeh th ds cks/kokD; vkSj dBksifu"kn~ dk og 'yksd] ftls og izk;% dgk djrs Fksµ ^mfÙk"Br tkxzr* fy[kdj Lokeh th ds mís'; vkSj vkns'kµ nksukas dk lEiw.kZ n'kZu ns fn;k gSA iqLrd ds ,dek=k ifjf'k"V esa jk"Vªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds f}rh; ljla?kpkyd i‚iw‚ Jh ekèkojko lnkf'kojko xksGoGdj mik[; Jh xq#th dk Lokeh th ds izfr vknjk×tfy nks ;qxksa ds esy dk fp=k.k izLrqr djrh gSA Lokeh th dh bl bfrgkl&n`f"V ds ek/;e ls lekt esa tutkxj.k ds mís'; dks iw.kZ djrh ;g iqLrd dqN fcUnqvksa ls vNwrh Hkh jgh] tSls dfri; Hkkjrh; ,oa ik'pkR; fo}kuksa us izkphu Hkkjr esa xksekal&Hk{k.k&laca/kh fo"k; ij Lokehth dks fu'kkuk cukrs gq, mUgsa xksekal&Hk{k.k dk leFkZd crk;k gSA oLrqr% Lo;a xksekal [kkus&f[kykusokys rFkk bl Hkkouk ls izsfjr rFkkdfFkr fo}kuksa us Lokeh th ij ;g feF;k dyad yxk;k gSA Lej.k jgs fd fganw&laLÑfr ds ijeksikld Lokeh th us fganqRo ds eku&fcUnqvksa ij fdlh Hkh izdkj ds izgkj dk lnSo gh dM+s 'kCnksa esa izfrdkj fd;k gSA blds vfrfjä foxr pkj&ik¡p n'kdksa ls Lokeh th ds lkfgR; esa ^lsD;qyfjT+e* ds uke ij dkQ+h feykoV dh xbZ gS vkSj ;FkklEHko mUgsa leUo;oknh vkSj
[Vol. XVIII (1)
lsD;qyj fn[kk;k x;k gSµ ;g rF; Hkwyuk ugha pkfg;sA bl fo"k; ij Hkh fo}kuksa dks vuqlUèkku ds fy, vkxs vkuk pkfg;sA pw¡fd ;g iqLrd bfrgkl ij dsfUnzr gS] vr,o Lokeh th f'kdkxks /keZ&laln~ esa fn, O;k[;ku iqLrd ds ifjf'k"V esa iw.kZ :i ls vkus pkfg, FksA vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk }kjk izdkf'kr bl iqLrd vius y?kq dysoj ds ckn Hkh ^xkxj esa lkxj* okyh dgkor dks pfjrkFkZ djrh gSA eueksgd vkoj.k&i`"B ij Lokeh th dk fp=k vkSj Hkhrj mldk foLr`r lUnHkZ nsuk bl iqLrd dh izkekf.krk dks n'kkZrk gSA vfUre vkoj.k&i`"B ij Hkh Lokeh th dk ,d lqUnj m)j.k llUnHkZ fn;k x;k gSA cgqr iz;kl ds ckn Hkh bl iqLrd esa deh [kkstuk oSlk gh gS tSls eksrh ls Hkjs lhi ls ;g f'kdk;r djuk fd ,d eksrh vkSj gksrk rks vPNk gksrkA µMkW‚ jRus'k dqekj f=kikBh
ukewya fy[;rs fdf´pr~
vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk uoe jkÔªh; vfèkos'ku&lekpkj
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û ukewya fy[;rs fdf´pr~ û
vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk uoe jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku] Xokfy;j ukewya fy[;rs fdf´pr~
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yxHkx 700 bfrgkldkjksa us 'kksèk&i=k okpu gsrq vius iath;u djk;sA
dqy 417 'kksèk&i=k vk,] tks ,d dhfrZeku gSA
'kksèk&i=k okpu gsrq 41 fo"k;ksa ij dqy 18 rduhdh l=k vk;ksftr fd, x,] ftlesa 376 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA buesa 118 efgyk ,oa 258 iq#"k&izfrHkkfx;ksa us 'kksèk&i=k i<+sA
;kstuk }kjk vkxkeh o"kZ esa Lokeh foosdkuUn dh 150oha t;Urh ds miy{; esa ns'kHkj esa yxHkx ,d gt+kj laxksf"B;k¡ djus dk fu.kZ; fy;k x;kA
