Ethiopian Constitutional Development; A Sourcebook Vol. II by James C. N. Paul (1971) [Part 1 of 2]

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CONSTIT PIAN UTIONAL HIO ET

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A SOURCEBOOK

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D.C.M.G., D. Litt. formerly Vi.siting Lecturer in Ln,v Haile Sellassie I University

Publishell By The Fac·ulty of Lt1w l-faile Sellassie I UJ1iversity Adclis Ababa 1971

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Prepared by

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B.A. L.L.B. formel.;1 Dean and Professor of Law, Haile Sellassie I University

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James C. N. Paul

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The Fact1lty of Law I:.raile Sellassie I University 1971

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tl1e rigl1t to reproduce this book

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or portions thereof in any form.

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Printed at Addis Ababa, Etl1iopia

Artistic Printers Ltd.

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II I

Introduction to Volume 11

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JI of this sourcebook l1as bee11 a /011g ti11·1e ir1 JJ1·e1Jc11·atio11 . D,·. Clap/1a,n respo11sible }ras J1e seve,a/ �vhic/1 yea1·s for ago. I as·su,necl re.s­ rial mate pleted o c ;sibili ties as Academic Vice Preside11t of Haile Selhssie I U11ive1·sitJ', and t/1ere ork, ' l1' t/1e co,nplete JJa1·tic11/a1·lJi11 vie�v of· t/1e neecl to reflect to ti1ne little too all �:s 11el1 /a1l's incorporate n,J' a11d and 01·v11 experience in teacf1 i11 g 1ditions ' co g r changin on the subject. The two volumes contain n1ore - fa,· 1110,·e - 1 1·1a:erial t/1c111 ca,z be coverecl i11 any o,1e course on tl1e Cor1stitutio11. I11deed, so111e J1ate1·ial goe!)' fa,· beyon{! the Co11s fiti1tio11 becai,se, as stressed througl1out a basic [ltrpose is· to focus 011 ji1 ti1re problems of developing the legal st1·ucti1re Jo,· a funcla11-z1.11talf;, r1e1v sJ1,�ftJ111 o.ir gover11ment, nor simply on wfzat exists today. Fi11·t/1e1·, at tl1e piese11t ti;11e, I believe sti1cle11ts of /a}Y in Ethiopia need reference material of tl1e sort co11JJilecl !,ere; o,·gat1ized legal 111aterials, relevant to problems at l1cn1 d in t/1e field of pubic la1v a,·e sti/l i1l sl1ort sttJJp!J'. Vo/un1e

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More tJ1an anyt/1 ing else, I /1ope t/1 is 1-vo,·k lVill i11.5pil·e otlze1· teac!zer.'> to ;·evise it-and replace it-with a bette,· work.

There are, as a/v.,ays i11 an effo,·t of this so,·t, mar1y tl1anl,s to be bestoived. I Ct111 only express a few here. My friend ancl colleagi,e, Wlliam El,virzg, lzas labored in an editorial capacity over 111uch of t/ 1 e text, ancl JJ1·oddid 1ne onward itz otl1er l·VaJ'S. Innes Marshall, in her capacity as Director of t/1e J-1.S.J. U. P,·ess, also edited a great deal of the material, and I tlzank her deeply /01· that-as veil as l1er 111at1J1 othe,· �/forts encourage t/1.e pi,bl(cati�n _of schola,·ly 111aterial cit f-laile Sell�ssie I [!11iv rsity. �Ulh � ancl Gruenfeld con1p1led 1nd1ces and 1na11agecl co1·1·esJJ]11dence lvzt/1 JJubl1s/1e1s a lhors, whose work I 1e Fea,·11, ar1 incredibly aria111 l1ave u N Miss so ed. lly borrow libera co petent executive tl1e U11iversity aJ-1cl c1 ra,·e secretary at � ;1ears my during two fast co,league as we II, provr.ded all s·o,·t.� of ass1sta11ce. Linzerous tasks were done by persons who ca:rze to Etl1iopia after 1ny departure, · 1u Peter Mutharika and Zyg Plater who /1 elped 1vit/1 tlze fi11 al ecliting. Kathe­ ;;ie onovan of the Faculty of Law completed t/1e «liti11g of tlze fi11al chapters and , . ertook the oneroi,s chore of p utting the volun1e t.1roug/1 t/1e printi,7 g proc�ss; I a u1eep / gra ef ul or her work 111e t ced z rifi sac she w l,11o t I aus bec ly ,lar partici f i y r,o: Iier ow,, rese arch and writing in SUJJport of the Ftci1/ty's pi1b/ication prograrn. Y e, Margaret Paul as be" it l7er s i �vay li' 11y n1a in ect pnj ci n ore �if :!,terzn was 1a , he/1· , e t/1 e :I' ' g · raged e rno�t. She typed-and endlessly ,·etyJJed-t'te fi11al c/1apte,·s, 011d e,7coi,Jn to be/ieve tJ:zat the effort u,as in fact worthvh1"le. ormer students e I h d wor a_v : ie,/ spec -a bpia who are now lawyers of Eth rJi}oJ'e� Illy f e l g s 1e ' o w. kno l a�d iati T/ ever s o U c 1 will and 1 l, than a wor JO e mor you with . n the clas . ·k vo, r · s i t/1. of 1 c/ m pe u sroom, and on other occasions, he/p?d s/1a

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INTRODUCTION

Since these a re troubled times, every}vf1ere, for those }Vho }Vorry ahoi,t o ..t · c s tio11al develop111e11 t i11. a changing, te11se a11d angry world, I 1-vould like to repeatn t u­ ere son1e re111ar/(s I n1ade to an earlie,· law class in .Ethiopia sonie years· ago: Fear, i111rest, ancl uncertainty stallc our ti111es. More than ev er, i11 every 1 11;1; 1 1 the re a,·e 111 e11 v.1/10 _JJ1· each 1 iolence, hate c;nd passio_n as the on!J ,net!iod to ,� 1 g son1e }Vrong, to rvrn so,ne cau..ve, to secu,·e so111e 111tere.st.

T/1 ose 1,p/10 b elieve irz l a 'l'v sur ely believe in a11 ot/1er 1-vay to progre ss, even to 111i11 goals e11taili11g re11olutio11ary c/1a11ge.s. Wh_atever t/1.eir ideological persi{a sion · t/1ose l1 l10 b elieve ir1 la1,v belie11e in tl1e essential ratio1ialitJJ of 1na11. They belie�; i11 t/1 e basic 11t ilitJJ of basic l1un1an rigl1 ts, the i1lti111ate futi!itJ' of t/1.eir f orcible SitJJpressio11 01· 1·atio11alized .evasio11. Tl1e;1 believe in . tl1 e ideal, of ji,sti ce_,:,_how­ e ver ! 1c1rcl it is to defi11e a11d attai11 . Tl1ey argue for ad/1ere1zce to t/1e legal process, valz1i11g JJrocedit re, not for its ol1:11 sa,'f(e, but as t l;e safes t 111ethod to seek »'isdon1 a11d fair11ess i11 tl,e si1bsta11ce of ji1clg1nent. Tl1ey seelc t/1.e patience to listen SJ-'111pat/1etically, the courage and sicill to con1pron1ise v.·it/1oitl sacrifice of pri,1ciples vv! 1 ic·l1 ar e fu11da11,1e11tal, and t/1e discernn1ent to Jcno1-v l,v/1at is funda111e11tal. The;, clo 11ot avoicl decisio11s }Vhen clecisions 111i1st be 111ade, bitt t/1eJ1 eschew t/1e arrogance or ig11orance of deciding 111l1at is not a11 issu e 01· ,,v/1at is 11.ot ripe for decis ion. T/1eJJ irJi to cultivate t/1e qualit y of 101-·e combi11ed M-'itf 1 to1Igl1ness of character. Tl1ey strive for ir1tegrifJ1. Tf1eJ' tell t/1e trz,, t/1. Tl1eJ1 k11ol'r it is 1vise to ad111it error },vhe11 error is aJJJJare11t. TheJ1 !1c1ve fait/1 i11 t/1ese inta11 gibles a11cl i11 these ,net/io{/S; 1

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No11e of i15· car1 live every 111 0111e11 I, everJ' deed, by tJzis credo; Jar fro,n ii; but all of i1s ca11 c!ain1 the c1·e do if tt'e 1rFill- aJ1d tr)' for it. Becai,se it is better to l1ave a sense of cluty t/ 1an a fea,· of fai!1"11·e, it is better to live a rich life than see!( seci,rity, it is bette,· to 1-vin 1·es1Jec t at t/1e cost of popularitJ'· It is better I.O serve a ca11se thc111 sit bacl< i11 CJlr1icis111, especic1/ly 1-vl'ie11 CJ 111icis111 is a facade for colvardice .

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Summary of Contents

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VOLUME I

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Chapter I:

Sources For the_ Study of Constitutional :Development: Political Theory.

Chapter II:

Sources of Ethiopian Constitt1tio11al Develor,ment: Experience.

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Chapter IV:

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The Constitutional Development of Ethiopia to 1935. The Revised Constitution of 1955: An Overview of its In1.ruediate Origins and Future Evolution. Li i

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VOLUME II

Chapter V:

Impe·rial Powers: the Powers and Prerogatives of the Emperor.

Chapter VI:

The Development of Executive Institutions.

Chapter VD: Cha�er VIlI: · · Chapter IX:

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The Development of Judicial 1I1stitutions . .. . •

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Human Rights�Political and Economic Development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME ' '

••• •• • I 11troduction St1m111ary of Contents

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Table of Contents Table of Cases •••

Ackno,vledgr11en ts Table of Leg islat ion

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Index for Voltimes I & II

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Cl1apter V: Tlze Po111 ers a11d Prerogatives of t/1e .E111peror

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Section 1: T11e E111peror as So\rereign-''Sovereignity'' and ''Supreme Authority'' under Article 26; ''Sovereignity'' and the ''Powers'' bestowed by Article 36; Article 36 as a source of additional powers; a ''restrictive'' inter,pretation of . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . Article 36. ... .. . ... . .. ... 439 ,/

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Section 2: TI1e Power of tl1e E1nperor to Create Agencies of Governn1ent and Assign tl1eir Jurisdictio11-the nattire of the ''Order Po,yer'' under Artjcle 27; the rationale of the ''Order Po\ver''; the uses of tb.e ''Order Po\-ver'', constitu­ tional li1nits will1 regard to regulatory power and public finance; the form and publ ication of enactn1ents under A.rticle 27; the problem of Imperial Charters and tl1e constitt1tional basis of institut ions created by Imperial Charters; tl1e ''Order Power'' in action; Orders and other executive legislation isst1ed since 1955. .. . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 445

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Section 3: Tl1e Lavv -Iv1aki11g Autl1ority-The En1peror in Parliam.ent-the meaning of ''la\-v in tl1e Revi sed Co11stitt1tion''; tl1e Emperor's role in resolving disagree­ n1e11ts betvveen il1e t\VO I-Iot1ses of Parliament; promulgation and veto of .. . . . ... 469 laws. . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . . . Section 4: Tl 1e Decree Power-its rationale and proble1us of interpreting and adminis­ tering Article 92; pron1u1gation and consideration in Parliament of Decrees; forms of parlian1entary action on Decr.ee..s; Proclamations, Decrees and Parlia1nentary Notices issued since 1955. ... .. . . .. ... ... ... ... Sectio11 5: Tl1e Appointment Po,ver-,;.\..rt icles 27 and 66; delegation of the appo intme nt power; tl1e scope of tl1e appoi nt111ent power. ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... Section 6: Foreign Relations ar1d tl1e Treaty Po,11,er-tl1e conduct of foreign affa�s; International Agree111ents and tl1e Constitutio11; treaties requiring parha· n1ent,try approval. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . ... ... . .. ... ... Section 7: Military and E111ergency Powers-tl1e contr of tl1e Arn1ed Forces; tbe ol emerge11cy pov.,ers of tl1e E1111Jeror; state of siege, martial Jaw, and nationa1 emerge11cy.

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Section 8: Brie� Notes on otl1er Powe rs the grant of Honours; tl1e m inting power; 505 parha111entary and legislative powers; judicial powers. .. . . . .. · .. .. · . ·

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C l1apter VI:

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Tl,e Developn1e,zt of Exec11t ive l11stiti1tio 11s. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . · · · .. · ··· · · · of Section 1 ·· The C . Mo uncil c . . l1an�1ng Roles of the d n narchy, Pri me Ministry a of t M !n!s �er� 1 n o l u . the Exect1tive Government - Constitutional evo i i Mtnistenal Governn1ent to ·t960; Order No. 44 of 1966; the accou �ta ilitY role of the Government to the Em ging chan 501 pero r, Par liam e nt and State; the . of the Monarchy. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . ... ... · ·· ·· .

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1e. Ministries of tl1 e Govern- . .. G0vemme1;1t� T� C�ntral the ncies Age .· The . . ,, prob len1s gecuon ... of agenc Jurisd . ies; 1ct1on over hoc publi c inves tment nt ''ad proble�s of delegatio11 or· policy-and Jaw­ . :: �nomic developm en!; s. . .. ... ... . . . ... ... ... ... 516 making powers to Executive Agencie C?f �ge�cies of Local Adn1 inistr�tion-tradition al instittient elop1;11 v e D The Section 3: the development _of a syste111 of ''Moderii'' tions; trans1t1 onal 1nst1tut1ons o� theory and p�oblen1� policy; developi11 g instittitions nn1ent; Gover al Loc 1a. .. . .. . .. . ... ... .. . ... . .. .. . 540 p t 1o E 1n h t en m . n er v o g J ca Jo of of Hun1an Reso11rces to Staff Exec11tive Agencies_ pment Develo The Section 4: tlJeories of civil service; the developn1e11t of J)ttblic services law- Consti­ tutional and legislativ e bases. . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .. ... .. . .. . . .. 583 of '' A ccot1ntabiJity''-concepts of roles Problems ''acco11ntability''; diverse : Section 5 of governn1�.ot and d�v:rs� proble�1 s of ''acco1111tability''; sect1ring ' 'acc011nta­ . bility''; various poss1b1l1t 1 es: Parl1ai1 1e11 t� tl1e Courts, tl1 e Executive. ... ... 613 Section 6: Executive Acco111 1tability to La,:vE11forcecf by tl1e1 Co11rts: Judicial Review of AdministrativeAct.ion-Jega1 bases for j11clicial re\ ie\v of ad 111inistrative action: the Constitution; ''Ultra Vires'' ru1d ''Dt1e Process''; tl1 e Codes and partict1lar legislation; limitations on judicial revie\v of ad1ninistrative action; tl1e require­ ments of ''standing'' and of exba11stio11 of ad 1ninistrative ren1edies; limita­ tions on judicial review of discretionary and policy-n1aking ft1nctions en­ trusted to the Agency; nonreviewability: ''Political Questions'' ''Actes de Gou,1 ernement'' and similar problen1s. ... ... ... .. . . .. .. . . . . ... 615

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Section 7: Accountability and the Role of tl1 e E xec11tive - Co11 trols over tl1e Orgar1iza­ tion and Management of Govern111ental Agencies; tl1e role of t!1e pian and the planning process in the in1provement of ''Organizatio11 and J\1anage­ me.nt! '; Ethiopian Third Five Year Development Plan; the proble11-i of cor­ ruption and abuse of powers; machinery to enforce penal Ja"vs dealing vvith corruption and abuse of power; the Procurator-General i n tl1e U.S.S.R.; the Auditor-General in Ethiopia; the role of tl1 e En1peror; t11e President's Pennanent Commission of Enquiry in Tanzania; HIM's I,igaba ancl the Office of Public Relations. ... ... ... ... . . . ... . .. . . . . . . ... 686 Chapter VII:

Parliamen.t arid Legislative l11stiti1tio11s.

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Section 1: The Chamber of Deputies - the rationale of an elected Parliament; de­ puties a.nd th.eir constituents; the problen1 of parties and pressure groups; problems of apportioning representation and representing 11 1inority groL1ps; the electoral law and the ad.n1inistration of elections; tl1e composition of tl1e Ethiopian Chamber of Deputies. ... . . . ... ... . . . ... · · · ·· · · · · Section 2: The Senate - the rationale of a second chamber: foreig11 experiences; the appointm ent and qu.alifications of Senators in Etl1 iopia; tl1e rationale of the Senate in Ethiopia; the composition of tl1e Ethiopian Senate. ... ... Section 3: Org iz.ation and Priv·ileges - Organization; officers and con1 n1 ittees; � Parliamentary Privilege and its inherent powers. ... ... ... .. . ... ... Section 4: Parlia ment and the Executive - Parliament's inforn1ing and investigatory functions and powers - the powers to q11estion min�sters; po'rver_ t<? inv esti­ gate the conduct of executive affairs throt1gh conun1ttees, co1111111ss1ons and special com.missioners· limitations on investigatory con1mittees and tl1e questioning P<:>wer; du� process and ''Executive's privilege''; t�e iI_Dpeacl1ment �ower of Parliament; parliameutary influence on tl1 e Exect1t1v e 1n tl1e a�op­ tion national policy through control o ver the bt1dget �d taxation; x:ecu t�ve pres sure on Parlia.ment; powers over me_mbe_rsh1p, powers of �onv en}ng, suspending and dissolving Parliament; leg1slat1ve powers of tlie Execu t1ve; powers of appointing parliamentary staff. · · · · · · ··· ·· · · ·· 1'be Fu . nctions. and _ s ent in Ethiopia - problem liam Par t men of elop Dev of theo ry; Proble ms of developing institutions, procedtrres and conventions.

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Cl1a1Jter IX: ff11111a11 rigl,ts - Political a; 1cl Eco110111ic Develop111e11t.

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Sectio11 1: The Developing ''Comn1on'' Lavv of Htm1an Rights in a World of Diverse Cultt1res - tl1e United Nations Declaration of Universal Human Rights; the E11ropea11 Convention for protection. of I-Iu.n1an Rights. . .. .. . ... ... 04 9 Section 2: Chapter III of tl1e Revised Constit11tion: i\.11 Overview-notes on the source s of Cl1apter III of tl1e Revised Constitution; the Constitution of 1931; tl1e Universal Declaration of Ht101an Rigl1ts; Legislation establishing the Federa­ tion an(i the institt1tions of Fecleral Govcrru11ent; other legislation: the Ad111inistration of Justice Proclamation and tl1e Public Rigl:its Pro clamation; li1nitations 011 l1L1ma11 rigl1ts. Interpretation of Article 65 of the Revised Conslitution; interpretatio11 and application of the provisions of Cha pter II I of tl1e Revisecl Constitution, in1plementation of constitutional rights tl1rougl1 legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... ... ... ... 911

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ce ene ral ; 1950 (V of Diseases), Negarit Gazeta 10tJ1 .Year No. 3 p · 1 51 No ti , age 531. . Legal ,1..,o . . .· · 2, (Courts, Reg1strat1011 of Advocates) · Neoarit 195 of 166 No . · ce Ga-�e1 a ·i ttl 1 y ear ' LegaJ Notl · . 11 pages 858-859 , 899-900. . N°· ' .Notice No. 176 of 1953, (Execution of Judgen1et1ts), Negarit Gazeta 12t1l y J? . ear -, N o. J ga -te page 531. · · Legal Notice No. 218 of 1959 (National Coffee Board), Negarit Gaze/ct 1 8tl, Year No. S, .. , page 531. (Arms), Negar,t Gazeta 19tl1 Year No. 7, Page S31. 229, No. e Notic l Lega 1961, (Posta�e Rat�s), Negarit Gazeta 21st Year No. 2, Page of 245 No. e Notic l 531. Lega 1962, (Pt1bl1c Service Pe11sions Co111111issio11), Ncgarit Gazera of 250 No. ce Noti l 21st Lega 600. Page 7, No. Year T (Inco11 e 1962, Tax) 258 .1 \ of cgarir Ga:::etcr 22ncl Year No. 1, Page 531. No. � Legal �otice rr\1e11t Acln1 1962 (Pt1b , l1c En11J of lo) 267 No. inistratio11), Neg arit Gazeta 22ncl e Notic Legal Year No. 5, Page 531. Legal Notice No. 269 of 1962, (Publ ic Service RegL1lations No. 1), Negarit Gazetc, 22,,d Year No. 6, Pages 532, 600-609, 684, 893-894. Legal Notice No. 270 of 1963, (Reg11]ations for the Organizatio11 of the Central Perso11 nel Agency), Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No.. 9, Page 600. Legal Notice No. 278 of 1963, (Exclusion fron1 tl1e Coverage of tl1e ter111 ''Pt1blic Servant''), Negarit Gaze/� 23rd Year No. 4, Pages 490, 600. . . Legal Notice No. 284 of 1964 (State of En1ergency 111 tl1e Region Borcler111g th.e RepL1blic of Somalia); Negarit· Gazeta 23rd Year No. 11, Pages 501-504. Legal Notice No. 285 of 1964, (Exclt1sion fron1 tl1e Coverage of t!1e tern1 ''Pt1blic Servant''), Negarit Gazeta 23rd Year No. 12, Page 600. LegaJ Notice No. 321 of 1966, (Associations Registration Regt1latioj1s). 1'/egarit Gazeta 26tl1 Year No. I, Page 948.

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Table of cases cited or di§'.'.tlssed

A.abab_iJ•a l', Haile Se/lassie I University, Higl1 Court Case No. 593/58 (l 966), 11nreported. Pages 627-632. Advocate General v. Hadgu Ghilagaber, (Fed. Higl1 Cot1rt, Cri111. Case No. 897/47 (1955), unreported, Page 916. Cot1rt (1\.ddis Ababa), Civil Case No. Ali Ahnzed Abogn v. Mi,nicipality of r1d(/is Ababa, IIigl1 832/50 (1957), Pages 618-619, · 622. Assefa Dula v. Public Sec11rity Depart111e11t, Higl1 CoL1rt (Addis Ababa),. Civil Case No. 322/58 (1965), Page 862. Baker v. Carr, 362 U.S. 186 (1962), Page 747. Bantam Books Inc. v. S11llivan, 372 U.S. 58, 70, (1963), Page 938. Barenblatt v. U.S., 360 U.S. 109 (1959), Page 198. · Bimetalic Inves t ,nent U.S. 441 (1915), 1 a ge 651. 239 ation; Eq11aliz Co. v. State Board of (Tax) _ Board of Education v Rice, (1911) A.C. Pages 179 182, Pc1ge 641. , , . Bond v. Floyd, 1966, 17 Lawyers' Ed. 2nd 235, Page 754. .. sl1tu Con of nt h . "Bon anz's Case'' (1610) & Co. Rep. 114 a, from Roscoe Pound, ''Develop111e tional Guarantees of Liberty'' (1957) 119-120, Page 638. , Br /e v. � y Fisher; 13 Wall 335 (U.S. Supreme Cot1rt, 1871), Page 669. Bri11 BhLishan v. The State of Delhi, (1950), A.I.R. 129, Page 970. B urns v. Rans/ey, ( 1959), Commonwealth La w Reports 101, 109, 112, Page 971 · Burstyn Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. ·495, 503, 595, (1952), Pages 935 , 938, gZzlon University v. Fernando, (1960), 1 W.C.R. 223, Page 6 41. rnbers v. Florida , 309 U.S. 227, 236-237 (1940), Page 993. Cir:�cago & G.T.R. Co. v. Wellman, 143 U.S. 339, 34 6 (1892), Page 616· 1 681 e g ) a 948 03 ( 0 & S thern .S. P , U 1 Airlines v. Waterman Steamship Corp., 333 �z, fly v. General Construction, Co. U.S. 385 (1926), Page 702. CoOke v. United States, 267 U.S. 517 (1925), Page 992. Co · Dax v. New Harnpshire, 312 U.S. 569, 575-577 (1941), Page ��9,, (1957), Pages 111e Veuv e Sy�leJn Law .J 1 C1v m 1'ro l1e ''T -G n, pier bre Me ravier' from Von 280-2s2' Page-s 642 -644. r:,

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(1897), Page 958. . 43 .S U 7 16 s, tt se 1s l11 ac ss a f J,.; Davis v. I' ... 4: 97 e ag P , 1) 95 . (1 4 49 . '. De,,11;5 v. U.S., 341 1 ll N1ger1a Reports 187, Pages 967.97 _ A , 1) 96 (1 i, Ob v. , 11s io i1t ec os Pr . 4 Director of • ' e , ag . 4) P . 62 BOO 2 .C (194 A . td L ., Co & d ir La l el 111 t11 Ca v. 1 , ,ca D,,, ! ;• 1. es 96 , 9ag 3) P 95 96 (1 9 22 . .S £du,ards v. S0111/1 Caroli11a, 372 U ge , 2. 0) Pa 4 65 95 59 (1 . .S U 9 33 ;,, rr be el ss Ca & r •• Eu•i,,g v. Mytinge e 992. ag , P 8) 88 (1 9 28 . .S U 8 12 , . . rry Te e rt £:, pa ren1e Court (Eth1op1.a), Criminal Appeal 7 Sup l era Fed a, Sofi cia Lis v. r r,to sec Pro l Federa 17 (1959), Page 622. 635. ge , Pa 3) 96 (1 6 72 . .S U 2 37 , pa r11 Sk v. 1 1 0 11s rg Fe ge s 652, 938-939. I Freed111a1z v. Jvlar;1/a11d, 380 U.S. 51 (1965), Pa I . ), 9 63 ge 53 (19 S. Pa U. 8. 2 79 37 , o11 ati tig ves J11 ive lat gis Le a Gibso1z v. Florid ges 960, 973-974. , ; Gitlo>v v. Neu, York, 268 U.S. 652 U.S. 65 2 (1925), Pa Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368, 379 (1963), Pages 745·746. I , . 4, 652 -59 593 Gree11e v. JvlcE!roy, 360 U.S. 474 (1959), Pc1ges , s : Case Law and Comments , (1960), Gregorie v. Biclc!!e, from Gelhom & Byse, ''Administrative Page 364, Page 672. G11/f Co!orac!o etc. Co. v. Ellis, 165 U.S. 150 (1897), Page 980. lfag11e v. C.l. 0., U.S. 496 (1939) Page 958. Jla1111ali v. Lc1rc/1e, 363 U.S. 420 (1960), Page 637. I ff011ki11s v. S111etliivitlz Local Boarc! of Jiea!th, 24 Q.B.D. 713 (1890), Page 638. /11 Re Cl1ap111an, 166 U.S. 661, 669-670 (1897), Pages 790, 792. [11 Re Oliver, 333 U.S. 257 (1948), Pages 991-993. Interstate Co111111erce Co111r11issio1z v. U11iorz Pacific RJ'., 222 U.S., 541, 547 (1912), Page 619. Joh11sto11 v. Jones, from ''Ballantine Law Dictionary'' (1948). Page 500. Joi11t A11ti-Facist Lec1g11e v. JvlcGrc1tl, ( Attor11ey G11arcl), 341 U.S. 123 (1951), Page 676. Ka11da v. Federatio11 of Malaya, (1962), 2 W.C.R. 1153 (Malaya) (Privy Council 1962), Pages 638-641. l(athi Rani11g v. State of Sa11rasl1tra, (1952), A.I.R. (Supreme Court) 123, Page 980. l(ilbour11 v. Tho111pso11, 103 U.S. 168 (1881), Pages 789-792, 798. LiJ1a11age v. Tlze Qc1ee11, 1 All England Reports 650, (1966), Page 861. Local Govern11 1e11t Boarc! v. Arlidge, (1915), A.C. 120, Page 638. Locl<ner v. NeH• Yorlc, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), Page 635. 1vfahJ 1ob S'yid Razilc v. I11la11cl Reve111,e Depart111e11t, High Court, Civil Appeal No. 416/56 (1964), unre.ported, Pc1ges 685-686. ,\1arb11ry 1•. Madiso11, l Cl1ranch 137 (1803), Pages 799, 861. Marti11. 1 . FI1111ter's Lessee, 1 Wl1eat 304 (1816), Page 861. McGra111 v. Dai1gl1erty, 273 U.S. 135 (1927), Pages 786-792. • 624es (1965),Pag Afesfi,, Zelel/eil' v. Mi11istr;1 of P11blic 1Vorks, 2 Journal of Ethiopian Law 289 626_ No. 720/SO Appeal MiniSlry of Finci11ce v. .11veclis Saradjia11, Supren1e I 111perial Civil Court, · (1958), Pc1ges 686, 861.. "Afissotiri, Ka,1sas and Te.,Yas R.ailroad v. lvfay, 194 U.S. 267 (1904), Page 973. MoreJ' v. Do11cl, 354 U.S. 457 (1957), Page 978. • "A111s!cart v. U.S., 219 U.S. 346 (1911), Page 676. ), g 95 ( 9 .S. Nat,o,,at Associatio1 1 for Advance111e11t of Colo11red Peo,ple l' · Patterso n' 357 U 44 l ,, Page 941. Nieniotl<o v. lvfaryla,,d, 340 U.S. 268 (1951), Pa ge 958. •. . . 367 U.S. N�to v. U. 290 (1961), Page 916. � o, lo.ff v. �Vtllo,,glib;,, from Jafre, ''Judicial Review of Administrative Action'' (19 65), Page 361 Page 680. R;:,;�s v. AiitsJvortl,, from Jaffe, ''Judicial Review of Administrativ eActio n'' (1965), Page 366' Page R. v. 1¥allace Jol1nso11 ' 5 W•A C A • • • 56, 60 .ca ge 970 n Ro, a J1 1· Tl1�rfJ �a; v. The State of Madras, (1950), A.I.R.. 124, Page 910. Ro:h : U fates, 354 l!·S, 47 6 (1957), Pa ge 938. Sclzecl1;e, ;o�ltrY C v. United States, 295 (1953), Pages 535-531. . 973 t 42 State of A,fad·as 9 , ' Pages 940 , v. � .G. Row, 196-197, A.I.R. Pages (1952), S.C. State of · ngal v. A11>var Alf, A.I.R. (1952), S.C. Page 75, Page ?19. tive tra e;,�� nis St.,,Joseph Yards Co. v. United States, from Jaffe, ''Judicial Review of A drni Action ' (196S)' page 381, Pages 617-618.

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from Jain, ''Indja n Co11stit11tional Law'' (1962), Pages 70171 . Goc1la, P1111it v. ndra . Saresh Cha 75. page 1 , v. New JJa,npshire, 354 U.S. 234 (1957), Page 798. i::t: 'Mikael A bdi v. Estate of Belaynesh, Azbte , Supren1e I111perial Court (1964), 3 Jourt)al e 881. g a P ), 6 6 9 (1 5 2 w a L n ia . of E.th1.0P. ,·e/lo v. Chicago) 337 U.S. 1, 4-5 (1949), Pages 927, 961, 974. Ter1ntn · Ababa), Order No. · secur1ty epartent, ( C h FI' D · 1g ot11·t Acld1s Public v. 22/SS . Tewfik Sherif . 861-862 s Page l96S) ( The Tokyo Ordinance Decision, as translated in Maki, ''Cot1rt a11cl Constitution in Japan'' . 3 6 -9 1 a 6 es 9 P 6, 1 -1 84 � es 1964), Pag ( Times Filn1 Co. v. Cl11cago, 355 U.S. 55 (1962) Page 930 . University of Ce.vlon v. Fernando, (1960), All Englancl Reports Vol. 1, 109, Page 638. U.S. v. Runzely, 345 U.S. 43 (1953), Page 792. Virenda v. State of Punjab, A.I.R. (1957), S.C. 896, Pages 939-940. Wason v. Walter, 4 Queen's Bench 73 (1868), Pages 774-775. Wilner v. Con11nittee on Character and Fit11ess, 373 U.S. 96 (1963), Page 652. Winters v. New York, 333 U.S. 507, 510 (1948), Page 9 35. z, Woube Wolde Se/lassie v. Kefelew Walde Tsadik, 2 Jour11al of Etl1io1)ia11 Law 54 (1965). Page 894. Wright v. Rockefeller, 316 U.S. 52 (1965), Page 745-746. Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886), Pages 980-982. Youngstott1n Sheet and T11be Co. v. Saw;,er, 343 U.S. 579 (1952), Pc1ges 475-476.

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A.c.knowledgment of thanks for 11ermission to reproduce Grateful acknowledgen1ent is made to tl1e publisl1ers and copyrigi1t l1olders listed belovv for permission to reproduce from the works listed.

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Title

All en & Unwi.n American Journal of Comparative Law Butterw orths Butterworths & Journal of African Law

Lewis

Politics i11 f1/est Africa

Robertson Brown & Gamer

Ei,ropea11 Co11rl of HL11'11a.11 Rig/11s (1960) (1967) Fre11c/1 Ad111i11istrative Lau,

Berekete Ab Habte Selassie

Constit1.1tio11al Develop111e11t Etlriopia

Sedler Tussman .& Brock

Tl1e Clzilot Ji1risclictio11 of t!1e £111(1964) peror of Etltiopia Tfze Eq11al Protectio11 of tire La}vs (1949)

Jennings Maffat

Parlia1net1t The Legislative Process

Califo�ia Law Review Cambridge Unjversity Press Cornell Law Quarterl · n:i�s, Journal y of the encan Academy of Arts and Scien ces

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. Af.r1ca n East Law

Journal Gbai & McAuslan

pa· ber Fa ber Faber & p,.P<> & F aber l':'"·PfC5S 8a11c o_lla .uo. ss1e I Unj � Cl's1ty, Pa cuJty or' Law , 'R...... . PCr & R.ow •"4l(

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The Law Making Process ir, Ethiopia : cy cr 1o en D f o y g o g a ed � P e h T ia d In ,n s st te ro P ic bl u P ve ci er o C

Redden

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Pzlblication

The Political 1Yfoder11izatio11 of Traditional Monarclzies Men1ora11du1n for the Consid�ra­ tion of tl1e Preside11t's Co111n1t­ ssion to Corzsider Cl1ar1ges i11 t/1e Constitutio11 of Tanganyika Tlze Govern1rze11t of Ethiopia Tlze Britisli Parlia,nent Political Parties

Huntington

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Butterworths & Jo·umal of African Law

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(1966)

(1957) (1938)

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rlarvarcl Law Review r�rarvard La,,v Revie,1i1 f.lar,,ard Law Revie,v

Ca.rdozo Jaffe Ste11

Harvard University Press International Co1111nission of Jt1rists International Conunis­ sion of JL1rists International Conu11is­ sion of JL1rists

Ber111a11

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Jot1rnal of Etl1iopia11 La,v

Aberra Jen1bere

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Jot1r11al of Etl1iopian Law !vleaos Jot1rnal of Etl1iooia11 Lavv Krzeczu110\.vicz ,. Journal of Etl1iopian Studies Sl1ack Lavv a11d Co11te111prary Proble111s Librarie Dalloz Little Bro,v.n & Con1_pany

Jaffe

McGraw-I-Ii 11 Co1111Jany

Alderfer

Mi11istry of I11forn1atio11

I-I.I.M. I-Iaile Sellassie

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T/1e Doctri11e of Prior Restraint Petit Dicriori11iaire de Droit ftidicial Corztrol of Adn1inistratil1e Actio11 Local Gol'er11111e11t in Developing Cot1J1tries Selected Speecl1e.s

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Mi11istry of La11d Reforr11 · ar1d Ad1ni11istration

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!v1orga11 & Morgar1 .

Gell1or11 & B)1se

Ivlt1kl1apadl1yag Nevv A1nericao Library

Bayley King

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Tl1e Develop,nent of Legal Sys­ te,ns Tlz.e · Etliiopia,z Experience T/1e P1·erogative of t/1.e Enzperor to Deter111i11e Polrers of Adm.infsf rati1·e Agencies Tl1e Et}1iopia11 Bltdget People, Practices, AttitL1des and Proble,ns in the Lo•ver Courts of Etl1iopia Tl1e Adr11i11istrati:vP Fra111e1vork for Eco110111ic Develop,nent in Ethiopia E,-nploJ1ees lvho ,nay not Strike Hierarcliy of Lari's i,1 Etliiopia

Journal of Etl1iopia11 La\v Fraser

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Jot1rnal of Etl1iopian Law Bt1lcl1a Den1eksa Jot1rt1al of Etl1 iopian Law, Geraghty

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Marcie

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Da�e of pU.bl1 Gation

A Ministry of Justice J u d ic ia l Re_vie1,v: Qriestion o Tlie [!omnzerce Clause a f Fact nd the Natzonal Eco11omv Jr1stice in th .e V.S.S. R.

IIan1bro -

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New York University Scl1ool of Law

Vanderbilt

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Belofl· w·heare

Yale University Press

Good11ow

Date o f Publicatioi1

A Profile of t/1e Etl1iopia11 Eco ,10111;, Tilze A111er1c�r� Legislative Proc . es s Soviet .1lcl1111111strative Lega lity , T/7� l\el v Co1r11110111Pcri/tl, a,1,/ its � _ LOtlSI I Iiit io11s L a�v _i11 c, C/1a11gi11g Society Pr111c1JJ/cs of Socirrl <.� Politic al T/1eorJ, Tl1e /l111erica11 Ferlfrr1I Gover11111e11t .Lc,{Jis Inf11res

(1969) (1964) (1962) (1964) (I 964)

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f_c111, Dictio11c1rJ' S1a�e S'ecrets-.4 Co111parc1ti11e s·111cly l11c/1a1z Co11sritr1tior1a/ .Lc1111

Finer Davis Bishop

(1948) (1951) (1962)

�[!1c Brilis/1 Syste11t .r1d1r1i11istrative Laiv Treatise T/1e Exec11ti1·e·s Rig/rt ofPrivc1c;1: .1111 U11rcso!l'eci Co11s1it,,tio11al Qi1estio11 Tf1e Civil Service of· Pal<ista11

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Notices of Approval N?tice of Approval No. 8 of 1963, (Approves Civil Aviation Decree 21/ 17 (1962) D. 48), Negarzt Gazeta 22nd Year No. 9, Page 481. Notice of Disapproval No. 1 of 1963, (Disapproves Iluilcli11g Materials .Excise Tax Decree 19/11 (1960) D. 41), 1Vegarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 1 0, Pc1gfs 483, 829.

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Order No. 1 of 1943, (Minisiers, Defi.nition of Pov·vers), Negctrit Gctzeta 211d Year No. 5, Pages 450, 455, 492, 508, 518, 539, 853-854, 877, 889, 899�900. Order No. 2 of 1943, (Ministers, Definir ion of Po,vers A111e11dn1e11t), 1Vegari1 Gazetc1 3rcl Year No. 1, Pages 508, 518. �rder No. 6 of 195 2, (Incorporation a11d Inclusion of tl1e '"ferritory of Eritrea witr1in tl1c Emprre of Ethiopia), 1Vegarft Gazeta 12tl1 Yea1· No. 1, Pages 914-915, 920. . . , T n 14t a ze1 Ga Order No. 14 of 1954, (Ministers, Definition of Po\vers A.1ne11dment), 1\ egartt Year No. 2, Pages 455-456, 508, 934. Orde·r No. 20 of 1958, (Ministry of Pensio11s), Negc1ril Gazeta 17�11 Year No. 9, Page 53?. l1 Year No. 2, l8t a zet Ga r,t ga Ne ), 111y Ar ial tor der Or No . 21 of 1958, (Creating I n1perjal Terri Page 499. st 21 tc, ze Ga it ar eg 1V ), ice rv Se ic bl Pu d Order No. 23 of 1961, (Central Personnel Agency an Year No. 3, Pages 450 489-490 532 , 590 595-6 00, 684, 893-894. 5 l Year No. l S, 2l ta ze Ga it c1r eg N t1) tio ra r , . Orde No. 26 of 1962, (Public E m ploy�ent A.dn1inist Page 531. · .l .c . 0 1e�pp �;�� ; �� l cl t ari e i�r Er o � f �LlS Sta O ral de . rder ·No. 27 of 1962, (T�rrniriat ion.of the Fe 2 Ga 11 , ga Ne , ia) iop 1 l Et r t En ea of the S ystem of Unitary Administration of tl1e Empire of Year No · 3·, Page 445. · Neg,1rit . ' . . · nt) 111e I ne Je (An ice rv Se 0rde r No . 28 of 1962 ' (Central Personnel Agency and Public . Gaze· ta 22 nd year 22t1 c l No. 6, Pages 490, 595-600 · . 1 Gaze tc rit ) ega N ' ·, 1JJa uo Etl of 0rd nk Ba r e l na . tio No Na . 30 of 1963 ' (Cl1arter of the ·year N o · 20, Pages 459, 505. . the Reg · .n Borderi11g tl1e . Or �erNo. 32 f 64 1 11 cy en rg 1e �� n fE o te ta S t f ra o n 19 la o io · ec (D it. b � � Negarit Gazeta, 23rd ep�t � of SomaJia), Negarit Gazeta 23rd Ye-ar N o. lO, Pag es SOOd t) e e Am r r No. 33 of 1964 (Ministers' Definition of Powers), ( · iJ "' 'ea· r Noe. ' · .. 10' Pages 456, 9��Pages 13, No Year . . 23rd Gaze /a ·it Order No. 34 of a, . · ) · Neg - 4 3-46¢ , rd Boa ( t Mea , d n a. 1964 Livestock 6 .

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n atio por rter Cor Cha in Gra ian iop Amendment), Ne arit (Eth 4, 196 of 35 . No Order g Ga zeta 9. 45 5, 45 s 23 rd Ye ar No. 16 , Page n), izatio Organ st Negarit Gazeta 24th Touri pian (Ethio 1964, of 36 No. Order Year No. 1, Page 454. Order No. 41 of 1965, (Etl1io1Ji.a11 Air J_,i11es Charter (Repeal), Negarit Gazeta 25t h Year No · 4, Pages 454-455. Order No. 43 of 1966, (Local Self - Adn1i11istration), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 9 (B), Pages 451, 563-573, 583. Order No. 44 of 1966, (Ministers' Definition of Powers, Amendment), Negarii Gaz era 25{h Year No. 10, Pages 448, 450, 466, 489, 492, 510-513, 539, 590, 687. Order No. 45 of 1966, (Etl1iopian Antiquities Administration), Negarir Gazeta 25th Yea No. 17, Page 454. r Order No. 46 of 1966, (Ministers' Definition of Powers), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 23 Pages 450, 452, 492-493, 508, 518-522, 538, 562-563, 703-704, 876-877, 882, 889, 891-892, g92: 893, 896-897, 933-934. Order No. 56 of 1969, (Public Safety and Welfare), .¥egarit Gazeta 28th Year No. 13, Pages 983-986, 985-986. Order No. 60 of 1969, (Public Safety and \Velfare Amendment No. 1), Negarit Gazera 29th Year No. 7, Pages 983-985. Proclan1ation No. 1 of 1942, (Establishment of the Negarit Gazeta), Negarir Gazera 1st Year No. 1, Pages 472, 853-854. Procla1nation No. 2 of 1942, (1-\d1ninistration of Justice), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. I, Pages 531, 843, 853-854, 855-856, 877-878, 879-880, 889, 896-897, 899-900, 915. Proclan1a.tio11 No. 4 of 1942, (Public Seci.1rity), Negarit Gaze/a 1st Year No. l , Page 983. Proclan1ation No. 13 of 1942, (Authority to Issue Orders), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 2, JJage 531. Proclamation No. 17 of 1942, (Post Olfice), 1Vegarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 4, Page 531. Proclan1ation No. 26 of 1942, (Public Healtl1), Negarit G·azeta 2nd Year No. 2, Pages 533534-, 619. Proclan1alion No. 28 of 1942, (Printi11g Control), Negarit Gaze/a 2nd Year No. 2, Pages 931, 934, 937. Procla111ation No. 29 of 1942, (Public Prosecutors), lvegari1 Gazeta 2.nd Year No. 2 S, Pages 704, 857-858. Proclan1ation No. 35 of 1943, (Tra11s1Jort), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 7, Pages 538, 624-626. Proclan1ation No. 37 of 1943 (Entertainn1ents Ceosorsl1ip), Negarit Gazera 2nd Year No. 8, Petges 931-932, 934, 937. IO, .PagesProclan1ation No. 39 of 1943, (Custon1s ar1d Export Duties).· Negarit Gaze/a 2nd Year No. 538-539. Proclaination No. 54 of 1944 (Public Security. Arnendn1ent) Neaarit Gazeta 3rd Year No. 7• 0 ' JJage 983. P o la111at�on No. 68 of 1944, (ln1perial Ar111y), Negarit Ga.zeta 3rd Year No. 11, Page � � ��: tion No. 74 of 1945, (Mt1nicipalities), Negarit Gazeta 4th Year No. 7, Pages p � 5531 �f� ��1� Proclamatiotl No. 90 of 1947, (Establisl1n1ent of Local Judges) Negaril Gazeia 6th y ear , No. 10 Pages 854-856, 868. 1 p aniatioi1 1�0- 91 of 1947, (Pt1blic Health), Negarit Gazera 6th Year No. 12, Pages 53' 533, ���� Proclanlation No. 118 of 1951, (Public Prose , o. N Ye ar ct1 tors) ' Negarit Gazeta 10th lI Pages 857-858. y r Proclan, atioil No. 121 of 1952 (Coff 11th a a ee Cle ·ni11g and Grading) ' ea · ' Negarit Gaze/ No. 5, Page 539. year h Procla111ation No • 12·3 0f 1gs? (P . . 11t zeta G a -, ubl1c Negar1t Prosecutors Amendment) · ' No. 11 , ·p· age 704. J N Procla1nation No · 1· 30 A 0f 1 . . . Year °· ' l3th 9 5 3, Gazeta (Federal Negar1t Jud1c 1 ary), Pc,ge 914. 1 3 ges 61 p Proclamation N0· 139 0f 1 a . . 0· 3' N 9 Year 53, (Public J 3th R1gl1ts), Negarit Gaze ta 915. •

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Code, . Penal of Etl1iopia, 1930, Pages 842-843, 848-850, 852. l)rocla111ation No. 158 of 1957, Negarit Gazeta 16th Etl1iopia, of Pen ,ll Code, . year, · 504, 674, 701481, 703, .Pages 466, ordi nary Isst1e No. 1, Extra. 862-866, 870-872. s84 _885 , 920, 932, 950-951, 958, 964-967, 983, 986, 987-988. .' C?de, Mariti111e of Etl1iopia, Pro�la1l1ation r�o. 164 of 1960, Negarit Gcize, a 191h \' ear Ex. traordr nary Issue No. 1, Pages 615, 884-885. Code, Civil of Ethiopia, Procla111atio11 No. 165 of 1960 }legarit Gazeta 19th Year Rx nary Iss11e No. 2, Pages 453, 456, 495-496, 620-622, 660-663 ) 666-676 762 823 al�aordi' ' ' . , 845, 871-872, 884-885, 920, 946-948, 986, 992. Code, Co1111nerci_al of Etl1i<:>pi�, J>roclamati�n No. 166 of 196?, Negaril Gaze ta 19th Ye Code, Co1 11n1erc1al of EthIOl)!a, Procla1nat1on No. 166 of 1900, Negarit Gazeta 19th Yeaar r Extraordi11ary IssLie No. 3, Pages 615, 884-885. Code, Cri111inal Procedt1re of Etl1iopi,1, Procla1natio11 (u11nur11beredJ of 1961, !{egarit G , a 21st Year Extraorclinary Issue No. 1, Pc,ges 504, 704, 857, 862, 868, 870, 872, 874-875 882 °9�; ' ' ' 986, 988-989.

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of Afgl1a11islan, 1964, (selected Articles), Pages 839-840. of Bt1rL1ndi, 1962, Art. 58, Pt1ge 489. of Daho111ey, 1964 (selected 1-\.rticles), Page 835. of Eritrea, 1952, (selectecl Articles), Pages 440, 469, 475, 912-915, 931.

Constitution of Etl1iopia, 1931, Art. 6 Page 439. Ar t. 11 Page 4-51. Arts. 50-54 Pc,ges 853-854. Arts. 18-29 (Chap. IJI) Pages 911-913, 914-915, 916, 920.

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Constitution of Ethiopia, lle,,ised (1955) I Art. Pages 440, 493. ·1'j . •. Art. 4 Pc1ge 87 4-87 5. ' Art. 8 Page 509. Art. 10 .Page 509. l Art. 11 Page 509. • > Art. 13 ] age 509. . Art. 17 Page 509. ,1 Art. 19 Page 469. .I ' >c,ges 459-460. Art. 21 . I J Art. 26 Pages 439-441, 443, 445, 794, 874-875, 877-878 ; , gJO, 827, · · J.. 794 > 1, Art. 27 J ages 441-456, 459-461, 463, 468-469, 507, 518, 5 _ • 829, 874-875. Art. 28 P,1ges 445, 812. J' Art. 29 Pages 445,993-994. . 'l Art. 30 Pages 444-4.46, 452, 491, 493-494, 496 . ,;I· Arr. 31 Pages 445,469, 505, 934. -� 1\.rr. 32 Pages 444-445, 468, 505. --.i ,-,. Art. 33 ' Pages 441, 444-445, 505, 507, 794, 828. . . ...' Art. 34 J:>c1ges 444-445, 464, 469, 505, 507, 794, 8I 7. · 892�893, .,• • Art. 35 Pages tl44-445 505 873-875 877, 880-881, 881-883, l 986 · -:, 920 . Art. 36 , 911, 'i 875, 8744 l t1ges 440-445'' 459 ' 61 ' 794 ' 8 0 ' Art. 37 Pages 645, 744, 912, 919, 977-978. -.I Art. 38 Pages 645, 744, 912, 977-978. . . . l

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Page 481. Pages 645, 734, 919, 977. Page 481. Pages 619, 622, 635-636 641 645 647 , 651 675, 919, 939, 977. ' ' · ' ' Pages 619, 622, 919. Pages 469, 734, 919, 977. Page 919. Pages 899-900, 919. Page 919. Page 990. Pages 899-900, 911, 990. Pages 912, 919, 990. Pages 912, 920. Pages 451, 912. Page 912. Pages 480-481, 912, 919. Pages 874-875, 919. Page 919. Pages 518, 620, 663, 668-669, 676, 683, 919. Pages 874-875, 919. Pages 469, 495. Pages 441, 481, 493, 913, 919, 920, 923, 977, 993. Pages 450, 468, 508, 518, 590, 830, 846. Page 508. Pages 450, 781, 794, 810. Page 508. Page 509. Pages 507-508, 823. Pages 508, 518, 753, 770, 777, 780-781, 794? 829. Pages 518, 770, 777, 779, 782, 794, 829. Pages 669, 826, 829, 866. Page 472. Pages 441, 769, 827. Page 195. Pages 773, 779. Pages 444, 469, 472, 814, 816, 920. Pages 470-472, 920. , 817 , 815 , , 794 769 . , 590 , 576 8, 50 , i71 Q.t 47 , 64 3·4 46 1, 45 4, s Page 44 828, 920. Pages 451, 471, 576, 590, 769, 920. Pages 451, 471, 576, 590, 769, 920. Pages 444 471-472, 590, 769, 823-824, 920. 4, 815, 826, 828, 88579 9, 76 6, 76 2, 68 0, 59 7, 50 8, 47 547 Pages 410: 886, 920. Pages 743-744, 747. Page 828. Page 769. Page 153. Page 828. Page 764. Page 764. Page 763. · 1 8 -8 7 7 8 , 4 7 8 -8 64 8 ��8. 4 8 1 , 6 7 6 , 6 8 3 , 861, s 879878, 877 874, 812, . 893-895. 441, Pages 82 , 88 879 8, 877 -87 - ° 893 . Pages 683 , 892 ·ii t8 85 · 88 , 2 8 • 8 0, 88 987 Pages 877-878, Pages 877-878, 879-880. Pages 453, 470, 812, 829. Pages 45 3, 518, 815. 5· 81 , 4 79 , 10 7 8, 51 8, 0 es Pag 5 · 9 2 8 , 7 1 8 , 6 1 -8 5 1 8 Pages 518, Pages 518, 815.

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Decrees Decree No. 1 of 1942, (Ad111inistrative Regulations for Local Government), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 6, Pages 546-551, 812, 853-854. Decree No. 2 of 1942; (The Administration of the. Church), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 3, Pages 853-854. Decree No. 28 of 1957 (National Coffee Board), Negarit Gazeta 17th Year No. 4, Page 531. Decree No. 32 of 1958, (At1ditor General, Ft1nctions), .'?Vegarit Gazeta 18th Year No. ·1, Pages 709-712. Decree No. 41 of 1960, (Building Materials Excise Tax), Negarit Gazeta 19th Year No. 11, Pages 478-479. Decree 1'To. 45 of 1961, (Penal Code, Penalties), Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 15 Pages, 477-481, 766. · Decree l�o. 46 of 1961, (Public Servants' Pension), Negarit Ga.zeta 20th Year No. 11, Pages

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Decree No. 49 of 1962, (Labot11· Relations), Nega1·it Gazeta 21st Year No. 18, Page 6?S. Decree No. 52 of 1965 (Civil Procedt1re Code), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 3, Pages 82�-824

General Notices . .

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Year ��� a Gazet Negarit General Notice No. 59 of 1945, (Cl1arter of Ethiopian 1\.ir Lines), No. 4 ,- Page 455 . rnGove the be General 1--rotice No. 61 of 1945, (Desig11ation ot' the Minister of Finance to ment's Stockl1olc�er in E.A.L. I11c., Negarit Gl1zeta 5t11 Ye ar No . 4, Page 455. . . ta 13th Gaze t Geiieral i'lot1ce No. 172 of 1954 (Cl1arter of the City of �-\ddis Ababa), Negarr . Ye ar No. 10, . Pages 579-582. · . . 63 7 Gene�al Not�ce �o. 241 of 1958, (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta 18th Yt:ar No. a �' ���azet · · n Gei1 eral Notice No. 253 of 1959, (Cl1,11·ter ot' the Haile Sellassie I Foundation), Ji[�ga l8tl1 Year No. 11, Pages 457-i.,58. . 64. 7 e l'i General Not�ce No . 255 o 1959 (Appoint111ents), N_eg rit Gaz ta 18th Ye� No. 10�,i� eta. � e_ a_ az General Notice No. 267 of 1960 (Chatter of the Etl11op1 eg_ Corporation), P/. ,. , -. Gra in an l9th Year No . 8, Pages 455, '459. . · . 64. · 7 . e dg p 7 General Not�ce No. :283 of 1961, (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta 20th Year N�- '' , et 20th ·. General Notice No. 284 of 1961, (Haile St!Ilassie I University Charte r), Negarit yaz. a Year No. 8, P ges 458-460, 627-62 63 , · 455 8, c: 063 1. e ag p ene ral ' No No ti_ c e No ' . 286 of 1961, (Appoint1nents), Negarit Gazeta 20th Y� Mt,z,,it-·Gazeta_ g a -:· ene

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ral Notice No. 299 of 1962, (Charte r of � e__g_ . rity ), Au tho Va the� Awash· · lley . . 218t y ear No. 7 , Pages 461-4 · · · , · · , 25 6 3 5 8 2 1 -5 2 2 ' · . , • . Pat � · General N0 t·ice No. 330 of 1964 .;:·1.........:_ · .. 0·· ?4 N ' ... 7 r Yea 23rd (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta •

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HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY LAW F.ACULT·y PUBLlCATIQNS

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Soft Cover Hard Laws of Addis Ababa, ed W.Ewino Co oli dated s n U.S.$ 4 . A The Fetha Negast-The Ethiopian Law of the Kings . ,. 25. n Criminal Procedt1re Ethiopia Fisher, 18. 23. Introduction to Ethiopian Pe11al Law Graven, An 10. Huntingford, Land Charters of Nor,tl1ern Etl1iopia 6. 11. Krzeczu nowicz, Law of Ext1·a Co11tract,ual Obligations 4. 6. Lowenst'ein, Materials for the St11dy Ethiopi,1n Penal Law 10. 15. Marin, Land Tenure in Chore (Sl1oa) 3.50 Pankhurst, State and Land in Etl1iopian I-listory 10. 15. -,· Paul and Clapham, Etl1iopian Constit11tjonal Development, J 15. Paul and Cla.pl1am, Ethiopia3:1 Constitutional Developn1e11t, II 18. .,. Redden, Law Making Process in Ethiopia 1. Sedler, Ethiopian Civil Procedt1re 13. 18. Vanderlinden, Ethiopian Law of Pe1·sons 5. 7. (in French) Berhane Ghebray, L'Organisation de !'Administration Local e n Ethiopie 5. 7.

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B. JOURNAL OF ETP.JOPIAN LAvV - (1964- to present) A scholarly publication fea·turiI1g articles conce11.1ing all aspects of Ethiopian Law, with case reports i n each iss11e (the only a,;ailable source of Ethiopian case decisions.) "•

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Haile Law, of ty Facul the . All of th . from e ab o·ve _works n1ay be purchased 111 E �hr. �pra ·. S.eU _ · e I Un1.v · · .assi ers1ty, Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Etl110P 18· ..

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D J E E IB H R T T F U F O O N IO L N AH CONQUERI G HAILE SELLASSIE I ELECT OF GOD, EMPEROR OF ETHIOPIA

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g b gi e nin th at of o, ag Our Re�gn. We 8l'anted s ar ye r fou tyen tw , � AS � WHERE _ j t1on for 1tu nst the Co a d ime cla pro prr Em and e ts jec of Sub Ethiopia: .1 to Our faithful •

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WHEREAS, ALMIGHTY GOD, 'I'HE SOURCE OF ALL BENEF ITs, has strengthened and inspired Us to lead Our beloved People, during Our Reign, :� throt1gh the greatest of trials and hardships to an era of great progress in all fields; • .1 . and

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WHEREAS, being desiro·us of consolidating the progress achieved and of laying a solid basis for the ha.ppiness and prosperity of the present and futnre generations of Our People, We have prepc:!red a Revised Consti-tution for Our Empire, after many years of searching study and reflection; and

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WHEREAS, Ot1r Parliament, af,ter the due examination and deliberation, bas .. st1b111itted to U S its approval of ·this Revised Constitution; · .J1 NOW THEREFORE, WE, HAILE SELLASSIE I EMPEROR OF ETIIlO· .] l PIA, do, on the occasion of the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of Our Coronation, ) J . l1ereby p1·oclain1 and place into force and effect as from to-day, the Revised 1 .Constitution of the En1pire of Ethio·pia, fo.r the benefit, welfare, and .progress of .i Our beloved People. 1! 'i

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GIVEN in 0,ur In11Jerial Capital, 011 this the 4th day of November, 1955, and

on the Twenty-Fiftl1 Anniversary' of 011r Coronatio n.

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HAILE SELLASSIB I

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Emperor

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TSAHAFE TEZAZ TAFAR RA WORQ Minister of the Pen.

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IMPERIAL POWERS

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CHAPTER V THE POW ERS AND PREROGATIVES OF TllE EMPEROR Sun1ma1·y of Co11terzts

as Sovereign ''S ror overeignty'' a11 cl ''SllIJren1c AutJ101.1·t·y'' Em pe T'li e . Arti 1: · n Sectio , un , d e r ' 'E mperor as sovere1gn 1n , ·· 1 c e A · rt 1c 1e 36, and ,vl1etl1er tl1is Article be 26; _t�e sto ws any s. er \v po add1t1onal

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Section 2: Th� �o'Yer of the En1peror to Crea1 te Age11cies of G?ver11111e11t ar1 d Assign Tl,eir Jur1s�1 ct1on - �he nat111;e �f the .po� er t_o create age11c1es; t!1e origi11s and rationale of this po,ver; its �on�tit11t1or1al L1n11ts \V1tl1 regard �o regl1latioi1 a11ct pltblic finance; the form and pl1bl1cat1�n C?f e11a_ct 1 1�ents tinder _Article 27; tl1e prob]e111 of J111 perial Charters, and. th� con�t.1tut1011al basis of agencies set u1J by tl1e111; tl1e Article 27 "Order power'' 1n action; Orders a11d otl1er exect1ti,1c legislation isst1ed since 1955. Section 3: The Law Making A11tl1ority: tl1e Emperor in Parlia111ent - tl1e 111ea11ing of ''lav,'' in the Constitution; consideration of lavvs by Parlian1e11t; pron1ulgatio.n and veto. Section 4: The Decree Po\ver - Article 92; its ration,1le; tl1e pron1t1lgation and consideration of Decrees; forms of parliamentary action on tl1en1; Procla1nations, Decrees and Par­ liamentary Notices issued since 1955.

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Section 5: The Appointment Power - Articles 27 and 66; delegation of tl1e appointn1ent power; the scope of the appointn1ent power.

Section 6: Foreign Relations and the T reaty Po\.ver - the condt1ct of foreign affairs; international agreements and the Constitution; international agreen1ents reqt1iring parlian1entary approval. Section 7: Military and Emergency Powers - the control of tl1e armed forces; state of siege, martial law, and n.ational emergency. Section 8: Brief Notes on other Powers - honours; tl1e minting po,ver; parlianientary and legis­ lative powers; judicial powers.

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REIGN SECTION I: THE EMPEROR AS SOVp -

Read: Articles 26, 36 of th.e Constitution of 1955; Articles 6, 29 of the Constitution of 1931; The discussion of ''Sovereignty'' in Cl1apter I; . . . nar1es Definitions of ''Sovereignty'' in several law dict1o

26 le ic rt A r de un '' ty ri ho ut ''Sovereignty'' and '' Supreme A t u b , 1 3 · 9 f 1 o 11 · io t t1 it t s · clearly deri ved from Article 6 f tl1e c On · Art1cle 26 1s i 5 5 9 1 11 c d I : ; :;1� �;t ;hereas in 1931 the words ''supreme power'' are :1sed, ,�I1ese nce refere the ty SUPP aguer albeit mo v Y · re impressi ve t erm ''Sov ereign to· ''Supr eme authority''. 111_ tl1e rs JJO�ve . any . .1s wl1et�er 1.-1 vests Th e 1:11a1n problem . d 26 s e cl ti article r A r a y se b er 1 i otl m of 1. tue Eo peror in �dd ses c er e h eady x at h tion hi h al:r e 1 to b:� w ; t c � os e ask: �b 1 1 _ tl1e ft nust _ n s t ar e � C� 1: utton. If 1t does vest !um with _sue� pow e;;� urposes o'. th� Art icle? e p e a wl1 t W Y · If i doe s not we h ave tl1e n to ask· ,tt � · by consider111 g unde r tica a r p put re mo t � j ::ii·tuti o na l la wyer 1nig�t hese questions in a different, wl�a��{ 0 n u only i wor g k the as cially find h' rc mstan ·ces and for w h at reasons a espe ' er ow p of · self o _.un jge.d to refer to Article 26 as a source bl soufet. . . of Po · we · r 1or action. � a

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�tic�.e 26 is divided int� two cla11ses: the first vests the ''So, _ _ s cond states .Em 11·e'' 1n the Em_pe1·or, while t�e _. e er that � 1: }1 e ''exerc.i� Jgnty· oft _ '·/· .

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(emphasis added�. lt wou_ld seem, graIU1natic�lly,_ that the qW:�/\e Con.stz1111iDlj:; ; ' y ng Phra s , .l' . , :. _ tl1e prese11t 1n for ut1 d Const1t provide . · the ma1111er on, e '' refer s in - ,, onl . y to tl1e . . of s11pre1ne at1tb01·1ty, and not to t1 1e gra11t of ''S· overe1gnty'' in the fi exercise: :/ i,) rst clause. .:. /J . · ._ Let 11s tl1eref?re firs� consider _ tl1e grant of ''Soverei gnty''. \1/e h _. 1 _ r e see1� tl1at ''Sove1·e1g1�ty'' 1s a�1 amb1g·L1o·us concept. It may be applied �v �I�e ady ._··; '. 0 d i1ferem . t1 . c1rcu 1nstan ces. It may I1ave differe11t m ea bodies and under· d1ffe1·ent Articl� 2� speaks of ''�overeigntY_". does it - as is sometimes arg!�� When .-:• �: so,,e1·e1gn 111 tl1e �obbes1a11 or A:11st1!11an , �e11se of ''th� Sovereign'' as th e unfe·m�an_. , *; s11pren1e law-making p�wer wh1cl1 1s 11�t11:1ateI� subject to no lim itation e !er1:d it law �r by o_ther f?rces 1n the state. Is 1t In this sense tha_t "S overeignty" is� . 11nde1stood In Article 26? If so, then the E1nperor vv1ould, In the last resort b . - · ;· bl to dispense with the Constitution altogetl1er, and rule simply by virtue of his;0�ere : ; , i·' as ''Sover·eign''.

