THE LONGHORN DROVER JULY 2022 | VOLUME 41
Calf Issue
“The colors were more varied than those of the rainbow. There were brindles; blues – mulberry blue, ringstreaked blue, speckled blue, grullas – so named because they had the hue of the sandhill crane, also called mousecolored or slate duns, washed-out and Jersey creams -all hues of "yellow" browns with bay points; blacks, solid and splotched with white, brown and red; whites both clearly bright and dirty speckled; many sabinas, red and white peppered; reds of all shades except the dark richness characteristic of the Hereford, pale reds being very common; paints of many combinations. The line along the back was common, as in the mustang breed. Coarse brown hairs around the ears were characteristic. The shadings and combination of colors were so various that no two were alike" - J. Frank Dobie, "The Longhorns"
The Genetics of Coloration in Texas Longhorns David M Hillis Double Helix Ranch Professor, University of Texas at Austin
The diversity of Texas Longhorn coloration is celebrated by many modern longhorn breeders. Texas Longhorns also represent one of the best breeds in which to study the genetics of coat coloration, since much of the color variation known to exist in cattle exists in Texas Longhorns. However, this great diversity of color leaves many people confused. I have heard some people say that they selected a bull because it exhibited a particularly desirable color pattern, but then found that none of its offspring seemed to exhibit the same coloration. On the other hand, one Texas Longhorn breeder is well known for advertising a bull that he guarantees to produce calves with black coloration. This page briefly reviews what we do and don’t know about the genetics of color inheritance in cattle, and in Texas Longhorns in particular. Given the diversity of colors seen in Texas Longhorns, many people are surprised that there are just two different pigments that produce all the hair colors in cattle (and for that matter, all mammals). These two pigments are eumelanin (black) and phaeomelanin (red). Eumelanin is a black pigment, but also looks brown in lower concentrations. Phaeomelanin is a red pigment, but can look orange or yellow in lower concentrations. If neither pigment is produced, then hair is white. Therefore, all the roans, brindles, speckled patterns, linebacks, grullas, reds, yellows, oranges, browns, and blacks seen in Texas Longhorns come from varying amounts and patterns of expression of these two pigments on different parts of the body. However, the distribution of these two pigments is controlled by a large number of different genes, which makes the inheritance of the two pigments somewhat complex. All the genes of an organism are together called the genome. To understand the genome of an organism, imagine a language in which all the words are spelled with just four letters. Furthermore, in this simple language, all the words are just three letters long. This is the language of DNA: the four “letters” are called nucleotides, and are typically represented by the letters A, C, G, and T. A gene is simply a long string of these four nucleotides. Each combination of three nucleotides (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid (the building blocks of proteins). Proteins, in turn, control almost everything about the way an organism is constructed and the way it functions. Proteins are more complex than DNA, but there are still just 20 basic amino acids. Different proteins are simply different strings of these 20 basic building blocks. Every structural gene of an organism codes for a different string of these amino acids. Each string of amino acids makes up a particular protein, and the details of the proteins produced determine virtually all the differences we see among different individuals and species.
The best-studied gene related to color is the gene that controls the relative degree of eumelanin and phaeomelanin production. This gene (known as the Extension locus) regulates the levels of an enzyme called tyrosinase. Low levels of tyrosinase result in phaeomelanin production, and high levels of tyrosinase result in production of eumelanin. The wild-type allele results in variable but typically intermediate amounts of tyrosinase. This means that both eumelanin and phaeomelanin are produced, and the ratio and distribution of the two pigments may be modified by other genes. Longhorns that have two copies (one from each parent) of the wild-type allele at the Extension locus are typically some shade of brown at birth, but often grow darker as they grow older (and may appear black as adults). The relative expression of eumelanin appears to be related to the sex of the animal, and males (with wild type alleles at the Extension locus) are more likely to be black as adults than are females. However, the muzzle ring of these individuals is usually tan or brown rather than pure black. Other individuals with the wild-type allele may be dark brown (including Parker brown), medium brown, or a mixture of brown and black or red and black (including brindling, “wine-colored,” and many of the other unusual colorations of Longhorns). The dark brown pattern (tending to black in males) is thought to represent the ancestral coloration of the wild Aurochs, from which modern Bos taurus cattle breeds have descended. There are two well-studied alleles (forms of a gene) that differ from the wild-type allele at the Extension locus in cattle. Mutations in DNA can take several forms, including substitutions (replacing one “letter” in the DNA sequence with another) and deletions (removing a letter from the sequence). Substitutions often change the function of a gene, but may not render it functionless. Deletions, on the other hand, often destroy the function of a gene. One of the alleles at the Extension locus differs from the wild-type allele by a single substitution. This simple change results in a single amino acid replacement in the gene, which in turn results in an excess production of eumelanin in skin and hair cells. Because the hairs have an excess of eumelanin, any colored hairs will be black at birth (other genes may keep some of the hairs from expressing any pigment, so the calf is often black and white). Even if a calf inherits just one copy of this gene, almost any hair that is pigmented will be colored black. Thus, if a bull (or cow) has inherited copies of this black allele from both its mother and its father, then all of its own offspring will also express black (no matter what gene is inherited from the other parent). This is how some breeders can guarantee that their bulls will always produce calves with black coloration: the bull has been tested and found to be homozygous for the black allele at the Extension locus (which simply means that both of its copies of this gene are the dominant black allele).
