GLOBALIA
Magazine
Quarterly | Issue 08 | August 2010 EUR 4, USD 5.5, GBP 3.5, AED 20, MYR 20, ZAR 44
A new focus on the world
Africa: On the Western Sahara. When will the solution arrive? Culture: The shores of Azania. Impressions from a journey to the Swahili coast.
Image: picture-alliance.de (c) dpa-Report
Cover story: A global trend. The world moves to alternative currencies.
Wealthy, poor Afghanistan. Massive reserves of natural resources discovered, page 16.
4
EDITORIAL By Abu Bakr Rieger.
6
COVER STORY A global trend. The world moves to alternative currencies.
10
Implementing the dinar and dirham. Role model: a case study in Indonesia.
16
ECONOMY Wealthy, poor Afghanistan. Massive reserves of natural resources discovered.
20
Detrimental to the economy. Iraq: on the American export of democracy.
22
Global “The runaway general”. Leading commander sacked for insubordination.
26
Interview “Liberal” versus “radical”. An interview with French author Oliver Roy.
30
Africa Return of colonial powers? China-EU rivalry in Africa sharpens.
32
On the Western Sahara. When will the solution arrive?
CONCEPT AND EDITORIAL
Ecology: the Muslims and the heir to the throne, page 45.
36
Asia There is no ‘Islamic Bomb’. An analysis of Pakistan’s strategic nuclear assets.
40
44
Europe
PUBLISHER IZ Medien GmbH Beilsteinerstr. 121 12681 Berlin Germany
Systematic opposition? Germany: the official interaction with Muslims.
ASSOCIATE EDITOR Sulaiman Wilms
Ecology
DISTRIBUTION IZ Medien GmbH
“Guidance from the Qur’an”. Ecology: the Muslims and the heir to the throne.
PRINTING msk marketingserviceköln
46
Money growth: an ecological distaster.
48
NGO Beyond immigration. Skopje: cooperation between European Muslims.
50
Society The politics of fear. Globalisation: the middle class in crisis.
53 56
CHIEF EDITOR Abu Bakr Rieger
GLOBALIA Magazine reserves the right to shorten letters. Readers’ letters, guest articles and quotations do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Editors, nor do articles by named authors. PHONE +49 (0)30 240 48974 MOBILE +49 (0)179 967 8018
Winners in the crisis.
Culture The shores of Azania. Impressions from a journey to the Swahili coast.
FAX +49 (0)30 240 48975 E-mail info@globaliamagazine.com WEBSITE www.globaliamagazine.com
EDITORIAL
moving away from the hedge funds and the
EDITORIAL
old casino-capitalism and investing instead
BY ABU BAKR RIEGER
in tangible assets. But why? There is no doubt that more and more people under which Europe’s nations are labouring
all over the world, rich and poor, are trying
is gigantic, and the long-term economic
to secure their welfare with tangible wealth.
It is the question of the century, and it
future of what were once the world’s richest
But whole nations too are reconsidering their
is not a difficult one to ask: are the
countries is now uncertain. Behind the
gold stocks, especially those fortunate enough
Golden Years soon to be upon us again?
scenes, the new global players are busy
not to have national debts.
In this edition we will be looking at the
preparing for the future.
Dear Globalia readers,
Saudi Arabia, for example, has more than
cataclysmic ‘financial crisis’ from various angles. Muslims in Asia are especially
I was talking recently to a German property
twice as much gold stashed away as pre-
involved in models for a solution to the
broker who sells agricultural and forestry
viously thought, according to World Gold
situation. Malaysia’s former President
estates. I asked him how business was going,
Council figures. According to them the
Dr. Mahathir recognised the financial
whether he was satisfied with the year so far.
Saudi Arabian Central Bank (Sama) holds
system’s innate structural problems
The man smiled and responded drily, “I’ve
gold reserves of 322.9 tonnes – more
way back in the Asian monetary crisis of
never sold so many properties and forests in
than double the previously published
the 1990s.
my life. If only I had more to sell.”
figure of 143 tonnes. Saudi Arabia is also the world’s fourth largest owner of
The facts are now clear. The burden of debt
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
In other words, well-heeled Germans are
foreign currency reserves.
EDITORIAL
Even the European Parliament itself now considers democracy under threat in Europe and issued an interesting appeal for help just a few days ago. European parliamentarians are being overwhelmed by the power of lobbyists. “The disequilibrium between the power of this lobby and the lack of any counter-expertise is to us a danger to democracy,” states a parliamentarians’ circular helplessly. This makes an absurdity of the primacy of politics. Explaining how the pressure on politicians works, SPD Member of Parliament Udo Bullmann tells how the banks intimidate them with horror scenarios describing the consequences of more stringent banking regulations. “There is no neutral body that checks banks’ figures. But there is a mass of The reasons for this kind of silent monetary
has always kept its purchasing power through
money available for lobbyists to talk trash to
policy are obvious. Endless endebtment
the ages. Mack knows a good example: “At
no end,” said the politician in the Financial
logically has to end in collapse. In France,
the beginning of the 1920s, an ounce of gold
Times.
England and Spain, the first government
cost around 20 dollars, which would also buy
austerity packages are already threatening to
you a good men’s suit. Today you can still
We have come full circle. Sulaiman Wilms
cause social unrest – but packages which
get a good men’s suit for an ounce of gold,
reports in this edition on the role of fear in
would reduce new borrowing by a mere
but for 20 dollars you might only just get
modern politics. Fear of crisis, fear of social
fraction.The dynamic of the problem remains
the pocket handkerchief to go with it.”
relegation – and a fomented fear of Islam.
unstopped. Simple mathematics demonstrates its insolubility.
Fear is the common denominator which has Gold has another advantage as the anchor
to hold modern societies together. Pessimism
of a rational economy. The paper money
reigns, together with the general view that
Asset consultant Martin Mack said in an inter-
system currently in use, which is covered
there is no alternative to the dominant
view with Das Handelsblatt: “Our financial
purely by people’s trust in it, can, as we now
financial system.
systems are now receiving emergency
know, be expanded simply by printing,
injections of cheap money in the double-
with the result that people now fear
Fear and a lack of alternatives – is this the
figure billions. But what figures will we be
inflation everywhere.
beginning of a new totalitarianism in Europe?
faced with tomorrow?”
We hope not. Globalia, at least, will keep An expansive, boundless monetary policy is
People are famously inventive when the going
of course impossible with gold. But the
gets tough. And of course, people could opt
ownership of gold can be banned by law, as
for a growing number of new means of
has happened in the past. Power over paper
exchange in the face of looming monetary
money does of course equate with political
collapse. But gold has a long tradition, and
power.
discussing alternatives.
4
5
COVER STORY
founded in 1934 by the businessmen Werner
A GLOBAL TREND
Zimmermann and Paul Enz as a result of
THE WORLD MOVES TO ALTERNATIVE CURRENCIES
currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929. Both Zimmermann and Enz had been influenced by German libertarian
The question naturally arises as to what drives the trend towards alternative currencies. The answer is simple: the recent financial crisis (which is certainly not over as the media like us to believe) has brought the world closer to a post-
economist Silvio Gesell. ‘WIR’ is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring and the word for ‘we’ in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community. According to the cooperative’s statutes, ‘Its purpose is to encourage participating members to put their buying power at each other’s disposal and keep it circulating
globalisation era which will be marked by
within their ranks, thereby providing members
uncontrollable sovereign debt and, as a conse-
with additional sales volume. Although WIR
quence, a reversal of policy, away from globali-
grown to include 62,000 – among whom is
sation towards regionalisation.
started with only 16 members, today it has traded approximately 1.65 billion Swiss francs annually (as of 2004). The WIR bank is a not-for-profit bank. It serves the interest of
The trend towards alternative currencies,
monetary shortages during the Great
the clients, not the bank itself. It is a very
originally started on a ‘community’ level have
Depression. A Wikipedia entry states:
stable system, not prone to failure as the current banking system is. It remains fully
increasingly turned into local, state-sponsored, payment systems gaining broad global
“The WIR Bank, formerly known as the Swiss
operational even in times of general economic
appeal and acceptance.
Economic Circle or WIR, is an independent,
crisis. In this sense,WIR may have contributed
complementary currency system in Switzer-
to the remarkable stability of the Swiss
The oldest and best known of these is the
land that serves small and medium-sized
economy, as it dampens downturns in the
“WIR” payment system, established in
businesses. It exists only as a bookkeeping
business cycle.”
Switzerland in 1934 in response to the severe
system to facilitate transactions. WIR was While the WIR complementary currency system in Switzerland and other more recent community-based payment systems such as the Chiemgauer in Southern Germany remain purely paper systems, we observe a growing trend towards bi-metallic currency systems. With our two companies e-dinar FZ LLC in Dubai and Emirates Gold Europe GmbH in Switzerland we are directly involved in the production and coinage for some of the best known of these complementary bi-metallic currency systems: namely the Kelantan Dinar and Dirham and the Ilmtaler Silber Thaler.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
COVER STORY
The state of Kelantan (Malaysia) has
The new Kelantan series is already being
pesos, the current total of silver in storage
been in the national and international press
widely advertised; when leaving or entering
would not be sufficient to satisfy demand
for their efforts to distribute the gold
Kelantan airport, one cannot miss the large
(Mexico in fact has a long-standing project
dinar through their state-owned pawn-
billboards advertising the new medallions
to do just that). It is important to note that
brokers. Since 2007, when they first started
with the state emblem on their face. The
in the not too distant past – actually only 30
distribution, they have sold some 10,000
purpose and aim of the Kelantan coins is to
years ago – the coins of several currencies,
gold dinars to the public.
pay zakat (the Islamic wealth tax) in hard
including the Swiss franc were still made out
assets which have intrinsic value and not, as
of silver. Only in 1980, when the Hunt
During the last one and a half years, we have
is done today, in promissory notes which,
brothers drove silver to 50+ USD an ounce
worked closely with the government of
according to Islamic Law, are unlawful means
and the silver content of these coins began
Kelantan to issue a new bi-metallic series of
of zakat payment.
to exceed their nominal value, was the Swiss
the Kelantan gold dinar and silver dirham
government forced to replace its silver coins
with the state emblem on the face of the new
in February 2010, we were approached by a
medallions. We were finally been awarded
German group who were planning to issue
that contract in March 2010 and received the
an alternative community currency purely
Should silver coinage become popular
funds for the first batch which went into
based on silver medallions – the Ilmtaler
again, the world would quickly use up its
production during April 2010.
series. Face motives include historic figures
depleted silver storage and run out of
with cheap nickel alternatives.
from the German renaissance, particularly
available metal. Inevitably, this would push
This new series of the dinar and dirham will
from the area of Erfurt and Weimar
the price of silver bullion sky high.
be broader in denominations and will
(Ilmtaler denominations: 1/10, 1/4, 1/2 and 1
comprise both silver and gold pieces
ounce silver pieces – .999 silver)
rather than just gold pieces as in the past:
Kelantan dinar denominations 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10 (one dinar = 4.25 grams of 22 ct gold) Kelantan dirham denominations 1, 5, 10, 20 (one dirham = 3 grams of .999 silver)
The question naturally arises as to what drives the trend towards alternative currencies. The
A related group had previously issued one of
answer is simple: the recent financial crisis
the better-known paper-based alternative
(which is certainly not over as the media would
currencies in Germany – the Rheingold. Over
like us to believe) has brought the world closer
the years, they came to realize that sound
to a post-globalisation era which will be
money (i.e. gold and silver) is far superior
marked by uncontrollable sovereign debt and,
to paper receipts. It was for this reason that
as a consequence, a reversal of policy, away
they wanted to issue an alternative silver
from globalisation towards regionalisation.
‘currency’ in denominations comparable to the silver dirham.
Why is the financial crisis not over? Because governments have tried to treat the symptoms
Kelantan’s past efforts were exclusively focused on the gold dinar. As we know
In early 2010, we submitted a competitive
by injecting massive amounts of paper money
however from history, silver coins have played
offer for the production of the coins including
into a structurally flawed financial system;
a more significant role in everyday life than
the artwork, die production and coinage. In
failing to address the root cause of the crisis
gold coins for the simple fact that gold
April 2010, we were awarded the contract and
which is the parallel market of out-of-control
coins tend to be too valuable for everyday
are now in the stage of die production. Their
derivative products, amounting to no less
purchases such as bread or groceries.
first order comprised of more than 40,000
than 15 times the world GDP or roughly 600
Having understood this, the state govern-
silver medallions and we anticipate similar
trillion USD. It was a tiny fraction of this
ment of Kelantan has now decided to issue
sized orders every three to four months.
parallel market (i.e. derivatives based on subprime mortgages) which caused the
a bi-metallic series comprising both the gold dinar and the silver dirham in a wide range
If however a single large country such as
financial collapse in the first place. Yet policy
of denominations.
Mexico coverted its paper pesos into silver
makers continue to close their eyes to the
6
7
ECONOMY
real problem hoping that somehow every-
default. While a sovereign default of the
reserves and savings.While the BRIC countries
thing will magically turn around. A danger-
PIGS countries would certainly be traumatic
have accumulated high levels of foreign
ous illusion since the next crisis is just below
for their citizens, Europe and the rest of the
reserves due to their singular focus on ‘export
the surface and waiting to erupt; the differ-
world could survive such an event. If the US
at all costs’ and have managed their debt
ence being that next time around, the world
however defaults on its sovereign debt, which
fairly well, the developed countries continue
will have run out of options.
is definitely in the cards (a downgrade of US
to spend beyond their means, amass un-
sovereign debt is today openly discussed),
manageable debt levels while at the same
Modern economies could not survive another
the economic world as we know it today
time facing decreasing levels of savings and
financial meltdown of the kind we have just
would cease to exist. Why? Because the US
sovereign reserves.
faced for the simple fact that our govern-
dollar would in the event be devalued to close
ments have run out of options to buy more
to zero, thereby destroying more than half of
In short, developed countries have for too long
time. The next financial crisis will result in
all monetary value in existence.
lived too far beyond their means. As every-
massive sovereign defaults, social unrest and
one of us knows from experience, such a
revolts leading to the eventual collapse of
The BRIC countries on the other hand,
democratic governance. For the people, the
although they also have increased their debt
outcome could at its worst become compa-
ceilings to combat the financial crisis, have
One of the signs of regionalisation is the
rable to the German situation at the end
formidable foreign reserves and sovereign
widespread adoption of barter and alternative
of World War II.
wealth funds which insulate them to a signi-
currency systems in Europe, Asia and the US.
ficant extend from the risk of sovereign
People feel increasingly betrayed by their
default.
governments, have lost their faith in the
The signs for the advent of a new postglobalisation era are visible all around us.
situation will inevitably end in disaster.
banking system and the financial elite and see
First, the massively increased sovereign debt
Let us now turn to the issue of regionali-
their only saving grace in resorting to their
levels which are quickly separating the bad
sation. The disproportionate rate of sover-
own initiatives. Alternative currency systems
from the good and, secondly, the increasing
eign debt levels and foreign currency reserves
flourish in Germany, Asia and the US, while
formation of regional power centers.
has increased the rift between the well-to-do
barter systems grow like mushrooms in
countries in Asia, the Subcontinent and South
Eastern Europe. While these initiatives are
Let us first talk about debt. Governments all
America (“the good”) and the not so well-
admirable (and certainly on the right track),
over the world have tried to buy their way
to-do countries in Europe and the US (“the
while wishing them success, I would like to
out of the financial crisis, incurring debt of alar-
bad”). This is a fundamental shift of power
caution that the only true and lasting alter-
ming proportions.While economic conditions
away from the developed countries to a new
native to paper-based banking is gold and
in developed countries have not really
economic power axis extending from China
silver – the ultimate currency.
improved since the start of the crisis, the size
through India, the Middle East, Africa and
of government debt has increased drama-
South America - the so-called BRIC countries.
