GLOBALIA
Magazine
Quarterly | Issue 02 | April 2008
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EUR 6, USD 9, GBP 4.50, AED 32, MYR 29, ZAR 60
A new focus on the world Cover story: Power to the people. Doing business with the sun. Security: Troubled times. Europe’s nations confronted by new crises. Culture: Creating a new image. Denmark: Picturing Islam.
Places without order. Megacities and failed states, page 37.
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EDITORIAL By Abu Bakr Rieger.
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COVER STORY Power to the people. Doing business with the sun.
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BUSINESS Golden Landmark. A new choice for investors worldwide.
14
ASIA The “Strike Hard” campaign. Is Peking really the place for the Olympic spirit?
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PEOPLE Jürgen Todenhöfer, author and activist.
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SECURITY Troubled times. Europe’s nations confronted by new crises.
26
BOOKS Terror from within. Ganser’s book on NATO’s secret armies.
34
INTERVIEW “A war of resources”. Interview with Abdulhay Y. Zalloum.
CONCEPT AND EDITORIAL
Corrective vision: a photographic contribution to Islam, page 48.
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EURASIA
CHIEF EDITOR Abu Bakr Rieger
Islam in Bosnia. Against isolationism and radicalism.
37
GLOBAL Places without order. Megacities and failed states: the security risks.
40 42 44
“With Ramush”. One of Europe’s most unusual politicians. Building possibilities. A look at Sunand Prasad’s Talking City.
HEALTH Journey to Health. The boom in medical tourism continues.
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PUBLISHER IZ Medien GmbH Beilsteinerstr. 121 12681 Berlin Germany ASSOCIATE EDITOR Sulaiman Wilms DISTRIBUTION IZ Medien GmbH PRINTING msk marketingserviceköln
Beyond Borders. About the European Muslim Union.
GLOBALIA Magazine reserves the right to shorten letters. Readers’ letters, guest articles and quotations do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Editors, nor do articles by named authors.
CULTURE
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Living with Goethe. Katharina Mommsen, builder of bridges.
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EDITORIAL
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
EDITORIAL
state. Population growth has shattered the
EDITORIAL
old models of order. The problems of
BY ABU BAKR RIEGER
megacities include not only a new, gargantuan thirst for energy and the impoverishment of new hordes of people, towards the radioactive clouds that came
Dear Readers,
there are also concerns for global security.
from the east. But, according to solar power To the European mind, technology is a -
pioneer and physicist Udo Möhrstedt in
Indeed, the recent financial crisis has put
double-edged sword. On the one hand
discussion with Globalia, for the solar
the whole world on alert. Many people
many Europeans are expecting new and
power industry Chernobyl was in many
rightly consider it a bigger threat than the
miraculous solutions to problems of health
ways a massive stroke of fortune. Without
nihilism of international terrorism.
and ecology, but on the other hand
a big advertising campaign, everyone began
technology has also come to seem
talking about solar power.
We looked at the timeless importance of gold as opposed to inflationary currencies
somehow sinister. Nowhere else in the world, for example, are new security
Germany assumed a pioneering role in this
in the previous edition of Globalia. A new,
technologies looked upon with such
field. While they were in coalition with the
large-scale gold fund is now being set up
suspicion.
SPD, the Greens, to whom the popular
in Dubai – a sign that finance is not only
former German Foreign Minister Joschka
confronted by new crises, but that it will
According to the philosopher Martin
Fischer belonged, saw to it that Germany’s
undergo fundamental changes in which
Heidegger, the world of technology has an
nuclear power stations would have a
gold and silver will once again play a major
inherent tendency to enslave people rather
limited term, and they had solar power
role.
than liberate them. Heidegger was sceptical
state-subsidised, which was the only way
as to whether man could simply replace
to make it competitive. In this edition of
When I met Katharina Mommsen for the
“bad” technology with a “good”
Globalia we will be taking a look at the new
first time in Berlin, she made a strong
technology. According to Heidegger, what
global meaning of the growing solar
impression on me. Her talks on the
is required is to retain an attitude of
industry.
cosmopolitan figure of Goethe were full of
calmness
and
composure
love and spirit. The poet, who “did not
towards
technological achievements, rather than
In the final months prior to the Olympic
reject the idea that he himself was a
obsession.
Games, China has triggered a worldwide
Muslim,” is certainly one of the great
debate because of its policies towards its
secrets of European erudition. Goethe’s
One very important defining historical event
minorities. With everyone arguing about
nearness to Islam and his vision of the
in Europe was the Chernobyl disaster, in
the Tibetans, the plight of the Uighurs is usu-
Weltbürger, or citizen of the world, was
which the idea of a clean, problem-free
ally eclipsed. But once again it is about
beyond nationalism and gives him
technology disappeared into a very large
resources. The raw materials in the East
enormous relevance as an author today.
puff of very dangerous smoke. The nuclear
Turkestan region, where most of China’s
power plant is not only a capital-intensive
Muslims live, make it one of the Chinese
Finally I would like to remind you that we
technology dependent on centralised struc-
state’s greatest treasure-houses.
have not conceived of Globalia as a closed system. Please write to us if you have
tures, it seems today almost antiquated. The emergence of megacities has become
contributions or suggestions.
Chernobyl became symbolic. The destruc-
yet another challenge to the global order,
tion of the power station evoked horror, and
and one which can no longer be considered
I hope you enjoy this Issue of Globalia
for months the world looked fearfully
within the context of the isolated nation-
Magazine.
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COVER STORY
POWER TO THE PEOPLE DOING BUSINESS WITH THE SUN
There is no doubt that photovoltaics is already one of the key industries of the 21st century. The whole of Europe has long been hoping for an environmentally sound solution involving the sun, especially since the Chernobyl disaster. It is a highly attractive prospect, and not only
but if you can finance one you have basically
for industrialised countries: given the growing
done away with your electricity bills for
scarcity of energy resources, could solar power
decades – an attractive concept given the
be the efficient, eco-friendly energy source of
ever-increasing cost of power. Most research
the future? Companies and research scientists
institutions predict that solar power
are searching anxiously for solutions to the
generation will be cheaper than other sources
global energy crisis. It is said that by 2030 the
of energy almost everywhere in the world by
world’s population will have grown to 9.3
2020 at the latest.
billion. The need for energy, should this forecast hold true, will also continue to rise
The solar industry is currently experiencing
steeply.
some remarkable growth.The past three years have seen a doubling of the combined
There is no doubt that photovoltaics is already
installed power of the world’s commercial
one of the key industries of the 21 century.
solar power stations with nominal power
The whole of Europe has long been hoping
ratings of at least 200 kilowatts.The European
for an environmentally sound solution
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA)
involving the sun, especially since the
predicted at the end of 2007 that the global
Chernobyl disaster.
market for solar power systems of all varieties
st
(large-scale photovoltaic plants, private solar The benefits of solar power are obvious: no
power systems and mains-independent
emissions, no noise, no waste products – just
systems) would grow by around 40 per cent
solar cells quietly soaking up the sun’s
annually,
unlimited rays. Most of these miraculous lit-
amounting to around 2.3 gigawatts. In terms
tle cells are currently made from silicon. The
of power output, 80 per cent of all large-
modules are almost indestructible, barely
scale commercial solar power plants today are
need any maintenance, and have a life-span
to be found in Europe.
meaning
new
installations
of more than 30 years. And yet hundreds of researchers all over the world are still
Its innovative solar power industry has
wondering how to make them even more
secured the German economy a top position
effective. Solar power systems are not cheap,
in the international solar rankings, and over
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
COVER STORY
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COVER STORY
potential for solar technology right back in 1982.Today, espousing a philosophy of “think global, act global”, he heads the Bavarian company IBC Solar AG, which generated sales of almost 600 million euros in 2007. IBC has already installed tens of thousands of turnkey photovoltaics systems all over the world, including large-scale power stations as well as smaller systems for supplying local power to facilities ranging from hospitals to schools and ophanages – and a system for the Friedenshaus in Kabul, an orphanage in the Afghan capital. Asked about the potential for solar power in the
Gulf
Region,
the
quick-witted
entrepreneur is at first dismissive: “Sadly there has been little movement in the Arab lands.” But Möhrstedt does of course see the enormous long-term potential. He describes, for instance, how solar modules on roofs in the Gulf could afford perfect shade while also generating electricity. “Building-integrated photovoltaics,” says Möhrstedt, “will have Udo Möhrstedt is one of the veterans of the photovoltaics industry.
to take root there sooner or later.”
recent years has created thousands of jobs.
prices for a period of twenty years for any solar
Möhrstedt has had contacts in the Islamic
Seventy five German companies with more
power producer who feeds electricity into the
world for many years, having travelled in par-
than 40,000 employees are now producing
German grid. The scheme led to numerous
ticular in Indonesia and Malaysia. He went
solar modules, and the industry’s turnover
investment programmes and funds investing
on an extended tour of Asia with Otto
of five billion euros exceeded that of the
in solar manufacturers. However, the subsidies
Wiesheu, then Bavaria’s economics minister,
nation’s bioenergy industry by more than
are to be cut back next year. The industry is
meeting Indonesia’s Minister of Technology
three billion euros. By 2010 the solar power
now planning new solar power stations,
along the way. Before the big Asian financial
industry hopes to be exporting much of its
especially in southern Europe, and possibly in
crash of the 1990s, Indonesia and its
output and turning over more than 10 billion
other sun-rich regions of the world. In the
responsible minister, Habibi, were willing to
euros. And of course, Germany is hoping to
German solar industry of the future,
develop photovoltaics on a large scale.Today
maintain its technological lead on a
increasingly fierce competition will lead to
Möhrstedt still speaks with enthusiasm about
permanent basis.
hostile takeovers and new joint ventures.
the idea of creating an effective symbiosis between corporate spirit, high technology
The German state has supported policies that
One obvious lead for German solar pioneers
have helped give this new technology a
is to consider the sun-rich Gulf region as a
decisive boost in recent years. One German
large future market. The physicist Udo
And the project was not entirely a failure. His
law guaranteed subsidised, secure purchase
Möhrstedt, for example, recognised the global
company, together with a number of
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
and development aid.
COVER STORY
collaborators, did supply 100 PV systems to the Surabaya region in the 90s. The Indonesian government had a simple but
THE INESCAPABLE ARGUMENT
effective concept which they called “Yan San”.
“WE DON’T ACTUALLY HAVE ANY CHOICE”
For people with a monthly income of 60 dollars they built fish-ponds measuring 80 by 80 metres in size. A jetty was constructed, greenhouse gases, it is also economically attractive.
and a 6 x 12 metre chicken coop was then built on it. In spring the pond was irrigated and planted with rice. After harvesting, the pond was filled again with water containing fry. The chicken waste, which is very rich in protein, fell into the pond and served as a nutrient for the fish, which grew. The smallholders therefore produced chickens, eggs, fish and rice from the concept, and around the banks they planted perennial bananas.A family with four ponds could earn 1,000 dollars a month that way. A considerable number of these set-ups were established.The watchman’s huts and chicken coops were lit using the German company’s photovoltaics, and this encouraged the chickens to lay more eggs. In a similar project in Indonesia, German experts helped to equip fishing boats with flexible modules which allowed the fishermen to remain at sea for seven days and thus triple their catch. Personal contacts were built up during this pioneering period which led to the establishment of a successful subsidiary in Malaysia. It is perhaps precisely this kind of personal contact that is lacking in the Gulf states – especially for small and medium sized German companies. “But,” claims Möhrstedt confidently, “solar power systems are suited to Muslim investors anywhere on earth.” Solar funds, says Möhrstedt, are also open to investment by Muslims all over the world.
“We don’t actually have any choice in the matter.” Dr.Ahmet Lokurlu states the simplest argument in favour of solar power. Several years ago the multiple award-winning researcher left the rarified world of academia to found a company called Solitem. Now, together with his 40 employees, Lokurlu is working enthusiastically on the building of new energy systems. “As a businessman I am of course concerned about profits and earnings,” explains Lokurlu, “but what really interests me is making a viable contribution towards solving one of the most pressing problems of our time.” Before he entered big business, the scientist, who is of Turkish origin, worked at the Jülich Research Centre. His area of specialisation is solar power operated systems that generate heat or cold according to demand. The parabolic trough collectors developed and patented by Solitem collect and store solar power.They can be used to heat or cool whole building complexes, hotels, production halls and warehouses. The benefits are not hard to understand.The system not only makes an active contribution towards the preservation of natural resources and the reduction of
Now that Lokurlu has left the world of academic research he knows that these alternative systems will only assert themselves if they make economic sense. After some initial sleepless nights, business is now running well. Today many pioneers of solar technology are profiting from the global trend towards renewable energies. Lokurlu is all too aware of the inescapable facts: CO2 emissions have risen by a massive 15 billion tonnes over the past 15 years. Time is short. The Kyoto Protocol, which aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions, was not even signed by the USA, which is the world’s biggest CO2 emitter. The new superpower, China, does not want to limit its fast-growing CO2 emissions until it can keep economic pace with the West. “That might already be too late,” worries Lokurlu. New wars are looming over dwindling resources. Now that the summit of oil production has passed, conflict over resources can only increase, Lokurlu claims. But solar power and other renewable energies offer local approaches to the supply of power at last. Lokurlu hopes that a new generation in the Gulf states and Turkey will recognise the industry’s potential. “Masdar City, the new eco-city in Abu Dhabi, is a fascinating project,” says Lokurlu. Masdar City is intended as part of a wide-ranging renewable energies initiative, and Abu Dhabi will be investing at least 15 billion dollars in it. The idea behind Masdar City is to help renewable energy technologies towards a global breakthrough. All in all, according to Lokurlu, the cost-tobenefit equation adds up the same way all over the world. Doing business with the sun is worthwhile for everyone.
Self-contained solar power systems are
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COVER STORY
already assisting people everywhere to survive
up localised economic cycles. KAITO Energie
So it is that the solar industry is continuously
economically. Known as “island systems”,
AG functions as a kind of private power supply
developing new models that are adapted to
they are sought after in places without mains
company for African countries. It specialises
the needs of the market. The acute electricity
power – be it the desert, the tropics or the
in designing island systems adapted to the
shortage in South Africa has inspired IBC’s
open ocean – or simply where mobility is
particular conditions of rural environments.
engineers to develop systems that switch on
required.These small, mobile systems can be
All of its systems operate using renewable
whenever power is temporarily in short supply.
combined with hydroelectric, wind or diesel
energy.
When there is power from the mains, customers can use it – otherwise the solar
generators. In Africa, for example, IBC has developed small solar power systems for
As well as planning, delivering and operating
power generator kicks in. This technology is
houses in rural areas, and photovoltaic pump
the systems, the company also runs training
the latest project from the Bavarian high-
systems are also used to irrigate fields.
courses. KAITO Energie AG’s range includes
tech firm. “We have high hopes for this
solar charging stations for loan-lamps and
system,” says Möhrstedt, who is already
Another example of the solar industry creating
mobile phones, and mains-independent
planning his next trip to Africa’s sunny
global relationships is the Munich-based
village power supply systems. Senegal is home
southernmost nation.
company KAITO. Unlike other energy resources
to one of their pilot projects, and they are out
used on a world scale (such as nuclear power),
to raise interest among local people there
solar power naturally enables people to build
but also among investors.
