Architectural Soundscapes by Jack Ranby

Architectural Soundscapes Jack D. Ranby

The Communication of Sonic Experiences within Art Galleries

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of BA in Architecture | 2017.

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Contents | Chapters Acknowledgements

Abstract

Introduction

An Overview of Case Studies

Literary Review

Previous works on Sound in Architecture

Experiencing Aural Architecture

Development of Soundscapes and the Effect on Aural Experience

Communication and Representation of Aural Experience | Designing with an Acoustic Intent

Concluding Comments Appendix A

List of Recordings and Locations

Appendix B

Field Notes

List of Figures

Bibliography

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Acknowledgements

I wish to offer my most heartfelt thanks to those who have supported me whilst writing this dissertation. To my supervisor, Claire Harper, for her guidance and support. To Christos Kakalis for offering an insights into the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Place of Silenceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and Alberto Perez Gomez for his words of wisdom and inspiration. Also to my parents, my good friend Jack Walker and wonderful girlfriend Hollie Cornwall for their endless patience and proof reading. To Tate Modern, Manchester Art Gallery and The Lowry for allowing me to record, photograph and study the sonic experience within their galleries.

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Tate Day 1 5 WEERASETHAKUL

Figure 1 | Weerasethakul | The Tanks | Tate Modern | Author

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Abstract The dominance of the visual appraisal of architecture means that the signiﬁcance of auditory spatial awareness is generally overlooked. Whilst greatly inﬂuencing the way we navigate and perceive space and promoting a feeling of social cohesion, the ignorance towards the role of sound in architecture comes primarily from our perception of space and time. In this dissertation, the overall role of sound in architecture will be discussed, along with the development or ‘deterioration’ of the urban soundscape and its causes. This will ultimately lead to an investigation of the means of representing and communicating aural information in order to reinforce the use of sound for a rational

It should be noted that the word “soundscape” is a borrowed term originally coined by R. Murray Schafer.

design methodology.

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Figure 2| Sample Sound Notation| ‘The Soundscapes’

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Introduction

An Overview of Case Studies

Today, architecture appears to have turned a blind eye to the acoustical experience within buildings, especially those in which acoustics are not a priority or purpose. The technical aspects of acoustics are by no means new, having been studied and explored in a range of texts, and similarly to light, can be translated and conveyed as measurable data. In comparison, the theoretical and experiential side of the subject has been largely overlooked, with only a handful of articles attempting to tackle the issues that can arise when this area is omitted. This study aims to elaborate on this area and, with the use of case studies, reinforce the importance of sound in relation to architecture, atmosphere and experience. The following chapters attempt to demonstrate the inextricable links between sound as both data and as a medium through which space can be designed to convey a certain mood, character or meaningful environment. In ‘Experiencing Architecture’ , Steen Eiler Rasmussen questions whether architecture “can be heard”1 , stating that we receive a whole impression of the object we are looking at or the environment in which we are situated, yet we “give no thought to the various senses that have contributed to that impression”2 . In the same way that interiors are often

Steen Eiler Rasmussen. ‘Hearing Architecture.’ In: Experiencing Architecture. 2nd ed. (The MIT Press. 1964) p. 224.

Rasmussen. p. 224

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described according to their aesthetic experience, they can also be perceived as a “poweful instrument”3, deﬁned by material, volume and presumably inhabitants who present obstacles that temporarily and randomly populate rooms. In this sense, similarly to light and the visual experience of architecture, sounds are able to convey the ‘feel of the material’ and ‘visual aesthetics’. This link should not be ignored. When architects propose a design to a client, the set of drawings they produce portray the visual appraisal of architecture. The drawings and methods which translate acoustics to visual images developed within this text attempt to show the importance of designing and representing with the acoustic experience in mind. However, I will discuss that when designing with an acoustic intent, there can be no prescribed method to the drawing of sound, similarly to representing the visual experience of architecture. Alongside the exploration of acoustical atmospheres, experiences, and methods of representation, this dissertation will use art galleries as vehicles to test several theories, ideas and modes of representation that can be found in our daily lives and literature in regards to acoustic experience. In addition to the predominance of the visual in art, an art gallery’s design is mainly based on visual aesthetics and lighting qualities. Visitors only really consciously experience them through a visual perspective, without giving much thought to the other contributing factors to experience. This study will question whether sound plays a signiﬁcant part in this experience. Does the quality of sound and acoustics add or detract from the exhibitions and the way we view the artwork? Therefore, rather than studying an acoustically designed space, such as a concert hall, this project offers a critique of the acoustic qualities of aesthetically designed buildings along with an analysis of the behaviour and experience they encourage.

Rasmussen. p. 230

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The art galleries explored in this piece of work consist of various room types, layouts and spaces in varying proximity and orientation towards each other, therefore creating interesting differences in acoustical qualities and experience. As will be covered later, this wide variation of surfaces and materials in gallery rooms, foyers, and circulation spaces, can contribute to the experience of galleries and aid a visitor’s bearings. From this I will also test the idea of sound deﬁning the extent of a community, where particular areas within a gallery produce different sounds. For example, the hum of an escalator, the ping of a lift door and the whirring of air-conditioning. As well as this, their acoustic qualities, such as, echoes, intimacy and temperature of sound will also be considered. This study will look at the transition from noisy and chaotic spaces and environments to the calm, and how that boundary can be established, as well as exploring whether this transition is something that can be translated and then be read from a drawing.

The term ‘soundscape’, refers to the acoustical environments in which we situate ourselves.

In his book, ‘The Soundscape’, Schafer describes three graphic notational systems that can be used when representing sound: acoustics, phonetics and musical notation. The ﬁrst two, acoustics and phonetics are descriptive and the last is prescriptive4. This dissertation explores these methods of notation and proposes a method through which acoustic qualities can be described by architects, in the same way one would propose and represent the visual appraisal of architecture.

R, Murray Schafer. The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. 1994). p.123.

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Figure 3 | Manchester Art Gallery Map

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An Overview of Case Studies Manchester Art Gallery

Manchester Art Gallery is the first of three case studies, consisting of three connected buildings. The first is the City Art Gallery building (Red), designed by architect Sir Charles Barry in the Greek Ionic style, was constructed between 1824 and 1835.5 Originally housing the Royal Manchester Institution, this building was not designed for its current purpose as an art gallery, however has been renovated to fit the present requirements. Manchester Athenaeum (green), was also designed by Barry and built in 1837.6 The building, similarly to the City Art Gallery, was not designed for it’s current purpose, however it was acquired by the Manchester Corporation in 19387 to provide additional space to the Gallery. An architectural design competition in 1994 resulted in the refurbishment of the existing gallery and the Athenaeum and a proposal to “unite”8 the two existing buildings by infilling the car park site (Yellow). A glazed foyer now connects the two buildings, aiming to allow the “integrity”9 of the old buildings to remain in tact. The sequence gallery spaces on the first floor match the proportions of the old 10, making their acoustical properties quite uniform.

A Manchester View. Manchester Art Gallery. (n.d.).<http://manchesterhistory.net/manchester/tours/tour10/area10page1.html> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 5

Heritage Explorer. The Athenaeum, Princess Street, Manchester, Greater Manchester. (2001). <http://www.heritage-explorer.co.uk/web/he/ searchdetail.aspx?id=8458> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 6

Clare Hartwell. Manchester, Pevsner Architectural Guides. (Yale University Press. 2002). p. 90

Hopkins Architects. Manchester Art Gallery. (n.d.). <http://www.hopkins.co.uk/projects/1/93> [Accessed 12 January 2017].

Hopkins Architects.

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LOWRY04 Right Bench

Figure 4|The Lowry Gallery | Author

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An Overview of Case Studies The Lowry

The Lowry on Salford Quays is the second of my case studies. Situated on Pier 8 on the Quays, the Lowry is a theatre and gallery complex designed as part of a regeneration plan for the Manchester docks in 198811. Initial proposals consisted of two theatres and an Art Gallery. Described as “not quite ‘Salford’s Guggenheim’” 12 and "Heysham Power Station"13, the Lowry consists of large aerofoil canopies and large areas of perforated steel (not

The main focus of this study will be aimed towards the gallery, however, to follow suit with the ‘community’ aspect of this dissertation, recordings will be made in the circulation and ‘in-between’ spaces within the complex.

internal) which are illuminated at night. 14 The gallery spaces consist of two-thousand square metres with varied ceiling heights and types of volumes, creating interesting differences in acoustical atmosphere.

The Lowry. The Building. (n.d.).<http://www.thelowry.com/about-the-lowry/the-lowry-building/> [Accessed 12 January 2017].

Aldersey-Williams, H. "Salford's Guggenheim”. New Statesman. (2000). <http://www.newstatesman.com/node/151201> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 12

The Lowry.

