JACE 3/1

– VOLUME 3 | NUMBER 1 | 2009 –

VOLUME 3 | NUMBER 1 | 2009

VOLUME 3 | NUMBER 1 | 2009 The Journal of Artistic and Creative Education (JACE) is an on-line journal that can be accessed at jaceonline.com.au JACE is a peer-reviewed journal published twice each year that explores issues of artistry and creativity in contemporary research and teaching, and the interface between them. The journal seeks to promote praxis, to provide an evidence-based bridge between arts and artistic practice, creative practices in educational contexts, and learning research and theory in all these areas.

Editor

Dr Wesley Imms, University of Melbourne

Editorial Assistant

Chris Sommervelle, University of Melbourne

eEditor (Graphics)

Dion Tuckwell, University of Melbourne

eEditor (Web)

Michael Dunbar, miek.com.au

Editorial Board Professor Susan Wright, University of Melbourne Dr Neryl Jeanneret, University of Melbourne Dr Christine Sinclair,
University of Melbourne Dr Barbara Kameniar, University of Melbourne Mr Robert Brown, 
University of Melbourne For details concerning our journal focus, information for contributors, and contact details, please access our website on www.jaceonline.com.au ISSN: 1832 - 0465 Published in Australia Publisher: Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010.

JACE is peer reviewed as per section 4.3.4 of the HERDC Specifications.

CONTENTS Editorial: Aesthetics, creativity and participation in arts education curriculum

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Wesley Imms Creativity across the knowledge continuum Arda Culpan & Bernard Hoffert The syntegrated arts education model: A non-linear approach to teaching and learning in the key learning area Creative Arts

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Christopher Klopper “Mine’s rubbish, Miss”: One teacher’s quest to identify the issues that turn boys off making art

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Carol Message Measuring aesthetic development: A national dialogue

Rachael Jacobs

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Editorial:

AESTHETICS, CREATIVITY AND PARTICIPATION IN ARTS EDUCATION CURRICULUM Wesley Imms

Melbourne Graduate School of Education

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This edition of JACE brings together authors from Australia and England discussing issues central to ongoing development of artistic and creative education. The papers encompass four major components of progressive education; creativity, aesthetics, student participation and curriculum design. Readers will appreciate the common thread of applied educational conversations emerging through these manuscripts, as researchers/practitioners utilise classroom observations to examine in greater depth ‘real life’ arts education issues.

Creativity is undoubtedly a topic of considerable interest in current education debate. In the first article Culpan and Hoffert reflect on the nature and construct of creativity, its role in education, and its central position across the ‘continuum of knowledge’. In the process the authors explore some important issues: creativity is not the exclusive domain of arts education; educators require training in the practice and teaching of creativity; arts education can provide for ‘mainstream education’ models for the definition of, training in, assessment and implementation of creative practices in the classroom. The paper concludes with examples from one university’s pre-service teacher education program that suggests creativity owns considerable potential for enriching education as a whole if incorporated into all disciplines.

Klopper raises pertinent questions regarding the sanctity of specific arts disciplines, and the potential of a ‘syntegrated’ model in contemporary curriculum reforms. While focused on the Australian situation where considerable national changes are causing widespread conversations regarding ‘the arts’, the conversation has international relevance as Klopper proposes a reconceptualisation of the arts based on their benefits to learning, rather than on just perpetuation of particular arts forms. This leads, in his article, to questions regarding the training of teachers in the arts, and utilises a model from one Australian university to illustrate his position.

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Message focuses on boys’ participation in visual art programs in England. A recent comprehensive report by that country’s Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) identified boys’ poor participation and academic achievement in art, and made recommendations for improving young male engagement in this subject. Reflecting on those strategies, Message summarises the limited but growing literature on this topic to identify three concepts that may impact male art performance; boys’ supposed vulnerability to stereotyped gender identities, the relevance of learning goals, and the impact of gender-based cognitive traits. The article explores these concepts within an applied setting, reflecting on Message’s own experiences teaching boys to attempt to unravel some ‘truths’ embedded within those theories.

Jacobs explores how the supposed ‘non-rational’ ‘non-functional’ nature of aesthetics often excludes this concept from discussions regarding learning and curriculum. The article works from the position that aesthetics is part of the human experience, thus aesthetic literacy must be seen as a required component of school curriculum. It explores the multi-disciplinary nature of aesthetic literacy, and its place in – and how it informs – current debate on National Curriculum in Australia, and implications of this position on the training of teachers, implementation of curriculum, and assessment of aesthetics.

These are articles that open doors to issues of great interest and considerable importance to educators in the arts. Collectively they portrait a range of approaches to research into creative and artistic education being undertaken by an emerging generation of academics.

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CREATIVITY ACROSS Arda Culpan RMIT University Arda Culpan coordinates and teaches the visual arts courses within the Bachelor of Education (Primary & ECE), and the Graduate Diploma of Education (primary) programs at RMIT University. Her professional interest include participating in the work of Art Education Victoria, and Art Education Australia, and her research centres around promoting creative learning environments, and the integration of computer technology in visual arts practice and art education. arda.culpan@rmit.edu.au

Bernard Hoffert Monash University Bernard Hoffert is the Associate Dean of Graduate Studies, the Associate Dean, External Affairs, a visual arts educator, a practicing artist, and author of books, catalogue essays, art and art education articles, and art reviews. He served (1992-1995) as World President of the International Association of Art, UNESCO. He is also the Honorary President of the International Association of Art, UNESCO, and of the Asia-Pacific Regional Council of the International Association of Art, UNESCO, and member of Art Education Australia.

BernardHoffert@artdes.monash.edu.au

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THE KNOWLEDGE CONTINUUM

Abstract The paper draws on the combined perspectives of two Australian art educators to contend that while art education promotes creativity through learning in and about art, there needs to be more attention to fostering creative skills in the wider sphere of education. The paper notes the increasing recognition of the central role of arts education, and the arts in general in enhancing our world to accentuate that the fundamental elements of creativity that apply to the arts need to be incorporated into our teaching procedures across discipline boundaries. It further posits that art education at pre-service teacher level is one vital catalyst for creativity in schools, and outlines an approach taken to promoting student teachers’ relative capacities for their own sense of creative being, as well as their preparation as teachers who need to promote children’s creativity in either art or generalist classrooms.

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Introduction The growing national and international conversation on creativity extends the acknowledgement of what arts education can achieve.

In Australia for instance, the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (METYA) recently presented a National Education and the Arts Statement to highlight the general concept of creativity, and the pivotal role of arts education in enhancing and shaping our world. “The arts foster imagination, risk taking and curiosity -important aspects of creativity . . . Rigorous academic arts subjects and experiences in the senior years act as pathways to the ever increasing range of career opportunities in the creative industries” (METYA, 2007:6).

The evolving emphasis on creativity within the international community was evidenced in several the key conferences and notes: The UNESCO proposal for a World Report on Cultural Diversity, identifies the need for creativity in a community, reiterating the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, which supports the principle that innovation and creativity, are as necessary for humanity as biodiversity is for nature. The UNESCO International Summit on Arts Education (March, 2006), attended by 1200 delegates from 97 countries, stressed the need to build creative capacities through arts education. The Vienna Conference on Cultural Policy Research (July, 2006), aligned creativity with the development of culture based industries and the emphasis on developing ‘Creative Clusters’ was fundamental to the 2006 ‘Creative Economy Conference’ at Newcastle Gateshead (Hoffert, 2006).

Arts and creativity The Arts have long been central to any conceptions of creative activity that shapes the built environment and adds infinitely to our quality of life. They are at the heart of multi-million dollar industries through the contribution of design in all facets of our lives. For instance, the immense gallery system that facilitates the visual requirements of the community and the theatrical, musical, cinematic, craft and other industries, which stimulate our economies and enrich our quality of life. The arts are also a significant vehicle

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through which the nature of Indigenous culture is recognized and celebrated, providing a major cultural export. This in turn, helps advance the issue of cultural identity faced by most postcolonial nations, as they become increasingly conscious of establishing their international profile and how they might be perceived, separate from their colonising culture. Traditionally we have referred to visual culture to exemplify creativity and to reveal the highest levels of cultural accomplishment; to invest in the arts is to demonstrate the worth of our own culture. While creativity is broader than any art activity, the arts in general are central to what creativity means, and the context in which the outcomes of educating for creative ability are most clearly demonstrable.

Fundamental elements of creativity While, creativity is a versatile concept that resists any precise definition, at its most basic level, it stems from individual acts of observation, perception and imagination, stimulated by curiosity.

Observation is the starting point for any interaction with the world be it practical or conceptual, for it is how we interact with our surroundings and explore reality. Perception is the means through which we comprehend our surroundings, relate sensation to understanding, give it meaning and gain our knowledge of reality.

Imagination is the counterbalancing journey through the unreal, the occasion to chart the seas of fantasy and search for realms, concepts and experiences, unencumbered by the limitations of the material world. Curiosity provides the foundation for investigation, the motivation to inquire through observation, to understand through perception and to extend through imagination. It is the instigating point for arts education, the need to signify and express that which has not yet been recorded. Collectively, these skills present the parameters of experience, on one side directed by the world around us, on the other nourished by the world within; together they give us the substance and process for our ideas and their application. More specifically, they are integral to the form of creativity that sustains and defines who we are as a nation, and enhances our human capital and promotes skills to address with imaginative solutions, the myriad of problems that a modern community confronts. For example, those volume 3 • number 1 ISSN 1832 0465 Š University of Melbourne

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that impact on immigration, health care, environmental concerns, security, economic development, housing, social welfare and so on.

The need for creativity in education Most people are not perceptibly creative; they may have the capacity to be creative, but it is not directly evident. Therefore, a foremost purpose of education is to draw out peoples’ innate strengths, and help them realize their intellectual and practical abilities. Our general education structure teaches students to read, to write, to think analytically, to be numerate, and to reach their potential in many ways. But we do not attend to creativity; if we are to fully educate our students, we must also nurture their creative potential for their own benefit and for the advancement of society. But the barrier to doing so is that there is no system of education that concentrates on promoting indispensable creative skills. Rather we are confronted with the paradox within standard systems of education, which address the knowledge of a particular discipline, and rely on creative researchers to innovate within it.

Creativity should be embedded in our education system so that all aspects of economic and community life are better addressed through a creative work force. By attending to education in science, medicine, engineering, the humanities and social sciences, different branches of technology, knowledge acquisition across all disciplines with an emphasis on observation, perception and imagination, we permit the process of idea development to enrich whatever studies we undertake. Thus, we foster an educational system which fuels the creative potential of all domains and the intrinsic possibilities of all students, no matter what their discipline interests.

In his influential text on creativity, the Act of Creation, originally published some 40 years ago, Arthur Koestler (1970) considers the fundamental role creativity plays across the continuum of knowledge; he argues: The act of creation itself is based on essentially the same underlying pattern in all ranges of the continuous rainbow spectrum.

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But the criteria for judging the finished product differ of course from one medium to another (Koestler: 200).

If creative activity in all areas is positioned on the same underlying pattern as Koestler contends, arts educators have a crucial role to play in educating scientists, economists and students across all disciplines, as well as artists. We are accustomed to teaching observation, perception and imagination for students to achieve artistically, but we can also use elements of what we teach to allow students to achieve across the intellectual spectrum. Stepping aside from the arts and confronting the broader needs of society, the arts curriculum can sharpen skills which will eventually shape the future in all studies. It can give us the ability to generate ideas and to use them to innovate in the process of our learning, if it adds the skills of creativity to the discipline based understanding we receive, so much the better. The following vignettes illustrate the far-reaching application of such attributes: 1. Wilbur and Orville Wright were renowned for the original motorised aircraft. They built a glider with movable parts in the wing assembly, to vary the shape of the wing surface in response to the flight conditions. This took full advantage of the potential upward thrust from moving air across the wing and enabled the flight position to be corrected in response to wind changes. They mounted an engine on the glider and on December 17, 1903 undertook the first powered flight. The revolutionary aspect was neither the glider nor the engine, which both relied on existing technology, but the movable wing to allow a pilot to manipulate the aerodynamic impact on the wing structure (McFarland, 1953).

The Wright Brothers developed powered flight based on their observations of how birds change the shape of their wings. If we were to explain the development of their ideas it would be: observationseeing how birds altered different parts of the wing to control the force of the air against it; perception -considering this in the context of controlled human flight; imagination -considering how this might be used to create controlled flight. By means of experimentation, they developed a mechanism for altering the shape of the wing in flight and designed it into an aircraft.

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Figure 1: The plane is just lifting off the ground. Wilbur Wright is the figure on the ground. Orville Wright is the pilot

2. Sir Isaac Newton proposed that the tides were caused by the gravitational effect of the moon. Newton had been unable to explain the motion of the tides which rose and fell twice daily, and which demonstrated seasonal extremes. Having observed the changing phases of the moon on its monthly cycle, waxing and waning as it moved across the heavens, he realised that there might be a similarity between the movement of the moon and the rise and fall of the tides that he imagined as the moon pulling at the earth across the heavens.

He described the moon grasping at the earth with “large ubiquitous fingers”, a description for which he was criticized for introducing occult beliefs into science (Koestler, 1970: 331). However whimsical the description might be, it effectively described the force of gravity acting across space between solid bodies. His imaginative metaphor based on observation and an attempt to give his observations meaning, has provided a conceptualization of gravity relevant today.