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Text Abu Bakr Rieger
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BUSINESS
exclusively-owned gold bullion, and provides
GOLDEN LANDMARK
investors, for the first time, with the
A NEW CHOICE FOR INVESTORS WORLDWIDE
opportunity to trade holdings in gold bullion on the DIFX in a Shariah-compliant manner.
Dubai is well known as a major hub and a strong
Dubai Gold Shares will form an integral part
local physical gold market. The total gold imports
of the Exchange Traded Gold (ETG) family of
for the year 2007 reached 559 tonnes.
products, established as a result of an initiative by the World Gold Council, the marketing organisation funded by the world’s leading
In a landmark move for the Islamic investment
up in March. DCAM was established with the
gold mining companies. Gold held by products
industry, the World Gold Council (WGC) and
objective to develop and seed commodity-
in the Exchange Traded Gold stable now
Dubai Multi Commodities Centre (DMCC)
linked investment products for distribution
exceeds $23 billion, or 805 tonnes, and
announced on 7 April 2008 their partnership
in the UAE and other markets. DCAM and the
represents a more than 90 per cent share of
to launch the fully Shariah-compliant Dubai
WGC will establish a joint venture company
the market for this category of security.
Gold Shares with the intent to list them on
(Dubai Gold Investments – DMCC) ahead of
Securities within the ETG family are currently
the Dubai International Financial Exchange
launching the Dubai Gold Shares.
listed on the London, New York, Johannesburg and Australian stock exchanges, with
(DIFX), subject to the Dubai Financial Services Authority’s (DFSA) approval, under the trading
Dubai Gold Shares will provide investors with
secondary listings in Singapore, Euronext
symbol “GOLD.”
secure, low-cost access to owning gold bullion
Paris, Deutsche Börse and on Borsa Italiana.
without the additional costs normally DMCC aims to operate and manage this
associated with insuring, storing and
James Burton, Chief Executive Officer of the
initiative through Dubai Commodities Asset
transacting in physical gold. Each security
World Gold Council, explains: “It is the long-
Management (DCAM), a 100 per cent DMCC-
will allow investors to gain exposure to precise
term mission of Exchange Traded Gold,
owned UAE-based investment company set
amounts of specifically identified and
supported by the World Gold Council, to remove the barriers to investing in gold across
Gold bazaar: Dubai is one of the main hubs for global trade in the precious metal.
the globe. Our partnership with DMCC brings together our collective strengths to allow institutions and individuals seeking Shariahcompliant financial products a simple, secure and efficient method of accessing physical gold without having to compromise on their Islamic principles.” Ahmed Bin Sulayem, Executive Chairman of DMCC comments: “Dubai Gold Shares will bring about increased transparency in Dubai’s gold markets, and will give a significant boost to Dubai’s position as a leading financial centre. More importantly it will ensure greater integration between the physical and financial markets and will meet the increased investor appetite for gold.”
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Image: dpa/picture-alliance.com
BUSINESS
The introduction of Dubai Gold Shares is a milestone for the product class, as it is the first dollar-priced security of its kind to be fully Shariah-compliant. The physical gold bars backing the product will be of Dubai and London Good Delivery Standard, and held in the vaults of the custodian, DMCC, and sub-custodian, HSBC. To ensure that Dubai Gold Shares are wholly Shariah-compliant, WGC and DMCC have retained the company Shariah Capital as their Shariah advisor. Shaykh Yusuf Talal DeLorenzo, Chief Shariah Officer of Shariah Capital, will enlist a dedicated board of Shariah scholars whose role will be to review contracts and agreements relating to the Dubai Gold Shares and ensure that these are consistent with the principles of Islamic jurisprudence. “Dubai is well known as a major hub and a strong local physical gold market. The total gold imports for the year 2007 reached 559 tonnes. We believe that this product will attract investors from all over the world and specifically from Islamic countries,” adds Moaz Barakat, WGC’s Managing Director for the Middle East, Turkey and Pakistan. Ian MacDonald, Executive Director for Gold and Precious Metals at DMCC, elaborates: “DMCC has always kept track of investor interest and worked closely with all stakeholders to grow and enhance the trade in all commodities, including gold. Having streamlined the physical and market infrastructure for the trade, we are now focusing on developing the financial infrastructure that will enable investors to buy, hold or sell physical gold conveniently through an exchange instrument, backed by allocated gold held in a vault.”
Text World Gold Council
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ASIA
Rebiya Kadeer: Activist and president of the World Uighur Congress.
“Peking is once again attempting to define
THE “STRIKE HARD” CAMPAIGN
the Uighurs as terrorists in the run-up to the
IS PEKING THE PLACE FOR THE OLYMPIC SPIRIT?
Olympic Games,” says Asgar Can, Vice President of the Uighur World Congress. To do this, China refers to the staged-looking,
The fate of the Uighurs, whose terrible situation has for decades barely been mentioned in the European public arena, is another shameful blight on the Chinese multi-racial state. No other ethnic group is exposed to such massive and arbitrary violence by China’s security forces.
violent actions of a small minority. China’s rhetorical
interest
in
the
official
pronouncements of the “War Against Terror” is because of the numerous possibilities which the declaration of a state of emergency nowadays offers. It is on this basis that the State and its Party – which is always in the right – justifies the operation of new camps, persecution and torture. Many of these camps
Just a few months before the opening of the
only subject to official defamation, it is
are occupied by Muslims. Now no-one can say
Olympic Games, the world is becoming aware
downright dangerous. Even the Dalai Lama,
they know nothing about this.
of the tragic situation of China’s minorities.
who enjoys an almost cult status in Europe,
The idea of a peaceful Games seems distant,
was promptly designated a “Terrorist” by the
Indeed, the fate of the Uighurs, whose terrible
especially in view of the situation in Tibet.
Chinese government – a tactic which has
situation has for decades barely been
been applied again and again to leading
mentioned in the European public arena, is
The message we are getting is simple: polit-
representatives of the minority living in East
another shameful blight on the Chinese multi-
ical resistance by minorities in China is not
Turkestan, the Uighurs.
racial state. No other ethnic group in the
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
ASIA
People’s Republic is exposed to such massive
According to the Society for Threatened
surprise then that the World Uighur Congress
and arbitrary violence by its security forces.
Peoples’ report, mosques and Qur’an schools
and Rebiya Kadeer support “a boycott of the
According to a report by the Society for
are being closed arbitrarily, religiously and
Olympic Games, because the inhuman, anti-
Threatened Peoples, more than 700 politically
culturally important writings and books are
human-rights activities of the dictatorial
justified death sentences have been handed
burned in public, the celebration of Muslim
Chinese government are contrary to the
down and carried out against Uighurs since
festivals is forbidden, and Imams are forced
Olympic spirit of peace and peaceful
the middle of the 1990s as part of what is
to attend Communist Party re-education
coexistence.”
known as the “Strike Hard” campaign. Only
courses.
one Tibetan was condemned to death in Tibet during the same period.
The Uighur human rights activists living in The authoress Rebiya Kadeer is one of the few
Germany are also denounced regularly as
Uighurs known to the world’s public. In her
“terrorists” by China. Fortunately, however,
As in Tibet, the Chinese government is striving
bestseller, Die Himmelstürmerin (The Great
despite considerable pressure from the
steadily to enlarge the influence of the Han
Idealist), “China’s No. 1 Enemy of the State”
government in Peking, the German security
Chinese by means of large-scale resettlement
tells of her life. Her relatives paid for her
authorities do not share this malicious view.
schemes. Muslim Uighurs can often only
courageous criticism of the central Chinese
If you meet these Uighur asylum-recipients
practise their beliefs on pain of death.
state’s methods with prison and torture. No
in Germany, then you will find the reports
Image: dpa/picture-alliance.com
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ASIA
about the situation in the China confirmed by
WHO ARE THE UIGHUR PEOPLE?
personal accounts that are hard to forget. Abduljelil Karakash of the East Turkestan Information Centre in Munich reports that
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
conditions in East Turkestan have worsened since the recent events in Tibet.The oppressive activities that are already known have in fact intensified. The latest measures include, for example, the imprisonment of 3,000 young The Uighurs (also Uygur, Uyghur or Uigur)
ed. Uighuristan was formally incorporated
are one of the Turkic ethnic groups living in
into the Manchu empire in 1884 as Xinjiang
the north-western region of the present China.
Province.The Uighur power, prestige and civ-
The official Chinese name of the region is
ilization, which had dominated Central Asia
Xinjiang (or Sinkyang) Uighur Autonomous
for over a thousand years, went into rapid
Region (XUAR), but the native Uighurs have
decline after the Manchu invasion of the
historically called their country or this region
homeland. But the Uighurs had left a lasting
either Uighuristan or East Turkestan, or both.
imprint on both the culture and the tradition of the people of Central Asia.
Located in Central Asia, 1500 miles from Peking, Uighuristan is bordered by Kazakhstan
The Uighurs in the southern part of
to the north, Mongolia to the north-east, and
Uighuristan established the “East Turkestan
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the north-west
Islamic Republic” in 1933, and the inhabitants
and west. There are Uighur diasporic com-
of the whole of Uighuristan together estab-
munities in Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
lished the second East Turkestan Republic in
Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Germany, the United
1944. The former lasted for three years, the
Kingdom and Turkey.
latter for five.
women solely for wearing headscarves. Karakash has been struggling for years with minimal means to break the consensus on East Turkestan. It is no easy task, since reporting is strictly monitored, even in the event of humanitarian catastrophe. An earthquake in part of East Turkestan which killed large numbers of people received no mention at all in either Chinese or foreign media. Independent journalists are deterred from visiting East Turkestan and are told that an “acute risk of terror” exists there, and that the government cannot guarantee their safety. Some Uighur organisations have even found refuge in the USA. As in Kosovo, the rules of an alleged geopolitical confrontation between
East Turkestan is a vast area of 640,000 square
East Turkestan was occupied by communist
kilometres – one sixth of the present Chinese
China in 1949 and its name was changed to
the West and the Muslims do not apply here.
territory. Geographically it is China’s largest
XUAR in 1955. Communist China has been
China’s attitude towards “radical Islam” is in
province.
exercising colonial rule over Uighuristan ever
fact quite pragmatic and flexible when it
since. Uighur exile groups – as well as human
comes to their geopolitical interests. The
After embracing Islam in the 10th century
rights organisations – claim that the Chinese
extreme Hizb ut-Tahrir in Central Asia – which
the Uighurs adapted the Arabic alphabet,
government is suppressing Uighur culture
is viewed by Peking as a geopolitical opponent
and its use became common from the 11th
and religion, and responding to demands for
to the USA – is ignored by China and is even
century onwards. After Arab, Turkic and
independence with human rights violations.
said to be active in East Turkestan. China – behind the scenes at least – would also like
Tibetan forces repulsed the Chinese occu-
to see the Western Allies fail in Afghanistan.
piers in 751 AD, a good 1000 years passed
The name Xinjiang, or Sinkyang, which means
before the conquest of East Turkestan by the
“new territory” in Chinese, is considered
Manchu rulers of China.
offensive by many advocates of Uighur inde-
According to the Western line of argument,
pendence, who prefer to use historical or eth-
China should quietly continue to democratise
It was in 1876 that the Manchurians strove
nic names such as Chinese Turkestan, East
as part of strengthening trade relations – on
to occupy Uighuristan, and, after killing about
Turkestan (with Turkestan sometimes spelled
the side, so to speak. The obvious advantage
one million of its inhabitants, they succeed-
as Turkestan), or Uighurstan.
of this approach is firstly that it does not cost
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
ASIA
anything. The drawback is that the persecuted minorities quite simply might not survive such a long-term strategy.The Middle Kingdom has until now been practising, unhindered, a new form of statism which could
be
defined
as “authoritarian
capitalism”. Authoritarian capitalism trusts in the power of the market alone, and has, in the words of the German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk, long ceased to need democracy to pursue its course. Of course, the subject of a serious Olympic boycott is an awkward one, given the economic importance of China. The regions of Tibet and East Turkestan (Chinese: Xinjiang) are major sources of raw material to fuel the new superpower’s upturn. To the West, the territorial integrity of China, not the implosion of the state, continues to be the guarantee of the much-welcome upswing.The methods behind this upswing may be fascistic, but the prospects of profit have so far eclipsed any effective criticism.The Volkswagen Group, for instance, reported not only record sales in China in 2007, but also growing profits. Volkswagen is also one of the committed lead-sponsors of the Games, yet it shows no inclination to regret this morally dubious engagement. In its latest statement, the German Olympic Sports Confederation speaks about Tibet but ignores the situation of the Uighurs, and in the end supports Germany’s participation. Most politicians and sports functionaries do not mention the Uighurs or their representatives at all in their statements. That is no coincidence.To today’s Uighurs, Peking is the wrong place for the spirit of the Olympic Games. Text Abu Bakr Rieger
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PEOPLE
THE MAN WHO THINKS DIFFERENTLY JÜRGEN TODENHÖFER, AUTHOR AND ACTIVIST
“The West won the world not by the superiority of its ideas or values or religion, but rather by its superiority in applying organised violence. Westerners often forget this fact; non-Westerners never do.” (Samuel Huntington) It is quite clear that opinions on the war in
been a well-known politician, consultant and
Iraq have split Europe deeply. Many Europeans
publicist, he has also been a successful media
consider it an obvious violation of inter-
mogul for the past 20 years, and is today one
national law and a serious blow to the idea
of Germany’s great influential figures. He is
that wars of aggression be condemned
currently the deputy chairman of the board
universally. To the opponents of the Iraq War
of the global media house, Burda.As a media
in Europe it was a war of aggression – a term
man, Todenhöfer is not one to criticise the
which naturally awakens dark memories in a
media – but then again he knows the
continent well versed in war, and actually
mechanisms at work behind the scenes.
war-weary. Furthermore, since the Nuremberg
“More than 200 journalists have been killed
War Crimes Tribunal, wars of aggression are
in the Iraq War because they were trying to
not only frowned upon in Europe, they are also
find out the truth there,” stated Todenhöfer
punishable criminal acts. But there has been
in an interview with Germany’s Islamische
no tribunal, no accused and no process
Zeitung.
following the war in Iraq. Not even a vigorous debate.
What the mogul does criticise, however, is the fact that the Pentagon, like all the other
What is evident in European reporting is the
ministries of war in times of war, utilises its
stark difference between the death of a
information monopoly in such a way that
German, a European or an American and that
none of us can see the real war in Iraq.
of an Arab, whose name we do not even get
Todenhöfer sees these facts as important:
to hear. The fact that international terrorism
there are more than 100,000 resistance
hits Muslims hardest is also obscured from
fighters in Iraq, fighting exclusively against
the sight of normal people.And even Europe’s
occupation by America and its allies.There are
intellectuals have been very quiet.They rarely
just under 1,000 Al-Qaida terrorists in Iraq,
talk about the war’s innate contradictions.
80 to 90 per cent of whom are not even Iraqis.
There are, however, exceptions.