The other common allele at the Extension locus in cattle is a deletion mutation (a single nucleotide has been lost), which results in a non-functional gene. If an animal has two copies of this allele, then that animal does not produce normal tyrosinase and therefore lacks the ability to produce eumelanin. Phaeomelanin is still produced, however, so any pigmented hairs have a basic red coloration. If an animal has only one copy of the red allele and one of the wild-type allele, then there is still enough tyrosinase produced for the coloration to appear just like a homozygous wild-type individual (i.e., brown, but typically darkening with age, especially in males). Thus, the wild-type allele is said to be dominant over the red allele, since an animal with both alleles will show the wild-type coloration. On the other hand, the black allele is dominant over both the wild-type and red alleles, since even one copy will result in an over-abundance of eumelanin. Hence, a cow or bull that is black at birth may be homozygous black, or heterozygous black and wild-type, or heterozygous black and red (any of these combination will simply look black). A calf with wild-type coloration may be homozygous wild-type, or heterozygous wild-type and red. Finally, a true red calf is always homozygous for the red allele. The “black” allele is abbreviated ED (the E stands for Extension, and the D stands for dominant black), the wild-type allele is abbreviated E+ (the + symbol is used to designate the wild-type allele at any given locus), and the red allele is abbreviated e (lower case is used to indicate that this allele is recessive to the other two alleles). We indicate the dominance order of these three alleles by writing ED > E+ > e. With this shorthand, we can indicate a homozygous black bull by writing that its genotype is ED/ED, whereas as heterozygous wild-type/red bull would be said to have the genotype E+/e. If these are the three basic colors of cattle, then what produces colors such as grullas, duns, light reds or oranges, and yellows? There are at least two additional loci that can reduce the total amount of pigment produced in a given hair. One of these genes is known as the Dilution locus. The common (wild-type) allele at this locus in Texas Longhorns (ds+) produces no change in the coloration (so a black cow will appear black, if it is also homozygous ds+/ds+). However, if a cow inherits one copy of an incompletely dominant dilution allele (Ds), then a black cow will appear gray, a brown cow will appear lighter brown, and a red cow will appear light red or orange. If both copies of the gene are dilution alleles (i.e., the animal is homozygous Ds/Ds), then the black cow will appear light gray (grulla), the brown cow will be a dun, and the red cow will appear yellow. However, all duns do not result from the dilution locus. Allelic variation at another locus (called Dun) can also produce the dun coloration. The allele dn is incompletely recessive to the wild-type allele at this locus (Dn+). Individuals that are heterozygous Dn+/dn have a reduced amount of red pigment (phaeomelanin), but there is little effect on black pigment (eumelanin). If a cow or bull has the ED (black) allele at the Extension locus and is also heterozygous Dn+/dn at the Dun locus, then it will likely have some dark brown (rather than black) along the black and on the poll. The effect on red is more uniform, and homozygous red (e/e) animals that are Dn+/dn will be duns (the color is even lighter in dn/dn animals).