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3. Picasso began experimenting with the construction of representational images using abstract shapes in 1907. He had seen tribal masks in the ethnographic museum at Trocadero and was impressed by the intensity of their highly distorted interpretations of the face. These stylised wooden masks prompted him to review the figure in space by focusing on generic aspects of identity, rather than those of specific individuals; it involved the viewer in reflecting on the interpretation of the image, effectively giving the work meaning; he embodied his ideas in Les Demoiselle D’Avignon, one of the most influential paintings of the twentieth century (Hoffert, 1995). This led to the development of Cubism and the high level of pictorial abstraction, which culminated in non-representational art. Picasso’s observation, perceived in the context of his work, enabled him to imagine a new pictorial format that became a keystone of twentieth century artistic achievement.

Figure 2: Les Demoiselle D’Avignon, 1907; in Museum of Modern Art, New York City

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Arts education and creativity In arts education skills of observation, perception, and imagination are the foundation blocks of idea development, the ways we conceptualise and explore the world. They are the basis of and the raw substance of artistic creation. Arts Education, particularly visual art, promotes knowledge about art and skills in observation, perception, imagination and curiosity to negotiate it. These are they key elements of creativity that give force to our core studies in the creative arts and are integral to the mechanisms through which we educate artists and draw out their creativity. Our ways of teaching these skills promote talent for our creative arts academies to produce both artists of quality and teachers of excellence. These same skills also add force to learning in any discipline, and the generation of new knowledge through practice and research. As such, they should be incorporated into our teaching procedures across all education so that we educate not just for knowledge in a particular discipline, but also for the capacity to exercise that knowledge creatively. In other words, creativity can be positioned as if “a guiding beacon for us to apply across the boundaries of human endeavour and to shape all that we do within our learning and research, wherever that is placed” (Hoffert, 2004: para. 12). However, this does not inevitably entail changing the focus on what is learned and taught, as distinct from reviewing the learning and teaching processes implemented.

In keeping with this view, the New Learning concepts proposed by the Australian Council of Deans of Education (2001) highlight the need to review traditional learning and teaching approaches in order to cultivate creative learning environments for an increasingly diverse student population within an ever-changing global environment.

Creativity, in particular is regarded as being an essential concept within all disciplines with respect to equipping people with essential dispositions and orientations to the world, rather than simply skills for commanding a discrete body of knowledge. “These persons will be able to navigate change and diversity, learn-as-they-go, solve problems, collaborate, and be flexible and creative” (ACDE, 2001: 2).

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The implications for pre-service teacher education The following section incorporates the voice of one of the author’s to signify personal interpretation (Clandinin & Connelly, 1994), particularly as it relates to her own experience as a visual art educator within the School of Education at RMIT University.

The implications of the New Learning Framework for pre-service teacher education are reinforced in the context of Australian curriculum initiatives, particularly the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) (Victorian Curriculum Assessment Authority -VCAA, 2005). Furthermore, the New Learning framework that was incorporated into the reconceptualized teacher education programs at RMIT University during 2005 calls for educators to promote concepts of autonomous and collaborative learning coupled with creativity. In turn, this call prompted the start of my ongoing research project designed to explore more equitable ways of promoting student teachers’ sense of creative being for their own benefit, and for their preparation as teachers in either art or general primary school classrooms.

While details of the research and the findings is beyond the scope of this paper, several associated factors are worth noting as my approach to the study aligns with my teaching philosophy and approach managing the art courses as outlined in the next section of the paper. First, the study is line with Eisner’s (2002) notion of arts-based educational research; it acknowledges the expressive and unpredictable facets of arts research, and comprises multiple modes of qualitative investigation, namely: interviews, observations, collection of artefacts and narratives, field notes, elements of self study, and action research -to promote flexibility in real situations where it is impossible to predict all that needs to be done in advance (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988).

Second, the related examination of the course design and pedagogy entails reflective analysis, based largely on observations of, and dialogue with each class of students to determine the factors that

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constrain or support their development of creative capacities. Allied to this, consideration of students’ assessment tasks and written course evaluations provide critical insights for improving subsequent course experiences. Of particular note, is that my class-based observations of students’ learning experiences, and discussions with students from the start of each semester, adopt a researcher’s lens, they allow timely adjustments according to students’ immediate needs rather than solely implementing improvement measures at a later date.

Finally, the study is clearly limited to a specific pre-service teacher art education setting. Yet it explores the elements of creative pedagogy that are not only applicable to learning and teaching art discipline specific knowledge, but also to the broader sphere of education. As such, it ultimately seeks to contribute to the knowledge base on creative learning environments within and beyond the field of art education.

Pedagogical considerations The following section outlines the pedagogical considerations and course-based learning experiences relative to the one semester core art education course within the one year Graduate Diploma of Education (primary) program; the first and third year core art education courses within the four year Bachelor of Education (primary) program, and the optional Visual Art elective courses that involve third and fourth year level students.

While the planned learning experiences are regularly reviewed and vary significantly between the courses, at the heart of each is the value placed a increasing student teachers’ engagement with a concept of creativity that is not only integral to their own artistic practice, but also to their learning across the whole curriculum. That is, as distinct from expecting student teachers to become highly accomplished artists per se. Implicit here is the drive to inculcate emerging teachers with creative attitudes for their own benefit, and for advancing their classroom practices in tangible ways so that children’s creative

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development can flourish irrespective of the subject taught.

The allied pedagogical approach encompasses the spirit of reflective practice (Schön, 1991), the principles of good practice in higher education (Chickering & Gamson, 1987), and naturalistic inquiry in that meaning that stems from social situations is managed through interpretive procedures (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). Above all, my pedagogy is grounded in a constructivist theory, which broadly holds that students’ learning is advanced through their own active participation in acquiring knowledge within an inherently dynamic social environment. Central to this is the notion of immersing students in a scaffolded, collaborative learning environment where they are strategically positioned to explore a breadth of learning styles, and a variety of theoretical concepts. These include the following that not only inspire my own pedagogical approach, and the planning of the course learning experiences, but also hold relevance across discipline boundaries: 1.

The long standing notion that creativity is a vital term in any conception of education and denotes “a disposition of mind which is experimental, open, engaged, a particular kind of teaching and learning where the results cannot be comprehended in advance of the process . . . ” (Abbs 1989:1) 2.

The concept that creative pedagogies are consciously shaped by values, which is exemplified through Gardner’s (2007) recent synthesis of his early ideas on multiple intelligences. A particular feature of this work is that it provokes thought about the “disciplined mind; the synthesizing mind, the creative mind; the respectful mind and the ethical mind” (Gardner, 2007:163), and the need for citizens of the future to cultivate these minds to do well in an ever-changing global environment.

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3.

Notions that centre on students’ open inquiry processes as a fundamental component of progressive curriculum (Cope & Kalantzis, 1997) suggest the need for teachers to establish their own creative attributes and implement creative teaching practices (Esquivel, 1995). This means that a teaching model that is based on overt instructions with predetermined learning outcomes has limited inherent value (Biggs, 1999; Wright, 2003). In essence, creative pedagogy must recognize individual differences in learning styles, and value the concepts of width, diversity and individual autonomy (Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation – GGF, 1989), especially as educational equity is inclined to increase as the diversity of forms expand (Eisner, 1998).

Overall, the fundamental elements of creative teaching processes include, open-ended learning opportunities focussed on fostering individuality and non-convergent thinking and important inter and intra-personal skills (Gardner, 1993). They also aim to stimulate flexibility, imagination and abilities to consider relationships, and to make shifts in initial thinking, (Eisner, 2002), internalised learning, a change in their sense of self, and incorporate innovation (Jeffrey, 2006). Complimentary processes include introducing new or different combinations of known elements, nurturing different kinds of meanings and thinking skills, and promoting risk taking -an aspect of creativity frequently cited in the literature (Cropley, 1990; 2006; Sternberg, 1997; Joubert, 2001; Eisner, 2002). The idea of risk taking suggests the value of setting challenges, without straightforward answers, as an integral aspect of building students’ creativity and their sense of individual or group ownership (Office for Standards in Education, 2003).

The notion of group ownership holds that students advance in a collaborative learning environment through respecting diverse viewpoints, challenging pre-conceived notions, sharing ideas, developing mutual trust, and contributing to each other’s learning (Miller, Imrie & Cox, 1998). Implicit here is the view that students’ entrée to various modes of expression, and creative facilities such as risk taking is dependent on personal context (Gardner, 2005). In

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short, students are more likely to venture into their less comfortable areas of learning within a collaborative community where their contributions are appreciated and they are inspired to extend their thinking, experiment, and to reflect and assess their learning processes (Eisner, 2002). From this perspective, the process of creation is not essentially an isolated activity, reified in the myth of the artist secluded in the garret. While creativity is often viewed in relation to individual self-actualisation, whereby the individual defies the crowd (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995), the social facet of creativity, which can be nurtured within a group context, is also valuable (Cropley, 2006).

The above concepts are significant in art education where there is a need to challenge perceived myths about creative ability in general.

Therefore, a central principle of art education is that creativity is not a exclusive attribute with which some students are endowed and others are not, but that it is a mode of intelligence that can be developed and nurtured like any other form of thinking (CGF, 1989). This suggests, that while art and creativity may be considered as synonymous, creativity does not come from engaging students in nebulous or low cognitive level artistic activity or through focussing only on technical skills. Similarly, that while technical skill is an artistic necessity, without students’ own imaginative ideas, the manifestation of skill alone has minimal inherent value. Therefore, all students, irrespective of their perceived potential, need opportunities to learn the conventions of art practice, and to build creative abilities to deeper conceptual levels by taking intellectual and intuitive risks in order to extend the boundaries of what they believe is achievable.

Rationale for planned art learning experiences The purposeful nurturing of student teachers’ creativity in our particular setting is essential because while they come from varied backgrounds with wide-ranging interests and skills, the majority, especially at first year level, quickly reflect self-imposed constraints to their creative development. These include, a lack of confidence in their capacity for Observation, Perception and Imagination or the practical application of these. Further to this, many state they have minimal experience in art practice, visiting galleries, or that they are

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not ‘creative’. In fact, my ongoing class-based observations coupled with many sustained conversations with students, and the insights I have gained through students’ visual journal entries have revealed various factors that students see as either constraints or points of personal discomfort at the start of first year level art courses. The following is a basic list of the most common factors: Not enough class or independent time to practice technical skills in order to implement ideas; lack of imaginative ideas, as distinct from being able to draw realistically; not feeling comfortable in letting others see their artwork; not realising that the art course would entail so much work, as distinct from being ‘fun’; feeling uneasy about discussing own opinions in class, and not being ‘good at art’ in school or not being imaginatively inclined. From my art educator’s perspective these points are not significant barriers to their potential to succeed, as distinct from indicators of students’ misconceptions about art education, lack of confidence in own abilities and understanding about the influence of environmental factors on their selfperceptions.

Planned learning experiences Accordingly, the learning experiences are designed to develop students’ confidence and cognitive capacities (Eisner, 2002), through their own active research and exploration of conceptual and practical facets of art, interactive class-based discourse and most importantly, through their critical reflection on their own learning processes. The following is a general outline rather than an exhaustive account of the common learning experiences provided: Students attend art gallery sessions designed for two key purposes.

First, to expand their aesthetic sensitivities and perceptions of art and creativity as it applies to diverse past and present cultural settings, and to accentuate the relevance of art and creativity throughout the school curriculum. Second, to pique their curiosity, imagination, and ideas for their own art practice, and their teaching in either art or general primary school classrooms.

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The value of students gaining insights into creative practice through interactive conversations with artists is also highlighted. For instance, Shaun Tan, an Australian Artist, renowned for his book illustrations comprising relatively complex visual styles and themes recently discussed the creative process in the context of his own work with student teachers. In outlining the basic elements of his practice, he reinforced the fundamental concepts promoted in our art classes. For instance, the need for technical skills (built over time) and knowledge of art theory and terminology, and independent research -for promoting imaginative ideas, and observational skills; practice and experimentation; purposefully pushing beyond one’s own boundaries. This means being receptive to new ideas, and experimenting with combinations of familiar images in new ways to generate interesting compositions. Similarly, knowing not only the need to build ideas, but to also abandon some in light of new insights.

Allied to this, students are encouraged to explore a range of visual resources, including artistic picture books for their potential to stimulate thinking and inquiry for their own learning, and their work in primary schools -to provoke imagination across the school curriculum. This includes learning various artistic concepts and techniques for generating their own ideas such as exploring ways to create surreal images, invent fictional characters and compose their own stories.

With respect to class-based art practice, students’ perceptions of creativity are extended through their own sequential exploration in the ‘making’ of art forms within a range of visual media. Students are supported in an art studio setting through open-ended tasks devised to familiarise them with the cognitive processes required for their own art practice. This includes understanding art theory, terminology and art practice techniques and developing creative capacities through observation, perception, imagination, curiosity, risk-taking and persistence in acquiring new skills. To this end students are encouraged to play with different media in order to explore personal preferences, and to find ways of injecting elements of surprise and even frivolity, and to look for inspiration in every

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day settings within both the natural and constructed environment, including various media sources. For instance, students can gain imaginative inspiration from a range of images that emerge through the media, such as following one that injects a sense of surprise and frivolity through a new combination of familiar elements:

Figure 3: Bagpipe Mouse (anonymous artist, n.d)

There is also a need to intuit when students are unduly confronted with a sense of creative immobilization that often comes with seemingly infinite possibility. Similarly, when students need cues to engender some resistance to stereotypical imagery, or their own stylistic ‘default settings’. That is, so that they explicitly learn something new by taking risks and thinking beyond their usual boundaries to ultimately gain a sense of real achievement and autonomy over their learning.

