IUSD Journal special edition

IUSD Journal special edition

Working Papers Class 2013

MSc Integrated Urbanism & Sustainable Design (IUSD) Ain Shams University Egypt University Of Stuttgart Germany

IUSD Journal special edition

Working Papers Class 2013

MSc Integrated Urbanism & Sustainable Design (IUSD) Ain Shams University Egypt University Of Stuttgart Germany

IUSD-Cairo Editing team: Dr.Yehya Serag, Eng. Abdul Monaim, Eng.Nashwa Emad Supported by : Nouran Azouz MSc Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design (MSc IUSD), Ain Shams University, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design University of Stuttgart. www.iusd.uni-stuttgart.de

Supported by: Federal Ministry of Education

Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation

Ministry of Higher Education

Ain Shams University Egypt

MSc Integrated Urbanism & Sustainable Design

(IUSD)

Copyright Disclaimer: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form of by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Edition, 2013

University Of Stuttgart Germany

IUSD Office University of Stuttgart Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Keplerstrasse 11 70174 Stuttgart/Germany Email:info@iusd.uni-stuttgart.de IUSD Office Ain Shams University Faculty of Engineering 1 El-Sarayat Street 11517 Abbasiya, Cairo/Egypt Fax: 0020222728225 Email: iusd@eng.asu.edu.eg

Preface In 2010, Ain Shams University in Egypt and Stuttgart University in Germany entered a new phase of academic collaboration with the launching of the Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design (IUSD) International Master program.

The first batch of students was admitted to the Master program, and commenced their study in Stuttgart University in September 2011. One year later, they moved to Cairo to pursue their second year of study and conduct their master thesis in Ain Shams University.

Throughout the study time, the Master students have been heavily engaged in several research projects and case studies, in Egypt, Germany and other MENA countries. The culmination of their studies echoed in several forms, including their master theses, which have a wide variety of topics related to: urban and regional planning and development, Governance, Landscape architecture and urbanism, vernacular architecture, housing, waterfront development, Climate change, Energy design, upgrading of historical areas, infrastructure and transportation planning, coastal resilience, and cultural tourism.

This first edition which is also a special edition of the IUSD Journal includes these Master theses outcomes in the form of articles giving the reader an overview of the realized work. The importance of the work within hand comes at a time when many of the traditional global settings are witnessing rapid changes either economically, politically, ideologically or climatologically. Such changes have their own impacts on the different disciplines and topics related to the IUSD scope of research, and are reflected in many of the articles within hand.

IUSD Team – Cairo September 2013

i

Table of Content Multi-Functional Urban Waterfronts ............................................................................................................................. 1 Ayham Mouad

Social Housing between Implementability and Affordability: ...................................................................................... 7 Baher El-Shaarawy

Paradigms of Development in Cairo ............................................................................................................................ 22 Ebtihal Mohamed Zakaria Rashad Abbas

Energy Efficient Urban Configurations for Residential Projects in Cairo ................................................................. 30 Eslam Mohamed Mahdy Youssef

Coping with Climate Change ......................................................................................................................................... 37 Franziska Laue

Urban Upgrading of the Historical Town as a Step towards Sustainability ................................................................53 Ghevar Mohamad Ismaiel

The Shifting Role of Planners with and through Development Aid Corporations in MENA region context: ........... 67 Insaf Ben Othmane Hamrouni

Designing Landscape as Infrastructure ........................................................................................................................ 74 Lisa Deister

Coastal Landscape between Resistance and Resilience to Sea Level Rise ................................................................. 80 Lobna Mitkees

Parametric Analysis for Daylight Autonomy and Energy Consumption in Hot Climates ......................................... 85 Mohamed Amer

Developing Informal Areas through a Business Model .............................................................................................. 92 Mohamed Abdel Aziz

Towards Improved Competitiveness of Modern Earth Construction in Egypt ....................................................... 100 Mona Farouk Elkabbany

Analyzing the Public Transportation in Amman:....................................................................................................... 107 Muna Shalan

Towards an Integrated Neo-Vernacular Built Environment ...................................................................................... 111 Nahla Nabil Mahmoud Makhlouf

Assessing Thermal Comfort in Secondary Schools in Egypt ......................................................................................117 Omar Wanas

Participatory Urban Development Projects in Post-Revolutionary Cairo................................................................. 125 Pia Lorenz

Refugee Setting and Urban Form and Governance.................................................................................................... 129 Rasha Arous

Towards an Integrated Transport Planning Approach in Amman ............................................................................140 Sandy Qarmout

Rethinking infrastructure development: negotiating green infrastructure approach towards collaborative planning ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 143 Zaineb Madyouni

Nubian Culture and Tourism in Southern Egypt ....................................................................................................... 150 Zeina Elcheikh

ii

Multi-Functional Urban Waterfronts Case study – The Nile River in Central Cairo Author: Ayham Mouad

Supervisors: Prof. Antje Stockman, Prof. Mohamed Salheen, Dr. Ahmed Sami Abd Elrahman,

This essay is a summary of the M.Sc. in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design, Stuttgart University and Ain Shams University, 2013.

Research question: In Central Cairo, how can the use of multi-functional urban waterfront along the Nile River promote human interaction with the river?

Introduction: Rivers are considered the magnetic hub of all cities. The River Nile in Cairo has been used since the pharaohs for multiple functions such as agriculture and irrigation, transportation network for trading purposes and a recreational space with an easy access to many of the Egyptian population-. However, after the industrial revolution, hasty urban and economic growth, building streets along the river, exploitation of waterfront for private and governmental uses, and the lack of public spaces and recreational activities; caused difficult accessibility for the public to the riverbanks and the Nile waterfront has transformed from an interactive edge to a sharp boundary stopping human interaction with the river. Thus, the River Nile has begun to lose its connection with the city after it was an integral part of it. This essay aims to achieve a clearer understanding of the potential of reintegrating the Nile waterfront with public and urban activities in Central Cairo to bring the river back to the city. This could be done through introducing the multi-functional urban waterfront as an approach for creating integrated public spaces along the River Nile. The term „multi-functional‟ defined by the Land Use Consultants as “the ability to provide multiple or „cross cutting‟ functions, by integrating different activities and land usage, on individual sites and across a whole green infrastructure network” (2009: 70). This essay depends on three main sequential studies: empirical, theoretical and design.

1. The Empirical Study: In this section, a certain area in Central Cairo based on specific criteria was selected and two functional and social analyses were applied to it in order to understand the area and its main problems from the functional and social perspectives. These two analyses were used as a cornerstone for a detailed SWOT analysis- which will lead to the identification of the core problems and will be used with the former ones to pinpoint the empirical frameworks [Figure.1].

1.1. Functional Analysis: Two main issues were designated in order to fulfill this analysis. First, studying the land uses and functions along the riverbanks, and second, studying the public accessibility to the riverbanks and its obstacles along the shore.

Figure.1: Diagram showing the used methodology in the empirical study. Source: Author

A. Land Use Plan: This plan is concerned with a detailed study for the uses of the selected area with an approximate length of 3.5km, starting from Qasr Al-Nile Bridge in the south to Imbaba Bridge to the north with about 100m width offset from east and west banks [Figure.2]. This plan is used to recognize the current status of the functions adjacent to the river and its banks. The study indicates whether the waterfront is predominantly used for residential, commercial, 1 e-mail: ayhammouad@hotmail.com

1

recreational, administrative, touristic uses or has a mixture of all previously mentioned uses. The plan also is considered the keystone of two more plans studying the water-dependency uses and green spaces.

Main findings:  Land Use Plan: According to [Figure.2], the dominant uses along the land adjacent to the east riverbanks are administrative. While on the west riverbanks, they are green spaces with 41% of the land uses.

However, all these spaces are either fenced gardens with entry fees or prohibited areas. In addition, a massive difference in the proportion of green and public spaces between the CBD1 area and Zamalek Island can be clearly seen, and this significantly indicates the absence of environmental and social justice between both sides. Moreover, the riverbanks are mainly occupied by private boats used for the Nile cruises, and fixed and floating barges. 

Water Dependency Uses Plan 2 : It specifies to what extent the waterfront uses and activities are functionally water-dependent. In order to do that, three types were distinguished: first, water-dependent uses that cannot function without water (limited to private boats, fixed and floating barges), second, water-related uses that will get a high advantage if they are adjacent to the water (like hotels) - about half of the uses along both riverbanks, and third, water-independent uses which can function similarly anywhere in the city (like administrative uses) - almost half of the uses along both riverbanks.



Green Spaces Plan: It aims firstly, to show how many public spaces within the studied area are available via sorting the current greenery types into private, public and nurseries, and secondly, to define the nearest public parks and green spaces to the studied area. As a result, an extreme lack of public green spaces was distinguished; particularly along the east side. 3

Figure.2: Diagram shows the land use plan with functional detailed analysis. Source: Author.

B. Public Accessibility: Studying the public accessibility aims to define the major physical and visual obstacles that prevent people from using the river and its banks and taking into account the river topography that can affect any future proposals [Figure.3].

1 CBD: City Business District – Central Cairo 2 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 52-54 3 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 56-57

2

Main findings:  Physical Obstacles: On the east side, the Corniche road with the massive traffic jam hinders people to get to the sidewalk besides, the shape of the river dikes prevents pedestrians to reach the watercourse and interact with the river changes1, and creates un-desirable environment for strolling. While on the west side, the high numbers of privately-owned riverbanks, and the fixed barges which occupied large areas from the shore prevent the public accessibility to the riverbanks. 

Visual Obstacles: On the east side, moderately good visual accessibility for pedestrians along the Corniche. However, it is very limited for pedestrians coming from back streets due to the high-rise blocks and bridges crossing the Nile [Figure.3]. While on the west side, the fenced public gardens surrounded by a dense gazon wall, the huge fixed barges in Zamalek Island work as a visual barrier for the public alongside the river.



River Topography2: Studying the river topography aims to know three main issues influencing the design study. These are the height of the river dike (about 6m) (Hussin, M. 1996: 120), the flood level (range between 1-2m) (Kondolf G.M., et. al. 2011), and the water depth (range between 7 - 17m) (Google Earth Pro).

Figure.3: Plan explains the main physical and visual obstacles of public accessibility along Nile riverbanks in the studied area. Source: Author.

1.2. Social Analysis: 50 questionnaires were made for 30 public individuals and 20 experts, asking them the same questions in the same order. This questionnaire has three main aims; first, to identify the core problems that affected the Nile waterfront in Central Cairo based on experts and public‟s point of views, second, to define the main related functions to the riverbanks that the public would like to have and experience and the experts will see as appropriate for the waterfront, and finally, to look for the public and experts‟ vision and needs in order to guide the proposed design approaches. The questionnaire begins with three general questions followed by three main parts; each part has seven questions that cover the three previously mentioned aims.3

Main findings:  In the first part, the public and experts selected the traffic pressure along the Corniche and the difficult accessibility as the main core problems and they agreed that amenities and pedestrian sidewalks next to the riverbanks are bad and unsuitable and in need to be expanded and separated from cars. Besides, the Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pg.63 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pg.64 3 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 65-69, Annex I, pg. 145 1

2

3

second part shows that both groups are conceded that the public transportation is the appropriate solution along the Corniche and they both agreed that the current public spaces and recreational areas along the riverbanks are inadequate and need to increase and be linked with proper activities. Finally, in the third part, participants defined their vision to have accessible and multi-functional waterfront provided with all proper amenities, attractive for tourists, and connect the authenticity of the Nile with the surrounding urbanity. 

Based on both functional and social analyses, SWOT analysis1 was made to know the weaknesses and the threats affecting the studied sectors which will be used as an essential method for the identification of the core problems, in addition to defining the strengths and opportunities for the purpose of guiding the design proposals. The identification of the core problems was made via a matrix selecting the most frequent problems along both banks. Consequently, building on SWOT analysis and the previous core problems, the empirical frameworks were defined as guiding benchmarks for the design proposals. These frameworks are represented through two main policies: first, regenerate and revitalize by using the existing site potentials and strengths of the studied area, and second, create and reconnect by creating new opportunities to promote the site potentials [Figure.4].

Figure.4: Shows the relationship between the core problems and the guiding polices. Source: Author.

2. Theoretical Study: In this section, the „Place making‟ approach was adopted as a method used to transform the waterfront spaces from gloomy spaces into great ones full of vitality. PPS2‟s President-Fred Kent claimed that “Place making is turning neighborhood, town or city from a place you cannot wait to get through to one you never want to leave” (Crossley, D. 2010). This approach helped with the predefined core problems to define two case studies as best practices in order to learn how cities dealt with such problems to solve, and to have a look on the adopted strategies applied as successful solutions. Moreover, both cases were evaluated by the key attributes of the „Place making‟ approach (DYP3. 2013; PPS and MPC. 2008) with a main focus on the physical accessibility, uses and activities, and public amenities4. The first case (River-Rhine Promenade in Düsseldorf- Germany) represents a permanent waterfront transformation and offered a bold example of the integration between the city-center and the riverfront with vibrant activities throughout the year where simplicity and practicality were the main keys for success. While the second case (Paris Plage- Seine River in France) represents a temporary waterfront transformation and offered a great example of how to create a living-space alongside the riverfront temporarily with multi-functional activities. It gives an effective method of how streets can be gradually reclaimed for public in order to be permanent afterwards. Both cases were selected to present a wide range of interventions permanently and temporarily in order to see what is suitable in a dense city like Cairo.

1 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 71-74 2 Project for Public Spaces (PPS) is a non-profit, educational and technical assistance organization within international reputation for its success in the creation of more livable communities. www.pps.org 3 DYP: Detroit Young Professionals 4 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 85-102

4

Figure.5: Diagram shows the used methodology in the theoretical study. Source: Author.

Finally, based on the former studies [Figure.5], a set of theoretical frameworks were identified and represented via five main points1.

3. Design Study: This section aims to answer two main questions regarding the case study in Central Cairo. The first was to what extent an interactive multi-functional waterfront in Central Cairo can be created in order to respond to the peoplesâ€&#x; needs? And the second was how the use of multi-functional waterfront transforms the sharp boundaries along the river from dividers into connecters?

Therefore, to achieve this aim, a number of design guidelines were developed to lead the design proposals [Figure.6]. The design guidelines primarily emphasize the definition of the existing site potentials and assets of the studied area in order to use them as a keystone for the design proposals. Besides, a group of guide points was set and distributed mainly in terms of accessibility, uses and activities, and public amenities 2 .

Accordingly, a design proposal plan was developed in relation to site potentials.

This plan represents the suggested interventions for both sides along the studied area. However, it focused more on the east side of the riverbank along the three sectors as it is more crowded, less greenery, and more difficult to access in comparison with the west side (Zamalek Island) [Figure.7]. These proposals were linked with the timeline through short-, mid- and long-terms to show what can be done first and to present the sequential design processes through time. To sum-up, the proposed designs 3 tried to prove how a multifunctional approach along the waterfront can maximize the human interaction with the river and create a vital environment that attracts all society groups to one place.

Figure.6: Diagram shows the used methodology in the design study. Source: Author

Figure.7: Some of the proposed designs along the three sectors in the east bank. Source: Author.

1 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 102-103 2 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 109-110 3 Back to M.Sc.(Mouad, A. 2013), pp. 126-129

5

Conclusion: This essay has addressed the issue of multi-functional waterfront as an approach to create a great social interaction with the city waterfront and the river via generating multiple vital activities with an easy access to the public along the watercourse. This is done to bring the river back to the city. Using multi-functional waterfront, particularly in a compact dense city like Cairo where pressures on land are extremely drastic, is considered the key to adequate and sustainable use of land. Therefore, the waterfront of Cairo, with the River Nile, has great opportunities, despite of the numerous obstacles between the city and the river.

To conclude, a glorious river like the Nile, particularly in a city like Cairo, should be a vessel that integrates people from all age groups and guarantees them a natural outlet with multi-functional activities all day and throughout the year.

References:

-

CROSSLEY, D. (2010). Fred Kent: Houston will get there. Houston Tomorrow- an institute for research, education and discussion.

[Online]. Available from:

-

<http://www.houstontomorrow.org/livability/story/fred-kent-houston-will-get-there/< [27 May 2013].

-

KONDOLF G.M., ET. AL, (2011). Connecting Cairo to the Nile: Renewing Life and Heritage the River. IURD Working Paper No. WP2011-06. Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University of California, Berkeley.

-

LAND USE CONSULTANTS, (2009). Natural Englandâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Green Infrastructure Guidance, pg. 70. [Online]. Available from <www.naturalengland.org.uk/publications< [15 May 2013].

-

MOUAD, A. (2013). Multi-functional urban waterfronts, Case study â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Nile River in Central Cairo. Unpublished M.Sc. in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design. Stuttgart University and Ain Shams University.

-

PPS and MPC, (2008). Project for Public Spaces and Metropolitan Planning Council, A Guide to Neighborhood Placemaking in Chicago, p.5. [Online]. Available from:

-

<www.placemakingchicago.com< [22 May 2013].

DYP, (2013). Detroit Young Professionals. A Placemaking Vision for Downtown Detroit- Report.

HUSSIN, M. (1996). Planning study of lands located on the Nile banks in Cairo for tourism and recreational development. Master Thesis- Faculty of architecture- Ain Shams University.

List of Figures:

-

Figure.1: Diagram shows the used methodology in the empirical study. Source: Author

-

Figure.4: Shows the relationship between the core problems and the guiding polices. Source: Author.

Figure.2: Diagram shows the land use plan with functional detailed analysis. Source: Author.

Figure.3: Plan explains the main physical and visual obstacles of public accessibility along Nile riverbanks in the studied area.

Source: Author.

Figure.5: Diagram shows the used methodology in the theoretical study. Source: Author.

Figure.6: Diagram shows the used methodology in the design study. Source: Author.

Figure.7: Some of the proposed designs along the three sectors in the east bank. Source: Author.

6

Social Housing between Implementability and Affordability: Towards an integrated model for providing affordable housing in Egypt Author: Baher El-Shaarawy

Supervisors: Prof. Stefan Siedentop, Prof. Mohamed Salheen

Keywords: Social Housing, Affordable, co-operatives, B.O.T. Background and perception The housing gap in Egypt represents one of the pressing problems on the current Egyptian economic and social situation and in particular the social housing. Despite the big share of the Building & Construction sector (which increases rapidly) in the public national budget, it does not meet the housing needs, in particular for low-income classes. It would reflect the market mechanisms which are based on the real ability of people to get their own houses.

Housing finance for low-income people is exclusively laid on the government. The later has weaknesses in its potentials and resources, combined with insufficient and inactive contribution of the private sector in meeting the requirements for low-income people (GOPP, 2012).

The gap between demand and supply of social housing goes back to different aspects; the economic crisis is one of these aspects, which is evident in the huge public budget deficit. The Government works on confronting this budget deficit in several ways through: Loan repayment, payment of interest on loans, salaries for government employees and finally providing services; which includes providing social housing. The service sector fails to fulfil its obligations, and needs the largest share of the state budget. Hence; a huge gap appears between the housing demand and the government inability of supplying it.

This research targets to deal with a gap between the recent housing mechanisms in Egypt and the affordable mechanism, according to recent situation in Egypt. It will be focusing on an integrated approach between different actors [government, investors, private sector, and cooperative housing associations] with specific reference to cooperative housing system.

Research Hypotheses This research argues that: A form of integration between government and private sector including [local people, investors and cooperative associations] with different mechanisms would activate the process of affording social housing.

Research Questions Main questions are raised based on the theoretical literature and, in particular the Egyptian context: 1. What are the different roles of different actors (Government, investors, private sector, and cooperative housing associations)?

2. What could be a possible integrated model for financing (Governmental / individual) the social housing in Egypt?

3. How to involve all actors within the mechanism of providing social housing?

Aims and objectives The research aims to identify an integrated model for providing affordable social housing.

Outline of the research methodology The research is based on a combination of theoretical and empirical data. Different methodologies are used for this research. Literature review is used for the theoretical part and best practices. Descriptive methodology is used throughout the case study part which relies on direct interviews, questionnaires and observation as a mean of collecting data.

Research structure The structure of this research is divided into three main parts: see (figure 1)

7

Figure 1: Thesis structure

Social housing financing mechanisms Main definitions and concept are introduced first. The concept of Affordability is discussed by describing the ability of beneficiaries and it should be distinguished from several meanings of affordability (Social Affordability, Cost Affordability and Income and financial Affordability). On the other hand the implemntability concept is introduced as a point of view of the housing providers. The research deals with the relationship between measuring Implementability against the actual reflections of the real beneficiaries regarding the housing affordability.

See (figure 2).

Figure 2: implementability versus affordability.

8

Provision of social housing has been introduced by the Government, the Private sector and public-private jointventures according to the housing policies which determine the financing mechanisms. See (figure 3 & 4). The financial instruments such as Grants, subsidies, cooperative systems…etc could be drawn by the overall policy.

Figure 3: Typology of housing Provision

Source: Keivani and Werna2001:72

Figure 4: Typology of Social housing Provision

From the literature review, the following aspects has been highlighted:  The legitimacy of the social rental sector has rested on strong historical factors. Social housing will certainly not return to its former position as a standard tenure.  New approaches for social housing self-governance should be tackled in the present to ensure future sustainability and affordability of the concept of social housing among nations and governments.  Economics has a role in helping with the better assessment of its social value and its long-run function, Social housing started as a way to meet the needs of the working classes and to solve the social question (Mark Stephens, et al. 2008: 119)  Urban Policies and affairs should include social housing as a basic human right for low-income citizens to empower them with access to social housing which will lead to an overall social inclusion to impact the whole community.  Urban renewal and redevelopment policies and strategies should also be integrated on the national policy level to include all actors including public, private and co-operative sectors to support the development of this sector and increase the social housing stock in the general housing stock.

Best Practices The research reviewed different cases as it is important to learn from the policies used in different countries. The choice of these cases was based on the location of countries, their political and economic policies and their administrative division. These are among some factors that will affect solving the affordable housing problem in the Egypt. Selected cases are from (Australia, Sweden, India, China, Ghana, Jordan and Mauritania). Each case has been addressed through the same main points. The following table introduces a comparison of those cases.

See (table 1)

9

Country

Focus of attention

Australia

- Inhabitants who gain annually lower than 40% of the national income distribution.

- People in greatest need, such as disabled persons psychiatrically or physically - former refuges, single parents living with their children and women subjected to violence at home.

Policy analysis

New strategies

Policy partners

- low income rental households could not pay their rent.

- Provide state governments with the needed capital to supply social housing.

- Commonwealth / State Housing Agreement.

- They had deprived themselves from food, sold their possessions or failed to pay their utility bills in order to afford the cost of their houses.

- Pay to the persons who receive the government support an amount determined according to the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income.

- National Affordable Rental Scheme.

- Household receives a capital payment for the first time.

- First Home Owners Grant.

- Commonwealth Rent Assistance.

- Investors constructing affordable housing or maintaining them receive tax credits for ten years.

- Meet the cost of affordable housing rather than having to lower the expenses of construction.

- All low-income people.

- High cost of house constructions.

- Rely on the market values when financing the projects.

- Huge percentage of the governmental budget has been absorbed.

- Regions suffering from a shortage in housing receive an investment grant depending on the location of the house.

Sweden

- Lack of attention outside the houses regarding the urban design standards.

- Gap between the market rent and the paid rent.

- Illegal system for selling flats as a black market.

- Developers.

- Tenant-owners.

- Municipalities.

- Municipal companies.

housing

- Rents are controlled and the flats are sold and bought at market values.

- Provide the land for construction.

- Implement the projects in order to control the rents.

- Decide the size of flats and the companies in charge.

- The poor.

India

- The employees.

- Division in cities across river banks, railway tracks, main roads, and under flyovers and near areas of economic opportunities.

- Increase the public participation.

- Formal and an informal housing.

- Create employment opportunities.

- Lack of services - water supply, drainage or paved roads.

- Increase the affordability.

- Inappropriate rental law.

- Beneficiaries prefer to sell their units to higher income groups and move back to informal areas near to the better economic opportunities.

- Presence of many vacant housing units.

- Generate the economic growth.

- Central government.

- Residents.

- Investors.

- Facilitate foreign investments.

- Facilitate housing regulations.

- Attract the private sector.

- Use the local raw materials.

- Train the residents to participate in the construction.

- Low-income people live in attractive areas.

- Rents correspond to the real market values.

10

11

Table 1: Comparison of housing policies of the selected cases, their problems, solutions and propositions

As a result of reviewing different policies of affordable housing, the research has concluded the following:  The problem of poor and low-income inhabitants is nearly similar in all countries, either developed or developing ones.  The government takes the major responsibility to solve hosing problems for the inhabitants through constructing affordable housing.  The social housing projects always face problems due to shortage in funds.  The government considers new policies in which it decides to involve stakeholders in the project.  The presence of services and infrastructure in the project‟s area increase the attraction to purchase a house.

Social housing system and policies in Egypt The housing problem in Egypt emerged sharply at the beginning of the sixties with high rates of population growth and the drastic increase in rural to urban migration rates. The state intervened in the construction market and issued a number of laws to reduce the housing rentvalue for the poor. This led to the reluctance of the private sector to invest in affordable housing; hence the State bore the burden of providing affordable housing for the poor segments of the society. While in the sixties and seventies, participation has been active as a new trend among users of housing in the housing process. The dimensions of the housing problem crystallized in the following figure 5.

Figure 5: Dimensions of the housing system

12

Social housing providers in Egypt vary between government and private sector which includes individuals, cooperatives, investors â&#x20AC;Śetc. See (figure 6)

Figure 6: Housing providers in Egypt

Challenges of the housing system in Egypt Egyptian housing gap: According to the interview with (Assem Elgazzar, 2013); he reported that the main problem to identify the real demand is to accurately determine the real ability for targeted groups which will form the adequate demand to work on providing it through all housing providers. This Real ability can vary depending on the time, place and social level of population, as well as the big gap between the high costs of construction compared to an average per capita income, in particular after the raise of prices of construction materials.

From this perspective the housing gap can be determined. (See figure 7).

Figure 7: Housing gap between real ability for targeted groups and the supply from housing providers.

The access to social housing finance In both funding forms from government or private sector, the low-income group sector suffers to gain access to housing finance. On the government level there is a set of conditions that must be considered in order to get the chance to own a unit in social housing (Ministry of Housing, 2013) 13

Lack of a formal property market One of the biggest problems facing any of the financial systems is the unregistered units. “In Egypt, would-be buyers must go through at least 77 procedures to acquire and legally register a piece of State-owned land” (UN-HABITAT, 2012 -2:3). There are whole areas without any kind of registration, which hinder the private sector to get involved in financing the housing system. This point has been affecting the mortgage system.

Governmental housing policies response in Egypt Role of the state and the private sector The investment process in the field of housing in Egypt is almost exclusively in the hands of two main sectors the state and the private sector. The main role of providing housing has been alternated by the government and the private sector over the past decades, which led to the fluctuation of strategic visions for housing, which in turn reflected the financing policies of the housing and particularly social housing. (Afify, A. 2007).

A typology of Housing approaches in Egypt The Egyptian policies have been shifted several times throughout recent history. The evolution of housing policies over the past decades can be reviewed as follows: (See figure 8) By reviewing the different policies, programs and actors of social housing, the relationship between all actors and these policies can be summarised through the matrix of timeline of housing policies to deal with the housing problem. (See figure 9).

Figure 8: Timeline of the roles of social housing providers in Egypt.

The general findings of evaluating the social housing policies in Egypt could be summarised as follows: • The government‟s role - in particular at the latest applied polices - has been constricted and opens the door for the private sector to play the main role; with granting several privileges as incentives for investment.

• The role of the government should be a Non profitable trend, which helps to attract other actors to involve in social housing system.

• Develop legislatives and economic laws to overcome the obstacles facing the Private Sector such as: (1) Low return on investment in housing and economic average, compared with a yield investment and other economic activities. (2)Instability of foreign currency exchange rate.

• Encouraging people to register their houses and land with no fees, and developing the laws for organizing the relationship between owners and tenants; helps to activate real-estate market and mortgage system.

• Introduce one agency for housing statistics and housing market observation will unify the efforts and provide an accurate vision for housing market.

• Governments in Egypt do not have adequate resources to cover these huge amounts of low income which results in inability of the government to decrease the housing gap.

• Lack of real estate maintenance concept generally and in particular in social housing, so the public housing result in deteriorating the urban environment and services and reducing the real estate value rapidly.

14

` Figure 9: Timeline of housing in Egypt

15

Case Studies It is an exploratory study based on a main proposition of involvement of other actors in providing social housing in Egypt. Yet, the dilemma is the ambiguous limit of assessing the affordability from the beneficiaries‟ point of view and comparing with the implementation of social housing. There are several instruments that will be used in the data collection as follows: (see figure 10).

Figure 10: Selected Data collection instruments of the cases

The state pursued a national housing program aiming to provide 500 thousand units for low and mid-income people through 2005-2011 within the electoral program of the former president Mubarak. A normal governmental housing program is selected of social housing in Egypt. In addition to two types of involvement of private sector were introduced to complete the whole vision as follows: • Self-help housing: through “build your own house” program.

• Social hosing provided by investors such as: Degla Gardens project by Morshidy group.

The area which has been selected is located in the boundary of 6th of October city. It included all case studies types.

(See figure 11 and 12).

Figure 11: The location of selected area to the 6th of October city.

Sources: Google earth

16

Figure 12: selected area of the case studies in 6th of October.

Sources: Google earth edited by author.

Evaluation of the case studies The case studies could be concluded by some main findings and recommendations as follows: • • •

• •

The real cost of public housing units is exceeding the ability of low income families so the state pays the difference which increases the ongoing burdens The financial problem of Youth housing program, which had avoided in Future housing program getting financial supports from the contribution of other actors.

Because of the preoccupation of the government in the implementation of many of the housing projects on its own; in addition to increasing the financial and economic burdens, the budget deficit and the internal and external debt led to the inability of the state to meet its obligations towards citizens and in particular to provide the services to those communities.

The inability of the private sector to bear all the burden of providing social housing without the government‟s support appears in both of the two models of the local people and investors.

Encouraging the private sector to participate in self-help housing projects through the provision of incentives such as advertising for companies, products and reducing the taxes ... Etc. . (Abd El-ghany, A., 2009).

An integrated model for social housing The model aims to form an integrated way between social housing providers which can grant the affordability from the point of view of beneficiaries without prejudicing the objectives of each actor, whose goals vary in return The model focuses on providing social housing as: • Housing as a process: (Stuart MacDonald, 2013.) o Housing as a source of income o Housing as a service • Housing for a more sustainable society: (Stuart MacDonald, 2013.) o o

Housing as part of the real economy Housing as part of a more liveable city

Basic Principles: There are main points to build an integrated model:  The role of the government should be a Non profitable approach.  Effectiveness at scale: channeling the investment funding to larger scale projects would increase the effectiveness of affordable housing provision for the low income people.

17

 Separation of ownership from management.  Encourage private sector to participate in social housing provision process by introducing incentives to investors and other actors.  Stimulate efficiency through dialogue between central and local authorities, academia, industry and the private sector and civil society  Coordinated provisions of infrastructure and services with land development A typology of approach Due to the differences of the goals of each actor; the model should rely on a multi segment approach, which introduced multi mechanisms to achieve the different goals.

The model aims to rely on B.O.T as an approach for infrastructure provision, which means that the government grants land for housing projects and delegates to an investor the entity to design, build, operate and maintain the infrastructure of the project and its facilities for a certain period.

Construction phase is attributed to urban development companies to build and manage the product of the housing project. These companies just represent the executive bodies and management companies while the co-operative associations and shared equities companies represent the owners of the project.

The financing mechanism at the construction phases is the direct external finance, which depends on sources of cooperative associations and shared equities companies, taking into consideration the separation of ownership from management. The goals, roles, benefits and costs could be addressed in Table 2 and Figure (14&15)

Figure 13: Strategy of the model.

18

Figure 14: Social housing financing model (for Egyptian context)

Figure 15: Timeline of the model

19

Table 2:The roles, benefits and costs of actors

20

Conclusion Based on the main findings and the recent situation of housing in Egypt, conclusions could be drawn as follows:  The Egyptian social housing problem is not a quantitative problem only, but is also related to the mechanisms and vision of the government. The vision of providing housing units as a source of income would hinder the efforts of social housing provision.  The importance of integrating the roles of all actors with an attempt to reduce the role of the government on financing social housing projects.  The willingness of the beneficiaries for types of tenure needs readjustment.  The rental system needs more activation from the government and revisiting the related legislations and regulations.

Recommendations The proposed model that was introduced meets the needs of the beneficiaries from low and mid-income groups in particular for the short and mid-term policies. But, the government could not afford too much land for such projects without gaining a suitable income as a return of those lands. So, undoubtedly the re-adjustment of wage system is the main challenge for the government in order to allow the citizens to pay for getting their housing units in an easier way without loading the government with more burdens.

Other recommendations of the research could be drawn through some main points as follows: On the regulatory and the legislative side: • Establishing more non-government financial and organizational agencies to provide and finance social housing.

• Differentiating between the two types of service providers (investment – service) • Defining the mechanism for maintenance of housing units which considers a residential stock that should be changed.

• Reconsidering the current legislation to find a suitable atmosphere in the housing domain and exceed issuing important legislation that were postponed to be issued several times and taking serious steps to find unified legislations for housing.

• Supporting the establishment of updated database for the housing market situation, and evaluating polices and efforts that are exerted in regularly and in a rapid way to respond to social and economic variables in the community.

On the Financial side: • Introduce practical facilitations for repayment on a long term for real estate projects which target low income.

• Activating the bank‟s role, and finance agencies in the housing field as the allocated money for housing is 1% of banks savings which reaches 20% in other countries. (Afify, A. 2005) • Subsiding social housing projects to be allocated for rent through integrated finance and legitimate polices which achieve maximum benefits of the private sector in this field.

References

-

Abd El-ghany, A. (2009). “Towards a new intellectual model of self-help housing in Egypt”. Published paper on International Conference on Developing the New Urban Communities - Policies and Priorities - 28-31 March. 2009 Bibliotheca Alexandrina –EGYPT. [Translated by author].

-

Afify, A. (2007) Towards promotes innovative policies for housing affordability in Arab Countries” [Online] Available from <http://www.cpas-egypt.com/pdf/Ayman_Afify/12th%20-%20Paper.pdf> [Translated by author].

-

Assem El-Gazzar, June 2013. Chairman of General Organization for Physical Planning. . [interviewed by El-Shaarawy, B.] Cairo, July 2013.

-

GOPP - General Organization for Physical Planning, (2012) Long-term strategic plan for Urban Development in Greater Cairo. Cairo: Ministry of Housing

-

Mark Stephens, et al. (2008) The privatization of social housing: three different pathways. [Online] Available from <http://www.iut.nu/Literature/SocialHousingEurope_II_June2009.pdf#page=54> [25/7/2013].

-

Sebawah, M. (2009) Housing Programs and Projects for Low-Income Groups in New Egyptian Cities Assessment of El-Mostakbal and El-Shabab Housing Programs. Unpublished thesis. Cairo: Cairo University. Translated by author.

-

Stuart MacDonald, (2013) Joint-stock: An innovation for the Malaysian market?. International event: the 4thAnnual Affordable Housing Projects. Malaysia.

-

UN-HABITAT, (2012) Housing for All: The Challenges of Affordability, Accessibility and Sustainability - The Experiences and Instruments from the Developing and Developed Worlds. [Online] available from <http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2547> [23\7\2013]

21

Paradigms of Development in Cairo Author: Ebtihal Mohamed Zakaria Rashad Abbas

Supervisors: Prof.Dr.-Ing.Philip Misselwitz,Prof. Mohamed Salheen, Vertr. Prof. Dr. Nina Gribat

Mobilization Patterns of Civil Society Organisations Civil society has become increasingly important as an actor over the past decades in harnessing urbanization and urban problems, partly an effect of neoliberal reforms that have decreased areas of state responsibility in dealing with issues of urbanization and have left more space for private actors and civil society organizations to intervene. The paper will explore the causes and the evolution of different paradigms in the state–society relations that are active in shaping the urban environment in Cairo and their mobilization patterns, focusing mainly on the civil society‟s role and their mobilization patterns in finding solutions to issues of urbanization; such as the increased demand on service provision which was particularly felt by poor people in urban areas who were unable to pay for much needed services.

The case study selected is Ard Al-Liwa‟ in Giza Governorate. It was subjected to rapid urbanization in the 1970s and the multidisciplinary role of civil society was a notable feature especially in post-revolutionary Cairo Introduction In Cairo, the notion of civil society engaging in harnessing urbanization impacts has rapidly sped up post 25 January 2011 revolution. It has shifted from its traditional roles such as a provider of philanthropic services or charity to an enabler for social equity and a catalyst to unearth interventions that could solve growing urbanization issues with the adoption of more developmental approaches to their work even though charity continues to be the main form of most of their work (CIVICUS, 2005). They now occupy new roles as significant actors within the systems of power that influence the development practices and involve the consolidated efforts of groups or individuals to upgrade living premises perhaps with the installation of certain infrastructure and services, providing expertise on certain technical issues, and advocacy or negotiating with the administrative municipal units. It is not comprehensible however, “how the complex governance mechanisms, bargaining processes and discourses of these new heterogeneous types of social organizations forms are influencing the development dynamics in the cities”(Kraas, 2009).

Neoliberal Urbanization David Harvey in his article, „From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism‟ states that urbanization is “not end-product but a set of social processes that produce a built form, spaces and resource systems organised into a distinctive spatial configuration and involves institutional arrangements, legal forms, political and administrative systems and hierarchies of power” (Harvey, 1989, p. 06). Of the current political processes and administrative powers that have done significant shifts in how urbanization in cities has developed and in the relation between state and civil society is the neoliberal economic paradigm that has been deployed since the late 1970‟s and early 1980‟s and whose thinking has become dominant in a majority of the countries of the world. Neoliberalism is envisaged as a continuous process and not an end-state (Peck & Tickell, 2002) a form of urban governance (Brenner & Theodore, 2005) which releases freedom of entrepreneurial skills (Harvey, 2005) in open, competitive, and unregulated markets, liberated from almost all forms of state intervention (Brenner & Theodore, 2002) (Figure 1). Peck & Tickell (2002) established two phases of neoliberalism, the „roll-back‟ and „roll-out‟ neoliberalism. The „roll back‟ neoliberalism which was prevailing in the 1980s and whose ideological home was provided by the governments of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Ronald Reagan in the US, is characterized by a form of partial state withdrawal or roll back in its relationship with the state (Peck & Tickell, 2002, p. 384). Its basic outlines included freely functioning markets‟ institutions, privatization of assets, and displacement of welfare provision models through policies of privatization and deregulation either with minimal or excluding any state interference (Brenner & Theodore, 2002) (Larner, 2003) (Brenner & Theodore, 2005) (Harvey, 2005) (Barnett, 2009). The „roll-out‟ neoliberalism was a response in the 1990‟s to the failures of the „roll back‟ neoliberalism which called out for other responses (Peck & Tickell, 2002) such as the creation of new financial regulations and corporate institutions known as the Washington Consensus such as the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), incorporation of partnership models in development such as urban regeneration programs, social welfare and penetration of socially excluded poverty zones that weren‟t considered by the neoliberals during the 1980s (Reid-Henry, 2012 ) (Peck & Tickell, 2002) (Aguirre, et al., 2006).

The competitive nature of neoliberalism excludes segments of society that fail to meet the international standards of competitive urbanism through tough measures such as social exclusion, gentrification, and banning of funding. Add to that the structural adjustment programs imposed by international financial institutions such the IMF and World Bank which bailed developing countries out of bankruptcy such as cutting spending and subsidies on social services, deregulating free market, privatizing industries and liberalize capital flows (A.Hassan, 2010). This resulted in many urbanization issues such as shrinkage of the public sector, inequity in distribution of services such as education or health and infrastructure such as mass-transit, roads and lack of state affordable housing, disempowerment of certain segments as opposed to new forms of elites in key state institutions, low paid labour force, vanishing of urban space, promotion of de-concentrated settlement patterns for maintaining public safety, increase in urban sprawl and the increase in militarization of urban spaces and loss of transparency within the state institutions‟ due to the promotion of the prioritization of private-sector (Klein, 2007) (Pearce, 2006) (Brenner & Theodore, 2005).

22

Neoliberal State and Civil Society One of the main issues of the neoliberal state is the underinvestment in the services upon which most low-income groups are dependent, which aggravated the situation for the urban poor who couldn‟t join the neoliberal race of competition, entrepreneurs and free capital, simultaneously being unable to provide for their own social well-being and much needed public services. This underinvestment caused by the neoliberal policies was substituted by the collective actions and value based good of civil society organisations who struggled to provide minimum basic services that were crucially needed for the majority of the population in the absence a welfare state. Even though civil society promotes different ideas and interests, this doesn‟t always necessarily mean that all of them might contribute positively to equity and justice to build a good society” (Pearce, 2006) (Bratton, 1989). Nonetheless, civil society networks are growing and seem to hold much promise in the areas of development, upgrading and advocacy and in the realm of social creativity, where a new social order can emerge as investigated in the case study.

State and Civil Society in Egypt – Urbanomics Timeline Contemporary Cairo has been radically transformed by urban processes shaped through time by a lot of interchanging structures and economic policies which have formulated its urban planning policies and which have reflected on the role of the state and on its relation with civil society. Figure 4 illustrates and represents the broad policies and state interventions in urban planning in Cairo since the 1952 revolution. The economic liberalization economic policies brought about a paradigm shift in urban development in Cairo and in its state–civil society relations.

23

Figure : Urbanomics Timeline Source: Adapted by author from (K.Shehayeb, et al., 2010) (J.Stewart, 1999) (Séjourné, 2009) (M.Abdelrahman, 2004) (Sims, 2003) (Sullivan, 1994) (Ateş, et al., 2006) (Solidarity Center, 2010) (N.Ayubi, 1989) (El-Batran & Arandel, 1998) (Piffero, 2009) (Dorman, 2009) (Singerman, 2009) (Sutton & Fahmi, 2001) (Denis & Séjourné, 2002). (Deboulet, 2010) (Pioppi, 2004) (Bayat, 2000)(Maher, 2011) (Mitchell, 1999) (Ben Nefissa, 2009). (W. Bradshaw & J. Schafer, 2000) (Schenker, 2012) (Piper, 2012). (Shawkat, 2013). (World Bank, et al., 2008) (GOPP, 2009) (Amnesty, 2011) (World Bank, 2013) (MENA, 2013) (Sims, 2013) (Lewis, 2006) (Koolhaas, 2012) (CEDEJ, 2013) (AbdelHalim, et al., 2012). (Medhat, 2013) (Al-Okaily, 2012) (Al-Tody, 2012) (Kandil, 2008, p. 70) (Institute of National Planning, 2008, p. 62) (Anon., 2012) (Aziz & Thabet, 2013) (CIVICUS, 2011) (Khan & Milbert, 2012) (Denis, 2006).