According to Todenhöfer, the media does not publish reports on the 100,000 resistance
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Who is Jürgen Todenhöfer?
fighters, because it is not in the Pentagon’s
67-year-old Jürgen Todenhöfer has not only
interests to report on a legitimate Iraqi
Image: dpa/picture-alliance.com
PEOPLE
Future unknown: Iraqi arrested by allied forces.
resistance. Instead, most reports are about the
Russian reconciliation in the days when the
sensation. He considers the consequences of
sprinkling of Al-Qaida terrorists.The Pentagon
communists still held power in Moscow.
the Iraq War intolerable, and to make his
needs them, claims Todenhöfer, in order to
convictions known he took out full-page
justify to the American public the continuation
Yet as a conservative he was never anti-
advertisements in three major daily papers,
of its war.
American, and not only his political friends
the New York Times, Al Quds Al Arabi and
would confirm that. At the time of the Soviet
the Frankfurter Allgemeine.To top all that he
His political views were already controversial
occupation of Afghanistan he travelled to
wrote an enigmatic bestseller entitled Why
back in his days as a member of the German
that country twice, appeared in traditional
do you kill, Zaid?
Bundestag.As SPD politician Peter Glotz wrote
Afghani dress, and in the Bundestag held up
in his memoirs, “Todenhöfer was one of a
the toy bombs which the Red Army were
The book consists of three parts. It tells the
tiny handful of politicians in Bonn who
using to undermine the moral of the
story of a journey Todenhöfer undertook to
believed in German reunification back in the
population.These activities angered the then
Iraq. Then the story of Zaid, a student who
1980s” – even after Kohl had received Erich
Chancellor Helmut Kohl, and Todenhöfer
became a fighter upon witnessing the death
Honecker on the red carpet and Bavarian
retired from politics.Yet he remains a political
of his brother. Finally Todenhöfer formulates
Minister-President Strauß had helped the
figure who continues to surprise us with his
ten theses on how Muslim-Christian
GDR’s economy back onto its feet with multi-
unusual convictions.
differences could be overcome. His far-from-
billion-deutschmark loans. He was considered
modern conclusion has provoked public
bordering on the insane in the Bundestag
His private views on the relationship between
opinion: we, the West, are not the Good Guys,
because he dared to dream of a German-
the West and Islam are currently causing a
and perhaps never have been.
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PEOPLE
Good against evil?
he says, referring to the falsity which still
the civilian victims of the war. He has talked
The illustrated section of his book contains
depicts the West as the victim and the
to refugees in Jordan and Syria, and last year
some current and some historical photographs
Muslims as the intrinsic aggressors, while in
he visited Ramadi for five days, disguised as
depicting the cruelty of Western rule in Muslim
reality it is the other way around.
a doctor, a life-threatening undertaking. “On all of my journeys,” states Todenhöfer,“I never
countries, another subject which people basically do not talk about in the West.
Todenhöfer’s figures continue: “Bin Laden
once found the Muslims fanatical. They were
“Millions of Arab civilians have been
has killed 5000 people, Bush several hundred
kind and friendly people.”
murdered since the beginning of colonialism,”
thousand.”
Angry young man
Todenhöfer reminds us soberly.
An unusual personality
In Iraq, Todenhöfer met the main character
Todenhöfer has given considerable publicity
Todenhöfer has not borrowed his views from
of his recent book: “You have to imagine him
to his project, that of a reconciliation with
the Internet or newspaper articles. Somewhat
as a young James Dean, an angry young man,
Islam on an honest basis. Because he is well-
of an adventurer, he has himself travelled to
but one who is not especially bent on telling
off he can do what many of his critics find
the scenes where history is in the making. His
others his story.” Of course the facts and
especially unsettling: spend a fortune on the
convictions stem from personal experience
circumstances have been modified a little,
project. Posters, newspaper ads, cinema spots
and his desire to encounter people directly.
since no-one who shoots at American soldiers
– even a tri-lingual website – all paid for out
He established contact with the Iraqi
in Iraq can be sure of their security. In the
of his own pocket. The project has cost him
resistance movement through the former
book, Zaid is not portrayed as a villain.
tens of thousands of euros, money other
leader of the Oil for Food programme, Hans
businessmen might prefer to spend on sports
Graf von Sponeck. He spoke to Red Crescent
His family and friends derive particular pride
cars. “I simply could not bear it any more,”
and with the authors of the Lancet Study on
from an incident in which he decided not to set off a bomb because an old man had sat down near the place of attack.“To me,” sums up Todenhöfer, “that is the decisive point: rejecting violence against civilians and being ready to negotiate.” Todenhöfer is quite certain: “In the Iraqi resistance movement, both of these exist.”
What does Todenhöfer want? Todenhöfer wants nothing other than a paradigm change in Western foreign policy. He is not seeking a posthumous romanticisation of the cruel reign of some Saddam Hussein, his is a political demand for genuine peace. That is something which, in his view, must include a debate about the difference between terrorism and resistance. The bestselling author only sees peace in the region based on a strengthening of negotiation.War itself will only lead to deeper chaos.
Jürgen Todenhöfer
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Text Malik Özkan, Bremen
PEOPLE
THE TEN THESES OF JÜRGEN TODENHÖFER EXCERPTS FROM WHY DO YOU KILL, ZAID? 1. The West is much more violent than the Muslim world. Millions of Arab civilians have been killed since colonialism began. The model for the treatment of the Arabs was the strategy adopted to wipe out the indigenous peoples of America.The mad ideas about racial and cultural superiority prevalent at the time knew no bounds. Gustave Le Bon, founder of mass psychology and opponent of the ”superstition of equality”, divided mankind into four classes: the native Australian and American peoples he termed “primitive races”, negroes as “inferior”, Arabs and Chinese as “intermediate” and the Indo-Europeans as a “superior race”. (...) For the past 200 years, no Muslim state has ever attacked the West. The European superpowers and the United States have always been the aggressors, not those under attack. Since the beginning of the colonial era, millions of Arab civilians have been killed. (...) The current debate about the Muslim world’s alleged propensity to violence is a mockery of historical facts. The West was and is much more violent than the Muslim world. 2. Faced with the warmongering of the West, it is really not surprising that support for Muslim extremists continues to grow. Western colonialism has reached almost every part of the world. But in the oil-rich countries of the Middle East it has never ceased. (...) Of the 48 organizations classified as terrorist by the European Union in 2006, 36 have nothing to do with Islam.These “anti-imperialist”, ”anticapitalist”,“anti-Indian”, or “anti-Singhalese” terrorist groups are responsible for the deaths of countless civilians (...). In the West, they do not feature in the public mind because they do not kill people from our cultural sphere. 3. Terrorists in Islamic disguise are murderers. The same holds true for the ringleaders disguised as Christians who wage wars of aggression in contravention of international law.
The high number of civilian victims of military operations is often excused with the argument that such “collateral damage” is not intentional. That is disingenuous – at least with respect to aerial attacks – because the death of civilians is almost always tacitly accepted in such cases. However, in advanced legal systems “tacit acceptance” means “intent”. Aerial bombardment is, moreover, rarely effective. (...) The Iraqis have (...) lost the media war. 4. Muslims were and are at least as tolerant as Jews and Christians.They have made a major contribution to Western civilization. It was not Muslims who invented “holy war”, (...) Islam never associates the word “holy” with war. (...) When Saladin won back Jerusalem after a hard-fought battle in 1187, he made a point of not exacting revenge. 5. Love of God and love of one’s neighbour are the central commandments not only in the Bible but also in the Qur’an. 6. Western policies towards the Muslim world suffer from a shocking ignorance of even the simplest facts. Whoever wants to see an end to hatred and intolerance should above all overcome his own ignorance. Everybody has the right to his own opinions, but definitely not to his own facts. 7. The West must treat the Muslim world just as fairly as it treats Israel. Muslims are worth as much as Jews and Christians. 8. The Muslims must champion a progressive and tolerant Islam, as did their Prophet Muhammad. They must strip terrorism of its religious mask. 9. Nothing fosters terrorism more than the West’s “War on Terror”. Muslim countries must resolve their radical Islamism problems themselves.
Wars of aggression are not only the most immoral but also the least intelligent way to combat terrorism.Terrorism in the guise of Islam is an ideology; ideologies cannot be shot down. One has to undermine their foundation, prove them wrong. (...) The West does not have the right to take military action all over the world against radical Islamist movements – or against left-wing radical or right-wing radical organisations. It does not have the right to turn the world into a bloody and chaotic battlefield in order to impose its vision of a world order. (...) Muslim countries must solve their problems with radical Islamism by themselves. 10. What is needed now is the art of statesmanship, not the art of war – in the Iran conflict, the Iraq conflict and the Palestine conflict. Statesmanship instead of warfare: vigilant, patient and tenacious negotiations – that is the appropriate strategy towards the Muslim world, as it was in the Cold War. For more information: www.whydoyoukillzaid.com
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SECURITY
in 1977, Chancellor Helmut Schmidt of the
TROUBLED TIMES
Social Democratic Party of Germany is said
EUROPE'S NATIONS CONFRONTED BY NEW CRISES
to have been put under enormous pressure by German politicians to have Red Army Faction prisoners shot.
What are the limits of law in the face of current global security threats, and how are legal and political minds interpretating them? And is fanatical terrorism really the biggest threat to democracy?
In a conversation with the French President Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, Schmidt said that he was being asked from all sides, even by politicians, to have some of the imprisoned terrorists shot as hostages. He stated that he had been pressurised massively, mainly by opposition members but also by people within
September 11 has almost come to epitomise
terrorism. He proposes that terrorists – and
his own party and by a broad spread of
conflict this century. Asymmetric terror has
potential terrorists – should be permitted
citizens with no party allegiance. Schmidt is
triggered a heated debate in Europe about
nothing more than bare life, and that they be
quoted as saying, however, that he wanted
how far a state that purports to be under the
fought with the aid of a kind of enemy-com-
to bide strictly by the constitution and the
rule of law can and may go in extreme cases
batant criminal code that does not fall under
legal system. Schleyer was abducted by the
of terrorist threat. European jurists have been
normal laws. His critics say that he has made
Red Army Faction on 5 September 1977, and
especially busy mulling over the new situation.
conceivable the idea of detention camps in
murdered by the terrorists on 18 October.
Terrorism disrupts the calculable measures
states governed by the rule of law. According to the sociologist Niklas Luhmann,
of civil life, spreads fear and sows mistrust, because it can strike at any time and any
Wolfgang Schäuble, too, believes that the
conflict reveals the true underlying structure
place, and because every citizen could in
possibility of devastating terrorist attacks
of a society. The social systems, he says, tend
theory be a potential terrorist, writes Cologne
throws up some new and, unfortunately, some
in an emergency to envisage either victory or
law professor Otto Depenheuer in his Die
old security issues. The seriousness of the
defeat and therefore focus all their resources
Selbstbehauptung des Rechtsstaates (The
situation is hinted at by the very concept of
on the conflict. In other words, in the event
Self-Assertion of the State under the Rule of
preventative internment – something long
of conflict they do not so much differentiate
Law) on the peculiar normality of the
unthinkable in Germany, but which
as mobilise.
exceptional case.
Depenheuer considers a necessary measure. In the event of conflict, this idea could quickly
So the interior ministers in today’s relatively
It is in the nature of the affair that the interior
transmute into a call for an authoritarian
peaceful times are faced with a well-known
ministers of the big industrialised nations are
state, even in Germany. The fact is that the
dilemma. On the one hand they have to
particularly anxious.The German Minister for
modern state can, quite easily and without
mobilise the attention of the masses against
the Interior for example, Wolfgang Schäuble,
much warning, see itself confronted by age-
the ‘enemy’ using the simplest words possible,
has become increasingly keen on new rules
old issues that break the bounds of the usual
and on the other hand they must maintain a
to govern what is seen as a kind of state of
realm of law – especially when it feels
debate that keeps sight of the desired peace,
emergency. Schäuble openly recommends the
threatened in its very existence.
and attempt to differentiate in the interest of a social peace agreement.
controversial jurist Depenheuer’s writings. Depenheuer not only urges European nations
Germany’s experience with its own left-wing
to assert themselves more forcefully, but also
terrorism bears witness to this. For example,
Without this capacity to differentiate,
states that in his view, Germany’s Grundgesetz
during the abduction of the employers’
politicians risk public allegations such as that
[Basic Law] is not able to cope with serious
association president Hanns Martin Schleyer
formulated recently by the German
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
SECURITY
constitutional judge Di Fabio. Di Fabio accused the “security apologists” in Berlin of using language and terminology “not coincidentally reminiscent of that astute mind-meddler Carl Schmitt.” Schmitt is considered the founder of a constitutional theory that derives its convictions from the nature of the state of emergency. He is quoted widely in Depenheuer’s book. It is easy to see that Minister Schäuble suffers under this dilemma. He and his conservative party, the CDU, or Christian Democratic Union, are striving not only to give the conservatives a new meaning in the age of globalisation, but also to give the population the impression that politicians are not only reacting to the latest challenges but also acting in their own right.Again and again the subject that arises is Islam in Germany.
much fear about the integration of Muslims
conspiracies of Muslim extremists. Not that
in Germany. “Islam has long been part of our
the Minister of the Interior has made up the
Schäuble masters the various requisites of
country,” Schäuble told the Frankfurter
existence of dangerous extremists. But there
rhetoric like no other. From interviews to party
Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung.
are growing doubts as to whether it is really
conferences and fireside chats with close
Islam which will threaten the security of the
confidents, he always seems capable of a
His widely praised conference on Islam can
differentiated discourse. In a speech at a
be considered an attempt to make peace with
conference in Berlin entitled ‘The Image of
some of the representatives of political Islam,
A global survey by the American opinion poll
Islam in Germany: New Stereotypes, Old
and to include these organisations more
organisation Gallup, entitled ‘Who speaks for
Concepts of the Enemy?’ he distanced himself
closely in the regulatory framework of
Islam? – What a billion Muslims really think’,
– in the peaceful atmosphere of a seminar at
domestic politics. Despite all the adversities,
provides some food for thought on a global
least – from the obtuse logic of friends and
this is something that is slowly happening.
scale. Over the past six years the institute
enemies:
And whatever the case, it is clearly easier,
asked 50,000 Muslims in 35 Muslim countries
under the government of the Große Koalition
about their views.According to Gallup, seven
“Fanatical Islamism and terrorism that
and the patronage of Schäuble, for a Turk to
per cent of the Muslims must be categorised
espouses the cause of Islam are a real threat,
become a recognised member of the Federal
as politically radicalised – which in worldwide
including in Germany. And yet all too often
Republic of Germany than it is for an
terms is a good 91 million people. Yet the
it is forgotten that this threat is against all of
indigenous German to become a member of
overwhelming majority of 93 per cent are, they
the people living here – including the Muslims
the
say, politically moderate.The absolute majority
themselves. And it is also true that the great
organisations Milli Görüs and DITIB.