f[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ladyu ;kstuk dk uoe jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku vkf'ou 'kqDy prqnZ'kh] dfy;qxkCn 5114] rnuqlkj fnukad 28 vDVwcj] 2012] jfookj dks egkjk.kk izrki dkWyst+ vkWQ+ VsDuksykWt+h] Xokfy;j esa laié gqvkA dk;ZØe dk 'kqHkkjEHk fnukad 26 vDVwcj] 2012] 'kqØokj dks jk"Vªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds i‚iw‚ ljla?kpkyd MkW‚ eksgujko Hkkxor] eè;izns'k ds eq[;ea=kh Jh f'kojkt flag pkSgku] ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; vè;{k MkW‚ f'kokth flag] jk"Vªh; dk;kZè;{k MkW‚ lrh'k pUnz feÙky] jk"Vªh; laxBu&lfpo Jh ckyeqdqUn ik.Ms; ,oa thokth fo'ofo|ky;] Xokfy;j ds dqylfpo&lg&LFkkuh; lfpo MkW‚ vkuUn feJ us nhi&izTTofyr djds fd;kA
rRi'pkr~ eapLFk vfrfFk;ksa }kjk ^yksdk;rue~* ¼la‚ MkW‚ Bkdqj izlkn oekZ½] 2- ^jk"Vªh; pSrU; ds izdk'k esa Hkkjr dk Lokèkhurk la?k"kZ* ¼MkW‚ lrh'k pUnz feÙky½] 3- ^foHkwfre~* ¼la‚ MkW‚ Bkdqj izlkn oekZ½] 4- ^;qx;qxhu jk;lsu* ,oa 5^;qx;qxhu nsokl* ¼MkW‚ rstflag lSaèko½ uked Ñfr;ksa dk foekspu fd;k x;kA
MkW‚ larks"k 'kqDy }kjk ladYi&okpu ds i'pkr~ ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; laxBu&lfpo Jh ckyeqdqUn ik.Ms; us eapLFk vfrfFk;ksa dk ifjp; ,oa dk;ZØe esa ns'kHkj ls ièkkjs
yksdkiZ.k&dk;ZØe ds i'pkr~ ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; dk;kZè;{k MkW‚ lrh'k pUæ feÙky us vfèkos'ku ds dsUnzh; fo"k; ^Hkkjrh;&jk"Vªh;rk % vrhr ls orZeku rd* dk izfrik|
izfrfufèk;ksa dk Lokxr fd;kA
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¼cht&oäO;½ izLrqr fd;kA Jh feÙky us dgk fd Hkkjro"kZ txnkrhr] LofufeZr jk"Vª gS] tcfd fo'o ds vusd jk"Vª cuk, x, gSaA ;wjksih;&fpUrdksa us dgk fd ;q) gksxk rks jk"Vª dk fuekZ.k gksxk( O;kikj gksxk rks jk"Vª dk fuekZ.k gksxk] tcfd Hkkjr&jk"Vª fdlh ;q) ;k O;kikj ;k lfUèk dh mit ugha gSA ;g rks fo'o dk izkphure jk"Vª gSA _Xosn fo'o ds iqLrdky; dk izFke xzUFk gSA bfrgkl esa jkse uxj dh LFkkiuk 753 bZ‚iw‚ esa gqbZ] bZlkb;r 23 vDVwcj] 4004 bZ‚iw‚ dks fo'oksRifÙk ekurk gS] tcfd Hkkjro"kZ dk bfrgkl blls furkUr izkphu vkSj fHké gSA Hkkjro"kZ dks bu vokZphu jk"Vªksa ds lkFk [kM+k djuk gkL;kLin gSA mUgksaus è;ku fnyk;k fd Lokeh foosdkuUn us vU; jk"Vªksa ds lkFk Hkkjr dh rqyuk djus dks bZ'k&fuUnk ds leku ikrd crk;k gSA Jh feÙky us crk;k fd vaxzst+ksa us izpkfjr fd;k fd Hkkjr dksbZ jk"Vª gh ugha gSA vaxzst+ksa us dHkh dgk fd ;g rks miegk}hi gS] dHkh dgk fd ;gk¡ vusd jk"Vª gSa] dHkh dgk fd ;g jk"Vª cu jgk gS vkSj dHkh dgk fd ;g rks ^T;ksxzkWfQ+dy izslj* gSA dk¡xzsl&laLFkkid ,‚vks‚ áwe dh Hkk¡fr dk¡xzsl&usrkvksa us Hkh lqj&esa&lqj feykdj Hkkjrh;&lafo/kku ds ckjs esa dgk fd ^bf.M;k nSV bt+ Hkkjr*A ia‚ usg: us ns'k dk vkèkk&vèkwjk Hkze.kdj ^fMLdojh vkWQ+ bf.M;k* fy[k ekjhA Jh feÙky us dgk fd Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl&ys[ku esa nks rÙo egÙoiw.kZ gSa& igyk] HkkSxksfyd ,oa nwljk lkaLÑfrdA ^jk"Vª* 'kCn loZizFke _Xosn esa izkIr gksrk gS] tks lukru dky ls pyk
[Vol. XVIII (1)