Brindle coloration always occurs in cattle that are either homozygous wild-type (E+/E+) or heterozygous wild-type/red (E+/e) at the Extension locus. In addition, they must also have at least one copy of a dominant allele at the Brindle locus (Br). Although the combination of E+ at Extension and Br at Brindle will always produce some kind of brindle pattern, this pattern usually takes several years to develop. Even then, the brindle coloration will only appear in areas that would have exhibited the wild-type brown coloration in the absence of the Br allele. Thus, brindle patterns interact in a wide variety of ways with other genotypes, including the various white-producing patterns (see below), as well as with the Dilution and Dun genes. For an example of one of these complex brindle patterns, see CO Barbwire. Additional genetic loci produce various amounts of white coloration in Texas Longhorns (and other cattle). The loci that produce areas of white coloration (actually lack of pigmentation) in Texas Longhorns include the Spotting, Roan, Brockling, and Color-sided loci. Spotting (SP > S+ > s) The wild-type allele (S+) at this locus produces no white. However, at least two other alleles at this locus are found in Texas Longhorns, each of which produces areas of white on the coat. One (SP; the P stands for Pinzgauer) is incompletely dominant to the wild-type allele. If the SP allele is present, it produces the line-back pattern (e.g., see TP Bo Peep or her calf, D-H Oreo). However, Texas Longhorns that are heterozygous SP/S+ exhibit smaller areas of white coloration than do individuals that are homozygous SP/SP. (TP Bo Peep is heterozygous SP/S+ and D-H Oreo is homozygous SP/SP). Another allele at this locus is the recessive s allele, which (when homozygous) produces large areas of white coloration that can vary considerably in size from one individual to the next (probably due to additional modifying genes). DH Firecracker is an example of a cow that is homozygous s/s at the Spotting locus and heterozygous wild-type (E+/e) at the Extension locus (and heterozygous for the brindle allele, but the brindle is just beginning to develop). Overlord CP and D-H Shogun are examples of bulls that are homozygous s/s at the Spotting locus and are heterozygous black at the Extension locus (all of these animals also carry the brockling allele; see below). Roan (R > r+) The incompletely dominant R allele at the Roan locus restricts pigmentation (both phaeomelanin and eumelanin). Texas Longhorns that are homozygous red (e/e at the Extension locus) and heterozygous R/r+ at the Roan locus will be red roans (a mixture of red and white hairs will be produced). Likewise, cattle that have at least one copy of the dominant black (ED) allele at the Extension locus and are heterozygous R/r+ at the Roan locus will be blue roans (a mixture of black and white hairs). Homozygosity for the R allele produces an almost completely white Texas Longhorn (with pigmented ears), no matter which alleles are present at the Extension locus. Brockling (Bc > bc+)
The dominant brockling allele (Bc) interacts with other loci to produce pigmentation in areas that would otherwise be white. The most common type seen in Texas Longhorns is in animals that are homozygous s/s at the Spotting locus. If the animal carries at least one allele of Bc as well, then the legs will be pigmented, whereas if the animal is homozygous bc+/bc+, then the legs will be white. D-H Firecracker is an example of a cow that is homozygous s/s at the Spotting locus and carries at least one copy of Bc at the Brockling locus. Color-Sided (Cs > cs+) The color-sided phenotype is produced by heterozygosity of a partially dominant allele at the color-sided locus (i.e., individuals with a Cs/cs+ genotype). Color-sided cattle typically have a very irregular white stripe (with roan or dappled edges) along the backs and belly, and a roan or dappled pattern on the head. However, the expression is somewhat variable, and some heterozygotes for Cs show much less white on the back and belly, and little to no white on the head. In cattle that have at least one copy of the ED (black) allele at the Extension locus, heterozygotes for Cs/cs+ may even appear to be blue roans. Cattle that are homozygous for the Cs allele (i.e., Cs/Cs) exhibit the “White Park” pattern: a mostly white animal with areas of color on the ears, muzzle, and lower legs. However, this is not the only genetic locus that produces this phenotype. For instance, L Brilliant Mary exhibits the White-Park pattern, but is not homozygous for the Cs allele (see more below). The color-sided pattern is somewhat similar to but has a different genetic basis than the lineback or Pinzgauer pattern (see above). To see the difference between the true lineback phenotype and the color-sided phenotype, compare TP Bo Peep(lineback) and CO Paint Brush (color-sided) on our breeding stock page. You'll notice that the edges of the pigmented areas are sharper in the lineback pattern, and also notice that the color-sided pattern involves a roan or dappled pattern on the head. Interactions Among the White-producing Loci. There also appear to be additive effects across many of these white-producing loci. For instance, individuals that are heterozygous for Cs at the Color-Sided locus and also heterozygous for R at the Roan locus will express the White-Park phenotype (or a slight pattern variant that is common in Texas Longhorns of the Butler family, called “flea-bitten,” which usually shows some small spots of color on the body, as well as the head and legs). Similarly, heterozygotes for Cs and SP will be almost completely white (with even less coloration than in the White-Park or flea-bitten phenotypes). Therefore, it is often not possible to predict the genotype of a given animal by its color alone (especially if it is mostly white), without also examining its ancestors and/or offspring. For instance, consider the coloration of L Brilliant Mary, who shows a classic White-Park type pattern. Her sire, Monarch 103, was a product of Bevo and Lady Butler. Lady Butler, in turn, was a product of Bevo and Beauty, two of the most famous Texas Longhorns from the Butler family. Both Bevo and Beauty were heterozygous for Cs at the Color-Sided locus, and their daughter Lady Butler appears to have been homozygous at this locus, as was Lady Butler's son Monarch 103. So, we can assume that L Brilliant Mary inherited at least one Cs allele at the Color-Sided locus from her sire. Her White-Park pattern could then be a result of having two copies of the Cs allele at the Color-Sided locus, or it could be from an interaction between a heterozygous Cs/cs+ at the Color-Sided locus as well as heterozygosity at the Roan and/or Spotting loci.