Turkish
and
ostensibly
Islamic
majority of Muslims in our country – well
democracies in the long run.
of Muslims are absolutely clear about the nihilistic foundational structure of modern
over 90 per cent – go about their affairs
Of course, most of the debate on Islam in
peacefully and honestly.” Schäuble also
Europe which reaches the public’s ears retains
warned in the debate against stirring up too
an atmosphere of dangerous plans and the
terrorism. Terrorism fulfils and always has fulfilled the
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SECURITY
purpose of providing the state with a template
of financial collapse. Such crises could cause
asks the latest edition of Germany’s
for the expansion of its networked security
social unrest in the medium term. According
mainstream Manager-Magazin. Until recently
structures.The ongoing reflection of a poten-
to a report by the German Institute of
such questions were considered the preserve
tial attack is allowing the possibility of a state
Economic Research, the middle class of
of obscure conspiracy theorists. The
of emergency in Europe’s democracies.
Germany, a country spoilt by economic success,
magazine’s analysis is as blunt as it is dubious.
has shrunk drastically during recent times.
Democracy’s reputation is dwindling fast, it
Schäuble’s aforementioned capacity for
The report states that the proportion of the
says in the article, and there are statistics to
differentiated
however,
population that enjoys an income near to the
show that only a minority in the
accompanied by a willingness to contemplate
statistical mean has fallen from 62.3 per cent
Bundesrepublik still trust the state’s most
a European Guantanamo, even if only as a
to 54.1 per cent over the past seven years.
important institutions.
about it all is not that Schäuble or his ilk
The natural upshot of this is that the
The fronts, conclude Manager’s authors, do
could be accused of authoritarian tendencies
proportion of Germans with extremely low
not divide capitalism and communism. Now
– which is as may be – but rather the unease
and extremely high incomes has risen. The
the battle is between two varieties of
we quite reasonably feel because he or his
number of low-earners has risen from just
capitalism – democratic freedom capitalism
successors within the structure he occupies
under 18.9 per cent in 2000 to 25.4 per cent
versus authoritarian state capitalism. This,
could easily lose their grip on the grotesque
in 2007, states the report. The proportion of
the actual conflict in the system of modern
new security state.
top-earners, it says, has risen over the same
states, is not yet resolved.
thinking
is,
provocation and escalation.What is so sinister
period from 18.8 per cent to 20.5 per cent. The question of the future will be, therefore,
This means that almost five million Germans
how the modern state and the new, partially
have left the middle class and moved into one
privatised security industry will behave in the
of the two fringe areas of income distribution
actual event of new, unforeseeable conflicts.
during the past seven years.
Text Abu Bakr Rieger
There is more than just a slight possibility that the old equation of security provided by
This drifting-apart of society in Europe is
the state versus security from the state will
creating new zones of conflict. Democracy
become unbalanced.
and its security structures are confronted with new scenarios, including a growing, politically
It would be naïve to believe, by the way, that
unpredictable lower class, new legions of the
the modern state is equipping itself solely
unemployed and globalisation-losers who
against the evil deeds of a handful of terrorists
could, in future, express their displeasure in
or subversive Islamists. The question of
violent strikes, join extreme parties, or simply
security – as Schäuble and others are well
exploit the social welfare system.
aware – has long assumed a much more complex structure. The state fears not only
Yet it is also the new rich class which is
hordes of Islamists, even if it is that enemy-
threatening the social consensus. More and
image which best sells its new security laws.
more of the rich are escaping taxation, and
It fears also, and increasingly, a society which
the small group of the super-rich, in a variation
is evidently capable of giving shape to new,
on the modern coup d’état, could even take
extreme groupings.
over the public opinion industry which is so crucial to modern democracy.
The banking crisis of recent years awakens unpleasant memories of the destructive power
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
“Is super-capitalism destroying democracy?”
Police presence outside a mosque.
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BOOKS
In the heat of the Cold War: John F. Kennedy in NATO’s headquarters.
European democracies, segments of the
TERROR FROM WITHIN
American CIA, the British MI6 and NATO, in
GANSER’S BOOK ON NATO’S SECRET ARMIES
collaboration with some unscrupulous political strategists, organised covert operations in different European countries
Under the name ‘Gladio’, the CIA and MI6 began after the end of the Second World War to build up a network of paramilitary units which existed throughout Europe up until 1990, and which were originally intended as an instrument of defence against a potential attack from the countries of the Warsaw Pact.
for a period of more than 40 years, and in doing so were prepared to accept the death of their own citizens, and even to bring about such deaths knowingly.
Radical power politics Under the name ‘Gladio’, the CIA and MI6 began after the end of the Second World War to build up a network of paramilitary units which existed throughout Europe up until
Political manipulation, covert warfare, murder
Nato’s Secret Armies – Operation Gladio and
1990, and which were originally intended as
and terrorism – critical historical research
Terrorism in Western Europe, which was
an instrument of defence against a potential
occasionally grants an insight into the dark
published in English in 2004 and has since
attack from the countries of the Warsaw Pact.
depths of calculative politics. The Swiss
appeared in numerous other languages. The
Fearing an invasion by the Soviet army and
scientist Daniele Ganser succeeded in
336-page book penetrates into the labyrinth
its allies, they formed small combat units
unveiling one of the dirtiest chapters of
of a perfidious political conspiracy. It
which were trained by the secret services and
transatlantic shadow-politics in his book
demonstrates how, under the cover of several
equipped with weapons, ammunitions and
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
BOOKS
had feared that leftists would gain popularity
an investigative report produced by Rome’s
there. Ganser documents how sections of the
parliament in 2000 on the Gladio affair, it
Gladio units destabilised the country by means
states: “These massacres, these bombs, these
of obscure attacks.
military actions were organised or promoted or supported by men inside Italian state
The terror reached a high-point in 1980 when
institutions, and, as revealed recently, by men
a bomb exploded in the waiting room of
from the USA’s secret services.”
Bologna station, killing 85 and seriously
Daniele Ganser
injuring 200. For a long time the Red Brigades,
Legal investigations in Italy forced the then
a left-wing terrorist organisation in Italy, were
Prime Minister Andreotti to admit to the
considered responsible for the attacks. The
existence of Gladio in 1990, spelling the end
plan worked. Leftist forces lost the sympathy
of the paramilitary units. In a postface, Ganser
of the Italian public. Now Ganser has shown
concludes that the findings gained from the
that the attacks in Italy, as well as other NATO
study of Gladio should not be neglected, par-
countries such as Belgium and France, were
ticularly in the context of September 11 and
not perpetrated by left-wingers, but were
the War on Terror. It is particularly possible that
state terrorism. The Swiss researcher
the instruments of covert warfare could still
ascertains that those truly responsible for the
be used to influence citizens.
terror “aimed to manipulate and control the explosives. In the event of an enemy attack
democracies of western Europe from within,”
by the socialist states, these units were to
and that the result was “the degradation and
initiate guerrilla warfare in the occupied
mistreatment of democratic institutions.” In
Ganser, Daniele: Nato’s Secret Armies. Routledge, London 2004, 336 pages, EURO 24.99
Text By Markus Klöckner, Berlin
territories. The groups were formed in all of the NATO countries, but also in countries that were officially neutral such as Switzerland
When does national security become terror from within?
and Sweden.The Gladio units were top-secret, meaning that only the top executive personnel knew of the military venture, but not the parliaments or public. As it transpired, however, the Gladio army was not to be reserved solely for the eventuality of an invasion. Instead, decision-makers exploited parts of the network to act against communist and socialist tendencies in certain countries. This led to bomb explosions, deaths and coups d’état.The terrorist attacks stemming from this radical transatlantic power-politics strategy were blamed on fanatical left-wing groups.
Bomb attacks One nation which suffered especially from this home-grown terrorism was Italy. For decades since 1945,Washington’s strategists
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INTERVIEW
Globalia: Can you describe the book’s
A WAR OF RESOURCES
main points for our readers?
INTERVIEW WITH DR. ABDULHAY Y. ZALLOUM Dr. Zalloum: The book’s main points:
With 87 million barrels of oil now consumed every day, at 100 dollars a barrel, the US Treasury can print $8,700,000,000 a day without gold backing or any guarantee. The demand for this paper money has been forced on nations by imposing the dollar as the compulsory currency for their purchases of oil.
The so-called War on Terror is really a war of resources. Oil tops the list. The supply and demand for oil is now at a critical point in history where the demand will shortly exceed available supply, thus it is the beginning of the end of the oil age. In practical terms, the USA is running out of oil. Bush said in June 2001, “What we need to say loud and clear is: America is running out of energy sources.”
Abdulhay Y. Zalloum was born in Palestine
Dr. Zalloum: Let us not forget that I lost my
in 1936 and completed his elementary
country, Palestine, because it was promised
and secondary education in Jerusalem. In
by a British Lord to another British Lord. I
This is why Iraq was invaded. Iraq’s current
1954, at the age of 18, he left for the USA
was always intrigued to find out about the
reserves are more than the total reserves of
to pursue a higher education, and he
insidious relationship between financiers and
the USA, Canada, Western Europe and all
completed his university education in
empires.
Asia, including China, but not including the Muslim
petroleum engineering, business adminis-
countries
and
Russia.
The
tration and advanced management at
The chasm between reality and fiction struck
undeveloped Iraqi fields have even more oil
various US institutions including Harvard.
me when I noticed that blacks were barred
than those current reserves. From military
He was involved in the oil business for
from registering at the “whites-only”
bases in Iraq the US can control 70 per cent
about 50 years in the United States,
American state university I attended, and NO
of the world’s oil reserves.
Europe, the Middle East and Africa, and
NEGROES signs were common in public places
he was a consultant for the China
like parks, restaurants and even public toilets
America’s desire to control international oil
National
He
and churches. The blacks were allowed the
is not only to ensure its supply at preferential
participated, both personally and through
back seat of buses only. That real America
conditions, but to use oil as leverage to project
his consulting company, in the founding
was not the textbook America we were taught
its imperial hegemony on the world, especially
organisational development of several
about.
China and India.
national oil companies. He recently wrote
The actual reason for writing the book was
That American capitalism is growth driven.
Oil Crusades: America Through Arab Eyes.
to explain the real motives for America’s inva-
This growth is without ethics, as American MIT
sion of Iraq, its unilateralist policy, and its
professor Lester C. Thurow wrote: “In the
Globalia: One of the valuable things
“with me or against me” and pre-emptive
most rigorous expressions of capitalistic
about your eye-opening book Oil Crusades
Bush Doctrine. I also wanted to explain that
ethics, crime is simply another economic
is that it is written not by a mere activist
it is not a matter of this president or that
activity that happens to have a high price
or academic, but by someone who is an
one. It is the system itself that has led
(jail) if one is caught. There is nothing that
influential oil consultant. What where
Americans to fight more than 200 wars in its
one ought not to do.” This ethic-less system
your motives for writing the book?
short history.
evolved from local to regional to national
Petroleum
Company.
OPEC as well as some African non-OPEC
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
INTERVIEW
scale (by expanding from 13 states to all continental USA through wars and genocide against natives). Now, through globalization, the whole world is “fair game” to American multinationals and Wall Street. That Israel is an imperial legacy, not a religious prophecy. That the United States has over-extended its political, economical and military aims beyond its resources, even though it has enormous capabilities, and thus a Soviet-like collapse is highly probable. Globalia: Dr. Zalloum, on the back cover of your book it says, “Oil is the lifeblood of modern economics.” Can we assume that the history of the 20th century is to a large extent the history of oil? Dr. Zalloum:Yes. Modern oil production started in 1859 and oil’s main use was as lampkerosene for the first two decades. It became a strategic commodity in the 1880s when the British Admiralty realised the importance of fuel oil to replace coal in its fleets, and it thus became a pillar of empires. In the last quarter of the 19th century, oil fuelled the Industrial Revolution, enabling more growth with less people. Oil energy reduced dependence on human energy. It changed the social structure of America. At the start of the 20th century, farmers in the US constituted 50 per cent of the population. Now they make up less than two per cent. Oil became the backbone of the modern capitalist society.You need 10 calories of fossil fuel for the production of every one calorie of food in the US. Oil powers the American Military Industrial Complex and fuels modern capitalist growth. Globalia: How was the all-encompassing
28
29
INTERVIEW
importance of this resource translated
surplus dollars to finance America’s deficits,
the richest country on earth. Why should the
into political and military decisions?
their oil supplies will be shut off so their
peripheral states be any different?
industry will seize up. Dr. Zalloum: As I said, oil is a strategic pillar
Globalia: You have emphasised a very
of empires, as it drives industry, economy and
Globalia: What is the role of local and
key element, which has largely been
the military. Empires endeavour to control oil
national governments in the existing
ignored so far in the debate about the
resources not only to secure their needs, but
distribution and control of wealth and
past and present in the Middle East, and
to project their imperial power over others so
power?
that is the separation of natural resources
as to control their growth and, in times of
from the main populations by the
scarcity, to decide who gets how much and
Dr. Zalloum: If you take OPEC countries, almost
creation of new nation states without
at what price. After World War II the USA
all of them were under direct foreign rule
historical precedent.Would you elaborate
decided to prevent Japan from rebuilding its
during the Pax Britannica imperial era prior
on this point?
industrial
the
to World War II. When global financiers, the
communists took control of China, the United
backbone of Western capitalism, switched
Dr. Zalloum: Until the end of World War I, all
States needed a nearby logistical supply base
horses to America after the UK lost the
the Muslim countries of the Middle East and
and Japan alone had the capability. George
prerequisites of empire, the era of Pax
North Africa were united under one banner,
Kenan of the US State Department argued that
Americana was carefully designed by a secret
the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Greater Syria
Japan could have all the industries and
study group on war and peace which designed
was what is today Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and
factories in the world as long as America
post-World War II financial (IMF and WB) and
Palestine (and Israel). There was no Iraq but
controlled the valves that could shut off oil
political (UN) institutions to enable a new
Mesopotamia, Kuwait was part of Basra
to those factories and turn them to rust – at
form of imperialism, in which countries were
Province, and so on. By secret agreements, the
any time it desired. This is one reason for the
to be given what appears to be independence,
British and French divided up these areas
American occupation of Iraq: to secure cheap
and proxy rulers were installed who were
after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in
oil supplies in particular, and to exert its
raised, trained and maintained by them to rule
the First World War, and that division was
hegemony over the world, especially Japan,
those newly independent states. In every such
made on a geological (i.e. OIL) and a geo-
China and India. If they stop sending their
country a one-percent class of nationals was
political basis. You have several populous
created whose loyalty was not national and
Arab countries with meagre resources. One
who shared values and interests with the
part of these states rely on the West for their
imperial powers (expressed by transnational
protection as they have no power of their
corporations) more than with their own
own, and the big states, without resources,
people. Therefore most of the oil-producing
are kept under the perpetual burden of
countries have high rates of poverty and
financial debt, thus pledging not only their
unemployment, and low standards of living.
economies but their whole countries to the
Surplus oil money is wasted on enriching the
West, through loans, IMF conditionalities and
few, and the bulk of the petrodollars are
pacts.
infrastructure.
When
recycled back to the West by buying outdated
Dr. Abulhay Y. Zalloum
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
arms, or are sent to buy treasury bills to serve
Globalia: Dr. Zalloum, in the chapter ‘Black
the American economy. Even America, the
Gold and the Dollar’ you talk about
bastion of capitalism, suffers heavily from
another largely neglected topic: the
the mal-distribution of wealth; the richest
nature of currency in our time in relation
one per cent of Americans own more than the
to real wealth, namely gold. Do you think
poorest 80 per cent, and more than 40 million
this point receives sufficient attention
Americans are officially classified as poor in
these days?
