Ethiopian Constitutional Development; A Sourcebook Vol. II by James C. N. Paul (1971) [Part 1 of 2]

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CONSTIT PIAN UTIONAL HIO ET

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A SOURCEBOOK

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Christopher Claphan1

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D.C.M.G., D. Litt. formerly Vi.siting Lecturer in Ln,v Haile Sellassie I University

Publishell By The Fac·ulty of Lt1w l-faile Sellassie I UJ1iversity Adclis Ababa 1971

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Prepared by

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B.A. L.L.B. formel.;1 Dean and Professor of Law, Haile Sellassie I University

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James C. N. Paul

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The Fact1lty of Law I:.raile Sellassie I University 1971

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tl1e rigl1t to reproduce this book

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or portions thereof in any form.

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Printed at Addis Ababa, Etl1iopia

Artistic Printers Ltd.

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II I

Introduction to Volume 11

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JI of this sourcebook l1as bee11 a /011g ti11·1e ir1 JJ1·e1Jc11·atio11 . D,·. Clap/1a,n respo11sible }ras J1e seve,a/ �vhic/1 yea1·s for ago. I as·su,necl re.s­ rial mate pleted o c ;sibili ties as Academic Vice Preside11t of Haile Selhssie I U11ive1·sitJ', and t/1ere ork, ' l1' t/1e co,nplete JJa1·tic11/a1·lJi11 vie�v of· t/1e neecl to reflect to ti1ne little too all �:s 11el1 /a1l's incorporate n,J' a11d and 01·v11 experience in teacf1 i11 g 1ditions ' co g r changin on the subject. The two volumes contain n1ore - fa,· 1110,·e - 1 1·1a:erial t/1c111 ca,z be coverecl i11 any o,1e course on tl1e Cor1stitutio11. I11deed, so111e J1ate1·ial goe!)' fa,· beyon{! the Co11s fiti1tio11 becai,se, as stressed througl1out a basic [ltrpose is· to focus 011 ji1 ti1re problems of developing the legal st1·ucti1re Jo,· a funcla11-z1.11talf;, r1e1v sJ1,�ftJ111 o.ir gover11ment, nor simply on wfzat exists today. Fi11·t/1e1·, at tl1e piese11t ti;11e, I believe sti1cle11ts of /a}Y in Ethiopia need reference material of tl1e sort co11JJilecl !,ere; o,·gat1ized legal 111aterials, relevant to problems at l1cn1 d in t/1e field of pubic la1v a,·e sti/l i1l sl1ort sttJJp!J'. Vo/un1e

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More tJ1an anyt/1 ing else, I /1ope t/1 is 1-vo,·k lVill i11.5pil·e otlze1· teac!zer.'> to ;·evise it-and replace it-with a bette,· work.

There are, as a/v.,ays i11 an effo,·t of this so,·t, mar1y tl1anl,s to be bestoived. I Ct111 only express a few here. My friend ancl colleagi,e, Wlliam El,virzg, lzas labored in an editorial capacity over 111uch of t/ 1 e text, ancl JJ1·oddid 1ne onward itz otl1er l·VaJ'S. Innes Marshall, in her capacity as Director of t/1e J-1.S.J. U. P,·ess, also edited a great deal of the material, and I tlzank her deeply /01· that-as veil as l1er 111at1J1 othe,· �/forts encourage t/1.e pi,bl(cati�n _of schola,·ly 111aterial cit f-laile Sell�ssie I [!11iv rsity. �Ulh � ancl Gruenfeld con1p1led 1nd1ces and 1na11agecl co1·1·esJJ]11dence lvzt/1 JJubl1s/1e1s a lhors, whose work I 1e Fea,·11, ar1 incredibly aria111 l1ave u N Miss so ed. lly borrow libera co petent executive tl1e U11iversity aJ-1cl c1 ra,·e secretary at � ;1ears my during two fast co,league as we II, provr.ded all s·o,·t.� of ass1sta11ce. Linzerous tasks were done by persons who ca:rze to Etl1iopia after 1ny departure, · 1u Peter Mutharika and Zyg Plater who /1 elped 1vit/1 tlze fi11 al ecliting. Kathe­ ;;ie onovan of the Faculty of Law completed t/1e «liti11g of tlze fi11al chapters and , . ertook the oneroi,s chore of p utting the volun1e t.1roug/1 t/1e printi,7 g proc�ss; I a u1eep / gra ef ul or her work 111e t ced z rifi sac she w l,11o t I aus bec ly ,lar partici f i y r,o: Iier ow,, rese arch and writing in SUJJport of the Ftci1/ty's pi1b/ication prograrn. Y e, Margaret Paul as be" it l7er s i �vay li' 11y n1a in ect pnj ci n ore �if :!,terzn was 1a , he/1· , e t/1 e :I' ' g · raged e rno�t. She typed-and endlessly ,·etyJJed-t'te fi11al c/1apte,·s, 011d e,7coi,Jn to be/ieve tJ:zat the effort u,as in fact worthvh1"le. ormer students e I h d wor a_v : ie,/ spec -a bpia who are now lawyers of Eth rJi}oJ'e� Illy f e l g s 1e ' o w. kno l a�d iati T/ ever s o U c 1 will and 1 l, than a wor JO e mor you with . n the clas . ·k vo, r · s i t/1. of 1 c/ m pe u sroom, and on other occasions, he/p?d s/1a

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INTRODUCTION

Since these a re troubled times, every}vf1ere, for those }Vho }Vorry ahoi,t o ..t · c s tio11al develop111e11 t i11. a changing, te11se a11d angry world, I 1-vould like to repeatn t u­ ere son1e re111ar/(s I n1ade to an earlie,· law class in .Ethiopia sonie years· ago: Fear, i111rest, ancl uncertainty stallc our ti111es. More than ev er, i11 every 1 11;1; 1 1 the re a,·e 111 e11 v.1/10 _JJ1· each 1 iolence, hate c;nd passio_n as the on!J ,net!iod to ,� 1 g son1e }Vrong, to rvrn so,ne cau..ve, to secu,·e so111e 111tere.st.

T/1 ose 1,p/10 b elieve irz l a 'l'v sur ely believe in a11 ot/1er 1-vay to progre ss, even to 111i11 goals e11taili11g re11olutio11ary c/1a11ge.s. Wh_atever t/1.eir ideological persi{a sion · t/1ose l1 l10 b elieve ir1 la1,v belie11e in tl1e essential ratio1ialitJJ of 1na11. They belie�; i11 t/1 e basic 11t ilitJJ of basic l1un1an rigl1 ts, the i1lti111ate futi!itJ' of t/1.eir f orcible SitJJpressio11 01· 1·atio11alized .evasio11. Tl1e;1 believe in . tl1 e ideal, of ji,sti ce_,:,_how­ e ver ! 1c1rcl it is to defi11e a11d attai11 . Tl1ey argue for ad/1ere1zce to t/1e legal process, valz1i11g JJrocedit re, not for its ol1:11 sa,'f(e, but as t l;e safes t 111ethod to seek »'isdon1 a11d fair11ess i11 tl,e si1bsta11ce of ji1clg1nent. Tl1ey seelc t/1.e patience to listen SJ-'111pat/1etically, the courage and sicill to con1pron1ise v.·it/1oitl sacrifice of pri,1ciples vv! 1 ic·l1 ar e fu11da11,1e11tal, and t/1e discernn1ent to Jcno1-v l,v/1at is funda111e11tal. The;, clo 11ot avoicl decisio11s }Vhen clecisions 111i1st be 111ade, bitt t/1eJ1 eschew t/1e arrogance or ig11orance of deciding 111l1at is not a11 issu e 01· ,,v/1at is 11.ot ripe for decis ion. T/1eJJ irJi to cultivate t/1e qualit y of 101-·e combi11ed M-'itf 1 to1Igl1ness of character. Tl1ey strive for ir1tegrifJ1. Tf1eJ' tell t/1e trz,, t/1. Tl1eJ1 k11ol'r it is 1vise to ad111it error },vhe11 error is aJJJJare11t. TheJ1 !1c1ve fait/1 i11 t/1ese inta11 gibles a11cl i11 these ,net/io{/S; 1

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No11e of i15· car1 live every 111 0111e11 I, everJ' deed, by tJzis credo; Jar fro,n ii; but all of i1s ca11 c!ain1 the c1·e do if tt'e 1rFill- aJ1d tr)' for it. Becai,se it is better to l1ave a sense of cluty t/ 1an a fea,· of fai!1"11·e, it is better to live a rich life than see!( seci,rity, it is bette,· to 1-vin 1·es1Jec t at t/1e cost of popularitJ'· It is better I.O serve a ca11se thc111 sit bacl< i11 CJlr1icis111, especic1/ly 1-vl'ie11 CJ 111icis111 is a facade for colvardice .

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Summary of Contents

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VOLUME I

Chapter I:

Sources For the_ Study of Constitutional :Development: Political Theory.

Chapter II:

Sources of Ethiopian Constitt1tio11al Develor,ment: Experience.

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Chapter IV:

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The Constitutional Development of Ethiopia to 1935. The Revised Constitution of 1955: An Overview of its In1.ruediate Origins and Future Evolution. Li i

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VOLUME II

Chapter V:

Impe·rial Powers: the Powers and Prerogatives of the Emperor.

Chapter VI:

The Development of Executive Institutions.

Chapter VD: Cha�er VIlI: · · Chapter IX:

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.Parliament and Legislative Institutions. . .

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The Development of Judicial 1I1stitutions . .. . •

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Human Rights�Political and Economic Development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME ' '

••• •• • I 11troduction St1m111ary of Contents

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Table of Contents Table of Cases •••

Ackno,vledgr11en ts Table of Leg islat ion

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Index for Voltimes I & II

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Cl1apter V: Tlze Po111 ers a11d Prerogatives of t/1e .E111peror

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Section 1: T11e E111peror as So\rereign-''Sovereignity'' and ''Supreme Authority'' under Article 26; ''Sovereignity'' and the ''Powers'' bestowed by Article 36; Article 36 as a source of additional powers; a ''restrictive'' inter,pretation of . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . Article 36. ... .. . ... . .. ... 439 ,/

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Section 2: TI1e Power of tl1e E1nperor to Create Agencies of Governn1ent and Assign tl1eir Jurisdictio11-the nattire of the ''Order Po,yer'' under Artjcle 27; the rationale of the ''Order Po\ver''; the uses of tb.e ''Order Po\-ver'', constitu­ tional li1nits will1 regard to regulatory power and public finance; the form and publ ication of enactn1ents under A.rticle 27; the problem of Imperial Charters and tl1e constitt1tional basis of institut ions created by Imperial Charters; tl1e ''Order Power'' in action; Orders and other executive legislation isst1ed since 1955. .. . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 445

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Section 3: Tl1e Lavv -Iv1aki11g Autl1ority-The En1peror in Parliam.ent-the meaning of ''la\-v in tl1e Revi sed Co11stitt1tion''; tl1e Emperor's role in resolving disagree­ n1e11ts betvveen il1e t\VO I-Iot1ses of Parliament; promulgation and veto of .. . . . ... 469 laws. . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . . . Section 4: Tl 1e Decree Power-its rationale and proble1us of interpreting and adminis­ tering Article 92; pron1u1gation and consideration in Parliament of Decrees; forms of parlian1entary action on Decr.ee..s; Proclamations, Decrees and Parlia1nentary Notices issued since 1955. ... .. . . .. ... ... ... ... Sectio11 5: Tl1e Appointment Po,ver-,;.\..rt icles 27 and 66; delegation of the appo intme nt power; tl1e scope of tl1e appoi nt111ent power. ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... Section 6: Foreign Relations ar1d tl1e Treaty Po,11,er-tl1e conduct of foreign affa�s; International Agree111ents and tl1e Constitutio11; treaties requiring parha· n1ent,try approval. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . ... ... . .. ... ... Section 7: Military and E111ergency Powers-tl1e contr of tl1e Arn1ed Forces; tbe ol emerge11cy pov.,ers of tl1e E1111Jeror; state of siege, martial Jaw, and nationa1 emerge11cy.