To determine which of these possibilities applies, we can look at her offspring. Her 2003 calf, D-H Rising Sun, was a result of a cross with Wind Chill, a mostly solid wildtype colored bull with some scattered white spotting, including white markings on the face. Since D-H Rising Sun also has solid wild-type coloration (a deep, rich red at birth) with just a small white marking on the head, we know that L Brilliant Mary cannot be homozygous for the Cs allele at the Color-Sided locus (if she were, her calves could be color-sided or White-Park, but not solid). Therefore, her White-Park pattern is the result of an interaction of heterozygous loci at the Color-Sided locus and either the Roan or Spotting locus. Her 2004 calf, D-H Kickapoo, was the result of a breeding with a spotted and brockled black-and-white bull, D-H Shogun, and the calf shows a similar color pattern to the bull. Therefore, we can tell that L Brilliant Mary is heterozygous at the Spotted locus, since her 2004 calf is homozygous for the recessive s allele at the Spotted locus. This means that despite her mostly white coloration, she can produce a very wide diversity of color patterns in her offspring, including solid, color-sided, and spotted. In addition, because she is homozygous for the recessive e allele at the Extension locus, she can produce red, wild-type (including brindle and other variants), or black (including grulla) calves, depending on which bulls are used with her. I sometimes see breeders who avoid mostly white cows because they are afraid that they will produce mostly white offspring. However, as this example shows, this is not necessarily true, because mostly white cows can be produced from many different combinations of genes. In some cases (as with L Brilliant Mary), mostly white cattle can produce a very wide diversity of colors and patterns in their offspring. So, for the breeder who likes color and pattern diversity, these cows can be highly desirable. Often, it is possible to determine the genotype of such cows by examining their ancestors and previous offspring. Cows like L Brilliant Mary often lead breeders to say that “you can't breed for color in Texas Longhorns,” because these animals produce such a wide diversity of offspring. It is true that the genetics of coloration is not simple in Texas Longhorns, because this breed contains much of the diversity for coloration that is known among all breeds of cattle. There are many genes that affect coloration, and these genes often interact with one another in interesting ways. However, it is possible to choose or breed cattle to produce particular color patterns, if the breeder simply understands the genetic loci that are involved. For instance, it is possible to produce an all-brindled herd by fixing the wild-type allele at the Extension locus and the Br allele at the Brindle locus, and eliminating all the white-producing alleles at the other loci. This can be done by selective breeding and culling. Some breeders who raise Texas Longhorn bulls for use on commercial beef herds have eliminated all the white-producing loci from their herds, to produce all solid bulls (red, brown, and black). If one wants to produce all grulla calves, a bull that is homozygous for Ds at the Dilution locus and also homozygous ED (black) allele at the Extension locus (and is homozygous for the wildtype alleles at the various white-producing loci) will produce grulla offspring with any cow (darker grullas with cows who have no Ds alleles, and lighter grullas with cows that also carry the Ds allele).
For breeders who simply want lots of color and pattern diversity, and enjoy being surprised by each new calf, bulls and cows that are heterozygous at many of the color-pattern loci are the best choice. For instance, the cross of a bull and a cow that are both heterozygous ED/E+ at the Extension locus, heterozygous Br/br+ at the Brindle locus, heterozygous SP/S+ at the Spotting locus, heterozygous Cs/cs+ at the Color-sided locus, heterozygous R/r+ at the Roan locus, and heterozygous Ds/ds+at the Dilution locus could produce Texas Longhorns of virtually any of the major colors and patterns that occur in the breed, and very few of their calves would look alike (this bull and cow could produce calves of 729 different possible genotypes for just these six color and pattern genes). And yet, a cow and bull of this genotype would both be almost completely white, with only their ears showing a little gray coloration! Considering all eight genetic loci (the ones discussed in this article) that are known to affect color and pattern in Texas Longhorns (Extension, Brindle, Dilution, Dun, Spotting, Color-sided, Roan, and Brockling), there are 26,244 different possible genotypic combinations of known alleles that can appear in an individual bull or cow. In addition, there are almost certainly many additional genes that affect color and pattern that have yet to be described, so the number of possible genotypic combinations for color and pattern is almost certainly many times larger. If we assume just two additional genes, each with three different possible alleles, then the number of possible genotypic combinations increases to 944,784! Since this latter number exceeds the number of registered Texas Longhorns, then there are almostly certainly possible genotypic combinations of color/pattern alleles that have not yet been observed in modern Texas Longhorn herds. Of course, all of these genotypic combinations do not produce distinctly different phenotypes, but