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Several considerations may be put forward against that reading. First the , � Constitution wo11ld be cutting the gro11nd from 1111der i tself. If sovereignt)' i� the · n Hobbesian sense we1·e inte11d�d, the whole legal structure of Etlliopia a d any of ·f the laws could be cl1anged with a stroke of a pen. There h a. s been no suggestion ,' that tl1e grant of a Constit11tio11 by tl1e Emperor was s. .impl) a gift that could be taken back at will; on the contra1·y it bas always been implied that this was a step which t bound the E1nperor, as well as 11.is government and o.fficials, to obsenre legal limita· t:: : tions on power and to gove1·11 witlun the stated legal framework of the Constitution. tJ ; (What evidence from our readings and from the Constitution can you find to sup- tl� { port that fundamental contention?) Second, the Constitution, in Article 36, already grants to "the Emperor: as Sovereign'' ce1·tai11 disc,retiona1·y ''powers'' ,;vluch must, l1owe,,er, be e�ercised ;; 36 l 1 ·. �i rt ic e A disct1ss ,, shall We ''subject to tl1e otl1e1· prqvisions of tlus Constitt1 tio .n . o e m e r E p 1 tl tliat r, shortly. The q11estion novv is, does tl1e Co11stit11tiot1al proposition , 1.t, e · ��) h h .. at t is ''Sovereign'' or is vested witl1 ''So,1ereig11t.),'' n1ean by itself 1 e r o t fu1 � . : exercise Iiobbesian "sovereignty"? Ar ticle 36, inter alia, appears _ a let onuld . }� �gn So�ere as En If any fu1iher powe1· were to be gra11ted to tl 1e 1peror power which would vitally allect the whole legal basis o_f �he Con�t1t�t1on{ 0��:�on, _ 1 t101 - ... \ const1tu a P ex11l1.c1t y a:r1 ed surely expect tl1.at IJOWe1· to be gra11t b and not by a dispt1table reacli11g of an an1bigt1ous term. .· , 1 _ uite ;f1 �:, . n q 0 c a ,.fl1ird, ''Sovereig11ty'' l1as �11otl1er, ,vell acce�ted meru3:11g, :onarch,· for·:·)'t� _ e tI1 in properly argi.ie _ tl1a! tl1e ''so:1e.1·e1_gnty'' of E11gland 1s vested . _ p . n s, � � rha p al e i the D?-onarcl1 1s 111 an l11stor1 �al sense tl1e legal . source (no� h e laws and.:. ·:..· �� _ t . e ourc o, - � :� ) to but still the s0111·ce) of tl1e Co11st1t11t10_11 a11� tl1e (nominal � nd: J]li � in r a e h�:._ -� t the head of state for pl11·1Joses of deali ng w1tl1 otl1er co11ntr1es . B of :gp Y _ ; t . o _ the _Fe�eral Act, which 11nited Et�iopia a � E1·itrea _"t1nd�r _ the S l���Je · 3 of_th�.:-.. ; 1� ? � �2 . i 1 g Et?-iop1an Cro':"n':, and �he precise re�et1t1on of th s wo1din � on.- ,Article le:�-� \ ti u st o . o Entrean �onst1tut1on ?f !9 52 and Art1cl� 1 of the 1955 C n ' � verei go f :c. i so as ror_ of tl1e �r1trean Const1tut1on also proclaimed the Empe . offered b�:.·1;::''i. �':: nt · · e i sove ­ ,,s_ o v eref ,: ·· · , ederat1 of n F ncept ''. A i -? further c �/� indi_ c ation of tl1 s � : e � ? 9J } . _ � Emperor_ s speech promu1gat1ng tl1e �onst1tut10�, w�ere h.e spea k�· icial braD�:/2: r �:i �, � d u J _ the as standing apart from the executive, the legislative and · :, : ,{l �:� :.;_, �-'�b. =

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to as or su de 1· to r i11 th , e al l)eople th� e11joyinent of tll ik e � en t nm ·over ei r fu 11da1n e11sa1n be e said the of not ma1 1y Ca11 co11s t1ttrt · i ts (: o11a l n10 11a1c . l1s today? g 1 rial1 o ta . . . Art icle of 26, 1t 1s explicitly statecl t J1 at tlle E111 par t seco nd , tlle , In . p e '' r o r s . . 's tI ,, )r ,, . e 1n e J . exe1c1se d ·I 1n e t1e b 111ust n1a1111e1 · providecl for'', I.. e. 11 1 accord .autllority'' · · c ·. . · a 11 c e · tl on 1e f st1 t s10 o 1 t10 11s 11. pr So ov 1 tl1 e seco11d par·t of Ai·ticle 26 does _ �_ witll othe : . _ n o t a grant of contain spec1fic povver. seem, by itself, to

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One may stjll ask l1�weve1�: does A1�ticle 26, read i11 its e11tirety, grailt to tlle op er to Emperor a11y powers wl11cl1 a1e necessaiy and. p1· carry otit 111·s ft111ct·ions . · · · w.1 ut 1c b ·. l h are 11ot exJJl1c1tlJJ 0o·ive,i /1 in1 else�v/1ere •? Btl 1t1o n, Con st1t 1 und.er the 11 t 0 e t . . · · · 1 t:,. ,., aorun, tl1at Arlie1e ..JO 1nore exp 1 1c1t · 1 Y g1, es tl1e Emperor all powers , 110t inc . oi1sI·ste111 o . . ssa o 11e ry e bl , 1a e . l 111 _ to 1 ca_ 1 · r y out with �l1e Const.1tut1on tl1e exi)licit cons!ittitional � _ �� � : _ ,, functions for wlucl1 he, as So_, _e1e1gn 1s res1)011s1ble. PresL1111ably tl1ere is 11either need for a fL1rtl1er grant of at1x1l1a.ry p o,ve1·s, no1· reaso11 to st1pJ)Ose tl1eir existence u11less _tl1ey: too , are gr��te� explicitly. If th�s is_ tl1e case, tl1en wl1at is tl1 e T)tirpose of Article 26? Presumaoly 1t se1·ves a descr1pt1ve 1·0Ie, necessary to en11)l1 asise tl1e unique position of tl1e Emperor at tl1e head of tl1e Etl1io1)ian state; it states tl1e political theory underlying l1is role in tl1e constitt1tion ,vl1icl1 is defined elsewl1ere in specific terms, but without any di1·ect beari11g on l1is legal lJowers.

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''Sovereignty'' and the ''Powers'' Bestowed by Article 36

Article 36, coming at the end of Cl1apter II of tl1e Constitt1tion, appears to l1ave a close relation­ ship \Vith Article 26, which comes a t tl1e beginni11g. Both speal< of tl1e En1peror as ''Sovereig,1'', and both appear to ·be talking about some broad, vague ·'po\vers'' or ''at1tl1ority''. But botl1 refer �o the Constitution as a qualifying lin1it on the po'vvers given. Bot11 are drafted, perh�ps ?eJibe_rately, 1n very general terms; and both raise difficulties as to the specific powers and obl1gat1ons, 1f any, which th.ey give to the En1peror, and the circumst ances under wl1icl1 tl1ese 1nay be i11voked. . . Article 36 assigns various powers and duties to the E1nperor :'as Sovereign'', and tl1is 1nay md1cate that they belong to him personally, and are outsid� tl1e ot�d1n_a�·y structure of go�ernn1ent, \Yhether executive (whic.h is covered by Article 27), legislative or JUd1c1al. At tl1e same tin1e, tl1ey are subje ct to the other provisions of the Constitutioi1, a11d can1�ot tl1er�fore be tised t? �uspen� the Constitt1tion , or to cover emergencies i n wl1icl1 i t is tl1ot1gl1t 11r�1 practical to _ keep celtain p� rts of th_e Co n stitution in effect. Even if this is a ccepted, l1owever, the exac_t itite11tions of the Article and its place in the constitutional framework may still be open to question. re ad o r_ A � �6 le tic Ar of w vie ge ve cti � ;�! In nera .I, a.nalyses ma y take either a br o ad or a restri � t o 11 � 1t1 ad� in s, ver po\ would co nclude tl1at the Ar ra ext al nti sta st1b or per Em e in the · ticl vests. 1 ·t d an , n o ti . u it st n o C e alrea th f o s rt d , p,t . 1 th · Y gra . . nted to him by earlier articles of Cl1a1)ter Tl an d tl1e 1er tl o h i it w · ed · i c n o c re e b en becomes a question of to e r a. tJ1ey wh a t tl1ese powers are, anq 110w just relevant provisions · se o th l1 it \ r a p v a n o l d ro O one view, . b . Ar� _ t hey as might regard e1nerge11cy J :Ol�ers, tl1e be e? � { n l l of contro ete p in tic1e coi e o �a1ce � ed pow In_ e 29: this sus­ case, b� IDJgl1t n:i Emper �r and the t or e il P l ient ian v ar e o t ng r gpenct·nment in t1:11e of dange r - such as a fore�gn 1nv,1 s1on - dissol 33 29, 27, s Article r e ,. U11cle c� de t r� e rso P_� m ord ary executive branch, and. r�lJng b� tl1ough a11cl tL1tion, � a nd ��g coosti ; ..., th�13 woulcl presumably be possible w1 tl11 n the limits O t 1 e exis )g und�r ed regul�t the ri se,,erely be tl dou 1co pro the tl1ey 1ty'' of � tdc! i ��� c � _ people 11tegr suspended. could not be l an tt1e te� of. efence t o11 sio ns of ti Article 65. T'his interpretatjoo would rely n1ost. ex1�Ptional, to be invoked only in tirne of f\r cle 36, an d would regard th e Article as something dire need . . . . g, ord1·n'ary power . t1nu111 . con a 'But tn 36 · 1 e el ­ another view it would be possible to see in Arti.· e day v to day " ' , ' , lf \ 1 by wh· h e i tl . m�e Vit ' 1c: the 1 h .d rns an t ' once t·on c I E a 1 t men Faun� m_ p eror, J fare of h'15 standing above tl1e govem sie Selas fI aile u 1? B cle . , Of �1�e . Art i u ... this of the • people. If this were so, tl1en the establish�ent er nder ow f n} · thi s · ea rersity, n1igi1 t be regarded as proper exercises.� l p se Sovereig1 1 powe rs VlS-���!� tl1e .,e f ,s en o eri posi 0u)d �urtl1er be '·go Jro tl1e v ti een define �rline r n betw to � ary � necess � ..._ ..._th.eo�i � �. � :·: _ . ·· . .. . d 0 . -J 10st1tut1 0.ns the d shoul of governmen t. Where

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on e'' lfar ''we and 27, icle Art er und up set � create� under Article 36? Wo ins. tit?tions . � :� � 'i­ ch for whi ers l pow ry �e lato arli regu t d 1· gran . y ntar U to Articl r_ pero w Em the app p permit e3 l rova 0 ,i,,, l s the le r� peop ensu to 1 6 ym dt1ty tt,: enJo u oth .. the d that ent g 1 of be needed? Stipposu the·tr nghts � eLlf£Sc . . 1 . . . rie 1n . as o C' ' � I t h ers b , pow w. ere a h . s 1c1 . a· .. I Jtl uld ain cert cise th� exer ? to r pero 1 En give way to t"'lla I� the· ;r. 1 � ; read111g �xplo1es some of these questions with resp ect first he ordin:i,.., . . · ,it system of cotJrts? The . . · agencies. to one s 1,;'1 ; e t1v ra 1s 1n n1 .· · u�ect : . 1 ,v the creation of ad . . . . _ t . . TJ1e second reacl1ng presents �l�e c,1se for a restrictive view of Arti cle 36_ On . . _ . .1 �j the Article does not grant any 3:<ld1t1onal a.ctual powers to the Emperor _at all, but call th1B v1�°"''i · , ' ( to I1 is. clt.1t;, to 11se the powers wl11cl1 J1e l� a� b�en grante? by otl�er art1cl:8, 10 order to achi! attenti�n ·. l ve 111 1mple1nent1ng 11Jero1, ti Ar�1cle tl1at 3 theory l1e �, s1mp t1ves. ob: ie ? ! l_ y acts through thecertam �· b� � � �1;1 er f o some tl1e of ren1oves r ,. es 1t1on, d1fficult1 Co11st1t1 � tl1e w of articles 1ch h existino . spring o t e 0 �: m h _i�ea of t11e Emperor taki11g action ''above'', and separated from, the ordinary gove rnmen� aut : h onti""' w. . j r.il !J

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A1·ticle 36 as a Source of Additio11c1l Powers

From Aberra Jembere, Tlie Prerogative of the ?mperor to Determine Powers Adn1i.nist1·ative Agencies (Semina,· Paper, Faculty of.Law, H. S. I U. 1967 ), pages22.2°/.

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The E111pero1·, as Sovereig11, by virtt1e of .Art. 36 of the Revised Constutition ;:� has tl1.e power to take all 111east11·es that may be necessary to ensure, at all times'. ·:.;� tl1e safety and welfare of tl1e inl1abitants of tl1.e Empire. As Mr. Fraser rightly pointed 11

for tl1e welfare of tl1e inl1abitants of the Empire and are thus within the prerogative of tl1e Empe1·or." �' By tl1e same token, the promotion of economic development by making tl1e maxim11m t1se of tl1e Awash Valley natural resources is a measure taken for tl1e welfare of the inl1abitants of tl1e Empire. Thus, in th:e absence of cjtation of the sou1·ce of tl1e legislation, one may att.rib11te the source of authority for the issuance of the Cha1·te1· of the AVA in the form of Gene r·al Notice to Art. 36 of the Constit11tion, 11nd.er whicl1 tl1e Emperor is gi ven wider executive powers than under Art. 27 of the Constit11tion.

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T'his arg11ment rests on the following foundations: to g_ pertainin a one a is The power of creating an ad. 111inistrati, e agency ( ) p e, v uti Exec Cl1ief the the Sovereign, by virt11e of Art. 36, as n1u.ch as it is to . i�: p11rsuant to Art. 27 of the Revised Constitution. � 'I

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t. e angt1age of tl�js Ar·tic.le i. 11clicates. Accordi11g to t. s r c ' bat roaY pero1· l1as all tl1e r1gl1ts a.nd po,,,e1�s r1ecessary to take any meas u�e � ·b·taots .. 1 a 10 the be 11ecessary to e11s11.re, inter lZlia, the safety a11d welfare of · · �� . . . . · _, �� of the E1npire. 1th . . : . ] w . · � � rusted t en ror, Tl1us, 1t may w1tl1 grea� reason be co11te1�ded, tl1at tl1� Empe e rust ; d �itb : t en o al tl1e d11.t� to �11 t1re tl1e l1.a1J:p1ness and pro_sper1ty of tl1_e nation, 1s s . Ar 36 1.e'., �i ��� , t. . � 0 1 out the cl101ce of tl1e 1nea11s for tl1e accompl1sl1ment of the ends set_ . . the scope . __·. power to create a ptLblic a11tl1ority of l1is choice, and to determine w11hin . · ·· of the constitutional limitatio11s, its powers and duties. _ urce · e h t a 36 . � tb . .. �;,j�i: It would be appropriate ' in tl1e opinion of tl1e writer, to cite Ar. t u d in 0f power when creating an admi1listrative agency by a Charter, iss e n sibiµttes� : o re s of a General Notice, and granting to it extra-ordinary powers ao<l p · · . · · _'.1 · · 1

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Constit11tion is by im_plication tlle source of the of 6 . 3 Art . use si nific a a t n_ Bec 1add t_ h e of Empe power r or u11de The r tl1is Article, wl1ic.l1 er. pow �tate s _ in tional t par r1gl1ts all and has power ror s to Empe take all e measures that may be ''th t a th ' ... time s all seem at s '' to re, be ,vide e· r n su tl1a1 to 1 tl1e 'power ti le Emperor sary e c s e . n _cot�r o se, t t h 1· . �ec o b' t . 27 f . e . . su '. im1ta t1ons Art. 1m1Jo secl nder by tl1e u oth · er JJrov1 _ bas n. t1o 1tu st on C ed is ev R e th sio ns of Thus' citing Art. 36 as tl1e source of pow. er . w11en creac ti il g 'an at1tonomo11s . au_thor1ty t 1or_ 1e on 1 " l }?ro y per ft111ct1on;111g of tl1e governineilt, but also not · , c publi .1nteg a?d r1ty _of tl1e En1p1 re, o r tl1e safety aild welfare of defen �e the ring ensu for its inhabitants, woul� Justify tl1 e granting of �xtra-ordi11ary powers tl1 at could not constitutionally be given. under Art. 27. G_1·a�t111� IJOWers to admi 11 istrative agencies in the form of Order seems to be more 11111.1 ted 111 scope than tl1e CI1arter e 11acted in the form of General Notice.

It should be. noted that this �oct�ine ope11s up some prospect of circumventing both the Executive and the leg1slat1ve branches of tl1e Gove rnment, by basing on the reasons of Art. 36, except presumably wl1ere a power is explicitly reserved to Parliament. Since the powers of the Emperor·, as Head of tl1e Exect1tive (Art. 27), and Head of State an.ct Sovereign (Arts. 26, 36) are so ble11 ded in certain res1)ects, and overlap each other, it is difficult to dr·aw a line wl1ere tl1 e two categories exan1ple, tl1e Termi11ation of tl1e Federal of powers would be clearly limited. For . . . as it co11cer11 s tl1e strL1ctt1ral organisation r Status of Eritrea is issued as Orde of the State of Ethlopia. The same legislation could probably be enacted constitt1tion­ ally under Art. 36, by the Emperor, as Sovereign, as it is an act of enst1ring tl1e in­ tegrity of the Empire; o r under Ar t. 26, as tl1e Head of State, as tl1e exercising of the supreme authority over all affa irs of the Empire is vested in hin1. A ''Restrictive'' Interpretation of Article 36 (Anot/1e1· View, by 011e of t/1e Editors) t en nd pe de in an 36 le ic rt A is : As lawyers, ou r focus should ,be on tl1e problem r de un r ro pe Em e t/z by ed at lg 1u on pr sour ce of law-making power - could a law be Article 36 which could not othe,·wise be promulgated?

It may be argued that it cannot.

. ''. n ig e r e . v o S s a '' s ie t u d ·. s �mperor ' The first part of Article 36 speaks of tl1e E d e c r o iv d · re ve so a c cordance with Ethiopian tr ad itjo n , he i s n o t to be a passive � � s l1e is w l e 1 o r c , t '' : 1 , o pub ic _ at � , m to au l ia o� �m �ak necessary affairs, acting on ly as a cer �� � � mh � ; o. t e existing government. Rather, it 1s bis pe rsonal .i,tJ . easures'' to ''ensu m re'': l) tlie defence of the nation and the people of Ethi0Pia; 2) their safety; 3) their ¾'elfare. s)· air f af n 1 ) t�e� �onstit�tional rights, and ig fore of t ic ndt co · e h t h ) · their interests oug tl1r ' 'l (notably oad abr 1 b ns1 o resp - r: e e thes out y r . ca o t 10 s t e pow jec ''sub ast � _ r bis of are ·1·.,; ard reg �le·s,· ba dJ Part of Art1c' le 36 spe aks tl11s 1n d · se · i c r e ex tt · the- oth ! - c�e�rly says the po':ers_ to,, be ._provisions of the Con,stiti,tion . : ._

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by c,·eatin.g age,1 cies under Article 27 such as_ M1n 1str1es of I-Iealtb , Housing .. , . a.s the Awash Valley ·-!'. or Latld Reforiu, or developmental agencies such · t h . e h U e as r ruv y e s1t su or s nlc ba s o11 i 1· va or y rit tho Au 1

91 and 92) · :· : or by conve11i11g 01· dissolving Parliament when he tllinks it is in the public · ·: i11terest to do so (in order for example, to force public exp ression on an iss11e where he thinks Parliament is not acting in the public interest) _i · 1: or by pr·ovidin.g /01· t/1e citrrenCJJ and related matters (cf. Article 32); 4) a11 explicit power to ''1naintai11. ji1stice th1·oitgl1. the courts'' a.nd grant pardons and amnesties (Article 35) and th11s assure protection of rights - in additio11 to l1is law-making and veto ·powers (Article 34); and 5) an explicit power to cond11ct foreig1i affairs by establislling diplomatic -i relations, concluding agreements, ratifying treaties and so forth (Article 30).· ; 1 In sl1ort the ends set 011t in Article 36 wo11ld seen1 to be pretty amply covered '. j . The 11 l. by powers 11101·e specifically developed in tl1e specific Articles of Cl1apter Constit11tio11 does ''p1·ovide'' the rnea11s wl1e1·eby tl1e En1peror may exer cise power to discl1arge l1is Article 36 res1Jo11sibilities. But �t may be �sl<ed: wl1at tl1e11 is tl1e poi11t of Article 36? Arguably . it serv�s -� tl1e_ fttnction of mak111g clear tl1at tl1e E 1nperor bas a personal duty to 11se l11s conSll· !uti�nal powers towa1·. ds tl1e e11cls SJJecified a bo ,,e, tl1at the exercise of tl1e �e power s is 111s ultima te responsibility, tl1at lie l1 as - as a11 inteoral part of bis explicit po\vers de C l1apte1· II - additional at1xilia 1�y po,"1ers to take 11,J1ate11er ,n,easu�es a er � ec::e . �! y �_nd .· ;lij proJJer to c·crt·t·JJ oilt t/1e eXIJlicit grants of IJower elsewhere iound 1 n '. 1 Const1tt1_ t1on , notably CllaJJter· II. D oes tha� mean Article 36 is an independent source of law-makin� powe · r?: �;. •� . 1t cannot by ztse�f be tl1e s0111·ce of Or nary ·¾ij ca11 ''emergency'' or ''extraordi · · r ove o.r . '' Deere '' or· I e�i· sI at1v • ·on 51 1 . u p · com e · 111s t1·11n1ent l1av111g tl1e f01·ce of legal · i_ . � lain . citiz�ns �f. tlle E1111)1.re 01· tl1e governn1e11t. But it ca be an auxiliarJJ source to p n ex e ex- · ·: an_d _ JUSttfy - au<l. indeed g11i mor 1e tl of , , e c1e n o � anc l of co1 1tro exe l rcis e the . Pl1c1t powe1·s. .:q · : sis ;i y nal a T l1 u · s i n th.e fiel d �f dev�lop111ent is th -'. b ·it d · (a planning Article 36 ca11 n Y a _ ,.�; ar e e should) b c ted _(witl1 AI· p y bod . _ t 1c_ I e a 27) of to t? : t as _.-: j n : justif y creati a o the . n { developmen: a11 fo . s11bm1s l 1a Pa� . and >' to s1on rs to · the Minis te Coun cil of� jo I aW � u . . g ide towardf p ariiig the t r y tl1 _ a� not 1 1ec�s� : .:_-; et i ?. budg for _ ited_ c _ Or . it d e b coul maintain an Im �� . r al t P i Agency to assure p roper adm1mstrat1on of JUS Jce, · . · · . : ;__:'- .,:: .. . ·. ...... . . _ . . .. ..-

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. a clzelot as a law coiJ.1·t exercising jt1dicial power (J.udicial po w e r seems to be . . sar i1Y u rts a Ione), b . t as an age ncy to 111vestigate aild cou tI1e in · ·1 cor r"-' ""' C t . . ted co ves . rruption · . · · 10 11s n se ar sc a r r1a s1m ge 1 of or Jt1 st1 ce ce 111 the cotirts by proced ten e _ p om ; � inc u re� cas es or o evi ew p11 r r_ o al ses of act 11 act 11a lly n tha adjttdicati iJ g tllem. (The er � . th o 1e power grante d by Ait1cle 35 - cotlJJlecl t1 of e scop e witll l"\.1 A ··t·IC 1 e 36 - 1 s · · precis · · · e d rre e� d to IS .[:'_ · Ch d an ap te t1o n r Vl qu ll) es . Ag a111, it wo11ld see1n tl1at tl1e a diffic ult mo 11ar 111 E11gla11d, cot1lcl tal<e steJJS sll ort cl1 the 1ke ] ror e of law mak .n to Emp _ e cot1l 1g. d set . m t � lavv-n 1aki1 I-l bodi es llp ise a1 1 alog l:> 011 c e i � s o to "'-oyal Comm1s pr o · . s1 · • 0 11s .c. cre1 1or ?rm or d nee s ne, v the l::1ws 1n �reas �f co 11 c_ei·n. Perllaps, too, gate 1 est i�v to Article 36 co11ld (and p�rl1a_ps 1t sl1ot1ld) l1a,,e bee11 c1teci l-vit/1 Article 27 as a source for Order No. 27 terilllnat1og tl1e status of tl1e Federation. A distinction �s sometimes �rawn - 01· atten1p�ed - betwee11 powers which the Emperor exercises as So�e1·�1g,z a11d tl1o�e exercised as Head of Government, It may be true that tl1e _Consttt11t1011 does en:11sage botl1 roles. B1it as la,¥yers, while we may (and on occas1on shot1ld) 11se ter1ninology of political theory we shotild recognize tl1at tl1e cr 11cial problem is wl1etl1er tl1e Emperor as ''Sovereign'' has Iaw­ ma.king powers \Vl1ich l1e lacks as Head of Gov e1·11n1e11t (or Head of tl1e Executive). Tl1e concl11sion argued here is that the Emperor, whetl1er lie acts as Sovereign or Head of Government, has only sucl1 po\vers as tl1e Co11stit11tio11 be sto ws. We have pr evio11.sly argued (in tl1e discussion of AI.·ticle 26 sz1pra) tl1at tl1e co11cept of "Sovereign'' Emperor embodied in the Constitutio11 is a11alogot1s to the concept of sovereignty vested in other monarchs, such as B1·itain 's; tl1e fact tl1at the Emperor is Sovereign does not p e1· se give bim power; it is tl1 e Constit11tion wl1ich JJrovides the p ower. The Constitution, notably Chapte1· II (Articles 27-35), provides Etluopia's Emperor with many in1portant powers; Ar·ticle 36, corning at the end of Cl1apter II, tells us tl1e objects to wards ,vl1ich those po,vers shot1ld be applied, and it adds (wl1at should be implicit anyway) tl1at the Emperor possesses all powers necessary and ·· proper to the execution of the powers elsewl1er e ex1 Jlicitly assigned .

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th Emper or to discharg a to d a le . t c e p s t1 s e , w 3) a contrary argument favot1r111g broader po,ver wotiId owe r p ' d e fin de un e, �t 11 conclusion that the re is so m e vast resevoir of indetermi _ rk o vv e m . a 1 f e th e r o n ig t0 make law in a way which vvo11ld perIDit t11 e E mperor t o . d · n ' a n 10 t u 1 -1 1 ns . o C e th of tl1e Constitution - a· conclusion wbicl1 wo11ld s11bvert tl1e as d e cit been r ve 4) � 11e · actual practice ) w o kn ,ve as r Article 36 ha s (as fa Jeror . 1 Em. Single, independe11t tl1e by source of an y law iss11ed � .l,QC .

SECTION 2

OF ES CI · E N AG . E AT E CR POWER OF 'I'HE EMP TO . ER. OR ON . CTI ISDI ' GOVERN MENT AND ASSIGN TI-IEIR JUR

Reat1.• A rticl · · . es. 27 33 f th of 1955 ,· t1on c u _ nst1t e. . A �rra' Jemb o � ere (1967)oop.cit.

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We would favour this interpretation of Article 36 becat1se: all p owers vested by that Article are subject to the Constitution; other articles of tl1e Constitution appear to mal<e exp1·ess _ provision a�equat: ' 36 le tic r A by d ne s1g as s enough for e e tl1e responsibilitie

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The first set of problems whicl1 Article 27 raises is concerned with the first clause, governing . c gove�nn1ent organis�tions, and �11.�s part of �ticle 27 is consid�red in this Section. Th e Emperor's ;, 1� appo111t111ent po,�1er 1s largely d1st1nct, and 1s therefore dealt With later. We shall now examine the :: En1peror's po,ver to create organisations, and to assign jurisdiction (''powers and duties'') to them· tl1is im111ediately brings t1s to the problem of the relationship between th.e Emperor and the Parlia: ' ,. ment in tl1e exercise of these powers, wl1ich is one of the most important (and perh aps p olitically controversial) distinctions to be mapped out in the. constitutiona'I field. ·'

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The Nature of the ''Order Power'' Under Article 27 Origins From tl1e Meiji Co11.stitution of Japan, 1889, Article 10.

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The Emperor determines tl1e organisation of tl1e different brancl1es of the administration, a11d the salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same.

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From the Cons·titution of Et/1iopia, 1931, Article I 1. · nistra adm.i The all Emperor f o sl1all lay dow11 the orga11isation and regulations . t1ve departme11ts.

Differences between tf1e Englisl1 arid �4. 11,1!1a1·ic Te.,yts of A,·ticle 27 From Aberra J embere, op.cit., pages 14-17.

_ . Jll fro rs It sl1otild be .11otecl tl1.at the Amharic version of ... Article [27] diffe the Englisl1 ve1·sion. The lite1·al translation of tl1e Amharic version is: . .

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'ch t ''Tl1e E111peror c)etern1ining the working conditions, establisl1es the depar 1:111en 01 :� s 11?t -- --:; · '. � ca�r� on go ver _1 !11 ent f11nctio ns, and all n1inistries [literally ''minis ters' ', �ut If - ::�.' : offi� . . tre _ · th1s is a n1ispi111t]. He appoints, russes disr J!,0 -� and . J)romotes, transfers, suspends · of tl1e depa1·tn1ents." ___ : ,·_· �:)'

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gr an po tin of w g er s er to m at tl1em. TJ1 e Englisll version t th e en t · uaro O n t le. otber Em pe ro th r e no th t at o11 i ly se sag ts es llp en n1 vi i1 1 · i s t r ies execL1t1ve de p . h.and ' · · artn1e11ts · . ' . · 1e o tl f ns 1 go at ve r 0. rn m un1 e11 st t, . n1 ad e a111 ng ad 1n 1111 sti·a n · e ' and th · . t · · i v e age11c1e s ; but . . · po an we d d ( rs th eir ut zes en1pl1as1s aclclecl) e� rm in . det e by e xectitive Jaw, Wl11 also 1 t IO DS a ' Ii t ••• • certai n . mi T _ he_ writer maintains that th e cli�c1·epancy �e t\vee11 tl1 e AiJ�liar_ic a�cl t1le Eiiglis h _ b� of tr d su a lt l a t1? e 11 r the tl1 e1 tl1 11 of a _legislative 111 teil t. As tlle verSJon 18 � � ,� . correl at iv to��dt �, e . 1t1es , tl1e E11gl1sl1 v e rs1011, wJ1icI1 coilt word ''powers 1s ai il s botl and relat es them :v,7ith t�e preceding term ''01·ga11isa�io11 '', �IJpears to b e more logic�i than the Am haric _v�rs1on. Moreover, tl1e A111l1a!·1c ,1ers1on as it stands does not make sense, unless 1t 1s co�1plen1ente� b y tl1 e E11gl1sl1 versio11. Tl1 is i s anotJ1er reason for concluding that the discrepancy 1s tl1e res11lt of a bad tra11slatio11. Becat1 se J1ad the Aml1aric version been the t· r 11e inte11tio11 of tl1e legislators, tl1e la1Jguage �011Id have been more understand able and cons is tent. In spite of its ,,a gueness, tl1e Aml1aric ve1·sion creates a11 argume11t i 11 favo11r of interpreting the Englisl1 vers ion fair ly 1·e strictively, because tl1e An1l1aric version implies that only powers to reglllate the i11ter11al \\'orl<ing of tl1e gover11n1ent and the administrative agencies may be granted u11der Art. 27. In otl·1e1· words, accordi11g to th.e Amharic version, the powers th at may b e granted to ::1d111i11istra tive agencies under Art. 27 seem to be limited in scope and a1Jplicatio11. Thu s, no regulator y power may be gra11ted to adrru11i strative agencies 11nder Art. 27 of the Revised Constit11tion, as tl1e Aml1aric versio11 lirnits tl1e scope a11d application of the same provision. The tern1 ''pov;1ers '' expressly provid ed i11 tl1e English version, should be interpreted therefore, fairly restrictively, in tl1e ligl1t of the Amharic version, to mean powers to regulate tl1e i11te1·nal worki11g_ of tl1e ?ove�n­ ment and administrative agencies as oppos ed to jl1risdictio11 over third parties, 1.e. ordinary citizens.

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Tlze Rationale of the '' Order Power'' Uncle,· Article 27

Why should the power to crea te and assign d11ties to government ministries and agencies. be removed ·from parliamentary co11trol, and entritSled to the Einperor · ·on, _and l1ow does · provisi alone? What are the advanta ges and disadvantages of tl11s . it fit in with the general distribution of powers in the Revised Const1111tion? · e quence s n o c a is r e w o p r e d 0ne theory on which we m_jgl1t proceed 1s that the or ,, . On ers � P ·. O f of_ th� Ethiopian otl rat a p '�se i erpret ati on of tl1e tl1eory of tl1e � int tlle i� 1, 101 a s ;111 this view, it is fo r e a g or al 1 determine .its ow11 1 11te.r1 · th to ive ut ec ex I es of u r 11 w o 1r �ame way, perhaps, 1e tl e as the Chambers of Parliament . de�erinIJ� - · 11dicj ary, 1111der :?rl pro�edure, under Article 82. Only the o:ganisauon �� ti��J Proclamation a 1� � 109 is b a SLt pre · y ''law'', tl1at is, to be · � in erm b det ed from ed excI11d re qlllring 't eii Parliament's approva l of legislation. But Par]ia� r ro. E1npe e 1 tI is :: . �� contr�l ove r· t�e compos}tion of tl1e e�ectitiv� ?r ai1c!�J1�;: C : i ral Perso11nel t i e ne sub ect to his delegations to tl1e P1·1m e !Vf 1111ster . e t's pow er over tl1e Age ( J r1ian P · rly n y w ho imil over appoints executive officials. S i ter c ) � a l �� trol 1 co1 to ted r t ·· s · e r n nal organ1s · at1o 1s nt n1ne · r ng "JOnl n and regu]at1on o:f tJ1e gove . t' s e qt1 by . · its a · · .al cise exer 0 t bl · a n� bu�g�t, and to such perst1asion as _it rr.1a� be th e �ri �e urged tJ1at 1 nen1b· ers . of r me 1e rt1 fu . 1 trve u 1r M t xec1 ugh rr er st e It or . · ys of r wa in he ot rs matte 'Pa 1 a d t h ': t co p what wo s s rn cu_ dis into d to b not ul ent e !11C� pet bias com Or� 1sat1 cal ;oliti .n on, or that members migl1t try to 1ntrodt1ce

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U IT T S N IO O T C N IA P AL LAW IO N H T E F O K O O B E C SoUR

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from executive Ieade ·de eloping l 11 p and of parlia rol e _ ents tl1 e so and far, !�� m i1 1 co11ntries v eve11 e dat n a wl m 1e1e i t 1 1as the . · . 1ve ap pro l t a o v t a. r o ·I 1e o po t \ve c I 1ange, l1as been al1 nost vvl1 .. o·nstitut1onal 01 1 J ass _ e . . passiv role c ot..e· for example tl1 e .relatively e · Y ) , v pla. y ecl by . ' Parliain ' . e t 11 1 1 1 Ta1Jga11y1ka (N 1o co 1 na l ( ns t1t 1an ut ge . See Cl1a1Jte1· II, Part III, esJJecia of od s p eri g du.r in lly JJ. 279_)) � Another set of argu1ne11ts 1n favol.11· of i\rticle 27 as it 1 ·10w sta , 11 d s 111 y a . e b . -· . · ev eco � 1 d _ no op mi 1ne c 11t. 111e exec11t1ve, 1 t 1 11ay be argtlecI, concern ed w1th js at de o y c1 �o t e d 011 tl1e ne ed f 01· a11d t l 1e tiinii1 g of tlle _ tt er 1 present th e be � . cre ati oil str f t1c d tt11 o e o f a p1 · o po sed gover 111J1e11t age · 11 IS and the de s1rab 1e .!Un ._ i,cy · w]-1 · 1 C .- 1O · · · be directly conc erned w1tt1 act1v 1t1es Sllc f 1 . as p la11 11i11g or s1)ecific clevelo IJJneJlt,il projects (s 11ch as water resot1rces_, n1 arket111g 01· la11cl r�for111). Certaii1 1y, Article 27 I1as been used to cr�ate, on paper at least, 111any l 11gl1Jy sig11ifica11t ao-e11cies: The Ministries of Planning a11d Land Refor111, tl1e Livestocl( a11d J\1eat Bo;rcl tI1e Grain_ Corporation and_ ma11y ot�1e1·s.. Ar�d su1�:ly tl1ere are some ad\'antag�s in reservi ng to the exect1t1ve the dete1·n111 1at1 011 ot 1v/1e11 to create tl1ese age1 1cies (a determinatio11 ,vhich depends 011 many factors st1cl1 as, prio1· st11dy, a\,ailability of manpower to start the age11cy, b11dgeta1·y pla11ning etc.) as \Vei l as tl1e deter1ni11a­ tion of wfzat its general jt1risdiction shall be, }Jartic11larly i11 rel atio11 to otl1er age11cies, and what degree of autonomous status it 111ay e11joy. S11cl1 c1ecisio11s, 011e may arg11e, are, at this s tage, expert decisions best cornn1itted to tl1e exec11tive. Finally, one may argue tl1at Parliarnent does I1ave an a.deq11ate measure of control over the exercise of the Article 27 po'v\rer to create age11cies of govern 111ent and assign jurisdiction to tl1em. Parliament l1lti1nately can co11trol tl1e b11dget reso11r­ ces assign ed to an.y agency. Furtl1er as vie sl1all see, Parlian1e11t 1111 1st vo te not 011Jy the 1rzo11ey but it must also vote the 1·erri1!atory JJOlt'e1·, i.e., tl1e orga11ic law vesti11g the agency with legal power to do an�l 1i11g whicl1 111ay affect tl1e legal rigl1ts or duties of persons ou.tside the governm ent. For, as we sl1all see, Article 27 JJ!·esz111:ably ?o�s �o! provide the En1p eror v1itl 1 the po\ver to vest gover:11nent age11c 1es vv1tl1 a JU�1sd1ct1on to make subsidiary laws gove1·11ing persons outs1cle gover11 me11t. Co�­ plicated as thls concept may be, i t is still c1·1icial, beca11se it may l)reserve to Parli_a­ ment the very policy-making decisions which m11st be 1nade ?Y tl1e 1)0p�lar assein­ bly - the decision to make th e laws whicb. wil l gover1 1 ord1nai�y decisions. These are so.m e of the arguments w11icl1 111ay be adva11ce� i11 .Sllpport �f t�Jat par t ?f ;Ar�icle 27 which gives po w er to tl1 e EroJJeror to detern? 1i 1� tl1e r�a�11 zat�o � � 111terest1no and 1sd 1ction of governme·nt agencies - o11e of the most s1g111fica11t, JU� (and diffict1lt) provisions of the Constitt1tion. . e b to 1 t / ig oi 1t ei in 1a rl a _P On the oth er side, w ha t can be said for tl1e view tl1at . s 11 ? _ more fullr involv enc ag ve � ��;: �;;� ed in an y decisio1 1 to establish a11y exec:1ti � Pe rhap s, is that tl1is wot1ld avoi d com JJlications and n11sun�ersta11 111�f si111uler a 1 l tio di :1er strib�tion of pow ers. T11ere is always � J?resltITIJJ t i c:�����J end readily 1 t 1 o easy e stra1gl1tforward cottrse. A.11d clearly 1 t 1s 110t . ow s ta' nds· A 111ore r m What the E . 1 t 11 · as 7 2 e J c . rti p A eror can do and ca1 1not do tinder . m 1 cl1 wl1 in · tion a ' o ganis s . I t·ive argu or ' · t n nroe P gover of . . w]Jetl1.er to create and, · the p 1.· ment 1s th at there 1nay be aspect·s iament should b e nc ern ed , becat1se tl�e deci s on n?w role co g if 80 �O aJ<in \ l icy-n1 t ] e to W to organise an agency j5 intimately t 1�d 1 t J�e s01ne JJart in dec 1d­ Corn� 1a t 1 1nsta to o f i-ng w1 ! ed Parlia1:1ent. Shot11d Parlian1e11t, 1· 1 �;�Ll for tl1e A1vvasl1 V�tll�y, 1 her a11y special de v elop1nent age11cy �1:ould be � Pa�l ia1ne11t be ab le t? !ns1 �t r. tttb,�r J l n 011 1 51 e fo 1n1at . e? p1r E1n Jegit l s e om 1e er 1y r of t oth a 1 a are a n 1 1. have . t "' en l ea . . iam . 1 t1 · · · . . · on 0f a Par does 111, aga M101s ' try of Hous1 11g? Or j,,,,. , .

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te to p u t la u se eg m cy co en ag � er m t en m r rn al ci ve go t . a _ t 1a tl s an g in st si P0 rt interest .in in ly f te o a v ri es p v w o t1 ta n d se n ne re p re a tr 1e tl sp rd o a o b s . it _ n rtc o e d 1 0 t 1 c 1n Id . s11ot1 . n _ . e r 1 t o a a . some bl r I 1 1 of p 1e � J t the n 1 � ri 0 · 1 f s e 1v t a t ncj 11 e P s _ e 1· p e r r o s n . r e P�l c t o t n ug 1s en ro b am li ht ar P 1n If n o ? 1·y st t1 1d 11 e th d s i1g lu e tlc tr ,e tl of ec1.: s er l1 . . · ll Sl COD der stan d.1_ng �nd su pp ort of n u n 1o at 11c _ , 11 1 1n 1n co Wh.at sions, is tllere �anger that . . Ver . . n 1e . i I p t1n im en t or ge em d sl gi b n le 1e l t at k o � ll se ? _ to : t en to rli Pa i re fo be ii es g e _ e very least, one 1ght �� m e t go th m t A gu ar b? JO e, its do is to th is a le sc nu ''i e tI1 cy etl ag ail d. , pe us elo T� ev e rul b 1ld L � the o· sl1 t � ns tio ec e11 Ex � nv co u l1 1ic wl ive 1 1 1 a are crticial 1ng H of us t ou try th 1 wi y 1 an a M ate ? cre to con � ., e.g � 1·, \ve sultapo al leg 1 e may have tl : id re la fo s be ha th it bo t1l un use s? Ho do t s some no . 1ld 01 sl1 it t, e11 iam l i· Pa th wi tion

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r d. en ne be tai ob s a 11. e As 11c a de n.fi co actical p of ion ess pr ex an of t11 1til 50111e sort e a d pe ncy of cie s ge effi nta va ad in � i e sett th. t tl1a ng d ue ? arg � be o als y 111a it matter·, _ up an agency by Order under Article 27 ma y be nullified 1f its pol-vers still have to be a1)proved . by Pa1·liame11t. Consider tl1ese diffict1lt problems, bearing in m i. nd the actual uses of the Order po\ver as illustrated both in all the relevant readings in these mater· ials and in the list of Orde1·s isst1ed si11ce 1955, set for th infra this Chapter. 'l .

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Tl1e Uses of the ''Order Power'' Under Article 27

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Tl1e pt1rpose of tl1e following readings is to sho\v some of the uses to which the Emper or's powers to create and assign dttties to government organisations under Article 27 have been put. in practice. It will at 011ce be see11 that the scope of the Order power has been very broad, and that it has been t1sed for some of the potentially most far-reaching refo1111s in Ethiopian government in recent years.

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T/1e Redistribution of Executive Powers

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Order No._ 4:4 of 1966, reprinted in Chapter IV, assigns to the Prin1e Minister the power to select �overnment n11n�s�ers and other sen ior officials; it tl1us modifies by Imperial ''delegation'', though It d�es not explicitly a111end, Articles 66 a nd 68 of tl1e Constitution. Consider the advantages_of h whi c on obje.cti n1 �king st1ch �I1 anges �l1rot1gl1 tl1e n1edit1m of Imperial Order, a nd the ,veight of any s might be raised against this procedt1re.

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The Formatio,i of Govern111e11t M irzist,·ies

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. : the and Tl1is is tl1e 1 193· · ''c la of ss c' ' tion i tise t· o t I1e Order power, dating fron1 the Constitu fi .. ' ! ·h r Minist. r (D n ti? n ? f. Powers) <?rder o. 1_ o si b a the p�ary s f 1 a:e; 1943, as served of icl l . �; � � � , � � . 4 powe r: !ndN _ nd a n isation of gove111111ent n1in1s tr1es p ed rev1 s 1 con1pletely rean� fir was t1nt1l t ¾ an l 4 6 by Orde 1 of 1966- �1:cters have aJso been t1sed for creating new ministrie s · c transferrI�g unctions between ex1stt ng o n es .

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} i . . It has frequently been . . 1 es � ns . · o ·. . �ary to set �p ad /1oc government agencies, wi th spec � f� p;\utho· l�t1es to accon1plisl1 specific ��:� a1 y sh ·.j, A _ wa ons. . the TJ1� and L1vestoc� an� Meat Board · though r1ty are two examples whicll ·tten � O . have e s !all consider later rn this Section. Such agen c1� ·j . � w_ uP set bJ no n1eans always, been e bl �ce 00uer .·.}· either by Procla mation s ws�,1 �hed by Order under Article 27. Some agencies hav l · o i t enera e � �Post tY· t G O by or ce 1966, tion of lama Proc ffi ri powers which were ne�;� . · · precise1Y stated, as with the Charter of the Awash Valle y A u · o.. · . . � . Tlie Creation of a Civil . .. ·... . ..<j . · Servzce ancl an Agency to Manage It . ; l . ··. . . .. riJ:rc >P � : :. :; O�der No. 23 of 1961 . . · ·.· ".-:t governmg the recruitme estab ll�hed tl1e Central Person nel Agency a nd ge!leral, unifo rlll p � . . . : : . . ,. : { = nt ' se 1ection, tenure tran sfer ts. ': an , , · i · serv ciVl l of · . .·:-- .._,. and dismissal , .. i .' .. ..· . . . ...�. : .. .--: . � ·::-: 1:::.·::- · .. ......-; . :,:·,�,,-4�-··��.... . ' .. . .....-,·,u.,. .. · . . .. :·,.... .. • ·.,·

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Regulations for provincial governn1ent were tive inistr a Adm JJro The oecree but u.nder Article 11 of the_ 1?31 <;onstitt1tio11, wl1icI1 was tl1e eq tii:�l�1ngt .teOf1��..1 t-ic\942 by e 27 of n 1 strat1on Order, No. 43 of 1 66 el Adm Local 55, ' S f1 · By the 9 very i i1 11Jo1 ta 1t c 11a11ges were t ha t of· 19 local governn1ent structt1re o f the cot1ntry, i11cl t1 , e ' t c di g 11 l 1 the e t s 0 ' · 1 ablisl1n · 1 nt of e ,ected local ·ion . roade r.: • . ma op ny era t gre t a s, in st1c11 i1elcls ::1s edt1cat1011, l)ttblic l1ea cou ncils to carry out alevel. ltl1, and roadlocal building, at the The orde� also est�blis�ed_ procedt1res and 9ualificatio11s for �lccl\oiis an d voters for the ne w awraja councils,. of a k1n_d similar to tl1ose pro,,�decl � Y Procl�111a t.to11 !11 tl1� c11a111 ber of Deputies electoral Jaw. This Order 1 s supplement�d by � d1a ft �1ocla111:1t1on cle�I111g witli finai1cial provisions and· other powers of �e AwraJa c?unc1ls ,vl1 1cl1 reqt11res tl1e co11se11t _of Parlia111e11t, thougll at this time (Jan uary !�69) th.1_s �roclai11at1 �11 l1�s not yet bee 1 1 adOJ)tecl; bt1t tl11s use of Article 27 never tl1eless permit s the 1n1t1al dec1s1on and leg1slat1on to be 1Jro111t1lgated ent irely by tlie executive brancl,.

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The Constitutional Limits of the ''Order Po,¥er'' Under Article 27

The Orde r power, by removing certain subjects fro1n t l1e legislative co111pe t e11ce of Parlia­ ment, creates two distinct and potentially rival sources of legislative autl1ority: tl,e En1 peror alone and the Emperor in Parliament. It is therefore in1portant to den1arcate tl1e bo11ndary between thes� sources of legislative competence as precisely as possible, a11d tl1is is tl1e ai111 of the readings below. We shall examine this subject in the context of t\VO vital legis1ative fie]ds: tl1 e power to n1ake law governing private persons, and the po\ver to n1ake law controlling pt1blic finance.

ls Article 27 a Soiu·ce of Regulatory Po1,ve,·? Article 27 enables the Emperor, among otl1e1· tl1i11gs, to detern1i11e tl1e ''JJOlvers·'' of government agencies. Tl1 is w ording of Artic le 27 in11nediately raises tl1e J)robl em of whether tl1e Articl e can validl y be used to a·uthorise an age11cy to establjsh legal controls over private c itizens and instit11tions. \\'ot1ld it be possible, f�r exa111�le, for the Emperor by an Article 27 Order to give tl1e po,ver to regt1late private bu1 ld­ _ ing to the Ministry of Public Works, (assunu11g tl1 at ti1is was a nel1l power wl11 cl1 �o agency of the government ha s already exe1·cised a11d vvlucl1 l1as never been at1 tl1o­ rised b y Parliament)? On the one hand, it might be argued tl1at si11ce tl1is wot1�d be 011e ''power'' of the Ministr y, it would expl icitly come witl1i11 the sco1)e of Article 27. . . le ic rt A t a · th Id l lOl s 1 it 0n the other hand It . 11.11 k · l t we m1gl1t be argued - a11d 27 only confers author'ity over th e internal 01·ganisatio11 of tl1e governn1e�1t, and. t11e , 1g 11 d a . re s 11 tl n dist · O 'b· s ie · ,, rz utzon of powers between different gov�rnmei�t agei1c · . ..· po�ers'' would inc]u.d e onl y matters which di d not 1nvolv� tl. 1e regulat1011 0f t111rd par ties-in the sense of regulation creating new l egal dtities. 1e l t 1 i1 d e t s e g g t1 s n e b ea l _� .e r . Qne argument for the mo re restrictive view l1 as alr · c Y e 1e tl twe en b e c · ' (froIJ?, At a 11er read1ng 1e d11iere11 tl on l)aper ) o Aberra Jembere's ro11st . 27 e cl Arti En 1 and tllat e os sup p 0 e r pro p Am har ic �ee ms texts. It �Iso h �. ic wl l utio n, � C t ons ti be fn�h etpreted so a� not to conflict w1th other prov.1s10�1 s f tl e 1or1sed 11tl a be stip u1 th at DlUSt o 11 . at ? rop e s by .�� certam regulatory matters, such � . .xp � � l e' 88 89 or 90 of the ,,.a aw en acted in accordance w it h t11e pr ov1s10 11s of rtic � uC onstit e 1 tl r 'to g P. "sent C onst· . d or c 10 ac can er� tt ma power 1tut1o many n''. reat g Again a penal tio n b re_gt : whole tlle ' 10st i l for ated , only by ''law'', inc luding ���� iii c11apter III of the under � i ' o le ­ ce referen . enac� �11 m �, � . ean Con ititu� c 55 And 11ote many otl1er to preted t 1��- See l IS 15 '']aw 27 If . le infra a so Artic pp. 469-470 of scope tnent re quiri y t�r � _ reg n the g p then arliam . t· ··-0 t ha , oval appr y entar _ .. t extent limit . ed.

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TIONAL LAW 'U l'l T S N O C N A PI IO I IT E F O K SOURCEBOO

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e of icl tl1e art the ited Un to 1t te le1 Sta 1iva eqt s . 110 11.as Const· ia iop 1 1 Et , se 11r , · Of co . . IJ \Ver (e1 p11as1s added) . 1v in at sl 1g1 . ,, le Co � /ze ''t � s � st re ve ng y itl ic JJl ss; eX l1 l 1ic w t11tio11 1 fic1ally reserved to tl1 e field of "law'' ec sp 1 110 rs we po · ry to la gu . .. . , . . . a11d J:1"or• tl1ose re . · _ f th o t C s en _ e 1 n o u1 e1 n q 1t s re 1 1c 1J 1t 1n 1 _ u 1e ti 11 on, past n a1 ex � to ry sa es ec 11 re . o ef er it is tl1. e e rl1 t tl1 de bu 11n tr1 to s d1_ ar pe ap 1on 1ch l1 w of s ea d i sic ba 1. tl _ powers a11 e, tic ac � pr al � leg _ e ry t on ego gh cat n11 t t firs pu tl1e In es. Article 30, vid pro 1 1 t10 1t11 nst Co ? 1. e tl 'Vl'l.1 icli ng y1 _ ''la a bur ts len 1e11 ·een ag1 on Ethiopian nal i 11at iter i � all t tha es ? _ _ _ � \Vl .1 icl1. l)rovid . 1s it al, .1ble ro OSs app to ry nta me rl1a infer from p L1re � J? req l ly'' a so11 per � s subject � _ tl1.is tl 1.at ordinary Iegislat1011 lay111g a b11rde11 on Ethiopian s11bJects person ally s11ould pe tl1e sco of �-ti?le 27? And m fro te n1p exe be s tl1t1 � 1 d J a1 , val )ro ap1 1 811c reqtiire _ is it possible to arg11e fL1rtL1er tl1at any regt1lat1on con!rol!1ng the act1v1t1es of private citize 11s constit11tes a ''b11rde11 ''? So far as legal practice 1s concerned., one can point to tl1e fact tl1at by far tl1e greater l)art of reg11latory legislation-as well as the Codes, l 1a\'e beei1 1Jrom11lgated 011ly as Decrees or after parliamentary apJJro­ val; b11t tl 1is test 111ay not be concltisive: as later readings s110\v, some regulatory powers l1a,,e IJltrportedly bee11 gra11ted by Order or even by Ge11eral Notice. But it 111ay be possible to clain1 tl 1at any legislation \Vhich affects the po,\iers of tl1e go, er11111e11t over ordi11ary citize11 s oug/1t to be aJJproved by tl1e repre­ se11tatives of t l 1e citize11s in Parlia111ent; this is 11ot simply an arg11me11t of political tl1eory; a recog11ition of tl1is clai111 may be i1111Jlied by the fact tl1at the Constitution entr11sts a co11siderable n111nber of reg11latory powers to tl1e fields of Proclamation a11d Decree, b11t 11011e ex1Jlicitly to that of Order. Fi11allj', unless one reads the term ''poV1 ers'' in Article 27 restrictively, a vast ''loopl1ole'' is opened up i11 tl1e consti­ tt1tio11. Is it real istic fo1· exa1111Jle, to asst1n1e tl1at tl1 e Emperor alone could by Order, vest tl 1e Mi11ister of J11stice with tl1e ''po\ver'' to promulgate a ''re, ised commercial code''? 1

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Re-read tl1e Lisci Sofia case (ancl tl1e 11ote to it) pp. 403-405. Refer to tl1e 1:-,ive�toc� & Meat Board Order and Proclru11ation, f1ifra tl1is Section, p. 462, for an exan,ple of legislat1on 111 wl1 icl1 tl1e respective fields of Articles 27 and 88- 2 l1ave bec-n n1arked 9 out. Is tl1e de111arca.tion cle,1r? Tl1e11 consider tl1e problen1s presented by tl1e follo,:vi1 1g readi:r1gs.

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Froin tl1 e �jnisters (Defi11 itio11 of Po,vers) (An1e11dme�t No.2) Order, No. 46·of 1966, Negarzt Gc1zeta 25tl1 Y_ ea 1· No. 23.

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22. TI:e Mi�1i�ter of P L1blic \V01·Ics is tl1e l1ead of one of tl1. Departments transacti�g e Sl,lte a�airs, 1 1a111e l y, tl 1e Mi11istry of P Lt blic "''orks. Tl1e Ministe r of Public · ., Worlcs, 1n accordance with tl1e lavv, sl1al1: .. .. ..j (d) establisl 1 b11ilding codes of general ap )lication; 4 1 (e) eiJSLtre tl1at private co11strt1ctio11 activities confo1·1n to minimum establish: •1ed Slai�cl arcls, exce1Jt i11sof a1· as S}Jeci'fic power therefore has been le gall) · .,j delegated to another Ministry or P L1blic Authori ty. ·�. ·I

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Note: Tf1·s JJ eais ent aJ · · . t.° �e a new JJower, not rn:ro Gov e the or vest Min ed istry the i11 large by Orde} �0� · 0 f 94.:,, or SL1bseqt1e11t le gi sl,1tion. 1

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Fron1 Tl1e Et/1iopfar1. Iiera . . , lcl, 1 7 May 1967. ! on ti uc . Tl1e Mi1listry of p11bl. IC str · ,1, � 0 c _ vv 1se : 0_ r lcs ,v1ll . s11pe l1e·uceforth control a11d ·:i. .. . ry . of all b u· ild 111 gs, 111c . kn eb , r ·. · . \Vo ltid i11g gis · pr1 \ G1 or ate dwelli 11gs , HE 1e T. : fa · r of Stat 1 D r · · · r: M.1n1ste . . . . · e io r. r pLtblrc W01·ks, - · · ,. · :� l1as announced. �� -,:, · .. . .. :

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on ly sai s d go ve1·nme11t b11ildi11 gs pi·eviotlsly Gi org i aile H Dr w e e s l1 pe rv 1 sed M � i11i tl1e st1 ·y of Pt1bl ic V{or l(s. Tf1e 11e . w step' J 1e added' was ·d.ur1_.n g �onstruction by · · . . g taken because b111 1d1110s o co11s·tr.ttc· ted by t111l1censed e11 o-j· 11 eei bein -·s a , .11d co11tractors o . . . . damage to prOJJerty bL1t Ill so111e cases 11ad also ca us ed on l� no t had re s11 lte d i11 loss . .. life. an hum f 0 � ce �th the power v :sted in the Ministry of Public .Work cc or d a n I s re ce nt ly p m 0 , tl1 st l1a e �p n� s \V be e11 �-a lce!1. 1-Iencefortl1 all bti i lcli il g by a r�c!� at1 .n co ns trt i c­ res 1 al �part111e11ts, s1101Js, co.1111)a11y 1de w� 11t etl 1e� vit ies , act i tion 11011ses, office b llild­ 1dent1al l1on1es, ,v1ll be co11t1·ollecl a11d s111Jervisecl e s r sm all or s ing by tlle Ministry of Public Works. H.E. the Ministe r or� State expl,1inecl at le11gtl1 abo1rt tI1e waste of ft111ds aiid labour on poor strl1ctt1res and ren1inded i11dividuals J)la1111i11g to co11str1Lct bt1ildi 11 as and contractors undertaki11g st1 ch constr11ctio11 work to be a\:vare of tl1 e da11ge;s involved. Asked about b1tilctings in tl1e p1·ovi11ces, li.E. Dr. riaile Giorgis V./orl(nel1 . Pu blic V\7arks ,:vas co11te111plati11g ope11i11 g offices i11 tl1e Minis of try tl1e said that capital cities of the Governates-Gene1·al to co11t1·ol a11d s11pervise co11 strL1ctio11 of buildings. S11ch offices are ah·eady f11 1 1ctio11i 1 1g in tl1e Gover 1 1orates-General of Harrar and Eritrea and a Ia,v concerning this matter will be put into effect soon, he said. Urging the people to engage the ser·vices of only those arcl1itects and contractors who are registered with the Ministry of P11blic Works, I-1.E. tl1e Mi11ister of State advised unlicensed architects ' enoineers tl1e1nselves witl1and contractors t o 1·egister ...., b out any further delay.

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Note: You should also consult the Civil Code, Articles 1535 et seq., and consider \vl1etl1er they have any relevance to the above case.

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Parliament's Control of Public Finance and the '' 01·de1· Po�ver'' Urzder Article 27 Read carefully Chapter VII of tl1e Constitution. Note tl1at Parlia111ent's control of IJll�lj_c fina�_ ce

is regulated in some detail bv tl1is Chapter of tl1e Constitt1tion, �,J1 icl1 incltid�s tl1e provisi ons t �� · c aw ' l Y � b pt ce ex l l1e Js ol · ab "no .tax, · duty , impos ' · or ed tic re d . , d t or exc1se shall be 1m1Josed, 1ncrease (Article 113), and that ''none of the pubJic revenues sha ll be ex1Jei1ded except as atit'11 0:1·se. d b la\v'' ,,i:: �s'' or · e 1 . ge a1 1 c · to rs (Articl� 114) . often when an agency 1s 1e � o p ) 1 (a · i t 111ay be gJ\'en crea ted, . .. · .. .· . (b) ,er to spend tl1e omes_1m1Ja i, s�ct�o 1 r exaction for services or Ji�nces_or for s0111e �.tl1er trai � ds t. n 1e n � ia rl a P ]y b : 0� d r t l a \: I :cumulates through fee-charg1og w1tl1 out consu 1 tin� a11Y ot le � ft� , ,enu es re stich c 1r _ques tion may of ire l Je aris e: w11icb powers co11cerning fee-cl1.argi ng anc1 e��tes 1/ l cons titu , at l to as ir e e�� th.e ap_proval of Parliament? The answer n1 ay �lirn on otir eci �i,�;x�endittiJe'' of ''ptiblic a ax, duty, ail d an ) 113 ticle o imp (Ar cl st ban or se'' one y, exci the lt on t1 c iffi d e s u a c rev u '' y 1a 0 s LIS f fi e sta the r ticle ½1 (Ar �ate '?B g cc!� first 114 ? ) Y,_ on tl1e ! �f t!x or ;j_111 pJy ��s a 11o�n1aJ the other. a ding to s a l<111d case the w�e Ja1 t1ct1 par r they servi_ce?, ,1ny are rded Jo rega its for � use charge rett1rn in r ,atel_y 1�1a 1 op ich pr wh ,tp �s a y _1t 111a r n ve s tio go sa . Perl1a1J nn1ental organi in � a atio11s atlis g �:· n p by d er not qu.aljtatively differe11t fro111 fees charge necesm n rivf �1 apiJiy the111 to eacl1 111d1sary lo a gre e upon 1c t a '' xes 1 ''ta ., ,;du sticl of t eric sl1i11g crit i e ir som i11g 1 s/ dist gi1i 1 establi 1 ' · a , c e Of �� 11ee,·s '' • In . . cl1arge t d as gove 1 e11 t 11 re 1a -1· rnn�e �n1powe �a! nt are �genc1es wh1c� v/1y 1 reciso� �riteria one mus _ tl1e _ 113 e · l c _ _ ? � 1 en . A1 t ?f ep _ d n keep in mind t11e essent1al ratr?nale seo11-1 ts give n w1t�1 arise rnay ilties trol o! tl1e tax c l1 s1de co� L r own spencl1ng, ou tside_ the , c � ffi . O _power n l1e expend1ture_ dent a gen 1es tl1ei to c also regard which sl1ot1lcl w1tl1 a.r e Yot1 g1ven a certa�n autonomy v. Otdinary - belo, 111 gs 1· reac e 1 tl ert &ov . · es of t/1e rr1 .) i. ,,e u� e�a111ioe tl· ie . 1m�nt Buclget. Tl1ese cases are 111ust rat e cl by on gs 1 readii tbe . 10 way ,net, 1n wl1 ich similar problems have beer1 Order power, sziprc1, and the readings i11Jra pp. 461-469, . .. . · -. tl1e f t: ·. , . _ to er re 'bl possi Y n1ay . No Pro.. I. . tltls . . ut b · rt, am repo ation � tlus of had a.ppeared at the time . : _: 0:ttier oted above . . ·,, ,_· . . · . . qu .··.: :-·· . �,. ., ..'! .:,,..\ · · . .. . .-. �..: ... . . ' ..... �--.· . ..·. . ' . . . . ... t·· , ... i..;

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454

From tl1 e Ethiopian Antiqt1ities Administration Order, No. 45 of 1966, Ne garit Gazeta 25t11 Year No. 17.

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[After establisI1i11g tl1 e Antiquities Administ ration, the order states:] 4. Corporate and Administrative Powers TJ1e adn1inistratio1 1 sl1all l1 ave a11d may exercise, through its organs of nlanagemei1.t a11d st1bject to tl1e restrictions impo�ed by law, �II corporate and ad i1unistrative powers necessarr to th� �cc?1npl1shment _ o� its _purposes and objectives. I11 JJartict1lar, and w1tl1out l1m1tat1on, the Adrn1n1strat1on shall have power to: ... (4) borrow money and recei,,e credits as autl1orised by law; (5) solicit and receive grants and contributions; (6) cl1 arge, collect, receive a11d retain fees for adn1ission [of the p11blic to historic IDOl)llIDents]; (7) admi11ister i11 accordance witl1 tl1 e law tl1e funds received by it or placed at its disposal; ...

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Fron1 tl1 e Etl1iopian Tot1 rist Organization Order, No.36 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 24tl1 Year No.I. 6. (I)

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[After creating tl1 e Etl1iopian Tourist Organization, the Order s tates:] Tl1ere sl1all be establisl1ed a ft111 d whicl1 shall consist of: (a) all mo11 ies received by tl1e Organization for services performed as 1Jrovided l1eret1nder; (b) all contribt1tions and donations made to the Organization; (c) a11y otl1 er monies received by ti1 e Organization as the result of activities carried out by it heret1nder; a11d (d) a11 an11t1 al Gover11n1e11t subsidy based on. an estimate prepared by / tl 1e Admi11istrator a11d ap1)roved by tI1e Prin1e Minister, which shall be inclt1ded in tl1e a11nt1al Budget of tl1e Gover11ment. SticI1 [Linds sl1 all be lodged i11 a private ba11k i 11 Etl1iopia in a sep�ate deposit accot1nt i11 tl1e 11 an1e of tl1e Orga11 ization, wl1ich shall be responsible for tl�e expe11�itt1re of tl1e fu11d to effectt1a te the objectives and purp� ses .. . on of tl11s Order 111 accordance witl1 tl1e a1111tlal Budget of tl1e Organizati l the of Tl1e <?rg�111zati?11 sl1all set aside a11 d hold as reserve any portions fLin� ind i cat�d 111 subsectio11s (a), (b) a11d (c) of section (1) of the present Article 6 wl11cl1 remai11 s 1111co1nn1itted at tl1e end of a curre11t fiscal year. · J , and · Tlle O�gai_ 1 jzatio11 shall kee1J a.ccounts of expenditure and revenue ' er . shall \Vitliin t\vo (2) 1nontl1s after tl1 e expiration of each fiscal year rend a st�teinei1t of ex1Jendit·ures and revenues for tl1e previous yea:, as the _. . ,\. Auditor General may reqt1jre, to him and to t l1e Ministry of Fina nce-

Tlie Form and Publication of Enactments under Article 27

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Variations in tlie For1n of E11a ct1nents qrif. g From tlie Ethiopian Air Lines Ne Charter (Repeal) Order, No.41 of I96S, Gazeta 25th Year No.4.