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Section 8: Brie� Notes on otl1er Powe rs the grant of Honours; tl1e m inting power; 505 parha111entary and legislative powers; judicial powers. .. . . . .. · .. .. · . ·

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Tl,e Developn1e,zt of Exec11t ive l11stiti1tio 11s. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . · · · .. · ··· · · · of Section 1 ·· The C . Mo uncil c . . l1an�1ng Roles of the d n narchy, Pri me Ministry a of t M !n!s �er� 1 n o l u . the Exect1tive Government - Constitutional evo i i Mtnistenal Governn1ent to ·t960; Order No. 44 of 1966; the accou �ta ilitY role of the Government to the Em ging chan 501 pero r, Par liam e nt and State; the . of the Monarchy. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . ... ... · ·· ·· .

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1e. Ministries of tl1 e Govern- . .. G0vemme1;1t� T� C�ntral the ncies Age .· The . . ,, prob len1s gecuon ... of agenc Jurisd . ies; 1ct1on over hoc publi c inves tment nt ''ad proble�s of delegatio11 or· policy-and Jaw­ . :: �nomic developm en!; s. . .. ... ... . . . ... ... ... ... 516 making powers to Executive Agencie C?f �ge�cies of Local Adn1 inistr�tion-tradition al instittient elop1;11 v e D The Section 3: the development _of a syste111 of ''Moderii'' tions; trans1t1 onal 1nst1tut1ons o� theory and p�oblen1� policy; developi11 g instittitions nn1ent; Gover al Loc 1a. .. . .. . .. . ... ... .. . ... . .. .. . 540 p t 1o E 1n h t en m . n er v o g J ca Jo of of Hun1an Reso11rces to Staff Exec11tive Agencies_ pment Develo The Section 4: tlJeories of civil service; the developn1e11t of J)ttblic services law- Consti­ tutional and legislativ e bases. . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .. ... .. . .. . . .. 583 of '' A ccot1ntabiJity''-concepts of roles Problems ''acco11ntability''; diverse : Section 5 of governn1�.ot and d�v:rs� proble�1 s of ''acco1111tability''; sect1ring ' 'acc011nta­ . bility''; various poss1b1l1t 1 es: Parl1ai1 1e11 t� tl1e Courts, tl1 e Executive. ... ... 613 Section 6: Executive Acco111 1tability to La,:vE11forcecf by tl1e1 Co11rts: Judicial Review of AdministrativeAct.ion-Jega1 bases for j11clicial re\ ie\v of ad 111inistrative action: the Constitution; ''Ultra Vires'' ru1d ''Dt1e Process''; tl1 e Codes and partict1lar legislation; limitations on judicial revie\v of ad1ninistrative action; tl1e require­ ments of ''standing'' and of exba11stio11 of ad 1ninistrative ren1edies; limita­ tions on judicial review of discretionary and policy-n1aking ft1nctions en­ trusted to the Agency; nonreviewability: ''Political Questions'' ''Actes de Gou,1 ernement'' and similar problen1s. ... ... ... .. . . .. .. . . . . ... 615

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Section 7: Accountability and the Role of tl1 e E xec11tive - Co11 trols over tl1e Orgar1iza­ tion and Management of Govern111ental Agencies; tl1e role of t!1e pian and the planning process in the in1provement of ''Organizatio11 and J\1anage­ me.nt! '; Ethiopian Third Five Year Development Plan; the proble11-i of cor­ ruption and abuse of powers; machinery to enforce penal Ja"vs dealing vvith corruption and abuse of power; the Procurator-General i n tl1e U.S.S.R.; the Auditor-General in Ethiopia; the role of tl1 e En1peror; t11e President's Pennanent Commission of Enquiry in Tanzania; HIM's I,igaba ancl the Office of Public Relations. ... ... ... ... . . . ... . .. . . . . . . ... 686 Chapter VII:

Parliamen.t arid Legislative l11stiti1tio11s.

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Section 1: The Chamber of Deputies - the rationale of an elected Parliament; de­ puties a.nd th.eir constituents; the problen1 of parties and pressure groups; problems of apportioning representation and representing 11 1inority groL1ps; the electoral law and the ad.n1inistration of elections; tl1e composition of tl1e Ethiopian Chamber of Deputies. ... . . . ... ... . . . ... · · · ·· · · · · Section 2: The Senate - the rationale of a second chamber: foreig11 experiences; the appointm ent and qu.alifications of Senators in Etl1 iopia; tl1e rationale of the Senate in Ethiopia; the composition of tl1e Ethiopian Senate. ... ... Section 3: Org iz.ation and Priv·ileges - Organization; officers and con1 n1 ittees; � Parliamentary Privilege and its inherent powers. ... ... ... .. . ... ... Section 4: Parlia ment and the Executive - Parliament's inforn1ing and investigatory functions and powers - the powers to q11estion min�sters; po'rver_ t<? inv esti­ gate the conduct of executive affairs throt1gh conun1ttees, co1111111ss1ons and special com.missioners· limitations on investigatory con1mittees and tl1e questioning P<:>wer; du� process and ''Executive's privilege''; t�e iI_Dpeacl1ment �ower of Parliament; parliameutary influence on tl1 e Exect1t1v e 1n tl1e a�op­ tion national policy through control o ver the bt1dget �d taxation; x:ecu t�ve pres sure on Parlia.ment; powers over me_mbe_rsh1p, powers of �onv en}ng, suspending and dissolving Parliament; leg1slat1ve powers of tlie Execu t1ve; powers of appointing parliamentary staff. · · · · · · ··· ·· · · ·· 1'be Fu . nctions. and _ s ent in Ethiopia - problem liam Par t men of elop Dev of theo ry; Proble ms of developing institutions, procedtrres and conventions.

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Cl1a1Jter IX: ff11111a11 rigl,ts - Political a; 1cl Eco110111ic Develop111e11t.

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Sectio11 1: The Developing ''Comn1on'' Lavv of Htm1an Rights in a World of Diverse Cultt1res - tl1e United Nations Declaration of Universal Human Rights; the E11ropea11 Convention for protection. of I-Iu.n1an Rights. . .. .. . ... ... 04 9 Section 2: Chapter III of tl1e Revised Constit11tion: i\.11 Overview-notes on the source s of Cl1apter III of tl1e Revised Constitution; the Constitution of 1931; tl1e Universal Declaration of Ht101an Rigl1ts; Legislation establishing the Federa­ tion an(i the institt1tions of Fecleral Govcrru11ent; other legislation: the Ad111inistration of Justice Proclamation and tl1e Public Rigl:its Pro clamation; li1nitations 011 l1L1ma11 rigl1ts. Interpretation of Article 65 of the Revised Conslitution; interpretatio11 and application of the provisions of Cha pter II I of tl1e Revisecl Constitution, in1plementation of constitutional rights tl1rougl1 legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... ... ... ... 911

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ce ene ral ; 1950 (V of Diseases), Negarit Gazeta 10tJ1 .Year No. 3 p · 1 51 No ti , age 531. . Legal ,1..,o . . .· · 2, (Courts, Reg1strat1011 of Advocates) · Neoarit 195 of 166 No . · ce Ga-�e1 a ·i ttl 1 y ear ' LegaJ Notl · . 11 pages 858-859 , 899-900. . N°· ' .Notice No. 176 of 1953, (Execution of Judgen1et1ts), Negarit Gazeta 12t1l y J? . ear -, N o. J ga -te page 531. · · Legal Notice No. 218 of 1959 (National Coffee Board), Negarit Gaze/ct 1 8tl, Year No. S, .. , page 531. (Arms), Negar,t Gazeta 19tl1 Year No. 7, Page S31. 229, No. e Notic l Lega 1961, (Posta�e Rat�s), Negarit Gazeta 21st Year No. 2, Page of 245 No. e Notic l 531. Lega 1962, (Pt1bl1c Service Pe11sions Co111111issio11), Ncgarit Gazera of 250 No. ce Noti l 21st Lega 600. Page 7, No. Year T (Inco11 e 1962, Tax) 258 .1 \ of cgarir Ga:::etcr 22ncl Year No. 1, Page 531. No. � Legal �otice rr\1e11t Acln1 1962 (Pt1b , l1c En11J of lo) 267 No. inistratio11), Neg arit Gazeta 22ncl e Notic Legal Year No. 5, Page 531. Legal Notice No. 269 of 1962, (Publ ic Service RegL1lations No. 1), Negarit Gazetc, 22,,d Year No. 6, Pages 532, 600-609, 684, 893-894. Legal Notice No. 270 of 1963, (Reg11]ations for the Organizatio11 of the Central Perso11 nel Agency), Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No.. 9, Page 600. Legal Notice No. 278 of 1963, (Exclusion fron1 tl1e Coverage of tl1e ter111 ''Pt1blic Servant''), Negarit Gaze/� 23rd Year No. 4, Pages 490, 600. . . Legal Notice No. 284 of 1964 (State of En1ergency 111 tl1e Region Borcler111g th.e RepL1blic of Somalia); Negarit· Gazeta 23rd Year No. 11, Pages 501-504. Legal Notice No. 285 of 1964, (Exclt1sion fron1 tl1e Coverage of t!1e tern1 ''Pt1blic Servant''), Negarit Gazeta 23rd Year No. 12, Page 600. LegaJ Notice No. 321 of 1966, (Associations Registration Regt1latioj1s). 1'/egarit Gazeta 26tl1 Year No. I, Page 948.