this helps to explain why Texas Longhorns are “more varied than the colors of the rainbow,” as J. Frank Dobie wrote in The Longhorns. For examples of many of the color patterns discussed on this page, see the discussions of genotypes (under the pedigrees) on our breeding stock pages. Just click on the individual cows or bulls to read about the genotypic basic of their coloration. Finally, I should emphasize that what I've written here represents our present knowledge of Texas Longhorn coloration...but there is still much to be discovered. Additional genes almost certainly influence the coloration of cattle, and there are probably many genes that have a modifying influence on the principal genes discussed here (which is one reason why no two Texas Longhorns look exactly alike). If you find exceptions to the genetic patterns discussed on this page, I would be happy to learn about them. It is from the exceptions that we can learn about new genes and alleles that influence the coloration of Texas Longhorns. http://doublehelixranch.com/color.html
Vaccinations for Calves Vaccination programs for beef cattle herds are designed to protect the animals from diseases caused by infectious organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoans. Vaccines stimulate an animal’s immune system to produce a protective response against an organism. The immune system will then “remember” how to produce a response against the organism if it ever is infected with that organism. Vaccines cannot prevent exposure to infectious organisms, but they do increase an animal’s ability to fight off an infection or lessen the severity of the disease if it occurs. The majority of cattle vaccines are injected, although some may be given by other routes, such as intranasal and oral. Although antibiotics are also often administered via injection, treating an animal with one of these drugs is not a vaccination but rather a treatment once an infection has occurred. Animal health product manufacturers go to great expense to obtain approval for vaccines from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. They must prove that the vaccine is safe and that it will do what the label claims it will do. Vaccine trade names can be confusing; however, the label will always specify which diseases and microorganisms the vaccine provides protection against. Sometimes different terms used in the name can be confusing as well. Terms such as 4-way, 5-way, 7-way, or 8-way do not refer to any particular type of vaccine, but rather to the number of different subtypes of a microorganism in a vaccine. These terms are most often used for leptospirosis or clostridial disease vaccines, which contain several subtypes of the Leptospira or Clostridium organisms.
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Vaccinations for Calves Continued
Types of Vaccines Most vaccines contain either modified live, killed, or chemically altered organisms. If a vaccine is used correctly, whether it is modified live, killed, or chemically altered, it will increase an animal’s resistance to disease, but each type of vaccine does have its limitations as well. Modified live vaccines (MLV) contain a small amount of virus or bacteria that has been altered so that it does not cause clinical disease when used according to product label directions. However, the virus or bacteria can still replicate in the vaccinated animal resulting in a controlled infection. Recognition of the replicating organism by the animal’s immune system stimulates an effective immune response. MLVs are mainly available for diseases caused by viruses, such as bovine herpes virus 1, the causative agent of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and parainfluenza-3 virus (Pl3). Some MLVs are safe for use in pregnant cows if you follow all label directions. However, if not used according to label directions, MLVs can cause abortion in pregnant cows (table 1). In addition, some MLVs are not approved for use in calves nursing pregnant cows because of the slight possibility that the calves could temporarily shed the vaccine virus and infect the cows. However, some MLVs can be safely used in calves nursing pregnant cows if the cows have been properly vaccinated according to label directions. MLVs are also safe to use in weaned calves, including replacement heifers.
Vaccinations for Calves Continued
Killed vaccines (KVs) and toxoids contain organisms or subunits of organisms that do not replicate or reproduce themselves in the animal following administration. KVs usually contain adjuvants, or added substances, that further stimulate the immune system to respond to the vaccine challenge. KVs are safe to use in any animal, including pregnant cows (table 2).
Chemically altered vaccines (CAVs) contain modified live organisms that are grown in chemicals that cause specific mutations of the organism. An example of chemically altered vaccine technology is temperature-sensitive (TS) vaccine organisms that cannot replicate at an animal’s normal body temperature but can grow at the temperatures associated with the ocular (eye) or nasal mucosa. Because there is no systemic replication with TS vaccines, they are safe for use in pregnant animals (table 3). Although vaccines will not cause the disease they are supposed to protect against, some animals may have a fever temporarily after vaccination. Some animals also may have swelling and soreness at the sight of injection. In some cases, animals may go off feed and decrease milk production for a few days.