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by re ed al he e pe ar re : g n wi llo fo 2 The the Ethiopian Air Lines of er Char t . ' Incorporated The (I) ·ce (Ge11e ral Not1 No. 59 of 1945); a11d (2) Gene ral Notice No. 61 of 1945 [ame11ding the Cl1.a.rter].

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m tile Ethiopian Grain Corporatio11 Cl 1a1·te r (An1e 11dn1 ent) o , No_35 of fr : Or der r d 23i· Yea No . 16. eta Gaz arit Neg 1964, WHEREAS, it is necessary to ame11d the Cl 1arte1· of tl1e Etl.1 iopiai1. c Grai c n Corpora7 26 e of o. ic N ot N 1960). o al er en (G n ti NO\V, THERE_FORE, i11 accord�tnce w�tl� 1\rticle 27 of OL1r Revised. Coi1.stitLltion and on the advice of Ot1r Cotu1c1l of M1111sters, \Ve l1ereby order as follows: The Eth.iopian Grain Corporatio11 Cl1arter is l1e1·eby a111endecl as follows: [l1ere foll o\.v exte11sive a1nendn1e11ts]

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Refer also to the Charter of tl1e Awash Valley Autl1ority, set out later in this Section.

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From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) 01·der, No. I of 1943, Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No.5. 57. Tl1e Minister of tl1e Pen in accordance witl1 tl1e law sl1all :- ....

U) control the propaganda and information services and tl1e Government Press.

From General Notice No. 286 of 1961, Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 12· : ts n e . n t1 in o p p a g · 0 ,1 u His Imperia· I M aJe v, Jo r1 sty has be en pleased to make t I1e 10

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30th Marc11 I 961. Blatta Germ he n. o ati orm Inf of atc w Tekle Hawaryat to be Mi11ister 20tl1 a Gazet t Fr om the B Negari . d et proclamat1on, 1954 E.C., No. 176 of 1961 Year No. � � 4 , time to time · from ·· 4 ou.r M'1n1ste , d e · . uir req d an u. _ , ental r of Finance is hereby authori sed · · rnm ti Gove s vario 0 n the w the f O ds ea or l1 ve a arr reser ers ist jn nt M or e r th de . of otl1er or and s cLPepartme n s nt1e reve ublic e t concerne-d, to pay out of tl 1e P u b d l e . Sc tl1e in fortll t se fun d.s o u.r s v1 ser ce d an es os rp pir pu O Em f e e r tl1 fo h· · ·· ereto· r t· he. above ' . ·· · nt amou mentioned .. .

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Consider the following readings reflecting the control of tl1e govern1nent's inforn1ation services' and the establishment of the Ministry of Infom1ation.

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Pi1blication. of Enact1ner1ts U11de1· A,·ticle 27

From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) (Ame11d111ent) Orcler, No. 14 of 1954, Negarit Gazeta 14th Year No.2. 2· All power, s and dutie.s to conduct and co11trol the propaganda, i11formatjon and press services heretofore vested in 011r Minister of tl1e Pen 1111der Article 57 U) of the Ministers (Definition of Powers) Order, 1943 are hereby transferre d to and vested in Our Minister of Fi11ance.

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AN_C�__N_sT_ _I UT _T_I_o_ 4�5�6:____�s�o_u_R_CE_B_ o_o_K_o_F__E_rn_oi__P_I __L__ A_w______ NAL Expenditure Schedule '

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o ti a m r fo n I f o � y tr is in M . . 4 2 Head ba b a A is d d A In es ic v er S d 11 a ce ffi O Subhead 1. Head Eth . $64 1,79 5 s 1t e1 m lu 1o n E 1. Personal 54 0, 60 1 es rg a l1 C r 1e 2 . Otl Subhead 2. Provincial Agencies 57,396 1. Personal Emolt1ments 15,475 2. Other Charges Head 24 - total

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From t l1e Ministers (Definition of Powers) (Amendment) Order, No. 33 of 1964, Ne0o-arit Gazeta 23rd Year No . 10. 1 �

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2. The following are l1ereby 1·epealed: (1) paragraph 57 (j) of t l1e P1·incipal Order; (2) the Ministers (Defi11ition of Powers) Order, 1954 (Order No. 14 of 1954).... 4. The Principal Order, as amended, is hereby further amended by the addition, after paragraph 88 t l1ereof, of the following:

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89. Tl1e Minister of Infor1natio11 is tl1e l1ead of one of the Departmen ts trans­ acting State Affairs, name l y, tl1e 11inistry of Information. [The powers of the Minister of Information follow.]

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The Problem of Imperial Cl1arters

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The Creation of Jnstiti,tions bJ' J1npe1·ial C/1 arte1·

u?lic Over the pas t decade or so, tl1e En1peror has by I1is ''Char ter'' created a number of p · · Organ1s a· · · or quas1-publ·1c ag encies. Typical examples are uni,,ersities foundations and service · • · h lions like the Y.M.C.A. or the Red Cross. I t l1as 11e,,er beer{ made clear wl1ether Articl e 27 15 t.; source of � l1ese ''Charte rs.'' Tl1e _power of t l1e E111peror to establish corporate bodies, �y � I mp�re­ Char ter without reference to Art1clc 27, is r10,vl1ere exJ)licitly referred t o in tl1e Cons t1tu�i n. M over, som e �'Cl1art er�·· l1ave bee� pron1t1lgated under the o_rdinary autl1ority for es tablishi�og go�:r. me_nt agencies pre scr1_bed by Art_1cle 27. Our pt1rpose here 1s to illt1strate tl1e Cl 1arter g�ung Pcern· �sit I1as been � sed w1 t l1ot1t n1alc111g any reference to Article 27, and t o raise some qu e.s tio� s co�ruch Ing the co� stit utional basis of sucl1 Charters and th e legal s ta tus of the institutions ' they es tablisl1.

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From Aberra Jembere, op.cit., pages 19-20. Prior to the enactment of tl1e Civil Code of Ethiopia of 1960, Imp�rial Cbar;:i; were granted to both pttblic and private associations in order to give tl le s� r0� corpora�e body as th�re was no legal basi s for for�ing such associa� on�� a�er wise.. Tl1at ! s l1ow th_e private associations, like the YMCA, got a� !mperial . 0 1960, 1 u bl1 sl1ed in Negar1t e od Gazeta. Since tl1e promulgation of tl1e C1v1l C . atioD, however, nIS no C!1arter l1as been granted to a pril,ate association or orga except the Haile Selassie I Founda tion.

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Sel a!te e 1 assie � Fo· t1ndation, Gei1eral Noti H of tI rter Cl�a tlle ce No Fro m 253 . of 1 1 . 1 1 r t ea o. N 1. 1 ta ze Ga it ar eg N , 8 1959 de to sir Ot e 1r establisl1 a Fo11ndatio11 wll ic11, bY I·ts . . is it S, RE A WHE a ss . is ta n c e · · fi " . ·I h t 1e 11 e 1n.11 , t · 1 n1, t d l age , 1ose stai1d111g 111 need of µ11ys1ca tJ1e ng Yoti · 1 or 1noral ' t1 1 e . t0 . 1ose 1 n1ea11 w s . 1ose do 1 t not. per1nrt a11 edtica' t1· 011 c0111111e11st1 and on litati habi re ... ra te . . . a?. il1t · e�a111ple 111 tl1e 11elds of ed11catio11 , sci · 1h b·y 1ts 1es, and w 111c \Vith their e11ce and fi �n 11n l l p11 l e� s10 c 11 to all tl1e best .forces and eleineilts i i1 tile rm a giv e ma y arts, and Eth iopi 1nay a sta11d . as a lasti11 g meinorial to t· l1e s acr1·fi1ce belo ved Ot1r o· f lilie . . 11 q n e e d o f Us d· t1r1ng Our life ti111e to e1111 a11ce tlle welfare · h b u ee 1 as h c and labour wh1 and advance the progress of 011r beloved People; NOW, THEREFORE, We hereb)r order as follows: Article I Establishment ot· Foundation and Transfer of P1·operties A. Tl1ere is hereby establisl1ed i11 pe11Jett1it)' by tl1.e IJresent Cl1 arter a11d Deed of Trust ... THE HAILE SELASSIE I FOUNDATION, ... to \vl1icl1 sl1 all be trans­ ferred in full title tl1ose prope1·ties ... listed in tl1e A1111ex to tl1is Cl1arter, to I1 ave and to l1old said properties .in trtist so 1011g and so 1011g only as said properties sl1 all be used only for tl1e objecti,1es, pu1-poses and uses set ot1t i11 Article I\1 l1ereof. ...

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Article IV Objectives, Purposes and Uses of the Foundation

A. The Foundation sl1all l1ave the following objectives, putl)oses and tises wl1ich sl1all, at all times, deterrnine the llSe to wl1icl1 tl1e incon1e sl1aJl be pt1t: [There follows a broad list of objectives i n tl1e fields of social ,velfare, edt1cation , health, and the promotion of the Etlliopian Orthodox Faith.]

Article V Exclusions from the Objectives, Purposes and Uses of the Fotmdation There shall be excluded from tl1e objectives, puf]_Joses and l1ses of tl1e Fotindation the following: . .. . 2. [assistance to commercial organisations] . . 3. assistance to or support of any person, organisation, assoc1at1on, enterprise or undertaking engaged in any political activity. [Further provisions concern tl1e organisation of tl1e Fot1ndation.]

Article XXXIv Modifications of th is Charter; Limitations Tliereon . . . •• • • • ­ r e t n e , 1 1 io . t a is n a g r o · t0 n y C·. The Foundation shall never be merged wit� or in_ any 01· t 111en prise O'f ern Gov undertaking, or with or in to the Imperial Etl1101J�1an Pa rt thereof. tluo. . E al . erj p In1_ . . tlle of . n tio ic sd D. The Fou11dat 1o 1 11 r J e un cler tl1 e n m l co al r sh ve ne . pian G ove m •

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Arttc· 1e ,rv · from Su1t · "'.V Imrnumty � . , of ts cour tl1e in g in tand N er o , h sh_all on 1 o � s _ I juridicaJ, n f !': J 1 � u11dati · e ; whether or natui: a o 1e_ t Our of e a by 111 th ir e t o attac k er :P or 11 by whet n ke ta 1, any dec1s1on ptio1 ·. ·th ri : e··. grouotl desc or that financial assistance of wl1ate ver form .,,. . .

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ITUTIONAL LAW ST ON C AN PI IIO TI E OF OK BO CE SOUR

de le ab ma en be ail av ve to ha 11ld him sho or ise erw 1 to any otl or t · an , gr . . g1·rt, 1oan, . . ' er d t lei , a ng r se o un ri rp te t1v1ty. en ac n, 1o t a. c1 so as 1, 1 tio sa ni ga or l, la dt vi indi '

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Article XXXVID Tax Exemption all ts 1e f tax be1 exemptions provided tl1e to d itle � ent be _ ll s11a � tion nda Fou Tlle 1e gra11t1ng of wh ich 1s left to the discretion of a .ny tl se tl1 all a l wel as , law by � for � _ official of tl1e Im1Jer1al Etl11op1an Government.

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From tlie Haile Sellassie I University Cl1arter, General Notice No. 284 of 1961, Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 8.

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WHEREAS, it is Our desire t o establish a University in which Our students, and stude11ts from otl1er cot111tries may acquire all f. orms of higher education, including post-gradL1ate studies, of a standard eq11ivale1)t to tl1at of other Unjversities elsewl1ere in tl1e world; a11d WHEREAS, it seems fitting to Us that said University should be incorporated by Our Im1Jerial Cl1arter; ,

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NOW, THEREFORE, \Ve of Our special grace and certai11 knowledge and Our own 1notio11 do by tl1is 011r Imperial Cl1arter for Us and Ourself and Our Imperial Successors gra11t and ordain tl1at said University shall be one body politic and cor­ porate in na111e a11 d deed by tl1e name of tl1 e I-Iaile Selassie I Un.i,,ersiiy of Etl1iopia, and sl1all l1ave IJerpetual existence witl1 a common seal wliich may be adopted, chang­ ed or ,,aried at tl1e pleast1re of tl1e I{aile Sellassie U11iversity, and witl1 further powers and at1tl1orities b11t subject to tl1e co11ditions and declarations in this Our Imperia] Cl1arter contained.

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AND WE DO l1ereby accordingly grant, ordai·n, appoint and declare as follows:[Tl1e U11iversity is created; ,,ario11s powers a11d dt1ties are conferred, including] 3. �he U11iversity sl1all l1ave tl1e follo\ving dtities a11d IJowers which shall be exer­ cised by tl1e Board establisl1ed 11nder Art. 4 of tl1is Cl1a.rter: (a) to co-ordinate st1pervise a11d a.d111injster all u11its and agencies of higher edt1cation assig11ecl to it; ....

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(f) to boiT ?\V all st1n1s of n1011ey, ,;vitl1in its budgetary li 1nits, required to meet tl1e orcl11Jary expenditures of tl1e Uni,,ersity until the revenues for the cur· rent fiscal year are available·' [other powers 0111itted) ....

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· 0f the · · I1ereby establ1s 4 · There Is . l1 ed a Boa1·d of Governors which sl1all cons 1st · following me111bers:. · . ·l ' . ' (a) Ex-officio men1ber: -:, ' ' ' Tl1e President. .. (b) Nominated members: · - re· · :· Eigllt �8)_ members to b� a�pointed by U s, three (3 ) of whom sl1� ll »; ,. ·. i; _ . , ·, tp , . · :·,., present_atives of the M1n1str1es of ducation, Agriculture and Public H g} E · respectively. .....: .. · -,J · :l �

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: memb ers d Electe c) ( Where [sic] the graduate members of the U11iversity numb er t w o h undred u at d h 11 s es b gr e a en a . t1 · t tl 1e ed I to elect a me111ber to tll e (200), Board.

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Note· In other sections: various powers are conferreci ont l1e Board incltlding pre ra t·100 f a budCo qu un alifi d cil; cat the ions for variot1s fact1 tty ratlks to a e ubm itt · �s · " to '· are t e ·est ' abl i · 1 sp d l e ,, 1or g ,.eac11Faculty · s101 · c ca d en11 an · c c ''A om crea m1s te 1 to its gover11n1e11t ancl 1 ed 1. s re· quir 1 10s t n 1 0 r nt a rs Fa ct1l nc ele ty il Cou is cre.atecl v,,itl1 wicle JJO\vers to 'det e'r u rove it y.wide cted a t P l , 0 1 11 t 1 e s a n c 1 a d r . s fo r . 1s t I ne a F bt· 1 to w et es c, ac t1 ma tie l s s, to re dJp gu lo la te grees , ac a d e 1 1 1 1 c de 111atters aild advise on all _ University matters.

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The Constitittional Basis of tl1e Cl1arter .Power

The Charters of.�rtain institt1tions, su�h as tl1e National �ank of Etl1ioJJia (Order No. 30 of 1963 ) have been e�pl ic1tly granted b y ln1per1aJ Order t1ncler Article 27 of tl1e Revised Constitution. With thees there 1s no probleJI?, fo·r suc.11 Charters can be analysed in a straightforward man.ner under Article 27, and are no different from any otl1e1· enactn1e.nt under tl1at autl1orit y. In otl1er cases, however, the constitutional authority for the enactment has not been stated in the Charter, and here there may be tl1ree possibilities: ( 1) The Charter may be implicitly assig11ed to Article 27 The Charter of the Eth i o pi a n Grajn Corporation \Vas issued as General Notice No. 267 of 1960, without any reference to the constitutional autl1ority by wl1icl1 it was g ranted. 111 1964 , ho,v­ ever, it was extensively amended b y Order No.35 of 1964, wl1icl1 was ex1)licitly iss11ed 11nder Article 27 of the Revised Constitution. It might be inferred from this a1nendi11g legislation tl1at Article 27 should also be regarded as the proper authority for the original Cl1arter. (2) The Charter may be ascribed to Article 36 The view has been expressed that the En1peror, as Sovereign, n1a y 11nder Article 36 of the Revised Constitution create an institution ''necessary to ensure ... tl1e defence and integrity of the Empire, the safety a.nd welfare o f its inhabitants, ... and tl1e 1Jrotection of all H!s s11bjects !lnd their_ rights and interests abroad''. This possibility, and its implications, are explored 1n the readrngs on Article 36 in. Section 1 of th:is Cb.apter. (See pp. 441-445, s11pra.) (3) The Charter may be ascribed to ''inhererzt'' i111perial pon1ers The following memorandum explores the qt1estion of whether Haile Sellassie I University is an "administration of the Government ' within tl1e meaning of Article 27. '

From Sedler, Memorandz1m on the Law Applicable to the Relationship b�t}veen E111ploye es of t/1e University and the Jn1perial EthioJJian Gove1·11111ent (unpublished, from the Archives of the Faculty of Law). [Tbe author first argues that the fa ct that tl1e University receives g�vernment ftind � n me rn ve go and is set u p by Imperial a it Charter do es not at1tomatically make agency under Article 27.] · o· Ethi . of ror e Emp e 18 tl 1 · H Impenal Majesty is not only the Head of State. H· e .1s . in ta n co es p1a ? the monarc lu va e tl1 of 11t ne nbocli1 e1 e th h d e an th ia l op bo hi m Et sy of ·tal n vernm e ed in th; E. th.1op1a no11-g o s e . .on a n· d cultt1re. !I1us, I-I·e a1 8?.possess . ' n trad1t1 world tI1e or 8Ym olic p cl,s . moila r b d e cis r e �e lly er na ow t1o d1 s tra , powers that are nonthese ov a d of One a . 1J�J . ·np i' goer, n which have b een traditionally exercised rn E t 1l 10 Roy al or a l er . I • ' er vernme�tal power s 1 1 r Ja 1 c O t er ow . o �c [e·mpl1asis add.ed]_ 1s _the p syll?b and or a .. tio arch inon th . 5 e s peo pl � � ? for the benefit of the Eth1op1a? . A: ty ns1b 1 :if . T resp o � his are o H1s people, w ir the r o with the Empero r is responsible f is evid ce rdan o acc c�d by the oath of offi.c.e He takes tip_on _coronation in �� d uphol to the ... s sing romi er n. the �Vt �o_n� of Art. 21 o f tl1e Revised Const1tut1o ears: sw He , tion s�itu A�on 1e t1t t nder ent ut1on · u rs ncem c,'th·t ,�, s x we c: J n o and p adva to his · e rcise e d · a e a 1 e r 1 w al _ · · a: . vve·. �ill· ever. prom . i r t e . n1a nce . d adva an of:oursub1 ,.. ,, and ote the sp.1r1tual re welfa 1 1a · r . e 1nat ·. :. . . , . . ··J� p ts. and . I tia ·t In order to prom ote tl1e sp1r1 . . .. . . ,.

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C N JA P O IT IT E F O SOURCEBOOK

ns io at iz l1 an i at rg bl th ta es ll wi ay n1 ? e � e H t , xis le op pe n for )ia O] lli Et e tll of t nlen n� ay be t1o m ? za ru ed ga at 1 o er l 1c S1 by . p pl : private pe 1 a1 J)i � io tl1 E ? e tl1 of t efi tl1 e be11 ed by 1sl1. abl est Him lly cia and spe t 11s con t10 11za 1 ro a org lled be y ina y t]le Or · s n o · pers . . c� up on sueh organ · ti en 1st ex · I 1�� ·d 1 Jt1r rs nfe iza ons, by Him. Tile Inlperial CJ:iarter c� 1 arter. In other wo rds eir of th 11s �l 1 s.1.0 v ro e 1 tl th wi c an 1? rd , co � and they operate j 11 ac ith ere art acc cl1 w e Ill nc b r rda l1e e h e1t � _ y n1a 1 ? �11 t t iza an org e tal 11 me 1 eri _ o,, n-g a no 1 ed by H 1� Imper1al 1'.faJesty nder l l1s ab est be y 1na It or de Co vil Ci � e 1 tl provisioi1 s of _ _, _ 1 ed 11nder In1 p�r1a l Cl1 arter 1s establi shed 1sl a1?I est t1on 11za 1 a org An er. art 1 CI Imperial by His Imperial Majesty in His _ca1)ac1ty as _t�e syr�bol1c leader of the Ethiopian en rnm ove al 1ng H_1s rc1s powers when exe not s 1 � 1-Ie � e sinc tly, 1 1 qt1e nse Co people. establisl1i 1 1g tl1ose orga11 izations, tl1 ey are no t organ1zat1.011s established by the go� vernment and 11ot subject to tl1 e provisions of Art. 27. In Etl1iopia then, tl1ere are t\VO aspects to the power of the Emperor. He is 1ision.s of ce the rdan pro, witl1 acco in ty reign sove cises exer d 11 , a State of d Hea tl1e tl1e Revised Constitt1tio1 1. Wl1 e 11 He acts i11 this capacity, Hjs action is tl1e action of tl1e govern111ent. Tl1 e Revised Co11stitt1tion primarily defines the governmental !Jowers of tl1e En1peror, tl1ougl1 as we saw, Art. 21 refers to His non-governmental powers i11 prescribi11g tl1 e oatl1 of coronation. He is also the symbolic leader of the Etl1iopia11 J)COJ)le, a11 d whe1 1 I-le acts in that capacity, His action is not that of the governme11t. Tl1e disti1 1ction between these two aspects of His power becomes readily appare11t wI1 e11 we look to the practice of [otl1 er] nations wb.icl1 have a monarcl1.... In Great Britai11, for exam1Jle, sovereignty is [de facto] vested in Parliament, a11d tl1e 111011arcl1 perso11ally exercises little governmental power. But, as in Etl1 iopia, tl1e mo11arcl1 is tl1 e symbol of Britain and is charged witl1 the duty to promote tl1e \Velfare of tl1e British people. Pursuant to this power, the mo11arcl1 l1as establisl1ed many i 11 depe11de11 t bodies under Royal Charter, which tl1us have jt1ridical statt1s. Last year, for exan11Jle, a number of ne,,, 11niversities were chartere? b� !lie Queen, e.g. St1ssex U11iversity. There is 110 question as to whether st1ch t11 11vers1t1es are agencies of tl1e governn1e11t; it is \veil-settled tl1at they are not. It sl1011ld also be noted tl1at tl1ese 11niversities 1·eceive government funds. ... �he next . qtiesti?11 is _110,v it is deternu 11ed wl1etl1er an orga11.ization chartered by I-Iis Imperial MaJesty 1s est�blisl1ed by Him as a governmental or non-g ove�n­ _ mental agency. The ans\ver .1s s1m1)ly tl1at lie so states i12 the o,·der or notice gra,it111 8 tl1e cl1arter. [Tl1 ere follo\\'S an example of a Cl1a1ier explicitly granted tinder Article 27-l On the otl1er l1a11 d, tl1e Cl1arter of I-Iaile Sellassie I Uruversity, Gen eral No�ce No. 284 of 1961, . .. reads m11cl1 diifere11tly:

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WI-IEREAS, it is.Our desire to establisl1 a University in Vi hich Our stude nts an stude nr ' d-grad ua �ro � otller countries n1ay acqt1ire all forn1s of l1igher eclt1cation including post � � an ; stu ies, of a standard equivalent to tl1at of otl1er Univers worl d the in e els� wl1e r ities · our by W l-IE�E d S, it rate seen1s A fitting t o Us tl1at sucl1 University sl1ould be incorpo lm per1al. Cl1arter · io11 n1ot . NOW THEREFORE , rr rxl' ,I' -..,n 0 r e 01 0Ltr special grace and certai,1 l1r10H1ledge a11d Ou . nn1nt . . d0 bJ, tl zi_s Ou, li 77pertal Cl1arter for Us l:' uccessorsd dee-d 01, 1 rself and 011r a11d I111pe rial S · d · · an ord a1n that . . an ame ' sa' 1·ct. u111·ve1s1 · · n . ·tY sl1a11 be one body pol1t1c and corporate m bY t1le name of Haile Selassie I University of Etliiopia ... " [en1phasis addedJ.

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is established under in.herent imperial powers (or und . tion itu inst r A_rt_i c 1 e 3�?), then if . But. � which govern Jaws the by govern n1ental agencies (e· g·, t e ol i-:.· contr to f,fy 1 b civi 1 service, rules } . its lia .1 ) tices prac is g in untin acco t. doub ment govern g 10 d regar ·,\ :.

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. Zoe.cit r, Sedle m Fro 1de tha d t con h the , cl ving U11iversity is 11ot a11 Article 27 age t ha u or t a he ncy, (T u as follows.] contin es Since the {!niversity is not a gover11me11t age11cy witl1in tl1e ineatling of Art. 27 not are empl oyee ''g s ,,er11 me11 its t that ws � �fficials' ', a11d that tlle govern� follo it _ ment cannot appornt p�rsons _to tl1e sta� of the U111versity (again, note that under the ct1 arter Hjs Imperial MaJesty appo111ts tl1e officers of tl1e U11 iversity), and its employees cannot be transfe1·red ·�o go,,e1·n1nent a.ge11cies. Tl1e University is free from govern mental control except 1nsof ar as any orga11ization js s11bject to the laws of the Empire. However, tlus also n1ea11s �hat tl1e U11iversity is not [automatically] entitled to the benefit of any laws refe1·r1ng to governme11t agencies.

crown l1as, l1istorically, enjoyed power-whether ''pre­ Notes to the Above: 1. The English rogative" or otherwise ''inherent! '-to charter variot1s corporate bodies. This power is now subject to limitation by statute and is, presumably, exercised on advice of the government of the day and may be questioned in Parliament. Universities charterecl by the crown receive grants from funds appropriated by Parliament, but tl1ese appropriations are recommended by a University Grants Commi ttee (made u p of experienced educatio11al aclministrators) V11hich advises the government directly in this sector. Con1pare the Charter powers of the Board of Governors of HSIU to prepare its budget. 2. Article 27 of the Constitution and various provisions of the civil and commercial codes provide legal bases for the creation of governn1ental bodies and private ''non commercial'' juridical agencies. As a matter of wise constitutional policy would you favour continued use of an Imperial ''chartering power'' in Ethiopia? If so, for what category of bodies?

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The Article 27 ''Order Power'' in Action - Problems for Resolution

or tl1e ation inistr Adi:n uities _The �tiq the on creati like of cy agen a nt new rnme gove . Ministry of Land Reform - is ust1ally a response to some specific problem facmg the government. Ver y often, as in the cases considered below, such problen1s reqt1ire, first, t�at _a ne\v governm�nt organis ation be established to handle them and seco11clly, tl1at this organisation b� veSt ed Wlth particular powers which n1ay in�Jude the power' to issue regL1lations binding on private persons witbin the area o; subject of its jurisdiction. The government then faces tl1e proble� of tl1e proper au lbority, or division between different constitt1tional authorities, to be used to achieve these ptrr­ poses. The following readings explore the problems and tl1eir resolution.

The Awash Valley Autliority

vee d c u n · o n co e 1e tl e g ra u enco The 1· n1t1a · l problem here facing the government was tl1e need t O 1ieving this l c a f l opme nt of a s an me t beS tile tl fio to nce he d an particula , y r lle Va a are ash the Aw '' . ority Auth . , ?I ' ' 1a . c e ' sp a f o t n e m I Purpose· .I� was decided that th. .s pu . r po se requJred the 1 is esta bl . area, tl1is i \.Vitbin 'tctivity and th ving to lie i n eco e t _ LiJa reg to rs v1e d t po i h ad decide bro rity ; � Autho of very also � WflS � includ�ngie It �se. d 1 n regulatio the ro and pnat1on, the charging of fees, 1erefore hav e tl d 81 1 011J that t�e \ xp and 01 con t e n t 1 i gove . i ng clirect ?I:ty se : spendi l j r � � i n from should free be fa rly own t its . a .Pa rate JUnd1 late 11ey ao<l 1 g Awash cal personali ty ' and powers to borrow mo the of · n1ent 1 blisl · a Th e legal t es tl1e . re,ere was r. nc.e s n s1o ec1 d oc _pr se the ific re edu nt me d spec ple use to im 00 Valle A t was TJ1ere · tice . to any Uar�ority by an Imperial Charter, isst1ed as a General �?s barter are given below; you. are us vario enact askeJ g tic�ilar articl� of t�e Constitution. Extr�cts from. tbi to s mean this t· consider the fusing . 0 y, legalit the relevant su1tab1l1ty where and Pro··IB1om. v· ,

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1962, of 9 No.29 GetleraI Notice

�he Charte r of the wash Valley A11thor1ty, A Ne rn Gazeta 21st Year No.7. r niste admi . to body . 1 a c spe 1 • a . • .qc�EAc,o., it e eat · er to Us s ha to 1ent d . ar pe pe ex ap ed anq; · · · . · ·de-velop tl1e Awash Valle ; y

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETIIIOPIAN CoNSTITUTIONAL LAW

462

NOW, TI-IEREFORE, on the advice of 011r Co11ncil of Ministers, We hereby order a.s follows : ....

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2_ T11ere is hereby created tl1e A:-wasl1 Valley A:1tl1oritr (�ereinafter the 'AVA') as an atitonon1ous Public A11tl1or1ty of tl1e Imperial �t�op1an Government (here­ inafter tJ1e 'Go,,er1 1ment') to be gove1�ned by the prov1s1ons hereof. [Board of Directors establisl1ed; selected articles of the General Notice follow]:

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and develop the natural resources of the Awasl1 Valley a11d shall include, without linliting the ge11erality of the foregoing, tl1e following:

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(a) to cond11ct and ca11se to be conducted sur,1eys of the Awash Valley re­ so11rces, eitl1er directly or tl1rougl1 tl1e intermediary of other domestic a11d internatio11al bodies; (b) to establisl1 plans and programmes for tl1e use and development of the resources of tl1e Awasl1 Valley;

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(c) to co-ordinate tl1e activities of all Government Ministries and Public AL1tI1orities i11 respect of tl1e 11se and development of the resour. ces of the Awasl1 Valley; (d) to autl1orise tl1ird parties to construct, acquire, manage, admjnister and 111ai11tain dan1s, reservoirs, canals, power houses, power structures, trans111ission lines and incidental work s in the Awash Valley; (e) to admi11ister all ,,,ater and ,vater rigl1ts i n tl1e Awas11 Valley and to control the flov, of \Vater of the Awash River; (f) to assign waters of the Awash River for irrigation and other purposes and to fix and collect fees for tl1e use of sucl1-water and otl1er facilities; (g) in co-operatio1 1 witl1 otl1er bodies to 1)ro111ote, organise and. author�se the establisl1ment of co-operative 'and other agricultural and industrial enterprises i11 the Awasl1 Valley; a11d (h) generally,_ to do all st1cl1 tlu11gs as 111ay be necessary to assure tl1e best use and developme11t o f. tl1e resot1rces of tl1e Awasl1 Valley. 5· The AVA sliall .l1ave separftte jt1ridical l)ersonality, a11d, in partic ular, the capacity: (a) to contract· (b) to s ue a11d be sued in its ow 11 nam e; and (c) to acqLiire, ow 11, l)Ossess and disp ose of property. e. 6· i_°y ldition to all of the norn t o er 1al powers pro vid ed for i 11 Article 5 h e f, b . r Slla ll have the following extraordinary }Jowers : t ien (a) to acqu!I"e SL1cl1 real or otl1e ven r property as may be necessary or con he t for ach1evenJ ent f its ·th · Wl · purposes by exproprjatio11 in accordance _. law·' (b) subj_ �; � e� a�d . charges for the use of water, ties facili other and land � � J :risdict1011 ai1d to use fee r e t 1 d i1 h ca rJl col s lect e a11d cha so a. rge s r a o out of its operatio B, e · ns 1n · accord. ance with policies ad opted b Y th - :

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of Directors; provided, however, tl1at any st1t·pltls 1101 requ·1red �or stich t rned be over sl1all to p ns l1 the Ce eratio l Tr 11 Li tra i eas ry of t i e G o . over111nent · . to borrow money 1n accordance w1tl1 tl1e law; to issue regulations relating to tl1e llSe o.f Water Jand atid otll er facilitie s subject to tl1e jurisdictio11 of tl1.e AVA; in co-��eratio11 with appr�priat_e �-over11 n1e11t i\1i_11 istries ai1.ci Pti blic _ f gr e to �n co t �c ss 10 r1_ t 11s 1e s, 01 t11e 11se of lancl 111 tl1 e . Autho A.. wasl1 Valley for agr1c11lt11ral, 1ndt1str1al a-11d o tl1er pt11·poses; to receiv� a.nd admi11iste1·, as age11t ot� tl1e Go,1er11ment, i 11 terr1.atioi1.al aicl and credits; when so requested, to ac t as agent for otl1er gover111ne11t Mi11 istries and Public Authorities carrying 011 t activities i11 tl1e Awasl1 Valley; and to establish and in,'est i n pt1blic co111panies a11cl to create st1bsidiary ex­ ecutive and advisory bodies witl1i11 t.l1e AVA.

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The Livestock and Meat Boarcl The initial problem facing tbe government in t11is case was rather sin1ilar to tl1at of the Awasl1 Valley. I-Jere, too, i t was necessary to encourage developn1e11t in a ,,ital sector of the countr)''s economy, though it ,vas conc.erned with a particular p rocluct r,1tl1er tl1an a particular area. Here, too, it was decided tbat thls purpose could be best acl1ieved by establisl1ing a special agency, and giving it special powers both to regttlate the production and 111arketing of livestock, and to control its own finances, includ.ing the levying of fees. The legal procedure used to implen1ent this decision wc1.s, however, differe11t from tl1at employed for the Awash Valley Authority. The Li\,estocl< and Meat Board was establisl1ed by Imperial Order, _ under Article 27, and ma.ny of its powers \Vere besto\ved by a Procl,:1n1ation JJassed � Y Parl1a111 �nt � �er Article 88. Extracts from this legislation are given below; you are as!(ed to con�1der tl1e suita­ b�Jty, an � where relevant the legality, of using these legal forms as the 111eans for granting tl1e powers with which the Board is endowed.

From the Livestock and Meat Board Order, No 34 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 23rd . Year No. 13. WHEREAS, it is known th at the la rg e livestock pop11latio11 of Our Em1Jire forms a valuable natural reso urce; a n d e tock, WHER EAS, in the terest of e economy of Our Empire, �he qua�ity of Iiv _ a � in th products and hides ' sed iea inc 1011 ct clu pro � ir tl1e should be im1Jroved. and e c n ta is s s a . d n a e WHEREAS ·1t 1s c 11 a id ti g e .-d i ov . P1 to �s s ?o_ 1 1� p11 f s ces ne se ary or the , 11nent l s li to o b a t s e le l t e ra co . � en 11 d an rs 1 te l1ta s fac der tra _ to d s, an sor , ces d�� pro Pr d an of re 1s1te n . tio era ; _ o t e ci e P il 1r :ffi tl1e for 11s 11 u 1 ili d fac o io · lat s tie eg and to pr . n vi e q . · o creati the w·H EREA S . 1 by ieved 1 ac e b st be . · t o · ca 1s r s se po e . de pu med that these of a· n or·ga , I law· by 1 c 1e . ·er fi 11 .. co be nization possessed o·f such powers as shall ' � . n: tut1o t1 Co11s No w T ed . Revis . · . Ot11 f o HE 7 2 R e ticl O Ar EF RE, in accordance W1tl1 s: and o'n th follow as · . orde1 1 b e Jere Y We advi s, ce ster Mini of the Council of . ... 2· Es tablish · Dlent of the d: Boar estock ''Liv "rt. the as n . .a,11ere k11ow . be . i. to 8 hereby created n independent 'b OdY, , · the d ar1 ·_and tors Direc of d � roar M 1 t l1 at 1 � ou tl1r . d l t oar h a . ', . . wl11ch s a l � s. .� B .· Oen·era law f vant rele Manager as provided 11ere1n and in ot,er . , ..

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETI-llOPIAN CoNSTITUTIONAL LAW

d r a o B e th f o s e s o p r 4. Objects and P11 j s o d s n rp : e a u v es p ti ec b o g in w o ll fo e 1 tl e v The Board sl1all ha y th g of a1 d tin 11e an ke ar m gh q hi d 1 a1 1 1 tio y 11c od lit ua IJr e 1 tl e ag tir co en (l) to p s; ct 11 d ro yb d an s g eg t, I ea m y, tr 11 livestock, po t e tio g th to uc tin od la :e pr n p io n, a rm fo in ce ro e at in m s­ sse di d a11 ct lle co to ) (2 , , try ul ck to po es meat, eggs and liv of 1 g ti1 ke ar m d an g tin or sp sing, tra11 by-prod11cts; ed rov of imp o isio erv stock routes , s�l? and 1:1-t me 1 is1 abl est 1 e tl te _ (3) to promo wateri11g points and 1narlcet1og fac1l1t1es; (4) to stimulate researcl1 on any aspect of livestock and poultry production, transporting, processing and marl<eting; (5) wl1en. req uested, and i11 accordance with such request, to assist in and 1ices of the Ser, ary erin Vet Govern.ment 1 tl e by 011t ying carr tl1e e facilitat of tl1eir vacci11ation and relatecl services and to cooperate in the expansion and a.pplication of ,,eterinary standards and requirements; and (6) to promote the sale of livestock, po11ltry, meat, eggs and by-products by advertising at l1ome a11d abroad and by participating in inter·national trade fairs.

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The Board sl1all, in accordance with relevant laws, be responsible for: (1) the establisl1n1ent and enforcement of sucl1 policies and programmes as are 11ecessary for tl1e attair1ment of the ob jects and p11rposes stated here11nder; (2) the est�blishn1ent of such adminjstrati,,e organization as is necessary and co11d1 1c1ve to tl 1e proper exec11tion and adn1i11istratio11 of its poljcies and prograID111es; (3) tl1e IJre 1)aration of its b11dget; and (4) tlie discl1 arging of such additional functions as may be vested in it by law.

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the Livestock and Meat Board Proclamation ' No · 212 of 1964' Negarit Gazeta · F rom y 2 3rd ear No. 13. ard; t M Bo ea Wi {EREAS, We have ordered Livestock and

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and � WHEREAS ' it is · o\ · necess,lry tl1at . the said Boa rd be conferred with such p ers . necessary for as a1e th· e att·a1n . ment of its objects and purposes· � nst �­ �o ��:, �EREFO��' in accor�ance with d Articles 34 and 88 of u r Revise s an . appro�e tl1 e resol11t1011s of Our Senate and Cl1amber of Depu.oe · · We h'ere . bY procla im as follows:...

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the Board: of r powe 3. ha ve. and exercise such p ow er to control sh al l oa rd B The . an cl re m o .. t 1 1 a e t ·h ' e1Jross .. p m .io o ss . n o em e , I, se e1 , 1t , u , s a e, . 1111port, and exi)ort of duct1on all livestoc·k oultry, meat, eggs and b y- pr oducts as n1ay be 11ecessai ·y to ca' rry ottt 1·ts ob�.e .' P · c t s · · 11 d g c d I 1n in w · an 1 , 10 'tl es 11 os 1 t rp pu 11 · 11. 1 ta t1 d o an n tl1 e IJOWer: (1) to construct, own, lease a11d operate fa1·111s' \Varel1 o11ses, rnar ·Ic e· t s , , 1narket m . t 1 s d n a p co n o st d , ock po!lds, 1. 11 places wJ1 ere su plac:s c 1 1 facilities are required b u t h ave n o t b ee n p1·0,,1ded tl1ro11gl1 i11 itiative of pr iv at e e t _ en co t1 rage the establisl1n1e11t i11 st1cl1 IJlaces of ad �rise an� �� eq tia te p r� :�­ ; s1ng facilities (2) to borrow, lend, mortgage, pledge ancl dispose of movable a11d j 1111novable property; (3) to designate and direct livestock a11d po11ltry marlcets; (4) when requested and in accordance witl1 st1ch reqt1est by tl1e Veterinary Services, to organize and operate tl1 e qt1ara11 tine stations for t1se in the export a.nd import of livestock, po 11Itry, meat, eggs and by-prodt1cts; (5) to demarcate and establish livestock ro11tes witl1 wateri11g points a11d reserv­ ed grazing area to enable livestoclc to be 1noved f1·01n 1Jri1nary markets to processing facilities and central tra11sportatio11 points, in the best possible condition; (6) to introduce measures designed to expand and improve tl1e livestock, poultry, meat a:1d egg industries ge11 erally, a11d in partict1lar, bt1t witl1ot1t limitation, to re�ommend to the Governn1ent to protect prodt1cers a11d processors from excessive taxation or ot11er in11)ositions wl1icl1 tend to stifle and impede t.he expansion of t1·ade in tl1 ese com111odities; (7) to propose to the Government to fix livestock, poultry, meat, eggs and by-product floor prices wl1en considered necessa1·y for tl1 e national economy; (8) to draw up and establish reliable we.igl1ing proced11res and grade specifica­ tions for livestock, pou ltry, meat, eggs and by-prodt1cts and enforce tl1e same; (9) to fix impose and collect fee s on all livestock, n1eat, l)Otlltry, eggs and by' · . P1·ovided' however tl1 at products processed in or exported fro1n Et11·1op1a, in no event shall s·uch fees exceed the fallowing rates: [detailed ra te s follow] . c: · i· ie · s 1 t (10) t0 fix, .1mpose 1 c ia 1g 11 s t1 y r lt 11 o p d n a and collect fees on a11 1·ivest·o�k ' . of any sort prov.ided by tl1 e Boa1·d, wl1etl1er livestock _and oultry markets, er­ slat1gl1t t·on { a s e e wat r suppl y centres, stock ro11tes and ponds,. qtiarantin . s e e f h c u s t ' a �b . ever, . houses and other processing C'. <l l1ow · JJrov1de · ·11t1es, 1ac1 e, ' . possibl as early shall be fixed upon a n a� uniform basis and sl1,1ll re��ct, 1e tl to vided n bei the cost and value s ie ilit fac the d J of the ser·vices an tl 1e ce finan x sers need t tl1e �ereof, � }laving due re�ard to ies; facilit d 11 a es t;�ic . xp ansion, maintenance �cl; s of ment improve and and · s as. sl1all . (11) at1on 1 regu · 0 nerally take st1cb measures and reconJiuetJd st1cl1 nt Proclamat.1on. se . pre · ·_ tl1.e � of a �in ses . ., PPropriate to realize the purpo

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cil Coun e th s?urne to tliat a govern1 11ent ''Comn1 ission on Urban I-lousing'' has reported � oo 1.01sters. It l1as. �e n fot1nd by tl1e. e t of n1any h by in co11m1i lived ssion t at t l 1e l1ouses h p ust rer fih� � _ a It�rlls of the cities are too ex1)ens1ve and too poor i n qt1a lity and that tl1e government m ta_ke active steps: to J)rovide urban lo\ver i11 con1e groups better ou� (or flats) at prices which th�Y l1 1s . \VI roup be ab g le to tws af o f rd t for i.: , · 0 n1ake strre tl1at tl1e quantity and quality of houses · 11 e th ate u nJJrove d ; to coo<len1n ai1d clestroy l1ouses regul to nd ' ·' a. ,vl l 1ealthy' 1 icl1 are ''111canife un stl'-' · J tal • · · o st an d ards o f 11ew l1ouses b tii·1t 111 rome gove the · t·I1 e c1t1es, and Since cl1aro-ed tl1e l1 are ,vl1ic rents • · . 0 er th ra · s w111. c111 sucl1 . a prograrn1:i1� l'' .. Po1.1c1e tica · , wot1ld 111volve l1 igbly in1 portant and of a . "poIi are . tllan a u el y t. .cl cal nat re, it is tl n a i by exercised J�i M e 1 ti ot1gl 1t desirable tl1at they sl1ould b i � � b : ous rather t a an in ependeiit agency. It is tl1erefore decided to establish a new Minis try of H prepare Tl1e SJJecific recom111enc1attons to ked · ' . as are o f t.l.1e Con · vv . . .m1ission are listed below. You . draft Ieg1s can · 1at1·o-n to in h whic 1 pleme11 t tl1em, d 1st1ngu1sl1ing . t1ons reconm1enda between tl1e oved implen1e 11ted b y IiuJJe .·d, 1 0. d ppr on ma� r er P�ocl� an<l !1th�s� or · icb 1 �l Decree require a eitl1er pro by Parlia111e 11t, and to �o11s1.der the he pos�1b1lity that ''the Emperor as Sovereign' nu¥l1 t I a of the posed le gislation on tl grou � ts 1 t�:n s tl 1 at t prom_o�e� the ''sat:e ty _and welfare' '.of � he mh i? . a els to a.nY Empire. You sh�uld a��O d se I o g al 0 u!ution for r t1on st1tu c�o s1b J)os i 1l1ty of obJect1ons on � _the of tl1e proi)osed powers 0� 1 on t e e M th stry, b)' . mi s C and required pr . on any ocedures carrying out the Mm stry ,s progra mn1e. i

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organised into clepa1·tment ' be l1ld o sh y nis tr s as ' -..Ki iv1 . m ay e b Th e neces · sary , 2 to t u1 ec r r ment ses s l o v I d ; purp be 1011 . . sttbie . J its ct · achie e to tlie st1perv1s1011 . 0 f . gency , I A an son11e d its r Pe acco1 1nts ntral sliott· ld be at i d·Ite the Ce . d by the Auditor General. r sho uld l1ave tl1e following p owers: te Minis The J. or receive by donatio11 pri\,ate or gov le as e bu y, to (a) e1.11111e11tal lands and buildings; (bj to receive ab�ndo11ed urba11 p1·oper ties ancl pro1)erties itl esclleat, ttnles � these are specifically c on,,eyed to ,111othe1· l1olde1·; (c) to condemn a11d destr oy t111sa11itary b11ildi11gs; (d) to acquire by expropriation !l1e land 011 \Vl1i�l1 concle1u11ed b tiildiilgs are constructed, .and otl�er la1 1d 111.ac co1·da11ce \V1tl1 tl1e law, for the ptirpose of constructing sanitary dwellings; (e) to constrt1ct. houses a11d apartme11ts; (f) to rent such houses and apartments a.t re11ts low e11ot1gl1 to allow low income families t o become tenants:, (g) to fix conditi ons of lease f or l1ousing operated by tl1e l\1inistry, inclt1ding but with out limitation the p o,ver to stip·ulate:

i. that only Ethiopian citizens sho11ld beco111e tenants; ii. th,at only families with income witl1in certain 1·a11ges sl1ould become tenants; iii. that facilities may be ''zoned'', to give preference at given sites to particular occupational gr ol1ps; (h) to have access to do cuments 1·elated to the f u11cti o11s of tl1e Mi11istry from any other mjnjstry or agency of tl1e gove1·11ment; (i) to classify urban land f or residential, i11dt1strial, welfare a11d otl1er p11rposes, and to issue regulations c oncerning its use; G) to require information 11ecessary f or ti1e pe1·for1na11ce of jts dtities froin private individuals or corp orate bodies; (k) to issue general regulations c ontrolling dwelli11g J)laces and l1011sing co i1ditjons in all urban areas; CT) to_ gr�nt or refuse planning permission for new b11i!dii1gs, ��1 - a_cc_of<lance with its classification under (i) above, an d otl1er desirable criter ia' . . l11n1ts ; . de-f i 11ed witliin (m) t0 control tl1e rents of private 11.o uses 1n 11r ban ai.eas, oena p sub 10 r we po (n) to establish a th wi , try nis Mi tl1e . tribunal . within ove, ab (m) (i' ) Wl·tnesses, to regulate d1sp11tes ar1s1ng lLll . der · · t par form shall · (o) t0 draw up 1ich w] , ry t 8 1111 M' e th and present the Budget of of the Budget of the Go vernment; stry · Mii1i tile f (p) to raise 11rp oses p the ut o loans, where necessary to carry o; s loan s a er .; (q) to adm et wh , s e c tir so inister funds received from f oreign as aid· I ia · spe� a 1n · sited (r)· t0 reta � depo be ing in. rents and other designated funds, to . r te s ni adn1i , 11· n g a11 · t n :roa1 acco �-nt tn the or f d use d a ol; k, tr Ban al tion Na con � try's . _ s under t11e Minis . · llnd 1ncreas1ng th.e housing fac.1l1t1e .

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x n h l es ic al ti o h e sh e w e , ce ro l t r ti p e p d d 11 si � re an I% rb u 11 0 f l s ee o y ev to ; ) e v r m ( e o d b n a d u e in m r te e d s a t n e r m ti of tlle maxim w r la fo of c e e rc th fo , 1e te tl et b r g in av h 1s i ry ar o1 ti Ja ng 11 g re _ te ga ul ll oi pr to , s r e w o e v p o b a e l1 t f o out of any a11d eacl1 t en em of rc ti fo la e en gu th re re su s en on to u iss r de or ed in s, se 11 10 1 t ec sp in to . d 6 . n .m a .m a f o 8 rs u p o h e th n e e tw e u 11der (t) above, b

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O,·ders Issuecl, 1955-1966

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Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov.

1957 1957 1957 1957

Natio11al Co11lffiunity Development Board of National Con1munity Development I\1Iinistry of tl1e ltnperial Court Ot1r National Defence Council

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Art.27

22/60 28 Jt1ly 1960 I-Iealth Tax Adn1inist1·ation 23/61 20 Oct. 1961 Ce11tral Personnel Age11cy and Public Service 24/62 23 Jan. 1962 Ar111y Badges of Rank 25/62 27 A11g. 1962 Civil Aviation 26/62 5 Sep. 1962 Pt1blic En1ployn1eot Ad11iinistration 27/62 15 Nov. 1962 Ter1nination of tl1e Federal S atus of Eri rea 28/62 19 Dec. 1962 Central Persoo11el Agency & Public Service (Arndt.)

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29/63 8 July 1963 Tecl1nical Agency 30/63 27 July 1963 Charter of tl1e Natio11al B,mk of Etl1iopia 31/63 12 Sep. 1963 I-Iealtl1 Ta,"<: Ad111inist1·(1tion An1endrnent 32/64 '

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33/64 34/64 35/64 36/64 37/64 38/64

8 Feb. 1964 Declar�tion of St,1te of En1ergency in the Region B �r�er111g tl1e Rep11blic of Somalia. 8 Feb. 1964 �1111sters (Defi11itio11 of Po,vers) (An1endment) 14 Mar. 1964 Livestock and i\1eat Board 4 Jt1n. 1964 I1�01J!,tn Gra� Corporation Cl1arter (An1endment) 1:� 21 Se1J. 1964 Etliio1J1an To11r1st Orga.oisation 4 Dec. 1964 Labour Inspection Service 30 Dec. 1964 Regulation of Governn1ent Construction

39/65 1 Mar. 1965 40/65 21 Jun. 1965 National Bank of Etlliopia Charter (Amendment) 41/65 30 Oct. 1965 La °:d �eform and Developn1ent Authority Ethi0IJian Air Lines Cl1arter (Repec'll) 42/66 23 Feb . 1966 Institute o· f Agricultt1ral Research 43/66 14 Mar. 1966 L��l 44/66 23 Mar. 1966 ��1� Self-Ad111inistration � rs De6�1iti?�1 of Powers (An1endment) 45/66 22 Jun. 1966 !11?P1an Ant1qu1t1es Adnl.inistration 46/66 27 July 1966 Minister s (Definition of Powers) (Amendment No.2) 1st

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Art.27 ply Sup a11d es Stor of istry Min 1958 . Feb 19/58 28 Art.27 s sion Pen of y istr Min the of ties Du and vers Po\. tl1e g 20/58 31 Ivlar. 1958 Definin Art.29 y Arm rial rito Ter l eria 21/58 31 Oct. 1958 In1p 22/59 28 Feb. 1959 Malaria Eradication

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on, 1955-1966 ti la is eg L e iv ut ec Ex further This note gives legislation issued by tl1e En1peror alone since 1955 ( th er. 11 n Decr e�s), in gated by O r�er. Wl1ere a co.11stit1.itional sot promul uon � � � that to dd irce 1 i eXI)1icit 1Y 1nent1o a , ·. · n in the right-hand n1argrn. ned, this is give Charter of th e Etl1iopian Electric L 19 56 Jan. 30 56 igllt G.ZlJ/ and Power At1tl1ority Art.27 G.ZZ1/56 30 Dec. 1956 Exercise of Pr er ogative (Maderia land ' pardon, reductio11 of sentences) none 19 Ar 57 Ba m y dg es Jan. of Rr 29 u.1k Or de 156 r /57 p, A rt .29 Ra tifi 19 cat 57 ion Au g. of An 27 1en d11 1en t 20/ 57 to Eritrea11 D. (Eritrean Constitution C onst.) 195 P 7 oli ce Aug. Me da l Es 29 tab lisl 1111 ent 21/57 D. Art.31 G.22 9/57 30 Nov. 1957 Menelik II. 11e111ori,tl ru1cl Tri11ity M onastery CI1arter Art.27 G.230/57 30 Dec. 1957 Horse Racing Clttb Cl1arter none 19 Ch 59 art ly er Ju of th 22 Ha e 9 ile 5 Se 3/ lla ssie I Fouoclation G.25 n o ne G.261/60 29 Feb. 1960 An1endmen t to l-I.S.I. Foundation Charter none 19 60 Me ne 30 Mar. lik II 11 e111orial and Trinity i\1onastery G.263/60 Charter An1endme11t 11o ne G.267/60 5 May 1960 Ethiopian Grain Corporation Cl1arter no11e G.268/60 28 July 1960 Scrap Iron Board Charter (An1e11d111e11t) none G.280/60 30 Dec. 1960 Central 1Vledical Stores Cor1)oratio11 Cl1arter (An1end111ent) none G.284/61 28 Feb. 1961 Haile Sellassie I University Cl1arter no ne G.299/62 23 Jan. 1962 Awash Valley Authority C l 1arter none

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SECTION 3: THE LAW

G AUTI-IORITY PARLIAMENT

Read: Articles 34, 86-92 of the Revised Constitution; Redden, Tlze Law-Making Process in Et/1iopia; ,, ,, '' · · ees ecr · Redden, Eth1,op1an Legal Forn1book (tl1e relevant react·rngs dea1·1ng WI'th ''Orders , D and '·Proclamations'').

Having examined the distinction between tl1e fields of legislation by pe al Procla matio n o-r Decree we l� a� � � �: : tf t � raised Y proble111s the so n1e of shall not:v consider ' · s ·1 ai ment ��r of legislation (De t e d h it · w d ne er nc co re he ot 11 · ) · e . are � . 0 _ _cree an? .Procl�mat1on of thearyleg1 slat1v 8 110 te d above and in d rea tlle e s, i n pl process, which 1s described, with � xa!il � h tr r and ro cpi� JJe Em le tl il · ee � !t b er po of rather, e VII;_ \v we are concerned witl1 tl1e d1str1but1on liame:nt, 1n the mak ing o f law.

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. whic h s n1att er to and Th e w" ,,1 a . Revised Constitution makes frequent reference s to ..u t a\V" 'l word the that ' e ' : � � _ decided by ''law''. Ex.amp]es are listecl below. Would se in the se Article ti cl;s 88-92? : Y�t �� ce s refers to a law enacted in accordan ,,

19 · ( ,, . shall be anntiaIIY dete1·1uined by law· . . . · c) In case of a Regency, the c1vil 11st 11 a h s sam . e · ,, 34 tl1e afte r · · · The Emperor ws ' I a 11 a m ru procl has the rigl1t ... to have been passed by the Parliament.'' . ition s cond 45: e th . ''E 1 . 1 ' , . · wit . . e ccor· danc s ,, th1op1an sub1ects shall have tl1e r1g a in . ] 1t, . J . · arm pre · 011t w1tl . scri 1 'b d ed by law, to assemble peaceabIY an � .. , tion stitt 1 011 c , • 1' E V't' e 1 tl ey · b o · and pect eryone 1n the Empire has tl1e duty to res . ,, ·V 1aws, de re. Empi the crees of i ns s and regulatio order . ; ent: . 1 iam . .· 6. · .'·'l . Parl of bers m Cha . O ·... _, aws may be proposed to either, or b th · . . . --. ·. ..

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The Use of the Term ''Law'' in the Constitution: Who Makes These ''Laws''?

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r o : r o r e p m E 1 e tl y b . (a) 1 e1nbers of either C11a,mber of Parlia 11 nore 1 or ten by ment.'' (b) wl1en tl1e arise tl1at Chambers are not sitt· h 1cy 1erge1 1 e1 of cases 1 ,,11 in g, t e e11t sist with con tl1e rees dec 1stit Co1 1 ution , wb_JC h sh Elnperor may IJrocl,ti11 . . . . all 111 t h bl 1on e N 1cat pu n_ t 1 1· 11po ega law I' iI: Gazet a, p endin liave the force of decisio11 011 tI1e same by Parl1a1ne�t . .. : In tl1e eve11t tl1at ... Parliament s�a� ' beco aiJprove decrees, tl1ey sl1all continue 1n force and shall me law u pon ' · , I • ,,a a, sa1 e G t f o · ct az pro . ap J)t1blicati on, in th e Negar1t • vested in tl1e courts established by law." ''The jt1dicial power shall be • ''No tax, dt1ty, imJJOst or excise shall be imposed, increased, reduced o r abolisl1ed, except by law." ''No loan 01· IJledge, gt1aranty or collateral th.erefore, may be contracted •for , within or -vvitl1out tl1e E1npire, by any governmental organisation ,vitbjn ' tl1 e E111pire, except as at 1tl1orised by a law dul)' adopted in accordance with ·' tl1e provisio11s of Articles 88, 89, or 90 of the present Constitution." . ,-· ''Tl1ere shall be an Auditor General .... His functions shall be defined by I !. law.'' I

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''Tl1e organisation and sec11lar administration of the Established Church sl1all be governed by law." The En1peror's Role in Resolving Disagreements Bet,veen tl1e rf\-vo Houses of Parliament

Read carefully Articles 86-91 of tl1e Revised Constitution, and the relevant sections of Redden, I'/1e Lalv Malci11g Process i11 Et/1iopia. Tl1en consider tl1e follo\\1ing reading.

From Berelcet Habte Selassie, ;'Constitt1tional Development in Ethiopia'', 10 Journal r ica11 Lct�v, PIJ. 85-86 (I 966). Af of e. cl1ang g puzzlin TI1e process by ,vl1icl1 a proposal becomes law has undergone a Previo11sly [tinder tl1e 1931 Constitt1tio11] each c.l1a1nber was given the right to �xpress sepa rate Iy its 01Jinio11 to tl1e En11Jeror 011 legislative and otl1er n1atters, aod if th . was a differe11ce of conclt1sio11 bet,:vecn tl1e111 in tl1e sa1ne matter the Emperor c_o n· clusi� con resolve it by selecti11g wl1,tt I 1 e co11side1·ed best in tl1e two differen t :e Tl1 ere wa.s 11 0 IJro,,isio11 for a joi11 t sessio11. The situation now is ambiguous. Artie 87 JJrovides: ll bers sha . . . . . . ',All 111atter . s 1n e1tl1er Cl1amber or 1n JOtnt meetings of the cham pt as t be deternlined by vote of tl1e majority of tl1e numbers pres en , e�ceevent provided in article 131 (i.e., amendment of the constitu tion ). In t �ting of an equal division of votes, tl1e presiding officer shall have a vote." r othe e . . . . :1f �. legislative proposal IJas_se� by one chamber is not cted upon b th p id osal, � ro witl1111 two 1uontl1s tl1e tw o bodies sa 1e tl ss dis cu to 1 ll er tog 1nu f sba et1 be me st et osa If aiJproved, witl1 or witl1011t op pr tl1e day s within t.lurty . a1ne 11dm i. 1ch pr� ents 1 · W · co1um · I 88 i c ate d ' to tl1.e Emperor for action in accordance w1tl1 Ar� e ' cl1aJJ1bers U ltc h v1des that the E peror can · ·sta· t to e 1t 1 t e I� or J g e1tl1er law, it � u�n ron11ilg as ul ate e a a d l l? witll his 0b seiv o . ations tl1ereon Sh n. atio er pproY . leg1 sl of or pro wit h pos · a al new a t·ive proposal be rejected o 1Vlll rece r or u'nduly delayed in one chamb er afte

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ca at nn ter ot be re 1 so th lved at a joint meeti·ilg tl e n an d . er oth 1e .pres1de11ts by the ' rs are reqlu·r_ed to se11d f u.11 rep . . or ts .on tl1e s1tl1atio11 to tl1 e E m be cha h bot 111 p ero �' of t l� or ne a ns a _ o w proposal (Art. 91). I-Ierein · bserv l 1 is d sen y l ies ·tl1e a.in b1'11h0 ma · 1· 011 of Article 87 w · .. ty. This cannot be reconc1 led w1 tl1 tl1e c lear p1·ov1s 1 11c 1 1 s p e ks . 1 g u t ·h e determination of any matter in eitl1er cl1ambe1· or i11 Joi 11 t mee · t 1 11gs by � . . of · J1 e t � . e t Th sen v d · pre 1c e o ers a f Jo in inem b c o11vocatio 11 is vit t _ the of . ia te . vote d by tl 1e . , (d ]1 e� 1c p 1 w tl _ 1 te 1 l e _ p1ov1�1o n s of A.rt. 87) seei ns to JJroceed 1 provisions of Art. ?l o n su oin 1 c1 t o� co nv t1o oc n at1 011 J con of tl1e two cl1a111 bers, as tllottgll �ep oiis cur i a . de to li ge ber tJ1 at er a11d tl1e11 proceecl to vote as se arate eil to e 1ng they we re roeet tities. p Consider also the

Article 91 provides for repor ts to be sent t o tl1e E1nperor t111der tl1 ree different sets of circumstances: '. (a) under Article 88, if a proposal approved by one C ha1n ber is rejected by the other;

(b) under Article 89, if a proposal approved by one Cl1amber is 11ot acted upon by the other within two montl1s, a11d a st1 bseqt1e11t joi11t n1eeting fails to approve the proposal; (c) under Article 90, if the two Cl1am bers both approve tl1e proposal btit �ail to agree over amendments to it, an d tl1e proJJosal is 11ot a p proved,_ with or without amendments, after a joint 1neeting. Let us therefore consider these thr ee situations, one by one, to d.etermine whetl1er they can be reconciled with Ar tic le 87 . Under situatio n (a), th er e is no constitutional provi�ion for _ a jo�nt meetin� of the Chambers at all Artic le 91 refers tl1is sitl1ation to Article 88, in wl1icll tll e �� sibili ty of joint meeti�g is not mentioned Ft1rtl1er, by rejecting a p'r·opos� l passe } ns r t n ' , i the first Cham ber the pon ! i A�t ! le 900 C11am ber. · 11as ''fi11ally acted 11 second ' r . . · . I nd since 1c Art' � I e · e c c i . I 89, and so no Joint meeting arises under that art ' . · arises in t e e t c 1 0 JOI? . ro 1 ? .. n1e11t,'i, amend is once rned only 1 over g ments with e re disa e tl , g in t e e . n . i J01nt . . . a under that art1c1 e e1tl1er. Since this s1t11at1on d oes 110t call for e tl1er . d 11 · a se i ar m t . P.·ro·bl oes , , d 110 · e 0f how votes 11g 1 ·t· e · · · me t · J0111 a sh . ould be cast at 18 lbe refo re no difficulty in reconciling it with Article 87 · tw_ o tl1e . if n e . ev . btrt . . U y ece er arly d c_ l e 1tuat1o a t 1s s ), j n meetin ( g b fl: TI:� by A i·ticle 87,. tl1ere 1s oint a Ch m e s vote together at such a joint meet1 11�,. as 11nP_. a e l1av r s nber nevert hele ss e Cba1 tl1 1 n eet 1ts e no conflict with Article 91. At tl1e JOJ11 t m 11 , 1 1 ch.· 1. . �, nd e h am wit ·t . . . ng ovi I 0 c.e ·. betw r app ' , ds lee� an . con t s. 1t 1� ro as t app 1 1 , . g sa vin po pro 11ts the e and ndm e am t u tJ , rnaJ:�ct mg it altogether. If it is approved, with or w cted e reJ is . { �� whereas if it e ed r Art1 unde to r � unde the osal, l E f it is c. prop . . mperor or approva new a r � s w o vat la of n1 bser al : 1 o_ s �cl��lllu cated to the E�peror for his propo ; a ws l lo a -· 1 e a f b · ht Jl11g An e xample of th1s procedure .. .• . .

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following observation by tl1e editors on tl1e proble111 raisecl by Dr. Bereket.

Articl e 87 of the co11stitt1tion certai11l)' appears to provide for 1natters at joint meetings t o be resol_ve� by a vote of all tl1e 111e111 bers JJrese11t, voti11g toget/1er, since it s,1ys that tl1e maJor1ty of tl1e members present sl1all JJrevail, witl1out providing for separat e votes by tl1e me1nbers of tl1 e two Cl1ambers. It 1nl1st therefore be seen whether the provisions of Artic le 91 can be rendered c oosiste11t with tl1is provision of Article 87.

