JACK TAYLOR
Tutor: Albert Brenchat
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Histo ry is alw ays un der co nstr uct io n:
Expanding and Con tra cti ng Inte rpr eta ti ons of the Mo der n R uin
Figure 1
Theories of Architecture ARCT-1064 Word count: 4055
CONTE NTS Introduction
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The Modern Ruin
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Structuring and Destruction
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Unconscious Phenomenology
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Conclusion
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Bibliography
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“Consider the cattle, grazing as they pass you by. They do not know what is meant by yesterday or today, they leap about, eat, rest, digest, leap about again...fettered to the moment and its pleasure or displeasure, and thus neither melancholy nor bored.” - Nietzsche
Figure 2
Introduction
E x p a nd ing
Hi sto ry is Alw ays Under Construction: Expanding and Co ntr act ing In ter pre tat ion s of the Modern Ruin In this essay, I will be exploring the relationship and duality of two architectures of a similar period, bombed urban housing during World War Two (WW2) in England, and the monolithic bunkers built by the Axis forces along ‘the Atlantic wall’ – an extensive system of costal defences and fortifications constructed along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against the anticipated invasion from Allied forces. This examination will focus on the relationship between the ruined homes of the Blitz, and the creation of the modern monolithic bunkers of the defensive network, a relationship which is seemingly antithetical, one between serenity and destruction; however, I hope to demonstrate how these structures and ruins and their symbolism are inextricably intertwined and how our understanding of them transcends time, warping our perceived understanding of them, yet we are inexplicably linked to these enigmatic moments which transcend through generations, and how these would become modern ruins. Few examples exist of the modern ruin; they act as a mediator, a fragment frozen in time, suspended for constant cross-examination, constantly receding, and constantly at risk of dissipating. They embody the vast ambiguities and complexities of history forgone, a portal allowing us to reach back and touch these moments, yet not fully comprehend their significance, or the reasoning as to their very creation. These structures inhabit many margins and permeate many fields, their journeys of transition are ever present in modernity; they challenge social and theoretical norms and dissipate through many types of discourse. I hope to focus on three main themes in the essay, firstly the creation of the ‘modern ruin’ and its connotations throughout recent history, mainly from World War 2. A second point that this essay will explore is the unconscious phenomenology of these enigmatic events, transcending through time periods, enticing us to these sites of brutal destruction. Thirdly, how the previous two points create a synthesis to theorise the material memory of these ruins and spaces, and their further significance to humankind, projected into the future.
One of the fading monolithic bunkers of the Atlantic Wall
Children exploring a bombsite in Coventry after a Luftwaffe raid on the night of the 10th April 1941 Top: Figure 3 Bottom: Figure 4
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E x p a nd ing
Ruina – Ruin - a falling down, collapse, ruin, destruction
Ruins
in the general definition provide a sense of romanticism, thoughts of an abandoned utopia, evoking a contemplation, a sombre feeling of insignificance, yet admiration of the once beautiful civilisations that came before us, culminating in the world that we know today. The modern ruin challenges these assumptions, in many respects ruins of recent times are often too brutal, and too raw to comprehend or acknowledge in cultural discourse, as ruins that are commonly known. Modern ruins create a complex phenomenon; will the bunkers of the Atlantic wall, built as a brutal killing machine, one day be romanticised? In the same way the Colosseum of Ancient Rome, constructed by slaves, then used as a stage for brutal violence and the slaughter of people and animals, for the entertainment of the population is a powerhouse of tourism today? The enigmatic nature of
the classical ruins ground themselves in history, they act as a seemingly immovable behemoth, whereas the ruins of modernity, to the present civilisation, are ‘matter out of place – and out of time’ (Olsen & Petursdottir, 2014, p. 6) Abandoned industry, homes, architectures from wars, all examples of modern ruins, too familiar and too abrupt, making them too painful to digest. Serving as an ever-present reminder of the irreversible damage humankind has done to the planet, the spirit contesting nature, an epiphany, an idiomatic moment of seeing the vine covered chair where someone once sat, a stark reminder of the vast power of nature that we are fighting to resist, and of the strength of will of humankind.