Such a world currency will have to be and
tically. Before the crisis sovereign debt was
The results of this shift in economic power are
must be based on hard assets, namely gold
already staggering, today it is beyond repair.
increased regionalisation and a reversal of
and silver. Gold and silver have served
economic focus away from export at all costs
us well since the beginning of civilisation
Everyone is concerned about the debt crisis
towards internal development and consump-
and will certainly serve us well until
in the PIGS countries (Portugal, Ireland, Greece
1tion (we can observe this new trend most
the end of civilisation.
and Spain), but few dare to even think what
clearly in China and India). The author is CEO of e-dinar FZ LLC and
might happen if the US (where government debt will soon be reaching 100 per cent of
What brought this shift in economic power
GDP) or Japan (which has the highest
about? The answer is obvious: it has to do
sovereign debt to GDP ratio worldwide)
with the ratio of sovereign debt to foreign
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
Emirates Gold Europe GmbH. Text By Dr. Zeno Dahinden
8
9
COVER STORY
Educating people as part of the programme: Umar Ibrahim Vadillo (front) and Pak Zaim (middle) are explaining the bi-metallic currency.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
COVER STORY
country in order to create an international
IMPLEMENTING THE DINAR AND DIRHAM ROLE MODEL: A CASE STUDY IN INDONESIA
demand for the rupiah, restrict the powers of the Central Bank etc, and the list goes on.The government of Indonesia cannot solve the problem of the rupiah; the problem of inflation
History is alive with records showing that every
(which is more accurately an increase in the
time a currency like the Indonesian rupiah has
money supply and not merely in prices) but can only regulate it. This is all mathematics
been devalued, there is a massive transfer of
while the solution to the problem of the rupiah
wealth. Indonesians have been reduced to humi-
lies well outside such torturous calculations
liating poverty. In the past decade, the man who has been calling the people of Indonesia
emanating from air-conditioned bourgeois office buildings. It is, on the contrary, to turn away from all of that.
forward to a future of economic strength in Indonesia, with ever growing response from the people, is the founder of the ‘Wakala Induk Nusantara’, Pak Zaim Saidi.
The mess that modern economic theory has created in the 3,000, vast and rich inhabited islands of Indonesia provides a stimulus to seek a solution to the problem, and that lies in a return to the original economic model of the Nusantara Sultanate that people
Within ten years of the Bretton Woods accord,
imposed currency – because the rupiah has
practised for centuries before the introduction
the Indonesian rupiah stood at 415 to 1 US
only been losing its purchasing power ever
of paper as currency in colonial times.
dollar, in late 1986, 1000 to 1 and today it
since first issued – they are still unaware that
stands at approximately 9000 to 1. What
the problem of their economic condition lies
In the past decade, the man who has been
happened in between was Indonesia’s blind
in the very paper money they despise.
calling the people of Indonesia not merely back to conventional economic practice but
following of capitalism; an unquestioning adherence to its dogmatic dictates. The
In order to move the decimal point three
forward to a future of economic strength in
rupiah has been deliberately devalued time
digits to the left, to make the exchange rate
Indonesia, with ever growing response from
and again for reasons never clearly stated.
at least 9 to 1 US dollar let alone make it
the people, is the founder of the ‘Wakala
equal, the Central Bank has to reduce the
Induk Nusantara’, Pak Zaim Saidi.
History is alive with records showing that
money supply in the country – including every
every time a currency like the rupiah is
kind of central and private bank deposits
Having established the Wakala Induk
devalued, there is a massive transfer of
apart from the small portion of worthless
Nusantara in 2008, Saidi inaugurated the use
wealth from the hands of ordinary people to
paper and coins in circulation – by a thousand
of the gold dinar and silver dirham as currency
the hands of those who control the
times; then create a new demand for the
alongside the paper rupiah. He had already
resources and the real wealth of the country;
rupiah.
established the first wakala of Indonesia in the year 2003 and had been a proponent of
a sleight of hand that amounts to theft, always unknown and justified in ultra-tech-
This would mean a preposterous increase in
the function and role of the wakala and the
nical language.
interest rates and taxation which would in
coins. This he based entirely on the history and
turn result in a dramatic reduction of the
culture of Indonesia and the economic model
The people of Indonesia have been reduced
average income with a rise in poverty and
of the Nusantara Sultanate.
to humiliating poverty and destitution, yet
destitution as a consequence. It would also
though on the whole they despise the
mean nationalising the resources of the
As the dinar and dirham are commodities per
10
11
COVER STORY
se, firstly they are free from inflation and
of which is called the daniq). The daniq has
the coins have been minted according to the
secondly they can be used as a just means of
been minted very recently and may be
culture and traditions of Indonesia and the
pricing. Pak Zaim often illustrates this by
considered the most important coin for basic
economic practice of the people of the
saying that the price of a chicken 1400 years
and daily market transactions. Some signifi-
Nusantara Sultanate and since their use is
ago in Madinah was 1 dirham and today, if
cant aspects of the recent launch of the daniq
based on their being a partial payment system
measured in dirhams, remains the same.
will be discussed later.
alongside the paper rupiah, they are not in any way opposed to state currency, which,
The Wakala Induk Nusantara, also known as
The exchange value of the coins follows the
though imposed, will naturally, when used in
the Master Wakala, is responsible for minting
market price at the time of transaction. The
parallel with the dinar and the dirham
the coins – in several denominations as will
wakala keeps track of the daily fluctuations
(themselves minted by the Royal Mint of
be shown later – with a direct relationship
in the exchange rate with the Master Wakala
Indonesia), have its worthlessness revealed
with the Royal Mint of Indonesia (Loga Mulia),
– since the prices of gold and silver, in terms
over time. There is no reason why the coins
and then sells them through the network of
of paper money, fluctuate daily. The minting
should not be used.
wakalas functioning under it.
and distribution costs, which amount to about
There are currently about 75 wakalas which
4 per cent in total, are then added onto the
Pak Sufyan, a scholar of Islamic coinage and
price of the coins.
the Islamic model of economics, quite clearly
in turn sell the coins to the people who
mentioned in an interview with a Dutch
ultimately choose to utilise them in a number
In a terse brochure published by the Wakala
journalist that he is not in anyway opposing
of ways as well as keeping them as collector’s
Induk Nusantara entitled, “Use Dinar and
the banking establishment but that he merely
items, a choice however which does still
Dirham – Daily Transactions, Hand to Hand,”
wants the freedom to choose his medium of
benefit the owner because gold and silver
the various uses of the coins are seen as
exchange which, if saved, would also preserve
serve as the best store of value.
follows:
the value of his wealth. The Dutch journalist included her study of Pak Zaim’s work in
The wakala is, in short, a private institution that facilitates the exchange of paper money into gold and silver coins. Very importantly, it is not a business enterprise. It is profit-free.
Indonesia and her interview with both Pak • As zakat payment according to the shari’ah; under which sub-heading are rulings by the imams of the different madhahib that zakat may not be paid in paper money.
The Master Wakala deals with the mint, the
• As savings and value protection.
wakalas deal with the Master Wakala and the
• As sadaqah.
people deal with the wakalas.This is the basic
• As dowry.
operational mode that has been established.
Zaim and Pak Sufyan in her internationally acclaimed documentary on capitalism [Time for Change, Bregtje van der Haak, VPRO Backlight 2010]. Finally, the wakalas also allow the coins to be redeemed with paper money but with a reduction of 4 per cent of the price that not
The coins – denominations and use
The brochure states one of the strongest argu-
only covers the minting and handling costs
The basic denominations of both the gold
ments for the use of the coins as currency thus,
but serves to deter such an action.
coin and the silver coin are 1 dinar and 1
“Besides the obligation to use them to pay
dirham respectively.The dinar is 22 carat gold
zakat, etc, by using them your wealth will not
Pak Zaim’s tireless efforts to educate the
(91.7 per cent purity), 23 mm in diameter
be affected by inflation. The value of all
public on such matters of daily importance
and is 4.25 grams in weight. The dirham is
paper-based currencies is always dropping,
as monetary economics and his actual work
99.99 per cent pure silver, 25 mm in diame-
but the values of the dirham and the dinar
on the ground in minting and distributing the
ter and 2.975 grams in weight. The dinar has
always increase. Their values appreciate
coins over the last eight years has now
been minted in two other denominations –
by 20-25 per cent annually.”
resulted in the circulation of approximately
1/2 dinar and 2 dinars. The dirham is in three other denominations – 2, 1/2 and 1/6 (the last
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
50,000 coins throughout Indonesia. At first Pak Zaim Saidi argues succinctly that since
look, traders generally express mistrust and
COVER STORY
suspicion but on inspecting the small
some scholars, has to be done before sunset
the market, with anyone being able to trade
certificate from the Royal Mint of Indonesia
or, according to others, within three days.
anything there and with those coming to the
that accompanies every coin in a plastic
Neither can Zakat be collected in paper money
market being given the freedom to use the
cover, they accept them at once as payment,
but rather in real wealth, and in the case of
coins together with the rupiah. People have
often astonished that each silver dirham is
savings or businesses, it has to be collected
freely exchanged their paper money for the
worth many times more than the ten thousand
in dinars and dirhams.
coins and have spent them in the markets with pleasure. The Mayor of Depok has taken part
rupiah note. This is because the only silvercoloured coin they see every day is the 500
Pak Zaim has taken on this task of collecting
in two such markets which stimulated an
rupiah, which has no purchasing power at all
Zakat via the coins that he has been minting
increasing confidence in the coins.
on its own.
and then distributing them in the regular markets he organises. He has set up the ‘Baitul
It is important to mention here that Pak
Zakat and Markets
Mal Nusantara’ so that Zakat is collected and
Sufyan, who lives in Cilincing, has achieved
The most significant element of Pak Zaim’s
distributed by zakat collectors, particularly in
tremendous success in convincing the traders
Amirate of Indonesia is the collection of Zakat
markets.
of his particular district to accept the dinar and the dirham as a medium of exchange. A
and the organisation of markets to encourage entrepreneurship and trading links amongst
This is because when the coins are distributed
pasar malam or night market operates every
Muslims that will break the barriers of
to the poor, needy and those eligible to
evening in Cilincing, which has attracted the
monopolies, oligopolies and the giant private
receive them, the next question arises, ‘How
attention of the mainstream media of Indo-
corporations of production in Indonesia.
can they be utilised?’ Since Zakat is distributed
nesia as well as several international journa-
in parallel with the organisation of markets,
lists. Near to Cilincing, traders in a series of
Zakat is the fallen pillar of Islam. This is
those receiving the money may immediately
shops beside a fishing village have begun
because, unlike sadaqah, Zakat is taken –
spend it according to their needs. To date
accepting the coins as currency as well.
clearly mentioned in the Quran (9:103) –
seven Market Day Festivals have been orga-
taken by an Amir who is then responsible for
nised based on the Islamic model of the free
Umar Ibrahim Vadillo, the Spanish Muslim
its immediate distribution to eight categories
market in the major cities of Indonesia.
who pioneered the whole movement of the dinar and the dirham and is the key to its
of people mentioned in another verse of the Quran, a distribution which, according to
Traders are not charged rent for a space in
reintroduction in Asia, in 1992 in Spain
12
13
COVER STORY
minted the first gold dinar since the collapse of the Ottoman Islamic Dawlah. Vadillo once remarked in a lecture at the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) that there are only two steps to the establishment of the dinar and the dirham as currency: their minting and distribution, and their being used. In Indonesia, with the problem of the minting and the distribution solved, the spread of their use now begins. It is important to mention here that the organisation of markets for the use of the dinar and the dirham is the antidote to the current capitalist procedure of establishing shopping malls and giant supermarkets that involve huge corporations supplying them with commodities as well as requiring massive investment, a procedure which has destroyed entrepreneurship and raised too many barriers for the man in the street to be able to engage in trade. As such, the only possibility for the trader is a bank loan, which contains, if admitted, the very seeds of the destruction of that business. On the other hand, Pak Zaim’s efforts have enabled any man in the street to be able to trade. If someone desires to trade but has no capital to start with, the person may get an interest-free loan for the purpose from the Wakala Induk Nusantara in dinars and dirhams. This is called ‘qirad’ or a profit-sharing investment in trade. Many people have successfully started trading through such loans and have also begun repaying the loan. Pak Zaim has recently begun another major operation for the distribution of dirhams through a non-commercial channel. He has called it Garnissun Bangsa. It is an acronym taken from parts of an Indonesian phrase
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
COVER STORY
that means, Nationwide Movement for
people who came to the market and the
prices of the coins are also updated twice
Dirham Spending and Sadaqah for National
officials received the launch of the two new
daily according to world gold and silver prices
Resilience.
denominations of the coins appreciatively.
to avoid any loss due to daily fluctuations.
It is a campaign for economic strength, to
The nisfu dirham and especially the daniq,
The very strength of the political estab-
encourage people to use dirhams in all
solve the problem of using the dirham
lishment in the world today, including
transactions and give dirhams as charity.
in very basic transactions. Now for an angkot
Indonesia, lies in banking and imposed
Besides the numerous activities organised
(minibus) ride, which costs exactly one daniq,
currencies. Be it a secular, Islamic, capitalist
under Garnissun Bangsa, such as the business
the people may freely use the coins without
or communist state, regardless of the name,
loans, Pak Zaim has started the Million
any need to expect any rupiah as change.
the modern state has three foundational
Dirhams Give Away Campaign. It is to urge
Secondly, for small transactions like a cup of
elements: a constitution, a national debt and
people of means to give to people without
tea or coffee, even if paid with a dirham,
an imposed currency.
means doing so in Dirhams, which will help
change may be given in a nisfu dirham and
in the distribution of the coins.
daniqs.
The economic strength of those in power is due to the latter two – the national debt
People may give via the mosque or any
This will help distribute the coins more widely
and the imposed currency. For this reason,
charity organisation or straight to families
around Nusantara. In short, though the use
no state recognises gold and silver or any
and individuals. When a million dirhams
of the coins still functions together with the
other commodity as money.Therein lies both
enter into the economy, they start making a
use of the rupiah, the introduction of the
their strength and their weakness since it is
difference because, as mentioned above, the
daniq and the nisfu dirham has potentially
in no way against the law to mint coins and
coins preserve purchasing power and are a
freed Indonesians from dependence on the
use them as a ‘barter currency’. The people
good store of value and therefore immune
rupiah. Moreover, now anyone can exchange
of Indonesia know them to be money. But
from inflation.
almost any amount of rupiahs for dirhams and
the government refuses to acknowledge
over time they in turn may be exchanged
them and only recognises them as ‘barter
The Daniq and the Nisfu Dirham
for dinars. This may be the catalyst for the
currency’ or means for a partial payment
On 18 April 2010, the daniq and the nisfu
people’s completely severing their links
system in buying and selling. In Indonesia there
dirham (half dirham) were officially launched
with Bank Indonesia. Pak Zaim continues to
is a model for any serious person in any part
at the seventh Market Day Festival organised
educate the public about the dinar and the
of the world who has realised the fraudulence
by Amir Zaim. It was a historic event as the
dirham as solutions to the problems created
of paper money, it having no intrinsic value
daniq has never been minted as a coin in
by the fictions of both the electronic rupiah
and consequently losing its purchasing power
Muslim history; it has only been used as
and the paper rupiah. He has given numerous
irreversibly, and thus its incapacity to function
’odd-shaped clippings’ taken from existing
television interviews, authored several books
as a reliable medium of exchange.
silver coins of the respective time.The weight
on the subject and organised many seminars
and value of the daniq has therefore been
and markets to expand the work. Ilusi
As the US dollar falls, all currencies pegged
determined now.
Demokrasi and Kembali ke Dinar are two of
to it therefore fall with it. A close study of
his most important books. He has also trans-
the working monetary model of the
The festival was attended by a number of
lated Umar Ibrahim Vadillo’s book Heidegger
Indonesian Amirate is essential to avoid the
significant government officials and leaders
for Muslims from English into Bahasa
massive transfer of wealth from the poor
of large organisations including the Mayor of
Indonesian.
and ordinary people to the super wealthy that always occurs every time the value of
Depok, Bapak Dr Ir Nurmahmudi Isma’il, and the Chief of Police, Kiyai Sanwari Ahmad.
His website www.wakalanusantara.com is
Zakat was also distributed the previous
constantly updated with news of events and
afternoon and that very morning. Both the
developments with regard to his work. The
paper-based money falls. Text By Hasbullah Shafy’i
14
15
Image: AP Photo/Musadeq Sadeq
ECONOMY
“This is perhaps the best news Afghanistan has had in recent years”, said Waheed Omar, spokesman for weak Afghan President, Hamid Kharzai, in Kabul after the publication of the astounding geological report. He was careful to stress that it was conducted on behalf of the government. It is hoped that in the long-term, this discovery will unite the Afghan people. According to Soviet geologists, the preparatory work that contributed to the discovery was carried out during the occupation in the 1980’s. After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghan experts firstly hid the maps and data and Afghan Minister for Mines, Wahidullah Shahrani, during a press conference in Kabul.
then returned them to the official document archives after the fall of the Taliban in 2001. American geologists arrived in 2004 and made the records the basis of their own research.