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the Y 18 t 1 , es o t1 1 w 1s I1 11 cl ep lu D 1 f st o o e er b t a h l le pro in 1e C tJ to t n se tl le tl P_ is P a! Pos Senate' it . · tl1e s t mat er tl •. t v·io montl1 · r 1e11 e go v • o .r. · 1 · o i es it f _ · o to a join'. n o t1 a r . e . 1d s 11 o c s y la ' . _ . and d. e t ( h 1 e gl es ar ou 1t en to ep D o e tv tJ1 011 1 of L s te te t e 1ost1le vo · e avour. 1 J . \V tl l icl l l n 1 , g 1n t mee . 1o .r. re r�Jected ; \tnder the tl 1 _ re s 1e a os op pr e t!1 _ 1d a1 , rs to 11a � se cirable votes of tl1e Se r ro by e pe tl1 e Em tl1 id es to Pr d tte 1 1ts bn eii st1 e ar of both rts po re , es iic sta m cu . 91 le c ti r A r e d n u rs e b m a h C s i11 t11i ce o11, �in 1ati sitt lt, fict1 dif l1 st bot n1o tl1e c11a mbers far by is c) ( on iati Sitt ee y l_ agr r on dis o,�e d an end am , sal po pro ments to it: tl1e to eed agr . y ead alr 11ave n t1o ua as 1n al, s1t os op (b), sjnce only th� JJr e 1ol w� e t t11 c e rej ot 1111 ca re o they tl1eref s, ber _the two o am of Ch e vot ref the ed_ b111 com re, cannot A te. issL at are ts men e11d an1 fail to apJJrove tl1e proJJosal eitl1e1· w1tl1 or \ ;v1tl1_0ut ame11dment, a11d un der th ese are e 1 9 1 A rt1c er d t1nnecessary . Are there, tin r o 1Je1· E1n tl1e to orts rep ces ta11 11ms circ tl1e11, a11y circumsta11ces 1111 der wl1icl1 tl1e p r. oposal ,vould 11ot be approved, with or witl1ot1t ame11d1ne11ts, after disct1ssion in joi11t meeting ., retaining always our asst11111Jtio11, based 011 Article 87, tl1at tl1e Cl1ambers vote together? Only, it seems, if tl1e matter cloes 11ot 1·eacl1 a vote at all; b11t tl1is is possible, if u.nder Article 79, the majority of tl1e 1ne111bers of eithe1· Cl1an1be1· wall( Ollt of the n1eeti11g before the vote, since t1nder tl1is article, a 111ajority of tl1e me111bers of eac/1 CJ1a1,1ber is required for voting. It is tl1erefore possible to envisage a situatio11 in which the Senators, realisi11g tl1at tl1ey will be 011tvote cl by tl1e n1ore nt1n1ero11s De_puties, \Valk out of tl1e meeti11g to preve11t a vote fro1n taki11g place, and tl1ereby make necessary the . sending of reports to tl1e E1n1)eror 11nder Article 9 1. If tl1is reaso11j11g is valid, tl1e11 tl1e \Vordjng of Article 9 I does not require thar tl1e Cl1 a111bers vote separatel y at joi11t 111eeti11gs, and the 1Jrest1mption tl1at they vote togetl1er, derived fron1 Article 87, tl1erefore IJrevails.

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Promulgation and ''eto

Pro111ulgation Read: Article 88 of tl1e Revisecl Constitt1tion. arit Neg 1942, From tl1e Establis11 me11t of tl1e Nega1·it Gazeta Proclai11at100, No. l of ., Gazeta 1st Year No.I. 2· Tlie�e is 11ereby establisl1ed tl1e Official Gazette wl1icl1 sl1all be called Negarit Gazeta in wl1icl1 sl1all be )t1blished: l (a) All � i�ocl a111a�ior1s, Decrees, Laws, Rt1les, Reg11l ations, Orders; Notices aod · s11bs1d1ary legislatioii. . .. 5. A Cot1rt shall tal<:e jtidicial tice no of· and s (a) All � 1:oclama�i o11s, Decrees, ice Laws Rules Regulatio11s' Orders, Not subs1d1ary l egisIat10 · hed in ' the Negarit Gazeta. · 11 pt1bl1s '

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Read: Article s 34 and 88 . 0f tl1e Revised Constitution.

From Redden' TJ1e Law \ Afal(ing Process i11.Ethiopia (1966), page 19. · ta arl p . . y 0f the ; · '. . Wl1enever a Le g. s1 at.veor . i Pro i Josal a maJ it hr :e thi�· by l1as ,� app1· o ved , bee11 . ment, whether 1·n Separ .. · · · ate o r J01nt· sess1on, t'he E1nperor 1nay d o one oft· e · .. ,. ·. .' ..,. ;;,; . 1 .. ·

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Le gis lat ion In tl1i . s raf t eve · n t, D tl1e Sig11at111-e and Great. the ve pro A S eal of tl1 er eto af a1 fix 1d ed l t 1e ar e M .iuiste1· of Pe11 1; 11bl.s l 1 s t·I :e Em1Jeror 1e a L Neg a �..,., n,ediately in the eta arit at \ w icl1 G z , ti 11 1 11e it n ;, � bec o1 v es e . 11ec t 1ve Ju.u� as aw L · ·fied spec1 1s date later unle ss a L e gisl at.io11 to ·tl1e Pa1�lian1e11t witl1 liis i·eco1 n111 Dra ft tl1e rn Retu . er1dat1.011s · . . r11or eitt1er cha11ges 111 t·!1e:. .p-roposa l o .r. a 11e,v Proposal · I 11 tI·1is evei1t P a 1 r . 1a1ne11 , t • • l 1e matter aga •i n 1 0 •t 11e sa111e fasl11011 [as for ot l 1er pro i)osed t s der i ons c legisIat·1011]. . c011sider it indefiniteir. Tl1e 011�y ren1edy �or tl1e__ �arl ia111e 11t i11 tl1i s eveilt is to reqt1est an expl_anat1on f1·on1 e1tl1e.r.tl1e Pr1111e J\11111s ter 01· tl 1e Meinber of lii s Cabinet mostly d i rectly co11cer11ed ,,,1tl 1 tl1e 111atte1·.

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Is Professor Redden 's point 3 consistent ,:v i tl1 Article 88?

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Fro1n Constiti,tion of tlze Urzited States, Article 1, Sectio 11 7(2).

Every Bill which sl1all have passed t l 1e I-Iot1s e of Re1Jreser1tatives a11d tl1e Se11ate, shall, before it become a law, be prese11ted to tl1e Preside 1 1t of t l 1e U11ited St ates; If lie approve s l1e shall sign it, but if not J1e s l1all retur11 it, witl1 l1is Objectio11s to that House in wbicl1 it shall l1ave originated, wl10 sl 1all e 1 1ter t l 1e Objecti o11s at l arge on their Journal, a. n d proceed to reco11sider it. If after s ttcl1 Reco 1 1sideration two thirds of that House agree to pass the Bill, it sl1all be se11t, t ogetl 1e1· ,vitl1 tl 1e Objec­ tions, to the other House, by wllicl1 i t sl1all lil<e\vise be rec o i1sidered, a1 1d if approved by two tl 1irds of tbat House, i t shall become a La \v.. If a11y Bill s]1all 11ot be rett1rn­ .. ed by the President witllin ten Days (S11ndays excepted) after it sl1all l 1ave bee11 presented to him, the same sl1all be a. Law, in like Manner as if l1e l1ad sig 11ed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment preve11t its Ret11rn, in wl1icl 1 case it sl1al l not be a Law.

F om Constitution of Libya, 1951, Articles 135-137. r 135- The King sl1all sanction th e la ws passed by Parliame11t a11? sl1all promtilgate them within thirty days of the date of tl1eir co1nn111nication to l1im. 136· Within the period prescribed fo r th e prom11lgation of a law, th� King�'.111ay ame1:1 11 l _i � Pa as � 1 l � e 1ic vvl t . i11 reef r ?e law back to Parlia.ment fo r reco11siderati on, n1 e n 1e t of · 1 l y r1t aJo 1n 1d s s . 1rd con tl1 oer tw the a law · If the ·law is passed again by. r · · 1 1 a' 11d pro1n11 l gate 1 t com .·· posing each of the two C11ambers t11e K.i11g s11a11 sar1.c110 . · · 1 If �thin !he_ thi_rty days following _the c�n1IJ:1;uni cation to hiin of th� �- �: �ii at e i s : .maJonty 1s_ less t11�n two thirds �l1e bill sl 1a l l not . be re�on� of all j ority a 01 a e s100· If Parl ai l _ag ll b� l1 suc s sse pa e1 1am 11 1t s10 an ses 1n er oth 11 d pro­ a l o i � cti th 1{ m� m em?ers _co�posing eac]1 of tl1e two Cl1ambers tl1 e IU !1 g -� 1 a ;;�11e decision to I ate it w1tl1 1 t1 1ca 1 0 1 u1 1n 1n co j e tl1 f 1n ng e th thirty days ollow l1i m� cl � 1 1it · u · tl1e i11 ctive 137. Law. s . . effe come . be ch are pron1ulgated by th e King sl 1all W� e �ffic1al tJ1. 1 1 i 1 1 a tio Kingdo m 0� L blic Ll . r ei tll tlie 1n 1b�a after thirty days fr om tl1e date of sio11 provi ecial gaz.ett TI11s P a y se� days �ecrea n perio or .fiftee d may increased be 1 witl1i1 law ci· cern e :fett g I � a · of· th e� ed.The la\vs must be published 111 the officJ - .1.r Promulga . .. tion. · 3 t . Par JI, er apt Ch . , Co> . .t . h.. . m . , .r 11 11zanza, set out · · ... �Ul alio t e relevant. prov1s1on . . s of the Const1tut ron Q1 a :-/·: :.(..· : ·...

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T TU TI AN NS PI Co IIO Tl E IONAL LAW OF OK BO SoURCE

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Questions

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? n io ut it st n o C ed is ev R e th in '' lv What is ''la hi pia Et ? in h '' hic aw W ''l e are r a. ng wi ''law'' as that llo fo � e th _ of h hic W _ n I) 1o ut 1t st 1e tl on ? C of es cl ti ar s ou ri va in ed 11s term is (a) th e Constitution; (b) Treaties passed by Parl1ame_nt; l1ament; (c) Treaties not passed by Par _ (d) Proclamatio11s 11nde1· A1:t1cles 88-90; (e) Decrees under Article 92; (f) Orders 1111der Article 27 et al; (g) Notices of A1Jproval; (11) Notices of Disapproval; (i) Legal Notices; (j) General Notices. 2) Wbicl1 of tl1e following, if any, should be regarded as ''law'' for the above p11rposes? (a) Imperial Law (Article 130); (b) Martial La\:v (Article 29); (c) S1)ecial Law (Articles 5, 111, 115); (d) S11preme Law (Article 122).

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Consideration of Laws b;; Pa1·lia1nent

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3) I-low would you resolve the diffic11lties raised in tl1e readings on the implications of Article 91?

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Promulgation and f/eto

4) Wl�at limitatio11s do tl1e fo1·eign constitutions quoted supra place on the exe· cut1ve power of veto? 5) Wl1at eq1iivalent li1nitations, if a11y, are tl1ere in tl1e Revised Constitution? t amen Parli 6) By wl1at practical n1eas11res 01· co11stitutional conventions might enforce limitatio11s 011 tl1e En1peror's veto?

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SECTION 4: Tl-IE DECREE POWER

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Read: Article 92 of the Revised Constitt1ti on ·' Redden, loc.cit.

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er und , Jaw . BY us.a�e, tl1e power of tl1e E1nperor to ''pro i decrees'' avmg the force;ef approved cla m , h n Arti 1e 92, 18 now exercised i11 tl1e Parlia m�nt, are of f Enac om1 � tmen of a Decr ts ee. ecrees are ow promulgated_ by tl1e Emp n 0O o w s actio y eror as Proclamations. Parliamen tar promulgated as No. tices.

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. rov ide law d tha of e t tl1e for y c p are . not the contrary to the rov1s1on ave h all . p of ecrees must b e submitted to d uc n. · h s h fi � C S tutio onsti Parlian1ent at its irst meeti · thi s . · ng . . d ar o 1a t m m e 1tt p , nt e 1 or b su 1 ·r tl1 ey no t a r e re no th t a ·r ey rs they shall cease to have the force of Jaw. aJ)proved bY eitl1er of the �hambe

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Gha na, 1960 (as of n ame 11ded 1964), Article 55. stitu tio Con m Fro an yt hi i11 A nd ng rtic�e T,ve11ty o. f tl1e Co11stitr1tion [011 in g_ ith sta w No t (l ) Parliament] the perso� app?1�t�d. as fir�t Pres1d��t of Gl1a11a (Dr. l(\vame Nkruinall) sll ali have , during his 1n1t1al period of office, tl1e po\vers conferrecl on him by tllis Article . (2) The first Pr�side�t �ay, ,vhene�er l1e_ c�nsiders it to be i11 tl1e 11ational interest to do so, give direct1ons b)' leg1slat1ve 111st1·11me11t. (3) An instrument made un der this Article 111ay alter (wl1etl1er expressly or by implication) any enactment otl1er than tl1e Co11stit11tion.

Note: This Constitution ceased to have effect after the overthro\.v of Dr. Nkrumah's govern­ ment early in 1966.

The Rationale of the Decree Power and Problexns of Interpreting and Administering Article 92

The immediate source of Article 92 is Article 9 of tl1e 1931 Constit11ti on. Y011 should compare the two: what cl1anges \Vere made in I 955? \Vl1at reasons (do yo11 suppose) motivated these changes? The power to promulgat e d ecrees ''having tl1e fo1·ce of law'' is certainly not unprecedented. The excerpts noted above from the Co11stitution of Libya and tl1 e Nkrumah Constitution of Ghan a reflect African p recedents - and also reflect the variations possible in granti ng a law -making power to tl1e cl1ief executive. A dedicated adheren t to separation of p owers migl1t argue thf_lt tl1ere shot�ld be no such power. ''Laws'', it ma y b e argi1ed, sl1ould. always emanate from Parli� � ment - the only body co nstit·uted · (in theory) to give pop11Iar ass�nt. Fiirther,. i may be argued, an executiv e ''decr ee pow er'' m ay be ·used to 11nderm1�e tl1e essential rol� of Parliament because th e executive can, at its pleasure, crrcumv;nt th� ere t an ee leg islature by issuing im r dec a as �on I_eg.�slat porta nt or controversial after coerce or embarass the Parliament int o ratifying it. . powers'' · · egislati ve l ''al l t The American 1 a ·I t 1) Constitution declares (Article . e abl not a in t C · e _ este d le S ' '.v " add in ed) u . the !Ilp �as Co is n : res� (e 1:� pr ��o ���Wess prohibits � ision, has held that this d1str1�ut10 of la w-making po e : the P resident - even � anY. sort of eme p ower!,, ee dec� rge (1.e. cy n · aking law-m and Sl1e et n in t es of sto w oun Y 'rub un severe danger. In "The Steel Seizure �ase . ( y, � order directing a d e isSU e Co. v . Sawyer eiit sid e Pr the e 52) (19 edi at ) 579 343 $ . . U imm an h governme t s . c rea to r . e rd o n eizure of strikebound steel P1 ants in d act e t side n e r P . . Tll e setttement of 1c pro the strike and_ assur e con_tinue� steel in t� ft :�C:U·ctio11 inight not only e .of war and at a oint when d1sru pt1on. of ste e wel l as � om y eco n p nal ie;p rd1� urg nat io h t t e som ent military need s but seriously disrup for nee d the was eat S a�r ing a steel shortage. The "emergency'_' was c�ar� �tent to act. But it w�� ·. "!Uiil!. �d Co n gress was ap_Parently_ un�ec1ded a� hori �ed the sei zure. The Pres1 t a Y lear had on that g1slatt no . l e Congress1onal , . .. . ' .

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E SoURCEBOOK O F

g t n in io ac p nd ga pe po st o C cy essional en n� rg 1e en , . an as cl le 11c fe _ de de. 11t's · act was d ) re te cla vo de 3 e 6tl1 a y (b t 11r z Co sei e e ur tl1 t bu un · l . len . ob pr e l ti f · . ' . d1spos1 ·tIOD O ,,. d 1 e ec ty d ar or . aJ } l 1n . 1e t ' · r 1e fou nders fo TJ ' �, ck la B it. ed in 1jo e1 d constitt1 tional. an s es e gr th on to C e on er w al po [e ng k1 1a -11 ,v mpllasis Ia e 1 t1 d te tls ltr er il io at N is tll of od to ll go c� re do no d e ul th wo It sto �i s. ne ti1 d rical ba d an od go tll bo l i added] i 1 at lay bel:ind t�e1 r choic _tl m do ee fr r f� s 1Je J10 e tl1 d 1 e. a1 er w events, tll e fears of po l] seizt1re order �1a e11 s s1d tru re at [P th g 1n ld l1o 1r 01 rm nfi co t bt1 d til Suell a revie,v ,:vo d 1ve t u_ oa ec br l1e ex r ''T we e: po ot wr t an J., gr C. , 1 o1 ed 11s Vi g, j11 nt sse Di ." nd sta t c aniJo d ste be �n a Preside nt'] ... ve all sl1 r we po iv c ut e ex ze 't! : ys sa l1 l1ic [w II � le c by Arti nt e , de �11 ad esi ste Pr In st er. mu ast dis ert confine av to ed ok i11v be d, sai is it ot, 1 r can er s og thi ss� r de �e y bo Un . ... s res concept ng Co to ge ssa n1e a 1g di1 sen to I1imself fice, tl1e P reside11t ca11not eve11 ac t to preserve leg1slat1ve programs from of tl1e Of . destruct1011....' ' Tl1e A1 11erica 1 1 ,1ievv (reflected in tl1e above decision) may be unrealistic for cot1ntries like Etl1iOJ)ia. First, one m11st j11dge ,vl1ether occasions are likely to arise wl1en legislatio11 or cl1anges i11 existi11g legislation are urge11tly required. Second, 011e 111t1st jt1dge wl1etl1er Parlia1ne11t is adeqt1 ately prepared to deal, botl1 quickly a11d carefL1lIJr, \Vitl1 e1nerge11cy sit11ations. Tl1 ird, one sl1ould consider wl1ether the Decree po\\1er , if exercised witl1 restraint, will serve to undermine tl1e legislative process or wl1etl1er, conversel;', tl1e pro cess of p11tting tl1e law on tl1e books first a11d tl1ereafter referri11g it to Parlia111e 1 1t tor debate 1nay 11ot in tl1e long run strengthen Parlia1ne11t's role. Tin1e is often a pre1nium commodity in the legislati,1e process: even if Parliame11t spe11t 11early all j ts ti1ne reviewing t11e budget and taxes, and investigatit1g weaknesses 01· failures i11 tl1e ad1ninistration o.f go,,er1une11t programs, it migl1t be time well spe11t. Tl1e JJresstire of otl1er in1portant ite1ns on tl1e agenda ?J-USt 11ot be increased too far beyo11d tl1e capacity of tl1e i 11 stitution to make the Jt1dgn1e11ts expected of it. r numbe I11 any e,,ent, a tl1e table a. Etl1iopia t the e11d of tl1is 11 section i tl1at sl1ows . of important laws l1ave co 1 ne i 11 tl1e fo1·1n of decrees, e.g., tl1e Ci,,i.I Procedure Code, tl1e Investine11t la�, tl1e L,1bo11r Rela.tio11s la,v, tl1e National Lottery law, t1 1e Income Tax l,tw, tl1e Ptiblic Ser,,a11ts Pe11sio11 Ia,,,. Tl1 e 11eed for tl1ese law s was, presumably, great. _Wl1etl1er ,� 11 ''emergency'' (or ''t1rge11t situatio11' ', vide tl1e Amharic version of Article 92) existed 1nay be OJ)e11 to debate. But at least tl1e laws were put o n the books. 011 tile otlier 11a11cl it see111s c lear tl1at Parlia 1e11t l1 as inc reasi 1 Jgly objec ted t1 · · 1· Tl1e to use of tl1e D cr·ee J)?.\�er to legtslat 1 11g · spar1 e, a11d tl1e po,ver is now 11sed � . .· nt promtilgatioii of tl1e C1v1l Procedt1re Code 01 me ia Pa. r l 1ly a sl1ort wl1ile before n 01 �siderabl e opposition. The promulgation of a�en !�f ;:. ; 1: ;�n!f���! dc1 111g cor1?0ral pu 1 1isl1ment as a sanctio11 for certain se 1 y b type offeilces (see be' 1o,v ) was xes ta of clearly co11troversial Tl1e pro1nulgation . Id Decree c tits JJretty deeply towards o s tl1e core of power; whicl1·' one migl1t argtte, h Un�· be reserved to tl. 1e reJJre sei1t a1-Ive co . the t a asse1n bl)1 · • F11rtl1er one 1night argue t11 . ·ve· . 1s to c . vening of special sesstoi i nat r o11sider tl1ese 1neasures wou Id be a desirable alte ng · esti Tl1e Decre e JJO\Ver as 11 ·. · . . ter . · is set fortl1 111 Article 92 raises a number of in problems. Aino11g tl1 ese are tl1e following: . ric 1) ''Emerge11cy''· T11· s ha . . . 1 An n _g1 1sl1 term 1s apparently 11ot in accor� \V1tl1 _t1J�. cion''. : U · :l E . . (nflf'IJ.J!, --<;1; ) Wllicl1 may a situ nt ·urge n1ore ' literally refer an to tbat In· any evei1 t, who is to f 1 ? ·. cletermine the existe11ce of an ·'emergency''

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so to lel tl1 y e mi Em tte pe d ro r, co ca m n an. y otller . is . person o r agency . 'sio n ec1 d e, ex I am _a p co fi or t u1· 1 10 ' ld ld h t _ C �t, ou s11�ce tl1e im mediate :, ost it? ew revi P . w1 1cy em 11c l1 er 1n ge ay 1 l1a ve ex ist od of . ed 1n 1 961 no lo pe n p' · ' . 11ger exists cou . . s w�1c 1l JUSt1'fied t he p�11a1 Code . · . . (Pe11alt1es) Decree no longe; the. cond1t1on lo 110 11g D ec er ex re ist e s? tl1 It . e co t1l so d be an d argtied tJ1 at · tence st c: tlle ex1s XI . . e , . . ec d a 1s1 11o on t 1s co 111 n1 ge 1tt nc ed y to em er tl1 e jt1 di cia an ry f ar o . 1d ti 1a t " ' . . t· . h e . . f l . 1 -=· l-Vl question of the 11ee d or s�o111 o.· e?1slat1011 1s _ 11ot o1 1e ,v11icl1 cotirts cotild entertain 11nder almost a11y 1nt erpreta�1011 of tl1c Jt1dicial fL111ctio 11• Parliainent 1e tl1e op t10 11 t o review l1a 111a , y_ ha t1d , tl1e r o tl1ese qt1estio11s, as J)art of the on its general po\ver to decide wl1etl1e1· a Decree s11ot1lcl re111ai11 in force as law. 2) The b�rden of disaJ,JJJ'oval is orz Parlia11-1e11t: Tl1is _see1ns clear fro1n the wording of Art1cle 92. \Vl1at happens, l1ovve,1er, wl1en (as 111 tl1e case of tl1e Pe11al Code Amendment) one �ouse of Parliament disapproves a Decree bltt a 1najority in tbe other }lot1se either block a �o.te. (by tabl1ng tl1e 1natter) or vote approval? Or ,:vhat if botl1 Hol1ses vote d1fter111g a1ue11d111e11ts - i11dicating no approval t111less sorrze basic cl1a·nges a. r e rnade? Co11ve11.tio11s of s0111e sort may be neces­ sary to resol\ie st1cl1 problerns. It is not clear tl1at tl1ey l1a,1e yet cleveloped, bL1 t it is clear that st1ch problen1s may well a1·ise in tl1e consideratio11 of Decrees. 3) Retroactivity of Pa1·/ia111e11ta1·y DisapJJ1·oval: One of tl1e 1nost troublesome problems may arise here. Suppose fo1· exa111ple tl1at a Decree provides for a tax, and tl1at nine montl1s later it is disap1)roved. Accordi11g to A.rticle 92 tl1e disap­ proval takes effect upo.n its pt1 blication (in tl1e f or111 of a '·N·otice'' i11 tl1e Negarit Gazeta). But if some persons have l)aid tl1e tax a11d otl1ers l1ave not, sl1011ld tl1e former class be re-jmbt1rsed? Of cot1rse, wl1ene\1er a. law is repealed tl1er e is a ''retroactiv-ity'' proble.1n, a11d it is not 11nt1s11al to l1ave a sit11ation ,vl1ere X has inc·urred tl1e burden of a law bt1t Y, tl1a11l<s to repeal, I1as not. Nevertl1eless, there may be occasions wl1 en Parliament wisl1es to relieve tl1ose wl10 I1�ve inc11rred bt1rdens. .But ca. n Parlian1ent do tl1is? And can it control tl1e effecti,,e date of its ''disapproval'' of a Decree?

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The Penal Code (Pe11alties) Dec1·ee 5· From Decree No. 45 of 1 No. Year 20t11 1961, Negarit Gazeta, ng flog gi f o siti o11 . imp WHEREAS rt· 1s_ o 1e tl foi · · e l : c 1na e b n 011 e v1s1 pr� ary . t cess tha · e of . c ' . . rba n dis . tti as .a. purushm tlle _ ent 111 to te rela 1 cl wl11 s nce offe ect tain cer resp of . public opinion; ion t stit u Co 11 l Now THE vis ec e R 0Ll f f O 92 le ·tic A1 . ' l1 , t _ w1 RE ce FO a11 . rd �� i11 co ' . ac . ws: . and foll o · o.n t,be advi as ·e� deci ce of 0Ltr Council of Ministers, ,ve liereby ,, 6 · 1 19 ee, I • Th'15 De cr · . ) ies lt iia (Pe Decree 1nay be cited as the ''Pe 11al Code .e11c u • der· · n e 11' c 2· (a) Wh . 11 O a f o rt . Co u 1 } ig 1· . . I· �re any person 1s con. v1cted ted the m 1� . by com . . e Co d. . Ja. l Pet 4 1e . t of 1 ; Articles 256 ' 445 ' 451 474 ' 479 ' 480 o r 81 t1tu si1b s in rna y ' tirt C 1 · tt1e l g I-11 -�. fter 1e erson p d te comi1Jg i 1 1to f o.rce of this Decree_, t1 vic . con tJ1e e ten c . . · se11 s t101 . . 1 1'-'or t1cl e r A ·a t sa1 1e 1n I· . · · to a flog pe11alt1es pro,;1cled s. e ok Sir 0 ) · (3 . � g gjo y . . . no t e xceeding tl1irt

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ac co rd t in an u ce o d w ie it r h r a c e tl 1e provi· . b ll a 1 s1 · g in g g o fl ll e u S of s s1on (b) . e d o C l a n e P t1 1e f o 0A Article 12 te a e of its d. th ca on bli ce pu for n tio o int in the Ne garit me co aII 1 sI e cre e D lis Tl 3_ Gazeta . , . 61 ne 19 Ju y of da h 8t 2 is th a ab b A is dd A at 1e Do1 TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AKLILU HABTE WOLD Prime Minister and Minister of Pen.

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Note: Such Decrees are ct1s tomarily issued ''on the advice of Our Council of Ministers".

Consideration of Decrees in Parliament

Tl1e Bz1ildi11g Mate1·ic1/s Excise Tax Decree of 1960

From Etl1iopia11 Jie1·a!d, 23 November 1962.

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Tl1e joi11t session of tl1e Senate and tl1e Chamber of Deputies of the Ethiopian Parlia1ne11t rejected Proclan1ation [Decree] No. 41, about excise tax impo sed on I, i equip1nent ltsed to bt1ild I1011ses. The Proclam ation was issued in 1952 Ethiopian ( Cale11dar . Dt1ri11g yesterday's joint session 98 members of the Senate and 178 mem­ I' ' b ers of tl1e Cl1amber of Dep11ties were present. His I-Iigl111ess Dejazmacl1 Asrate Kassa, President of the Senate, p resided over tl1e joi1.1t session. His Higl1ness in an operling speech to the joint session asked the 1 1! members to decide on tl1e Proclamatio11 co11cerruo.g excise tax on equipme11t u sed to b11ild l1ot1ses. ''Tl1ot1gl1 tl1is 1natter l1as been discussed i11 tl1e Parliament previously, it is 11ere again for furtl1 er consideration," His Higl1ness stated. j _Fitawrari Gabre IUrstos, Representative fron1 Eritrea, objecting stro ngly t o the id�a � f tl1e ite111 bei11g co11sid ered for tl1 e second time, quoted Article 9_ 2 of the I Constitution whicl1 i11 part says: ''!11 tl1e event that Parlian1e11t s1Jall d1sappro�e f bli· an� Sllcl1 decree, eacl1 st1cl1 decree sl1all cease to l1a ve force and eflect, upon tI1epu .. cation,_ in tl1e Negarit Gazeta, of st1ch disappro,,al." 11e said tl1at the item b� ?een di s�ussed and disapproved. Therefore, it would be in1proper to dis cuss t]u s item again and requested the 1ne1nbers of the joint session to reject it. . Ato .r:,-reshesl!a Wo!de G_abrel, member of the Senate, opposing Fitawra:; Gtbre K ii s�os said that tlu. s item was merely for !' orm��rail . ( previously rejected sa e. SJ)ea k ing f11�tl1er, lie said tl1at tl1e in 11 ss ; discu not joi 11t session did and asked tJ1e sess1011 to consider it for a 1 rt ,I de b ft h at er e. . to d . e . 'ect Ato M1c 11� aeI B:ii eIaynel1, R_eprese11tat1v ' O ' e fron1 Harrar, s�rongIY b� · uted. e Ato Meshesh� s proposal. He said tha e e to b me t the law had been procla1 d x c t!Ji s e canc_ e 1 ed. Graz1 atcl Abeb e o s s e_ 1 s the ur ed . , of the Senate, g j ew Fir � 1 n 1 l J'oint com . tai • · d · · m 1 ttee Of b otb 10 tter a Rouses be appointed to investigate t11e m � Aio · · to Ato ,Tessema Neg�e, Represen o n opp o i s t ative from Ge1nbi, i11 · �� u l rne.rel Y. il Meslleslla s comment. said t1 1at o s Y . t ution ·. ·¼ v pre i item tl1e the ses sio rej n ect did no t ti for tiie sak e of form ty .· n . . o s 1 the C c . ' 301. nt session 101 ows · . . came to _. ;; . strictly a d sk d th ali · I-:I· e sa1. d t11at tne te 1 th n1em ll1 e b 011 �rs · -:: : o t _ n t t1ssio rejec � Disc J tl item 1e . : an end 1· e ay witl1 a maJor 1 ty te · vo of 197. . �:."'" f

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Highness His Dejazmacl1 th. i s, Asrate Kassa asked 10 g owin Foll r. r a 1not1o n ar or 1 t fi w d by tl le pu n1 . _me b s er a Tl . s ropo le proposals were to tl1e e r . two . . � on . _ ct e ff ap po int be to ed itte e 1nv est 1ga te co mm tl1e nt ca se ' a· 11 cl to consi·de r tl1e 1tem th at aJ oi . as cancelled. The first proposal ":'as rejected \Vith a mi�o1�ity of 94 of t11e joint sessioii. Btit l1 st1ggested tl1at tl1e 1ten1 be co 11 �h 1? sa l, P: op o nd sec o sidered as caiJcelled, was the te 1ty vo Jor of 183 . ma a th w1 ed ort supp

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Note: The BuiJd�g �ateria}s _ Excise !ax Decree l1acl tJrevi?t1sly been rejected by both Cham�ers, and the mam pomt at issue l1e1�e 1s t.l1e_ �rocedt1ral_ q11�st1011 of wI1etlier it is proper to reconsJder the matter, or whether" t11e pre, 1ous dec1s1on for reJect1on sI1 ould stancl.

The Penal Code (Penalties) Decree of 1961

From Ethiopian Herald, 14 November 1962.

The Chamber of Dep11ties yesterday tool< 11p tl1e i1nprove1nents a11ci amend­ ments recommended with respect to tl1e Pe11al Code of Et11 iopia by tl1e Se11ate. Before general disc11ssion co11ld start on tl1e s11bject son1e 111e111bers \var1ted the documents concerned to be duplicated and distrib11ted amo11g tl1e members who could study them. They argued that tl1e isst1e l1ad not bee11 discl1ssed previo11sly in the House, s·uch a procedure would facilitate t11e clisct1ssion.

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Ato Tessema Negare tGembi) said, ''Tl1is is a very i1111Jortant 1natter wl1icl1

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needs careful study and consideration.'' I-Ie tl1eref ore stro11gly st1ggested tl1 at tl1e recommendations made by the Senate shol1ld be distrib11ted in pri11t as soon as pos sible. The President, the Honourable Lt. Girma Walde Giorgis, postponed disc11ssioo 00 the subject until the next sitting wl1en pri11ted copies of tl1e doc11me11ts wotild. be made available to the members. From Ethiopian Herald, 20 November 1962. The Chamb er of Deputies in t�e s!xth sessio� Parliament of the Ethiopian eld hexpe yesterday morning heard documents on regulations concerning 1ncom� r� uditure, Public 1 s1esta tlle on ation Employm P1· o clam ent Administration, ment of the Civil Aviation, sent by th. e Council of Mi11isters. · · · e d o C l a 11 e P n ia 0.ll0�1n p io P · h t E g this, documents on the a1nendment of· t11e w 1e tl f o t n e n d e s ib ted t 0 nt b n u � 1?docume {s u among The the members. � � ��� �� e t g II ri d h ·. � e wa� ap�roved by the Senate. Tl1e cl1amber w1 isc -n nett sitti g Which 1s today. From Eth'zopz an Herald, 21 November 1962. ay d er ye�t d 1sse . . 1 disc The Ch· amber etlt ia 1Par . n 1a 1op Sene of Deputies of tl1e Eth 111 d tnormng a e issu ; e Cod 1 · a e e 1 tl a tl 11 1 l95� Et ch pter on Public Flogging of cri mi11als h. Calendar· f � ber m CJ,� tl1e The- i_tem . of . e e mitt _ n Coi l1 11 ·tree rejected it t1na1 d ·t o tl1e fJ11d. 1c1ary rde DellUt ies in the ad bee· n forwa 1 . 111 . . 54 Co 1n J1 · · . e 1 T h 1ont 1 n 9 onth · o · m of M1az1a (Apr1 �) · . m i 1n m t11e lllo�sly . B _· t . · ent . d eJ . a 111· e pres . ?f Geqbo; the Senate approved the 1tem w1� l1 pa.r�Ja} em were s ber m · - . 251 0 t ou a (M 4 19 · y) or r. . > :. da 54 len 19 Ethiopian Ca ._

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UTIONAL LAW' IT T S N O C N IA P O II IT E SOURCEBOOK OF

tested agai Gen1bi, stro11gly pro m f1·o nst · cn·e Ne · Ato T. essema ·scuss ··s n r 1o a 1o d ot r. n1 to <:e 1 . d as di an a 1d e1 ag thi e th · n oi fr l r r te · 1 1e t1 . f o , · . ·nce 1·t as h J tl1e exc1 L1s1011 1 d sa sa at o , e th p r J I s a si m se s e T w to A to cl te ec bj � O _ i1t de si re P item. Tlle . d re e d e si b n t o o c 11 d l 1 t o c st e t1 q re 1 e tl age11d�L 1 10t iiJclLlded on t11e g tl1e President's proposal i!J ur vo f� a, 1o Sl n1 o fr , l1a as 1 l es M Ato Makonne 11 a t1o n an d greater study. er 1d ns co r o f e m ti e or n1 Lirged tJ 1 e members to give on, and m .ost of tl 1e member s i ss se e th 11g 1ri dt d ile va Jre y rs ve l A great co11t ro d. 11e po st 1g it po be ct je 1b st 1e tl 1 1 0 te ba de of ea id objected to tl1 e er, y rth led an he fu n cal sio ses for e . tl1 t uc 11d co t 11o t1ld co nt de esi Pr Si 11ce tl1e tta Kitaw Yitateku, Vice-Minister a Bl E. H. d lle ca e 1 l 1e ti11 1 1 ea Ivi lc ea br t1te . a tl1irty-1ni11 of JL1stice, to explai11 t]1e 1 natter to tl1e sessio11. 173 of tl1e 257 n1e 1nbers of tl1e Cl1amber we re present after the break. The President tl1 e11 said. tl1at tl1e' sessio11 coL1ld decide ,vl1at to do witl1 the item. Ato IV1icl1ael Belai11el1, fron1 I-Iarrar, sL1 pporti11g Ato Tesse111a Negre's proposal, asked for a 111 otio11 to disc11 ss tl1e ite1 n i11 tl1e sessio11 l1eld ye.sterday. Tl1js was favoured ,1vitl1 104 i1 1 favour and tl1e topic ,,:,,as presented f o .r disc uss.i o11. The President then asked tl1 e sessio11 to allow f-Iis Excelle11cy Blatta [I<.ita,v] Yitateku to explain the case. I-I.E. Blatta Kita,v s1Jeaking to tl1e sessio11 said tl1a.t since tl1 is iten1 was not i11clt1ded ?11 tl1 e. age11da l1e vvas 11ot i11formed tl1at it ,:vas a t opic for discussion during yesterday s sess1011 of tl1e Cl1an1 ber. Tl1erefore, si11ce l1e \,las not prepared to ans,ver questio!1s 011 _ i! or explain tl1e 1natter, l1e \VOt1ld request tl1e Chamber to give �im m�r� t1111e. His Excelle11c)' Ato Taddese Yacob, Mi11ister of State in tl1e Prime Mini_ ster's �ffice, speal<i11g to tl1e Cl1an1ber asl<ed tl1e sessi on for an adeq1 1.ate period of t1 111e dt1r1 ng wl1 icl1 I-lis Excellency is to co11sider tl1e n1atter. Fitaw�ari Gabre �irstos, Represe1 1tative fro111 Erit1·ea, said t11at l1e l1ad uo<l er.· st00d Tl1 e1 r Excellencies' 1·eqt1est for a11 a111 Jle ti111e to stt1dy tl1 is case. 1 riti aut o e _ asked the by hou h l_ es inembers u n1ade �o 24 give rs for a st dy to be ! ri conc tile�. Tl,e se sSio11 t1 11a111111ot 1sly acce )ted tl1e proposal pt1t forward by Fit.a.'rvra · 1 Gabre K1 rstos a11cl. tl1e sessio11 was adjo11r11ed for tl1e da y. i:,�

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Fro111 Et/1iopian I-Ierc1lc!, 22 N·oven1ber l 1962. ter p . . cha Tl1 e Cl1a1 nber of D·e�Ll t_·ies Of th e a t a1· � s ag ' voted Etb 1 op1a m ent 1 1 Parlia, · . 1 on p 11 bl·1c 1:-1 oggiilg of. cr1111 .tr1als e Sen 1n 3 is sued 5 co11ta ined Code i11 9 1 al Pe1 the j Et]1. Ca1 e1 1dar. · ve 1 ati t Tl1e n1otion wI1 le en · l1 .was l)Ut for s · r e Bekelle, ff JJ R e _ st 11 ward by Ato Ta ese from Arba-GLIG·11, ,vas ap ain ag J rov ed or, n j 4 by a 1a ori ty vote of 138 f 1 9 ' . l abste11tions. ,j . cle . sa .d that A rti Ato Taffese Bekele 8 t ess . . · 11g conseqt1ences of public :flogging . � � 811 t · -l · d . 1 � e 57 cru · 0IJia11 C onst1t1·1tio11 says . to : · of tl,e Etl11:. d . e t �ec st1 b bY h be t · at 11 0 one sl1all _ · ed 1nl1t1ma11 ptlnisfi . ss . t. '. auct st�·ongly Sll )porting. tl1e pre\riot1s re s olu t 1C:n P:b; jt efll ·l tl1e J't1diciary co:��l tee t 6 of tl 11 s fl ot se, 1 1� reques �cl t l1e �nembers t. reJ�� 1Jl �i c � ml o f Ato_ Yigebr t1 Wold.e : � � _ me 1s g ne n1 er of anyo the Hou 1f id se, that sa � i t tbJO�'. ; , ? agamst the security Y0;, 1 r.,· er1al the p J stclte, the Joo t l1e effect Gover11me11t could ·1. e fit. for tl1 e cr1· 1ne. Tl1 Y tu y b . d erefor e e ass e h s p t rong l . Y s11pported tl1e resolL1t.1on _ . = -, _ ,, � c1ary Con,m-ittee 0f .. · · "· ,,;:, - ·t··ws House.

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for wa put rd by mo tion the two this meinbers Ato za de As to ior r p faw, ed as the , ondar o ,· � � to use I r. from k clisct1ss. i i , clet' il.. Art cJ es 5 7 a11 G. e n tativ . Se e r . d . 65 rep 1 1at 'd 1 t t h e sa1 1 He gl1t of tl1 e 11at 1 o11 cotlld 1 101. 6e ut1on. onstt C · · IJrot ccte d . · of the · a1e mea st1res · emp1oyed. 111 a state a11cl aslcecl 1r.0r ity secu r t gr e a ' ' · ' . a 1not 101 unjess· 1 e ct d s Je re . w h' 1s t ut b ; ct f e ef � to this Earlj�r, tl1e �epr�sentat1ve !r�.111 the_ Pri_111e_ M.i 11 i�te 1·'s office eloqLier,tly eXJJlaiiJed :Etl nec a 11op ess 1n � 1 1 a 1s : g 1 Ie _sa id t1 1at 11e :"10 Ltld lil<e to exiJJaii, flog gin wby public 1 " rep , es rese tl1e 11ta �as t1 tc tl1111 gs concer.11 1 1 1g sectirity inatters. ura ble to the hono � for and th_ secu e rity welf oJ ar� t�1� peo1Jle," 11e saicl. '·If tl,ere is no the "l speak for firm and reliable sect1r1ty tl1ere will be no stab1l1ty,'' l1e added. Speaking f urtl1er, tl1e Mit�.is_ter_of S :�te �aid t!1�t l1e wa11ted to express I1is feelings abo,ut the m atter as a trt1e Etl11o_p1a n. Let tis lrste 1 1 to each otl1 er and collaborate on the matter. Tl1is is being do11 e for tl1e sectirity of tl1 e ]Jeo1Jle. It is wl1 e 11 a reliable security prevails in the State t11at, a go, er11111e11t is able to lat111 cl1 develo1Jine 1 1t pro­ grammes," be argued. Tl1e Representative from the Pri1ne Mi11ister's Office, q11oti 11 g Articles 131, 29, 108, 40, 42 and 65 of tl1e Ethiopian Co11 stitt1tio11, explai11ecl wl1y sec11rity is of very great importance to a country. Tl1e mai11 worlc of tl1 e Gover11111ent is to sect1re the welfare and progress of the Nation, l1e said. The Repres· entative from the Prime Ministe1·'s Office pleaded witl1 tl1e members to adopt the chapter on Public Floggi11g. Ato Yittna Belette, Representati,,e from Harrar, stro11gly objecti11g to wl1at theRepresentative from the Prime Mi1lister's Ofiice said, explai11ed tl1at wl1at H.B. was trying to inform tl1e members abot1t l1ad 11otl1i11g to do witl1 tl1e cl1apter on Public Floggjng of the Penal Code. ''It is co111pletely irreleva11t, '' l1e added. Ato Yittna expressing further quoted Articles 120A, 25 6 (I), 445, 479 _(2), 484 (3) of tl1e P_enal Cod.e and sa.id that w .bat is already put in tl1e Penal Code 1s 111�re tl1an st1ffi­ e vot to ble a is adv 1e t 11o is . t it , 1ce 1 t da i11 t1n a ti ab n A me when rumour-mongers are ? t­ por Sllp ly oi1g str 10 favour of approvi _l1e e for ere 1 TI de. Co l ng this c11apter of the Pe11a ed the proposal put forward by tl1e J11diciary Committee of tI11s I-louse.

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Parliamentary Action on Decrees 1 en r a t l i�n r -�Ja of s rm fo ng wi llo fo h 1 �� 11 :� � e frequenc y with which each of t e te: Th beenNo 11 t 1 e i o nd b n u o t Decr�e s � �:� s a N �1av eye ; been fina lly to t hi8�d � � i�ferred from the lis of Proc1amati !1s,. · ection; it 1s also possible to find out fron1 tlus 11st wl11ch Decrees actect upon by P arliament.

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ApPrQva/ of a Decree 9. No. . · Year �i : · Pro·m Noti .· ce 22nd 1 a aze G zt ar eg N of Approval No. 8 of 1963, ' 3 6 19 f o 8 . o N L NOTICE OF APPROVA a : ,. 1s1de 1 co for 1t 1me1 . . i, Parl . y . N · eere . 0 t e d D te 1 . o. ng trans havi of 48 duly � 1n . .. 19621 e been 1av1ng . 11otic . t1on pur due d 1 ai on t t ant i , c · ·1 Aviation Decree' Const to tL i R f su · Ar evised ticle · 92 ii bene given o the 1v1 e 'Tl1 · , ree t of 1962 by par11ament of tl1 e approval of s,LI'd Dec . a rs s a. force ant ] \V 'Plt u to said Article 92, co11tinL1es i.n r. . 3 196 . · ·y . Done at Ad t ,;. ia rt · d.1s Ababa, tJ11s 28tl1 day of Feb L . _ ' D E WO BT I-I U A ZA Z I J.., L � . . � E A T . TSAHAFE .. . . 0 f · p en. Sler t Mt.1J Prime Mi11ister and I

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETtIIOPIAN CoNSTfl'U'l'IONAL LAW

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t a r it et 1s 2 ea ar az Y G eg N o. 1. , N 61 19 of 8 17 o. N n io at am cl ro P From FOR THE ESTABL ISHMENT OF IDE O PR TO V N TIO MA LA OC PR A D R A O B E E F F O C L A N IO T A THE N h da Ju of be ri 1-Ia.ile Sellassie I - Elect of God, T 1e tl of n io L ng ri 1e Conq1 Emperor of Etl1iopia. WHEREAS, 011 October 31, 1957, the Nation.al Coffee Board Decree was prom11lgated as Decree No. 28 of 1957; an d · itted to Parliamen t for WI-IEREAS, said Decree was thereafter duly transm consideration JJUrs11ant to Article 92 of Our Revised Constitution; and \\'HEREAS, Parliament l1as introduced certain amendments into said Decree and approved a revised text of law;

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f NOW, THEREFORE, in accordance with Articles 34 and 88 of Our Revised Constit11tion, We ap1Jrove the resolutions of Our Senate and Cl1amber of Deputies and We hereby proclaim as follows:

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1. Tl1is Proclamation may be cited as the ''National Coffee Board Proclamation 1961." 2. The National Coffee Board Decree (Decree No.28 of 1957) is hereby renumbered as Proclamation No. 178 of 1961 and incorporated herein, subject to the changes 1 l· set fortl1 below: I·, his (a) Article 1 is deleted and replaced by the follo,ving new Article 1: ''l. � Proclainatio11 may be citecl as tl1e 'National Coffee Board Proclamation, 1961." (b) The word ''Decree'' is deleted wherever it appears and replaced by the word ''Proclamation''. 1 · . · three (c) A. rt1c · Ie 9 1s amended by del�t1on of the words ''fine not excee d_ing .times tl1e _ ault ! def: in a11101111t of cess wl11cl1 he has attempted to evade and _ ot · � of pay_inent of the fine sl1all be liable to imprisonment for a period n . in . � · t ell un nisl exceeding six mo11ths'', an d substitution of the words ·'pu accorda11ce witl1 tl1e provisions of the Pe na l Code of 1957''. . 1f l (d) Article 12 is a111ended by deletion of tl1e words ''fine not exce eding. l ,OOO 01· imprisonn1ent, in defat1lt of payment of the fine, not ex�d1�[ the .,._. _ LJtu ont hs or sub5 o bot h and uch d ', fine imp ! and riso � nme nt' e : C9 :0rds /, _:.:_i � i _ . · 1the p punishment 111 accordance with the provi of ns sio · - -{ of 1957''. i we n n 3. Tl1is Proclamat·ion c atio _:. s l1all . . come into force on the date of its pu bl1· . Negar1t Gazeta. . Done at Addis Ababa · tlus · 25t· h day of September ' 1961· . . = - :_r'.\\!" . @t � : · � -. W , B BT : HA u· _ TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AK.LIL Prime Minister a11d. MinJster of Pen. I

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.. · <at·ion f the rev1s The time .elapsing between the original Decree and the ptlblic 1ng ion. t Procla ma .. The implicit interpretation of the Constitt1tion, in tl1at Article 92 cloes 1 o t e pl1c1t ly allo w for Parlian1entary amendment o f Decrees, bt1t only for <approva' l or 1c l_sappro x val. • • 1 The replacement of specific pun1shn1ents by re ference to tI1e Penal Code .

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Decree a of al prov � Disap of Disappro val No .I �f 1963, Nega,·it Gr,zeta 22 11 d Year No.IO. ce Noti From

NOTICE OF DISAPPROVAL No. 1 of 1963

Decree No. 41 of 1960 having bee11 duly tra11s111itted to Parlia1ne11t for co 11si­ deratio n pursuant . to Article 92 _of the Revised . Consti tt1tion, a11d 11otice J1 avi 11 g .· been given by Parl1ament of tl1e disapproval of said Dec1·ee, tl1e 'Buildi11g Materials •.\ Excise Tax Decree No. 41 of 1960', purst1a11t to said Article 92, ceases to l1ave force and effect as from the date of publication hereof.

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Done at Addis Ababa this 30tl1 day of Ma rcl1, 1963.

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TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AKLILU I-IABT.E WOLD Prime Minister and Mi11ister of Pen.

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Parliamentary

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Inaction

There are several Decrees on which parliamentary action has not )1et, at the tin1e of \Vriting, been published. It is worth noting that such inaction n1ay be due to a nu111ber of possible reasons, including the follo wing: (a) that Parliament has not yet finished considering tl1e Decree; . (b) that the two Chambers of Par liam ent hav e disagreed on tl1e acti on to �e taker1; (c) that Parliament has amended the Deer� in a 111anner wl1ich l1as not received the In1perial Assent.

�·•• :,;

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Questions

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"Emergency''

1 ougl1 tl ' ' y c n e g r e m e f o 0 case s · ,, 1 · · on /,: the Th power nst1tut1 on Decre allows e . ·e Co the of . . 0 as to \Vheti1er tl1ere the use _ Y_. ! . al d c . o e l s Amhari de. c text atit appear l s greate r u T 1 iig� to allow rather ; �SIO Ministe ti rs, f o / i ncil C e 1 e adv i ce O �� tl cy Emperor, i_nust l�as gone into effect. 01;1 s m : the by clearly taken be ;, in ; �:_: it on a 1 a on \:v de deci ent r only not can g ts sittin and the cour 1s a �!

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w revie ry . menta . 1 01. IJarlia · Does the Revised Constitution a llow for Jlldicia w be vie I d of 1he question of whether there was an emergen�y or ��t :�alogous ��e �f · • • exc1uded, fo r instance, by the provisions of Article .J Pewer of the Emperor under Article 29. courts? the to . Or . t? lf review .is possi , h a arli to his power belo11g P _ ��fe ,·, question? oul ble s d t 0r to both? Is the existence of an emergency a ''jttSttcia ower p ree . Dec the hich . What conclus1ons w n cases i word the 1 " from , the d can rawn be ich wl has been th i w ss exercised about tl1e strictness or loosene '< emergency'' has been interprete d?

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. cases ch su n · l'i . . :.., · . ��fet· re du 1 e i . proc . the . . . . . . to or . the Teadi a et az G it ar eg N n ga in this Section and to the . . - .,·.··.: -. . · '·'.. ' ,·•.' , ..... ...... . -'. .. . . ..· · · · ":�,,· :::i . · ·..: ; • .. ". •

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Decrees

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ITUTIONAL LAW T S N O C N A I P IO H T E SOURCEBOOK OF

e er et th pl ei m t ly u co o approving or l1 it w , es re ec D d en am t n .. e m a .1. 1 r a P y a M 4) rejecti11g tl1e1n ? t n a en s m 1t d n st u · 1e s m e, re be approved ec D a d en m a to es ll is w S) It· Parliament by tl1e E1nperor?

'

1·s e 1b n a h C ze tl 11 e e tw e B ts Disao-ree111en

of the Libyan Constit ution 64 le tic Ar th wi 55 19 of n tio itu nst Co tl1e of 92 le Compare Artic quoted above.

s r it d ect be an rej am Ch e the on 1 er en wl oth e c 1· fo in 11 1ai ren e cre De a 6) Does Cl1a1nber accepts it? uld nt, tbe wo ural me ced rlia pro Pa by es cre De of 11 tio era 1sid co1 tl1e 1g 1ri1 DL 7) 1)rovisio11s of A1·ticles 88-91 apply?

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Executive ResJJ011se to Parlian1e11ta1-y Actiori

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8) Is the ivli11ister of tl1e Pen entitled to refLise p11blication, u1 tl1e Negarit Gazeta,

of a1uendn1ents to a Dec1·ee passed by both Chambers? 9) Is l1e entitled to reft1se pt1blication of a Notice of Disapproval passed by both Cl1a111bers ? IO) Is he e11titled to reft1se pt1blication of a Notice of Disapproval passed by one � Chamber only? .i Decrees and Proc!c1111atio11s 11) Wl1at st1bjects ca11, by tl1e Co11stitt1tioo, be cove1·ed by Procla.matio ns but not by Decrees? 12) Does a11ytl1ing follow from tl1 e fact that Decrees ''have tl1e force of law", wl1ereas Proclamatio11s ''are la\v''?

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Executive Co11sicle1·atiort o_f Decrees

Note: Tl1e text of a Decree invariably refers to tl1e advice of tl1e Cot1ncil of Ministers.

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can it re 13) Is it_ necessary for tl1e Cot111cil of Ministe1·s to approve a Decree befo be 1ss11ed? 14) Is the J)ositio11 cha11ged in tl1is respect by Order No. 44 of 1966? ,, s n ntio ve lS) Is the�e any ii1.dication of tJ1 e develo Jme11t of ''co11stitutional con · 1 011 tl11s st1bject? _ · · be . it 1 6) Sl1ould tl1e D . uld 1 s o 1 or eciee JJowe1· be delegated to the govern 1nent, s a lly a o ·d er a e n d a e a special JJower for the Empe1·or to exercis p s · ' ;� f t . ;, . overe1g11 and Head of State ? ! Annul1ne11.t of Decrees ld u ; b b s , · al 17) When a Decree 18 ar1.n11lled, ov r l 1 1sapp ega . D of J Not ice by a JJroperly issued a . l � Ill . 1·t b e regarded as ro f · d e · 1 g bee11 repealed or as 11ever hav111g exist h avi1 . . . i'i , · . .· .� point of view? - .3.1d, ::: P ·, ot n e · 18) Whe11 a Decree · . av . h O h w e impo sing · ·.. . .. . < a tax 1s annulled' should tb.os ·1t fio,. past years s . . . ·: till have to pay their arrears? :: .,:::,,:: .

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lMPERlAL POWERS

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19) ZO) Zl) 22)

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e paid tl1e tax l1a\re tl1ei1· n1oney refLlilde d? l1a who h u v e thos ld S o tl1e case when so m e peo1JJe have paicl tlie tax be ou ld 1 s1 at \Vh for the year iil whicll the Decree was annt1lled, a11d otl1ers J1a ve not? Wherl a Decree i1nposi11g p�nal sa 11c tions is a11nL1lled, sl1ottlcl tllose convicted under it be released [rom prison, or should they continue to serve the term of iroprsonme nt to wb1cl1 they l1ave bee11 se11te11ced? Should a person awaiti11g trial f014 an c1ctio11 wl1icl1 was a11 offe11 ce wJ1e11 com� mitted, tinder a subseqtiently a1111t1lled De c.ree, 11a ve to sta 11 d trial?

A Note on Proclarnatio11s a11d Decrees Iss11ecl, 1955-1966.

tt

The follo\.ving table shows Proclan1atio11s, Decrees, a11cl p arli t1111entary action 011 Decrees, promulgated in the Negarit Gazeta since tl1e pro111t1lgation of tl1e Revised Constittition. 1955 (from 4 Nove.mber)

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Proclamations 149/55 4 Nov. 1955 The Re\,ised Constit11tio11 of Etlliopia 150/55 30 Nov. 1955 Federal Ta,� (Arnendn1ent)

Decrees under Article 92 None 1956

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Proclamations 151/56 29 May 1956 152/56 27 Aug. 1956 153/56 30 Nov 1 956 154/56 30 Nov. 1956

Public Holidays and St1nday Observance Cl1amber of Deputies Electoral Law Cban1ber of Deputies Electoral La\v (An1end11 1ent) Maritime (An1endn1ent)

Decrees under Article 92 16/56 28 July 1956 17/56 28 July 1956 18/56 28 July 1956 l 9/56 12 ep. 1956 S

Federal Excise Tax Federal Transaction Tax Alcohol Excise Duty (Amendment) Income Tax

,

1957

ProcJamations 155 156/57 29 Jan. 1957 157/57 28 Feb. 1 9 57 { 15 7 8/5 23 Jt1ly 1 ' 957 4/ 159/57 28 A ug. 1957 ,, 0"'-'efs un der 1! , le Artic 92 2 7 0 /5 27 Aug. 1957 1;; 21 /'57 29 . 22/.57 25 Aug, 1957 23/57 2 5 Sep. 1957 (_ - 24/ 57 Sep. 1957 Oct. 1957 25/57 .26/57 3 · Oct. 1957 21/57· � Oct. 1957 ,: 3 O t. c 1957 . '2:8/57 3. 1 ;- · · .29/57 · ,I Oct. 1957 :. . . . 30/S7-- �I a.ct. 1957 ·· · '. ... Oct. 1957 · . � r'

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·., .. . : . .. . . . ·.· �· ·:.�L· · ·· ·.·.. �-:;·. -.. ' . : .' .� . . . . :•. ... :-, ,

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[does not existJ [Army Badges o f Rank Order, Federal Cri1nes (Amend1nent) Pe ·nal Code Loan Proclamation

ll nder

Art.29J

] tt1tion i Const . . ·eatl r ·t ri . t .to E· [Rat1ficat1on of A n1 endmen [Police Medal, und er Art.31] Local Products Excise Ta� t) ndn1eo (Ame 1·ture d en . xp E n io at ov en R Annual Hjghway t en dm en m (A ns io o at cc ul ba eg To R t) Jen � n en m (A Local Products Excise Tax Stamp Duty . . Business Enterprises Registration National Coffee Board . t) en clro n me (A · g Co:ffee Cleaning & Gradin Grain Board (Amendme nt)

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NAL LAW IO T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO ETH F O K O EBO SOURC

486 1958

Proclamations . .C E 0 5 9 1 , n io t a m la c o r t P e g d u B 8 5 9 1 . g u A 160/58 27

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2 9 le ic rt A r e d n u s e re c e D

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31/58 30 Sep. 32/58 30 Sep.

i

t) n e m d en m rs (A � rd O e u ss I 1958 Authority to s) n o ti c n u (F l ra e n e G r o it 1 9 5 8 Aud

1959

•

Proclamations

)

Decrees under Article 92

J

Proclamation, 951 1959 Budget E.C. ! 161/59 28 Jul. 162/59 27 Aug. 1959 Fiscal Year Proclan1at1on

32/59 33/59 34/59 35/59 36/59 37/59 38/59 39/59

27 27 31 31 31 2 2 2

Aug. At1g. Aug. Aug. Aug. Oct. Oct. Oct.

1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959

I

Alcol1ol Production Tax Federal 1-\lcohol Consun1ption Tax Inco111e Tax (Amendment) Federal Transaction Tax (Amendment) I-Iealtl1 Tax Tobacco Regie (Amendn1ent) Federal Salt Tax (Amendment) Federal Excise Tax (Amendment)

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1960 Proclamations

163/60 164/60 165/60 166/60 167/60 168/60 169/60 170/60

30 Mar.

5 5 5 31 31 22 22

May May ivlay May May Jun. Jun.

1960 Ehtio-Franco Rail\vay Treaty

1960 1960 1960 1960 1960 1960 1960

Maritii11e Code Civil Code Com111ercial Code Budget Proclan1ation, 1952 E.C. Cl1an1ber of Dept1ties Electoral La\v (Amendment) Bt1clget Proclan1ation, 1953 E..C. I.B.T.E. (An1e11dn1e11t)

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Decrees under Article 92 41/60 28 July 42/60 28 Jt1ly 43/60 20 Oct. 44/60 27 Oct.

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Notices 1/60 2/60 3/60 4/60 5/60 6/60 7/60

1960 1960 1960 1960

of Approval 1 Jan. 1960 1 Jan. 1960 30 Jan. 1960 30 Jan. 1960 29 Feb. 1960 31 May. 1960 30 No,,. 1960

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Bt1ilding lvlaterials Excise Tax Natio11al Lottery Annual Iligl1w c:1y l�enovation Expenditure (Amendment) Farm Workers Cooperatives

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Decree 23/57 Decree 24/57 Decree 29/57 Decree 30/57 Decree 36/59, renumbered 37/59 Decree 39/59, ren11mbered 4-0/59 Decree 38/59, renumbered 39/59

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1961 '

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Proclamation s

171/61 4 Mar. 1961 172/61 29 Apr. 1961 AniI11al Diseases Control Government Bonds

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1 73/61 174/61 175/61 176/61 177/61 178/61 179/61 180/61 181/61 182/61 183/61 184/61

I

2 2 2 22 22

...,

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20 20 20 20 20 20 2

Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Sep. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov.

1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961

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487

Income Tax D.L.F. Loan Agree111ent Gt1arantee I.B.R.D. Loan Agreeme11t Gt1ara11tee Budget Proclam�ltion, 1954 E.C. External Loan Proclamation Atnending Decree 28/57 An1endjng Decree 32/58 Atnencl�ng Decr�e 32/59, rent1111be red 33/59 Atnend1ng Decree 33/59, re11t1n1bcred 34/59 Amending Decree 37/59, rent1n1berecl 38/59 AI11e11di.ng Decree 42/60 An1endiog Decree 27 /57 Cri1ni11al Procedure Code

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occrees under Article 92 45/61 28 Ju.n. 1961 Penal Code (Pe 11alties) 46/61 31 At1g. 1961 Public Servants Pension 47/61 31 At1g . 1961 Imperial Savings & Ho111e Ownersl1ip Public Association

1962

, .._,

Proclamations

185/62 186/62 187/62 188/62 189/62 190/62 191/62 192/62 193/62 194/62 195/62

29 9 30 30 30 30 7 22 28 24 31

Jan. Mar. Apr. Apr. May. May. Jun. Jun. Jun. Nov. Dec.

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1

1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962

D.B.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Agree111ent Gt1arantee Czechoslovak Economic Agree111e11t Men1bers of Parlian1ent Salaries Amending D ecree 47/61 l.B.T.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Agreen1ent Gt1arantee Soviet Credit Agreement Yugoslav Credit Agreen1ent Supplementary Budget Proclan1ation, 1954 E.C. Budget Proclamation, 1955 E.C. l.B.T.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Guarantee Approval Courts

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Decrees under Article 92

48/62 27 Aug. 1962 Civil Aviation 49/62 5 Sep. 1962 Labour Relations

1963

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Proclamatio ns

3 29 !���: 3 22 198/63 28 199/ 63 8 2 00/63 201/63 8 202/63 2� 203/63 12 204/63 1 3 205/63 206/ 63 14 201163 2 7 20·8/63 27 31 /63 5 209 210/63 2.1 I/63 I 25 . . . .. . .

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' •.-.. , ' . ' .. . · -.,. ... :·.. ·'.. .·: . .'. '··· . :,.... ·,:,;

Jan. Jun. Jun. July July July July July July July July July Aug. S .ep.

Fiscal Year (Amendment) . c E · 55 · 19 n, io at m la oc Pr t e ta g en ud m B le 1·y Supp Budget Proclamation, 195 6 E,C:· . Public Servants Pensions Contr1btition t) men d e m (A t en m ee gr a A sl it o � v Cred Yug ement � gr A it d re C I.D.A. 3rd Highway Project n io at m a cl ro P l va Charter of O.A.U. Appro Cou.rts (Amend.ment) Excise Tax Transaction Tax Monetary and Banking . . of s.B.of E. . . it s ie il b ia L & ts e si ss o p A f n is o o D ti Weights & . Me;1sures 1963 Amending Decree 46/61 1963 Amending Decree 49/62 ��- 1963 Forei gn Exchange

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1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

488

2 Decrees under Article 9 ces ti c a r P e d ra T ir a Jf U i 3 50/63 2 Sep. 196 Investment /63 1 6 Sep. 1963

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51

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Notice of Disapproval

0 /6 1 4 e re c e D 3 6 9 1 r. a M 1/63 30

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Notice of Approval /62 8 4 e re ec D 3 6 19 . eb F 28 63 8/

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1964

I

Proclan1ations 212/64 14 Mar. 1964 Livestock & f\1eat Board at me ree 1ntee Ag ar, an Gu Lo .. D .R. I.B . P.A .L. E.E 213/64 10 Jun. 1964 . E.C 56 19 et, 1dg Bt y tar 1en le11 JJp St1 214/64 2 July 1964 C. E. 56 19 et, dg Bu ry nta ne le1 pp Su Jt1ly 1964 214/64 2 215/64 7 July 1964 Bt1dget, 1957 E.C. 216/64 4 At1g. 1964 African Developn1ent Bank Agreen.1ent Approval

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Decrees under 1\rticle 92 None

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Proclamatio115 217/65 22 Apr.

218/65 2 July 219/65 7 July 220/65 16 July 221 /65 21 Aug. 222/65 21 Aug.