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Observations The outlined approach to art education is by no means infallible, but as previously indicated, it continually reviewed with particular attention to gauging the different learning needs of students as they apply to each class at the start of each course. Among other things, this involves drawing on my own skills of perception, observation and imagination driven by innate curiosity around ways to improve my own practice and ultimately the students’ learning experiences.

Of particular note, is the aim to quickly identify any reticent students that require sensitive scaffolding in the form of demonstrations and constructive critique through various prompts and cues. The scaffolding centres on empowering students to generate their own ideas and acquire relative techniques and knowledge through practice and research, rather than imposing a particular stylistic approach. It is equally important to ensure that the confident students are not only well positioned to scaffold the reticent ones, but also that they are supported and stimulated well enough to experience the integral sense of personal impetus, real challenge and achievement, and an enhanced sense of their own creative being.

Irrespective of the complexities involved in attending to such matters through a fluid interplay of various scaffolding processes, my observations of students’ progress are particularly encouraging.

Most students become surprisingly quick in overcoming any initial reticence and demonstrating the resolve to confront various challenges in pursuit of diverse creative goals. Even the students who need extended time and support to absorb the essence of the art education come to not only engage in some self-initiated creative activity, but also revise or discard initial ideas in light of new insights.

Furthermore, they almost always come to contribute with great verve to class discussions and small group project work. The collaborative projects, which are usually negotiated at third and fourth year level, incorporate research on creativity, cultural and environmental issues, and artists from diverse past and present cultural settings. But the overall learning fits within the broader context of interdisciplinary exploration that extends across the arts and beyond.

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For the majority of students the process of acquiring creative capacities means sustained personal practice, research and a significant shift in their thinking on a range of issues. Yet, judging by the palpable sense of achievement students invariably come to reflect regarding their own work, and the enthusiasm they show for one another’s work, they explicitly come to understand the basic tenets of art education: First, it does not equate with ill-defined creative activity of low cognitive value or simply learning art-based technical skills. Second art education has more meaning in a collaborative learning environment with challenges to develop knowledge, skills and imaginative ideas in order to set and achieve creative goals through informed and sustained effort. Third, that a combination of scaffolded and autonomous learning experiences, coupled with attention to the personal, social, and interdisciplinary aspects of learning can ultimately extend the notion of creative thinking across discipline boundaries

Concluding comments While the authors of this paper work in different fields of arts education, their respective journeys in the art education domain has lead to a mutual commitment to a concept of creativity that can be entrenched in the general educational context by teaching approaches that adapt to the learning needs of students within the every-changing global environment, rather than content alone.

Furthermore, they both believe that if the celebration of creativity is to be truly nurtured in our schools, as educators in whatever learning sphere we are engaged, we need continual research and shared dialogue around ways of cultivating students’ creative skills as an integral part of the overall education process.

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References Abbs, P. (1989). A is for aesthetic: Essays on creative and aesthetic education.

London: Falmer Press.

Australian Council of Deans of Education (2001). New learning: A charter for Australian education. Canberra: Australian Council of Deans of Education.

Barone, T. & Eisner, E. (1997). Arts-based educational research. In R. Jaeger (Ed.), Complementary methods for research in education (pp.73-94).

Washington DC: American Educational Research Association.

Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does. Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.

Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. (1989). The arts in schools: Principles, practice and provision. Portland Place, London: Foundacao Calouste Gulbenkian.

Chickering, A.W & Gamson, Z.F. (1987). Seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education. Retrieved April 16, 2009, from http:// honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guideb k/ teachtip/7princip.htm Clandinin, D.J. & Connelly, F.M. (1994). Teacher as curriculum maker. In P.W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of curriculum, (pp.363-401). NewYork: Macmillan.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education (5th ed). London: Routledge Falmer.

Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (1997). Productive diversity. Sydney: Pluto Press.

Cropley, A.J. (1990). Creativity and mental health in everyday life.

Creativity Research Journal, 12, 197-204.

Cropley, A.J. (2006). Dimensions of creativity -creativity: A social Approach.

Roeper Review, 12 (3), 125-130.

Eisner, E.W. (1998). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Eisner, E.W. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. London: Yale University Press.

Elliott, A. (2001). Scaffolding learning. Every Child, 7, (4), 8-9.

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Esquivel, G.B. (1995). Teacher behaviours that foster creativity.

Educational Psychology Review, 7 (2), 185-202.

Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences: London: Fontana.

Gardner, H. (2005, May 25). Multiple lenses on the mind. Paper presented at the Expo Gestion Conference, Bogota, Columbia.

Gardner, H. (2007). Five minds for the future. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Hoffert, B. (1995). Art in diversity: Studies in the history of art.

Melbourne: Longman.

Hoffert, B. (2004). Thinking for innovation, Symposium and conference papers for art educators. Retrieved April 16, 2008, from http://www. ngv.vic.gov.au/education/resources_aie_01.html.

Hoffert, B. (2006). National identity and the visual arts. Paper presented at the UNESCO World Conference on Arts Education in Lisbon March 2006.

Jeffrey, B. (2006). Creative teaching and learning: Towards a common discourse and practice. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36 (3), 399414.

Joubert, M.M. (2001). The art of creative teaching: NACCCE and beyond.

In A. Craft, B. Jeffrey & M. Liebling (Eds.). Creativity in education (17-34). London: Continuum.

Kemmis, S. & McTaggert, R. (1988). The action research planner.

Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University.

Koestler, A. (1970). The act of creation. London: Pan Books.

McFarland, M.W. (Ed) (1953). The papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Miller, A.H., Imrie, B.W. & Cox, K. (1998). Student assessment in higher education: A handbook for assessing performance. London: Kogan Page.

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (2007). National education and the arts statement. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from http://www.mceetya.edu.au/mceetya/about_ mceetya,11318.html.

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Office for Standards in Education (2003). Expecting the unexpected: Developing creativity in primary and secondary schools. Retrieved November 1, 2007, from www.ofsted.gov.uk.

Schön, D. (1991). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action.

New York: Teachers Collage Press.

Sternberg, R.J. (1997). Successful intelligence. New York: Plume.

Sternberg, R.J. & Lubart, T.J. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press.

UNESCO (2007) World report on cultural diversity. Retrieved May, 1, 2009, from http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.html Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2005). The arts. State Government of Australia. Retrieved March 3, 2006, from http://vels. vcaa.vic.edu/essential/discipline/arts/index.html.

Wright, S. (2003). Children, meaning – making and the arts.

NSW: Pearson Education.

Images Cited Picasso, P. (Artist). Les Demoiselle D’Avignon, 1907; in Museum of Modern Art, New York City. Retrieved July 10, 2009, from (http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157364/Les•DemoisellesdAvignon).

Wright, W. and Wright, O. (Aviators/Inventors) – Photograph The first flight December 17, 1903. Retrieved July 10, 2009, from http:// aviationhistory.info/Wright-Brothers.html).

Mars Petcare Australia. Bagpipe Mouse -‘Still’ image from Whiskers television commercial – Image and permission gained through personal communications with Michelle Herbert Customer Enquiries Coordinator (August, 4 2009).

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THE SYNTEGRATED ARTS EDUCATION MODEL:

Christopher Klopper Charles Sturt University Christopher is a lecturer in the School of teacher Education at Charles Sturt University. He lectures in creative arts education, educational research: culture, design and development, and music education. He gained extensive experience through teaching at both state and private schools nationally and internationally, from early childhood through to University level as well as curriculum development, design and delivery for the Education Department in South Africa. Christopher publishes in the field of pre-service creative arts education, more specifically relating to music education; intentional provision of music in early childhood

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A NON-LINEAR APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE KEY LEARNING AREA CREATIVE ARTS Abstract Creative arts education secures the survival of art disciplines and illustrates the importance to the preservation of individuality and integrity of skills and knowledge unique to a specific art discipline.

This article presents the syntegrated creative arts education model.

It is a model that offers core content, interdisciplinary modules, and elective units according to the needs of the student and the demographics of the community. It is envisaged that this syntegrated creative arts education model will offer an understanding to the concepts offered - putting the ‘arts’ back into the key learning area Creative Arts in pre-service settings in Australia.

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Introduction Creative arts education at pre-service level in Australia at present often only allows for opportunities of singular discipline specialisation (somewhat linear in approach), which results in teachers being a master in one field and a novice in many other fields. Driven by the natural bias from one’s own mastery or experience of skills and knowledge results in offering an in-depth approach to only one of the particular art disciplines. This does not take into account perhaps the lack of skills or formal qualifications in the relevant art disciplines (Klopper, 2004). So I pose the question: is it not possible to approach creative arts education that encompasses different art disciplines (media, visual arts, music, dance and drama) through a unique epistemological approach resulting in a broad interdisciplinary skills and knowledge base and not just a limited integrated focal point?

There is continued debate surrounding the aims of arts education.

The debate leads to questions such as: “Is arts education taught for appreciation alone or should it be seen as a means to enhance learning in other subjects?”; “Should art be taught as a discipline for its own sake or for the body of knowledge, skills and values to be derived from it (or both)?’; “Is arts education for a gifted few in selected disciplines or is arts education for all?” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 3). These questions remain central in shaping the approach of not only future teachers, but of arts practitioners, students and policy makers. The nature and practice of integrated arts is not a 21st-century notion. In Western writings, references to integration can be traced back as fas as Plato, and later to Rousseau and Dewey. More recently, the concept has appeared in constructivist approaches in teaching and learning (Chrysostomou, 2004).The arts are a time-honoured way of communicating that predates both literacy and numeracy. “Throughout its history the concept of integration has operated under many labels: interdisciplinary instruction, unit teaching, the project approach, inquiry method, and whole language” (Cornett, 2007, p. 8). Sinclair, Jeanneret, and O’Toole (2008) contest that the practise of integrating the arts raises many questions. Surprisingly, the least debatable may be the question of definition. There are however numerous differences in the approach to the terminology.

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Integration is best described as bringing elements or parts together to create a new whole whereas interdisciplinary suggests a dialogue between disciplines in which each retains its individuality and integrity.

An interdisciplinary approach is best defined here by Roucher and Lerano-Kerr (1995) as: Although this type of instruction (approach) has been labelled integrated, infused, or interrelated, interdisciplinary is defined here to mean instruction that connects art forms (for example, art and music) and instruction that connects an art form to other subject areas (for example, art and social studies) (p. 20).

In other words, the content of interdisciplinary arts education should be embedded in the art form, and not just the aesthetic value of the art form.

Creative Arts K-6 The Creative Arts K-6 is one of six key learning area syllabuses for the Primary New South Wales (NSW), Australia curriculum encompassing media, visual arts, music, dance and drama. The Education Act 1990 (NSW) sets out minimum curriculum requirements for primary schools stipulating that courses of study must be provided in each of the six key learning areas for primary education for all children during the year. In particular it states: courses of study in both art and music are to be included in the key learning area of Creative and Practical Arts (Section 8.1 part c) .The Creative Arts K-6 syllabus forms part of the K-12 continuum, providing fundamental foundations to the learning in the art forms that continues in the subjects of Visual Arts, Music, Drama and Dance in years 7-12.

Students are encouraged to connect learning experiences in media, visual arts, music, drama and dance as part of their natural growth and development. However, learning in each of the distinct art forms is integral to the development of fundamental foundations. Such foundations contribute to the support of holistic education, where the student’s frame of reference is widened and so develops the whole student. To assist with the planning, preparation and ultimate

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efficiency of the learning experience in creative arts education, I propose a syntegrated arts education model in the instructional design and delivery of the curriculum subject offered at third year for Bachelor of Education (Primary) students.

Informing the learning design Curriculum making is often driven by key questions such as: What is essential knowledge in a domain? How can this be learned? Who is teaching? Who is taught? And, what is experienced? Schwab’s (1969) re-conceptualisation of curriculum as consisting of four ‘commonplaces’•subject matter, learners, milieu, and teachers- was a naissance in the development of curriculum theory. He provoked educators to think beyond a view of curriculum as a body of knowledge (Schwab’s Question 1) to be imparted to learners (Question 4) by teachers (Question 3) through the deployment of ‘scientifically proven’ methods and techniques (Question 2), to consider curriculum-making as social- that is a process that involves teachers, children, and the ‘milieu’ in which they work. In so doing Schwab broadened the focus of curriculum-making to consider what experienced (Question 5) by the participants in this process (teachers and children) and how this is shaped by the contexts and settings in which teachers and children live (Barrett, 2007, p. 9).

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

For Elliot Eisner, knowledge cannot be just a verbal construct (and constrained by the structures of language). Rather, as Lloyd-Zannini (1998) has put it (after Eisner) ‘knowledge is an intensely variable and personal “event”, something acquired via a combination of one’s senses •visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory - assembled according to a personal schema, and then made public -expressed, typically, by the same sensory modalities utilized in the initial acquisition’.