WEALTHY, POOR AFGHANISTAN
It was not until 2009 that a Pentagon bureau
MASSIVE RESERVES OF NATURAL RESOURCES DISCOVERED
on economic development was informed of the discovery, that mining experts carried out
It has been almost three decades since the politically motivated war between Argentina and
checks, and that finally U.S. Defence Secretary Robert Gates and Afghan President Karzai were briefed. It has been estimated that there
Great Britain over the desolate Falkland Islands,
are natural resources worth just over a trillion
where it was well known that there were large,
U.S. dollars.
undiscovered reserves of oil and gas. This gives
Enormous reserves
the present Afghan conflict a painful irony as a
According to a senior U.S. government official
similar message has been making the rounds
quoted in the “New York Times”, stockpiles include large reserves of iron, copper, cobalt
within the international community. According
and gold. The Times report was essentially
to American geologists and the Pentagon, there
based on a Pentagon report. The mineral
are large and diverse natural resources buried
reserves are enough to turn Afghanistan into a “world-leading mining centre”, with mining
under Afghan soil. According to the International
becoming the backbone of the Afghan
Monetary Fund, the war-torn country is one of
economy, according to Jalil Jumriany, adviser
the poorest nations in the world. In 2008, the country’s income stood at $425 per capita.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
to the Afghan ministry for mining. Notably, Afghanistan was described in the Pentagon report as the “Saudi Arabia of lithium”, the
ECONOMY
16
17
ECONOMY
key metal component in the production of
only outcome to be expected from mining.
story looked to many observers like part of
computers and mobile phones.
In Afghanistan, the various militant factions
an effort to strengthen the case for giving the
now have – alongside the opium industry –
counterinsurgency effort more time,” agreed
Remarkable timing
another crucial incentive to continue their
political commentator, Jim Lobe.
There may be legal doubts as to whether the
armed struggle.
Hostile geopolitics
delays in the disclosure of the reputedly, enormous reserves of natural resources were
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, many
The geopolitical situation in Afghanistan and
purely down to technical delays. After all,
of the alleged natural resources are in
relations with its neighbours – in addition to
President Obama has recently been forced to
Taliban controlled areas [Ghazni, Kandahar
technical, military and political issues – is
oust his leading commander in Afghanistan
and Zabul], who could potentially free them
likely to be the biggest challenges needed
in the midst of ever-increasing admissions of
from a reliance on revenue generated by
to be taken into consideration. How are
western failure in the Hindu Kush. Some
opium, which essentially represents their only
countless tons of valuable ore from a
analysts have expressed the view that
source of income, that and the collection of
country without access to the sea to be
headlines regarding the alleged discovery of
protection money.
transported to the region’s major ports?
public opinion as to the futility of continued
Also, neighbouring countries such as resource-
It is the opposite problem to that with which
involvement.
hungry China – and their direct competitor
the NATO commanders are presently occu-
natural resources serve to counter the growing
India – have an increased incentive to both
pied. They have spent years striving to find
“What better way to remind people about the
directly and indirectly interfere in Afghan
secure supply routes into Afghanistan.
country’s potential bright future – and by
internal affairs.According to information from
Pakistan would be an option, but the border
people I mean the Chinese, the Russians, the
think-tank “Stratfor”, the Chinese company
crossing points have proven to be dangerous.
Pakistanis, and the Americans – than by
China Metallurgical Group Corporation, has
In addition, Pakistani transportation is tradi-
publicising or re-publicising valid (but
already committed 3 billion U.S. dollars in
tionally considered by western observers to
already public) information about the region’s
advance and agreed to pay a further 400
be in the hands of a corrupt group of brokers
potential wealth?” wrote Marc Ambinder,
million thereafter for the mining rights to
– the so-called “transport mafia”.
political editor of the magazine “The
secure the copper deposits from Aynak in
Atlantic”, in his blog.
Logar province. Last year verification drillings
Iran, located to the southwest would represent
were carried out and a temporary base is
a different route. But simmering unrest
Blake Hounshell, chief editor of “Foreign
now being prepared. A railway line, power
currently plagues the southeastern regions.
Policy” recalls that the U.S. Geological Survey
plant and copper smelter are in the pipeline.
Furthermore, it seems clear that faced with
(UGS) published an online report in 2007 on
new sanctions against Iran and the earlier
mineral resources [excluding gas and oil] in
In the months since the implementation of
refusal to approve pipeline projects through
Afghanistan. It said, “Afghanistan has signi-
counterinsurgency measures, which according
Iran, NATO and the US have no real interest
ficant amounts of undiscovered non-fuel
to experts are increasingly based on those
in this option.
mineral resources.”The World Bank prepared
carried out by the French in Algeria, the losses
that, with their report on the extensive
of U.S. and NATO troops have risen sharply.
A third option would be to transport the
economic potential of the Afghan mining
A symbol of the de facto failure was the result
Afghan ore through Central Asia and Russia.
industry going back to 2004.
of the “battle” around Merja in Helmand
But this, according to NATO, is a lengthy and
Province. A second planned campaign in and
expensive journey – two and a half times as
around the key city of Kandahar has been
long and as costly as going through Pakistan.
Natural resources and counterinsurgency
postponed for months.
Experts dampen optimism
The optimistic Afghan and U.S. voices are questionable. Increase in wealth is not the
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
“In that respect, the appearance of the Times
Official US experts have already warned
ECONOMY
China’s focus on Afghanistan’s resources: inaugaration of the Aynak copper project.
that extracting Afghan natural resources will
P.J. Crowley.“As you know, mineral extraction
infrastructure, awkward logistics, security
not be simple and that it could take years to
faces numerous but not insurmountable
threats, and corrupt negotiations.”
convert the recently discovered minerals into
challenges.”
actual revenue. “It’s not a quick win,” said
The planners of “Stratfor” came to a para-
Jack Medlin from the U.S. Geological Survey
The extraction and transportation of the
mount conclusion on the potential develop-
at a briefing at the Pentagon.
coveted ore is a logistical challenge, even
ment of Afghanistan’s natural resources:
with developed railway and road networks.
“Over the next few years there will be little
Representatives of the Pentagon and the U.S.
Even if Afghanistan had these means of
meaningful impact on the ground in
State Department acknowledged that there
transportation, it would remain questionable
Afghanistan in terms of investing in and
was a general sense of optimism, in spite of
whether the mining of natural resources
developing the country’s minerals. The key
the fact that efforts to extract the raw minerals
would be economically viable.
question at this point is how Washington
were being hampered by remote locations,
will play this mineral-wealth story to serve
weak infrastructure, a lack of powerful
Experiences with investments in Afghanistan,
its interests in the region, especially as the
equipment and a strong military resistance.
such as the aforementioned Aynak copper
United States struggles to break a stalemate
“Turning the potential of Afghanistan’s
deposits show, according to “Stratfor”, that
in southwestern Afghanistan and force the
mineral wealth into actual revenue will take
typically slow development, is being further
Taliban to the negotiating table.”
years”, said State Department spokesman
hampered “by problems relating to poor
Text By Sulaiman Wilms
18
19
ECONOMY
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
ECONOMY
other firms, with each of those firms receiving
DETRIMENTAL TO THE ECONOMY IRAQ: ON THE AMERICAN EXPORT OF DEMOCRACY
its share. But in many cases some of those firms started working under the contract. For example, the private US company, Custer
At the beginning of US intervention in Iraq there
Battles received contracts for 100 million US-
was talk that democratisation would lead to
dollars over 13 months, signed subcontracts
prosperity. In practice it turned out to be wrong.
and then produced fake documents with “swollen” costs.The picture gets even worse
In 2005, when the constitution of Iraq was
if, as according to experts’ estimates, we add
approved, Iraq was proclaimed a democratic
the fact that by now Iraq has lost 90 billion
state. From the results of the elections (2005 and
US-dollar through illegal exports of oil and oil products.
2010) new governments were formed, but, to put it mildly, the development of the Iraqi economy leaves much to be desired.
Besides that, annually, the country wastes about 600 million cubic meters of gas and of the 1,041 oil wells existing, only 441 are being exploited. The country uses less than
Before the US began to export its democracy
country as a whole is ensured by the evolution
half its export potential estimated at 4.2
to Iraq, the country was one of Russia’s main
of traditional economic practices and not by
million barrels.
trade and economic partners in the Middle
the planting of Western democracy.” Over the last seven years of the Iraqi demo-
East. At that time the attractiveness of the Iraqi market for Russia was expressed by the
Before the much vaunted democratisation
cracy, not a single oil processing plant has
country’s high paying capacity, guaranteed
began in Iraq, the representatives of the US
been built in the country despite proposals
by its having the world’s second highest oil
did a lot of talking about big oil deposits in
from foreign companies. According to infor-
reserves, and good export prospects.
the country saying that hydrocarbons would
mation from the control department of the
ensure the development of the Iraqi economy
US Congress, of the 2 million barrels of oil
On the one hand, under Saddam Hussein the
and lead it towards modernisation. Did it
produced in Iraq daily, 100 – 300,000 barrels
members of the Baath party occupied the key
happen? At the end of 2009, the Iraqi govern-
remain unregistered which amounts to
ruling positions in all spheres of life of the
ment tendered for the development of its ten
between 5 million and 15 million US-dollars
Iraqi society and it was a common practice
oil fields. Many foreign companies bid for
in monetary terms.
for them to distribute part of the oil
their development and, as expected, most of
export profits amongst each other. Such
the winners were international consortiums
Comparing the economic state of Iraq under
practice is known as the muhassa system
including two Russian companies – Lukoil
Saddam Hussein to the situation now, we can
(“proportional distribution”) but from the
and Gazpromneft. However when it came to
conclude that the export of US democracy
perspective of the Western economic model
the distribution of the contracts aimed at
turned out to be detrimental to the Iraqi
it was the way to stagnation.
the quick economic restoration of Iraq, not
economy.Western democratic models do not
everything was transparent.
work in the Arabic world. (Source: RIA Novosti)
of stability in Iraq where people had become
According to a Mr. Al Khafaji, an Iraqi citizen
used to this system. As Evgeny Primakov, an
who worked with the US State Department
The author is a Strategic Culture Foundation investments expert on the energy sector in the Middle East and Africa.
expert on Iraq, says, “Iraq is specifically
before the war, the companies which received
different. The economic development of the
contracts arranged six subcontracts with
On the other hand it ensured a certain degree
Text By Eldar Kasayev
20
21
GLOBAL
GLOBALIA | Issue 07 | January 2010
GLOBAL
“THE RUNAWAY GENERAL” LEADING COMMANDER SACKED FOR INSUBORDINATION
President Obama lost no time in removing General Stanley McChrystal from his command of US and NATO forces in Afghanistan, appointing General David Petraeus in his place. He moved quickly to restore the unity of his administration’s war effort by reiterating the chain of command and reminding the military of the supremacy of civilian authority. President Obama came pretty close to having
McChrystal either. This was when he met the
a MacArthur moment and, following in the
president briefly in the Oval office after being
footsteps of President Truman, swiftly dealt
selected for the job in Afghanistan. McChrystal
with it. General McChrystal and his top aides
called this a photo-op and was said to have
had disparaged civilian leaders, including
been disappointed that the commander-in-
President Obama, in their conversations with
chief, quote, “didn’t seem very engaged.”
a freelance journalist, reported in an explosive article captioned “The Runaway General” by
The article also contains a number of
Rolling Stone magazine.
disparaging remarks made by McChrystal and his aides about vice-president Joe Biden,
Taking shots at the president, according to the
national security advisor Jim Jones, special
article, McChrystal described his first meeting
envoy Richard Holbrooke and the US ambas-
with him as “disappointing”, saying that the
sador to Afghanistan, Karl Eikenberry.
president came in “unprepared” when, shortly after taking office, President Obama met
The general’s aides were clearly dismissive of
with senior military officers at the Pentagon.
the civilian misreading of the war, with the
A source familiar with the meeting said
general himself ridiculing the vice president
McChrystal’s assessment of Obama was that
Biden in a one-liner when he asked: “Are you
of a president who was “uncomfortable and
asking about Vice President Biden?” then
intimidated” in the presence of military top
adding,“Who’s that?”McChrystal held a grudge
brass.
against Biden ever since he had opposed the surge that McChrystal had proposed in
According to McChrystal’s staff officer, the
support of a new counter-insurgency strategy
magazine reports, their second encounter
to rescue the failing war and to which Obama
four months later did not make a mark on
had agreed over Biden’s objections.
22
23
GLOBAL
The article quotes McChrystal as calling Richard Holbrooke a “wounded animal” because he “keeps hearing rumours that he’s going to be fired.” His aides derided Jim Jones by calling him a “clown”. The White House was furious, as was Obama. This unbecoming conduct amounted to insubordination by no less than a general officer holding a very important command. This called for a severe reprimand and dismissal.The general was summoned, given a hearing by the president and commanderin-chief and, in a show of grace, asked to resign. There were concerns in Washington that McChrystal’s departure in the middle of a war could cause a major set back to its execution and the timelines that Obama had
McChrystal’s unfinished legacy: the unsuccessful campaign around the town of Marja.
prescribed for the military in Afghanistan. Some argued that after a presidential scolding he should be allowed to return to
Pentagon did not appreciate political realities.
lating the leadership, which sent the wrong
his post and finish the job.
Out of sync with each other, they have conti-
signal down the line. Obama had had to give
nued to operate within their own spheres.
him a dressing down during his visit to
But Obama had other concerns.The general’s
The military high command however having
Copenhagen last year after McChrystal had
conduct had brought out into the open three
initially agreed to the timelines set by Obama
criticized Vice President Biden in a speech in
fault lines that now needed to be addressed
when he gave them additional troops and
London for advocating a scaled-down war
urgently.
the funds to turn things around in Afghanistan
effort, in conflict with McChrystal’s own
last autumn, not truly accepting them.
strategy of increasing troop strength.
leadership over the conduct of the war with
They argue that counter-insurgency operations
Earlier last autumn, McChrystal was suspected
the fundamental question as to who is in
can not be realistically limited to a given
of having leaked his Afghanistan strategy
control of a war effort that is de facto going
length of time. The political leadership has
document to the media arguing for an
nowhere. This is despite Robert Gates being
accused the Pentagon of indirect insubor-
additional 40,000 troops even before
in charge of the Pentagon, having been
dination with the Pentagon responding by
President Obama could evaluate it and make
retained from the Bush administration for the
saying that the administration is focused
a judgment; calculated to put the president
very purpose of ensuring continuity of smooth
more on withdrawal and less on winning
in a box and make him concede to his
operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.
the war.
demands. An angry White House made muted
Firstly, the friction between a civil and military
accusations of insubordination. Secondly, the Pentagon has been blaming the
And thirdly, McChrystal was habitually
administration for not understanding the war
crossing a venerated line in openly criticizing
Being thus emboldened, believing himself
with the government retorting that the
the civilian chain of command and manipu-
indispensable and enjoying the support of
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
GLOBAL
the Pentagon, particularly Robert Gates,
Eikenberry and Richard Holbrooke.
McChrystal committed the grave indiscretion of publicly ridiculing the civilian authority to
The fallout over the McChrystal scandal will
whom he reported. But this time he forced
affect Pakistan too; where the civilian and
the president’s hand too far.
military leadership has chosen to quietly watch the drama unfold. McChrystal often
Fears that General McChrystal’s abrupt
visited Pakistan in an effort to win support
departure from the theatre of war would
for the U.S. strategy in Afghanistan and deve-
cause serious disruption are, in fact, unfoun-
loped close ties with military commanders,
ded. It is not uncommon for commanders to
starting with Gen. Ashfaq Kayani, Pakistan’s
be changed during the course of a war.
army chief, with whom he held frequent
Pending the Senate approval of General
meetings. Effective cooperation and intelli-
Petraeus for the new job, a British general
gence sharing exists between the two sides.
who was next in seniority had already taken over to ensure there were no missed heart-
There remains an uncertainty, however, as to
beats in the chain of command.
whether this cordial relationship will be maintained by the new US and NATO
The entire military leadership, including
commander General Petraeus.Although he is
General Rodriguez, the US and NATO second-
no stranger to this war and to the region,
in-command, continues to oversee day-to-
having overseen both the war and General
day operations as before. Subordinate com-
McChrystal and fully familiar with the realities
manders will also continue to follow the
on the ground, remaining in close contact
strategy and orders that are already in place.
with Pakistan’s military commanders.
General Petraeus was in fact the architect of
General Petraeus nevertheless remains an
the war strategy presented to President
unknown entity as a person physically
Obama by McChrystal and approved for
handling the operations. Pakistan will also
implementation in Afghanistan, a strategy
be closely watching the nature of his relation-
that Petraeus had already put in place in
ships with other groups in Afghanistan,
Iraq and where McChrystal also served. For
particularly those that work to destabilize
Petraeus, highly regarded for his performance
Pakistan and the region.
in Iraq, this war and the strategy are nothing new.