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Table of cases cited or di§'.'.tlssed

A.abab_iJ•a l', Haile Se/lassie I University, Higl1 Court Case No. 593/58 (l 966), 11nreported. Pages 627-632. Advocate General v. Hadgu Ghilagaber, (Fed. Higl1 Cot1rt, Cri111. Case No. 897/47 (1955), unreported, Page 916. Cot1rt (1\.ddis Ababa), Civil Case No. Ali Ahnzed Abogn v. Mi,nicipality of r1d(/is Ababa, IIigl1 832/50 (1957), Pages 618-619, · 622. Assefa Dula v. Public Sec11rity Depart111e11t, Higl1 CoL1rt (Addis Ababa),. Civil Case No. 322/58 (1965), Page 862. Baker v. Carr, 362 U.S. 186 (1962), Page 747. Bantam Books Inc. v. S11llivan, 372 U.S. 58, 70, (1963), Page 938. Barenblatt v. U.S., 360 U.S. 109 (1959), Page 198. · Bimetalic Inves t ,nent U.S. 441 (1915), 1 a ge 651. 239 ation; Eq11aliz Co. v. State Board of (Tax) _ Board of Education v Rice, (1911) A.C. Pages 179 182, Pc1ge 641. , , . Bond v. Floyd, 1966, 17 Lawyers' Ed. 2nd 235, Page 754. .. sl1tu Con of nt h . "Bon anz's Case'' (1610) & Co. Rep. 114 a, from Roscoe Pound, ''Develop111e tional Guarantees of Liberty'' (1957) 119-120, Page 638. , Br /e v. � y Fisher; 13 Wall 335 (U.S. Supreme Cot1rt, 1871), Page 669. Bri11 BhLishan v. The State of Delhi, (1950), A.I.R. 129, Page 970. B urns v. Rans/ey, ( 1959), Commonwealth La w Reports 101, 109, 112, Page 971 · Burstyn Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. ·495, 503, 595, (1952), Pages 935 , 938, gZzlon University v. Fernando, (1960), 1 W.C.R. 223, Page 6 41. rnbers v. Florida , 309 U.S. 227, 236-237 (1940), Page 993. Cir:�cago & G.T.R. Co. v. Wellman, 143 U.S. 339, 34 6 (1892), Page 616· 1 681 e g ) a 948 03 ( 0 & S thern .S. P , U 1 Airlines v. Waterman Steamship Corp., 333 �z, fly v. General Construction, Co. U.S. 385 (1926), Page 702. CoOke v. United States, 267 U.S. 517 (1925), Page 992. Co · Dax v. New Harnpshire, 312 U.S. 569, 575-577 (1941), Page ��9,, (1957), Pages 111e Veuv e Sy�leJn Law .J 1 C1v m 1'ro l1e ''T -G n, pier bre Me ravier' from Von 280-2s2' Page-s 642 -644. r:,

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(1897), Page 958. . 43 .S U 7 16 s, tt se 1s l11 ac ss a f J,.; Davis v. I' ... 4: 97 e ag P , 1) 95 . (1 4 49 . '. De,,11;5 v. U.S., 341 1 ll N1ger1a Reports 187, Pages 967.97 _ A , 1) 96 (1 i, Ob v. , 11s io i1t ec os Pr . 4 Director of • ' e , ag . 4) P . 62 BOO 2 .C (194 A . td L ., Co & d ir La l el 111 t11 Ca v. 1 , ,ca D,,, ! ;• 1. es 96 , 9ag 3) P 95 96 (1 9 22 . .S £du,ards v. S0111/1 Caroli11a, 372 U ge , 2. 0) Pa 4 65 95 59 (1 . .S U 9 33 ;,, rr be el ss Ca & r •• Eu•i,,g v. Mytinge e 992. ag , P 8) 88 (1 9 28 . .S U 8 12 , . . rry Te e rt £:, pa ren1e Court (Eth1op1.a), Criminal Appeal 7 Sup l era Fed a, Sofi cia Lis v. r r,to sec Pro l Federa 17 (1959), Page 622. 635. ge , Pa 3) 96 (1 6 72 . .S U 2 37 , pa r11 Sk v. 1 1 0 11s rg Fe ge s 652, 938-939. I Freed111a1z v. Jvlar;1/a11d, 380 U.S. 51 (1965), Pa I . ), 9 63 ge 53 (19 S. Pa U. 8. 2 79 37 , o11 ati tig ves J11 ive lat gis Le a Gibso1z v. Florid ges 960, 973-974. , ; Gitlo>v v. Neu, York, 268 U.S. 652 U.S. 65 2 (1925), Pa Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368, 379 (1963), Pages 745·746. I , . 4, 652 -59 593 Gree11e v. JvlcE!roy, 360 U.S. 474 (1959), Pc1ges , s : Case Law and Comments , (1960), Gregorie v. Biclc!!e, from Gelhom & Byse, ''Administrative Page 364, Page 672. G11/f Co!orac!o etc. Co. v. Ellis, 165 U.S. 150 (1897), Page 980. lfag11e v. C.l. 0., U.S. 496 (1939) Page 958. Jla1111ali v. Lc1rc/1e, 363 U.S. 420 (1960), Page 637. I ff011ki11s v. S111etliivitlz Local Boarc! of Jiea!th, 24 Q.B.D. 713 (1890), Page 638. /11 Re Cl1ap111an, 166 U.S. 661, 669-670 (1897), Pages 790, 792. [11 Re Oliver, 333 U.S. 257 (1948), Pages 991-993. Interstate Co111111erce Co111r11issio1z v. U11iorz Pacific RJ'., 222 U.S., 541, 547 (1912), Page 619. Joh11sto11 v. Jones, from ''Ballantine Law Dictionary'' (1948). Page 500. Joi11t A11ti-Facist Lec1g11e v. JvlcGrc1tl, ( Attor11ey G11arcl), 341 U.S. 123 (1951), Page 676. Ka11da v. Federatio11 of Malaya, (1962), 2 W.C.R. 1153 (Malaya) (Privy Council 1962), Pages 638-641. l(athi Rani11g v. State of Sa11rasl1tra, (1952), A.I.R. (Supreme Court) 123, Page 980. l(ilbour11 v. Tho111pso11, 103 U.S. 168 (1881), Pages 789-792, 798. LiJ1a11age v. Tlze Qc1ee11, 1 All England Reports 650, (1966), Page 861. Local Govern11 1e11t Boarc! v. Arlidge, (1915), A.C. 120, Page 638. Locl<ner v. NeH• Yorlc, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), Page 635. 1vfahJ 1ob S'yid Razilc v. I11la11cl Reve111,e Depart111e11t, High Court, Civil Appeal No. 416/56 (1964), unre.ported, Pc1ges 685-686. ,\1arb11ry 1•. Madiso11, l Cl1ranch 137 (1803), Pages 799, 861. Marti11. 1 . FI1111ter's Lessee, 1 Wl1eat 304 (1816), Page 861. McGra111 v. Dai1gl1erty, 273 U.S. 135 (1927), Pages 786-792. • 624es (1965),Pag Afesfi,, Zelel/eil' v. Mi11istr;1 of P11blic 1Vorks, 2 Journal of Ethiopian Law 289 626_ No. 720/SO Appeal MiniSlry of Finci11ce v. .11veclis Saradjia11, Supren1e I 111perial Civil Court, · (1958), Pc1ges 686, 861.. "Afissotiri, Ka,1sas and Te.,Yas R.ailroad v. lvfay, 194 U.S. 267 (1904), Page 973. MoreJ' v. Do11cl, 354 U.S. 457 (1957), Page 978. • "A111s!cart v. U.S., 219 U.S. 346 (1911), Page 676. ), g 95 ( 9 .S. Nat,o,,at Associatio1 1 for Advance111e11t of Colo11red Peo,ple l' · Patterso n' 357 U 44 l ,, Page 941. Nieniotl<o v. lvfaryla,,d, 340 U.S. 268 (1951), Pa ge 958. •. . . 367 U.S. N�to v. U. 290 (1961), Page 916. � o, lo.ff v. �Vtllo,,glib;,, from Jafre, ''Judicial Review of Administrative Action'' (19 65), Page 361 Page 680. R;:,;�s v. AiitsJvortl,, from Jaffe, ''Judicial Review of Administrativ eActio n'' (1965), Page 366' Page R. v. 1¥allace Jol1nso11 ' 5 W•A C A • • • 56, 60 .ca ge 970 n Ro, a J1 1· Tl1�rfJ �a; v. The State of Madras, (1950), A.I.R.. 124, Page 910. Ro:h : U fates, 354 l!·S, 47 6 (1957), Pa ge 938. Sclzecl1;e, ;o�ltrY C v. United States, 295 (1953), Pages 535-531. . 973 t 42 State of A,fad·as 9 , ' Pages 940 , v. � .G. Row, 196-197, A.I.R. Pages (1952), S.C. State of · ngal v. A11>var Alf, A.I.R. (1952), S.C. Page 75, Page ?19. tive tra e;,�� nis St.,,Joseph Yards Co. v. United States, from Jaffe, ''Judicial Review of A drni Action ' (196S)' page 381, Pages 617-618.

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from Jain, ''Indja n Co11stit11tional Law'' (1962), Pages 70171 . Goc1la, P1111it v. ndra . Saresh Cha 75. page 1 , v. New JJa,npshire, 354 U.S. 234 (1957), Page 798. i::t: 'Mikael A bdi v. Estate of Belaynesh, Azbte , Supren1e I111perial Court (1964), 3 Jourt)al e 881. g a P ), 6 6 9 (1 5 2 w a L n ia . of E.th1.0P. ,·e/lo v. Chicago) 337 U.S. 1, 4-5 (1949), Pages 927, 961, 974. Ter1ntn · Ababa), Order No. · secur1ty epartent, ( C h FI' D · 1g ot11·t Acld1s Public v. 22/SS . Tewfik Sherif . 861-862 s Page l96S) ( The Tokyo Ordinance Decision, as translated in Maki, ''Cot1rt a11cl Constitution in Japan'' . 3 6 -9 1 a 6 es 9 P 6, 1 -1 84 � es 1964), Pag ( Times Filn1 Co. v. Cl11cago, 355 U.S. 55 (1962) Page 930 . University of Ce.vlon v. Fernando, (1960), All Englancl Reports Vol. 1, 109, Page 638. U.S. v. Runzely, 345 U.S. 43 (1953), Page 792. Virenda v. State of Punjab, A.I.R. (1957), S.C. 896, Pages 939-940. Wason v. Walter, 4 Queen's Bench 73 (1868), Pages 774-775. Wilner v. Con11nittee on Character and Fit11ess, 373 U.S. 96 (1963), Page 652. Winters v. New York, 333 U.S. 507, 510 (1948), Page 9 35. z, Woube Wolde Se/lassie v. Kefelew Walde Tsadik, 2 Jour11al of Etl1io1)ia11 Law 54 (1965). Page 894. Wright v. Rockefeller, 316 U.S. 52 (1965), Page 745-746. Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886), Pages 980-982. Youngstott1n Sheet and T11be Co. v. Saw;,er, 343 U.S. 579 (1952), Pc1ges 475-476.

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A.c.knowledgment of thanks for 11ermission to reproduce Grateful acknowledgen1ent is made to tl1e publisl1ers and copyrigi1t l1olders listed belovv for permission to reproduce from the works listed.