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The key to developing knowledge within educational settings is to create a varied and stimulating environment in which people become ‘immersed’. Educators also need to encourage people to make meaning; to ‘read’ (or conceptualize) the situation. This they do by constructing images ‘derived from the material the senses provide’ and refining ‘the senses [as] a primary means for expanding...[one’s own] consciousness’ (Eisner, 1994, pp. 28-29). People need access to the experience of different forms of representation or symbol systems. Trying to make sense of these, being encouraged to draw upon them and play with them, nurtures the imagination and allows people to be more creative in their responses to the situations in which they find themselves. ‘When we define the curriculum, we are also defining the opportunities the young will have to experience different forms of consciousness’ (Eisner, 1994, p. 44). Eisner, like John Dewey, is clear that our ability to know is based in our ability to construct meaning from experiences.

Eisner was concerned that most schools, by failing to properly appreciate the significance of art, were offering an unnecessarily narrow and seriously unbalanced approach to education. He recognized that many of the then current conceptions of cognition - because they lacked proper attention to artistic modes of thinking - were inadequate (Uhrmacher, 2001, p. 247). Gardner made a similar point within his argument for attention to ‘multiple intelligences’ (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Eisner made the case for developing a proper attention to the cognitive in art rather than it being only driven by emotional and what is termed ‘creative’ forces. Uhrmacher (2001, p. 248) comments that Eisner ‘stressed that environment shapes artistic attitudes and that art education has unique contributions to make to growing children’. He argued that approaches which simply gave children arts materials in the hope that their creativity might flow resulted in programmes ‘with little or no structure, limited judges that ‘in large measure due to Eisner’s advocacy, art education has become a content-oriented discipline.

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The syntegrated arts education mode l I began considering the work of Paxson (1996) which reveals modes of interaction between disciplines. Figure 1 is a visual representation of the taxonomy highlighting interactions between disciplines to address how only interactions involving internal imperatives have interdisciplinary significance.

Figure 1: Taxonomy of interaction (Paxson, 1996) I then considered how this taxonomy could pave the way for creative arts education? A simplistic example of each level is offered to illustrate how the application to creative arts education could be explored.

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Figure 2: Taxonomy of interaction applied to the arts (Klopper, 2003) Such taxonomy motivates that discrete disciplines need to be addressed prior to integrating the disciplines, the ultimate form of interaction.

However, the key learning area Creative Arts suggests an integrated approach to learning the arts, which often results in the lack of mastery of any one particular art discipline. Is it not therefore time to take cognisance of this taxonomy and offer creative arts education through a syntegrated approach as apposed to the current advocated integrated approach? Where synergy (from the Greek syn-ergo, meaning working together) is the term used to describe a situation where the final outcome of a system is greater than the sum of its parts.

Further to the notion of synergy, Russell-Bowie (2006) proffers a further three models of integration for consideration: • service connections: one key learning area or art form servicing learning and outcomes in another key learning area symmetric correlations: two key learning areas or art forms using the same material to achieve their own individual outcomes syntegration: several key learning areas or art forms working synergistically together to explore a theme, concept or focus question and achieving their outcomes as well as generic outcomes (p. 259).

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Adopting the understanding and use of the term synergy offered by Russell-Bowie (2006), explored in the taxonomy of interaction (Paxson, 1996) and applied to the arts (Klopper, 2003), the syntegrated creative arts education model was developed as a means to place the ‘arts’ firmly in the key learning area Creative Arts through a non-linear approach.

The approach is founded upon the reality of many art disciplines encompassed in the Creative Arts learning area, and if any of them are to be dealt with effectively it is imperative to offer an interdisciplinary approach to avoid a watering down of any one particular discipline.

However, to be able to deliver the key learning area Creative Arts effectively according to this approach, the present-and- future teachers need to be empowered with the necessary skills and knowledge. This does not suggest the creation of a ‘new’ breed of teacher but rather a ‘new’ non-linear approach to creative arts education. The syntegrated creative arts education model requires a team-teaching effort and not an individualistic approach alone. The interactions among the arts are the links both epistemological and human, which allow for a guided experiential arts experience to be possible. Creative arts education secures the survival of art disciplines and illustrates the importance to the preservation of individuality and integrity of skills and knowledge unique to a specific art discipline. The focus of creative arts education under this approach is on the process in entirety and not the end product alone. In so doing, the process is founded upon the learning of skills and knowledge and not just relying on unguided experiential learning.

This approach is an optimistic vision for creative arts education that offers core content, interdisciplinary modules and/or units, which are elective according to the needs of the learner and the demographics of the community, and culminates in a syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio. Adopting such an approach aids pre-service teachers in interrelating the objectives in each of the art forms in the development of teaching and learning programs.

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The syntegrated arts showcase portfolio Together, the subjects studied in the third year of the Bachelor of Education (Primary) course offer: opportunities to explore creative solutions to the varying issues of learning and teaching which confront primary teachers in educational contexts experiences that position educational, pedagogical and schooling issues in the wider context of society the development of a propensity to seek possibilities and alternatives beyond the narrow exigencies of the present.

A syntegrated creative arts programme in conjunction with subjectcentred arts instruction for all students can help cultivate a positive attitude toward teaching and learning. This subject is designed to enable students to acquire the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to develop appropriate strategies for planning, programming and teaching visual arts, music, dance and drama in schools. This subject is the second in a series of subjects in this discipline area, and it focuses on the study of the curriculum and pedagogy of this discipline in primary schools. It is part of a developmental framework that relates to student experience and the broader Bachelor of Education program. Students are empowered through a broad range of creative arts experiences that explore the authentic syntegration of Creative Arts in a regular, planned and coordinated fashion surrounding the creative process. This creative process is considered cyclical around stimulus, creation, product and reflection. This is represented in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The creative process

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The subject Creative Arts II: Content & Context of Creative Arts K-6 is presented through lectures, demonstrations, practical involvment in workshop activities, group discussions, on-line engagement, professional experience and research. In addition, students are expected to set aside 3-4 hours each week for independent rehearsal and practise to ensure they are developing the required skills for their professional practice as primary school teachers. Figure 4 diagrammatically represents the structure of delivery of the subject. A team of experts provide foundations upon which links can be built are presented initially as discrete core content modules. Links are first engaged within the art discipline before linking with another art discipline. As the semester progresses, so does the level of interaction intensify as the centre of the model is approached. The inner circular structure represents the culmination when syntegration takes place only once links have been established and built upon to create this ‘new’ body of knowledge. The central structure is unified and strengthened through the employment of a unit centre which is guided by the selection of one of the following: author, artist or person genre or form book, poem or song problem or topic event or trip Central to the successful implementation of the syntegrated creative arts education model is the belief that all key learning areas can be realised through the arts. The unit centre is binding, and the arts are the connective arms embracing learning through, between and of the arts.

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Figure 4: The syntegrated creative arts education model

Assessment tasks are directly to the objectives of this subject. Students are required to successfully demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the content and context of creative arts in the following ways: e-portfolio learning resource; here the students develop a creative e-portfolio learning resource based on the material presented during lectures, demonstrations, practical involvment in workshop activities, group discussions, on-line engagement and research. A template is provided on-line for students to follow when developing this portfolio. Defining the portfolio in education is considered no easy task (Dysthe, 2002). The literature pertaining to portfolio models offers great variety (Black, Daiker, Sommers, & Stygall, 1994; Yancey & Weiser, 1997). A common element is that assessment is based on a collection of student work collected over a period of time, as opposed to sit-down examinations. Portfolio-based learning is used for a collection of evidence that learning has taken place, including “extended reflective writing that describes and analyses the experience and demonstrate how the experiences produce the learning claimed and meet the criteria of the programme” (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997, p.

192). Together with Arter & Spandel (1992) and MacIsaac & Jackson (1994) a portfolio in this subject is defined as a purposeful; collection of student work that tells the story of the student’s effort, progress and/or achievement in one or more areas. volume 3 • number 1 ISSN 1832 0465 © University of Melbourne

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This e-portfolio learning resource is a professionally presented and indexed creative arts learning resource of appropriate activities for children 5 – 12 years old. It includes notes on each activity so as to describe the learning experience, the sequence of activities to which it belongs and the intended outcomes for the activity. Included are ideas for further activities within each sequence and suggestions for syntegrated activities across the curriculum with an art focus.

The advantages of using digital portfolios include: digital portfolios provide an effective means for cataloguing and organizing learning materials, better illustrating the process of learner development, students can easily integrate multimedia materials, allowing them to use a variety of tools to demonstrate and develop understanding, students can develop their Information and Communication Technology(ICT) skills through the creation of multimedia work and use of the tool, student work becomes easy to share with peers, teachers, parents and others, and lets students and others to provide feedback through a single electronic container digital portfolios provide remote access to student work for teachers review and assessment purposes (Wade, Abrami, & Sclater, 2005, p. 2).

The digital resource builds into the development of the syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio.

The syntegrated arts showcase portfolio; During this task the students are provided with the opportunity to illustrate their understanding of cross-curriculum integration through designing, preparing, and presenting as a group a syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio for evaluation for an authentic context. Synergy occurs when the sum of the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts.

When this notion is used the outcomes achieved are greater than those achieved if each art form or key learning area was taught by itself (Russell-Bowie, 2006).

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When planning the syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio one must ensure that the outcomes are authentic and maintain integrity within each relevant key learning area, artificial relationships should not be forged between key learning areas or art forms, and that the discrete knowledge, skills and understandings of each key learning area or art form are not blurred for the sake of a theme. This illustrates how integration is situated in a dichotomous tension between process of differentiation and synthesis, maintaining the integrity of the art form as a separate discipline while affirming the value of teaching for transfer with respect to shared concept and processes. Thus, learning in the context of its integration with other subject areas becomes an optimal condition for assuring that fundamental concepts and processes shared between an art form and other domains become more deeply and broadly understood (Meyers & Scripp, 2007). Describing the coexistence of arts integration (synthesis) with the need for explicit, defined learning within an arts discipline as taught by qualified and trained arts professionals (differentiation), is purported by Burnaford, Brown, Doherty, & McLaughlin (2007) as the possible future of arts integration within a larger vision for arts education in public schools. Further to the discussion surrounding synthesis and differentiation, a syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio is a model of integration that supports purposeful planning of broad themes or concepts so that the concept or theme is explored within different key learning areas. Each key learning area’s (KLA) outcomes remain discrete and the integrity of each KLA is maintained. Syntegration also attempts to achieve more generic outcomes beyond those in each learning area such as problem solving, teamwork and critical thinking. Russell-Bowie (2006) argues that syntegration allows students to see learning as authentic and meaningful and encourages them to extend their thinking beyond KLA boundaries or across art forms.

An example of a syntegrated creative arts showcase portfolio within the arts could be a unit based on ‘Hip-Hop culture’. Learning experiences could include learning about the cultural context of this period through appreciating art, music, dance, drama and media works created during this style period and linking to HSIE and English through explorations of culture, place, time, written text and media. A researched and analysed

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exploration of historical events could be undertaken. Narrative text or creative writing could be utilized to illustrate the understanding of the concept of ‘Hip-Hop culture’. This could be supported by relevant scanned, photographed or created images. The final presentation is then digitally supported through the employment of media and technology resources. Arts integration has been described as a system for mapping knowledge. Further examples generated and provided with permission by the students are mapped in Figure 5 and 6. Such mapping employs the principles of mind mapping Buzan (1993).

Figure 5: The effects of drought

Figure 6: The human body

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Motivation from the students The syntegrated creative arts education model for the delivery of teaching and learning in the Creative Arts for pre-service teachers is now in its third semester of implementation. On-line evaluations and group discussions have informed the development of the model and the implementation.

Here follows a sample of the commentary that students have made in response to the syntegrated creative arts education model: The process of designing a syntegrated arts unit was a challenging but enjoyable experience. I was fortunate to be working with two equally dedicated group members, who made the project more enjoyable and it was relieving to know that we could be ready on time! It was exciting to make links between creative arts and science and technology as we created a unit on the Human Body.(student EMA312:200770) I will look back on the experience as a memorable one in my university years and I love the fact that the creative arts KLA allows for imperfection and improvisation to it your own- an achievement. (student EMA300:200770) The showcase portfolio is a fantastic assignment. I had so much fun and it was really beneficial, and something I can take away with me when teaching. (student EMA312:200770) This has been my favourite subject so far in three years! The portfolio assessment was great for developing lessons and will be an excellent tool when we are all out there teaching. (student EMA312:200840) I feel that the strongest point in this subject was the assessments. While each tutorial was engaging, extended and challenged my skills and abilities as an individual and as a teacher, the assessment process provided the biggest challenge and fulfilment of all. By stepping away from producing a written unit of work and engaging in a more practical presentation in groups, made the subject not only enjoyable and exciting, but demonstrated just how effective practical hands on application works, how much of a learning process it is and how effective integration with creative arts and the other KLA’s is. To see my fellow course members come out of their shells and come alive shows me that if this form of assessment can influence, inspire and affect adult individuals in such a positive way, then imagine the impact it will have on our future students. (student EMA312:200840)

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So where to now?

The valuable insight that students provide through the completion of on•line evaluations and group discussions has informed the learning support material that is provided for the students. Initially skeleton rubrics were provided under the guise that this is a creative subject.

However, students need boundaries to be creative, or how else will they get out of the box? The lecture series now includes an introduction to digital media for performance to provide a sense of ‘how to’ for the student that has not spent much time experimenting with the endless array of packages and effects that digital media has to offer. Students are also now provided with digital media workshops to equip them with the necessary skills required to effectively use sound and video projection.