INTERVIEW
30
31
INTERVIEW
Trading floor of the International Petroleum Exchange in London, the second biggest worldwide.
Dr. Zalloum: The Bretton Woods Agreement
demand for the dollar was created, and the
rescue of Western multi-national financial
signed after World War II was part of a
US started to print huge amounts of dollars
corporations such as Citi Group and UBS,
package reorganising the world’s financial
without gold backing and at only the cost of
as has happened in recent months?
infrastructure. A fixed exchange system was
paper and printing; thus a 100 dollar bill
created in which all currencies had a fixed rate
costing the American Treasury less than five
Dr. Zalloum:To answer that question we must
against the dollar, which in turn was fixed at
cents is a real hundred dollars to the rest of
first understand so-called globalisation. As I
35 dollars per ounce of gold. Thus the dollar
the world. With 87 million barrels of oil now
said before, capitalism is based on growth
was made the reserve currency of the world
consumed every day, at 100 dollars a barrel,
from local, to regional, to continental and
– as good as gold! Since the United States
the US Treasury can print $8,700,000,000 a
now to global level, often through internal
was printing more dollars than its gold
day without gold backing or any guarantee.
genocide and external wars, which have
reserves allowed, it cancelled this Agreement
The demand for this paper money has been
numbered
unilaterally in 1971 and a “floating non-
forced on nations by imposing the dollar as
Independence and the end of the 19th century.
system” resulted that opened the way to a
the compulsory currency for their purchases
America’s economic supremacy, which
strong burgeoning of finance-capitalism based
of oil.
accounted for 50 per cent of the world’s
102
between
American
industrial output after World War II, has been
on speculation against the real, productive economy. A new, parasitic, speculative
Globalia: Now that the global economic
eroded. US survival now depends on the
finance-economy emerged which over-
and financial system is clearly in a
inflow of $3 billion a day of foreign currency
burdened the real productive economy. By
constant state of a crisis, what does it
to finance its deficits and its wars. The 2005
forcing the world to purchase oil in dollars
mean that large state funds from the
balance of payments deficit approached a
only (through US proxies within OPEC),
Middle East and also China came to the
record $800 billion. To compensate for this
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
INTERVIEW
deficiency in economic might the American
economical influence of some of the oil-
USSR. While the USSR existed, capitalism
Empire is resorting increasingly to military
rich economies of the Gulf. Will this
tolerated social welfare states in Europe (and
muscle. According to Thomas P.M. Barnet,
supposed trend have any consequences,
Japan) as long as they followed the general
former senior strategic researcher and
seeing that it is situated within the global
capitalist theme. Once the USSR had
professor at the US Naval War College, in an
setting we have been talking about?
collapsed, capitalism assaulted all other forms of capitalism, most savagely Japan in the
article he co-authored in May 2003, the US “should expect to put in the lion’s share of
Dr. Zalloum: As you say, the oil producers of
1990s, which, according to the Wall Street
the security effort to support globalization’s
the Middle East are all within the financial
Journal, had “the only socialism that works.”
advance because we enjoy its benefits
and economical, and I would add the political
This is why all the social welfare regulations
disproportionately. … As our consistently
forces of the imperial global order.This order,
are being dismantled in France and Germany,
huge trade deficit indicates, we also tend to
as you mentioned, is moving from one crisis
both of which had favourable labour and
live beyond our economic means. Basically,
to another, and each illusory boom is followed
social security laws during the Cold War.
we count on the rest of the world to finance
by a deeper and longer recession, and soon
our sovereign debt. … We don’t have a whole
depression. As one of the world’s leading
We cannot say that there is no opposition to
lot to complain about. Basically we’re trading
historians, Eric Hobsbawn, was reported as
this global order from the Middle East. No
pieces of paper for actual goods.”
saying in the Harvard Crimson (October 20,
opposition coming from the rulers, yes, but it
2005): “The American empire may actually
is coming strongly from the people for a very
For globalization to work, the world must
cause disorder, barbarism, and chaos rather
simple reason. Islamic concepts, indeed those
operate on universal values. The problem is
than promote peace and order.” He added,
of all religions, are based on ethics and justice.
that these values are derived from the Gospel
“… this empire will almost certainly fail. …
Capitalism operates without ethics. The
of Wall Street not from the Gospel of God,
Will the US learn the lessons of the British
difference between these Islamic concepts
and the American empire is now imposing
Empire, or will it try to maintain an eroding
and other wholly materialist systems was
them on the world. In Barnett’s new 2004
global position by relying on a failing political
best expressed by an OECD report on the
book titled The Pentagon’s New Map he
force and a military force which is insufficient
subject which stated: “Islamic concepts differ
wrote: “The workshops we conducted joint-
for the present purposes for which the current
from capitalism in their opposition to the
ly brought together Wall Street heavyweights,
American government claims it is designed?”
excessive accumulation of wealth, and they contradict socialism by their protection of the
senior national security officials and leading experts from academia and think tanks. …
Globalia: To conclude our interview, why
right to property, including ownership of the
Our joint venture was called the New Rule Sets
is it that a critical assessment of present-
means of production. A true Islamic society
Project.”
day economics is coming, ironically, from
must not be an arena where opposing
the West and also Latin America and
interests clash, but rather a place where
These meetings were held at Wall Street.
South-East Asia, but not from the Middle
harmonious relations can be achieved through
Muslims are mandated by Islam to respect the
East?
a sense of shared responsibilities. The individual’s rights must be equitably balanced
teachings of Judaism and Christianity but not
against those of society at large.”
the Gospel of Wall Street. America is not
Dr. Zalloum: Latin America’s opposition to the
conducting its crusades for Muslims to
new world order, globalization and its
embrace Christianity but to force on them
institutions spread gradually from the people
Unbridled, savage capitalism is combating
the “New Rule Sets” so they can trade their
to a few governments, and the circle is
this alternative vision and its wars are
oil for paper and so that they continue to
increasing. These countries were nominally
packaged in a variety of ways.When it comes
finance America’s sovereign debt.
independent for some time, ruled by proxy
to packaging evil as good or otherwise,
governments serving the West. As for the
capitalism is second to none.
Globalia: There is more and more talk
West, especially Europe, it also was assaulted
about the growing financial and
by savage capitalism after the fall of the
Interview Sulaiman Wilms, Berlin
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EURASIA
Graveyards like this one are a stark reminder of the Balkan War.
The politicisation of alleged Islamic
ISLAM IN BOSNIA
extremism, coupled with the heightened
AGAINST ISOLATIONISM AND RADICALISM
apprehensions about the potential threat of a “white Al-Qaida”, has led to the impression that certain centres of political power are
The phenomenon of an ideological interpretation of religion, which is largely a consequence of the Middle Eastern environment from which it emerged, is not characteristic of Bosnia or traditional Bosnian Islam.
impatient to affirm the existence of extremist and terrorist phenomena in Bosnia. The context in which such claims are made implies that their protagonists hope that the proposed existence of Islamic extremism in Bosnia, as in other countries in the world, might shed new light on the recent war. There have even been claims – albeit from barely-relevant
Who and what intensifies Islamic
susceptible to the radicalisation of some of
circles – indicating a desire to reinterpret the
radicalism in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
its members. Indeed it would be naïve to
atrocious events of 1992–1995 in the spirit
and what can prevent it? The Bosnian-
claim that any group is immune to religious
of a “global anti-terrorist struggle”. According
Herzegovinian theologian Muhamed Jusic
or any other type of extremism. Any religion,
to that scenario, Bosnian and Yugoslav Serb
initiates a discussion about the best way
just like every other noble idea, can be
troops did not murder thousands of innocent
to challenge a phenomenon whose roots
misused, ideologised, and made to stray from
Bosniak boys and men in Srebrenica. No: they
should not be sought in religion, but in
its essence. It is therefore absurd that Bosnian
were defending Europe against terrorists.
socio-political circumstances.
Muslims are today taking on the burden of
Every society, nation or religious group is
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
guaranteeing that such a thing does not occur
This pernicious, opportunist attitude in turn
among their ranks.
puts pressure on the Muslim community – a
EURASIA
pressure which, in the event of real Islamic
This in turn further aggravates the position
same Bosniaks who retained their collective
extremism or signs of militarism, can become
of Bosnian Muslims in these unstable times.
sobriety and dignity while living through the
a serious obstacle to their counteraction. In
worst cataclysm in Europe since World War
the official Islamic community, as well as in
Brutal terrorist incidents have happened in
II. Not even under those circumstances was
the wider social environment, a climate is
Riyadh, New York, Washington, Istanbul,
the official policy of the Bosniaks that of
thereby created in which – uncharacteristically
London, Mecca and Madrid, and none of
genocide, revenge or fascism – and official
for Bosnian Muslims – a cover-up approach
those cities and nations can guarantee that
policy is what is at stake here.
is proposed as the only way to handle
similar horrific events will not recur. Yet
suggestions of the radicalisation of Islamic
strangely, this fact has not inspired any serious
More to the point, fearing that the increasingly
teaching and the turning of traditional Islam
international commentator to label those
Islamophobic world, especially the Western
into “Islamism”.Thus, every open analysis of
cities or nations as potential terrorist
public, might characterise them as potential
the rise of Islamism among Bosnian Muslims
strongholds. That accusation, however, is
terrorists and thus isolate them further still,
that implicates Bosnian Muslim theologians
precisely the one levelled more and more
Bosnian Muslims are finding it harder to pluck
or ‘ulama is seen to bolster those ill-wishers
frequently at Bosnia and Herzegovina and its
up the courage to defy the implications of
who, as I have said, politicise such indications.
most numerous citizens – the Bosniaks; those
extremism, radicalism and the ideologisation of Islam within their own ranks.
Against the ideologisation of religion When we talk about the rise of Islamism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, we take the definition of Islamism as it is more or less understood today in European scientific circles.1 One such definition is offered by the Mr. Martin Kramer, professor and researcher at Tel Aviv University, who claims that Islamism is “Islam rephrased as modern ideology.” In the same context he argues that “while traditionally Islam arose in the same class as Judaism and Christianity, Islamism is a response to modern western ideologies – such as communism, socialism and capitalism.” This phenomenon of the ideological interpretation of religion, which is largely a consequence of the environment from which it emerged – i.e. the repressive regimes rife in the Arab and Muslim countries of the Middle East – is not characteristic of Bosnia or traditional Bosnian Islam.And it will remain so as long as we are able to prevent that degrading poverty, lack of education,
34
35
EURASIA
isolationism and breaches of fundamental
That is why it is so important when dealing
human and civil rights on which Islamism
with Islamic extremism and Islamism in BiH
feeds and flourishes.
for the matter to be depoliticised, for Muslim theologians to be encouraged in their
Research on the origins of Islamism suggests
attempts to distinguish between Islam and
that if would-be domestic and world
Islamism, and for European institutions to do
guardians genuinely want to counter the
everything in their power to draw Bosnian
negative effects of radical individuals and
Muslims, especially the youth, out of isolation.
groups, then the best way to do so is to
Sound foundations must be ensured for a
depoliticise the issue and refrain from
democratic and open society with all the
propaganda and the malicious opportunism
mechanisms of civil involvement in public
of the media. In the context of our country,
life, so that young Muslims do not end up
those protagonists who claim to be
seeking the answers to their problems in
”concerned about the country’s security”
violent ideologies based on utopian solutions.
would have to do everything in their power to strengthen the state’s security structures; they would have to support the restructuring of the police force, rectify the porous state frontiers, and so on. Those that disseminate
1 Article on the subject published by the author in the Annual Collection of Papers of the BiH Islamic Community Riyasat – Takvim 2007, p. 133. 2 Preventing and Combating Terrorism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Alfred C. Lugert, PfP Consortium Study Group “Crisis Management in South East Europe”.
unfounded, loaded information portraying Bosnia and Herzegovina as a terrorist stronghold are most certainly not working in the interests of a single citizen of this country, regardless of their ethnicity.
About the Author Muhamed Jusic, a theologian and journalist specialising in Islamic movements, was born in Kotor-Varos in 1978. He lives and works in Bugojno in Central Bosnia and
In addition, the international protagonists,
Herzegovina. He has a degree in Islamic
especially the institutions of the European
Theology from the Department of
Union, should be better attuned to the causes
Apologetics of the Islamic University in
and origins of extremism. The OSCE’s
Medina, Saudi Arabia. He is a columnist for
Bucharest Plan of Action for Combating
the Islamic newsletter Preporod, and a
Terrorism from December 2001 points out the following: “Areas where the OSCE can
the newsletters of the Riyasat Takvim Islamic Community and Novi Muallim, and
addressing root causes, such as economic
other magazines in Bosnia and the region
and social isolation, which can be fertile
such as Dnevni Avaz, Sarajevo, Danas,
ground for extremist ideologies….” With the
Belgrade, H-alter, Zagreb. He has
malicious incitement of apprehensions in
translated and published a series of short
Europe and the world about Bosnian Muslims, they, along with the entire state, are pushed further into isolation – which the OSCE admits
| April 2008
magazine Start. He publishes articles in
bring added value: Focusing attention on
2
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 02
correspondent for the Sarajevo-based
works originally in Arabic and English, and is the author of a monograph on the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and the multimedia CD The Way to Hajj. His most
is very dangerous – and prevented from
recent book, Islamic Movements, is a guide
surmounting such problems that actually do
to the Islamic ideologies of the Muslim
exist.
world.
GLOBAL
are currently 20 megacities. These include
PLACES WITHOUT ORDER
Tokyo, the largest single urban conglo-
MEGACITIES AND FAILED STATES: THE SECURITY RISKS
meration of all with around 35 million inhabitants, New York, Mexico City, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Sao Paulo, Karachi, Dhaka,
In 1950 there were just 83 cities with more than
Jakarta, Delhi, Cairo, Peking, Shanghai and
a million inhabitants, but by 2007 there were no
Lagos. The southern Chinese region incorporating the cities of Hong Kong, Guangzhou
less than 468.
and Shenzhen, for example – an area known as the Pearl River Delta – has a population of around 48 million.
A growing number of people around the world
while scientists and the armed forces are
are living in what are known as megacities
beginning to contemplate precautionary
Anna Tibaijuka, Director of the UN’s Habitat
– fast-growing, very large cities and
strategies.
programme, states that by 2030 the majority of the population of Africa and Asia will live
conurbations. This fact has long occupied politicians and scientists from a range of
Problems in megacities
in cities, while in overall global terms this is
disciplines, especially because of the
Definitions differ as to what constitutes a
already the case. The fastest urban growth
concomitant
to
megacity. Some consider it to be a city or
today is almost exclusively in slum areas. In
infrastructure, ecology and social issues.
urban region with a population of more than
many big cities, especially in southern nations,
Recently, however, megacities are being
20 million, but definitions involving more
most of the people who have moved in from
viewed increasingly as a potential security
than 5 or more than 10 million are more
the country live in slum-like districts, known
risk. Intelligence services are warning against
widely accepted. According to the latter
variously across the world as Bidonvilles,
a “loss of control” in the big urban centres,
(probably the most common) description there
Favelas, Barrios,Townships and Shanty Towns.
difficulties
relating
36
37
GLOBAL
In 1800 only around three per cent of the
Questions of security
that even this has brought with it new,
world’s population lived in cities, whereas by
Observers say that the big cities are taking
uncontrollable
the end of the twentieth century it was already
on a “state-like character” and challenging
personnel, such as those working for the
47 per cent. In 1950 there were just 83 cities
the authority of their host nations. A lot of
American company Blackwater, have killed
with more than a million inhabitants, but by
disadvantaged areas are now dangerous for
civilians on several occasions.