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Title

All en & Unwi.n American Journal of Comparative Law Butterw orths Butterworths & Journal of African Law

Lewis

Politics i11 f1/est Africa

Robertson Brown & Gamer

Ei,ropea11 Co11rl of HL11'11a.11 Rig/11s (1960) (1967) Fre11c/1 Ad111i11istrative Lau,

Berekete Ab Habte Selassie

Constit1.1tio11al Develop111e11t Etlriopia

Sedler Tussman .& Brock

Tl1e Clzilot Ji1risclictio11 of t!1e £111(1964) peror of Etltiopia Tfze Eq11al Protectio11 of tire La}vs (1949)

Jennings Maffat

Parlia1net1t The Legislative Process

Califo�ia Law Review Cambridge Unjversity Press Cornell Law Quarterl · n:i�s, Journal y of the encan Academy of Arts and Scien ces

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Journal Gbai & McAuslan

pa· ber Fa ber Faber & p,.P<> & F aber l':'"·PfC5S 8a11c o_lla .uo. ss1e I Unj � Cl's1ty, Pa cuJty or' Law , 'R...... . PCr & R.ow •"4l(

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The Law Making Process ir, Ethiopia : cy cr 1o en D f o y g o g a ed � P e h T ia d In ,n s st te ro P ic bl u P ve ci er o C

Redden

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Pzlblication

The Political 1Yfoder11izatio11 of Traditional Monarclzies Men1ora11du1n for the Consid�ra­ tion of tl1e Preside11t's Co111n1t­ ssion to Corzsider Cl1ar1ges i11 t/1e Constitutio11 of Tanganyika Tlze Govern1rze11t of Ethiopia Tlze Britisli Parlia,nent Political Parties

Huntington

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Butterworths & Jo·umal of African Law

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(1966)

(1957) (1938)

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rlarvarcl Law Review r�rarvard La,,v Revie,1i1 f.lar,,ard Law Revie,v

Ca.rdozo Jaffe Ste11

Harvard University Press International Co1111nission of Jt1rists International Conunis­ sion of JL1rists International Conu11is­ sion of JL1rists

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Jot1rnal of Etl1iopia11 La,v

Aberra Jen1bere

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Jaffe

McGraw-I-Ii 11 Co1111Jany

Alderfer

Mi11istry of I11forn1atio11

I-I.I.M. I-Iaile Sellassie

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0,1 Gurage Judicial Structzlre and (1967) -African Politicial Theory

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T/1e Doctri11e of Prior Restraint Petit Dicriori11iaire de Droit ftidicial Corztrol of Adn1inistratil1e Actio11 Local Gol'er11111e11t in Developing Cot1J1tries Selected Speecl1e.s

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Ivlt1kl1apadl1yag Nevv A1nericao Library

Bayley King

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Tl1e Develop,nent of Legal Sys­ te,ns Tlz.e · Etliiopia,z Experience T/1e P1·erogative of t/1.e Enzperor to Deter111i11e Polrers of Adm.infsf rati1·e Agencies Tl1e Et}1iopia11 Bltdget People, Practices, AttitL1des and Proble,ns in the Lo•ver Courts of Etl1iopia Tl1e Adr11i11istrati:vP Fra111e1vork for Eco110111ic Develop,nent in Ethiopia E,-nploJ1ees lvho ,nay not Strike Hierarcliy of Lari's i,1 Etliiopia

Journal of Etl1iopia11 La\v Fraser

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Tl1e Rebellion Trials in Ethio pia (196IJ DLrties a11d Lin1itation s upon Rights T/1e Acln1inistratio11 of Justice in (1968) Ugancla (1964) [11roads i1·1to Fun.damental Rights

Marcie

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Da�e of pU.bl1 Gation

A Ministry of Justice J u d ic ia l Re_vie1,v: Qriestion o Tlie [!omnzerce Clause a f Fact nd the Natzonal Eco11omv Jr1stice in th .e V.S.S. R.

IIan1bro -

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New York University Scl1ool of Law

Vanderbilt

Ocea11a PL1blicati.011s Oxford ·university Press Oxford University Press Oxford University Press

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Belofl· w·heare

Yale University Press

Good11ow

Date o f Publicatioi1

A Profile of t/1e Etl1iopia11 Eco ,10111;, Tilze A111er1c�r� Legislative Proc . es s Soviet .1lcl1111111strative Lega lity , T/7� l\el v Co1r11110111Pcri/tl, a,1,/ its � _ LOtlSI I Iiit io11s L a�v _i11 c, C/1a11gi11g Society Pr111c1JJ/cs of Socirrl <.� Politic al T/1eorJ, Tl1e /l111erica11 Ferlfrr1I Gover11111e11t .Lc,{Jis Inf11res

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f_c111, Dictio11c1rJ' S1a�e S'ecrets-.4 Co111parc1ti11e s·111cly l11c/1a1z Co11sritr1tior1a/ .Lc1111

Finer Davis Bishop

(1948) (1951) (1962)

�[!1c Brilis/1 Syste11t .r1d1r1i11istrative Laiv Treatise T/1e Exec11ti1·e·s Rig/rt ofPrivc1c;1: .1111 U11rcso!l'eci Co11s1it,,tio11al Qi1estio11 Tf1e Civil Service of· Pal<ista11

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Notices of Approval N?tice of Approval No. 8 of 1963, (Approves Civil Aviation Decree 21/ 17 (1962) D. 48), Negarzt Gazeta 22nd Year No. 9, Page 481. Notice of Disapproval No. 1 of 1963, (Disapproves Iluilcli11g Materials .Excise Tax Decree 19/11 (1960) D. 41), 1Vegarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 1 0, Pc1gfs 483, 829.

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Order No. 1 of 1943, (Minisiers, Defi.nition of Pov·vers), Negctrit Gctzeta 211d Year No. 5, Pages 450, 455, 492, 508, 518, 539, 853-854, 877, 889, 899�900. Order No. 2 of 1943, (Ministers, Definir ion of Po,vers A111e11dn1e11t), 1Vegari1 Gazetc1 3rcl Year No. 1, Pages 508, 518. �rder No. 6 of 195 2, (Incorporation a11d Inclusion of tl1e '"ferritory of Eritrea witr1in tl1c Emprre of Ethiopia), 1Vegarft Gazeta 12tl1 Yea1· No. 1, Pages 914-915, 920. . . , T n 14t a ze1 Ga Order No. 14 of 1954, (Ministers, Definition of Po\vers A.1ne11dment), 1\ egartt Year No. 2, Pages 455-456, 508, 934. Orde·r No. 20 of 1958, (Ministry of Pensio11s), Negc1ril Gazeta 17�11 Year No. 9, Page 53?. l1 Year No. 2, l8t a zet Ga r,t ga Ne ), 111y Ar ial tor der Or No . 21 of 1958, (Creating I n1perjal Terri Page 499. st 21 tc, ze Ga it ar eg 1V ), ice rv Se ic bl Pu d Order No. 23 of 1961, (Central Personnel Agency an Year No. 3, Pages 450 489-490 532 , 590 595-6 00, 684, 893-894. 5 l Year No. l S, 2l ta ze Ga it c1r eg N t1) tio ra r , . Orde No. 26 of 1962, (Public E m ploy�ent A.dn1inist Page 531. · .l .c . 0 1e�pp �;�� ; �� l cl t ari e i�r Er o � f �LlS Sta O ral de . rder ·No. 27 of 1962, (T�rrniriat ion.of the Fe 2 Ga 11 , ga Ne , ia) iop 1 l Et r t En ea of the S ystem of Unitary Administration of tl1e Empire of Year No · 3·, Page 445. · Neg,1rit . ' . . · nt) 111e I ne Je (An ice rv Se 0rde r No . 28 of 1962 ' (Central Personnel Agency and Public . Gaze· ta 22 nd year 22t1 c l No. 6, Pages 490, 595-600 · . 1 Gaze tc rit ) ega N ' ·, 1JJa uo Etl of 0rd nk Ba r e l na . tio No Na . 30 of 1963 ' (Cl1arter of the ·year N o · 20, Pages 459, 505. . the Reg · .n Borderi11g tl1e . Or �erNo. 32 f 64 1 11 cy en rg 1e �� n fE o te ta S t f ra o n 19 la o io · ec (D it. b � � Negarit Gazeta, 23rd ep�t � of SomaJia), Negarit Gazeta 23rd Ye-ar N o. lO, Pag es SOOd t) e e Am r r No. 33 of 1964 (Ministers' Definition of Powers), ( · iJ "' 'ea· r Noe. ' · .. 10' Pages 456, 9��Pages 13, No Year . . 23rd Gaze /a ·it Order No. 34 of a, . · ) · Neg - 4 3-46¢ , rd Boa ( t Mea , d n a. 1964 Livestock 6 .

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n atio por rter Cor Cha in Gra ian iop Amendment), Ne arit (Eth 4, 196 of 35 . No Order g Ga zeta 9. 45 5, 45 s 23 rd Ye ar No. 16 , Page n), izatio Organ st Negarit Gazeta 24th Touri pian (Ethio 1964, of 36 No. Order Year No. 1, Page 454. Order No. 41 of 1965, (Etl1io1Ji.a11 Air J_,i11es Charter (Repeal), Negarit Gazeta 25t h Year No · 4, Pages 454-455. Order No. 43 of 1966, (Local Self - Adn1i11istration), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 9 (B), Pages 451, 563-573, 583. Order No. 44 of 1966, (Ministers' Definition of Powers, Amendment), Negarii Gaz era 25{h Year No. 10, Pages 448, 450, 466, 489, 492, 510-513, 539, 590, 687. Order No. 45 of 1966, (Etl1iopian Antiquities Administration), Negarir Gazeta 25th Yea No. 17, Page 454. r Order No. 46 of 1966, (Ministers' Definition of Powers), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 23 Pages 450, 452, 492-493, 508, 518-522, 538, 562-563, 703-704, 876-877, 882, 889, 891-892, g92: 893, 896-897, 933-934. Order No. 56 of 1969, (Public Safety and Welfare), .¥egarit Gazeta 28th Year No. 13, Pages 983-986, 985-986. Order No. 60 of 1969, (Public Safety and \Velfare Amendment No. 1), Negarit Gazera 29th Year No. 7, Pages 983-985. Proclan1ation No. 1 of 1942, (Establishment of the Negarit Gazeta), Negarir Gazera 1st Year No. 1, Pages 472, 853-854. Procla1nation No. 2 of 1942, (1-\d1ninistration of Justice), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. I, Pages 531, 843, 853-854, 855-856, 877-878, 879-880, 889, 896-897, 899-900, 915. Proclan1a.tio11 No. 4 of 1942, (Public Seci.1rity), Negarit Gaze/a 1st Year No. l , Page 983. Proclan1ation No. 13 of 1942, (Authority to Issue Orders), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 2, JJage 531. Proclamation No. 17 of 1942, (Post Olfice), 1Vegarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 4, Page 531. Proclan1ation No. 26 of 1942, (Public Healtl1), Negarit G·azeta 2nd Year No. 2, Pages 533534-, 619. Proclan1alion No. 28 of 1942, (Printi11g Control), Negarit Gaze/a 2nd Year No. 2, Pages 931, 934, 937. Procla111ation No. 29 of 1942, (Public Prosecutors), lvegari1 Gazeta 2.nd Year No. 2 S, Pages 704, 857-858. Proclan1ation No. 35 of 1943, (Tra11s1Jort), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 7, Pages 538, 624-626. Proclan1ation No. 37 of 1943 (Entertainn1ents Ceosorsl1ip), Negarit Gazera 2nd Year No. 8, Petges 931-932, 934, 937. IO, .PagesProclan1ation No. 39 of 1943, (Custon1s ar1d Export Duties).· Negarit Gaze/a 2nd Year No. 538-539. Proclaination No. 54 of 1944 (Public Security. Arnendn1ent) Neaarit Gazeta 3rd Year No. 7• 0 ' JJage 983. P o la111at�on No. 68 of 1944, (ln1perial Ar111y), Negarit Ga.zeta 3rd Year No. 11, Page � � ��: tion No. 74 of 1945, (Mt1nicipalities), Negarit Gazeta 4th Year No. 7, Pages p � 5531 �f� ��1� Proclamatiotl No. 90 of 1947, (Establisl1n1ent of Local Judges) Negaril Gazeia 6th y ear , No. 10 Pages 854-856, 868. 1 p aniatioi1 1�0- 91 of 1947, (Pt1blic Health), Negarit Gazera 6th Year No. 12, Pages 53' 533, ���� Proclanlation No. 118 of 1951, (Public Prose , o. N Ye ar ct1 tors) ' Negarit Gazeta 10th lI Pages 857-858. y r Proclan, atioil No. 121 of 1952 (Coff 11th a a ee Cle ·ni11g and Grading) ' ea · ' Negarit Gaze/ No. 5, Page 539. year h Procla111ation No • 12·3 0f 1gs? (P . . 11t zeta G a -, ubl1c Negar1t Prosecutors Amendment) · ' No. 11 , ·p· age 704. J N Procla1nation No · 1· 30 A 0f 1 . . . Year °· ' l3th 9 5 3, Gazeta (Federal Negar1t Jud1c 1 ary), Pc,ge 914. 1 3 ges 61 p Proclamation N0· 139 0f 1 a . . 0· 3' N 9 Year 53, (Public J 3th R1gl1ts), Negarit Gaze ta 915. •