While some people despair about how we’re becoming ‘blobs’ watching screens and manipulating technology, there is an upside. It’s not just about sitting down and consuming what others have created- it’s about getting in there and producing it yourself. We live in a world that the ‘new’ generation of student is accustomed- a world where media and technology is a part of life, the way eating and sleeping are a part of every day life. The syntegrated creative arts education model for the delivery of teaching and learning of pre-service teachers in the subject area Creative Arts is an optimistic vision for creative arts education.•

References (1990). The Education Act 1990 (NSW). Retrieved 2 September 2008. from http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ea1990104/.

Arter, J. A., & Spandel, V. (1992). Using Portfolios of Student Work in Instruction and Assessment. Educational measurement: issues and practice, 11(1), 36-44.

Barrett, M. (2007). Oliver’s Story: A Curriculum Conundrum. Music in Action, 5, 8-10.

Black, L., Daiker, D. A., Sommers, J., & Stygall, G. (1994). New Directions in Portfolio Assessment: Reflective Practice, Critical Theory, and Large-Scale Scoring. Portsmouth New Hamsphire: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

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Brown, G., Bull, J., & Pendlebury, M. (1997). Assessing Student Learning in Higher Education. London/New York: Routledge.

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Burnaford, G., Brown, S., Doherty, J., & McLaughlin, H. J. (2007). Arts Integration Frameworks, Research & Practice. A Literature Review.

Washington, D.C.: Arts Education Partnerships.

Buzan, T. (1993). The Mind Map Book: How to Use Radiant Thinking to Maximize Your Brain’s Untapped Potential. New York: Penguin Group.

Chrysostomou, S. (2004). Interdisciplinary Approaches in the New Curriculum in Greece: A Focus on Music Education. Arts Education Policy Review, 10(5), 23-29.

Cornett, C. E. (2007). Creating Meaning through Literature and the Arts. An Integration Resource for Classroom Teachers (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Dysthe, O. (2002). Theorectical Background for Portfolios as Learning and Assessment Tools in Teacher Education. Paper presented at the Nordic Education Research Association. Retrieved 2 September 2008, from http://www.uib.no/iuh/ansatte/dysthe/Tallin_25_3_02.pdf Eisner, E. (1994). Cognition and Curriculum Reconsidered (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Eisner, E. W. (1988). The Role of Discipline-Based Art Education in American Schools. Los Angeles: Paul Getty Trust.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-9.

Klopper, C. J. (2003). Multi-Disciplinary Arts Education: A South African Perspective for Music within the Learning Area Creative Arts and Its Applicability Throughout Africa. Paper presented at the 29th International Conference for the Southern African Society for Education, Rustenburg.

Klopper, C. J. (2004). Variables Impacting on the Delivery of Music in the Learning Area Arts and Culture in South Africa., University of Pretoria, Pretoria.

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Lloyd-Zannini, L. P. (1998). A Review of Elliot Eisner’s Cognition and Curriculum Reconsidered. Gifted Child Quarterly, 42(1), 63-64.

MacIsaac, D., & Jackson, L. (1994). Assessment Processes and Outcomes: Portfolio Construction. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education., 62, 63-72.

Meyers, D., & Scripp, L. (2007). Evolving Forms of Music-in-Education Practices and Research in the Context of Art-in-Education Reform: Implications for Schools That Chose Music as a Measure of Excellence and as a Strategy for Change. Journal for Music-inEducation: Advancing Music for Chnaging Times, 1(2), 381-396.

Paxson, T. D. (1996). Modes of Interaction between Disciplines. Journal of General Education, 45(2), 79-94.

Roucher, N., & Lorano-Kerr, J. (1995). Can the Arts Maintain Integrity in Interdisciplinary Learning? Arts Education Policy Review, 96(4), 20-25.

Russell-Bowie, D. (2006). Mmadd About the Arts: An Introduction to Primary Arts Education. Sydney: Perason Education Australia.

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Sinclair, C., Jeanneret, N., & O’Toole, J. (2008). Education in the Arts.

Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Uhrmacher, P. B. (2001). Fifty Modern Thinkers on Education. From Piaget to the Present. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Elliot Eisner. London: Routledge.

UNESCO (2006, 6-9 March 2006). Road Map for Arts Education. Paper presented at the The World Confernce on Arts Education: Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century, Lisbon.

Wade, A., Abrami, P. C., & Sclater, J. (2005). An Electronic Portfolio to Support Learning. Canadian Journal of learning and technology, 31(3).

Yancey, K. B., & Weiser, I. (1997). Situating Portfolios: Four Perspectives.

Logan, Utah Utah State University Press

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“MINE’S RUBBISH, MISS”:

Carol Message Roehampton University Carol Message originally trained as a commercial artist in the USA and went on to work in the UK as a creative director on multinational advertising accounts. Her interests in mentoring young artists led her to obtain a First Class Honours Degree in Teaching from Kingston University, London. She currently teaches in an independent preparatory school where she works with boys aged 7-13 developing their knowledge, skills and understanding in art, craft and design. She is a fellow of The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (RSA) and is currently completing her Masters in Art, Craft and Design in Education at the University of Roehampton, London.

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ONE TEACHER’S QUEST TO IDENTIFY THE ISSUES THAT TURN BOYS OFF MAKING ART

Abstract This article seeks to identify issues which turn many young boys off making art. In it I suggest some strategies which would benefit boys during art lessons and enable teachers to arrest decline in boys’ motivation. It explores the effects of inappropriate activities, which subject boys to unnecessary anxiety about their own ability and fuel the insecurities formulated through negotiating multiple masculinities. Research is used to substantiate the theory that attitudes towards making art are affected by grappling with issues of managing and forming relationships when boys are better programmed for other things. This, along with embedded achievement goals and fear of failure, may divert boys from engaging emotionally in their art lessons. I also reflect on my own practice, evaluating the impact of exposure to a range of unusual tools and materials, together with opportunities to explore and experiment with objects without pressure to produce realistic outcomes.

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Introduction There has been growing interest in boyhood studies over recent decades leading to the realisation that many boys fail to fulfil their potential while at school. Despite underachievement being at the heart of many of these investigations, theories identifying reasons for poor performance, motivation and engagement of boys remain diverse; gender development, multi-ethnic influences and socio-economic status being just a few areas of considerable research. Disinterest in learning is not, it seems, a new phenomenon or one particular to the United Kingdom.

Research suggests that Australia, Canada, America and Finland have similar shortcomings when educating boys (Imms, 2007; Savoie, 2009).

Why then, is this a universal problem? Unprecedented sums of time and money have been invested to try and find out, but research which connects the diminution of achievement specifically to making art is limited. It is this area in which my interests lie.

As an art teacher in a single sex, independent school for boys, I have noticed the tendency for some boys to become disinterested in making art around the age of 11 years. “Mine’s rubbish, Miss” -how many times have I heard this? An inability to engage in art-making, and complaints about personal outcomes are all too familiar as boys progress through school. Why do they lose interest and when does their apathy towards making art, in particular, begin to manifest itself?

Observations within early primary classrooms will reveal boys working on art with gusto and enthusiasm equal to their female counterparts. What happens between early childhood and the later years of education to cause many boys to lose the desire to create art spontaneously and with confidence? How to keep more boys engaged has become a personal challenge for me, and through my research I have endeavoured to identify why this phenomenon seems an unavoidable one for many. This has led me to unwind the experiences of these boys and link them with theory to identify factors which may be impacting on attitudes to art-making before disaffection becomes visible.

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There are a number of influencing factors to consider but, in this article, I will be examining the possibility that inappropriate activities with little consideration for boys’ specific developmental needs and desires may be at least part of the problem. Stereotyping boys (or girls) is not intended. It may be argued that differences between groups, in the classroom, are actually greater than gender (Pickering 1997). Not all boys resist art and indeed, not all girls thrive on it -they may even respond similarly to some of the situations I will be investigating.

It is difficult, however, to ignore growing evidence which suggests many boys may benefit from strategies specific to their needs.

Is it accurate to suggest that boys fall behind in primary school and never close the gap? Pickering claimed this, but why do boys fall behind? Bleach (2000) identified primary school boys as more teacherdependent and more inclined to show anti-learning behaviour.

Clark (1998) too suggests disaffection in general for boys and that they are less tolerant of boring tasks and less willing to please.

When MacDonald, Saunders and Benfield requested information about achievement in the United Kingdom they found that every local education authority which responded “…reported that boys’ standards of achievement fell below those of girls”. (1999, p.1).

Recently, some educators have suggested growing “laddish culture” may be the reason boys underachieve (BBC 2002). Why and when these anti-school attitudes begin to form remains an area of debate, however. Historically, it was suggested that, around the age of 11, boys begin to doubt their art-making abilities and their work becomes less spontaneous as they become self conscious and more preoccupied with realistic effects and detail (Lowenfeld 1987). This supports my own observations. If, however, these traits become visible at 11, perhaps they start to become entrenched from a much earlier age? In an attempt to identify whether this might be the case, I will investigate three possible theories: 1) research which suggests boys’ are particularly vulnerable to complex issues of gender and identity development, 2) the relevance of achievement goals and 3) theories of sex-related cognitive traits.

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Gender Development Children learn gender stereotypes from parents, relatives, teachers, peers and media and they learn to conform to these by imitating or competing. As they begin to recognise themselves in others they will build on their own identity, developing an awareness of self. This they begin to do as soon as they realise their physical difference (Perry 1999 cites Garb 1993). It is more than playing a role; developing gender is like a “…social practice attaching itself to individuals as they internalise social structures” (Perchuk and Posner 1995, p.16).

This process however, may be particularly complicated for boys. It has been suggested that certain school subjects have specific gender images and that many boys may believe they can enhance (or impair) their masculinity through these subjects (Clark 1998). Reading and writing are identified by both children and teachers as feminine, as is fine art (Savoie 2009, p28). This is particularly curious if we consider the dominance of men in art up until the 20th century and requires further investigation. In this article, however, I will consider the theory that struggling with gender development impinges on many boys’ ability to engage emotionally in art activities and this, in turn, may inhibit motivation.

Teachers will have observed boys acting maturely and thoughtfully one day and being juvenile and insensitive the next. Moreover, these transformations can seem to take place even as boys change classrooms. This may well be the result of boys manoeuvring through multiple layers of masculinities. Boys’ range of characteristics, values and beliefs (their idea of being a man) may be enhanced or limited according to who they are with at the time and how safe they feel (Imms 2007).

Imms explores multiple masculinities and labels the different levels in which boys engage with it (Figure 1). His findings indicate that with the right conditions, boys will test parameters of acceptance of manliness portrayed by the culture and society surrounding them, including their own boy-culture, in an attempt to form their own unique identity. This, however, subjects boys to varying levels

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of risk as they portray what they think is expected, and engage in continuous negotiation (particularly with their peers). Conforming to stereotypes (men are strong and insensitive) provides certain levels of safety and risk of ostracism is minimised; therefore, when boys feel insecure, they may revert to stereotypes.

Challenging accepted norms while remaining within constraints of smaller groups, Imms suggests, offers boys a degree of autonomy and security at the same time. The identities boys develop within these groups, his research suggests, are often superficial and not necessarily a true reflection of individual values and beliefs. They may however, reflect their success at negotiating position amongst their peers.

Figure 1: Boys’ layered engagement of masculinites (Imms 2007, p38) The deepest level of engagement Imms labels “Individualities”. This is, he suggests, where boys’ true opinions and beliefs may lie. When adults refer to a ‘mature’ boy, he is most likely operating within this level – making individual choices through careful consideration of a broad range of values and beliefs (his own and those around him).

But this level of engagement is high risk and many boys may access it only occasionally, if at all.

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Although Imms’s findings are based on a limited study, they may help explain why some boys’ attitude and motivation fluctuate so greatly.

Traversing through multiple masculinities may require considerable effort with each demanding a different response and representation.

If boys feel exposed to criticism, their characteristics, values and beliefs may alter. As they become more confident in their own ‘true’ identity, they may be less vulnerable to expectations (of parents, teachers and peers). His research also draws attention towards vital evidence suggesting that, where a safe environment is provided and barriers removed, boys have potential to draw on and enhance a range of worthwhile values and beliefs. Fear of failure and ostracism, however, often prevent this.

Achievement Goals Fear of failure may also prevent boys who already have low-confidence engaging in art activities. Pavlou’s (2006) studies, into reasons for engaging in art activity, reveal that “..children’s achievement goals appeared to influence their actual achievement” (p.196). She found that when low-confidence pupils do engage, they put in only limited effort – frequently resulting in unfinished work. Pavlou suggests that this may be because children see little point in completing work which, in their view, is not good enough. She records this familiar comment from a low-confidence child; “I can tell that mine suck”.

She also notes that these same, low-confidence pupils demonstrate greater interest in activities which did not include drawing. Pavlou found that art activities which appealed to both high and lowconfidence pupils had the following elements in common: • eased pressure towards realism (through forms of art other than drawing) • unusual or novel ideas • challenging • helped develop skills • revolved around children’s interest • allowed collaboration

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I will now look at sex-related cognitive traits to try and identify if any of Pavlou’s recommended activities are particularly relevant to boys.

Sex-related Cognitive Traits Sex-related cognitive traits are an area of continuing debate – nature or nurture, what makes boys what they are? The evidence of multiple masculinities, above, suggests environment plays a major part in many boys’ development and that insecurities when developing gender may pre-occupy boys and affect their engagement. Research into brain activity, however, reveals significant sex-related differences, which suggests nature also plays a part. Boys and girls, it seems, reflect different cognitive patterns and adapt different strategies to solve problems.