St Peters Seminary, a former Roman Catholic seminary in its ruinous state Top: Figure 5 Bottom: Figure 6
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E x p a nd ing
Structuring and Destruction; the creation of the modern ruin in WW2
Playing amongst the rubble
Ruins of WW2 have a seemingly stark contrast to what one would ordinarily connote with the term, juxtaposing our established paradigms of what the ruin really is, and what it can divulge. Intense bombing during the period brought about a re-examination and re-categorization of what the ruin meant to the population, it brought ruins to the forefront of the nation’s everyday life. Evoking intrigue, tragedy, creating exciting, multi layered and dynamic monuments to a tragic event. As seen in figure 7 children viewed upon these sites as areas of great adventure, fun and excitement. Perhaps due to the innocent nature of the child’s brain that these areas are transformed, but even to the naïve mind of a child, they are drawn to these instances of destruction, as never before seen ruins in their local vernacular. The spiritual quality defined by these monumental ruins is enigmatic, interpretations of the ruin are dynamic and ever evolving, and it is through our connotations of ancient monuments, that we psychoanalyse these modern ruins through a different framework. They encapsulate a civilisation that once existed. We can understand the ruination as a monument to a moment in history, it is the permanence of the monument which is expanding and contracting in this instance. Mellor categorises this altered perspective of ruination the morning after a night of bombing, he recounts: ‘…the ruins of the day before yesterday had already – in the way ruins do – settled themselves into the landscape, some with the inconsequence of rubbish heaps and some with the dignity of very ancient monuments.’ (Mellor, 2011, p. 64)
29th December 1940, Cripplegate. Devastated by a firestorm Top: Figure 7 Bottom: Figure 8
Mellor is consciously reading the rubble from devastated homes, after a night of intense bombing, as a monument as gracious and beautiful as those of antiquity, architecture ordinarily associated with perdurance, bearing witness to the histories of civilisation. Matter so seemingly insignificant, randomly generated, suddenly transformed into a modern monument, within a matter of seconds. Such as figure 8 the rubble lays almost at peace with the world around it, twisted fragments of steel elegantly poised like a piece of modern art, laying as evidence to a moment of horror and trauma, yet reflecting a time of peace, as the bombs, for now, have seized, symbolising a moment of hope, and a chance to rebuild. Mellor’s use of language is particularly powerful as it creates a vivid sense of the environment created after
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E x p a nd ing such a traumatic event, describing piles of wreckage to have ‘the dignity of very ancient monuments.’ (Mellor, 2011, p. 64) An event so traumatic and catastrophic such as bombing, giving birth to ecologies capable of eliciting the notion of what we would associate with beauty and permanence of these ancient monuments is fascinating. Raising important issues on the social and political connotations of these wreckages. An almost inconceivable concept – that of destruction of a person’s home, and all earthly possessions, reduced to a mere pile of matter. Perhaps the inherent significance of the home and our emotional bond lends itself to birth this monumentality as ‘A place for ruins is also a site for the uncanny – Das Unheimlich – where ‘the familiar and homely suddenly become strange’ (Edensor, 2004, p. 835)– the bombing, an instance of immense energy displacement, being a catalyst for the creation of the monument, from a previously un-monumental architecture. The monumental lay idle, until a reconfiguration of matter occurs, projecting its significance. What may be theorised as a person’s bunker- the place of safety, from the world’s forces, totalled and breached, laid bare for the world to see. The bomb in some cases causes an almost unachievable feat in creating the cross-sectional model of a structure, figure 9, an anomaly previously unseen by many. Ordinarily, modern ruins we consider to be present are usually left out of our cultural discourse, such as abandoned factories and remnants of industrial process. They are seen to be a disturbance to the harmony of a landscape or setting, often being a record of decay and abandonment, it raises a question, ‘why have the ruins our time been so devoid of value?’ (Pétursdóttir & Olsen, 2019, p. 4) a topic Tora Petursdottir and Bjornar Olsen begin to explore in their book, Ruin Memories. It is a topic greatly informing the subject of the bunkers and the bombed houses of WW2 and evokes a sense of tension between the ground in which the two objects sit, and their disturbed, chaotic surfaces. Being modern and ruined, made modern ruins ambiguous and even anachronistic, and their hybrid or uncanny state made them hard to negotiate within established cultural categories of waste and heritage, failure, and progress. They became matter out of place and out of time. (Pétursdóttir & Olsen, 2019, p. 6)