A strong working relationship with Islamabad is and should decisively remain a central part
In taking this decision, President Obama
of the US war strategy, not only because of
ignored the plea made by President Karzai
the sensitive common borders and the fact
who cautioned Obama against McChrystal’s
that Pashtuns straddle both sides of the border
removal, expressing fears that it would derail
but also because the events in Afghanistan
the war. For Karzai, McChrystal was also
directly impact Pakistan. That Pakistan is in a
important as he got the full backing of the
position to play an important role in promo-
general, who also served as his channel of
ting peace goes without saying.
communication with Washington. Karzai is not on speaking terms with ambassador
Text By Shahid R. Siddiq
Stanley McChrystal
24
25
INTERVIEW
within Europe. So now the debate is about
“LIBERAL” VERSUS “RADICAL”
the status of Islam. And here we have a
AN INTERVIEW WITH FRENCH AUTHOR OLIVIER ROY
strange phenomenon: while anti-immigration feeling is mainly associated with the conservative right, anti-Islamic sentiment is
“The debate in Europe has shifted in the last 25
to be found on both the left and the right,
years (effectively a whole generation) from
but for two very different reasons.
immigration to the visible symbols of Islam, which
For the right, Europe is Christian and Islam
has created a paradox: even people who were
should be treated as a tolerated, albeit inferior,
opposed to immigration now acknowledge that
religion.There is (unfortunately) no way to ban
the second and third generation of migrants are here to stay and that Islam has rooted itself within Europe. So now the debate is about the status of Islam.”
it (because of the principle of “freedom of religion”, inscribed in our constitutions, international treaties and UN charters), but there are means to limit its visibility without necessarily going against the principle of freedom of religion (for instance the European Court of Human Rights did not condemn the banning of the scarf in French schools).
The debate about Islam in the West, principally
Independent experts and authors like the
in Western Europe, has been developed along
French author Olivier Roy are helping to paint
ideological lines. Hitherto, it quite often came
a different picture. For Roy, extremist groups
For the left, the issue is more generally
to a rare – given the former political dialectic
like Al-Qaida (AQ) have more in common with
secularism, women’s rights and fundamen-
of “left” and “right” in the European
the political-terrorist movements of the
talism: it opposes the veil, not so much
landscape – fusion of anti-Muslim and anti-
European past than with Islam.
because it is Islamic, but rather because it seems to contradict women’s rights. Hence
Islamic rhetoric. Question: In Switzerland, a majority voted
the debate on Islam disguises a far more
But too often, religions and their practices
for a ban on minarets; in France and in
complicated issue: what is a European identity,
have been confused with ideologies and their
Belgium, the Islamic headscarf is under
and what is the role of religions in Europe;
proponents. These days, it is mostly the
serious debate; in Italy the crucifix is
and of course, on these two issues the left and
”talking heads” or “pundits” of mainstream
coming under fire. And also here, in
the right take very different positions. But we
TV or the press who dominate the ”discourse”.
Germany, the debate surrounding Mus-
are witnessing the rise of new populist
lims is often hysterical.Why do Europeans
movements (like Geert Wilder’s In Holland)
fear religious symbols or ”foreign” reli-
mixing both approaches, basically siding with
gions so much?
the right but using leftist arguments.
Olivier Roy: The debate in Europe has shift-
Question: In your book, you say that
ed in the last 25 years (effectively a whole
fundamentalists like Al-Qaida have
generation) from one of immigration to the
nothing to do with the tradition of Islam.
visible symbols of Islam, which has created
But for the people of Europe, they appear
a paradox: even people who were opposed
very traditional.Are Al-Qaida and similar
to immigration acknowledge now that the
organisations and movements a modern
second and third generation of migrants are
phenomenon? How do you explain this
here to stay and that Islam has rooted itself
matter?
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 201 2010
INTERVIEW
Olivier Roy: The kind of terrorism perpetrat-
fact, there is no real parallel: the present
joined the Red Army Faction (RAF) or the Red
ed by AQ is unknown in Muslim history, as
struggle looks more like asymmetric warfare,
Brigades of thirty years ago, but have now
well as in “Christian” history. So in any case
with Islamic radicals having no air force or
joined the most successful movement on the
it is a recent phenomenon. If we consider
aircraft carriers.
anti-imperialist market.We are still witnessing
some of its main characteristics: suicide
the continuity of a mostly western, revolutio-
attacks, execution of hostages, targeting civil-
A radical Christian crusader who wants to
nary millenarianism that has turned away
ians; these are all tactics that have been put
fight Muslims does not need to enter into a
from the concept of establishing a new and
into practice recently by other organisations
terrorist organisation: he can just enlist into
just society. The new movements are pro-
before AQ: The Tamil Tigers used suicide
the US air force and become a fighter-
foundly sceptical about building a good
attacks, the Italian extreme right (Bologna
bomber pilot. It is well documented in the US
society, hence their suicidal dimension (also
bombings in August 1980), the Italian Red
media that the Colorado Springs US Air force
to be found with the RAF).
brigades: if you look at the video of the exe-
Academy is a hotbed of Christian evan-
cution of foreign hostages by AQ in Iraq, it
gelicalism (at the expense, by the way, of
Question: Today, some Europeans main-
follows precisely the “staging” of the exe-
Jewish or atheist cadets, note: Air Force
tain that European culture is essentially
cution of Aldo Moro by the Red Brigades
Removes Chaplain From Post: Officer Decried
a Christian culture, and hence that
(banner and logo of the organisation, hostage
Evangelicals’ Influence, By T.R. Reid,
everything Islamic is problematic and
hand-cuffed and blindfolded, a group of “mil-
Washington Post Friday, May 13, 2005)
alien for Europe.What do you think of this position?
itants” staging a mock trial, the pronouncement of a “sentence” followed by the exe-
Question: How do you explain the success
cution).
of such radical movements or ideologies?
Olivier Roy: They say that at the same time
Are poverty and exclusion really the
as the Popes (Benedict and John Paul) have
reasons for it?
said that Europe is rejecting and ignoring its
By its modus operandi; its form of organi-
Christian roots: the debate on sexual freedom,
sation, its targets (US imperialism), and recruitment (young western educated
Olivier Roy: No, all the research shows that
abortion, gay rights is not setting in opposi-
Muslims or converts to Islam), it is obvious
there is no correlation between poverty and
tion Europeans and the Muslims, but secula-
that AQ is not the expression of a traditional
radicalisation: there are far more Saudis than
rists on one hand (there are some Muslim
Islam (even fundamentalist) but of a recasting
Bangladeshis (in fact almost no Bangladeshis)
secularists) and conservative believers on the
of Islam under the cloak of western revolu-
among the radicals. I think that the present
other hand (whether they be Muslim, Catholic
tionary ideology.
struggle is a continuation of the old fault-line
or orthodox Jews). In fact Europe is highly
of anti-imperialist, third-worldist movements
divided on the topic of its own culture,
Question: Are there similar Christian
against the West and specifically the USA.
between secularists who consider that the
organisations? Can we find a similar
Bin Laden says little about religion, but
Enlightenment (alongside Human rights, free-
development in Christianity?
mentions Che Guevara, colonialism, climate
dom, democracy) to be the real birth certifi-
change etc. It is also clearly a generational
cate of Europe, and the “Christian cultural-
Olivier Roy: It depends what you call
movement: AQ is a “youth” movement of
ists” who consider that the Enligthment also
“Christian” (and that is the same issue for
young people who have split with their
led to communism, atheism and even Nazism.
Islam) and whether violence is motivated
families, their social milieus and are not even
by faith or by political ideology? I argue that
interested in the family’s country of origin.
Question: Is there a real risk of Islamophobia in Europe?
in both cases the motivation is driven far more by ideology (even claiming a religious
There are an astonishing number of converts
legitimacy) than by faith. There has certainly
within AQ, which is now acknowledged
Olivier Roy: The problem is how we define
been “white” western terrorism (the Okla-
but not taken into account. The converts are
Islamophobia: is it simply another term for
homa bombing in 1995, for example). But in
rebels without a cause who would have
racism, and specifically racism against
26
27
INTERVIEW
consider religions as “mere religions”, whatever they say about themselves. The issue is not what Islam says or what the Pope says, but under which conditions a faith community can freely exercise its rights. Governments should contribute to the de-linking between religion and culture, but at the same time reject the multi-culturalist approach of religion in favour of a neutral and strict freedom of religion within the framework of existing laws. Question: In the media we often have A new phenomon: Terror was unknown in Islamic history.
the dialectic of “liberal” vs. “radical” Islam. Is there a “liberal” or “radical”
people with a Muslim name, whatever their
Question: During an interview, you said,
Islam? If we look at the five pillars of
real degree of belonging to a faith community
for example, that the biggest campaign
Islam, is it possible to do the prayer
may be, or is it the rejection of a religion?
against Darwin in Europe was being
”liberally” or “radically”? Is this termino-
There are anti-racist militants who cannot
conducted by a Turkish Muslim using
logy actually applicable on this matter?
stand the veil (as is the case with feminists),
translations of books written by evange-
while there are racist people who do not
lical Americans, with a consequent con-
Olivier Roy: No, I think the mistake is to
oppose the veil (because they already think
vergence of values and norms, and even
consider that in order to be a good citizen, a
that these people are too different from us
the manner in which those religious
believer has to choose a “liberal” theology.
anyway). The issue is complex because we
groups translate their convictions into
The debate on the “reformation” of Islam is
haven’t tried to disentangle two issues:
political action and intervention. How
irrelevant. People who advocate a Muslim
ethnicity and religion.
can the political world find a way to deal
Luther never read Luther: he was not a liberal
with this “drifting, deculturalized and
and quite anti-Semitic incidentally.
Of course in Europe most Muslims have a
globalized religion”?
foreign ethnic background, but the distinction
The ”formatting” of Muslims into a Western
between ethnicity and religion is increasing:
Olivier Roy: I think that today, the ”successful”
environment has nothing to do with theology.
there are converts both ways; there are atheist
religions are the global and deculturalised
It is done by the individual practices and
“Arabs” and “Turks”, and more and more
religions (evangelicalism, salafism, cults, etc)
endeavours of the Muslims themselves by
Muslims want to be acknowledged as
not the traditional churches (the Catholic
attempting to try to reconcile their practices
believers belonging to a faith community, but
Church, in particular). This trend is dominant
within a western environment, in which they
not necessarily as members of a different
now. It does not make sense to fight
find tools to do that (rethinking norms in
cultural community; we need to distinguish
against it, particularly in countries where
terms of values, for instance). In the long
between “ethnic communities” on the one
constitutions prevent the State from inter-
run these changes will certainly translate
hand and “faith communities” on the other,
fering with beliefs. On the contrary I think we
into a theological rethinking, but it does not
because both require a different approach,
should accentuate the separation of church
make sense to associate modernity with
and since “ethnicity” is less and less mean-
and state by implementing full equality
theological liberalism: to think like that
ingful in terms of culture, it is becoming more
between religions, but not on a basis of
means either distorting history or relying on
and more linked with skin colour.
“multi-culturalism”; rather we should
wishful thinking.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
28
29
AFRICA
If China needed another prompt that the European powers have finally woken up to the fact they were losing the competition for the Africa pie, it came with France’s bid to recapture lost ground in May this year. French President Nicolas Sarkozy presided over the 25th Africa-France summit in Nice where for the first time he tacitly acknowledged the success of China’s expansion in Africa by calling on French businesses to emulate it. Without mentioning China by name, Sarkozy declared it was time for Europe to use infrastructure investment along with development aid and fight to increase its influence in Africa once again. “Africa is our future... the African continent is asserting itself more and more as a major player in The new ‘Big Brother’? African children waving Chinese flags.
international life,” said Sarkozy. “We cannot govern a 21st century world with a 20th century institution.”
RETURN OF COLONIAL POWERS?
The two-day summit, which ended June 1,
CHINA-EU RIVALRY IN AFRICA SHARPENS
underscored Europe’s new drive to step up its investment in Africa and imitate China’s
In times of an obvious shift of economical and political influence from the Western hemisphere to the East of Asia, Africa has become to the staging-ground of a new competition. In order to counter Chinese influence, France’s president Sarkozy invited African leaders to an AfricanFrench summit in the town of Nice. Bejing has – in terms of hotly debated political issues – proven itself as less demanding to the African
successful formula of undertaking infrastructure projects and supporting private investment to win hearts and minds.To make his message heard Sarkozy had invited executives of some of France’s leading companies:Areva, the country’s nuclear giant, oil giant Total, France Telecom, Veolia, the world’s largest water supply company and others. “This summit is meant to bring policy and reality closer and facilitate French businesses to expand in Africa,” says Anna Stahl, researcher with the Institute for European
governments then its Western counterparts. So
Studies of Vrije Universiteit in Brussels.
it is less than sure they will return into the
“European Union (EU) businesses have been
political fold of its former colonial masters.
companies that enjoy the backing of the
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
reluctant to engage in Africa and Chinese
AFRICA
state have had the advantage. Now France
“China’s behaviour in Africa plays by the rules
Chinese mining companies in Zambia and
wants to lend support to its companies and
set by western powers themselves,” said an
other African countries that have been found
redress the situation.” While EU policy
article in the Chinese edition of Global Times.
to use obsolete and highly-polluting equip-
towards Africa has always featured an econo-
“While no western government can speak
ment that has been banned inside China by
mic aspect, the model of preferential trade
out publicly against China’s investment in
the country’s new stringent environmental
combined with aid was dominant, according
the continent they have mobilised the media
policies.
to Stahl. “Now the discourse has become
and various non-governmental organisations
more pragmatic,” she says.
to find faults with China.”
Calls were heard too about the need to rethink China’s quest to control energy assets in Africa
The change is dictated by the staggering
‘The 21st Century China-Africa Investment
that is fuelling anti-Chinese perceptions.
figures of China’s expansion in Africa.A recent
and Cooperation Forum’, held in Beijing on
China’s re-examination of its practices in
report in China’s ‘21st Century Business
May 28, revealed China was shifting gears to
Africa comes at a time when the EU is
Herald’ newspaper said China’s direct
engage more players in its dealings with
wrestling to clarify its own position towards
investment in Africa has increased more than
African countries, courting relations with
China’s expansion on the continent.
ten-fold, jumping from a modest 80 million
commercial associations and social groups
US dollars in 2003 to 1.36 billion dollars in
beyond the immediate ruling elites.
2009. At the 2009 Forum on China-Africa
Two years ago the EU approached Beijing with a trilateral initiative on Africa, suggesting
Cooperation (FOCAC) held in the resort town
“The Chinese media needs to ‘go out’ too
China and the EU should work on a partner-
of Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt, Beijing com-
and explain to African people what China’s
ship basis that involved Africa as an equal
mitted to 10 billion dollars in low-cost loans
development model is all about,” Xie Boyang,
partner. But the response from Beijing has
and an additional one billion dollars in loans
vice-chairman of the China-Africa Business
been lukewarm. “They don’t see the trilateral
to support the growth of small and medium
Council, was quoted as saying at the forum.
initiative as their own,” says Stahl. “They
African enterprises.
Xie claimed the absence of Chinese media in
worry that agreeing to it could be interpreted
Africa meant that its investment there was
by the Africans as if China and the EU are
At about the same time that President Sarkozy
being misrepresented by western media as
negotiating over their heads.” (IPS)
was meeting African leaders in Nice, China
“the return of colonialism”. But some of the
was holding its own seminar on how to
participants in the forum also spoke about the
Text By Antoaneta Becker
counter negative perceptions about its rise in Africa. Recent official media reports have
Now a usual sight: Chinese business in the streets of Khartoum, Sudan.
been full of headlines like “the West envies China’s sway in Africa” (the Global Times) and “China and the West spar over diplomatic ethics in Africa” (Xinhua news agency’s website). Chinese companies have encountered upsets in several African countries where they have invested to gain valuable assets – being accused of turning a blind eye to corruption and violating local laws. All this has fuelled a climate of suspicion in China that the West is waging a covert war to frustrate China’s expansion in Africa.
30
31
AFRICA
ON THE WESTERN SAHARA WHEN WILL THE SOLUTION ARRIVE?