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An Overview of Case Studies Tate Mo d e r n

Tate modern is my third and perhaps highest profile case study. The gallery is based in the former Bankside Power Station, in the London Borough of Southwark.15 The original power station was a two hundred metre long, steel framed, brick clad building with a substantial central chimney standing ninety-nine metres and roughly divided into three main areas each running east-west. During the gallery’s initial redevelopment, Herzog & de Meuron retained much of the original internal structure, including the cavernous main Turbine Hall, which is “35 metres high and 152 metres long”16 and the Boiler House. The most significant change at this stage was the two storey glass extension “light beam”17 on one half of the roof. Since the Gallery had attracted more visitors than originally expected18, plans to expand it had been in preparation since 2004. The first phase involved the conversion of three large underground oil tanks into display spaces which are used to show live performance art. The second phase of the extension, was a ten storey tower built above the oil tanks19 , named the Switch House. The Tate extension in total enlarges the capacity of the institution “by 60%” 20.

Tate. History of Tate. (n.d.). <http://www.tate.org.uk/about/who-we-are/history-of-tate#modern> [Accessed 12 January 2017].

History of Tate

Rennie Jones. AD Classics: The Tate Modern / Herzog & de Meuron. (2013). <http://www.archdaily.com/429700/ad-classics-the-tate-modernherzog-and-de-meuron.> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 17

Tate. Vision. (n.d.). <http://www.tate.org.uk/about/projects/tate-modern-project/vision.> [Accessed 12 January 2017].

Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Environmental Statement: Non Technical Summary. (2009). <http://www.tate.org.uk/download/ﬁle/ﬁd/ 17727> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 19

Rowan Moore. Herzog and De Meuron: Tate Modern’s architects on their radical new extension. The Guardian. (2016). <https:// www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/may/15/herzog-de-meuron-interview-tate-modern-switch-house-extension.> [Accessed 12 January 2017]. 20

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Figure 5| Tate Modern Axo | Unknown

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Figure 6| Heard Architecture | Author

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Literary Review Previous works on Sound in Architecture

In ‘Dear Architects: Sound Matters’, for The New York Times, Michael Kimmelman shows a number of scenes of spaces with varying functions. Their sound qualities are dramatically different, including a reading room in the New York Public Library, an open ofﬁce, a tube station and St Patrick’s Cathedral. Kimmelman discusses how spaces are never truly silent and always have a background noise. However he also criticises spaces for having an inappropriate design for their function, therefore producing an irritating back ground noise.21 In relation to Kimmelman’s proposal that spaces are never truly silent, Rasmussen argues that spaces do not create sound. Concomitantly, in the ‘Hearing Architecture’ chapter of ‘Experiencing Architecture’ by Steen Eiler Rasmussen, it is discussed that “architecture does not produce sound” 22 therefore one would assume that it cannot be heard. However architecture does not radiate light either, yet one would say it can still be seen. Architecture reﬂects these phenomena, acting almost as an instrument in the acoustic sense - manipulating, distorting and transforming sound that is produced within and around it.

Michael Kimmelman. Dear Architects: Sound Matters. The New York Times. (2015). <http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/29/ arts/design/sound-architecture.html?_r=0> [Accessed 11 December 2016]. 21

Rasmussen. p. 224.

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Julian Treasure, a sound consultant whose ‘TED talks’ have raised awareness of “sound health” 23 states that “it seems our increasingly noisy world is bad for humans.”24 Just as the world has become increasingly crowded, overpopulated and technologically advanced, our urban soundscape has become more crowded. Therefore more focus must be placed on designing with an acoustic intent and architects should “start designing for our ears.”25 A conference entitled ‘The Place of Silence: Experience, Environment and Affect’, held in Edinburgh, June 2016, involved numerous presentations on silence and sound in architectural experience, concentrating on several interpretations of silence. Papers touched upon the importance of sound culturally and how we interpret sound (silence) differently.

Within the space of an Art Gallery, we can be somewhat distracted and unaware of this perception by the main focus, the art work. Whilst visitors are likely to notice the lighting as it affects the way in which artwork can be viewed, they are unlikely to be paying much attention to any other factors contributing to the atmosphere and experience.

The book, ‘Atmospheres’, is a transcribed lecture delivered in 2003 by Peter Zumthor. He asks, “what do we mean when we speak of architectural quality?” 26. Quality in architecture is “when a building manages to move him” 27. To him, this is down to “atmosphere”28 , our perception of which is down to our “emotional sensibility” - a form of perception and giving us our ﬁrst impressions. This intangible perception and experience, which Stephen Holl describes as “collective energy“29, is somehow created by the tangible - materials, surfaces, volumes and physical space - and the way in which these manipulate and curate this energy.

Julian Treasure. Shh! Sound health in 8 steps. (2010). <https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_shh_sound_health_in_8_steps? language=en> [Accessed: 11 December 2016]. 23

Treasure

Peter Zumthor. Atmospheres. 5th Printing. Edition. (Birkhäuser Architecture. 2006). p.11.

Zumthor. Atmospheres. p.11.

Steven Holl. The Architectonics of Music. (2014). <https://vimeo.com/110153847> [Accessed: 11 December 2016].

Figure 6| Space as an Instrument| Author

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Stephen Holl’s studio, ‘The Architectonics of Music’, translates “a music excerpt into space, material and form”30. Holl argues that there is a similarity between architecture and music adn that there is “Nothing more powerful. Architecture is about emotion. Music is a wonderful tool because it is packed with that emotion. Has the potential to make you cry. I think Architecture should have the potential to make you cry” 31. Music, similarly to architecture, is an “immersive experience” 32 and is all around you.

“Music = material x sound / time Architecture = material x light / space Sound is to music as light is to Architecture”34

However, what is sound is to architecture? While translating an excerpt of music into aesthetic space, there has been no thought to how the music would translate into acoustic space and how that would contribute to our “immersive experience”.“In rich and invigorating experiences of places, all sensory realms interact and fuse into the memorable image of the place”33

Holl.

Juhani Pallasmaa & Dawsonera, distributor.. The eyes of the skin : Architecture and the senses Third ed. (Chichester: Wiley-Academy. 2012). p. 53.

Holl.

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In ‘Music, the Soundscape and Changing Perceptions’ chapter of ‘The Soundscape’, Schafer examines the “relationship Here, these rooms are indeed acting as an instrument, manipulating and reﬂecting the sounds of the music, creating an incredibly immersive experience. Schafer describes this as the same for art galleries - places with “a thousand avenues of departure” 35. They also create an incredibly immer sive experience where a visitor may lose “the door back to the real world and must go exploring.” 36 Similarly to concert halls, concentrated viewing of artwork should become possible. The soundscape, manipulated by the walls of the galleries h o w e ve r bu i l d s o n t h i s experience.

between music and the soundscape”37. Describing the concert hall as a “Substitute for Outdoor Life”38 Schafer states that music can no longer be effectively “heard out of doors”39, creating a necessity for these spaces. “Behind padded walls, concentrated listening becomes possible”40, however, a “descriptive piece of music turns the walls of the concert hall into windows”. ‘The Soundscape’, originally published in 1977, explores our acoustic environment. Schafer introduces the idea of the deterioration of the soundscape, its contents and the signiﬁcant transition from Hi-Fi to Lo-Fi sound.41 Through this research of the development of the urban soundscape, Schafer highlights the difference between the description and analysis of soundscapes 42. Regarding the latter, Schafer insists that as designers we must explore the ideas of notation, classiﬁcation, perception, morphology, symbolism and noise. “We can talk about sounds or we can draw them”43, however sounds have previously resisted graphic representation, and to describe them visually is in many ways dangerous and problematic, which this study will explore.

Schafer. p.104.

Schafer. p.103.

Schafer. p.104.

Schafer. p.103.

Schafer. p.71.

Schafer. p.103.

Schafer. p.123.

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By identifying characteristics, “similarities, contrasts and patterns”44 , the soundscape can be classiﬁed and categorised. There are different types of classiﬁcation, according to a sound’s physical characteristics, referential aspects and aesthetic qualities. In understanding each of these characteristics, we can learn how to represent them. “Certain sounds possess strong symbolic

What would symbolic sounds or sonic experience mean in art galleries? The artwork contained attempts to stir emotion and thought. The sonic experience can contribute or detract (distract) from this emotion.

character” 45 stirring emotions and thoughts beyond their mechanical sensation or function. Acoustic designing involves many aspects. ‘The Soundscape’ describes the principles of acoustic design and the ultimate endeavour is to learn how sounds may be rearranged so that all possible types may be heard to advantage.

“A respect for ear and voice, an awareness of sound symbolism, a knowledge of rhythms of the natural soundscape and an understanding of the balancing mechanisms by which an eccentric soundscape may be turned back on itself ”48

The “ﬁrst task” 46 for an acoustic designer, is learning how to listen, including cleansing the ears and respecting silence. In doing so, we become more aware of sounds, rhythms and tempos in the soundscape. Schafer discusses the heart, breath, footsteps and nervous system, the Natural Soundscape, rhythms in village life and of radio broadcasting47, however the development of the world and society means that now, there are more complex, overlapping and louder rhythms and tempos within the soundscape.

Schafer. p.133.

Schafer. p.169.

Schafer. p.208.

Schafer. pp.15-99.

Schafer. p.238.

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Aiming to “expand the horizons of architectural practice to include sonic imagination in design phases”49, the paper written for the ‘Acoustics for the 21st Century’ Conference in Buenos Aires involved twenty-two ﬁlm sound design students participating in a soundwalk. In ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination’, whilst listening to the environment50 , students passed through thirty locations stopping for six minutes. However, whilst aiming to increase sonic imagination in design phases and plotting points and reactions at which the students made the sound-walks, ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination’ makes no attempt at translating the acoustic environment to visual representation. Creating a “Cinematic Journey”51, sound-walks should lead participants through many different soundscapes, and a variation in public use should be considered when selecting locations. Based on their acoustic and architectural qualities, the sound-walks in ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination’ lead through a university entrance, a church, market, river walkway, university courtyards and cultural event entrances. However, in order to experience a building as an ordinary visitor would, one must also move as a normal visitor would. There are two types of listening, one being holistic, relating to ambiance and feel and the other, being descriptive, relating more to describing sound sources and their creation as well as their acoustic diffusion and how it travels52. Sound-walking and documenting sonic environments is a useful tool for any designer, encouraging reﬂection on the “sonic character when designing a space”53. Whilst on

!49 Alessia Milo. and others. (2016). ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination in design practices with architectural soundwalks’, paper presented to Acoustics for the 21st Century, Buenos Aires, 5th - 9th September, viewed 17th Oct 2016, http://www.ica2016.org.ar/ica2016proceedings/ica2016/ ICA2016-0329.pdf p.2. 50

Westerkamp, H. Soundwalking. Sound Heritage, (1974). 3(4). pp. 18-27.

Milo and others. p. 3.

Raimbault, M. Qualitative judgements of urban soundscapes: Questioning questionnaires and semantic scales. Acta acustica united with acustica, (2006). 92(6), pp.929-937. 52

Milo. and others. p. 7.

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sound-walks several methodologies 54 could be kept in mind, for instance psychoacoustic and annoyance measurements, spreading to architectural contexts55, studying perception, cognition, expectation56, pleasantness, vibrancy, and familiarity57. All of these methodologies contribute to our experience of the sonic environment. Listening to the sonic environment in these manners is one of the most important experimental methods explored through this study, involving sound walks within art galleries. Using an audio recorder to take recordings (Appendix B) for future reference and to use within this dissertation, as well as making field notes (Appendix A) documenting the experience, the sound walks enabled me to experience a space whilst being immersed. The acoustic qualities and distinct sounds identifiable within the spaces, familiarise us with with a space’s sonic environment, its’ temporal changes and spatial definitions, enabling the drawings this dissertation researches and proposes. Rather than trying to imagine or analyse the sonic experience by several different theories, a greater understanding of the subject is revealed through exploring and texting real conditions.

Manchester Art Gallery - 08 | Gallery 6 - Highland Romance Adams, M.D. and others. Soundwalking as a methodology for understanding soundscapes. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics Spring Conference 2008, (Reading, U.K. 2008). Vol. 30 (2). 54

Aletta, F.; Kang, J.; Axelsson, Ö. Soundscape descriptors and a conceptual framework for developing predictive soundscape models. Landscape and Urban Planning, (2016). 149, pp.65-74. 55

Bruce, N.S. Davies, W.J. Adams, M.D. Expectation as a factor in the perception of soundscapes. Proceedings of Euronoise 2009, (Edinburgh, 2009). U.K.

Axelsson, Ö. Mats, E.N. Berglund, B. A principal components model of soundscape perception. (The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 2010). Vol 128(5), pp. 2836-2846. 57

Figure 7| Highland Romance| Author

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Figure 8 Entrance to the Galleries The Lowry Author LOWRY 12 Corner

Experiencing Aural Architecture

Before investigating the communication of the aural experience as a prescriptive idea in design, similarly to how a drawing prescribes the visual appraisal of design, it is important to explore the different effects and experiences of aural architecture. Rasmussen states that “We can hear sound, it reflects”58. This gives the inhabitant or occupant a total impression of the space or object we are looking at. However, even though we receive this impression, we “give no thought to the various senses that have contributed to that impression” 59, and mainly only consciously realise the visual aesthetics. According to Schafer, this is due to “the visual bias of modern Western culture, the psychology of aural perception has been comparatively neglected”60. Vision is a directional sense, whereas hearing is “omni-directional” 61, therefore, sound aids in creation a complete impression of the space around us. Pallasma states that “hearing structures and articulates the experience and understanding of space” 62, yet, we are not aware of the sense’s significance. When sound is removed from visual, for example a film, a sense of continuity of lost. 58

Rasmussen. pp. 224-237.

Schafer. p.151

Pallasmaa. The Eyes of the Skin. p. 53

Pallasmaa. The Eyse of the Skin. p. 53

Art galleries are incredibly biased visually, where focus is placed on the artwork. So we give no thought towards the other senses that may be affecting how we view the artwork and how the emotion and character is affected by our experience. Sometimes, there may be audio/visual exhibits, however, the sonic experience contributes to both types.

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In an interview for the Guardian, De Meuron is quoted saying “High attendance is fantastic for a museum but not always for you as a visitor … Sometimes you need to be more quiet and peaceful. You need different experiences and different speeds, a variety of activity.” Herzog and De Meuron have therefore achieved this through different spatial constellations, rather than rushing us from one gallery to the next. Stairs are wider than needed and therefore, I am curious to see how people walk about it. Where the older galleries, for example Manchester Art Gallery, are arranged in classical enﬁlades, with one room leading to another, the more modern galleries include dead ends and spaces standing alone, which are likely to encourage more random patterns of exploration, unpredictable stillness63. This means that there are also different variations of sonic environment. When a room is said to be cold and formal we rarely only mean The images opposite show two rooms, that are clearly visually different

temperatures, but their sonic temperatures are also totally different. The top seems cold, the bottom, warm.

Moore.

Rasmussen. pp. 224-237.

this in terms of temperature. 64 This reaction arises because of something we feel. Although it may be referring to the temperature, it could also be the use of cold colours, in which case visual qualities. Maybe the acoustics are hard so that sounds reverberate rigorously; acoustic qualities. If this same space were decorated with warm and rich colours or furnished with rugs, curtains and padded chairs, the acoustics would be softened, and an occupant would probably ﬁnd it warm and cosy even though the temperature is the same as before.

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Tate Day 1 13 | Artist Rooms | Louise Bourgeois

Manchester Art Gallery - 02 | Manchester Gallery - Fashion and Freedom

Figure 9| Louise Bourgeois | Author Figure 10 | Fashion and Freedom | Author

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Zumthor argues that by installing sense into materials, architects and his own work he attempts to go “beyond all rules of composition, and their tangibility”65. Smell, and acoustic properties are just elements of language that we are obligated to use. However, the physical and intangible qualities are signiﬁcantly more intertwined in our perception and experience of space rather than Zumthor’s suggestion that they may be separate. Inducing emotion and sensual responses, the physical properties like materiality and scale as well as the intangible qualities, memory and familiarity, all encourage a feeling of a sonic atmosphere inside a building. These tangible and intangible sensations of atmospheric quality, enable individuals to physically hear, feel and sense the characteristics present in architecture. The stillness and silence of scale and materials can give empty spaces a sonic aura which is heard through our sensitivity towards physical presence. Individuals identify and associate with the acoustic qualities present within a space. Zumthor gives us an account of something he wrote in his note book, in which he is “sitting in the sun” in a “grand arcade”.66 He asks the question “what moved me?” to which he responds, “Everything. The things themselves, the people, the air, noises, sound, colours, material presences, textures, forms too”. He later adds to this saying “my mood, my feelings, the sense of expectation that ﬁlled me while I was sitting there”, however he says that he could “never have had those feelings without the atmosphere”. He describes this as “magic of the real world”. Here, Zumthor is associating sounds, images, smells and textures with the place, allowing him to perceive, and understand the space, culturally and socially. These physical and tangible elements, create an intangible ‘atmosphere’.

Peter Zumthor. Thinking architecture. 3rd, expanded ed. (Basel: Birkhäuser. 2010). p.10

Zumthor. Atmospheres. p. 15

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How we interpret the ambience and feel of a space can be

Ambiance

highly subjective, but the terms use in ‘Expanding the

‘open’, ‘big’, ‘busy’, ‘(en)closed’, ‘quiet’,

Sonic Imagination’ shows how scale and the architectural conﬁguration can profoundly affect the mood of an individual. This effect is greatly varied, and can be related

‘cold,’, ‘spacey’, ‘empty’

Feel ‘calm’, ‘at ease’, ‘at unease’, ‘safe’,

to the emotional sphere, therefore may be beyond the

‘secure’, ‘uncomfortable’, ‘pressured’,

architectural discussion and may require exploring the

‘peaceful’, ‘absorbed’, ‘free’, ‘positive’,

ﬁeld of environmental psychology67.