Savoie unpicks this ongoing area of research. Her findings suggest that biology influences behaviour which in turn affects gender development (Lips, 2001, cited in Savoie 2009). Girls, for example, are more orientated towards ‘people and relationships’ and boys are more orientated towards ‘things or objects’. The average boy’s brain is made for finding out how things work, building systems, and exploring and analysing, particularly in relation to objects (BaronCohen, 2003, cited in Savoie 2009). Boys as young as three “have greater motivation to interact with objects” (Gedlen & Bjorlund 2005, p.28, cited in Savoie 2009). Boys are more likely, for example, to use objects (building blocks), as tools or weapons. Their drawings are inclined to emphasise objects also, like machines and vehicles, and they often include competitive or violent themes (Vira, 1996, cited in Savoie 2009).

Cognitive science may have limitations, but in considering these predispositions (in boys), we might assume the interchanges required for developing multiple masculinities are more demanding than anticipated •significant effort may be required as boys grapple with complex issues of developing their identity and managing and forming relationships when they are better programmed to deal with objects. The complexity of this may divert them from engaging emotionally in their learning. A level of emotional investment is required if children are to participate fully (Greenhalgh 1994). volume 3 • number 1 ISSN 1832 0465 © University of Melbourne

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Recognition of the amalgamation of the above theories may hold the key to keeping more boys motivated (wanting to, not having to) to make art throughout their school career. Maintaining confidence through activities which harness natural interests and minimise risk to self-belief may enable teachers to arrest decline in boys’ desire to make art. “An unmotivated child is a difficult, if not impossible, child to teach” (Carnie 2003, p.10). Easing pressure towards producing realistic art and using a range of unusual tools and materials may be two strategies which might assist with this.

Boys worry about how they are perceived by their peers, and dealing with the interchanges involved in relating to others (both in and out of the classroom) is not an easy process for them. When they refuse to engage, it may not be that they are lazy or disinterested, but that they are reluctant to expose themselves to personal risk. “What sometimes teachers may perceive as efforts to avoid work is actually efforts to avoid the demonstration of lack of ability” (Pavlou, 2006, p.203).

If we accept this, and that boys are pre-programmed with specific tendencies, producing realistic art, for example, may work against them because it limits opportunity to explore and analyse. Eglinton (2003) suggests, because the child can not change the course of the process or the outcome, it may also limit creativity. Furthermore, it may inflame entrenched low-achievement goals because through it, lack of ability is more visible. If, as Lowenfeld suggested earlier, boys become more pre•occupied with realism as they grow older, it is possible that easing pressure towards it and seeking alternative methods to gain skills could become more important each year.

I am not suggesting boys don’t need to develop basic skills and techniques -without them they may not be able to give concrete form to thoughts, expressions or feelings -but recording these does not necessarily need to be done in the form of drawing. Some boys, of course, are good at drawing and look to art lessons as a time when they can prove their success -these children should be given adequate opportunity to develop, but drawing should not dominate the curriculum and goals should be kept flexible to support them.

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Cox (1992) argues that setting rigid rules for drawing certain schemas does not squash interest in drawing but enables children to use highly developed skills to express themselves creatively; without which, she argues, they might lose interest and give up. She does not make it clear, however, how these lessons affect those who cannot provide the expected level of outcome. David Hockney (Lipsett 2009a) recently, was appalled at England’s inspectorate of schools (Ofsted) suggestion to minimize drawing in art lessons. He suggests the reason boys are not stimulated by drawing is “..because they have got bad, boring teachers”. This may well be true in some cases, perhaps because many teachers feel ill-equipped to teach art after their teacher training. Hockney may be justified, however, to question Ofsted’s recommendation to increase the use of ICT in art lessons, especially if we consider 1) boys’ pre•disposition to engage with objects and 2) how much time boys already spend in front of screens (at school and home). Miriam Rosen, Ofsted’s director of education, suggests boys do better in art where the curriculum is broad (Lipsett 2009b).

This may suggest motivational benefits in enhancing the range of activities available to boys beyond drawing.

I believe a balance should be sought. A walk through any contemporary art gallery will clearly demonstrate the minimal role drawing plays in today’s art, where conceptual and multi-media creations hold court. Realism is only one type of representation and it is possible that children may better learn to value their own personal artistic response once they realise this. This may be particularly important in primary school before their view of what constitutes ‘good art’ begins to outstrip their skills. My observations suggest that opening up the world of art-making through methods or representation other than realism, can help boys feel less exposed. I will now reflect on my own teaching practice and examine the motivational implications of using unusual tools and materials in lessons.

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Use of unusual tools and materials I have observed boys taking immediate interest in lessons where unusual tools and materials are introduced. They are keen to handle and engage with these which may, I suggest, be linked to the sex-related cognitive traits mentioned earlier – they want to find out how things work, and explore these objects because they are programmed to do so.

Experimentations with saws, drills, hot glue guns and blow torches (with the appropriate safety training) drives them to learn through their senses as they master both tools and objects. Professional artist, Alistair Lambert (2009), uses power saws and timber with children as young as five in schools – he suggests increasing the physicality with objects and the introduction of unusual tools can increase children’s enthusiasm to make art.

I found that some boys will work at any task put before them in the art studio, perhaps because of conditioning or fear of repercussions. Others, however, occasionally avoid tasks and work with reluctance. Interestingly, all engage fully and with enthusiasm when tasks are modified to incorporate use of unusual tools. In one instance, following a study of Dale Chihuly’s work, I asked boys to create their own glass-like vessels in order to develop their awareness of translucent colour. They were to apply colour to plastic vessels and alter the shape with a blow torch. The learning objective may have, perhaps, more easily been achieved working in 2 dimensions on acetate. I believe, however, that the introduction of the blow torch provided the motivation for boys to start the task and complete it.

Each boy, in the above lesson, was given freedom to choose his own colour theme (water, fire etc). Allowing choice engages children in their own learning and promotes opportunities for individual expression, leading also to a diversity of ideas in the studio which can promote opportunities to discuss individual style and response (it’s ok to be different). Parameters, on the other hand, may prevent some children from becoming overwhelmed and increase creative opportunities for others as they fit solutions around the problem. A balance should be planned for; in this instance, boys all used a similar process and so were able to share ideas and compare successes and failures, which provided scaffolding for those with low-confidence.

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Some surprises occurred at the melting stage. Following a teacherled demonstration and safety briefing, where boys were unusually attentive (perhaps because they recognised a genuine element of danger), volunteers were sought. Low-confidence pupils’ hands went up with the rest of the class. Normally these boys wait and attempt to gain a degree of understanding by observing others (minimising their risks). Equally unusual was that high-confidence pupils sought reassurance from their peers when it was their turn. This was offered through a mixture of praise and guidance by the full range of abilities involved, such as ‘’…its really good…you could maybe try more heat at the base to make it bend the other way” . This guidance was received with gratitude. Through these exchanges, I could tell boys were highly motivated to succeed (and enjoying themselves).

Figure 2: Applying heat to plastic vessels with a blow torch motivates boys These distinctive role reversals, I believe, may have been a result of the gap between ‘those who perceive they can do art’ and ‘those who perceive they cannot’ being reduced by the use of unusual tools. If there are no established experts, then boys have no one to measure themselves against and this level playing field may enable them to access a deeper level of their masculinity and respond with greater spontaneity.

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When it was Daniel’s turn, however, he expressed concern. He had created a beautiful vessel and was reluctant to melt it in case he ruined it. He is a talented but troubled boy, defiant of adults and feared by his peers because of erratic and occasionally violent behaviour. This activity was unlike anything he (or the others) had done before. Despite observing the others’ success, Daniel’s confidence was wavering, and the support of his peers was not enough. He requested teacher assistance, “I feel quite nervous, will you…like… guide me a little?” Sensitivity is extremely important in these situations. With a few carefully chosen words I was able to support Daniel and help keep his fragile self-esteem intact without damaging further his position amongst his peers. The way teachers communicate is important: non-verbal cues, posture and language are rarely neutral. This, along with the effects of praise (and empty praise) and the use of language within art lessons, are areas which warrant greater exploration.

Establishing a safe environment where children feel confident to voice concerns is essential; without it Daniel may have reverted to more shallow levels of masculinity and chosen silly, or attentionseeking behaviour as an alternative to engaging with the task. As it was, his confidence and self-identity may have been enhanced as he gained a new skill and proved he too could operate successfully.

Where ground-rules of mutual respect are firmly in place the climate can be both fun and relaxed and this, as the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority of London (2004) suggest, encourages children to be more adventurous and explore ideas freely.

As boys handle new materials they draw new conclusions about their properties and add to their repertoire of skills. One way to promote this is to take them outside the art studio (recycling centres or local wood for example) where (with a little pre-planning) boys can collect objects not normally found in their classroom. Found materials (springs, bolts, brackets, tree bark, stones etc) are of great interest to many boys and they collect with enthusiasm.

Prior to collecting these materials, it would be appropriate to introduce boys to the art they are expected them to make, perhaps by looking at related artists’ work. This enables them to start thinking

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about how the objects they chose may relate to the task. In one such lesson, I asked boys to build robots from found materials. This progressed from two dimensional work where they cut catalogue clippings for robot parts, supporting them initially as they learned to harness their imagination.

The challenge of making a three-dimensional robot from unusual materials, gave boys opportunity to engage with the objects and analyse the best way to use them. This required considerable effort as they tried (often unsuccessfully) to combine and construct. I have begun to plan more opportunities for these types of experimentations.

A recent project I undertook myself, which required experimentation of unfamiliar materials, revealed much learning can be gained from failure. Lawrence (2006) emphasises that failure can not be prevented (it is an inevitable process) and children must learn to cope with it.

When working alongside boys, I therefore make mistakes visible and introduce them to the fact that artists try different ideas; they take risks and these are sometimes unsuccessful. I encourage children to embrace the word ‘failure’ and aim to re-brand it as ‘another type of learning’.

Philosopher Julian Baggini (2009) speaks about individual response to failure. Suggesting people naturally feel guilt and weakness when they fail and that covering mistakes may make this worse.

Keeping a log, on the board or in sketchbooks, itemising what worked (planned or accidental) and what did not, may help children understand more fully that failure (especially in art) is a different lesson whose uses may not be evident to us immediately. Fisher (2005) suggests children will not take sufficient risks if they are too frightened of failure. I believe exposing boys to failure and giving them the vocabulary to discuss it may help diminish anxiety towards it.

My observations also suggest that use of humour may help defuse anxiety for some boys too. Interestingly, MacDonald et al (1999) construct characteristics of a good teacher from pupils’ perspectives – sense of humour was placed third. This is an area, amongst others, which I would like to research further. There are many other reasons why boys disengage, for example. The effects of marginalisation of art within the curriculum and influence of role models deserve scrutiny, as do influences outside of school. I would also like to look at multivolume 3 • number 1 ISSN 1832 0465 © University of Melbourne

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ethnic environments, parental expectations and social class, and how much energy educators should invest in these factors outside of their control.

I have identified that inappropriate activities which subject boys to unnecessary anxiety about their own ability can add to insecurities formulated from negotiating multiple masculinities and embedded achievement goals. Fear of ridicule or ostracism prevents engagement.

Insensitivity about naturally pre-programmed interests may also contribute to lack of participation. Opportunities for boys to explore and experiment with objects (incorporating competitive elements and danger where possible) and exposure to a range of unusual tools and materials, without pressure to produce realistic effects, can sustain spontaneity and desire to participate.

My own practice as a teacher will be enhanced as a result of this knowledge. With an understanding of boys’ particular vulnerabilities, I will now plan more lessons which ease pressure to produce realism while introducing unusual tools and materials, beginning in early primary years. I will also ensure appropriate emotional support during these lessons and look to develop programmes which enhance self-esteem with opportunities to discuss issues of gender, continuing throughout their education, to combat some of the obstacles caused by identity development.

Clearly keeping boys turned on to making art is a complex problem, but with high levels of emotional care and activities which allow them to engage with and enjoy a range of experiences, teachers may prevent the gap widening between boys believing they can or cannot make art. As they feel better about themselves and enjoy success, I believe it is possible they may be more ready to take responsibility for their own learning, set goals and work with confidence towards them, useful attributes both within the art studio and beyond.

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References Baggini, J. (2009) Story from BBC Radio 4 Today Show: Our Error © BBC MMIX, Tues 11 Aug 2009 07:08:47 GMT Baron-Cohen, S. (2003) The Essential Difference: Male and Female Brain and the Truth About Autism. Basic Books, New York BBC News (2002) Addressing the gender gap http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ education/2208596.stm17/7/09 Published: 2002/08/22 8:13 GMT, © BBC MMIX Bleach, K. (2000) Raising Boys’ Achievement in Schools Trentham Books Ltd, Staffordshire Carnie, F. (2003) Alternative Approaches to Education, a guide for parents and teachers. Routledgefalmer, Oxon Clark, A. (1998) Gender on the Agenda. CILT Publications, London Cox, M. (1992) Children’s Drawings. Penguin Books Eglinton, K. (2003) Art in the Early Years. Routledge-Falmer, London Fisher, R. (2005) Teaching Children to Think Nelson Thomes Ltd., Cheltenhan Gredlein, J. M. & Bjorklund, D. F. (2005) Sex differences in young children’s use of tools in a problem-solving task. Human Nature 16 (2) pp211-32 Greenhalgh (1994) Emotional Growth and Learning.