21 Aug. 21 Aug. 27 Aug. 27 Aug. 27 Aug.

1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965

Alcol1ol Excise Tax Supplen1entary Budget, 1957 E.C. Budget, 1958 E.C. Excise Tax Ainend111ent U.S.A. Loan Agreen1ent for Bailey-t)rpe Bridges Ger111an Property Con1pensation Treaty German Loan Agreen1ent Etl1. Sl1i1Jpi11g Lines & Credit Agreen1ent Guarantee State Forest Private Forest Conserva,tio11 Protective Forest

52/65

8 Oct

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1965 Civil Procedt1re Code

1966

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Proclamations 229/66 29 Ja11. 1966 Antiqt1ities 230/66 7 Mar. 1966 Land T,1x (A1ne11d111ent) 231/66 13 Apr. 1966 l.B.T.E. -1.B.R.D. Loan Gt1arantee Agreen1ent 232/66 6 !vlay 1966 Labour Standards 233/66 26 May 1966 Credit Agree1nent for Educational Expansion 234/66 22 Jt1n. 1966 Pa1Jer Co. - Exim Ba11k Loan Agreement Guarantee 235/66 30 Jun. 1966 U.S.A. Agricultural Co1runodities Loan Agreement 236/66 30 Jun. 1966 Hotel Co. - Exim Bank Credit Agreement Guarantee 237/66 30 Jt1.n. 1966 U.S.A. Comn1od ities Loan A,greement 238/66 30 Jun. 1966 U.S.A. Econ omic Projects Loan Agreement 239/66 7 July 1966 Budget, 9 195 240/66 26 July 1966 Post Offi ce E.C. 241/66 3 Sep. 1966 Co-operativ e Societies 242/66 7 Nov. 1966 An1en ding Decree 51/63 Decrees unde r Article 92 53/66 21 July 1966 Monetary and Banking (Amendment)

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Decrees Wlder Article 92 ''

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1965

223/65 224/65 225/65 226/65 227/65

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489

IMPERIAL POWERS

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SECTION 5: THE APPOINTMENT POWER . 1e.,� ,.,?7' 28 ' 66 and 67 of tl1e Constitutio11 of 1955. e Arti d: Rea

General Considerations

I,

· Constitutional P1·ovisio11s fro,n Ot/1e1· A 0·icc11z .Kin gcloms J, co,nparatrve

bya, 1951, A1�ticle 74: Li of ion ti1t i 1ist Co From pt1b s r lic ices sh a11d esta bl ap1Joi11t senior officials and rernove ! slial l � � King The tl1e s1011s prov1 of w1tl1 tl1e law. nce a accord in tliem

From Constiti1tion of Bi1ru,1di, 1962, Article 58:

[The King] shall confer _ �1e ra ?,ks in tl1e _a1·1?ed fo1·ces. _ t.!.e sl1�ll rnake a1JJJo int1ue11ts withjn the general adIDJn1strat1on and w1th111 tl1e ad1111111strat1011 of exter11al affairs, except as provided by law. He shall m,1l<e no ot l1er �tppointn1e11ts except in accordance witl1 a specific law. �._,

f.-.•

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Appointments of government officials of tl1e ranlc of Di1·ector-General a11d above a.re made by the Emperor and notified in a General Notice i n tl1e Negarit Gazeta, over tl1e signatt1re of the Minister of the Pen. In this procedure, no distinction is made bet\vee11 Ministers and Vice-Minister3, on the one hand, and officials of lower rank on tl1e otl1er. Appoi11t111ents of officials below the ra11k of Director-General are not usually published, and it l1as not always bee.n clear whetl1er this is done drrectly O"Il the authority of the Emperor, or tlrrougl1 so111e inter111ediate offici:11 or agency. Bt1t note the readings below w11ich delegate power and establisl1 procedures for its exercise.

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lmplementaiion: Appoi11trne11ts by His hnpe,·ial MajestJJ.

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Delegation of the Appointment Power

From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) (An1endment) Order, No.44 of 1966, Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 10. 4· (a) Our Prime Minister shall be appointed a11d dismissed by Us. (b) Al! � tl1er Ministers shall be pro pos ed for apJJointme11t t o Us by Our Prime Minister and thereafter duly appointed by Us. (c) All other Government officials ab ov e tl1e 1·ank of Assista11t Mini5ter sl1_ all, after c onsultation with the ap1Jr opriate Ministers, be proposed _for. appoirJt­ ment to U s by Our Prin1e Ministe1· a11d thereafter duly aJJJJOIIlted by Us.

From the c · . ent v1ce . ra1 Person nel Agenc y and Pt1bl1c Se1· Nega· nt. Gazeta 21st Year No.3.

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N·o·23 of 1961,

9. Recr. ui' tment and Selection t10I. d 11 a d ie if ss la c f o The Agency shall be 1t I e1 1n it ru c re e 1 tl r le fo b si n o sp e r cl� !l0s1'fied Publi I. . c Servants . . . . '. . . r 1nJste .Nf ant 2.. No ap.po . Assist of 1�tment and promotion to an d below tl1e rank . ency. g or its equ A e th . ,I• f o onse11t c e tl1 ' le . t iva u o th nt wi de all · be sh ma .. t an Ass1st . of .. . Serva11t ab0ve tl1e rank I.f... . nd1 3, The _ co � 1ons t 1bl1c t of . P ice v ser' of M i 01ster shal . . . n. tio isla leg l cia spe l be determined by ,. .. . :··. ·. ·. . .. �-� .., . ·:-: , ,·,., .. . .. .· '

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490

il in the next chapter, ta e r d te a re g in d re e cl si n o c e b These enactn1ents will f Chapter VI. o 4 n o ti c e S e e S t. n e m rn e v go

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Who is a Government Official?

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From tI1e Ce 11tral Person11el Agency and Public Service Order, loc. cit. I

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3. Scope of Functions o ns wh rso e l ar pe to al de lu y in? an l al 1 sl degree t'' an rv Se lic ub ''P m ter e 1 . Th 1 e State, such as members of t he tl of � 1·1t tl10 a11 or r we po tl1e of s reiJositorie ts d en an ts d ag an van ser als c of the offi t e11 n1n ver go es, i riti tho au c p11bli government and p11blic administrations of any lcind.

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Unifo1·med men1bers of tl1e armed forces, mem·bers of the Poljce Force and judges sl1all not be gover11ed by tl1e provisions of this Order.

1�ro1n the Central Pe1·so11nel Age11 cy a11d P11 blic Service (Amendment) Order, No.28 of 1962, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No.6.

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[Thls 1Jaragrapl1 replaces Article 3 (1) above.] 3. 1. Tl1e term ''P11blic Servant'' sl1all incl11de all officials, employees and servants of tl1e Gover111nent and of P11blic A11tl1orities and Administrations of the Gover11ment wl1.icl1 enjoy it1dependent jt1 ridica1 status, wl1ether such Au­ tl1orities and Adnli11istrations are created by Order, Decree, Proclamation or s11bsidiary legislation; provided, l1owever, tl1at tl1e Public Service Com­ missioners, by Notice publisl1 ed i11 tl1e Negarit Gazeta \Vitl1 the approvaJ of the Cou11cil of Mi11 isters, may p1·ovide for the exclusion from the cover­ a.ge of �l�is term of designated categories of perso1 1s a11 d designated Public Autl1or1t1es and Administrations. From Legal Notice No. 278 of 1963, N·egarit Gazeta 23rd '

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e�s, Minis� of Tl1e · Public Council Service Con1missioners, after ap1J1 0,,a1 of tl1e · ·· hereby announce tl1e excl11sio11 of tl1e e11 11)loyees of tl1e following Public Authorities from tl1e coverage of tl1e ter11 1 ''P 11 bl.ic Ser,,ant'': 1. Boy Sco11t Association 2. National Lottery 3. Haile Sellassie I Fot111ctatioi1 4. Horse Raci11g Cl11 b 5. Me11elik II Fund 6. National Sports Co11federation 7· Re� Cross Society 8. So�1 �ty for tl1e Protec tion of Ani·mal· s 9. Tr1n1ty Monastery 1 · Won1en's Welfare Associ ion at 1 1 · ou Y ng Men'� C hr1s · t1a · n ia oc ss A tion · 12. Ha11e Sellass1e I Tl1eat re _ · I 3. Imperia l Sav� n g & H ome Ownership Pt1blic Association 14. Central Me�ical Stores Corpo ration 1 5· pasteur Institute.

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offi pos cial itio of ns, rs incl11cling. 1nilitary officers rnemb hol de in Cer ta . ers of par1.ia, Note. · t n1en app otn t I · pro ce spec . d 1a ures 1 . have a1cl down by tI1e Rev·i sed C s J' u dge ' d · ons t1tut1on. rnent a n

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Questions

ages an ? dis_adva11tages_ of tl1 e alternative definitio �d va nt the are t \Vh a ns of l) the term ''Public Servant'' given 1n tl1e 1·ead1ngs? \Vl1icl1 is n1ore stiitable for the purpose in hand ? the re are on the ons po\ ver of tl1 e E1111Jeror, or of stibordinate lim itat i Wha t ) 2 officials under delegated powers, to declare tl1at tl1e en11Jloyees of a given agency a.re ''Public Servants''? Are tl1ere a11y legal grounds on whicl1 I-Iaile Sellassie I University could claim exempt.io11 fro111 tl1e st1pe1·vision of tl1 e P L1blic Service Commissioners? Are ther e any objectio11s to the 1)rocedt1re 1111der wl1ich tJ1 e Commissioners may be able to define tl1eir ow11 j11risd:iction?

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SECTION 6:

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FOREIGN RELATIONS AND TI-IE TREATY POWER Read: Articles 29, 30 and 119 of the Constitt1tion of 1955; Shimelis Metaferia, · Treaty-making Pol11er i1z Etlziopia (LL.B. Paper, Fact1lty of Law, H.S.I. U., 1967) .

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The Conduct of Foreign Affairs

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From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pages 92-108. .. ' . Article 30 confers the w.hole powe r of foreign relations, of whi_ch treaty-1n�Jung ' 15 one, on the Emperor. This is shown by tl1e first sente11ce \vl11ch states, .T�� Emperor exercises the supreme direction of the foreign relations of the Empire. ··· There are three types of treaties an d inter11ational agreements unde� Ar�icle JO of the 1955 Revised Constitution of Ethiopia: tl1ose tl1at need no ratification, th�se that need ratificatio and those tl1at need parliame11tary approval before n, ratification. . .. se o . th . re a n o ti a c . e treati· es and 1nternat1onal n. Th ti ra no d that 11ee agreements t · a h treatie s that are d � an ts rtmen depa a11d ministries uded us concl vario the by e o e er det e Tl :; or. l per Em m i ind tl1e by ng on on ati c ifi rat tl1e b e ut pir c ho �o Em wit r� 0 er pow of sole the the k is fi ion cat ind of treaties that nee d no rati lEi n mperor .... . . by w1 11.ch· the Emperor deter1nines Th ere 18· no law which lays down the cr1ter1a th·1S. • te delega . co11ld . Th peror C e 0nst1tut1on does E e 1 · t 1er 1et 1.: wl state l .1 direc . ro tly not ver · H owe U18 treaty m H 1 b ' d · Y tl1or1ze k a a ons ng fro th fim t power in certain cases to per� . � ery e ev do not d ne m e · rst sente nce He t a h t 1� 1ropl . be ca11 by of Article 30 ... it ed gtl1en thin : lo stren f11rtller is. ng n io t as ica pl im it is directed by Him. TJ1is eror Emp <>th e� rds the oive to es �ir de ti , utio ds wor ari ,__ 1 ° in Article 30 itself. Whe11. tl1e Constit se The , ° 1 e . on . a . ''He "4c Usiv e ys sa . on erati . a-re used. 1... Power wl1ich he cannot delegate? 1t co-op of cases ' n rs, 0 ' · . 'Yith fo e1. cases of settling disputes witJ1 foreign powe .; and common defence, ' _· .· fo.· . r rati� � powers f. or the realization of th_e ends o_f sec1�1 �ternatio nal agreem ents · ·.. , _··.:�. ·.. : .cati on and for determination of which treat1es an i

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n ee y tw nc e be tl1 pa re sc A di a . is ri ha e m er 1 tl c and e er H n. tio ' ca fi ti' , ra , . to t ec b � . are su I Y _w1·th. respect .to_ rat:· fic�tion. on ne I a , 1.e 1 ,, es 11s xt te r1c � l1a _ res of co- perat1on , 1t says , ,1t 1s His tlle Englisll . ... Tlie A� su ? ea 111 h rig 1d a1 es t'' 11t sp dJ lg lit tt se of se ca In tile e at th ro th pe 1s tl1 c Em r om an fr e L1d le l de nc co ay te m ga ne [O . i1s . tio ac l . cl sti ke ta to s ra re pe of su -o ea co m d n, an es t1o ut sp di ou of th t e gh m �e tt se � ng n� er 11c co s er ,:v llis po .] n o t1 ca :fi t1 ra g 1n rn ce 1 1 co se 1o tl t o n Practice also s110\\'S that tl1ere are a large number of treaties which become bindii1 g upo11 signatt1re _by otl1�r �t1t�1orized persons. ·:. More _tl1an fifty percent of tI1 e agreeine1.1ts to \\'l1 1cl1 l?thiop1a 1s a pa1·ty � nd reg1stered w1th tl1e U. N. have come i11to force only tl}J011 signature. Tl1e q11est1ons that sl1 ould. be answered are: who is competent to co11cl11de these agreements, and whjch of tl1em could tliey validly conclt1d.e?

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"UTIONAL LAW l'I 'f S N O C N IA P IO fI T E F O SOURCEBOOK

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Tl1e orga11s wl1icl1 are 11s11ally concerned in the conclusion of sucl1 type of treaties are tl1e foreign 111i11isters and diplomats. Vie sl1all deal ,vitl1 each of these organs separately. Foreign 1ru11isters i11 s01ne co11ntries are permanently delegated to conclude certai11 tyJ)es of agree1n.ents. In Etl1iopia this was not so until \1ery recently. The Foreig11 Mi11ister vvas 011ly give11 the power to negotiate. Article 43 (f and g) of Order No.1 of I 943, 110w repealed by Order No.46 of 1966, used to state:

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he \vill negotiate n1atters of mutt1al interest to Our Governn1eot and forei gn Governments; l1e· \Vil! concluct negotiations for treaties and agreen1ents on Our bel1alf. ''

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TI1t1s llJJ to the rece11t JJr_omulgation of Order 46 of 1966 tl1e Foreign Ministe r :"as requirecl to I1ave SJJecial })OWer to cot1clt1de treaties validly. At present Etl1iopia 1s one of those co1111tries wl1icl1 l1as per111ane11tly delegated to I1er Foreig11 Minister tl1e pov1er to concl11de certain types of agree111e11ts. Article 28 (c) of Order 46 of 1966 states: ''The Minister of Foreign Affairs: i.11 accorclance \Vith tl1e Ia\\', shall:•••

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TJ1 ere migli� be two reaso11s \Vl1icl1 11c1cl 111ilitated tl1 e issuance of tl1is power. r 1e first reaso� is tl1e sa111e as tl1at wlu f r n cl1 l1ad been given for the issua c� o O �e l . � f 1966· Tl11s wotilcl be better t111derstood ria mpe I H1s by fro111 tl1e Speecl1 mad.e �aJesty on tl1e eve of tl1e co1n.i11g 011t of t11e Order; to quote just a few words: .

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negotiate �nd conclude treaties ancl agreen1ents and treat of otl1er 1natters of n1utu aJ inte�t o the nation an �- �oreig11 tates in ?a-operation with otl1er l\1inisters and Public Authorities � 0��erned , except_ � nolber to a delegated 111 so fat as S[Jecrfic po,:ver t11 erefor l1as been legally M1n1stry or Public Autl1ority. ''

W e l1ave alv,ays a_,1ticipated tl1at tl1e stage \vould be reacl1ecl at wl1icl1 Our rninisters a n d o 1 l ��1straa s, \Vhom W e l 1ave trat11ed by edt1 cat·1011 . . n11t1 . l t a.d . . en 1 t ai,c a 1 1rougl1 govern lo11g years ervice m m . of d . s . : tion coulcl ?ce their dt1t1es a�d. tasl<s are ty an bd ons1 1 ;�sp ft1ll define li, then1 selves assu. m e by tters disci1arge it I�101Jerly , tl1 L1s JJ e11n1tt1 1 _ a n n 11g tl1e 111ore of Our tin1e to n1aj or political dec1s1ons a d . of utmost 1111 P 0 rtance to tl1e futt1re of Etl1iopia \Vl1icl1 necessitate Our attentio n.'' .

a's iopi · Tl1e second rea son W.1.111c 1 t1 • l 1 1s E 1n . ase · close incre to tl1e first great tl 1 · e is • n c- e1g1 • 1 . ica . . . . . Afr i.or relat1ons. .1"'111· s inte f · ion° · rest crea of t Etl1 1op 1a tl1e 1n a11d aff wor a irs ld uMI;11· �Y. 1las n�cessi. tated tl1e per1nanent delegation of this power to t11e foreJgO ses le� . . 1111ster. Tl11s, bes1· ctes iaci r so e ra1 a I . . . er, c 1 tat1r1g ,·1· M1n1s · t · tl1e Job· of Forei gn tl1e · ·· · Itu tI·1 e Emperor from signing cu ·. as f llII l)OWers e, 1en for routine agree111ents sueh relations. '

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From ibid., pages J 54-157. . It is a co11troversial question wl1etl1 er a state by a treaty_ ��tild reStric� �l1.e nglits �aranteed by . � f r�Stric possibility it . s tl1e Etl1i?IJia Constitution. .. In u h r1 g :� ts �� h by a treaty col1ld be justified by Article 65 of tlie �onst1t1;1ti on 18 for Parl ame11t . · To · tt i to see that the restriction is i11 accordai1ce "v.itll Artie e 65 . an extreme ex t n1n r once c es t tre� : : � 1 x j take E tradition 1 e am make Jle 1 a ca thiop J ' own nat1·onaI e l o e h t n . . o . isfie ' d t s 1·r the gro1111ds latd dow1� by A _ ..' e. sa 65 e I rt1c · . h a� it se�m of � 50 e ] Articl [ by e11 bidd s th.e·dCo nst1tu _ 0t11at sucl1 type of treaty 1s coinpletely for t1 n. . .. s seem nce e nt . e s 1 As·de from tl1e first ·1 1 " seco11d . t , ma11d8:tory sente?ce being �. Mor e _to saY t h-at . ade. 111 be tl ditio ?I_lly extr of 111 treaties cases of fore1g11ers co11ld oval o·ver e appr · e tI1 � tho· u t trad a e wi tio be_ ld n cot n Su trea i !? ties concerning foreigners da of r� i n ee I�e�t; and tl1is was the case witt1 tl1e ext1·ad 1 t 1011 tre aty betw and· aE thiop . 1a The Co· t t · · u zonal Stati · nsti ,s T re oi a f ti e.s . 'l, · lati·on of . · v10 .

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Express limitations of sl1bstance refer to t l1 e 1)rovisio11s of tl1e Co11stitution whicl1 forb id or restrict tl1e 1naki11g of certain ki11ds of treaties. Tl1e provisions of the Constitution which are rele,1a .nt are Article I, Article 30 and Cl1a1)ter III. . .. (Article l) on the face of it seems to forbid tl1e ma1cing of a treaty wl1ich tries , . to divide or alienate its so, ereign rigl1ts a11d territories. 1-f oweve r no country by its o,:vn Constitt1tion i11capacitates itself fro111 mal<ing treaties �,1ith otl1er cotintries which are for its own good. Tl1is bei11g the first Article of tl1e Constitution is too general, and sl1ould be interpreted i11 tl1e ligl1t of Article 30 of the Co11stitution. lf this suggested 1uetl 1od of inteT]_Jretation i s not tal<e11, J.\rticle 30� wl1icl 1 speal<s about t11e makjng of treaties which conce1·11 tl 1e 111odificatio11 of tl1e territory of the Empire or sovereign jurisdiction over any !)art of st1cl1 territory, ,vot1ld be direct­ ly in�onsistent with i\rticl e 1. Tllis, in t l 1e writer's view, is 11ot tl1e i11te!1t of the drafter or of tl1e P a.rliament. Tl111s, Article 1 may be said. to l1ave 110 pract1�al eff�ct except that of showing th.e aim of t l1e Co11stitutio11 wl1icl1 is to Iceep the integrity of the territory or ma.inta.in. the sovereignty of tl1e Empi1·e.

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Our purpose here is _to exa�ne wl1��lJe� tl1ere ,tr_e any. sorts of treaties which tl1e governn1ent (both Emperor and Parl1an1ent) 1s const1tt1t1011ally d1squal1fied fron1 ryial<ii1 g.

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International Agreen1ents a·ncl tl1e Co11stitution Constitittional Limitations of· Sitbstarzce

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si a n gi 1il ve ar s po 96 w ? er _ J t o [tl1e Minister of Fin of 46 er Ord an ce an d D ev an elo d pm e11 lan t] nin g w1 tl1 P of 1· e ga rd to certain [economic r ist e in M the an d nts. eeme agr l] ncia fina ab ba road are n o·� legally give11 a11y powe ssa do �s am n op ia Ethi r abroad to tre Tl 1ey ati es. ai: 1de e req t11 co r ecl to have ft1ll powers nc l1 or tiat e O every ti ine .... neg

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.cit., pages 204-212. p o From e _ 1t rnation�l agr�ement r i� o ty ea r t_ _a of y it d li va \\'hich is ... the qtiestion of tI1e o v1s1o ns.. This subJect has be e JJr l na 1o t u_ t1t s n _ co e �I1 of n the concltided in violation a r� Researc]1 of Inter arv s ..Tl1e 11 s10 s cu s 91 l ina r ct do national toJJic of coi1 siderable !h 1 s a l arge ?od y of . � 1·e 1on : c? 11_ c lus 1g 11 w o l� fo 1e doctrine I tl Law ... 11as reacl1ed t e s 1s a �.att�r wl11cl1 is determine ati tre of ty 1d1 val l a _ on at1 ern i11t e 1 d to tJ1e effect tI1a t tl 10� t u. by t1t y ns co �1 n1a _ te io sta ,,is a pro 1le 1 wl ns limit t 1a tl w, a l al o11 t i a n r e by itlt er, s uch p�ov1s1on s hav e no inter­ pow ng ak1 -m �ty tre tl1e of e s ci r exe tl1e and regulate d ans ate the . org ign by des by de a m the s e ati tre t tha stitu con and ­ , 11ce a c 11ifi sig l nationa a re binding as inte rnational engagements er pow g kin 1na tytrea e 1 tl e s rci exe to tio11 ans exceeded tl1 eir constitutional com­ even tl1ot1gl1 t11e treaty-1naking o r gan or org . ters .. n1aiotain ''tl1at the inter­ wri of tJ) grol 1 l ed is t1 ting s di pete11ce.'' An eq11ally natio11al validity of trea ties a11cl tl1e co111pete11 ce of tl1e treaty-making authorities are deter1nined, i11 part a t least, by tl1e constitutional law of the States which enter into tl1e111 ... a11d tl1erefore a trea ty wl1icl1 is unconstitutional or ultra vires fo.r want of compete11ce, is 11 r1ll and void and cons equently not binding on tl1e state whose r ' co11stitt1tio11 11as bee11 violated''. ... I It is diffict1lt to deter1nine wl1icl1 tl1 eo ry Ethiopia is adopting. The inconsistency \ provisio11 of Article 122 of tl1e Re,,ised Constitt1tion seems not to apply to treatie.s a11d inter11ational agreen1e11ts, for it IJlaces them on an equal footing witl1 tl1e Consti­ tt1tion. Moreover tl1ere are 110 cases wl1ich show the court's view on this subject.

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Wl1 ere does tl1e borclerline lie between treaties and otl1er international agreements \vhich can be concltided by the E111peror alo11e, and tl1 ose \Vl1icl1 reqt1ire tl1e approval of Parlian1ent?

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War cine! Peace

From Sl1in1elis Metafe1·1a· ,

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In Etl1io�ia under A rticle 29 of tl1e 1955 Revised Co11stitution, t11e En1peror r ese rves tl1e rigl1t witl1 t11e advice a11d consent of Parliament to declare war . Even tllough tlle Article cloes 11ot eXJJressly say so, tl1e sa me is true f. or the terroinati?n ies ser 0� ar. H�w�ver tl1 i s do es a of 11ot solve tl1e p1·oble1n whether tl1e cessatio11 ; 0 rder 111cidei1ts, a cease-fire agree111ent a11 �rmis tice or a 11on-ae0gression pact ' · nse s11ou1d come WI·11111· 1 t I1e mea1111· 1g of tl1 d 11 a . le . Artic r 30 e unde treat c? y of peace . . . . �1 my op1J1JOU quent Iy need the aJJIJrova I O f par1·1a 1nent b111d1ng I becon1e before tl1ey . s o seri as all thes e above agreemei1ts are u o n . "''1th es i ostilit te1n 1 Jorary I sus1Je1 of 1 sion s 1 Id c s quences , tl,ey ai·e witl1i11 s u and I tive l execu f tl1e J ho con1 e the ete don1 �� o a i 11 � r 1 n . conten ts a re 010 · · o111e tlnder tl1e. t erm ''trea tY o · , . f _ pe a ce''. However, if their n d. _ tio . n tl1a tli ""ir n me s1g111fies , 1s J_ u r of n tl1a. t •ficat io JS, if tl1ey invo lve modi =' ng � dj b�� sovereig�ty e_ 1 1 l t 0111 ey l should be approved by Pa rliament before bec ng ' c., · = on the Emp1re. ·. . . :::;:r

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e �t is that t �e b t1 rden sl1o t!ld be ?11 Et11iopian Sll j c elem d on . sec b e ts e . .. h T !n e Eng�1s� a1 1d A m a_1·1c text 1 t I�a�es 110 tl � use ds � doti bt tli at it � the wo! orn r 111 Etl11op1a. T ht 1s tl11s ele1ne11t 1s 111tei ided to expre F de s foreigners l1v1ng ss " . excIu · s cou 1 d. be co11clud 1 . _ e ern1ng ot11er 11at1011a l conc witllottt aties J)arliaillCil tary c that tre _ . approval. two tl1es ele� e of 11e11 ts 1t see111s tl1at tl1e lJll rase is referri ilg s ana lysi the m Fro enun 1�rat� d 111 Cl1a1)te1· III of t!1e Co11stitti tio 11 ai1d tli e peop le tl�e of ghts rj the to ent1n1erated 111 T1tle I, Cl1apt er 1, Sect1011 2 of t11 e Civil Code. nality perso of ts righ .... Aside from the rigl1ts of tl1e people en t1111e1·ated i11 Cl1a1Jter III of tl1 e Constitti� tion and the rights of personality ir11 ... tl1e Civil Code, a treaty calling for military assistance to a foreign po\ver or pa) 1ne11t of a s1Jecial tax 1nay i11volve a bt1rdei1 on Ethiopian subjects perso11ally. We have already differentiated betwee11 obligatio11 a11 d bt1rden and JJave said that the word ''bt1rden,' bas a narrower a11d stro11ger 111ea11 i11g. Under Article 64 of the Constitution, [certain dt1ties are in1posed 011 i11 l1abita11ts and sr1bjects of tl1e Empire]. ... All these duties come within tl1e 1 neani11g of tl1e word obligation. But whe.n it comes to a case \Vl1ere Ethiopian subje cts ,tre to JJerform 1nilitary dt1ties to another country under a treaty conclt1ded by Etl1io1Jia, it cl1ar1ge s from obligatio11 to burden. Ethio pian subjects l1ave no obligation to figl1t for an)' other cot1ntry under the Constitution.

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Treaties Modifying Legislation in Existence

From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pages 171-172.

Thus the phrase ''modifying legislation i11 existence'' is intended to cover am�ndments of laws passed by Parliame11t ancl wl1icl1 a1·e still in _for�e. A_ treaty which adds one National Holiday is an. agreeme11t modifying legislation I? existence, because_ the National Holidays a .re already covered by legislat!o11,. wl1 �le a . treaty controllin� nuclear tests in Etllio pia is no t a modification o_ f �eg1slat1on i n existence for there 1s no legislation controlling nuclea1· tests i11 Ethio pia. Treat ies

Requiring Expenditures of State Funds From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pa ges 175-178. · trded in l c in e b 11 · a c t If treat1es re quir· e expenditures of state f L1nds, t 1us n 11ou a1 · 11r­ P · t 1 1a th·e YearI b w r o f y r a s s e c 11e e 1er 1 w d . . eans tlJat ns g t1o e 1a t a1 1Jl ex th wi . . d ns an tio ca di in � . � Y o 1 1 oing ­ itu n i pe : ex e th es ov pr ap \ to be utilized. If Parliament i ��; a ft :: .in�� rli pa g e t tr ectly approved the tre�ty. Th�s a_vo1ds for tl1_e exec � . n io t L1 t i t s n o C e 1 lllenta process, l t � en � 1 e 1r e r tl1e n q ng yet at the same t1me sat1sfy1 � �ratio11 af ter the ap ­ liowe� t e to 1 es co� argu ty trea t men the get bud assumes that the t t e Prov aJ o� tt e g ei;her o11 s e 1t1v t approve d obudget by Parliament. Thus tl1e exe� or arran.ge i.n s11cl1 a way tJ1at ­ e agre an the effi ti. bef r e th e date of signatu·re or ratific,1t1o11, 1 suc I e·of 1 J xa e n e A date I e 11 t. a1n ParJ com eace l P r � v � j s e by tl1e aft approva e e to n m . . a11 Agre eme11t relating '"'- t lil the ''E�ch �nge 11� der st1tut1ng con of tes 1re No ditt 1 ei exp .1 96? tlle '--OTps Pro am si ay e s1n on et 2 gned t � ;; M 3 , gr Ababa :Ad?is bud� h at ich W 00 the ; early y . e 1 l i l are c a ap t nt o e f 1965 P · , to be 1ue11 t1oned 10 r pe Govern1n the th1op1an E . M reo �i o a er e t i n l if .large · th is : v : Allowa t _ � � ;� ; e 1 j c � so the exp not e nditure 1 e t n buct u d .'{-··· e L c 11 18 1t e nd at th r · a ed s 11n st as d ea -l1 e b t1b it ca n t fo-r, .t !n. l rte se_ en Expe11ses. t/ :: . · . . ·_ . . · {" :··:· ·:,, ·... . -. ... . . ..

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STITUTI ONAL LAW N N O IA C P 10 J-! . T E F O SOURCEBOOK

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be d rove app may t1re nd.it by expe iamen Parl state g · · ijriii reqt t )' t a e r · t . a s t1 l1 · T ' d ct 1re s11 or bmiss1on of the tevAt b y get d · b11 tl1e of . . t1.y tl1ro11g11 tlle ap val pro ' indirec of the treaty.

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d e o 11l �or sh be ing 11s be 10� g i11 d ifie l rat vo i11 e ati by tre 1at l t 1 o1 cti � tri ? _ TJ1e res le 9 tic th t 11 Ar wi e11 of 1st 11s tl1e co 1s t 1en a11 rl1 ConstjPa re fo be d lai be r ro }Je tile Em tution.

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From ibid., pages 184-185, 191-193, 196-198.

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Tl1e most i111porta11t a11d releva11t elements contained in the definition (of mono­ .-·.. JJoly) for tl1e p11rJJose of 011r c!isct1ssio11 of A1·ticle 30 of t l1e 1955 Revised Constitu­ tio11 of Etl1io1Jia are: first tl 1at it is a11 excl11si\1e rigl1t granted ·by tl1e S0\1ereign JJo,ver to a pe rso11 or class of persons of son1etl1ing wl1ich v.1as before a cor,1111012 right; seco11dly t11at its do111i11a11t tl1011gl1 t is tl1 e sup1Jression of competitior1.... .. [It is argL1ed tl1at Etl1 iopi,1n nationals l1ave a co1nn1on rigl1t 0\1e.r tl1e Public State Do1nai11, but 11ot over tl1e Private State Domai11, 11nder Civ.iI Code, Articles •- ' 144-4-1448,] ! Tl1is means 11101101Joly \Vitl1ii1 Ai·ticle 30 ... concerr1s only properties ti1at form a pa rt of the JJlLb]ic do1nai11 a11cl p11blic ser, ices within tl1e mea11ing of Article 3207 of tl1e Civil Code. Moreover Article 30 req11ires tl1at sucl1 n1onopolies be created i11 tl1e forn1 of treaties a. n d inter11,1tio11al ao-reeme11ts to be laid before Parliament. It is 11ecessary I1 ere to detern1i11e wl10 could be parties to tre,1ties and inter11atio�al . agreeme11 ts..It is an accepted 1·ule of inter11ational lavv tl1 at the parties to treaties a11d i11ternatio11al agree111e.11ts are st,1tes or i r 1ter11atio11al orgar1izations. I11divi�uals ' \ _ tes are O bJect s and 11ot subjects of i11ter11a.tio11al law; at1d tl1 e1·e is 11otl1i 1 1g \,,.J1icl1 i11d1ca tl1 e contr,1ry in the 1955 Revisecl Constit11tio11 of Etl1iopia. Tl.1tiS, a11 agree�e�t '' ?0 ncluded between tl1e Etl1iopia11 Go,,er11me11t ar1d a foreign co111pany, even if it involves monopoly, does 11ot come witl1i1 1 Article 30.... ,. . T,1�erefore tl1e pl1ras� ''treaties a11d i ter11,ttio11al agreen1e.nts invo� ving moni; � _ n1e11ts ,vl1ere t polies cove rs ag1ee of cts obJe tl1e JJart1es are states ,vl1ere the ' ' agreeine i1t are JJll blic services or Public do1na.i 11 s a11d wb;re tl1e agree1n e11t is ii1tei lded tbe to � ll p�ress coinpetition....l�o 1uy lcno�,Iedge tl;er by e mad trea ty one only e is ' · · � op1a' 11 G ove Etl11 ,. ,,v­_ · · 1 1 11ne11 � v1I11c]1 co1nes 1111der t l 1is pi1 rase. This treat)' }1as b een appro . , 9 ed by p,�rli a 1 11e11t. T111s 1s_ ''tl1 e Traite · 19' e '' 111br . 11ov e 2 I Fra1.1co-. Etl1ioJJie du . 11 ,. Tlie · Tl1e part · agieeme11 . . · 1e 1ts. · " mei to tl ..\ \ · 1 1s Govern are t 11cl1 e F1· tl1e Etl11op1an . a1Jd sup­ .. . Il\,.' obJect of tl1e ag 1·eeinc11 t 011cer11s a . ent 1 ee agr _, Tb 1)11 (ra bl1 ilw _ do1 ay) na1 . n : � � . . � ' . ans � _ _ "'r ess�s coi111Jet1.tioi,. T111s 1s cle�lr ,, stat · 1 l11c h c fro 11 Art1 le 16 of tl1e treaty \V Iii,,' fe t;S D t 5 t oen uer regro�1 cltl cl1e11lin de fer, e11tre er ouv , Dji bo1 1ti et Add j s Abeba les det1x G 11 a11tor· 1sero11t lac constrL1 . ct··1011 d,a11 1\ ' e , ,. c1111e Jj gne concurre11t I \. ,

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t 1 1, t/1e stit and Con ion e1its z · een Agr nal t. fnterna 10 · · e ma �im that ''110 cot111try by its own Coi,stitLitio11 j 11_ th with ee agr . you _ ) Do treaties vv1tl1 otl1er cot111tries w!1icl1 are for its nJalc111g from itself tes pacita J ca own good''? s of tl1c co11clt1sio readi11g on tl1e 1 relatiorisliiiJ t with betwee11 ! agree � � you Do 4) the sovereignty prov1s1011s of Art1cles 1 a11d 30? c nclt1si 11s, 1at furtl1er ,v these witl1 sL1ggestio11s wot,ld you J disagree ? you � If S) put forward to resolve t11e d1:ffict1lt1es ,vl11cl1 tl1ese two articles raise? 6) Can rights granted ''in accordance "''it.11 the la,v'', lil<:e tl1ose t111der Article 41, validly be limited b)' a treaty approvecl by Parlia111e11t? 7) Can mandatory rigl1ts, like tl1at gra11t e d to Etl1iopia11 stibjects t111der Article 50, be limited by a treaty appro,ied by Parlia111e11t? 8) Is it for the Emperor alone to decide ·\vl1etl1er a 1)artict1lar treaty reqLtires parljamet1tary appro\ al? 9) Do the courts or Parliament have any J)Ower of review over ]1js decisio11? IO) Can a treaty amend, modify or im1)licitly i11te1-p1·et tl1e Constitlltio11? I 1) If so, would it have to be approve d by Parlia111e11t in accordance witl1 Article 131?

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t en Jm y ui1 ar to eq lit mi d Ethiopia? . len to r we 1 JJo r eig or f (d) a to nt a me gn uip rej eq fo y ar lit mi power? d len to ia iop 1 l Et (e) ding on ''Treaties Layin g rea tl1e of s L1sio11 concl tl1e wjtl1 agree a Burden Do you. . . on Etl1iop1an Subjects personaIIy ''?. ca11 y011 thi11k of any other sorts of treaties. whic11 would come under this provision? Can a treaty deterrr_une 1natter� w!1icl1 fall within tl1e range of parliamentary activjt)', b11t on wl11cl1 no Eth1op1an law has yet been made, without being su bn1itted to Parliament? If so, wo11ld Parlian1e11t tl1.ereafter be prevented from making a Jaw on the s11 bjects covered by the treaty?

22) Suppose tl1at the Etl1iopian G.overnment made an agreement with a foreign power by wl1icl1 EthioJJia was obliged to provide certain ''counterpart funds" for expe11ses unde1· tl1e agreement; vvot1ld the requirements of the Constitution be n1et by ''indirect'' parliamentary approval, if: (a) Parliament a1Jproved the Bt1dget in wltich the payment of such funds . was pro\1ided for? (b) s11cl1 ft1nds were taken from the Allowance for Unforeseen Expenses? 23) Wl1at diffic11lties migl1t these proced ures involve?

24) Do you accept tl1e validity of the procedt1res in the example of the Peace Corps agree1ne11 t cited in tl1e reading? 25) Do you agree witl1 tl1e opinions and conclusions expressed in th. e readings on ''Treaties I11volving Loans or Monopolies''? 26) If Parliame11t l1as to approve treaties :,in accordance witl1 tl1e provisio n s of Articles 88-90 inclt1sive'' of tl1e 1955 Constitt1tion, is it tben possible for Par lia1nent to an1end draft treaties? 27) If so, wl1at ft1rtl1er JJrocedt1res wo1.1ld such an1e11dment involve?

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Read: Article 29 of tl1e Co11stitution of 1955.

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To sol To ial merit at tl1e Ogade11 Front, tile E i spec th 1 w d nper or ve ser orde red wlio _ . e s o 11av e wh se ? . r \red me th . _ 1011g, loyally and with clistirlction so To . ran k in promotl.00 ordered promotion 1n rank. BIJ): I:I J M a_lso accord ance in witl1 Issued tl1e Orders Empe ror's rial contro l over tl1e arn1e d Inlpe · 1 so · � · See a or1, A ·a1 N I . ·t T err1 O rmy a re 1 er, o.21 Imper1 of 1958, Negc,rit Gazetc, 18tl1 the ding inclu f rces d:>:, o - N' 2 I-{\ - year o.. . The Emergency Powers of tJ 1e Emperor 1

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Dictior1naire de D,·oit, p,1ge 568 (La\v Scl1 ool Translation). Petit oz, Dall From Note: This is the status of a state of siege u11der Fre11cl1 la\v, ancl does not auton1atiC<'ll1y apply to Ethiopia . to desig11ed meas11re protect legal all or J Jart of tl1e 11 atio11al a is siege of state The I. territory against the dangers of an armed attacl<. 2. I. Declaration - A state of siege ca11 only be declared i11 cases of i 1n1ni 11ent danger resulting from a war with a foreig11 state or from a11 ar111ed revolt. A state of siege can only be declared by law; tl1is law desig11ates tl1e arects to wl1 icl1 tl1e state of siege applies, and fixes the period of its d11i·ation. At tl1 e e11d of tJ1 is }Jeriod., the state of siege automatically ceases to have legal effect 1111less exte11cleci by a 11e\v law. \Vl1en Parliament is not sitting, the state of siege is declared by a decree of tl1e President of the Republic; Parliament reconve11 es by rigl1t t\\ 0 days tl1ereafter. Should Parliament stand dissol,1ed, 11ntil a 11ew Parlia1ne11t is electecl tl1 e state of siege can only be declared in case of a foreign war, and tl1e11 011 ly i1 1 tl1e areas threatened by the enemy. 3. In overseas territories, the state of siege is proclaimed by tl1e gover11or, wl10 must immediately report to tl1 e government. 4. Il. Effects - The moment a state of siege l1as bee11 declared, the powers over the police and the maintenance of public 01·der vested i11 tl1e civ�l�a11 a11tl1 or�t�es are transfe rred in their entirety to the military at1tl1orities. Tl1e civ1l1 an a_u�l1or 1t1es neverthele ss continue to exercise those powers wl1icl1 tl1e 11 1ilita1·y autl1or1t1es_ Iiave not t�ken over. The military autl1orities may not exceed tl1e powers prev 1 o·usly ex erc is ed by the civilian autho rities. 0 y d he by s � icile � dom y ate itar priv l : rch sea authorities gain the rigl1t to ! mi Y rught; to expel habitual criminals and vagrants from tl1e areas 11nder state of S iege, 10 0rder the surr ender of arms and munition s and to searcl1 for a11d confiscate tllem; and to forbid e vok pro to ble lia ge jtid y or to contin publications and public rneetidgs wl1icl1 tl1e ue disorder. 6· In cases f · · ts r 11 o c ry a jt · il n e 1 l t r, a w 1 or 1m e1g m 1 1n � fr nt o1 re da n s11 ng l!i er ng � f _ � may deal witho · 8 of A rti cle y n ow d d la1 a and cr1rnes of number certain 011.ences e . 11 ave 1ega1 th la of 184 . to es as ce ly al ic at om ut s hi a e ju on ti effect :n io ic pt sd ce ri na x l T ?· atu th e stgn re of peace. . . e st t 7. If th fro 1 1 11 st re ? �� ! er ng da e t en of in m g a . sie i1n e is declared in case of cltrned e vol a n v c e ov !i i ts � ur co 1iinited � !, the exceptiona l jurisdiction of the military �} ! � � a � ar rt ce to e tru d s an u e v ic �o st ered by tl1 e Code of Military J · the Penal � �iition � s r1 Jt1 s se _ca od ! . �mai n&·. th e lai d down by Article 8 of the law of 1849. In al n 1 a1 1 t no do c 1es r1t ho !i d j�: e O'rdinary courts so lon g as th e military a ut JU: s lct .

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETiiIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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s u en in �iz nt ci co e , to ng di e t1n st :itb w oy nj t no l al ge sie the rights. of e at st e Th · 8 t l1as se no n rci bee exe ose p wl1 sus 11 tio ed end it11 nst Co by the. la,v tile by d ee t gt1aran of 1849. e . sieg of s: f te end n sta at tl1e tl1e o e o e sieg d f e stat 0 the ·s· of the . . . . • d 9 . Ra1 111t, perio d 1ts e� 1ng 1s 1en 1 nou 1t; pro � ed nce 1111 cla pro by law; when icl1 wl1 law tlle � fixed by nt s!de of Pre tl1e tl1e of u�l ree Rep dec 1c wlie n _ a by ced 1111 no pro is Parliaing etld jts h1m and by d has lare t dec o n_ s yet :-"a 1t been confirmed e1� wl1 or , ing sitt not is t men

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ts tary cour mili t�e e, sieg continue to take notice of state tl1e of 11g raisi tI1e r Afte 1o. l1ad ady alre ch been wl11 nces offe submitte d to them. a11d 1es crin for io11s ectlt pros of

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Note: Tl1is is tl1e status of n1artial law in the Un.ited States.

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Tl1at govern. 1ne11t and co11trol wl1ich military commanders may lawfully exercise over tl1e pe.rso11s a11d property of citizens and inclividuals not e11gaged in tL1e land -l,' and 11a\1al service. It is to be disti11g11isl1ed from 1nilitary law whicl1 applies to those r11les e11acted by tl1 e legislati-\re povver for tl1e government a11d regt1lation of the army a11d 11avy, and tl1e n1ilitia wl1e11 called into the active service of the United States. It 1Jrest1p1Joses tl1e existe11ce of a state of actual war, and the occupation of �l1e d�strict wl1ere it exists by a 110s tile force, interrupting tl1e civil courts i11 the admin- ' 1strat1011 of law i11 tl1 eir accustomed 111ode. l I

Fron1 the En11Jeror's press conference 011 tl1e attempted coup d'etat of Decembet 1960, Tl1e Et/1iOJJiarz I-Jerald, 21 Dece1nber 1960. .., 1 11o_se ?1e11 wl10 ,vere involved i11 tl1e plot from tl1e outset or wl10 enli ��ed itu· Con�t the to �ol1111tarily 1n the rebel ranks will b e tried a11d p1111isl1ed. according d blishe esta tion and tl1_e law. 011 tl1is tl1 ere is no cl1oice. Military courts l1ave been 1: '. �om1:osed 1!1 part of civilia11 jt 1dges, since civilians were involved. All who are l 1m1Jl1cated 111 tl1e JJlot will be tried by tl1ese tribt111als. . Natio11al E111erge11 cy , '

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See Article 4 2 o f the Constitt1tion o 19 f 55.

· D:cIaration of, State of E1nerge11cy in tl1 e Regio Bordering the Repu li· Of S0znalia 11 b c 0rder, No. 32 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 23rd Year No.IO.

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CONQUERING LION OF THE TRl'BE OF JUDAH HAILE SELLASSIE I

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ELECT OF GOD, EMPEROR OF ETHIOPIA

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·ed on · WI-IERE AS, �he Govern 1 as ca ��e :Bthi0• alia ,._ J Som n1ent of of Republic tl 1 e cont·1n1 1_ ous c_ampa1gn of d l a n rsi · brig sub and ve age o , qog }} sabotage and a we· b.eing n . Som a' l1 ron · the · f t1er end angering the public security and threat ening . .-� ,:· 11

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� 1�' , , of the inhabit_ants of th� r7gion, _cul!31inatin ? in an armed attac k on Ethiopian �t\ safet� olice carried out w1tl11n Etl11op1a 1 1 terr1to1·y by tl1e arnled forces of tlle securitr p o f Somal ia on Febrt1ary 7, 196Li; and u i e he�· R p �' c 1 tial tl1at 1 neasL1res be tal:< en to ass11re tl1 e ess e1 is it -1·ty . AS sec 111 RE . and E H l . . sa1. d region a11 d to protect tl1 e JJersoi,s ar1d ' order ,v1t \,y a ,__ . 11n n d a. J)roiJert y ai t ain Ia,v nts t11ereof: abita h n n b i nenco-;·� ro e t · · · . of 1 a�c �11c d or e n vv1t , 11 1 · E Art OR icle 29 of 011 1· c011s titLition arld ER EF TH , . . NOW t �-1 J \1/e M1n1sters, of l 1 1ereby Cot1nc order Our as �� of follows. e . advic e h t . . �1,. on s e t D '' a 011 of State of E111erge 11cy i 11 tile Regiotl �c h d I arat1 cite_ be 1nay h r Orde is t·�v,":'.,, 1 T 1a of al , 111 er ic S0 rcl bl ''. O pu 64 Re 19 e tl1 g n .· eri rd Bo • decl here is ared by cy 11 to emer exist ge i11 tl1e region borderi ilg tlle of s tate A _l 2_ Republic of Sorn a 1a . h 1 der tb . e ad1ni11istr,1tion of OL1r Mi11ister of Natio 11,11 �11 b� all s region Said 3_ · a 1 1 ta k e st1cl1 n1eas11res as are necessary to assure Defence and said M1ruster sh the security and maintai11 law and order \Vitl1j11 saicl regio 1 1 a.11d to protect tl1e t ts the bitan of inl1a erty prop l1ereof. a11d s person ':;� y isst1e regulatio11s: Defence National rna of ister 1 Mi.1 Our 4. ;-;�� (a) delimiting tl1ose areas i n the 1·egion bordering tl1e ReJJL1 blic of So1na]ia .;: �. to wlucl.1 th.is Order sl1all apply: a11d ;, ,:: iJ1 1 of out carryi11g a11d 1 s of provisio tl1e in1plementatio11 tl1e for providing (b) ,1 1�--this Order. -· effective be to declared emergency of state The 5. is 1 FebrL1ary 3, 1964. fro11 as ' . ,-� Done at Addis Ababa tl1is 8tl1 day of Febrt 1 ary, 1964. \;�

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ese Regu ations may be ci te d as tl1 e ''State of E 1 11ergency i n tl1e Region l B ordTeri�n g tl 1 e Republic of Somal ia Regulations , 1964. '' 3· Deli mitation of Area in Which the State of Emerge11cy Exists. y . c n e g r The area 10 e · wh.ich 1n E '' e 1 tJ er t f a · 111 the state of emergency eXJsts (l1ere Area''} 1·8 ll ereby delimited as follo s w: eo. _

cl1 n y re . F i f o Solllmeoc1 ng at th r to h rr te 1e tl . i o\1/a; t h �en � t o o lanct e s poin !l l lali e r f t: i of nter Westerly direcec nda i tw t e n bot1 i s �. a t S t l'ti _ ot'l tnd � l on .to· M elo S a ·R:PubL1c of_ Soma lia; the nce in a stra1g�t lu �e 10 f e th Wester n limits of e t tion , thence m g · ong a · · n y t1 c dueS y o outherl a enerall ..

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State of Emergency in t11e Area ]3orderi11g tl1e Rept1 blic of Somalia Reg11Iatio11s, Legal Notice No. 284 of 1964, _?vegat·it Gazeta 231·d Year No. 11.

l. Issuing Authorit y These Regulations are issued by tl1e Mi11ister of Natio11al Defe11ce pt1rs11 a11t �o au th0rity vested in l1im tl1 e Declaratio11 of a State of Emergency 4 of by Article n the Regi of .32 No der (Or 4 196 on ler, Orc de Bor a 1ali Son of ring ic the Rept1bl ; 964) (hereinafter the ''Order''). 2 · Sh ort Title

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\VOLD TSA1-IAFE TAEZAZ AI(LILU 1IABTE Prime Ministe1· and Mi11ister of Pe11 .

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1e Ogaden; thei:ice i n a g ener�l I ?f n sio ivi � D ve �ti �tr i11i j l111 A Ac . ly uth-Weisterly _ So tl1e ,vr�t a ancl tl1e J e to the po111t of intersection of b Ker a El ra Aw tl1e of ts Iin11 1 . ter1 g Wes tJ1e th d . t·10n,alon . . d 11ec e . . . oun . . a .1a . o1J1 a, K eny a a11cl tl 1e Republic o fSom 1 ary 11 tJ E n ee tw be

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5. EvacL1atio11 of I11l1abitan ts fro1n Proliibited Area

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WitJ1in twenty (20) days of the effective date of these Regulations, all inhabitants a11d otl1er perso11s witl1i11 tl1e Prol1jb.ited Area ,,,11 0 are not expressly autl1orised to remain ,vitl1in said Area sl1all leave said Area and shall take with tl1em all livestock and all otl1er personal a11d movable possessions.

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6. Moven1ent witl1in Prol1ibited Area (I)

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con1111encing at tl1e point of intersection of tl1e boundaries between Ethiopia, the territory of French Son1alila1 1d and tl1e Republic of So1ualia; tl1e11ce along the line of the Emerg ency Area to a point fifteen (15) kilon1etres dista11t fron1 tl1e border of the Rept1blic of Somalia ; thence along a line paralleling generally tl1e bot1ndary between Etl1iopia and the Republic of Somalia and p assing tl1rot1gl1 t l1e following points: Mordale, Biogurgt.1r, Gocti, Bibili, Hijiter, Domo, Bali-Megalli, Dubt1b, Sulsul, God-Dere, God-God, Bt1r-I-Iosh, Ararro and Woladdaie to a point dir ectl y North of tl1e l)Oi11t of i11teresection of tl1e bou11daries of Ethjopia, Kenya and the Re public of Somalia; tl1ence due S011tl1 to said point of intersection.

thereto.

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Witlii11 tl1e E111ergency Area, tl1ere sl1all be a Prohibited Area, delimited as follows: all of tha t area witl1in. Etl1iopia between _the boundary of Ethiopia and the Re1Jt1blic of So111alia, of a widtl1 at any point of not less than fifteen (15) kilo­ n1etres, and a line drawn as follows:

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No person sl1all enter tl1e Pro11ibi ted Area witl1out express authorisation

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(2) Any person at1tl1orised to re1nai11 in or to enter tl1e Prohibited Area shall

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�t all times d_t1ri11� l1is JJresence tl1ere be subject to ai1 d. comply with all lawful regula­ tioi1s a11d d1rect1011s co11cer11i11g bis n1ove1nent therein.

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Obligatio11 to Stop upo11 Cl1alle11ge Aiiy perso11 ii1 tl1e En1erge11cy Area sl1a ll i1 nmediately stop upo� b ei�g ch�� Ienged by any n1ei11be1· of tl1e Arn1ecl l�orces or Police assigned to duty in said Ar

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8. Use of F'orce by Ar111ed Forces a11d Police Any 111e 1�ber of tl1<: �rn1ed Fo1·ces or Police assigned to duty WI·thin the to . ei.gency e J n o ut a ma y, te w!t h b lun e the t , u _ e �� to sai for d Area se ce, x n� /tb � o ll . e exten t tlictt sticl1 t1se 1s reasonably justified, taking into consi deration a ande es circlimstances of tl1e case, to 1na r a ul law f r a eff ect i11t , ain law to ord an er d ! ithin t o_ J)rotect tl1 e J)er ons so11s and property o·f the inhabitants and other pers said Area. 9. Prol1ibition on Posses sion of Arms i nc Jud ng · j · ' No pe rs . . 011• with 1n tl1 e Emergency Area may possess any wea. pon, . without 1imitation, any firearm, without permission.

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and Police to Search Witl1011t Warra11t Forces Armed of 10. Power

ihe �r·med. ·fo.rces or Police assigned t of er to dtrty wit11in the mem b (l) Any any time, w1thot1t warra11t, e11ter a nd search a11 y preini�es at may Area ncy e r e �ro h eg Emergency Area a nd may, witho11 -t warra11t, sea· rch any perso11 conveyance ' · ' 1nr · · , pac age, 1 k a rce pac · p , k co11ta111er a�gage, or b thing f01111d 1 n, er1terircraft, a le, vehic or a ve or reaso11 a bly sus1)eclecl of bei11g abotit to le enter to ng seeki g, leavin . or ,n�er or of having left said Area, and 1 !1a y s-�op a11d detain any sucl1 person, con­ ::yanc e, vehicle, airc�aft, ?agga�e, pack, package, parcel, co11tainer or thing for . or 1t n g bu in ch ar se of e os rp pu the (2) Any article with or in r�pect of vvl1ich �n offe11ce l1_as b_een comn1itted or is reasona bly suspected of hav1ng been committed or wh1cl1 1s necessary to the conduct of an investigaiion into any offe11ce com1nitted or reasonably �u�pected or having be.en committed m a y be seized by tl1e member of 1 lhe Ar1ned Forces or Police conducting the search. (3) Any article seized pursuant to this Article 10 shall promptly be brot1ght before the authoritias.

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11. Power of Arm.ed Forces and Police to Arres-t Witl1out Warr ant Any member of the Armed Forces or Police assigi1ed to dt1ty within the Emerge ncy Area may at any time, wirhout warrant detain, take into custody and a:rest any person within the Emergency Are a ,vho is re a[on ably suspected of having violated the provisions of these Regulations or of otherwise constituti11g a threat to the maintenance of law a nd order in the Emergency Area.

13· Penal Provisions A ny person who: vi?lates the provi;sions of Articles 5, 6, 7 or 9 hereof; or fails, a_fter having es Forc ed Arm tl1e of ber mem a by been e twic ed leng cl1al or Police assigned Area; [sic] Emer gency to the duty in shall. be sub· . . . Ject to immediate arrest an d shall be tried by n11l1t ary court marti. aI · 14. Ad . . . DlID.l. &tering Aut . hor1ty . ; Delegation of Authority . .All · · · civilia ' s re b 11 a sl Area �n � ncy er�e · P�sible- Jo a n . _and n_tilitary a uthorities within the E!11 _ d h ll d charge en ,o� military � the of n tio rec di e th r their duties unde s ae is :)\):�� >·.,:: ·"· 'II!· t he Arm all sh er fic of id a S a. re A d y rc nc Fo ge es stationed within the Emer -� . .

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(4) Any per�on who is detained for the purpose of bei11g searched purst1ant to t·his Article 10 shall be deemed to be in lawful custody .

12· Reference to Provisional Administrative Line Al� references .to th� boundary betwee� Ethiopia a.11d that_ portion of th_e Re l li of omali ub S a wb1ch formerly com r1sed the �f !st T_errrt�ry of_ So ?1ali ­ c an � l J? . hall be shed establi Line deemed e ustrat1v Admir l ces referen a s 1on Prov1s to the 'I' bY he. General Assembly of the United Nations Organisation.

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-JIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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ed ir ly ab qu re to on as r re [u as es ur e ea m e th l al ke ta o t 1 secuir tY ed � er w po _ em _ _ 1 the Emergency �rea an d to protect be fully 11 e s th th 1 w r de r or pe d o an \v la n ai nt ai m d an .1ty ay be or m 1h au a leg 1cb de St f. eo er ted th a s t the so�! nt <a bi ha in e th of ty er and prop discretion o f said officer. 15. Inconsistent Legislation Insofar as any provision ofi tl1ese �egulations are i�c.onsistent with the provi­ sion of any otl1er legislation presently in. force, the prov1s1ons he- reof shall prevail.

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i t ies rit ho u A g iI1 er t is · in 1 , dn A of 1 16. Obligation (1) The adn1inist1·ation of tl1e Emergencj' Area shall be car·ried on in such a manner as to minimise any possible l1ard:hip impo::ed u.pon the inhabita nts of . .: a,11d o:her persons in said Area. (2) Tl1e Emergency Area shall be progressively reduced as quickly as cir­ cumstances per1nit in order t11at. persons affected 111ereby .shall be relieved of the unusual 111 casures req11ired to be placed in force as the result of the situation pre­ vailing witl1in said Area.

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17. Effective Date These Regulation,s shall become effective on February 10th, 1964. Done at Addis Ababa this lOtl1 d,ay of February, 1964 II!

LT. GEN. MERID MENGESHA Mini�·ter of National Defence.

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Questions

The Control of tlze A1·n1ed Fo,·ces I) Whi�h. if any, of tl1e orders given by H.l.M. in the above reading would require

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Parliamentary approval? 2) D �s Parliament have tl1e right to con lrol tl1e E111 pero,r's powers under this . es forc Ar�icle by reft1-s.1. ng Him d arme tl1e mo11e): r1eeded to 1naintain the which I-le believes lo be necess.ary? 3) W�iat powers does tl1e En1pe1·or possess over .n1en1bers of the arme d forces which he does not possess over: (a) civilian government servants? (b) Ethiopian subjects as a whole? (c) residents of the E inpire? In an�wering these questions, see also: ·

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o r e e r p th f 1n o E s r e 1rv o P l?CY ro e E m oe The . • d1f fer enc bet we es nt1 e11 al the u bst a pow ers � gra nte any d by state of re the e � by m 4) siege, · artial law, an d by st.ate of en1ergency? of whe judg ther e a state �ole of the eme rgen cy is reqtiired and eror Emp e th I 5) by down laid the s tion Co11stitu condition are n1et? the er h t. :be · autl1orities n1illtary adn1inis tering a state of emergency the of ties ac�ivi the 6) Are to review by the courts? subject powers ,vl1icl1 t he the Emperor on n 111ay · assume limitatio by virtue any there 7) Is of Article 29? r the pov,,er: ro pe the Em s ha ce, tan ins for 8) (a) to suspend th e Constitution? (b) to -:uspend the Rlgl1ts of the People granted by the Constitution? (c) to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies witl1011t arran.ging for tl1e election of a new Chamber? (d) to suspend ordinary Proclamations? (e) to legislate by Order on matters otherwise covered by Proc]an1ation?

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The Grant of Honours

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Read: Article 31 of the Constitution of 1955. to Chapter IV for the traditional orioins of the En11Jeror's powers in this respect, and Refer to Article 130 of the Constitution for the st;tus of abandoned JJro1Jerties and properties in escheat.

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The Minting Power Read: Article 32 of the Constitution of 1955. d 22n From the Charter of the Nationa eta Gaz arit Neg , 1963 of 30 No. er Ord a l iopi Eth Ban· k of · ' r Yea No 20. · Us by Article · con ferred. 10 8; T'ne ng t to coin print and issue money t11roughout 0Ltr Empire · h ·3 - of Our Constitution k Ban tbe by ed rcis exe be lo nk, Ba is hereby exclusive]. y vested in the in accordan ce with the law.

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Parliamentary and Legislative Powers

Read: Article s 33 and 34 of the Constitution of 1955. . Article 33 18· VII)· r e (Chapt consid e11t n lia1 ered Pa in on the later Chapter ! Article 34 has been considered in Section 3 of this Chapter. Jud_icial Powers

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Read: A rticl e 35 Of the Constitution of 1955. · l'ne·-Se.po

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. VIII) ter (Chap ary ons-1·ct ered in the later Chapter on th e Jud1'c1·

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506

Cl-lAPTER VI U E IT T IV S T U IN S C N E IO X T E F O f N E M P O L E TllE DEV r

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Introduction

try and Co� �c.il of M.inisters _ nis Mi n1e Pri 1y, rcl na Mo tl1e of les Ro g gin an c11 Section 1: Tile constitutional evolution to 1960; Orcler No. 44; the acco1:1ntabil1ty of th.e Govern­ ment to tl1e En1peror, Parlian1ent and tl1e State; the changing role of the monarchy.

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tl1� minjstries; ''ad hoc'' agencies; problems 1ent ernn Gov ral Cent of cies Agen The 2: n io ct Se of jttrisdictio11 over invest111ent for econon11c_ developf!lent; problems of delegatio n of Jav,- and policy-n1aking powers to executive agencies.

Section 3: Tl1e Devel.0JJ111ent of f\.gencies of Local Ad1ninistration - traditional institutions; transitional institutio11s; problen1s of theory and policy; developing institutions of local governn1ent in Etl1iopia.

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Sectio11 4: Tl1e Develo1J111ent of I-It1man .Reso11rces ro Staff Executive Institutions - theories of civil service; tl1e clevelo1J111ent of civil service l'.lw in Etbjopia. Section 5: Problen1s of ''Accot1ntability'' - concepts of ''accountability''; diverse roles of govern111ent and diverse problems of ''accot1ntability''; securing ''acco untability"; vario11s possibilities: Parlian1ent, the courts, tl1e executi,•e. Section 6: Accountability a11d tl1e Role of the Co11rts - legal bases for judicial review; lin1i111tions on j11dicial re\1ie\v; developing a law of administrati,,e procedure; comparisons.

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Section 7: Accountability and the Role of tl1e Executive - son1e existing legal institutions; comparisons: on1budsn1en, proct1rators and conmussions; tl1e role of the Emperor.