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Code, . Penal of Etl1iopia, 1930, Pages 842-843, 848-850, 852. l)rocla111ation No. 158 of 1957, Negarit Gazeta 16th Etl1iopia, of Pen ,ll Code, . year, · 504, 674, 701481, 703, .Pages 466, ordi nary Isst1e No. 1, Extra. 862-866, 870-872. s84 _885 , 920, 932, 950-951, 958, 964-967, 983, 986, 987-988. .' C?de, Mariti111e of Etl1iopia, Pro�la1l1ation r�o. 164 of 1960, Negarit Gcize, a 191h \' ear Ex. traordr nary Issue No. 1, Pages 615, 884-885. Code, Civil of Ethiopia, Procla111atio11 No. 165 of 1960 }legarit Gazeta 19th Year Rx nary Iss11e No. 2, Pages 453, 456, 495-496, 620-622, 660-663 ) 666-676 762 823 al�aordi' ' ' . , 845, 871-872, 884-885, 920, 946-948, 986, 992. Code, Co1111nerci_al of Etl1i<:>pi�, J>roclamati�n No. 166 of 196?, Negaril Gaze ta 19th Ye Code, Co1 11n1erc1al of EthIOl)!a, Procla1nat1on No. 166 of 1900, Negarit Gazeta 19th Yeaar r Extraordi11ary IssLie No. 3, Pages 615, 884-885. Code, Cri111inal Procedt1re of Etl1iopi,1, Procla1natio11 (u11nur11beredJ of 1961, !{egarit G , a 21st Year Extraorclinary Issue No. 1, Pc,ges 504, 704, 857, 862, 868, 870, 872, 874-875 882 °9�; ' ' ' 986, 988-989.

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of Afgl1a11islan, 1964, (selected Articles), Pages 839-840. of Bt1rL1ndi, 1962, Art. 58, Pt1ge 489. of Daho111ey, 1964 (selected 1-\.rticles), Page 835. of Eritrea, 1952, (selectecl Articles), Pages 440, 469, 475, 912-915, 931.

Constitution of Etl1iopia, 1931, Art. 6 Page 439. Ar t. 11 Page 4-51. Arts. 50-54 Pc,ges 853-854. Arts. 18-29 (Chap. IJI) Pages 911-913, 914-915, 916, 920.

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Constitution of Ethiopia, lle,,ised (1955) I Art. Pages 440, 493. ·1'j . •. Art. 4 Pc1ge 87 4-87 5. ' Art. 8 Page 509. Art. 10 .Page 509. l Art. 11 Page 509. • > Art. 13 ] age 509. . Art. 17 Page 509. ,1 Art. 19 Page 469. .I ' >c,ges 459-460. Art. 21 . I J Art. 26 Pages 439-441, 443, 445, 794, 874-875, 877-878 ; , gJO, 827, · · J.. 794 > 1, Art. 27 J ages 441-456, 459-461, 463, 468-469, 507, 518, 5 _ • 829, 874-875. Art. 28 P,1ges 445, 812. J' Art. 29 Pages 445,993-994. . 'l Art. 30 Pages 444-4.46, 452, 491, 493-494, 496 . ,;I· Arr. 31 Pages 445,469, 505, 934. -� 1\.rr. 32 Pages 444-445, 468, 505. --.i ,-,. Art. 33 ' Pages 441, 444-445, 505, 507, 794, 828. . . ...' Art. 34 J:>c1ges 444-445, 464, 469, 505, 507, 794, 8I 7. · 892�893, .,• • Art. 35 Pages tl44-445 505 873-875 877, 880-881, 881-883, l 986 · -:, 920 . Art. 36 , 911, 'i 875, 8744 l t1ges 440-445'' 459 ' 61 ' 794 ' 8 0 ' Art. 37 Pages 645, 744, 912, 919, 977-978. -.I Art. 38 Pages 645, 744, 912, 977-978. . . . l

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Page 481. Pages 645, 734, 919, 977. Page 481. Pages 619, 622, 635-636 641 645 647 , 651 675, 919, 939, 977. ' ' · ' ' Pages 619, 622, 919. Pages 469, 734, 919, 977. Page 919. Pages 899-900, 919. Page 919. Page 990. Pages 899-900, 911, 990. Pages 912, 919, 990. Pages 912, 920. Pages 451, 912. Page 912. Pages 480-481, 912, 919. Pages 874-875, 919. Page 919. Pages 518, 620, 663, 668-669, 676, 683, 919. Pages 874-875, 919. Pages 469, 495. Pages 441, 481, 493, 913, 919, 920, 923, 977, 993. Pages 450, 468, 508, 518, 590, 830, 846. Page 508. Pages 450, 781, 794, 810. Page 508. Page 509. Pages 507-508, 823. Pages 508, 518, 753, 770, 777, 780-781, 794? 829. Pages 518, 770, 777, 779, 782, 794, 829. Pages 669, 826, 829, 866. Page 472. Pages 441, 769, 827. Page 195. Pages 773, 779. Pages 444, 469, 472, 814, 816, 920. Pages 470-472, 920. , 817 , 815 , , 794 769 . , 590 , 576 8, 50 , i71 Q.t 47 , 64 3·4 46 1, 45 4, s Page 44 828, 920. Pages 451, 471, 576, 590, 769, 920. Pages 451, 471, 576, 590, 769, 920. Pages 444 471-472, 590, 769, 823-824, 920. 4, 815, 826, 828, 88579 9, 76 6, 76 2, 68 0, 59 7, 50 8, 47 547 Pages 410: 886, 920. Pages 743-744, 747. Page 828. Page 769. Page 153. Page 828. Page 764. Page 764. Page 763. · 1 8 -8 7 7 8 , 4 7 8 -8 64 8 ��8. 4 8 1 , 6 7 6 , 6 8 3 , 861, s 879878, 877 874, 812, . 893-895. 441, Pages 82 , 88 879 8, 877 -87 - ° 893 . Pages 683 , 892 ·ii t8 85 · 88 , 2 8 • 8 0, 88 987 Pages 877-878, Pages 877-878, 879-880. Pages 453, 470, 812, 829. Pages 45 3, 518, 815. 5· 81 , 4 79 , 10 7 8, 51 8, 0 es Pag 5 · 9 2 8 , 7 1 8 , 6 1 -8 5 1 8 Pages 518, Pages 518, 815.

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Decrees Decree No. 1 of 1942, (Ad111inistrative Regulations for Local Government), Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 6, Pages 546-551, 812, 853-854. Decree No. 2 of 1942; (The Administration of the. Church), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 3, Pages 853-854. Decree No. 28 of 1957 (National Coffee Board), Negarit Gazeta 17th Year No. 4, Page 531. Decree No. 32 of 1958, (At1ditor General, Ft1nctions), .'?Vegarit Gazeta 18th Year No. ·1, Pages 709-712. Decree No. 41 of 1960, (Building Materials Excise Tax), Negarit Gazeta 19th Year No. 11, Pages 478-479. Decree 1'To. 45 of 1961, (Penal Code, Penalties), Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 15 Pages, 477-481, 766. · Decree l�o. 46 of 1961, (Public Servants' Pension), Negarit Ga.zeta 20th Year No. 11, Pages

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Decree No. 49 of 1962, (Labot11· Relations), Nega1·it Gazeta 21st Year No. 18, Page 6?S. Decree No. 52 of 1965 (Civil Procedt1re Code), Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 3, Pages 82�-824

General Notices . .

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Year ��� a Gazet Negarit General Notice No. 59 of 1945, (Cl1arter of Ethiopian 1\.ir Lines), No. 4 ,- Page 455 . rnGove the be General 1--rotice No. 61 of 1945, (Desig11ation ot' the Minister of Finance to ment's Stockl1olc�er in E.A.L. I11c., Negarit Gl1zeta 5t11 Ye ar No . 4, Page 455. . . ta 13th Gaze t Geiieral i'lot1ce No. 172 of 1954 (Cl1arter of the City of �-\ddis Ababa), Negarr . Ye ar No. 10, . Pages 579-582. · . . 63 7 Gene�al Not�ce �o. 241 of 1958, (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta 18th Yt:ar No. a �' ���azet · · n Gei1 eral Notice No. 253 of 1959, (Cl1,11·ter ot' the Haile Sellassie I Foundation), Ji[�ga l8tl1 Year No. 11, Pages 457-i.,58. . 64. 7 e l'i General Not�ce No . 255 o 1959 (Appoint111ents), N_eg rit Gaz ta 18th Ye� No. 10�,i� eta. � e_ a_ az General Notice No. 267 of 1960 (Chatter of the Etl11op1 eg_ Corporation), P/. ,. , -. Gra in an l9th Year No . 8, Pages 455, '459. . · . 64. · 7 . e dg p 7 General Not�ce No. :283 of 1961, (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta 20th Year N�- '' , et 20th ·. General Notice No. 284 of 1961, (Haile St!Ilassie I University Charte r), Negarit yaz. a Year No. 8, P ges 458-460, 627-62 63 , · 455 8, c: 063 1. e ag p ene ral ' No No ti_ c e No ' . 286 of 1961, (Appoint1nents), Negarit Gazeta 20th Y� Mt,z,,it-·Gazeta_ g a -:· ene

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ral Notice No. 299 of 1962, (Charte r of � e__g_ . rity ), Au tho Va the� Awash· · lley . . 218t y ear No. 7 , Pages 461-4 · · · , · · , 25 6 3 5 8 2 1 -5 2 2 ' · . , • . Pat � · General N0 t·ice No. 330 of 1964 .;:·1.........:_ · .. 0·· ?4 N ' ... 7 r Yea 23rd (Appointments), Negarit Gazeta •

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HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY LAW F.ACULT·y PUBLlCATIQNS

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Soft Cover Hard Laws of Addis Ababa, ed W.Ewino Co oli dated s n U.S.$ 4 . A The Fetha Negast-The Ethiopian Law of the Kings . ,. 25. n Criminal Procedt1re Ethiopia Fisher, 18. 23. Introduction to Ethiopian Pe11al Law Graven, An 10. Huntingford, Land Charters of Nor,tl1ern Etl1iopia 6. 11. Krzeczu nowicz, Law of Ext1·a Co11tract,ual Obligations 4. 6. Lowenst'ein, Materials for the St11dy Ethiopi,1n Penal Law 10. 15. Marin, Land Tenure in Chore (Sl1oa) 3.50 Pankhurst, State and Land in Etl1iopian I-listory 10. 15. -,· Paul and Clapham, Etl1iopian Constit11tjonal Development, J 15. Paul and Cla.pl1am, Ethiopia3:1 Constitutional Developn1e11t, II 18. .,. Redden, Law Making Process in Ethiopia 1. Sedler, Ethiopian Civil Procedt1re 13. 18. Vanderlinden, Ethiopian Law of Pe1·sons 5. 7. (in French) Berhane Ghebray, L'Organisation de !'Administration Local e n Ethiopie 5. 7.