London: Routledge Imms, W. (2007) Boys Engaging Masculinities. Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, 10 (2) pp30-44 Lawrence, D. (2006) Enhancing Self-Esteem in the Classroom New York: Paul Chapman Publishing Lambert, A. (2009) Professional Artist Working in Schools Lecture at Roehampton University 25/06/09 Lips, H. M. (2001) Sex & Gender: An Introduction. Los Angeles CA: Meyfield Publishing Company

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Lipsett, A. (2009a) David Hockney condemns Ofstead report on art Guardian.co.uk, Friday 15 May 2009 10:50 BST http://www. guardian.co.uk/education/2009/may/15/hockney-boys•art (accessed 11/08/09) Lipsett, A.(2009b) Ofstead finds boys not stimulated by art lessons The Guardian, Friday 24 April 2009 http://www.guardian.co.uk/ education/2009/apr/24/art-lessons-boys•ofsted-technololgy (accessed 12/08/09) Lowenfeld, V. and Brittain, W. (1987) Creative and Mental Growth. New York: Macmillan Publishing MacDonald, A., Saunders, L., & Benfield, P. (1999) Boys’ Achievement, Progress, Motivation and Participation: issues raised by the recent literature. National Foundation for Educational Research, Berkshire Ministere de l’education du Quebec (MEQ) (2004) Boys’ Academic Achievement: Putting the Findings into Perspective. Quebec: Ministere de l’education Pavlou, V. (2006) Pre-adolescents’ Perceptions of Competence, Motivation and Engagement in Art Activities. Journal of Art and Design Education, 25 (2),194-204 Pickering, J. (1997) Raising Boys’ Acheivement Stafford UK: Network Educational Press Perchuk, A. and Posner, H. (1995) [eds] The Masculine Masquerade: Masculinity and Representation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA Perry, G. (1999) [Eds] Gender and Art. Yale University Press Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, London (2004) Creativity: Find It, Promote It – Prompting Pupils’ Creative Thinking and Behaviour Across the Curriculum at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 Savoie, A. (2009) Boys’ Lack of Interest in Fine Arts in a Coeducational Setting: A review of Sex-related Cognitive Traits Studies. Journal of Art and Design Education, 28 (1),25-36 Vira, R. (1996) Sex! Violence! Death! Art Education for Boys. INSEA News, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp5-7

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MEASURING AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT: Rachael Jacobs Australian Catholic University Rachael Jacobs is an Australian arts educator, who has worked in the fields of Dance, Drama and Music in primary, secondary and tertiary settings. She has developed a range of projects in the fields of assessment and arts education. Rachael has previously completed research into arts practices in pre-service Education courses and has received recognition for her contributions to teachers’ professional development in the arts. She has previously made contributions to the arts as an actor, dancer and musician. She is currently completing her PhD research that investigates the assessment of drama performances in senior school settings.

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A NATIONAL DIALOGUE

Abstract Aesthetic literacy can be understood as a mode of cognition or a way of knowing. However, the concept of aesthetics is often absent from conversations about learning and curriculum. The development of a national curriculum in Australia brings an opportune moment to consider the place of aesthetic and creative literacies in the curriculum. Aesthetic literacies have the capacity to be accessed across a range of discipline areas. This paper explores the importance of aesthetic education and the challenges that the assessment of aesthetic literacy brings within current and proposed curriculum structures.

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Introduction Education can be a powerful medium for the development of social and cultural action, self-expression, aesthetic awareness and interpersonal skills. Some may be struck by the inclusion of ‘aesthetic awareness’ in the previous sentence. Aesthetics are often absent in discussions of learning and curriculum, as rational and functional modes of thinking are more commonly privileged in western education systems. This was previously reflected in the Australian national curriculum debate that once crowded out elements of creativity and imagination with a debate centred on cultural heritage and adult needs (Sawyer, 2008). However, the inclusion of aesthetic literacy is persistent in arts education and the recent inclusion of the Arts in the national curriculum has ensured that discussions of aestheticism in the curriculum will take place. It is timely to pause to reflect on what aesthetic education is and discuss possibilities for its place in the curriculum. Like creativity, aesthetic education has the power to move across disciplines and should not be confined within a single area. A broad understanding of the nature of aesthetic education, and the ways it can be facilitated, evaluated and assessed will assist with the dialogue.

Arts educators and many others in the teaching and policy-making community recently applauded the inclusion of the arts in the national curriculum. Although the extent of its inclusion is yet to be discussed, the national curriculum has carefully avoided the situation that Eisner (1985) described in overseas examples where the aesthetic became “a casualty of American education” (p.32). The Arts, along with creativity and aesthetic awareness could have easily been forgotten in our current climate of economic uncertainty, as Eisner (1985) warned us some time ago, “aesthetic aspects of human experience are considered luxuries. And luxuries, as we all know, can be rather easily foregone in hard times” (p. 32). Rather than being dismissed or forgotten, aesthetic education should be embraced as an integral component of our curriculum and pedagogy as it forms part of the human experience. The development of aesthetic literacy should also be able to be accessed by all students. However, the inclusion of an aesthetic curriculum in our education system presents

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unique challenges. These challenges range from engaging educators and teacher educators in a healthy respect for aesthetic awareness to assessing aesthetic development, both of which will be discussed in this paper through the lens of the existing literature in the area.

Understanding aesthetics To begin the discussion, it is worth noting that the perception of the nature of aesthetic awareness is often what contributes to its diminished importance in dialogues of curriculum and learning.

Aesthetic appreciation carries common perceptions of highly ethereal qualities that are abstract in nature or often associated with high culture (Ross, Randor, Mitchell, & Bierton, 1993). The importance of aesthetic literacy in the curriculum is further diminished when aesthetics are perceived as private and feelingful responses that can only be engaged on an individual level. Aesthetics are commonly seen as intangible, similar to the concept of ‘creativity’, which we are used to thinking about in romantic terms of a ‘talented’ individual working alone to produce highly original work.

It is not the intention here to engage in a debate on the definition of aesthetics, as can be explored in numerous other literature (Donoghue, 2003; Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, 2002; Greene 1999; to name a few). Rather an exploration of its importance in a curriculum context is of concern here. Writers in arts education (Dunn, 2005) have long explored the concept of aesthetic literacy in the curriculum. Although an unfamiliar concept to some, the term ‘aesthetic literacy’ is not new. As early as 1983 Greene used the term to describe a kind of sensibility that can be arrived at, or a form of “conceptual awareness” that enables “diverse persons to break through the cotton wool of daily life and to live more consciously” (p. 185). Greene later reaffirmed this vision, saying “sometimes I think that what we want to make possible is the living of lyrical moments, moments at which human beings (freed to feel, to know, and to imagine) suddenly understand their own lives in relation to all that surrounds” (1999, p. 7). Gale (2005) further argues that this understanding, with a combination of imagination, knowledge and feeling, lies at the core of aesthetic literacy. It is a vision of learning

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that cuts across disciplines, presenting a core value that deserves more attention in contemporary curricula. Aesthetic awareness provides an important lens on experience, a way of seeing that transcends the instrumental and disciplinary approaches where we are able to “learn from aesthetically rendered lives what words, paradoxically, can never say” (Eisner, 1985, p. 35).

While recognising that these experiences deserve a valid place in the curriculum, the poetic and fanciful nature of the language used to describe them can be alienating for some. While aiming to create more understanding of the nature of aesthetic education, this language can intimidate those not immediately familiar with the field, thereby contributing to the chronic misunderstandings to which aesthetics suffer. Additionally, the conception of aesthetic education here can strike some as academically ‘soft’ or less rigorous than other areas of study. It is difficult to explain to teachers and policy writers that they should be concerned with “the living of lyrical moments”. It’s more productive to consider aesthetic awareness as a mode of cognition, process or way of knowing, as the learning processes can be more easily understood by educators, administrators and members of the general public.

Similarly, the distinction must be made between aesthetic literacy and artistic talent. Although artistic creation is a notable aim of most Arts syllabus documents, the ability to produce works of great beauty is not a requirement of aesthetic literacy. Aesthetic literacy may use a medium such as dance, photography or creative writing, but it has the capacity to transcend traditional discipline areas, which are often treated as separate and distinct in our current conception of curriculum. Gale (2005) illustrates the concept of aesthetic literacy in terms of outcomes, describing what we can hope to see from students who are engaging aesthetically. Some of these outcomes include: analysis of aesthetic elements; development of personal and critical response through judgement and evaluative tools; appreciation of different cultures, values and contexts; understanding of disciplinary perspectives that inform the aesthetic; and an active pursuit of aesthetic engagement and an ability to articulate aesthetic processes.

These outcomes have clear learning processes embedded in them.

Through these learning processes aesthetic literacy can be accessed

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in classrooms from the early childhood to senior years, developed alongside other literacies with its own distinct knowledge and pedagogies.

The term “literacy” is used intentionally as it refers to the functionality associated with spoken and written language proficiency (Gale, 2005). Aesthetic literacy moves beyond a basic skills inventory into development of knowledge and potential, more centred on imagination and growth, where the learner can be open to wider possibilities and “open windows in the ordinary and banal” (Greene, 1999, p. 70). Having said this, it is important not to set up a combat between the worlds of the critical and the creative, as though they are two distinct modes of cognition that cannot meet.

Rather Sawyer (2008) and Woods & Homer (2005) argue strongly for a ‘creative-critical’ approach. Although referring to the study of texts, this approach allows the creative intentions to be intersected with theorising and knowing. It has similarities to contemporary understandings of ‘textual intervention’ in which involves using creative means to allow the learner to recognise themselves as active analysts and critics (Pope, 1995).

This cross-disciplinary approach to aesthetic education ensures that it is not the sole responsibility of any one syllabus or curriculum area for it to be addressed. Gale (2005) argues that the aesthetic experience is not the exclusive province of the arts, and it can be found in all aspects of experience. Academia usually associates the aesthetic with the arts and humanities, but it can play a crucial role in other disciplines as well. As an example, mathematicians are able to find beauty in proof, numbers, equations and geometry. Students in schools can readily have an aesthetic appreciation of science through studies of nature, geology, life forms, oceanography, astronomy and the like. Many physical pursuits emphasise style as well as skill (for example, gymnastics or swimming). Even much of technology is devoted to artistic and creative pursuits, or the desire to make the human experience more communicative and enjoyable. In short, teachers and learners are able to ‘access the aesthetic’ in a range of contexts.

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Assessing aesthetics As mentioned earlier the inclusion of aesthetic appreciation in the curriculum presents challenges, particularly in regards to assessment and evaluation. The contemporary demands of education deem that assessment and reporting procedures accompany all areas of study.

How then, is accessing the aesthetic successfully reflected within assessment regimes? Questions of ‘How will be know?’ and ‘What kinds of evidence are acceptable?’ will always permeate the policy making in the area. Unsurprisingly, aesthetic processes do not lend themselves well to traditional measurement practices, which mostly conform to the reductive tendency of non-aesthetic engagement, whereby the knowledge that the student must demonstrate is predetermined. Academia has traditionally been notoriously concerned with proof and objectivity, valuing the rational and logical which is easily subjected to measurement and analysis. Many will find it difficult to judge whether aesthetic processes have taken place.

Still, proficiency in aesthetic education is not necessary to facilitate aesthetic assessment, but a desire to step outside the normative assessment box is.

Misson & Morgan (2006) suggest that we can tell the aesthetic has been activated if there is a sense that ‘composition’ has taken place. If the work has been purposefully constructed for the context it is able to become a definable ‘aesthetic text’ (p. 36). Apart from this, there are several examples of the assessment of aesthetic qualities already in existence. While it must be reiterated that aesthetic development can occur in a range of disciplines, the examples in this paper have been largely drawn from the Arts. Arts education regularly evaluates creative, aesthetic and imaginative work using presentation, creative and synthesis tools. The judgments made are frequently quantified using marks or grades. At senior levels grades are verified using moderation processes or external exams.

Certainly, the formal assessment of aesthetic literacy is not unique to the Arts, but their experience allows us to make progress in light of their experience. For example, Wright and Gerber (2004) argue that the aesthetic dimension of drama education makes the field more

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intricate, providing more difficulties for the tasks of assessment and certification. Quantifying achievement can be seen to be difficult because of the wide range of creative responses that may be given to a particular task. Divergent responses require the assessor to use judgment in relation to the execution of the task and assessment criteria. Cockett (1998) argues that when performances are used the processes are highly dependent on a wide range of interrelated contributions which add to the challenge of aesthetic assessment.

Assessment of other literacies often requires that the student selects responses from their experience in order to fit the function of the question that they are asked (Ross et al., 1993). In contrast, an arts assessment task can be multi-faceted with many interlocking variables (Thomas & Millard, 2006). Tasks emphasise originality, creativity and innovation. To use an example from Drama, performance tasks require students to not only replicate theatrical traditions before them, but synthesize their own ideas with theatrical conventions, while showcasing their performance skill, all while accessing the aesthetic as appropriate to the task. Attributes of flair, imagination and originality, as relevant to the style concerned, feature strongly in criteria used to assess artistic works, as is evidenced for example in the HSC Drama Marking Guidelines (NSW Board of Studies) and the ACT’s Performing Arts Framework (ACT Board of Senior Secondary Studies, 2004).