(Momani, 2003) (Ben Nefissa, 2009) (Sims, 2012) (Hinnebusch, 1990) (A.Hassan, 2010) (Kandil & Ben Nefissa, 1999). (Human Rights Watch, 2005) (CAPMAS, 2013)

24

The Case Study of Ard Al-Liwa’ Ard Al-Liwa‟ is an informal area built up of self-made unregistered housing, which has grown to encircle part of the chic neighbourhood of Mohandeseen and merge into the working class of Imbaba, Bulaq and Mit „Uqba. It was originally formed from farm land within the village of Mu‟tamidya. People started living in it during the 1970s during the „Infitah – Open Door‟. It developed independently of state intervention (Sims, 2012). Three micro projects for civil society in Ard Al-Liwa‟ and AlMutamidy‟ia were analysed to investigate the social processes and power structures of their works respectively, the railway crossing between Ard Al Liwa‟ and Al- Muhandiseen, Ard Al Liwa‟ park project and the highway ramps that connect Ard Al-Liwa‟ and AlMutamidy‟ia to the Cairo Ring Road. The case studies illustrated three different mobilisation patterns, social processes and power structures between state and nonstate The first pattern was the Railway Crossing in Ard AlLiwa‟. It was a participatory process in the community mobilized by a civil society organisation, the Freedom and Justice Party, the governing party at that time in Ard AlLiwa‟ in collaboration with a state institution (Governorate of Giza) and the Syndicate of Giza Engineers. The Mobilization pattern enabled some decentralisation in the decision by involving other CSOs in the neighborhood.

Figure: Process of the Civil Society Initiative for the Railway Crossing Source: (Shalaby, 2013) (Youssef, 2013) adapted by author

The second pattern was the project of Ard Al Liwa‟ Park which was mobilised by the Popular Coalition of Ard AlLiwa‟ that was initiated in the 18 days of the 25 th January uprising before the ouster of Mubarak‟s regime during the security vacuum when people were forced to protect their homes in the form of organizing themselves into popular coalitions. The mobilisation pattern was distributed such that it involved many strategies to communicate with the different levels of the community, civil society and state. It varied between consultancy with experts, community participation, negotiations and advocacy with government and parliamentary representation Figure : Process of the Civil Society Initiative for Ard Al-Liwa‟ Park Source: (Gad, 2013)(Nagati & Elgendy, 2013) adapted by author

The third pattern was the highway ramps that connect Ard Al-Liwa‟ and Al-Mutamidy‟ia to the Cairo Ring Road and was mobilised by Al-Mi„timidiya Baladna‟ which came into being after the revolution of 2011. Their process was quite centralised straightforward and uncomplicated. The mobilisation pattern involved collecting donations, implementing the project and getting approval through representative entity, the Shura council which later forced the General Authority for Roads, Bridges and Transport to approve and legalise the ramps.

25 Figure : Process of the Civil Society Initiative for the Ramps Source: (Abou-Musa, 2013) adapted by author

Conclusion There is an increased emergence of civil society organisations concerned with urbanization issues especially in postrevolutionary Cairo mainly because the state lacks the necessary resources (economic growth and basic services provision) to support its growing urban population, finance urban infrastructure and provide urban services. It is quite obvious that the assistance of civil society organisations is an ostensible pillar. One can‟t deny the fact that a lot of the impoverished areas in Cairo are fully dependant on those civil society organisations especially after the retreat of a financially strained state after the uprising of 25th January. The challenges and deficiencies concluded from analysing the mobilisation patterns in the case study are as follows:

1. Political or Religious Affiliation

2. Involvement of other CSOs

3. Contribution to the Community

4. Voicing Community Needs

5. State Representation

6. Coordination with Relevant State Institutions

7. Responsibility without Power

8. Conflict of Interests

9. Cost and Effectiveness 10. Public interest

The political influence of the civil society organisation can turn out to be a double-edged sword. Not only may they use their reputation in their working contexts to exert a political influence at the local level but this may also corner them if the community doesn‟t agree to their political agenda.

When involving or contracting other CSOs, they sometimes have to meet the objectives of the donors or the initiators rather than adapting their own values in response to local situations especially if it‟s a different political or religious stance.

Even though a fundamental aspect of CSOs is to raise communities‟ demands to the state and try to meet communities‟ needs, this doesn‟t always necessarily mean that all of them might contribute positively to equity and justice to build a good society.

Projects which are initiated from people within the community are more realistic and properly address the community‟s needs better than those that are not situated in the local context. There is also mutual trust from neighbourhood residents.

A critical issue is the importance of parliamentary members that represent that society and voice their demands. Coalitions and organisations such as these are having major problems in voicing their demands to the state in the absence of a parliament.

Multiplicity of state institutions, working on resolving urbanization issues that exist with overlapping mandates that compete against each other halts all possible ways forward for progress.

Local institutions and civil society are given responsibility without power. Sometimes civil society organisations face a lot of challenges from the state when attempting to implement some of their projects such as administrative approvals, police clearance, and accusations of implementing foreign agendas.

Conflicts of interests impede work progress. Private developers who benefit from the lack of government interventions are sometimes an obstacle when it comes to developing a project that might conflict with their interests regardless of its importance to the community.

Furthermore, CSO projects might conflict with public interest if there is no national plan. Some other CSOs which are politically affiliated might work for their own interest and not for public good.

The more compact the civil society organisation is, the more it tends to be focused and the more effective its aims are.

Civil society organisations sometimes disregarded other issues in the wider context such as traffic loads generated, urban sprawl,encroachment on agricultural land and sometimes an increment in land prices.

26

References

-

A.Hassan, H., 2010. State Versus Society in Egypt: Consolidating Democracy or Upgrading Autocracy. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 4(9), pp. 319 - 329.

-

Abdel-Halim, K., Ibrahim, K., Al-Ibrashy, M. & Nagati, O., 2012. Who Shapes Our Cities? Urban Egypt Between Grassroots Initiatives and State Control. Naples, Italy, World Urban Forum 6.

-

Abou-Musa, A. N., 2013. Social Researcher in the MOSSA, Head of Al-Game'ia Al-Sharia', Initiator of Al-Mi'timidiya Baladna [Interview] (15 May 2013).

-

Aguirre, A., J., Eick, V. & Ree, E., 2006. Introduction: Neoliberal Globalization, Urban Privatization, and Resistance. Social Justice, 33(03), pp. 1-5.

-

Al-Okaily, M. A.-D., 2012. Legal Advisor for the Ministry of Solidarity and Social Affairs [Interview] (23 December 2012).

-

ApWorld, 2013. Economic Globalisation. [Online] Available at: http://apworldwiki2011-12.weebly.com/economic-globilization-factors--effects.html [Accessed 20 June 2013].

-

Ateş, H., Duman, M. & Bayraktar, Y., 2006. A Story of Infitah: Egyptian Liberalisation Under Stress. Yapi Kredi Economic Review, 17(I), pp. 59 -77.

-

Aziz, S. & Thabet, H., 2013. New draft NGO Law squeezes civil society. [Online] Available at: http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/06/25/new-draft-ngo-law-squeezes-civil-society/ [Accessed 16 July 2013].

-

B.Nefissa, S. & others, a., 2000. NGOs and Governance in the Arab World. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.

-

Bayat, A., 2000. Social Movements, Activism and Social Development in the Middle East. Geneva, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

-

Ben Nefissa, S., 2009. The Crisis of Local Administration and the Refusal of Urban Citizenship. In: Cairo Contested:

-

Bratton, M., 1989. The politics of government-NGO relations in Africa. World Development, April, Volume 17(Issue 4), pp. 569587.

-

Brenner, N. & Theodore, N., 2002. The Urbanization of Neoliberalism: Theoretical Debates. Antipode, 34(03), pp. 349-379.

-

CAPMAS, 2013. http://capmas.gov.eg/. [Online] Available at: http://capmas.gov.eg/database.aspx?parentid=172 [Accessed 15 June 2013].

-

CEDEJ, 2013. 'Egypt Urban Futures' Workshop. Cairo, CEDEJ, UN-HABITAT, GIZ.

-

D.Lewis & N.Kanji, 2009. Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge.

-

Denis, É., 2006. Cairo as neoliberal capital? From Walled City to Gated Communities. In: D. Singerman & P. Amar, eds. Cairo Cosmopolitan:Politics, Culture, And Urban Space In The New Globalized Middle East. Cairo, Egypt: AUC Press, pp. 47-71 .

-

Denis, E. & Séjourné, M., 2002. Information System for Informal Settlements (ISIS). s.l.:Participatory Urban Management Programme (GIZ) & Centre de recherche et de documentation Economique, Juridique et Social (CEDEJ) .

-

Dorman, W., 2009. Of Demolitions and Donors: The Problematics of State Intervention in Informal Cairo. In: D. Singerman, ed. Cairo Contested: Governance, Urban Space, and Global Modernity. Cairo: The American University Press in Cairo, pp. 269 290.

-

El-Batran, M. & Arandel, C., 1998. A Shelter of their Own: Informal Settlement Expansion in Greater Cairo and Government Responses. Environment and Urbanization, 10(1), pp. 217 - 232.

-

Flyvbjerg, B., 1998. Habermas and Foucault: Thinkers for Civil Society?. The British Journal of Sociology, 49(2), pp. 210-233.

Al-Tody, H., 2012. Head of Giza Department - Ministry of Solidarity and Social Affairs [Interview] (23 December 2012). Amnesty, 2011. „We Are Not Dirt‟ Forced Evictions in Egypt‟s Informal Settlements. London: Amnesty International Ltd. Anon., 2012. NGO Law Monitor: Egypt. [Online] Available at: http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/egypt.html [Accessed 15 December 2012].

Barnett, C., 2009. Publics and Markets: What‟s wrong with Neoliberalism?. In: S. Smith, S. Marston, R. Pain & J. Paul Jones III, eds. The Handbook of Social Geography. London: Sage, pp. 269-296.

Governance, Urban Space and Global Modernity. Cairo: The Amercian University in Cairo Press, pp. 177-198.

Ben Nefissa, S., Abdel Fatah, N., Hanafi, S. & Milani, C., 2000. NGOs and Governance in the Arab World. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.

Brenner, N. & Theodore, N., 2005. Neoliberalism and the Urban Condition. City: analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action, 09(01), pp. 101-107.

CIVICUS, 2005. Civil Society Index Report for the Arab Republic of Egypt, Cairo: CIVICUS. CIVICUS, 2011. Word Alliance for Citizen Participation. [Online] Available at: http://www.civicus.org/news-and-resources-127/reports-and-publications/csi-reports/africa-countryreports/ 333-egypt [Accessed 1 March 2013].

Deboulet, A., 2010. Urban Highways as an Embodiment of Mega and Elite Projects: A New Realm of Conflicts and Claims in Three Middle Eastern Capital Cities. Built Environment, 36(02), pp. 146-161.

Gad, H., 2013. One of the Founders of the Popular Coalition of Ard Al-Liwa, a Planning Expert in the Popular Coalition of Ard Al-Liwa [Interview] (10 May 2013).

27

-

GOPP, 2009. Vision of Cairo 2050, Cairo: GOPP.

-

Harvey, D., 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. UK: Oxford University Press.

-

Hopewell, M., 2013. Post-Revolutionary Egypt and the Future of Cairo‟s Informal Settlements. [Online] Available at: http://intlhc.org/blog/post-revolutionary-egypt-and-the-future-of-cairo%E2%80%99s-informal-settlements [Accessed 18 July 2013].

-

Human Rights Watch, T., 2005. Egypt: Margins of Repression, State Limits on Nongovernmental Organization Activism.

Human Rights Watch, 17(8(E)).

-

Institute of National Planning, T., 2008. Egypt's Social Contract: The role of Civil Society, Cairo: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

-

J.Stewart, D., 1999. Changing Cairo: The Political Economy of Urban Form. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 23(01), p. 103–127.

-

K.Shehayeb, D., El-Gazaerly, F. & Issa, S., 2010. Planning Cairo?. Cairo Resilience.

-

Kimmelman, M., 2013. Who Rules the Street in Cairo? The Residents Who Build It. [Online] Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/28/arts/design/in-cairo-rethinking-the-city-from-the-bottom-up.html? pagewanted=all&_r=0 [Accessed 18 July 2013].

-

Kisby, B., 2010. The Big Society: Power to the People?. The Political Quarterly, 81(4), pp. 484 - 491.

-

Kraas, F., 2009. The Role of Civil Society in Urban Development. Kuala Lumpur, ForUm Network.

-

M.Abdelrahman, M., 2004. Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt. London: Tauris Academic Studies.

-

Mitchell, T., 1999. No Factories, No Problems: The Logic of Neo-Liberalism in Egypt. Review of African Political Economy, 26(82), pp. 455-468.

-

Momani, B., 2003. Promoting Economic Liberalization in Egypt: From U.S. Foreign Aid to Trade And Investment. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 7(03), pp. 88-101.

-

N.Ayubi, N., 1989. Bureaucracy and Development in Egypt Today. In: J. G. Jabbra, ed. Bureaucracy and Development in the Arab World. The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, pp. 62-93.

-

Nagati, O. & Elgendy, N., 2013. Ard al-Liwa Park Project: Towards a New Urban Order and Mode of Professional Practice.

Planum: The Journal of Urbanism, 26(01).

-

Nowak, W., 2013. Returning to the Roots. In: U. E. W. Marcos L. Rosa, ed. Handmade Urbanism: Mumbai - S‫م‬o Paulo Istanbul - Mexico City - Cape Town From Community Initiatives to Participatory Models. s.l.:Jovis Verlag GmbH, pp. 10,11.

-

Painter, J., 2003. State and Governance. In: E. Sheppard & T. J.Barnes, eds. A Companion to Economic Geography. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 359-376.

-

Pearce, J., 2006. Development, NGOs, and Civil society: the Debate and its Future. In: D. Eade, ed. Development, NGOs, and Civil Society. London: Oxfam GB, pp. 15 - 43.

-

Peck, J. & Tickell, A., 2002. Neoliberalising Space. Antipode, 34(03), p. 380–404.

Harvey, D., 1989. From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism.

Geografiska Annaler, 71(01), pp. 03 - 17.

Hinnebusch, R. A., 1990. The formation of the contemporary Egyptian state from Nasser and Sadat to Mubarak. The political economy of contemporary Egypt , pp. 188-209.

Kandil, A., 2008. Arabic Encyclopedia of Civil Society. Cairo: Arabic Network for NGOs. Kandil, A. & Ben Nefissa, S., 1999. Civic Associations in Egypt. Cairo: Al Ahram Centre for Political and Strategic Studies (in Arabic).

Katz, H., 2006. Gramsci, Hegemony, and Global Civil Society Networks. Voluntas , Volume 17, p. 333–348.

Khan, M. & Milbert, S., 2012. Economic Policies in Egypt: Populism or Reforms?, Washington, DC : The Atlantic Council of the United States.

Klein, N., 2007. The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism.. s.l.:Metropolitan Books.

Koolhaas, P. F. a. R., 2012. The Invention and Reinvention of the City. Journal of International Affairs , p. An Interview with Rem Koolhaas.

Larner, W., 2003. Neoliberalism?. Environment and Planning: Society and Space, 21(Guest Editorial), pp. 509 - 512.

Lewis, P. O.-M. a. D., 2006. Moving forward research agendas on international NGOs: Theory, agency and context. Journal of International Development, p. 665–675.

Maher, S., 2011. The Political Economy of the Egyptian Uprising. Monthly Review, 63(06).

Mann, M., 1984 . The autonomous power of the state: its origins, mechanisms and results. European Journal of Sociology, 25(02), pp. 185-213.

Medhat, E., 2013. Director of Information Center - Federation of NGOs and Civil Society [Interview] (26 February 2013).

MENA, M. E. N. A., ‫الزراعة‬: 32 ‫ الولى والمنوفية الثورة بعد الزراعية الراضي على تعديات فدان ألف‬. 2013 . [Online] Available at: http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/1729761 [Accessed 19 July 2013].

28

-

Piffero, E., 2009. Beyond Rules and Regulations: The Growth of Informal Cairo. In: R. Kipper & M. Fischer, eds. About Cairo and its Informal Areas. Cairo: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, pp. 021-025.

-

Pioppi, D., 2004. From Religious Charity to the Welfare State and Back. The Case of Islamic Endowments (Waqfs) Revival in Egypt, Italy: European University Institute .

-

Piper, K., 2012. Revolution of the Thirsty. [Online] Available at: http://places.designobserver.com/feature/egypt-revolution-of-the-thirsty/34318/ [Accessed 6 May 2012].

-

Reid-Henry, S., 2012 . Neoliberalism's 'trade not aid' approach to development ignored past lessons. [Online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/oct/30/neoliberalism-approach-development-ignoredpastLessons [Accessed 24 May 2013].

-

Schenker, D., 2012. Egypt‟s Enduring Challenges: The Economic Priority. [Online] Available at: http://www.thecuttingedgenews.com/index.php?article=52336 [Accessed 06 June 2013].

-

Séjourné, M., 2009. About Cairo and its Informal Areas. [Online] Available at: http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/CA_Docs/resources/Cairo's%20Informal%20Areas %20Between%20Urban%20Challenges%20and%20Hidden%20Potentials/CairosInformalAreas_Ch1.pdf [Accessed 26 December 2012].

-

Shalaby, A.-F. S., 2013. Professor in Urban and Regional Planning, Advisor to the Minister of Housing and Construction, Member of the Board of Directors of ISDF - Ex-Rapporteur of the Central Committee for the Development of Informal Areas in the Freedom and Justice Party [Interview] (29 April 2013).

-

Shawkat, Y., 2013. Impact of World Bank Policy and Programs on the Built Environment in Egypt, s.l.: Bank Information Center.

-

Sims, D., 2003. The Case of Cairo. Understanding Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements .

-

Solidarity Center, T., 2010. The Struggle for Worker Rights in Egypt, United States of America: The Solidarity Center.

-

Sutton, K. & Fahmi, W., 2001. Cairo‟s urban growth and strategic master plans in the light of Egypt‟s 1996 population census results. Cities, 18(03), pp. 135-149.

-

W. Bradshaw, Y. & J. Schafer, M., 2000. Urbanization and Development: The Emergence of International Nongovernmental Organizations Amid Declining States. Pacific Sociological Association, 43(1), pp. 97-116.

-

W.Bradshaw, Y. & J.Schafer, M., 2000. Urbanization and Development: The Emergence of International Nongovernmental Organizations Amid Declining States. Pacific Sociological Association, 43(1), pp. 97 - 116.

-

World Bank, T., 2013. Interim Strategy Note for the Arab Republic Of Egypt, Middle East and North Africa Region: World Bank.

-

World Bank, T., U. & T., 2008. A Framework For Housing Policy Reform in Urban Areas in Egypt , s.l.: The World Bank.

Sims, D., 2012. Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.

Sims, D., 2013. American Economist and Urban Planner [Interview] (10 March 2013).

Sims, D., 2013. Egypt Urban Futures' Workshop. Cairo, CEDEJ, UN-HABITAT, GIZ. Singerman, D., 2009. The Contested City. In: D. Singerman, ed. Cairo Contested: Governance, Urban Space, and Global Modernity. Cairo, Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press, pp. 03-38.

Sullivan, D. J., 1994. Private voluntary organizations in Egypt: Islamic development, private initiative, and state control.

Florida: University Press of Florida.

Youssef, M., 2013. Officer in the Urban Upgrading Unit - Giza Governorate [Interview] (17 July 2013).

29

Energy Efficient Urban Configurations for Residential Projects in Cairo Author: Eslam Mohamed Mahdy Youssef

Supervisors: Prof. Youhansen Eid, Prof. Ingo Helmedag, Prof. Jose Moro

1. Introduction and Methodology Reducing energy consumption is becoming one of the main approaches to mitigate climate change and reduce C02 emissions besides its positive implications on reducing pollution, improving health and economy. This research focuses on the potential role of urban design in reducing energy consumption. Proper urban design and planning could provide strategies for saving energy through establishing energy-efficient urban forms (Breheny, 1992).

Like many other places in the world, Egypt is dramatically facing problems with energy shortage and consumption. In Egypt, buildings in general are responsible for 60.18% of the total electricity consumption in all sectors. Energy demand has reached about 69.2 Billion kWh with an annual increase of 7%, where the industry takes about 43%, residential and the commercial buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x; share is 42.6%, governmental buildings and services consume about 16.7% while agriculture uses only 4% (Elsayed & Michel, 2006).

The research focuses on the settlements around Cairo, which are known as the satellite cities. (Shalaby, 2000). These new satellite cities exemplify an alteration in the urban planning spatial configurations (A.Ramadan, 2010). The Egyptian government has adopted a new programme for building new settlements in the vast unoccupied desert to withdraw the massive urbanisation processes occurring in Cairo due to the high demand on housing (Shalaby, 2000).

Those settlements are responsible for most of the developments and urban expansion around Cairo.

The research draws out twelve main design principles that outline energy efficient urban configurations in residential projects in Cairo. The twelve design principles have been extracted from diverse literature sources focusing on the design principles of eco-districts and climatic urban design principles adapted from the urban configurations of the old Arabic Medina. Those principles are then used to assess and evaluate the urban configurations of two recent residential projects in Greater Cairo. Through analysing the case studies the research traces the main deficiencies that impede the development of energy efficient urban configurations of recent practices in Greater Cairo 2. Why Urban Form / Configuration?

There are a lot of complex tiers and fields of action aimed towards energy efficiency in residential areas, such as the control of household consumption, enhancing the efficiency of supplies and approaches that focus on the efficiency of the automobile and transportation technologies. Among the various approaches, the study concentrates on the principles of the energy-efficient urban design for the residential areas. The following figure shows an abstract diagram depicting the components of urban form and its configurations. Those configurations are closely linked to achieve energy efficiency for the design of components such as; buildings blocks, open spaces, land uses, transportation and infrastructure which simultaneously affect the energy consumption and efficiency (Peker, 1998).

Figure 1: Relationship of fields of action in residential areas with urban configurations Source: (Fuchs, et al., 2008) (ADOLPHE, 2001) adapted by author

30

3. Principles for Energy Efficient Urban Configurations in Residential Areas Linguistically the word configuration means “an arrangement of parts or elements in a particular form, figure, or combination“(Oxford, 2013) or “Something (as a figure, contour, pattern, or apparatus) that results from a particular arrangement of parts or components” (Merriam-Webster, 2013). The international conference of “New Urban Configurations” held in 2012 at (TUDelft, 2013) Netherlands by (EAAE, 2013) in collaboration with the (IUSF, 2013), the conference defined five sub-themes for the urban configurations: “1. Innovation in building typology, 2. Infrastructure and the city, 3. Complex urban projects, 4. Green spaces: the city and the territory, 5. Delta urbanism: Living with water in the urban Deltas” (EAAE/ISUF, 2013). Accordingly urban configurations are not only limited to the arrangement of buildings but also the relation of these buildings with the built environment elements such as the buildings morphologies, green areas, landuses, circulation and mobility networks. The recommendations for the configuration of energy-efficient urban forms ranges from the scale of the city, neighbourhoods, districts, and occasionally on a building scale, particularly where the interactions between buildings and surroundings are concerned (Givoni, 1998) (Peker, 1998).

The following figure demonstrates the main sources to highlight energy efficient urban design: 1. Balance of Compactness & Density 2. Provision of Diversity and attractiveness 3. Integrated circulation Network 4. Site selection Suitability 5. Minimize Heights and S/V ratio of buildings 6. Integration of Building Forms 7. Variety of Housing Types 8. Streets Orientation towards privileged winds 9. Central cooling & heating 10. Provision of External shading 11. Using Greening and Urban Trees 12. Utilizing Cool surfaces It is difficult to suggest an optimal urban form or configurations that can be described as the most energy efficient one (Norman, et al., 2006). However the Figure 21: Main sources to draw the energy efficient urban configurations in energy efficient urban form might be residential areas described as the urban configurations that Source: Adapted by author consider climatic conditions, reasonable density, level of compactness that respond positively to the climate. On top of a sensible landscape and a wellbalanced transportation network that integrates services, facilities and housing types while providing residential areas with their necessary uses and daily activities. (Norman, et al., 2006).

4. Contradictions and Interrelationships between Design Principles The principles cannot be applied easily without constraints. There are a lot of contradictions and dilemmas while trying to achieve them. Those principles sometimes support, contradict and intersect with each other. For example, it is practically impossible to orient all streets to the prevailing desired wind direction; it is difficult to impose such principles on an entire plan of a district or a neighbourhood. At the same time, it is also challenging to offer freeobstacle wind paths due to the differences in building heights. Among those dilemmas is the compactness level, compact urban areas hold some advantages such as protecting against sun and provide shades. In addition there are some disadvantages such as the high potential for urban heat island effect. A cultural obstacle is that compact urban areas are sometimes affiliated to poverty as opposed to other suburban areas. This necessitates a profound analysis to settle on the degree of compactness for any residential areas. The interrelationships and contradictions between the design principles, shows that the energy efficient urban configurations are in need for trade-off between all of principles, advantages, disadvantages and specific conditions of each area.

31

5. Analysis of Case Studies (Residential Projects in Cairo) Residential areas are regarded as an energy-using system (Mehaffy, Cowan, & Urge-Vorsatz, 2009). The main causes of energy consumption within this system are: transportation, cooling indoor and outdoor spaces and the third source is the embodied energy in all constructional and operational phases.

To analyze and discuss the urban configurations of the case studies, the design principles of energy efficient urban form might be classified into three groups: a. The general characteristics: design principles that describe the whole district / neighbourhood. b. Principles associated with buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x; morphology: principles that are related to the formation of the buildings and their geometrical characteristics. c. Cooling ambient temperature: principles that aim to cool the ambient temperature hence cooling the buildings and ease walkability.

Figure 32: Main sources for energy consumption within residential areas, Source: Author as adapted from previously mentioned literature in.

Figure 4: Location of the selected case studies, Source: author as adapted from (Google, 2013)

32

The following table shows an abstract of Compliance of design principles within the selected case studies.

Table 1 Compliance of the case studies with the design principles, Source: Author as adapted from previously mentioned literature and (Earth, 2008) (Yousry, et al., 2005)

6. Conclusion The case studies show some common characteristics and deficiencies. The designs of case studies do not fulfil most of the design principles extracted in the literature review. The urban configurations of the case studies demonstrate some positive implications such as providing the areas with basic facilities and connectivity with the surrounding areas. On the other hand the same urban configurations and applied regulations result in deficiencies such as undersized built-up areas, immense setbacks, low urban density and high exposure to solar radiation. Those deficiencies and problems are closely interlinked and could be summarized in the following points.

6.1.

Mixed-Use versus Mono-Functional Uses The mono-functional land use plan is the typical form of landuse in new satellite cities with a few exceptions. This separation of landuse lessens the neighbourhood liveability and stipulates more trips to meet the daily needs of the residents, hence increasing the energy consumption. Hypothetically the mixed form of land uses is more efficient than the mono functional landuse. Encouraging the concept of mixed uses instead of mono-residential landuse ought to be a desirable target in order to diminish the need to travel and reduce the energy consumptions resulting from commuting.

6.2.

Buildings Morphologies: Compactness versus Dispersal The design case studies, gives priority for detached buildings with a high S/V ratios. The argument behind the setbacks is to achieve more privacy for the residents. But such a concept result in low density urban areas with buildings that are highly exposed to the sun.

Figure 5 Examples depicting setbacks regulations parts in New Cairo, Source: (Google, 2013)

Table 2: Examples of setbacks & public facilities regulations in New Cairo, Source: (NUCA, n.d.)

33

Figure 5 Examples depicting setbacks regulations parts in New Cairo, Source: (Google, 2013)

The regulations also require that the built-up area be 30% to 40 %. This results in dispersed urban patterns. The highly exposed building surfaces and wide distances between buildings with no means of shades affect the energy efficiency unconstructively. Another concern is the lengthy infrastructure networks and the long travel distances, which consume a lot of embodied energy and lead to energy wasting through transmission. Aiming towards densification and compactness would be beneficial for that matter.

6.3.

Transportation and Circulations Networks: Car Dominance Cars are the mainstream trend of movement within residential projects such as the ones presented earlier. The end result is the mismanagement and misuse of land resources, high demand on car fuel and the construction of massive asphalt surfaces. Providing the residential areas with an integrated transportation network that includes public transportation, proper pedestrian paths, cycle lanes and high accessibility for facilities is significant to save energy wasted in car commuting.

6.4.

Interpretation of Eco-Friendly Settlement Concepts of eco-friendly cities, low carbon cities, green communities and smart growth have become the main approaches to work towards a more sustainable development in the last few decades. While those concepts differ and vary from each other, there is large widespread stand for all of them such as; applying energy efficiency principles, reducing Co2 emissions, enhancing the ambient air and eliminating pollutants...etc. Those principles and concepts mainly concentrate on the specificity of each location and give high priority to the energy efficiency and green gas house emission. In Egypt (for example in NewGiza) the designers intended and claimed to establish an Eco-friendly community, but the interpretation of Eco-friendly (in NewGiza and in many cases) was to provide more green areas as much as possible and avoid the intersection between cars and pedestrian paths. This on the contrary neglects many other aspects of the energy efficiency principles such as those massive green areas require huge amounts of water irrigation. It is of utter importance to promote for more strategies beyond â&#x20AC;&#x17E;greenâ&#x20AC;&#x; sceneries.

6.5.

The Need of Passive Air Cooling Techniques There is an increased usage of electricity-consuming cooling devices such as air conditioning units, fans and refrigerators. For example in Egypt, air conditioning units have increased dramatically over the last few years. The number of AC units rose from 196,000 in 1999 to three million in 2009 (Raslan, 2013). According to the Minister of Electricity in Egypt (Emam, 2013), this number doubled to six million units by 2012. In addition to accounting for 20% of energy consumption (Raslan, 2013) the use of these devices add to the UHI effect through the release of waste heat into ambient air.

34

Figure 6: Increase of air conditioners numbers in Egypt Source: (Raslan, 2013)

Any design strategies to provide energy efficiency should address the reduction of energy consumption in cooling. It is important to use passive cooling techniques. It is natural of course that the passive design strategies differ according to the location of the site and microclimate conditions. Nevertheless, the main stand is to protect against solar radiation and provide enough shades while taking into consideration the influence of the buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x; configurations.

7. The Way Forward The layout of these settlements ignores the traditional planning principles for desert environment and for the energy efficiency (Shalaby, 2000) (Alzamly, et al., 2010). Ignoring those principles, particularly those related to the urban form (Abdullah, 2013) (Alqadi, 2013) (Shalaby, 2000). Those cities are in need to be developed according to more sustainable and energy efficient urban patterns. There is a crucial need for further improvements on the legal, organizational, design and planning levels to establish energy efficient residential projects. Adopting and posing particular guidelines for the land uses, transportation and cooling is a major requirement. The approaches of a sustainable and green urbanism should be endorsed in the field of designers, planners and architects. The integration of energy efficiency in the curricula of urban plannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s educations in line with developing the regulations is recommended (MED-ENEC, 2013).

35

Bibliography

-

A.Ramadan Mohamad Fahmy Interactive urban form design of local climate scale in hot semi-arid zone, PHD [Book]. - Sheffield : The University of Sheffield School of Architecture, 2010.

-

Abdullah Gamal Ahmed Urban Planner at New Urban Community Authority NUCA [Interview]. - 2013 йил 1-March.

-

Ahram Online Ahram Online [Online] // Ahram Online. - 2012 йил 28-December. - 2013 йил 10-March. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/61427/Business/Economy/Egypt-suffers-power-outage,-could-face-dark-winter.aspx.

-

Alqadi Adulkhaleq Urban Planning Consultant at General Organization of Physical Planning [Interview]. - 2013 йил 28-January.

-

Breheny Michael Thecontradictions of the compact city: A review. In Sustainable development and urban form [Book]. - London: : Pion., 1992.

-

EAAE European Association for Architectural Education EAAE Events Section [Online]. - 2013. - July 8, 2013. http://www.eaae.be/events.php.

-

EAAE/ISUF EAAE/ISUF International Conference New Urban Configurations Conference sub-themes [Online]. - 2013. - July 8, 2013. http://www.newurbanconfigurations.nl/info/themes.

-

Earth Earth for Architecture and Planning NewGiza Master Plan [Report]. - Cairo : Earth for Architecture and Planning Earth (not published yet), 2008.

-

Eissa Ahmed Site Engineer at Al Rehab City Department [Interview]. - May 21, 2013.

-

Emam Ahmed Youtube [Online]. - 2013. - July 12, 2013. - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAXcOh81I84.

-

Givoni Baruch Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design [Book]. - New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

-

IUSF International Seminar on Urban Form International Seminar on Urban Form Conferences [Online]. - 2013. - July 8, 2013. http://www.urbanform.org/conferences.html.

-

Marshall Julian D. Energy- Efficent Urban form [Report]. - MINNESOTA : American Chemical Society, 2008.

-

Mehaffy Michael, Cowan Stuart and Urge-Vorsatz Diana The Factors of Urban Morphology in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Research Overview [Conference] // IARU Scientific Congress. - Copenhagen : IARU, 2009.

-

Merriam-Webster Merriam-Webster [Online]. - 2013. - July 9, 2013. - http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/configuration.

-

NUCA New Urban Community Authority, Egypt New Urban Community Authority [Online] // New Urban Community Authority. - 2013 йил 9-March. - http://www.urban-comm.gov.eg/cities.asp.

-

Oxford Oxford Dictionaries [Online]. - 2013. - July 10, 2013. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/configuration?q=configurations+.

-

Peker Zeynep ENERGY EFFICIENT URBAN DESIGN, Master Thesis [Book]. - Izmir : Izmir Institute of Technology, 1998. - p. 229.

-

Shalaby A. Compact Urban Form: A Sustainable Urban Form in a Desert Environment? Sustainable Cities: Sustainable Development [Conference] // Sustainable Cities: Sustainable Development; the Urban Agenda in Developing Countries, ; Papers Presented at the 17th Inter-Schools Conference at Oxford Brookes University / ed. Zetter Roger. - Oxford : School of Planning, Oxford Brookes University, 2000, 2000.

-

TUDelft Faculty of Architecture and The Built Environment Faculty of Architecture and The Built Environment [Online]. - 2013. - July 8, 2013. - http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/en/current/agenda/event/detail/conferentie-new-urban-configurations/.

-

Yousry Mahmoud, Nabih Ezzat S. and Rabei Samir Master Plan of Al Rehab City Extension [Report]. - Cairo : Cairo Group for Planning & Architecture, 2005.

ADOLPHE Prof. Luc [Online] // The European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, eceee. - 2001. - April 2, 2013. http://www.eceee.org/conference_proceedings/eceee/2001/Panel_4/p4_4/paper.

Alzamly Hassan [et al.] Understanding and formulating gated communities inside Greater Cairo new towns urban fabric [Online] // ISOCARP Congress. - 2010 йил. - 2013 йил 12-March. - http://www.isocarp.net/Data/case_studies/1709.pdf.

Elsayed Hend and Michel Suzette Energy group [Online] // University of Geneva. - 2006 йил 6-September. - 2013 йил 13-March. http://www.cuepe.ch/html/plea2006/Vol2/PLEA2006_PAPER885.pdf.

Fuchs Matthias [et al.] Energy Manual: Sustainable Architecture [Book]. - Birkhäuser : Birkhäuser, 2008.

Ghonimi Islam [et al.] The Contribution Of Gated Communities To Urban Development In Greater Cairo Region, New Towns [Journal] // Journal of Al Azhar university ‐ Engineering Sector, JAUES. - 2001 йил.

Google Google Earth (Version 6) [Computer program]. [Online]. - 2013. - May 6, 2013. http://www.google.com/earth/download/ge/agree.html.

MED-ENEC Energy Efficiency in the Construction Sector in the Mediterranean Energy Efficiency in Urban Planning Training Workshop Report [Report]. - Cairo : MED-ENEC, 2013.

Norman Jonathan [et al.] Comparing High and Low Residential Density: Life-Cycle Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions [Journal] // JOURNAL OF URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT. - 2006. - pp. 10-21.

Raslan Rokia Carboun, Middle East Sustainable Cities [Online]. - 2013. - July 16, 2013. - http://www.carboun.com/energy/empoweringegypt/.

36

Coping with Climate Change Reflections for Community Based Strategies in Cairo„s Urban Informal Settlements Author: Franziska Laue

Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Philipp Misselwitz, Prof. Dr. Mohamed Salheen, Prof. Antje Stokman

Abstract Egyptian cities are facing dramatic impacts of climate change pushing public debates to consider responses such as adaptation. Cairo„s urban areas are particularly vulnerable due to heat related impacts.

The purpose of this study is to explore community based adaptation options (CBA) in unplanned neighborhoods of Greater Cairo as an approach towards increasing urban resilience and sustainability.

In the first part, the theoretical and conceptual contexts on climate change adaptation and Egypt are presented. These show that adaptation on different levels can be a crucial option for Cairo but still lacks in depth analysis.

The informal urban area of Ezzbet El Nasr was chosen as a case study to illustrate vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities and the ongoing CBA process. Hard and soft adaptation measures were identified and discussed according to their applicability. This was followed by a discussion on how the introduction of these measures can go along a CBA process in the community, which in turn resulted in potential scenarios.

The research, based on a master thesis, revealed, that despite multiple constraints there are intrinsic chances to respond to climate change through CBA, which potentially can be a strategy synergetic with other developmental approaches and participatory community work. CBA requires the commitment of the local community and has the potential to be introduced by local civil society and international actors. This can again contribute to the resilience of the city as a whole.

Keywords: Climate change, Community Based Adaptation, Informal Urban Areas, Greater Cairo, Egypt

Introduction Adaptation is identified as one response to climate change impacts, becoming necessary and complementary when reduction of harmful anthropogenic emissions appears insufficient. Adaptation as flexible and preparatory adjustment to inevitable changes (IPCC 2007) is a viable alternative increasing resilience of natural and human systems for lower-middle-income nations like Egypt having limited options to mitigate.

Urban areas face multiple climatic and non-climatic stresses. Unlike Alexandria (EEAA, 2011), Cairo is not considered 'vulnerable' (CSC 2013), nonetheless suffering from increasing temperature.

One concept tackling climate change related vulnerability, particularly of poorer urban areas is community based adaptation (CBA), a bottom-up approach applying developmental measures with potential to empower local urban neighborhoods in livelihood improvement. Though researched in different urban contexts worldwide (Dodman 2013), CBA is still a novelty in Egypt.

The paper, based on a master thesis, explores how and with whom CBA is applicable in Cairo's informal urban areas as a complementary aspect of urban development, additionally analyzing adaptation measures based on a case study in Ezzbet El-Nasr embedded in a GIZ CBA project.

Literature Review International scientific and political discourses deal with anthropogenic climate change since the 1950s (IPCC 1979), becoming an urban matter since the late 1990s (Mitlin, Satterthwaite, UN-Habitat 2011, ICLEI 2010). Adaptation as a response in urban areas receives attention since the 2000s notably through academia (IIED 2007, 2009), followed by increasing elaboration on CBA in cities, lead by Dodman, Satterthwaite and Moser (2008) focusing on disaster risk reduction. However, qualitative research in affected urban areas serves as references for policy makers and global reporting by IPCC. Networking and knowledge exchange takes place progressively among all disciplines at workshops, conferences, in handbooks by CARE, IIED, IDRC, ICLEI, on web-platforms, developed in the past half decade compiling exchange of experience. For urban Egypt, no specific literature of adaptation can be found yet.

Hence any further study on adaptation in urban areas, particularly informal areas will provide a valuable contribution to the overall context.

Contextual Background Adaptation and CBA Adaptation is described as “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli" (IPCC WGII 2007: 869) (Figure 01). In combination with mitigation, it supports a better preparedness of national and urban capacities. With focus to human dimensions and societal aspects, adaptation refers to adjustments of conduct t0 improve coping “with external stress” (Smit et al. 2000: 225).

37

CBA is an element of adaptation as a climate change response, intersecting with developmental strategies. It is defined as “a community-led process, based on their priorities, needs, knowledge, and capacities, which should empower people to plan for and cope with the impacts of climate change” (IIED 2009: 13) in an unpredictable and riskier climatic setting (Ayers and Forsyth 2009: 24) (Figure 02).

Egypt Egypt comprises one of the most vulnerable regions worldwide to climatic change (IPCC 2007: 445ff.), facing key stresses such as rising temperatures, declining water resources, reduced precipitation and sea level rise (CSC 2013).

Following 1992‟s Earth Summit, regular assessments such as the 'National Communication‟ documents (EEAA 2013) and a 'National Strategy' document were developed considering both mitigation and adaptation (IDSC 2011: 4).

Meanwhile, research institutes, coalitions (ENCCC) and regulations evolved alongside civil society and environmental media raising the public's awareness on climate change (events, CCT).

38

Greater Cairo Region (GCR) is one of Africa's largest urban agglomerations with about 20 million inhabitants since 2011 (Barthel 2011: 8). Though not considered as vulnerable (Figure 03) (CSC 2013: 8), the megacity suffers from multiple interrelated pressures, whereof climate change represents just one set of slow- and rapid-onset risks (Figure 04) (Huq et al. 2007).

Especially increasing heat of average 3°C by 2100 (UNDP 2013: 66, CSC 2013: 28) will be a growing slow-onset burden that requires adaptation in all sectors in Cairo, particularly in dense human neighbourhoods. Higher temperatures and unsustainable energy use of buildings, etc. (IDSC 2011: 92) will exacerbate current air pollution and urban heat island effects.

GCR faces non-climatic stresses such as rapid urban growth over several decades increasing at a rate of over 2.5% (Cities Alliance 2011: 5), based on a set of internal and external pressures. For instance, Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x;s economic and administrative centralization (Yousry and Abdoul Atta 1997), privileging GCR in terms of infrastructure, services, international relations etc. and pushes the city's economic and spatial growth, attracting rural population influx over time (Yousry and Atta 1997), resulting in exploitation of resources (land, funding, etc.). Rural-urban migration besides natural population growth (UN-Habitat 2011: 3) and shifting housing policies, particularly the liberalization of the housing market, pushed towards increased extension of Cairoâ&#x20AC;&#x;s urban borders. Leading to a transformation and conversion of agricultural land into construction on public land (Barthels 2001: 8), it also created an inner-urban divide. With a large part of Greater Cairo being informal (65% according to A-Gohari 2010: 5), its inhabitants remain marginalized facing administrative neglect and lacking legal recognition. This influences their capacity to deal with external climatic and non-climatic stresses exacerbated by environmental issues (Figure 05).

39

Methods and Research Question The main research question for this paper is 'How can CBA to climate change be a complementary and synergetic approach towards an inclusive urban development in Cairo?'. The following findings are products of a master thesis using an exploratory, empiric research based approach with the help of a case study, observations and lessons learnt identified through interviews in Cairo. Hence, the background and reflections of the paper refer to literature references, interviews with several Egyptian experts, practitioners, institutions and observations.

Ezzbet El-Nasr - Dealing with Climate Change A case study illustrates the specific vulnerabilities of an informal urban neighborhood in GCR. Ezzbet El-Nasr, located in the southern district Bassateen of Cairo Governorate (Map 01), developed since around 1977 (GIZ 2009: 16) through squatting on state-owned industrial development land. Today, the consolidated neighbourhood houses about 72.190 inhabitants (GIZ PDP 2013).Officially declared as unplanned by ISDF (GIZ 2009: 16) its legal status is still pending (Shaat 2013), experiencing continuous institutional neglect.

Ezzbet El-Nasr faces multiple climate related and non-climatic pressures. The latter refers to built environment, basic urban services, economic and social susceptibility. Climate change impacts are hardly directly noticeable in Ezzbet ElNasr, being situated in no disaster prone location (CDS 2013: 48). However, 62% of respondents in a baseline study referred to increasing heat and sun intensity, affecting residents' health and lifestyles (Zanaty Group 2013: 146).

Environmental threats like air pollution through burned waste contribute to the overall vulnerability towards climate change impacts (Table 01).

Interviews also aimed at identifying adaptive capacities as a basis for CBA (Map 02). For heat relief, the majority of interviewed households mentioned wearing lighter cloths and using fans (Zanaty Group 2013: 43). In terms of physical modification, practices varied from adjusted window sizes for improved cross ventilation, plaster and sun shading devices (GIZ, Laue 2013) (Figure 06).