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Introduction

f3e0�;;1_: Chapter I, pp.31-34, 43-50, 69-73; Cl1apter II, PIJ.257-258, 261; Chapter IV, pp.427-4ZS,

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. Previo1is. re�djngs J1rtve st1�gested tl1� in1porta11ce, i n �onstitution�l t��oryi of tl1e_execti tiv� in 111a11y clevelo1J111g cot111 t r1es Not only n11:1-st 1t per form_tr �dition � . exectltive f�n�t1on� sucl1 as ln.,v enforcen1e11 t:, tax-collecting , road-bu1Iding a,n school ad�1111 strat1011, bl1t it ml1st pla n and lead ecor1oniic change. Perl1 aps, too �Ile exectl�f Ve leacl_ersl1 ip 111t1st I)la,y a .majo_r role in pla njng political dev�J�pment, n f _ 111 gener�t 111 g a viable ideology o ion vi a s d of political cl1an ge. It must propoun : t i�e� �oc�ety ai1d J)ersuade JJeo1Jle to wa t pt e bd n to b1 1i ld that society - and ac c es n f �ct . tl�at tl1e process e11tails 11111cl1 work 1na11y sacrifices wrenching cl1an g � t · ' ' . Y . '. 1e oc . d1sc11). 1ine T.lle exe in � . t . ctitiv ,· e ent 111ay s l1 ele ve a to tago t 1c rec 111s onc ile a m n . 1ous ·tribal · eo (reI1g 11tm on10 c a ste o·1 ,,�I ass ''-) ; 1t n1ary c pr1 · ' n1ay a ltivate u l1ave C to ' . of al � 'amo ng divers . to n at·io_nal ui1'ity de · go od a t e e groups·' it reITTt la ha to ma ve y · · 0 ma y econoIDJc or l)Olitic 1 beh av · ion lu s on our. If one accepts these premises, the c e _ ,l 1 ki 11 . . n 0 b"' c nstitutio11 a ro law wh icl1 and ves ts _ tl1 e executive with broad policy� : � p ers and this l1as cert ai11ly been a trend i 11 Africa. ' 1nst o c Tl1e previous Cliapter was tive , ta11 subs concerned witl1 a1Jalysis of tl1.e _ 1 ese tJ ttitioilal h . ou s 0f tl1e Empe1·o r, th even that, b�t t c it is well ren1e to mber ; ra. · e in pow rs ir�� r ' � a 1 egal sense, exercised person a they r, pero ally by tl1e E m

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exe cut Th ive us, . if the tl1e of exe ctit osa ive l wa disp 11ts to promulgate . the at 5 r we an age 11cy crea ( cf. te 7 or Art 1cle 92) 2 pa ) le or J)erstia' de Pa, rl 1amen Arti c . · f . c ( t . decr e e d can reqt1est �he E mperor to act for i t (cf. Ar ticle 71 a an 33, 34), may it les ). rtic cf _ A . . ( �i.: Chapter we are l�ss concer11ed w1tl1 tl1e st1 bsta11t1ve constitu tioilal ))OW ers . 1n uu5 h d mor 1ve, n t e co11 ce1·1 1e exec u d "''Jt I1 t 11e .way i11 wliicl1. governe of � t l _ sa dispo at the l. sa o p s is 1t t d a rs e w po 01eot ex ercises . . _ . t]1e 1tl1 n1sa org t1011 of tl1e exec1itive: tl1.e allocation d n con cer are _w � � e w Thus, e ect1t the tl11 1ve, tl1e task s pro cess es and for � � � n1aicii1g JJolicy, tl1. e to, ers _ pow of i c1v1l service, the developn1e11t of a systen1 of law reve effec t an of ent Iopm . . t' 0. deve .m1n a 10 tr 1s ad ic bl pu g gulatin We are also concerned witl1 tl1e problen1s of accoi111tabilitJJ and control. One e erft1l for tiv a r the ecu essity P?W x ne �; there re1nai11s tl1e issue: To wI1 at nt a a � g my extent are tl1e actJoos of agencies o.f �l1e exect1t1ve - e.g. tl1e Co1111cil of Ministers Livestock and Meat l3oard.) . to be made ac­ or a particular_ agency_ (st1cl1 as tl1e _ coun t able to (1.e. subject to review and s0111e co11trol by) Parliament, a11d tI1 · L1s ulti mately to the electorate? Or to the cot1rts and tl111s 1tlti1nately to tl1e law? Or to some other, disinterested, official agency which vvill sec11re the observance of tl1e law and standards of conduct best servi11g tl1e public i11 terest? SECTION 1

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THE CHANGING ROLES OF THE 1'10NARC1-IY, PRIME WIINISTRY AND COUNCIL OF MINISTERS IN THE EXECUTI\1:E GOVERI,JMENT

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This Section traces the changes in the structure and orga11isation of executive government

during the past half-c.entury - but with particular focus on tl1e past fe'rv years. Tl1e readings (incorporating by reference much earJjer n1aterial in Cl1apters III a11d IV) reflect a continuous process of expansion and delegation of the fi1nctions of gover111ne11t, particularly to tl1e various Ministers, whose number has steadily increased. Delegation has meant: perforce, that tl1e Emperor's participation in the con�t1�t of execu_tive �overnn:ien_t becomes increasingly Jess direct. This changing role l1as bee 11 explLc1tly recognised 10 th_e significan t speeches which the Emperor made i n April 1961 (see i1ifra; see also IJ.421 sup� ·a) and 1� March 1966 (see infra). Delegation has meant proliferation of p ower to 111anage exectitive nc��; po!icy-ma_king within a gr_ow:in�, important �nistry beco1nes increasingly 0111plex, and �:; � W�o shotild miruSl.ry 1 ncreas1ngly powerful w1th 1n 1ts sector. Tl11s trend l1as forced tl1e problem· e enti al, overall government policies? An d wl10 should con1pel tl1e various agencies to fol­ Fkt hess 0 po .Li�ie s? B?t_h in t�T1!15 of actice and Jaw, th e _Co\1ncil of Mu1 isters, 11nder the leader­ pr of the_ Prime !V11n1ster, 1s 1ese �ole�; tl n o pe�f to osed supp 1 �h wl11 � cy agen ngly the increasi �responsible Th� Council being , ently g pend actin mde as on nct1 a f to 11 inet osed Cab supp is onJY to the Emper or and to Parliament (so tl1e En1peror has twice cleclared). t te e e din g e plore co is tl -� o in ! an n,e ty'' b!li nsi spo ''re c ·J s s : loe the at n i wl1 stio ust que x a r Can � and sl1o�ld - the answer be workecl out by law ? Or sl1ot1ld it be lef t to practice and u t1 matelY co nventi on? t s a k o lo . e n o n . Thus' there has been e h w t can fi i · sigo · constitutional changt, slow per l1aps, but it in the . . .l1e locu tif ower ms le prob -J � i n� men to fix cef�-�1l)ect1ve _ of history and traditions. And the contin·ued recr f executive policy and command that it be carried otit,_ tl1e n1etl10 o Who Will and ble ta un co ac Id de ma be s to Whom � tbe e po�e rs and the method by which tl1ey wi l l are of obvious crucial importance.

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Constitutional es Not e Som 0: 196 to t Evolut ion of Ministeri.al Governmen . . l. ihe trad1·1ional . . syste m - the persisting problems R:

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508

TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C . N IA P IO H T E SOURCEBOOK OF

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o ti a n 1d eg el a1 d of t n Jn 1e 1perial 11 ·11 e1 ov g l ct ri te ;s 11 1; 11 EarIy steps tol,varcls to execittive o_fficials

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e nelik's n 1in js tr ie s) an d pp .3 26-33 6 (Lhe M r ro e p m (E 3 32 es 032 . 1 11 r e a�. � . p a � � : d e a -r e e led R or tai 1 a l n de r � isto e o y r 1 1) F 193 of of . this p r o , on stitution . i C df tlle u s 1 e r t 1s l1s h.men t of n11n ) 50 9 ar (1 1 ag rc N el< Z . al , q as M al l c a e W si as · el -S a � �1 s ee, for exa1 111) Ie, Mal1ta· e r No . 1 of _1943, the ''Mioi_ster s fJ?�fioit! ?n of Powe rs] rcl (O 5 35 3.35 pp , _ ); Re-read: Cll a pter IV 1. 1e . 1? a Pr of t 1n ry en 1 st l m l1s ab st E pp � , '_'Tl1e 43 55 19 ?f 356 2 � o. N r e_ rd (O 5 35 p. ld ai ) '' Order a nks, th e Im per ial I-I,ghway Autho rity and �s B �h su es 1 nc ge l a _ 1a c _ spe (the establislin1ent of var ious _ th1op1a). _ E of Imperial B oard of Tele co1n111t1111cat1ons

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T/1e co11stitutior1al status of· tl1e Mi11ist1·ies under t!1e Revised Co11stitution

Re-read careft1lly: Articles 6 6, 67, 68, 69, 71� 72, 73, 74, 75, 88, 115, 118, 120, 121 of tl1e R evised Constitu tion.

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Nore ct/so t/1e jo!lo}vi11g:

(a) 1'he 1\1.inistry of the Pe11 is t1niqt1e among Ethiopian n 1 inistries, be cause of its peculiar past role in the count111 ' s co11stitt1tional de ve lopn1en t, and because it (and the Prime M.inistr y) are SJ)ecifical l)' 111entioned ancl assigned dutie s by the Rev ised Constitution. (Other ministries are not.)

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Tl1e l.\1inistry \Vas forn 1ally founde cl by tl1e E111peror Me nelik in 1908, and, after the Liberation, PO'Ners \vere assigned to it by Order No. 1 of 1943, late r an1ended by Orders No. 2, No. 14 and No. 46 of 1966. In fact, 110\ve ver, tl1e :CVlinistry l1as a far longer l1 istory; tbe traditional Tsahafe Taezaz vv,.1s resp onsible for tl 1e vvriti1Jg and sending ou t of the En1peror�s orders. Because of the in1portat1 ce of �lie E111 peror's orders i n ev e ry department of t11e go,.remn1ent, tl1e Ministry_ of �e n, rather than tl1e Prin1e Mi11ist er 's Office , originally forn1ed a natural foct1s for t11e co-ord�a­ t1on o� �overn111en t activitie s tn1der tl1e En1peror. For tl1e firs t fift een ye.-us after tl1e Lib�ration, tlJe 1':11n1sLry o� tl1� Pe11 cloes a ppea r to l1ave bee n tised as a co-ordinating instit ution in this way, ? ut sin ce the1� it s 11111)ort an ce I1as declined, ancl it l1as been st1ggested that ll1e :tvlinistry should be i ncorporate_d i nto tl�e Office of tl1e Prin1e i\tl.inister. Tl1e present Prin1e Minister is, of course, at . the san1e t1n1e M 1 n1ster of tl1e Pen. By Ar t icle 88 of the Re vised C onstitt1tion, t l 1e :CVlinister o f tl1e Pen is respons.ibl e for the publica· . tzon of Proc lania lio ns, a11 d p_resun1abJy o f otl 1er legislation, in tl1e Negarit Gazeta, V11hich h3;8 been the under tl_ 1� control ?f tlie M1. 111stry since it \Vas firsJJt t 1blished in 1942. Tl1e fu nction of preparing · Eniperor s orcler s _ i s _ ll1e res1)011sibility of tl1e Office of I-I I.NI. 's Priv a te Secretary, whic h I1 as form . the for_ e p_ar t of l�le i\1in istry _sin ce abot1t e l b respons i_ 1957. rl�he Mi nistry l1as also be en 111ade � n ions of:fi�ial g vernni eot ar�l�ives, _ancl, �vitl1 tl1 e l-Ia1 11lc 16 Co111111ittee it st1pervises certrun pe s , � der ive d f10111 tl1e t1.ad1t 10 11al 11n1)er 1a l bot 1 nty. · �na it�iti e ·'in5t h . . d�?) T Council of Ministers, establis l1ed by t l1e E111pe ror !\tlenelik j11 1908 a1Jd uon 1ize by Order No. 1 of 1943beco111es �:\ co11stitc1tio11al agency by virtue of tl1e Revised ConSuru :"rt ��les 67 .a.t� d 69 of tI1e Constitt1tion, t l1e Cot111cil consists of the. n1inisters 01.e��og lccti!1y pi 1 ? ce� e 1,g, b le for tl1e Cro,:v r t i 1in 1 .i •stf}' n. are disqt1alifi.e d f ro111 n1e111 b · ersl 1iJ). Whe1 a n ::; ' � . n 1 away, t l1e p1 c1ct1ce clevelop ecl 1' Il1 . · · t tl1a ton1 · r 0 r ti · . e f· 1 se n 1n1ster · ·ior n1111 1ster of st.ate or v1ce -n1 · er . . 1 5 . . Pa 1· n11n toat ent d 11. 1 111s 1 ce ,· 1f tl1er e was no n1 ·u11st ct1ng . ry a a ten1por er · o f st 1 a a te or vice-11 jnister ·0 ' 11 · 0 1 J' · ' : r Was Ofte n appoi. nted f ro11 1 outs1 e t· · . · o . p hout ,�,it· e ·d 1e tl 1 11 ters 111 1 nis st ry mi ° The r · e ls 1 ave n l bee a · · · · o l:>• 1 s wbo attended Counci·1 111eeti11 c1·aJ 1 ffi O r othe .· g s a1t11ot1gl1 tJ1e y l1a d n o 1 11inistr•J . s ; cw it thei r of v n ed et op · Som in1es been special! 1 1·tec I to · 1 . e dev iJ n c Co Y ' �. c . c dis ussions on pa.rtict1l ar st1bjects . The v · . � o,vn proced ure ,tn , cl secretcll ,at, 111 a ccord ance \Vitl1 .A ic le . 69. rt 1. st Co o e · Th Co un cil r ceiv the gis· e d ad isory f?O e ·s by f 20 · J and I� A.rtic1es 66, 71., 72, 115, J Je � ! . :' nl tution, wliich ·.giv e ft_ spe cifi e 1"\ J c respons 1b11It1 es for tl1e ci\,il servi. ce, conside rat 10.n of go vef praclarJJl�· Iation and pre a a o of tl s �11 dr ;� council r r e ft b sjd e con f i l g J Tl1e ce ncil 1 et. cti in Cot p t1clg ra ;: � c l ur tions,'n ecrees 0 r ers , and e �lso s ?me Le gal Noti ces . Tl1 e pl1rase '' 011 il1e a d�i c _ of Ministers'' h�s 1955 · us tiall y appeared Jll tl1e IJreambJe to Decrees and Orders since

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formalJy establisl1ed by Article 70. of the Revised Const· . ncil, cou n 1tt1t1on O\Y • Cr · 1 0n. It cons 1sts Th ) e era t· 1 L"b . h e of d"1st1ng111s11e . d traditional leade . . (c t since t Jeas · at ste. d rs, th'e e t ac . are e ex officio n1en1bers bas in f � the President of tl1e Senat . . . tl1e . C Patriarc h an conc 1ons n er 1ng f�nct al ·own by_ Articles 8, 1 o, l l, 13 and 17 seve �ive� is il � � nc Cou b en1 care f ti y. t 111ay (1lso adv1se tl1e E e Th t Exan1 . 1ne · tution. 111peror on important · .sed Consti · Revi . 1 1 1 . ons are ··��"or�1,al � d 1lc1ve 11ot.been c�eft11ecl, bt1t it is k 1 1own tl1at e o f the ; funct! e thes e matte.r� of stat ed tbe Revised. Const1tt1t1on 1tse1 f. M. Pe1}1an1, 11.1 I1cr book Tlze Gover,,,, tl1 sider e,,t con , co�nc! - i n in 1948, called it ''the central foct1s of _power uncler tl1e E111peror'' w 1,icl1 pe1 r ,:1. of l s �thiopza �:Cr tte v �er a�ot1ot; Dr. �eyo11111_ Gabregziabl1er of 1�Ia.ilc Sellassie I Universi t� n she , rote !t ; toral dissertation \vr 1tte11 later, l1k�oecl •.t Lo tl1e ''cat1ct1s'' of traclitional political elit� oc figtrr�s, ,vl1ose bt1s111ess 1t vvas _t solve a11d settle disiJutes a_t the liigl,est ted n respec ior, se � _ :d other parts tl1 d1ffere of go n_ t e1 111e11t _ a11cl co�11t:Y \York in liar1110ny. that the sure make � � and � level, are Cot1nc1I not. ,,�1 y rea_t, _,1nd 1n 1Jract!ce its role niay liave de�rown t_ I ,e of s po,ver legal � The tl1e Cot1nc1l of of M1n1s ters, and w1tl1 the deatJ1s of several 1n1portance gro,v1ng the \Vith clined Kassa and_�as A�eb� A1�agay, ,vho t1secl to be an1ong its irifluential ft.he great leaders , stich as Ras 111st1tt1t1on ,:vl1ose constitutional sig11ificance may �embers. Perhaps it has serv�d as ,t tran_s1tio!1al_ become less important tl1an 1ts ceren1on1al s1g n1 ficJnce. 1 (d) The Council of RegencJ , e.stablished by Article 1_0 of tl1e Revised Co11stitt1tion, exercises the po\vers of Regent, on bel1alf of tl1e Er11peror, wl1e11 11e1tl1er tl1e E111JJeror nor tl1e Crown Prince is capable of doing so. There ha,,e been brief occasions si11ce 1955 wl1en botl1 the E111peror and the Cro,vn Prince have been abroad and therefore incapable of acti11g, but it is not k110\.vn wl1etl1er the C ouncil has forn1ally been co.nstituted on tl1ese occasions.

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Order No. 44 of 1966

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Re-read: Chapter lV, pp.420-424. For convenience, son1e specific jJarts of t hesc readings are reproduced below.

From Haile Sellassie 1, Speecl1 of 14 April 1961, as tra11slated j11 .EtlzioJJia Obs·erFer, Vol. V, No. 2 ( l961). Henceforth, you shall work in your Mi11istries and Depart1ne11ts a11d adn1inister your programmes tl1 ere. Eacl 1 year, in accordance witl1 tl1e Coi1stitLttio11, and wit11i11 the broad framework of tbe Five Year Pla11 wl1icl1 l1as bee11 adopted, you sl 1all prepare your program.mes t·or the coming 12 mo11tl1s. W11e11 tl1e prograIIllne l1as ·b�en ?PProve d by Our Cot11Jcil of Nlinisters a11d by Us, yo11 sl1all work in accordance W�th it. �f yo u plan a!1d execute it well, yo11 sl1all be co11grat11lated. If yo11 prove urs�lf incapable or _1ncon1p_etent, yo11 sl1all be removed a11d replac d by_ a11otl�e r. � r. maJor policy qt1est1ons ar1se \'\Te are always l1ere. If yo11 encou11te� dif?culties, We_have appointed O·ur Prjme Mi t 1ister to aid yo11. I-Iis 1Jri111ary fu11ction 18 to co0rd10ate Work nt rrun� Gove of 1tio11 exect tl1e g amon the Ministries and see t l1 a t nunes .is faciJitated. If q Ltestions of policy arise, l 1e, too, i_s directed to brtn� i��!�O Us. If ame11 dn1ents in the attribi1tjon w11 icl1 l1as bee t 1 given to you ai e re quired th es e shall be fortl1 comjng. t !0 f{e� our progra111mes and je� 811 be l il \iv. 111 tl1e your j1nple1nentatio1� of � io1 a � 1�, and �p en _ comn:ients. ''In tl1e 11ltin1at e sense, j t 1s to tl1e JJeople of � tl1. � You h r st wa 011 JI). S e 1 Y for er 1 ans lSt Jlll o1 e t w tl1a l 1 tl1 a1 to � jg it en1 r spoi s b e, 1d y l'hatare s why YOll are t. en ir1m arl P . to d a1 1 Us 1 const t11tion.aJly respc>11sible to p0 ian }Jerald, ile lassie I p l1io Et i11 ed ll 1 jsJ bJ 1 JJ 22 Marcl1 9 66 ' as ch ee Sp Se1 of ' 2{ � Ha ar�h 1966. se r d n a · ln 1943·) · e pro1 s e ti 11 d ·s ' . er ow ,e 1 . t d fi11e de: gat 11ch �ul l w ed der ,tn Or . �,nsibilitj. . � n1 tl l e rules tl d �: a�� r Ou pow e r 1:f e 1_ n I iste rs. so, W� doj � 1. 1 11g d � r fu1ed a_n _ egul.:�iif con 1 p ns requ1s1te to tl1e proper ft111 ct1on1ng of tJ,e · . ·

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TIONAL LA w U JT ST N O C AN PI IO I IT E F O SoURC:EBOOK

e W e hav r, late d che rea y tur cen the rter qua stag a rly e wh ere nea w No , re. ca r . . . to tl1e1. I s , · h ge u tY fior t11e d 1 ar _ of .b · s hi 1 e ns I d po es r _ 1 s Il! tie e 1 1_ m d inc f u eacl1 Minister m11st assu �11 f h 1c ?t l s en wa w_ 1am a esh r or P� to we do 1ty b1l 1s1 d 1 po in res of re su r ea Ou 01 e th \ iog s e _ t1v Jec d ob �re an to s aim be _ 1r_ Ot If liz rea 5. 195 ed, each of� o11 t1.ti tit ns Co Revised 1 y l1t 1b1 ns of po s e re_ for ar s11 11s the 111e su as gr pro J d ess and a11 r o11 ab ist mt us of e on ed t isfi tl1a sat are e abl We e�t a� so do lt we resu , If . ion s will nat tl,e f prosperity o . 1n _ t day h 1pa eac rt1c a ple p_ pe? g r e _O� mor s�e to d a?e actively our enc are We . follow { . the t ive tha erat way Imp tl11s 111 1s ler 1t acce for , ion nat ation of in tl,e affairs of the . ed ' i11 ta at be ll 1a sl ss re og pr s 11 tio 11a the We I1ave said tl1at eacl1 Mi11ister is f t1lly responsible for 11 is duties; nonetheless \vl1en 1najor JJolicy issues req11ire Our attention, Our Prime Minister or, if necessary: tl1e Prime Minister a11d 1'l1e Minister concerned, shall bring them to Our attention. It is tl1e duty of Our Prin1e Mi11ister to e11s11re tl1at the work of Government is per­ for1ned; bl1t tl1is does 11ot in any way relieve tl1e Ministers of tl1eir jndividual res­ JJonsibilities. To place all respo11sibility t1pon t]1e shoulders of one individual while all otl1ers sit idly by and seek only to criticise and find fault is, in our era, to act co11trary to tl1e move1nent for tl1e advancement and progress of the country. A11d 110w, ... We l1ave determined t o introduce further innovatjons into the strt1ctt1re of t l1e 11L1tion's adn1i11istrative system, a11d We l1ave set them forth in an 01der w l 1icl 1 We are pro1nt1lgati11g today . ... T l 11s Order, wl1icl1 ame11ds Order No. 1 of 1943 definino tl1e duties a11d respon· sibilities of tl1e Prime Minister and all other Ministers, p;ovides in substance as follows: (1) tl1at tl1e Prime IVIinister sl1all be ap1)oi11ted by Us, and that be sl1all submit to. 1-!s �or appointn1e11t by Us tl1e proposed n1e1n bers of l1is cabinet to head the M11 11str1es of tl1e Governme11t '· (2) tl1at the �inisters sl1all be respo11sible to the Prin1e Minister; (3) tliat tlie Prime Minister and tl1e Ministers shall be collectively responsibl_e to U _ s and to Parlian1ent i11 accordance with tl1e p1 ovisions of tl1e Revised Con5tJ• tut1on of 1955.

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Tl1e Order

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From Mii,isters (D\�fi11itio11 of Powers) (An1e11d 1ne11t) Order. No. 44 of 1966, Negaril Gazeta 25tl1 Year No. lo. REAS, 111 1943 We J·)ro1nL1lgated Orde� No 1 u11der Article 1 I of our �l-l� Const1tut1on of 1930; · . atld 0 ut1 stit I-lEREAS , tl1e prom11lgatio11 by Us in 1955 of Our Revise d Con :S � o provi e� tl1e necessary basis for p th f xpa11sion an d simplification o e �1ble e the e s an.d dt1t1es of Otir M·1n 1· sters spo n e · r f O m a11 d tl1e ft1rther development of a syste Min1· ster1a . . 1 governme11t. and . 0f o. WI-IEl{EAS 1·t J1as' accord111 o • . N l er d r gly become 11ecessary to amend ' 19 4 3. e R vis d e NOW THERE F RE, .1n Our f 66 o and accorda _? 1 1ce witl1 Ar ticles 27 Constittition' W e 1iereby order a s follows: General

eot) 1. This Order m (A me nd rl1 ) . s b e cited as tl1e ''Ministers (Definition of Po wer , Y , � Order, 1966

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Ord er No. A of ?f 1 1943 21 , as an1ended, are llereby re ealugl1 thro 1 ticles P throt rt1cles 1gh of 14 tl1is I by A Order. and replaced

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Ministers hea of d all the �t11 is · Mi11isters_ a11d shall be direct]y resr Min iste e Prim Our Stat f�r e ensu nng the the and Us to sible �xecut1011 of �he duties, the pro­ . pon grammes and tl1e laws co11ce1111�g tl1e M111 1 st1·1es . Ot1r Pr11ne M 111ister sl,all have all the powers and a11tl1or1t)1 11ecessary tl1ereto. ( a) Our Prime �i!1ister s ha1I be appoint ecl a11cl dis1:nissed by Us . r. �ha 1 1 be IJropose d i?r a1)po 1 11t1ne11t to Us by Our 1111ste rs (b) All other_ M . Prime Minister a·nd thereafter dt1ly a1JJJ0111ted by Us. Government All otl1er officials above tl1e ran!( of Assista11t i1 ister �li a1l. Mi (c) a.fter co11sultation witl1 tl1e �PJ)rop!·i�te i\1i11isters, be lJrOJJosed for aJJ� pointment to Us by ot1r Pr1n1e M1111ster and tl1ere,.1ft:er duly aJJl)Ointed by Us. Before taking tip tl1eir appoint1uent, all officials above tl1e ra11]( of Assista11t Minister shall take tbe oatl1 of fidelity set fortl1 i11 Article 66 of Our Revised Constitution. Ministers may transact State busi11ess and 1nay e11ter i11 to co11trc:1cts or ,1gree­ ments and inc1ir financial liability in respect of· tl1eir Ivii11istries \vitl1i 11 tl1e Jim.its of their budgets and st1bject to tl1e reqt1ire111e11ts of tl1e lav1 a11d Ot1r Revised Constitution. (a) Each Minister sl1all be directly res1Jo11sible to Ot1r Pri111e Tvli11ister a1 1d, 1 1is Mir1isof tI1e dt1ties of above him.. to Us and the State fo1.· tl1e executio11 . try, including the execution of tl1e laws co11cer11i11g that Ministry. (b) Each Minister shall prepare and st1bmit to OL1r Cour1cil of J\1i11isters draft laws necessar·y for the proper ope1·atio11 of his Mi11istry ar1d for the proper carrying out of any otl1er n1atters co11fided t? l1is jl1risdictio11. (c) Each Minister shall make regulations i11 accorda11ce w1tl1 tl1e la\vs con­ fiding such power to bjs respo11sibility. Ministers may make adminis trative regulatio11s not inconsiste11t witl1 the laws of Our Empire for application in tl1eir Mi11istries. 'Yhen ever a Minister is preve11ted by any ca11se fro1n f11lfilli11g tl1e dliti�s of hi� ?ffic e, said duties, inc ludjog attendance a11cl voti11g �t O�r Colincil . of . Mirusters, shall be fulfilled by tL1e 11ext senior official in said M1111stry l1olding the rank of Vice Ministe o r above. r

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The Council of Ministers

10. Ou r Mi_nisters shall collectjvely form Ottr Cot111cil of �i. nisters aild s!Ja]l be resp

onsible for all decisio11s i11 Co1111 cil. tl1e1n by taken 1 l, Ou r 1111g . r1 e c . . 11 o c s 11 io Mi ru·st ers shall, after d1sc11ss1011 is c e d k ma 1 . c1 , �?t111 � · l 111 · 1 be all 1 a sl cy 1 po i of rs te ers at m 1 01 ou br 11s t 10 t c1s gh de e ll A re . fo 1n be tl1 � sub! ed by Our Prime Minister to Us. 12.. O p . . d 11 ur r im� M' · a s r ·e t s 11 11 M t· o il c 1 n1s er s11all be tl1e Cl1airma1 � of O 11r c Olin t sha ll 13. Ou CPreside at all m eetings of the Co11nc1I. 01• 1 Us r · o · t ' 1. e m 1 t r ounci·1 sl1a11 draw t 511 bmt d n a. dure 1 proce its of 1 a,n les up r. · . .. t'Prova1

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UTIONAL LAW IT T S N O N C IA P 10 1�r r E SOURCEBOOK OF

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a t et ia cr Se 11 he T o s it et cr ve Se J:a l al y 1 ar sl rs te . e is G in M r ne : of al t il nc ou C ur O 14 . e t o of co s n re y d en m m te u 1 o1 tio . a n p ap b d be 1 l p a] Our of tl1e Secret:11·iat sl1 Prin1e Mi1 1ister. s i it at of ic te bl da pu on l1e in n o e th t e rc o t to 1 · a 1 j eg N r te en rit ll ,a sJ er rd O s Tlli Gazeta.

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s n o si vi ro P l a 11 o ti i1 it st 11 o C ve ti ra a Con1JJ

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). 62 19 ( co oc or M of on 1ti ti ti 1s o1 Fro1n Tlre C and ter the nis er Mi oth e im Pr the t Ministers. 1 i1 po aJJ ll sl1a g 11 Ki e T}1 Article 24. I-Ie sl1 all tern1inate tl1 eir fL111ctions, eitl1er on liis own iojtiative or by reaso11 of tl1eir i11dividt1,1l or co]lective resignation. Article 25. Tl1 e l(j11g sl1al I preside over tl1e Co u11cil of M in.isters.

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Fron1 Tire Co11stitl1tior1 of LilJJJa ( 1951).

Article 60. Tl1e I<..i11g exercises ]1is po\ver tl1rot1gb lus Ministers and responsibility rests ,vitl1 tl-1e111. Article 72. Tl1e I(i11g sl1,1Il appoi11t tl1 e Prime Minister; I1e may remove h.im from office or accept l1is resig11atio11; l1e shall ap1Joint the Ministers, remove tl1e111 fro1n office or accept tl1eir resig11atio11 at tl1e proposal of the Prime Ivli11ister.

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Notes, Problel'ns ancl Questio11s or1 Orde1· No. 44 Re-read: ClJapter IV, pp.424-425 (''Son1e Problen1s of Interpretation'').

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1. Note tl,at_ tl1e Emperor, in 11.is speecl1 JJro1nt1lgati1 1g O·rder No. 44, declared tl,at tl1e time l1ad co1 11e to i11troduce '' ft1rtl1er in.novatio11s' '. Note also that the JJream�Ie to tl1e Order speaks of ''the furtl1er development of a syStero of res1 Jons1 ble Mi11 isteriaJ go,,ernme11t' '. 2. �otild it be accur; �te to say: ''TJ 1e primary i 111pact .of the Order is to change _ not but tile JJractices on, e11v1s 1 01 1ed by Articles 66 ' 68 and stitut i 69 of tl1e Co11 ' ·nal 10 t the l a"':' ?· ' 'J·r· so, wl1at S./Jecific cl1a11 ,:res are st10-oested? On wl1at constitu ·· 0 00 reas '- o111ng cOll Id ti 1e JJr,1ct1ce · be cl1anged \:vj tl1out ame11dio g tl1e I aw9· rbe 3· �e-read tl,e E1111)eror 's speecl1es e Not . ot� 1961 a11 d 1966 · and tl1e Order re e th f i_,Ltei,t Lise �f tl,e ter111 ''res1)011sibility'' re A Wl 1 at d.oes it mea1 1? . he · f t . o cl111erer1t n1ea11 111 gs . ses I · d an 1 1 ·r 1 11c so \V u. , to s 111 , \vl11cl1 1nea11 g ap] )ly · ter111?

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· 4. WI1icl1 of the followi·n g oy: enJ · . ,, w ,, . no powers d oes t11e pr11ne M1n1ster . (a) to ,lpJ)o1nt a.l l . sen1? · 1· ofl�1c.1·a.1s of a nuni�try? ? . w Ja. (b) to order. a m 1111ster to b 111 o Ol carr y . fu11ct10 1 1 delegated t · 1t som e � Y .. n? o ati · . c . . . ( ) to d1s1n1ss . upon 111s res1gn · a min_i·st er by asking for a.nd 1ns1sting (d) to recoi111nend 11 1s dismissa l to tl 1e E1 nperor? e ) to ( convene tl1e Council?. . . f) . to �et. the Coltn ? cil 's age11 da � ) to � 118 � 81 tl,at I,js view g he s? wi s l? Jl so pr ev ail lie i.i if i 11 e tl 1 1ci Co l 1 u ) ' h (ll t.o 1 ns1st tl1at no · · . ug o r h minister report to tl1e En1peror except. t ..

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of s!ate1ne s kinds nts b� 111inisters 0 1 1 govertlineilt �ariou tl1at r orde ( i) to bl tl1e 1c pt1 or or to ment f ore1g 11 gover11 1ne 1 1t reJJrese,, ta­ Parlia • (to policy . 1 rougl1 him? l t d e r a le c e b tives) 1ee11 two 111i 1 1is rics? ' l' t1 11a sp te io } di ct dj is bet\\ ur ''j a t e lv so re to U) ? re su a n le w p o is h at n g si re (k) to powers does tl1e Pri"I11e Mi 11 ister c11joy? ant signific otl1er at Wh I ).. the res1Jonsibility o_f �he 1nioisters t? tl1 e E 1111Jeror a11ct tile of question The ) 6. po�ers he may exert ,�,,er tl1� ��1.11 ��ters - co!I�ct 1 vely or i�1clividtt�lly _ is discussed below. Tl1e respons1b 1 l1ty of tl1 e n1 1 n1sters to Parl 1 a1ne 11 t 1s also taken up below. 7. Assume you are an adviser on tl1e preparatio11 of Order No. 44. Co11 sider very carefully the pros and cons of tl1 e following poi 1 1ts wl1 icl1 l1ave bec 11 m,tde l in the cot 1rse of debate on it: ! (a) ''The crucial issue is: Who sets policy? Tl1 e Order is a111bigL1ol1s; for example: land reform. Is respo11 sibility for i 11itiating r1evv 1Jolicies n.11cl laws thrust upon tl1e Minister? Tl1e Prin1e Mi11ister? TI1 e Co11ncil? The Emperor? Wl1 0 gives the irutiator of 11 ew JJolicies his ter1ns of refer e11 ce? Who a rbirates servious disagreements?'' (b) ''It would be desirable to clear up some of tl1 e a1 nbig11i ty ot, tl1 e Order by expanding upon it." (c) ''It would be desirable to ame11d tl1e Co1 1stitutiot1 to refiect tl1 e 11 evv system.''

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(d) "Order No. 44 is only a transitional step. If t11 e E111peror is s,ttisfied, l1e

ca n make furtl1er changes to a11gment tl1e SJJecific powers of tJ1 e Pri rne Mi nister. If not, he can reass11 n1e more direct control over tl.1e rninistries. '' The Accountability of the Government

The "Responsi'b·1· 1 rty '' o,r 1 t/1e Prime Minister and t/1e Coi1nc1·1 to tI1e E111p eror To what exte11t . . . wou1d yot1 agree w1tJ1 tl1e fo]low 1 ng? . · · · "Th rea�ing ed nd l1a be to 1s t e11 s m rn ve gg go su ct u · of nd est co at ay th day-to-d ove teh f J)er�r�� e P rime Minister an d tl1e Cou11ciJ. But botl1 tl1 e legislatio11 a11d tl,e Em ­ es eches stress th or. : ?er '.R Em t,he to t n, me ern gov l 1 i is sib l ity' � of pon 'r�s Ponsib;Jfy� . _ for . e in 111 bla t bt1 the , ty du s con 1ly · 1 t 1tut1 onal sense 1mpl1 es no t 0 fatlin lil y dut 111e Pr1 , tl,e 1d a 1 a nd ly, ve cti lle co s thu s accot1 otabiJity'. If tJ1e mi nis ter Afini! er ar ler otl or d t e med to be er1 g1n j11d ju v ors err i de n ma ie l1a e ffic ine t to or W se to havee � d atl � l ard _fai 11d sta ed al 1er ge1 to provide collective leadersl1ip, meeting 0bject ive i lar rtic pa ch a f i t_ I the m. the ss i , mi E�peror deems necessary he can dis lll n_ ist ry s ;ovne e �m Pr e tl1 s st L1� q s r� Un 11 ca a isf at ctory, the Emperor, presumably, r M�tt ister io a e im Pr ,e _tl o cc s is sm di t un . 1 e1 1 tl r n fo the situatio n·' the Emperor ca .� Mi nister or · 1n E 1e tl , · act o 1f 1 t 1 J: . r 1( Per n te h n1s 1 · . 1s adv1ce a11d dismiss the pa.rt1 cu 1ar m 0 · · . ' C. r d.o es 1 S!Qee any ·n dismiss a Prime Minjste r the wl1ole Cabi 11et sl1 o tild offer to resign, .'. �Uncil· ew Prime Mi11ister o�ght to be er1titled to appoi11t tl1 e members of tl1e a 0 �ri r t en ,m r ve go a r fo d ·. e id not �� m e Minister should not b e l1 el d accou1 1table ., ...· .. .� 1 n1t1 ally e; ufso= form .', ,. � _ . , : ··. , . · •. Section •

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STITUTIONAL LAW N N O C JA P O l! IT E F O SOURCEBOOK J ,, 0'J+ J 1 .1.1 1 'b 1 s 11 o sp e R

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- ent the p1-i111e Jvf inis·ter and the Coitnci! to Parlia,n

and 4 . No , er rd (''O 26 a 5-4 4 .42 pp IV er pt 1 CJ ; 91 , 88 , 75, 78 73 , the .· ' 72 . , 71 s e 1 c t1 Rol e Ar . d a Re-re . 4 8 5 1 515 4 -1 1 pp. 14 . '

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The Cl1anging Role of the Monarchy

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t. e. ci 1, fo 6 19 ·il p1 14 A of 1 cl ee Sp I, e si as ll Se Fro1n H:aile

u ruc be d cl1e uld ge rea wo sta e t t a 1at w l t r ed � h ici1Jat ant O ays . We liave alw . Mii,isters a11d officials ... co11ld, 011ce t11 e1r du t1es and tasks are defined, assume s thu ly, per t i pro rge permi�ing the mor e cba �is _ ctnd i!ity 11si� reso f11ll e v s by tl,emsel the of ters utmost importan ce to mat a11d .1on s 1 dec s l 1t1ca pol or maj to e tin1 Our of tl1e future ....

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From Tl1e Pri11 1e Mini ste1·, SJJeecl1 , as pu blisl1ed in Tl1e Et/1iopian Herald, 28 MarcI1� 1966.

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Today, I prese11ted my Cabinet to His Imperial Majesty. Tl1ese nominations I1ave been accepted a11d tl1e appoi11tments confirmed. From today onwards, this Cabi11et will assu111e tl1e d11ty of carrying i11to effect Etl1iopia 's policies in the many . a11d diverse fields �:l1ich co1nprise tl1e totality of tl1e affairs of the nation. I" . Tl1e step tal<en today is tl1 e natl1ral and logical and in.e,,itable consequence . ago years of tl1e process vvl1icl1 His I111perial Majesty rlin1self set in train so n1any '. It represents tl1e acco1111)lisl1n1e11t of His desires and \vishes, as tJ1ey have been_ re­ peatedly expressed i11 Hi s JJrono1111cements and e11actments througl1out His reig�. It inarl<s botl1 tl1e cul n1i11 ation of a policy diligentl1, and tenaciousl)' pursued lil the pas�, and � 111�Iesto11e in the co11ti11 ued evol11tionary progress of the State aorl tlie 1 1at1on wl11cl1 1s tl1e t111cl1 alle11ged ,1nd accepted goa l for the futt1re. F· As His In11Jerial Majesty has Hi111self wisely declared, t l1 e business of Govern· mei1 t ai1d tl1e co11dL1ct of 11atio11al affairs l1a, e today become so complex as to be J.:1� . beyorid tl,e _reacI1 or grasp of a11y individual, l1 owever great his capacity, lio,vever l b? Ll n<lfess.llJS _Cllerg , 1:owever qttick_ a11d foreseeing l1i i magination, }1oweve f dee{s I. s � H 1118 de_vot1011.to dt1ty. fl1e full atta1nn1e11t of by � tinc e ann o tl1e innovations ._ ., a P:t I�lIJerial 1\1aJeSty 011 Marcl1 231·d will f1·ee 0 . y dail tI1e witl1 I-Ii1 n t·ro111 co11cern tiq_n� and activities of Gover11n1e11t. T the to ass es l1is responsibility now 1J �riD l lU Mims�er and the Cabinet. The Emperor wi h I te dev o , to ena ble d ll be us t fIDl :e excl�1s1vely to tl1e hi�l 1e st rnatter d a. n ter inis s of State, leaving to the Prime M le c ab111et tl 1e k b . a . . or w trar nd ·' 1sl " at10 - 11 of agreed po 11c1es · a 1· ·1c 1· 1s rea 1 11to practical' JJrogra1111nes. l t

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1es wh'JC11 d'd : c h' 1 no t s1.1 ffer tl1e be11efits mo nar the n tlJa of col o 1 · 1 . i r a . �r ; political pd tme�nant party at the time. of indepe11de11ce was tl1 e IstiqlaJ . After �;: 1 e Iu e. The O � · I t 1n 195 8 , a11 d �t1 tl�or1·ty 1 · p s I 1 a • 1 t s q I a 1 1 d J)OWer gravitated e h t , g in k e b t r :: return ondf m mo11arc tl1e 1 . A f. t�r - t_ l1e �eat11 of Moll : n of h�nds J the V, into a i ore d n Jllo re a . r,r; � , 1n 111o to eff or ve tl1 t an e I e g11 1 1e 1 san I a I11 n1o re c0 as . 1 1stittit1011al H ' n g · ew · ' ulaated a cons t't · th. e n . N roro 111 1°6? · l l)art1·c1pa 11ts in the ;, -· Tl1e p1111 ·· c1pa 1 ll 110n '. drr�tion , plac e in May 1963 1.1ncler this constitt1tio11 ,vere tl1 e Istiqlal td'ok · Jiic ll ' ' dectio ns t·1ve par·tY, tl1e N,1 t·1011::1 1 U1_1·1011 of Pol )Lilar Forces, erva cons a ,vas now 1. c 11 by h �% w f ' t so cialjst party, and a party of wl1at \1/ere esse11t1ally tl1 e I(i 11rr 's frieilds 1 t � 1 al I11�titutions. TJ 1e I(_i i,g 1 ,lcl lloped o11sti�u C _ 1 t of J?efense tl1e for F ront · � �,:��1 :1\a1fed�he ing 1 naJ011 ty. It d1d 11ot. 1.11 fc1ct, 1t got 69 seclts wor a ga1n k wo11ld Front h e t t �i� � �ot 144 . Jn tl1e United Stat�s a broad consenst1s 111al<es it J)ossible for a Presidei1 t u b� 011ly not _dom1:1ated �11e11 of O tl1e Jposite Con�ress party b Lit by J a h t wi ork ro w 111 a ;111ode1�111z111g co_t111try,.t11e .issL1es are deeper, 1nts. o p_ v v1e\. olicy ing p oppos of men .: , passions more intense, a11d, 111 a case l1ke tl11s, op!:>os111g J)rinci1)les of Ie�iti1nacy J:-i are at stake. Governme11t became stalen1ated, and 111 Jt1 1 1e 1965 Hassa11 d tssolv· ed Parliament and decided to rltle by liimself. Parlia111e11t, l1e said at tl1e ti111e, was , .�. "paralysed by futile debate�', parlian1entary gover11me11 t \VOLild accelerate tl1e de­ :.._ gradation of the system, a o. d ''resoltrte actio11'' was 11ecessary. ''Tl1 e col111try cries •,, out for a strong stable gover1nnent. '' Tl1is effort to co111bi 11e n1.on,1rcl1ical rL1 le I,.1:,. and parliamentary government ended i11 failure. Rece11t eve11ts SLtg,gest tl1at I-Ic1ssan .. may be becoming more and more dependent 011 and perl1 aps tl1e priso11er of tl1 e J:: bu1eauc r acy and tl1e security forces. r::---r.· Politica1 parties in Iran historically have been 111t1cl1 weal<er tl1a 11 tJ1 ey are i 11 ·� Morocco. ... In 1960 and 1 961, two parlia11 1entary electio11s vvere l1eld, tl1e results ::J of which were voided becaL1se of corruption a11d tl1e do1ni 11 a1 1ce of tl1e electoral � P�ocess by reactiona ry elements. Finally in September 1963, tl1e Sl1al1, by tl1e i'airly �· direct met!1od of virtually designating tl1e candidates, got a Parlian1e11t w11icl1 wo11l:d support him. 9uestion ed about this apparent deviatio11 fro111 t11e t1 s11al d_er11:ocra�.1c proce�ur e, he IS rep orted to have said: ''So wl1at. Was it 11ot better tl1at tt11s [1.e. !11s] :,: or garuzati?n do it than that it b e done b y JJoliticia11 s for tl1eir ow11 p111·pose_s? For ! the rst ti e we have a Majlis [Parliament] and a Senate trt1ly re1Jrese11t111g t_I1e fi m :r people - not the landlords." Sl! bo1·di11ated tl1e parli ,trcl1 1nona tl1e Ira11 Thus in . . . . ment a d th artie 1 er ' ' 1 . · t ne.1 In m: the s, ed )lac d1s1 a11d hile ded 1n pen s11s co w roc he Mo : co tr n h· : p o110 �tit it ive act n bee a11d cl1 nar y mo 1 i1 ible g r11l oss p _ ive to e act n bin a com �� : m�� politi cal pa�t1es. The effort at sharing ma y als o affect tl1e speed of 1 e�o�n1, ; and it m� be : to li y 81��ficant that the kings of Morocco, wh o have gei1erall.y been willtilg e h p olitical parties, h�ve 11 tl1e a 1 tl 1 n o1· ref of y wa t.l1e accomplisl1ed less in ;' · Sha; 0;�� an, who has done his best to suppress tl1e1n. If compro · . . . 1 1° li t1 r . l a n 0 o 1 1 t· · t c ra . · se · t a ' t s 1, lclt . 1 o11 reas l1. e 1s . t. ere any . Illo nareh Y ·ca rru I mposs1bl ' n n1oder . d 10to a .me cnn t · ·r · 1 ' · t tor b 11s tra e constitut1· narch so wills be peacefully mo , ° rt 11 1 ' . s 1 a t1 s · 11 e l1 t · 1·8 not f · °na1 rnon 11 t . archY? In tl1eory, this sl1011ld be poss1'ble, b · · . . , ro ar 1 0 111 lY c n g ltn rtl m fro 1t bl , c cy ra oc m de en to am ta rli pa r y mg monar hy '.: , to oligar�rul c monarcl1y. ...

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STITUTIONAL LAW N O N C IA P IO H T E F O SoURCEBOOK

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SECTION 2

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THE AGENCIES OF THE CENTRAL GOVER'NMENT

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Introduction a tr _ is in n dm tio lic A itb 61 P 19 of , lc oo db ( an H ) 6 A p.1 p , ns •21 Frotn United Natio s al tor �ic y fac oli ma p d an e k. ma n ma l1u of re adnlinisssu pre g tiin 1tin coi e s. Tll a 1 deg o t ree, as this excerpt ng ex1 p :per and ti11g stra fru t men ove r trative imp 1eloping] cot1ntry re po rt 1llustrates: , de [ from a ''It is evident tl1at tl1e orga11ization has 11ot kept pace with tl1e ra pid groi1h a11d additio11 of respo11sibilities. Tl1e Government has never had a methodical cot1rse cl1arted for its necessarily difficult travels in modern administration, a11d co11seqt1e11tlv its decisions l1ave often been haphazard. The d .istribution a11d defi11itio11 of responsibilities is made \.Vithout too much regard for balance, ofte11 011 tl1e spt1r of tl1e mo1nent, or to st1.it tl1e wl1jm of an ambitious individual, te1111)oraril:/ powerf11l. Sucl1 decisions i11evitably are unstable and invite constant amendn1e11ts. Tl1ere is a feeli11g i11 the Government tl1at a cl1ange is necessarily a11 impro'1en1e11t, and responsibilities are constantly being shifted around for no otl1er appare11t reaso11 than a desire for change." 8. As soo11 as ,L Govern1nent extends its activity from the traditional tasks of defence, di1)lo1nacy and tl1e mai11tena11ce of law and order and enters the field of economic and social se rvices, its aclministration inevitably a.cquires a multiplicity of mi11.istries, departments, divisions and i11depende11t commissions a11d boa rds. 111 a developed co1.111try tl1ese may be nun1bered by the l1undred r�tl1er tha1 1 by tl1e doze11. How are tl1ey organized so as to carry out tl1e funct1ons of government? 9. A ratioi1a] a�d analytical aJ)J)roach to orga11.izatio11 has been e,,olved in the study of pu_bl1c ad1�!1istratio11 d11ring the past decades, a.11d it l1as been foun� that, broadly, adIU1n1strative age11c.ies 1nay be orga11ized in one of four ways. (a) By J)lirpose, �.e., give11 respo11sibility for c.arrying ot1t one or n1ore of _ t he purposes wl1ich tl1e Gover11n1e11t i 11tends to pursue, such as housing, l1ealtl1, defence; (b) By process, i.e., give11 responsibility for ca rrying out a process whi�h may ser_ve _01· provide for· cl 1111n1ber of depar t1ne11ts; a department of wor 5 . and bu 1 Id1ngs or a ministry of fi11a11ce are examples; (c) By c�jentele, i.e., gi,1e1 1 res1)011sibility for deali11g witl1 a particular or k111d_ �� person; vete1·a11 s of wars, t�or example, are often :mad res1)011s1b1l1ty of a sp ecial ministry; . ·s ( d) y -�eograJ)llical div�sio11, i.e., given responsibility for the total ad::i�ra !100, or for a section of it' in a part of the State or its depen d e� 0v: g o t ·' a distric · t under a r tor1es efec pr co1nmissioner, a region u.11der a ernor, are examples. . tu(t1 1 0. Eacl1 of tl1e fou h hic . · w r _categor1es has its adva11tages and disa.dvantages, . upon sticb quest1011s as· . . · ·gle_ · � s a (a) To what extent It . y . . b d e JL ro ·. 1s · ca1)able of being effective ly cont .:. . . . · ..· · m1n1ster ' so as to fulfil Govern1nent policy;

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THE DEVELO.Pl\!1ENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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day work ca11 be readily co-01·dinated wit ?�Y -t?its l1er Wl1e t l1 tl1 e \Vork (b) ; s 1e r t 1s 1n m r 1e tl o of pt1b lic tl1e serv e adeqt1ately and witl1 tI1e least i iJcon �ill it her Whe t ­ (c) venienc e to 1t; co� to· or trib l1in t1te der wil l tl1e develop 111e11t of a11 efficient it her W1J et (d) 1 l1icl1 it de1 by 1nst the anc _ e , for ext e11t e, to_ serv v\ ic er 11a 11cts specialist care knowledge or offers a wide ra11ge of ex1)er1e11ce; a11d 1 e 111ost efficie11t t1se of tl1e JJrofessional and tl ma kes it er Wh eth ) tecJ111ical (e staff a11d services a,,ailable to serve tl1e ptibljc_ 11i�ing t_l1e �aJ�1e of orga11ization �l1ar\s depicti11g primary struc­ recog While 15 tures and relat1onsl1ips, 1t 1s also \.Veil to bear 1n m111d tl1eir lin1itations. Tllere is increasing recog�tio11 111 advanced sttldies 011 ad111i11istratio11 tl1 at many aspects are ignored 1 n Stlcl1 cl1arts. Cl1arts do not sl1ovv tl1e vo1 L1me or flow of work, tl1e con1plex 11etwork of co1n1111111 ications a11d the informal relation­ shjps wl1ich prevail in adm.injstrative orga11izatjo11s a11 d \vl1icl1 n 1t1st be stt1diecl by other iecl1niques. In its growi11g emJ)l1 asis 011 tl1 e study of co 111m·u 11icatio11 s, informal relationsl1ips, decisio11-maki1 1g processes au.ct ad1ni 11 istrative be­ haviour, contemporary literatt1re of p11blic ad111i1.1istratio11 reflects tl1 e searc] 1 for a more realistic analysis tl1a11 a single cl1 art of a forn1a1 l1ierarchy ca11 reveal.

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mous bodies should be kept as low as possible. Tl1e poi11t \v,1s clearly 111ade and the advantages listed - in an expert's report: "Before ... there were only five 1ninistries in the co11 11 try, Tl1e great in­ crease in government activities since 1950 i11evitably resulted in 11ew Mi1 1 is­ !ries. In their creation, insu:fficie11t tl1ougl1t was give11 to t11e 11eed for group­ ing together those \vitl1 closely related activities, thtis sec11ring tl1e be11efits of more co-ordinated plan11ing and exect1tio11, better use of tl1e experience of the senior officials and greater economy in run11ing expenses.'' There is a great temptation for Governments, wl1e11ever a 11ew f11nction is adop�ed, to create a new ind.ependent organizatio11 t1nit and to entrust tl1e functi?n to a new department or to ad hoc boards or _other a�1tonomous agen cies. The proliferation of new age11cies and boards w1tl1 v�r�1ng degr�es of auto nomy and with functions wbicl1 often overlap tl1ose of ex1st111g agencies reSults in the twin evils of t e�den iiJdep many T?� . rsio11 dispe a11d dup licatio11 centre� of power are te. a in_ ?rd c?to r 1ste 1n1n e prim or e11t sid ted crea for a pre 1h18 _means confusi i'" on for the pub lic and �omplexity _for the adininistra_ti_onj n parlia mentary governm itic� pol for se? rea 111c are rs ents where ministe l ci tin aso�s� this may co or t ne i b ca e iv ct fe ef , iit kr operate agai�st a �lose ly �� . mini sters, and make co-ordination harder. The great cluste to . in . ll fa t n e m n over G rs of substantive functions of a modern . tern . pat \VO�Id · e th t ou 1 � ug ro tl1 t tha ;n can be found witl1 m in o.r variations, e s s 1e nan general tl1ey � r � l1e1 T _ . correspond 'to tl1e principal 1ni11istries. t0 d en , A , s ir a 1 1 . l n . a n · r · genera l te ote the�r n ' I s ir a 11• I .AA-" rna E�te 11ce, F1na r: acte char Nfatio and h a r leg Te e o� , l1 e-fence, Post Office (ofte11 includrng Telep fu D l )a e as Racti Justic , d b m o c es _ 1� omet (s , l1 lt e a le r , d re u lt o cu ti ri ca g , A n tle al�h nd E u attern e h of the : Welfar�) and Pt1blic Works. T_here is greater v ���f�JI'i ; Mfnerals, n Wer fun 1 1 y ( Energ ctions, such as Con_servat1on and .

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IO T U IT NAL LA\\. T S N O C N lA P · · lO f I · ·r E ,.. F o · · " B·OOK bOURCE

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. s a, r1d Wildlife)· I11dt1strial and Con1me-rcial Developm en t ( or r e v 1 R . s t . s .W'elfa. re a11d Socia 1 I ns11r. ance,Labo ur· Fore gi Re . · o on ti n ·ta ' or SJJ al · ' -_ 1 . . 1 T a 1 ) , ' : .. J' 1n 0 _ . 11 Eco t no no 1s rn1 1co t · u1 I n g. s1n o11 for I:f a cl a11 d 1g mo 011 a11 Pl e · rn \:vn To t. . . , . 1 1 1� 11 I . p o e ,, . e D . . A . s ou or om t u on 1. m se s. 11e 1st to 1n au n1 no ty e11 tw mous to n tee fif ve 1 a 1 o t S.tat e · . I b 1 nk' 111g, spec1a a tra cen as nk ba lds fie s cl1 tor s11 i11 in1t ler va e IJi· ' e • 0 a r s . 1e . · 1c . c;1 k · . ag · .. ng r et1 o f ma 1t, d . ere 1 COID a ur 11lt r1c d ag ino iti es' · 1 developrueiit and · dU.StI.Ia a · 11 t er 10 er n d an ge ow JJ e, ns ag tra 11 a1 dr d an sio mis _ y 1Jl n, 1p st er at w , es iti il ut c )ltbli n rt, of io o at po rb er ha op e th , r ur fo d an ai 11, io at ig irr 1d a1 rp ort l ro nt co od ho me f of rn ril?-8 al ve er go fed t, 1 1 11 the or­ es. iti cil f,l ? � n tio rta po 11s tra er 1 and otl , l rn na tte e tio pa th na l1 e w1t b! em res ay special 1 11 el lev te sta e tl1 at 1 o1 ati niz . ga e r: nt a Go he me W es. ern 1 1t1 or tl at1 ns a ow al loc tl1 � wi _ s o11 ati rel 1 e111pl1asis 01 . tl1 le w1 con rab 1de ses pri ter en d freedom an s 1 101 rat po � cor c bli p11 of 1111111ber fro111 ce11tral co11trols, special }Jroblems are pr�_sented of tl1err control and co­ ordi11atio11 witl1 11atio11al }Jolicy.

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'fl1e Ministries of the Government We I1ave seen tl1at tl1e ministries of tl1e Etl1iopian Government ,vere first establish�d by the En1peror Menelil< II in 1908; tl1eir po,vers and organisation \:Vere codified by Order No. I of 1943 a11d st1bseqt1en t an1endi11g Orders; these Orders were co1npletely re,vritten and reissu ed as the M.inisters (Definilion of Po\v, ers) (An1endn1ent No. 2) Order, No. 46 of 1966, from \vhjch the pre­ sent (January 1969J 1Jowers a11d c!u ties of tl1e n1inistries are derived. Tl1e n1inistries provicle tl1e ordinary ad1nin .is trative n,achinery of the government, and by far tl1e greater part of its routine ft111ctions ru·e ca1·ried out by one or other of the ministries, as a glance at the list of n1inistries a11d tl1eir l)Ovvers vvill s110\1/. Fro.m tl1e standpoint of a constitutional l..1\vyer, tl1e 1ninisLries are JJlai11ly gover11111e11tal ora£111isatio11s. and are therefor� subject lo the vario u s provisio ns of tl1e Revisecl Co11stitt1 tion wl1icl� deal \Vi tl1 ·sucl1 oroaoisations. Tl1ey are several tii11es �xp_licilly 111entio11ed in tl1e Constitt1 tio11, and at oll1er points t11e; are clearly included. T�eir organisation, povvers a 11d_ dt1ties are det ern1i ned b)' legislation pron1ulgated pursuant to Arncle 27, and tl1e staltis of tbetr JJerso11nel is go\1er11ed by regt1.lat.ions 111ade tinder Articles 27 �nd 66 (�onipare _Order No. 44, s�lprc1). Tl1ey a re liable i n t11e cot1rts for tl1e ''wrongfu.11' acts of the ir ?ffi· cials (J\.rt icle 62), and. tl1�1r prese11t direct accou11tability to Parlia . n1ent seen1s defined by Aruc!es 72 and �3 - The autl1or1 sat1011 of tl1eir bt1c!gets n 1t1st confor111 to Ar'ticle.s 114-118, and their fina�c:al tr� nsactions ar� o pe,, to ll1e inspection of tl1e A11clitor Gener,1l 11nder Articles 120-121. The minis­ t ��!c tl�u_s JJ:ovid� exa111_1Jles o f ''standard'' gover nn,ental organis ations, and can usefulJy be com· P l vitl1 agei1c1es \Vl11cl1 n1ay be ''go,,er11111ental'' in son1e respects but not in others.

of From tile �inisters (Defi11itio11 of l=>ovvers) (A 6 No . Or der , 111e11dment N·o.2) 4 1966, Negarzt Gazeta 25tl1 Yea1· N'o . 23.

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"':l-IEREAS, in furtherance of the objectives expressed in Order ��- 44 0� 0 1966 ' it llas becon1e 11 ecessary to revi s r 5t i e xte11sively tl1e powers of th e M ru se e 0 Llr G·overrunet1t · tions NO W, TI-IEREFORE, in accordance C ed wit1 1 Article 27 of Our Revis ttit·IOI.l, W e 1iereby order as follows: .

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nt dme I . Thls Order n1ay be cite . . . n ....,e A L · . d as tl1e ''M1n1ste1·s (Definitio11 of Powe,rs) (_n.JJ. N 0 · 2) 0 rder, 1966' '. are 2. Articles 22 tl1rot1gl1 . d ' d n am e e 91 inclt1sive of Order No. I of 1943, as . 11 erebY ie1)ealecl ai1d. replaced . by Articles 15 tbrougl1 34, as f ollows;

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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'' MINISTRIES 11

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est ablishe? are as follows: pr�sent at l jstries l Min 15. T e Ministry of Nat1?nal Con11nu11 1ty Developme11t a11d Social Affairs Th e e alt l1 1c H bl u P f o ry st l ni 1i :tv e Tl . and Re�o r 'I�l a11d Ad1ni11istratio11 L of istry 11 Mi The 1 t1 1_1cat1ons 1m n o C of y tr is in M . e Th The Ministry of In�or1nation a11d Toll r1s111 The Mi11istry of M1o�s The Mjnistry of Pt1b1 l1c Works The Mjnistry of Ed:1cation a11d Fi11e Arts The Ministry of Con1111erce and Iodt istry Tl1e Minjstry of National De£e11ce The Ivlinistry of I11terior The Wnistry of Ag1·ict1lture The Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Mii1istry of Finance The Ministry of tl1e Imperial Court The Ministry of Pen Tl1e Mi11istry of Justice Tl1e Ministry of Planning and Develo1J111e11t The Ministry of Posts, Telegrapl1s and Telepl1ones

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''THE l\1INISTRY OF FINANCE

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"29. The Mjoister of Finance is the l1ead of 011e of tl1e Departme11ts transacti11g State affairs, namely tl1e Mi11ist ry of Fina11ce. Tl1e Mi11ister of f'jnance, i11 accordance with the law, shall: (a) receive bt1dget proposals fro1n eacl1 Mi11istry and Govern1ne11t depart­ ment each year, including the developn1e11t bL1dget; a11 al yze said bt1dget proposals; consolidate said proposals into a single consolidated bt1dget, prepare appropriate altern ative bl1dget proposals, and prese11t said co11solidated bl1dget and said alternative bt1dget proposals togetl1er ,vitl1 a report setting forth tl1e differences in tl1e two p roposals a11d l1is recom­ mendations thereon, to tl1e Cou11cjl of Mi11isters for revie\v, modification and approval; (b) administer the budget of the Governme11t; (c) en5 u�e that the fiscal system of the Goverrunent is appropr�ate to and co�sistent with tl1e rapid advancement of tl1e 11ation and is �-egtilarl y revi ewed to ensure that economic and social deve­ of i t meets the needs lopment·' (d) ensu re that tax laws a re p roperly enforced and that all reveilties due from taxes, custo ms and excise duties, fees and 1no11opoly dues atld 0ther sou rces are pr accot111 ted for; and operly collected assessed (e) wed anis ollo be e to f r ures ced pro gu _ l ate ting I _ oun and � acc , tro the con . �;g · all M1n1 str1es and Government departm ents; (f) sub. illl_ t . . tll iiig dur s to the Council of Minister s periodic financ.i a.l report . � a�d the annual report of the acco11nts of the Government requi re bear 'Y Article 120 of the tion; Co ns tit R ev u ise d .