2007 there were no less than 468. If this trend
outsiders because they have fallen into the
continues, says the UNO, the current city-
hands of criminal gangs. Many people no
When the state loses control, in a city or on
dwelling population of 3.2 billion will have
longer dare to go there at all. In areas like
a national level, that is when these
risen to almost 5 billion by 2030. Three out
that, the state’s monopoly on the use of force
phenomena arise. When state influence
of five people will then live in cities. In some
can no longer be asserted at all, or if so, only
retreats to its centres of power, other areas
countries, especially African ones, large
partially. At an internationally attended
are to a greater or lesser degree left to their
sections of the population already live in
conference held in November 2007 by the
own devices, be it certain city districts, regions,
slum-like areas; a total of 75 per cent of
German foreign intelligence service, the BND
or whole nations. In recent years, even the rich
African city-dwellers occupy slums. The
or Bundesnachrichtendienst, its President
northern countries have shown signs of a loss
number of homeless children worldwide is
Ernst Uhrlau warned that megacities could no
of state control in certain city areas and other
estimated at around 100 million. If this
longer be controlled. The BND conference
regions. For instance, in the run-up to the
continues, there could be approximately two
was entitled “Crisis of Governance”, and the
World Cup in Germany in 2006 there was a
billion people living in destitute city zones by
subtitle read: “The epicentre of tomorrow’s
debate about the “no-go areas”, especially
the year 2030.
crises is where state sovereignty is lost.”
in the east of the country, in which foreigners
Uhrlau warned:“More than two billion people
and people who do not look German can no
The megacity-related problems that have so
– one in three worldwide, that is – live in areas
longer move freely because attacks by right-
far been the focus of scientific and political
of limited state control. When the state’s
wing extremists have basically become the
interest have been environmental pollution;
monopoly on the use of force and the
norm. In some of Germany’s rural areas and
problems of infrastructure such as water
imposition of order collapses, violence
towns, extreme right-wing organisations and
supply, sewage systems and healthcare
spreads.” According to Uhrlau, the steadily
groups have been trying to set the tone on a
services; consumption of resources; and traffic
growing conurbations represent “a potential
local level, to take over mainstream public
difficulties – problems, that is, caused wholly
for regional instability, if not more.”
opinion, and to create places that are under
risks.
Private
security
their de facto control by targeted settlement.
or partially by people, and which have a heavy impact on the quality of living of those
However, the loss of control by governments
The local representatives of the state, such as
affected – particularly the disadvantaged
and state institutions affects not only the big
mayors, are either unable to deal with the
population groups. Poverty, unemployment,
cities and the aforementioned urban problem-
situation, or are simply not sufficiently aware
drug addiction and criminality are also blights
areas, it also applies at the level of whole
of it.
that affect disadvantaged areas especially
nations. Ulrich Schneckener of Berlin’s Stiftung
badly. On the other hand, megacities are also
für Wissenschaft und Politik (Science and
Another example is in the suburbs of French
viewed as global nodes with considerable
Politics Foundation), a government-allied
cities, where we have recently seen rioting,
potential for sustainable development. New
interface between politics and science, spoke
sometimes for days, among young people,
technical developments are “more profitable
at the BND conference about “failed states”
mostly with an immigrant background. The
to put into place and can be integrated into
in which new forms of military conflict are
events were usually incidents involving the
existing structures more efficiently,” says the
emerging. No solutions to these new
police, who are especially hated by the youth
International Geographical Union, which also
phenomena have been found with politics so
there. For the police it is becoming increasingly
set up its own “MegaCity TaskForce” and
far. For example, in Iraq they have tried to
difficult to impose the state’s rule of law. One
hosted an international conference on
bolster the state-organised order using private
of the causes of discontent in the “Banlieus”,
megacities in Cologne in November 2007.
security services, but now they are realising
which are populated to a large degree by
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
GLOBAL
immigrants from north-west Africa, is that the people have long been neglected by the state, and the feeling has emerged that it is not attending to them or their problems, such as high youth unemployment. In 2005 there were several days of unrest, during which thousands of young suburbdwellers set fire to cars and fought battles in the street with police. Special units moved in and used massive force against the rioters. Not until recently have there been signs of improvement in the Banlieus, offering an alternative to heavy police presence and escalating violence on both sides. And it is social initiatives on the side of the Muslims which are gaining relevance.
One of the many informal suburbs of the Egyptian capital, Cairo.
Faceless places
lacking order, by stating that nihilism is
disjunction between the middle classes and
Unlike the obvious difficulties in governing
nothing other than the separation of order and
the needs and demands of the poor. Hugo
states such as Afghanistan or certain regions
location.
Chavez, for instance, has had to import
of the Balkans, the descent of the megacities
doctors from Cuba because very few
into violence and uncontrollability remains as
One of the highest-profile observers of global
Venezuelan medics can be persuaded to work
yet conjecture, even if no-go and high-violence
urban growth – most of whom are, ironically,
in the slums.
areas do exist in some of them. The US
to be found in western nations – is the author
National Intelligence Council (NIC) was
Mike Davis, whose book Planet of Slums
The picture is a completely different one in
already asking at the end of the 1990s
(2006) takes a critical look at the
the Muslim megacity of Cairo. There, says
whether the growing megacities in Africa and
phenomenon.
Davis, Muslim groups have filled the gaps in
Asia would become the battlegrounds of the
the state’s basic care structure, and are
future. That was based on the assumption
Davis laments what he calls the urbanisation
offering infrastructural assistance such as
that the growing number of the poor who live
of poverty, criticises the “glorification of the
medical and technical services.While the Latin
very near to the rich would sooner or later
informal economy”, and calls the slums an
American middle classes are concerned only
revolt.Anna Tibaijuka of Habitat emphasises,
urban no-man’s land, an existential ground
for the continuation of their privileges, their
however, that the megacities threaten not
zero, and a form of urbanisation without
Muslim counterparts have undertaken to
the welfare of the western nations, but
urbanity. Planet of Slums concludes with the
provide services themselves, and created what
primarily that of the slum-dwellers
following comment:“If the empire can deploy
is in fact a parallel civil society for the poor.
themselves.
Orwellian technologies of repression, its
This, says Davis, amounts to “a striking
outcasts have the gods of chaos on their
difference, with significant consequences for
side.”
urban life.”
Today’s slums are modern, faceless places. Hence one could claim that Fukuyama’s theory of the end of history has proven true there.
Davis also depicts some interesting contrasts.
Others have expressed the confusion and
In Latin America, what is shocking is the
potential chaos of the megacities, places
extent of political polarisation and the stark
Text Yasin Alder, Bonn
38
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GLOBAL
Kosovo’s Independence Day: Ethnic Albanian expatriates celebrate in New York’s Times Square.
war crimes against Kosovo Serbs, Haradinaj
“WITH RAMUSH”
immediately convened a national council of
ONE OF EUROPE’S MOST UNUSUAL POLITICIANS
his political party, the Alliance for the Future of Kosovo,AAK, and announced the beginning of a real opposition movement in Kosovo.
Ramush Haradinaj remains a controversial figure in the region. Seen by many Albanians as a hero of the war for independence, Serbs have been enraged by his acquittal. Political analysts predict that he will play an important role.
After his return from The Hague, Haradinaj began to savage Kosovo’s government, accusing it of improvisation and a lack of programme. “When the Prime Minister says we lack a programme because of [Kosovo’s vexed political] status, it is an insult to the people
He is one of Europe’s most unusual politicians:
and unresolved economic problems, and is
of Kosovo,” Haradinaj said in April.
Ramush Haradinaj lived in Switzerland as a
searching for its freedom in the global order.
Government officials insist that Haradinaj’s accusations do not bother them. “As a
bodyguard, fought against the Serbs, studied jurisprudence, and in the end became a Prime
Days after his triumphant return from the
government we enjoy full legitimacy and we
Minister. But as quickly as he had ascended
Hague Tribunal, Kosovo’s former Prime
will show that this government will not fall,”
to power he had to retire from his position
Minister, Ramush Haradinaj, is aggressively
the Deputy Prime Minister, Hajredin Kuci,
to face trial in The Hague. Now he has returned
restarting his stalled political career in the
responded. Haradinaj remains a deeply
to a Kosovo fraught with difficulties. The
newly independent Balkan state. Following his
controversial figure in the region. Seen by
former protectorate has limited sovereignty
acquittal on April 4 of charges of committing
many Albanians as a hero of the war for
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
GLOBAL
independence, Serbs have been enraged by
over intimidation of witnesses. However, on
opposition that until now has been weak,”
his acquittal.
April 4 the Tribunal found him not guilty on
Qirezi noted. “Yet his charisma may sustain
all charges and he returned victorious to
the dynamism of Kosovo’s political scene,
Pristina the next day.
which very much depends on leaders and
But political analysts in Kosovo predict that
personalities,” he added. Hajredin Kuci agreed
Haradinaj will play an important role in political life now that he is free, and expect
While Haradinaj was out the country, the AAK
that Haradinaj would be a worthy rival, and
his charisma to spice up the country’s
remained in a government that was widely
that “competition makes things better.”
lacklustre opposition. Haradinaj’s AAK has
criticised by the public. Nevertheless,
been in opposition since the November 17
Haradinaj himself retained his personal
Commentators expect the former warrior to
elections, holding 13 seats in the 120-seat
popularity and after last November’s general
revive Kosovo’s lifeless opposition scene.
Parliament. The government currently
elections, when they campaigned under the
“What we have had in Kosovo for the last
comprises a coalition of the two largest
slogan “With Ramush”, the AAK increased its
three months is a government without
parties, the Kosovo Democratic Party, or PDK,
support from about 7 to 10 per cent.
opposition,” complained Mufail Limani.
the Democratic League of Kosovo, the LDK,
But in opposition the party has taken a low
“Now that the opposition has a key
led by Kosovo’s President, Fatmir Sejdiu.
profile in a parliament dominated by the
charismatic leader it will become a creative,
governing coalition. The other major
critical force,” this analyst added. “I expect
Haradinaj’s war crimes charges related to the
opposition party, the Alliance for New Kosovo,
Haradinaj […] to apply strong pressure
time in 1998 when he was a regional
led by businessman Behgjet Pacolli, has been
through creative criticism.” Ilir Dugolli,
commander of the Kosovo Liberation Army,
equally quiescent.
another political analyst from Pristina, echoed
led by the Prime Minister, Hashim Thaci, and
the same expectation. “Haradinaj will refresh
the KLA, in western Kosovo.After 1999, when NATO’s air campaign ended in a Serbian
Arben Qirezi of the AAK said that Haradinaj’s
withdrawal from Kosovo and a new UN
absence had been a great handicap for his
administration, Haradinaj put aside his
party. “He left Kosovo as Prime Minister and
uniform and entered politics.
has come back as a strong leader of an
He set up his own party, the Alliance for the
Kosovo’s political scene,” he said.
Text Krenar Gashi/BIRN Kosovo
Ramush Haradinaj
Future of Kosovo. Though it only came third in the October 2004 elections, his party formed an unexpected coalition with the Democratic League of Kosovo, the largest party, and Haradinaj managed to secure the post of Prime Minister. However, in March 2005 Haradinaj had to resign following his indictment for war crimes and crimes against humanity. His record in government was hard to judge as it was so brief. However, some civil groups accused him of having connections with organised crime. During the Hague trial, the court found that witnesses felt “unsafe”. The court’s former prosecutor, Carla del Ponte, voiced her concern
40
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GLOBAL
stopping points for trade and informal
BUILDING POSSIBILITIES
commerce.
A LOOK AT SUNAND PRASAD’S TALKING CITIES Lutyens, on the other hand, built further with the advent of British control. The then new
Is Sunand Prasad’s Talking Cities lecture series
city quarter stemmed from the ‘cantonment’
really food for thought? British designer Mahmud
– open land designated to house troops with
Manning reflects on Delhi, Birmingham, and the question of urban architectural heritage.
clear lines of fire, part of a new imperium of state governance.The new roman road of the railway, its station, offices of governance and Kim’s Wonder House were also discussed.
Sunand Prasad is a well-noted architect
(RIBA) and also runs his own practice, Penoyre
whose work can be found in countless
& Prasad LLP, a London-based architectural
journals and books on architecture and
office which has designed numerous award-
cultural diversity. He has played a key part
winning buildings. So when I heard he was
in the development of the Construction
giving a talk in the heart of one of UK’s most
Industry
Quality
culturally diverse cities, Birmingham, I decided
Indicator, which led to the compilation
to attend and see how he might challenge the
of a standard guide in the UK entitled
modernist legacy of the urban cityscape and
Accommodating Diversity: Housing
its highways, and offer instead a more liveable
Design in a Multi-Cultural Society.
city solution.
Most notably he is also the current chairman
Sunand Prasad’s talk began with high
dominates the countryside.‘The city’, Lefebvre
of the Royal Institute of British Architects
expectations and anticipation from the
argues, is then subsumed under ‘the urban’:
audience. An urbane speaker, he began by
an interlinked consumption sprawling as far
discussing the contrasts between northern
as the land itself can bear, something we can
Indian domestic architecture, the city quarter
see in the near-merger of Manchester and
of Delhi built by the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan,
Liverpool, and in Germany’s Ruhr- and Rhine-
the new city quarter as defined by Lutyens in
fed cities.
Council’s
Design
This was then contrasted with today’s ‘car and gate’: the now universal, standalone villa in enclosed grounds. This building style now spans the world, indistinguishable from one people or place to the next; an individualized, atomised outlook on life.Today a global shift has occurred, which reminds me of the French urban philosopher Henri Lefebvre reflecting on how ‘nature’ and farmed land becomes subverted by the dominant city, until industrialisation, fulfilled, takes over and
1911, and then the later private villas, built by the wealthy suburban elite.
Our appetite whetted, Sunand then jumped to Birmingham and its ‘heroic deeds’ and
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Of Shah Jahan’s Delhi, the ‘haveli’, or
aspirations in a post-war-weary New World
courtyard house in particular was discussed,
Utopia. One aspect of the connection between
its closed façade and open interior was put
‘western’ and ‘eastern’ cities which Prasad
forward as a successful urban model which
mentioned was the return to risk within the
provided for a high-density population,
public realm – risk in the sense of allowing
retaining privacy, family intimacy and family
the public a common-sense approach to safety
extension; the streets and thoroughfares as
measures, a move towards self-control and
places of distinction, variety and activity.This,
self-policing: avoiding something too tidied
he said, is further enhanced by streets not just
or mannered, but retaining rough edges
as thoroughfares but as destinations and
containing active energy.
GLOBAL
An example of contemporary architecture in Birmingham, UK.