40

41

These autonomous adaptation strategies can be developed into adaptation measures as part of a holistic strategy elaborated with the community. They are here expressed in a non-exhaustive chart with singular but interconnected measures based on responses, literature, observations and interviews. (Table 02).

42

43

In Ezzbet El Nasr, interaction among community members differs according to households, gender and age, etc.

Family members are most trusted for solving problems, contrasting to limited reliance towards other residents and neighbours (GIZ, Laue 2013). NGOs or other local organizations were known to few residents only (Zanaty Group, CDS 2013). However manifold interactions inside the community exist, related to social, economic, daily life issues.

About half of the respondents expressed interest in activities (GIZ, Laue 2013), promoting the introduction of innovative ideas to the community. Despite male authority, women act as agents to other female community members of different age, hence having the potential to mobilize and include female input in community led discourses. Children and youth can play a crucial role in disseminating practices and awareness into families and households (Table 03).

The identification of measures and existing adaptive capacities to introduce CBA to Ezzbet El-Nasr are currently done by the GIZ PDP. Since late 2012, a strategy comprising analyses and climate simulations is undertaken in four selected informal urban areas in GCR (GIZ PDP 2013). In summer 2013, awareness campaigns and workshops among all relevant stakeholders are planned. This includes a simultaneous approach to interlink implementation, funding, institutional support and capacity building (Kipper 2013) of local authorities and civil society actors to actively join the process. It is planned to eventually result in the implementation of pilot measures by the end of 2014 serving to feed into potential mainstreaming options.

Discussion The CBA process in Ezzbet El-Nasr corresponds to one of four scenarios (Figure 07) which include public and nongovernmental actors. The first group includes authorities (EEAA, governorate and district officials). According to expert interviews (Yehya, Osman, Asar 2013) their role can be crucial as providing services, translating actions into policies and routines, i.e. urban upgrading measures.

44

45

This requires critical reflection of lessons learnt from previous practices along with built capacities and accountability to incorporate adaptation efforts on the city and local urban community level. The second group comprises the local community, various civil society actors, researchers and companies. Their role comprises research on climate change impacts on the urban level, collection, simulation and dissemination of data, raise awareness and create networks (Osman, Asar 2013), build capacities, identify adequate measures and strategies.

Still, the present situation shows few links between civil society and state authorities (Figure 08).

An intermediary role is currently played by international agencies, institutes and NGOs, steering the January 2011 momentum towards social and environmental engagement (Rifaat 2013). However, as CBA is a local matter, the inclusive interaction among local stakeholders is crucial towards sustainability. Consequently, a CBA process comprises long term commitment from all involved stakeholders if internal or external.

CBA requires participation, particularly to discuss issues, ideas, processes, to make decisions on needed measures.

Hence, developing interest in a subject and understanding the connections between daily life concerns and climate change impacts on people and their surroundings is essential (Figure 09). This is most effective when it is perceived as important to the community itself. Local activists and practitioners emphasized on transparent communication to the residents why and how their participation matters (Rifaat 2013).

In informally developed neighbourhoods like Ezzbet El Nasr, physical, spatial and socio-economic settings, hence autonomous adaptability developed as a consequence of contextual, pragmatic decisions and constraints, differing from those in formal neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the majority of Ezzbet El Nasserâ&#x20AC;&#x;s residents (and other informal urban areas) may lack financial resources to invest in adaptation measures as linked to their unclear legal status.

However, urban upgrading is considered one major experience to reduce climate change vulnerabilities of low-income settlement population (Satterthwaite 2007: 62). Furthermore, urban services are not provided unless collective pressure is organized and backed by the entire community. Consequently, a collective CBA strategy to prepare for a changing climate, appears to be the main option and compensates individual lack of capacities. Community based mobilization succeeded before in Cairo's low income neighborhoods (i.e. Miit 'Uqbaa, Fangari 2013) , hence CBA, done with adequate participatory methods allowing residents to identify with, be convinced of, solve other problems, is a feasible way. Not tackling the legal status it can nevertheless act within this void, providing relief to the side effects of public neglect.

Limitations to CBA are that especially in urban contexts it cannot easily be distinguished from other developmental practices. Moreover, missing previous experience in other cities suffering from heat, learnt lessons are limited, requiring creative connection between non-climatic examples and carefully reflected practices in the environmental context. Problems intersecting with superordinated aspects, i.e. infrastructural concerns and high density settings can limit the applicability of CBA to purely local and punctual interventions. CBA might be confronted with inhabitants' lacking interest or priorities contrasting suggested strategies. Finally, CBA cannot reverse climatic or past urban 46

dynamics (informal growth, migration etc.) but tackling their combined manifestations of all combined, contributing to their improvement.

Conclusion To introduce adaptation to the context of heat affected urban areas such as GCR, CBA appears applicable, closely connected to urban improvement concepts. It has the potential to respond to and actively acknowledge the real constraints of urban residents, considering poverty aspects to develop concepts including internal and external capacities to facilitate adaptation. This can be in combination with urban initiatives such as upgrading and with the help of civil society. Even though public actors should have an integrated role, international mediators might be needed to facilitate the linkage. Being an intermediary step between improvement of living conditions and recognition, CBA should not enter as a welfare aspect in informal areas but tackle vulnerabilities to which the entire community can jointly adapt to. This requires adequate participation methods. Consequently, CBA can be inside a combined strategy - as a bottom-up approach connected to top-down adaptation it can contribute to resilience.

Hence, Ezzbet El-Nasr and other areas can receive acknowledgement beyond its stigmatized image but as a location of innovation and resilience. In combination with a mitigation strategy, it supports a better preparedness of urban and national capacities.

47

Abbreviations CBA Community Based Adaptation CCT Cairo Climate Talks EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency GCR Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit IDSC Information and Decision Support Center IIED International Institute for Environment and Development IPCC International Panel on Climate Change ISDF Informal Settlements Development Facility (also referred to as Fund) NAPA National Adaptation Programmes of Action NGO Non Governmental Organization NPO Non Profit Organization PDP Participatory Development Programme PNA Participatory Needs Assessment PRC Plan and Risk Consult UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UUU Urban Upgrading Unit

References (selection)

-

Abdelhalim, K. (2010) Participatory Upgrading of Informal Areas: A Decision-makers‟ Guide for Action, Cairo: Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas

-

Adamo, S.B. (2011) Slow-Onset Hazards and Population Displacement in the Context of Climate Change. Protection Gaps and Responses: Challenges and Opportunities. held 27 April 2011. New York Liaison Office: UNHCR

-

Adger, W.N. et al. (2007) Assessment of Adaptation Practices, Options, Constraints and Capacity. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, (Eds.). Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge, UK. 717-743

-

Agraval, A., Mc Sweeney, C. and Perrin, N. (2008) Local Institutions and Climate Change Adaptation No 11145. The World Bank

-

Al-Gohari, S. (2010) Egyptian Approach to Informal settlements (ISDF) [PowerPoint presentation]. Global Risk Forum. held 30 May - 3 June 2010. Davos

-

Ayers, J. and Forsyth, T. (2009) Community-Based Adaptation to Climate Change: Strengthening Resilience Through Development.

Environment: science and policy for sustainable development 51 (4), 22-31

-

Basil, A., Mohamed S. A. (2012) Applying Realistic Environmental & Sustainable Measures in Community Development with Special Reference to Egypt. ASIA Pacific International Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies. held 31 October - 2 November 2012. Cairo

-

Barthel, B.A., Mondiq, S. (2011) Developpement Durable au Caire: Une Provocation?. Urban Sustainability in Cairo: a Provocative Question? Egypte Monde Arabe N°8-3ieme série. Cairo: CEDEJ

-

Bigio, A.G. (2003) Cities and Climate Change. Building Safer Cities: The Future of Disaster Risk, 91-100

-

Boko, M. et al. (2007) Africa. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, (Eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge UK, 433-467

-

Brooks, N. (2003) Vulnerability, Risk and Adaptation: A conceptual Framework. Working Paper. Norwich: Tyndall Centre

-

Cities Alliance (2008) Slum Upgrading Up Close - Experiences of Six Cities. Washington

-

Dodman, D. and Satterthwaite, D. (2008) Institutional Capacity. Climate Change Adaptation and the Urban Poor. IDS Bulletin 39 (4), 67-74

-

Dodman, D. (2013) Vulnerability, Resilience, and the Potential For Community-Based Adaptation in Low-Income and Informal Urban Settlements [PowerPoint presentation]. Cairo Climate Talks Expert Workshop. held 16 April 2013 at EEAA. Cairo

-

Domroes, M. El-Tantawi, A. (2005) Recent Temporal and Spatial Temperature Changes In Egypt. International Journal of Climatology 25 (1), 51-63

-

Drexhage, J. and Murphy, D. (2010) Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012. Background Paper for the High Level Panel on Global Sustainability. New York: United Nations

Ahmed, T.M.A.-F. (2011) Landscape Infrastructure and Liveable Communities: A Case Study of New-Cairo. PhD thesis. Newcastle: Newcastle University

Birkmann, J. (2007) Climate Change & Vulnerability: Challenges for Spatial Planning and Civil Protection, Karlsruhe University Blanco, A.V. (2006) Local Initiatives and Adaptation to Climate Change. Disasters 30 (1), 140–147 Boex, J. (2011) Democratization in Egypt: the Potential Role of Decentralization. Policy Brief Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance. Washington: IDG

Bryan, E. and Behrman J. (2013) Community – Based Adaptation to Climate Change: A Theoretical Framework, Overview of Key Issues And Discussion of Gender Differentiated Priorities And Participation. CAPRI Working Paper 109. Washington D.C., USA

Cutter, S.L., Boruss, B.J. and Shirley, W.L. (2003) Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards. Social Science Quarterly 84 (2), 242– 261

48

-

El-Batran, M. and Arandel, C. (1998) A Shelter of Their Own: Informal Settlement Expansion in Greater Cairo and Government Responses. Environment and Urbanization 10 (1), 217-232

-

El-Mously, H. (2012) The Endogenous Development: an Approach to the Resurrection of the Local Communities [PowerPoint presentation]. Integrated Urbanism Dialogues II on Resilience. held 30 Sept. - 1 Oct. 2012. Cairo: Ain Shams University

-

EEAA (MSEA) (2009) Egypt State of Environment Report 2009. Cairo

-

Füssel, H.M. (2007) Vulnerability: A Generally Applicable Conceptual Framework for Climate Change Research, Global Environmental Change 17 (2), 155–167

-

Global Environment Facility (2009) GEF Country Portfolio Evaluation: Egypt (1991–2008) Evaluation Report 51. Washington

-

GTZ PDP (2009) Cairo‟s Informal Areas: Between Urban Challenges and Hidden Potentials. Cairo: GTZ

-

Handoussa, H. (2010) Egypt Human Development Report: Youth in Egypt: Building our Future. Cairo: Institute of National Planning Egypt and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Egypt

-

Hassan, G.F. (2012) Regeneration As an Approach For The Development of Informal Settlements in Cairo Metropolitan. Alexandria Engineering Journal 51(3), 229-239.

-

Hughes, S. (2011) A Research Agenda for Justice in Urban Climate Change Adaptation, NCAR

-

IIED (Ed.) (2008) Special Issue on Community-Based Adaptation. Tiempo - A Bulletin on Climate And Development 68

-

Klein, R.J.T. et al. (2007) Inter-Relationships Between Adaptation and Mitigation. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, (Eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 745777

-

ISDR (2004) Living with risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives, Volume 2 (2). Geneva: ISDR

-

Lever-Tracy, C. (2011) Confronting Climate Change. London: Routledge

-

Malik, A., Quin, X. and Smith, S.C. (2010) Autonomous Adaptation to Climate Change: A Literature Review. IIEP Working Paper 2010– 24. Washington, DC, Elliott School of International Affairs. George Washington University

-

MED-ENEC, E.U. (2013) Energy Efficiency in the Construction Sector in the Mediterranean: Energy Efficiency in Urban Planning Training Workshop Report

-

Moser, C. and Satterthwaite, D. (2008) Towards Pro-Poor Adaptation to Climate Change in the Urban Centres of Low- and MiddleIncome Countries: Global Urban Research Centre Working Paper #1. University of Manchester

-

Mustafa, R. (2012) Putting People at the Centre of Development. UNDP

-

Parry, M. et al. (2009) Assessing the Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change: A Review of the UNFCCC and Other Recent Estimates. IIED

-

Pelling, M. (2011) Adaptation to Climate Change - from Resilience to Transformation. London: Routledge.

EEAA, UNFCCC (2010a) Egypt Second National Communication. Cairo EEAA (MSEA) (2010b) Egypt National Environmental Economic and Development Study (NEEDS) for Climate Change. Cairo: UNFCCC EEAA (2013) Proposed Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation in Egypt. Cairo Fahmy, B. (2013) Greater Cairo Region [PowerPoint presentation]. Cairo: UN-Habitat Fahmy, M. and Sharples, S. (2011) Urban Form, Thermal Comfort And Building CO2 Emissions - A Numerical Analysis In Cairo.

Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 32 (1), 73-84

Gosling, Simon N., et al. (2011) Climate: Observations, Projections and Impacts: Climate: Observations, projections and impacts.

Egypt/Exeter

Hallegatte, S. and Corfee-Morlot, J. (2011) Understanding Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation at City Scale: an Introduction. Climatic Change 104 (1), 1-12

Hunt, A. and Watkiss, P. (2011) Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Cities: A Review of the Literature. Climatic Change 104 (1), 13–49

IIED (2009) Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change. Participatory Learning and Action 60. London IDSC/UNDP (2011) Egypt‟s National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction. Cairo. Egypt IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (Eds.). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge

Ketterer, I. Schade (2011) Diplomarbeit über Ezzbet al-Nasr, Kairo, Diploma Thesis. Stuttgart: Universität Stuttgart Klein, R. (2002) Adaptation to Climate Change Variability and Change: What is Optimal and Appropriate. Climate Change in the Mediterranean: Socio-Economic Perspectives of Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation 32

Lourenço, T.C. and Avelar, D. (2013) Adaptation Inspiration Book: 22 implemented cases of local climate change adaptation to inspire European citizens. Lisbon: Circle 2

Omran E. Frihya, Khalid M. Dewidara, Mohamed M. El Raey (1996) Evaluation of coastal problems at Alexandria. Ocean & coastal management 30 (2), 281-295.

Patel S., B.S.D.C. (2001) Slum/Shack Dwellers International (SDI) – foundations to treetops. Environment & Urbanization 13 (2), 45-59 Pelling, M. (2007) Urbanization and Disaster Risk, Panel Contribution to the Population-Environment Research Network. Cyberseminar on Population and National Hazards. Palisades, New York: Population-Environment Research Network.

49

-

Pielke, R.A., JR. (1998) Rethinking The Role of Adaptation In Climate Policy. Global Environmental Change 8, 159–170

-

Satterthwaite, D. (2011) How Urban Societies Can Adapt to Resource Shortage And Climate Change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1942), 1762-1783

-

Agrawala, S., Moehner, A., El Raey, M. et al (2004) Development and Climate Change in Egypt: Focus on Coastal Resources and the Nile.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

-

Sejourne, M. (2006) Les Politiques Récentes de „Traitement“ des Quartiers Illégaux au Caire. Doctorat. France: Université de Tours

-

UNFCCC (2010) National Environmental, Economic and Development Study (NEEDS) for Climate Change: Template for Country Briefs.

Cairo.

-

UNHABITAT (2011) Cairo - a City in Transition, Cities & Citizens - Bridging the Urban Divide. Cairo

-

World Bank (2011b) Guide to Climate Change Adaptation in Cities. Washington D.C.

-

Arnstein, S.R. (1969) A Ladder of Citizen Participation [online] available from <http://lithgow-schmidt.dk/sherry-arnstein/ladder-ofcitizen-participation.html#d0e75 > [3 June 2013]

-

Baraka, H. (2011) Cairo‟s desert cities fail to contain growing population [online] available from <http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/cairos-desert-cities-fail-contain-growing-population> [1 June 2013]

-

Bassatine News (2012) Bassatine News Issue No. 1 [online] available from <http://bassatine.net/bassa1.php> [ 1 June 2013]

-

CARE (2009) Handbook - Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis [online] available from http://www.careclimatechange.org/cvca/CARE_CVCAHandbook.pdf> [28 May 2013]

-

Cuny Graduate Center (2009) the UN and Human Development [online] available from <http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Jolly%20HDR%20note%20%20UN%20Intellectual%20History%20Project%208HumDev.pdf> [ 31 March 2013]

-

EEAA (2013) Egypt Climate Change - Background [online] available from <http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/ecc/ClimateBackground.htm> [24th April 2013]

-

EU (EDGAR/JRC) (2013) CO2 time series 1990-2011 per region/country, (Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research) [online] available from <http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2ts1990-2011> [13 June 2013]

Putnam (2000) Bowling Alone: the Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon & Schuster, New York Rakodi, C. (1997) The Urban Challenge in Africa: Growth and Management of its Large Cities. Tokyo: UNU Press Satterthwaite, D. et al. (2007) Adapting to Climate Change in Urban Areas: the Possibilities and Constraints in Low- and Middle-Income Nations. (Vol. 1). IIED

Siegele, L. (2012) Loss & Damage: The Theme of Slow Onset Impact. Germanwatch Sims, D. (2003) The Case of Cairo, Egypt, Understanding Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. Cairo Smit, B. et al. (2000) An Anatomy of Adaptation to Climate Change And Variability. Climatic Change 45, 223–251 Smit, B. and Wandel, J. (2006) Adaptation, Adaptive Capacity And Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 16, 282–292 Stern, N. (2006) The Economics of Climate Change: the Stern Review. Cambridge University Press UMP TU Berlin (2010) Improving Informal Areas in Greater Cairo: The Cases of Ezzbet El Nasr & Dayer El Nahia. Berlin: TU-Berlin UNDP (2004) Egypt Human Development Report 2004: Choosing Decentralization for Good Governance UNDP (2007) Human Development Report 2007/2008: Funding Climate Change: Human Solidarity in a Divided World UNDP (2013) Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Egyptian Economy. Cairo UNEP (2008): Sustainable Consumption and Production Programme for Cairo City. Cairo: Egypt National Cleaner Production Centre UNFCCC (1992) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

UNFCCC (1998) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Kyoto Protocol. Kyoto UNFCCC (2008) Mechanisms to Manage Financial Risks from Direct Impacts of Climate Change In Developing Countries. Technical Paper

Wamsler, C. (2008) Climate Change Impacts on Cities: Ignore, Mitigate or Adapt. Trialog 97, 4–10 White, P. et al. (2004) Disaster Risk Reduction a Development Concern. London: DFID World Bank (2006) Clean Energy and Development: Towards an Investment Framework World Bank (2011a) Climate Change Adaptation and Natural Disasters Preparedness in the Coastal Cities of North Africa. Phase 2 Adaptation and Resilience Action Plan – Alexandria Area, Final Version

World Bank (2012) Arab Republic of Egypt Building a Platform for Urban Upgrading in the Greater Cairo Region: Draft version Web based sources: Adaptation Fund (2010) Proposal for Egypt [online] available from <https://www.adaptationfund.org/system/files/AFB.PPRC_.2.5%20Proposal%20for%20Egypt.pdf> [15 June 2013]

Cascio, J. (2009) the Next Big Thing: Resilience [online] available from http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/04/15/the_next_big_thing_resilience> [10 June 2013]

50

-

GEF (2009) GEF Country Portfolio Evaluation: Egypt (1991-2008) [online] available from <http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/egypt-cpe-web.pdf> [1 March 2013]

-

GIZ PDP Egypt (2013) PDPs Programme Phases [online] available from <http://egypt-urban.net/about-pdp/program-phases> [1 March 2013]

-

Hallegatte, S. and Dumas, P. (2008) Adaptation to Climate Change: Soft vs. Hard Adaptation [online] available from <http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/40899422.pdf.> [1 June 2013]

-

IFRC (2012) What is Vulnerability? [online] available from <http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/aboutdisasters/what-is-a-disaster/what-is-vulnerability/> [1 June 2013]

-

Lorna P. Victoria (2003) Community Based Approaches to Disaster Mitigation [online] available from <http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN009661.pdf> [4 December 2012]

-

Manlove, K. (2009) Helping Vulnerable Countries Adapt to Global Warming. the United States Has a Responsibility to Provide Assistance [online] available from <http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2009/04/27/5876/helping-vulnerablecountries-adapt-to-global-warming/> [1 June 2013]

-

Mimura, A. (2012) Building Resilient Food Security Systems to Benefit the Southern Egypt Region [online] available from <https://www.adaptation-fund.org/project/building-resilient-food-security-systems-benefit-southern-egypt-region> [2 April 2013]

-

Oxford Dictionaries (2013) Dictionary [online] available from <http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/development> [1 June 2013]

-

Tadamun (2013) Paving the Streets of M朝t `Uqba [online] available from <http://tadamun.info/demo/?post_type=initiative&p=497#.UdGOf5ybLjs> [1 July 2013]

-

The Economist (2008) Adapt or Die - Climate Change and the Poor, The Economist, 11 September [online] available from <http://www.economist.com/node/12208005> [31 May 2013]

-

UKCIP (2007) Identifying Adaptation Options [online] available from <http://www.ukcip.org.uk/wordpress/wpcontent/PDFs/ID_Adapt_options.pdf> [31 May 2013]

-

UN (2013) Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2), Thousand Metric Tons of CO2 (CDIAC). Goal 7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability [online] available from <http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid=> [1 June 2013]

-

UNDP (2012) Human development - In-Depth [online] available from <http://www.bz.undp.org/content/belize/en/home/ourwork/humandevelopment/in_depth.html> [1 June 2013]

-

UNHABITAT (2013) Activities: Participatory and Integrated Slum Upgrading [online] available from <http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=7121&catid=192&typeid=13> [31 May 2013]

-

United Nations Statistics Division (2013) Series - Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand metric tons of CO2 (CDIAC). Millenium Development Goals Indicators -the official United Nations site for the MDG Indicators [online] available from <http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid=> [31 May 2013]

-

Weart, S. (2013a) Impacts of Climate Change [online] available from <http://www.aip.org/history/climate/pdf/impacts.pdf> [01May 2013].

-

Weart, S.R. (2013b) The Discovery of Global Warming [online] International Cooperation, available from <http://www.aip.org/history/climate/index.htm> [3 May 2013]

-

World Bank (2013) Egypt Dashboard - Adaptation [online] available from <http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/home.cfm?page=country_profile&CCode=EGY&ThisTab=Adaptation> [31 May 2013]

-

Yousry, M. and Abdoul Atta, T.A. (1997) The Challenge of Urban Growth in Cairo, Mega-City Growth and the Future [online] available from <http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu26ue/uu26ue0d.htm#4%20the%20challenge%20of%20urban%20growth%20in%20ca iro> [31 May 2013]

-

Project and workshop documents

-

CSC (2013) Climate Changes for the Greater Area of Cairo, Potential Impacts and Possibilities for Adaptation Options. report on behalf of GIZ PDP as of June 2013. Cairo

-

GIZ and CCT (2013) Cairo Climate Talks - Expert Workshop on Community Based Adaptation and Urban Resilience. minutes and presentations as of 16th and 17th of April 2013. Cairo

-

GIZ, Laue (2013) On-site in-depth interviews in Ezzbet El-Nasr. Cairo

-

Plan + Risk Consult (2013a) Impact Chain Analysis, internal document, Cairo/Dortmund

-

Zanaty Group (2013) Baseline Study: Outlining Three Indicators for the Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas. draft report on behalf of GIZ PDP as of 11th May 2013. Cairo

-

Expert interviews (selection)

CDS (2013) Participatory Needs Assessment in Informal Areas - Cairo Governorate, draft report on behalf of GIZ PDP as of 11th May 2013. Cairo

Plan + Risk Consult (2012) Technical Offer - Participatory and Community-Based Adaptation and Resilience in Informal Areas in Greater Cairo. Dortmund

Plan + Risk Consult (2013b) Conceptual and Analytical Framework: Community-Based Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change in Selected Urban Areas of Greater Cairo, internal draft, Dortmund/Cairo

Mohamed, M. (2013) Adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Architect, Cairo, 15 April 2013 Bottoms, I. (2013) Adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Zero Carbon Egypt, Cairo, 23 April 2013

51

-

Huzayyn, A. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue]

-

Mouelhi, H. (2013) International organizations and developmental projects in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GIZ-Green Jobs, Cairo, 16 May 2013

Green Arm, Cairo, 23 April 2013

Dorghamy, A. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Cairo, 25 April 2013 Rifaat, S. (2013) Adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] 350, Cairo, 28 April 2013 Osman, S. (2013) Adaptation in Egypt - role of EEAA [interview by F. Laue] EEAA, Cairo, 9 May 2013 Khairy, T. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Urbanics, Cairo, 29 April 2013 Hatow, L. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] ENCCC, Cairo, 1 May 2013 Hussain, M.D. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Solar Cities, Cairo, 15 May 2013 Abdel Samad, M.A. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Shagara, Cairo, 9 May 2013 Hosny, S. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Schaduf, Cairo, 2 May 2013 Dabaâ&#x20AC;&#x;ie, M. (2013) Civil society and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] Beeâ&#x20AC;&#x;ie/Remal, Cairo, 15 May 2013 Samra, M. A. (2013) International organizations and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] UNHabitat, Cairo, 13 May 2013 Fahmy, B. (2013) International organizations and adaptation options in Egypt [interview F. Laue] UNHabitat, Cairo, 3 June 2013 Bayoumi, M. (2013) International organizations and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] UNDP, Cairo, 3 June 2013 Asar, M. (2013) Public sector and adaptation options in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GOPP, Cairo, 5 June 2013 Kipper, R. (2013) International organizations and adaptation options in Egypt [interview F. Laue] GIZ-PDP, Cairo, 23 June 2013 Hefnawy, A. (2013) International organizations and developmental projects in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GIZ-PDP, Cairo, 3 June 2013 Balata, S. (2013) International organizations and developmental projects in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GIZ-PDP, Cairo, 9 June 2013 Yehya, Y. (2013) International organizations and developmental projects in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GIZ-PDP, Cairo, 9 June 2013 Fangari, M. (2013) International organizations and developmental projects in Egypt [interview by F. Laue] GIZ-Green Jobs, Cairo, 13 June 2013

52

Urban Upgrading of the Historical Town as a Step towards Sustainability Author: Ghevar Mohamad Ismaiel

Supervisors: Prof. Youhansen Eid, Prof. JosĂŠ Luis Moro, Prof .Ahmad Atef

Development of a Generic Sustainable Urban Upgrading Strategyfor the Historical Town in Syria Applied to the old Town of Jableh Abstract: The urban upgrading of historical towns is considered one of the most complicated processes, as it requires an integrated aspect of management, which is constantly elaborating procedures starting with programs and plans' settings, and ending by the implementation phase, which includes applying several intervention policies upon the historical fabric and its different assets.

However, implementing urban upgrading strategies requires adequate degree of comprehensiveness and integration in order to sustainably include the various upgrading considerations that contribute to solve the existing problems and fulfill the users' needs and claims on social, economic, physical, and environmental levels. It is worth mentioning that the upgrading considerations are variable factors due to time and place, therefore the strategy should be adaptable, able to sustain itself, and appropriately keep up with modernity and developments.

On the other hand, most of previous studies addressed the upgrading in inconvenient approaches, which are not efficient for all the considerations of this crucial process.

Accordingly the research elaborates a sustainable integrated upgrading strategy for the historical Syrian towns, based on analyzing the efficiency of the various upgrading and sustainability factors, then evaluating them to achieve the most applicable and comprehensive upgrading alternative, which is applied to the old town of Jableh, showing the implementation techniques that are related to the Jableh town specificity, potentials, and the local community adaptation to change and participate.

1. Introduction: Still the historical town one of most issues of arguing when to develop a city, and most of historical towns suffer from urban problems that differ according to various factors of development. In Syria various studies explain problems of historical towns; e.g. significant increase in population, escalation of activities, and increasing demand of services that cause considerable urban deterioration. Thus the historical town has transformed into an "exceptional patch" within a surrounding modern fabric which eventually starts to encroach back on it.

All these are in parallel with damaging and even vanishing of the historical features according to which the historical town was built.

Within this framework, the importance of developing an integrated upgrading strategy for historical towns has emerged; in order to enhance its cultural, economic, and physical structures, and to control its future transformations in a way that efficiently recovers various attributes of the sustainable fabric.

2. Problem Definition: Previous studies of the evolution of the historical town haven't exceeded the scope of restoration or rehabilitation; even the conduct of urban upgrading strategies haven't addressed the sustainability dimensions, and they remain limited in elaborating the comprehensiveness, as they couldn't achieve the balance between social, economic, and physical structures. On the other hand it is not efficient to improve historical towns' performance unless these dimensions achieve the integration with sustainability dimensions.

3. Research Objective: Proposed solutions to upgrade a historical town must be driven by a holistic overview of the town's different components; therefore, this research aspires and proposes an integrated strategy to develop regulating mechanism for upgrading the historical Syrian town, in accordance with its urban characteristics, and the cultural economic characteristics, thereby including the sustainability parameters.

4. Research Questions: According to the problem definition, the following questions arise:

-

Which kind of upgrading strategies are the most adequate and appropriate for historical towns in Syria?

How can the sustainability parameters (social, economic, and environmental) be integrated into the upgrading strategy dimensions?

53

5.

5.1.

Definitions: Sustainable Upgrading:

The best-known definition of sustainability is the one established by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (UN 1987): "Believing that sustainable development, which implies meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, should become a central guiding principle of the United Nations, governments and private institutions, organizations and enterprises" (Brundtland, 1987) It was noted that the definition of sustainability required reconciliation of the "three parameters" of sustainability; environmental, social, and economic demands (Ernst, 2013).

The integration of the upgrading efforts with the sustainability concepts stands at the forefront of development priorities. (Figure1)

Accordingly, the sustainable upgrading strategy is:

5.2.

The Syrian Historical Town:

The next map, (Figure 2), shows the locations of the historical towns in Syria.

54

5.3.

The Policies of Intervention the Historical Town These policies are methods defined by ICOMOS; however, they have different interventional approaches and various impacts upon the historical building, its external environment, and the entire historical fabric, like preservation, reconstruction & redevelopment, renewal rehabilitation, protection, renovation & restoration, maintenance & conservation (Ibrahim,2005: p. 14-19).

On the other hand the upgrading policy deals with the existing districts, as a wealth of economic value, it does not separate the old town's physical structure from the residents' economic-social structure, however considers both as a one whole (Ibrahim, 2005: p.20).

55

6.

The Upgrading Factors According to the Criteria of the Upgrading Strategy:

In order to evaluate the upgrading strategy, each parameter "factor" of the sustainable upgrading process that has to be improved should be tested whether it corresponds to the six criteria of evaluating the upgrading strategy, which are presented in the figure (3).

This testing will lead to the importance coefficient of each criterion, then a degree is given to them by applying the weight (10) to each importance coefficient, and the results were as follows (Table 2, 3): The respective parameters of upgrading are compatible with comprehensiveness, efficiency, economic feasibility, social conditions appropriateness, and applicability, except for the range criterion, as the time span dedicated to implement the upgrading, and to execute all the tasks related to it is too long.

56

7. Building the Strategy Approach: The proposed approach to sustainably upgrade the Syrian historical towns is a holistic one, which has its own mechanism through continuity of main phases (Figure4).

comprehensive strategy

partial strategy

40 35 ď&#x201A;ˇ Setting the Strategy Alternatives: There is variety in the strategic alternatives (Figure5), apparently, there are three main ranks: the comprehensive, the non-interventional, and the partial alternative.

However, the evaluation is applied for the three main ranks of the strategy alternatives; so the compatibility degree of each alternative with each criterion of the six evaluation criteria will be revealed, and then the best alternative is chosen, depending on the "preference principle" of including social, cultural, economic, physical, and environmental considerations (Figure6).

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Comprehensi Efficiency veness

Range

Social appropriaten feasibility ess Applicability

57

However, there are many alternatives for the partial strategy in terms of its comprehensiveness degree, but the more the parameters considered in the upgrading process, the bigger the comprehensiveness degree of the alternative, as follows: a. A partial alternative focuses on one parameter. b. A partial alternative focuses on more than one parameter. c. A high-comprehensive parametric partial alternative.

According to a comparison between the partial alternatives, the result is presented in figure (7) to reach the most appropriate one:

Eventually, and according to the previous description, the charter of the sustainable strategy followed to upgrade the historical Syrian towns is represented in the figure (8).

58

8. Testing the Strategy on Jableh Old Town:

8.1. General Characteristics: Jableh is one of the most ancient cities along the Syrian coast; the historical town forms a waterfront of the city. (Figure9)

It is distinct by the presence of significant elements; like: the harbor, old houses, Souks, Khans, worshiping places, public baths, the Roman theatre, alleys and Sabats, disaster refuge,

and

the

Roman

tombs

(Figure10, 11).

59

60

Defining Problems, Needs, and Potentials: They are classified into social, economic, and environmental (physical, and natural environment); the tables of problems and needs show them in shape of factors of intervention urgency (availability of the problem or the need) according to a questionnaire adopts three perspectives; the experts, the researcher, and the old town's users.

However, the factor of urgency is referred to as degrees (1-10), whereas, the intervention priority is also a degree (1-10) but it starts by (1) as a strong intervention priority, to (10) as a weak intervention priority.

Ultimately, the problems/ needs of these priorities are ordered in ascending way, in order to detect the 75% of the problems/ needs of highest intervention priorities in order to be solved/ fulfilled.

8.2.

8.3.

Strategy Objectives & Goals: Objectives:  Finding solutions for 75% of the existing problems of the Jableh old town, and fulfilling 75% of Jableh inhabitants' needs on the social, economic, and environmental levels.  Sustaining Jableh town to be an available and valid place to live in, not just to survive, by applying intervention policies.

Goals:

• •

Protecting the different embodied values of Jableh town as a cultural heritage site.

•

Include the town in the Tentative Lists of the State Party as a cultural heritage of "outstanding universal value".

•

Apply to the ICOM (the International Committee of the Blue Shield) to protect the town from any danger in time of conflicts.

Integrating Jableh town's fabric as an actual piece of the modern city fabric around, in terms of services, maintenance, and social engaging.

8.4.

The Implementation Process: The strategy techniques are defined and then interpreted into procedures that relate to specific timespans, and to each other according to the implementation priorities and potentials, the procedures are outlined in figure (12-a), considering that the strategy implementation takes six year (2014-2019).

These procedures are derived from the already defined problems and needs, so figures (12-b, 12-c) show the role of each technique in solving problems and fulfilling needs.

61

62

63

64

9.

Recommendations Regarding Jableh Old Town:

9.1.

•

Administrative Procedures: Amendments of the BDL to address:

9.2.

•

Restoration, maintenance, reuse, and redevelopment permissions.

Forming a monitoring team in order to follow up the execution of permits.

Carry out Prior-Studies: The touring map: the main alleys in line with the locations of interventions, which are defined according to the economic value of locations, the expected economic returns, and the attractive uses along the tourist alleys.

9.3.

The Intervention Policies:

9.3.1.

• • •

Central City Piazza Rehabilitation: Removing temporal shops around the central mall and intrusions around.

Allocate the induced urban space for pedestrians and bikes.

Paving in shape of: paved paths, bike lanes, and gravel trails around the historical monuments.

9.3.2.

•

Technical Infrastructure Upgrading: The drainage network: the system collects the surface water from roadways; where there are nodes to convey water underground into storm sewers. This leads water to filters underneath the central city piazza, and then filtered water is pulled into tanks which are equipped with pumps run by PV solar panels to pump water into the mall, Sultan mosque and bath, and fountains in the piazza.

Graywater system: for the reused buildings (cafes and hotels), the system depends on conveying the graywater from washing machines, bathtubs, floor drains, showers, and sinks of each building to its sewer, then filtering and storing in tanks equipped with a pump runs by PV solar panels to pump water again to cover cleaning demands.

Alleys network: redefine the alleys' users according to the frequency capacity and dimensions, to be; pedestrian alleys, pedestrian and bike-riders alleys, and bike-riders alleys, with surrounding motortraffic roads and parking lots.

•

•

9.3.3.

• • • •

Ali Kasem ST + Waterfront Rehabilitation: Recovering Ali Kasem ST as a pedestrian alley, with booths along it.

Conveying the fish market out to the harbor zone.

Providing touristic functions, and improving the building facades.

A green belt next to the hoses extremely exposed to wind.

9.3.4. Restoration of Houses: Under “Restore it by Yourself” intervention; applicants will be granted low-interest loans from REBJ to restore their houses under JHD's strict articles.

Restoration is executed by the local restoration team, under the following conditions: • Recovering the courtyard.

• Reconciliation of intrusions.

• Installing solar heating system.

• Planting roof gardens if applicable.

• Imposing an appropriate PVC open box for the solar collector.

9.4.

• • 9.5.

• •

Campaigns: Annual weeding for interior and exterior walls, vault roofed-alleys, and restored houses.

Vegetation restored houses.

Initiatives: Lighting system maintenance.

Beautifying the main alleys: united design of houses‟ gates and shops‟ gates, removing visual polluting elements, mortaring walls, applying Mashrabeya for overlooking windows, and drinking corners.

10. General Recommendations: 1. The process of defining 75% of problems and needs should be built upon a referendum including users and respective institutions, furthermore upon the most appropriate potentials related to these problems and needs that neither lead to future problems nor threaten the historical identity.

2. Applying sustainable renewable energy solution has become inevitable necessity, and should be in the most efficient manner possible, in terms of locations and efficiency.

3. The necessity to apply renewable energy generators for the Syrian historical towns, through strategies based on prior-studies of the current energy balance equation.

65

4.

Adopting solutions to improve the inhabitants' life, which are from another perspective, urban sustainable solutions that mitigate the excessive consumption of energy, and improve the environment, such as: • Houses restoration and roofs' maintenance that reduce the demand on electrical and fuel heating.

• Courtyard recovering brings back its role as a microclimate against the exterior hot climate.

• Removing intrusions secures good ventilation for houses, decreases the interior humidity, and mitigates the sick building syndrome.

• Storm sewer system contributes to get rid of water accumulation the roofs that raises the demand on heating.

• Removing the cement plastering from stony walls mitigates the extra thermal gains.

• Adopting pedestrian and cycling movement as "the greenest mode of movement", is an optimal tool to reduce the air pollution that caused by road traffic.

5. Damascus as the first WHS of Syria should be the adopted reference when upgrading other towns, as it has several experiences with national and international entities that offer lessons in appropriate and inappropriate interventions.

6. Applying renewable energy techniques should take place before applying intervention policies, particularly buildings' reuse policy; as such disorder will definitely exhaust the infrastructure, which is already not designed to fulfill excessive consumptions, like what happened in Damascus after the reuse of many buildings as restaurants, cafes, and hotels.

7. The renewable energy solutions that are applied in Syrian cities cannot be literally applied to historical towns, in terms of installation difficulties, and weak visual appropriateness, so it requires particular considerations of the historic appearance specificity.

8. Sustainable upgrading demands the local community comprehending, then incorporating its ability to accommodate development that orients the upgrading process, as social structures are not the same in all historical towns, in terms of the willingness to participate, women's role, domestic traditions and life styles.

9. Sustaining historical towns, in the light of the heritage value safeguarding, is inseparable from thinking about the conscious patterns of use, and the effectively economic recruitment, that ensures sufficient returns and high benefits. This can be achieved by excluding functions yielding little and have low frequency level (schools, cultural uses), and including functions with high yields and high frequency levels; (restaurants, hotels, cafes).

References BOOKS

-

Ibrahim, A, 2005, Charting Indicative Plans of Underdeveloped Urban Areas, Guide no. 5, Center of Planning and Architectural Studies, Cairo, Egypt.

-

CONFERENCES AND SEMINAR PAPERS Mason, R, 2005, 'Economics and Historic Preservation: a Guide and Review of the Literature', Proceedings of the Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, University of Pennsylvania, USA, viewed 06.06.2013, http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2005/9/metropolitanpolicy%20mason/20050926_preservation.pdf WEB ARTICLES:

-

Ernst, R, 2013, Planning Practice Feature: The Myth of Sustainable Cities, APA (American Planning Association), viewed 14.03.2013, http://planning.org/practicingplanner/print/default.htm?print=true MAPS:

-

Military Survey Directorate in Syria.

Google Maps 2013, viewed 04.04.2013, https://maps.google.de/maps?hl=de Site Management Directorate, 2010, Archaeology in Syria, SMD, Damascus, Syria.

FIGURES:

-

Jableh Heritage Department 2008, Jableh: History in Images, JHD, Syria.

66

The Shifting Role of Planners with and through Development Aid Corporations in MENA region context: The Case Study of UN-HABITAT in Egypt Author: Insaf Ben Othmane Hamrouni

Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Youhansen Y. Eid, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Philipp Misselwitz, Dr. Nina Gribat

Abstract Planning should play an important role in assisting governments worldwide to face urban challenges of the 21st century. There is a constant need of a continuous assessment and revisit of urban planning in particular in the Global South where the majority of urban challenges have to be faced. The International development aid corporations play a decisive role in challenging urban practices in the Global South and in particular in Egypt where the planning approach have been shifted from rational comprehensive planning model towards the strategic planning one. This paper reflects on this shifting planning paradigm through UN-HABITAT1 and its impacts on the Egyptian planner‟s role. The role of UN-HABITAT have been analysed through the strategic urban plans for small cities project: SUPSCP2. The research concludes with some recommendations a few of which are about the strategic planning, the appropriate approach to planning in Egypt and about professional agenda and education.

Keywords: Egypt, International development agencies, UN-HABITAT, Planner role, planning shifting paradigm, strategic planning, SUPSCP. Introduction In the 21st century, planning is challenging in the Global South, where a high pressure is applied on the planning professionals. Described as being a context of “difference”, the planner according to Watson (2006:42) “is left with no guidance and no justifiable course of action”. The concern about planning systems in this part of the world and the impacts of planning paradigm shifts on planner‟s role are of high importance for the planners themselves and for the planning community to be able to define who does what, where and when in order to make planning relevant to that context and efficient. The recent studies demonstrate that „master planning‟ is incapable to adapt to the Global South challenges of 21st century with rise of poverty, social disparity, urban growth, slums and informal settlements sprawl where this type of planning approach is a mainstream. The strategic planning is promoted by international agencies as the way out from crisis and as the substitute of the master planning in the Global South. Questions arise whether this imported planning paradigm is capable to address these challenges or not. The Arab states, part of the Global South are today facing deep substantive economic, geo-political, social and spatial changes and readjustments tackling also their planning system. Egypt -the subject of study in this research- is one of these countries were the planning system have been through a reform during this last decade mainly supported by international agencies.

Understanding Planning in Egypt: Shortcomings and the need for a new planning paradigm Urban planning in Egypt is dominated by rational comprehensive planning. For decades urban visions have been formulated through master plans and planning has been totally reduced to physical planning, land use plans and zoning (M.Madbouly, 2009). The modern planning was a colonial heritage since the Khedive‟s Era and his utopian European vision of Cairo, then in the Post 1952 revolution, the rational comprehensive model was intentionally adopted (A.SHETAWY, 2004).From Nasser Era until today, the urban planning in Egypt have been mainly influenced by the economic orientations of a country highly dominated and influenced by the Neoliberalism. In Egypt, planning facilitated the development of Neoliberalism which is physically represented in: New cities, a boom of real estate projects, gated communities, malls, theme and leisure parks and private domains.