The issue of why formal assessment of aesthetic skill must take place is a complex phenomenon in itself. It has previously been argued that the promotion of innovation, experimental ideas and autonomy can create incomparable measures of success. Macgregor, Lemerise, Potts and Roberts (1994) explain that “there is tension between the need to demonstrate skill mastery and the desire to embrace autonomy and incomparability.” (p. 3). It can also be argued that the formal and widespread assessment of aesthetics can lead to a stifling of individual expression, imagination, creativity and originality, while not allowing for the fresh pursuit of ideas (Hanley, 2003). One school of thought about the notion of aesthetics is that it is to do with taste and its cultivation (Sawyer, 2008) thereby limiting judgments on its qualities to being purely subjective.

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When assessing aesthetic merit a wide range of responses are plausible to a particular task, therefore the assessor is required to use judgment in relation to the task and criteria. The tasks used to assess these skills can also be intimidating for students that are less comfortable with non•traditional or negotiated learning pedagogies. Providing students with open options to create whatever they wish can be alienating for some, and may provoke only shallow engagement with aesthetic learning (Sawyer, 2008).

When students are assessed on their creative work we must also ponder what exactly has been created for the purposes of assessment.

While the aims of aesthetic education may be realized in the process that leads to assessment, the assessable product will have been constructed for the purposes of assessment. This is where a conundrum can occur. We must ask ourselves if creative assessment tasks aim to produce art or assessable pieces of work and we must further enquire as to whether there is an intersection between the two. It would be fair to say that most students do not engage in aesthetic learning purely for the purposes of assessment. Having said this, some examples from the arts field show that students are generally able to perceive the broader aims of creative assessment and they can see the relationship to their ‘life skills’, as attested to in studies from Hatton (2004) and Smigiel and Barrett (2005). While this paper only reports a few studies on students’ perceptions of aesthetic work, we can note that these studies attest to students being able to acutely perceive the macro level of their learning, the bigger picture of the purpose of creativity in education.

Finally, there is a question of what it is that we are assessing. Do we assess the aesthetic process or the aesthetic product? Should we make judgments on the final product or should we simply be satisfied that the students have engaged with the aesthetic to varying degrees.

Arts syllabuses try to make a distinct separation here, using ‘creating’ outcomes or learnings, such as choreography or composition, and ‘presenting’ outcomes or learnings that focus on the public mastery of presentation skills. The two can certainly intersect in some tasks, but achievements are judged using separate criteria. It is important that the two elements contribute to the aesthetic product or analysis.

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Also, the evaluation must not be dependent on individual talent or natural ability. The aim of assessment is to record a students’ progress on a learning trajectory. As Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz (2002) argue, creativity is not an intrapersonal variable. A person’s cognitive process cannot be characterized as more or less creative and we cannot fully judge that person’s creativity independent of the context of which they are working.

While referring to the Arts, Hanley (2003) asserts that assessment of aesthetic skill is highly appropriate, as artistic creation involves the demonstration of skills and craftsmanship. Like other curriculum areas, there is a body of knowledge to be learned that includes classical and contemporary repertoire. Students are required to synthesise their knowledge of artistic works and techniques in order to create a product that can be successfully presented. There is much literature that supports this, pointing out the benefits of creative and aesthetic assessment and attests to creative work being able to be assessed with a high degree of integrity (Colwell, 2003; Hanley, 2003; Pistone, 2000; Willoughby, Feifs, Baenen, & Grimes, 1995). Hanley (2003) goes further to argue that system-wide assessment of creative expression is not only possible, but necessary to establish the credibility and generalised level of student achievement.

Role of the aesthetic creator and aesthetic assessor In wider society artistic and aesthetically created work is frequently subject to judgment and criticism by professional critics and audiences alike. In short, creative pursuits are used to being ‘judged’.

However, a creative consumer and an assessor have significantly differing roles. The presence of the assessor changes the context of the art, as the assessor’s judgement becomes the primary focus of the creative effort. The creative work has been created for the purposes of assessment and this can impact on the work that is produced. An exploration of these roles in a Drama context provides and example.

By engaging in performance-based tasks in Drama students learn of numerous theatre conventions, including that of the relationship between the performer and the audience. Aitken writes in detail of

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the relationship between theatre makers (performers) and audience members within a performance space and context. He suggests that for a performance to ‘work’, a number of shared understandings are required between theatre maker and audience member, including those related to accessing the aesthetic. Both parties require a loosely shared sense of how the performance will be read and what will be valued, or considered of ‘good’ quality. These can alter in different circumstances of course, but ultimately, the control of the terms of the performance lie with the theatre maker. They must have an understanding of audience expectation in their construction of a piece and must consider the level of interaction or direction called for from the audience. It is always the theatre makers, as the relationship managers, who are in control in a successful performance (2005 in Aitken, 2007).

A particular power relationship between actor and audience is present in during an assessed performance. The theatre makers are still required to dictate the terms of the performance to the audience.

The student is the theatre maker, but the teacher (who may also be the assessor) must maintain some degree of control over the performance environment. Although the theatre maker maintains a degree of autonomy over the terms of the performance, the teacher will probably have initially dictated the boundaries in which the theatre makers are to work within, such as the theatrical style or subject matter being dealt with. Additionally, the teacher may halt a performance which is deemed to be inappropriate or unsafe.

An assessor is more active than an audience member. An assessor is required to make judgments about the quality of the work and physically notate their thoughts in relation to the given criteria.

While an audience is expected to make subjective judgments about the piece, the assessor aims to make informed judgments, which may result in marks or grades being recorded. Haynes (2008) and Ross et al. (1993) describe traditional assessment as being ‘objectivityfocused’ (p. 9) whereby assessors are expected to discard their own feelings in favour of strictly set criteria where interpretations are not required. Arts teachers have had to develop skills and expertise in assessing the outcome of the aesthetic process or the manifestation of the individual aesthetic experience. The product is viewed from

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a number of perspectives and informed judgments are made by the ‘expert’ assessor based on the set criteria and the quality of what was produced (Ross et al., 1993). A sense of objectivity is present in that a teacher’s tastes and preferences must not unduly influence the final assessment of a piece of work. However, it must be noted that subjective judgment can never be divorced from the assessment of dramatic works. In fact, personal responses from both the assessor and the student invariably widen the possibilities for interpretation.

Both parties hence should be aware that personal taste and preference are a natural response, as they are rooted in “culturally authorized criteria” for judgment of the level of achievement (Ross et al., 1993, p. 164).

To assist the assessor to make informed judgments that access the aesthetic, Ross et al. (1993) suggests that grading of creative tasks should be criterion referenced rather than based on normative structures. Tierney and Marielle (2004) suggest that criteria must be explicitly stated; the attributes for each performance criterion must be explicitly stated; and the attributes are consistently addressed from one level to the next on the progressive scale. However, assessment of creative elements must move beyond simple competency based tasks, to a level where originality and innovation are valued, within the confines of the curriculum at hand. For this reason Pritchard (2004) favours the use of criteria and set standards and Ross et al. (1993) suggest that grading should be accompanied by a rich, descriptive profile of each student’s achievement.

As with all learning areas, it is vital that assessment of aesthetics follows the guiding principles of ‘good’ assessment that are similar to that of other testing methods. Griffin and Nix (1991) state that “The same principles that apply to development of objective essay and affective assessment tasks also apply to the development of performance or practical tasks.” (p. 71). ‘Good assessment’ is fair and ethical, it uses multiple methods, it is valid and feasible and it enhances instruction (McMillan, 2000). In addition to these qualities aesthetic assessment must address the links between the creation, criticism and presentation of the aesthetic, often using methods that allow the use of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993). Arts education currently provides some examples of some of the possibilities in volume 3 • number 1 ISSN 1832 0465 © University of Melbourne

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this area as Ross et al. (1993) illustrates, “arts education encourages individual creative responses and needs an appropriate assessment methodology that genuinely reflects the expressive and creative dimensions of art” (p. 9). Furthermore it is essential that assessment tools allow students the scope to be able to utilize aesthetic modes of learning and discovery, as described by Ross (1994), rather than push students into over-defined moulds where outcomes are predictable.

Gale (2005) similarly reminds us that assessment of aesthetic literacy must be sensitive to variations across disciplines, and must suit the subjects at hand. Having said this, aesthetic assessment tools and criteria are culturally constructed and can be subjective in the context of their time and place. It can be argued that artistic pioneers, such as artist Pablo Picasso, composer John Cage or playwright Samuel Beckett, would have attained poor results if assessed by the criteria of their contemporaries. But within the boundaries of the creativity students usually access in the mainstream school environment it is nearly always possibly to generalise their achievements in terms of set criteria.

Designing aesthetic assessment Earlier this paper mentioned the possibility of aesthetic literacy being perceived as ‘soft’ in learning environments that traditionally value rational thinking modes. It must be noted that, as with any assessable task, a range of students will produce responses of differing qualities. Like all tasks, some students will excel while others will struggle to grasp concepts. Again, the assessment must focus on skills that can be learned, developed and assessed. Similarly, a task cannot simply require a student to state if they liked or disliked a particular aesthetic element. Work produced with aesthetic qualities must be grounded with content knowledge of what is being produced.

The student applies the content knowledge together with creative skills to address the task (Pritchard, 2004). Divergent responses are permissible and in some cases, encouraged.

It would be remiss of this paper not to make mention of how these modes of assessment can be incorporated into the current curriculum structures which are currently under review. As stated

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before, there are a number of examples from the Arts and Technical and Applied Science syllabuses that currently use some assessment of aesthetic literacy at all year levels, including senior years. As has been established, various modes of gathering evidence are more suitable to aesthetic engagement than others. Howie (2004) makes strong statements about the inadequacy of traditional written exams when assessing aesthetic learning. Howie describes a “systematised and systematic reduction of students’ experience of the aesthetic… to the demands of a particular examination question…” as being a poor tool to aid the transportation of minds into aesthetic realms.

It is for this reason that Sawyer (2008) favours an approach which departs from having students replicate pre•existing texts. Sawyer (2008) was referring to the study of English when he suggested that tasks should enable students to act on and produce their own texts, which may include combining forms in inventive ways. Other common assessment methods used currently include holistic tasks and projects, videotapes and audiotapes, journals, observations and checklists, student exhibitions and performances (Willoughby et al., 1995). It is vital that assessment tools are varied and diverse, as they additionally contribute to the successful assessment of multiple intelligences, as outlined in Gardner’s theory (1993). In this way, examples of practical assessment in other learning areas (such as the Arts or design subjects) provide us with examples of tasks that allow students to experience transportation to aesthetic realms and personal transformation as a result of the process. Having said this, care must be taken when designing tasks of this nature, for example, Griffin and Nix (1991) advise that practical assessment tools require a greater amount of information and instruction than other types of cognitive or affective testing. The challenges do not mean that standards are unable to be maintained in aesthetic learning. On the contrary. The need for assessment procedures that use carefully constructed criteria is heightened to avoid the perceptions that aesthetic literacy is impossible to assess, containing too many variables or differing scenarios.

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Continuing the conversation The area may seem riddled with challenges, but in our current climate of educational change it is timely that policy developers, researchers and classroom teachers engage in a dialogue about the place of aesthetic education in the curriculum. We can be encouraged by the knowledge that some curriculum areas have faced similar challenges and regularly deal with the issues of aesthetic learning each day. Furthermore, we must remind ourselves that the challenges of aesthetic learning are similar to those that all people deal with as part of the human experience, as explained by Eisner (1998) who states: The problems of life are much more like the problems encountered in the arts. They are problems that seldom have a single correct solution; they are problems that are often subtle, occasionally ambiguous, and sometimes dilemma-like…. Life outside of school is seldom like school assignments--and hardly ever like a multiple-choice test. (p. 84) Gale (2005) adds to this by asserting that “Aesthetic literacy is not an answer to a question or a solution to a problem, but it is a vital capacity and skill with which to observe, imagine, and engage with all that surrounds.” (p. 9). It is appropriate that we address concepts of subtlety, choice, interpretation, observation, ambiguity and creative thinking in our curriculum; Not just as an added component for relaxation or ‘artistic appreciation’, but as a core mode of thinking in which students regularly engage. Aesthetic literacy provides students with another tool, skill or way of seeing the world, their culture and own lives (Gale, 2005) which are vitally important skills for students living in the 21st century.

Likewise, simply providing aesthetic experiences is not enough. For them to be truly meaningful, evaluation must take place so that students might continue to grow in their aesthetic development. While the challenges of aesthetic assessment described in this paper are numerous, they are not an excuse for doing nothing. To do nothing perpetuates the myth that aesthetic literacy and aesthetic awareness cannot be developed, giving permission for it to be excused from the curriculum.

To do so would be a tragedy. Dewey (in Gale, 2005) once pointed out that the opposite of aesthetic is anaesthetic. To anaesthetise our students to the world of aesthetic education would certainly be a failure that we cannot be responsible for.

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Ross, M., Randor, H., Mitchell, S., & Bierton, C. (1993). Assessing achievement in the arts. Philadelphia: Open University Press.

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Wesley Imms Creativity across the knowledge continuum Arda Culpan & Bernard Hoffert The syntegrated arts education model: A non-linear approach to teaching and learning in the key learning area Creative Arts

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Christopher Klopper “Mine’s rubbish, Miss”: One teacher’s quest to identify the issues that turn boys off making art

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Carol Message Measuring aesthetic development: A national dialogue

Rachael Jacobs

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jace | volume 4 | number 1 | 2010

Editorial: Aesthetics, creativity and participation in arts education curriculum