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B. JOURNAL OF ETP.JOPIAN LAvV - (1964- to present) A scholarly publication fea·turiI1g articles conce11.1ing all aspects of Ethiopian Law, with case reports i n each iss11e (the only a,;ailable source of Ethiopian case decisions.) "•

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Haile Law, of ty Facul the . All of th . from e ab o·ve _works n1ay be purchased 111 E �hr. �pra ·. S.eU _ · e I Un1.v · · .assi ers1ty, Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Etl110P 18· ..

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D J E E IB H R T T F U F O O N IO L N AH CONQUERI G HAILE SELLASSIE I ELECT OF GOD, EMPEROR OF ETHIOPIA

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g b gi e nin th at of o, ag Our Re�gn. We 8l'anted s ar ye r fou tyen tw , � AS � WHERE _ j t1on for 1tu nst the Co a d ime cla pro prr Em and e ts jec of Sub Ethiopia: .1 to Our faithful •

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WHEREAS, ALMIGHTY GOD, 'I'HE SOURCE OF ALL BENEF ITs, has strengthened and inspired Us to lead Our beloved People, during Our Reign, :� throt1gh the greatest of trials and hardships to an era of great progress in all fields; • .1 . and

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WHEREAS, being desiro·us of consolidating the progress achieved and of laying a solid basis for the ha.ppiness and prosperity of the present and futnre generations of Our People, We have prepc:!red a Revised Consti-tution for Our Empire, after many years of searching study and reflection; and

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WHEREAS, Ot1r Parliament, af,ter the due examination and deliberation, bas .. st1b111itted to U S its approval of ·this Revised Constitution; · .J1 NOW THEREFORE, WE, HAILE SELLASSIE I EMPEROR OF ETIIlO· .] l PIA, do, on the occasion of the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of Our Coronation, ) J . l1ereby p1·oclain1 and place into force and effect as from to-day, the Revised 1 .Constitution of the En1pire of Ethio·pia, fo.r the benefit, welfare, and .progress of .i Our beloved People. 1! 'i

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GIVEN in 0,ur In11Jerial Capital, 011 this the 4th day of November, 1955, and

on the Twenty-Fiftl1 Anniversary' of 011r Coronatio n.

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HAILE SELLASSIB I

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Emperor

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TSAHAFE TEZAZ TAFAR RA WORQ Minister of the Pen.

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CHAPTER V THE POW ERS AND PREROGATIVES OF TllE EMPEROR Sun1ma1·y of Co11terzts

as Sovereign ''S ror overeignty'' a11 cl ''SllIJren1c AutJ101.1·t·y'' Em pe T'li e . Arti 1: · n Sectio , un , d e r ' 'E mperor as sovere1gn 1n , ·· 1 c e A · rt 1c 1e 36, and ,vl1etl1er tl1is Article be 26; _t�e sto ws any s. er \v po add1t1onal

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Section 2: Th� �o'Yer of the En1peror to Crea1 te Age11cies of G?ver11111e11t ar1 d Assign Tl,eir Jur1s�1 ct1on - �he nat111;e �f the .po� er t_o create age11c1es; t!1e origi11s and rationale of this po,ver; its �on�tit11t1or1al L1n11ts \V1tl1 regard �o regl1latioi1 a11ct pltblic finance; the form and pl1bl1cat1�n C?f e11a_ct 1 1�ents tinder _Article 27; tl1e prob]e111 of J111 perial Charters, and. th� con�t.1tut1011al basis of agencies set u1J by tl1e111; tl1e Article 27 "Order power'' 1n action; Orders a11d otl1er exect1ti,1c legislation isst1ed since 1955. Section 3: The Law Making A11tl1ority: tl1e Emperor in Parlia111ent - tl1e 111ea11ing of ''lav,'' in the Constitution; consideration of lavvs by Parlian1e11t; pron1ulgatio.n and veto. Section 4: The Decree Po\ver - Article 92; its ration,1le; tl1e pron1t1lgation and consideration of Decrees; forms of parliamentary action on tl1en1; Procla1nations, Decrees and Par­ liamentary Notices issued since 1955.

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Section 5: The Appointment Power - Articles 27 and 66; delegation of tl1e appointn1ent power; the scope of the appointn1ent power.

Section 6: Foreign Relations and the T reaty Po\.ver - the condt1ct of foreign affairs; international agreements and the Constitution; international agreen1ents reqt1iring parlian1entary approval. Section 7: Military and Emergency Powers - the control of tl1e armed forces; state of siege, martial law, and n.ational emergency. Section 8: Brief Notes on other Powers - honours; tl1e minting po,ver; parlianientary and legis­ lative powers; judicial powers.

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REIGN SECTION I: THE EMPEROR AS SOVp -

Read: Articles 26, 36 of th.e Constitution of 1955; Articles 6, 29 of the Constitution of 1931; The discussion of ''Sovereignty'' in Cl1apter I; . . . nar1es Definitions of ''Sovereignty'' in several law dict1o

26 le ic rt A r de un '' ty ri ho ut ''Sovereignty'' and '' Supreme A t u b , 1 3 · 9 f 1 o 11 · io t t1 it t s · clearly deri ved from Article 6 f tl1e c On · Art1cle 26 1s i 5 5 9 1 11 c d I : ; :;1� �;t ;hereas in 1931 the words ''supreme power'' are :1sed, ,�I1ese nce refere the ty SUPP aguer albeit mo v Y · re impressi ve t erm ''Sov ereign to· ''Supr eme authority''. 111_ tl1e rs JJO�ve . any . .1s wl1et�er 1.-1 vests Th e 1:11a1n problem . d 26 s e cl ti article r A r a y se b er 1 i otl m of 1. tue Eo peror in �dd ses c er e h eady x at h tion hi h al:r e 1 to b:� w ; t c � os e ask: �b 1 1 _ tl1e ft nust _ n s t ar e � C� 1: utton. If 1t does vest !um with _sue� pow e;;� urposes o'. th� Art icle? e p e a wl1 t W Y · If i doe s not we h ave tl1e n to ask· ,tt � · by consider111 g unde r tica a r p put re mo t � j ::ii·tuti o na l la wyer 1nig�t hese questions in a different, wl�a��{ 0 n u only i wor g k the as cially find h' rc mstan ·ces and for w h at reasons a espe ' er ow p of · self o _.un jge.d to refer to Article 26 as a source bl soufet. . . of Po · we · r 1or action. � a

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�tic�.e 26 is divided int� two cla11ses: the first vests the ''So, _ _ s cond states .Em 11·e'' 1n the Em_pe1·or, while t�e _. e er that � 1: }1 e ''exerc.i� Jgnty· oft _ '·/· .

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(emphasis added�. lt wou_ld seem, graIU1natic�lly,_ that the qW:�/\e Con.stz1111iDlj:; ; ' y ng Phra s , .l' . , :. _ tl1e prese11t 1n for ut1 d Const1t provide . · the ma1111er on, e '' refer s in - ,, onl . y to tl1e . . of s11pre1ne at1tb01·1ty, and not to t1 1e gra11t of ''S· overe1gnty'' in the fi exercise: :/ i,) rst clause. .:. /J . · ._ Let 11s tl1eref?re firs� consider _ tl1e grant of ''Soverei gnty''. \1/e h _. 1 _ r e see1� tl1at ''Sove1·e1g1�ty'' 1s a�1 amb1g·L1o·us concept. It may be applied �v �I�e ady ._··; '. 0 d i1ferem . t1 . c1rcu 1nstan ces. It may I1ave differe11t m ea bodies and under· d1ffe1·ent Articl� 2� speaks of ''�overeigntY_". does it - as is sometimes arg!�� When .-:• �: so,,e1·e1gn 111 tl1e �obbes1a11 or A:11st1!11an , �e11se of ''th� Sovereign'' as th e unfe·m�an_. , *; s11pren1e law-making p�wer wh1cl1 1s 11�t11:1ateI� subject to no lim itation e !er1:d it law �r by o_ther f?rces 1n the state. Is 1t In this sense tha_t "S overeignty" is� . 11nde1stood In Article 26? If so, then the E1nperor vv1ould, In the last resort b . - · ;· bl to dispense with the Constitution altogetl1er, and rule simply by virtue of his;0�ere : ; , i·' as ''Sover·eign''.

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Several considerations may be put forward against that reading. First the , � Constitution wo11ld be cutting the gro11nd from 1111der i tself. If sovereignt)' i� the · n Hobbesian sense we1·e inte11d�d, the whole legal structure of Etlliopia a d any of ·f the laws could be cl1anged with a stroke of a pen. There h a. s been no suggestion ,' that tl1e grant of a Constit11tio11 by tl1e Emperor was s. .impl) a gift that could be taken back at will; on the contra1·y it bas always been implied that this was a step which t bound the E1nperor, as well as 11.is government and o.fficials, to obsenre legal limita· t:: : tions on power and to gove1·11 witlun the stated legal framework of the Constitution. tJ ; (What evidence from our readings and from the Constitution can you find to sup- tl� { port that fundamental contention?) Second, the Constitution, in Article 36, already grants to "the Emperor: as Sovereign'' ce1·tai11 disc,retiona1·y ''powers'' ,;vluch must, l1owe,,er, be e�ercised ;; 36 l 1 ·. �i rt ic e A disct1ss ,, shall We ''subject to tl1e otl1e1· prqvisions of tlus Constitt1 tio .n . o e m e r E p 1 tl tliat r, shortly. The q11estion novv is, does tl1e Co11stit11tiot1al proposition , 1.t, e · ��) h h .. at t is ''Sovereign'' or is vested witl1 ''So,1ereig11t.),'' n1ean by itself 1 e r o t fu1 � . : exercise Iiobbesian "sovereignty"? Ar ticle 36, inter alia, appears _ a let onuld . }� �gn So�ere as En If any fu1iher powe1· were to be gra11ted to tl 1e 1peror power which would vitally allect the whole legal basis o_f �he Con�t1t�t1on{ 0��:�on, _ 1 t101 - ... \ const1tu a P ex11l1.c1t y a:r1 ed surely expect tl1.at IJOWe1· to be gra11t b and not by a dispt1table reacli11g of an an1bigt1ous term. .· , 1 _ uite ;f1 �:, . n q 0 c a ,.fl1ird, ''Sovereig11ty'' l1as �11otl1er, ,vell acce�ted meru3:11g, :onarch,· for·:·)'t� _ e tI1 in properly argi.ie _ tl1a! tl1e ''so:1e.1·e1_gnty'' of E11gland 1s vested . _ p . n s, � � rha p al e i the D?-onarcl1 1s 111 an l11stor1 �al sense tl1e legal . source (no� h e laws and.:. ·:..· �� _ t . e ourc o, - � :� ) to but still the s0111·ce) of tl1e Co11st1t11t10_11 a11� tl1e (nominal � nd: J]li � in r a e h�:._ -� t the head of state for pl11·1Joses of deali ng w1tl1 otl1er co11ntr1es . B of :gp Y _ ; t . o _ the _Fe�eral Act, which 11nited Et�iopia a � E1·itrea _"t1nd�r _ the S l���Je · 3 of_th�.:-.. ; 1� ? � �2 . i 1 g Et?-iop1an Cro':"n':, and �he precise re�et1t1on of th s wo1din � on.- ,Article le:�-� \ ti u st o . o Entrean �onst1tut1on ?f !9 52 and Art1cl� 1 of the 1955 C n ' � verei go f :c. i so as ror_ of tl1e �r1trean Const1tut1on also proclaimed the Empe . offered b�:.·1;::''i. �':: nt · · e i sove ­ ,,s_ o v eref ,: ·· · , ederat1 of n F ncept ''. A i -? further c �/� indi_ c ation of tl1 s � : e � ? 9J } . _ � Emperor_ s speech promu1gat1ng tl1e �onst1tut10�, w�ere h.e spea k�· icial braD�:/2: r �:i �, � d u J _ the as standing apart from the executive, the legislative and · :, : ,{l �:� :.;_, �-'�b. =