vk jgk gSA blds vfrfjä iqjk.kksa esa] jkek;.k] egkHkkjr ,oa dkfynkl&ok³~e; rd esa ekr`Hkwfe vkSj ekr`Hkfä dh mnkÙk dYiuk gSA la?k ds f}rh; ljla?kpkyd i‚iw‚ Jh xq#th us viuh lewph J)k dk dsUnz ekr`Hkwfe dks crk;k gSA Jh feÙky us dgk fd lukru èkeZ fjyht+u ;k et+gc ugha gSA vkt èkeZ dks jktuhfr ls vyx fd;k tk jgk gS] tcfd gekjs ;gk¡ lnSo gh èkeZ ls jktuhfr pyh gS] jktuhfr ls èkeZ ughaA èkeZ dks fjyht+u ekuus ij ^lsD;qyfjT+e* dk >xM+k mRié gksrk gS] tcfd èkeZ dk rkRi;Z gS M~;wVh ¼drZO;½A tc ge dgrs gSa fd ;g esjk drZO; gS] rks mlesa èkeZ fufgr gksrk gSA mPpre U;k;ky; us Hkh bl ifjHkk"kk dks ekU; fd;k gSA Jh feÙky us dgk fd vkè;kfRedrk HkkjrHkwfe dh lathouh&cwVh gSA ;g fganw&èkeZ dh 'kfä gSA blds fcuk Hkkjr izk.kghu gSA mUgksaus dgk fd ;g ns'k _f"k&euhf"k;ksa dk ns'k gSA rqylhnkl] fuEckdkZpk;Z] oYyHkkpk;Z] 'kadjkpk;Z] ;kequkpk;Z] eèokpk;Z] ekèkokpk;Z] ujlh esgrk] ,dukFk] xq# ukud&tSls vusd lUrksa us eè;dky ds ladViw.kZ le; esa bl ns'k esa lkaLÑfrd ,drk dh èkkjk izokfgr dh gSA blh izdkj bl ns'k esa èkeZ dh j{kk ds fy, jktk nkfgj lsu ls ysdj xq# xksfoUn flag rd vusd jktiq#"k le;&le; ij mRié gq, gSa] ftUgksaus viuk cfynku nsdj èkeZ dh j{kk dh gSA ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; vè;{k izks‚ ¼MkW‚½ f'kokth flag us vius mn~cksèku esa dgk fd ;kstuk dk jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku izR;sd
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vfèkos'ku&lekpkj
rhu o"kZ ds i'pkr~ vk;ksftr gksrk gS] ftlesa foxr o"kks± dh xfr&izxfr ij fopkjdj vkxkeh o"kks± ds dk;ZØeksa dk fu;kstu djrs gSaA mUgksaus dgk fd Hkkjrh;&jk"Vªh;rk dh Hkkouk gekjs fpÙk ls lacafèkr gS] Hkko&txr~ dh oLrq gSA fdlh lekt vkSj fdlh jk"Vª dk Hkh fpÙk gksrk gSA mlh fpÙk dk ewyHkwr 'kCn gS fpfrA bl fpfr dh O;k[;k ia‚ nhun;ky mikè;k; us lu~ 1964 esa Xokfy;j esa dh FkhA vkt mls Lej.k djuk izklafxd gSA fpÙk eu ls fHké gksrk gSA vaxzst+h esa mlds fudV ^lkbdks* 'kCn feyrk gSA gekjh fpfr gh og dsUnz gS] tgk¡ ls jk"Vªh;rk dh Hkkouk izkjEHk gksrh gSA mUgksaus crk;k fd bfrgkl ,d 'kfä Hkh gS vkSj bl 'kfä dk iz;ksx gekjs gekjs fojksfèk;ksa us geij cqjh rjg fd;k gSA bUgksaus gekjs bfrgkl dks u dsoy u"V fd;k] cfYd gekjs fpÙk dks Hkh fcxkM+us dk ;Ru fd;kA gesa blh 'kfä dk bLrsekydj ,sls fojksèkh rÙoksa ls fuiVuk gksxkA mUgksaus è;ku fnyk;k fd lu~ 1907 esa ratkSj esa pk.kD;&fojfpr ^vFkZ'kkL=k* xzUFk dh ik.Mqfyfi izkIr gqbZ FkhA mlds dqN va'k
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tc vaxzst+h esa vuqfnr gksdj izdkf'kr gq,] rks iwjs fo'o esa rgydk ep x;k FkkA bl xzUFk ds izkjEHk esa gh i`fFkoh vkSj mlds oklh dh loksZRÑ"V ifjHkk"kk nh gqbZ gSA mUgksaus dgk fd fdlh Hkh ns'k dk bfrgkl ogk¡ ds jgusokys bfrgkldkjksa us fy[kk gSA ysfdu Hkkjr ,d ,slk ns'k gS] ftldk bfrgkl vaxzst+&ys[kdksa us fy[kk gS ftudk Hkkjr ls nwj&nwj rd dksbZ ukrk ugha gSA izks‚ f'kokth flag ds mn~cksèku ds i'pkr~ izks‚ vkuUn feJ us i‚iw‚ ljla?kpkyd th ,oa ek‚ f'kojkt flag dks izrhd&fpg~u ¼Xokfy;j ds fdys dh izfrÑfr½ nsdj lEekfur fd;kA mn~?kkVu&l=k dh vè;{krk dj jgs eè;izns'k ds eq[;ea=kh ek‚ f'kojkt flag pkSgku us vius vkstLoh mn~cksèku esa dgk fd Hkkjr ,d vR;Ur izkphu vkSj egku~ jk"Vª gSA rF; ;g crkrs gSa fd _Xosn de&ls&de nl gt+kj o"kZ izkphu gSA