‘unwelcome’, ‘signiﬁcant’, ‘collected’69

However, as ones judgement on the ambiance and feel of a space could be deemed a subjective matter, it can be made more precise by reasoning on how atmospherical impressions, once perceived or ‘sensed’, may be manipulated or how they may have been derived from spatial conditions. These may be caused by the architectural choices made at a design level, the way in which its’ inhabitants, occupants and any other environmental factors reside and behave in a given space, or the frequency of the sonic production; all of which ultimately the reason for which these phenomena are taking place.68 These contributing factors are in fact linked with each other, one affects the other. Architectural choices affect the way that occupants move, act and inhabit a space and also the way in which they talk or produce sound. Especially in art galleries, the architectural conditions determine where an audible piece is placed when curating an exhibition.

David V, Canter. The psychology of place. (London: Architectural Press. 1977).

Milo., and others. p.7.

Milo., and others. p.6.

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A sso c i ati o n “I remember the sound of the gravel under my feet, the soft gleam of the waxed oak staircase, I can hear the heavy front door closing behind me as I walk along the dark corridor and enter the kitchen, the only really brightly lit room in the house.”70

Recalling a childhood memory in his book ‘Thinking Architecture’, Zumthor describes the experiences and atmosphere of a significant place. The majority of the population experiences architecture without thinking about it. Peter Zumthor states that when he thinks about architecture, “images come to mind” 71, however, specific sounds are also related to architecture. No matter how visually orientated a specific space is, those particular places, rooms and memories associate themselves with sound and we will all unconsciously associate particular sounds with space. The countless different places, spaces and rooms in which we have all experienced and created memories of, all assume poetic qualities - they stimulate different moods and feelings within the occupant. The film, ‘The Third Man’ creates characteristic sounds - those which the tunnels produced are clearly heard in the splashing of the water and echoes of men hunting. The Thorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen has an acoustic affect similar to those of the tunnels because of the barrel vaulted passage.72 Here we instantly associate these sounds with these spaces, and even blindfolded, we would be able to describe the space very clearly.

Zumthor. Thinking Architecture. p.7.

Rasmussen. p. 224-237.

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Tate Day 2 12 | Lower Bridge

Tate Day 2 16 | Upper Bridge

Figure 11 | Space as an Instrument | The Turbine Hall

Architectural Soundscapes | !33

Pe rc e pt i o n

The cavernous Turbine Hall in Tate Modern is full of “perceptual cues”73 . The rhythms of the metal structure, high activity of people, protruding glass boxes and hard surfaces all reﬂect sound and give us a clear impression of the type of space we are in. The constant arrival and departure of people from the space thickens the soundscape with footsteps and voices. Added to by the drone of machinery and air condition systems.

“Interiors are like large instruments”74, collecting, amplifying and transmitting sound elsewhere. The volumes formed by architecture, the surfaces and materials they contain, and the way in which those materials have been applied, determine the amounts to which sound is collected amplified and transmitted. Unfortunately though, Zumthor addresses the fact that “many people are not aware of the sound a room makes”75 . We are able to hear an object or a space if sound is being produced within or near it. When one considers a hand clap reflecting from a flat wall located at some distance, we hear a reflection of that sound, “a discernible echo”76 . These physical facts are converted into perceptual cues, synthesising an experience of space. “Here architecture is certainly heard.”77

Rasmussen. p. 224-237.

Zumthor. Atmospheres. p. 29.

Zumthor. Atmospheres. p. 29

Barry Blesser, & Linda Salter. Spaces speak, are you listening? : Experiencing aural architecture. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 2007). p.2.

Rasmussen. p.225

Architectural Soundscapes | !34

Another example of this and perhaps one of the most peculiar is in The Tanks at Tate Modern. As they are cylindrical, any sounds are directed towards the centre and ampliďŹ ed. Whispers can be heard from the opposite side of the space to which they are muttered. Whilst this space can be perceived as vast and made of concrete, the experience it creates could be deemed confusing.

Tate Day 1 02,03,04 BMW Live Active Sculpture

Figure 12 | The Tanks | Tate Modern | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !35

An anechoic chamber is an exception to this. By absorbing, not reﬂecting or diffusing any sound, a chamber simulates an open spaces. There is no “echo”78, one can only hear two sounds, coming from ones own body - “blood and the nervous system”79. So therefore, even in the most quiet place on earth, there is still no absolute silence. However, in an Anechoic chamber, because nothing reﬂects, we are no longer able to perceive the space. “Our ears have been blinded”80.

Today, many of the interiors of buildings censor and absorb echoes81. This is the same in some of the spaces within the galleries. In Tate Modern, some rooms have acoustic panels to absorb this sound, restricting the reﬂection of sound, disabling our perception of the room. In old spaces of Manchester Art Gallery, however, most walls are bare painted plaster, allowing sound to bounce around the room, and us to perceive the volume that we are in. This sound doesn’t have to be loud and distracting, as will be discussed, even a water drop will do the trick. Figure 13 | ‘Capsules’ | Author

Tate Day 1 - 11 | ‘Capsules’

Figure 14 | Pre-Raphaulites | Author

Manchester Art Gallery - 07 | Gallery 5 - ‘Pre-Raphaelites’

Gernot Böhme. ‘Quiet Places and Silence of Space’, paper presented at The Place of Silence: Experience, Environment and Affect. Edinburgh. 22nd June 2016. 78

Böhme.

Pallasmaa. The Eyes of the Skin. p. 55.

Architectural Soundscapes | !36

â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is nothing like silence to suggest a sense of unlimited space. Sound lends colour to space, and confer a sort of sound body upon it. But absence of sound leaves it quite pure and, in the silence, we are seized with the sensation of something vast and deep and boundlessâ&#x20AC;? 82

Henri Bosco. Malicroix (Folio) (English and French Edition). 0 Edition. (Gallimard Education. 1973).

Figure 15| Perceptionless Space| Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !37

So c i al & M o o d

“The bare marble floors and walls of an office lobby loudly announce the arrival of visitors by the resounding echoes of their footsteps”83

In this situation, the lobby is very much a public place - for movement and progress. This can be likened to the lobby and concrete circulation spaces within Tate Modern. Contrastingly, if thick carpeting were to be used, along with upholstered furniture, heavy draperies and soft furnishings, like that of Manchester Art Gallery, the “incident or reflected sounds”84 would be suppressed, and the announcement of arrival or passing through the lobby would be muted. Whether the lobby is public or private is therefore determined by the aural architecture. The acoustic attributes can therefore influence other types of spaces. Whether a living room is “cold, hard and barren, as contrasted with warm, soft, and intimate”85, or a musical recording space produces a “blending of sequential notes, almost chords” 86, the social qualities of a space are heavily influenced by their sonic qualities. The question, “how does a space make you feel” makes an attempt to make the listener “aware bodily and cognitive processes”87, classifying sound as a tangible phenomenon occurring in space and affecting how sound interacts with the ears and entire body.

Blesser & Salter. p.3.

Blesser & Salter. p.99.

Blesser & Salter. p.3.

Milo, and others. p.8.

Architectural Soundscapes | !38

Sitting, studying and reflecting on a piece of art creates a feeling of solitude and an expansiveness, almost like the world around us is infinite, but also a feeling of confinement and privacy. The social attributes of a gallery space is affected by the sonic qualities in this way too, whether it is softly furnished or not, wooden or concrete flooring, this confinement and privacy is defined, but also how aware you are of your surroundings and the other people around you. It also determines how likely and loudly you might speak to someone.

“T he sound of church bells echoing through the streets of a town makes us aware of our citizenship” 88

In ‘The Acoustic Community’ Schafer ﬁrstly describes acoustic space, stating that the acoustic space of an object is the volume of space in which the sound can be heard. Schafer then talks about the acoustic community as ‘the family’ or a parish where “when you could no longer hear the church bells, you had left the parish”89 . He then compares outdoor to indoor sounds, talks about the Architect as an acoustic engineer, describes positive and negative acoustic design and the modern architect as an acoustic designer. 88Pallasmaa. 89

The eyes of the skin. p. 53.

Schafer. p. 215.

Figure 16 | The Acoustic Comunity | The Soundscapes

Architectural Soundscapes | !39

The idea of a field of acoustic influence defining, in Schafer’s example, the extent of a parish community, but in relation to my study of Art Galleries, the extent of a particular experience or acoustic atmosphere is particularly interesting. How would one or what defines the boundaries within art galleries? Is a community a piece of art, a particular exhibition, a single gallery, a set of galleries, circulation spaces, indoor and outdoor? Through the recordings and readings from the art galleries, it is clear that these communities can overlap, depending on how they are defined. ‘Thingness’ can be observed from the Turbine Hall, and once in the space, the Turbine Hall can be observed. It can also be heard. Meaning that one has not really left the space.