Top: Figure 9 Bottom: Figure 10
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A model for Germanias Great Hall ‘Volkshalle’, designed by Adolf Hitler and Albert Speer, designed as the worlds largest covered space. Designed to inspire future generations and be at the heart of the Third Reichs capital. Inspired from Hadrians Pantheon, which Hitler visited privately on May 7th 1938
Top: Figure 11 Bottom: Figure 12
The creation of these modern ruins was devoid of many factors associated with those of romantic antiquity, their hybrid state was and is an unchartered territory for the topic of ruins and ruination. The most obvious point to the question is in the materiality these monoliths and homes are created from, common bricks and timber, and a material as humble as concrete, as opposed to the marble and grandeur of the ruins forgone – seeking to deprive these structures of ‘ruin value’. The notion of ruin value was theorised by Nazi architect, Albert Speer. An idea that every building created should ‘inspire future generations’, and according to Speer, ‘the structures built with modern techniques would not be appropriate to bequest to future generations’ (Virilio, 2009, p. 56), it was unfathomable to Hitler and Speer that ruins of the modern world, twisted metal and piles of rubble would one day inspire future generations, as the ancient ruins were able to do. In addition, another factor of the modern ruin is the timeline, their immaturity. Their existence acting as a disturbance on the timeline of humanity. The fast creation of the concrete bunkers not only elicited an awkward timing, but also an upset in the pace of conception and construction, with the bunkers being erected rapidly to defend the coastline. Antithetical to the perceived ruins of humanity, developed and decayed slowly over time, having time to manifest gracefully, the modern ruins of WW2 are created rapidly, in the case of the bombed homes, they are created in a split second by an explosion. This transcends the timeline of the ruin, it supersedes the inhabitation phase of its timeline, and projects forward into the almost dystopian chapter of an uninhabited shell of ruination. Timelines are an intrinsic, recurring theme in the duality of the subject. At moments, the timelines of the bunkers and houses meet and share a point in time, yet other periods they are vastly distant. They are both dynamic and constantly expanding and contracting. The typical ruin ‘orders itself into the surrounding landscape without a break’ (Simmel, 1958, p. 383), whereas the creation of the modern ruin sits, often, crudely on or in the landscape, with nature not having time to fight against and envelope the ruined components of the past building. Thus, leading to contention, for slightly more subtle reasoning, there is a tendency to see the ruin as a fragment of history, frozen in time, fossilized in layers of history forgone, seemingly completely transcending our existence, whereas to ruin is seen as a contrast to the ruin – a much more active and transient term (Pétursdóttir & Olsen, 2019, p. 6). Humankinds’ tendency is to categorise the
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ancient ruin as the former, an inert, passive, monumental mass. Which is subsequently cared for, admired, used for tourism, the formation and how the ruins came about is so far detached from the current interpretation of the ruin. In comparison to the ruins of modernity, these instead appear to be dynamic, and ever changing, fighting to resist the clutches of decay and ruination. However, the inevitability of nature takes over, they return to the landscape, becoming inconspicuous, they exist as we see examples today, in a transitional state, existing between definition, perhaps therefore they evoke the intrigue of the viewer. For this reason, we read the ruins as a form of tragedy, but not melancholic, an abrupt realisation of a type of ordered destruction, a