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(g) take all finarJcial . a11d. inonetary. m eas t1res n_ecessa�y _for the bala n h ced f develop t 1ne11t e social nation, and { econonlic wit h 1n the � fra mew ork , ent n1n ver e Go of t11e poli c ies of tJ1 / (h) negotiate ai,cl coi1.clude, in c?-OJJerati o n witl1.. other Min.istr ies �nd AtitI1 orit ies co11ce rned _and 111 . accorda11.ce _w1tl1 approved proJectsPublic , grammes and plans, 11:1ter11at1onal fi?anc1al agreemen� and arranprog e111te and 1·11al loan s to be mad e or received n1.ei1.ts and external by the Go- 1 veri1.ment, except i11sofa!· _as specific �ower the�efor 11as been legally delegated to a1Jotl1 er M1111st1·y or Public Aut hority; (i) s11perv i se and adn1iniste1· the nat ional d ebt; U) be tl1e repository of and safegt1ard tl1e Govern1nent's shares, n egotiabl e a11d non-11egotiable i nst1·ume11ts aud otJ1er si milar financial assets; and (k) accot1nt for a11d adn1i11 ister i11uno,1able property of the , Go v ern me nt wl1icl1 is 11ot bei11g ad111inistered or llsed b11 a.11y other Ministry or Pu bli c , A11 tl1ority. I•

''T I-IE IvllNIS1'RY OF PLr\NNING AND DEVELOP �1ENT ''33. TJ1e Mi11ister of Pla1111ing and Developm e11t is tb e he ad of one of the Depa.rt­ n1ents transacLi11g State affairs, na1nely, th e M in is Pl tr an an y d of ni ng DeveloJ)ment. Tl1e Mi11ister of Plan1ung an d D ev el op i11 accordance 1n en t, with the law, sl1all: (a) be ge11erally responsible for tl 1e conduct of the Go\1ernment's planning activities; (b) s11pervise a11d co-orcli11ate tbe activities of the Government's pla11n ing adnii11istratio11; (c) ir1 co-operation witl1 o tl1er Ministries and Publ ic At1tl1orities concerned, initiate, preJ)are a11d organise lo11g-te1�1n developrnen.t pla11s and submit tl1e same for aJ>provaJ b y tl1e Cour1cil o f M· i uiste1·s; (d) rec�ive each year f1 ·01n tl1e Ivii11istries and Public Autl1orities co ncerned , 0�, if the same ar e not so received, initiate and p repare annual development PI ogran1111es a.1,d tl1e s11pJJorti11g cievelop111e11 t budget p1·oposals; a 11 alyze, evaluate a 11d co11solida te said an11ua1 devel op111e11t programme� and develo1)me11t b11dgets at . e 1d na p nc 1·e se i1 1 t F tl 1 of e sa M n1 in e is tr t th o y e for consolidation in to the a11nt1al Go,,er11ment budge t ; e ( ) in ag�·eement with other M inis tri es a n d Public Authorities concer n1 estabhsh appropriate a n d e ffective p ro cedures to ensure that p pr e developm ent plans a a o� 1 a n d p ro g ra m mes are properly implemented aod � h. tlie dev�lopinent budget is p1·o pe1·ly expe11ded fo th purp oses fo r w c r e appropriated; (f) carrr o ut or lit cause t o be ca1·ried ou y bi si fe a ic m t ec t e on cl 1n o an ic stud1es 0f in al d · ct·ivi· dual developm ent projects; g ( ) fe r�sponsible for the secu b. p n , a ri m n g u , ti co pilation an alysis, colla on d ication o f data and statistics '·

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in ccor danc conc lt1de e witl1 approved projects, pro, and e � tiat nego (b) mes a;11d plans, agreem�nts a11d a�ra11gements concerning the provi ­ ram g n1t 1lt1 lat nd er l ass a 1sta c n e a� bila t � of : siotl _ _ �, and co-ordinate the same ,vitll other M1n1str1es and Ptt bl1c Autl1orrt1es co11cer11ed; 11era l cred enfo g it rce Ol a11d � tilate :f? forro . icies of Government fii1a11cial (i) institutions and corporations engaged 111 tl1e fina11cing of clevelopment plans and programmes; and be resp onsi y toge ble, the1· wi ncipa ll th otl1er M.i1listries and Public pri U) Autl1orities concerned, t·or rep1·ese11ti11g a11d protecti11g the interests of tlie Gover11.n1 �nt i11 public financial institt1tions a11d corporations engaged in the fina11c1ng of develop1nent pla11s and progra1nmes." '' Ad Hoc'' Agencies of Government

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l n addition to its ordinary n1injstries, the gover1m1ent consists of a great 111a11y special ag encies with separate ad111inistrative stru:t�res of their own. Tl1ese are known by a variety of titles� Agency, Authorit�, Board, �011u!uss1on, and so fortJ1 - bt1t a1110!1g lawyers ''age11cy'' is ,1 comn1on term to characterise any urut oJ governn1ent, a11d ,ve sl1all use 1t l1ere. Special agencies have been set up wherever the goverll111ent or an expert advising it l1as felt tl1at so111e task would be better performed by a specialised organisation, perhaps auto110111ot1s, tl1a11 by a nu11istry. Agencies are especially common in fields related to econonuc develo1)111ent a11d regt1la.tion of econo1n.ic activity. Some agencies are essentially ad111inistrative. Tl1ey carry out n1ucl1 the s:1mc sort of work: as the ministries, apart from the greater need for specialisation, ru1d s0111e st1bjects l1ave been tl1e re­ sponsibility at different times of both m.injstries and ag e11cies. The Plao11ing Boarcl and tl1e Land Reform and Development Authority, for instance, \.Vere in 1966 converted into tl1e i\/linistries of Planning and of Land Reform and Administration. Ad111inistrative agencies 111ay also be set tip in order to give greater attention to a particular subject, or siinply for aclmi11istr�1tive convenience; they are usually given g r eater .financial independence tl1an n1i11istries, and tl1ey n1ay enable necessary technical work to be carried on \'lith as little interference as possible. Other agencies are essentiilly co1n1nercial, and are und er governn1ent control because tl1e s�rvices which they provide are too important or expensive to be left to private enterprise. Etl1io­ pian Air Lines and the Imperial Board of Teleconu1111nications are among tl,js kind of agency: they provide services for sale in. n1ucl1 the same way as a11 ordinary co1111nercial company, tl1ot1gh because of their importance and monopoly position they are directe d a11d owned by the governn,ent. Because governme nt agencies cover sucl1 a wide rang e of subjects, they vary greatly. i� t�eir leg l powers and status, and they cannot therefore be l L1 mped togetl1er in tl1e sa111e \Vay as n11ntS t ries. Soma e age�ries, like the Ethiopian Tourist Office (see p.454 supra), owe tl1eir existence to O!·ders uoder Article 27, in just tl1e same ed lSll eSlabl \\'.as Board Meat L and ck ivesto The way as ministries. by an Order (ser p.463 si,nra) b11t ee P-464 (s mation Procla by it given were s power many of its ' '1' • •• · �1e -?7· Th sunr ) · . e r a' ')ffice these were beyond tl1e scope of the law-n1aking 1sed by Arti-. 1 autl10 power t t o the ost Office ey _Auth ori tr, all 1 sl V A\ov� e _ l1 T _ 111 . P alone ation has been changed by rocla P !a� f o ependent or semi-indepen den t bod ie s like the Hail e Sellassie I U1_11vers1ty and Haile Sella�sie <l _ 1 °#�uociation ). ,�,a Sl -463 456 pp. (cf. s tice No ral e have e n G been founded by Charters issued as _ ed So o the : ren lai e l1av , rity tl1o Ati � 'comi:ner�ial '' agencies, like th e Electric Ligl 1t an_d Power f as 1: te ee n b l1as d a led, o 1Jea ed e r rter Cl1a orga r its rusat1ons '· but EthioJ)ian Air Line s has l1ad ar_ Ii nst1tu r 1e tl o 1e n so eco a d e, d t e c a d 1 · 1erci Con1n . �? a _ g . ther govern. 1ent eoasterpn?verncnent-owned share company tind er tl1e Investment Co�x porat1on is ano ses have been set up in the san1e way: tl1e _ exam·Pfe, aoct its legal basis is examined below.

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An Exan1ple : The AVA From the Cb 1962, of 299 No. Notice ar ter of tl1e Awash Valley Autl1ority, General e 1V garit GaL.eta _ 21st Year No. 7. l. �her e is ' VA 'A h er aft ein e { :� ( ty ori � hereby created the Awash Valley Aut� en 11 er o ro at o o s . v G 1 a1 p1 1o tl1 E J aJ r1 th pe f t h ut e m u ic P bl y o i u A or m on bne go�ve rned by the provisions hereof. ,

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\\1 A L J A N IO T U JT _, T · s r-1 o C N SoURCEBOOK OF ETJ-IIOPIA

V s er f a w d o o a s p A n io 11 ct A n a fu p ap 1e tl e l1 it r w 1 g . t 1 Ji ea d p s n o si vi ro p r P te ar 1 l [C .] ra p u s· , V r te p a 1 I C f 462-463 o IO. Tlie AyA sllalI 11 ave a.11 an11t1al b11dget _which s�all be appr�ve� by tli e Boa rd portion of _That said below]. [see b�dget Comnlissioners of wh1�h 1s not fina nced resources shall 011t of 1ts be 1ncl11ded 1n the b dget by tl 1e AvA direct])' u of the Government. 11. ,.fl1e fiscal year of tl1e AVA sl 1 all be the fiscal year of the Government. 12. Witl1 i11 tl 1 ree (3) mo11t]1 s of tl 1 e end o� eacl1 ��ancia] year, the A'YA shall pre­ pare a11 d s11bmit to tl 1e Office of tl 1 e Prime M1n1ster a report sh.owmg the results of operations carried 011t d11ri11 g said year. The AVA sl1 all also at tl1e same time sl1b111.it a fi11ancial report for tl 1 e same year to the Ministry of Finance a11d to the Office of t11e A11ditor Ge11era1. 13. Tl1e powers, respo11sibilities a11d functions of tl1e AVA pro\1id.ed for l1erein sl 1all be vested in tl 1 e Board of Commissioners (herejnafter ''the Board''). 14. The Board shall be composed of se,1e11 (7) n1embers comprising the General Ma11ager, one representative eacl1 from tl1 e Ministries of Agriculture, Com1nerce a11d I11 dustry, Interior and Public Works and Communications,* all of wl 1on1 sl 1all be appointed by the Minister of said Ministries, and two (2) members to be ap1)ointed by Us.

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[Other JJrovisions deal with procedure for 01·ganising tl1 e Boa.rd, conducting its 1nontl1ly meetings a.11d wit11 power a11d d11ties of tl1e General Manager]. 20. Tl1e Board may adopt by-Ia,vs consistent witl 1 tl1e provisions l1 ereof and may f1X tl1e remtrneration of its me1nbers.

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A11other �-..'Ca111ple: T/1e Invest1ne1zt Co1po1·atio11 The <:;o rporati ?n ,vas for!11�d by }Jreparing and filing its ''Articl�s'' and its ''Memorandum" of Assoc1 at1on ,v1tl1 tl1e M1111stry o f Co111n1erce and Industr)'.

Frorn Etlziopia Observer, Vol. X, No. l, 1966, }Jp.89-90.

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ARTICLES OF' ASSOCIATION 01= ETI-llOPIAN INVESTMENT CORPORATION, S.C. (A Sl1are Company) · me 2· The Coiupany shall be governed by these le_ a b lica app Articles and other � ures. Tlie . Cor11Pa 11 Y sl1 all l1ave separate juridical personality and in particular tl 1 e capacity (a) to contract, (b) to sue and to be sued in its ow n name ' and (c) to acquire , own, IJOssess · and dispose of pr operty. _ *

Order No . 46 of 1966 N lic . . b pu f 0 eg. _Gaz. 23rd. Y �a_r, No. 23, divided the former M1ms trY . . trY of Works and Conunu · nications into the s iru M the and Mll listry of Public Works Communications.

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n d functions of t�1e Co�pan y sl1 all be vested. in the Board of a s er ow ,, The p the Boa rd ).. The Board sl1all forn1ttlate called after (here tile policy s or t c Dire e n 1ent of tl1e Compa11y. ag an m e t� se rvi pe and su sist of fiv� �irect o.rs to b� ap1Joi11 tecl by tl1e General M con shall oard . eetThe B shall be J0111tly respo11s1ble. s r cto dire T g he n i . tl1� fulles t powers for operatio11 on tl1e Company's gra11te d is rd Boa The . business in accordance with_ t �e purposes, obJects a11cl fu11 ctio11s set out in the Memorandum of Assoc1at .1on.

MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF

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ET.HIOPIAN INVESTMENT CORPORATION, S.C.

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(A Share Compa11y)

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We, the undersig ned subscribers, do hereby under a11d pursuant to tl1e provi­ sions of the Commercial Code of tl1e Empire of Ethiopia of 1960 ai1d tl1e Articles of Association hereunder, associate ou.rselves as a body co11)orate in t�orm of a sl1are compa ny, hereina.fter called the ''Compa11y'' to be l<11ovvn as:-

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Ethiopia n Investmen t Corporation, S.C.

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l. The names, nationality and addresses of tl1e s ubscribe.rs were tl1e following:­ (a) Ministry of Finance, Imperial Ethiopian Govern1ne11t, King George VI Street, Addis A.baba. ssie la Sel ile (b) Ha , ian i 1iop iop Etl Eth y, t i o1· h an t· At1 ct er Ele ic Pow ht r and Lig ' I Sta.r Square, Ad.dis Ababa. (c) State Ba n k of Ethiopia, Ethiopian, Haile Sell,issie I Ave11t1e, Addis Ababa. (d) Ba.l1 r Dar Textile Mill s, S.C. , Etl1iopian, Sn1t1ts Street, Addis Ababa. (e) Imperial Insurance Company Ethiopian, Cun11ingl1an1 Street, Ad<lis . ' Aba ba. ., 4· The e th se: po ur p _ i aii o _ e thi oti pian .Investment Corporation, S.C., l1as_ .� 1? elop m� nt v mo?111sation and e d e _ l tab ofi pr 111 investmen t of all available fun.ds n pia hio Et ProJects co plyin.g l. r1a e 1r) In e tl1 of m with the De·velopment Pla11 est e n of i e er y ng a · Jl 1 f i ov nment. To fulfil this purpose it wi ll offer a. � 11 1q J _ media to i11sti run int 1na ll wi d an /e, tu.tional an d other l1 olders of f11nds, icab t prac . be resources, e. �loye may as fully se . d an I y d . OId manage 1·e ve m as m un er at 1 . ·u . .· .' at sh0 te h 11 wi t ' 11• 10 I · · at l1g ob , rts i 1n · r 1J to 0 op m pr on ap t te o1 ria p1 � and dtsp . 11ot. d b tl1 Govern men t , be1ng . . ose of the 1nvest Y e a folio �� t po t e1 t. r men � ! invest guided' always new · r . fo is oc fu 1ze b1l mo by to e th ed g ne 1n r1d er ov ',"'-·?" ... . . .

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETHIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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It will proniote tI1 e sale of s11a�·es i� existing enterprises, a11d to that end Will . ate ues pri iss pro ap in t rke n1aintain a ma

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Otl1er pu1·poses and objects are: (a) to provide fina 11ce in tl1e form of investn1ent loans and by sha re parti­ cipatio11 ; (b) to n1ake ft1nds available by ?elli:13 g s_l1ares and loans from its ow n port­ folio by borrowing and by 1ssu111 g 1ts ow n debe11 tures, depo sit receipt s or other evidences of indebtedn.ess; (c) to ft1rnisl1 ma11agerial, tecl1nical and administrative advice and assista nce to a11y e11 terprise on st1ch terms as m ay be agreed; (d) to float, sponsor, underwrite an d deal i n any issu.e of shar es an d securities I of any 1<i11d; r (e) to issue, accept, disco1111 t and deal in bills of e xcl1ange and promissory notes, to disco11nt and deal i11 treasury bills; (f) to guara11 tee loans an.d obligatio ns; (g) to l1olcl, acqt1ire, n101·tgage, sell or lease re al es ta te or any otl1er form of prOJ)erty; (11) ge11erally to do al l st1cl1 otl1er tbi11gs as n1a y be appropriat e or related tl1ereto 01· otl1 e1·\v. ise enl1ance tl1e ' b11si 11 ess of th e Company. 5. Tl1e an1ount of tl1e capit,11 was Etl1 . $10,000,000 divided into 100,000 shares of tl1e J)ar val11e of $100 eac l1, f11lly subscribed as follows:,,r

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(a) Mi11istry of Fi11ance 99,996 b ( ) E.E.L.P.A. I (c) Co 1nn1e1·cial Bank of Etll iopia Sl1are Co1npa11y I (d) Bahr ?ar Textile M . ills Sl1are Co 1 npaoy l (e) I1n1�er1�l I11st1r,111ce Co1111)ai1 y of Etl1101)1.a, S.C.

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TJ1e above. s11ar·es . c ': c a 1·e 1 10w f11 11 . y .g . etiv l\1e Of Sept e111ber 16 p,11d. and at tl1e Extrao.rd1na1·v aJ 11e 1' e · � 0 . 1965 to · ' t·he capi. ta l .was ,_111creased to Etl1. $20,000, 000 a·1 1'ded ,n 200,000 8 ·11 a, res ot'· · -1 v 1_ arest.·J1e pa r valtie o·_ � 1 '· m: s Tl1ese liave b ei r· E. t.l1. $100 eacJ1 by jssue of 1 00,000 new . k ta � up by been paid up � , M1111s try of Finance, a11d 25 perce nt 1185 aJre-a,dJ.. ---� eii -· 1

Fro1n Eth·lOJJz·a,z Heralcl, Dece mber 7, 1966. The Etl1 io1)ia11 I11\'e Sln1e . of ·. nt Corpo1·atio11 $40 mi·11·i on i n prod . · ltct·i ,,e develo fo11r yea.rs. p111ent

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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. losing at a11 interview . held here yesterday,. . tl1e. corporation's manager ' DJSC . t t 1nves men t oppo1· t} t 1a d 11n1t 1es 111 Etl11opia are ''limitless' state er, Oliv B. ' B · fi ' ,, ' · Mr I-I. . e 111 0 1te . r a s d e e n 's y tr n ii co and tile ?oration, Cor forn1er]y 11vest�ent lc11_ow11 as tl1e Investment pian l Ethio � , The if,.. , its operat1? ns t_o"vards eco11om1 cally a11d coininercially direct� pia, Ethio I of eank proJects 111 order to clccelerate tl1e rational 11 tilisaagricultural and rial indust r. a.,1·bJe encot1rage tl1e to resources, le of goods and availab . . diversified production �t,,10 n!i of · d 1e pro 11ct1ve capacity f o · t I tl1 e 11at1011al eco11omy, tl1e cor increase to and es servic poration's anni1al report for 1959 E.C. states. .. l In order to carry out its operations, tl1e I 11vest 111e11t Corporation fosters tl1e � r'! saving and investment pote11t.ial of tl1e cot1 11try a11d facilitates tl1e co-OJJeratio 11 of owners of capital and sponsors sol111d development projects, tl1e a11nual report said. Last year, the Investment Corporation sold sl1ares valt1ed at $2 n1illion and . . bought shares worth $1,730:000. Tl1e co1-po1·atio11' invested a total of $5 1nillio11 I, in various development projects. The corporatio1 1 s loa11s a11d credits for tl1e sa111 e I year were $24 million, it was learned. I

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An agreement for $20 million l1as already been signed witl1 tl1e Age11cy Jor International Develop111ent. Tl1is a,1ailable credit, wl1icl1 awaits 1Jarli,11ne11tary ratification, is to be utilised by the I11vestme11t Cor1Joratiou for tl1e purchase of machinery.

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Tl1e Investment Corporation I1as substantial stakes i n tl1e follo\ving e11ter­ prises: the Etbjopian Shipping Lines S. C., the Etl1 io-Japai1ese Sy11tl1etic Textiles, Pabr Dar Textile Mills, Etl1iopjan Grain CorJJOration, Eritrea Cen1e11t Sl1are Co1n­ pany, National Meat Corporation of Etluopia, R11 bber a1 1d Ca11vas SJ1oe share c_ompany, R _ as Hotels share company: Sabean Utility Corporatio11, Te11daho Plauta­ lJons, Afr1can Match and PaJJer Com1Jany, Etl1jopian PulJJ a1 1d Paper S. C., and the Ethiopian Farm Development.

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· . Policy Cons1·derat1ons 1n Rega,·d to ''Acl floe'' Age11cies

th r n t the int oductiot1 to this Section fro111 the U1Jited Nations 1/airclbook of Pt,!Jlic e eadi g a i�.strat RAdevrnrnr ion, si,pra; theo rconsider the following fron1 the san,e sot1rce.

Prom United Nations, A Handbook of Pitblic Adn1;11i.r;;trc1tio11, op. cit., PP· 73-75. 234- Three � · tration r.or t·l 1e �d m i·n.ts _ r f . s ecl L1s o f en be . y iz all an . er rg n n ve io ge at l1a � . m ? . · of ptibli _ente r1 es iv ct Jc ?? 1 e tl 11 e� tw be e 11c ]a ba c r1J s, se cl ea 1 acl1ievjng a different of operat1ng 1e Tl . 1es l1c po Jor ma eir tJ1 of to aL1 ol ntr co my no nt me d rn an ve go 0ld .est · o n . to 1i ' a '' f o fo g 1 n d 1 r ea l e 1 ·I t . _I!l cannot, strictly speaking, be placed l111der mo·u_s _111st1tu tions t_1 e1 � artn dep ent ro er11 gov l ' ma nor '. Jt: e 1 tl is of th n for1 e · a nun1stry c::r · r te 1s · 1 n m a f o n o 1 t c ire ' d s . t 1e a l: t r . ed de un b 1d l a1 ne on er rs re pe �a y ,, It I a • es ? 1c rv se r l 1 1a_ 01 t 11a of 11 c 1 L tio 11ly tra r· 1is '" d u i n1 bee11 se u1 0 ' 11o the ad J· · ra1 d •rl. oni osp01on ' an s ice ·ies, for instance rv se c ni l,o ep tel d an ic 1 pl ra eg l tel sla po ' . waYs. ' This fi0 rm of organizalion enst1res fu 11 co11troI by. tl. 1e G. overnment · . e b ,The danger of ay m n L1o ra st 111 11J 1 e acl tJ1 at tl1 is th is _ r 11 fo jo 1n t . , za of 11j . ga or : . th

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io ct el ri 11 s and may not h st n n re so . er p d an al sc fi e iv ss ce ex a e Sl lb�ected to v r me v gic as olo 1c s hn tec al ers att l1 1 1 p im 1 n i11 o . e · n t s, 1 tio ac of , J:' d · m do ree • 1J e . t a . a eq11 � 1 nn g, rso t1n pe 11n n1stration and co m1 ac ad d an ce an fin ii, io ns pa ex capitai l ne on t :s en 1s pe u m �q 1·n ad ve g? e ly t rained at e 1 er l w , er ev ow I J:g. ptircllasiil l s ca s� ni es ch oc te d pr an �v vo 1n l ria ge ed, a.nd if na ma e tl� r fo ed pp ui eq aild . s1o t an an p _ pl n � tl11s for m ex r e f� ad m be 11 ca s on 1s1 ov pr l ia c 11 1a of fi1 ial spec ly y, 11ar ntl t1c1 cie par effi 1n the tradition­ e rat ope to e11t pet com is on t orgai1.iza i . ne 1o 1Jl le te d 1 a1 hs ap gr le te s, st po of s al field

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235. The second general form may be referred to as tl1e joint stock company the majority of wl1 ose share s are l1elcl by t l 1e Go�e�nment._ Go\'ern ment control of this kind often come s abo11t beca11se an eX1 st1ng, privately financed com­ pany passes i11to governn1e11t possession. A similar form of organization is a ''mixed enterJ)rise'', ,vl1ere a Government for 011e 1·eason or another is in partnersllip ,vitl1 I)rivate e11terJJrise. Ofte11 the intention has been that the Govern111e 1 1t sl1011ld ultimately sell its shares to private inve stors, but t11ere are 1 11a11y instances to sl1ow that this is not easily done, with tl1e result that t l1e Gover111ne11t remains i11 control of the company for a long pe riod. Examples of tl1is for1n of' mixed e11ter1)1·ise may be found in the mini11 g industry of Swe den .

236. Tl1e most recent for111 of p11blic e11 terprise to develop is that of the public corJ)oration. Here, adn1i11istrative .authority to conduct a specific public enter­ prise or group of related enterJ)ri ses is given, 11sually b)' [special] statute, to a corporate body aJ)I)Ointed by tl1e Government, employing its o,1/n staff a11d witl1 complete or ne a1·ly con11Jlete freedom from govern mental control i11 its day-to-day opera tio11 s. Gi,1en tl1 e 1 1eed to assume responsibility for a public �nterp�is�, G over111 11ents see adva.ntage.s i 11 tl1e public corporation beca�1sc 1t has 1_ n_1tiative, flexibility and operating freedon1, a11d relie ves mi11isters of direct ad1run1str ative respo11sibiJity .... 240. I-I: ow far sho11ld_ tl1e Gover1 1111e11t kee1) co 1 1trol of its public corporations and 110w far sl1ol1ld it go to grc111t tl1e111 al1tono111y? Tl1is is tl1e dilemn1a tl1at ma11Y Go�ernments are faci11g, a 11d 011e ,vl1icl1 eve11 adva11ced co1111tries bave not ei1t1r�ly solved. Tl1e corporate f orn1 is 11sed beca11se it js assun1ed tl1at t?e ptibl�c co1. p_oratio11, pa_rtic11larly tl1e one e11gaged in competitive com1n e�c!al � ai1 cl 1_o<ltist1_-1al field?, will tl1ereby be gi,re11. greater freedom of actio11, fleXI. bility and. 111centives. !t 1s given s0111e of' 111e c l1aracteris tic of a privately o�ned s business ente1:1)rise s _tl1at it 111ay l1ave inun1 18 ! !0 a op er t -da y day-to its 111i in ty � fr?m til e detail d J)ol1t1cal a11d adn nis­ nii the 1 gov er1 1i 11 istr ativ e c � ontrol s wl1 ich tri s. In 80111e 111.st::11 1ces it is desig 11 ed er­ own e priv at for event11al transfer to � . ship au c ontrol �s it establishes ent lm 5 inve private con fide attr nce � acts and 11 otllers it ren1a 111s te n 111 lo )Ublic sell rm 1 ownersl1i1 gt o l �011d but is au.tl orized ) s or debei 1t11res to tl1e ge11eral public to fi 11 a11ce its capital JJrojects. 241. B11t con 1plete 1·n1intt111 ld fie . tl Je ·tY r·ron1 1 11 · · . larly l gover111ne 1 1)artic nt control s · ' .. . 1e o f PIa1111J ng and gei1era l l)O1icy, tl 1 l hic · or w · f es may . obje defe ctiv at the very ·1 c o or�tion was established. T ia n the a s he ver stre c s o rpo ji r anc ma tio o n y 1 rt )r ta o s l . t side and fail to re11der less profitable l s. . t erv ic s e ... ial t I en 1t b ma e Yiv a11 d s s proJects and tlie ]) �.od uc t·10� . . . on � �con 1 o f ra good ge11e s II1JUr1ot1s to tl1e rout of 11_ar11100.¥ WJtli a r1a ve . 0 ., to t1o n ay al pl lo a11 of It 1en de m p ve t. n teD<l · charge t 1 1e co11sumer an . . � rces· · d 1111derpay i:t11d exploit its \1,,ork1ng 1o . ..

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Problems: Ju.risdiction o,,er Pt1blic I11vestinent For Economic Developn1e11t .l The_ re �di11 gs in thi?, Sectio�1, l1ave �xplor�d tl1e fu11ctio11s ct J a11 } ower s of two 1 c agencies. With respect to each of mimstnes and two ad 10 these agencies: ( a) What, if any, func_tion_s �o _th�y have in co1nn1on? To what extent is th�re any_ overl�pl?in� J_unsd1ction betw_een any of then1? In w ha t w ay s JU rrught policy or r1sdict1onaI co11fl1cts ar1se betwee11 a11 y of tJ1 ese age11cies? (b) To what extent, and in \Vhat ways, migl1t - a11d s11ot1lcl - eacl1 agency be subject to tl1e control of (i) the Prime Minister? (ii) t11e Co11ncil of Ministers? (iii) Parliament? (iv) civil service regulations prom11lgatecl by tl1e Ce11tr,1l Perso1111e1 Agency? (Cf ..i\.rticles 27 and 66 of tl1e Coristi tutio11 a11 d the readi11gs on the development of a civil service l,1\v i11 EtJ1 ioJ)ia, Sectio11 4 of this Chapter, infi·a.) (v) the Auditor General? (See Section 7 of this Chapter, i,ifra.)

2. (a)

Consider the budget-making powers a11d d11ties of tl1e Ministries of Finance and Planning as set out in 01·der No. 46. WJ1at is a ''cieveI01Jn1ent budget''? How is it prepared?

Consider the following from Fraser, "The Administrative �ra_n1ework for Economic Development in Etbio1Jia'', 3 Jou,.·,zal of Etlzzopzan Lal,v 143 (1966): ''The key problem of economic plan1Jing is to keep �rojected plans with.in the limits of available fina11ce a11d, at t11e same_ t11ne, to ltse to the limit all financial resources wl1icl1 ca11 be made available. · · UtJder · prese nt [i.e. before Order No. 46] proced111·es, no esti111ate [?� f 1111ds f o r te 11s 11 M ut1 sab1 e for developme11t p1·ogrammes e th 1 1· 1t 111 l b e . of. . ] 1s· ava1·1a F.1nance presents his complete proposec1 b11 d get to the Co11.nc1I Ministers. TJ1is is however too late to e11able [tl1ose res1J 01151ble fior plan ning ] to mak; clecisio11; at tl1e proper time.'' . t e e m 6 4 o N r e d r O Assuming tl1e validity of this o bservat1on, does the _problem? 3. A� e 6 4 . o . N 1· . e . · d r O f o at 11 · m th�t the t ime is shortly pnor to the promu g l . . n io is iv d e lh 00 cil of h t o t g t in a i !� e . i s lem ob pr r n us i io M n va er ist g sin s is discus e of.t �J��ris ? i Pr e th in 1 c avvy l diction among the vario11s ministers. Yot"J ai·e a · n i 1 1 & n1ster'8 c i ,v11 h w 6 4 . o N . r e d r O d e s o C . . op . ce, . }ffi and. yo11 ]1ave a d.r aft of. J)I .: s fact 18 1. l m }Jro ,v bl e ing 1 e follo T d ent1 . cal Section to tl1e text quoted above this are referr ed to you for ' advice: .. ng 111 .1 nta co (a), \4 . 111 dl1 1v1r. A, a Un ited Nations expert J1as vvr.1tte11 a 11 1e1:nora11 ter de of ss e oc pr . the fi011 owi· ng: a Is ' · . 1ce 1 e ess · I . ''Developn1ent pla110111g, Jn ve de n i ter ) 'rt0 1 l s 'd a in ng- ( t, l tlll1t- - g, Prior· ity i tie o1� pr· · 11g o ii . f o s . · · p ramn onsibi a. n d l o es ' · · 5 1 e o,� u m s s a t s 11 1 11:te,nt J:) roje 111 , _ ent : cts. In Etl1iopia� Gove1·n., in (b)

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ent lopm deve cts proje for s ft1nd able roads l avai , in­ ising l i mob for ed ey ed on ne e m r tl1 fo of . t os M development . etc , ion at uc ed dlistries, l ans for th�se proje e p Th nt. 1ne rn ve Go e th n1 fro in co cts � projects rotlst 1 dget ev en th ou gl1 the l)IOJects them ­ b1 al nu an e th 11 1 d cte e l ref nltlst be 11 annual budget. The basic a n tha e tit? of iod per ger lon a n SJ)a selves . 1 1t �hat t l1 ey �ust be taken at the fica s1gn1 so are 11ing l 1 a 1 p on ions decis 11igl1 est level . F11rtl1 er, tl1e office re�pons1ble for ult1_mate �o-ordination of developroe11t plans m11 st work 1n full co-operation with tl1e office .'' et dg l bu na tio na e th g in ar ep pr r fo le sib 1 o1 res1J

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Mr. B, a1 1otl1er ''fere11je'' expert, argues as fol lows: ''I agree witl1 Mr. A, but I go f 11rtl1er: effective IJlanning means that tbe office generall y re­ SJ)Onsible for co-ordination of all activities of the agencies of tl1e Go,,ern­ ment sl1011ld also be respo11 sible for co-ordinating ibe plan and for insur­ jng tl1at tl1 e bL1dget foll ows tl1e p l an. I agree that tl1 e budget is of tbe greatest i1n1)ortance beca11se t l1 e b11dget is the annual programme of the Gover11me 11 t for carrying 011t previo11sl)r-established socjaJ a11d economic policies. Tl1e Minister of Finance's role in relation to economic de velop­ me 11t decisio11s to be reflected in the bt1dget sl1ould be purely one of imple1ne11 tc1tio11 of decisions taken by other bodies, 11ot 011e of policy-1naki11g." Is tl1 is view reflected in Order No. 46? '

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Ato D, of tl1e Ministry of Fina11ce, writes: ''Tl1e proble1n is not simply one of drawing up pla11s, deter111i 11ing priorities and declaring policies. Tl1�se respo11sible for tl1e budget n111st also l1ave responsibility for eva�11at1 �g pe,:for111c111ce. For exa1111)le, it may de,,el oJ) tl 1at an agency 15 wast1 11g n1oney or spe11ding it i1 1efficiently 011 projects, and someone �tist be en1powered to n1ake tf1at eval11atio11. And, l1avi11g made that Jtidgn1ent, a determi 11,1tio11 ca11 tl1e11 be made i11 the future whet.her a givei1 �ge11cy neec/s aJl tl1e mo11ey it reqt1ests to continue })fOjects assign· ed to it. Tl1is is a task \\1l1icl1 n1ust go to tl1e Ministry of Finan, ce. '' To wl1at exte 11t is tl1is ,,iew reflected in t l1 e Order? 4· Assume Y011 ,tre � n1 e_mber of a con1111i uv of 1roe nt ttee stt1dying establisl � l gover�11 11�11t age11c1es: (1) a11 agency to develop tl1e A\\,asl1 VaUey a,re� tliroug _ fo co�_Slrtict 011 of dan1s, irrigatio11 faciliti facilities a11d tl 1� 1r tise n� pow es, er � �gr �ctilttlI � l clevel op111e11t; (ii) an age 5 lro� nve 1 e pri vat 11cy to stimul ate in 111d L1�trial a.nd agri�11lt111·al busi11ess inv es est 1 g p11bli c . f u11ds, bu}?b�� by i1 . . . oss 1 a11 d se 1 111 1g s}1pr·es, m p the a g 1 k n. g 1 oa 11s, et·c. T11e con11Illttee 1s co11s1"derm · ·' , . . . . . . e ar . ad1n1n1strat1v e structure and org ces oi What ch a . n ic es la ci o w th f en e g a open to tl1 e comniittee? O i o\V 5. Consider tl1e foliowing·. o . . t . a po51·t·oo . ion 1s 1n 1 · ''T11e l. Inve stm e11t Corp orat _ . ' . e es \ h t co11troll 111g 1nte1·ests 1 1.1 n1any of � s o t c . d1re · sn1a · · . tl1e l 1 elect bt1sine · r . sses w and to . e . . deJJendent revi . e11terpr1 ses ·. B11t ti1ere 18 no satisfacto 1 1n . ry a1 fo1� . mecl1a1 1 ism d . n a of tile ,1ct1v1t1es of al l 1oe 1a1 . orn perf tl1es e · tl1ei1 · com ll ' 1Ja 1 1ies to e,,aJt1ate tio a or v I 1 t tl1e Ilational co . th dev � eJo tl1a p1n ent . ce ass ere L1ra 1 Tl . 0 is n t· 11 rp o ts !'· W�1 1 ·l1 : lle . 1°1 ow t l1e pla11 _ or 10 sti ,,e · 1 0 · 1ts g even the 'p11blic i 11terest'-i11 makin - · · · · t;

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Problems Arising from the Delegation

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is authorised to build hot�ses and flats. for lower-i11.co1ne fan,ilies in tirban agen?Y An . sing Hou ()a areas whe re there 1 s a sh�rtage. T!1e age�cy \Vtll be autl1or 1 sed to acqt1 1re land (by expropria­ d�elling units a11d lease tl1en1 a.t 11 1oclerate rents to Jower-ii,con,e bwld necessary), where _ tion families. The agency 1s authorised to pron1ulgate r11les J1av1ng tl1e force of la,v to carry out its powers.

,, (b) Health. A government agency is a�1tJ1orised .to 1nake and e11force rules regardi 11 g sa11itatioo and protection of const1mer l1 ealtl1 1n all business places processing ancl selling f oocl, including �· canneries, butcheries, stores retailing food, and restaurants. 'I

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Development. An agency is authorised to build dan1s and i1·rigation facilities ma certam river basin, to distribute water to farmers o f the area s11bject to conditions pre­ scribed in rules to be promulgated by the agency.

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(e) � Communications. An agency is at1thorised to establisl1 and n1anage gover11me�t �e\vS media,_ to P�orn�gate rules governing private publication of 11ewspapers, books and per1?d 1 cals aoct dissemmat1on of films ' and presentation of theatrical p11blications and regulation of I broadcasting.

. (Q Tra"'l!"r t R egu]atjon. An agency is authorised to issue rules governing truck and bus trans­ ��;: llon to p roD?ote more effectiye, safer �nd cheaper ser,1ice by motor carriers 1 n all available f the Emp ire. The agency 1s at1thor1sed to regl.1late tl1e rot1tes servecl, rates cl,arged a nd &ervi� offere d by st1ch carriers. �) Urban Land Use or · I f an tise d lan � ter as 1 n tr a C�n p ol. elo dev An agency is empowered to _ a n urba area and ve d� blic pu and e ,,at pr1 , Jaw in by j a te, accord nce with tha t plan to regula lopm 0 n f a_n_d_ within the planned ar ea inclt1ding regulation of tl1e use, size aod pJ,ysica l natui: �l facili s tie put upon the land. (h) Regu1a •o nse to �e 1 1 d rise l1o at1t are s V es nci Speciali ed Professions and Trades. arious age all rnedj�canl of s er v ri d k c t1 tr d pract· · an I e 'l b o Itl o n1 ners , lawyers architects bttilders , teac. l1ers, at1to and other . . '. . . ' . . · occuPations regu1r1. 1ntegr1ty. n g and skil spec l ial h) l' a.xes �:io e, 111 co �11 ( s xe ttt us units of of s nd an agency ar e authorised to assess various ki intport xta g in rn ve go export , la nd, trans s ile rt action, turnover, etc.) and to prom11lgate as.�ment p o r cedur es.

l'he ab·ove s n o t1 c a 1n la ro p ar , . rs ie rc e simply examples of· tbe kinds of laws, o and decree· _ o­ p lllulgat e � Wh1ch ha . day, be r s me o eftec · ' d, .Ea-cI1 i.J ve_ a 1 r;ad,y been prOJ?Ulgated ' Ol. ma y'. . . and developi11g c ty ' · . ri :. ttve. no""· .. , lustra t1on 1s concer11ed w1t l1 a complex a tivi ' .· f u5 o 1 .1 e s o . . wi..ll e11ta ·11 a num t�rob1· .. �'vern.tne t . . . . r . e b · 1 1ty s t1v t111 c t Jn pa 1on . rt1c Pa . · n a. .. o F :: . s : � . ,-........ ,,: ..... , . . . r exan:ipJe . •. ::?{\:::�;:\· I .•.<. ./·. . ·i· ;_ - ' .

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STI.TUTIOI�AL LA\\' N O C N IA P IO I-I T E F O SoU.RCEBOOK

n) la io oc at tin Pr d ea an cr g er rd e O th ., .g (e e ag s w Ja � 01 ncy iv /a ic 1 , ga or z cti ) (l t e� m 1a rl d � J?-USt . determine Pa an en 1n ts af dr e 1 tl d; te af dr mt i st be carefully t t1o ha d w ta an l1ffil ', C) ns �n ag a 1e l t nd to '' y ed lic at po eg el ''d be l r!c oi sl i s er v J, po ai / J v 1, s er 1e ga w tl le po de of se d; c1 te er ex 1e tl n o d se po im be ld gtlide- lin es shou A/hat k�nd of l c w) ni la ga e or th y (b cy' gen ''a ed ' �n m ter de be o als 1 st . mt it (2) ; 1ty t e y t1v t}J rr ou ac ca st n be ca n) 1o at or r1) Co d, ar Bo , (e.g., Ministry 1at tl1e necessary work tl so sed a11i org be i1st ncy age t/1e ed, 1 isl abl est 1:1 (3) 011ce e ; s th of cy nt en ne ag rt1 pa de e 1bl ns J)O res to d ne sig as ly 11t cie can be effi. (4) co111petent personnel mt1st be rec�uited and �rained to �arry out agency activities; a n1inister or agency l1ead wl1 0 1s saddled with lazy or incom petent sub­ ordinates ca11 accon1plisl1 very little; (5) a bi1clget n1ust be prepared and procedures developed, e.g. for adminis­ tering tl1e age11cy's ft1nds; (6) fJrocedures 111t1st be developed to facilitate intr a-agency communication, for maki11g stt1dies and gat11eri11 g facts on wl1ich policy judgments can be based, for forn111l ating fi11al l)Oli cy decisio11s, for enforci11g agency policy; these procedures m11st cover botl1 forn1al a11 d i11formal transactions; (7) age11cy rules mt1st be prepared to ensure tl1at formal transactions are carried out i11 accordance ,vitl1 tl1e law, and otl1e1· sz,1,bsidia1JJ legislation must be IJrepared to formalise, as law, tl1e policies \Vl1ich the agency intends to foll ow; for example, tl1e hot1sing age11cy may l1ave to deter111ine (tl1.rough rules having the force of law) ,vl10 will be eligible to live in its facilities; tl1e l1ealth agency may wish to ma�e rt1les (l1aving tl1e force of Ia,v) wl1icl1 ,,lill prohibit people from doi11g things wl11cl1 tl1e age11cy believes will 1)ollt1te streams or wells; thus, cumulatively, a vast body of law ,vill be J)rom11lga .tecl to carry ot1t tl1 e tasks ,vhicl1 Parliame nt deleg ates tl1rot1gl1 tl1e orga11 ic legislation. ed ?p devel be TI1ese ml1st exa!11J)les ill11strate son1e of tl1e macl1i11ery wh.icl1 . 1f gover11 1uen 1s to do tl1e job _wl1icl1 is proposed. To the ex tent that tl1is m acl1ine �fl � _ hol1s111g, l1e,1ltb \VJ· m.mes docs not woi k well, tl1e a progr devel op1nent · or otl1er Sl1ffer. "en· l vita T�le 1, a wyei�, if a I1e is broadly trained and co111petent, may play . , giileeritlg role ! 11 tl1e co11str�1ctio11 of tl1is 1nachi11ery. Tl1e tasks ra.nge from. research� problen1 ailalysis and l)la1111111g to recrt1itme11t moti,,ation and coo1ma d of person n nel, to fi11�nce, to cot111selli11g, to l1un1a11 relatio11 s and psychology. Ther e 15 of�en . ve ct i e eff 110 clear l111e bet,veen tl1ese . _ 1�t111ct10 . to• . . · 11s. Tl1e government lawyer and. anf . . .. ... ,, 16 he f adm inisl iator _ ls , mtist skil ,. acqt11re often painfttll'-J'' a wide variety of i op e dev • 1ender a gent1111e cont11··b t1t1on ·. 1rough · 1 tl y to the cot1n tr deve 111s lo1J1n of e11t 111e11_ t o f. ejj.ect1.ve IJllblic agerlcies. bove all, the lawyer will I1ave to draft tl1e organic laws establishing the g ! "' �; l oJ l e l 10 . . an d ·tAlJe rt1l es of l)roced.tire tlnd subs1d1 to s_ ary laws which the agency propose . e retaancl . 1.1e w�.11 l1a, ,e to advise otl1er agency officials on tb .e ,vise and proper i nt fP t io n . o f tl1ese laws. e w h wit . . . Tl1e materi·als w- hic . d e er ' 1 l con 10 .r. ll o,v o 1n S i n primari c ly this D f ect on are io . t · � 0 f· organic laws prepa rat10 g� dele of er me11 and a Jat pa 1 ·ticu pl1e larly no witl 1 tl1e · pol i · �J'-n1ak_ "111 g a 1 1cl law-1nakiug power to execlitive age.-11cies. Materi als in s.ections touch· ·upon a Iltlm ber , of tb.e otl1_ er problems l i sted above.

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OF EXECUTIVE lNSTITUTIONS THE DEVELOPMENT

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Powe,·s: aking Co11stitutio11c1! -M v La11 d Policy P · bl a, of n atio o , en1 s t eg J)e · . . . . The . Legisl ative Polve, ation o.f ·s i,z EtftiOJJia (Min1 Deleg er, eograpl1, 1963). ras F o111 fr has to be isst1ed i11 ,1ny cot1 11 try lltldei· mod tl1at law of nt o u am er11 · . The con . . · · t · l . 1es 1or1 at1t 1e ves 1 t tec I w1t tha l1 t . t1 1 e J)r i n1ary respo s t va so ·s -61.11 ty i r diti. ��5 1 n pproving law find it very diffi cu It to keep pace � i th the v���1 111 e. T 1� da a g i l. 18 c rea nsulted over ma11y years,. ·i11 tl1 e at1t l1orities. - Parlia111e 11 ts State c , , ' . ot111c1 1. s, has-re . . uncils of M1 ruster . s, etc. . g1v1ng 1.in1tte d au �l1or1ty to \'ar1ot1s bodies i 11 tl1 e acl111 i1 1Co 1 :11de1· certa111 s�fegt1ards,. ''laws_" l issue, and e prepa r . to deali tlg witll istration . lesse r 1n1po of be rta11� e, to wl 1 Jle r�serv 111g tl1 e1r own ti ill ered onsid c e for . m atters sn iderin g and enact 1 11g la,vs on the n1ore 1111portant 1sst1es. S li cl, law issLi ed by d gate ed dele term is legislatio11. ies, bod nate ��bordi The authority to make law in Etlliopia is ,,ested, by tl1e Revised Constitutio11 tl 1 e Emperor. _Tl1e Col111�il of 1\t1i11isters 1 1orinally con­ �n?ment Parlia in 1955, f o �ders legislation before 1t 1s passed to Parl1 a1nent or, 111 tl1e cc1se oJ· legislation isstied . t ive, before it is fi11ally approved a11 d isstied by tl1e preroga r's Empero the r unde Emperor. Legislation approved by Parliame11t is issued by Proclan1atio11, wI1 ile legislation falling \Vithin the Empero1·'s prerogative is issl1ed by Order. Decrees are reser ved for legislation wllich would no1· m ally be co1 1siderecl before iss11e by Parliament and issued by Proclan1ation, bl1t wl1 icl1 , beca11se of a11 e111erge11cy arisi11 g when Parliament is not sitting, is isst1ed by the Emperor and passed to Parlia1ue11t for consideration after issue. The legal form i11 vvl1 icl1 delegated. lcgislatio11 is jssLted is the Legal Notice; all delegated legislatio11 is contai11ed i11 Legal Notices a11d Legal Notices contain notl1ing bt1 t delegated Iegislatio11. A considerable number of Proclamations, Decrees and Orders already isst1ed in Ethiopia contain provisions at1tl1orisi 1 1g Minjsters or otl1er at1tI1orities to issLre subordinate legislation and to some considerable extent tl1is l1as bee11 do11e. Examples [of subordinate legislation pursuant to delegation] are:l. Income Tax Regulations, 22/1 (1962) L.258. Issued by tl1e Ministe� of Financ e under Art. 71 of 20/13 (1961) P.173, tl1e I11come Tax Proclamatioi i. 2- Venereal Diseases Rules, 10/3 (1950) L.151. Isst1 e� by. tl1e Mi11ister of Public Health under Art. 15 of 6/10 (1947) P.91, tl1e Pt1bl1c Healtl1 Procla­ mation. 3· Execution of Jud ents Rules, 12/12(1953) L.176. Is�u�d b� tl1e iVIinis�er gm of Justice under Art. 20 of 1/1(1942) P. 2, th e Adm1111strat1 011 of Justice Proclamation. e h t y b · d e 11 s s . I 8 · 1 2 4 N �tI?na1 Coffee Eoard Regulations, 18/5(1959).. L· · D.28, 957) 17;4(l l f 0 l M 1n1 ster of Commerce and Jndt1 stry under Art. the National Co ffe e Board Decree. . . or teri I f 5 st M e uu th s by r: ed � u eg s R Is L � . n o 29 ti .2 la 0) . , 96 ns (1 /7 19 io 1;1 at l a · Arm ro Uu<ler Art. 2 of 1/2(1943) p 13 the At1thor1ty to Issue Orders . . . . f ' · o te1 s M1111 . the p by d 6 �.stage Rates Regulations, 21/2(1961) L.245. Issue e tl 7, 1 1 P. (! ) 942 l p st:s, /4 f 0 2 Art. Teleg r unde s raph ones and pl1 Tele post Offic e Proclamation. ed Issu _ p _ .267. . L ) . 1962 5 b 22 l c 7 bn t E�p!oyment Adminjstration Re�ulations, 1 � u.nder Art. 18 of t e o t el 1 e r. 2i � M1n1ster of National Commu111ty Dev _ l?� Orde n . io t l 62) 0.26, the Public Etnployment AdmtnJs · a · 11 ( ,9

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UT IT N ST IA ON IONAL LAW OP C -II TI E OF K SouRCEBOO

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. o . r r e n 11 r e 11 0 s1 0.23 1s · m in o C e . ic ' the Creat1on rv e S c l ] b 11 ,"' P . , r er d y O c n e g A I e n n o rs e P l a tr 11 e C of tl1e . e lativ leg�s ers, I?Ow 1g ga�i1 as already state d, de�e for ason e i· . Tlle principal is r k Pa ies. 1am w v bod s �nt t1ve e om 1sla leg bec �J r ry_ �a o pri d er 011 o rk . wo ll e. press re of ly ate qu al ade _de to 11l� c i. d1ff 1t d fi11 ils unc Co �1t�1 all draft la�s c oming : Ministerial t_ tmen for enac �iles 11p. Public s ervants ! n lat1o leg1s of log ackb a a11d em before tll ged chan e rativ _a11d 1111st adm new witl1 sittiations while 11g copi i11 s ultie diffic get into they a\vait tl1e e11actme11t of appropriate la w. The primary legislative bodies are often 1·eluctant to delegate tl1eir powers, but press11re of circ11msta11ces compels tl1em to find means of sb.eddi11g their load of work. It is better for tl1eI11 to delegate legislative powers in a systematic wav. retai11i11g tl1e 111ore i1nportant n1atters for their O\Vn consideration, than to find that 1 de fa.cto admi11istrative practices are creeping in to fill the vacuums left ,vhen there are 1011g delays be tween tl1e 11eed for legislation arjsing and st1itable laws being en­ acted. ,v11en tl1is l1appens, tl1ere is 110 proper discrimi.nation between wJ1at a.dmirns­ trators sl1ould do a11d vvl1at s l1011ld be left to tl1e primary legislative bodies. Planned 1 delegation of tl1e law-1nal<:ing power is esse11tiaJ to the well-bei11g of the comm. unity I under 111odern co11ditions. If tl1ey do not delegate, tl1ey will be under constant severe presst1re deal.i11g ,vit.11 111at t ers of all sl1ades of importance and they will inevitably ( fail to give tl1e detailed a11d co11ce11t rated study wl1icl1 tl1ey sl1ould t o matters of greater importance. . A seco�d r� aso11 f'or delegat jng i s to aclueve flexibjlit)' ,:vl1ere necessarf. Sub· or�111ate leg1slat1011 can be re1 )ealed, 111odified or replaced much more easily ao<l j qui cl<ly tl1an prin1ary legislatio11. It does 11ot 11eed to go tl1rougl1 all the pr ocesses of e11actment tl1at prin1ary legislatio11 does. If it is felt tl1at cl1anges in circtimstances I ?r of policy or IJriorities over a 1·elati,,ely sl1 ort p eriod 1na)' require i1um�rous changes [ 1n tl1 e law, tl1e11 tl1ere 1na.y be a case f<.1r s11bordinate legislation. Even 1n such cases, ho�ever, tlie pri1nary legislati,,e bodies sl1ot1ld 11ot s11rre11der the pow er to en at� Ieg isl��i011 ,vl1 i !1 tl1ey feel to be of s11cl1 importa11ce tl1at on�y they t.l1ems elves 5h,0� eilact it. Expei�rence seems to sl1ow 110\x,,e,,er tl1at tl1e1·e 1s a stro11g tei1 denc) 01 -, ' to · tha t 0 deI ega·te wl1at cot1ld be q111. te eas' .ily a11d legi _ timately delegated, rath- ei n I delega te wl1at sl1ot1ld be retained. j � not can · . · . Parli�ents A tl11r d reaso11 for delegat111g is tecl1nic,1lity. Bodies like dern � 111 e �xpectecl to be familiar witl1 all nce, J i1 � complexities of modern sc�e tl1e eta � s ess _ or ev i� inodern ad i11ist�· late 1 is leg to W ry nec es_ a i o11 s t a . is l1er it e � (: sfed . � � si _ � s 1?-1 0 s cl1111cal 01 Involved sub ects 1t IS er exp � tl1e to a 1t leav e ofte to 11 bes \ t in j d er b 1awyers) to 111ake the law, a d n a l ratl1er tl1a 11 ha ve it debated in detai the _1 \ :n �mb�r of Parliai11e11t i11 wlticl1 few ' if any ' members are koowledgeab e ·ncipJe s '#-rt p s11b�ect 1n questio11· It IS, d . • · . a l bro n e h o · on tl1e otl1er l1and most important that t up ed r 11 d ene:_al rnetl1.ods of a applying tl1en1 ·� l1ou1d ·be understood a �d gn: and-.t�e � ; 1mary law-makin a Jlle r Pa g by h ( iu; , E , aut � h thiopia � orities i.e. in B e o )_ tJieY -� b • 1G · � . . arJ'iam i lt is wl1 p ee De cr � � co nc er1 1ed wit l1 wi th Pr a oc .nd lam ati on s, �� J2e,1sti ns, review after issue The --, tlO � L aroa · · o cJ · ..: -1 · . Co 1 1 c..:. er p unc1 ; · d . 11ll . f o cons1 1n1sters 11sr1ally ��" M. :;?� . ;. " · . e and O·rders befor 1 1 , • . 1 · ° c n · C u o ·J the� a:e Issue s · Je t or . d Pa1·l1 �l1e a. m ent n st . t . rovi o� :-'" ?�, · �crutin.ise ro e . �" . ,,,,,,...: d .sb? s rneY Sp tIJa re ens� l l sl1ou they 11, lat10 eg1 lpal P�lllC so ud r;r Uc d d s l l e · le makin g of -:::!.c: ', __ subordinate laws, in appropriate_ case ·. -- 1

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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tha� no power� a r� �el egated �l1icI1 sI1 otild ilant �ig rly properly be icula ar t be � d by Parli a1nent or the E111pero1. At tl1e san1e t1111e t 1l ey sll oti ld co . 1111nen t . . . . . retaic1ne y n c 1 ll de 1n p o i . . d t · r 111c 1 a e en t eg_1slat1011_ l�.111111porta11t details �� ?�Y t1) . ! n a o a . crit l l l d. we ll b e d· ea l t ,v1_tl1 1!1 st1 bs1cl1ary laws a11d tl 1 c? I �111� s10'11s pro�1 tl1 us 1 or minor 1 e1r time 111 11nnecessar1. y co11stder111 g tl1 e111 tl ng nsumi co aVOl'd ·. · i�ered as aJ)_�ropriate 111,1tters for d.eleg con wer s e wl1 at n j s tudy ation iil a a As m be _appropriate to consider t 1l e delegated legislation issued ay 1t field r cula rt i . pa . s c p to l1 lt a e h i c li b u p on ion of 1943 (P.26 2/2) st ated:­ Article 3 of tl1e Pu bljc Hea lt.11 Procla111at . may I11terior n1ake of rt1les J)rovid.in g for: "Our �finister (a) the dec laratio11 of i11fect i ous di seases; (b) the preventio n and supp1·ession of i11fectious djseases; (c) compulsory vacc ination aga inst s111all-pox; (d) the disposal of sewage and 1·efuse; (e) the licensi ng, regulation and i11spectio11 of tl1e pren1ises of bL1tcl1ers, retailers of meat and fish-mon gers; (f) tl1e licensing, regu lati on and inspec tion ot� bake-J1ouses a11cl bal<:eries; (g) the licensing, regulati on a11d control of bre,veries a11d clistiller.ies, ice factories and minera l water factories: (h) the inspectio n , reg111ation and cont1·ol of cemete1·ies ancl tJ1e 11otificatio11, disposal and burial of corpses; (i) the closing of wells d eemed t o be da ngero11s to l1ealtl1; U) the sei zure of food-stuffs exposed for sale, if dee111ed to be da11gero11s to l1ealth: (k) tl1e se izur� and destruction of dogs fo11nd . in an y p11blic plac� witl�ot1t any m arks of i den tification. or co11sidered to be s11ffe1·i11g fro111 a11 111fec t1011s clisease: {I) the co�trol and inspection of cesspits, Jatri11es and 11ri11als, wl1 etl1er pt1blic or private; (m) the manufactL1re and sale of ice-crea1n; (n) the control, l icen s ing an d 1·egt.1latio11 of prostittttes an d brothels ." Article 15 (i) of the Public Healt l1 Proc lamation 1947 (P.916/12) provided that: c s h e 11 ib cr es pr d an s e l ru i 1 k cl su m nister, assjsted by the Boa rd, may a e M he fiees, ''T as 11 e may think fit for all or any of tl1e followi 11g ptirposes :1 e1r tl nd a (a) the_ organis atio es ic rv Se h lt ea n an d adminjstration of Public I-I Uruts·

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[�{ the P;evention, notification and suppression of diseases; tl1

e control of' epi dem ic and e n demic diseases; (d) san. l ta t·ion �nd s l1ou ing; ; cts jnse ) and (e the r en t ls i1na a r t o vec n p o e n an d destruct ion of dis eas 1 �v (f ) .. (g �metries a d . ) e cont n burial services; ' s l be t bro d an r�l es a nd regulation of prostitut (l1 ) th . (i) th: adop!Jon of emergency measures; '.111d n· ver Go ns utio stit . 1 a . 0 tr l pec o i . .. ·:: .._. tne. � ° o , re�ulat io� and ad mi n jst1:"at_1on � � toria, :� 1a e t , �a 1 s m n .. . '. . asy0 a1, or priv ate, 1nclud.1 ng hospi tals, . clinics, se e safegti ard of tl1e · . :. : ,· .· l u.ms, homes and o ther ns ti t utions wh1ch ftirtl1 er tlJe · : · . ; _,. puhlic hea l .', i ;· . ': : · th .

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IONAL L.<\ \1/. T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E SOURCJ3BOOK 01:.

vi pro ded tl1at ''all rule Jy cal cifi spe n . tio ma cla pro s thi s . ·wi111 e repea1-1ng p ·26 2/?· b d d 111 e sc s I y re a es le un ru ·ce o1 or f 111 be le to ru e u s i11 11t co ll · 1a l s r e 1d 1 11 re e n1ade tl1 tion' '. 1a n a cl ro P s li tl r e 1d 1 11 1 11ade 11g ri the following topics:­ ve co ns io at m Ja oc JJr l se 1e t d er 1 11 1 Rules were made g in s ain ice nt ot co N l les ga ru Le ; ed on 21 itt ?m ta ze Ga · it ar eg N to [Citations differe nt subjects l1ave b een issued.] r d elegated expressly in tte ma ct bje su ly 011 r ve co n ca 1 1 o ati l o-is e e l t ina d r i bo St in :it th or spi _wi ter let er in ei�h t c_ 1fli co1 _ the 1�t 1 _ 1st n�1 It . ion islcrt leg al 1cip 1 pri 1e l t e d or_ an� other prJnc1pal leg1sl�t!o n; �1s 1 �110 1 a1 1s t 1 l 1c w!1 e 1· � n t1_ n tio isla leg JJri11ciJJal 1 11 so far as it does, 1t 1s void. If tl1e pr 1 11c11Jal leg1s l at1on states that tl1e M1ruster (or otl1er a11t l1ority) ''sl1al l '' issue s11bordir1ate leg isla tio_n on. a certain t opic, then tl1ere is an obligatio11 11pon l1in1 to do so; be has no d 1scret1011 not to. If, o n the otl1er l1a11d, tl1e pri11cipal l e gislation state s that l1e ''may'' issu e subordinate legisla­ tion , tl1e11 it is vvitl 1i11 his discretion as to whether 01· no t he issue s any such legis1a­ tion. Princi1Ja l legislatio11, e 11acted in proper for1n, can repeal, amend or replace any otl1er legislatio11, wl1e tl1 er JJri11cipal or del e gated. It can do so either expressl y or by i111JJlicatio11, tl1011gl1 it is always b etter, if repeals are intend ed, for the legal drafts1ne11 to SJJecif;, tl1e laws, or parts of Ia,vs, being repealed . De legated legis.Iation, 011 tl1e otl1 er l1a11d, ca11 11ormal ly 011ly reJJea1, a111e11d or replace otl1er de legated legis­ lation made by tl1e sam e a11tl 1ority. In some very ex.ceptional circumstances, prin­ ciJJal l egislatio11 111ay, wl1en delegating pow ers, gi,,e express and specific autl1ority to repeal or ame11 d certain sta te d JJrovisions in the principal l egisl ation, but this is very rare and sl101 1ld b e avoided wl 1erever possible . Parliame11t, tl1e Cot11 1cil of Mi11ist ers a 11d tl1e Prime Mi nister's Office must have ways and. 111eans of cl1ecking tl1at tl 1e powers t l 1at are deleoated are prope rly exercised, bt1 t it is in1porta11t tl1at a11y cl1eck·s n1ade sl1ould 11ot b� time-consuming. I� wo_ uld be 9t1ite ridict1lo11s, for e xan1ple , if Parliaine11t were to spend as much �1 me 111 _cl:e�l<111g a11d co1 1trolli11g s t1bo1·dinate legislation as tl1e y would have spen t ' 1n scr11t1111s 111g tl1e san1e 1J1·ovisio11s i11corporat ed. in the principal Jaws. So far as tl1e Prime ivli11iste r's Office is co11cer11ed there sl1ould be no queSf.ion ? f tl1e officials tJ1ere att en11) ti 1Jg to s11bstitt1t e tl1eir o�n provisions and their o�n : Jttdgme11t for tl1 at o f tl1e officials i11 tl1e Mi11ist1·y or Age11cy concerned. The aim · J sho�ild be, a_s a �11at�e r of routi11e, to see \vl1ether a l l tl1at is incorporated in the sub- ,. o�d111ate legisl atro1 1 1s. properly tl1ere; tl1at all tl1e p1·0\,isions are made in pur suance of �owers ac t ti_ally delegated by t l1e lJri111ary legislative body and that there are-no obvious gaJJs 1n tl1e s11bo1·dinate legislation proposed. � 1 Tile cl1ecl<s 111ade by the Cot111cil of Mirusters wl1en they need be made at alb ;J t t cotil d be relati,,ely info1·1nal. Drafts of subsidiary legislat u_ I a circ � __;__ � ion could be �� u all members of tl1e Cot1ncil, bu t tl 1e drafts nee ncil Co u d not be considered in 0 ?ne_ or niore 111embers object to one o r more of the proposed provisions. s�cr - - -. � i,e 1 ect i ns s 05 � ? b.ott ld be mad e, no t because tl1e detailed provisions could P � � to: . ·_1 -J li. un proved upoii, btlt because provisions hav eit m see -· · le been i11clu ded ,vhich ai Y . 1t 1 . be contrary to ct1 rr ent policy or to . r o th u a · : 1e 1 t to . exc e e d g1,,en tl1 e pow e rs v1. . ro p th orised t.o issu e tl1 d ute · dis p st1 b ordi11at e legislation. Even then, only the . � : s1ons need be considered in Co .;:, -�.·� ,. - - . '{ uncil.

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concer11ed, tl1ere is . are ment . tl1ree Parlia possible as J)roced tires . . w 1 So 1,rai· ucl i . h e 011 t 11nporta 1 1ce of cl1ecki1 1 g 00 tl1e dependent ed, · . , dopt pa i·t·ic LI 1ar. pto. a be . ld . . u . co f . . L1 1� 1east 111 11?orta11t prov�sioils, IJOWer case o e t .1 �11 . stion que : could be visi ons in sub 1 ate law s to 1sst1 e tl1e1n w i tI1oti t ord 11 tl1e g 1 1 1 r . . rep a p tho fur se tlle r· e 1 . r. · 1 1 e to 1 _ e11 ce . . n . . (J1ve . . b n�.?re 1 1�1porta�t su ord 1_11a�e laws, 1 t COltld be JJrovicled t� 1 at1011 . :e In ment. ia to Parl 1 11 Parl 1 a111ent w1tl1 1 11 (say) forty obJec�1 ons to ct SlibJe are clays of be1· 11g . . . . . . that they 1 s are ra1se d w1t111�1 t 11 ,1t t1111e, or if a11y objectioJJS obJe ct10 no Jf d. wllic l l � . publishe _ 11 the p10\11s 1 011s s_l1ould sta11d. J 11 relatio11 tl1e ted, st1pp?1 11ot are d to eveii . are raise 1 11 ate lav-.rs, 1� cotild be p1·0�1ded tl1a� tl1 ey mt1 st be aJJproved u ord s tant_ � impor more . 1 : o. 1 1ses bot re of Pa�·lta111e __ ?f r1ty \ nt w1tl1 1 11 �say) �orty days of o maJo l� simp � � by a tlie two latte_ cases, r ol 1t_ eacl1 cot1ld be prov1cled eitl1er (1) tllat In . s. h ed 1 publ being operative vvl1e11 pt1 bl1sl1ed a11d remai 11 OJJerati ve tin less beco111e laws 11ate uborcli the s voided by a majority vote or (2) tl1 at tl1 e subordi11ate la,:vs do 11 ot co1ne i11 to operation until tl1e forty days have elapsed and, i 1 1 tl1e latter case, u11til botl1 Hot1ses of Par­ lian1ent l1ave ratified theu1. It would be i111porta11t to SJJeciiy, i11 every case of dele­ gation, in wl1ich category the s11bordi11ate laws wot1ld fall; in the abse11ce of a11y such provision� the subordinate laws would co1ne into operatio11 witl1 out Parlia­ ment taking any action whatever. In tl1e last resort, Parliament can always change tl-ie law, wl1 etl1er it co11 sists of primary or delegated provisions . Parliament could, if it so wished, set llp a Co 111111ittee to scrL1ti11 ise delegated legislation and bring, to the notice of Parliame11t a11 y cases i 11 vv11icl1 it felt tl1at dele­ gated powers were being exceeded or abused and also a11y cases i11 wl1 icl1 it felt that undesirable provisions ,ve1·e bein g inserted i11 st1 cl1 la.ws, so tl1 at actio11 co11lcl be taken to prevent abuse. Parliament could also, if it wished, pass a law s1Jecifyi11g l1ow st1bsidiary laws should be prepa1·ed a·nd issued, w11at k.inds of l)rovisions could or c_o�1ld 11ot.be embodied and even specifying the for m and content of certai11_ prov1s1�ns \vl11. _cl1 shou�d be deemed embodied in an y· subo1·dinate legislation cover1n_g certain co11t1 11gencies �e.g . the setting llp of committees: co1npositio1 1, age11da, m1ntites, frequerlcy of meetings, duties of chairm an and secretary, etc.). So far as judicial co11trol is concerned, i t is for th e Co11rts to_ decide, i� aily ry pri on m d s rai � be b ougl1t before them in addition to suc l1 q11estio11 s as ma y f r fas: and e i latio n, ven g _ been \V �; as 1 � l io11 slat u legi k 1 ; whether pow r to n a e s · bsid iary lgs tin bo e th er th e bsidiary 1n tl1 ,vi ed b as, in fact, been prepar m tio la gis n e le ad Su � 0 the po wer given. From � JJChechter Poultry Co. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1953)· . w ell to bear in n1ind tl1e .1s case .it- 15. In orde a . i11 ) orld economic r tol pprec�te tl1e ''crisis-like'' atn1osphere of tl1 w e 1 tJ er o ll v a s e tri tin co r l1e em ot t s which co�ronted �11e U.S. (and 111os the era of :�he great econorruc depressi on''. � .As . - one auth_or1ty . . . s 1be �escr crisi s it: o1nic on e e ''Th de r s an c t1ced od pr ,, 3 . 9 P-Fobab]y uneP- e sion _wh1ch began in the Fall of 1929 had, by 1 :�. e nillion persons were un­ ern�loye d;" thq� all ed in the rustory of the United Sta�es. At least thu �eec �e� industries l1ad �ropp ed to ·$16.1 3 Pee ave age wages of those still employed 1D twent y-five se . and truct1on 1 ns co 1g iri t r a r f; s­ 111anu c indti e o�r d t �ortatio Week in �ebruary 1933; wages receiv ed in mi11�r1g, an t c n 37 n alle ha ad l l'raJ Pro·ducttn b declmed fro1n 17 to 6.8 bilJion dollars. Prices � f d the· banks were cl?s ed ­ g n 1nter. nti h b d of y re Li we m? ee it ;; s lve cie ant �,amcy llttt �; va c Jn . lf n �t ost in so alm qu ha tJ1e � of · 1 Sl mea re e e fat eo nitnerce' hadnue fr�lght carried by Class I railroads, a fair . declined 51 pe . .