Tate Day 1 - 1 | ‘Thingness’

Figure 17 | Tate Modern | ‘Thingness’

Architectural Soundscapes | !40

Differences in the sonic environment can also inﬂuence our moods and associations. The acoustic qualities of a cathedral can produce a feeling of exaltation, whereas the aural environment of a chapel assist to induce privacy of quiet contemplation. The simulation of encapsulation, with the extremity of claustrophobia, can be created in an elevator. The acoustics of an open area, with no reverberation, can either create the feeling of freedom or insecurity.

“Although we may not be consciously aware that aural architecture is itself a sensory stimulus, we react to it.” 92

Pleasantness can be related to the loudness or volume level, and how distinguishable the expected sources are from the background9091 , whether it is Hi-ﬁ or Lo-ﬁ. However, pleasantness is also a very subjective factor, depending on the individual, therefore a space can not be labelled ‘most pleasant’.

Östen Axelsson. Mats E. Nilsson. Birgitta Berglund. A principal components model of soundscape perception. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, (Stockholm University, Sweden. 2010). pp. 2836-2846. 90

Christoph Kayser. and others. Mechanisms for allocating auditory attention: an auditory saliency map. Current Biology Vol 15(21), (Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany. 2005). pp.1943-1947. 91

Blesser & Salter. p.2.

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Reli gi o n & C ul ture

In his paper ‘Quiet Places and Silence of Space’, for ’The Place of Silence’ conference at Edinburgh University, Gernot Böhme stated that “Cemetries are Background in Art Galleries can be

places of silence”93, and churches are places of

assocaited with a space, yet not be

prayer, however those spaces or the “building is not

intrusive or distracting. An ultimate test of this would be to read this text

silent, it gives a background”. The ‘background’ is

whilst listening to the recordings of

the atmosphere - sounds that one associates with

background noise within art galleries.

these spaces, yet they are not intrusive. The sounds within these indigenous places have “social values and the cultural meanings”94. However, “Compared with their historical counterparts, modern societies are remarkably similar to one another”95 . Therefore, it is difﬁcult to highlight a relationship between culture and aural architecture. Asian, African and Middle Eastern cultures, which have a distinct difference from Western culture, have failed to contribute to Western scholarly literature.

Böhme.

Xiang Ren. ‘Listening to the Hui Ancestral Hall: Architecture of Silence and Absent Narratives’, paper presented at The Place of Silence: Experience, Environment and Affect. Edinburgh. 24nd June 2016. 94

Blesser & Salter. p.67.

Architectural Soundscapes | !42

Manchester Art Gallery - 14 | Design Gallery Figure 18 | Design Gallery | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !43

Figure 19 Foyer Between Three Buildings Manchester Art Gallery Author Manchester Art Gallery - 04 Stairway

Development of Soundscapes and the effect on Aural Experience

“Older cultures employed alternative cognitive frameworks for experiencing sound and space. Our modern approach to aural architecture is only one of many possibilities”.96

Buildings and spaces often last for centuries, through huge developments in soundscapes and culture. Once constructed, a space’s aural architecture gains the values of those who built it. Therefore it can be said that it is quickly outdated, just like it becomes technologically outdated. Aural architecture has been suggested to be as a result of “unplanned and inadvertent accidents”97, a series of developments in the surrounding soundscape has caused aural architecture to evolve. The shift in aural architecture is due to the different types of triggers, or objects that produce different sounds, and how these have evolved and become more crowded and layered throughout history. The soundscape is congested. As the world becomes more crowded, the soundscape becomes more crowded. This progression, from the natural to rural, Hi-Fi to Lo-Fi, Town to City and Industrial to Electronic, how we live, how we behave and how we complete our day to day tasks, has seen a vast development in the types of sounds produced in our soundscapes and how we experience them has changed. Therefore so has the way in which these sounds and triggers are represented and communicated. The origin of these sounds began with the Natural Soundscape, and 96

Blesser & Salter. p.68.

Blesser & Salter. p.67.

Architectural Soundscapes | !45

developed through the sounds of life, the rural soundscape, and ﬁnally from town to city 98. To understand the communication and representation of aural architecture, it is essential to “discover the signiﬁcant features of the soundscape”99 , and how they are drawn. As direct comparisons can be made between sounds I am about to discuss and sounds within art galleries, these will inform the drawings made in this dissertation. “What was the first sound heard?”100

Droplet

Waves

Waterfall

Schafer. p. 15-53.

Schafer. p. 9.

100

Schafer. p.15.

Figure 20| Characterising Water | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !46

“Water, water, everywhere”101 Sea, Ri ve r s, Stream s, R ai n, Snow

“Anyone who has become entranced by the sound of dripping water in the darkness of a ruin can attest to the extraordinary capacity of the ear to carve a volume into the void of darkness” 102

Water is the fundamental of the original soundscape, offering a multitude of different sounds. Some of the sounds produced by the movement of water are discrete and others are continuous. Where water droplets may produce discrete sounds upon striking a surface, no two drops sound the same, be it their pitch or amplitude. Waves on the other hand are continuous, each ﬁltering differently an “inexhaustible supply of white noise.” 103 The difference in the communication of the ‘discrete’ and ‘continuous’ is an essential one. It is impossible to catch or isolate any particular sound in the million transformations of the water, on sand, shale, against driftwood or the sea wall. The ear’s resolving power isn’t fast enough to catch water’s changes in pitch and timbre104, however, the sea and water produces many rhythms of which we can distinguish - the lapping of the waves can be related to the rhythms of the heart and lungs and tides can be related to night and day.

These characteristics of water can be associated with place, a geographical location, and when blindfolded, we would be able to describe the location very easily. This is called a keynote sound.105 Whether it is out in the expanse of the ocean, along the a sea shore or along a swirling river, water produces a keynote sound for all civilisations. 101

Samuel Taylor Coldridge. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, In: Lyrical Ballads. (London, 1798).

102

Pallasmaa. Eyes of the Skin. p.54.

103

Schafer. p.16.

104

Schafer. p.16.

105

Schafer. p.16.

Architectural Soundscapes | !47

Consciously or unconsciously experienced, water produces sounds that can be related to place. Discrete and continuous sounds can be heard in that of the stair way in Manchester Art Gallery, featured on page 44 or that of the Turbine Hall in Tate Modern. Although, the continuous sounds heard are often produced by machinery and Air Conditioning units.

Tate Day 2 - 12 | Lower Bridge

Tate Day 2 - 16 | Upper Bridge

Figure 21| Tate Modern - Lower Bridge| Author Figure 22 | Tate Modern - Upper Bridge| Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !48

Other aspects contributing to the natural soundscape and producing keynotes can be the snow, creating silence by absorbing sound, until crunching and cracking under foot, the wind, ﬁelds of boiling sulphur, ice and glaciers, and apocalyptic sounds, for example volcanoes, similarly to water, possess an inﬁnite number of “vocal variations”106 . All of these sounds are impossible to isolate, however, we can describe their characteristics. The same principles can be applied to the sounds and soundscapes within art galleries. As there are multiple sources contributing to the acoustic environment, it is only possible to draw them in a general sense. It is however possible to draw these sources. For instance, the image Krakatoa, in the example above, triggers ideas of the soundscape.

106

Schafer. p.22.

Figure 23 | Krakatoa | The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !49

Life Birds, In s e c t s, S e a Cre at ure s

Birds can at times dominate the soundscape of their landscape because of their numbers and their vocalisations have “often been studied in musical terms.”107

107

Schafer. p.30.

Figure 24 | Birdsongs | The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !50

Olivier Messiaen, through his use of musical notation to describe bird vocalisation, has turned transcription into a complex art form. However despite his creativity, it is impossible to notate birdsongs in musical terms. Similarly to water, bird songs are not single notes, but “complex noises”108. Our notational system for human music is designed for lower frequencies and slower tempi than those of birdsongs. Sound spectrographs, however, are a more “precise method of notation” 109, often used by ornithologists. In the image opposite, it can be seen that the frequency of bird calls can be distinctly different among various bird calls. It also shows the characteristics of the species: the Nightingale has a very pure call with harmonics, whereas the clay coloured sparrow has a toneless buzz. Some aspects of birdsongs have been proven

These frequency diagrams could show a lot about the ambient noise and soundscapes of art galleries, and could display indistinguishable sounds that are too compleicated to notate or translate in a different way. They can show certain characteristics. For example, if a soundscape is full of discrete sounds, as displayed before, it would be drawn similarly to a Nightingale or Marsh Warbler, however, if the sonic environment was more of a continuous merge of many sounds, it would be described in a similar way to the Clay - Coloured Sparrow. However, although these diagrams portray the characteristics of pitch, they do not show loudness.

to bear relationships with the shapes of human vocal expression. “The distress notes of chicks are composed of descending frequencies only, while ascending frequencies predominate in pleasure calls.”110 108

Schafer. p.30.

109

Schafer. p.31.

110

Schafer. p.32.