slow asphyxiation, a stark reminder that one day, humankind will too be consumed by the clutches of nature once again. The monolithic bunkers previously mention exist in these transitional states also, in a literal sense of existing on a threshold, the beach, and a metaphorical sense, as the upturned structures continue their lifecycle on a return to nature, as they have been since the day of their completion. These bunkers act as a fascinating example of the struggle of humankind and nature, as one of the few examples of the true monolithic structure, as ‘the moment its decay destroys the unity of the form, nature and spirit separate again and reveal their world pervading original enmity’ (Simmel,1958, p.260) a movement back to nature once again lays bare humankinds’ fragility to nature, providing a brutal reminder to our inevitable downfall, like our predecessors before us. Despite these contemplative thoughts, the ruination may be tragic, but not always sad; they bind us to a previous civilisation, reinforcing the basic human fascination of knowing what events and moments occurred to allow our existence today. The beauty within many ruins is the gentle and gradual transition back to nature, a slow reclaiming. This is where the modern ruin (the bombsite and bunker) differs from classical ruination. These architectures resonate with us as they provide evidence of humankind’s spirit resisting against nature, and one another. A theory explored by Bernt and Hiller Becher, to record this evidence of mankind’s achievements through their taxonomies, moments of the spirits battle against the world. (Stimson, 2004) Whilst the physical architectures may be gone, they metaphorically live on through these powerful photographs. They are scars of our history, a timeline of attrition, and a physical reminder of these pinnacle, life changing events, echoing through civilisations.
A bombsite in Moorgate taken over by wild flowers, circa 1950 Top: Figure 13 Bottom: Figure 14
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Ruination Bombing of homes in London created fascinating examples of ruination in architectures, a sense of morbid curiosity. Homes turned inside out and brutally laid bare to the ferocity of the outside world, thus creating the modern ruin. Ruins of this era hold interesting dynamics, rather that encapsulating the great mystery of their creation, such as that of Roman antiquity, the ruins created can be pinpointed to an exact time and moment, the bombs detonation. Disclosed things in their own unruly fashion, released from human censorship and order. Masked objects are unveiled, inside is turned out, new assemblages formed, bringing attention also to the trivial and reticent (Edensor, 2004, p. 109). Ruination thus becomes a kind of self-excavation that exposes layers of different memories, memories, and meanings moreover. (Pétursdóttir & Olsen, 2019, pp. 11-12) Two architectures of the same period, the urban homes of London, devastated during the Blitz, and the defensive architectures of the Atlantic wall, the homes, to the people that inhabit them, are their metaphoric fortress, and safe zone; the bunkers are a materialisation of this concept for the protection of people; a structure where function has driven form, projected upwards and outwards into material, form, an architecture without identity or vernacular, not abiding to any style, ‘structures with no pretensions to architectural merit converge in form’ (Hodgson, 2014)
Top: Figure 15 Bottom: Figure 16
The bunkers strewn across the landscape serve as reminders of a violent past, nature fighting to reclaim the monoliths to the sand, gives a sense of the temporal – the two structures timelines shift and warp alongside each other, occasionally intersecting. The bunkers act as artefacts to a previous moment in time; ‘artefacts from an almost science fiction esque future that never was, a form of hauntology possibly…or to put it another way: this is a zone where past, present and future elide.’ (Country, 2016) Bunkers of the Atlantic wall were created to protect from the ferocious onslaught of attack from the allied invasion, in the same way our homes are created to shelter from the outside world, at the time of the Blitz, extra shelters in homes were built to resist the threat of aerial attack, protecting societies amalgam of values and beliefs ‘we will not be broken’, the threat of change to everyday life which we resist. In the same way that we now view our homes as our constructed metaphorical bunkers, to shelter from the stresses of everyday modern life.