An important subject brought up by Prasad
an important aspect of our democracy, which
the Asian Subcontinent be of benefit to our
was that of city design and who takes part
has become so undermined and under-valued.
high streets, enabling activity and vibrant
in this creative process. What are our
This is very pertinent in Britain’s second city.
participation, creativity and harmonious living
ambitions in this new century, faced with so
We must ask ourselves: “What do we want,
for all? Can we draw upon these rich and
many serious challenges and consequences?
and what are our common goals and values?”
varied heritages, full of practicality and
Are we moving again to city as city-state,
The Victorian industrial canal-linked cities
wisdom – full of life lived, extended families,
competing with other world cities for world
looked to the Italian merchant city of Venice
trade enhanced and wealth distributed?
markets? An unhealthy globalisation of city
for inspiration and affirmation. Will Birming-
competition which squashes local enterprise
ham also look at other cities as models of
As Prime Minister,Wellington, the ‘Iron Duke’,
through the abuse of economies of scale?
excellence? Shah Jahan’s Delhi for example.
once commented, “Those who govern least govern best; and those that govern best,
Does this follow Lefebvre’s thesis of the consumption of land, place and space which
Mr Prasad did not make this connection,
govern not at all,” sentiments with which
is so much more pertinent now with our own
however, and left us without any real guidance
Shah Jahan would concur. Perhaps this is one
global economic and ecological crises?
or indications. Our main question was left
of the keys needed for our own time: renewed
unanswered, the meal untasted. Simply put,
local governance, where we as citizens across
Mr Prasad did call for a recognition of and
can our British cities benefit from the
all professions and skills actively participate
trust in the local civic authorities, and
knowledge of previous city practice and
and regulate ourselves.
emphasised the importance of these
workings? How do we marry or mend the
institutions. Such an affirmation could mend
old and the new? Can an urban heritage from
Text Mahmud Manning, Birmingham
42
43
Image: picture-alliance.com/R. Kosecki
HEALTH
JOURNEY TO HEALTH THE BOOM IN MEDICAL TOURISM CONTINUES
Most of the Arab patients come from the Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Oman; but patients also come from non-Arab countries such as the booming oil-producing nations of Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. Germany is the most important destination in Europe. It is an aspect of the economy which has a
But it is more than just a one-off initiative.
surprisingly long summer tradition in those
Aside from the now long-standing relation-
European countries that can boast high-
ship between German and other European
quality healthcare facilities – and especially
clinics on the one hand and Arab Muslim
Germany. Most people, however, remain
patients and their health agencies on the
oblivious to what has come to be called
other, the exchange of medical facilities,
”medical tourism” from the Arab lands.
equipment and expertise has been on the rise for many years. The Emirate of Sharjah,
It involves usually well-off people who come
for example, has been cooperating for some
from the Muslim world, often with their
time with the renowned Munich Elite
families, to spend some time, normally in
University and, represented by Shaykh Dr.
summer, to undergo medical treatment and
Sultan al-Qasimi, has just recently concluded
examinations. It is not only the health and
a raft of comprehensive new agreements with
hotel industries that benefit from these
them.
affluent visitors, but also the retail trade. If you walk through the centre of Munich or
With his Arabic and his knowledge of the
Geneva in summer you will notice many
religion and customs of visiting Arab patients,
people wearing Arab-Muslim dress.
Khaled Guizani plays an important role at Bonn Medical Partners, where he works as a
Two years ago in the former German capital
project manager. “Our aim is to market Bonn
of Bonn, the local authorities and tourism
abroad as a health centre. We hope to
infrastructures charged ‘Bonn Medical
strengthen Bonn’s health sector, and to build
Partners’ with the international marketing of
up an internal infrastructure that can offer the
this area of the economy and the
best possible treatment for patients, especially
management of medical tourists in the city.
Arabs,” says Guizani.
The project is a joint venture between the
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
city of Bonn, the region’s tourism office and
Several well-known clinics and rehabilitation
a number of Bonn’s well-known clinics.
facilities are involved in the cooperation
HEALTH
Doctors at work in Bonn’s Universitätsklinik, one of the institutions that work with Medical Partners Bonn.
scheme, including the Rheinische Kliniken
ought not to be ignored, assuming the
Bonn Medical Partners asks its Arab patients
Bonn, Universitätsklinik Bonn,Waldkranken-
conditions of entry into the countries remain
to complete a questionnaire about how
haus, Kaiser-Karl-Klinik, the Neurologisches
viable.
satisfied they have been with the service.The
Rehabilitationszentrum Godeshöhe, and other
first ever Arabic tourist guide on the city of As well as the purely commercial medical
Bonn has also been published. Medical
aspects, it has been through precisely these
tourists from the Arab world are clearly not
“We like to offer a comprehensive service to
visits that ties of friendship have been
only interested in eating Arabian food and
guests as soon as they arrive: a tourist guide,
established between influential business-
going to the mosque, they are also very keen
halal food, information about places of prayer
people and decision-makers in the Middle
to find out about Germany’s culture, history
and so on – all the information they need,
East and those parts of Europe they visit
and sights.
that is. We are to a certain extent a
regularly, often annually.
hospitals.
coordinating centre for Arab visitors, we look
There has also been considerable progress in
after them and help them whenever
Most of the Arab patients come from the
the health sector in the countries of the
difficulties arise.”
Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Oman; but
Arabian Peninsula itself. In the Emirates they
patients also come from non-Arab countries
are building what will be known as Dubai
According to Guizani, almost 70,000 foreign
such as the booming oil-producing nations of
Health City. “We are also supporting that
patients come each year to Germany alone.
Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. Germany is the
initiative by setting up links with Bonn’s
The most popular medical tourist destinations
most important destination in Europe. “The
hospitals, sending doctors to the Gulf, holding
are, he says, Munich, Hamburg, Berlin
patients are concerned above all that they
training courses, and providing the doctors
(because it is the capital, and especially
receive good medical treatment, and that the
with support.” The lucrative medical tourism
because the embassies are there) and in the
surrounding factors are agreeable, which
sector will continue to thrive if the medical
west of the country, the Rhineland region.
means they can practise their religion, that
standards remain high, but also if European
an embassy or a representative of the
states continue to grant visas without too
Since these are figures for Germany alone, it
consulate is nearby, and that the doctor
many bureaucratic obstacles.
can safely be said that medical tourism
treating them demonstrates a certain
represents a factor in Europe’s economy which
sensitivity,” explains Guizani.
Text Yasin Alder, Bonn
44
45
NGO
Over the past decade, with the theory of a ‘Clash of Civilisations’, Europe has deemed itself in opposition to Islam.There are currently 53 million Muslims living in Europe, and 14 million of them live in EU countries. Last year four thousand people became Muslim in Germany alone.The European Muslim Union, or EMU, is an umbrella organisation for Muslim groups working for the benefit of these Muslims all over Europe. Its aims include correcting Muslims’ ’terrorist’ image by integrating and promoting a dialogue that benefits both Muslims and nonMuslims. The EMU operates under European law. It has set itself tasks that will serve the Muslims such as in the establishment of Mosques and markets, and providing Halal slaughter-houses. It is dedicated to the improvement of education for all Muslims, be it traditional Islamic education and thought, or university scholarships to ensure a bright future for the Muslims, steering them away and freeing them from any tendencies or behaviour that may be negative. The EMU’s educational programme includes EMU Chairman Abu Bakr Rieger and Honorary President Professor Nevzat Yalcintas (centre).
trips to Istanbul and other places. In the course of this year the EMU will hold a gathering in Sarajevo, the capital of Islam in Europe, to help the Muslim youth there to understand their role in Europe today.
BEYOND BORDERS
It aims to bridge differences of cultural and
ABOUT THE EUROPEAN MUSLIM UNION
ethnic affiliation by bringing the youth together from all over Europe. The EMU has
Over the past decade, with the theory of a ‘Clash of Civilisations’, Europe has deemed itself in opposition to Islam. There are currently 53 million Muslims living in Europe, and 14 million of them live in EU countries.
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
launched a youth exchange programme in the summer of 2007 in Istanbul, with the participation of young Turkish, Albanian and Spanish Muslims. The EMU aims to provide aid for those Muslims who may be in material, medical or
NGO
other social difficulties. It has set up a Muslim
place for the Muslim world. Over twenty
indigenous Muslims have created a niche in
lawyers’ guild which helps Muslims in Europe
million Muslims now live within the Russian
society and an ambience of Islamic revival
who are experiencing difficulties relating to
Federation. The Islamic Cultural Centre of
with their communal activities, events and
national or international law.
Russia (ICCR) and the EMU now stand
souks which contribute to the city’s economy
shoulder-to-shoulder in defining Islam in
and tourism. Every day many tourists,
In a time where media dominates and
Russia and are concerned with coming to a
individuals and groups, visit this mosque
technology is the means of this domination,
better understanding and with assessing the
and obtain an insight into Islam and Muslim
the EMU has sided with media houses such
various aspects and possibilities of Islam
life.
as Islamische Zeitung in Germany. That
there. The EMU is now working to establish that the
newspaper voices many of the EMU’s concerns, and has played an important role
The new Mosque of Granada in Spain, which
Muslims do have an important role to play
for those people who are curious as to the
is one of the founding institutions of the
in modern life. The vitality of Islam is re-
relevance of Islam in this age. It helps to shed
EMU, is just one of the places where the
emerging from the depths of Europe, and it
light on the social, economic and political
EMU has been instrumental. Its social
is for this reason that the EMU has made it
situation of the Muslims in Europe and
contribution to Granada has been noted by
its task to create a vibrant and flourishing
throughout the world.
the national authorities. The people of
future for all European Muslims.
Granada are now under the shade of the The Russian Federation is also an important
Muslims. It is an exceptional place where
Text Mohammed Dockrat
Future factor: Muslims in Kosovo taking part in an event organised by the EMU in Pristina.
46
47
CULTURE
animal in an article on domestic security –
CREATING A NEW IMAGE
these are the norm in the mainstream
DENMARK: PICTURING ISLAM
commercial media of western Europe today. Yet the matter is a complex one that defies
What is often lacking is a relevant photograph – apart from personalised, aesthetic material – of the everyday social reality of the Muslims in Europe, reflecting its dynamic, positive aspects. This naturally means more than mere aesthetics.
simplistic conclusions, because, of course, the Muslims in Europe – individuals and communities – do not always present themselves in a positive light. They emit ambivalent signals. As in many other things, the question of how Muslims are portrayed in Europe is in fact a question of how they portray themselves.
If you were to ask the man on Europe’s streets
Anything more than a cursory glance at the
what he thinks of his Muslim fellow citizens,
little country of Denmark reminds us that the
Improving the Muslim image
you would likely receive a mixture of half-
heated global debate about that Scandinavian
Ways of countering this tendency are of course
truths, everyday experiences and ideas, but
nation reflects only a small aspect of life
to be welcomed. What is often lacking are
above all you would hear views that originate
there. Were we now to ask the man on the
relevant
from the flood of imagery in the media.
Middle Eastern street what he knows or thinks
personalised, aesthetic material – of the
Reputable international researchers in recent
about Denmark, he would probably focus
everyday social reality of the Muslims in
years have concluded that a split discourse
wholly on the regrettable recent events.What
Europe, reflecting its dynamic, positive
has developed in the relationship between
is not seen is that there is another side to
aspects.This naturally means more than mere
Muslims and Europe’s majority population
Denmark.This other Denmark, with its active
aesthetics; photographs must contribute in
groups. On the one hand you have the every-
Muslim community, has considerably more
their own right towards the discussion about
day experiences and interactions between
to offer than current journalism would imply.
relevant aspects of Muslim life in Europe.
you have something sustained from the
Images are key
One man dedicated to this cause for many
interwoven arena of media and politics. It
In all of this, visual portraits are much more
years now is the Danish-German Ahmed
goes without saying that the two are quite
powerful than the written or spoken word –
Krausen. Born in the city of Aachen in the west
different.
especially in the electronic media. Indepen-
of Germany, Krausen was active in the events
dent media researchers have agreed that the
of the 60s and 70s, which, he says, “-
mainstream news media suffers a serious
contributed positively to my personality.” In
affliction when it comes to visual material
1978 Krausen left Germany for Copenhagen,
on Islam and the Muslims. “Sensory induc-
which has since been his home. He travelled
tion” is not uncommon – the technique
through different continents between 1979
whereby images are combined with writing
and 1985, an experience which led him to
so
or
pose fundamental spiritual questions. “The
unintentionally, the meaning of the
teachings and inspiration I received, especially
information it contains.
from people in Egypt and Sudan, changed
photographs
–
apart
from
Muslims and non-Muslims, but on the other
as
to
change,
intentionally
the course of my life forever.” He says that
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
The mosque against a burning background,
these were a key part of his subsequent
the headscarf-wearing woman for the theme
decision to become Muslim. Ahmad Krausen
of immigration, the Muslim slaughtering an
accepted Islam at the beginning of the 1990s.
48
49
CULTURE
He took his first steps as a photographer in
to be as professional as possible – a
strives to depict the process of encounter
1977 when he bought his first reflex camera,
professionalism which does justice to the
between Muslims and non-Muslims in Europe,
with which he performed his first photo-
subject matter.As well as just taking pictures,
a process he sees as “very creative”. Muslims
graphic experiments. Developing the films in
his role as a photographic chronicler of Islam
in Denmark and the rest of Europe are busy
the darkroom was what really got the budding
in Europe means documenting the mosques
discovering what it means to be Muslim in
photographer enthusiastic. The camera was
he photographs along with their architecture,
the European context, a process of negotiation
Soviet-built, “as heavy as a Russian tank”,
their history, and details of their construction.
which comes to life in Ahmad Krausen’s work.
and accompanied him on his first journeys to
The final collection, once complete, aims to
His photographs combine the buildings with
East Africa. Krause, who was self-taught, took
be a “solid foundation for a detailed and
the everyday and ceremonial activities of the
a one-year course at Copenhagen’s School of
illustrated book which could inspire the entire
people he depicts. Even his purely structural
Photography in 2005, where he benefited
European Muslim community.”
photographs of old and new mosques in different European countries fill what has
from his previous practical experience and built upon his abilities in photography and
Building bridges
been a gap in the rich mosaic of the world’s
film-work. “The camera,” concludes Krausen
Ahmad Krausen used to exhibit in his home
great Muslim architecture.
in his self-portrait, “has been the most
city of Copenhagen, but this spring the
important tool on my spiritual road to Islam.
photographer extended his radius of activity
Ahmad Krausen hopes that his exhibition –
The significance of Light is for me as a bridge
beyond Denmark’s borders by launching the
which he intends to be the first of many – will
between Islam and photography.”