Vaccinations for Calves Continued
Booster Vaccinations For young animals being vaccinated for the first time, a second, or booster, vaccination is often required a few weeks after the first, or primary, vaccination. A booster vaccination is definitely required for killed vaccines to provide optimal protection. The label directions will indicate when and if a booster vaccination is required. Failure to give the booster at the proper time could result in an incompletely protected adult animal even if that animal is vaccinated every year thereafter. The time between the primary and booster vaccinations is of interest to beef producers. Management considerations might make it difficult for some producers to give booster vaccinations within the time span called for on the label, which is often from 3 to 6 weeks after primary vaccination. When the USDA approves a vaccine, it does so only for the label directions that were tested by the manufacturer. Exceeding the label-recommended time span between the primary and booster vaccination may not make a vaccine ineffective, but it might make the vaccine less effective. Follow label instructions as closely as possible to facilitate development of maximum immunity in response to vaccination. Proper Handling of Vaccines The best vaccine program will fail if the product is damaged by improper handling. For example, if the label says to store a vaccine at 35 to 45 degrees F, the vaccine should be refrigerated. Vaccines should not be allowed to freeze, nor should they be stored in direct sunlight. Most MLVs must be reconstituted by adding sterile water to a dehydrated “cake” in a separate sterile vial. Once the water is added, the vaccine organisms are fragile and will be “live” for only a short time. As a rule of thumb, only reconstitute enough vaccine to be used in 30 to 45 minutes, and use a cooler or other climatecontrolled storage container to protect reconstituted vaccines from extremes of cold, heat, and sunlight.
Vaccinations for Calves Continued Method of Injection The only acceptable site for injection is in the neck, both for intramuscular (IM; in the muscle) and subcutaneous (SQ; under the skin) injections (see figure 14). Intramuscular injections of some products can cause significant muscle damage, so it is necessary to avoid injecting anything in the top butt or rump of the animal. Injection site reactions can cause damage to valuable beef product, and this muscle damage costs the beef industry millions of dollars a year from lost product and lower calf prices. All injections should be administered IM or SQ in the neck (figure 1). Some product directions allow for IM or SQ administration, in which case SQ is the preferred method. Use only 18- or 16-gauge needles, 1⁄2 or 3⁄4 inch long, to administer an SQ injection. Use only 18- or 16-gauge needles, 1 to 11⁄2 inches long, to administer IM injections. Importance of Nutrition Vaccination alone will not guarantee a healthy herd. In order for a vaccine to work, the animal’s immune system must be able to respond to it, and for an immune system to respond, an animal must receive proper nutrition. Proper nutrition includes energy and protein as well as mineral supplementation. Some calves that have been properly vaccinated with excellent vaccines have still died in the feed yard because their preshipment mineral nutrition was deficient. Minerals such as copper, selenium, and zinc are required in very small amounts in the diet; however, if the forage is deficient in some of these elements and they are not supplemented in a diet or a free-choice mineral mix, the immune system may not function correctly. Review your forage, supplement, and mineral nutrition programs with your Extension agent, Extension nutrition specialist, or your veterinarian to ensure that you are meeting the herd’s needs. Vaccinating the Right Animal at the Right Time To determine the best time to vaccinate animals in your herd, first write down the breeding and calving seasons, and then schedule vaccinations and other management events. Most recommended vaccines are best given at specific ages and/or at specific times as related to management and reproductive cycles. For example, blackleg is a rapidly fatal disease of calves. Calves should be vaccinated for blackleg by 3 to 4 months of age when the temporary immunity from the dam has declined and the calf’s immune system can respond to the vaccine.
Vaccinations for Calves Continued
When protecting cows against reproductive diseases, it is often best to vaccinate at least 6 to 8 weeks prior to the breeding season to allow time for development of a protective immune response. However, if vaccinating cows to increase the amount of antibodies in colostrum against diseases such as calf scours, you may need to vaccinate 1 to 4 months prior to calving. Vaccine timing varies from product to product, so always follow vaccine label directions with respect to vaccine administration timing to maximize product efficacy. Vaccinating for Diseases that are a Routine Threat Vaccines are available for many disease conditions. However, many diseases are not a routine threat to most beef herds, and some vaccines are not sufficiently effective to justify their use. Therefore, only a few vaccines are included in a routine vaccination schedule. The glossary of conditions and terms at the end of this publication lists both routine and not-so-routine infectious diseases and vaccines for them. Vaccinations for Different Animals in the Herd Every cattle operation will have unique vaccination requirements based on individual herd goals, so the following guidelines for vaccinating cattle may not be applicable in all situations. The best use of these guidelines is as a starting point to develop an effective vaccination protocol with your herdhealth veterinarian and/or Extension agent. When appropriate, ensure that products are safe for pregnant animals and for calves nursing pregnant cows. Properly store and administer vaccines according to label directions; adhere to designated meat withdrawal times; booster primary vaccinations when recommended; and follow all Beef Quality Assurance (BQA) guidelines.