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Unconscious Phenomenology of the Modern Ruin and their Enigmatic Psychological Impact Typically, ruins act as a marker post for a specific point in history, fragments of a time forgone, giving us a connection to the past through these physical reminders of a past civilisation. They evoke a personal sense of impermanence, memory, human achievement, existentialism, and a sense of the ‘memento mori’ – the concept of a reminder of the inevitability of death. As can be seen in works such as ‘The Ambassadors’ by Hans Holbein, who used skulls and other highly symbolic objects in painting to illustrate this point, that no matter what material possessions one may have in life, the inevitability of death will one day reach us all. Abandoned architectures of the present, the future ruins – factories and warehouses for instance, reveal memories of the recent past, and simultaneously fragments of our futures, they are, in a sense, the ‘skulls’ materialised in our world. ‘four young nobles, hunting with hawk and confronted by four cadavers. Their hoarse breath utters the warning (Rodwell, 2017) once were we...as we are now, so you will 2011, p. 11)
hound, are and emphysemic “As you are, so be”’ (Dillon,
The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein, 1533
View of the same painting from the side to show the skull painted in perspective
Typically ruins hold up a mirror to our decay, whilst indicating their own survival for many generations to come, fragments which will far outlive us. They are in a sense, the cadavers warning us of what is to come. However, the ruins of modernity in WW2 did not possess these qualities. They were born overnight, springing up all over the city, providing dynamic, multi layered moments to be unpicked and analysed, particularly for children, who, with their naïve understanding of what had happened, made these spaces playgrounds, the acted as an impartial innocent eye to cast judgement of these moments. Perhaps these bombsites are so fascinating is due to this transitional state, humankind has forever been intrigued in transitional moments, the ‘matter out of place’ (Douglas, 2001, p. 36). Disordering of the urban architecture creates these suspended fragments of transition – of growth and decay, building and demolition, frozen for a period of time. Expanding a moment, drawing out an instance of emotion, left to hang in limbo, for cross examination. Georg Simmel observes that there are two formations of the ruin.
Medieval motif depicting the ‘memoto mori’, the three living confronted by the reality of death Top: Figure 17 & 18 Bottom: Figure 19
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‘a good many Roman ruins…lack the specific fascination of the ruin – to the extent, that is, to which one notices in them the destruction by man; for this contradicts the contrast between human work and the effect of nature on which rests the significance of the ruin as such’. (Simmel, 1958, p. 260)
Gordon Matta Clark, Conical Intersect, 1975
It may be categorised using this framework that the bombsites are the aforementioned destruction by man, and the bunker, the effect of nature on which rests the significance of the ruin. Ruins of Ancient Rome exist in an interesting, suspended form which mediates between the points made by Simmel, these ruins are formed by both the destruction of humankind and nature. An anomaly, a ruinous state being maintained, (for the profit through tourism) thus seemingly bouncing between the definitions. These dynamic definitions of the ruin allow for ‘constructing alternative versions of the past, and for recouping untold and marginalized stories’ (DeSilvey & Edensor, 2013, p. 471) The unique nature of these ruins being created was a new and previously unseen phenomenon, the bombed homes and buildings were fascinating and frighting; shells of ruined buildings ‘mediate our relation with the frighteningly ephemeral, mysterious, and fleeting dimension of time ‘ (Pallasmaa, 2016, p. 173) the reorganization of matter through bombing created a moment in time whereby the exact moment the building became the ruin – a phenomenon which had previously never been experienced. A topic developed by Gordon Matta Clark, creating these unseen moments from familiar buildings to produce deeply strange imagery. We can date ruins of antiquity, yet their creation seemingly so enigmatic we struggle to comprehend the creation of the ruins, we forget they were once thriving civilisations. Ones’ relationship with their home allows for a psychoanalysis of their subconscious autobiographical memory; moreover, we begin to question why we feel certain emotions about another person’s home being destroyed, we find interest in the trauma and feel a morbid curiosity.