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ijUrq ge dkSu Fks] ;g ge viuh n`f"V ls ugha] cfYd vaxzst+ksa dh n`f"V ls ns[k jgs gSaA Jh pkSgku us crk;k fd tc ik'pkR; ns'kksa esa yksx isM+ksa dh Nky yisVrs Fks] ml le; gekjs ns'k esa ,d vR;Ur fodflr lH;rk vkSj laLÑfr fo|eku FkhA tc os jk"Vª ;q)ksa esa xqaFks Fks] rc Hkkjr us lHkh dks ^losZ HkoUrq lqf[ku%* dk ikB i<+k;kA mUgksaus dgk fd Hkkjr dk bfrgkl ;q)ksa] la?k"kks±] jktk&jkfu;ksa dk bfrgkl ugha gSA gekjh laLÑfr us lHkh dks ,dlkFk fey&tqydj thuk fl[kk;k gSA thou ds fy, HkkSfrdoknh&fpUru ls vfèkd ekufld 'kkfUr ds fpUru dh vko';drk gSA mUgksaus tkiku dk mnkgj.k nsrs gq, dgk fd fo'o ds lcls le`) jk"Vª esa 'kqekj gksus ds ckn Hkh ogk¡ vkRegR;k dh nj lokZfèkd gSA blfy, fo'o ds dY;k.k ds fy, Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr ds izlkj dh egrh vko';drk gSA Jh pkSgku us dgk fd Hkkjr esa u dsoy egku~ xzUFkksa dh jpuk gqbZ] cfYd izÑfr ds xw<+ jgL;ksa dks Hkh loZizFke ;gha [kkstk x;kA oSKkfud&[kkstksa ls Hkh vc bldh izkekf.kdrk fl) gks xbZ gSA xkyo _f"k dh riksHkwfe Xokfy;j dh èkjrh ij bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku ds :i esa gqbZ igy dk eq[;ea=kh us Lokxr fd;kA mUgksaus dgk fd eè;izns'k esa Hkkjrh;&laLÑfr ds mRFkku ds fy, dkjxj dne mBk, x, gSaA bl fn'kk esa fut Hkk"kk dh méfr ds fy, ;gk¡ fganh&fo'ofo|ky; [kksyk x;k gS] ftlesa fpfdRlk ,oa vfHk;kfU=kdh dh i<+kbZ fganh esa gksxhA blh rjg ;ksx&f'k{kk dks Hkh izns'k esa viuk;k x;k gSA Jh pkSgku us dgk fd izns'k esa deZizèkku xzUFk Hkxon~xhrk dks Hkh ikB~;Øe esa lfEefyr fd;k tk;sxkA mUgksaus ;g Hkh dgk fd bl jk"Vªh; laxks"Bh esa tks Hkh vPNs fu"d"kZ fudysaxs] mUgsa Hkh ikB~;Øe esa lfEefyr fd;k tk;sxkA mn~?kkVu&l=k ds eq[; vfrfFk jk"Vªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds i‚iw‚ ljla?kpkyd MkW‚ eksgujko Hkkxor us dgk fd bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds vf/kos'ku esa tks rF; lkeus vk,¡] mUgsa iéksa ij ladfyrdj turk ds lkeus j[kus dk ladYi fy;k tk,A mUgksaus dgk fd vaxzst+ksa us Hkkjr ds bfrgkl dks viuh rjg ls tks rksM+&ejksM+dj izLrqr fd;k] mlh dks lHkh i<+ jgs gSaA ;g Bhd ugha gSA blij xEHkhjrk ls fopkjdj Hkkjr dh le`)'kkyh ijEijk dks vk/kkj cukdj bfrgkl rS;kj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A bZlk iwoZ vkSj bLyke ds gt+kjksa o"kZ iwoZ iwjh nqfu;k esa ,d lq[k dk okrkoj.k FkkA iwjh nqfu;k dks pykusokyh tks 'kfä Fkh] og vkSj dksbZ ugha] cfYd gekjh lukru
[Vol. XVIII (1)
fganw&laLÑfr FkhA Lo;a JhvjfoUn us Hkh fy[kk Fkk fd Hkxoku~ Hkh pkgrs gSa fd lukru èkeZ dk mRFkku gksA Hkkjr dh igpku gekjk lukru èkeZ gSA jk"Vªh;rk ds Hkko dks le>krs gq, mUgksaus dgk fd nqfu;k esa dksbZ ns'k ,slk ugha gS] ftldh jk"Vªh;rk dks ysdj dksbZ ladqfpr Hkko gksA nqfu;k esa dsoy Hkkjr gh ,slk ns'k gS] ftldh jk"Vªh;rk dks ysdj loky fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn ge laLÑfr dks ^dYpj* dgsaxs] èkeZ dks ^fjyht+u* dgsaxs] rks og Hkko ugha vk,xk] tks Hkko gekjh laLÑfr gesa crkuk pkgrh gSA gesa viuh vk¡[kksa] viuh ok.kh ls Hkkjr dks le>uk gksxkA gesa vius iqjk.kksa vkSj dFkkvksa dks i<+dj le>uk gksxkA mUgksaus dgk fd nqfu;k esa vU; ns'k viuh Hkk"kk o laLÑfr dks et+cwr djus dk lUns'k Li"V :i ls nsrs gSaA mUgksaus è;ku fnyk;k fd Hkkjr&;k=kk ij vkbZ vkWLVsªfy;kbZ izèkkuea=kh us Hkh lkQ+ dgk fd mudk ns'k bZlkb;r o vaxzst+h&Hkk"kk dks ekuusokyk gSA ;fn muds ns'k esa jguk gS] rks vkWLVªsfy;k dh èkkfeZd] lkaLÑfrd o Hkk"kkbZ ijEijk dk lEeku djuk gksxkA tks ;g ugha dj ldrs] os vkWLVªsfy;k NksM+dj tk ldrs gSaA ;g mudk vius ns'k] laLÑfr o Hkk"kk ds izfr xoZ o Lusg dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA mUgksaus dgk fd tu&eu ds Mh&dkyksukbt+s+'ku djus] ;kfu fonsf'k;ksa }kjk Fkksih xbZ ekufldrk dks nwj djus dh t+:jr gSA Hkkjrh;&ijEijk ,oa laLÑfr dh fo'ks"krk dks mfYyf[kr djrs gq, mUgksaus dgk fd gekjh ijEijk dgrh gS fd ekuo thou ,dlkFk nqfu;k ds vusd Hkkxksa esa izkjEHk gqvkA mUgksaus dgk fd geus lkjh Hkwfe dks le`) djus dk tks chM+k mBk;k gS] mlds fy, gesa fdlh ds lgkjs dh vko';drk ugha gS] cfYd ;g gekjh laLÑfr us gesa fl[kk;k gSA mUgksaus dgk fd fo'o esa Hkkjr gh ,d ,slk ns'k gS tks viuh jk"Vªh;rk ls ifjiw.kZ gSA ge vius bfrgkl ds Hkkoksa dks tkusa vkSj mUgsa vius 'kCnksa esa O;ä djsa] ;g jk"Vª ds dY;k.k ds fy, vko';d gSA gekjh laLÑfr nqfu;k dks lR; ds vkèkkj ij tksM+us dh ckr dgrh gSA gekjs egkiq#"kksa us ihf<+;ksa rd ;s fopkj c[kwch igq¡pk, gSaA Jh Hkkxor us dgk fd lkjh nqfu;k iw.kZrk dh I;klh gS vkSj gekjs Hkkoksa esa bldk gy gSA bZlk vkSj eqgEen dh ijEijk dks ekuusokys dbZ yksx vkt le>rs gSa fd Hkkjr gh muds fy, lokZfèkd lqjf{kr LFkku gSA Jh Hkkxor us t+ksj nsdj dgk fd lukru /keZ gh gekjs ns'k dh igpku gSA lq[kh] lqUnj ns'k cukus ds fy, lukru /keZ dk mRFkku gksuk pkfg,A mn~?kkVu&l=k dk lapkyu izks‚ vkuUn feJ us fd;kA l=k dk lekiu Jh xqatu vxzoky }kjk jk"Vªh; xhr oUnsekrje~
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vfèkos'ku&lekpkj
ds xk;u ds lkFk gqvkA laxks"Bh esa Xokfy;j ft+ys ds izHkkjh ,oa yksd&LokLF; o ifjokj&dY;k.k ea=kh MkW‚ ujksÙke feJ] fpfdRlk&f'k{kkea=kh Jh vuwi feJk] x`g&jkT;ea=kh Jh ukjk;.k flag dq'kokgk] lkaln Jh ujsUnz flag rksej] Hkktik ds izns'k&vè;{k Jh izHkkr >k] vf[ky Hkkjrh; lkfgR;&ifj"kn~ ds jk"Vªh; laxBu&ea=kh Jh Jhèkj ijkMdj] 20&lw=kh dk;ZØe ds mikè;{k Jh t;Hkku flag ioS;k] egkikSj Jherh leh{kk xqIrk] Jherh ;'kks/kjk jkts flaf/k;k] Jherh ek;k flag] Jh dIrku flag lksyadh rFkk ckysUnq 'kqDy] vkuUn esuu lfgr vU; tuizfrfuf/kx.k rFkk ns'kHkj ls vk, ,d gt+kj ls vfèkd bfrgkldkj mifLFkr FksA vfèkos'ku dk nwljk fnu rduhdh l=kksa dk jgk] ftlesa ns'kHkj ls vk, izfrfufèk;ksa }kjk 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu fd;k x;kA vdknfed l=k 10 ¼JhvjfoUn] johUnzukFk Bkdqj] yksdekU; fryd] cafdepUnz pV~Vksikè;k; vkfn dh n`f"V esa Hkkjrh;&jk"Vªokn½ ds varxZr dqy 26 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA bl l=k dh vè;{krk MkW‚ js[kk prqosZnh us dhA eq[; oäk MkW‚ ch‚Mh‚ feJ vkSj fo"k;&izorZd MkW‚ v'kksd dqekj i.Mk FksA l=k 11 ¼fofoèk lkfgR;ksa ,oa fganh&lkfgR; esa jk"Vªh; psruk ,oa jk"Vªoknh n`f"Vdks.k½ ds varxZr 11 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA bl l=k dh vè;{krk tokgjyky usg: fo'ofo|ky; ds MkW‚ larks"k 'kqDy us dhA eq[; oäk MkW‚ johUnz JhokLro vkSj fo"k;&izorZd MkW‚ izKk feJ FkhaA l=k 12 ,oa 13 ¼jk"Vª ds izfr