Architectural Soundscapes | !51

Figure 25 | Pleasure and distress notes|The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !52

A l o t o f ﬁ s h h a v e “ n o s o u n d - p ro d u c i n g mechanism” 111 and have no organs to hear them. However, several species do produce sounds, some which are very loud: this can be by grinding or snapping their teeth or by expelling gas. The songs of the humpback whale which can be analysed in musical terms, are some of the most spectacular in the ocean. Their calls, consisting of various themes and motifs, can be drawn. As well as this, their echoes enable us to perceive the

Just as whale songs can be broken down into various themes and characteristics, soundscapes of art galleries can be. The come and go of passing footsteps, clatter of doors, mumble of a voice, burst of laughter, or just the constant whirr of AirConditioning or other mechanical hums

“vaults of the ocean depths”112 , here, the sea ﬂoor and walls are acting like an instrument.

111

Schafer. p.37.

112

Schafer. p.37.

Figure 26 | Humpback Whale|The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !53

Figure 27 | Ocean as an Instrument | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !54

Hi-Fi to Lo-Fi Rural to Urban, Industrial to Electric  “In the quiet ambiance of the hi-fi soundscape even the slightest disturbance can communicate vital or interesting infor mation.” 114

One of the most signiﬁcant changes in the history of the soundscape is the transition from Hi-Fi to Lo-Fi. The Hi-Fi soundscape has a favourable signal-tonoise ratio meaning that because of a low ambient

A Hi-Fi soundscape within art galleries

noise level, discrete sounds can be heard clearly 113.

might aid a visitor’s concentration,

In this sense, rural areas are more Hi-Fi than urban

without the hum of ambient noise, however, the slightest disturbances can

areas, historic times more so than modern post-

have a larger signiﬁcance, and

industrial times. Hi-Fi sounds overlap less frequently

therefore may be more distracting.

and listeners are able to perceive foreground and background and hear further.

! 113 Schafer. p. 43. ! 114 Schafer. p.37

Architectural Soundscapes | !55

The individual sounds discussed previously are obscured in an overdosed population of sounds in a Lo-Fi soundscape. The specific sounds, for instance - animal calls, running water, snow crunching, a church bells across valleys or even animal’s footsteps - can be “masked by broad-band noise.”115 Here, perspective is lost. The transition from the hi-fi to the lo-fi soundscape has taken place gradually over many centuries. In pre-industrial times, living within a Hi-Fi soundscape, residents of the early towns had particular keynotes, the sound of a church bell - as a time piece or defining the extent of the parish community - a blacksmith’s hammer on an anvil, horse and carriage and the street crier. The rhythm of a blacksmith’s hammer can be notated, as the diagram below shows. An alternative to this would be to record sounds of the hammer. However, as the pitch and tone of the blacksmith’s hammer can change, as is the case for many sounds, it cannot be represented musically. A blacksmiths hammer can be compared to the workmen you can hear in the recordings taken in the Turbine Hall. However, the notation Schafer uses, does not take into account the acoustic qualities of the space in which the sound is being created. The impact of the hammer may cause a very sudden sound, but as can be heard in the recordings, the reverberation of the sound lasts for a certain length of time, depending on the physical properties of the space. Within the turbine hall, the clatter and banks caused by the workmen at the bottom echo and disintegrate into the soundscape.

Tate Day 2 - 16 Upper Bridge

115

Schafer. p.43.

Figure 28 | Blacksmith’s Hammer | The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !56

It was in the industrial revolution and the electric revolution in which the lo-fi soundscape was introduced with a “multitude of new sounds” 116. Lo-Fi soundscapes are said to be congested, tending to obscure many natural and human sounds. Sounds themselves were increasingly the result of “technological mediation”117 . The technological advances, production of cast iron, steel and discovery of new energy sources coal and steam, that happened within this period affected the soundscape. The birth of factories introduced a new constant hum that only ever stopped was when the machines were turned off to “impress visitors, or during meal breaks”118. The flat line was also introduced during the industrial revolution. This occurs when a sound is “prolonged and unchanging”119, a graphic level recorder would show this as an extended horizontal line. A flat line sound is artificial and rarely found in nature and all machines create a low-information, high redundancy sound. This sound was introduced in the Industrial Revolution and became even more common in the Electrical revolution. Today, we are constantly subjected to this broadband noise, although sometimes it is out of our mind, it is a constant keynote of our day to day lives. Just as a Lo-Fi environment has little perspective, a flat line sound gives us no sense of duration. As a result of our increased desire for speed and efficiency, the flat line is a fusion of pulses with a higher frequency of 20 cycles per second. Discrete sounds give way to flat lines, and the noise of machines became a “narcotic for the brain”120 which drives a lack of enthusiasm. It has also been claimed that noise has a direct effect on stress levels.121

116

Schafer. p.71.

Emily Thompson., & American Council of Learned Societies. The soundscape of modernity architectural acoustics and the culture of listening in America, 1900-1933 (1st MIT Press pbk. ed., ACLS Humanities E-Book). (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 2004). p.2. 117

118

Schafer. p.75.

119

Schafer. p.75.

120

Schafer. p.75.

121

WHO, and others. Guidelines for community noise. (World Health Organisation, Geneva, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore, 2000).

Architectural Soundscapes | !57

“Man’s foot sped up to produce the automobile drone; horses’ hooves sped up to produce the railway and aircraft whine; the quill pen sped up to produce the radio carrier wave, and the abacus sped up to produce the whirr of computer peripherals”122

The Electric Revolution extended the development of the urban soundscape, adding “new effects of its own”123. Flat lines were now giving pitched tones, and producing different frequencies and harmonising and separating sounds from their original contexts. Originally all sounds were original, occurring only once in a single place. Now with the help of electro-acoustical equipment, any sound can be “blown up and shot around the world”124

122

Schafer. p.79.

123

Schafer. p.88.

124

Schafer. p.90.

Figure 29 | Flat Line and Impact Sounds | The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !58

“Science seems to demonstrate that nature is largely good for us”125, therfore it is a challenge for designers today, to overcome this technological mediation and overpopulation and think about the soundscape both in context with the building and within the building. It would be inappropriate to compare the art galleries with the times that they were built in. Firstly, they have been renovated, remodelled and their purpose has changed, meaning they are no longer buildings of their time. Secondly, key sounds and transformations occurring within our soundscape have been identiﬁed and translated, as discussed within this chapter, depending on their characteristics, which can be compared to those sounds and characteristics that occur within art galleries. In order to understand how the sonic experience affects our perception and experience of space and how we would represent them individually, we must gain a knowledge of the broad spectrum of sound types that have been introduced to our soundscape through history. There are several ways in which these sounds can be represented, however, as established careful consideration must be taken when visualising how a sound interacts with a space and the environment and how this affects out experience.

125

Trevor Cox. Sonic Wonderland: A Scientiﬁc Odyssey of Sound. 2nd Edition. (Vintage. 2014). p.89.

Figure 30 | Space Without Perspective | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !59

Tate Day 1 12 | Level 2 Circulaton Space

Figure 31 | Level 2 Circulation Space | Author

Architectural Soundscapes | !60

3 The Communication, Representation of Aural Experience Designing with Acoustic Intent

Building on the understanding of how the acoustic qualities of a space contribute to an immersive architectural experience, and the cognitive understanding of our environment (physical and social), this chapter considers ways of working with sound and acoustics as part of the architectural design process and the way in which this design process can prescribe the acoustic qualities and experience of a building.

In ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination’, some textures were described as sonic sources whilst others were described by adjectives which were derived from verbs or nominal adjectives, for example, crunchy or gravelly. Reverberation and acoustic effects were used to describe some textures for example “echoey, hollow”126. Whilst these descriptions give a sense of scale to the space, they also give an idea of character. However, as already discussed, how we interpret and react to the character of a space is highly subjective, and therefore, drawing made will be my own speculative interpretation. 126

Milo, and others. p. 109.

Architectural Soundscapes | !61

Figure 32 | Soundwalk map |Expanding Sonic Imagination

Out of the Auditory, an Aural Architecture Exhibition, aims to confront the “tensions between the temporal and intangible qualities of sound”127. However, rather than simply comment on the experience of aural architecture, the proposals make an attempt to explore the visual precision required in the process of architectural communication.

Jocelyn Wolfe, Vanessa Tomlinson, Toby Gifford, Alex Brown. Out of the Auditory: Aural Architecture Exhibition. (Queensland: Grifﬁth University. 2015). Available at: < https://issuu.com/alex_brown/docs/oota_catalogue> p.5. 127

Architectural Soundscapes | !62

Although it is argued that “representation must reﬂect and be consistent with the very principles it is to communicate”128, which a visual representation

These notational systems could aid an architect who designs with an acoustic intent. This dissertation has examined

of sound can not achieve, Schafer argues that the

many ideas which attempt to translate

translation of sound into a drawing is key 129. Just as

aural qualities into visual. Most of

much care should be taken towards this as it is in

these describe a particular sound characteristic. Within art galleries, and

the aesthetic representation of architecture. Schafer

within the recordings taken, sound

describes “three graphic notational systems”130

with similar characteristics and

which describe sonic qualities: acoustics, phonetics

textures can be heard. Firstly, a drawing should be made to give an

and musical notation - of which the ﬁrst two are

overview of a sonic space, similarly to

descriptive and the last prescriptive. In a similar

a plan or section, which individual

sense, architectural drawings and representations

drawings of speciﬁc sounds can be related back to.

can be descriptive and prescriptive.