The question of the status of the Western Sahara is seldom heard in the Western media, or at least not since the 1980s. But in Morocco, which since 1975’s legendary ‘Green March’ has considered the Western Sahara part of its own country, all the issues relating to that disputed territory are as current as they ever have been. Indeed they are explosive geopolitical issues. And yet political progress remains extremely sluggish. Many experts agree that the most promising prospect for solving the Western Sahara question remains the Autonomy Plan proposed by Morocco in 2007. To understand the conflict it is necessary to
Spain on how the area would be returned
look back a little. The area known today as
began in 1965, with the UN supporting
the Western Sahara was appropriated by
Morocco. What was at issue was the future
Spain in the course of Morocco’s colonial
status of the region. A trend soon emerged,
occupation. The Western Sahara is extremely
apparently instigated by Spain and later
sparsely populated, with an estimated
Algeria, amounting to equating self-deter-
500,000 people living there.Traditionally these
mination with independence – in other words,
have been nomadic tribes of mixed Berber and
a movement towards the independence of
Arab descent, known as the Hassani, to which
the Western Sahara. The Moroccans, on the
are added a large number of settlers from the
other hand, stuck by the position that what
Moroccan heartland. The Western Sahara is
was at stake was a territorial, legal conflict
largely desertified.The most important natural
between them and Spain, not a matter of
resource is phosphate, while others such as
self-determination.
oil and uranium are thought to exist. The Spanish position was based on the claim Since the decolonialisation of Morocco, the
that the Western Sahara before Spanish
status of the Western Sahara has been the
occupation was kind of no-man’s land, a terra
subject of constant dispute. Negotiations with
nullius, while Morocco and also Mauretania
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
AFRICA
made legal claims to the country – claims
has failed through disagreement as to the
which in Morocco’s case were basically
way voters would be identified.
recognised by the UN. British author Toby Shelley has criticised the In 1975, following a unilateral attempt by
UN Security Council’s overall lack of
Spain to hold a referendum, Morocco
determination to find a solution to the
mobilised everything in its power against
problem. Nevertheless, Shelley believes that
what it called the “Spanish-Algerian project
many presently want stability in the region
of a puppet state”. Morocco cited the position
(especially the USA), which could be one
of the International Court that it held a
reason why the matter has begun to move
legitimate legal claim to the area, and called
again lately.
on Spain to enter new negotiations. Morocco proposed its autonomy solution in The ‘Green March’, which was announced on
April 2007, which was presented to the UN
16 October 1975 and involved the peaceful
Security Council. The UN then requested the
occupation of the area by Moroccan civilians,
parties involved to enter into direct,
was designed to force these negotiations into
unconditional negotiation.Also in April 2007,
play; and negotiations indeed began – but
the UN Security Council passed Resolution
failed. There then followed a legendary
1754, which called on Morocco and the
phase of conflict over the country. On 6
Polisario to negotiate; this was extended to
November 1975, the ‘Green March’ began
October 2007 by the UN peace mission
with around 350,000 volunteers, an event
MINURSO.As a result, a total of four meetings
still deeply ingrained in the collective memory
between the two sides were held under
of the Moroccan populace.
United Nations patronage at Manhasset near New York, but results were not forthcoming.
The conflict threatened to escalate. Algeria
Furthermore, the mission of the UN General
began to arm the Polisario movement, sta-
Secretary’s Personal Envoy, Peter van Walsum,
tioned some of its own troops in parts of the
ended on 21 August 2008, with a successor
Western Sahara, and created what was known
yet to be named.
as the SADR, a kind of Polisario governmentin-exile, in the border town of Tindouf.
The UN mission was most recently extended
Morocco managed to keep the Polisario at bay
up until 30 April 2010. Morocco has proposed
militarily throughout the 1980s, partially by
far-reaching autonomy while preserving
the construction of massive protective walls
Moroccan sovereignty, while the Polisario
along the cease-fire line to prevent the
insist on a completely independent state and
Polisario from penetrating. Armed conflict
accuse the UN mediator of being partisan to
dragged on from 1975 to 1991. But in political
Morocco.While the situation remains difficult,
terms the situation is still today one of dead-
the Moroccan Autonomy Plan still seems the
lock, with a large number of Sahrawis still
best solution to the conflict.
living in refugee camps around Tindouf. Abdel Hamid El Ouali, a professor at Since the end of the armed conflict, every
Casablanca University’s Faculty of Law, in
effort to hold a referendum on independence
his highly recommended book ‘Saharan
32
33
AFRICA
Image: AP Images
on the possibility of independence. What is needed now is a new vision. El Ouali even suggests the development of a more cooperative, regionalised Maghrib similar to the European Union, a kind of ‘Maghrib of Regions’. Abdel Hamid El Ouali represents the view that the Moroccan autonomy offer goes even further than the Lund Recommendations regarding the regulating of autonomy published by the OSCE in 1998, and other applicable standards, and that an Autonomous Region of the Sahara would enjoy powers that even the most advanced autonomous regions do not have, like Greenland, the Faroe Islands, the Aland Islands and Catalonia. According to the Moroccan plan, the population of what would become known as the Autonomous Region of the Sahara would govern themselves on democratic principles,
Muhammad VI, King of Morocco, during his first visit in the Western Sahara.
with legislative, executive, and legal bodies. The powers of the autonomous region would
Conflict. Towards territorial autonomy as a
to independence or complete integration into
lie principally in the following areas: local
right to democratic self-determination’ has
the Moroccan state.
administration of the region, local police forces and jurisdictions; in the economic
produced a convincing portrayal of the way the conflict developed and the great oppor-
Secondly, he continues, independence has
sector overseeing the fields of economic
tunity represented by the 2007 Moroccan
always been the wrong approach to the
development, regional planning, promotion
Autonomy Plan. El Ouali basically sees three
Western Sahara, since Morocco does indeed
of investment, trade, industry, tourism and
reasons why the Autonomy Plan was received
have legitimate legal claims to the territory.
agriculture; the region’s budgetary and tax
positively, including by the UN.
And thirdly, the highly developed Moroccan
affairs; infrastructure (such as water, hydraulic
Autonomy Plan was, he claims, very convin-
plants, electricity, public services and trans-
Firstly, he says, there is a general paradigm-
cing for a variety of reasons. El Ouali speaks
port; in the social sector things like housing
shift away from concepts of total state inde-
of “the end of the paradigm that self-
construction, education, health, work, sports,
pendence for regions with ethnic minorities
determination means independence.”
social welfare and social security; the environ-
within existing states, since states formed
ment sector; and cultural life on issues such
that way often cause instability, not only
However, the so-called freedom-movement
as the promotion of the Saharan cultural
internally but also in respect to other
Polisario, which is supported by Algeria and
heritage of the Hassani.
countries, with them usually struggling or
headquartered in the Algerian town of
failing to sustain their independent existence.
Tindouf, still clings to the goal of complete
The above represent altogether a larger scope
More realistic and preferable, he says – and
independence. The Polisario was sceptical
than that proposed by the OSCE’s Lund
he includes the case of the Western Sahara
about Morocco’s autonomy offer from the
recommendations, which, for instance, did
in this – is territorial autonomy as opposed
outset, since it did not include a referendum
not encompass jurisdiction or taxes. The
GLOBALIA | Edition 01 | December 2007
AFRICA
exclusive jurisdiction of the Moroccan state
lie with a Head of Government, who would
Morocco at opportune moments.Algeria, says
would however remain in the following areas:
represent the Moroccan state in the region
El Ouali, should rather show more under-
symbols of sovereignty, in particular the flag,
and would be answerable to the King. He
standing for the maintenance of stability in
national anthem and currency; symbols of
would form the region’s cabinet and nominate
the region, in the interests of its own internal
the King’s constitutional and religious
the ministers, and would be responsible for
identity issues and ethnic regionalism.
authority as Commander of the Faithful and
answering questions from the regional
guarantor of freedom of worship as well as
parliament and populace.
He claims that the Moroccan Autonomy Plan is an effective way of taking regional identities
individual and collective freedoms together with foreign relations and the juridical order
The Head of Government would be elected
into account without encouraging the
of the Kingdom.
by the local parliament. His relationship to the
separatist tendencies that would be
central government and King would be of a
destructive to the region.“That is the greatest
And yet even in its foreign relations, the
somewhat symbolic nature and would aim to
danger to threaten Maghribi territoriality,
autonomous region would be included in
demonstrate the unity of the Moroccan state;
with ethno-nationalism having become a
issues that affect it directly. Moreover, the
but his influence on the actual work of the
distraction to and an outlet for the serious
Sahara would even be given the possibility,
autonomous government would be minimal.
problems affecting modern societies, aiming not for the take-over of power, but for the
with the approval of the government, of entering into cooperation with foreign regions
The Autonomous Sahara would also have its
disintegration of the state with a view to
in order to further international exchange
own courts to rule on disputes relating to
creating new state entities. The country that
and collaboration. Any powers not clearly
autonomous government decisions – again
seems best armed to face this eventuality is
defined would be regulated according to the
something that goes beyond the Lund recom-
Morocco,” El Ouali sums up.
‘subsidiary principle’ – in other words, with
mendations. The laws, ordinances and court
preference for the autonomous region over
rulings issued by the Autonomous Sahara
This is so, he says, firstly because of Morocco’s
central government, something in which the
would have to comply with the region’s
strong national cohesion in spite of the diver-
Autonomy Plan once again exceeds the Lund
autonomy statutes and the Moroccan
sity of its population, and secondly because
recommendations. The Sahara would also
constitution. And finally, the population of
of advances in its democratisation, which
have its own financial sources from regional
the Sahara would be represented in Morocco’s
have amounted to more codetermination for
taxes, income from the exploitation of natural
parliament and other institutions, and take
local and cultural communities. Finally there
resources, funds from internal settlements,
part in national elections.
is the culture of consensus, developed over centuries in Morocco. Strong national integra-
and income from regional productive investments. It is these fiscal aspects that reveal the
Abdel Hamid El Ouali sees the new Moroccan
tion is important for the strength of a state,
true extent of the Moroccan Autonomy Plan.
understanding of self-determination, as
and essential if the region is not to slide into
expressed in the Autonomy Plan, as post-
ethnic chaos. El Ouali also calls for an end to
A parliament, a government and jurisdictional
modern, while considering the Algerian
the conflict between Morocco and Algeria,
bodies are envisaged for the Autonomous
approach as backward and outdated since
and for closer cooperation between the
Sahara. The parliament would consist of
aimed solely at state independence,
Maghribi nations. One possible approach to
members from the various Sahrawi tribes as
something which, as explained, often leads
that would be a five-year moratorium on a
well as members from the regional popula-
to instability and is contrary to the general
solution to the Sahara question, aiming at
tion as a whole, and an appropriate represen-
trend towards globalisation.
identifying a common policy for regionalisation within an Arab/Maghrib Union.This in
tation of women on the parliament would also be ensured. So the body would be chosen
According to El Ouali, there are now doubts
turn could lead to the stabilisation of the
by means of free, democratic elections while
as to whether Algeria is interested in any sort
whole region and its diverse ethnicities.
taking into account the differentiated tribal
of solution at all, it perhaps preferring to keep
mosaic of the Region. The executive would
the conflict open as a lever to be used against
Text By Yasin Alder
34
35
ASIA
THERE IS NO ‘ISLAMIC BOMB’ AN ANALYSIS OF PAKISTAN’S STRATEGIC NUCLEAR ASSETS
When India went nuclear soon after playing a crucial role in dismembering Pakistan in 1971 and after having enjoyed an overwhelming conventional military superiority, Pakistan was left with no other choice but to develop a nuclear deterrent to ward off future Indian threats. The US invasion of Afghanistan provided another opening for the Indo-Israeli nexus to target Pakistan’s strategic assets. This time the strategy used was to present it as unstable and incapable of defending itself against extremist religious insurgents, creating the spectre of both Islamabad and its nuclear assets falling into enemy hands.
The Indian detonation of a nuclear device in
bomb a ‘Hindu Bomb’, the American and
no other choice but to develop a nuclear
1974 drew only a customary “show of
British bomb a ‘Christian Bomb’ or the Soviet
deterrent to ward off future Indian threats.
concern” from the Western powers. But
bomb a ‘Communist’ [or an Atheist] Bomb’.
Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto vowed to
Pakistan’s nuclear programme, initiated in
The West simply used Pakistan’s bomb to
make a nuclear bomb.
response to the Indian acquisition of
make Islam synonymous with aggression and
nuclear weapons, evoked immediate and
make its nuclear programme a legitimate
Soon however, both he and the nuclear
“serious concern” from the same quarters.
target, knowing full well that it merely served
programme were to become non-grata. Amid
Ever since, Pakistan has been under immense
a defensive purpose and was not even
intense pressure, sanctions and vilification
pressure to scrap its programme while the
remotely associated with Islam.
campaigns, Henry Kissinger personally delivered to a defiant Bhutto the American
Indians remain relatively uncensored. With India going nuclear soon after playing
threat: “Give up your nuclear programme or
That the Western attitude was discriminatory
a crucial role in the dismemberment of
else we will make a horrible example of you.”
can be seen by the religious colouring it gave
Pakistan in 1971 and after having enjoyed
to Pakistan’s bomb in the calling it an ‘Islamic
an overwhelming conventional military
Indeed a horrible example was made of
bomb’. One has never heard of the Israeli
superiority over Pakistan to the ratio of 4:1,
Bhutto for his defiance. But he had enabled
bomb being called a ‘Jewish Bomb’, the Indian
a resource-strapped Pakistan was left with
Pakistan to become the 7th nuclear power in
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
ASIA
Text By Shahid R. Siddiqi
the world. This served Pakistan well. India
Israel’s apprehension of Pakistan’s military
shattering the invincibility myth of Israeli
was kept at bay despite temptations for
prowess is rooted in the weight Pakistan
pilots who believed themselves to be far
military adventurism. Although there has
indirectly provides to Arab states with whom
superior in skill and technology.The Pakistanis
never been real peace in South Asia, at least
Israel has remained in a state of conflict.
happened to be assigned to the Jordanian,
there has been no war since 1971.
Conscious that several Arab states look up
Syrian and Iraqi air forces on training missions
to Pakistan for military support in the event
when the war broke out and, unknown to the
Ignoring its security perspective, Pakistan’s
of threat to their security from Israel, it is
Israelis then, they undertook combat missions
Western ‘friends’ refused to admit the country
unsettling for Israel to see a nuclear-armed
incognito.
to their exclusive nuclear club, though expe-
Pakistan. After successfully destroying the Iraqi nuclear
diency led them to ignore its ‘crime’ when it suited their purposes. However, prompted by
Israel neither can overlook the fact that
reactor in 1981, Israelis planned a similar
identical geo-strategic interests in their
Pakistan’s military is a match to its own. The
attack on Pakistan’s nuclear facilities at
respective regions and seeing Pakistan as an
PAF pilots surprised Israeli Air Force, when
Kahuta in collusion with India. Using satellite
obstacle to their designs, Israel and India
flying mostly Russian aircraft they shot down
pictures and intelligence information, Israel
missed no opportunity to malign or subvert
several relatively superior Israeli aircraft in
reportedly built a full-scale mock-up of the
Pakistan’s programme.
air combat in the 1973 Arab-Israel war,
Kahuta facility in the Negev Desert where
36
37
ASIA
pilots of F-16 and F-15 squadrons practiced
nuclear reactor in the Negev Desert. India
mock attacks.
was also warned that Islamabad would attack Trombay if Kahuta facilities were hit.
has ensured absence of war in the region. The US invasion of Afghanistan provided another opening for the Indo-Israeli nexus to
According to ‘The Asian Age’, London journalists Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott-
The above quoted book also claims that,
target Pakistan’s strategic assets.This time the
Clark stated in their book ‘Deception:
“Prime Minister Indira Gandhi eventually
strategy was to present Pakistan as an
Pakistan, the US and the Global Weapons
aborted the operation despite protests from
unstable state, incapable of defending itself
Conspiracy’, that the Israeli Air Force was to
military planners in New Delhi and
against extremist religious insurgents, creating
launch an air attack on Kahuta in the mid
Jerusalem.”
the spectre of Islamabad and its nuclear assets falling into their hands. Suggestions
1980s from Jamnagar airfield in Gujarat (India). The book claims, “In March 1984,
McNair’s paper No 41, published by the USAF
are being floated that Pakistan, being at risk
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed off the
Air University (“India Thwarts Israeli Destruc-
of succumbing to extremists should have
Israeli-led operation bringing India, Pakistan
tion of Pakistan’s “Islamic Bomb”), confirmed
its nuclear assets disabled, seized or forcibly
and Israel to within a hair’s breadth of
this plan. It said,“Israeli interest in destroying
taken out by the US. Alternatively, an inter-
nuclear conflagration.”
Pakistan’s Kahuta reactor to scuttle the
national agency should take them over for
“Islamic bomb” was blocked by India’s
safe-keeping.
Another report claims that Israel also
refusal to grant landing and refuelling
planned an air strike directly out of Israel.
rights to Israeli warplanes in 1982.”
Pakistan has determinedly thwarted the terrorist threat and foiled this grand
After mid-way and mid-air refueling, Israeli warplanes were to shoot down a commercial
Clearly India wanted to see Kahuta gone but
conspiracy. The terrorists have either been
airline flight over the Indian Ocean that
did not want to face retaliation at the hands
eliminated or are on the run. Pakistan has
would arrive into Islamabad in the early
of the PAF. Israel, for its part wanted this to
made it clear that it would act decisively
morning, then by flying in a tight formation
be a joint Indo-Israeli strike to avoid being
against any attempt from any quarter to harm
to appear as one large aircraft on radar
held solely responsible.
its nuclear assets. But if the game is taken to another level, the consequences will be
screens to prevent detection, and using the
disastrous for the region.
downed airliner’s call sign to enter
The Reagan administration also hesitated to
Islamabad air space, intended to knock out
support the plan because Pakistan’s dis-
Kahuta and fly out to Jammu to refuel and
traction at that juncture would have hurt
The Indo-Israeli nexus is losing initiative, but
exit.