The Egyptian urban arena is characterized by the variety of actors; foundations as Ford Foundation 3, brands as Coca Cola, and institute as British Council are also working in the field of urban planning development. Six groups have been identified according to the scale and the level of intervention (see fig. 1), namely: (i) governmental bodies, (ii) a rising civil societies, (iii)International organizations, (iv) private sector, (v) academic sector which is becoming more and more influent on decision making process and orientations of planning and finally (vi) local authorities. This multiplicity of actors is criticized by dominant groups as the GOE3 bodies, civil societies and IDAC4. The latter as UN-HABITAT, considers this diversity and large quantity of actors as source of conflictual situation that jeopardize the different efforts invested in the urban field and denounce the consolidation of some on the behalf of others.

1 UN-HABITAT: United Nations of Human Settlements 2 SUPSCP: Strategic Urban Planning for Small cities Project 3 GOE : Egyptian Government 4 IDAC : International Development Aid corporations

67

Figure 3: Classification of actors in the urban field, the list in not exhaustive Source: by the author.

The planning process and the anatomy of influence Before the building Law 119/2008, the planning process was following a traditional master planning process. The GOPP1 first; assigns consultant planning teams, second; different meetings took place with local authorities, as starting point for the survey and analysis phase, several reports on the existing situation are prepared. After survey and data collection, the physical planner, as described by the interviewees, formulates draft of the master plan. The MoPIC2, then allocates only some funds, in general less than it was requested. The MUUHDC3 then negotiates with the MoPIC on the allocation of the funds. The Egyptian planners carry out the modifications and the plan is certified; Plannersâ&#x20AC;&#x; role is finished. GOPP officers revise the plan, give preliminary comments. It is then presented to the governor(s) and the involved actors to either acknowledge it or ask for modifications, (Serag, Verschure, 2006). After that the GOPP has to send the approved plans to the Ministry of defence to get the final approval of the planning projects. Nobody in Egypt can discuss or review the decision of the Ministry of defence, as their decision concerns the National Security of the country. The role of the planner within this planning process and system seems only reduced to the technical aspects of work where the main client is the state. The Ministry of Development had the authority by this planning law to stop, modify, and cancel approved city plans.

All ministries are involved in planning, mainly the ministry of defence whose decision is indisputable. Urban planning and land issues are both major sources of conflicts of interest between Egyptian ministries, and this has huge consequences on the development of projects. There are several weaknesses to address considered highly influential on the future of planning in Egypt; we can enumerate the major ones as follows: -Weak administration and inefficiency - Weak managerial aptitudes - Extreme centralization of the whole Egyptian system - Conflictual relations with citizens - Inter-agencies alliances; which can be defined as the establishments of networks within the different entity of the government based upon personal connections and group interests that serve their business; the patronage is commonly the source of the establishment of this system.

1 GOPP : General Organization of Physical planning 2 MoPIC: Ministry of Planning and International Corporations 3 MUUHDC: Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities

68

Figure 4: power structure – driven forces for change in the Egyptian context.

Source: by the author

Figure 3: Extreme Hierarchal System Paternalism/Political paternal power Source: by the author

The master planning practice has shaped several national and regional development plans and was oriented towards large scale developments that barely achieve their objectives (Serag. Y.Y & Han Vershure, 2006). In the Egyptian context which is characterized by its flexibility, complexity and specificity of urban dynamics, rational comprehensive planning was not appropriate. A need to reinvent urban planning towards a new efficient and appropriate one was palpable among the planning actor groups. In that matter a reform of the Egyptian planning system was required and seemed inevitable (Marwa A. Khalifa, 2011).

The role of IDAC in planning reform process and shortcomings of the new planning paradigm: UN-HABITAT and SUPSCP sample study UN-HABITAT is the specialized agency from the UN1 in the development of Human Settlements that recognizes the role of cities and urban planning in achieving sustainability and by developing innovative solutions and approaches to tackle environmental degradation and climate change vulnerability. UN-HABITAT has suggested important directions for change in the Egypt planning and Governance systems. In that sense, with its support, the Egyptian government has undertaken a reform of its planning system by “embarking on a country-wide programme to revise its urban planning process, review and enact a new urban planning law: the building law 119/2008, to ensure citizen participation, and commit cities to develop strategic plan” (M.Madbouly, 2009: 48).

This planning reform was also the fruit of the collaboration between GOPP and KOICA2 late 2001, 2002. This new law contains many innovations concerning urban planning. It sets the framework for strategic urban planning and sets the modality of participatory planning on the local levels (WB, 2008); it legally replaces the rational modern planning with the strategic planning. Marwa A. Khalifa3 describes the strategic planning in Egypt as being a tool to improve urban management and explains that participation and empowerment of local communities underpin the strategic planning and it is at the origin of UN-HABITAT methodology. There are 4 principle stakeholders groups: (i) Local authorities, public local council, (ii) NGO‟s, (iii) private sector, and (iv) the natural leaders. The SP project has: -To be based on prioritization process -To be developed according to participation and consensus agreement among stakeholders.

-To be a scale up approach.

-Consider the empowerment of different actors specially the local community as a key element in the implementation of SP. UN-HABITAT has supported the Egyptian government to implement three main projects (Shaalan, 2013): -The Strategic National Development Support Project -The Greater Cairo Strategic Urban Development Project -The Strategic Urban Planning for the Small Cities Project: SUPSCP

Figure 4: Project Activities of UN-Habitat and Main counterparts (2006-2013) / Source: adapted by the author based on UN-Habitat 2010.

United Nations 2 KOICA: Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) 3 Monitoring & Evaluation Consultant at the UN-HABITAT for SUPSCP 1

69

The SUPSCP is one of the joint pilot projects between UN-HABITAT and GOPP. UN-HABITAT was supposed at the beginning to give only technical assistant for GOPP staff but it ended up doing some of the SP as a show case.

Figure 5: Planning Levels in Egypt and SUPSCP Within / Source: adapted by the author based on M.Salheen;M.El Khateeb, 2012.

SUPSCP: Approach, process and methodology The current Phase I of SUPSCP was about the preparation of SP1 and update of existing plans for only 94 cities out of 220. All the cities are along the Nile Delta region. The project is about developing a clear and strategic vision for the next two decades and to improve the urban management of the city. But, due to lack of vision of urban development, the SUPSCP aim is in reality to define the new city limits and boundaries (Haiz), propose land uses and zoning regulations for new developments. It aims to increase the capacities of the cities to host the additional five million inhabitants expected by the year 2027 (Barthel, 2011). Local consultants have been assigned after being qualified by UN-HABITAT and international institutions. UN-HABITAT had presented its approach of strategic planning at the beginning to present the methodology, the process, and explain participation methodology. After several trials, GOPP started to write guidelines to localize the UN-HABITAT methodology in the Egyptian context (see fig 6).

Figure 6: Comparison between UN-HABITATâ&#x20AC;&#x;s process and GOPP one/ Source: simplified by the author based on Marwa A. Khalifa (2011:5).

The overall process of SUPSCP includes four steps. At first, (i) a SWOT analysis should be elaborated of the area of study, then (ii) through participation that includes all different stakeholders, (iii) to come up with a list of priorities illustrating the key issues to be tackled and to graphically represent them in a strategic plan; finally, (iv) to prepare with stakeholders action plans for the priority projects previously determined. The prefatory analysis uses a developed tool by UN-HABITAT and widely used by development agencies to assess the urban needs, problems etcetera. This analytic tool is an urban development matrix representing key issues to analyse: Land and Shelter (L&S), Local Economic Development (LED), Basic Urban Services (BUS) and a cross cutting issues namely: Vulnerability, Governance and Environment (UN-HABITAT, 2005).

The outputs of the overall process are: - Data collection and analysis, - Identifying priority issues and actions, - Stakeholder agreement, - Strategy formulation, - Action plan and reports on the different Key issues and cross issues, - Strategic plan, - Collection of urban indicators to initiate an urban development report.

Figure 7: SUPSCP workflow and Process Framework, / Source: by the author based on TOR SPSCP 2006.

UN-HABITAT have provided 22 analyses and planning tools, work documents to the consultants and expertâ&#x20AC;&#x;s teams. The elaboration of strategic planning according to the Egyptian planners interviewed has allowed them to work with different experts from other fields and have engaged the planner in a new work environment.

The SUPSCP is supposed to be completed within six months: two months for phases 1, 2 and 3 then two months for phases 4 and 5 and two months for phase 7. By the building law 119/2008, the strategic plans elaborated should be revisited, revised and updated every five years. The problem is that many of the prepared plans, almost the half have not been approved or initiated yet.

1

Strategic plans

70

The following table shows the progress in SUPSCP for cities up to the end of March 2013.

N° of cities 220

SUPs prepared

GOPP

95 from 170

UN-HABITAT

16 from 50

SUPs SUPs approved Undergoing approval 24 13 14

SUPs Up to approval

Other *

18

2

2

Table 1: The progress in SUPSCP, May 2013 / Source: Data obtained from the GOPP on request of the author.*waiting approval from the ministry of defence committee. Afterwards the SUP‟s will be submitted for accreditation.

Drawbacks of strategic planning in SUPSCP Based on the interviews, the identified gaps, drawbacks and limitations concerning the SUPSCP have been summarized as follow: 1. Concerning the process and the methodology: • Long planning process and lack of efficient monitoring.

• Inadequacy of the methodology within a rapid changing context.

• The methodology and the process focus more on the elaboration of blueprint plans than on implementation.

• The planning process is highly sensible and vulnerable to the governmental system.

• The Priorities are not defined and there is no efficient tool to do so.

• The Top-down approach in decision making process and the absence of real participation.

• The SUPSCP tend to be top-down and the tools used are completely rushed and botched.

• Strategic planning Policies doesn‟t contain framework for action.

• The process of strategic planning, don‟t take into consideration social values, interpower relationships and time uncertainty.

• The poor articulation between traditional and new forms of planning.

2. Skills and knowledge • Disparity in skills and knowledge between different intervening actors and different interests and lack of capacity of planning services.

•Very weak administrative system, weak managerial skills, lack of framework and communication failures.

• Misunderstanding of strategic planning as planning and difficulties to comprehend its fundamentals and tools, and in particular from Elder generations of planning professionals.

• Failure to formulate strategic plans: Plans elaborated are more zoning, detailed plans and are not strategic.

3. PRIV1: • Lack of support from the decision makers.

• Incapability to build consensus due to the dominance of self-interest and the clash of rationality that guides the actions of planning actors involved.

• Schizophrenic system, decisions and actions don‟t follow any rule.

• Excessive centralization of the Egyptian system.

Nevertheless, this project has had some remarkable aspects with a shift in approach and process for capacity building. There is a strong subscription to strategic planning with pro-poor priorities, stakeholders‟ involvement and the conscious effort to link planning and implementation through action planning.

Outlooks and Recommendations Through analysing the sample study SUPSCP, and based on interviews and two conducted surveys with different Egyptian planners both from academia, private sector and public sector, it was confirmed that the role of the planner in Egypt is very problematic. The historical study of planning system in Egypt have showed that the majority of the Egyptian planner reality get locked in the Nasser Vs Sadat era mindsets and that the political environment have shaped and still shaping planner behaviour and persona. The Egyptian planner role is very connected to the shift in the political sphere and economic one.

The 25th of January 2011 revolution was not only a political and social revolution but an urban one too that revealed the inefficiency and failure of planning politics in achieving social justice, equity and decent shelter for the population. There is no doubt that development agencies are highly involved in planning projects in Egypt and in particular UN-HABITAT. This UN agency has worked in addressing the indicated issues and tried to shift the planning paradigm from rational comprehensive planning towards the strategic planning. With UN-HABITAT support and through the exercises of SUP projects, the Egyptian planner is in the process of learning and understanding that planners could occupy more support functions and positions rather than playing leading role.

However strategic planning has failed so far to address the main urban challenges the country today is facing.

Unfortunately, rational comprehensive planning seems rooted in the planning institutions and in urban 1 PRIV: Process-Relevant Influencing Variables

71

professional‟s mindsets. Furthermore, planning is still dominated by laissez-faire attitude with inadequate policies and planning approaches that does not reflect urban realities. The neglect from the state and the discontinuity in politics of planning jeopardize the efforts invested and the different urban development projects and processes implemented or to be implemented in the future. It is a fact that today planners are not part of the driving forces that determine urban development but this doesn‟t mean that they can‟t play a strategic role in shaping the urban fabric. The Egyptian planner should assume his position and realize the chaotic situation and urban crises that surround him and that makes his contribution today useless and with minor impacts. It is dangerous to accept the multiplicity of professional hats of planners. It is in a way accepting the fact that planner can be pro or cons vulnerable groups and community and which illegitimate role of the planner and mark a schism between planners and the community. What justify the planner as profession and planning in this messy and rapidly changing urban context? In light of the research findings, the following recommendations have been addressed: 1. To assess and revise the strategic planning (methodology and tools). To allow more room for real participation instead of classic consultation process and to train adequate professional‟s for. Strategies should be more action-oriented.

2. To urge in developing a linking tool among planning community and to establish a cooperative environment that allows the planning community to exercise with the new understandings, knowledge and skills, (Hagues, 2006).

3. To think about a new planning approach with realistic but variable planning standards. To look for a hybrid planning system that can adapt easily to the rapidly changing context and the political instability.

This new planning system has to consider and foster the human resources available and their capacities at local, regional and national level. A single approach isn‟t the best.

4. To synthesize from different experiences and projects conducted the appropriate approach and tools to urban planning and improve the management system in the Egyptian institutions.

5. -To reconsider the Rapid Urban Sector profile (RUSP) already applied in 2004/2005. This UNHABITAT methodology is highly appreciated by planning community and described successful and more adaptable to the Egyptian context.

6. Planners professional recognition: professional agenda and education: A representative national body should be founded and Egyptian planners should reflect upon the way they exercise their profession. The planning education should be assessed in all departments of planning and FURP1 with an emphasis on the substantive knowledge that the planner student should have.

7. Those that „do plan‟ should be conscience about the difference between urban project and urban strategy and resist to the professional routines and encourage transversal work.

The online surveys conducted with planning professionals, from academic, private, public sectors and also with students, have shed the light on planning education in Egypt and the substantive knowledge and skills requested by the Egyptian planners. There is huge stress on the following points: 1. Enlargement should occur in the scope and fields of planning education to be more social science oriented.

2. The differentiation between planning and urban design in the professional field.

3. The planning education should be more oriented towards the real world.

4. To provide incentives for researchers.

5. Provision of a Cadastre unit to facilitate the work.

6. To develop the facilitator role of the planner and work closer to the community, therefore communication, conflict resolutions and analytic skills are very important as well as team leadership.

7. Need for large scale coordination, well developed collective actions and initiatives from planner.

1 FURP: Faculty of Urban and Regional planning

72

Reference

-

WATSON, V. (2006): Deep Difference: Diversity, Planning and Ethics, Vanessa Watson, Planning Theory March 2006 5: 31-50 , SAGE Journals.

-

SHETAWY.A.A (2004): The politics of physical planning practice. The case of the industrial areas in TENTH OF RAMADAN CITY, Egypt. Doctoral Thesis. The Barlett School of Architecture and Planning university College London, The development Planning Unit.

-

M.Madbouly, (2009) : Revisiting Urban Planning in the Middle East North Africa Region, Regional study prepared for Revisiting Urban Planning:Global Report on Human Settlements 2009, available at [Available from http://www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2009]

-

Serag. Y.Y & Han Vershure (2006): Regional Planning in Egypt. Between Myth and Reality. Post Graduate Centre Human Settlements, University of Leuven. Cairo, October 2006

-

Arandel, C., & El Batran, M. (1997). The informal housing development process in Egypt. University College, London, Development Planning Unit.

-

Serag Y.Y (2012-2013): Origins and development of planning theory One hundered years of planning. The influence of the world‟s socio-political events on planning. Planning theory. Departement of Urban Planning. Ain Shams University, 2012-2013.

-

Marwa A. Khalifa, (2011): A critical review on current practices of the monitoring and evaluation in the preparation of strategic urban plans within the Egyptian context. In Habitat International 36 (1), pp. 57–67

-

Shaalan, Ihab (2013): Notes from the field – sustainable urban transformation in small cities in Egypt. In Journal of Cleaner Production.

-

UNHABITAT (2010): Cooperation Agreement between UN-HABITAT and General Organisation of Physical Planning GOPP, Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Development, Arab Republic of Egypt. UN-HABITAT – GOPP

-

UNHABITAT (2013): UN-HABITAT IN PARTNERSHIP WITH THE ARAB STATES, Available at un-habitat.org.

-

•UN-Habitat (2005): Financing Urban Shelter.Global Report On Human Settlements [online] available at [ http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?typeid=19&catid=555&cid=5369] last visited december 2012.

-

WB, (2008): Towards an urban sector strategy, available at http://www wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2008/07/03/000333038_20080703043355/Rendered/PDF/411780v20 ESW0E1Box0327393B01PUBLIC1.pdf

-

M.Salheen , samah, E. KhateebL, (2012) : INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE PLANNING PROCESS IN EGYPT

-

Hague, Cliff (2006): Making planning work. A guide to approaches and skills. Rugby: Intermediate Technology Publications.

UN-HABITAT, (2010): Information Exchange Event on Urban Planning Methodology and Apllication in Egypt, Lybia, Sudan, Palestine and Iraq. 4th DRAFT. un-habitat.org

BARTHEL, (2011): Strategic planning and sustainability: a quick outlook on the Arab world, LATTS, Laboratoire Techniques, Territoires et Sociétés - Metropolis 2011. PDF [online] available at: [http://portoalegrecongress2011.metropolis.org/sites/default/files/ponencies/c2_pierre-arnaud.pdf], Last checked the 27/07/2013

73

Designing Landscape as Infrastructure Water Sensitive Open Space Design in Cairo Author: Lisa Deister

Supervisors: Prof. Antje Stokman, Prof. Dr. Aly N. El-Bahrawy, Prof. Mohamed Salheen

Egypt – a country facing water scarcity With more than 90% of its area being arid desert and the Nile supplying 86.2% of its water, Egypt is considered a country facing a critical water situation (El-Nahrawy 2011).

The limited access to other water resources and therefore high dependency on the Nile can put the country in a serious situation in case of lower stream flow or other problems resulting in the decrease of available water.

The availability of water per capita has dropped significantly fin the past years. Given Egypt‟s continuous population growth of 1.66 % each year, which equals an increase of 1 Million people every nine months, it is predicted to drop to 536 m³/capita ∙ year by 2025 signifying severe water scarcity (Agrawala et al. 2004: 7, Abdel Wahaat & El-Din Omar 2011: 11). Besides, increasing temperatures due to climate change resulting in higher evaporation and higher water demands as well as a potential increase of water claims from upstream riparian countries might lead to decreasing water levels and, thus, a greater water stress for more than 80 Million people living in the country (Agrawala et al. 2004). The potential to draw more water from other resources is limited.

Egypt is in need to find solutions to deal with water scarcity.

One approach is to reduce water consumption, especially where there is no urgent need – for example the excessive irrigation of green open spaces, often using potable water.

In order to accommodate the continuously growing population, so called New Towns are constructed in the desert on the outskirts of Egypt‟s capital Cairo. Private investors attract Cairenes promising a life in a lush and green oasis far away from the city‟s stress and pollution (see Fig. 01). And they keep their promise: beside a few public housing areas, numerous gated communities with low building and population densities, a well connected road network and extensive green open spaces pop up in “New Cairo” and “6th of October City” east and west of Cairo respectively. They offer a calm life to the upper middle and upper class of Egypt‟s society and expatriates. The exploitation of resources, especially of water, reaches a peak to create these artificial oases in the desert.

Fig. 01

The thesis “Designing Landscape as Infrastructure - Water Sensitive Open Space Design in Cairo” aims at revealing measures to lower water demand and consumption of green open spaces and to show how these measures can be integrated into the landscape design, while maintaining a pleasant appearance of those green spaces. The gated community Al Rehab in New Cairo was chosen as a case study area to illustrate opportunities to intervene in an existing built environment as well as in the planning stage in two conceptual design proposals.

This article presents a brief summary of the developed Water Sensitive Open Space Design (WSOSD) strategies, measures and the achievements of the two conceptual design proposals.

74

The Case Study Area Al Rehab One of the first gated communities in New Cairo was Al Rehab. It is located in the northern part of New Cairo on the Cairo-Suez Road, approximately 27 km east of Cairo (see Fig. 02). Construction started in late 1996 and is not accomplished yet. In 2017, Al Rehab is supposed to offer home to about 200 000 inhabitants on a total area of 9 900 000 m² (Talaat Moustafa Group 2010). Ten districts contain villa and apartment building areas as well as various services and amenities. Housing units differ in size and price: apartment buildings and semi-detached villas are affordable also for the middle and upper-middle class, while the detached villas aim at attracting people belonging to the upper class (Yousry 2009: 4).

With the help of various site visits, observations and interviews, several challenges have been identified. They contribute directly or indirectly to an increased consumption of water for irrigation and high cost. Besides, deficits in the landscape design have been identified, which lead to high maintenance and water requirements.

However, potentials to be able to conserve more water in the future exist. Identified potentials and challenges are summarized in Table 01.

Fig. 02

Potentials

Challenges

Infrastructure for reuse of treated waste water (TWW) exists in large parts of Al Rehab.

The quality of the TWW is not reliable.

The available TWW is not enough to irrigate whole Al Rehab.

Health concerns exist to provide TWW for irrigation in the villa areas.

Irrigation is done with highly efficient irrigation systems.

High water losses occur due to wasteful irrigation behavior.

Plantations with mixed water demands require the irrigation with high amounts to cover the needs of the most consuming plant.

Green open spaces are used to attenuate the harsh desert climate (in particular the heat).

The low variation in types of green open spaces results in equally high maintenance and water demands all over Al Rehab.

A plant nursery on site decreases transportations costs and increases successful plantings due to the plantâ&#x20AC;&#x;s adaptation to the local conditions.

The relatively small plant repertoire comprising mainly exotic plants with mostly moderate to high water demand.

Occasional rainfall exists.

Stormwater floods the street due to lack of capacity of the sewerage system.

Table 01 Summary of potentials and challenges

Water Sensitive Open Space Design in Al Rehab The Strategy for Al Rehab Based on the identified potentials and challenges in the landscape design and the water management, strategies and measures for appropriate water sensitive open space design have to be tailored to the case of Al Rehab.

The main critic regarding the landscape design in Al Rehab is the lack of functionality and repeatedly used plants leading to a very homogenous appearance of all green open spaces with equally high maintenance demands. This calls for a restructuring of green open spaces. Also from a water management point of view this strategy can help to decrease the water consumption, if plants with similar water demands are grouped in certain areas. So called hydrozones can be created. Like this, irrigation can take place more precisely to fulfill the plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; different needs.

Furthermore, it can facilitate the work of the gardeners, if areas with clearly distinguishable maintenance and water needs are established. Bringing together these crucial aspects, the restructuring of the green open spaces according to functions as well as hydrozones is suggested as the main strategy for Al Rehab.

75

Further strategies to minimize the use of potable water for irrigation can support the realization of the main strategy. Several measures can be applied to achieve the different strategies (see Fig. 03). If consumption of treated waste water (TWW) is reduced with the help of decreased demands and decreased losses, the surplus water can be used for irrigation in other areas where currently potable water is used. If the water consumption in these areas is also reduced, the area irrigated with TWW can be further extended. If additional water sources such as condensate water from air conditioning systems can be found, which are suitable for irrigation purposes, the area irrigated with potable water can be further decreased.

Fig. 03

Depending on the suggested function of the area, an appropriate water source can be chosen. Irrigation water for areas, which are supposed to be used by the people for example, needs to have a specific quality to avoid health hazards. Certain water sources can be excluded for these areas. In other green open spaces the water quality plays a secondary role. According to the availability of the chosen water source, the hydrozone can be defined. If water from this source is rarely available, plants with low water demands have to be chosen. Also if water is sufficiently available, but large areas have to be irrigated from this source, the hydrozone â&#x20AC;&#x153;low demandâ&#x20AC;? should be selected.

Finally, small green open spaces with variable water quality demand shall be chosen to comprise plants with higher water demands to enhance the plant diversity.

To ensure the successful and safe implementation of these strategies two preconditions are defined: Precondition I: In order to use TWW for irrigation and substitute potable water, its quality has to be ensured to avoid health hazards.

Precondition II: Measures have to be taken to improve the irrigation behaviour of gardeners. All technical measures will be unsuccessful if large amounts of water are wasted due to inappropriate irrigation.

76

Conceptual Design Proposals In the thesis, two conceptual design proposals were developed, one showing opportunities to intervene in an existing built environment, while the other one indicates options for interventions in the planning stage.

In Conceptual design proposal I (existing built environment) the implementation of different measures leads to a more attractive and adequate landscape design while large amounts of water can be conserved. The green open spaces are restructured according to functions, water sources resulting in 15 different types of green open space types, which meet the inhabitantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; expectations of a lush green landscape (see Fig. 04 and 05). At the same time, the water requirement for irrigation can be reduced by about 20% compared to the current green open space design with plants with mixed water demands in one area. However, the actual water consumption for irrigation is about 60% higher than the water requirement since large amounts are lost due to wasteful irrigation behaviour (for definitions see Fig. 06).

Figure.-05

Figure.-04

Figure.-06

If irrigation would take place more efficiently, up to 724 709 l of water could be saved daily. This highlights the urgent necessity to improve the irrigation of the gardeners, which has been set as a precondition for the successful implementation of measures. To achieve this, the creation of an incentives program for the gardeners is suggested: if the gardeners manage to reduce the water consumption, and, accordingly, the water costs, while maintaining the quality of the green open spaces, they will receive 20% of the money which has been saved as a reward to their effort. An irrigation water meter for whole Al Rehab should be installed, so that the water consumption can be monitored. Depending on the amount of saved water, the rewards can go up to LE 14.11 per gardener and day (100% water savings). If 50 % of the water is saved, the reward would be about LE 7.05. In this way, the gardeners will be motivated to pay more attention to the way they are working and large amounts of water can be conserved.

Although it would be theoretically possible to cover the potable water amounts currently required for irrigation in the villa areas due to the high water savings, health-related concerns exist due to which measures have to be taken before a substitution with TWW is possible.Conceptual design proposal II presents how potable water can be eliminated as a water source for irrigation. Key measure is the decentralized treatment of grey water in a so called waste water treatment park adjacent to the villas to increase awareness on the inhabitantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; side and to ensure a reliable water quality for irrigation. Moreover, the amounts of public and private green open spaces are reduced without significant quality losses regarding the amenity value (see Fig. 07 and 08). In this way, the available treated grey water can cover the irrigation water requirements. Due to an increased awareness of the inhabitants, the use of treated grey water for irrigation can be considered to be safe.

77

Figure.-07

Figure.-08

78

Conclusion Several measures to conserve water already exist and can be used to direct planning towards a more sustainable development. The thesis shows how they can be applied and integrated into the landscape design of the gated community Al Rehab. A continuous examination of existing and innovative measures to conserve water is necessary to broaden the spectrum of possibilities of water sensitive open space design, especially for the future.

However, a continuous population growth cannot be accompanied by a continuous increase of green open spaces in the case of Egypt. Therefore, at one point of the growth of the new towns, the decrease of green open spaces shall gain more importance and acceptance. Awareness of the problem of water scarcity has to be raised and water sensitive behavior has to be promoted. If people, e.g. the gardeners, do not behave in an appropriate way, infrastructure can hardly help. Thus, their consideration and involvement in the development and implementation of measures is essential. The use of green open spaces by the people is a major aspect in landscape design. This point should be further studied for the case of Egypt in order to develop more adequate design solutions.

Calculations within the thesis are based on assumptions. Further research needs to be done to reassess these.

Especially the field of water demand of plant species is an important topic, which requires further intensive studies in order to do more adequate estimations. Moreover, the utilization of native species can open up interesting opportunities regarding reduced water demands as well as ornamental features of the landscape design.

Generally, the selected strategies and measures can be transferred to other case study areas. However, the existing potentials and challenges have to be identified for each case and context. Landscape architects should use the chance to take a leading role towards a more adequate, sustainable and integrated urban and landscape planning and design in arid countries and present existing as well as innovative strategies and measures to minimize the water consumption for irrigation, develop them further and combine them in new ways. A collaborative approach with other disciplines such as water infrastructure and irrigation engineering is crucial in order to achieve the best possible outcome in terms of landscape design as well as water conservation. Besides, also social studies have to be included to be able to respond to the needs and interests of the people.

References

-

Abdel Wahaat, R. & El-Din Omar, M. (2011) Wastewater Reuse in Egypt: Opportunities and Challenges. [online] http://www.arabwatercouncil.org/administrator/Modules/CMS/Egypt-Country-Report.pdf. Accessed 05.03.2013

-

Agrawala, S., Moehner, A. & El Raey, M. et al. (2004) Development And Climate Change In Egypt: Focus On Coastal Resources And The Nile. [online] http://www.oecd.org/environment/climatechange/33330510.pdf. Accessed 20.11.2012

-

El-Nahrawy, M. A. (2011) Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Egypt. [online] http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/Egypt/Egypt.html#soils. Accessed 11.04.2013

-

TMG (Talaat Moustafa Group) (2010) Annual Report 2009. [online] http://talaatmoustafa.com/Portals/0/Annual%20Report%202009.pdf. Accessed 24.05.2013

-

Yousry, Ahmed (2009) The Privatization of Urban Development in Cairo: Lessons Learned from the Development Experience of Al Rehab Gated Community, presented to the International Conference on “Developing the New Urban Communities; Policies and Priorities, New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA) and INTA, Alexandria, Egypt: Bibliotheca Alexandrina, March 28-31, 2009. [online] http://i3.makcdn.com/wp-content/blogs.dir//231013/files//2012/03/privatization-of-urban-development-ahmedyousry.pdf. Accessed 26.01.2013

Figure titles

-

Fig. 01 „MIVIDA - The greener place to be“– Advertisement for a gated community in New Cairo, seen in Heliopolis (own 2013)

-

Fig. 06 Definition of water demand, water requirement and water consumption (own 2013)

Fig. 02 Location of New Cairo and Al Rehab (own 2013, satellite image: Google Earth 2013) Fig. 03 Overview about the strategies and potential measures (own 2013) Fig 04 Current situation of the courtyard (own 2013) Fig. 05 Exemplary perspective of courtyard in the apartment building area with three different types of green open spaces (own 2013)

Fig. 07 Green open spaces in the focus area (current situation) (own 2013) Fig. 08 Green open spaces in the focus area (proposal) (own 2013)

79

Coastal Landscape between Resistance and Resilience to Sea Level Rise Author: Lobna Mitkees

Supervisors: Prof. Antje Stockman, , Prof. JosĂŠ Luis Moro, Prof.Dr. Mohamed Salheen

Climate change is expected to affect considerably the coastal communities in specific, through the coming century.

Sea Level Rise (SLR) will be one of the greatest challenges that will confront the coastal region. This will be associated by increase in the flooding risk, coastal erosion, and increase in storm surges, so as many other climatic events. Coastal communities in the Egyptian Nile Delta are highly vulnerable to the threat of SLR, given that the vulnerability is determined by its social, institutional, economic capacity to respond to change.

The concept of risk occurrence contains probability; there are two opposing paradigms of Dealing with Sea Level Rise: The response paradigms might be resistant or resilient. Increasing the protection of the coast questionably increased the resistance of the overall system on account of the resilience (Klein and Nicholls 1999). There is a necessity to achieve a balanced relation between the protection of the community-with its economic and social aspects- and the degradation of the natural environment of the coast.

The current paradigm in dealing with the coastal communities is towards mitigating the impact and increasing protection measures. However this arguably, establishes resistant coastal community on the account of its resilience (Klein et al 1998). The current measures conducted to reduce coastal hazards proved to increase vulnerability of the coastal communities. Hence, this requires change in paradigm from conventional, protection thinking towards a more holistic approach in coping with future threat.

Resilience is a new prominent paradigm that offers more flexibility in coping with change. The term resilience has become a prominent topic that recently emerged in dealing with changes and very much confined within the discourse on climatic change. The resilience of a community, of its physical and built environment, of its homes, buildings and built infrastructure, can be viewed as its ability to withstand, and adapt to, the changing circumstances. This will require understanding the natural environment and incorporating it into the design process. Therefore, hazard can be viewed as a natural phenomenon rather than a threat in designing new coastal cities.

Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in the Nile Delta Coastal populations are at high risk from SLR. It becomes evident from the variation of the district areas and the distribution of the population along the coastal zones. on the statistical estimation of the population vulnerable in the coastal region. Alexandria, Kafr El Shiekh and El Beheira are three Delta Governorates having high population concentration in the coastal region. The population of low elevated coastal zones (LECZ), in the selected focus zone, amounts to about 1.8 million inhabitants of the total of the focus zone population. They are highly vulnerable to the threat of seawater intrusion, which is due to the fact that about 16% of the total population is located in prone areas. based on the estimation of the impacted Population exposed to the SLR, in Alexandria, Beheira and Kafr ElShiekh in absolute numbers, the potential population located in LECZ, is estimated to be 1.25 million inhabitants for 0.25m SLR and 1.5, 1.92 million inhabitants for 0.5 and 1 meter SLR, making 29, 35, 44% of the total percentage of the governorate with no consideration of the high growth rate the city is witnessing. (See table 1). Following, El Behiera governorate, in which 0.47, 0.53, 1.15 million inhabitant living in LECZ will be highly vulnerable for 0.25, 0.5 and 1m SLR consequentially; making 12, 13 and 29% of total population of the governorate. Finally Karf El-Shiekh, 0.0982, 0.14 and 0.20 million inhabitants are vulnerable for 0.25, 0.5 and 1m SLR. Table 1: Estimation of the Impacted Population to the SLR, in Alexandria, Beheira and Kafr Elshiekh Governorate

0.25m SLR

0.5m SLR

1m SLR

Population (Mil)

% of Governorate

Population

% of Governorate

Population

% of Governorate

Alex.

1.25

29.09

1.518

35.31

1.92

44.73

Beheira

0.47

12.07

0.534

13.46

1.151

29.00

Kafr

0.098

3.77

0.145

5.60

0.204

7.88

Total

1.82

2.198

3.280

80

Resistance: In broad terms, resistance is defined as “the refusal to accept or comply with something”. (Oxford Dictionaries).

In ecological literature the concept of resistance describes the intention of the system of avoiding and fending off disturbance. In the first place, this implies the refusal to change, taking every measure necessary to not let the threatening event happen (Kline 1998). The general stance of a resistant attitude can be described as violent and determined opposition. So resistance is directly related to preventing or protecting measures, which means every effort is done to make it impossible for a particular event to happen. This necessarily leads to a high level of protective measures and, consequently, to high cost as argued by (Klein and Nicholls 1999). This also complies with the Conventional planning paradigm according to Godschalk, D. (2003) considering hazard mitigation which includes:

-

Protecting the people, assets and environment form the potential hazard or threat Directing new development projects away from the vulnerable areas and relocating the existing land use towards new safer areas and limiting development in flood prone areas

-

Seeking hard and structural measures in confronting the threat such as flood control work, shore hardening as an attempt to reduce the impact associated with the hazard In Egypt, according to the OECD report (2004) all measures that outlined for the coastal protection in Egypt are considered as a response for the current development pathways along the coast and synergistic to the SLR. Nevertheless, it is not covering all vulnerable areas of the coastal region. All the measures used are restricted towards “hard measures”. These measures for coastal protection that have been implemented to improve the stabilization of the coast for example: extension of break waters in Alexandria (World Bank 2010) beach nourishments projects, reinforcement of the Abou Qir sea wall –that was constructed 1780- (OECD 2004). In Alexandria, higher authorities of the city pay out US$300 million for coastal protection measures for the shore line protection (Batisha A. F. 2012). However, according to El-Sharnouby, B. and Soliman, A. (2010) there is neither integrated coastal management nor a strategic plan developed for the shoreline protection. Each zone has been protected in a different measure and with a different type of structure. Groins, revetment concrete blocks, sea walls, are all considered to be hard methods of confronting the coastal dynamics.

Implication of Hard Measures: According to Watson, D. and Adams, M. (2011) and Pope (1994) hard measures only give a false sense of security as there might be a storm that overcomes the structure and breach into the community.

There are many examples around the world where mankind is attempting to control his environment. The implementation of hard engineering measures into coastal communities contributes highly to natural and ecological damage (Grannis, J. 2011). Hard engineering does not solve the coastal problems, but often causes problems elsewhere, providing only a temporary fix.

However, there are some circumstances and situations where hard engineering measures can be considered the only appropriate solution despite its various implications:

-

Highly dense urban environment

Places with critical infrastructure and architecture or intensely urbanized areas which are at high risk Large cities might find it quite challenging to accommodate spaces for soft measures and hence, directed to more long term hard measures and strategic approach to ensure its protection. (Grannis J. 2011). Their impact on natural environment cannot be avoided. However there are actions that can be taken to reduce the impact and harshness of the hard measures. Different measures can be added to mitigate the harshness and robustness of hard coastal protection; yet their effect on the natural environment is inevitable.

Sector Economic

Disadvantages   

Environmental

  

Social

   

Hard engineering defense can be more costly It provides only a temporary solution and requires regular maintenance and replacement If the measure is breached, the water is trapped and it is difficult to drain it back to the sea Hard engineering creates many environmental impacts. It disturbs the sediment movement.

It redirects the wave energy increasing the erosion on neighboring land and increases soil-salination on the land.

It prevents upland migration of wetlands and contributes to the erosion of beaches.

Protects the land only to a certain limit.

It is not aesthetically satisfying It has a high tendency to increase urbanization adjacent to the hard structure, therefore increases the vulnerable population in the flooding events.

It constitutes a hard armoring obstacle access to the coast and prevents the public using its recreational value.

81

Paradigm Shift: Towards Holistic Approach Climate change should not be perceived as a threat for coastal development, but rather an opportunity to provoke new ways of planning cities. The effects of SLR are not just limited to the coast. The protection measures mentioned before help cities to prevent the damages or reduce the impact on the built environment. It gives false sense of security as there is always a chance of a storm surge that is above the protection level of the engineered structure (Watoson D. and Adams M. 2011).

Resilient communities are considered an antidote to reduce or eliminate coastal vulnerability (Bently, T 2009).

Resilient cities are constructed to be strong and flexible, rather than brittle and fragile (Gunderson D. 2003).

Their physical, built systems of infrastructure, utilities, and other facilities are planned to meet code standards based on hazard mitigation in order to still function in the face of climate fluctuation. (NOAA 2009).

Resilience aims to design new cities strong and adaptable rather than fragile and weak and to continue functioning in front of the climatic events, rather than break and collapse. Also make best use of nature rather than relocation into safer areas (Gunderson D. 2003).

The lifeline build up systems of buildings, infrastructure, roads and utilities are constructed to meet the certain criteria according to the hazard threat. Elevated buildings, planning with consideration of erosion and inundation, setting up zoning, setbacks, and infrastructure are all measures that contribute to adaptable community to SLR (Gunderson D. 2011;NOAA 2009).

This implies an understanding of natural environment and shifts from the conventional paradigm of controlling the natural environment, to learning from nature dynamics and living with change. Table 9 present Lessons of nature applicable to Design and Construction adapted from Watoson D. and Adams M. (2011). Design for resilience is a prominent paradigm in dealing with planning and designing new cities to confront the threat of SLR (Watoson D. and Adams M. 2011; Gunderson D. 2003). The need to create a shift from resistant- top down-hard – conventional planning paradigm to creating environmental friendly, thriving, amphibious, flexible and resilient cities. This will require integrating the climate change in the initial planning process and develop a more holistic, integrated approach that understands and integrates the dynamics of nature with the surrounding communities.

It also avoids a robust community and is directed towards more flexible and adaptive responses that are adjusted to the changing conditions.

Lessons of nature applicable to Design and Construction (Source: Watoson D. and Adams M. 2011) Lessons of nature applicable to Design and Construction Absorption: Watershed planning and design Rapid responses: Smart grid, early warning, emergency (reservoirs, retention ponds, green roofs) responsive systems.

Buffering: Break, riparian buffer, rain garden, Redundant circuits: Green Infrastructure, wildlife shuttering. corridors, and multiple service routes.

Core Protection: Zoning, Decentralization, self –reliant Storage Capacity: aquifers, wetlands, reservoirs, subsystems. cisterns.

Diffusion: Meanders, wetland and coastal zone Waste/ Nutrient recovery: sustainable storm water landscape, often foundation. design and waste systems.

References:

-

Adger, W.N, Hughes, T.P., Folkes, C., Carpenter, S.R. and Rockström J. 2005. Social-Ecological Resilience to Coastal Disasters.

Science, Vol. 309, no. 5737, pp. 1036-1039. DOI: 10.1126/science.1112122

-

http://www.sciencemag.org/content/309/5737/1036.full

-

Beatly T. (2009)”Planning For Coastal Resilience, Best Practice for Calamitous Times”. Island Press

-

Braatz, S., Fortuna, S., Broadhead, J. and Leslie, R. 2007. Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami: What role for forests and trees? Proceedings of the Regional Technical Workshop Khao Lak, Thailand, 28–31 August 2006 RAP PUBLICATION 2007/07

-

Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Murray, S. and Wheeler, D. 2009. Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surges: A Comparative Analysis of Impacts in Developing Countries. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4901, Washington: The World Bank- Development Research. Group- Environment and Energy Team.

-

Duit, A., Galaz, V., Eckerberg, K. and Ebbesson, J. Governance, complexity, and resilience. Global Environmental Change, Volume 20, Issue 3, August 2010, Pages 363-368, ISSN 0959-3780, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.006.

-

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937801000035X)

-

El Raey, M., Dewidar, K. and El Hattab, M. 1999. Adaptation to the impacts of sea level rise in Egypt. Climate research 12, pp. 117– 128.

Ahmed, A. K. 2006. Concepts and practices of “resilience”: a compilation from various secondary sources. U.S. Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) Program. Working paper prepared for Coastal Community Resilience (CCR) Program, US IOTWS Program Document No. 05-IOTWS-06.

Berkes, F., Colding, J., Folk, C. 2003. Navigating social ecological systems. Building resilience for complexity and change.

Cambridge University Press.

El Raey, Fouda Y., El-Iskandaranu, E. 2006. Potential impact of sea level rise on marina el-alamein. 1st International Conference on Environment Change of Lakes, Lagoons and Wetlands of the Southern Mediterranean Region, 3-7 January, 06, Cairo, Egypt.

(ECOLLAW)

82

-

El Raey, M. 1997. Impact of Climate Change on Egypt. URL: http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/EGY/impact.html (last accessed 24-5-2013)

-

ElSharkawy, H., Rashed, H., and Rached, I. 2009. The impacts of SLR on Egypt. 45th ISOCARP Congress 2009.

-

Emiliano, R., Andrew, H., Andrea, B., Filipe, S., Ana, G., Mikael, H., Pasi, L., Natasha, M. and Monia S. 2011. Methods for assessing coastal vulnerability to climate change. The European Topic Centre on Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation (ETC CCA) Technical Paper No. 1/2011.

-

Feiden, P. 2011. Adapting to Climate Change: Cities and the Urban Poor. International Housing Coalition.

-

Frihy, O.E. and Khafagy, A.A. 1991. Climate and Induced Changes In Relation To Shoreline Migration Trends at The Nile Delta Promontories, Egypt. Cremlingen vol. 18, pp. 197 211.

-

Gilbert, J. Coastal Zone Management

-

Grannis, J. 2011. Adaptation Tool Kit: Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Land Use How Governments Can Use Landuse Practices to Adapt to Sea-Level Rise.

-

Gilberto, K (2003). “Linkage between resilience, vulnerability, adaptive capacity”. Global Environmental Change 16 (2006) 293– 303.