“Being Muslim in Europe” exhibition in Cairo
motivate the whole Muslim community to
in conjunction with the Danish-Egyptian
find out more about each other. He hopes
A project of many years
Dialogue Institute. To him it is important “to
that bridges will be built, and that there will
Ahmad Krausen has taken it upon himself to
show that Denmark is not just the country of
be a relevant exchange between Europe and
document Muslim life in Europe – especially
the Cartoon Controversy, but that Denmark,
the broader Islamic world. It is a goal which,
the forgotten regions of eastern Europe – by
like the rest of Europe, is a new abode for a
in an age of global debate, many are sure to
photographing existing mosques, from
growing Muslim population.” This Muslim
agree with.
different perspectives and in different lighting.
population includes immigrants as well as
But his subjects are of course not just the
native Danes and other Europeans who have
Contact: info@ahmedkrausen.com
buildings themselves, but also the activities
entered Islam, thus forming a new element
Websites: www.ahmedkrausen.com
they play host to, such as the recitation of
in European Islam. In his work – especially
Qur’an, community celebrations, marriages
the exhibition in Cairo – Ahmad Krausen
and funerals. An authentic depiction of everyday Muslim life in Europe cannot suffice itself with a documentation of contemporary architecture. People, after all, fill the buildings with life and give them their meaning. Contemporary pictures of Muslims in different life-situations are particularly important in creating a positive and dynamic image, because they counter the narrowness of dayto-day reporting. Self-financed, Krausen has travelled through numerous European countries for the sake of his ongoing project, in which he has striven
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
Sweden: purpose-built mosque in the capital, Stockholm.
Text Sulaiman Wilms, Berlin
Image: dpa/picture-alliance.com
CULTURE
Back at home: restoration of the Goethe monument in Frankfurt.
Mommsen has been spending all her time
LIVING WITH GOETHE
with the great German thinker for many years
KATHARINA MOMMSEN, BUILDER OF BRIDGES
now. Not only does she respect Goethe’s importance in world literature, but also his Weltoffenheit – his quality of being open to
Katharina Mommsen, author of the pioneering
the world. Goethe, who himself “did not reject
book Goethe und der Islam, has been lecturing on
the idea that he was a Muslim”, has
Goethe as a forerunner in dialogue with the Islamic world. According to her, Goethe drew close to the Islamic world and its Revelation.
Mommsen under his spell. For decades she has been studying the extraordinary influence Islam had on his life and work. Goethe’s admiration for Islam has been made widely known through the work of Professor Mommsen. To her, Goethe is a visionary
You have to love something to be able to
not let her rest. She is considered one of the
bridge-builder who recognised the global
convey it properly to others. This principle
most important experts on Goethe alive today.
importance of Islam at a historically early
was espoused by the famous poet Goethe, and
In spite of teaching for many years in the
stage.
few embody it more than Professor Katharina
USA, Mommsen regrets the fact that Goethe
Mommsen. Born in Berlin in 1925, she is now
has had an insufficient impact in America.
The author of the pioneering book Goethe und
Professor Emeritus of Literature at Stanford
“You cannot just spend your Sundays with a
der Islam has been lecturing for some decades
University in California.
poet whom you truly honour,” claims
now on Goethe as a forerunner in dialogue
Mommsen,“It has to be Monday,Tuesday, and
with the Islamic world, a subject which
all the rest of the days of the week.”
remains as topical as ever.And Goethe himself
Mommsen’s love of the German classics will
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CULTURE
remains a relevant role-model. According to
warns Mommsen, “will young people
Islamic teachings of Unity, having brusquely
Mommsen, Goethe, thirsty for knowledge,
understand that Western civilisation has been
rejected the Trinitarian doctrines of
drew closer to the Islamic world and its
decisively shaped by Islam.” Mommsen
Christianity.
Revelation, thereby setting an example of
reminds us of the forgotten key-works on
how to approach a world religion without
understanding the Islamic world from a
inhibitions in these difficult times. During Goethe’s lifetime, speaking positively about Islam in Europe was not only a highly controversial thing to do, it was also courageous. In 1826 he wrote in a Faust manuscript: “Wer sich selbst und andere kennt wird auch hier erkennen: Orient und Okzident sind nicht mehr zu trennen.” – He who knows himself and others will also agree:
She shares her personal insights into Goethe’s unique work with captivated audiences on her
As well as various film and book projects, Mommsen has also set up a charitable foundation. She hopes to inspire others to reflect on Goethe’s work.
lecture tours, which include many Muslim countries. Mommsen is especially fond of recalling her journeys to the Arab lands, the first of which was to Egypt, a country which cast a spell on her. She also loved Syria, particularly Damascus and the Umayyad Mosque and Palace. But it was the hospitality that impressed her most in Syria and Jordan. She also noticed the people’s love of poetry
Orient and Occident divided no more can be. Western viewpoint, such as the piece on the
in all of these countries. Even Bedouins in
Mommsen has regularly criticised what she
Arabs in Alexander von Humboldt’s Cosmos.
the Arab lands, says Mommsen, know poets
calls the arrogant and superficial way the
She complains that Islam is not studied in any
like Hatim Tai, and stories like that of Layla
West deals with the Islamic world, and she
detail in today’s schools and universities.
and Majnun.
Goethe’s maxims and world-view are,
Today she is upset by prejudice against the
according to Mommsen, characterised by a
Muslims. In America, her adopted country of
respect for Islam, a recognition of Unity, and
residence, she quickly took a position against
a deep liberalism. His now famous East-
the Iraq War, for which she was criticised
Western Divan is a declaration of love of the
bitterly. Following the invasion of Iraq, which
Prophet. The poet came to love the Muslims
she did not consider legitimate, she was so
after meeting them several times. For instance,
desperate that she wanted to leave the
he admired the Caucasian peoples’
country. People called her a “traitor to the
determination to be free – a people who,
nation” for her criticism of American foreign
complains Mommsen, have been left in the
policy, an accusation which hurt the professor,
lurch by the West in their ongoing struggle
since she had always valued the American
for independence and freedom.
spirit of freedom. Now the mood has changed;
encourages young people to read Islamic works and traditions themselves.“Only then,”
many Americans feel themselves to have been To Mommsen, Goethe is to this day the
betrayed.
greatest builder of bridges between the East and West. She can understand that the thinker
As well as various film and book projects,
Goethe – in his Poetry and Truth, for instance,
Mommsen has also set up a charitable
long before the East-Western Divan – sought
foundation. And by working in collaboration
intellectual refuge in the East, and sometimes
with Weimar’s Stiftung der Klassik (Classics
felt more comfortable there than in his own
Foundation) she hopes to inspire others to
native surroundings. Like many other great
reflect on Goethe’s work.
Germans he sought a home for his heart in Professor Katharina Mommsen
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
the East. Spiritually, Goethe was close to the
Text Khalil Breuer, Berlin
Text Ismail H. Yavuzcan
Bursa: the Ulu Camii is one of the main monuments of this old Osmanli town.
still famous for its peaches and its fertile
BURSA - THE GREEN CITY
plain. Bursa has more than a million
TRAVELLING TO THE CRADLE OF THE OSMANLI
inhabitants and has always been an important centre of industry and commerce.Aside from the big textile manufacturers based there, it
If you are a fan of Turkish baths – or hamams –
is home to Tofas and Renault, the country’s
then you will not be disappointed by Bursa. The
largest car-makers.
Cekirge district which lies on the slopes of Uludag
Ulu Camii
and which boasts excellent views of the Cultural
The largest and most important building in
Park (a leisure park for the urban population)
Bursa is the Ulu Camii mosque, built on behalf
has been famous for its mineral-rich thermal
of Sultan Yildirim Bayezid I between 1395
springs since Roman times.
and 1399. One of the unusual features of this mosque is that it houses a Shadirvan, or mosque fountain, in its centre – in the prayer
Bursa, known to many as Yesil Bursa or Green
Devlet, or Ottoman Empire. The earliest
area itself, that is.The mimbar, a masterpiece,
Bursa, is one of the most historic towns in
Osmanli buildings are to be found in Bursa,
is a feast for every aesthetic eye, and is
Turkey. Situated on the lower slopes of Uludag,
which is located in the south-east of the
embellished with geometric forms, stars, and
the Mysian Olympus, it derives its name from
Marmara region.
rich carvings. The craftsman, Hajji Mehmed bin Abdulaziz El-Dukki of Antep, carved his
Prusias, the king of Bithynia. The city fell first under Roman rule, then Byzantine, until it
Despite its verdant epithet the city has lost
name in it – something uncommon in Osmanli
was captured by Orhan Bey in 1326 and
much of its earlier beauty as a result of
buildings since most craftsmen preferred to
declared the first capital of the Osmanli
urbanisation and industrialisation. Yet it is
remain anonymous, seeking favour and
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architecture. If legend is to be believed,
Shemseddin Muhammed bin Ali El-Hüseyni El-
Hacivat and Karagöz, two important figures
Buhari, was an important Sufi of the 15th
from Turkish shadow-theatre, were involved
century. Once he had completed his
in its construction. There is a monument
apprenticeship, he entered, at an early age,
dedicated to them in the city centre.There are
the Kübreviye Order, and after travelling to
no precise historical records of the two figures,
Madinah and staying in Karaman, Isparta,
but every Turkish child knows of them, and
Kütahya and Inegöl he settled in Bursa. He
although their plays seem somewhat
became a student of Molla Fenari, who gave
antiquated they contain much mockery and
him permission to teach. When the Mongol
social criticism.
ruler Timur invaded Bursa he was captured, but soon released. He married the daughter
The Yesil district
of Yildirim Bayezid I and took part in the Siege
There is a lot to see for anyone coming to
of Constantinople together with his dervishes.
Bursa.After visiting the Bazaar you can stroll
He was known for his miracles, and the rulers
further until you reach the Yesil district, home
of his time sought his counsel. Even today the
of the Yesil Camii. It was commissioned by
mosque, which houses the mausoleums of
Mehmet Çelebi in 1413, but was not finished
Emir Sultan, Hundi Hatun and their two sons,
until 1424 during the reign of Sultan Murad
is an important place of pilgrimage, especially
II, and is considered one of the most important
for people who take their young sons there
buildings of the early Osmanli period. Never
prior to circumcision and supplicate for them.
quite completed, the building is decorated
Behind the mosque is an imposing graveyard,
with blue-green tiles, hence its name “The
which, together with the mosque complex,
Green Mosque”.
invites visitors to reverence of the Creator.
much to see and buy no matter what your
Next to the mosque is the Museum of
Uludag – The Olympus of Asia Minor
taste. The two-storey Bazaar building with
Ethnography, which was formerly a madrasa.
The 2543 metre-high mountain of Uludag,
its narrow, winding passageways houses
Opposite the mosque is the Yesil Türbe, a
which in the past was often referred to as the
many traders, but especially textile, jewellery
mausoleum, wherein lies, among others,
Olympus of Asia Minor, and on whose slopes
and shoe sellers. If you need a break from
Mehmet Çelebi (1389-1421), the grandfather
the city of Bursa sprawls, offers sun-baked
shopping or just to relax, then go to the Koza-
of Fatih Sultan Mehmet, the conqueror of
tourists some welcome peace and respite. In
Han, a building dating back to 1490 in which
Istanbul. After the midday prayer and a visit
the 1960s, with Swiss assistance, the Turks
silk used to be bartered. A beautiful fountain
to the museum you can relax over a glass of
built a cable car comprising two stations,
graces the inner courtyard, above which the
tea or an ayran and enjoy the view over the
Kadiyayla and Sarialan.The first of these offers
Koza-Han mosque was built in 1493. Tables
city from one of Yesil’s tea-rooms, which are
ample space for picnicking, and a ride on the
and chairs surround the fountain – a tea-
situated adjacent to the mosque and
cable car and a picnic should be on every
house. Go through the Koza-Han, past a
mausoleum. Well-rested, wander next east-
visitor’s agenda.There you can take a breather
somewhat hidden bakery (which, in the
wards up to the Emir Sultan Mosque. This
from the hustle-and-bustle of the city and
author’s view, makes the best cakes in Bursa),
mosque, from which the district acquired its
enjoy the natural surroundings. As well as
and you will come to the Orhan Gazi Camii.
name, can easily be reached by foot from
patronising the restaurants, which function
This mosque was built in 1339, but was
Yesil. Of monumental proportions, it was
mainly on the “Kendin pisir, kendin ye”
completely destroyed in 1411 and had to be
commissioned by Hundi Hatun in the name
principle (cook and eat it yourself), many local
rebuilt. Now it represents an outstanding
of her husband Emir Sultan (1368-1429). Emir
and foreign tourists use the cool mountain
example of Seljuk and early Osmanli
Sultan, whose full name was Seyyid
atmosphere to eat out with the family and
reward from their Creator. The Bazaar is situated in the shade of the mosque, and offers
GLOBALIA | Issue 02 | April 2008
TRAVEL
relax. Alongside some souvenir shops, this
of Uludag and which boasts excellent views
unleavened bread, generously basted with
place also has something for the soul – a
of the Cultural Park (a leisure park for the
tomato sauce, melted butter and yoghurt. To
picturesque mosque. Further uphill there is
urban population) has been famous for its
eat the genuine item, visit Iskender
even snow, and many local tourists ski there.
mineral-rich thermal springs since Roman
Iskenderoglu. This old establishment first
times. Bursa’s most important hamams
opened its doors in 1867 and is to be found
Once back from Uludag it is worthwhile to
include the Eski Kaplica, which was built at
not far from the Ulu Camii. You won’t get
make an excursion to the Muradiye area of
the time of Murad I (1359-1389), the Cekirge
alcohol there, but, alongside the usual drinks,
town. The Muradiye complex (built between
Hamami, and the Kükürtlü Kaplica, which
they serve Sira, a special delicacy. However,
1425 and 1426) consists of a mosque,
was built under Murad I and extended to
if you have travelled from Europe or farther
madrasa, hamam, some fountains and several
include a women’s section during Bayezid II’s
afield and you have a refined palate, then be
türbes. The madrasa is now used as an
reign.
warned: this experience may put you off lesser
outpatients’ clinic. The attractive, peaceful
döner and iskender kebaps for ever. Never
park, where you can rest and enjoy the silence,
Gourmets will also enjoy Bursa, the birthplace
again will they taste like they do at Iskender
is quite delightful. Construction of the complex
of the iskender kebap. But beware: not every
Iskenderoglu in Bursa!
(mosque, madrasa and türbe) began under the
iskender is a real iskender! It is said to have
father of Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Sultan Murad
been invented by Iskender Baba, and consists
So, dear traveller, enjoy Bursa and all its
II; he and his children are buried there.Visitors
of döner meat and wedge-shaped pieces of
delights – the city of one of the 1001 Nights.
in the know who want to relax after sightseeing head for Tophane. High up, where
Family shopping in the bazaars of Bursa.
Osman Gazi and Orhan Gazi, the conquerors of Bursa and the founders of the Osmanli Devlet, are also buried, there are cafes set up along the defence walls. To the right there is a good view over the Ulu Camii and bordering Bazaar, and to the left you can see modern Bursa and its architectural atrocities. When the city was opened by Orhan Gazi (1281-1360), the body of Osman Gazi (12581326), the founder of the Osmanli Devlet, was moved from Sögüt to Bursa because – as tradition has it – he had expressed the desire to be buried in the town should it ever be taken by Muslim forces. Known for his religious scrupulousness and courage, the ruler Orhan Gazi was the first to mint the Osmanli coinage, and was also the first Osmanli sovereign to conquer European territory. If you are a fan of Turkish baths – or hamams – then you will not be disappointed by Bursa. The Cekirge district which lies on the slopes
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