American interests in Afghanistan, at a time
as long as the American umbrella is available
when Pakistan was steering the Afghan
Afghanistan will remain a playground for
resistance against the Soviets.
mischief mongers. It is now up to the US to
According to reliable reports this mission
walk its talk and prove its claim that it wants
was actually launched one night. But the Israelis were in for a big surprise. They
Although plans to hit Kahuta were shelved,
to see a secure and stable Pakistan. It must
discovered that the Pakistan Air Force had
the diatribe against Pakistan’s nuclear pro-
pull the plug on conspiracies to destabilize
already sounded the alert and had taken to
gramme continued unabated. Israel used its
Pakistan.
the skies in anticipation of this attack. The
control over the American political establish-
mission had to be hurriedly aborted.
ment and western media to create hysteria.
Shahid Siddiqi served in the Pakistan Air Force
India too worked extensively to promote
and later held senior positions in the corporate
Pakistan reminded the Israelis that Pakistan
paranoia, branding Pakistan’s programme as
sector in Pakistan, USA and South Africa. He
was no Iraq and that the PAF was not the Iraqi
unsafe, insecure and a threat to peace.
also worked as a journalist and had a long association with radio and television. He is
Air Force. Pakistan is reported to have conveyed that an attack on Kahuta would
The fact is otherwise. It is technically sounder,
now a freelance columnist and writes on
force Pakistan to lay waste to Dimona, Israel’s
safer and more secure than that of India and
political and geopolitical issues.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
ASIA
38
39
EUROPE
Text By Abu Bakr Rieger
Sigmar Gabriel, Germany’s leading socialist politician, visiting a Muslim Community.
The Muslims living in Germany are perhaps
SYSTEMATIC OPPOSITION?
its most important minority. Many of these
GERMANY: THE OFFICIAL INTERACTION WITH MUSLIMS
citizens now have German citizenship, or were even born in Germany. Furthermore there is also a considerable number of German
It always pays to revisit the declared fringes and
converts to Islam, but ever since the 11th of
examine the true situation of the minorities
September 2001, the Muslims in Germany
there. Germany is witnessing the re-emergence
Considered objectively, Muslims in Germany
of a new racism, one which seeks to deny Muslims the description of being “German” – not
have been the subject of serious controversy. carry very little political weight in the capital Berlin and from the Muslim perspective the current governing party, the CDU/CSU, has little to recommend it.
least those born in Germany. The issues that motivate those disturbed by Is Germany systematically opposed to
And yet to understand the true state of a
this significant minority could not be more
Islam? Of course Germany is a consti-
society it always pays to revisit its declared
different, ranging from a general animosity
tutional state under the rule of law, or
fringes and examine the true situation of
towards religion by radical secularists, all the
Rechtsstaat as the Germans call it, with
the minorities. Since Germany is very partial
way to a genuine concern in some sectors of
a functional system for the protection
to lecturing the rest of the world on human
government that millions of Muslims could
of minorities, with a free press and all
rights and the protection of minorities,
some day form a kind of parallel society.
the concomitant possibilities for the free
there should in principal be no objection to
formation of opinion.
a bit of critical self-reflection.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
And, sad to say, Germany is also witnessing
EUROPE
the re-emergence of a new racism, which
Affairs, did organise the Islam Conference, a
recent years.The so-called Verfassungsschutz
seeks to deny these Muslims the description
consultative body aimed at improving
offices, which define themselves as protecting
of being “German”, even those born in
relations between the government and
the constitution, liken Islamism to left and
Germany. One should bear in mind that
Muslims.
right-wing ideologies. In doing this the
the subject of Ausländerfeindlichkeit, or
authorities barely differentiate between
xenophobia, widely discussed prior to
Media
modernist, traditional or orthodox Islamic
11.09.01, has now mysteriously disappeared
Of course the mass media has a key effect in
positions, although they do recognise such
from the public discourse.
shaping public opinion about a minority. The
differentiating aspects when assessing
generality of Muslims inside Germany are
Judaism or Christianity, expressing few
The way these new citizens are dealt with is
regularly associated with extreme misfits
objections to their orthodoxy or fundamen-
of course determined to a large extent by
(‘honour’-killers, terrorists), and sometimes
talism and subjecting them to scant public
political parties, media, the intelligence
with bizarre criminal acts.These associations
scrutiny.
services, and the spectrum of NGOs. An
have a devastating public impact. The
poignant question on how minorities are dealt
contradictory term “Islamic” terrorism has
The “broad” and “controversial” term
with in practical terms is to ask whether
been effectively established by majority
‘Islamism’ is differentiated in terms of how
institutions and societal forces possess the
media, and has never been corrected by the
willing certain groups are to resort, if at all,
minimum level of fairness and neutrality.
publication of surveys that prove that
to violence, and yet committed Muslims who
This is crucial since the interplay between
terrorism today has the greatest impact of all
do not see themselves as Islamists find
these societal forces can potentially bring
on the Muslims themselves.
themselves easily falling into dossiers that overlap with mass murderers and criminals.
about a kind of systemic approach which effectively dismantles a nation’s very
Furthermore, the mass media offers a broad
Publications of these details amount to a de
protection of its minorities – even if it is not
and regular forum for vehement and some-
facto expulsion of Muslim communities and
what was originally intended.
times polemical critics of Islam, whereas
individuals from the relevant sectors of
Muslim or pro-Islamic authors nowhere gain
public life in Germany. Of course, Muslims
Political Parties
anywhere near the same regular access to
are also disadvantaged in Germany from
Considered objectively, Muslims in Germany
mass media. In the mass media, the clear
other angles, encapsulated in the following
carry very little political weight in Berlin. As
balance of power between majority and
problematic topics.:
mentioned, from the Muslim point of view
minority enables the domination of terms
there are reservations, especially with the
and definitions, made through the evaluation
The Terrorism Debate
current governing party, the CDU/CSU.
of the the nature of beliefs as either ”modern”
Of course, the discovery of terrorist plans by
Practising Muslims have hardly ever been
or “conservative” or applying the problem-
Muslim extremists has caused quite a
promoted within the structures of other
atic differentiation between Muslims and
sensation in Germany. It is regularly suggested
parties either, nor have any prominent
Islamists, and forming politically powerful
that the “Islamist scene”, defined publicly in
Muslims so far been able to secure relevant
terms such as “Islamism”.
the vaguest of terms, could descend at any time into terrorism and extremism. The state
seats in parliament. On a local and national level, the conservative party also profiles itself
The Verfassungsschutz
of Lower Saxony has been criticised for
against “Muslim” Turkey gaining the EU
Like other citizens in Germany, Muslims also
monitoring mosques about which no
membership. In this respect critics acknow-
fear attacks and support the investigation of
suspicions exist, something they declare to be
ledge that the CDU, itself undergoing an
such intentions. As well as having national
a precautionary measure against potential
identity crisis, is attempting to reclaim its own
intelligence authorities, Germany also has a
terrorists. Civil liberty campaigners are now
conservative profile by adopting a rhetoric
security branch for each federal state. The
worried that the population will gradually
against Islam. On the other hand, Wolfgang
security apparatus which deals with the
become accustomed to a process leading up
Schäuble, the former CDU Minister of Home
“Islamist” threat has grown enormously over
to a permanent state of emergency. Dozens
40
41
EUROPE
of warnings of possible attacks also influenced
debate with the anti-Semitism of the 19th
the latest parliamentary elections. In fact,
century.
undercover informers operating on behalf of Western security services have been involved
Organisational Sovereignty
in numerous terrorist conspiracies. What is
Of course, government parties possess an
contentious in this respect is not the logical
organisational sovereignty legitimised by
necessity to investigate conspiracies using
elections. However, when it comes to the way
undercover agents, it is the extent to which
Muslims are dealt with in Germany, this right
advanced conspiracies are only possible given
of the majority has certain difficult aspects.
the actions of undercover elements.
Muslims and their organisations have had to date barely any say in the composition of
The Logic of Immigration
important consultative gatherings such as
Many active and widely promoted critics of
the Islam Conference. In the training of Imams,
Islam in Germany insist that Islam is foreign
teaching posts have been awarded to Muslims
and backward-looking, and negate the
who are proven outsiders, so that the minority
possibility that Muslim positions might
is effectively represented by a minority within
develop and adapt in accordance with the
the minority. Many important German
changes of a technologically defined world.
organisational bodies such as Rundfunkrat
German Muslims, especially those Germans
(Broadcasting Council), one of whose tasks
who have entered Islam, are described in
is to ensure that minority rights are protected
public discourse not only as “confused
in the media, contain no Muslim represen-
misfits” or discredited as “radicals”, they are
tatives at all.
more and more frequently made responsible
actively relativise that claim to truth which
for a series of grievances in the Islamic world
Dialectic
defines every religion. We must not underes-
as a whole. In this way, the idea that
Perhaps the most alarming intellectual
timate the danger of a majority society
most Muslims are merely guests in Germany
phenomenon to impact on the way Muslims
creating an Islam which it finds “pleasant”.
is reinforced in public. Sometimes it is even
are accommodated in Germany is the active
claimed that German Muslims ought not to
polarisation of the Muslim community.
The public debate has led not only to a
be accommodated until minorities are given
Muslims are by nature obliged to avoid
growing level of discrimination in everyday
similar rights in all Islamic countries.
extremes and not to gather on extreme
life, but also to a de facto professional ban
positions. Today in Germany, idealised
on Muslim woman who wear a headscarf.
The public confusion between culture and
concepts of “especially good” and ”especially
There are also growing fears that the German
Islam is almost systematically propagated,
bad” Muslims are widely promoted. “Bad”
public could be stirred up to a new kind of
despite the fact that a large number of
Muslims are what justify the burgeoning
friend-or-foe way of thinking about the
Europeans are themselves Muslims. Simi-
security apparatus and the latent mistrust of
Muslim minority in the country.
larly, the fate of Muslims who have been
all Muslims, while “good” Muslims, beyond
murdered in Europe or the existence of
all suspicion, are required to make constant
There are many reasons to defend our nation
significant Muslim societies on the
statements exposing their quasi-secular
against indiscriminate attacks – a nation
continent, are barely mentioned and
position. Under the pressure of extremism,
which we, like all other citizens, acknowledge.
sometimes even denied. One well-known
more and more ordinary Muslims are avoiding
But there are also good reasons to criticise
German sociologist was recently attacked
the public eye. There is a danger that in
loudly the way Germany treats its Muslim
as an anti-Semite because he compared
Germany, in the long term, public debate, as
minority before an unintentional systemic
stereotypes of Germany’s current public
well as academia, will only accept those who
approach mutates into a full-blown system.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
42
43
ECOLOGY
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
ECOLOGY
were destroying the coral reefs. But when
“GUIDANCE FROM THE QUR’AN”
the guidance came from the Qur’an, there
ECOLOGY: THE MUSLIMS AND THE HEIR TO THE THRONE
was a notable change in behaviour. Or in Indonesia and in Malaysia, where former poachers are being deterred in the same way
Under ideal circumstances, profound existential
from destroying the last remaining tigers,”
challenges bring people together – whatever their
said the future British monarch, who in recent
backgrounds. And there can be few crises to
ecological thinking in his country.
match the ecological one, with all its implications, that fit that description so aptly, since we are all affected by it whatever our personal convictions. More and more people, including pioneering thinkers in the field of ecology, are recognising the perhaps life-saving potential of right action
years has made substantial contributions to
The royal heir and the ecological question Prince Charles, whose quest for alternatives to ecological annihilation has made him critical of modernist ideologies and their destructive consequences, has quite naturally examined Islam in his search for answers. HRH Prince Charles is the heir to the British throne and therefore potentially the future
by Muslims in this regard.
king of Great Britain.
“These are all very real problems and
Its organisers are also busy in other Muslim
English Muslim veteran activist Fazlun Khalid
they are facts – all of them, the obvious
countries raising awareness of ecological
is the founder of the internationally acclaimed
results of the comprehensive industria-
issues among Muslim populations.The project
Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environ-
lisation of life. But what is less obvious
on Zanzibar, which has received world-wide
mental Sciences (IFEES). In recent years he has
is the attitude and general outlook which
acclaim, was the first ever in which environ-
made a name for himself as a pioneering
perpetuate this dangerously destructive
mental ethics derived from the Qur’an were
Muslim thinker in the field of environmental
approach. It is an approach that acts
used.
protection, giving talks at prestigious events all around the world.
contrary to the teachings of each and every one of the world’s sacred traditions,
The Zanzibari fishermen stopped dynamiting
including Islam.”
coral reefs soon after they participated in the
Fazlun Khalid is a primary contact for
first workshop on Islam and Conservation in
international institutions and professional
1998. Before that they had been decimating
NGOs when it comes to a Muslim response
Recently the heir to the British throne gave
fish and coral stocks by using dynamite to
to ecological challenges. His core thesis is
a keynote speech on ‘the relationship
secure their means of living.
that there is a relationship between the
(HRH, Prince Charles of Wales)
ecological crisis and a globally unsustainable
between Islam and the environment’ at the
monetary architecture.
Sheldonian Theatre in the famous British
“Working in Muslim countries, the World
university city of Oxford. In this talk, the son
Wildlife Fund has found that trying to convey
of the reigning monarch mentioned a specific
the importance of conservation is much easier
Success in Zanzibar
Muslim eco-project run by the Islamic
if it is transmitted by religious leaders whose
“The impulse for our Zanzibar project was the
Foundation for Ecology and Environmental
reference is Qur’anic teaching. In Zanzibar,
fact that the fisherman there were dyna-
Sciences (IFEES) on the island of Zanzibar
they had had little success trying to reduce
miting the coral reefs because they were
east of the African coast.
spear-fishing and the use of dragnets, which
not getting enough fish. As a result the
44
45
ECOLOGY
Money growth: an ecological disaster
Rising global wealth spells disaster for the planet, with environmental impacts growing roughly 80 percent with a doubling of income, so reports the first comprehensive study of consumption. It adds to the mountain of evidence that the gospel of economic growth must be urgently transformed into the new gospel of resource-efficient green economies, a U.N. panel of experts panel concluded in Berlin. What are the biggest planetary criminals? Fossil fuel use and agriculture, the study found.
loped countries by through the import ofing
“Setting priorities would seem prudent and
Ironically, these are also the two most heavily
goods and food from those countries. In a
sensible in order to fast track a low-carbon,
subsidised sectors, noted Ernst von Weizsaecker
spiral of destructive co-dependency, China’s
resource-efficient green economy,” said Achim
of Norwegian University of Science and Tech-
rising CO2 emissions and deforestation in
Steiner, UNEP’s executive director, which
nology, and co-chair of the International Panel
Malaysia are in part a direct result of North
hosted the panel. “Decoupling growth from
for Sustainable Resource Management. “In
American and European consumption of the
environmental degradation is the number one
the case of CO2, a doubling of wealth typically
goods made there. “International trade clearly
challenge facing governments,” Steiner said in
increases environmental pressure 60 to 80 per
shows rich countries are outsourcing their
a statement. However, this decoupling is not
cent, sometimes more in emerging economies,”
impacts,” von Weizsaecker said.
happening, the report shows. And it will not happen in the future without strong policy
von Weizsaecker said in an interview. At the household level, it is the goods and
interventions, said von Weizsaecker.
Rising affluence has also triggered a shift in
services consumed, not the fossil fuel used for
diets towards meat and dairy products so that
cars or homes, that accounts for most the bulk
Politicians and economists have to abandon
livestock now consumes much of the world’s
of the environmental impacts. This is despite
their obsession with economic growth as the
crops and indirectly consumes 70 per cent of
energy and material efficiency gains over the
solution to all problems, wrote Clive Hamilton
the fresh water and produce contributes to
past two decades. Efficiency, which has
in his book “Requiem for a Species”. Growth
much of the fertiliser pollution, von Weizsaecker
improved on a per dollar expenditure basis, but
has become a powerful symbol of modernity
said from Brussels.The report “Environmental
people are consuming more, which drowns
even though it is neither, says Hamilton, a
Impacts of Consumption and Production:
out any efficiency gains, said panel expert
writer and academic at the Australian National
Priority Products and Materials”, was released
Sangwon Suh of the University of California,
University. If someone is murdered, about one
by the European Commission in Brussels.