Top: Figure 20 Bottom: Figure 21
Gordon Matta Clark, Splitting, 1974
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These themes of order and disorder run through Mary Douglas’ book, ‘Purity and Danger’ where something so seemingly insignificant as dirt plays a key role as a metaphor for categorising psychological conditions. Dirt exists ‘where there is dirt there is system’ (Douglas, 2001, p. 44), because dirt is not an independent, objective attribute of something, but a ‘residual category [of things] rejected from our normal scheme of classifications’ by using this framework, things which ‘blur, smudge, contradict or otherwise confuse accepted classifications’ (Douglas, 2001, p. 50) create the idea of matter out of place being ‘other’.When using this framework when viewing the bombsites and bunkers of WW2, they are a summation of matter out of place, in Douglas’ sense, dirt. Furthermore, they use ordinary objects and scenarios to give examples of the concept of matter out of place, for instance, ‘food is not necessarily dirty, “but it is dirty to leave cooking utensils in the bedroom” (Douglas, 2001, p. 37) Using this concept we can understand the nature of the ruins is of intrigue as they do not conform to our desire to create order in life, they are, in a sense, an act of rebellion against the conformity of ordered architecture. Therefore, drawn to these ruins, to the dirt, a metaphor for the out of place within our world, the disorder and interruption. Complexities leading to their formation add further layers to the sense of disarray, they act as ever presents in a world that evolves around them. WW2 era bunkers strewn across the beach in Lokken, Denmark,part of the Atlantic wall. Transitioning back to nature, being swallowed by the sands and sea. Figure 22
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Co nclusi on
The definition of these modern ruins is one which is dynamic, enigmatic, and vastly complex, it casts many questions over one’s own psyche. Our privileged position allows for the rereading of past ruins to contextualise the lives we live today. Whether that be a subconscious realisation of the greater questions regarding life, and death, or facilitating the conscious thought of contemplation. These echoes of history that are still reverberating in modern life today, through these suspended moments, the bunkers of the Atlantic wall acting as a portal to a time forgone, or, as a recent example, the toppling of the statue of Edward Coulston, a prominent slave trader in the 17th century. These architectural moments facilitate in the physical space, an ethereal memory. The formation of the bunkers and ruined homes is a fascinating relationship, sharing moments in their timeline, yet simultaneously diverging greatly from one another. These bunkers seem to be an anomaly, they have slipped through the net of the post war clean-up and rebuilding, perhaps this is where the fascination starts, they remain to be dirt, matter out of place, ghosts. Whilst the matter making up these structures is innocent, the associations they hold are not, they serve as a reminder of the will of humankind, and the strength that evil can possess. Unescapable truths are embodied in the material memory of the bunkers, yet they take on new connotations as the world recontextualises around them, they become a barometer for the environmental changes the planet is going through, as their slow residual return to nature holds up a harrowing truth, of our inevitable return to nature. However, these sleeping giants now lay at peace, and may reflect to us that after great struggle and conflict, there can be times of peace once more. When we look onto these ruins, we are looking into ourselves, the power of the architecture has eclipsed the pretences of its previous use, elevating to have spiritual qualities.
Toppling the statue of Edward Coulston, Bristol, 7th June 2020
American tank destroyers descend upon Rome, June 1944 Top: Figure 23 Bottom: Figure 24
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C o nc lusio n
These examples of the modern ruin remain an invaluable asset when investigating the epistemology of the subject. It is a diverse and transitional field of study, moments of structuring and destructuring, fragments suspended in time, allowing them to be physical moments, as well as signifiers of the fields of discourse in which they occupy. Seemingly, dirt – matter out of place, these architectures act as marker posts in history, facilitating critique and analysis of social, political, and cultural discourses, existing marginally, as a framework to test our modernist views, contesting perceived paradigms. Ruins hold a constant dialogue between success and failure, between grounding and dissolution, they ‘embody a set of temporal and historical paradoxes.’ (Dillon, 2011, p. 11) Gazing upon these architectures elicits their stare straight back onto oneself, shouting to our consciousness in perfect silence, capturing the memento mori paradigm, not as much melancholic, as enlightening. A cricket match in the cellar of a destroyed building, London, 1950 Figure 25
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A panorama of the now Barbican area, after the demolition of unsafe buildings. The St Giles church in this area (Cripplegate), not rebuild until 1966
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Cooke, R., 2014. Anselm Kiefer review – remembrance
Available at: https://ayearinthecountry.co.uk/week-3352-bunker-archives-4-
amid the ruins. [online] the Guardian. Available at:
paul-virilios-bunker-archaeology-accidental-utilitarian-art/
<https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/sep/28/
[Accessed 04 December 2021].