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Vaccinations for Calves Continued Nursing calves 7-way clostridial (blackleg) IBR/BVD/PI3/BRSV IBR = infectious bovine rhinotracheitis BVD = bovine viral diarrhea PI3 = parainfluenza3 BRSV = bovine respiratory syncytial virus Calfhood vaccination against brucellosis for 4- to 10-monthold heifers if recommended by herd veterinarian. Consider a leptospirosis 5-way vaccine for future replacement heifers and bulls. Preconditioned feeder calves IBR/BVD/PI3/BRSV 7-way clostridial (blackleg) Mannheimia haemolytica Pasteurella multocida Breeding Animals Replacement heifers, cows, and bulls should generally be vaccinated at least 6 to 8 weeks prior to the breeding season so that immunity is high during the breeding season. IBR/BVD/PI3/BRSV Leptospirosis 5-way Vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus) Remember, these guidelines are just a starting point for developing an effective vaccination protocol with your herdhealth veterinarian and/or Extension agent. You must still decide which product to use based on understanding a particular vaccine’s expected level of protection (see ANR-1416, “Understanding Protection Claims on Vaccine Labels”) and the different types of vaccines available (KVs, toxoids, MLVs, or CAVs). Your veterinarian and Extension agent will have the best advice for your particular operation, but this information will assist you in developing and monitoring your herd’s vaccination program. https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/vaccinations-for-thebeef-cattle-herd/?cn-reloaded=1
BRANDING YOUR CATTLE The Size of the Iron is Important For calves less than one year of age, we recommend that each character be 4 inches high and 3 inches wide (outside measurements). For grown cattle, it is recommended to use an iron 6 inches high and 3½ inches wide. The metal used to build the face of the branding iron should be 2 inches deep by 1/2 inch thick. Work the face of the branding surface down to not less than 3/8 inch thick. If the burning face is too narrow, it won’t disrupt enough hair follicles to create a visible brand after hairing over. Also, round the edges and corners of the brand face. Rounding it will narrow the face a bit, but it will leave the center of the burning face slightly higher and leave a concave effect on the surface of the skin to be branded. If two or more pieces of metal join to make the iron’s face, file or cut a notch at least 1/4 inch deep at the joint to allow some heat to escape. The notch prevents too much heat from being applied at these points. This will prevent blotching. A good brand warps or dislocates the hair follicles located under several layers of skin. The new hair grows in at a different angle from that of the original hair, thus leaving the brand visible.
The Right Way To Brand When an iron is the right temperature, it takes three to five seconds to apply a brand to cattle with a light hair cover. Cattle with extensive hair growth should be clipped before branding, otherwise, it will take longer than necessary to apply the brand. Branding can be done quickly by pressing firmly and rocking the handle slightly to apply the character evenly. Rocking the handle will prevent over-burn or under-burn in any one spot. When the iron is lifted, the hide should be a buckskin colour. If the branding iron is lifted too soon, it will leave a temporary brand that will disappear entirely when the animal changes hair. If the iron needs to be applied a second time, apply it in the exact position of the first design. Holding the iron on too long causes unnecessary pain and excessive burning. It also produces a wound that takes a long time to heal. Don’t brand livestock when their hair is damp or wet. A branding iron applied to wet hide loses its heat fast, scalding rather than burning the branded area. To apply a good brand, prevent the animals from moving as much as possible. This can be done by using a cattle squeeze or manually wrestling them to the ground. It is best to brand calves using manual wrestling or a calf table. For older cattle, use a squeeze with an opening large enough to both apply the brand properly and avoid crowding the irons on the animal. Don’t brand over top of another brand. This can be avoided by clipping the hair from the location where your brand is to be applied. If a brand already exists, apply your brand above, below, behind or in front of the existing brand.
How To Heat Branding Irons Solid, dry wood is the best fuel for heating branding irons. To contain a good bed of coals, dig a small pit in the ground 3 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide and 10 inches deep. Use wood more than 3 feet long, and place the wood the long way over top of the pit. Build a bigger fire than is needed and allow it to burn down until a bed of red-hot coals is gathered in the bottom of the pit. Keep the branding irons on top of the coals and not in the flames of the fire. Another satisfactory method for heating branding irons is to use a propane bottle and burner. It is recommended that you use a steel drum or round pipe to contain the heat thrown by the burner. Place the irons in the steel drum or pipe – the heat will be concentrated somewhat within the pipe. This type if heat is clean, easy to move and store and doesn’t leave a messy site. Degree of Heat The colour of the iron indicates whether an iron is hot enough to apply a good brand. A black iron is too cold. It may be hot enough to burn the hair, but it won’t be hot enough to deform the roots of the hair follicles. This is essential for a permanent brand. A red iron is too hot. An iron the colour of grey ashes is the proper temperature for branding. Copper irons are different. Copper irons will not look grey, but will show their natural dull copper colour when hot. However, copper irons collect carbon and appear black when they are cold. Electric Branding Irons Using electrically-heated irons has become more common in recent years. Electric irons are completely satisfactory if each character is the recommended size and on a separate handle or offset on the same handle. A heavy extension cord and a good power source are required to provide sufficient heat to the iron. Electric irons are expensive. Because of the cost, people tend to cluster two or three characters on one handle or heating element to reduce the cost. Doing so results in characters that are too small and too close together. If several characters are clustered on one handle, you are less likely to rock the iron to obtain a distinct outline of each character. However, if they are constructed properly, electric irons work well.