Santa Barbara.“Policy makers cannot just look
million dollars to the GDP of rich countries
at direct emissions, they need to look at the
when costs of police, courts, and prisons are
The study also found that rich countries are
full life cycle of their consumption patterns
factored in, according to his research.“Murder
now “exporting” most or a large part or most
and incorporate those their impacts into their
is good for the economy. So is environmental
of their true environmental impacts to deve-
decision making,” said Suh.
destruction,” he writes. (By Stephen Leahy)
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
ECOLOGY
breeding grounds of the fish were being
“The root of environmental issues is the
only opens up new ways of solving ecolo-
destroyed. Other NGOs like Care International,
financial issue,” says Fazlun Khalid.“The point
gical issues, it also allows the joining of
which is an American organisation, could not
I am getting at here is a very important one.
elements otherwise considered alien to
stop the fisherman from dynamiting the coral
Money can be created today – as it has been
one another.
reefs. They called us to organise a workshop
created for the past 200 years – in an infinite
and training materials based on the Qur’an.
way. It can be created out of nothing. Then
Numerous times over the past decades, Prince
We did this workshop and it proved an
this created money is addressed to the
Charles has spoken to support both Muslims
immediate success. What the mainstream
earth which is finite. This arithmetic is lop-
and Islam. In 1993, speaking at Oxford
NGOs could not do over years we achieved
sided; it doesn’t make sense. If you continue
University, he said, “Our judgment of Islam
in 24 hours. Within one day they stopped
to create money in an infinite way and then
has been grossly distorted by taking the
dynamiting the coral reefs,” he says in a
apply it to resources which Allah has created
extremes as the norm. The truth is, of course,
summary of the IFEES project in Zanzibar. “If
as being finite then the only scenario to be
different and always more complex. My own
was for the simple reason that the people
expected in the long-term is environmental
understanding is that extremes, like the
realised that we are Allah’s khalifa; with the
destruction.”
cutting off of hands, are rarely practiced. The guiding principle and spirit of Islamic law,
given responsibility to look after His nature – from which we benefit. Therefore they
Beyond the fetish of ‘growth’
taken straight from the Qur’an, should be
stopped.”
In his view, the real solution does not lie in
those of equity and compassion. Islam can
the implementation of ‘green megaprojects’,
teach us today a way of understanding and
“We have to learn this lesson. Unfortunately,
but rather in a fundamental change of aware-
living in the world which Christianity itself is
the modern situation is that we have a model
ness at a grass-roots level; “To train the
poorer for having lost.”
of the capitalistic nation-state whose primary
‘ulama, to change the school curricula and to
objective is to increase the living-standard
change attitudes.” But Khalid also has some
In a speech at the Foreign Office Conference
of its people.” The people want more and
advice for contemporary consumers.
Centre on 13 December 1996 he referred to
more, and the only way to do it is by exploiting
Islam to help young Britons develop a
the earth. “This cannot go on because the
Even if the fundamental solution to ecological
healthier view of the world. “There is much
resources are finite.”
problems lies in the renunciation of the
we can learn from the Islamic world-
ideology of growth – and ‘sustainability’ –
view in this respect. Everywhere in the
Ecology and the Muslim world
every one of us can do many little things to
world people want to learn English. But
Sadly, and in spite of all the debates
help in our everyday lives. This includes, as
i n the West, in turn, we need to be
throughout the Muslim world, little attention
shown by our Prophet, the saving of water,
taught by Islamic teachers how to learn
is paid to ecology. “In ‘the Islamic paradigm
and also our own reduction of the amount of
with our hearts, as well as our heads.”
of submission’ and in the example of the
CO2 emissions we are responsible for.
Prophetic model,” says Fazlun Khalid, “there
“The upholding and support Prince Charles
are none of these environmental problems.”
Side by side?
continues to give to Islam and the Muslims
According to the Muslim eco-activist, Islam
“If Muslims have the answer, they have to give
protects the status of British Muslim citizens.
is very intensively conservationist but does not
it to other people. That can only begin from
When he does become king of Britain, today’s
speak the ecological language because it
a practical demonstration of what they think
British Muslims will be in a similar political
does not need to.
is right. If it works, other people will take it
and spiritual position to the Muslims who
on.” This is the bottom line according to the
made the first migration (Hijra) to Abyssinia,”
“We need to realise that the environmental
Muslim eco-veteran. The combining of
says Muhammad Zulfiqar Awan, Director and
and ecological language mainly emerged in
Islamic principles in our dealings with the
Lead Lecturer at Offa Consultants, London.
this civilisation in the last century as a reaction
creation, with the function of man within
to what human beings were doing.”
that as Allah’s representative [khalifa], not
Text By Sulaiman Wilms
46
47
NGO
Panel during the annual gathering of the European Muslim Union in Skopje, Macedonia.
in Europe is on the rise, the majority of
BEYOND IMMIGRATION SKOPJE: COOPERATION BETWEEN EUROPEAN MUSLIMS
European Muslims having been born in Europe and speaking European languages. EMU is a European foundation which main-
Every year the European Muslim Union (EMU)
tains an organisational and communications office in Strasbourg, Europe’s second capital
organises gatherings of European Muslims. This year’s was in Skopje, and the organisers hailed it as an important step towards the coordination
after Brussels. Like all EMU meetings, the Skopje event from 28 to 30 May included a social aspect alongside discussions on content and organisation. On the evening of 28 May, the EMU and its Macedonian partner-
of Muslim activities in Europe. The EMU considers itself especially connected with the region.
organisation El-Halal invited more than 120 guests to the Bridge Hotel, where people became acquainted in a relaxed and convivial atmosphere.
The backdrop for this annual gathering of
Under a banner of “Beyond Immigration”
European Muslims could not have been better.
Muslims from all over Europe discussed
The EMU’s Honorary President, Professor
Skopje, the historical capital of Macedonia,
mutual objectives on the invitation of the
Nevzat Yalcintas, gave an opening address
boasts not only magnificent architectural
European Muslim Union (EMU). “Because,”
entitled “The Significance of the Balkans for
treasures from the Osmanli period, but also
explained EMU President Abu Bakr Rieger in
the European Muslims” to kick off the event
and more importantly a large, vibrant Islamic
the event’s invitation, “we are not foreigners,
on the Friday evening. Yalcintas discussed
community. For a period of three days, dozens
we are European citizens and have always
the historical continuity of Islam in South-
of representatives of different Muslim commu-
been part of Europe.” And this situation is a
East Europe and recollected the highs and
nities visited the old city.
dynamic one too, since the number of Muslims
lows of Islamic history in the Balkans.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
NGO
His observations on recent history included
and Muslim,” he said. “Islam is not in itself
townscape today. The EMU Foundation is
the Balkan Wars and the terrible crimes
a culture, but rather filters existing cultures
especially concerned with the role of mosques
perpetrated against European Muslims in the
and produces new, positive cultural relations
in European countries and is committed to
region.
and connections. The Muslims who speak
facilitating excellence in management,
European languages today represent a cons-
services, accounting, education and social
On Saturday morning the Ambassador of
tantly growing potential from Kazan to
programmes in the mosques of Europe, thus
the Turkish Republic in Skopje, H.E. Hakan
Granada,” Rieger added.
addressing not only the Muslim community but also the surrounding society.
Okcal, gave a speech of welcome. Okcal voiced his approval of cooperation between
Other talks on the same day discussed the
European Muslims, and reminded delegates
difficulty the Western mind has in its percep-
All of the talks touched on how Muslims
about the city’s important role in the Islamic
tion of Islam, the new role of mosques in
could respond to the challenges of our times
world. The Balkans are still connected to
Europe, and the Muslim response to the
on the basis of Islam. Sunday’s numerous
Turkey through innumerable economic and
current financial crisis.The collection of zakat
workgroups were about implementation in
social projects, he said, adding that “Turkey
naturally connects the Muslims to the
activities such as joint media projects, the
remains strongly committed to a positive and
fundamental economic issues of our age.
organisation of Islamic markets, and youth exchanges. Representatives of NGOs and
peaceful future in the region.” The President of El-Hilal, Benjahudin Shehabi,
other associations also presented their work
EMU President Abu Bakr Rieger then presen-
who helped organise the conference, illustra-
in their home countries. “The EMU is not just
ted the main theme of the conference. “The
ted in his lecture the basic components of
about theoretical foundations,” explained its
European Muslims do not have an identity
Islamic architecture that remain alive today
General Secretary Malik Sezgin, “it is about
crisis and are themselves a proof that there
in Skopje. Mosque and market – the two
identifying and defining practical common-
is no contradiction in being both European
pillars of Islamic civilisation – still shape the
alities and activities that Muslims can undertake together.”
Part of the European identity: young, Pomak Muslims in a Bulgarian mosque.
In the closing address the assembly then re-stated the closeness of the EMU and the Balkan Muslims, and expressed the vision of close future collaboration with the men and women of the region. In the medium term the organisation intends to establish a regional office there in order to coordinate the activities of the various member organisations on location, and to give the European youth an opportunity to discover authentic places of Islam in Europe. “The Skopje conference,” summed up co-organiser Abdulhasib Castineira, “was an important milestone in the path towards better and more effective cooperation between the Muslims of Europe.”
Text By Malik Özkan
48
49
SOCIETY
contraction since the inception of the Federal
THE POLITICS OF FEAR
Republic.
GLOBALISATION: THE MIDDLE CLASS IN CRISIS “Overall, Germans are worrying more than ever. What is striking this year is that the
A spectre is haunting the Western world – the
number of worries that are identified has
spectre of crisis. And the European Union’s soft
practically exploded. I mean, I can’t remember us ever experiencing a jump like this, at least
underbelly – Greece and Spain, Portugal and Italy
not in the past 20 years. Most recently it was
– is nervous. Greece and Spain were saved at the
2.8 worries, and now it’s 3.2 on average.
last minute. According to some commentators, Europe’s single currency, once celebrated as a milestone, may now face demise. This crisis breeds
That’s a massive jump,” adds Raimund Wildner, Vice President of the GFK, commenting on the study’s results.
A new fear
fear, easily abused for political ends – with poten-
These new fears should not be mistaken for
tially dangerous side-effects. At the centre of
the acute worries that face the poor and jobless in their daily struggle for subsistence.
this fear are the middle classes, with Germany a
Rather there is a dread, one that permeates
clear case in point.
even into the political class. It affects precisely those classes that were regarded as the backbone of the political system in Western
Sometimes it can be helpful to transfer words
A people as barometer
from one language – and their conceptual
It is not just an individual problem or the
meanings – to another cultural zone. But
pointless worry of the over-pampered
Now, into the third millennium, the unrest is
what does it mean to me, as a German, that
consumer classes, it is an existential
not coming from the poverty belt of otherwise
one of the best-known words to come from
phenomenon that can display all the traits
affluent Western Europe, where for decades,
our language in recent times is Germany’s
of a clinical case. Sociologists are concerned
anaesthesia from consumption and TV have
notorious Angst? In the wider European and
that widespread anxiety stemming from the
long isolated people from any real social life.
Anglo-Saxon contexts, the term is used not
crisis and its repercussions might present a
According to German journalist Markus
to describe a specific fear, rather a more dif-
very real danger to Europe’s social and
Sievers, it manifests instead, “on the front
fuse, vague sort of anxiety.
political fabric.
lawns of the well-off neighbourhoods.”
There is good reason to examine the anxiety
On 7 June the German public opinion
The workplace that was guaranteed, the
of the Germans; their country is after all a
research association GFK – the fourth largest
shot at the highly remunerated position, the
microcosm of Western society. Long-standing
of its kind in the world – published a study
house and the pension – all this threatens
downward pressure on the once crisis-proof
entitled “Challenges for Europe 2010”.
to get sucked into the whirlpool of crisis –
middle class, the new phenomenon of the
According to the study, Germans are the most
whether in reality or in fancy. The middle
Prekariat (precarious proletariat) among the
worried of all Europeans. “The biggest worry
classes who, according to Sievers, up until
well-off, and a steadily widening income gap
for Germans in 2010 remains unemployment.
1989 were able to count on their share of
have stoked fears around the global financial
That is how it’s been for the last 20 years.”
economic growth, are becoming fewer and
system and, more broadly, around globalisa-
With a 5 per cent fall in GDP in 2009 the
are increasingly denied access to the nation’s
tion itself.
German economy experienced its sharpest
wealth.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
Europe.
SOCIETY
50
51
SOCIETY
What do sociologists say?
power have declined in real terms.That means
French are for the most part very negative
Holger Lengfeld and Jochen Hirschle from the
that even with the same income, many
or fairly negative about globalisation, while
Hagen Institute for Sociology conducted a
individuals and families have less means to
only 29 and 35 percent of people are wor-
survey to investigate ‘Middle-class fear of
meet their daily needs.
ried about it in the USA and Great Britain respectively.
social climb-down’. Since the inception of the Federal Republic, the German middle classes
Then there is the fear of losing one’s social
were considered the cornerstone of society,
and professional position. Some of the middle
After the French and Belgians, the Germans
protected from economic instability, indus-
class, according to Hirschle and Lengfeld,
are the next most critical of globalisation.
trial change and failings in the education
transfer the poverty they witness in the classes
They consider it profoundly fraudulent and
system. But the crisis afflicting this truly
below them onto themselves. Despite the fact
believe it to be a condition of constraint,
“state-supporting” class has, since the early
that they are not actually affected, say the
which politics and economics are powerless
years of the new millennium, featured
researchers, anxiety about their own material
to overcome.
regularly in German mass media reporting
future washes off on the more qualified
and has now become an object of study
middle classes,“although this insecurity does
A comparison between continental Europe
among academics.
not actually reflect any objective deteriora-
and the Anglo-Saxon world - in which neo-
tion in their own situation.”
liberalism is more entrenched and the income disparity much greater - reveals that stress
According to sociologists, the German middle
levels are much higher in the latter. A survey
growth have not been able to maintain their
Globalisation is the cause, anxiety is the disease
positions long-term – whether through real
According to a survey conducted in 1998 and
societies between 2001 and 2003 showed
recession or just the fear of one – a pheno-
corroborated in May 2004 by the prestigious
that a third of those questioned had suffered
menon previously unknown in Germany. The
Robert Koch Institute, 14 percent of those
from stress at some point.
researchers discovered a ‘spill-over effect’ in
surveyed between the ages of 18 and 65
which the experience of loss in the lower
suffered from a “clinically relevant anxiety
Even if Germany was once ranked at the lower
middle classes is felt as a fear of possible
disorder”. After depression, anxiety is the
end in this respect, eight years of unfettered
social relegation: hence the coining of
second most common psychological disorder
neo-liberal policy and declining real income
’precariat’. “Whoever believes their own
treated by general practitioners in Germany.
is sure to have pushed the numbers up. Since
classes that had profited from economic
performed by the WHO in English-speaking
1998, psychological disorders have risen by
livelihood to be fundamentally threatened experiences Abstiegsangst,” – fear of social
Many see the phenomenon of globalisation
almost 40 percent and are now ranked fourth
relegation – says the study.
as the major cause of widespread anxiety
amongst diagnosis groups. As part of its
disorders in the industrialised world. In France,
‘Living in Germany’ series, the well-known
It is important to establish that this is not just
people have been talking for some time about
weekly Die Zeit states that the very fear of
individual or mass psychosis. By 2006, the
a new, massive, millennial anxiety wave.
illness is making Germans ill. On average 19
proportion of middle income earners had
Global pressure across borders is a significant
percent of people are afraid of illness in
shrunk to just 54 percent of the overall
feature of most anxiety symptoms.According
Germany, compared with 11 percent in other
population, and the edges of the income
to the website of Germany’s Economy and
countries.
spectrum have widened accordingly. By
Employment Ministry, “fear of being among
2006, 14 percent of those who were consid-
the losers creates insecurity and makes many
Dangerous consequences?
ered middle class in 2002 no longer enjoyed
sceptical of the globalisation process.”