anselm-kiefer-royal-academy-review-rembembrance-amid-
DeSilvey, C. & Edensor, T., 2013. Reckoning with ruins. Progress in Human
the-ruins> [Accessed 13 November 2021].
Geography, 37(4), p. 471. Dillon, B., 2011. Ruins: (Documents of Contemporary Art). 1 ed. London: Whitechapel Gallery. p11 Douglas, M., 2001. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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IMAGE REFERENCES
Figure 1: Holland House, Kensington, London, 1940 http://www.booksforvictory.com/2013/04/london-bookstore-and-library-bombed-in.html Figure 2: The Blitz – The Hardest Night 10/11 May 1941, 11:02pm – 05:57am. https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/history-of-the-battle-of-britain/the-blitz-thehardest-night/ Figure 3: Bunker Archaeology, Paul Virillio, 1967 Figure 4: Paul Popper, 10th April 1941 Figure 5: Larry Neuberger March, 2016 https://community.snapwire.co/photo/detail/550ee157d7567c220ab64b60 Figure 6: St Peter’s Seminary, image from - Craig Borland https://www.helensburghadvertiser.co.uk/news/18606344. new-owners-former-st-peters-seminary-cardross/ Figure 7: Imperial War Museum, 1940 . https://www.iwm. org.uk/history/15-powerful-photos-of-the-blitz Figure 8: Cripple gate and St Giles, 1940
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6690749/How-Londoners-played-rubble-Blitz-five-years-end-WWII.html Figure 15: Bunker Archaeology, Paul Virillio, 1967 Figure 16: IWM, Object No. 8955, 1942 Figure 17: Hans Holbein, ‘The Ambassadors’ 1533 https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/the-ambassadors/ bQEWbLB26MG1LA?hl=en-GB&avm=2 Figure 18: A view of ‘The Ambassadors’ https://smarthistory.org/hans-holbein-the-younger-the-ambassadors/ Figure 19: The Three Living and the three Dead https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2014/01/the-threeliving-and-the-three-dead.html Figure 20: Gordon Matta Clark via https://www.concrete-online.co.uk/gordon-matta-clark-radical-architecture/ Figure 21: Gordon Matta Clark: via placesjoirnal. https://placesjournal.org/article/gordon-matta-clark-spacism/ Figure 22: Bunkers at Løkken seen from above via
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/sep/02/ blitz-london-bomb-sites-redevelopment Figure 9: History Extrs, https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/ the-cruel-cost-of-the-blitz/ Figure 10: Stephen Vanfleteren, Atlantic Wall, 2014 https://www.stephanvanfleteren.com/ Figure 11: Adolf Hitler’s vision of Germainia’s Great Hall https://www.express.co.uk/news/history/514707/exhibition-Adolf-Hitler-Nazi-super-city-Germany Figure 12: IWM V2 Rocket 1942, Object no. 88803 Figure 13: Stephen Vanfleteren, Atlantic Wall, 2014 https://www.stephanvanfleteren.com/ Figure 14: Daily Mail
https://airbuzz.one/drone-footage-ww2-concrete-bunkers/ Figure 23: The Toppling of the Edward Coulston Statue, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-bristol-59909823 Figure 24: American tank destroyers at the Colosseum, Rome, Italy, June 1944 https://ww2db.com/image.php?image_id=19086 Figure 25: A Cricket match on a ruined buildings cellar floor via Mediadrumimages Figure 26: Panorama of Blitz bomb damage, London Metropolitan Archives / City of London Police / London County Council Bomb Damage Maps 1939-1945 (Thames & Hudson)
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