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535

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l\fAJ., LAV..; IO T U IT ST N O C . N A PI IO T I T · E · F O · SOURCE·BOOK

. me la� v June 16 , 1933, \Vas �a �1 be ruc w _ �, Ac ry ve co . . Re ial str du 1 ''T1_tle I of_ tJ1 .e_ Nati �1 11 1 strat1on 1n an _ efl o�t to halt the wnw��e n Ad1111. velt · e Roos �� e do l tl : b d n e of_ a series o f stattite� 1 e natio11al economy. Wh11.e ot11er 11Jeasures de alt tl e igoral re-fnv d a SJ? tral of tl1e depr s 1011 ed \Vith tl1e depres sio11 as it directly afe :d grappl Act c ry Recove f � � e � tl1 11 e J o 1e t t o s differen t as�)ect of tl1e 11· 1,1· s ses was to be incre ased tl1rough the power asing dc fl; 1 Jr I pt1rcl J t de e 1 l T . ry . en11J 1oyme11 · ,. . labor a1 1d 1ndt1st · n1ng, b a.rga1 ve 1 t was collec t to free be mcreased establislunent _ of n1inin,un1 wa(Tes ancl ss 111 en, in combinations sulJject to Gove sine 1 · Bt s ation J 0 ' 1 gt e 1· ot11 1 l 1rnme 1 · ·· .nt . .. . ·. througl 1 n1ax1n1u1 . . · . 1 1111ate \1/asteful compet1tlve p1act 1 ces and cut-tl1ro at conlpetieJ11 to d e allo\:v be o t e er 1 va w a_ppro r vvage biJls and to rest ore llighe tl1e ces, pay to pr i11 e i decli11 1e tl alt 1 I to ' tl;en1 ble na e o t as t1on so ..,...J' · 1 ce an · · CI ause d t 1e 1 at1ona 1 Economy, busiiless to a 11ealtlly condition.'' R.L. Stern, ,,T1 1e con1n1er 1933-1936,'' 59 J-Jarvard La,v Revie111. 645, 653 ( 1946). Section 3 of tl1e National Indtistrial Recovery A. c t declared: ''( a) Upo11 tl1e a1)plication to tl1e President by one o_r more tr�?e Of indt1 strial ass�ciations or groups, tl1e Pre sident 1nay approve a code or _codes of fa.if _cornpel!i 1 on 1or tl�e trade or 1.odustry or subdivision tl1ereof, represented by tl1e applicant or ap1Jl 1 cants, 1f the President finds (1) that sucI1 associations or groups in11)ose no iuec1t1it�ble res�rictions on_ 8:d!-lllssion to n1embersbip therein a 11d are truly representati\1e of st1cl1 trades or 1 11dt1s�r1es or st1 �d 1. �r1s1ons tl1 ereof, and (2) that such code or codes are not desig11ed to pro1note n1ono1)0]1es or to el1mJnate or oppress small enterprises a11d \vill not operate to di scri111inate ag,tinst tl1e111, and will tend to eflectt1ate tl1e po]jcy of this Title: Provided, tl1 at s t1cl1 code or code s sl1 all not 1)ern1it n1onopolie.s or mo11opoJ.iEtic practices: ... The President 11 1 ay, as a conclition of l1is atJproval of any such code, i1npose st1ch coodition s (including reqt1iren1ents for tl1e 1nal<.i 1 1g of reports and tl1e keeping of accounts) for the protection of con­ st11 11ers, co1 111)etitors, en11)loyees, a 1 1d othc:rs, and i n furt11 erance of t be pt1bJic interest, and may provide st1cl1 exce1Jtio11s to and exen,ptions fro111 the provisions of sucl1 cede, as tl1 e President in his di scretion deen1 s neces sary to effectt1ate the policy herein declared.

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"(b) After the President s1 1all l1ave approved a11y st1cl1 code, tl1e provisions of such code sl1all be tl1e standards of fair co1n1)etition for st1cl1 trade or industr). or st1bdi,rision thereof.... ''(c) The several di strict cot1rts of tl1e United State-S a.re l1 ereby invested with jurisdiction to prevent and restrain viola.tio11 s of any cocle of fa ir co111petilion approved under tlus title; ... . '�(f) \V11e1: a c�c1e of fair con1petitio11 l1as been approved or _prescribe-d by tl1e President under this _title, any v 1ola t1on of any J)rovision tl1ereof in a ny tra11saction in affecting interstate or or foreign comn1erce shall be a n1isden1 eanor and t1pon con,riction tl1e offe er shall be fined reo nd an f not more tl1an $500 for eacl1 offe11se, and eacl1 day sucl1 ,,iolation contint1es shall be deemed a separate offense.'' �11 tli_e Sc!zec/! t �r case, tl1e Scl1echter Pol1ltry (f) above) n Co . sub \\'a pro sec s sec tio (se ute e d for violatin_g_ JJro,,1 sro 1 1s of tl1e ''cocle'' regt1 lat hours ing ll1eir indtist ry (sp and age Vi s eci 1 tl fic e a l l)' · rules prov1 s 1ons). T he evidence as to tl1e ,,iolation ,vas clear. But tl,e con,pany arguec1 tl1at Section 3 effect, in ,,,a s l1a t1n d, co 11s tit Co titi ng o11 res be al s cau se made a stattite 0� a type �;hicl1 it _(Congr �Jen t ess ) co tilc 11(>/, t111dcr t11e constitution, en act: tl1e enac l r esented . �n .111vali� clele�atio1 .1'' - i.e., tr::11,sfer nt. ide Pre s tl1e ci of to leg isl at.1 ati tl1o ve rily ( t�1er constitutto11 al 1 ss11e . s ra1seli by t11e co111µany are not treated l1ere.) ,e lower cotirts rulecl against Sc d J eal e ap p l1 ecl1te r on tl1is point ter T �11 others) <·1d a " . Scl1ech ··· (ai to tb e St1pre-1ne Court. ExceriJts fron1 tl1e clc:cision foll ow:

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Mr. Chief Justice Hughes deliv ered the opinion o f the Court. ... } � Fi,·st. · · · We care · n ptio · ado t old tl1at ·tl1e pro,11s1o · e · n o f tl1e statt1te at1tl101·1z · 1·ng t'·Ll ; 0f codes mtist be iewed i11 tl1e ::1 ligl1t of tl1e gra,,e national crisis witl1 \vluch Congre-� � a confroi ited. Undoubtedly, the lw a '. are: � _ sed con dit ion s ad dre s to wh po ich we r s i t? e coi1sidered v;,J1e 11 tbe exerci se of po e 11 o d ar w r i s cl1·allenged. Extraor in y c 1v, �t·· . 1011s 1nay call for extra orct·11 ary re 1 s . ps r--0 ·1 i s . f 1ed 1 1 . s. � Bu .r. 1 tl1 · ec t ar e ess · gtt ar m e11 1:1t . � . of an att JJt to _JtlS tify ua ! al � oJ ? act 101 � tut 1 i wl � 11c h . nst i l1es · ot1 co tsi _. of de . spl 1ere the •. thority. xtraord iiary er w 0 · condi tions do not create or enla1·ge consti tutional 12 i _ ; - �

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TrIE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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537

· Delegatiorz of t/1e of Legislative n i testio Power • Tlle Co11gress Q· e ,.,.. 7 1 . d Secon J. ' • ·.· • . . . • tra nsf to to er otl or 1er s cat tl1 . e e i ess ab e11t d 1al leg to islative flii1.cti·ons d itte m per · · not · · ve el?ea h e I · t dl y e\. W ec d e 1 . g 1 1 1 vest e� tl1� neces?ity of adapting � � si ith wroch it is thus � .. w . t· to con1plex concl1t1ons .1nvolv1ng a 1.10st of details w1t11 wI1ich tl1.e Il . atio n 1 . a 1 a IeglS ion . dea I d'1rec�1 y . 11.1 po111 • te d . ut vv e 111 '. Le I Pc111a111ct Co,n_1;a,iy case [cita� ot cann . ture le_gi·sJaro ' cl] tliat the Co11st1 tl1t1011 l1as 11ever been 1egardecl as cle11y11 c 1g to tte 011g ress J · · · t1on ° 1 ·b·1· l �tr a11 d 1)ract1ca _·1ty: w111cl1 'vV1ll e11able_ it to ex1 f fl O 1:ces resot IJerform tl1e necessary_ laytn do\\'D pol1c es a11d est b�1sl1 11 sta11d ! �_ � � g �rd.s, wJ 11 Ie _Ieavii�g to its funct�on 1 n 1 11g of s11bo1cl.111ate r11les w1tl1111 })rescri becl Iiinits mak t11e t1es menta l1 1 t ,nstr cted se1 e wl1icl1 tt1e :polie)' as declared by tl1e Iegislattire to facts of 1 m.inat io1 deter d the an · · co1 1e a11 1·ec 1s 'd l I t t 1at t o sa1 1t10 1 11 . of tl1e 11ecessity an d validity we But � ply. � � ap is to ra11 w1de e of the a. d 1111n 1strat1ve al1tl1ority wl1ic11 J1as been a11d ns, provisio g such of developed by n1ean s o � tl1em, cao11_ot ?e allowed to. obsc11 re tl1e lj1nitatio11s of tl1e authority to delegate, 1f ou1· co11st1t1rt1011al syste1n 1s to be 1nai11tai11ecl. . . . ...Section 3 of tl1e Recovery Act i s ,:vitl1011t p1·ecede11t. It s11pplies 110 sta11dards for tany trade, industry or activity. It does 11ot ll11dertal<:e to prescribe rt1les of con­ duc to be applied to particular states of fact deter111i11ed by a1JJJro1Jriate ad1ni11is­ trative proced11re. Instead of prescribi11g 1·ules of co11dt1ct, it a11tl1orizes t11e n1al(ing of codes to prescribe them. For t11at legislative ltndertalcing, Sectio11 3 sets 11p no e11eral ai1ns of rel1abilitatio11, correction tandards, aside from the statement of tl1e g s and expansion described in Section One. 111 view of tl1e scope of tl1at broad decla ra­ tion, and of the natu·re of the few restrictio11s tl1c1t are iinposed, tl1e discretio11 of the President in approving or prescribi11g codes, a11d tl1t1s enacti11g Jaws for tl1e government of trade and industry tl1rol1ghotrt tl1e cotintry, is virt11ally u11fette red. We think t11at the code-making at1tl1ority tl1l1s co11ferred is an l1nco11stitutional delegation of legislative power. . .. Mr. Justice Cardozo, concurring. . .. . The delegated power of legislatio11 wl1icl1 l1as fot111d expression i11 tl1is code is not canaliz ed within banks that keep it f1·om overflowing. It is unconfined and vagrant. . ..

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· Ieg is l. Read t h . Iatio11: · e in certa following e xtrac ts from a N rit Gaze/ g , e a (a) Tl1e Ministry of Pensions Order, No. 20 of · 1958 17th Year No. 9:

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Questions an the Above . Th� Schechter case, of course, is n.ot law in Ethio1Jia. The CoL1rt was interpretin� a_ Consti_tu­ �on which vests "All legislative powers ... i n a Congr�ss'' (�rt_icle 1) and '1: Co11st1_tLition w��� � efl�ct s a theory of ''separation of powers'' 11ot foL1nd 1n Eth101J1a - ai1d qLiite possibly not

desirable in Ethiopia. . Neve rth · e1ess, the essent1..al problem of tl1e Scl1ec/1ter case 1s · l11:;"'rent,,1·r1 '·:1.ny syst. en1 of co11· st1-.? · in . 1 1or1ty tut1onal law· Should t t1 a g 111 k a 11 -1 v \> la te a eg el cl '· there b e any 1·1m1tat1on · · on tl1e p ower· to . . Wha t are the basic issues and argL1ment s? Re-read · ·. Chapter I, pp.38-50 - proble111s of policy c117 uI th eory; reconciliation o f t1.,.1e va l ues of1 .ati·on of po\1/ers witl ar sep government by consent and parliamentary control tl1rotigl1 the values of strong and efficient governme11t; C hapter IV, Section 4 (pp.393-39 7); to S /aJl' ce ,,,c1/ to ver Cba�ter V, pp.451-452 and pp.469-470 - tlze allocatiorz of po• Parl1an1en t. ConsuJt: Chapter VII,. pp. · .r. tn;1ra.

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S OURCEBOOK OF E'THIOPIAN CcJNSTITVTIOl'�1\L L.,.\ W

538

''SO(d) . He sllall make st1cb amend1nents to tb_ e pe11sion laws when ­ n e cessary and expedient." ever it is found (b) Tlle Ministers (Definitio11 of Powers) (Ame�dm_e11t No. 2) Orde r, No. 46 of 1966 (Article 22). [The text of tl11s Art1cie 1s set out on p.452.J (c) Tlle Transport Procla1n,1tio11, No. 35 of 1943, Negarit Gazeta 2 nd Year No. 7, (now repealed): ''59. (i) The Minister of Comm·u ni cations m ay make regulat io ns for car1·ying tl1is Proclamation into effect. (ii) In particular and wit11out prej11dice to the generali ty of t11e foregoing powers, such regulations may prescribe ... . U) tl1e 1· 11les of tl1e road� and tl1e signals to be given d an obeyed by the dri ve1·s of vehicles ... (t) tl1e pe11alties for breacl1es of regulations... (iii) Ai1y mod ifications or adaptations of or exemp tions from tl1e provisions of this Proclamation whicJ1 may be p.re­ scribed by regulations 11nder this Article shall h av e eff ec t as if tl1ey were contained i n th e Proclamatio n." (i) With respect to the two Orders: Do tl1ey dele ga te any Jaw-making a11tl1ori ty? If tl1e IJrovisio11s quoted above we re p re se n te d as d raft Proclama­ tions for yot1r review a11d com1ne11t, w h at , if any, advice would you offer?

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Does tl1e ·Transpor t P1·oclama ti o 11 raise a n y proble1ns- constitutio11al or IJolicy? 2. (a) Re-read tl1e case of Lisci Sofia set fo1·tl1 pp.403-405 supra N , . ote also tl1e 9-11esti?ns, p.405. Wl1at is tl 1e re le,,a11ce, if a11y, of this case to a cons;1derat1on of the limits o f tl1or1ty? W11at ''wa1·ni11g'' d tl1e power to delegate law-mak. ing au­ o es it offe1· d raftsmen of organic and dele­ gated legislation? Cb) ob!e ms o f cre p r ating "petty offe c s � n e '' by regulation, co�su!t owenstein, l'ifaterials /01· tl1e St,1cl ,

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J o_f t!1 e Penal Lau, of Ethiop ia (1965), p.297 et seq . 3 - Procl mation No. 39 o f 1943 (dealing w � ith taxation), N egarit Gazeta 2nd tear No. 10, state d: "5- Our Minister of Finance, with the conse nt o f the Council of Mini5 !ers, may by 1·egt1latio11 publisl1ed i11 t11e N·egarit Gazeta (a) aiuend the rate of [customs] duty payable in respect of any itenl _ co11ta1ned 1 n tl

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(b) grant total or pa r ial exempt�on from the paym n t of duty ! _ e any go?ds wlucl1 �� _

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1n tl1e public interest should b e granted su

exemption.'' AsSume t l1 at in 1956 r aske d: ''Is Article this Proclamation is under revie w. Yo u a:e 5 of the Proclamation constit tional? If we amend ot/1er parts of u - . the Proclamation , .

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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must we amend Article 5?'' (Cf. A.rticle 167 of Proclan1ation No 14S of 1955, Negarit Gazeta 14t.l1 Year No. 7.) (ii) Assume ftirther tha� t_he �inistry of Finat1ce I1as argued: ''For a variety of rea_s�_us 1t 1s desirable tl1at \¥e l1ave tl1e l)OWer to raise and lower tar1.tl rate s- as we l1a,,e, 1111der P1·oclamation No. 39 of 1943. '' Can you see wl1y t11is may be trt 1 e? Can the power req11ested by tl1e 11inistry be gra11ted witl1 out creating constitutional proble111s? ·Toe Coffee (Cleaning and Grading) P .roclan1atio11, No. 1 21 ot' 1952, Negarit 4 Gazeta 11th Year, No. 5, delegates vario11s powers to regt1late tl1 e marketing of coffee, and states: ''6. The Minister of Commerce and Industry is autl1orised to issue re­ gulatjons by legal notice or circular for the carrying out of the pro­ visions of this Proclamation.'' Comment on the above provision. Migl1t jt raise a11y constitutional problems? 5. The Ministers (Definition of Powers) Order, No. 1 of (1943), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 5, stated: ''13. Ministers may make administrative i11structions not inconsistent with any of Our Jaws for ap1)lication i11 t11 eir Ministries. No such administrative instructions sl1all be put i11to effect until Our pleasure has been signified through OL1r Prime Minister."

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Compare Articles 2,7(c) and 8 of Order No. 44 of 1966, 1). 511, supra,

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Section 1 of this Chapter.

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What changes were made? What are the arguments for and against the cl1anges made? 6. I� what ways might Parliament review the output of ''subsidiary legisla­ tion'' in Ethiopia?

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A Further Problem

o tw ed os op pr 7· Assume that ve ha Planni11g of y tr . is in e M e xp th ''e ' s' rt in s e . r u t · a e f . e th f o e m o S alternat1ve to be followed in drawing up the 11ex t P1 an. of the two alternatives ar e No. I: s · 1 . o t a v i t l u c t 11 a n - redistribt1tion of large absentee-land lord ho1d .1 1,gs to te thro i1gh a land-refor· m scheme; . tl1 eal 1 1 c · · 81 a b . · n o 1 rn ' t a - a or 1c L d e ary im pr � public investment in housing, facilities·' er ov . . es ari sal d an s . me - increased taxation co 10 rent · of b1,1siness profits, $500 . : . No 2· m­ oo a on rs _._ . . ., . - tu ne ow by d o la f o as . ·, -, :.. ·'. ·- :. ·.. . .... . . m-e n o ti a iv .e lt ure u c e g to ra ... u o c en . .- .· .. ·0.:0,.-�. -,,_ :._. ·. · · 1ll·.·er·era . 1 basis·' .. . :· · : _. :·,: ; . ··� .�·:,- ·. �

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a ur lt cu al ri l pr u ci ag er od 1n m . co io ct : in · n t en tm es a nd v j11 c · i · bl . . )tl . . J . - maJor . . � , 1 y ea ssu1g, grain tr 11 m c� o p ro p s., 1 e1 1s t1 er (f es r1 st ti d in agrictilttlral . e a1 m c1 i r m cu co r1 r . ag fo s ce re ur tt1 so re r te w a sec· ' • sto raoOe , tanneries)·, h • p m 1t a co arat1v�Iy limit ed ( n io at uc ed l a c gi lo no ch te 1d � 011ctary a1 l c1a er ra e ric m ot ag co om pr ur to ult s e ad ro in ; s) nt de 1 1 st in e as e cr in selected a reas; 1 tary education a nd basic rural e1 m ele t o1· pp su to e11 rd 1 bl tax g _ sll ifti 11 s; 1t e1 un rr ve go l ca lo to es ic v r se 1 l lt l1 ea . ies d te str lec du se in ju 1t 1 e tm es v in te 1o on pr es to v i - incent Assume further tl1at tl1 e ex1)erts are in general agreement as follows: Prograu1 me l\To. 1 wil l 1)rodl1ce a low increase in t11e pe,· capita national prodl1 ct, in i11comes ancl co11sun11Jtion; Programme No. 2 will increase 1 agrict1ltt1ral prod11ctivity, tl1 e pet· caJJita national prodl ct a nd resources available for ft1rther inv estment, if consumption can be controlled.

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decides whicl1 - if eitl1e r - of tl1ese plans should be developed? Wl1 at f11rtl1er ql1estio11 m11st decisio11-makers ask a11 d answer?

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SECTION 3

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGENCIES OF LOC�t\L ADMfNISTRATION Re-read: ChaI)ter I, PJ).52-53.

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It 1 11ay well be asl(e d why a sectio11 on local go·,.rernment sl1ould be placed in a cl1apter on ''execl1tive i11stitl1tio11s' '. I11 fact tl1e topic ot� local go,,ernment is very complex a1 1d arg11ably cleserv es at least ,1 separate cl 1auter - if 11 ot separate bookle11gtl1 tre,1t1 nent - of its O\Vtl. . . . Becatis� tl1� stibject is so cornplex, it is 011ly ''i11. trod11ced'' in tl1is book. An? 1. t is place d 111 tl1 1 s cl:apter becat1se, at tl1is J)Oi11t i 11 J.:.t1 1iop ian political d evelopinent ! oblein of de� ising a '.'mo dern" sys muc h y v�r is t tem n gov of ern loc � me al ;��6J: in for exectitive gover 1 1n1e11 t (tl1ougl1 Pa1·l1 a111e11t too 1nt1st sl1are 1n tl1e deci 1. ?10 �� t_? be �lade!. Until rece11 tl)1 tl1e political tre·n.d L1 as bee11 to ''ce11tralize''. t}Je . . 111st1tl1t1 on· s l11stor1 ca' lly. l1s�c I t· O go,,ern tl1e . 1es n1t 1nn1u co d1 verse l11stor1c regto11s a11d ' n hic llave 1��? e lIJ) _Et�1101Jia , a11cl i11 tl·1is r a �, cot111try tl1e po,ver of tl1.e EmJJero ers �e ;:pre se_ntatives of 111s gove1:n1 11e11t l1as steadily lead loc al of t 1a tl reJJ lac ed · 1 . e h . . the. governt11g . . t . f · of s loc .· a . . ' l a1e as 1 s a f u11ct1 or1 largely carrie d Ollt by appo 111tee o . · . l executive establ1· sl1 . 1 101s . a 11 d 1·eg1. 01 es), ·srr1 · · men 01 t 1 ( . gover m 1al represe11 tat1ves from tl1e . , . , d ce atld. a SYSte11: _of ''direct rule'' pla re y I and ''central adn1i 11istratio11'' l1as larg el . var1ol1s tr,td1t1011al arrang e111e11 ts. � ed de t ti e �ateri als which fol In y. B; l low show that changes are ag ain under wa ] most . ve °l)IIlg cotintries are confronte e f g ?a � , \ ;n: vie :v w o 1 1 d n witl : 1 1 i prob tl e le of po1 I �ca1 and eco110111ic dev 1 dev scbbe ld elop1nent \\'11at so rt of a sl1ou sten1 sy ' , to prov1de io . . su . " r ''go. ve � l ·. na ,.-t·10 . . . rn·111g'' tlie ''ar1ol1s geograpr1 1ca.l or etl1111c or tra ot ·, 1 ·n nationa I co1n1111111Lt1 es and Y 1 . r g d un · e . group ! n gs wh1cl1 make llIJ tl1e st at e ?_ A ' . � '"direct'',_ __ preinise is t11 e .need fo. � a s s_.tem . _ 1Jg ex1st1 · 111c tl1e r J)laces, . to son1e e xtent, te � � � � ea ''centralized'' inst1·ttLtJo cr . ns tl. 1 ese u1st1 to sary tut1ons may well l1a ,,e been 1 1eces · · -·-�.: . :.. �J;

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· d'tions of political order an d unit� i n tl1e past; tl1ey may rerve well en ot igl l ba�1c. con 1 co nc er1 w1 1ed tl1 are n1e rel )' ern ing ''adn1inisterirg'' for purposes go v of s k s t i f the � s0 ta co 111 g es lle e cti b1 n 1t x as an ; tl1 d os e ta eac slc s e ,re ex1Ja i1cled' as g p 1n . , f keep · · ' o · · · ct c tn e e d co pr n ov 1 1t1 0. n s o 1 r l1u 1pts to 1na n 11 att e be ter 1 ne 11t _ roacls, nt r e . ' .. over un . . . . · e.e "et ct1 1 . I s, 1� :po,�er �nd otl1er a1 nc111 t1 es gchools, health services, 111ar atl cl as _ . s v rnroent 11ndertakes eve11 more sopl11st1c ated taslcs sl1cl1 as ''pla1111111g' , and e ID: d1 01· 1ce pr e, to p n y 111ore j�e t s xes, a11d as g)Vern111e11 t �e_eks inc �nt lg lop it � _ ��ve � _ . _ . de11 at1c 1oc1 �o,, for e1111 ne11 t ut1o ns tl11 ot1gl1 tl1e JJroce. sses of IJ01itrcal to dev elop inst1t col1. elec nc1ls - as tl1ese goals de,,elo1J tl1e 11 it be comes ted nd ns a elect io on, pressi ::cessary to change the ��ste��l. T.l1e proble1.11 is 011e o� d_ e �_i_ s ing vtlicl tl1eories and measures for ''de-ce11t1·a/1sL11g s0111e execl1t1v·e respo11s1b1l 1t1es ana clelegctting them to local agencies of go,,er1m1ent.

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Choice among p.aths to\vards cl1a11ge are i11fi11itely ,,aried. [t is possible to ... '�conceive of regional or lee.al governn1ents as e11tre 11cl1ed co11stitltional creatio11s, ·''' . .. . enjoying a \vide meas11re of autono1nol1s powe1·s witl1 little or no cirect supervision �...:. .. by or a ccountability to tl1e central gover11n1e11t. It is possible to create u11its of local overnment, inclt1ding elected bodies, wl1icl1 are n1ere age11ts of national govern­ g ment acting 11nder a netvvo.rl< of directi,re s fro1n above. It is possible to cre ate tiers of governme11ts witb varying geograpfzical jurisdictio11 (provi11ce; or regions, to districts, to villages) and varying sitbject 111attet· jt1risdictio11 (eccno1nic pla11ni11g, r0ads, schools). It is possible to devise a ''1)art11ersl1jp'' systen1 \vl1e1ei11 local govern­ ments enjoy an independent existence but sl1are variotLs JJO\Vers a1d revenues vvitl1 the national government. It is possible to create all sorts of l1ybrid arrangements. l hoi ce of systen1 sl101Lld presumably reflect tl1e 111ost car{fL1l j11dgme11t � · ,ve1gh1 ng and balancjng many competing claims a11d. 11eeds, s11cl1 a� 1. the l1istoric claims of t,-aclition, geogra1Jl1y, regional and groitp interests; ., 2. t�e need for pO}Jt1lar i111de1-·staridirzg a11cl acceJJtance of tl1e P?litical insti�11t1ons to be imposed 1Lpo11 a co1111nu11ity (traditional :::l11efs, autl1ority figu res, or elders' councils cc1.11 easily be deposed by lav, bt1t tl1e actual . ('I status, power and e ffectiveness of tl1e o r. ga11s to replace tl1em cannot be produced by law alo11e); . 3· tl1e need for z,nitJl (s 1 d a lti s f­ o Y� � > l1 ibal or 1 · cl1i paro ! g i1 l1bo1 dinat _ ! � � r a an fere ns tutio 1r5ii nces t1cal 1Jol1 m ' r l ltnde 1non tl1e 1mbrella of 'co { basic loyalty ta the greater co1nn11111ity wl1.ich. is tl1e 11atior1); , , · . . . ocracy · 4· the c Iaims of JJ0!1.t1cal 1 · ,.., / ''dem r e · greaL. 1s · goa . theory ancl zdeofoo y (1f tl1e .. e tl1.rough competitive electio11s ope11 °·poJJ11lar debate aL d re1Jreseiltativ _ ' '! e · acl1 1ev · Iat1ve to ts 11 e 1-.egis 1 111 . over organs, then th,e struct11.r111g of loca_1 g tllese e11ds will ·be stro ngly argued); per hap s h vvl1i 5. ti" e· cI a·ims of econom .c cle1,1efo1;1nent c ( . , · e · r,c1 '-'fJ 1· · :c 1 1 1101111 c eJ i . eco a11d i . 11111�.. · 0f loc'al governdepend o n analysis of tl1e f1111ctions to be delegated to ; ). · g tho"e men·t a11 d. analysis of tl1e best way of acI11ev · 111 � t,sks , . . eepIe p . ,,at e . n1o t1 . 6. /Jsye . 1 \<VI 1 l best , Izologitaf , factors (ar1alys1s of wl1at� sy5ren nan l1u1 tax es f to n1ak· e more . form ' . · . ·b .· the J in ns t1t1 sacr1fice s a11d co11tr1 . 1an ? rrta r alit l1o is effort, and _ . es Juniti coro tl1e1r coope � ration to i1nprove e nt rnm . gov · e ll'tn gover. nment t · Jec · - . by comm d. 1nor e ef1c1 res ' · J tl11s · t · fi 111 en a11 , . · .;· ? . �y C()nsent, cot1nselli11g a11d. cc,11ci liation :); . and _ · . ' . . ·... tlte 11· """' . . nge s " ""°' cha d1c d al 1 ra or . 10g civi c edt1,cation preced :-.:i · · . t��.-·'.-:".�·-· . ·� . ...·,:..... . .�.� ': .. ..,... ..... . . . . . .

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SOURCEDOOK 01:. ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTIT'UT10NAL LA\\'

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8_ the need for hun 1an ,·esources (in tl1e forn� of capable Ieader� a_n� publ ic a11 d energy time spend 1n more remot e, pr1D11t 1 ve serva.nts willi11g to com­ mt111ities to n1ake t1 1e system wo1·k). ObviotisJy other co11siderations m. ay also be invoked.: t11 e judg�ent on polici es t o be adopted is st1btle and 011ce agai n tJ1e IJfOblem may call for continuo us research and a form of co11ti11uous polit;cal pla1111i11g.

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TI1e decisions are essentially decisions of 110w t o delegate jt1risdiction and duty for t11e carryi11 g-ot1t of responsibilities presently committecl to the exec11ti,1e i• orga n s. / Tl1e decision may affect many ministries (eg. Interior, Heaitl1, Edtication, Ag rict1lture ,. and J11stice) and n1any specialized ad hoc agencies (e.g. nat ional marketi11 g boards, regt1latory age11cies, po\.ver and water resot1rce a·uthoritie )- I 11 a mo re profound � sense, tl1 e decisio n on \Vl1 at system of local gover1unent 1s to be d eve lop ed ma y . affect natio11al constitutional development over the long haul Just as sj nificantly ,. g ,. as changes in tI1e wri tten co11stitution itself. Con1parative SJJSfems lf. From Alderfer, Local Gover11111e11t i11 Developi11g CouJ-1t1 ·ies (1964), pp.3-16. Tl1 e Fre ncl1 system of local government is establis he d in a l arge portion of tl1 e world today. . .. Wl1en N·apoleon ca1ne into power, lie thor o u ghly revise d tl1e organization of local governn1e11t. In t l1e la w of Febrl1ary 17 , 1800, I1e set up a systen1 that was to last, exceJ)t for mi11or cl1 a11ges, to tl1e .. p re se 1 1 t d ay . It ,,.,as orderly, symmetrical, an d logical - tl1 e prodt1ct of a gi·eat n 1ilitary n1i 11d opera.ting in a civjl fra111ewor k. An t1nbrolcen cl1ain of co111ma11d ft1n ' ct io n ed from t11 e national governn1ent through departn1 e nts a11d a1·rondisse1ne11ts d o w 11 to the su1allest com 1n11ne. A corps of adjut­ • ants - Joyal, traine d, co1nJJete11t, ' a nd disciplined - tl1e prefects of tl 1e depart­ •, ments, and tl1e sub-prefects of tl1e , a r1 ·o n rl is se111e11ts. carried 011t tl1e will of the ce11tral gov ernment. Ministerial regt1Ia tio11s, fro111 ,1/l1 icl1 tl1ere sl101tld be no deviatio n, m�d � govern111 ent throt1gl1011t F . ra 11 ce 11 11 ifor111 a 1 1d precise. A bod y of non-c om­ nuss10 _ n:d officers - the co1nm1111al 111ayors a11d co .. lo 11.ncilmen - obedje11t, yal, and 111d1 ge nous to tl1e c on11111 1n it y and of tl1e soil of F1·a11ce. c on stituted tl1e lowe St rung of tl1e J1 ie rarcl1y. . . . 'I , . Dtirii,g tJ1 e centt1ry and a 11::llf of its existe11c e, it be,carne gradually more demo­ cratic. I 1 1 1831, t�1 e co 11 1n 111nal co1111cils were made elec '' ceased to be non1 L na te d by tjve; in 1881, tl1e ma�or 'l. tl 1e c e 11 tr a l gover111ne11t a 1.1 d becan1e an elective official c hosen h y and '.r0m the _1ne1nbership of _ 'l the council. By the Municipa l_ Code of 1884, �hich is st,11 the baste t l a w , the_ counc il w a s given powers of decisio _ e of puiely 10?al conce(n ; n Il l m a tt r but not without an elabo .' rate complex o f chec� � n th part of tile l11glier officials . l.' o f arror1dissen1e11ts, departm · s. · n t s, a11d central min1st-rJe e · Certain legal principles and p ractices are basic in Frenc local goveromen� !-,ocal units are organs h di o f t h e central govern Iba n t ex m te e 10 England o r t n t r g to m re a u te c a h h e United State _ s, They h ave no powers th a t are not granted to !betII �y a const1tuted auth o rity._ �urth ermore, as the France � 1 ts 0Wn riglits and ex in ec p u o ti w v er e dtit1es d1st111 ct fro1n tl1o y , o 1 oc� 1 govern!1 rl u il i se a e o ra tr 1 1ted b y the leaisla v 1 ent is Sll bject to the exect1tive b;ancl1 for examp in such fields _ as po�ice! s�cunty, hygie 1� ne, a11cl safety. In ve 1.rt 1 fact ' all p11b]j· � serv ex e� Jurisdict10n. Tb·is gi· v. r un de co · m ic . e . es es tl. 1e m . c:1yor of a co1nn1une, . for example a dual· ca, p ac�ty - . -.. , • • f '

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exe cut a11d ive an ofl1 cial cen tral foll owi the 11 g tJ1 e directives g· ,. of . n t · _ e ge n i, . . as an a local COUOC. J·1 • pI? all th.e ex_ect . , 1_t·l �� b· . 1 r_ a 11c 1, al�l10 ll�l l adn�1r11stratively ]JJS by him tive and 1sla 1 al . b1 a nc h es, is sti_ll nO t in le Judi c the bot�_ 0� nt dependent � independe . 1rts are se! �p to deal �1tl1 cases tl1at arise between co: at1ve ms!r Adm.t citizeils of law. .e agencies and officials. Tl:e l11gl1est of tl1ese cotirts is tli e Con.seil 1,, at r ist dmin and a 1 rts are the con,')e1/s de p1·efecttire . .. col lower the while . d'Etat, One of tJle basic cb�racteristjcs o .f E1 �glisl1 local gover1111 1ent i s tli a.t, exceJJt l 1e lo�al l1n1ts are free fro1n co11trol of other loca l � exceptio ns, minor and few for . authorrt)' bet\vee11 tl 1 e111 a11d tl1e 11atio1 1al miriistries and no 1s There s. e riti autho Parliament. Th.is contrasts sl1arpl)' ,vitl1 tl1e l1 ierarcl1ical syste1n of Fre 11 cI1 local rnmen t, wh,ere higher _loca! t1n.its l1ave_ a?mi11istra.tive _a11d fi 11a11 cia1 controls gove JJ ' over the lower echelons. L1kew1se, and aga 1 11 111 co11trast v.11tl1 tJ1 e Frencl1 system, English lccal government is decentralizecl ratl1er tl1an deco11ce11 trated. Dece1 1tral iza­ tio n means that there are local decision-1naldng agencies witl1 1nore or less inde­ pendent ex istence a.nd powers; deconcentratio11, on tl1e ot11 er 11and, 111ea11s tI1 at all governmental powe·r lies vvith the cent1·al go,1er111nei1t, a11d local t111its, eve11 i n tl1 e P case of electi, e officials, act simply as agents of tl1e ce11 t:ral gover1 1n1ent. E11 glisl1 local authorities are ge·nera11y multipurpose, or, as [P1 ·ofessor] Herma11 fj 11 er IJt1 ts ' it, "c ompendious'' - they are not ad lzoc, co11fined to one fu11.ctio11, like scl1 ool '. districts in the United States. ... While English local government is more decent1·alized tl1a11 tI1 at of France, �nt� authorities are gaining increased powers in local admi11istration. St1c�1 ad 1nin1st�a!1ve control is exercised through various natio11al mi11istries, es1Jec1ally the MinIStry of Hea, lth. It consists of the approval of some appoi11t111e11ts, tl1 e tl1reat I l of substitute administration , the making of regulations to implement parJiame_ ntary statutes, the refusal to approve certain local actions, the granting of prov1�101_1al 0rdei:s , and the giving of· advice and information. But especially in1portant is in­ spection, which is the characteristic Englisl1 mode of ce11tral ad111inistrat1ve coiitrol. · · · I . The theoretical basis of Soviet local gover11n1ent is ''de1nocra�ic centralis�"­ This con cept was transfer red fro m the organization of t h e Com1nunist party, w _ luch cans f?r th e electio h eSt, ig h _ e h t to t;st Jow the n of all leading party bodies from e lin ci peno�i cal reports of rty dis �ty l)a p . ict str s, on rty or_ga1 1izati pa s pa die to bo I� Which the 1aracter c1 g 111 1d b11 e tl1 d an minority is subordinate to the majority, re s th de ci sions of h an rg � ll a _ o , nt 1ne rn ve go I e er bodies upon the lo w r. n igh f1nk s �1n one conti· nuous chain of gover11me11ta 1 power. Local a' ge· 11c1es are . 11 ot in· tended as d n a , · s te 1c 1 e g a s a ' t t1 b la , n · i er w t 1e ·1ets a tl -m · f o ki e ng ns se ll cie f1t en e ag s th in th e execu v . o s e 1 tl o t Iy o1 t t· 1 no I of v comnuttees of th� lower so�iets are respo�s1· bl. e � L s sov iet their l � but oc al l. he I h1g t nex to the of the execut1 �e comlUlttee elect a c n 1 o c ; e v i t u c e x e 1: :� an , a deputy cha rman, a secretar.f, i:nembers 0. t1 a t o m r i is 0Utte e a dinn tee i co e f 1 e ­ embers of It h t _ d 1n h � e t W1 c s. tee mit ng . com ndi sta Pre si<liur:: D? om �� is �� : y o b 1 i I h acts as e x" e i� at er hb de t the executive fo r he k r o w e h t f lloBed of 1�� t� e s i ·v 10 5{�:'.n " w ls cia m offi . y cit of the soy1·u ,- i e municipal, district , or regional the rad f J t c1 e th gu re tn !ol'j t h �� 1' ]ll: e, m pl am ex r pa de r iu . Fo ts id es en pr tm _ 1 e tl� e as e hil w rs e n1b nu u dep ties, the executive committee s r e b �ti of m e m t e i v o 5 s l a oc a . etary h t tend rCteive no t ainnan, eight vice- chairmen, and a secr , a ey th . while o sa ary , s o r r1 g e t· h e bs jo 1· e th o t 1 e o h e p iv y e y c 1e a tl re u t b a-st·,.ona . . . . oec . I . _. . 'Incre: , . _ meet·togs of the sov1ets. 1n s c n ze ili of tl tio , . . ince 1940 , stress is placed upon the p ar�tcIJJ,l n, star1ding corn� .. , - the.: �-giy s �1� -· es. Rel tanee O -:- �ua:1 Proc . · c en i ag 1d n al . nt 1e r k ve or e go 11 of · w . a'f :ss · _ · , · _,: · ;'i·.,r-i.�>: r::� ... ,.:,:.;:··· ;· . . . .. .. ..,:... �· . . � ·:·�·· .._ ,

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e op e of sc !li of l_ ca t lo en m ge we r . po la en rs 1 a1 is d an noted 11s io iss 111 m co or n1ittees 1 ·ol ov er 1n. du str1es a11d agr1cult1rre. �urt nt �o of n_ io at liz ra i1t ce her ­ especially 111 tlie de l ca m of lo r� ve rs g� be e1 1� .officials and u 1n 11 111 1 1 0 1 t u? red a 11 e be s 11a inore, tll ere s, al cie t . en en ag 1 r� lud ve 1nc go 11g the a�l of e tiv jec ob Ioca½ all erov e 1 TJ persoiJnel. 1 1cl social devel�]Jment o� th� c_on1n1uni ty. a 1 c 11 o1 on ec 1e l t r fo 11g ni 1 is social istic IJlai 1 br oa oe r tl1an Jt 1s .in Fran ce, l 11c 1n � e11 n1 rn ve go l ca lo of e p _ sco e tl1 . TI,is nJakes s t ec! �f vie asp So a�I 111_ l c n. govern ment in t1·e e �l1 . tes Sta d ite 1 U1 tl1e or England, 1 ty_ 1n t]1e work of the state �l leg 1st 1al soc 11 po u s as1 1 pl em tl1e n bee s I1a rs )'ea rece11t 1 elop1ng 1ts o,vn law and uuj de, n bee has tem sys iet sov the is, t forin apparatt1s, tl1a regt1lations t11Jon wl1icl1 t o set sta11dards f 01· pe1·formance a11d procedure. For ex­ ample, tl1e boolc of regt1lations for exect 1 tive conunittees of local soviets is a tome of 1,800 pages. Tl1is establjsl1n1ent of legal 1 1orms for adminjstration is based upon tl1e co 11stitt1tion, statt1tes, directives of tl1e party, and tl1e regulations de·vised by t}1 e l1igl1er levels of govern 1ue11t, and i t can be assu med that tl1e ioten.;>retation and applicatio 11 of t11is complex i 1 1volves increasing reliance 11po11 burea11cracy from above .

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B11 t tl1e 011tsta11di1 1g feature of Soviet local government is t11e Comn1u11ist 1els of govenunent. T 11is is especiall 1 evident le, all J 1i l a11d n at leaders directio )arty j 1 l in tl1e ma1 1ner i11 wl1ich elections a1 ·e l1eld.... Nominations are made by worker, occt1pational, and peasant grot1ps, b11t t l 1ese nomi1 1,1tions are screened b)' party secretaries and ratified at 1neeti1 1gs of tl1e Cormnu11ist party,. Wl1ile public opinion J1as limited i 11flt1e11ce, and tl1e ca11 didates are gi,ren a11 op1)ortu11ity to disc t1ss their quali�cations and ideas, t l1e cl1oices a1·e always controlled. Ho·{.ve·ver, effort is_ made, especiall y at tl1e lowest le\ 1el, to i11clude 1 1011-party persons, recognizi11g tI1ose who liave n1ade co11str u ctive co11trib11tio11s to tl1e eco11omic a11d social life of tl1e com­ mt111 ity wl,ere tl1ere is 110 da11ger tl1at s11b\ ersi, e ele111e11ts \Vill get juto power.... 1

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f 0 term s. � !raditj? 11al local governn1ent, in 1110st places, 111�1y be described in l ority { a cliief, a village l1ead, or so1ne l<ind of local leader, c-itl1e1 acti 1 1g as sole aut 1 or more often_ assisted by a cou11cil of elders. rfl1e power· strt1ctt1re is in te rm_s of an _ of 5 ? 10 extended t n a11 ' f 11ly, cl,tn, tribe, religio11s elite, or eco 11omic class. Tl1e fu c �ov.eri� �e11 t are c?nso11ant \vitl1 tl1e c11ltt1ral stage of t l 1e JJeople, and tl1e j:1risdict.ioo A a. a�e 18 111111te� to a village or a. grol1p c 1 ap.l1 of villages i 11 a contigt1ous geogr 1 u b_ s t r nt al 1 ? � � JJart ?f _tl1 e la11d .is O\Voed ancl ,vorked in con11non, bl1t t L e e �s : �� 111divJdtic�l owuersl1i1J, es1Jec1 ally of 111ovable property Original ly, accord1 110 d 1.)' ao I<.roJ)o.. tkin, tl1e vi· 11age con1111t1111t· )r wa.s 01 1e oJ' free 111en· de1nocr acy, equa1·t, 4 _tl1e sp1r1t re of inutt 1 al aid.W l1ile sucl1 a patte1·11 may seem �imple tJ1ere is mu ch n1o 1 r1 ore tl1an meet: s tt1 e eye. Ct1stom, traditio11 r i al ceren e m � .ai:,crne· tl ll . a 1 d a1 1 1 1onia l t u ' ' ' · Il . v1 1 . . deep '· tl1�1 � t311g ie Soii ].ed webs are tl11ck . der. outlan ,v 1 th aoe the 1nysterio to us _ ·tern 0 i:; sy . . . . com1nt1111t1e.s . are p i· o d ·Ltcts· Of a 11 ·1 ·ger · a 1 I a. . o f : 1.J parts 1 clegree' of s01Jl11st 1 cat 1011, gl . gra _ _ or . ted tl,at 11as disinte cl1aoged, sornetin1es older than \,\Testern time. · � aPY m � i11 · · Sociolog·18t s ai1d kindred cy . 1 n 11 m . " oe com nt. observe rs villa the l1ave t,ound ta parts 0f. �lle �or_ ld, ai1 d tl1ey believe i t .existecl i11 others w ber� jt is no longer exturv� :; "'" _1 oen . K.rOJ)otki11 ' c1t1ng . 1 . . entl e t e _ ;'\/ s- 1 av1G ·-'=;! . ·. t1 d1 es done 111 the 11m finds 1 . .· __.. m �ny a1 1t11ropolog1cal st d . tl -18 J · 1nst1111tion in tl1e early Sla t n e pre s til ] i11 as l l we vo 11ia un as n u ltu c re . O · lanc· ls, 10 E ngla11d du r· 1nc i v r � . 1irv . s · afl 7 �g . 1e ". 1 tl ar S a.x:011 noa11d t11nes, Norn1a 1 1 sc.otia � � p .f � Id t11e 11i 11 etee11111 c t . = Y _ 1 1 on o o ,v11e sl1ip· of - .� t at tl1e 1Jza ' ! 1 orga u botton1 tl of l i ·soci('. e r � lrela11d ' and W a� e � ' in _ � A rva11s -. ·� . . Fra1 1ce wl1ere tl1e village folk1J1ore co11u.no n ° on�r,..; · � . ... lai...,.ld l)et sis n d · t ec · 1 ll11t 1 I Ttirgot 's day; lll an 1s 1 a. , '. : l\ry bc.,tJ) India, whe1·e -.-,-i

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Af gh an ist a1_1 , M i� on fo1 g? 1nd lia , i _ s Ja va , Jt M it. ala ya , r nde Abyssinia, tlle u h·ved �f r 1ca, tl1 e Pac i fic ar cl11pelagoes, a11c1 No of r io r int e rt1 1 311 ct Sotttl l the d Su a�c' before tl1e coming of t l1e \\1este1 ·11e r. ''111 sl1ort, '' I<.ro )otlcj 11 t co l clti.des ' :. . 1 . . . Allleri a h e I 11n; __ �n s.1 n rac g one e 01 011e s1i1g le nat1011 wliicJ1 Jias of now not k not ll ad "we do . eo·od of village commun1t1es. its p

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From Perham, The Gol'ern,nent of Et/1iopia (1948), pp.275-276 (footnotes 011utted). Toe chiqa-sh� occ11pied sometlling like tl1e po�itio11 of tl1e Elizabetl1n11 jL1stice of the peace. In his office central a11d local autl1or1ty 111et. I-Te vvas respo11sible to the governor's dis trict chief for tl1e p1·oper pcrfor111ai1ce by l1is ow11 co11111111nity of their duties and especiall y for tl1eir pay111e11ts to tl1e pro1Jer atitl.1orities of titl1e and tax and of dues jn kind and labour. I-Ie ,vas tl1e judge to w11om, if wayside arbitration failed, the litigants would first apply. He would be prese11t at local ,ved­ dings; would pr eside a t meetings of tl1e vill age cot111cil; a11d wo11lcl be especially concerned with all transfers or allocations of la11d and disputes aboL1t it. 1-Ie \Vo11ld see that orders fr om tl 1e higher authorities were p1·oclaimed by a crier i11 tl1e village.

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According to an Ethiopian account li e is 'tl1e officer of tl1e district, livi11g 11pon ,, the soil as o·ne joined to it'. He is the agent of tl1e Empe ror. 'f-Ie will be a11 A111l1ara and may accuse even the Governor. If a ma11 toucl1es o r strikes l1im, l1e (i.e. tl1 e 1 striker) will not pay compensation, but all l1is goods wil l be co11fi.scate d.' Co11l­ beaux defines him as 'le maire de la commu ne ... tt1tet11 ·, pere me1ne'. He mar1ages �e affairs of tl1e village like his own, a11d l1is patriarcl1a l at1tl1ority �s sac re d. H_e 15 generally the genealogical chief of the com1nt1nity, and calls t�1e v1ll ag� c?un cil toge!�er unde r a tree. Certainly these vil lage cl 1iefs, r eprese11t111g co_11t1nt1ity of r! aditi?n and the sedentary agricul tt1ral life, were tl1e stabilizi11g factor 111 a sy 5lem 10 which ch�nging governors, roving armies, and a dista11t ?I111)eror IJlayed tlle ore . de d o a k struc � ly l vv P! at1c ia espec b Tl1is : 1!1 , ut often the more superficial, parts. � Tbere 15 in each village ,' he sp lac.... d di be 10t ca111 at 1 tl r e offic e, 'one hereditary t wro on any prete · nce � ear aJJp e 1 son es serv pre nce t and l one tl1a a it is on t11ti i this nst · 1 fo order 10 · st tl1e wI11·1·l 0 f revo ' I u t 1 o 11 s · the abse amid nce of a11 written doc11me11ts, an d the rap'1 d . . , nors. s11ccess1on of dynast1es and gove r r 11 t l1 tis i terestin g confirmatio m i Br e_ tl1 ��1; � n o f this comes from a l ater date:. n in I� rep 1 f s l1an t e r � t�1e � . ted nce e1·ie �xp · t tha te1 e bit aft r o s of two year _ ��� could n9 ot run llai vi t a ans tl1e country withoL1t the co-ope ration of t l1 e Etl1iopi leveI, and · · were tryin · g to restore tl1e village or gan1za1ion. tl1at e ssu1n . . . Th e E�peror a inay e w t 1 m b 11t _ . . claime cl11qa-sl1 10 this d to the appoint so o d to d and in the ve other matter s disct1 ssed in this cl1apte1· l1e 111te1 n1a 1 a' n1an to When a n smL d where he too . Jlv enera g h �d the power. The s l1um was attract im . lay his p , doubt tlt e witllO P naJ Jd, 1 atte wot or ntion . ed by the o0 ,,er11or and a strong govern Part in the at the re matter . According to Krapf tl1e sl1u13: was appoi · t l t1.ed at :a n tlle ; lt o f r 0 ne do aqu�st of tt1e villagers and paid twenty piec es o _ e· �e' clioi ce, wl1etl1er ll r r tl ear· y a e foi i a l y 1 01 o ce; ppointment , wl1ic l1 he J1cld de by· E, offi e �a t]1 of r racte 1a l c p l� tie l eror by . . ·m · ·ted or er. · 1 1n11 I •· Id I govern 110 y ear · or, was c l tl1e -u of . -�a e d Ja city ./ � ,,;, ..:·· · _lepeo.rled upo11 ca e J tiv ta .. the local stattts a nd represe 11 > .. . .. ... .. �,.,;,-.,.. . .. .. .. . . ·. . ... . .

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In son1e co1nm111Jities tl1e appoi�tmen.t mi�ht be _for a period or even for life, b ut 11ortl1 for tl1e tl1e 10 office custo_ n : to d a e spre r?tate yearly amon it was also a wid gst generally those whose prestige rested upon tile leading 111e 11 of a few fa1111l1es, thei r �rou p. Tl1ere fo1111cled th. e wer�,.of co11rse, a nuinber descent froin the family wl1icl1 of ·pri\iileges and p erq11isites in tl1e for1n of gifts for the sbum. There �ere differences iil Jiis ofl1.cial re,,,ards; in so1ne areas l1e got ?,O more tba:1 ex�mpt1on fron1 taxes. In a vivid Etl1ioJJia11 comment, 'l1e... pays tr1b;1t� only wrtb his legs, r�nning up a11 d do,vn to carry tl1e orders of tl1e Governmen t . In otl1er parts, however, 1t appears tl1 at I1e retained son1e proportion of the taxes he collected for the government. It wo11ld be very val11able if furtl1er in vestigation co11ld be made into this obscure b11t all-important office a11d into tl1e position which, after all that has happened s ince 1935, it l 1olds to-day.

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Re-read: p.331 (''The Adn1i11istrative Divisions'' established in the ''Unpu.blisbed Commentary" to tl1e Constitt1tion of 1931.)

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Transitional Institutions From De cree Approving Administrative Regt1lations for Provincial Gov e rnment, No. 1 of 1942, Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 6.

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Parts of tl1is Decree are set fortl1 on pp.361-362, retlecLing the powers of the Provincial Go\'emors General. The Decree was an1ended by Decree No. 6 of 1946, Neg. Gaz. 5th Year, No. 10, to cl1ange the refere11ces to "Provii1ce" and ''Awraia'' t o ''Teklai Ghizat", ''Woreda" !O "�wraja Gbizat': and ''ivlisle11ie'' district to ''Woreda Ghiza t". Th.e-se changes mu st be kept in mi11d wl1en reading the following provisions, which are printed as in the original Decree.

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PART l. 'T11e E mperor will ap1Joi11t on tl1 e reco1nn1enda tion of the Ministry of_ th e In terJor, 011 e Governor General 1·esponsible for tJ1 e adn1inistration of each Pro vince.

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PART 2.

T�ie Gov�r 11 or-Gener,1l is tl1e Government representative for t11e Province to �111cl1 11e _is_ ap_I)Oi11t�d� G-o_vernors sl1all exercise general supervision ove� �l� � Mt�l 0 f'.licials IJ I) 0111 ted 111 tl1e11· _ P rov r �tl1e d i nce by tl1e Mi 11istry of the Interior a·n � . tr�es . Bu� �l1ey are resp?11s1ble to tl1e Ministers of Finance, Justice, Ag_ri culture a� - - � t M tiler tl 1 ? r1: sters accord ing to tJ1e 11atu1·e of t l1e busi 11ess. On matters d1rec y -�e i r t s 1ng a JJart cu lar Minister, t e tha l1 l i i a c Gove ic r11or t s w direc t s on1m tly ll 1 MroJ un l . · a e . . _c J _ . . ra ne 0n m · at te . . . r� . 0 · f ct1�ect concer11. to a partict1lar Minister but also affecting ge wii1 _ �l admin .1st !ative IJo1icy tl1ey will consult witl1 the Minister of tl1e Interior. They · r -1 pass col)Jes of all corresponde11ce In · · i tl of ie ter o -:-A witl1 other Ministers to tl1e Minister -- PART 3. -1 � vin G· overnor-Generals shall reside in ��-'._�$� the appointed capital of the Pro

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·�� PART 4. · _,___ . � � -= fff w = tth c . ac 1�.11e Governor-Gene1·a l is e . nc d . ""r 0 · a · -.mrlll'.\Js,. ·_ - �� . , ·_ . e m re empowe ers · d or · d give to .;: . �, � : --� v J� ·�. . . . -5o il re01 · · . -at � . · . . o" ions issu · ed t0 I11·m by tl1e M1111stry of � · ctor . t11e Interior, to the Dl're .

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OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS NT OPME L DEVE THE

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orders i11_ give accorda�1ce to an? �itl1 als r�g11Ja�ions offici n tow . d n a n1es officials departmental ap1Jo111tecl 1n J·11s Province. their to s strie t · M isle ' · Mini �r \� 1 • ed by other \ e, t 1ssu Ya� PART 5 { 11p0ri e, •d nr-i) ti1e ,tll �ransact JJublic busi11e�s ?f J1is Pi ·oviiice shall neral r-Ge erno Gov :-: e e e dia:�.1 tl1 of rector the , e 1 I ac l of tl1e P1·111c11Jal Secretariat' Tb the 1·ntermediary of Di · · frorn,' i· tbrough . I e111es M1s and s ernor . the Gov ·� f 0 rur� i

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PART 6.

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responsible be shall tl1e for . ral su1)ervisio11 of tl1 e due or-Gene Govern The ' , '{ Government Treasl1ry of all taxes a11d dues legally fixed by t11e the into yment ·�� collect to forbidden is it taxes a11d dues 11ot legally fixed As ment. Govern ial f!per officials o st1cl� and ers, d en. ff 1ment 1 Gove1· all sl employees _ ment 1all Govern the by � t.U,� be prosecuted before the Cr1Ip.Ina1 Courts.

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PART 7.

In accordance with the new administrative regi.1latio11s, Governor-Generals, &·:-.,. Directors, Governors, Judges, Mislenies, Soldiers, police officers a11d tl1e police ,,._,, and all other Government e1nployees are paid mo11tl1ly salaries accorcli .11 g to tl1e rates fixed by the Imperial Government. Tl1ey are forbidden to receive ,111y 111oney �;-. from the people other than what has been fixed for tl1e1n by tl1e Gover11me11t. ,,

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PART 8.

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The Governor-General shall exercise all necessary care in accorda11ce \Vitl1 i'.B:· the regulatio ns for the proper and peaceful protection of tl1e people i11 l1is Province. 1 He shall transmit to the Ministry of tl1e Interior a montl1ly report on the co11ditio11 of the peopl e and the country. In telegrapl1ically 11icate 1 co1nn11. sl1all l1e urgent cases i;J•' or by SUch othe r means as would speedily deliver l1is 1nessage. :t:: , ., ;.'

PART 9. y'B virtue of the fact that he is the Government r· ep1·esentati\1e in tl1e Pr·ovince h to W iCh he . · · . • 18 appoi' nted, the k a_ m _ o t 1s01 v s11pe�· e st11)rem tl1e 1s nor-G neral e Gov�r · : . the Gover.nment _ "' M1n1str1�s s y iou plo var em tl1e by ees 1t se1 er ls cia und offi ru the m and fulfil !he regulatio bee e av 1 I l1 1ic \Vl s ns on ati rel d an al 1t11 o mt cti tru eir ins ns defini11g tl1 n ssue d to �l1e l, era ei1 �he -G or r11 m ve Go by 1e Tl ir . the ; ·ies st1 respective Mini Dire indiv�d:�:he Princi pal �ecretary and Governors s 11all co11s11lt . togetl1 er 1·e� pectii1 g be ap 0· ' W�ether natives of the Province or ot11e 1·s found 1n tl:e Province, t_o d r e 1 de in ma '. '. cha ing hav _ r � and e ts l of po � � _ administrative or other &: ect i�n1: 11s! 11 M the 1n �1� or 111f to 1 1 e n11 1t1 y str co c?ncerned. They sl1all M ru �es o 1 ; c?��ed 0°nn t t l e f i i bi pa ca m na d a11 k es ge v ed wl no vic ser d es of ar , di ictuais d es1gn nd sta � il ' · a post. ated for

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PART 10.

o d·' ,.u, Gov · or a11y · s I at u r F t11e :� o'lfe!,ences .be:: -General can give decisions b· ased_ o11 �i o ir the t g ee sin i n ar . �Ctal. Government employees under 111m ar1d , du. tie· s. . . _ re is l1e S . s n . 10 at ho 1l t g· re d ul e th e , e id ts th ou matter be of a nature ..... . .. . '·-:. ,·.: ....·..,...-·!. - . ·,.-., . ·. ....

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THE DEVE LOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS .. ,, '-'

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PART 29.

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mendation of tl1e Ministry of the I11 terior tli e . m rec o tlJe E . 0n ill J)e . . ror w1 11 appoin . t p . . rov ,. 111c l w e 1os e h d eac t1ty .. wi ll . for be to cto rtssist t1·1e Go\,e-rnor..-G· enera one DI.re r l in J1i s work.

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PART 30.

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Tlle Director shall administer· tinder tl1e Gover11or-Ge 11eral t11e Provi1 c H t s r esponsible to l1is chief, il1e Go,ier11or-Ge11eral, for tl1e proper i admii1i;t;�tio� of the Province. .. t•

PART 32.

The Emperor will apJJoi.nt one Oflice.r of tl1e Pri11cipal Secretariat for eacI1 Province to direct tl1e Principal Secretariat of the Provi11ce.

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PART 36.

The Emperor will appoint 011 tl1e r e con1me11dation of tl1e Mi11istry of tl1e In­ terior Governors whose dut�{ sl1all b e to adn1i11ister tl1e ''Weredas'' 11nder a Governor-General.

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PART 37.

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A Governo.i sl1all receive his instrl1ctio11s fro1n the Governor-Ge11eral, and he is responsible to his chief tl1e Governor-Ge11era l for tl1e cond11ct of affairs.

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PART 38.

The residence of a Governor shall be tl1e town appointed as tl1e centre for the administration of the ''Werecla''.

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PART 39.

ng sho,.vi 11eral nor-Ge A· G.?y ernor must forward a mo11tl1ly 1·epo!.t. to . t.11e Go�e[ tl1e i11 tants the _cond1t1on itll1abi e h 111 . � r rde 1n of y cot the inl1 111t 1 n d abi � a tan ts _ · ns 11la tio reg terr1 and . . . . aws . 1 · h he 1s ad 1 1e t w1tl1 ce . tory wh� 1c n da· , m1n1ster111g 1n ac cor 1natter tl1e Jd 1011 v s1 1�;�� means as would f� :� to him, may be protec�ed in a proper and p eaceftil . r �ent 5 by he sl1all communicate tele graphically or . speedily · er 11is me · · d e1 iv ssage.

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PART 4S.

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· � year. 1c '' tw . ereda � ''W T Gov .. . . . f hjs O of e . ion · r nor l l tl1e parts 1 'I _ he v1 1 a ondit must spect s and c 11 t e the r mu t "10 · 00 · t r repo the s . r�v ard to the C?�vernor-Gene�al a . wri·1ten · cou ntry based r. tou h1s ng duri on enqurr1es made -·

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s th ct 1 !� nd !� ici c � ? s ll sha l1e the s'' nie isle t11e ''M ve Go rnor i s the cl1ief of _A g of his area and other affairs for the public welfare tl1.ro11gh tl1e Mislerues, a to the regl1latio11s.

PART 41.

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PART 47.

eve i� ted n itu ver nst go co be !1ip ors ll s11a to discuss � r i1o ver Go e tI1 of cil un Co A nt ta e b1 tl1 l1a � e 1n 1· s fa d an l we e e tJ1 tl1 to ng prosJ)erity at rel rs e t � at nJ 011 e vis � ad _ aild . ar es a ye m ee ti 1r tl t e e m ll 1a sl 1l 1c u1 o C of t11e te i·rito1·y. Tl1e

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PART 48.

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In cases wl1ere a meeting is t1rgent tl1e Governor may convene the Council at ti1nes otl1er tl1a11 stated above.

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PART 49. Tl1e Cot111cil of tl1e Governor sl1al1 consist of the Gover·nor as Chairman, the Cou11cillors bei11g tl1e Pi i11cipal Secretary of tl1e ''Were da' ' ,, t.be ''Wember�' of the ''Wereda'', tl1.e officer of tl1e town mt111icipality,the Mislenies, and the officials of tl1e ,,arious Mi11istries who may be statio11ed in tl1e town and shall include not more tl1an two local elders.

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PART 57.

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TJ1e E1nperor will appoi11t on tl1e recommend.atio11 of the Ministry of the I11terior 011e Mislenie for eacl1 Mislenie dist1·ict i11 a ''Wereda' '. A Governor may, l1owever, reco1nme11d i11dividuals st1itable for mislenieship to tl1e Governor-General wl10 may st1b111it s11cl1 reco1nmendatio11s to tl1e Ministry of tl1e Interior.

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TI1e ''Mjslenie'' talces 11is i11structio11s from tl1e Governor and is responsible for tl1e worlc to his cl1ief, tl1e Go,1e1·11or.

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P1\RT 59.

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Tl1e ''Misle11ie'' shall resicle i11 tl1e appointed town of the district.

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PART 60.

As tl1 e ''Mislenie'' is tl1e 1-Iead of the official staff i11 l1is area l1e shall tran sact all matters cleali11 g w.itl1 t11e admi11istration a11d tl1e welfare of lus district tliroug h the official staff 1111.der J1in1. _ Interior (a) (b) (c)

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PART 71.

EinJ)eror will apJJo.i11t 011 tl1e recomme ndation of the Ministry of the tl1 e followi_ng officials fo1· tl1e di1·ection of Municipal affairs: One Kant�ba for the city of Addis Ababa. 011e Kai1.tiba for the city of Go11dar. 011.e officer of the tow11 in every other town.

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· ._-:_\ PART 72. • � -i:., e !L . J • . ·J:t;, fro.111 ct1rect . . . -- -·.-· Tl1e Ka11t1ba 0f Add·1s A.baba sl1all · = receive h1s 1nstruct1ons ns \v O J t M" 11 ·118tr. ·f. t.l1e Inte . or. f O ers Th e Kantiba of G·ondar and the other offic -· · ·=� n ? y _ _ s 11al 1 1 ece1ve 1 11s tructi. · ons , . -: .. . . . from tl1e respective Governor-Gene1·als. · . · · ::::t · � L• • -

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