-

Grimsditch, G., and Salm, R. 2006. Coral Reef Resilience and Resistance to Bleaching. IUCN Resilience Science Group Working Paper Series - No 1.

-

Gunderson. L. 2003. Adaptive dancing: interactions between social resilience and ecological crisis. In: Berkes, F. et al. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. New York, Cambridge University press, pp. 33-50.

-

Habitat Conservation 2013, National Oceanic Atmospheric Agency, Vienna, accessed 1 October 1999, http://www.incb.org

-

Helmy, E. 2013. Vulnerability Assessment of Various Sectors in Alexandria Governorate to the impact of expected Sea Level Rise (SLR). SIDA AND SMHI

-

Holger, R. and Morchain, D. 2010. Adaptation to the changing climate: time to intensify efforts Brussels. Background document for Workshop 4: Adaptation in cities & quality of life Chair, ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability. URL:http://www.icleieurope.org/fileadmin/templates/icleieurope/files/content/ICLEI_IS/Topics_pages/WS_4_BACKGROUND_DOCUMENT_ADAPTATION_NOVEMBER_2010.pdf

-

Huettche, C.M., A.T. White and M.M.M. Flores. 2002. Sustainable Coastal Tourism Handbook for the Phillippines. Coasta Resource Management Project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of Tourism, Cebu City, Phillippines, pp. 144.

-

Oxford Dictionary, Available at: http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/resilient [Last accessed 15-6-2013]

-

Klein, R. J. T., Nicholls, R. J., Ragoonaden, S., Capobianco, M., Aston, J. and Buckley, N. 2001. Technological options for adaptation to climate change in coastal zones. Journal of Coastal Research 17( 3), pp. 531-543.

-

Link, P., Kominek, J. and Scheffran, J. 2012. Impacts of sea level rise on the coastal zones of Egypt. University of Hamburg Research Group Climate Change and Security Working Paper CLISEC-25.

-

Levina E. and Tirpak D., 2006. Adaptation to Climate Change: Key Terms COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT

-

Mueller. B (2012). (Eds). German Annual of spatial research and policy 2010.

-

Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S. Ragoonaden and C.D. Woodroffe, 2007: Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 315-356.

-

Nicholls, R.J. and Branson, J. 1998. Coastal Resilience and Planning an Uncertain Future: An Introduction. The Geographical Journal 164(3), pp. 255-258.

-

NOAA. 2010. Adapting to Climate Change: A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers. NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management. Available at: http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html (Last accessed 09-07-2013)

El-Sharnouby, B. and Soliman, A. 2010. Behavior of shore protection structures at Alexandria, Egypt, during the storm of December. Proceedings of: The International Maritime Transport and Logistics Conference "A Vision for Future Integration" 18 - 20 December 2011. Alexandria, Egypt.

Federal Emergency Management and Assistance, FEMA,2009. UNIT 1: FLOODS AND FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT Folke, C. 2006. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change 16 (3), pp. 253–267.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/far/wg_III/ipcc_far_wg_III_chapter_05.pdf Godschalk, D. 2003. Urban Hazard Mitigation: Creating Resilient Cities. National Hazards Review, technical papers, 4(3), pp.

136–143.

Haslett , S. 2009. Coastal Systems -2nd edition. New York: Routledge Books.

Hassaan, M. A. and Abdrabo, M. A. 2013. Vulnerability of the Nile Delta coastal areas to inundation by sea level rise. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 185(8), pp 6607-6616.

Jacob, J. and Showalter, S. 2007. Compact Urbanism: A New Paradigm For Resilient Cities On The Coast?” Institutional Grant NA06OAR4170076 to Texas A&M University from the National Sea Grant Office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.

Mcgranahan, G., Balk, D. and Anderson, B. 2007. The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 17-37.

Neuauflage. 2006. Hafen City Hamburg Der Masterplan H A Fencity Ham B U R G – The Master Plan, URL: http://www.hafencity.com/upload/files/files/z_en_broschueren_19_Masterplan_end.pdf

83

-

NOAA Habitat Conservation, n. d. What Are Coastal Wetlands?. Available at:

-

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (OECD). 2006. Adaptation To Climatechange: Key Terms . Paris: Levina E. and Tirpak D.

-

Petermandl, M. and Penninger, D. 2009. “Barrierefreies Bauen in Oberösterreich Herausgeber”. Direktion Inneres und Kommunale.

Available at: www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at/thema/bauenundwohnen

-

Pfeffer, W., Harpe, J. and O'nee, S. 2008. Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea-Level Rise.

Science Magazine [Online], 321 (5894), pp. 1340-1343. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5894/1340.full [Accessed 3 June 2013]

-

POPE, J. 1997. Responding to Coastal Erosion and Flooding Damages. Journal of Coastal Research, 13(3), pp. 704-710. . Fort Lauderdale (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

-

Prominki, M. 2010.

Designing Landscape as an Evolutionary http://ead.verhaag.net/fullpapers/ead06_id194_2.pdf [Accessed 3 June 2013]

-

Prominski, M., Stokman, A., Stimberg, D., et al. (2012). River.Space.Design. Planning Strategies, Methods and Projects for Urban Rivers. Berlin, Basel: Birkhäuser. Retrieved 6 Aug. 2013, from http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/203390

-

Rahmstorf, S. 2007. A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science Magazine [Online], 325, pp. 368–370.

Available at: http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Nature/rahmstorf_science_2007.pdf [Accessed: 12 July 2013]

-

Resio, D., Bratos, S., and Thompson, E. 2002. Meteorology and Wave Climate. In: Vincent, L., and Demirbilek, Z. (editors), Coastal Engineering Manual, Part II, Hydrodynamics, Chapter II-2, Engineer Manual 1110-2-1100, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.

-

IDG 2010, Study of the Proposal For New Motobus. Integrated Development Group

-

Seggern, H., Werner.J., Baechle.,L. 2008. Creating Knowledge:Innovation strategies for designing Urban landscape. Studio Uran Landschaften. (JOVIS)

-

Sydney Metropolitan Catchment Management Authority and Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW. 2009.

Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW on behalf of Sydney Metropolitan Catchment Management Authority.

-

The World Bank- Development Research, Group- Environment and Energy Team. 2009. Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surges. Policy Research Working Paper 4901, Washington.

-

The World Bank, 2010. Climate Change Adaptation and Natural Disasters Preparedness in the Coastal Cities of North Africa Phase 1: Risk Assessment for the Present Situation and Horizon 2030 – Alexandria Area. Virsion-1

-

Turner, B. L., Kasperson, R. E., Matson, P. A., McCarthy, J. J., Corell R. W., Christensen L., Eckley N., Kasperson J. X., Luers A., Martello M. L., Polsky C., Pulsipher A. and Schiller. A. 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainable science. PNAS [Online], 100(14). Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/14/8074.full [Accessed: 12 July 2013]

-

UNEP. 2011. Taking Steps toward Marine and Coastal Ecosystem-Based Management - An Introductory Guide

-

UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication. 2010. Cities coping with water uncertainties.

-

Walker, B., Holling, C., Carpenter and Kinzig, A. 2004. www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5. [Accessed: 12 July 2013]

-

Walker, B., Carpenter, S., Anderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G. S., Janssen, M., Lebel, L., Norberg, J., Peterson, G. D. and Pritchard, R. 2002. Resilience management in social-ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation Ecology [online] 6(1), article 14. Available at: http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14/ [Accessed: 12 July 2013]

-

Watson. D, Adams. M. 2011. Designing for Flooding "Architecture, Landscape, and Urban Design for Resilience to climate change" John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

-

WeichselgartnerJ. Weichselgartner: Flood Mitigation: Hamburg, Germany Paris, 27 November, 2008.

http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/protection/wetlands/ (Last accessed 09-07-2013) Nordenson G., Seavitt C., Yarinsky A., Cassell,. S,. Hodges, L., Koch., M., Smith J., Tantala M. 2009. On the water palisade bay.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (OECD). 2004. Development and Climate Change in Egypt: Focus On Coastal Resources and the Nile. Environment Directorate Environment Policy Committee . Paris: Agrawala S., Moehner A., El Raey M., Conway D., Aalst M., and Hagenstad M.,and Smith, J.

Scialabba, Nadia (ed.). 1998. Integrated coastal area management and Guidelines. Environment and Natural Resources Service, FAO, Rome. Pp. 256.

System.

agriculture,

forestry

Available

and

fisheries.

at:

FAO

UN/ISDR (Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), 2004: Living with Risk – A global review of disaster reduction initiatives

USAID. 2009. Adapting to coastal climate change a guidebook for development planner, a guidebook for development planners.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2002. Coastal Engineering Manual. Engineer Manual 1110-2-1100, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. (in 6 volumes).

Ecol.

Soc. 9

(no.

2),

U165.

Available

at:

World Bank Executive summary Phase 1 Report. Egis Bceom International / IAU-IDF / BRGM Alexandria.

84

Parametric Analysis for Daylight Autonomy and Energy Consumption in Hot Climates Optimization of Fenestration in Residential Buildings in Cairo Author: Mohamed Amer

Supervisors: Prof. JosĂŠ Luis Moro, Prof. Ahmed Atef,

Abstract This paper discusses the significant contradiction that arises when designing buildings facades in the hot climate region. It discusses the challenging decision that the architect takes when it comes to the fenestration design characteristics. The challenge is to reach a design that achieves reduced energy consumption (achieved through less glazing ratio) as well as Daylight Autonomy (achieved through large glazing ratio). The research is based on a Parametric Analysis to study the quantitative effect of the Window proportion, Glazing and Shading type on Daylight Autonomy and Energy Consumption in the hot climate regions. Moreover, it presents an evaluation process to be used in the early stage designs, to assess the different results produced by the different design options.

The way used to examine parameters of fenestrations design is through the use of a shoebox that presents a single residential zone in Cairo. This shoebox went through several parallel processes of simulation. Design Builder run together with Energy plus simulation engine was used to calculate Energy consumption (heating & cooling). On the other hand, DIVA for Rhino simulation software run together with Radiance was used to calculate the Daylight Autonomy and lighting energy consumption. The results were graphically represented to assess the effect of fenestrations designs on the daylight autonomy and energy consumption, in addition to Glare Probability, achieving View and Privacy throughout a newly developed evaluation assessment criteria. The results and outcomes were discussed at the end of the research and a list of possible further researches was also introduced.

Introduction In Egypt, the desert is gifted by clear sky conditions providing the opportunity to benefit from the day light.

However, Natural lighting has two noticeable effects, Light and Heat, in the radiation spectrum when entering a building. Yet, daylight is the best source of light that matches human visual response and good color rendering having a substantial positive impact on the occupants (Danny and Ernst 2008).

In hot climates, large windows can provide more daylight but higher energy consumption for cooling, while small windows can decrease energy consumption but without sufficient daylight. Hence, hot climates are considered one of the most challenging climates when dealing with daylighting (Maleki 2012).In addition, openings on the facade provide a view to the outside, but on the other hand they have problems with privacy for the indoor occupants. This appears in the occupantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; tendency to use shading devices and block the view to the outside which became obvious in the majority of the residential buildings all over Egypt. Therefore, designing facades is one of the most complicated subjects that face the architects throughout the design process, especially when design intention is to reduce energy consumption and improve occupant health and well-being (Rashid and Zimring 2008, Eduard and Torcellini 2002, Boyce et al. 2003).

Methodology This research passes through five main steps. The first step defines in detail the properties of the chosen climatic zone for the study. The second step is pin pointing the software used for the simulation, illustrating the process of using these tools. The third step entails a clear image on the variants and invariants that the parametric analysis was based on, in addition to the urban context analysis as a new contribution in all the previous researches that handled the same topic. The fourth step defines the thermal and daylight parameters assumed in the simulation process giving the results.

Case Study Many factors affect the assessment of Energy Consumption and the Day lighting inside the buildings. This is shown as follows: Parameters Group 1 - Geographical location (Fixed) - Sky condition (Fixed) - Area / volume (Fixed) - Function / Activity (Fixed) - Urban context and Orientation (Variant) - Vertical Sky Component (VSC): Window height (Variant)

85

Parameters Group 2 - Window Design & Ratio - HVAC, Lighting and Equipment - Building Envelope - Glazing properties - Shading Types and devices

(Variant) (Fixed) (Fixed) (Fixed) (Variant)

Due to time constrains, research scope and limitations, the parameters were not all handled at the same time. As illustrated above the Geographical location, sky condition, Area, Function. The second group of parameters is WWR, HVAC, Building Envelope, Glazing properties and Shading types, where the architect may have the possibility to modify an existing condition. This study will handle the variations of WWR, glazing and Shading Type on the different urban contexts and window heights from ground.

The simulation examines an experimental Shoebox representing a sample of a single residential zone. The shoebox parameters are as follows: 4m x 5m x 3m (Width x Length x Height). The total area is 20m2, with 60m3 Volume. Window to Wall Ratio varies from 20% to 40% and 60% on the South Façade, with different designs. The simulation examines seven different Shading cases. (1)The first case (Base Case) has no Shade. (2) The second case has tinted double layer glaze with Total solar transmission (SHGC) 0.197 and U-value 2.8W/m2K. (3) Overhang with side fins (Combined Shade) 50cm long over the window. (4) Exterior Blinds parallel to the window with 180-degree angle, slate thickness 1cm and separation 10cm. (5) Perforated Screen with 80% perforation ratio and 1:1 perforation depth. (6) Fixed shading overhang and side fins with tinted glaze. (6) Fixed shading overhand and side fins with horizontal blinds. (7) The last shading type is Horizontal blinds with tinted glass.

Figure 6 Shoe Box Model

Figure 5 Window wall ratios

Fenestration types The Researcher has chosen these different types of fenestration subjectively. The Aim is to find out the best fenestration type with the best performance. It helps the designer to choose the right window type, and then possible optimization in the parameters of a single choice is advised.

Urban Context Since the assessment process is based on simulation, the urban context should be simulated before assessing the single zone. According to the Egyptian unified code for construction (EUCC), states that the minimum street width for an urbanized neighborhood is 10 meters and the height of the building should not exceed one and half of the street width. This gives several possibilities for the formation of an urban context. The Researcher conducted an earlier study to illustrate the possible effects of the urban context on the amount of solar radiation exposed by the building‟s façade (Hegazy and Moro 2013). The dimensions of a prototype with 6 stories residential building are18 meter height and 22m width (Attia et al. 2012) was built in a three virtual urban contexts according to the Egyptian unified construction law.

Simulation was run with DIVA for Rhino. It is clear that every case it totally different from the other. The height of the window from the ground should be taken in consideration before the assessment process. The study focuses on the four orientations with 12m width Street. Two levels are examined; higher (12m) above the ground, and lower level (5m) above the ground.

Figure 7 Case Studies

86

Figure 8 Solar Radiation over a Sample of an urban context

The following results showed up:

Thermal model parameters (Design Builder) The wall section for the thermal model was selected according to an optimized case for the Egyptian typical wall section for the residential sector. However, in this case interior walls, Ceiling and Floor are set adiabatic, only the exterior wall has the properties that will affect the thermal analysis. The total U-value of the exterior wall is 0.32 W/m2.K according to the following wall section.

87

Material

Width (mm)

Mortar Inner Brick leaf Insulation

20 120 100

Conductivity (W/m.K) 0.88 0.62 0.04

Inner Brick leaf Mortar

120

0.62

1700

20

0.88

2800

Density (Kg/m3) 2800 1700 15

The designed density of the occupants is 0.2person/m2, which has a mean of four persons per the zone. Metabolic rate is 0.9 for a general manual work and light activities. Internal gains from the calculated lighting are constant.

The model was designed a total of 13 days of holidays. Heating Setpoint temperature is 22C while cooling Setpoint is 26 and the ventilation Setpoint is 22C. The U-value of the double clear glazing is 3.1 W/m2K. The window has a wooden frame of 4cm, one horizontal divider and one vertical divider.

Daylight model parameters (DIVA for Rhino) Occupancy schedule were set from 8:00 to 18:00 as the most daylit hours during the year (Reinhart et al. 2006).

This same duration will be used for assessment duration for the Daylight availability with a reference to the Energy Consumption.

DIVA calculates the electricity needed for lighting. According to the available daylight, light bulbs switch on/off manually when daylighting threshold is under 250 lux (Reinhart, 2004). There is one group of lighting sensors is set in the first third are of the room. Based on the Egyptian code of Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings (EERB), the mean amount of electric density needed to illuminate a living room is 19W/m2. If we use energy saving bulbs, therefore 80 W is needed to light up the room when there is no sufficient daylight.

Figure 9 Methodology

Assessment Criteria The Researcher divided the assessment process into two steps according to: (1) Validation of metric and method of calculation (2) Priority of needs based on the conducted survey.

Therefor the Assessment follows these steps: STEP ONE: â&#x20AC;˘ Daylight Autonomy: The percentage of the space with a Daylight Autonomy larger than or equal to 50% is considered the moderate threshold for a well Daylit living area for a residential zone. â&#x20AC;˘ Energy Consumption: The Researcher suggests conducting the assessment process upon the design conditions that achieves passive house design with target performance of 300Kwh/yr. as the threshold for the total energy consumption in which it resembles the criteria of passive house designs that consumes no more than 15Kwh/m2/yr.

88

STEP TWO: • View: Achieve best possible view to the outside.

• Privacy: Achieve privacy through minimizing the visual penetration to the inside.

• Visual comfort: The Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) is a simplified method introduced by (Wienold 2010) it is divided into four categories; intolerable glare (DGP≥45%), distributing glare (45%>DGP≥40%), perceptible glare (40%>DGP≥35%) and imperceptible glare (DGP<35%). There are two types of assessment, static and dynamic.

Due to time constrains the static method is used in this research. The window lies at the right side of the occupant and glare simulation run in three different times in a year; (21 Dec - 09:00, 12:00 and 15:00), since the sun enters the room in winter more than in summer In this research, the Daylight Autonomy is given the priority in the assessment process and then energy consumption comes in the second stage (Hegazy et al. 2013), since there are many strategies that control the total energy consumption, such as the HVAC system, insulation materials and internal loads, which are fixed in this case.

Conclusion This study was based on a parametric analysis, in which more than 600 simulation results were presented. The examination went through the main four orientations at three different positions, lower, upper and open floor, for eight different types of fenestration with three different WWR. This study proposed an advanced method for assessing and optimizing high performance facades.

However, the Egyptian code of Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings (EERB) proposes optimum window ratios; it focuses on their effect on the energy consumption only. On the other hand it gives only some recommendations for a better daylighting. It was important in this research to study the integration of various window ratios with different shading devices and glazing, in order to study the effect of fenestration design on multiple factors. The results showed possible trade-offs between the different parameters.

Only in the lower floors the same type of fenestration was recommended for the four orientations. For an optimized results in this case, highly efficient glazing is advised to achieve more reduction in heating and cooling loads, since there was no more possibility to achieve higher percentage of Daylight Autonomy. Moreover, a visual protection that is able to provide view and privacy is recommended in this case. Yet, in the Lower floors more lighting energy is needed than the upper floor, which approximates the total energy consumption results with the upper floors that consume more heating and cooling energy.

In the upper and open floors, there is more variety in choosing more types of fenestration. Exterior Blinds with Tinted Glaze achieved the lower Daylight Autonomy ratios among the case studies. Tinted Glaze and Blinds had the strongest effect on reducing the amount of daylighting entering the room, that‟s why Tinted glaze is recommended for the open floors for the South and East orientations, while Exterior blinds is recommended for most of the cases.

As a general outcome, Exterior Blinds were useful for the upper and open floors, some cases needed to add a Combined Shade (overhand with side fins), for all orientations even the North Façade with WWR 40%. Exterior Blinds had the potential to provide View and Privacy as well as shown in the second step assessment. It is important to know that the Blinds used in the case studies were turned on all the time (90 degrees) with 50% reflectivity, which differs dramatically from the typical exterior wooden blinds (Sheesh) that is used in our region.

According to this conclusion, it is easy to unify the type of fenestration for all façade, which facilitates the mission for the Architects. Further research is needed to handle the optimization process for the exterior blinds in accordance to dimensions and design, with regards to occupant behavior, to achieve the most efficient results for the five proposed factors (Daylight, Energy Consumption, Glare, View and Privacy).

Outlook While a number of advances have been realized during this research, further steps are necessary to foster a better valid assessment and optimization process.

Daylight Autonomy benchmark: There is an on-going process leaded by sub-committees in the IESNA and CIE trying to identify an evaluation Daylight Autonomy benchmark for the different types of building. Yet, there is a need for local initiatives to identify the best performance for daylighting in the hot climate regions.

Optimization tool: It took a long time to do the modeling in the Rhinoceros 3D and run the simulation hundreds of times. It is highly recommended to develop an algorithm that is able to combine more than one factor (Daylighting, Energy Consumption, Glare probability, View and Privacy) and perform the optimization upon a predefined method. (As presented in this research) Local occupant behavior: Exterior blinds were the best solution for most of the facade. However, this research focused on the static condition, further researches needed to optimize the blinds design, ratio and operability according to the different occupant behavior and sitting positions inside the room.

Finally, after an extensive simulation process, the following diagram summarizes the recommended fenestration types in one page that is can easily be read and used by the architects.

89

FENESTRATION CHART FOR THE RESIDENTIAL ZONE IN CAIRO

90

References

-

Attia, S., Evrard, A., Gratia, E. (2012) „Development of benchmark models for the Egyptian residential buildings sector‟ Applied Energy 94, 270-284

-

Boyce, P., Hunter, C., Howlett, O. (2003) „The Benefits of Daylight through Windows‟ U.S. Department of Energy

-

Edwards, L., Torcellini, P. (2002) „A literature reviews of the effects of natural light on building occupants‟ National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO.

-

Egyptian code of Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings (EERB), ECP 306 – 2005, first section (306/1) ed. 2008

-

Hegazy, M., A., Attia, S., Moro, J., L. (2013) „Parametric Analysis for Daylight Autonomy and Energy Consumption in hot Climates” proceedings of the 13rd IBPSA Conference, Chambery, France

-

Maleki, B. (2012) „Natural Daylighting in Iranian Hot and Arid Region‟ IJTPE Journal 4 (11)

-

Reinhart, C. (2004) „Lightswitch-2002: a model for manual and automated control of electric lighting and blinds‟ Solar Energy, 77(1), 15-28

-

Reinhart, C., Mardaljevic, J., Rogers, Z. (2006) „Dynamic daylight performance metrics for sustainable building design‟ Leukos 3(1), 7-31

-

Wienold, J. (2010) „Daylight Glare in Offices‟ Doctoral dissertation‟ Fraunhofer-Institut fuer SolareEnergiesystem

Danny, L., Ernest, T. (2008) „An analysis of daylighting performance for office buildings in Hong Kong‟ Building and Environment 43, 1446–1458

Hegazy, M., A., Moro, J., L. (2013) „Integrated Assessment Criteria of Fenestration for the Residential Sector in Egypt‟ Proceedings of Building Simulation

Rashid, M., Zimring, C. (2008) „A review of the empirical literature on the relationships between indoor environment and stress in health care and office settings: Problems and prospects of sharing evidence‟ Environment and Behavior 40 (2), 151-190

91

Developing Informal Areas through a Business Model Author: Mohamed Abdel Aziz

Supervisors: Prof.Mohamed Salheen , Prof. Phillip Misselwitz , Dr.Nina Gribat

Key words: Informal Areas, Community Empowerment, Investment Background Over the past years governments spent a lot of money for developing Informal Areas (IAs), even if, the problems of IAs still exist and increase. Developing IAs through cost recovery is an aim in Egypt through the strategy of the Informal Settlements Development Facility (ISDF) . When it comes to investment there ought to be equity between beneficiaries. The main stakeholders in developing IAs are the community, government and developers, who should all be considered when setting the development plan.

If two of these stakeholders work together excluding the third, the project will fail. Accordingly in order to make a compromise among them, a win-win situation has to be reached (see fig. 1).

The importance of this research is highlighting the importance of investment in IAs. The research consists of five chapters: Fig.1: Win-win business plan, Source: author

Chapter 1: Introduction It defines BM, the research problems, objectives, assumption, the research design and methodology, and thesis structure. This is shown as follows: The research can identifies the BM as a plan of business operation which shows how the government makes profit (in-kind- moral, monetary, development...) through developing IAs and sustains its profit stream over time, then identifies the intended customer base (IAs community), as well as the source of finance (developers). Developers can not only provide pure money but also they can provide other contributions such as capacity building for the local community or /and local authority, and provide plans, and technical support which will reduce project cost while having some profit in return (see fig. 2).

Govern ment

Social Capital

â&#x20AC;˘ Management

Area Develop ment

In kind

BM

Commu â&#x20AC;˘ Customer nity

Develop â&#x20AC;˘ Finance er

Profits Burden alleviati on

Right to housing Money

Fig.2: Main entities in BM, Source: author Fig.3: Some of BM profits. Source: author

The research does not only focus on economic bases and aspects but also on social capital and community needs by dealing with them as costumers who should be considered and satisfied (see fig. 3).

92

1.1. Research Problem Developing IAs through cost recovery is an aim raised by the ISDF in Egypt since 2008.,However, are the beneficiaries and losers of the process? Most probably IAs community as a marginalized group is the losers, as they do not only lose money but also the socio economic values of IAs. The main problem is the difficulty of achieving a proper balance between all beneficiaries of the development project (win-win situation) through business model. The research explores the following questions: Q1: What are the current policies for developing IAs? Q2: What are the challenges for IAs investments?

Q3: How to apply BM in Egypt by considering gains and losses of international practices?

Q4: How to apply BM through community empowerment?

1.2. Research aim and objectives This research aims to develop a workable model to all involved parties in the IAs development process to ensure a better quality of life while involving the local community in decision making. Specifically, the research aims to: Explore the main reasons for IAs emergence.

Determine the factors that may affect investment in IAs. Measure the impact of investing in IAs on the community members and government.

Find out the possibility of developing IAs through BM In addition, this research aims to test the following assumptions: A1: The nature of IAs is suitable for cost recovery, thus giving a potential for solving its problems.

A2: Investing in IAs can achieve equity among all beneficiaries A3: The government‟s policies in IAs may affect the investor‟s willingness to invest in IAs. A4: BM can be applied in IAs in Egypt and there is a chance to develop them by taking into account social aspects of IAs. 1.3. Research design and methodology It is a comparative analysis study, so the research addresses IAs on different levels, hence its based on a comparative analysis approach. On the international level, the study explores the reasons for IAs emergence, actions and practices for developing IAs. On the national level the study explores the emergence of IAs in Egypt, its typologies, actions, practices, and the Egyptian reaction to the IAs. The outcome of this study will be applied on the local level through conducting a case study of Ramlet Boulaq (RB) in which a BM will be adapted for RB. The research ends by giving recommendations on how to adapt the BM for Egypt while showing the possible constraints of its application.

The research methodology includes literature review on IAs to find out the main reasons for their emergence, to understand the social and economic values of IAs, defining factors affecting the investment in IAs. The study measures the impacts of investment in IAs on community, government and developers through defining gains and losses within the development process The research conducts a case study to apply ISDF BM to be able to analyze the gains, losses, constrains of BM to build up suitable BM for RB and Egypt. Evaluate ISDF strategy through implemented projects to verify the applicability of ISDF (see fig. 4).

Primary Data

Secondary Data

Data Analysis

Observation

Documents

• Photographing • Maps

• Governomental reports • Articles • Newspapers

Quantitative Data

Survey • Unstructured questions

Contact • Personal Interview • Focus group

Electronic sources • Articles • Newspapers

• Excel • GIS

Qualitative Data • Content analysis

Fig.4: Data collection methods and data analysis, Source: author

93

Cahpter 2 Literature review

Chapter 3 Egyptian Government response fo dealing with IAs

Empirical Study

Chapter 5 Egyptian Business Model & Conclusion

Chapter 1: Introduction

Theoretical Study

Chapter 4 Case study Ramlet Boulaq

Fig.5: Thesis Structure, Source: author

Chapter 2: Literature review The chapter explores on the international and national levels the reasons of IAs Emergence, and factors affecting the investment in IAs. The chapter reviews international practices for dealing with IAs such as; Makkah in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, where the government aims to develop these areas by mobilizing the private sector through Public -Private Partnership to accomplish mutual benefits between the local community and private sector. The study looks as well to Mumbai in India, where the government aims to establish Public - Private Partnerships for slum development through selected development schemes. Then the community empowerment project in Baan Mankong in Thailand is studied, where the government puts the community in the centre of development process and provides them by needed development tools. Out of these study cases, the research is set to define development losses and gains, roles and profits for stakeholders in every practice. The chapter explores IAs in Egypt to identify the reasons of IAs emergence and government reaction. Define IAs, its typologies, different modes of intervention. Identify economic and social capital in IAs. Address upgrading projects in Egypt such as Hadayek Zeinhom and Manshiat Nasser to present how these projects succeeded in fulfilling their main aims of the project, while considering the gains and losses of these projects. It highlights the socio-economic value impact of IAs development and how it can be used in developing IAs (see fig.6).

Fig.6: Maximizing profits from IAs economic value, Source: author, 2013

94

Chapter 3: Egyptian government response This is the first chapter of the empirical study; it presents the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s response to tackle IAs through establishment of ISDF. It reviews the ISDF establishment & mandate then it discusses the recent ISDF paradigm shift in dealing with IAs. The chapter discusses the following issues related to the ISDF:

-

Finance mechanism and preparation of action plan for IA Appling BM within the ISDF approach and how recovery cost can be achieved.

The Governmental entities â&#x20AC;&#x17E;considerations, and constraints of ISDF policy and their reservations.

Egyptian governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s reactions through international cooperation and its role in dealing with IAs. Proposing the application of the BM approach to the ISDF for the case study area through two actions; first relocating residents outside the area, then relocating them again back to the same area. While doing so, development plans are introduced to the area with proper compensation mechanisms and future profit sharing and distribution from the gains of the development plans with the residents.

Chapter 4: Case study RB This is the second empirical chapter dealing with the case study area of Ramlet Boulaq (RB).. This area has been selected as a case study because of the present threat of evacuation by the government, as the Cairo governor has issued a land seizure decree recently. The community with the help of other civil society activists has appealed the decision in the court and case still ongoing. Meanwhile, Cairo governorate and ISDF signed an agreement to develop the area so residents will be evacuated.

It is postulated that the area can support the ISDF strategy of cost recovery. Land price is high as it is located on the banks of the river Nile (see fig.7). The study analyses the data collated that deals with the Fig.7: Spatial advantage for RB, Source: author, 2013 present situation of the area in terms of its urban, environmental, social and economic characteristics. It also discusses the community compensation proposal of the ISDF development project.

The study then checks the possibility of applying the BM by the ISDF in the area based on the research findings.

Consequently, the proposed model defines the main stakeholders in the area, these are the community, developers and government. It then it determines their roles and profits, and discussing the possible challenges of this model.

Chapter 5: Egyptian BM and conclusion The chapter reflects the research findings, and lessons learned to create BM for Egypt. It defines the roles, and profits for community, developers, and government in this BM. It also presents the challenges and constraints for using the BM (see fig.

8,9,10,11). The chapter ends by suggesting further research in this domain.

Fig.8: BM Stakeholders, Source: author, 2013

95

Fig.9: BM Roles, Source: author, 2013

Fig.10: BM Profits, Source: author, 2013

96

Affordabl e Housing

Authoritie sC ooperatio n

Developer Acceptanc e

Law enforcem ent

Communi ty-based Participat ory

Trust Building

RB BM Challen ges

Newcome rs New urban encroach m-ent

Communi ty Represent at-ives

Compensation Acceptanc e Governm ent bureaucra cy

Fig.11: BM Challenges, Source: author, 2013

Fig. 12: General reasons of IAs emergence, Source: author, 2013

Conclusion

-

The research concluded that the IAs are global phenomena, exists even in industrial countries. Most of them suffer from lack of proper transportation infrastructure, basic services , land tenure and high population densities. The IAs are caused by bad governance, corruption, failed policies, deficient regulations, failed financial systems and shortage of political will (see fig. 12).

-

The main reasons for emergence of IAs in Egypt could be listed as follows (see fig.13,14): ď&#x201A;ˇ Inability of the government to provide formal housing or land to meet the demands of high population growth and the regression of private sector from housing market due to the laws that control rent value, to mention a few. ď&#x201A;ˇ Allocating all public funds to reserve war effort during the period (1967-1973) , which resulted in accumulated housing shortage. ď&#x201A;ˇ The flow of internal immigration to urban capitals searching for better living conditions in comparison to rural areas.

Fig. 13: Main reasons of IAs emergence, Source: author, 2013

-

Fig. 14: Results of shifting from Agriculture base to Industrial base economy, Source: author, 2013

There are different factors that affect investments in IAs such as, location, accessibility, Basic urban services (BUS), physical construction, closed to attraction areas or activities, economic and social values, IAs typology, participation, financial system, financial returns, political will, land property, density, laws, mode of intervention, accurate data, and compensation mechanism (seefig.15).

97

Compensa ti-on mechanis m

Location

Accessibili ty

Accurate Data

BUS

Mode of

Physical

interventi on

constructi on

Building reguation s

Distinguis hed locations

Attractio n areas

Laws

IAs Investmen t Factors

Density

Vacant Land

IAS

Security situation

Land property

State land

Economi c value

Political will

Touristic use plans

Low density

Communi ty acceptanc e Communi ty contributi on,

Social value Financia l returns

Financia l system

Participati on

IA Typology Fig.16: IAs characteristics for cost recovery, Source: author, 2013

Fig. 15: IAs investment factors, Source: author, 2013

-

There are different characteristics of IAs that support cost recovery (see fig. 16).

There are different reservations of ISDF strategies specially for cost recovery (see fig. 17).

Inaccurate base maps

coordination

Feasibility study

Social deprivation

Work on sate land property

community participation

Cost recovery projects only

Emergence of new IAs

IAs classification

IAs inventory

Implementaion

Lack of future vision

ISDF

Timeframe problems

Fig.17: Main reservations of ISDF, Source: author, 2013

-

There are different problems facing the Egyptian government in dealing with IAs (see fig. 18)

98

Finance

lack of affordabl e housing lack of cooperati on

Political will

Governmen t Problems

lack of

coordinati on

Land

expropriat ion

Lack of strategic thinking Inaccurat e property inventor y

Selling

compensat ion units

Fig.18: Main problems face government for dealing with IAs, Source: author, 2013

Fig.19: RB community perspective of IAs and new cities, Source: author, 2013

-

Relocation of IAs residents in the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x;s periphery or in new cities is not a proper solution unless it is accompanied with adequate BUS, efficient transportation system, and affordability for both housing and living expenses (see fig. 19).

-

Compensating residents to leave the area and developers get more profits, is not a solution for IAs, as residents will take the money to invest in another area and establish a new IA, therefore the development vision should be comprehensive.

Recommendations:

-

On the national level there should be a comprehensive vision for developing existing IAs and overcoming the emergence of new ones.

-

Government authorities ought to have distinct district for monitoring any violations.

-

Providing affordable housing for the poor.

-

Breaking down bureaucracy in the Egyptian system to access land for development or housing which results in land scarcity leading to corruption and simultaneously to.

Collaboration between all stakeholders is essential to achieve development.

Developing rural areas to reduce IDPs by providing employment opportunities and better urban environment.

Empowering community

Involving developers and contractors in identifying the development vision for IA as they have efficient skills and knowledge in dealing with real estate markets.

-

Defining a strict monitoring and evaluation system to ensure the enforcement of laws and regulations.

-

Securing tenure has an impact on urban environment and identity of IAs residents.

-

Financing through cross-subsidies should be considered along with the social capital of the IAs community.

-

Providing transit accommodation is a vital measure for the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x;s creditability.

-

Benefitting from IAs communityâ&#x20AC;&#x;s innovative ideas.

Finance system

Key players for IAs investment

Political power & willing

Monitoring system

Fig. 20: Main key players of investment in IA, Source: author, 2013

Achieving win-win situation in developing IAs can be done through BM if there is a political will to empower the community and distribute profits in a fair way. There are different challenges and constraints to apply BM in Egypt. The main key factors of investment in IAs are; empowering community, political power and willing, monitoring and follow up systems, and financal system (see fig. 20).

99

Towards Improved Competitiveness of Modern Earth Construction in Egypt Author: Mona Farouk Elkabbany

Supervisors: Prof. José Luis Moro, Dr. Ahmed Atef Faggal, Dr. Hend Elsayed Farouh

The research investigates the factors causing the underutilization of earth as a modern sustainable building material within the Egyptian construction sector and the opportunities for improving its competitiveness. The analysis is based on the study of contemporary examples for using compressed earth blocks (CEB) and Rammed earth, as well as a group of interviews with experts and practitioners in the field. The research uses the “Value Chain analysis” which is a concept from business management that was first created by Michael Porter (1980). It is a method for describing the activities taking place along a supply chain of a product, such as a building material, and identifying the constraints it is facing and the opportunities for its improvement.

Background on earth-construction in Egypt Earth has been an ancient and widespread building material for vernacular and popular architecture in Egypt.

However, it has been rapidly vanishing with the rise of industrialized building technologies, and due to many socioeconomic changes in the community, such as the migration of many Egyptians to work in Gulf countries, consequently becoming able to afford to replace their old mud houses in their villages with new reinforced concrete buildings.

There have been several attempts for the revival of mud construction in the modern architectural movement in Egypt. Some early attempts - such as Hassan Fathy‟s early works in El-Gourna – aimed at using earth as an appropriate local material to provide affordable housing for the local people and villagers. Unfortunately, this has not gained a lot of popularity among the people. Later attempts were mainly addressing the rich society and tourists, who were attracted to this type of architecture. Those attempts have ended with a superficial success, without addressing the main issue of housing provision for the poor. Modern earth-construction techniques such as CEB and Rammed earth are new to the Egyptian context. Only a few experiments have been recently undertaken and the potentials for its contribution towards offering affordable and sustainable housing are still undermined.

Methodology of the research The aim of the research was to investigate the potential of using earth as a sustainable building material in the Egyptian construction sector, and the possible means to encourage its utilization within appropriate contexts. To achieve this aim, the constraints and opportunities of modern earth construction were identified through:

-

Reviewing some of the experiments done in Egypt that used CEB and Rammed earth Interviewing experts and practitioners in the field of earth-construction and developing a value chain analysis for earth construction based on these interviews

Figure 10: The conceptual framework of the research

100

Phase 1: Overview of Modern Earth Construction Experiments in Egypt Five cases of building with CEB or Rammed earth were analyzed, extracting from them the activities, actors involved, and the obstacles that cause the undermined utilization of these building techniques.

Case 1: A private House with CEB and Rammed Earth This house is one of the works of the architect Adel Fahmy1. It is located in Mansoureya, a suburban area in Cairo. It consists of two stories with 45 cm bearing walls of Rammed earth and CEB, roofed by domes and vaults.

Case 2: Experimental Building at the HBRC Headquarters This experimental building, completely constructed with CEB, was built in 2011 as a collaboration and technology transfer with the Auroville Earth Institute in India.1

Figure 11: Private residence in Mansoureya.

(Atkinson, et al., 2007)

Figure 12: Construction of experimental building at the HBRC (Farouh, 2012)

Case3: Locally manufactured CEB press machine A local machine for producing CEB was designed and manufactured in 1999 by the Egyptian Earth Construction Association (EECA). 1 It was manufactured with the cooperation of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Centre for Development of Small-Scale Industriesâ&#x20AC;? in Ain Shams University. After that, several training activities were conducted for architects, engineers, workers and local people. The machine was used to produce CEB for restoring a Church in a village in Upper Egypt.

Figure 13: The machine for producing CEB designed and manufactured by EECA. iv

Case 4: A Mobile Mechanical Production Unit for CEB A private company called ADEEM started a project for producing CEB in 1999. The project was led by a group of researchers, including architects, civil and mechanical engineers. The team has designed and locally manufactured the mechanical production line composed of a crusher, grinder, mixer, and compressor.

Case 5: Rammed earth in Saint Katherine Rammed earth was used in the construction of a building that was designed to be a training center for building crafts in Saint Katherine. The project was implemented by EECA and funded by the South Sinai Regional Development Program SSRDP.

Figure 14: Mechanical production line of CEB by ADEEM.1

Figure 15: Rammed earth construction in Saint Katherine. 1

1

A local NGO concerned with appropriate building technologies, and particularly earth construction. EECA has an experience in research and development, training activities, as well as design and construction projects.

101

The following table shows a summary of the actors involved in different activities. Information is based on interviewing the project architects as well as site visits, and other documents for the projects: Activity

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

Case 5

Raw material

Local soil,

Imported

Local soil,

Imported

Local soil,

identification

tested on

soil (waste

tested by

soil, from

tested by

site by

material),

material

local quarry

material

architect

tested by

scientist

(supplier)

scientist

material scientist Manufacturing

Architect,

Architects,

Architects,

Architects,

Architect,

of building

local labour

local labour

local labour

local labour

Skilled/un-

component

skilled labour

Use in

Architect,

Architect,

Architects,

Architect,

Architect,

construction

skilled/

structural

local

unskilled

skilled/

unskilled

engineer,

builders

builders

unskilled

--------------

builders,

masons

Training and

Architect,

HBRC,

Architects,

education

foreign

Auroville

NGO

NGO

(EECA)

(EECA)

expert

builders Architects,

Material

Architect

Architect &

Architects,

Architect did

Architect &

research and

performed

material

laboratory

mix design,

material

development

on site mix

scientist,

test at

tests

scientist,

(Mix design)

design and

tests

material

performed in

tests

testing

performed

scientist

Cairo

performed

in HBRC

office

University

in private

laboratories

laboratory

laboratory Equipments

Imported

Imported

Locally

Locally

Locally

and machinery

machinery

machinery

manufactured

manufactured

adapted

machinery,

by architect,

equipment

cooperation

mechanical

by architect,

between

engineer

and local

EECA and

and local

workshop

research

workshop

center Table 1: Actors operating in the different activities based on the studied cases of earth construction.

The previous cases presented different approaches for introducing modern earth-construction techniques. The constraints that inhibit the materialsâ&#x20AC;&#x; widespread use in construction were concluded as follows: 1. The lack of a strategy for promotion and continuity beyond the experiment 2. The lack of integration between different specialists and entities 3. Lack of dissemination of knowledge and availability of information 4. Lack of accessibility to tools and equipments for the local people and builders 5. Absence of a strategy for adapting the technology to the local context. All experiments have been introduced as a process of self-building, however, the common trend of building in Egypt depends on small local contractors. The culture of self-building or cooperative building is not a common trend 6. Lack of material science or soil analysis experts, who are specialized in the field of earth-construction, to contribute in the process of soil analysis and mix design 7. The machines for CEB production depends on technology transfer. There is a lack in integration between imported technology and the local circumstances of workshops, labour skills, and construction sites, for ensuring a successful transfer of technology that is appropriate to the local context 8. No infrastructure exists to encourage the repetition or the transmission of technology to the people to enable them to adopt the construction technique in future building projects

102

Phase 2: Developing a Value Chain Analysis for Modern Earth-Construction in Egypt Understanding the Value Chain Analysis It is a method for describing activities taking place along a supply chain of a product such as a building material or component. It is defined as „the full range of activities and services of market actors required to bring a product or service from its conception to its end use and beyond,” (Porter, 1985). A value chain includes producers, processors, input suppliers, and retailers. “The concept of value chain encompasses the issues of organization and coordination, the strategies and the power relationships of the different actors in the chain.” (M4P, 2008) This concept is derived from the business management discipline. Using the “Value Chain Analysis” in the context of this research is justified by the desire to identify all the activities and actors liable to improve the use of earth as a sustainable building material in the construction sector.