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to as or su de 1· to r i11 th , e al l)eople th� e11joyinent of tll ik e � en t nm ·over ei r fu 11da1n e11sa1n be e said the of not ma1 1y Ca11 co11s t1ttrt · i ts (: o11a l n10 11a1c . l1s today? g 1 rial1 o ta . . . Art icle of 26, 1t 1s explicitly statecl t J1 at tlle E111 par t seco nd , tlle , In . p e '' r o r s . . 's tI ,, )r ,, . e 1n e J . exe1c1se d ·I 1n e t1e b 111ust n1a1111e1 · providecl for'', I.. e. 11 1 accord .autllority'' · · c ·. . · a 11 c e · tl on 1e f st1 t s10 o 1 t10 11s 11. pr So ov 1 tl1 e seco11d par·t of Ai·ticle 26 does _ �_ witll othe : . _ n o t a grant of contain spec1fic povver. seem, by itself, to

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One may stjll ask l1�weve1�: does A1�ticle 26, read i11 its e11tirety, grailt to tlle op er to Emperor a11y powers wl11cl1 a1e necessaiy and. p1· carry otit 111·s ft111ct·ions . · · · w.1 ut 1c b ·. l h are 11ot exJJl1c1tlJJ 0o·ive,i /1 in1 else�v/1ere •? Btl 1t1o n, Con st1t 1 und.er the 11 t 0 e t . . · · · 1 t:,. ,., aorun, tl1at Arlie1e ..JO 1nore exp 1 1c1t · 1 Y g1, es tl1e Emperor all powers , 110t inc . oi1sI·ste111 o . . ssa o 11e ry e bl , 1a e . l 111 _ to 1 ca_ 1 · r y out with �l1e Const.1tut1on tl1e exi)licit cons!ittitional � _ �� � : _ ,, functions for wlucl1 he, as So_, _e1e1gn 1s res1)011s1ble. PresL1111ably tl1ere is 11either need for a fL1rtl1er grant of at1x1l1a.ry p o,ve1·s, no1· reaso11 to st1pJ)Ose tl1eir existence u11less _tl1ey: too , are gr��te� explicitly. If th�s is_ tl1e case, tl1en wl1at is tl1 e T)tirpose of Article 26? Presumaoly 1t se1·ves a descr1pt1ve 1·0Ie, necessary to en11)l1 asise tl1e unique position of tl1e Emperor at tl1e head of tl1e Etl1io1)ian state; it states tl1e political theory underlying l1is role in tl1e constitt1tion ,vl1icl1 is defined elsewl1ere in specific terms, but without any di1·ect beari11g on l1is legal lJowers.

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''Sovereignty'' and the ''Powers'' Bestowed by Article 36

Article 36, coming at the end of Cl1apter II of tl1e Constitt1tion, appears to l1ave a close relation­ ship \Vith Article 26, which comes a t tl1e beginni11g. Both speal< of tl1e En1peror as ''Sovereig,1'', and both appear to ·be talking about some broad, vague ·'po\vers'' or ''at1tl1ority''. But botl1 refer �o the Constitution as a qualifying lin1it on the po'vvers given. Bot11 are drafted, perh�ps ?eJibe_rately, 1n very general terms; and both raise difficulties as to the specific powers and obl1gat1ons, 1f any, which th.ey give to the En1peror, and the circumst ances under wl1icl1 tl1ese 1nay be i11voked. . . Article 36 assigns various powers and duties to the E1nperor :'as Sovereign'', and tl1is 1nay md1cate that they belong to him personally, and are outsid� tl1e ot�d1n_a�·y structure of go�ernn1ent, \Yhether executive (whic.h is covered by Article 27), legislative or JUd1c1al. At tl1e same tin1e, tl1ey are subje ct to the other provisions of the Constitutioi1, a11d can1�ot tl1er�fore be tised t? �uspen� the Constitt1tion , or to cover emergencies i n wl1icl1 i t is tl1ot1gl1t 11r�1 practical to _ keep celtain p� rts of th_e Co n stitution in effect. Even if this is a ccepted, l1owever, the exac_t itite11tions of the Article and its place in the constitutional framework may still be open to question. re ad o r_ A � �6 le tic Ar of w vie ge ve cti � ;�! In nera .I, a.nalyses ma y take either a br o ad or a restri � t o 11 � 1t1 ad� in s, ver po\ would co nclude tl1at the Ar ra ext al nti sta st1b or per Em e in the · ticl vests. 1 ·t d an , n o ti . u it st n o C e alrea th f o s rt d , p,t . 1 th · Y gra . . nted to him by earlier articles of Cl1a1)ter Tl an d tl1e 1er tl o h i it w · ed · i c n o c re e b en becomes a question of to e r a. tJ1ey wh a t tl1ese powers are, anq 110w just relevant provisions · se o th l1 it \ r a p v a n o l d ro O one view, . b . Ar� _ t hey as might regard e1nerge11cy J :Ol�ers, tl1e be e? � { n l l of contro ete p in tic1e coi e o �a1ce � ed pow In_ e 29: this sus­ case, b� IDJgl1t n:i Emper �r and the t or e il P l ient ian v ar e o t ng r gpenct·nment in t1:11e of dange r - such as a fore�gn 1nv,1 s1on - dissol 33 29, 27, s Article r e ,. U11cle c� de t r� e rso P_� m ord ary executive branch, and. r�lJng b� tl1ough a11cl tL1tion, � a nd ��g coosti ; ..., th�13 woulcl presumably be possible w1 tl11 n the limits O t 1 e exis )g und�r ed regul�t the ri se,,erely be tl dou 1co pro the tl1ey 1ty'' of � tdc! i ��� c � _ people 11tegr suspended. could not be l an tt1e te� of. efence t o11 sio ns of ti Article 65. T'his interpretatjoo would rely n1ost. ex1�Ptional, to be invoked only in tirne of f\r cle 36, an d would regard th e Article as something dire need . . . . g, ord1·n'ary power . t1nu111 . con a 'But tn 36 · 1 e el ­ another view it would be possible to see in Arti.· e day v to day " ' , ' , lf \ 1 by wh· h e i tl . m�e Vit ' 1c: the 1 h .d rns an t ' once t·on c I E a 1 t men Faun� m_ p eror, J fare of h'15 standing above tl1e govem sie Selas fI aile u 1? B cle . , Of �1�e . Art i u ... this of the • people. If this were so, tl1en the establish�ent er nder ow f n} · thi s · ea rersity, n1igi1 t be regarded as proper exercises.� l p se Sovereig1 1 powe rs VlS-���!� tl1e .,e f ,s en o eri posi 0u)d �urtl1er be '·go Jro tl1e v ti een define �rline r n betw to � ary � necess � ..._ ..._th.eo�i � �. � :·: _ . ·· . .. . d 0 . -J 10st1tut1 0.ns the d shoul of governmen t. Where

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on e'' lfar ''we and 27, icle Art er und up set � create� under Article 36? Wo ins. tit?tions . � :� � 'i­ ch for whi ers l pow ry �e lato arli regu t d 1· gran . y ntar U to Articl r_ pero w Em the app p permit e3 l rova 0 ,i,,, l s the le r� peop ensu to 1 6 ym dt1ty tt,: enJo u oth .. the d that ent g 1 of be needed? Stipposu the·tr nghts � eLlf£Sc . . 1 . . . rie 1n . as o C' ' � I t h ers b , pow w. ere a h . s 1c1 . a· .. I Jtl uld ain cert cise th� exer ? to r pero 1 En give way to t"'lla I� the· ;r. 1 � ; read111g �xplo1es some of these questions with resp ect first he ordin:i,.., . . · ,it system of cotJrts? The . . · agencies. to one s 1,;'1 ; e t1v ra 1s 1n n1 .· · u�ect : . 1 ,v the creation of ad . . . . _ t . . TJ1e second reacl1ng presents �l�e c,1se for a restrictive view of Arti cle 36_ On . . _ . .1 �j the Article does not grant any 3:<ld1t1onal a.ctual powers to the Emperor _at all, but call th1B v1�°"''i · , ' ( to I1 is. clt.1t;, to 11se the powers wl11cl1 J1e l� a� b�en grante? by otl�er art1cl:8, 10 order to achi! attenti�n ·. l ve 111 1mple1nent1ng 11Jero1, ti Ar�1cle tl1at 3 theory l1e �, s1mp t1ves. ob: ie ? ! l_ y acts through thecertam �· b� � � �1;1 er f o some tl1e of ren1oves r ,. es 1t1on, d1fficult1 Co11st1t1 � tl1e w of articles 1ch h existino . spring o t e 0 �: m h _i�ea of t11e Emperor taki11g action ''above'', and separated from, the ordinary gove rnmen� aut : h onti""' w. . j r.il !J

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A1·ticle 36 as a Source of Additio11c1l Powers

From Aberra Jembere, Tlie Prerogative of the ?mperor to Determine Powers Adn1i.nist1·ative Agencies (Semina,· Paper, Faculty of.Law, H. S. I U. 1967 ), pages22.2°/.

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The E111pero1·, as Sovereig11, by virtt1e of .Art. 36 of the Revised Constutition ;:� has tl1.e power to take all 111east11·es that may be necessary to ensure, at all times'. ·:.;� tl1e safety and welfare of tl1e inl1abitants of tl1.e Empire. As Mr. Fraser rightly pointed 11

for tl1e welfare of tl1e inl1abitants of the Empire and are thus within the prerogative of tl1e Empe1·or." �' By tl1e same token, the promotion of economic development by making tl1e maxim11m t1se of tl1e Awash Valley natural resources is a measure taken for tl1e welfare of the inl1abitants of tl1e Empire. Thus, in th:e absence of cjtation of the sou1·ce of tl1e legislation, one may att.rib11te the source of authority for the issuance of the Cha1·te1· of the AVA in the form of Gene r·al Notice to Art. 36 of the Constit11tion, 11nd.er whicl1 tl1e Emperor is gi ven wider executive powers than under Art. 27 of the Constit11tion.