Michael Grabka of the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW) in Berlin believes
middle income. A comparative study by the German Marshall
that middle-class woes are not purely
On top of that and of particular relevance in
Fund in Germany, France, the USA and Great
imaginary.According to his theory, the middle
Germany’s case, income and purchasing
Britain, showed that the Germans and the
is crumbling. If income groups were previously
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
SOCIETY
Winners in the crisis
While a considerable section of the West’s middle classes – not to mention the steadily growing Prekariat – are trembling at the prospects of the ongoing financial crisis, others have clearly profited.Their assets have suffered no significant losses, despite the many bankruptcies and collapses across the board. Notwithstanding the crisis and general loss of income, earnings for Germany’s well-off rose during 2009, the crisis year, according to a study by the German Institute for Economy (DIW). In 2008, 19 per cent of the population belonged to this category. “The income gap between low and high earners has opened up
The most important factors keeping the
creditors’ profits become. Some time ago the
wide,” says the study. The wealthier are, “not
financial bubble growing are stated as “the
German sociologist Hans Jürgen Krysmanski
just increasing in number, but also on average
attraction of the financial market” and ”higher
spoke about the silence on the matter: “The
getting richer.” In parallel, the poor are “not
savings”. Particularly in Europe and Asia-
identity of the creditors of debtor states is
just increasing in number, but are getting
Pacific, higher savings rates had an effect on
hardly ever talked about.The Republic has one
steadily poorer.”
growth. According to the consultancy firm,
trillion euros of debt. Next year’s budget puts
global assets are set to rise by 6 percent a year
aside 40.4 billion for interest payments alone,
The German experience reflects the global
up to 2014. A global power-shift reveals itself
the second largest spending item of the Federal
trend. According to a survey by the consulting
in the expectation that global growth will be
government list after welfare (147 billion
firm Boston Consulting Group (BCG), global
twice as high in East Asia than in the rest of
Euros). So who are the creditors who, year
assets in 2009 were valued the same as in
the world, a trend which becomes even clearer
after year, receive a guaranteed 40 billion in
2007 – the year before the outbreak of the
when we look at it country by country: in
interest from that safest of debtors, the state?
crisis. In total the dizzying sum of 111.5 trillion
Singapore the number of millionaire house-
It is only to a small extent the banks them-
US dollars were under management, meaning
holds rose by 35 percent, followed by Malaysia
selves, whose primary function is to act as
that the losses of around 10 percent suffered
(33 percent) and China (31 percent).
facilitators. In reality, the interest ends up lining the pockets of wealthy individuals: the
in 2008 have been made up for. With 37.1 trillion US dollars in administered wealth,
Where and exactly how these extra earnings
rich. This is one of the safest ways to redistri-
Europe remains the “richest region in the
come about – except on the nameless, abstract
bute wealth and accumulate super-wealth. It
world”. The volume of assets has risen by 8
“markets’ – remains obscure. Alongside con-
existed – along with the Fuggers, the Welsers,
per cent. The highest growth was achieved in
tinued speculation on the essential commodity
etc – at the beginning of capitalism, it has
the Asia-Pacific region (not including Japan),
futures exchange, profiteers surely benefit also
crept through its history, and it will probably
where the figure of 22 percent is almost double
from Western government debt.The greater the
exist at the end of capitalism in its current
the global average.
national debt in Western nations, the greater
incarnation.”
52
53
SOCIETY
to Heitmeyer, is an increase in hostility to foreigners among the middle classes. But this hostility is no longer limited to traditional right-wing racism; it has gradually acquired a certain middle-class acceptability, especially since 11 September 2001, in the more contemporary guise of Islamophobia. Heitmeyer talks of a specific type of xenophobia, one based on competition – in other words, ”competition for scarce resources, etc.” With the financial crisis, society’s muchvaunted values have begun to lose their social credibility, according to Heitmeyer. Some time ago Heitmeyer’s team published their findings in a document entitled German Conditions. The researchers interpret the data as a type of ‘democracy-fatigue’ and expect a surge in prejudice against weak groups. The financial A reality in times of crisis: Germany is witnessing the return of public soup kitchens.
crisis has unleashed wholesale fear in society, they say. Of those questioned, 92 percent fear
layered like an onion they now resemble
class. “The fewer conventional households
that the future will bring more loss of position,
something more like an hourglass.The bottom
there are, the smaller the middle class
and 94 percent expect more poverty.
layer is growing and – ironically given the
becomes, as young people, single parents and
crisis – so too is the upper layer. “We can
divorcees struggle to move upward or simply
Nevertheless, Decker sees no direct threat to
see that in the mid 1980s and 1990s the
maintain their social position.”
the current order, “so long as the elites keep
middle class was relatively stable, making up
a firm hold on their democratic outlook.” But
just over 60 percent of the total population,”
Does middle-class shrinkage present a danger
it is the political class themselves that are
said Grabka on the nationally broadcast
to the political model of the societies
most prone to populism - “when strategies
Deutschlandradio.
involved? As well as providing the backbone
of symbol-politics start to take hold […]
of the economic order, the German middle
all the way to all-out populism.” The trend is
Since the new millennium we have witnessed
classes also represent the ‘middle way’,
clearly visible, as politicians such as
a clear shrinkage of the middle class, “by
holding the ground between extremes.
Nicolas Sarkozy and Silvio Berlusconi amply
around five million people – in other words,
“Democracy needs the median,” they carry
demonstrate.
from 49 down to 44 million.” Equally alarming
the weight, says political scientist Frank
is the fact that it is now practically impossible
Becker.
for the poor to make it up to the middle.
Both politicians – compromised absolutely by corruption scandals and the influence of
Today it is truer than ever that, “once on the
Willhelm Heitmeyer, the well-known conflict
their nation’s wealthy classes – have long
bottom rung, always on the bottom rung.”
researcher, would probably agree. His
been running campaigns that can only be
conclusion is clear: as anxiety about social
described as just that: symbol-politics. An
According to Grabka’s assessment, the
decline among the middle classes increases,
example of this is the French initiative to ban
gradual disappearance of the nuclear family
so too does discrimination against those
the full body covering worn by a tiny minority
is speeding up the shrinkage of the middle
considered different. Most striking, according
of Muslim women. Although the problem
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
SOCIETY
has no actual social reality, it takes up a dis-
its core. This society means the Western one
nisation of our youth is to be human with one
proportionate amount of public debate.
and at its core means not on the edges,”
another. It seems to me that we Germans
wrote Elsässer in the Islamische Zeitung after
could learn a lot from our Muslim fellow
The Swiss social historian Jakob Tanner
the killings, adding that it is about time
citizens with respect to rescuing our youth.
similarly warns: “There are no innocent
security experts focused on the new dangers
Family unity, love of children, respect for par-
concerns when it comes to the state of society.
rather than invoking those of the past. “The
ents and grandparents are all integral parts
There are always powers that will bundle
frustrated young men from the middle
of their culture, and are much more cherished
fears together, concentrate their intensity and
classes who would have followed Adolf
than by Christians, let alone atheists.”
turn them to political imperatives.”
[Hitler] in the 30s are hardly susceptible to fascism nowadays, they’re much more likely
The trail of blood through the schools, he
The dangerous middle
to be nihilists. It is no longer hate of ‘the
says, shows that it is not collectivism and
Fear and the politics it drives have long been
other’ that drives them, but hate of everyone.”
control that lead to mass murder, rather isolation and disinhibition. The new barbarism
part of social debate in the West. This is evident in the torrent of legislative measures
Elsässer doesn’t rest with this gloomy outlook,
does not emanate from ideological, racial or
that have been pushed through across
he sees real ways of confronting the break-
religious mass delusion as in days gone by,
Western Europe and in the USA under the
down of the middle, and he sees them in a
but rather from serial killers devoid of ideology
auspices of the ‘War on Terror’. In Germany
section of society that has not yet been
who, stranded in the desert of consumerism,
and elsewhere, it isn’t just the real danger that
addressed in that way.“How can it be preven-
have lost their minds.
counts, but most crucially the perceived one
ted? Community and family are essential.
as well, one which appears to justify the kind
[…] the best prevention against the dehuma-
Text By Sulaiman Wilms
of infringements in civil society that have not been seen here since 1945.
Violence in the middle classes: a German SWAT team while operating during a killing spree.
But is it really the political extremes (not to mention ‘Islamic terror’) that threaten the very foundations of Western democracy? In his analysis of the armed rampage of a student in the small German town of Winnenden, the political commentator Jürgen Elsässer goes much further than any of the aforementioned social researchers. On 11 March 2009, fifteen people were shot by a rampaging youngster at a school in this tranquil community in Germany’s south-west, after which the 17-year-old attacker ended his own life. For Elsässer, the “killing fields of Winnenden” are an example of the inner decay of the middle class. “All these trigger-happy individuals are products of the USA and Western Europe, from the metropolises of latecapitalism. This society is breeding killers at
54
55
CULTURE
THE SHORES OF AZANIA IMPRESSIONS FROM A JOURNEY TO THE SWAHILI COAST
The Muslim Swahili civilisation of the East African coast and its islands is both long-lasting and dynamic. One of its main features has been to keep its identity by constantly adapting itself to the given political circumstances. In Mombasa’s old town one gets a glimpse into this fascinating mix of African, Arab and Indian mix – all under the umbrella of Islam. Walking through the streets of old Mombasa
me. My hand now moves beside me, no longer
is not an exercise in romanticism.The narrow
perched in my pocket, as I walk with the calm
alleyways have not absorbed the throngs of
cadence of the town.
new humanity easily and I have one hand entrenched in my pocket, over my wallet, in
The ‘old town’ of Mombasa is the ancient
a less than subtle gesture of alertness.
nucleus around which the present teeming
Concrete buildings with an improvised air
settlement has grown. As with other ancient
tower over the great stone houses that once
coastal towns, there is a marked cosmo-
stood in their full splendour, and which now
politan character of both the people and the
shyly give way to a boisterous modernity.
culture. The people are of a golden hue, the inheritors of African, Arab and Indian genes
But there is a certain grace to the whole affair.
and there remains a constant alchemy
Through the heat and congestion, there
between these golden people and those who
exudes an age-old ease that even the Somali
fall in love with the place. This is one of the
merchants who clog the narrow arteries of
main reasons why Swahili culture and its
the town with their miscellaneous wares
people have survived even though the times
cannot repress. The women walk with the
hurtle forward.
movement of a cool breeze. The old men sit pensively observing their surrounds and a
Along the East African coast lie other famous
pack of children kick a tennis ball down an
coastal settlements that gave birth both
alley and give chase with the shrill clamour
collectively and antagonistically to this
of youth. I find the door that I am looking for
civilisation, such as the islands of Zanzibar and
and walk towards it, greeting along the way
Lamu; part of what was known in antiquity
an ancient man who smiles warmly back at
as Azania. In fact, the birth and strength of
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
CULTURE
Swahili culture lies in two paradoxes: it is assimalitive while being distinct and the great city-states that it gave birth to were both fiercely independent and competitive with one another and yet ultimately bound by a common political interdependence. “Two days’ sail beyond there lies the very last market-town of the continent of Azania [East Africa], which is called Raphta; which takes its name from the sewn boats already mentioned; in which there is ivory in great quantity, and tortoise-shell. Along this coast live men of piratical habits, very tall, and under separate chiefs for each place. The Mapharitic chief governs it under some ancient right that subjects it to the sovereignty of the state that has become the first in Arabia. And the people of Muza now hold it under his authority, and send thither many large ships; using Arab captains and agents, who are familiar with the natives and intermarry with them, and who know the whole coast and the language...” 1 (From the Greek guide for sailors Periplous Thalássos Eruthraoas, the first century AD.) The first antecedents that allowed for the story of the Swahili lie in the Bantu Migrations. Some of the tribes that exploded out of the Congo at the time established villages along the fertile eastern coast of Africa, eventually adopting the independent identity of Mijikenda. From here, access to the Indian Ocean and the interior of Africa, as well as the fertile soils of the coast, provided the setting for a rich interaction between the Africa hinterland and the already mythical trade routes of the Indian Ocean. As the volume of trade increased, so did the influence of the foreign traders who eventually brought with them Islam and it was in
56
57
CULTURE
A living tradition: celebrating the Mawlid on the shores of the island of Lamu.
this context that the villages grew into towns
the Swahili coast, and Mombasa in particular,
foreign threats. The only occasion that the
and from towns into city-states. Islam was the
a century later. The Portuguese first returned
Portuguese managed to regain their lost
‘filter’ that allowed for the hybridisation of
to Mombasa in 1500, plundering the city.
territory was during the brief period between
Mijikenda culture and the influence of the
After three such attacks against the Sultan
1728 and 1729, after which they were once
Arab, Indian, Persian and Chinese civilisations,
of Mombasa, they finally succeeded in
again supplanted by Oman.
leaving behind those practices that came into
establishing their control over the city in 1593
conflict with the Shariah while embracing
thanks to their support from the Sultan of
Footbridges in the air
those that did not. It would be in the twelfth
Malindi.
And yet life continued throughout these constant political changes with the city-states
century when the first mention of these areas Portugal’s influence on the Swahili coast
flourishing along the coast, giving rise to a
survived the constant provocations by Omani
deeply politically-nuanced Swahili culture.
It was this flourishing coast that Vasco de
Arabs until 1698, and after a century of
The succession of rulers and shifts in political
Gama, the ambitious Portuguese explorer en
confrontation the city had earned the name
alliances did not affect the Swahili identity
route to India, would encounter and see in it
Kisiwa Cha Mvita, ‘The Island of War’. From
but rather built on it. The Swahili language
a vital territory in which to establish Portu-
that time until the advent of British power in
itself is a good indication of the nature of this
guese influence in the Indian Ocean and its
the region, it was the Omani Sultans who
and while it has taken from Arabic, Portuguese
trade routes. On landing in Mombasa in 1498,
ruled the Swahili coast through the appoint-
and Indian, it has retained a predominantly
he received a hostile reception. Owing to the
ment of governors who administered in their
Bantu form linguistically2.
competition between the Swahili city-states,
name (although eventually, the Mazr’ui clan
Mombasa’s rival, Malindi, welcomed him
would break from Oman with British support).
It was the form of governance, compatible
warmly and in the process sowed the seeds
After recapturing Mombasa, the Omanis
with that of the original Mijikenda of the
of an alliance that would eventually allow the
established their power base on the island of
region and the ancient political orientation
Portuguese to wrest power from Arabia over
Zanzibar in order to bolster the coast against
towards the Arabian Peninsular that allowed
as being ‘Swahili’ was first made.
GLOBALIA | Issue 08 | August 2010
CULTURE
for these great city-states to maintain their
yet potent manner in which to re-state the
conscious enforcement of foreign values and
cultural and, to a large extent, domestic,
bounds of the community’s political boun-
views using the cultural elements available,
political independence from the overt - daries. Such was the nature of the Swahili
all the while eroding the political indepen-
influences of their political overlords whose
culture up until the coming of the British,
dence that gave rise to such a cosmopolitan
interests were mainly focussed on the control
first in 1824 to support the Mazr’ui clans
culture.
of the trade.The use of the Liwali or governors
break with Oman as a British Protectorate and
allied to Oman or Portugal allowed for these
then finally to incorporate the city and much
Swahili culture, however altered by British
external political powers to exert sufficient
of the Swahili Coast into its East Africa
policy and influence, did adapt and still
control over the region without overtly
Association in 1887.
survives. The remnants of the ancient bonds that held together the Swahili Coast of Kenya
manipulating the social and political dynamics
The Crown and its Trappings
in the past once again came to the fore during
As they proceeded to do when they attained
the election violence of 2008 that engulfed
Life in Mombasa in particular centred primarily
the Indian sub-continent, the British began to
the entire country except for its coastal areas.
on the family and its extensions that
solidify and filter the once fluid cultural and
The anarchy of the interior forced the people
constituted larger clans. Even the archi-
socio-political aspects of the Swahili culture
of the coast to lean on their historical socio-
tecture revolved around clan dynamics.
as a means to cement their hold on the coast.
political form, however diluted, in order to
Houses were built according to the families
Practices that would come into conflict with
avert the chaos; and it worked. The commu-
who lived in them and footbridges linking
their aim to incorporate the once fiercely
nity came together and formed itself into a
one household to the other allowed the
independent city-states into a larger econo-
naturally governed island in a sea of anarchy.
women of the families, who were highly
mic and political block with its political centre
protected members, to visit one another
in Nairobi, as opposed to Oman, were
It is this ability to adapt and at the same time
without having to dirty their feet on the
suppressed – the politically symbolic sacrifice
retain its very core that has allowed Swahili
bustling streets below. On a broader pers-
being an example.
culture to survive and it ensures that it
of the region.
remains a blueprint of civilisation as long as
pective, the families that made up the city shared cultural practices that reinforced their
The fluid social strata of the Wanguama (the
it holds on to that core that has its founda-
sense of political interdependence.
nobility) and the Watwana (free men) were
tion firmly rooted on Islam and trade.
solidified through the use of economic discriText By Parvez Asad Sheikh
“A man from Paté [a city on the Swahili Coast]
mination and the census. But it would be the
was lamenting that some of the cultural
abolition of the slave trade on which the
practices he knew as a child had been
caravans into the interior and the agriculture
completely forgotten. He then gave me the
along the coast depended that would deal the
example of the sacrifice that included the
heaviest blow to the economic and political
whole community; each family being involved
strength of the city-states along the Swahili
Footnotes:
in the process. They would come together
Coast. Without the trade that had been the
1
and one family would donate the cow, others
lifeblood of the Swahili Civilisation since
would involve themselves in the other details
antiquity, the Swahili culture slowly had to do
of the procession which would go around the
what it had done for almost a millennium
whole city boundary, offering supplications at
and adapt yet again to its surroundings.
Taken from: Ostler Nicholas, Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. London: Harper Perennial, 2006.pg102
2
ibid
Bibliography:
each city gate.” (Kassim M. Omar) However, this adaptation was unpreceSuch a custom served two purposes. The first
dented in that it was no longer a natural
was to strengthen the community’s sense of
hybridisation of cultures coming into contact
‘brotherhood’ and the second was a subtle
primarily through trade but the direct and
All background information is taken from an interview with Mr. Kassim M. Omar, Director, The Research Institute of Swahili Studies of Eastern Africa on the 15th of January, 2010; Mombasa, Kenya.
58
59