The aim was to identify the following:

Basic activities

Supporting activities

-

Primary actors operating in the different activities, their roles and interrelationships Constraints that are holding back growth and competitiveness Opportunities for promoting earth construction

Administration and infrastructure Building codes, regulations and specifications Policies Human resources management Training and Education Product technology development (R&D) Material research and testing Procurement (resources) Equipment and machines Capital investment In-bound logistics Operations Out-bound logistics Raw material -Geographical mapping -Testing and identification –Extraction & transportation

Manufacturing of building components -labour or capital intensive -Onsite/Offsite -Centralized/ decentralized

Use in Construction via: -Retailers -Contractors -Architects and consultants (design and specification)

Marketing

Services

Promotion Demonstration buildings -Lectures/ conferences -Publications/ materials specifications -Media

Adaptation to local context -Technical solutions -Material improvement

V a L u e A d d e d

Figure 16: The suggested Value Chain for earth-construction developed after the model of Porter. (Porter, 1985)

The activities within the value chain are divided into two main categories:

-

Basic activities, which include raw material identification, production of building material, use in construction and marketing.

-

Supporting activities, which include building codes and regulations, policies, training and education, capital investment, access to machinery and equipment, research and development.

Collection of Data The required information was gathered through a series of semi-structured in-depth interviews with selected experts in the field. Other supporting methods included site visits, observation, literature review and other secondary sources.

The semi structured interview follows the general interview guide approach. “The interview guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.” (Turner, 2010) The interview is a good technique in getting more in-depth information from the story behind the experience of the interviewee. Questions were divided according to activities in the value chain. To ensure reliability, questions to interviewees were asked about their personal experience in projects implemented by them. For every activity, questions were asked to the interviewee to understand his/her amount of involvement in this activity, to identify other actors involved, the obstacles and challenges, and the missing activities and actors.

103

Selection of Study Sample The study sample selected is an â&#x20AC;&#x153;expertâ&#x20AC;? sample. Based on activities related to the value chain of earthconstruction, the following potential actors were identified: Activity

Identified actors

Raw material identification Manufacturing of the building component Use in construction

Marketing/promotion

Material scientists Clay Quarries Clay brick factories Contractors Architects/consultants Civil engineers Real estate developers Contractors Skilled builders Users/Owners NGOs

Building codes, material specifications, regulations, policies Training, Knowledge & Education

Ministry of Housing HBRC Vocational training centers + Universities

Material research and development

Research institutes

Equipments & machinery

Local factories/workshops

Interviews were conducted with the following set of interviewees:

-

Seven expert architects/consultants with experience in earth construction (four of whom have experienced the techniques of CEB and Rammed earth and three have experienced adobe construction)

-

One civil engineer One material scientist A board member in an NGO specialized in earth construction An expert from the national research institute (HBRC) A master builder of adobe The owner of a traditional clay brick factory

Two owners of newly constructed mud brick houses (The list of names of interviewees and site visits is indicated in the appendix) Analysis The following tables show the constraints and opportunities of earth as a modern sustainable building material concluded from the interviews: Activity Constraints & challenges Raw material identification Manufacturing of the building component

Lack of specialists as researchers and service providers for soil identification and mix designs, and the lack of collective research efforts on the national level.

No supply chain exists.

No feasibility of the new techniques to normal people.

Lack of standardization the process of building material production.

Use in construction

No market demand.

Local and traditional building skills are disappearing.

The cultural habit of self building is disappearing.

Lack of support from structural engineering.

Marketing/promotion

No role model by the government.

Missing connection between material producers and innovators and between consultants and contractors.

Poor social acceptance of the material due to the old image of adobe.

Difficulty of obtaining consent for buildings.

No specifications for earth as a building material.

High land prices cause the desire of vertical extension.

No demand for training as no foreseen work opportunities.

Lack of knowledge dissemination from previous experiences.

No specialized university education.

Only centralized research centers exist (mainly in Cairo).

No integration between research institutes and practitioners.

No access to equipments and machinery to the local people or local contractors.

Building codes, material specifications, policies Training and education Material research and development Equipments and machinery

Table 2: Constraints and challenges facing earth construction in Egypt, based on interviews with experts.

104

Activity

Opportunities

Raw material identification

Raw material (clay, sand, gravel) is abundant in Egypt

Manufacturing of the building component

Existing skilled and unskilled labour Job opportunities offered by using intermediate technologies Mass production decreases the cost

Use in construction

The skills of the local builders

Marketing/promotion

The interest of some high income clients in sustainable building promotes earth as a material not only for poor Acknowledgement from the people of the good thermal qualities of earth The current activity in the Housing and Building Research Center to write a code for earth construction

Building codes, material specifications, policies Training and education

Existing vocational training centers that can be encouraged to cooperate in training activities

Material research and development

Cooperation with research institutes and material scientists (on a limited scale) exists

Equipments and machinery

Existing local manufacturers and workshops that can manufacture similar machineries and equipments

Table 3: Opportunities for promoting earth construction in Egypt, based on interviews with experts

Identification of Actors: The Value Network As a result of interviews, field visits, and projectsâ&#x20AC;&#x; publications, actors performing in the value chain were identified in the following figure:

Figure 17: Illustration for the connections between different actors in activities related to earth-construction.

The analysis of the actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x; roles in the different activities shows the lack of integration. The role of the architect extends beyond the design and construction to jump between one activity and another in order to overcome the gaps, to search for raw materials, produce the desired building component, train workers and even manufacture the needed machinery or equipment.

Marketing and promotion are the activities that have the least interest and attention. There are also inactive actors like the universities and the vocational training centers which play no role in training and educating labour, specialists and students about earth-construction.

105

Recommendations for improving the competitiveness of modern earth-construction in Egypt

-

Improving the social perception about earth as a building material through demonstration buildings

-

Improving planning policies and regulations regarding land divisions and building heights

-

Creating a hub-institute that would be responsible of the coordination and integration between all entities, this can be in the form of an NGO

-

Spreading decentralized research centers and application centers in remote areas for soil identification and experimentation of the material

Encouraging cooperative and self-help projects Offering educational and training programs through universities and vocational training centers Documentation of innovations and creating a local knowledge base Creating a role model through a national housing project Offering incentives for owners and contractors to use the material, while providing a good infrastructure for the material production Developing codes and specifications for earth-construction Encourage small and medium scale production, by empowering local contractors and interested entrepreneurs

References

-

Atkinson, A., Graetz, M. & Karsch, D., 2007. Techniques and Technologies for Sustainability. s.l., Institut f端r Stadt- und Regionalplanung Technische Universitat Berlin, Sonderpublikation, pp. 67-73.

-

AVEI, 2012. Auroville Earth Institue. AVEI Newsletter, Issue 2.

-

McNamara, C., 1999. General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews, Minnesota: s.n.

Fahmy, A., Lectures. Adobe Architecture Old Traditions & New Imporvements, Wien: Technische Universitaet Wien.

Farouh, H., 2012. Cairo Climate Talks Expert Workshop, Cairo: HBRC. M4P, 2008. Making value chains work better for the poor: A tool book for practitioners of value chain analysis Version 3.

Making markets work better for the poor (M4P) project, s.l.: UK Department for international development (DFID) Agricultural development internaitonal: Phnom Penh.

Porter, M. E., 1985. Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. s.l.:s.n.

Turner, D. W., 2010. Qualitative interview design: A practical guide for novice investigators. The Qualitative Report, 15(3), pp.

754 - 760.

Appendix: List of Interviewees and Site Visits

Name Adel Fahmy Ramsis Noshy Mohamed Serag Hany Al-Miniawy Emad Farid + Ramez Azmy Nashwa Ibrahim Ramy El-dahan Hanaa Ghorab M. El-Rafey Wael Sabry Hend Farouh Mohamed Ramadan

Profession Architect Architect Civil engineer Architect

Entity Self employed MADA Cairo Uni ADAPT

Date 17-04-2013 16-04-2013 21-04-2013 28-04-2013

Architects

EQI

18-04-2013

Architect Architect Material scientist Architect Architect/Board member Senior researcher Master Builder

EECA RD&SF G&W ADEEM

29-03-2013 02-06-2013 20-05-2013 20-05-2013

EECA

04-06-2013

HBRC Self employed

08-06-2013 31-05-2013

Site Visits Traditional Brick factory. Interview with the owner Mr. Abdelkareem Fayoum Brick Factory. Interview with the production Engineer The Department of Quarrying in Giza Governorate. Interview with the department manager Field visit to Tunis village in Fayoum for the houses built by architect Adel Fahmy, as well as interviewing local inhabitants in the village Field visit to a newly constructed mud brick house in Wadi El-Natroun and interviewing the owner Mr. Mohamed Ragab

106

Analyzing the Public Transportation in Amman: The Case of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Author: Muna Shalan

Supervisors: Prof. Mohamed Salheen, Prof. Wolf Reuter, Dr. Nina Gribat

Synopsis Public transportation is faced with many challenges, especially in developing countries, like in the case of Jordan.

This becomes more problematic, especially in a dynamic urbanized context. This research focuses on studying and analyzing the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which has been touted as a flag-ship project to deal with the ill-structured transportation system in Amman city. A mix between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies invokes the course of this research. The envisaged output of this research contributes in filling the knowledge gap of how the BRT could satisfy the needs of the local community in Amman and achieve sustainability in the city at large.

This is addressed by a set of policy recommendations, which are derived from the results of analyzing the case of the BRT project in Amman. This article briefly summarizes the theme, context, methodology, and main findings of research.

Keywords: Bus Rapid Transit, Sustainability, Amman City Introduction: Research Theme and Context Amman, the capital of Jordan, has been transformed dramatically by neo-liberal urban governance policies since the beginning of the 21st century. The public transportation network and transportation infrastructure did not cope with the expansion of the city and became inefficient. Amman developed into a car-dependent city while many Ammani citizens cannot financially afford buying a car and are left to face a dysfunctional public transportation system. The public pressure was accumulating to improve the existing public transportation system. Therefore, in 2009, Greater Amman municipality (GAM) launched a major project to improve the public transportation system in Amman; the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT).

The BRT was considered as a pioneer project in the field of public transportation in Amman and was anticipated to create a remarkable transformation to the current reality of mobility in the city. It was seen to be a step towards creating a modern, sustainable city (balanced in terms in socio-economic and environmental aspects of development) where all citizens have access to a functional and affordable public transportation. Despite the wide support for the BRT by Ammanis at the very early stages of the project in 2009, the BRT was stopped just at the second year during the first phase of implementation based on allegations of corruption as proclaimed by a designated parliamentary committee.

To this end, this research analyzes and tries to conclude the main driving forces that influenced this planning process, which needless to say has created a considerable furor in Amman.

Research Problem The public transportation system in Amman city is characterized as weak and inefficient. The pedigree of such a problem is complex, multi-faceted and hierarchical as depicted in Figure (1).

Analyzing the related public transportation system problems with transportation experts from the policy community of Amman reveals that the main causes could be summarized as underlying and immediate causes. As such, one could demonstrate the complexity of such a formidable challenge to the sustainability of Amman city.

Figure (1): Problem tree of weak public transportation in Amman city .Source: Self-constructed, 2013

Research Questions and Propositions 107

The main question for this research is How to plan for a successful BRT project in Amman city? To answer this question, two secondary research questions have been formulated namely: What are the potentials to the success of the BRT in the context of Amman city against the “Sustainability” goals? ; How satisfactorily the GAM could To ensure a logical flow, the main theme of this research is further compartmentalized based on the interrelated research questions into two sub-themes, as related to the concept of “sustainability”, namely: BRT as a mode of Transit-oriented Development (ToD) and Public Participation.

Research Methodology The proposed research methodology adopts a mix between quantitative and qualitative approaches.

It is exploratory in nature, as it takes Figure (2): BRT-First Phase at the level of Amman city.Source: adapted by researcher from (Mirosoft Corporation, 2013) events and tries to make generalizations (merely at the conceptual level). Also, the research course adopts descriptive analysis and causal illustration.

Two data sources have been identified, namely: primary and secondary. The primary data is extracted, mainly from semi-structured interviews with experts; field observation; and analysis of a special questionnaire targeting the layperson in Amman city. Concurrently, the secondary data is built through deliberations on the available data sources in the forms of archived research, municipal documents, mapping interpretations using AutoCad. The questionnaire was designed and analyzed based on the answers of 80 respondents (30 females and 50 males).

The respondents of the questionnaire were chosen on two stages. First, quota sampling was used, which is a nonprobability sampling method to identify the stratum and its proportion. Major road intersections served by the planned BRT were selected (Figure 2-the target areas highlighted in orange). Second, the respondents have been selected based on a random sampling method, which is a probability sampling method to collect a representative number. The questionnaire was analyzed using the software of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Within the same framework field observation has been also deployed as an invaluable way to glean knowledge and collecting primary data since it enriches the research with an insight perception that is not reported in other document (Yin, 2011, 143).

A Glimpse at the Questionnaire’s Main Findings 1. Purpose of Using the BRT A considerably low percentage of the respondents at 9.9% were willing to use the BRT for multiple purposes, majorly to go to workplace and for occasional visits. This entails that GAM has to encourage the future users to use the BRT for multiple purposes by providing incentives for the families to use the BRT for occasional visits and to make the related facilities hospitable as such.

2. Evaluation of the Dissemination’s Tools of the BRT Most of the respondents at 62.5% think that the used tools (e.g. TV, newspaper, etc.) for communicating the BRT project were weak, whereas 16.3% evaluate it as moderate and only 7.5% evaluate it as strong tools (Figure 3).

I Do Not Know Strong Moderate Weak 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 Percentage (%)

Figure (18): Respondent‟s Evaluation to the Dissemination Tools for the BRT Project

108

By means of cross tabulation of the attained statistical results, the following empirical notes could also be summarized, as follows: 90% of the respondents who evaluated the influence of used communication tools as weak believe also that the public participation was not enough during the planning process of the BRT project. Thus, one could conclude that the public participation would be among the most important tools for the BRT project communication purposes.

Likewise, 92% of the respondents who evaluated the influence of used communication tools as weak believe also that the public announcement about the BRT project was not enough or efficient. Thus, one could conclude that the public announcement would be among the most important tools for the BRT project dissemination purposes.

46% of the respondents who evaluated the influence of used communication tools as weak believe also that private sector and the academia have played a positive role in the BRT project. Thus, one could conclude that the role of the private sector and academia should be further expanded and emphasized in the future endeavors related to the BRT project.

3. Competent Authorities Responsible about the BRT The analysis showed that there is ambiguity regarding the competent authority in charge of the BRT. Therefore, it is recommended that the GAM deploys more physical evidences and artifacts to wide-spread the fact that it is responsible for the project in order to gain more public trust in the BRT. 4. Achieving a Successful BRT Dissemination Strategy More than one-third of the respondents think that law enforcement is what is needed to achieve a successful BRT dissemination strategy (referring to abiding by the law regulations of transparency and accountability) or just organizing open public hearings about the BRT project. Table(1)below shows the proposed tools to achieve a successful BRT dissemination.

Table (1): Proposed Tools to Achieve a Successful BRT Dissemination Strategy Tools of Dissemination Public hearings

Frequency (No.) 10

Percentage (%) 12.5

Foreign transportation expertise

14

17.5

Law enforcement

29

36.3

I do not know

17

21.3

Foreign transportation expertise; public hearings; and law enforcement

3

3.8

Public hearings and law enforcement

4

5.0

Foreign transportation expertise and law 2 enforcement

2.5

Foreign transportation expertise, public hearings

1

1.3

Total

80

100.0

5. The Reasoning for the Stoppage of the BRT When the respondents were asked about the reasons for stopping the BRT project, 22.5% said due of lack of funds; 15% said because of mistakes in the design; 2.5% said because of uncoordinated planning among the different competent authorities; 37.5% said that they do not know the reason. Furthermore, 71.3% of the respondents said that the public should have been consulted before taking the decision of stopping the BRT project.

Main Policy Recommendations Immediate Measures: Persist immediately in the implementation of the BRT project, based on a clear timetable to the mass public.

The findings of the rigorous assessment study initiated by the designated parliamentary committee should be published to the mass public and the academic and related research organizations.

109

Institutional and Political Framework: It is important that the competent authority, in this case GAM, becomes autonomous. Autonomy of GAM will protect it against major political and structural changes.

The political parties within the government and the social movement (CSOs/NGOs/CBOs) at large should be encouraged to play a more positively active role. This could be realized through pressure groups that follow up the implementation of such a project.

Monitoring and Evaluation: The plan should incorporate monitoring and appraisal methods, including ex-post evaluation which is important.

The improved monitoring performance is will ultimately improve management.

A designated database on the BRT project should be regularly updated. At the mean time and after the BRT experience, GAM should benefit from the knowledge, data and expertise in the field of urban mobility at large.

Decision processes: Public participation should be institutionalized. Importantly, the mass public should be educated about their rights and duties on this regard.

Communication Strategy: The public must be well informed and prepared by official media channels of GAM about the construction stages, time-frame and cost versus benefit of the BRT that is alien to the Jordanian scene.

Awareness media campaign discouraging the use of private cars should be deployed as a tool to promote public transportation.

The demonstration effect must be deployed through the BRT sections that are relatively easier to be implemented.

Thus gaining trust of the public by demonstrating on ground progress.

Elaborating the Alternatives The current layout of the BRT is deficient in two aspects that affect its integration with the urban planning of the city: linking the urban hubs to the newly developed areas and creating access points to public/open spaces. Therefore, the linkage between mobility planning and urban planning should be improved in the case, following these recommendations: A transit line should be located on one of the most-travelled routes that connect Eastern Amman to the Business hub in Western Amman.Whereas, to compensate for delaying the implementation of transit line (2) on the basis of its unfeasibility, lower-capacity lines shall feed from the less densely-occupied areas to this highly needed main route.

Transit lines and stops of the BRT, as part of the comprehensive transport and mobility plan of GAM, can play a positive and vital role in ToD at large. Therefore, it is Figure (4): The BRT Layout in Amman City important to make sure that they are integrated, as originally Source: adapted by researcher from (Smadi, 2012) planned into the urban fabric to ensure the success of running them.

The operational characteristics and qualities of the BRT transit lines should not be separated from the hosting urban environment that should be integrated into it. Urban development within the hosting urban fabric should be encouraged in addition to providing the necessary streetscape for the transit line and stops that ensure appropriate pedestrian accessibility.

Integration between the output of real estate development and rising land value within the GAM jurisdiction in order to achieve integration between the legislation and the laws of urbanization with the BRT system is needed to ensure sustainability of transit lines operating thus contributing to the sustainable development process.

Safety measures at the main intersections and stations along the BRT routes should be adopted, especially near the educational and health facilities that exhibit higher densities of users.

A hygienic environment for the different facilities of the BRT system is highly important to make it a pleasing facility for the users.

A signage system, along with a modern information system for dissemination of the BRT operations is important tool for the young and foreigner users.

References

-

Mirosoft Corporation, 2013. Bing Maps. [Online] Available at: http://www.bing.com/maps/ [Accessed 30 May 2013].

-

Smadi, A., 2012a. Amman Urban Transport: Action Plan, Vitoria, Spain: CIVITAS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EuroMed Session.

Yin, R., 2011. Qualtitaive Research from Start to Finish. New York: Guilford Press.

110

Towards an Integrated Neo-Vernacular Built Environment Author: Nahla Nabil Mahmoud Makhlouf

Supervisors: Prof. Youhansen Y. Eid, Prof. José Luis Moro, Asst. Prof. Mohamed S. Asar.

Design guidelines for the living environments inspired by socio-cultural and environmental aspects Qārrat ʾUm-Āṣaġīr Village, The Western Desert of Egypt Abstract Demands of the remote desert and less developed communities have become challenging by the rapid industrialization and aspired expressions of modern living. The indigenous ethnic groups of those areas developed their unique lifestyle that fulfils their needs; however, for those communities manifestations of the urban invasion are affecting this inherited uniqueness. The vernacular architecture of those communities expresses accumulative attempts of adapting the living environments to their needs. This paper is based on a master's research discussing an integrated neo-vernacular approach for the current developments in one of the distinctive remote desert areas in Egypt, Qārrat ʾUm-Āṣaġīr Village (referred to it as The Village in this research). The study is conducted to outline the responses towards the contemporary socio-cultural and environmental needs, by tracing the architectural development of the housing typologies. The integration between advanced high- and traditional low-techniques, in the present houses, as an approach to achieve the contemporary needs of its segregated community is one of the research's significant results.

Introduction "Indigence for a compromised neo-vernacular approach for the current developments in those distinctive areas is important; as an attempt to save its distinction and to provide its indigenous community with their present desires. In order to achieve that, understanding of; what are the inherited bases of the unique indigenous living environments in those areas and; how to incorporate the socio-cultural and physical indigenous bases into an integrated and compatible neo-vernacular living environment, Is inevitable" (Makhlouf, 2013). The research aims at defining an approach for an integrated neo-vernacular living environment1 in The Village. This approach is inspired by The Village's socio-cultural and physical aspects, in the past and the present. Consequently, highlight the architectural distinction in one of the isolated and limitedly researched villages in the Western Desert of Egypt, as a source of documentation. Moreover, study the applicability of integrating low- and high-techniques in a distinctive remote desert village. The morphological design; in terms of the house internal configuration, satisfaction of cultural needs and the usage of the Photovoltaic (PV) units for power provision are included in the analysis of the different housing units.

The Research Methodology "The research followed the case study methodology through the application of qualitative research methods in Qārrat ʾUm-Āṣaġīr Village. Conducting a case-study research methodology is the most relevant procedure to answer aimed research questions, since this methodology is commonly used in research fields such as sociology and community planning (Yin, 2009). Yin elaborated; “the need for using a case study arises out of the desire to understand complex social phenomena. It allows the investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events, such as; small group behaviour, or neighbourhood change…etc.” (Yin, 2009: 4)" (Makhlouf, 2013). The research started with reviewing literature on the socio-cultural and environmental factors affecting the vernacular architecture of the remote desert areas. Thereafter, four fieldwork trips have been conducted in a span of, almost, five month (Dec.2012/May2013) to Siwa Oasis, Marsā-Maṭrūḥ City and The Village, plus the period allocated for data analysis and writing the research report. Since resources on The Village are limited, the research was mostly confined by the fieldwork. It started with a preliminary investigation visit, Fig.(1), and went through focused explanatory phase which had been the most important part, and ended by the exploratory phase, Fig.(4). The focused explanatory phase was divided into two main phases; 1) The thorough institutional survey, Fig.(2), which applied both focused and in-depth interview methods, and 2) The intensive field work survey, which included the application of the participant observation, guided and direct observations, Fig.(3), in addition to community meetings and interviews, Fig.(5).

Neo-vernacular living environment: The expression living environment in this research refers to the dwelling as part of the built environment.

Oliver (1987) has defined dwelling as the process of living and its physical expression. Thus, living environment is a set of activities and structures.

Explaining the term neo-vernacular living environment requires definitions of neo and vernacular for a precise elaboration on its usage in this thesis. In an English-English dictionary neo is mentioned to be “used at the beginning of a word to talk about current styles, beliefs etc that are similar to ones that existed in the past.” (Pearson Education, 1999: 442). In the same dictionary vernacular is defined by “the language or dialect that the ordinary people in a country or area speak.” (Pearson Education, 1999: 740). Based on that, neo-vernacular living environment, in this research, refers to the current style for the set of the activities and its living structures, when it is expressed in similarity to the native indigenous ones.

1

111

Figure 1: Local community meeting in Qârat Um-Aşąghier (Preliminary visit Jan. 2013, source: Makhlouf, 2013)

Figure 4: The researcher among the spring school participants on the construction site

Figure 2: Meeting with the head of the local municipality unit of The Village and the general secretariat of Siwa City Council. (source: Makhlouf, 2013) Figure 3: On-site noting for the guided observations (source: Makhlouf, 2013)

Figure 5: Panoramic view for the meeting with the natural leaders of The Village. The researcher is discussing their aspiration for the village‟s future house.

The case study village "Primitive, but distinctive" "One such remote village in the Western Desert of Egypt stands out with its unique indigenousness, culture, history, ethnic racial group of people and their social structure Fig. (7), in addition to its contextual, climatic and environmental distinction. Qārrat ʾUm-Āṣaġīr Village is yet a virgin study area in the province of Siwa Oasis. Since The Village is remote and isolated, Fig.(8), research on it is very limited in the fields of architecture, urbanism, and social sciences. In The Village, the old vernacular architecture, Fig.(9), and the new architectural developments, Fig.(10), are juxtaposed. This makes the transformations from the vernacular architecture to the present developments are easily recognizable, thus lessons can be concluded. It is a small village, if not the smallest in Egypt, of around 512 inhabitants (IDSC 2012) within a limited area. Furthermore, it is one of the first two remote villages in Egypt that has been provided by the domestic PV systems. Therefore, The Village is wrestling between the existence of the vernacular low-building-techniques and the emergence of the highlyadvanced industrialized system of power provision" (Makhlouf, 2013).

Figure 9: The vernacular old settlement (The Ṣālī and the surrounding houses in proximity to the outcropping)

Figure 7: The Village's ethnic society

Figure 8: The Village's location in relation to the closest settled communities Figure 10: The down-built developments on the plain land

112

The Historical Growth and Timeline of Housing Developments The indigenous villagers lived for hundreds of years up in the Old Ṣālī fortress, Fig.(3) (Vivian, 2007 ; Yousef, 2007; Anon, 2008; Thomas, 2012). During the past four decades, several development interventions have taken place at The Village, Fig.(10). The developments in the housing sector started simultaneously when the villagers began to abandon the Old Ṣālī fortress and the surrounding vernacular houses, after the three days of heavy rains in 1985, Fig.(11). The World Food Development Program (WFP), that have been provided to the villagers under the direction of the Cabinet of Maṭrūḥ Governorate Δ, included developments on both; agricultural and housing sectors*. The Desert Development Authority (DDA) was responsible for the implementation of the housing sector, the first phase of the governmental provided units; ʿAllām Housings, Fig.(11). Thereafter, the government continued to provide more housing units in subsequent phases, Fig.(11). Additionally, other self-led housing initiatives started to emerge into new different typologies. These developments resulted in six different housing typologies that exist in The Village nowadays; however, only two typologies are considered in this paper1.

Figure 11: Timeline indicating the historical growth and the development interventions of The Village

The Living Environments 1.

The Vernacular House a.

The House Morphology and Socio-cultural reflections

It has been observed and told, by a former resident of the house Fig.(12), that the house comprised; two rooms; one for winter and another for summer, an entrance lobby “Maṭlūl”, a courtyard “Mūriḥ”, and a traditional toilet “Ḫūr” attached with a wet area for hygienic habits Fig.(13). It has been built in the traditional building techniques and materials by its indigenous inhabitants. It is built using Karšīf (the contextual salty crust) and Tlaḫt (the contextual salty mud). Walls are 35-40 cm thickness. It was told that its roofs were built out of palm trunks in the traditional way, Fig.(14). Dikman (2010) insisted that the house morphology is a result of a complete phenomenon combining socio-cultural and physical factors. The floor plan morphology shows the concept of the multientrances for purposes of gender segregation and household privacy, Fig.(13). Moreover, in addition to, the traditional service spaces such as; kitchen, ʾIṣṭāḥ-nṭābint, Ḫūr, and the wet area, the house comprises main spaces for the daily life of its inhabitants. Those spaces are; Marbūʿah, the winter-room, bed-rooms; for the parents and for the children.

Figure 12: The South-western Elevation of the discussed vernacular house. (Makhlouf,

2013)

Figure 13: The ground floor plan of the discussed vernacular house (drawn by the researcher as observed during the fieldwork with some clarifications by its former resident)

Figure 14: Cross section at the typical traditional palm trunks roof (Savolde, 2009:50)

Further details and analysis of the six housing typologies are explained in the thesis main body. Δ Result of the interview with The Villagers and the natural leaders. * Result of the interview with representatives from Siwa Town Council and Qārrat ʾ Um-Āṣ aġīr Local Administrative Unit.

1

113

b. Environmental Reflections The vernacular house looks as a model for the thermal adaptation of the building to the surrounding climatic environment. This is reflected by means of passive design through; building orientation, internal spatial organization and the choice of the building materials. Since, North-South orientation is preferable for the main facade orientation, in those regions; especially for windows (Givoni, 1994) the main facades of the discussed vernacular house are oriented towards North-South, with most openings at the main facades and few at the EastWest directions. In addition the compactness of the house, since, the surface area of the external envelope is relatively small comparing to the house floor area, which according to Givoni (1994) reduces the heat gain from the outdoor temperature.

2. Sample ʿAllām Housings Users adapted hierarchical modifications on the core unit, in order to satisfy their cultural and social needs. In addition to, adapting the family‟s growth to apply the extended family needs and making use of its spaces. The discussed sample house has been transformed into an extended family house. It went through three phases of developments Fig.(15); starting from the original core house with slightly changed functions, to adapting the lifestyle and socio-cultural needs, then adapting the extended family needs.

Figure 15: The hierarchical adaptation development of ʿAllām Housing unit

a. The House Morphology and Socio-cultural reflections The available final spaces allowed the villagers to practice their contemporary lifestyle in adherence to their inherited rituals. Receiving guests and sleeping have been adapted to the gender segregation concept. Cooking, eating, talk gatherings, handcrafting and other daily life activities are allowed to be performed in groups like the way they traditionally rooted. The technological devices have also been integrated into their traditional life, such as TVs, Fig.(16), and the PV corner, which they favoured its existence after having experienced its advantages. b. Environmental Reflections The horizontal construction of additional spaces affected the building‟s compactness. It has affected the building layout and orientation as well, which resulted in larger East-West facades, Fig.(15). This caused higher intensities of conductive heat gain to the indoor spaces. In addition to other passive cooling techniques; such as, using the internal courtyard space to dry clothes, Fig.(16), provided daytime comfort ventilation due to the indirect evaporative cooling effect. Moreover, the shading on the outdoor facades, this is caused by planting palms in the outdoor spaces. This decreased the solar heat gain on the external building envelope.

114

Figure 16: The internal configuration and views of the different house spaces

Conclusion and Research Significant Results Through the previous analysis defined functions were configured essential, for the villagers' lifestyle, in the living environments of The Village. Part of them is defined as main spaces for the construction of a new house, and others for the house extensions; either for adapting lifestyle requirements or extended family needs.

Passive cooling systems are effective to provide an indoor thermal comfort during summertime through applying careful design procedures, such as; daytime ventilation, high mass-thermal, and nocturnal ventilation. Building layout and orientation, window sizes and detailing, and colour of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x;s envelope are effective design aspects to be considered through the house orientation and morphology, and the building materials.

115

The analysis tried to find an appropriate fit between the local culture and the introduction, if not the need, of a new technology. It did not object the existence of specific technologies, but adapting it to the surrounding context.

The introduction of the PV system proved that environmentally friendly solutions do not, all the time, compromise the users‟ lifestyle. Attempts of regulating and adapting the present interventions to the context and most common requirements of the villagers, is an intended aim supports the development of the compatible neovernacular approach for the living environments in The Village. This helps the society to be brought into maturity, according to Oliver (2003), to accept what contributes to the realization of the village‟s future and reject what does not. Thus, “A dependent society which cannot function without the injections of concepts, technology of finance is ultimately doomed” (Oliver 2003: 266). However, a wise and mature injection is required, Fig.(17 &18).

Figure 17: The integration of the advanced high-technologies with the contextual local lifestyle pattern

Figure 18: PV street lamps are provided

References

-

Anon, 2008. Rehabilitation of a Marvel Monument in the Western Desert. Shell in the Middle East, pp.36–41.

-

Givoni, B., 1994. Passive low energy cooling of buildings, Wiley. pp. 21-36.

-

Oliver, P., 1987. Dwellings: The house across the world Texas pres., Austin: Phaidon Press limited. pp. 7-9.

-

Pearson Education, 1999. Longman Active Study Dictionary, Egypt: Egyptian International Publishing Company - Longman.

Dikmen, N., 2010. User Requirements and Responsible Reconstruction. In G. Lizarralde, C. Johnson, & C. H. Davidson, eds.

Rebuilding after disasters: From emergency to sustainability. Spon Press New York, NY, pp. 193–205.

IDSC (Information and Decision Support Centre) Maṭrūḥ Governorate, 2012. Qârat Um-Aşąghier, Marsā- Maṭrūḥ, Egypt.

Makhlouf, N.N., 2013. Towards an Integrated Neo-vernacular Living Environment: physical and socio-cultural aspects. In Democratic Transitions and Sustainable Communities: Overcoming Challenges through innovative practical solutions. Cairo, Egypt: SB13 Cairo.

Oliver, P., 2003. Technology Transfer - a Vernacular View. In R. J. Cole & R. Lorch, eds. Buildings, Culture and Environment: Informing local and global practices. Blackwell, pp. 251–256.

Savolde, P., 2009. Ṣālī Karšīf Restoration (Practical Handbook), Assocuazione Giovanni Secco Suardo. pp. 20-50.

Thomas, G., 2012. Tour Guide: Siwa natural reserve and Shali the old town (Arabic version), Siwa, Matrouh.

Vivian, C., 2007. The western desert of Egypt: An explorer‟s handbook, Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.

Yin, R.K., 2009. Case study research: Design and methods, SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Yousef, S.A.-S., 2007. The Popular Traditions of Siwa Studies in National Center for Theater, Music and Folk Arts, ed., Cairo: Ministry of Culture in collaboration with Matrouh Governorate.

116

Assessing Thermal Comfort in Secondary Schools in Egypt Author: Omar Wanas

Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Jose Moro, Dr. Mohamed S. Asar, Dr. Ahmed Atef Fagal.

Education is the main vehicle by which individuals discover their potential and acquire self-esteem and selfaccomplishment through playing an effective role in life and society. For a county living in a political, economic and social transition phase like Egypt, economic growth and political maturity is highly dependent on the efficiency and equity of the educational system (Chatman house, 2012). A main part of insuring efficiency is tending to the physical structure in which the student receives education and spends a significant amount of his daily life. Unfortunately post the 1992 earthquake, the Egyptian government has focused on the quantitative aspect of classrooms and schools continuously aiming at providing a targeted number. This led to uncomfortable interior conditions within the classrooms which span from heat stress, lack of adequate ventilation, glare to exposure to excess solar radiation.

The aim of this research is to calculate the magnitude of the thermal discomfort within classrooms of these standardized prototypes in Cairo by using computerized thermal simulation software. The results of this research should enable decision makers to understand how far current schools are from the human‟s thermal comfort limits and aid them to issue evidence based, precise and resource efficient decision concerning the thermal retrofitting of these schools that form the physical infrastructure of the largest educational system in the Middle East and Africa.

Introduction: It is astounding that the population of Egypt has reached a count of 72 million in 2006 and was estimated to increase to 92 million by March 2013 (CAPMAS) .Moreover; it is a fact that the continuous increase in population subjects ongoing pressure on the educational infrastructure and system. Tending to the educational system would transfer the population from a burden to the society to a catalyst of change especially in a country – like Egypt with half the population under the age of 24 (Chatman House, 2012).

The educational system deals with individuals in such a sensitive yet promising age as they are shaping the milestones of their characters. In addition, Students spend a significant amount of their daily lives in schools so besides factors of quality of the education material, competence of the teachers and application of technology, the physical structure of the school building has a continuous impact on the Student‟s behavior and character (Shalaby, 2007). Consequently, it is important for decision makers, funding bodies and architects to understand the complexity of the interaction occurring between the educational facility and the user in order to elevate the student‟s learning performance (Knapp, 2007) .One of the indoor factors that influence students are the climatic conditions of the educational space. James (2012) emphasizes by stating that in high indoor temperatures, people lose the ability to focus and may demonstrate feelings of irritation or even aggressiveness.

In light of the aforementioned, this paper aims to evaluate the thermal behavior of existing governmental secondary schools in the context of Cairo, define and quantify how the space affects the user‟s thermal comfort.

This is explained in the following sections: • Literature Review • Methodology • Results analysis • Discussion and conclusion Literature review In Egypt, ever since 1990, the General Authority for Educational Buildings (GAEB) has been responsible for the planning, construction, furnishing and maintenance of all school throughout the country (Shalaby, 2007). On inauguration, a qualitative field survey was created by the General Authority for Educational Buildings (GAEB) to holistically assess the existing educational buildings. Consequently, besides structural and educational related problems, many environmental problems were also revealed. The environmental problems can be summarized in: • Unplanned expansion of schools on the building plot causing negative impacts on the existing building such as: overshadowing, lack of ventilation.

• Increase solar radiation and lack of shaded areas leading to Outdoor thermal discomfort in school yards.

• Increase of internal temperature and glare in classroom due to the over calculated window to wall ratio of the classrooms with absence of external shading.

• The lack of adequate internal ventilation in classrooms due to the poor design of the windows.

Later on in 1992, post to the Cairo earthquake, many educational buildings were damaged and so the results of the previous survey were used in designing new standard school prototypes. The school designs were categorized according to their shape into linear single load , linear double load , L- shaped and U- shaped (Mady, 2010)(See 117

Fig.1). These prototypes were duplicated all around Egypt with unified specifications and minimum regard to the context or climatic region.

Fig 1: post 1992 school prototypes in Egypt, by Mady, 2007.

Other than the GAEB efforts, various researchers have handled environmental and climatic aspects of schools in Egypt. In 2011, Rasmy proposed a holistic framework for designing sustainable schools in Egypt through drawing lessons from specific sustainable schools from the global west. Further on in the same year, Farghal set an “Adaptive Comfort” limit for educational buildings in Cairo through a subjective field study of occupants in educational halls in Three of Cairo‟s Universities. The most relevant effort to this research was in 2007 when Mady and Gado carried out an extensive quantitative research on the environmental quality of the postearthquake school prototypes in the desert climatic zone represented by the city of El Menya. This paper set out to continue the research chain by applying a similar methodology on secondary schools in the semi desert region represented by the city of Cairo.

Methodology This research applies a computer based analysis in order to assess thermal comfort in a specific governmental secondary school prototype .The study is phased out in two main stages • Data collection: The first part of the Data collection phase addresses the background of educational buildings in Egypt; the existing school prototypes and their geometry and construction material specifications.

Computer based study: This study is divided into four sections. The first includes the modeling of the base case with its fixed urban, construction and schedule parameters. This section is followed by the verification of the base case model by comparing it to field measurements conducted in former researches by Mady (2010) in the city of el Menya. The third stage is the simulation of the base case in the context of Cairo where the verified model will then be simulated in the context of Cairo and the acquired results will be compared to predefined thermal comfort limits.

The computer simulation was carried out using Design builder (DB) software which uses Energy Plus (EP) as its simulation engine The main reason for choosing DB for this research was the credibility of its results, Where EP has been reviewed and its results have been validated using the ASHRAE/BESTEST evaluation protocol (Attia, 2011 ).

Base Case parameters: The prototype chosen for this research was the linear single load school model. The prototype is a building of 28 meters length, 10 meters width and a height of three floors i.e. 9 meters.

Classrooms occupy the upper 2 stories with dimensions of 8 m. and length 5 m.in width each (See Fig.2).As for construction materials and their thermal properties (see table 1&2). The choice was based on two main reasons. The first is that the linear single load prototype is the most common in Cairo (GAEB) due the ease of it being situated in any land plot.

The second is that the prototype was found to be the most representative of the four prototypes as it was -to some extent-duplicated as a unit in them.

Fig 2: First floor plan of school prototype by researcher after GAEB

118

No. 1

Material

Density( Kg/m3)

Cement plaster m

Specific

Heat

Conductivity(

Capacity(J/kg.K)

W/m.K)

1860

840

0.72

sand aggregate 2

Heavy sand bricks

2000

828

1.7

3

Egyptian hollow clay

1790

260

0.6

2300

840

1.9

bricks 4

Dense

reinforced

concrete 5

Gypsum plastering

1300

840

0.8

6

Sand

2240

840

1.74

7

Cement Mortar

1650

920

0.72

8

Mosaic Tiles

2450

1080

1.6

9

Soil sandy Dry

1650

795

0.26

10

Cement roof tiles

2100

800

1.4

11

Polystyrene Foam (

38

1130

0.033

1090

1000

0.06

low density) 12

Bitumen impregnated sheet

13

Glass standard

2300

836.8

1.046

14

Wood pine

550

2301

0.343

Table 1: Thermal properties of materials used in the school prototypes in Egypt developed by Author after EEEC 2007, EICS, 2007 & Mady, 2007

No.

Position in building

Description

U- value W/m2K

1

Thick external wall

250 mm sand brick plus 10 mm cement

2.83

plaster interior finishing.

2

Thin external wall

120 mm sand brick plus 10 mm cement

3.81

plaster interior finishing.

3

Internal

wall

/

170 mm Egyptian hollow clay brick.

2.19

20 mm mosaic tiles, 20 mm cement

0.7

partition 4

Slab on grid

mortar, 60 mm sand, 100 mm concrete slab on top of compact soil.

5

Typical floor slab

20 mm mosaic tiles, 20 mm cement

3.21

mortar , 60 mm sand , 100 mm reinforced concrete slab , 10 mm cement plaster and 5 mm gypsum plastering from beneath .

6

Roof

20 mm mosaic tiles, 20 mm cement mortar,

60

mm

sand,

0.62

bitumen 119

impregnated paper, 100 mm reinforced concrete slab with foam slag and 5 mm gypsum finishing.

7

Door

40 mm thick solid pine timber door

2.31

8

Window

Single glazed 4 mm sliding glass

6

windows with aluminum frames. 1/3 of the window is fixed and the rest 2/3 is divided into four panes .Only two of the panes is operable at once.

9

Concrete beams and

300mm concrete block with 10 mm

beams

cement plaster each side.

2.75

Table 2: Envelope components of the selected school prototype developed after Mady, 2007

The base case model was virtually constructed with the previous Geometry and material parameters. To assure the credibility of the built model, the model had to be compared to an existing model where indoor temperatures were previously measure. For this reason, the model was placed in the context of Menya (a governorate in Upper Egypt in the desert climatic zone) and simulated within urban conditions similar to a case study carried out by Mady(2010) .The calculated simulation temperature was compared to the measured ones within the month of May. A Graphical (See fig.3) and statistical comparison was conducted on both sets of data. Statistically, a â&#x20AC;&#x153;two-set statistical Ttestâ&#x20AC;? between both data sets resulted in a T=0.359, which when compared with the T value at 0.05 percent probability, was found smaller than the Tabulated value of the T-test which proves and insignificant difference between both sets (See table 3).From both verification methods, It can be concluded that the model is accurate enough to be used for the following phases of the research.

Fig3: Graphical comparison of measured hourly temperatures and simulated hourly temperatures for the month of May by Author.

Table 3: Statistical T test between measured and simulated test by Author

Post to verification, the simulation model was placed in the researchâ&#x20AC;&#x;s required city which is Cairo. Cairo was chosen for the case study location as it holds the greatest number of secondary schools in Egypt with a count of 4534 classes (MOE, 2012). The urban settings of the prototype were based on the standards of fitness qualification of urban and rural sites for educational buildings which designates that the minimum area of school plots should be 2500 m2 where the square proportion is preferable and the school must at least overlook one main street of 6 m and have more than one entrance.

Consequently, the base case location was set to a square plot of side length 50 m, with two streets: a main one of 6 m and a side street of 4 m (See Fig4).

Fig4: Layout of settings of base case school model,

by Author

120

As for the surrounding buildings, based on clause 15 of the Egyptian building law of the year 2008, building heights should not exceed the width of the street it overlooks by any more than one and a half times the width of the street. Hence, buildings that overlook the 6m street were set to a height of 3 stories i.e. 9m height, whereas buildings that overlook the side street were set to a height of 2 stories i.e. 6 m, in order to comply with the law.