Freeze Branding Branding irons for freeze branding can be made from copper or good quality steel. Construct the head of the iron the same way as a hot iron, except use thick, deep metal to get the most benefit from the liquid used to keep the iron cold. The handle can be approximately 12 to 15 inches long. Each freeze brand character should be at least 2-1/2 inches high and 2 inches wide. The metal used should be 1-1/4 inches deep by 3/16 inch thick. The face of the branding surface must be at least 1/2 inch thick with well-rounded corners. An insulated container large enough to hold enough wood alcohol or methyl hydrate to completely cover the head of the irons will be needed. Also needed will be a good supply of dry ice to cool the liquid to a temperature of –90Fº to –100Fº. Place the branding irons in the liquid and start adding dry ice. Gloves are needed to handle the dry ice. When the alcohol stops bubbling, the irons are cold enough to apply. Keep the container holding the liquid and dry ice covered as much as possible to prevent the liquid from evaporating. Add more alcohol occasionally to replace what evaporates and more dry ice to keep the alcohol as cold as possible. Whatever the animal’s age or amount of hair, clip the hair short on the area you want to freeze brand. After the hair has been clipped, wash the area with alcohol to remove any dirt or dust on the hide. Restrain the livestock to keep them from moving around too much. Apply the cold iron very firmly using two hands to press evenly on the entire brand character. When done, you will have an area indented enough to let you run your finger around the brand design. This is one way to tell that you have a good brand. The colour pigment of the hair is destroyed by the cold branding. After the freeze brand is applied, the branded area will swell the same as with frostbite. Within several days, the swelling will disappear and there will be no evidence of any brand at all. A small amount of dead skin will be evident in about 7-10 days, but the brand won’t be visible again until the brand design is outlined by the re-growth of white hair on the branded area. The result should show the brand in white hair, making the brand visible during all seasons of the year. The freeze branding method described above is the least expensive method. To get a colder iron requiring slightly less time to apply, a semen tank using liquid nitrogen as a cooling liquid gives the best results. https://lis-ab.com/brands/applying-brands/
EXAMPLES OF BRANDS
COWBOY PASTA SALAD
Ingredients PASTA SALAD 1 pound mini farfalle or other small pasta such as rigatoni or shells 1 pound lean ground beef or turkey see note 1 4 oz. can mild diced green chiles 1 tsp EACH chili powder, ground cumin 3/4 tsp EACH garlic powder, onion powder, salt (omit salt if using ground turkey and bouillon) 4-6 tablespoons diced canned/pickled jalapeno peppers (from 4 oz. can) 1 green bell pepper chopped 1 15 oz. can black beans rinsed and drained corn from 1 ear sweet corn 1 pint cherry tomatoes halved 1 cup cubed sharp cheddar cheese 1/4 small red onion chopped 1/4 cup chopped cilantro 1/2 pound thick center cut bacon cooked and chopped
DRESSING 1/3 cup ketchup 1/3 cup mayonnaise 1/3 cup sour cream may sub plain Greek yogurt 1/4 cup salsa medium if you like a kick 1 1/2 tablespoons brown sugar 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce 1 tablespoon yellow mustard 1 tablespoon apple cider vinegar, plus more to taste 1/4 tsp EACH smoked paprika, salt, pepper Hot sauce/Tabasco to taste
Directions Whisk together all of the Dressing ingredients in a medium bowl. Add plenty of Tabasco to taste. Set aside. Cook pasta just until al dente according to package directions. Rinse with cold water and drain. Add to a large serving bowl and toss with half of the dressing. Brown meat in a large skillet over medium heat. Drain off excess grease. Stir in green chiles and all spices. Set aside to cool while you chop your veggies. Add beef and all remaining salad ingredients to pasta except bacon. If serving immediately, add bacon and stir in desired amount of dressing. If not serving immediately, hold bacon and dressing and add when ready to serve. Add hot sauce for spicier, apple cider vinegar for tangier, brown sugar for less tangy if desired. Cowboy Pasta Salad can be served slightly chilled, at room temperature, or heated through. Leftovers are equally delicious heated in the microwave.
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