Kourosh Mahvash. Site + Sound : Space. In: Muecke, M. & Zach, M. Essays on the intersection of music and architecture. (Ames, Iowa: Culicidae Architectural Press. 2007). p.53. 128

129

Schafer.

130

Schafer. p.123.

Figure 33 | ‘Aural Loop’ | Out of the Auditory

Architectural Soundscapes | !63

Sounds can either be drawn, or visualised on a computer. A digital sound visualiser takes the whole of the recorded sound and interprets it, without leaving out any information. Similarly to the fact that a render describing the visual qualities of a space can never communicate the same thought process as a hand drawing or someone actually experiencing the aesthetic space, “machines listen differently”131 than the human ear does, and therefore may not communicate our experience of acoustic space. However, manually drawn sounds and drawn sonic atmosphere, allows us to interpret, understand and represent sounds in “our own personal way”132 , which means that we include the information which is important to ourselves, therefore, in this respect, some of it will be left out.

Co m p u t e r Vi s ua l i s at i o n

A two dimensional sound image can only show the relationship between two aspects at a time - intensity (amplitude) against time, frequency (pitch) against amplitude and time against frequency. Here, the “information is incomplete”133 and it is impossible to work out whether there are “multiple sounds happening at the same time” 134.

131

Schafer. p.125.

De Montfort University. Drawing Sounds. (2017). <http://ears2.dmu.ac.uk/learning-object/drawing-sounds/> [Accessed 20th December 2017]. 132

133

Schafer. p.126.

134

De Montfort University.

Figure 34 | 2D Sound Diagram| The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !64

The drawings I have completed previously, based on the textures of water and the Lo-Fi and Hi-Fi soundscape, use this two dimensional concept, but rather than measuring sounds accurately, they describe the overall shape and texture of the sounds.

A three dimensional frequency diagram describes sonic pitch and volume, portraying the overall variation of sound within an acoustic space. To those with a trained eye, these are simple to read and describe, the texture of the sound qualities of a space, where each peak, trough and disturbance corresponds to a different sound or variation in sound. There are limitations to these diagrams and to be used in an architectural proposal they must be accompanied by other descriptive and prescriptive drawings, making the reader more aware of what kind of space, materiality, and volume, triggers and surfaces the diagram describes.

Figure 35 | â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Clockâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; | Drawing Sounds Figure 36 | 3D Frequency Diagram| The Soundscape

Architectural Soundscapes | !65

Although visualising the ambient sounds, and giving an overview of a spaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acoustical atmosphere, the diagrams do not show the contents of the space, how inhabitants move around the space and the size and scale of the space. 3D diagram shows peaks of distinct sounds, however, with these alone we are unaware of what caused them, whether its materials, objects or people. Drawn images that may be abstract should be placed along side these diagrams, describing the scale, volume and proportions gained by the sonic experience.

Figure 37 | 3D Frequency Diagram | Dewesoft

Architectural Soundscapes | !66

Tri g ger s & Charac teri s ti c s

Sounds can be categorised and classified according to their characteristics. These characteristics can be drawn. As discussed in the previous chapter, ‘triggers’, contents of a space contribute sounds to the sonic environment, the space simply moulds them and curates them into an exhibition of sounds, a soundscape. Once drawn, these triggers can be related back to the frequency diagrams. Objects within the space - lifts, escalators, hand dryers, door slams, Air conditioning, speakers - all contribute the soundscape. Other sonic textures and characteristics are caused by human activity voices, squeaky prams, or ripping paper - evoking scenes of everyday life. Footsteps in particular can reveal textures of the floor: Terms used for solid floors are “concrete footsteps, hard, stone” 135, for wooden or suspended floors, the textures and sound can be more varied - for example creaky, squeaky and hollow.

135

Milo, and others. p.5.

Figure 38 | Abstract Sound| Drawing Sounds

Architectural Soundscapes | !67

Sonic characteristics can be portrayed by two dimensional sound diagrams, as previously discussed, showing relationships between either intensity and time, frequency and amplitude or time and frequency. Whilst this is a fairly accurate representation of sound, it does not tell us what the sound is, what caused it or what it actually sounds like. In contrast to this, abstract representations of sound can be used. Allowing us to â&#x20AC;&#x153;understand sounds in our own personal wayâ&#x20AC;?136, textures, shapes, pitch, volume and duration that otherwise may not be described. As shown in figure 38, generally, pitch is represented by how high you place an object in an image and the loudness is represented by the volume.

136

De Montfort University.

Figure 39 | Triggers | Out of the Auditory

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Vol um e s During the sounds walks and research conducted for this study, the character, whether it is natural or architectural, was “peculiar to a location”137, thus presenting distinct sonic features that can be related to the space. The materials, the conﬁguration, public activity, scale and contents of a space all contribute to the sonic experience and perception of space. The manipulation of sound within a space gives us an idea of proportion and scale. Therefore the space can be drawn as an instrument.

137

Milo, and others. p. 5.

Figure 40 | Space as an Instrument | Out of The Auditory

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Whilst these drawings give us an impression of what a space might sound like, they are highly subjective and are an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretation of the sonic experience. The sonic experience is particularly evasive to the realms visual communication, as drawings are silent.138

Tate Modern Day 1 - 12 | Level 2 Circulation Space

138

Mahvash.

Figure 41 | Switch House Circulation Space|Author

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Based on Tate Modern Day 1 - 12 | Level 2 Circulation Space

Figure 42 | Manipulation of Sound| Author

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Concluding Comments

“Sound and space form a critical couple in our everyday environment: no sound exists outside of space, and no space is ever truly silent. Sound and space mutually reinforce one another in our perception; the qualities of a space affect how we perceive a sound and those of a sound affect how we perceive a space.” 139

In exploring the tensions between the tangible, physical components of space and the intangible, our experience and perception, this dissertation has discovered that they are by no means separate, one affects the other and they are “inextricably linked”140. There are no particular types of notation that “will be most helpful”141 in visualising the sonic experience. What is important in this study though, is portraying the signiﬁcance of it, and providing a means by which it may be drawn. As it is not a design project, the limitations of this study mean that, a fully resolved set of drawings may not have been reached, however, they reassert the importance of “acoustic space as a different but equally important means of measurement”142 to aesthetic space, and bring to the fore the aspects of sonic experience that, as architects and designers of experience, we must place much more focus on, and how we may think about drawing it.

139

Colin Ripley, and others. In the place of sound : Architecture, music, acoustics. (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2007). p. 2.

140

Ripley, C. et al. 2007. p.2.

141

Schafer. p. 131.

142

Schafer. p. 16.

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“Notation is an attempt to render aural facts by visual signs.”143

Schafer reinforces the value of notation both in the preservation and analysis of sound. However, as already discussed there are limitations and problems with representing sonic experience graphically. Firstly, machines listen differently than we do. They hear things we don’t. By limiting the 3D acoustic diagrams to 20-2000Hz in the drawings shown, they are as accurate as a representation of our hearing range can get. Secondly that sound is omni-directional, we are placed at the centre of a soundscape and two dimensional diagrams and drawings simply can’t contain enough information to describe them fully. Lastly, the way in which sounds affect individuals varies and is subjective, each individual listens differently and has varying preferences, causing various reactions and often creating confusion with researchers. Similarly to the visual appraisal of architecture, it is simply a matter of taste and opinion, whether one likes a sound or not. It is however possible to portray individual sounds, sonic textures, triggers, characteristics, scale and proportion, which do give us an image of the overall sonic environment. We can describe a space’s sonic textures, create categories that qualify a space, proportions, character and the activity in that space during the precise moment in which we are concentrating on sonic events. It would be inappropriate to describe a building or design a building solely based on its acoustic experience, and therefore it would be inappropriate to draw it solely based on this. These drawings, based on sound, can not contain enough information to give a viewer the whole experience of a building. A combination of the two however, drawings portraying sonic and aesthetics experience, would create a more complete idea of experience. The dissertation isn’t proposing a deﬁnitive methodology. To propose a singular method for the interpretation and representation of acoustics is as naive and narrow-minded as 143

Schafer. p.16.