Also, Since Cairo has a population density of 2806 person/km2 (CAPMAS, 2013) so; the school was surrounded from all sides by neighboring buildings. Finally, The Activity schedules, Occupancy levels, clothing levels, ventilation rates, activity levels, ventilation and infiltration rates were defined (See table 4) and entered to the simulation software in order to initiate the simulation procedure.

Parameter

Description

Occupancy rate

According to the GAEB statistics of 2012 the average capacity of secondary schools in Cairo is 37.7 students per classroom. So, the occupancy level = 37.7/44= 0.94 per/ m2.

Activity level

According to ASHRAE 55 code, metabolic rate of Seated activity = 1 MET which equal 60 w/m2. The code assumes an adult man of surface area 1.8 m2 and so metabolic rate per person = 60 x1.8= 108 W/ per.

Clothing Value:

a long sleeve shirt, trousers , socks and shoes with normal underwear and a headscarf . So, clothing value was set in this study to = 0.61+0.07 = 0.68 clo.

Occupancy schedules:

Yearly schedules: the Egyptian school year starts at 15th of September and ends on 30 June Weekly schedule: the whole week with exception of Friday.

Daily schedule: the daily schedule was set to include two session schools where the first session starts at 8:00 am and ends at 1:00 pm, while the second starts around 1:30 pm and ends at 5 pm.

Lighting:

According to Mady ( 2007 ) “Each classroom has four groups of artificial lighting with three 1200 mm T8 lamps or Six artificial lights with two 1200 mm T8 lamps “. Mady calculates the total heat gain of the lamps to be equal to 9.6 W/m2 but supposes that during the day only a third of the lamps will be on and so total heat gains from lamps are set to 3 W/m2 in this research.

Ventilation:

• All classrooms are naturally ventilated. Windows are operable from 8:00 am till 5:00 pm and closed after the school-day for security issues (Mady, 2007).The window to wall ratio is 36 % .This percentage is divided into two windows per class. The percent of operable area per window is 33%.

Infiltration rates:

the infiltration rate was suggested to be 0.5 ach/h

Table4: Input parameters of school prototype.

121

The simulation process was carried out on all classrooms on both the first and second floor which were previously divided into thermal zones (See Fig5) but the ground floor was left out of the simulation as it doesn‟t include classrooms. Based on the Weather analysis, the simulation schedule was set to months with predicted heat stress during the school year. The chosen months were: April, May, June, September, and October.

The school building was placed in all eight main orientations within the school plot. Indoor operational temperatures were produced for each of the six thermal zones. The hourly indoor temperatures were compared to a thermal comfort range based on Givoni‟s (1998) Building Bio- Climatic Chart (BBCC) for developing countries which BBCC implies that since the summer humidity level in Cairo reaches a maximum of 62% and the building is naturally ventilated so, the acceptable temperature limit for developing countries lies between 20- 31 C° at wind speed of 2 m/s. The comparison was represented in the the percent of discomfort hours within the school day (8 am: 5 pm) for each chosen month. The average percentage of total overheating discomfort hours from all the selected months was then calculated.

Fig5: zone distribution on the first floor (left) and second floor (Right), by Author.

Research Results: • The Simulation results demonstrate that the school building within the dense urban context of Cairo, records lower average indoor temperatures year round when oriented due north while records the highest in the west and south west orientation. A maximum average indoor temperature in the month of June of 31.5 C ° was recorded when the building was directed due North while when directed due West recorded 32.6 C °.

Fig6: maximum discomfort percentages in classrooms through heat stress months, by Author.

Discussion of results and conclusion: • The maximum discomfort hours in a classroom occurs when the building is situated due west and south west (See Fig 6). This percentage is 36.7% (436 hrs.) which is equivalent to a whole 54 school days, while the least maximum hours of discomfort occurs when the building is situated due north where discomfort hours are equivalent to 33 school days. The different in percentage of discomfort hours between both North and South West orientation ranges from a maximum difference of 30% (70 School hrs.) in September and a minimum difference of 5% (12 school hrs.) in April. The main reason for this difference can be attributed to the absence of direct solar radiation in the north orientation in addition to being in the path of the prevailing winds in Cairo. Classrooms have a window to wall ratio of 36 % which consequently leads to significant heat gains in the orientation where the glazing is subjected mostly to direct solar radiation. A deeper explanation of this difference can be demonstrated by comparing the solar gains from exterior windows in both orientations. The South West orientation acquires 800 Kwh, Which is around Four times the solar gains of the northern one (See Fig7).

122

Fig7: comparison between Solar Gains from exterior windows in both north and South west orientation in the month of June, by Author.

â&#x20AC;˘

Analysis done on the sources of sensible heat gains in the classroom (See Fig8&9) revealed that the main sources of heat gains is solar gains from the exterior windows were 62-30% followed by the occupants which are responsible for 45-30% of the total heat gain ,while the heat gains through the roof represent 22-9% and the lighting only about 2%

Fig8: Ranges of percentages of sources of heat gain in classroom in month of June throughout the various orientations

â&#x20AC;˘

Interior Conduction of heat also occurs from the upper floor classrooms through the floor slab to lower floor classrooms and from the corner classrooms to the middle classroom through inner partitions. This explains why the middle classroom (zone 2 or zone 5) sometimes has higher discomfort hours than one of the edge classrooms (zone 1, zone 2, zone 4, and zone 6) even though it has less exterior exposure.

Fig9: Heat gains and losses in upper floor classroom in the month of June West orientation

123

•

It is also worth mentioning that since the internal temperature of the classroom exceeds the outside temperature in many times throughout the day, heat flux occurs from the inside to the outside. Hence, heat is conducted through the walls and glazing causing heat losses from the space (See fig10) and so thermal retrofitting the walls might be a measure that addresses this issue.

•

Finally When comparing the dense urban context model with a less dense one (no neighboring buildings) we find that, the model without neighboring buildings records maximum discomfort hours of 39.6% which is about 3% more than the other model when oriented due south west. When directed due north, the periphery model recorded and extra 4 % than the other model. This can be attributed to the lack of buildings to over-shade the school and block a portion of the direct sun heat gains. Calculation show that the solar gains through external windows increase by 12% in the case where the school is on the city outskirts than when in a dense urban context.

Fig 10: Outer wall heat gain and losses hourly behavior during the month of June

References:

-

Attia, S. ,2011, State of the Art of Existing Early Design Simulation Tools for Net Zero Energy Buildings: A Comparison of Ten Tools ,Technical Report, Architecture et Climat, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain La Neuve, Belgium.

-

Chatham House, January 2012, Education in Egypt, Meeting Summary, Available online at http://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/182595, checked on 30/08/2013.

-

Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), 2013, Population report for 2012-2013, Available online at: www.capmas.gov.eg; Last accessed at 5/6/2013.

-

Farghal, A., 2011, Studying the Adaptive Comfort Model A Case Study in Arid Climate: Cairo, Egypt, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany.

-

Givoni, B., 1998, Climate considerations in building and urban design, ISBN 0442009917, Van Nostrand Reinhold ,New York, USA.

-

James, A. & Christian,K. ,2012, An assessment of thermal comfort in a warm and humid school building at Accra, Ghana,Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

-

Knapp,E., 2007, School Building Design and Learning Performance: With a focus on Schools in Developing Countries. l‟Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.

-

Mady, M., 2007, Investigating the environmental performance of government primary schools in Egypt with particular concern to thermal comfort, University of Dundee, Scotland.

-

Official site General Authority for Educational building (GAEB): http://www.giza.gov.eg/Companies/Buildings/default.aspx, last accessed November, 2012.

-

Rasmy,M., 2011, Transformation of traditional secondary schools to sustainable educational building, faculty of engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.

-

Shalaby, H., 2007, The School Planning Process and Maintenance of School Infrastructure in Egypt, School Building Design and Learning Performance: With a focus on Schools in Developing Countries, l‟Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.

Housing Sector and building Research Center (HSBRC), 2006, The Egyptian Energy Efficiency Code for Residential Buildings, Part 1, Cairo, Egypt.

124

Participatory Urban Development Projects in PostRevolutionary Cairo Partnering with Civil Society?

Author: Pia Lorenz

Supervisors: Prof. Mohamed Salheen, Prof. Philipp Misselwitz

Introduction With the Arab Spring and the political uprisings in Egypt in January 2011, Egyptian citizens have called for an end of Mubarak‟s autocratic regime and pledged for a system of governance lead by it‟s people: democracy. The power vacuum after Mubarak‟s overthrow triggered a military regime while the first general parliamentary and presidential elections brought an Islamic government into power. Since Mubarak‟s overthrow, both regimes have been questioned in their democratic mission, which is of concern not only to many people of Egypt but also to a number of international development organizations who pledge for democracy as the most promising system on the path to poverty alleviation and equitable development.

Within this inner political struggle about a new system of government and governance – becoming even more challenging with the military constantly transgressing its competences – possibly more democratic than the former, international development organizations try to redefine their role, especially those who are partnering with state institutions. When political actors are changing, new possibilities for a change in strategy and new options for on-the-ground implementation may open up and can be tested. Such a window of opportunity has opened up after the ousting of former President Mubarak.

Besides these political changes, urban development has gained importance since the drastic urbanization processes in developing countries initiated, with Cairo having developed into one of the largest urban agglomerations worldwide. Traditionally characterized by conventional planning projects with a focus on infrastructure, basic urban services and housing, the debate and practice of international urban development has moved towards interventions and projects aiming for a change in the local, regional and national system of governance towards integrating democratic forms of decision-making at each stage of planning and state-level.

Urban development has thus moved into one of the traditional spheres of political theory and public administration. Both disciplines – planning more recently and political theory since long – have coined the notion of participation in their particular sense. But the notion of participation has also gained momentum in the context of how to adequately implement development projects worldwide.

Considering the specific political environment throughout the last few years in Egypt, this thesis shall assess the nexus where urban development projects, the notion of participation and the role of civil society therein, interconnect. In order to do so, two urban development projects implemented by the Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) – the German Development Cooperation – and by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) will be analyzed according to their understanding of participation and how this reflects in their collaboration with civil society. Within the universe of scholars assessing the participatory claim of development work in general and more specifically within the urban setting, no study has yet focused on the notion of participation and the role of civil society in the context of the post-January 2011 uprising in Egypt. The study will thus analyze what connotation the term participation receives in the context of urban development projects in times of political transformation and will try to answer the question of what role civil society organizations play within the strategic alignment and the project implementation on the ground.

The study is structured into two parts. The first part provides a theoretical background of the paradigm of participation and the concept of civil society. The first chapter identifies three different interpretations of participation, one coined by political science; the second majorly used by urban planners. Participation in development cooperation has adapted a mix of both. The chapter is closing with an aggregation of critical aspects about the notion of participation in international development cooperation. The second chapter provides a definition of civil society and identifies its role in the urban realm as well as in the practice of international development cooperation, concluding with a reflection on critical aspects of civil society partnerships. The third chapter elaborates on the combination of the theoretically discussed issues and their transfer into the empirical research. It further contains an explanation of the research methodology applied in the empirical part. A short introduction about the research context is given, a literature review provided, and the research questions are presented in detail. Moreover, the research design, case selection and data collection procedures are laid out.

125

The third part of the study presents the empirical findings. A short introduction into the state of civil society in Egypt will be given in chapter five; in chapter six, the contemporary participatory approaches of GIZ and UNHabitat will be analyzed in depth. A specific post-revolutionary national development approach is identified in both organizations while the understanding of participation, as well as civil society, brings some interesting findings, varying from the definitions provided by the theoretical discussion. Different purposes of civil society partnership are analyzed and critically reflected upon while the numerous modes of civil society partnerships are also described in depth. The matter of representation with the implementation of civil society integration into the development programs, the bias towards certain groups and the development agency‟s use of the term „community‟ will be discussed. The chapter will close with an appraisal of the major present political and administrative challenges concerning the participatory approach towards civil society.

Graph 1: Structure of this study

Research Questions While assessing the approach of international donor organizations towards civil society in an explorative manner the following two questions are of specific relevance and will be answered on the basis of a number of conducted interviews with employees of two participatory urban development projects as well as other urban development experts in Cairo: What connotation does the term participation receive in the context of urban development projects? What is the participatory claim therein?

What role does civil society and its organizations play within the strategic alignment and the participatory project implementation on the ground?

The following list of critical issues has been deducted from the theoretical discussion undertaken above. These issues are most crucial within the understanding of this research project of civil society approaches in times of political transformation in Egypt and they have been the basis for the creation of the questionnaire organizing the semi-structured expert interviews (see chapter 4.4.2).

What are the strategic orientations on the side of the international development organization towards participation and civil society on a national level? (6.2.1) What is understood by participation? Is participation considered a mean to achieve some greater aim? If yes, what is this greater aim? (6.2.2) What is understood as civil society? Who are the civic partners? (6.2.3) What is the aim of civil society collaboration in urban development programs? (6.2.4) How are the specific partnerships with civil society shaped? What are their characteristics? (6.2.5) How present is the concept of representation within the implementation of participatory strategies in partnership with civil society? What are the reasons for a potential selection bias in choosing civil society partners? (6.2.6) What does the development agency consider as “the community”? How prevalent are reflections about the impact of the external actor on the internal power relations in the neighborhoods perceived? (6.2.7) How is the external political and administrative environment expected to impact the participatory notion of the assessed urban development projects? (6.2.8) 126

The research project is based on a social constructivist epistemology which refers to an understanding of knowledge that is socially constructed (Berger and Luckmann, 1991, Castree and Braun, 2001). It interprets social constructivism in a way that accepts the existence of physical reality but understands that physical reality is perceived subjectively by individuals. Collective reality emerges in social groups and meaning is negotiated among the group members; through this personal experience knowledge is shaped collectively. In this context, this study will analyze how the implementing personnel of international development agencies perceive their mandate of participatory development in urban areas, specifically in regard to civil society partnerships. The study emphasizes on the universe of participation and civil society inclusion as it is portrayed and experienced by the international development experts. The aim of this research project is to identify inconsistencies within this perception and point out critical aspects that may need reconsideration, especially concerning the role of the development agencies within the claim of promoting participation and democracy.

Methodology The research design selected for this study can be described as an exploratory case study design (Yin, 2009). A case study design has been chosen as it is particularly well suited to provide a rich understanding of social and organizational processes entailed with a detailed data collection process. The two organizations selected in this case are the GIZ and UN Habitat; the former with its Participatory Urban Upgrading Program, the latter with its Safer Cities for Girls Program (for a detailed description of the programs see chapter 6.2).

The study will not entail a comparative research of the two projects as they are â&#x20AC;&#x201C; considering their experience, number of personnel and budget â&#x20AC;&#x201C; hardly comparable. The two projects have been chosen because they constitute the only two projects with the unique combination of working in the field of urban neighborhood upgrading on a local level with a specific focus on participation while prescribing a special role to civil society organizations. GIZ and UN Habitat are the only international agencies that are involved in urban development projects on the neighborhood scale through direct implementation. A focus on both projects provides a suitable base for assessing the above-mentioned aspects Data Collection The data collected for this research project contains a number of primary data sources such as official project fiches, internal program descriptions, and project offers signed with the respective financing institutions. Further, strategy papers have been analyzed that provide national policy directions for the entire organization. Secondary data have specifically been consulted in order to gain an overview of the state of civil society in Egypt, on existing participatory development projects in the country, the assessment of the overall political situation, and the new NGO draft law. The most essential and most elaborate sources of data collection are a number of semi-structured expert interviews conducted with personnel of the GIZ and UN-Habitat.

The following graph (see graph 2) displays the research design showing that in each organization, experts at different levels of the organizational hierarchy as well as from different components of the program have been questioned in order to be able to capture different perceptions at different levels and with different thematic focus areas. At the strategic level, it has mainly been recent policy document that have been analyzed in order to assess the national approach of each organization. Besides the semi-structured interviews conducted with GIZ and UNHabitat personnel, civil society experts working for other international development organizations or experts active in the field of urban planning, urban studies, and the urban rights movement have been interviewed, in order to attain a better understanding of the situation of civil society in Egypt. Further, the information of several conferences, which treated the changing role of citizens and civil society, specifically within the urban realm after the revolution, was processed.

Graph 2: Research design

127

Conclusion This study has shown that participation of civil society in international urban development projects is interpreted very diversely according to the nature of organization, the strategic level (policy formulation or project implementation), and the specific individual development expert and his or her personal perception of and experience with the two phenomena. The ideal interpretation of participation and civil society as laid out by political theory is applied within the strategic policies of both organizations, UN-Habitat and GIZ. UN-Habitat tries to transfer the political interpretation of participation to the level of project implementation while the GIZ shifts its focus on project level more obviously to an efficiency-based narrative of service-delivery. On the ground, the aim of self-determination and empowerment seemed less important than formulated at a strategic level.

Certainly, in different geographical and political contexts, theoretical definitions have to be reformulated and concepts rethought, however in the case of participation and civil society inclusion, this seems to have happened majorly on arguments of economic efficiency, not democratic effectiveness. Despite the widely accepted efficiencynarrative in development cooperation, political scientists, urban practitioners, and development experts have to work towards participation and civil society promotion to provide channels of influence to decision-making for each and everyone affected, including the most marginalized, and to challenge autocratic rulers.

However, the noble interpretation expressed in the strategy papers, that participation is based on the idea of transferring control of the development process to the local people, has not shown to be thoroughly implemented on the ground. It seems there is still a great tendency among development experts to design participatoryprocesses themselves without the involvement of the citizens themselves. What Chamber (1994b) announced as a revolution in international development from top-down expert approaches to bottom-up community engagement has only found feeble resonance as it is still the development expert defining the rules of participation and civil society partnership.

The study has also shown that NGOs receive an excessive degree of attention among development experts when mentioning the concept of civil society. There is a clear lack of transferring the original political idea of civil society into societies that do not share the same history and culture as western democracies and adjust the idea to the realities on the group which results in the reliance on NGOs that are dependent on international donors and lack grassroots connection.

The claim that participatory mechanisms and civil society inclusion will specifically profit the economically marginalized groups can also not be supported by this research. Participation has often meant the integration of already powerful people or organizations. Although some voting-mechanisms have been introduced that aim at integrating the most marginalized into the decision-making process, the rules of the game (e.g. the type of minority group, and the manner of representation) are still defined by the development experts.

Further, very prominent aspect has to be noted that pervades almost any action undertaken by any of the analyzed development agencies: efficiency. Participatory programs as well as civil society inclusion are mainly launched because they are expected to make projects more efficient, meaning they lead to the same project outcomes with less investment of resources on the side of the donor. The question if the strive for participation can be used to achieve this higher aim of economic efficiency has to be under constant scrutiny not to diverge from the noble path of democracy into actions dictated by finances.

Last but not least, representation is an aspect that has proved to be disdained in many aspects; instead the mechanisms for the selection of civic partners are strongly biased towards specific kinds of organizations. Partner CSOs are found to often not originate in the neighborhoods subject to the upgrading measure while larger NGOs seem to seem to better fit the preferences of the international donor organizations. Expertise in administrative procedures and proofed efficiency is thus often rated higher than expertise and representativeness of the local neighborhood. Also, the fact that non-registered CSOs cannot be supported financially despite the strategic focus on new developments in civil society movements is striking. Even though they are the most locally rooted, they are not represented as direct partners of neither international organization.

In order for participatory development projects to partner with civil society and to commit to non-conventional partnerships hard work still has to be done. It seems that the strategic policy level of both organizations is ready to commit to such changes, especially during political transformation, while organizational inertia as well as political constraints may have caused a delay in implementing new measures. Further, quick changes and hurdles throughout the political environment pop up in an unforeseeable manner making innovation even harder. The window of opportunity for change in donor approaches may become smaller but it is their greatest chance and responsibility to not miss this moment and support the political change agents on their strive towards democracy.

Citations

-

BERGER, P. & LUCKMANN, T. 1991. The Social Construction of Reality, London, Penguine Books.

CASTREE, N. & BRAUN, N. 2001. Social Nature: Theory, Practice and Politics, Oxford, Blackwell.

CHAMBERS, R. 1994. The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. World development, 22, 953-969.

YIN, R. K. 2009. Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Los Angeles, Sage.

128

Refugee Setting and Urban Form and Governance The Predicament of Syrian Refugees in Navigating Cairo‟s Urban Spaces and the Complexities of Governance in Turbulent Times Author: Rasha Arous

Supervisors: Prof. Philipp Misselwitz, Prof. Youhansen Yahia Eid, Vertr.Prof Nina Gribat

1. Introduction With the ongoing violent conflict in Syria, forcedly displaced persons are fleeing to neighboring and nearby countries in huge numbers; expectations suggest the number reaching 4 million individuals out of the country by end of 2013 and more IDPs inside Syria (UN media 2013). Egypt is one of the target countries of Syrian refugees and it accommodates today a considerable number of Syrians; more than 300.000 Syrians (UNHCR portal 2013).

It is simultaneously undergoing huge economic and political transformations which make displacement experience different. Syrians are accommodated in urban centers and towns in Egypt as it does not have camp confinement policies. Therefore, with more than 100.000 Syrians residing in Cairo; the capital of Egypt, this paper has set its objective to examine the situation of Syrian refugees within the city of Cairo showing a variety of refugee spaces and drawing links between these spaces, modes of governance and refugee protection, and other humanitarian concerns within an understanding of the framework of the city‟s modes of urbanization and a brief discussion on potential future scenarios. It will also offer a perspective on the close and complex relationships that the city, refugees‟ spaces, modes of governance and protection of refugees have with each other.

Figure 19. Syria and the region affected by displacement crisis Source: (Wikipedia 2013; UNHCR end of July 2013)

In order to fulfill the previously set objective, the following main questions with secondary sets of questions have been set forward. Here, the main questions of the research are listed:  How do refugees interact with the city‟s urban spaces?  How are refugees‟ settings influenced by the formal political structures of Cairo in the post- revolution era?  How do urban modes of governance (informal governance) influence refugees‟ settings in specific urban spaces?

In order to answer these questions, the research has had an empirical-led nature through the case-study of Cairo and specific urban spaces within it. The data have been generated through extensive field visits and research in the areas where Syrian refugees and few other refugee communities live in Cairo. Data collection methods have been mainly: semi-structured interviews, observations, informal and formal meetings and discussions with refugees and concerned individuals and entities. A questionnaire survey which has a qualitative nature has been conducted in three urban spaces: Masaken Othman exclusionary housing project, Omraneya informal settlement and Rehab gated city in addition to Sitta (6th of) October as a general case study for “community formation” processes. In addition to desktop analysis of case studies and literature related to the areas of study.

129

Figure 20 the conceptual framework of the thesis Source: Author

While writing the final draft of this research a power shift followed by a policy shift towards the Syrian refugees have taken place in Egypt (July 3rd deposition of Morsi‟s government and July 8th shift of entry policy besides the change in public opinion towards the Syrians), yet this has not been taken into account as field research was conducted by end of May 2013. The following sections will provide a review of some of the concepts of the theoretical foundation of the thesis and some of the main findings of its field work.

2. Theoretical Review: Cities, Refugees and Protection A growing number of refugees are seeking sanctuary in urban areas and this has been evidently part of the general trend of the world becoming more urbanized. In 2010, the number of urban refugees and IDPs was thought to have reached fifty percent of the world‟s refugees and IDPs (WDR 2012). Many factors attract refugees to cities: better channels for livelihood opportunities, anonymity, freedom of movement and access to power brokers in urban areas (Kobia and Cranfield 2009; Landau 2012; Haysom 2013). There are many push factors to camps as well which should be considered (UNHCR 2009). In the Global South, refugees are thought to be marginalized by law (Kagan 2013). Grabska (2006) contends that the process of marginalization involves legal, social, political and cultural inequalities and exclusion and their coping strategies naturally develop in pursuit of livelihood opportunities and long term solutions, sowing the seeds for community formation (ibid; Jacobson 2006).

Manifestations of establishing communities are diverse. Some are developed through a sense of belonging and constructing a collective identity, organizational power, leadership and self-organized structures (Minnick 2009, Jacobson 2006).

On the other end, urban spaces which accommodate new comers have been discussed widely as the “gateways”, “communities of convenience”, “arrival cities” and “urban estuaries” (Saunders 2011; Landau 2012). Landau (2012) argues that these spaces have varying characteristics and embody no prevailing values of institutions as shaped around the daily surviving response mechanisms. He further contends that they are sometimes cosmopolitan (not in a utopian sense), conflictual and conservative, with a changing nature as the continuous geographical movement into-out of and within the city creates poor social authorities (Landau 2012). Refugees, transient as they usually perceive themselves at the beginning of their arrival, have their urban spaces which may also have ties to a third county (to which they might move). In most cases, prospects of refugees from the city are identical to those of rural migrants and relating one to the other is vital as most urban studies have not gone in depth into studying places of refuge.

Looking into the humanitarian perspective of Refugees‟ concerns in urban areas which are numerous and challenging (Zetter and Deikun 2011), protection and protection space are key concerns in working with refugees.

They have developed through a long history and series of conventions and protocols since 1951 Refugee Convention till the most recent 2009 UNHCR policy on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas enshrining refugee right to protection and to durable solutions1 which formed a key humanitarian feature and has been subject to many studies and examinations.

The UN jargon for long-term resolution of the refugee‟s situation- either voluntary repatriation; local integration; or resettlement to a third country in situations where it is impossible for a person to go back home or remain in the host country. See The Ultimate Goal, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646cf8.html 11

130

3. Contextual Review: Cairo as a place of refugee and Syrian refugees in Egypt and Cairo In Egypt and Cairo, haven has been provided for refugees from many African and Middle Eastern Countries. Cairo as a mega city, hosts around one quarter of Egypt‟s 83 million populations besides many IDPs, migrants and refugees (Kipper 2009; ShadowMoH 2013). Refuge spaces in Cairo vary from informal settlements to gated communities to all in between. Cairo‟s own cityscape has been extensively shaped by “migrants” from rural areas in Egypt since the 1960s (Sims 2011). The „informal settlements‟ which are dispersed over the different parts of the city are examples of rural to urban migrant spaces. On the policy level, there is a critical lack of national legislative systems for asylum and for integrating refugees in the life of the Egyptian citizens. Refugees‟ situation in Egypt remains elusive and uncertain (Sperl 2001:3 cited in Minnick 2009: 14). Cairo has been viewed differently in the literature of refugee and migration and has bounced between dichotomies of transit and final destination, cosmopolitanism and heightened levels of xenophobia (Al Sharmani and Grabaska 2011; Zohry 2003; Kipper 2009; Khallaf 2012). However, its urban modes of governance and especially informal governance are extensively influencing different aspects of life in these spaces. The situation of the refugees as vulnerable and marginalized groups is deteriorating post to the Egyptian revolution in 2011 (Khallaf 2012). They have reported higher levels of xenophobia and more stresses and shocks of their livelihood and security concerns (Gozdziak and Walter 2012).

However, the extreme urban representations and contested and fragmented nature of Cairo‟s urban spheres have direct effects on the experience of refugees in navigating through its urban spaces.

Many of the Syrian refugees are targeting cities and UNHCR data show that more than 77% of registered asylum seekers live in cities in the region. By end of July 2013, some 102.000 Syrians in Egypt were considered as „persons of concern‟ (registered or awaiting registration) in Egypt. Nonetheless, the number of unregistered ones is much higher, as the initial governmental statistics show more than 300.000 seeking residency documents in Egypt and another unknown number who have no formal documentation (UNHCR portal 2013). Since spring 2012, a Syrian “refugee community” has started to emerge in Cairo Syrians in Cairo as Syrian in Cairo make more than 60% of those in Egypt and they are dispersed in different urban areas. The following section is going to demonstrate the primary data that was obtained during the field work and gives details on their allocations and experiences.

Figure 21.The distribution of Syrian Asylum Seekers by Egyptian governorates.

Source: UNHCR 2013

4.

Field Findings 4.1. Field Research: Popular locations of settlement for Syrian Refugees In Greater Cairo Region and on the whole, there is a clear understanding among Syrian refugee communities of the types of available housing for accommodation; public and privately owned (Gihaz and Ahali) (interviewee: Said 2013). Syrians are more found in new towns than in informal areas. Informal areas on state owned land reported the lowest percentages. New towns and satellite cities offer housing supply which not only provide shelter but further allow refugees to form communities with the excessive supply they have (Shawkat 2013; Sims 2011).

131

Figure 22. Syrian Refugees' Dispersion in Greater Cairo Region Source: Developed by Author based on (Sejourne and Sims 2009) cited in (Sims 2011)

Settlement in these areas is happening because of a complex interplay of a multitude of factors which contribute to understanding urban responses to refugee influxes. The ways in which some Syrians choose/or are given accommodation (in many cases it is not their preferred option) and settle in particular areas is very interesting to study as they are driven by push and pull factors. Economic profiles (i.e. the amount of money the refugee families can afford to pay for accommodation) play an important role in the decision about where to settle, with equal consideration given to the urban form, location and type of available housing. It is important to draw a deeper discussion of some of these factors such as supply of housing, cost of rent/affordability, security concerns, political background/setting, social connections/community cohesions and access to livelihood options in a way which is specific to the situation in Cairo by the time of the collection of data (end of May 2013). See figure 5 for pull/push factors.

Figure 23 The weighting of Push and Pull factors as reported by Syrian refugees following frequency of answer .Source: Author

However, in many areas around Cairo where refugees are settling in large numbers and specifically in Sitta October Satellite city, as more than a year has passed since the arrival and settlement, some changes on the built environment have started to show, bringing about urban and social development through socioeconomic and cultural activities into the previously under-utilized satellite cities of Cairo. And thus directly influencing the rental market and raising real-estate values in these areas. These spaces play an important role in promoting a sense of vibrant and fragile displaced community among the refugees, allowing them to express their collective identity and their semi-autonomous social and political activism which is affected by the political structures and participation modes of Egypt and of their area of residence in particular.

132

Figure 24. The dispersion of Syrian Refugees in Sitta October satellite city

Figure 25. The Introduction of different uses and change of Uses in Housari Area in Sitta October by Syrian Refugees' Activities Source: Developed by Author based on Google Earth

133

4.2. Movement within the city Freemantle (2010), talking about migrants to the city, argues that “people normally maintain feet in multiple sites and keep moving” (cited in Landau 2012). Refugees tend to move in between different spaces of the city in search of better livelihood options, cheaper means of living and pulled by the presence of family members or acquaintances and other pull factors. Observing their modes of movements and the reasons behind contribute to understanding city‟s structure and its organization in response to refugees and to making predictions for the future of many of its urban spaces.

Figure 26. Some of the experienced journeys of Syrian Refugees within Cairo's urban spaces Source: Author based on (Sejourne and Sims 2009 cited in Sims 2011)

5.

Separate Refugee Communities in between Exclusionary Housing Projects, Gated Communities and Informal Settlements

The paper has considered three paradigmatic urban spaces for deeper study of humanitarian concepts in light of local urban governance: an exclusionary and marginal housing project, a gated community and informal settlements. A specific definition to protection of refugees has been set forward for examination: “Protecting refugees from the pressures and tensions experienced in a specific area of residence, which influences their feelings of security and safety, and may also cause arbitrary evictions and movements” derived from UNHCR definition of protection (2013).

134

Figure 27. Location of the three case studies: the informal settlement of Omraneya, the gated city of Rehab and the Remote housing project of Masaken Othman Source: Author based on (Sejourne and Sims 2009 cited in Sims 2011)

The main findings showed the extent to which local power relations and politics can influence refugee life and daily coping strategies in a different manner between the three spaces.

Figure 28. Summary of the findings of the influence of local politics and informal governance on Refugee protection, Source: Author

135

City‟s urban modes of governance not only are influential in determining the type of protection provided, but in some cases also controlled its mechanisms. Refugees have to navigate through what is beyond mere built environments, and still further through the established and evolving functions of these spaces within the framework of the city. They share spaces with “informal settlers” who had developed complex soci0-political structures that maintained refugees within them or repelled them. The gated city seems to have evolved as a means of extracting revenue in exchange for basic rights, which also enforced a low- profiled activism and “wellmannered” behaviour. The third urban typology, the housing project seems undeveloped in terms of socioeconomic and political structures yet maintains the potential for becoming a camp-like area for refugees with the patronage and support of a faith-based organization. Accordingly, the lived “protection space” appeared to have its limitations and confinements. Some areas appeared as “no entry‟ zones for “top-down” protection mechanisms as the refugees‟ daily lives and settings are dependent on other sets of protection mechanisms.

Political Setting: Actors, Networks and Self Organized Structures It is vital to provide an initial exploration of the frameworks of relationships and actors involved in the Syrian refugees‟ context on a wider city level and to locate the local urban governance and networks in the areas studied previously in a broader picture of the formal framework of refugees‟ governance. In addition, it is important to investigate the social and political participation environment in Cairo and the way in which the resulting configuration of relationships is influencing overall humanitarian assistance and self-organized structures in the turbulent times Egypt is currently experiencing. There has been a complex weaving and growth of relations in the Syrian refugee context, reproducing different sets of relationships within the Egyptian political settings. These relationships seem supportive for some groups and not encouraging for others, and mostly devised by religious affiliations and faith-based charity structures in the host community (primary data 2012-2013). The humanitarian organizations‟ engagement and responsibilities have started to grow larger as a more systemized and sustainable type of support. Integration of Syrians into the Egyptian community is not yet well enough established for studying and critique; however, a wide spectrum of levels of “initial integration” have been reported which would provide an initial premise when studying this aspect later.

Figure 29. The loop of Actors and Relationships in the formal Refugee governance of the Syrian Refugees' in Egypt, showing approximate contribution of the main involved actors.

Source: Author

The Egyptian settings, especially with the structures of governance in the post revolution era, are undergoing constant transformations which are transmitted to the way in which refugees‟ aid, livelihoods and activism are happening. This has been reflected in the allowance of “desirable” segments of them, and the direct or indirect hindering of the “unwanted”. These aspects are also changing with the dynamic nature of transformation in the 136

country and have shown and will continue to show shifts in public attitudes, national policies and roles and range of actors working in the refugee context following the government shift on July 3rd and the consequences on the security situation and reconciliation efforts in Egypt Conclusions It has been found that the examination of spaces of refuge within the city‟s framework is a demanding task which entails correlating multitudes of layers. Seeking refuge spaces in Cairo have been driven by a complex multitude of factors and have resulted in varying degrees of urban experiences of these refugees. Cairo offers multi-choice avenues and dignified experiences for the rich and it marginalizes and excludes the poor putting them into conditioning coping strategies. Its compartmental and fragmented nature adds a lot of stresses and shocks to these experiences and positions refugees into structures of local modes of governance and power relationships.

Places of refuge are a complex product of physical structures and dynamic relationships, flows, sensations and embody convoluted meanings and aspirations. They are further incited by the formal and informal political, economic, social and psychological attitudes of the organization of city spaces. They are charged with extra prospects to accommodate refugees‟ security and psycho-social needs which in many cases, they do not fulfil and cause continuous intra-city movement. Nevertheless, it is simplistic and extraneous to draw conclusions that cover city-wide spaces in a generalized way. A city like Cairo will not veer towards extreme scenarios between xenophobia and cosmopolitanism/ transitory and final destination with its contested, polarized and fragmented nature.

At heart, this research has attempted to examine the conjunctions of humanitarian concerns within urban frameworks through connecting urban expertise to refugee literature in an empirical-led way. It has undoubtedly been a demanding task, especially at times of huge economic and political transformations and with a plethora of literature on Cairo‟s urbanization modes, forced displacement, marginalized spaces, migrant communities, refugees‟ histories and humanitarian aspects. The picture of the future of Syrian refugees in Cairo is uncertain with the recent and ongoing instability and the change in public perceptions and the government‟s positions.

Egypt, through its policy shift, is slowing down the flows of Syrians to it, and the Syrians in turn are trapped in double turmoil in Egypt- they are escaping a raging conflict and coming to a state of uncertainty in Egypt.

Accordingly, agencies and actors working on the context in general and on the Syrian refugees in particular will have a wider role to play in the coming period and the Syrians themselves as well as other refugee communities will have to pro- actively develop their self-organized mechanisms to cope with all these predicaments.

137

Primary Data Resources:

-

Primary Data, Public Information: refers to different multiple resources Interviewee Mr. Said, Mammoun: community leader in U‟bur 3/2/2013 Interviewee Mr. Abu Ammar: community leader in Sitta October 5/5/2013 Interviewee Mr. Diab, Mohamed: community leader in Sitta October 5/5/2013 Interviewee Mr. Dayri, Mohammad: UNHCR representative 5/6/2013 Interviewee Mr. Rifaat Mohammad: (A Historian on Armenian Refugees in Egypt) Interviewee Mr. City Mayor of Rehab 1/4/2013 Interviewee Mrs. Al Akhras, Manal; Sitta October Urban Administration 8/6/2013 Interviewee Mr. Abdul Aziz, Mohammad in the city administration of Rehab 1/4/2013 Interviewee Mr. Ahmad (real estate agent in Masaken Othman) 24/5/2013 Interviewee Mrs. Bakr, Laila ( head of statistics department) in Omraneya District Interviweee Mr. Yousef , Mohammad (Head of GIS department in Giza Informal Areas Upgrading Unit) 9/5/2013 Discussion with Ahmad, Eman and Khallaf, Shaden, May 2013 UNHCR interagency meeting (May 2013) UNHCR interagency meeting (June 2013) Misselwitz Philipp (2013). Feedback on the written material

Bibliography

-

Al-Sayyad, N. and Roy, A., 2006. Medieval modernity: on citizenship and urbanism in a global era. Space & Polity, 10(1), pp.1–20.

-

Bailey, S., 2004. Is Legal Status Enough? Legal status and livelihood obstacles for urban refugees. The Fletcher School, MALD Thesis, (April). Available at: http://urban-refugees.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Is-Legal-Status-Enough.pdf [Accessed April 14th, 2013].

-

Chatelard, G., 2008. Constructing and deconstructing “the Iraq refugee crisis”. In New Issues in Refugee Research. Geneva: UNHCR working Paper No.94. Available at: http://www.iraqistudies.org/English/conferences/2008/papers/Chatelard.pdf [Accessed February 20th, 2013].

-

Crisp, J., Janz, J. and Riera, J., 2009. Surviving in the city: a review of UNHCR‟s operations for Iraqi refugees in urban areas of Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, UNHCR, Policy Development and Evaluation Service.

-

Danielson, N., 2012. Urban refugee protection in Cairo: the role of communication, information and technology. In New Issues Iin Refugee Research. UNHCR, Policy Development and Evaluation Service, p. 236. Available at: http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/4fc49ca92.pdf [Accessed March 29th, 2013].

-

Minnick, E., 2009. Between Return and Resettlement: The formation of Iraqi refugee “communities” in Cairo and Amman. American University in Cairo.

-

Goodwin-Gill, G.S. & McAdam, J., 1996. The refugee in international law, Oxford: Clarendon Press Oxford.

-

Grabska, K., 2005. Living on the margins: The analysis of the livelihood strategies of Sudanese refugees with closed files in Egypt, Forced Migration and Refugee Studies Working Paper. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo.

-

Grabska, K., 2006. Marginalization in urban spaces of the global south: Urban refugees in Cairo. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(3), pp.287–307. Available at: http://jrs.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/3/287.short [Accessed April 20th, 2013].

-

Guterres, A., 2013. Struggle Of The Middle East Refugees. The Cairo Review of Global Affairs, pp.30–39. Available at: http://www.aucegypt.edu/gapp/cairoreview/Pages/articleDetails.aspx?aid=330 [Accessed March 9th, 2013].

-

Haysom, S., 2013. From Managing Exclusion To Promoting Inclusion: The Need For A New Approach To Urban Displacement, London, UK.

-

Haysom, Simone , 2013. Sanctuary in the city? Summary in the Gaza Strip, London, UK.

-

Hussain, N., 2012. Informal Governance and Role of State in Cities in Developing Countries: Comparing Karachi and Cairo, Oslo.

-

Kagan M., 2013. Refugees in the Middle East and The Surrogate State. A presentation presented at Humanitarian Policy Group Conference on Urban Displacement and Development. Copenhagen

-

Khallaf, S., 2012. Refugee Limbo. The Cairo Review of Global Affairs. Available at: http://www.aucegypt.edu/GAPP/CAIROREVIEW/Pages/articleDetails.aspx?aid=206 [Accessed Aptil 15th, 2013].

Amin, H., 2010. Fragmented City: Visualizing the City-psyche Relationship of Cairo. Media N Online Journal, pp.1–8. Available at: http://hebaamin.com/documents/Media N Online Journal.pdf [Accessed April 15th, 2013].

Goździak, E.M. & Walter, A., 2012. Urban Refugees in Cairo. Institute for study of international migration. Center for contemporary Arab Studies. Georgetown University

Van Hear, N., 2006. Refugees in diaspora: from durable solutions to transnational relations. Refuge: Canada‟s Journal on Refugees, 23(1), pp.9–14. Available at: Refugees in diaspora.

Kagan, M., 2011. Shared responsibility in a new Egypt: a strategy for refugee protection. Scholarly Works, (Paper 677). Available at:http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/677 [Accessed June 25th, 2013].

138

-

Kipper, R., 2009. Cairo: A broader view. In R. Kipper & M. Fischer, eds. Cairo‟s informal areas between urban challenges and hidden potentials: Facts--voices--visions. Cairo: GTZ Egypt, p. 13.

-

Kobia, K. and Cranfield, L., 2009. Literature Review: Urban Refugees, Canada. Available at: http://www.supportunhcr.org/4b0a528c9.pdf [Accessed Aptil 15th, 2013].

-

Landau, L.B., 2012. Hospitality without Hosts: Mobility and Communities in Africa ‟ s Urban Estuaries. , (March). Available at: http://wiser.wits.ac.za/system/files/seminar/Landau2012.pdf [Accessed June 5th, 2013].

-

Landau, L.B., 2009. Urban Refugees Study Guide. Available at: http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/fmo024.pdf [Accessed June 24th, 2013].

-

Marfleet, P., 2007. the Urban Refugee. Predicaments of the Urban Refugee, 24(1), pp.36–45. Available at: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNHCRs Policy on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas.pdf [Accessed March 8th, 2013].

-

Michael, M. & Rizk, M., 2013. Syrian refugees in Egypt swept up in turmoil. AP news. Available at: http://m.apnews.com/ap/db_289563/contentdetail.htm?contentguid=7lfx2iDZ [Accessed February 24th, 2013].

-

Morand, M., 2012. The Implementation of UNHCR ‟ s Policy on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas, Geneva, Switzerland. Available at: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNHCRs Policy on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas.pdf [Accessed March 8th, 2013].

-

Saunders, D., 2010. Arrival city: the final migration and our next world, Toronto, Knopf Canada: Random House Digital, Inc.

-

Sims, David, 2011. Understanding Cairo: the Logic of a City out of Control, Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.

-

World Disaster Report (WDR), 2012. Focus on forced migration and displacement, Geneva. Available at: https://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/99703/1216800-WDR 2012-EN-LR.pdf [Accessed June 18th, 2013].

-

Zetter, R. and Deikun, G., 2011. A new strategy for meeting humanitarian challenges in urban areas. Forced Migration Review 38, pp.48–50. Available at: http://www.fmreview.org/en/technology/48-50.pdf [Accessed May 20th, 2013].

-

Zetter, R. and Long, K., n.d.. Unlocking protracted displacement. Forced Migration Review 40, pp.34–37. Available at: http://www.fmreview.org/en/young-and-out-of-place/zetter-long.pdf [Accessed April 15th, 2013].