dk¡xzsl dk n`f"Vdks.k ,oa egkRek xk¡èkh dk jk"Vªh; vkdyu½ ds varxZr 21 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA bl l=k dh vè;{krk MkW‚ vkuUn 'kadj flag us dhA eq[; oäk MkW‚ fnfXot; flag ekS;Z ,oa fo"k;&izorZd MkW‚ vyds'k prqosZnh FksA eqä l=k esa dqy 42 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA bl l=k dh vè;{krk MkW‚ bZ'oj'kj.k fo'odekZ us dhA lkr 'kksèk&i=kksa dk ikoj&IokbaV ij izLrqfrdj.k gqvkA bl fo'ks"k l=k dh vè;{krk izks‚ f'kokth flag us vkSj fo"k;&izorZu MkW‚ fefFkys'k JhokLro us fd;kA vfèkos'ku ds rhljs fnu Hkh dqN 'kksèk&i=kksa dk okpu gqvkA 'kksèk&i=kksa ds okpu ds nkSjku dbZ egÙoiw.kZ rF; mHkjdj lkeus vk;sA bfrgkldkjksa us crk;k fd vaxzst+ksa us Hkkjrh;&lkezkT; eqfLye&'kkldksa ls ugha] vfirq ejkBk&is'kokvksa ls gLrxr fd;k FkkA blh rjg ckcj vkSj vkSjaxt+sc jk"Vªh; 'kkld ugha Fks] D;ksafd bUgksaus iwjs ns'k ij 'kklu ugha fd;k FkkA rduhdh l=kksa ds nkSjku ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; vè;{k izks‚ f'kokth flag us crk;k fd gekjk nqHkkZX; gS fd ns'k ij vkØe.k
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djusokyksa ds ukeksa dk mYys[k gekjs bfrgkl esa c<+k&p<+kdj fd;k x;k] fdUrq budk izfrdkj djusokys vkSj jk"Vª dh vfLerk dh j{kk djusokyksa ds uke bfrgkl ds iéksa ls xk;c gSaA fofHké vdknfed vkSj rduhdh l=kksa dh lajpuk esa ek[kuyky prqosZnh i=kdkfjrk fo'ofo|ky; ds dqykfèklfpo izks‚ jkenso Hkkj}kt] tokgjyky usg: fo'ofo|ky; ds izkè;kid MkW‚ larks"k 'kqDy] izks‚ dqekj jRue~] egkjk.kk izrki egkfo|ky; ds izkpk;Z MkW‚ iznhi dqekj jko] MkW‚ jRus'k f=kikBh ,oa Jh xqatu vxzoky dh izeq[k Hkwfedk jghA jk"Vªh; vfèkos”ku ds nwljs fnu ;kstuk dh okf"kZd lkèkkj.k lHkk dh cSBd laié gqbZ ftlesa ;kstuk ds egklfpo MkW‚ 'kjn gsckGdj us iwoZ&dk;Zokgh i<+dj lnL;ksa ls iqf"V izkIr dhA rRi'pkr~ lHkh {ks=kh; laxBu&lfpoksa us vius&vius {ks=kksa dk laf{kIr dk;Z&o`Ùk izLrqr fd;kA ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; lg&dks"kkè;{k Jh vfer [kj[kM+h us xr o"kZ 2011&*12 dk vkfFkZd o`Ùk izLrqr fd;kA vUr esa ;kstuk ds vè;{k izks‚ f'kokth flag ds vk'khoZpu ls lkèkkj.k lHkk laié gqbZA vfèkos'ku ds nwljs fnu gh ,d lkewfgd l=k esa bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds ekxZn'kZd vkSj ^ljLorh ekxZn'kZd&e.My* ds lnL; ek‚ gfjHkkÅ o>s us ^ljLorh* ds 14 Hkk"kkvksa esa pkj Lrj dh iqLrdksa ds izdk'ku rFkk iwjs ns'k esa forj.k dh ;kstuk ij ppkZ dhA lkFk gh] ljLorh 'kksèk&laLFkkuksa ds }kjk vks‚,u~‚th‚lh‚ ds lg;ksx ls lSfudksa ds fy, ljLorh dk ty dqvksa ds ekè;e ls miyCèk djkus dh ;kstuk ij izdk'k MkykA jk"Vªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds vf[ky Hkkjrh; dk;Zdkfj.kh&lnL; ,oa ;kstuk ds ekxZn'kZd ek‚ eèkqHkkbZ dqyd.khZ us Lokeh foosdkuUn lk)Z&”'krh ¼150oha t;Urh½ lekjksg dh ;kstukvksa ij fo'kn~ izdk'k Mkyk rFkk bl o"kZ ns'kHkj ds fo'ofo|ky;ksa] egkfo|ky;ksa vkSj Ldwyksa esa Lokeh foosdkuUn ds O;fäRo ,oa dr`ZRo ij dsfUnzr ,d gt+kj laxksf"B;k¡ vk;ksftr djus ds fy, ekxZn'kZu fn;kA ;kstuk ds egklfpo MkW‚ 'kjn gsckGdj us vcrd fd, x, ;kstuk ds dk;Z rFkk jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku ds mís'; vkSj vuqorhZ dk;ZØeksa ij fo'ks"k ppkZ dh rFkk ns'kHkj ls vk, gq, bfrgkldkjksa dks oSpkfjd la?k"kZ esa bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds lkFk vfèkd 'kfä ds lkFk yxdj ifj.kkedkjd dk;Z djus dk vkàku fd;k rFkk vfrfFk;ksa ds izfr vkHkkj O;ä fd;kA vfèkos'ku ds rhljs fnu lekiu&l=k ds eq[; vfrfFk