Architectural Soundscapes | !73

assuming that one type of drawing can be used to describe all of the visual and tactile qualities of a space. The drawings displayed are my own interpretation and development of several concepts through a rigorous and detailed study of the theory around the subject. Using this as a methodology for representing the sonic experience in design would narrow the realm of imagination. “The modern Lo—Fi soundscape possesses no perspective; rather, sounds massage the listener with continual presence. As the population of the sounds in the world increases, soloist gestures are replaced by aggregate textures.” 144

In exploring the development of the Urban Soundscape, we have discovered its deterioration and the challenge for today’s designer to tackle these issues and enable the perception of space through the sonic experience. Aiming to sensitise the designer to the urban soundscape and induce an awareness of the “sensory and supra-sensory perceptual aspects”145 of space, this dissertation highlights these topics, which could be used as a source of inspiration, a tool in design and as a method of creating spaces that as a result stimulate the “perceptual capacities of the user.” 146 Vision, as a sense, is not being criticised, it is our unjustiﬁed visually hierarchisized 147 culture that must be brought to the fore. The fundamental aim of this paper is to justify a multi-sensory experience of architectural space.

Heavily inspired and inﬂuenced by R. Murray Schafer, the “grandfather of acoustic ecology”148, this dissertation proposes a way in which observation, documentation and representation employs sound as its sole objective.

144

Schafer. p. 159

145

Mahvash. p. 53.

146

Mahvash. p. 53.

Juhani Pallasmaa. Dwelling in the World: Vision, Hearing and Hapticity in Existential Space. Delivered at: Architecture | Music | Acoustics International Cross-Disciplinary Conference. (Toronto. 2006). 147

148

Cox. p.17.

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Tate Modern Day 2 - 01 | The Studio 6

Figure 43 | Tate - The Studio 6 | Author Figure 44 | Tate - The Studio 6 - 2| Author

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Drawings and images placed within this study relate to the recordings provided.

Appendix A L i s t o f Rec o rdi ng s a nd L o c ati o ns

Manchester Art Gallery - 31.08.16 Manchester Art Gallery - 01 | Entrance Hall Manchester Art Gallery - 02 | Manchester Gallery - Fashion and Freedom Manchester Art Gallery - 03 | Exhibitions Gallery - Urban Style

14 13

Manchester Art Gallery - 04 | Stair Way Manchester Art Gallery - 05 | Clore Art Studio

Manchester Art Gallery - 06 | Gallery 12 - 17th Century Manchester Art Gallery - 07 | Gallery 5 - Pre-Raphaelites Manchester Art Gallery - 08 | Gallery 6 - Highland Romance

6 7

Manchester Art Gallery - 09 | Gallery 7 + 8 - Victorian Manchester Art Gallery - 10 | Gallery 9 - Goodbye and All that Manchester Art Gallery - 11 | Cafe Manchester Art Gallery - 12 | Modern + Contemporary

9 4

3 11

Manchester Art Gallery - 13 | Exhibitions - Vogue

Manchester Art Gallery - 14 | Design Gallery

Figure 45 |Manchester Art Gallery Map

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The Lowry Gallery - 12 | Corner

The Lowry Gallery - 13 | Gallery Desk

9 8

4 6 5

Figure 46 | The Lowry Gallery Map | Author

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Tate Modern 08.09.16

09.09.16

Tate Modern Day 1 - 01 | Thingness

Tate Modern Day 2 - 01 | The Studio 6

Tate Modern Day 1 - 02 | BMW Live, INSTRUMENTS

Tate Modern Day 2 - 02 | The Studio 2

Tate Modern Day 1 - 03 | BMW Live, Boxes Tate Modern Day 1 - 04 | BMW Live, Frame Tate Modern Day 1 - 05 | WEERASETHAKUL Tate Modern Day 1 - 06 | WEERASETHAKUL Tate Modern Day 1 - 07 | Between Object and Architecture - Pier Tate Modern Day 1 - 08 | Between Object and Architecture - Room Tate Modern Day 1 - 09 | Between Object and Architecture - Middle Sculpture Tate Modern Day 1 - 10 | Between Object and Architecture - Window

Tate Modern Day 1 - 11 | 4 Beds

Tate Modern Day 2 - 13 | Materials + Objects 5

Tate Modern Day 1 - 12 | Level 2 Circulation Space

Tate Modern Day 2 - 14 | Materials + Objects 6

Tate Modern Day 1 - 13 | Artist Rooms - Louise Bourgeois Tate Modern Day 1 - 14 | Level 4 Circulation Space

Architectural Soundscapes | !78

17 19

15 16

7 13

3 1

9 14 9

10 11

8 11

1 4 2 3

6 5 20

Figure 47 |Tate Modern Map

Architectural Soundscapes | !79

Appendix B Field N o tes

Architectural Soundscapes | !80

Architectural Soundscapes | !81

Lis t Of F igur es Figure 1

| Weerasethakul | The Tanks | Tate Modern | Author

Figure 2

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Sample Sound Notation. [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p. 264.

Figure 3

| Manchester Art Gallery Map | Manchester Art Gallery

Figure 4

|The Lowry Gallery | Author

Figure 5

|(2010) Tate Modern Axonometric. Architecture Study Two: Tate Modern London, Herzog and de Meuron. [Diagram] Retrieved from: <https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/409335053605058644> [Accessed 11 Jan 2017].

Figure 6

| Heard Architecture | Author

Figure 7

| Highland Romance| Author

Figure 8

| Entrance to the Galleries The Lowry |Author

Figure 9

| Louise Bourgeois | Author

Figure 10

| Fashion and Freedom | Author

Figure 11

| Space as an Instrument | The Turbine Hall | Author

Figure 12

| The Tanks | Tate Modern | Author

Figure 13

| ‘Capsules’ | Author

Figure 14

| Pre-Raphaulites | Author

Figure 15

| Perceptionless Space| Author

Figure 16

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). The Acoustic Comunity. [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.218.

Figure 17

| Tate Modern | ‘Thingness’ | Author

Figure 18

| Design Gallery | Author

Figure 19

| Foyer Between Three Buildings | Manchester Art Gallery | Author

Figure 20

| Characterising Water | Author

Figure 21

| Tate Modern - Lower Bridge| Author

Figure 22

| Tate Modern - Upper Bridge| Author

Figure 23

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Krakatoa [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.27.

Figure 24

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Birdsongs [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.31.

Figure 25

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Pleasure and distress notes [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.32.

Figure 26

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Humpback Whale [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.38.

Figure 27

| Ocean as an Instrument | Author

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Figure 28

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Blacksmith’s Hammer [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.58.

Figure 29

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). Flat Line and Impact Sounds [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p. 79.

Figure 30

| Space Without Perspective | Author

Figure 31

| Level 2 Circulation Space | Author

Figure 32

| Milo, A., and others. (2016). Soundwalk map [Diagram] In: ‘Expanding Sonic Imagination in design practices with

Figure 33

| Wolfe, J., and Others. (2015). Aural Loop. [Drawing] In: Out of the Auditory: Aural Architecture Exhibition. Queensland: Griffith University. Retrieved from: < https://issuu.com/alex_brown/docs/oota_catalogue> [Accessed 31 November 2016] p.12.

Figure 34

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). 2D Sound Diagram [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.125.

Figure 35

| De Montfort University. (2017). Clock. In: Drawing Sounds. Retrieved From: <http://ears2.dmu.ac.uk/learning-object/drawing-sounds/> [Accessed 20th December 2017].

Figure 36

| Schafer, R. M. (1994). 3D Frequency Diagram [Image] In: The Soundscape : Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books. p.126.

Figure 37

| 3D Frequency Diagram In: Dewesoft. Retrieved from: <http://www.dewesoft.com/assets/img/pro/uploads/dewesoft_x_3d_graph_FFT.png> [Accessed 10 December 2016].

Figure 38

| De Montfort University. (2017). Abstract Sound. In: Drawing Sounds. Retrieved From: <http://ears2.dmu.ac.uk/learning-object/drawing-sounds/> [Accessed 20th December 2017].

Figure 39

| Wolfe, J., and Others. (2015). Triggers. In: Out of the Auditory: Aural Architecture Exhibition. Queensland: Grifﬁth University. Retrieved from: < https://issuu.com/alex_brown/docs/oota_catalogue> [Accessed 31 November 2016] p.26.

Figure 40

| Wolfe, J., and Others. (2015). Space as an Instrument. In: Out of the Auditory: Aural Architecture Exhibition. Queensland: Grifﬁth University. Retrieved from: < https://issuu.com/alex_brown/docs/oota_catalogue> [Accessed 31 November 2016].

Figure 41

|Switch House Circulation Space | Author

Figure 42

| Manipulation of Sound| Author

Figure 44

| Tate - The Studio 6 - 2| Author

Figure 45

|Manchester Art Gallery Map | Manchester Art Gallery

Figure 46

| The Lowry Gallery Map | Author

Figure 47

|Tate. Tate Modern Map Retreieved from: <http://www.tate.org.uk/download/ﬁle/ﬁd/102112>

[Accessed: 08 January 2016]

architectural soundwalks’, paper presented to Acoustics for the 21st Century, Buenos Aires, 5th - 9th September, Retrieved from: <http://www.ica2016.org.ar/ica2016proceedings/ica2016/ICA2016-0329.pdf> [Accessed 17 Oct 2016 ]p.6.

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