-

Zohry, A., 2003. CAIRO: A TRANSIT CITY FOR MIGRANTS AND AFRICAN. , 19(3), pp.1–13. Available at: http://www.academia.edu/1300267/Cairo_a_Transit_City_for_Migrants_and_African_Refugees [Accessed February 20th, 2013].

-

@shadowMoH June, 17th, 2013. A tweet of ShadowMinisty of Housing.

-

UNHCR 2012. The State of the World‟s Refugees. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

-

UNHCR RO-Cairo 2012 , Number of Syrian refugees in Egypt tops 150,000 after „saturation‟ in other host countries: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refdaily?pass=463ef21123&id=5080e4c85 [Accessed January 3rd, 2013]

-

UNHCR RO-Cairo 2013, Notes on Syrians: available at: http://reliefweb.int/report/egypt/unhcr-note-syrians-february-21-2013 [Accessed June 28th, 2013].

-

UNHCR 2013, Portal on Registered Asylum seekers. Available at: http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php [Accessed February 28th, 2013]

-

UNHCR RO- Cairo 2012, Fact Sheet on Syrians : An Internl Paper shared with Implementing and Operational partners.

-

Save the Children (SC), 2013. An Emergency Needs Assessment of the Syrian Refugees in Cairo, February 2013,

-

UNHCR definition on Protection (2013). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646cc8.html [Accessed May 23rd, 2013]

Séjourné, Marion, 2012. The history of informal settlements. In About Cairo And Its Informal Areas.

Shawkat, Y., 2013. Social Justice and the Built Environment in Egypt. Self Published. Egpyt: Cairo Shearlaw, M., 2013. Are refugee camps the best solution for people fleeing a crisis? The Guardian, Global development. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/jul/25/refugee-camps-solution-people-fleeing-crisis?view=mobile [Accessed April 18th, 2013].

Singerman, D., 2011. Introduction. In Cairo Contested: Governance, Urban Space, and Global Modernity. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, pp. 3– 38.

UN Agencies and Other International Organization UNHCR 2009. UNHCR policy on refugee protection and solutions in urban areas. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4ab8e7f72.html [Accesssed December 3rd,2012].

Castle and Miller, Chapter 11, New Ethnic Minorities and Society, pp.245-276 UNHCR RO-Cairo 2012. UNHCR Country Operation Profile (Egypt). Available at http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e486356#ARECA [Accessed May 1oth, 2013].

United Nations 1951. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. 1951. 189 U.N.T.S. 150, entered into force April 22, 1954.

UNHCR, 2013, June 24th, 2013, Internal statistical description on the Syrian Refugees: By governorate of residence in Egypt, city of origin in Syria and way of coming to Egypt.

UN Media 2013. Syrian refugees to reach 4 million by the end of 2013 http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2013/04/syrian-refugees-to-reach-4-million-by-the-end-of-2013/[Accessed May 23rd, 2013]

139

Towards an Integrated Transport Planning Approach in Amman Author: Sandy Qarmout

Supervisors: Stefan Siedentop, Mohamed Salheen, Markus Friedrich

Amman, the capital of Jordan, is a thriving city with a population of about 3 million inhabitants. By 2025, its population is expected to double and the number of cars to triple. Thus integrated transport planning (ITP) is the only pathway towards addressing current and future mobility. ITP is a holistic approach that considers developing the current transport situation in parallel to planning the future of mobility within cities. In 2010, the Amman Transport and Mobility Master Plan (TMMP) was completed. This plan was produced to be the hope for solving the mobility challenges of Amman. The integration within the different suggested transport modes (TMs) and the surrounding land uses within this master plan is the subject of this research.

Introduction Within the TMMP, the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM), and for the first time, considered transport and mobility beyond private cars that are overwhelming Amman at the moment. Public transport (PuT) functions were only added to GAM in late 2007. As a result, there has been always very little investment in this field. After completing the TMMP, the work had begun on developing the first mass rapid transit system in Amman. The first phase of the Amman Bus Rapid Transit project was fast-tracked for implementation as part of the new paradigm shift to restore balance in the mobility system of Amman. However, the project was shortly halted just after construction work began, thus threatening any real hope for solving the mobility challenges of Amman. The delay that might happen due to this issue might affect the success of any transport solution in the future, due to the belief that every single day passing will increase the challenges facing implementing any integrated network, and the fear here that the transport problems can shift from being temporary and solvable to chronic insoluble ones. It further affects the integrity of the TMMP and GAM's ability to carry out other initiatives outlined in the plan in order to address the mobility challenges in Amman. Institutionally, the interference of the central government may create a precedent whereby transport planning (TP) traditionally entrusted to municipal authorities is open to political pressures. Therefore, assuring that the TMMP is an ITP product, and assuring the implementation of the resulting solution are urgent processes that should take place as soon as possible.

Thus the research main question is: Is the TMMP the appropriate approach for Amman?

With the following sub-questions: 1. What are the issues of the current transport system (TS) in Amman?

2. Does the TMMP explore solutions for all the current and future challenges?

3. Does the TMMP provide an ITP approach?

4. What processes of ITP are not explored in the TMMP? 5. How does GAM's institutional framework affect applying ITP? Objectives and Methodology This research evaluates the TMMP by comparative analysis of suggested approaches for solving transport problems in Amman based on the comparison between the strategies, policies, and planning measures set in Stuttgart. The main objectives of this research are: evaluating the TMMP and its correspondence to the mobility needs, identifying success factors for integrated TS, and recommending an ITP approach for Amman.

The methodology of this research relied on benchmarking Amman against Stuttgart and involved three main tasks applied in both cities: preparing online surveys to understand the current transport behavior, conduct interviews with key personnel from different planning/transport authorities to collect primary data, and literature review to fully understand the transport master plans and analyze them.

The research started by establishing "best practices" through literature review of ITP and implemented transport plans around the world. Then primary data about the current transport behavior and the TP processes in both cities were collected and analyzed. The next step focused on defining the set of issues in the TMMP of Amman, based on three different scopes; TP and its integration, transport and technology, and the organizational structures. Based on the results of the comparison, and the lessons learnt from both the case of Stuttgart and the literature review, success factors of an integrated TS and sets of recommendations towards an ITP approach for Amman are the outcome of this thesis.

Stuttgart was chosen to benchmark how well Amman achieves integrated transport due to the proven success of the TS in Stuttgart and many influential similarities. The most important similarities to build upon in this comparison are: the hilly terrain and topography, the urban population, the regional population, and the population density.

140

Analysis Table 1 shows a summary for the comparison between Amman and Stuttgart within the different analyzed scopes in this thesis.

Scope of comparison

TP and its integration

Transport and Technology

Amman

Stuttgart

Lack of accurate statistical data and accordingly insufficient data base

Analysis based on accurate statistical data and needs assessment

Lack of communication with the different stakeholders

Continuous communication between the different stakeholders and service providers

Inadequate involvement of the public

Public participation is always considered

A funding plan is missing, as well as lack of funds for both implementation and maintenance The shortage of public space is not dealt with sufficiently neither in planning nor at implementation Hierarchy of road network is missing as well as the density

A systematic plan for continuous development and maintenance.

Continuous source of funding Shortage of space is being solved by the renovation and reuse of old vacant building within the existing fabric.

No clear measures of evaluation for actions/strategies

Cost/benefit evaluation measure

Insufficient intersections treatment and lack of standards

Well-established standards in the field of traffic engineering and crossings safety

Walking paths are missing and importance of cycling is underestimated

Walking and cycling networks are continuously enlarged and improved

Closed vs. open system

100% open system

Shortage of qualified experts and workforce A gap between national and city planning levels Risk of programs and projects disruption Organizational structure

Clear hierarchy of the road network

Lack of commitment to the plan and the timeline Little communication with the different planning authorities, mainly land use planning Lots of conventional bureaucracies

High level of expertise and experience Adopting the national vision and goals in all city planning levels.

Programs and projects continuity guaranteed High commitment to the plan and the timeline Involvement of all the different authorities in the planning process Creative and interactive ways of communication between the different stakeholders

Table 1. Conclusions of the comparison

Conclusions and Sets of Recommendations From the conducted survey in Amman, majority of the participants either believe that the new TP for Amman is not beneficial for improving the transport situation or did not know enough information to judge on it. Thus: 1. Make sure to regain the citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x; trust. Increase communication with the public. Establish an interactive platform where people can stay updated about what is going on in the municipality and the city, and where they can participate with their opinions, feedback, and objections. Assure transparency in communication. Citizens should have access to exact plans, financials, and any statistics or studies done for the development of any urban or transport plans.

2. Distribute a yearly magazine or newspaper to every household in Amman, which shows the achievements of the municipality in that year, the tasks and projects to be covered in the coming years, the schedule or timeline of realizing each project, a survey to evaluate the success of recently realized projects, and maybe a referendum on suggested future plans and projects.

141

Most people in Amman avoid using PuT in all cases, and many of them think that the city is in a better condition without this service. Some of the recommendations are: 1. Change the transport behavior and perception of the PuT and alternative TMs. Raise the awareness of the community of the benefits of these modes using simple, low-cost, innovative methods. Do not only focus on financial benefits, it is important to increase consciousness towards other environmental, social, and sustainability issues.

2. Changing the transport behavior requires beyond raising the awareness, the application of strict monitoring and control measures. Increasing the number of traffic officers and automated control systems to prevent or minimize traffic violations. In addition, raising the fines values for traffic violations and introducing the points system can play a major role in changing the transport behavior tremendously and immediately.

Walking and cycling are not widely perceived as TMs in Amman. Therefore: 1. Introduce Zebra lines for pedestrians at every intersection and every 200-300 meters along streets, enforced with traffic lights where possible. This is a more financially convenient option than building pedestrian bridges or tunnels, and will also help in reducing the speed of traffic.

2. Safety is a responsibility of all moving people despite their TM. Thus make sure to have a control system that is fair to all. Fines should be applied both on pedestrians and cyclists as well as drivers.

3. Work on changing the citizens‟ perception about cycling. Do some advertising campaigns to encourage cycling in Amman, showing all its benefits on all aspects. Highlight on the fact that Amman is not a huge city and that distances could be covered easily with a bike. Since Amman‟s topography is challenging for cycling, try to introduce pedelecs as a good option for non-sporty cyclists and elderly.

To overcome the risk of stopping one project due to changes occur in the management or leadership of GAM or the parliament: 1. Create a sense of ownership in the citizens‟ minds towards their city projects. When people feel that these projects belong to them and decided by them, they can be a pressure group on the different political and municipal tables to assure these projects‟ continuation.

2. Assign a committee that has at least one representative from the different cooperating departments in developing the TMMP, which can be responsible for keeping the different stakeholders informed about the work done in GAM and assure involving them in the planning process. These stakeholders will also play a significant role as a pressure group to secure the continuation of threatened projects, and prevent the allowance of violations in this regard.

3. Create a committee from GAM‟s different departments and town councils, to agree on changing or suggesting new laws which can be raised to the political table. Make sure to include the Mayor, director, and all decision makers in this committee to gain their support.

The missing funding plan issue can be overcome by: 1. Prioritize the different projects within the TMMP into a funding program.

2. Raise funds locally to cover the expenses of realizing small interventions and projects within the TMMP. Create a bank sub-account for collecting all financial revenues from traffic fines, parking, license issuance, and other given permissions.

The gap between the national and municipal levels of planning can be solved by: 1. Highlighting the importance of having a strong national transport plan. Pressure the decision makers to include expert regional planners into the national planning board.

2. Elect someone from GAM‟s team to be responsible for communicating with the national planning board.

His/her role should assure that the national and city vision and goals do not contradict, and also to help in developing a mature regional plan for a longer duration which includes the transport connections between the different cities through a more organized PuT system.

Lack of commitment to plans is another issue. Therefore: 1. Raise this issue of commitment on the discussion table of GAM. Rather allocate more time to give approvals or rejections to any proposals based on cost/benefits measures. However, forbid reversible decisions to appeal after approvals.

2. Bureaucracy in GAM waists lots of time. Thus certain new rules in GAM should be added to make sure that bureaucracy is flowing smoothly and does not contribute negatively to timelines.

3. Timelines can be also affected due to implementation insufficiency and sub-contractors low level of commitment. Make sure that high fines are added to contracts for delays that might occur. And make sure to have professional supervisors on ground. Accuracy in implementing the plan is required to make sure that mistakes which might delay the work can be avoided.

Insufficient communication between the different departments in GAM is a crucial concluded issue from conducted interviews. To overcome this problem: 1. Create a new coordination team from the different planning and related departments, which can keep the different parties informed about others work to assure the continuous cooperation between all.

2. This committee should plan for regular meetings. Structure these meetings to discuss the development of current projects, issues, new challenges, and how roles and responsibilities should be distributed among the different departments and directors

142

Rethinking infrastructure development: negotiating green infrastructure approach towards collaborative planning Author: Zaineb Madyouni

Supervisors: Prof. Antje Stockman, Prof. Mohamed Salheen

Abstract Green infrastructure (GI) is an emerging approach to spatial planning assumed to be of benefit to natural and human systems. This paper examines the concepts underpinning GI approach and presents a reflection on negotiating this approach towards a collaborative planning.

1. Shifts in infrastructure development rationale The infrastructure is defined as „the basic facilities – such as transportation and communications systems, utilities, and public institutions – needed for the functioning of a community or society‟ (Oxford dictionary, 2013).

Infrastructure development can disturb natural habitats and affect negatively the ecosystems. It is also seen as an interrupting and external element to landscapes. Therefore, environmental concerns are being, more and more, introduced in the planning approaches. According to the UN habitat (2004), sustainable infrastructure planning, beyond standardized solutions, aims at reducing resources consumption and environmental impacts; as well as increasing service value and social inclusiveness. Infrastructure planning is progressively reviewing the way of infrastructural services delivery to meet societal and environmental needs .Thus, this new vision takes into account the complementarity of social and natural systems.

Reid (2008) advocates that an integrated planning should consider both conservation and infrastructure priorities over long- term planning. The protectionist conservation through fine and fences methods and protected areas showed its own deficiency in reconciling natural and human welfare. Jordan and Selzer claim „that many protected areas have become islands of nature surrounded by a sea of development; as experienced in the United States the national and state parks and wildlife refuges are becoming ecological islands in an increasingly fragmented landscape‟(2006, xiv, in Benedict and McMahon 2006 ). New orientations in infrastructure planning approaches consider reducing pressure on local resources and controlling land management. Mainstreaming conservation into infrastructure projects requires an understanding and appreciation for the context impact and benefit to the environment and local communities; without denying the negotiation and possible trade-offs (Quintero, 2007).

2.

The green infrastructure approach

2.1. Literature review on the green infrastructure concept Although the concept is considered new but older concepts are underpinning it. The green infrastructure has roots in the emergence of the interdisciplinary thinking; integrating environmental aspect in the planning act. Different researchers (Mell, 2010; Pankhurst, 2010) relate the green infrastructure approach to the work of Ebenezer Howard and Frederick Law Olmsted. The theoretical underpinning for it is attributed to the garden city and the urban parks movements. In the garden city movement, developed by Ebenezer Howard towards the end of the 19th, the spatial planning and the environmental awareness were brought together. Howard introduced and emphasized the importance of the belt of open and agricultural land around an urban settlement which became a pillar in the British planning doctrine (Reps, Unknown). Olmsted‟s aim, through designing the park system, is to meet recreational needs and ecological benefits.

In addition to standards roads, utilities, and other elements of the grey infrastructure, attention is more and more going to natural systems that proved the ability to provide different services called ecosystem services .The green infrastructure was first discussed in the late 1990‟s (Mell, 2010). Benedict and McMahon define it as „an interconnected network of natural areas and other open spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions, sustains clean air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife‟ (2006, Chapter1, p.1). However, the European environmental agency (2011) advocates, as there is no single definition of the green infrastructure, defining key principles to be a more useful approach. So in attempt to grasp the green infrastructure principles and its varied nuances, different definition are explored (table 2.1).

143

Benedict and McMahon (2006, Chapter 1.p.1 )

European commission s (http://ec.europa.eu/envi ronment/nature/ecosyste ms/background.htm)

Landscape Institute (2009,p.4)

The President’s Council on Sustainable development (1999) (Cited in Williamson K. p.4)

Definition

Attributes of GI

„an interconnected network of natural areas and other open spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions, sustains clean air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife‟

•Connectivity •Benefits to people and nature •Natural ecosystems‟ conservation

„The green infrastructure serves the interests of both people and nature.

It should be designed and managed as a multifunctional resource capable of delivering a wide range of benefits: One of the key attractions of Green Infrastructure is its multifunctionality, which allows unlocking several benefits on the same spatial area. Green Infrastructure includes natural and semi-natural areas, features and green spaces – spanning from large wilderness areas to green roofs –, in rural and urban, terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine areas‟.

•Benefits to people and nature •Multifunctional resource

„GI includes the network of green spaces and other natural elements such as rivers and lakes that are interspersed between and connect villages, towns and cities.

Individually these elements are GI assets and the roles that these assets play are GI functions. When appropriately planned, designed and managed, these assets and functions have the potential to deliver a wide range of social, environmental and economic benefits.‟

• Connectivity • Scalability • Socio-economic and environmental benefits • Multifunctionality

Green infrastructure is defined as: „Our nation‟s natural life support system – an interconnected network of protected land and water that „supports native species, maintains natural ecological processes

•Connectivity •Conservation of natural processes and contribution to human welfare

Table 2.1 Green infrastructure definitions

The different definitions recognize the interaction between the natural and the human system. The green infrastructure, designed and managed as a multifunctional resource, is assumed to be capable of delivering a range of benefits to both nature and people. Overarching principles, emphasized in different definitions, are the multi-functionality, the connectivity and the benefits to natural processes and human beings.

2.2. Green infrastructure planning The green infrastructure approach, as presented by Benedict and McMahon (2006), guides the creation of a system of linked open spaces that support conservation and associated outdoor recreational activities. The green infrastructure brings together different disciplines such landscape ecology, planning, and geography to develop a 144

holistic approach to planning (Mell, 2010). It is defined also as a methodology for the planning having consideration for social, economic and environmental concerns applied in different settings (natural, semi-natural areas, urban and rural) (Science for Environment Policy ,2012). The green infrastructure planning experiences, started in the UK and the USA, showed different orientations . Kambites and Owen consider the approach in the USA for the green infrastructure planning more ecologically based and describe the one in the UK as more socially based (2006, p.486). However, Mell (2010) considers that approach in the UK is more holistic encompassing economic, social and ecological development; whereas the American experience seemed less well-defined.

Kambites and Owen (2006), do not consider that these differences in the approaches make them contradictory.

Spatially, the landscape institute (2009) adds that the green infrastructure approach to planning can also create a baseline to optimize the potential for efficient, decentralized, renewable energy.

2.3. Attributes of the green infrastructure 2.3.1. The multi-functionality and ecosystem services The multifunctionality, means delivering several benefits on the same space(Landscape Institute, 2009).Selman states that „in a multifunctional perspective, land is capable of serving more than one purpose and of fulfilling several needs at the same time. Thus, on the same area of land, key functions–ecological, economic,socio-cultural, and aesthetic–can be promoted simultaneously and to mutual benefit‟ (2009, p.47). This vision is supported by The Landscape Institute (2009) which describes the elements of the green infrastructure as assets that have primary functions, but can perform multiple ones. The multi-functionality is one of the overarching principles of the green infrastructure approach. It is the ability to perform several functions and provide several benefits on the same spatial area (Science for environment policy, 2013). Mell states that „the Multi-functionality has been used most often in terms of green infrastructure as a way of ensuring that landscapes create a better quality of life, place and environment‟(2010, p.58). Selman (2009) discusses also the difference between the terms function and service and considers that function and service are easily reconcilable as the system service is the result of the system behaviour or function. To contrast with the grey infrastructure, which tend to be designed to perform one function, (e.g transport or drainage without broader environmental, social and economic goals), the multifunctionality is distinguishing the green infrastructure approach (Naumann et al., 2011a). In addition, the multifunctionality promotes the network of the green infrastructure as a resource providing a range of ecological and socio-economic benefits. This encourages people to use it (Mell, 2010) and maintain it.

Ecosystem services are described as a new valuation strategy for development impacts and conservation benefits (Amundsen et al., 2009). Ecosystem services refer to „the range of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that they contain, help sustain and fulfil human life (Daily, 1997 in Boyd and Benzhaf, 2006, p.1)‟. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005), ecosystem services fall into four categories: • Provisioning services: such as food and water • Regulating services: such as flood and disease control • Cultural services, such as Spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits 2.3.2. The connectivity The connectivity is a major key concept in the green infrastructure definitions. Maintaining and enhancing connectivity is a way to help reduce the biodiversity losses due to fragmentation. The role of the green infrastructure in protecting biodiversity and ecosystem state is by increasing connectivity between natural areas, improving the ability of organisms to move through a landscape (Science for environment policy, 2013). The connectivity is described by Kambites and Owen as an „Overriding Characteristic of Green Infrastructure‟ (fig 2.1) not only targeting the spatial level but also referring to the functional level (ecological and social functions) and institutional level (2006, p.49).

Fig (2.1)- Connectivity in green infrastructure concept and planning process (based on Kambites C. ; Owen S. , 2006)

2.3.3. Mitigation of grey infrastructure Today, grey infrastructure is facing increasing pressure to have a regard for the environment in the planning and delivery through impact studies. The green infrastructure plans provide a background for grey infrastructure 145

planning (Amundsen et al., 2009) and direct development towards mitigating the negative environmental impacts. Thus, it can be an appropriate and effective approach to developing solutions that reduce the financial and environmental burden of the grey infrastructure system. The latter can draw on the green infrastructure network designs to help in decision making. However, Hostetler (2011) claims that this integration, between built and green infrastructure, needs governmental initiatives though educational out reaching actions and encouraging innovation among developers, builders and residents.

3. Green infrastructure planning process For planners, the green infrastructure can be a baseline and a guiding tool for development patterns (Amundsen et al., 2009). An appropriate strategy depends on the setting in which it takes place and should build on the current planning work (Benedict and McMahon, 2006; Kambites and Owen, 2006). Introducing the green infrastructure approach needs an „inception‟ and „visioning stage‟ assessing the context and its relevant legislation (Mell and Roe, 2010). For example, it can start through revising local comprehensive plans and thus bridging the gap between development and conservation programmes (Benedict and McMahon, 2006) and planning for the coexistence with the existing traditional infrastructure (Landscape Institute 2009).

In any scale, the green infrastructure approach draws on: • The existing green infrastructure • The targeted groups and policies • Existing human development or biodiversity conservation plans The implementation has to take into consideration public-private cooperation and public participation. It needs also to addresses the context development driving forces, issues and needs to propose adequate development forms. Thus, a negotiation approach is proposed to bring together different social actors and planning approaches of biodiversity conservation and development.

4.

Negotiating the green infrastructure approach: Towards a collaborative planning 4.1. A system approach

„Being part of a system is being integrated in a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an interconnecting network; a complex whole (Oxford dictionary, 2013). Senge describes the system‟s thinking as „a conceptual framework, to make the full patterns clearer and to help us see how to change them effectively‟ (1990, p.1). Gallopin (2004) claims that perfect knowledge is not possible in a system approach .However, it is a framework to have a global vision connecting different sectors and governance levels (local, national, global).

Therefore, the system approach draws on defining main subsystems, their linkages and superposition in a way to define the whole system image and mechanism. UN habitat (2004) defines the system approach to design as a process considering inter-connections between systems and solutions that tackle multiple problems simultaneously. This approach revisits the infrastructure planning rationale towards integration into the landscape which is already considered as a system. Instead of being a disturbing element, the infrastructure is an integrated part. Thus, the planning approach seeks to not focus on specific elements, but rather to see the elements and processes connecting and interacting in a dynamic way.

The negotiation is defined as a discussion aimed at reaching an agreement (oxford Dictionary). Mell states that „Collaborative approaches to green infrastructure planning can bring together many separate policy areas, including natural resource management, nature conservation, landscape, recreation, public health and regeneration‟(2008 ,p.77).

The green infrastructure planning should take account the connectivity between different human users ( Kambites and Owen , 2006).In different studies, the green infrastructure approach is at the core of discussions upon reconciling conservation and human development goals as it delivers both ecological and socio-economic benefits.

Considering the dilemma between biodiversity conservation and human development, the green infrastructure strategy would need multiple layers and links over the natural and social systems. The shift from a standardized way of infrastructure planning and proposing a redefinition of consumption and production patterns present a challenge for planners, governmental bodies, developers and communities. Green infrastructure approach in a specific context introduces new options for spatial locations, land use, land management and protection policies.

Therefore, the negotiation consists in discussing different actions and alternatives between different stakeholders; because each actor has his own interest and expectation from the development project .Development projects should present different incentives that help to maintain or create the green infrastructure, mainstream conservation and minimize the pressure on natural resources .Thus , the planning strategy should consider tradeoffs where and offer alternatives to respect conservation efforts (Reid, 2008). Berkes et al. stated that „There is an emerging consensus regarding the need to look for broader approaches and solutions, not only with resource and environmental but along a wide front of societal problems‟ (2003, p.1). Gallopin (2004) considers that any setting (rural or urban) is a socio-ecological system composed of a societal (or human) component and ecological (Biophysical) component. Back to the dilemma between biodiversity conservation and human development, the negotiation methodology will be based on the systemic approach considering the interaction between the natural system and the societal system . The negotiation engages with the societal and the natural system to create a basis 146

for the implementation. The Kleefmann‟s Socio-physical organization model (1984) (fig 3.7) presents a framework addressing the interaction between these systems. This model is based on the reciprocal relationships between man and nature and displays different layers and subsystems of a territory (Duchhart, 2007, p.18)

Fig (4.1)- Sociophysical-organization model (adapted from kleefmann, 1992, Duchhart, 2007)

The natural system is composed by: • An Abiotic subsystem representing the inanimate nature (water, soil, air) • A Biotic Subsystem representing living organisms including human being The societal System is composed by: • An economic subsystem representing the organization of production and labour • A cultural subsystem representing the shared patterns of norms and values • A political subsystem representing the intermediary between the foregoing subsystems.

Western, D (2000) considers that for a more effective approach, negotiation and collaboration have to replace „command-and-control methods‟. Thus, the green infrastructure needs to be negotiated with thoughtfulness towards the dynamic between the societal and natural system.

4.2. Negotiation within the societal system Social systems are of primary concern with issues of governance, economy, property rights and access to resources. The sustainability of the green infrastructure approach requires a cooperation between different potential stakeholders (sectoral planners, developers, government, local users).The negotiation tackles the governance and decision making modalities. However, the change in is a long term process. To make the approach acceptable socially and economically, opening to negotiation by mobilizing social networks and institutions is a first step towards a sustainable collaborative planning. Negotiation needs to tackle changes within policies and institutions through dialogues, coordination and public awareness .Generally, there is a sceptical attitude regarding the ability of the green infrastructure to deliver the level of benefits expected. Introducing the green infrastructure approach, as new planning approach, questions also the certainty that investing will deliver better returns than more traditional practices; as still the benefits are more qualitative than quantitative. Green infrastructure investments require economic and environmental valuation, as well as negotiations and collaboration among numerous stakeholders. Risk and costs are factors that can make decision makers at all levels hesitant to invest in the green infrastructure approach and practices. Financial incentives to developers are an important tool to encourage the implementation of a concept beyond standardized ways. As stated by Reid „the decision is harder where an environmentally benign project is economically inefficient and where an efficient project has large environmental impacts‟ (2008,p.2). A win-win situation needs to be discussed.

4.3. Redefining the interaction between natural and societal systems Redefining the interaction between natural and societal system is a long term process(fig 3.9) .Social-ecological systems „have powerful reciprocal feedbacks‟ (Costanza et al., 2001; Gunderson and Holling ,2002,; Berkes et al., 2003; Janssen et al., 2003; Chapin et al., 2004, cited in Folke ,2005 ,p.256). To avoid a reductionist vision, the system approach aims at drawing a global vision of the interaction between the societal and natural systems. The negotiation draws on understanding the impact of the human activity (Gallopin ,1994) and the services and resources provided by the natural system . Against this background, the pattern of uses and access to the green infrastructure as a resource can be defined. Planning process needs the definition of forces driving patterns of development. Therefore, the negotiation purpose is to study use patterns and discuss conservation and improvement modalities. It addresses also the issue of the access to resources and spaces with lower impact to help society achieve more sustainable development forms.

147

4.4. Translation to spatial level: Defining negotiation areas The green infrastructure approach is spatial approach translated to land use choices and guidelines (green infrastructure network, designing new features, promoting ecosystem services, inclusive growth). Spatially, the awareness of the complexity of overlapping sectors and actors and possible conflicts is an important task to ease the implementation. Reid (2008) emphasizes the recognition of the social aspect for infrastructure development.

Therefore, identifying areas, which are facing pressure and challenges of conservation or development, is an important step. The negotiation areas are the areas which require a collaborative planning with different potential overlapping actors and sector. These spaces are subject to conducted, existing conservation or development actions, pressures or needs.

fig (4.2)- proposal of green infrastructure planning development (Author)

Conclusion The green infrastructure approach offers a platform for communication between different actors in the spatial planning .A negotiation process brings together different interests and potential interactions. However, the success and sustainability of the planning approach need to define mechanisms for interdisciplinary, intersectoral and inter-actors coordination. The cooperation between citizens, civil societies, local and regional authorities and government organisms is crucial to improve the practicality of the existing assets and instruments.

The lack of technical support, a clear policy changes, nationally and locally, and mechanisms for implementation can remain the barriers to its success. Thus, with redefining interrelation patterns between natural and human systems, the role of the planners is shifting towards being negotiator and facilitator of the decision making.

References

-

Amundsen O. M., Allen W., Hoellen, K. (2009). Green Infrastructure Planning: Recent Advances and Applications [online] available at <http://tig.transportation.org/Documents/EPGT/EPGT-PASMemo_May-June09.pdf >(accessed 08/06/2013)

-

Benedict, M. A.; McMahon E. T. (2006). Green infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities The Conservation Fund. Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20009.

-

Berkes F., Colding J., Folke C. (2003). Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change.

Cambridge University Press [online] available at Google Books <books google.com> ( last access 29/07/2013 )

148

-

Boyd J. , Benzhaf S.(2006)What Are Ecosystem Services? The Need for Standardized

-

Duchhart,I. (2007) . Designing sustainable landscapes. From experience to theory: a process of reflective learning from case-study projects in Kenya .Wageningen Universiteit [online] available at < http://edepot.wur.nl/27196> (accessed 18/10/2011)

-

EEA (the European environmental agency) (2011), Green infrastructure and territorial cohesion : The concept of green infrastructure and its integrationinto policies using monitoring systems . EEA Technical report . No 18/2011 [online] available at < http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/green-infrastructure-and-territorial-cohesion> (accessed 15/06/2013)

-

Folke C. (2006) Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for

-

Gallopin,G. 1994 Impoverishment and sustainable development a system approach [online] available at <http://www.iisd.org/pdf/impoverishment_and_sd.pdf> (05/05/2013)

-

Hostetler, M., Allen ,W.,Meurk,C.(2011) Conserving urban biodiversity? Creating green infrastructure is only the first step.

Landscape Urban Plan. [online] available at <http://www.wec.ufl.edu/extension/gc/biodiversity/firststeppaper.pdf> (accessed 15/05/2013)

-

Kambites C., Owen S. (2006).Renewed Prospects for Green Infrastructure Planning in the UK. Planning, Practice & Research, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 483 – 496 [online] available at < http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02697450601173413 > (accessed 30/06/2013)

-

Landscape Institute ( 2009) Green infrastructure: connected and multifunctional landscapes Landscape Institute Position statement [online] available at < http://www.landscapeinstitute.org/PDF/Contribute/GreenInfrastructurepositionstatement13May09_001.pdf> (accessed 10/03/2013)

-

Mell, I. (2010) Green infrastructure: concepts, perceptions

-

Mell, I. (2008) Green Infrstructure: concepts and planning .FORUM Ejournal 8 (June 2008): 69-80. Newcastle University. [online] available at <http://www.urbanspaces.eu/files/Green-Infrastructure-Newcastle.pdf> (accessed 05/05/2013)

-

Mell,I., Roe,M. (2012) Negotiating value and priorities: evaluating the demands of greeninfrastructure development . Negotiating value and priorities: evaluating the demands of greeninfrastructure development <http://www.academia.edu/1965664/Negotiating_value_and_priorities_evaluating_the_demands_of_green_infrastructure_dev elopment> (accessed 05/05/2013)

-

Oxford Dictionary,2013 http://oxforddictionaries.com/

-

Senge, P.M. 1990 The Fifth Discipline [online] available at <http://www.vedpuriswar.org/book_review/the_fifth_discipline.PDF> (accessed 13/05/2013)

-

Science for Environment Policy (2012) In-depth Report , The Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure European Commission DG Environment News Alert

-

Service edited by the Science Communication Unit, the University of the West of England (UWE), Bristol [online] available at <http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/IR3.pdf> (accessed 01/05/2013)

-

UN-Habitat (2004) , Urban patterns for a green economy, optimizing infrastructure United Nations Human Settlements Programme .UNON, Publishing Services Section, Nairobi.

-

Western, D. (2000) Conservation in a Human-Dominated World [online] available at http://www.issues.org/16.3/western.htm (accessed

-

Wilderness act 1964 [online] available at <http://www.wilderness.net/nwps/legisact>(accessed 05/06/2013)

Environmental Accounting Units. Resources for the Future [online] available at< http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-0602.pdf> (accessed 12/05/2013)

social–ecological systems analyses .Environmental Change 16 pp.253–267 [online] available at< http://www.forestry.umn.edu/prod/groups/cfans/@pub/@cfans/@forestry/documents/asset/cfans_asset_277540.pdf> (last access 29/07/2013)

and its use in spatial planning Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Newcastle University [online] available at <https://theses.ncl.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/10443/914/1/Mell10.pdf> (accessed 05/05/2013)

Selman, P. (2009) Planning for landscape multifunctionality. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy | Volume 5 , Issue 2 [online] available at <http://sspp.proquest.com/static_content/vol5iss2/communityessay.pselman.pdf>

List of figures

-

Fig 2.1 Connectivity in green infrastructure concept and planning process Fig (4.1)- Sociophysical-organization model Fig (4.2)- Proposal of green infrastructure planning development

149

Nubian Culture and Tourism in Southern Egypt Author: Zeina Elcheikh

Supervisors: Prof. Youhansen Eid, Prof. Phillip Misselwitz, Dr. Yehya Serag

Abstract The assimilation of culture and heritage into the tourism industry brought more attention to the Nubian cultural identity, and made a vital contribution to the local economy of Nubian villages. However, this assimilation has generated drawbacks regarding the protection of this cultural identity, and has linked the living culture with an image from a bygone past seen in museums. By investigating the Nubian village of Gharb Soheil and the Nubia Museum in Aswan, this works aims at discussing the stereotypes in which the Nubian cultural identity is showcased. This work concludes that cultural tourism offers a strong motivation to preserve and enhance the tangible and intangible aspects of cultural identity. The enhancement of the positive impact of cultural tourism, and the minimization of its potential negative impact, depend on the involvement of local communities and on how much they are depending on it for their living.

Problem Statement and Research Question Today in Aswan – an internationally famous tourist destination in southern Egypt - “Nubianness” has become a “trademark” used by many to attract visitors; any dark-skinned taxi driver or felucca owner pretends to be a Nubian to persuade a tourist of his offer for services, and any merchant says that his goods are “genuinely handmade Nubian products” in order to sell them. Moreover, whenever a tourist reaches Aswan, (s)he will definitely be asked whether (s)he wants to visit a Nubian house or a Nubian village. Although Nubians are wellknown for their adaptability to changes (as was their culture even before the recent flow of tourists) the various features of the Nubian culture today appear as re-created, re-shaped and directed to external visitors, rather than reflecting a culture in continuity. Moreover, and regardless of the fact that Nubian culture is a living one, the main focus of museums is on the past and on romanticized snapshots of the “good old days”. In addition, the current political and economic situation leading to a sharp decline in the tourism sector in Egypt has imposed additional and significant challenges on Nubians seeking to make a living from this industry. In other words, they are living the dilemma of how to communicate their culture to visitors and how to maintain their source of income. The aim of this study is: to bring together a comprehensive understanding on the role of cultural tourism planning in the Nubian context in creating a balance between preserving identity and fostering economic development, and to analyze how Nubians themselves perceive tourism activities and institutions (museums) in which their history and culture are exposed to foreigners. This research is qualitative in its nature, no testable prediction was included, only a research question. “Is the Nubian culture necessarily skewed and frozen by the process of trying to capture and interpret it for visitors?”

Methodology This research is mainly based on descriptions of lived experiences in cultural tourism activities and personal impressions on the presentation of Nubians in these activities and in institutions focusing on cultural tourism.

Phenomenological theory is used as a framework to study trends and stereotypes through which Nubian culture is being interpreted and shown to external audiences. It is therefore appropriate for witnessing the changing identity of a place and the evolving culture of its people, as a response to and in the service of cultural tourism.

Overview of Research Methods To answer the above-mentioned question, the research was conducted through empirical studies based on key informants and on field observations during a short field visit to southern Egypt, in March 2013. Since it is not based on statistical analysis, qualitative tools for data collection have been used: in-depth interviews (email, telephone and face-to-face), structured interview questionnaires, secondary sources (archives, publications, dissertations, websites, etc. …), and observations.

Respondents were divided into the following groups: the Nubian community, business groups (travel agencies, tour guides, Nubian individuals working in tourism), administrative servants, scholars in the field of Nubian culture, and finally experts in museology. Purposive and snowball sampling were used in the cases of respondents from the Nubian community and the business groups. In-depth and structured interviews were used for questioning administrative employees (two were conducted in a face-to-face manner and one over the telephone).

Scholars and experts were interviewed through emails, for availability reasons. However, although a structured interview questionnaires were prepared for these groups, in many cases it was discovered that being non-directive was more helpful as it allowed interviewees to fully express their own feelings and experiences.

As a first step, it was very important to gain a contextual understanding of history and geography related to Nubians as an ethnic group – especially for people not familiar with this part of Egypt/ Sudan. The archives of the Rare Books and Special Collections (RBSC) at the American University in Cairo (AUC), where the data of the 150

Nubian Ethnological Survey (NES) are preserved, were the starting point. By going through intensive field notes of scholars and researchers involved, a better understanding of the Nubians was gained; it allowed to understand why such an ethnological survey was necessary; and finally, why the irreversible change caused by the construction of the High Dam attracted anthropologists to document costumes and traditions before the forced exodus of Nubians from their traditional homeland.

Scope of the research Nubians today are divided – in the broad national and political context- into two groups: Sudanese and EgyptianNubians. Another division applies: it is related to the experience of relocation in the 1960s as a consequence of the High Dam, since some Nubian villages were not affected by the High Dam. Therefore the Nubians addressed in this research are the Nubian communities of Southern Egypt, these closely related to the activities and facilities of cultural tourism where Nubian heritage and culture are displayed. Nubian communities living in remote places or in the Egyptian and Sudanese urban centers were found irrelevant to the scope of this research.

Field work in Nubia The exploratory field study to Nubia took place in March 2013, in order to get direct understanding of cultural tourism activities taking place there. The trip was planned in three parts: The first part was an exploration of the experience of tourism in a Nubian area. The Nubian village of Gharb Soheil was chosen for the following criteria: -Gharb Soheil was not affected directly by the construction of the High Dam in the 1960s. The effects of the first Dam‟s construction (1902) and additional building (1912, 1933) did not cause relocation. The village had only moved uphill and remained in its original environment; it was therefore assumed that cultural identity still survives, and customs and traditions are still followed in their original place.

-Gharb Soheil was recently chosen by the tourism business to put Nubian villages and culture on the map of tourism destinations around Aswan, and promoted even by several agencies in Cairo which package tours to southern Egypt.

-Gharb Soheil does not have any specific archaeological monuments or sites in its immediate surroundings. It was therefore an opportunity to explore how an ordinary Nubian village would act in tourism and how Nubians there would make use of their traditions in this regard to gain a living.

The second part was dedicated to visits to the Nubia Museum in Aswan, understanding activities and the exhibits, and conducting interviews with the director. The interview with the former Director of the Nubia Museum was held in Cairo.

The third part consisted in assessing whether the relocated Nubian community is involved in tourism activities.

The village of Ballana was chosen as a model for this part, for the following criteria: -Ballana is the village of resettled Nubians closest to Aswan and Old Nubia, -Ballana itself is not a tourist destination, but foreigners come across it for research and documentaries.

Limitation of the Study The chosen sample for this study is small, and might not represent the majority of the Nubian community‟s point of view, especially because not all of them are involved in tourism activities. The straight results of the study therefore cannot be generalized, and are limited to the case of Nubian communities closely associated with cultural tourism activities and facilities in Southern Egypt.

Discussion The forced displacement caused by the construction of the High Dam, had deprived a large number of Nubians of many traditional practices, especially customs related to the proximity of the River Nile. However, and regardless of the flooding of their ancestral homeland, Nubian culture is a living one and Nubians are still surviving culturally either nearby or far from their original setting. This is a fact that today generates a dilemma: the one of creating a balance between a glorious past and a misplaced present. In the past Nubians showed much pragmatism in dealing with hardship in their lives, and demonstrated an ability to integrate new aspects into their culture. Although they were known for being isolated, they were open to many changes: mingling with new bloods, adopting new aspects in their music, architecture and other cultural traits, and finally creating new incomegenerating activities. Finally, all societies change with time and their culture changes accordingly with them.

However, the Nubians‟ gradual loss of their land, their migration for work, and forced displacement, made them practice their values in a different setting than the original one. New practices accelerated changes in their culture and traditional economies, changes which were later complemented by the introduction of cultural tourism activities. Nubian villages in Old Nubia were known for the architecture of their houses, which were mainly spacious, with several large rooms around a courtyard for extended family members and guests. The main façade of the house was usually decorated with colorful geometric symbols referring to a variety of Nubian beliefs. These features still exist in many houses Gharb Soheil; however, the majority of them were built with a focus on shape and form to retain a “Nubian” atmosphere for tourists. This is also seen in many decorated facades that have lost the symbolic significance of traditional decorative patterns, and became “advertisements” of sorts. Tourist events 151

and festivals in Gharb Soheil have been organized with the intention to promote Nubian culture and identity.

However, they also aim at revitalizing the tourism business, which has been sharply declined due to the general situation in Egypt, itself affecting tourism in the whole country. The establishment of a “Nubian” museum was recognition of the part played by Nubians in Egypt. Yet still, the shown and recreated “image” of Nubians in the museum is debatable. The showcased picture of Nubians and the real one are not quite the same. The first portrays a snapshot of a Nubian community at a certain period of time, while the second reveals a continuity of inherited traditions, despite all the changes that the community has gone through. Nubians in the real world outside the ethnographic exhibit live their daily lives differently.

Conclusion Cultural Tourism offers a strong motivation to preserve and enhance the tangible and intangible aspects of cultural identity. The generated profits can be a conduit back to support initiatives for maintaining its survival.

However, the great challenge is to make a profitable tourism business running without the negative effects (or minimized) on the local communities. Therefore, cultural tourism must be managed thoughtfully to sustain its base of attraction. In order to achieve this, it is essential to understand the needs and desires of the host community. If a balanced relationship between identity and income in tourism industry is to be sustainable, it has to be set in harmony with the interests of the community. In the Nubian context it should also be managed sensitively. A community-based ecotourism could be a fitting alternative as long as the Nubians are truly involved, and it is not left to the business groups to control. Here, the role of Nubian clubs and associations (in the urban centers) should be more effective in this regard.

152

MSc Integrated Urbanism & Sustainable Design (IUSD) Ain Shams University Egypt University Of Stuttgart Germany