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[Vol. XVIII (1)
jk"Vªh; Lo;alsod la?k ds lg&ljdk;Zokg ek‚ lqjs'”k lksuh us dgk fd Hkkjrh;&jk"Vªh;rk dk viuk bfrgkl gSA mldk izHkko de&T;knk gks ldrk gS] ysfdu mldh /kkjk ugha VwVh gSA vrhr dk viuk egÙo gSA vkt dh tMsa+ chrs gq, dy esa gaS vkSj orZeku leL;kvksa dk gy vrhr dh tMksa esa gSA vius vrhr dks tkuuk vkt dh vkSj vkusokyh ih<+h ds fy, vko';d gSA Jh lksuh us dgk fd vrhr ls dVdj thou dk izokg ugha gksrk gSA ftl izdkj unh ds ewy izokg ls NsM+&NkM+ djus ij unh dk vfLrRo gh [+kRe gks tk,xk] mlh rjg Hkkjr ds bfrgkl esa cnyko Hkkjr dks Hkkjr dks Hkkjr ugha jgus nsxkA Hkkjr dks Hkkjr cukuk gS rks Hkkjr dks le>uk gksxkA Hkkjr dk viuk vyx bfrgkl gSA gj Hkkjroklh dks vius fpÙk esa Hkkjr ds izfr eku&lEeku j[kuk gksxkA mUgksaus dgk fd Kkuh yksx O;FkZ esa Hkh vFkZ fudky ysrs gSaA Hkkjr ds vrhr dks le>s fcuk Hkkjr ds fuekZ.k dh dYiuk ugha dh tk ldrhA bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk dks blds fy, cM+h Hkwfedk fuHkkuh gSA orZeku le; esa ns'k esa tks iz'u py jgs gSa] mlds lgh mÙkj Hkh bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk dks 'kksèk dks ekè;e ls nsus gksaxsA lekiu&l=k dh vè;{krk dj jgs ^pk.kD;* o
^mifu"kn~ xaxk* èkkjkokfgd ds funsZ'kd vkSj izfl) vfHkusrk MkW‚ pUnzizdk'k f}osnh us vius mn~cksèku esa dgk fd vkt Hkkjr dk ftruk Hkh bfrgkl gS] tks fd+rkcksa esa 'kCnksa ds :i esa fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] D;k mls ge f'kYi esa :i esa LFkkfir dj ldrs gSa\ ;fn ,slk gqvk] rks ge viuh vkusokyh ih<+h dks izfrfcEc ds :i esa viuh dFkkvksa] ;q)ksa] jkek;.k vkSj egkHkkjr ds ckjs esa cgqr dqN ns ldrs gSaA mUgksaus dgk fd fons'kh&fQ+Yeksa esa viuh lH;rk ds ckjs esa cgqr gh vkd"kZd <ax ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gS] tcfd Hkkjr esa ,slk ugha gksrk] tcfd gekjs ikl 'kCnksa esa fy[ks] iRFkjksa ij mdsjs ,oa HkO; okLrqdyk ds uewuksa ds :i esa bfrgkl dh cM+h lkexzh gSA mUgksaus dgk fd efUnjksa] izklknksa vkfn ds :i esa Hkkjr ds oSHko'kkyh bfrgkl dk n'kZu gksrk gSA fdUrq vHkh rd bfrgkl dk fcEc ;k fp=kksa ds :i esa lexz ladyu ugha gqvk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd bfrgkl esa reke ^feflax fyaDl* gSaA mUgksaus crk;k fd Hkkjr esa dykdkjksa ls tc ,sfrgkfld fQ+Yeksa esa dke djus ds fy, dgk tkrk gS] rks dbZ dykdkj ,slh fQ+Yesa djus ls euk dj nsrs gSaA bl volj ij ek‚ eèkqHkkbZ dqyd.khZ dh Hkh xfjeke;h mifLFkfr jghA
Varña Pratipadä, VS 2070]
vfèkos'ku&lekpkj
vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds izR;sd jk"Vªh; vfèkos'ku esa fn;k tkusokyk ^jk"Vªh; jkrh?kkVh iqjLdkj* o"kZ 2012 ds fy, ;kstuk ds iwoZ jk"Vªh; vè;{k ,oa fo'o&izfl) iqjkrÙoosÙkk vkSj bfrgkldkj izks‚ ¼MkW‚½ Bkdqj izlkn th oekZ ¼iwoZ izkè;kid] izkphu Hkkjrh;&bfrgkl] laLÑfr ,oa iqjkrÙo&foHkkx] dk'kh fganw&fo'ofo|ky;( iwoZ izksQ+slj ,oa vè;{k] xq#dqy dk¡xM+h fo'ofo|ky;] gfj}kj½ dks bfrgkl ,oa iqjkrÙo ds {ks=k esa muds mYys[kuh; vonku ds fy, iznku fd;k x;kA lEekuLo:i mUgsa 5]100 #i;s] iz'kfLr&i=k ,oa vaxoL=k HksaV fd;k x;kA bl izfrf"Br iqjLdkj dk lacaèk jktLFkku ds jkrh?kkVh ;q) ls gSA lekiu&lekjksg esa dk;ZØe dh ^Lekfjdk* dk foekspu fd;k x;kA blds vfrfjä MkW‚ Hkjr dkfyrk }kjk fyf[kr ^fefyVªh ,DVhfoVht+ bu esfM,oy vle*] lqjs'k iky 'kekZ }kjk fyf[kr ^egkf'kyk dk d.k*] ekrk izlkn 'kqDy&fojfpr
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^Xokfy;j dh xyh] ckt+kj o eksgYys* rFkk ujflag pkj.k i.Mk }kjk fyf[kr ^ikSjkf.kd bfrgkl&foe'kZ* uked iqLrdksa dk foekspu fd;k x;kA blls iwoZ izks‚ vkuUn feJ us eapLFk vfrfFk;ksa dk ifjp; djk;kA rRi'pkr~ ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; laxBu&lfpo ek‚ ckyeqdqUn ik.Ms; us vf[ky Hkkjrh; bfrgkl&ladyu ;kstuk ds bfrgkl vkSj ns'kHkj esa py jgh mldh xfrfofèk;ksa ij foLrkj ls izdk'k Mkyk vkSj vfèkos'ku esa ns'kHkj ls ièkkjs fo}kuksa ds izfr vkHkkj izdV fd;kA dk;ZØe dk lekiu Jh xqatu vxzoky }kjk jk"Vªh; xhr ^oUnsekrje~* ds xk;u ds lkFk gqvkA dk;ZØe dk lapkyu ;kstuk ds jk"Vªh; lg&lfpo izks‚ ¼MkW‚½ bZ'oj'kj.k fo'odekZ us fd;kA bl volj ij ek[kuyky prqosZnh jk"Vªh; i=kdkfjrk ,oa tulapkj fo'ofo|ky; ds dqyifr MkW‚ cztfd'kksj dqfB;kyk] loZJh ujsUnz èkkdjs] nhid 'kekZ] vkseizdk'k fllksfn;k] ;'koUr bUnkiqjdj] Hkktik ds
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jk"Vªh; egklfpo ujsUnz flag rksej] Hkktik ds izns'k&mik/;{k osn izdk'k 'kekZ] fpfdRlk f'k{kk&ea=kh vuwi feJ] LokLF;&ea=kh ujksÙke feJ lfgr dbZ x.kekU; ukxfjd mifLFkr FksA vf/kos'ku ds i'pkr~ bfrgkldkjksa dk lewg Xokfy;j ds ,sfrgkfld LFkyksa ds Hkze.k ij fudykA ?kweus ds nkSjku bfrgkldkjksa us vius fopkj O;ä djrs gq, dgk fd Xokfy;j vR;Ur gh le`) fojklr dks vius vk×py esa lesVs gq, gS] ysfdu ftl rjg ls laj{k.k ds vkHkko esa izkphu Lekjd u"V gks jgs gSa] og cgqr gh fpUrk dk fo"k; gSA 'kfupjk efUnj] cVs'oj efUnj&lewg] ferkoyh vkSj Xokfy;j ds fdys dk n'kZudj izks‚ f'kokth flag us fopkj O;ä fd;k fd ge fdrus le`) Fks] ysfdu LorU=krk ds ckn jk"Vªh; fopkjkas dk yksi gks tkus ls ge viuh fojklr dks laHkky ugh ldsA vkt Hkh tc ge bu izrhdksa dks ns[krs gSa] rks xoZ ls vfHkHkwr gks tkrs gSaA ysfdu orZeku esa budk laj{k.k cgqr vko';d gSA blh Øe esa ek‚ ckyeqdqUn us dgk fd vkt+knh ds ckn gekjs 'kkldksa us Hkkjr dh vfLerk ds fojklr dks laHkkyus ds ct+k; mu izrhdksa dks laj{k.k iznku fd;k] ftlus fujUrj geas uhpk fn[kkus dk gh iz;kl fd;k] tcfd gekjh fojklr lcls le`) gSA MkW‚ jRus'k f=kikBh us Hkze.k ds nkSjku ns'kHkj ds fojklrksa dh rqyuk djrs gq, crk;k fd vkt gj ml Lekjd dks u;s :i esa nqfu;k ds lkeus yk;k tk jgk gS] tks ;k rks eqx+ydkyhu gSa ;k xqykeh ds izrhd gSa] ysfdu mu izrhdksa dks vius gky ij NksM+ fn;k x;k gS] tks gekjs vUnj jk"Vªh;rk ds
[Vol. XVIII (1)
Hkko mRié djrs gSa vkSj la?k"kZdky ds izR;{k izek.k gSaA µMkW‚ jRus'k f=kikBh xqatu vxzoky