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T'his arg11ment rests on the following foundations: to g_ pertainin a one a is The power of creating an ad. 111inistrati, e agency ( ) p e, v uti Exec Cl1ief the the Sovereign, by virt11e of Art. 36, as n1u.ch as it is to . i�: p11rsuant to Art. 27 of the Revised Constitution. � 'I

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t. e angt1age of tl�js Ar·tic.le i. 11clicates. Accordi11g to t. s r c ' bat roaY pero1· l1as all tl1e r1gl1ts a.nd po,,,e1�s r1ecessary to take any meas u�e � ·b·taots .. 1 a 10 the be 11ecessary to e11s11.re, inter lZlia, the safety a11d welfare of · · �� . . . . · _, �� of the E1npire. 1th . . : . ] w . · � � rusted t en ror, Tl1us, 1t may w1tl1 grea� reason be co11te1�ded, tl1at tl1� Empe e rust ; d �itb : t en o al tl1e d11.t� to �11 t1re tl1e l1.a1J:p1ness and pro_sper1ty of tl1_e nation, 1s s . Ar 36 1.e'., �i ��� , t. . � 0 1 out the cl101ce of tl1e 1nea11s for tl1e accompl1sl1ment of the ends set_ . . the scope . __·. power to create a ptLblic a11tl1ority of l1is choice, and to determine w11hin . · ·· of the constitutional limitatio11s, its powers and duties. _ urce · e h t a 36 . � tb . .. �;,j�i: It would be appropriate ' in tl1e opinion of tl1e writer, to cite Ar. t u d in 0f power when creating an admi1listrative agency by a Charter, iss e n sibiµttes� : o re s of a General Notice, and granting to it extra-ordinary powers ao<l p · · . · · _'.1 · · 1

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Constit11tion is by im_plication tlle source of the of 6 . 3 Art . use si nific a a t n_ Bec 1add t_ h e of Empe power r or u11de The r tl1is Article, wl1ic.l1 er. pow �tate s _ in tional t par r1gl1ts all and has power ror s to Empe take all e measures that may be ''th t a th ' ... time s all seem at s '' to re, be ,vide e· r n su tl1a1 to 1 tl1e 'power ti le Emperor sary e c s e . n _cot�r o se, t t h 1· . �ec o b' t . 27 f . e . . su '. im1ta t1ons Art. 1m1Jo secl nder by tl1e u oth · er JJrov1 _ bas n. t1o 1tu st on C ed is ev R e th sio ns of Thus' citing Art. 36 as tl1e source of pow. er . w11en creac ti il g 'an at1tonomo11s . au_thor1ty t 1or_ 1e on 1 " l }?ro y per ft111ct1on;111g of tl1e governineilt, but also not · , c publi .1nteg a?d r1ty _of tl1e En1p1 re, o r tl1e safety aild welfare of defen �e the ring ensu for its inhabitants, woul� Justify tl1 e granting of �xtra-ordi11ary powers tl1 at could not constitutionally be given. under Art. 27. G_1·a�t111� IJOWers to admi 11 istrative agencies in the form of Order seems to be more 11111.1 ted 111 scope than tl1e CI1arter e 11acted in the form of General Notice.

It should be. noted that this �oct�ine ope11s up some prospect of circumventing both the Executive and the leg1slat1ve branches of tl1e Gove rnment, by basing on the reasons of Art. 36, except presumably wl1ere a power is explicitly reserved to Parliament. Since the powers of the Emperor·, as Head of tl1e Exect1tive (Art. 27), and Head of State an.ct Sovereign (Arts. 26, 36) are so ble11 ded in certain res1)ects, and overlap each other, it is difficult to dr·aw a line wl1ere tl1 e two categories exan1ple, tl1e Termi11ation of tl1e Federal of powers would be clearly limited. For . . . as it co11cer11 s tl1e strL1ctt1ral organisation r Status of Eritrea is issued as Orde of the State of Ethlopia. The same legislation could probably be enacted constitt1tion­ ally under Art. 36, by the Emperor, as Sovereign, as it is an act of enst1ring tl1e in­ tegrity of the Empire; o r under Ar t. 26, as tl1e Head of State, as tl1e exercising of the supreme authority over all affa irs of the Empire is vested in hin1. A ''Restrictive'' Interpretation of Article 36 (Anot/1e1· View, by 011e of t/1e Editors) t en nd pe de in an 36 le ic rt A is : As lawyers, ou r focus should ,be on tl1e problem r de un r ro pe Em e t/z by ed at lg 1u on pr sour ce of law-making power - could a law be Article 36 which could not othe,·wise be promulgated?

It may be argued that it cannot.

. ''. n ig e r e . v o S s a '' s ie t u d ·. s �mperor ' The first part of Article 36 speaks of tl1e E d e c r o iv d · re ve so a c cordance with Ethiopian tr ad itjo n , he i s n o t to be a passive � � s l1e is w l e 1 o r c , t '' : 1 , o pub ic _ at � , m to au l ia o� �m �ak necessary affairs, acting on ly as a cer �� � � mh � ; o. t e existing government. Rather, it 1s bis pe rsonal .i,tJ . easures'' to ''ensu m re'': l) tlie defence of the nation and the people of Ethi0Pia; 2) their safety; 3) their ¾'elfare. s)· air f af n 1 ) t�e� �onstit�tional rights, and ig fore of t ic ndt co · e h t h ) · their interests oug tl1r ' 'l (notably oad abr 1 b ns1 o resp - r: e e thes out y r . ca o t 10 s t e pow jec ''sub ast � _ r bis of are ·1·.,; ard reg �le·s,· ba dJ Part of Art1c' le 36 spe aks tl11s 1n d · se · i c r e ex tt · the- oth ! - c�e�rly says the po':ers_ to,, be ._provisions of the Con,stiti,tion . : ._

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by c,·eatin.g age,1 cies under Article 27 such as_ M1n 1str1es of I-Iealtb , Housing .. , . a.s the Awash Valley ·-!'. or Latld Reforiu, or developmental agencies such · t h . e h U e as r ruv y e s1t su or s nlc ba s o11 i 1· va or y rit tho Au 1

91 and 92) · :· : or by conve11i11g 01· dissolving Parliament when he tllinks it is in the public · ·: i11terest to do so (in order for example, to force public exp ression on an iss11e where he thinks Parliament is not acting in the public interest) _i · 1: or by pr·ovidin.g /01· t/1e citrrenCJJ and related matters (cf. Article 32); 4) a11 explicit power to ''1naintai11. ji1stice th1·oitgl1. the courts'' a.nd grant pardons and amnesties (Article 35) and th11s assure protection of rights - in additio11 to l1is law-making and veto ·powers (Article 34); and 5) an explicit power to cond11ct foreig1i affairs by establislling diplomatic -i relations, concluding agreements, ratifying treaties and so forth (Article 30).· ; 1 In sl1ort the ends set 011t in Article 36 wo11ld seen1 to be pretty amply covered '. j . The 11 l. by powers 11101·e specifically developed in tl1e specific Articles of Cl1apter Constit11tio11 does ''p1·ovide'' the rnea11s wl1e1·eby tl1e En1peror may exer cise power to discl1arge l1is Article 36 res1Jo11sibilities. But �t may be �sl<ed: wl1at tl1e11 is tl1e poi11t of Article 36? Arguably . it serv�s -� tl1e_ fttnction of mak111g clear tl1at tl1e E 1nperor bas a personal duty to 11se l11s conSll· !uti�nal powers towa1·. ds tl1e e11cls SJJecified a bo ,,e, tl1at the exercise of tl1e �e power s is 111s ultima te responsibility, tl1at lie l1 as - as a11 inteoral part of bis explicit po\vers de C l1apte1· II - additional at1xilia 1�y po,"1ers to take 11,J1ate11er ,n,easu�es a er � ec::e . �! y �_nd .· ;lij proJJer to c·crt·t·JJ oilt t/1e eXIJlicit grants of IJower elsewhere iound 1 n '. 1 Const1tt1_ t1on , notably CllaJJter· II. D oes tha� mean Article 36 is an independent source of law-makin� powe · r?: �;. •� . 1t cannot by ztse�f be tl1e s0111·ce of Or nary ·¾ij ca11 ''emergency'' or ''extraordi · · r ove o.r . '' Deere '' or· I e�i· sI at1v • ·on 51 1 . u p · com e · 111s t1·11n1ent l1av111g tl1e f01·ce of legal · i_ . � lain . citiz�ns �f. tlle E1111)1.re 01· tl1e governn1e11t. But it ca be an auxiliarJJ source to p n ex e ex- · ·: an_d _ JUSttfy - au<l. indeed g11i mor 1e tl of , , e c1e n o � anc l of co1 1tro exe l rcis e the . Pl1c1t powe1·s. .:q · : sis ;i y nal a T l1 u · s i n th.e fiel d �f dev�lop111ent is th -'. b ·it d · (a planning Article 36 ca11 n Y a _ ,.�; ar e e should) b c ted _(witl1 AI· p y bod . _ t 1c_ I e a 27) of to t? : t as _.-: j n : justif y creati a o the . n { developmen: a11 fo . s11bm1s l 1a Pa� . and >' to s1on rs to · the Minis te Coun cil of� jo I aW � u . . g ide towardf p ariiig the t r y tl1 _ a� not 1 1ec�s� : .:_-; et i ?. budg for _ ited_ c _ Or . it d e b coul maintain an Im �� . r al t P i Agency to assure p roper adm1mstrat1on of JUS Jce, · . · · . : ;__:'- .,:: .. . ·. ...... . . _ . . .. ..-

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. a clzelot as a law coiJ.1·t exercising jt1dicial power (J.udicial po w e r seems to be . . sar i1Y u rts a Ione), b . t as an age ncy to 111vestigate aild cou tI1e in · ·1 cor r"-' ""' C t . . ted co ves . rruption · . · · 10 11s n se ar sc a r r1a s1m ge 1 of or Jt1 st1 ce ce 111 the cotirts by proced ten e _ p om ; � inc u re� cas es or o evi ew p11 r r_ o al ses of act 11 act 11a lly n tha adjttdicati iJ g tllem. (The er � . th o 1e power grante d by Ait1cle 35 - cotlJJlecl t1 of e scop e witll l"\.1 A ··t·IC 1 e 36 - 1 s · · precis · · · e d rre e� d to IS .[:'_ · Ch d an ap te t1o n r Vl qu ll) es . Ag a111, it wo11ld see1n tl1at tl1e a diffic ult mo 11ar 111 E11gla11d, cot1lcl tal<e steJJS sll ort cl1 the 1ke ] ror e of law mak .n to Emp _ e cot1l 1g. d set . m t � lavv-n 1aki1 I-l bodi es llp ise a1 1 alog l:> 011 c e i � s o to "'-oyal Comm1s pr o · . s1 · • 0 11s .c. cre1 1or ?rm or d nee s ne, v the l::1ws 1n �reas �f co 11 c_ei·n. Perllaps, too, gate 1 est i�v to Article 36 co11ld (and p�rl1a_ps 1t sl1ot1ld) l1a,,e bee11 c1teci l-vit/1 Article 27 as a source for Order No. 27 terilllnat1og tl1e status of tl1e Federation. A distinction �s sometimes �rawn - 01· atten1p�ed - betwee11 powers which the Emperor exercises as So�e1·�1g,z a11d tl1o�e exercised as Head of Government, It may be true that tl1e _Consttt11t1011 does en:11sage botl1 roles. B1it as la,¥yers, while we may (and on occas1on shot1ld) 11se ter1ninology of political theory we shotild recognize tl1at tl1e cr 11cial problem is wl1etl1er tl1e Emperor as ''Sovereign'' has Iaw­ ma.king powers \Vl1ich l1e lacks as Head of Gov e1·11n1e11t (or Head of tl1e Executive). Tl1e concl11sion argued here is that the Emperor, whetl1er lie acts as Sovereign or Head of Government, has only sucl1 po\vers as tl1e Co11stit11tio11 be sto ws. We have pr evio11.sly argued (in tl1e discussion of AI.·ticle 26 sz1pra) tl1at tl1e co11cept of "Sovereign'' Emperor embodied in the Constitutio11 is a11alogot1s to the concept of sovereignty vested in other monarchs, such as B1·itain 's; tl1e fact tl1at the Emperor is Sovereign does not p e1· se give bim power; it is tl1 e Constit11tion wl1ich JJrovides the p ower. The Constitution, notably Chapte1· II (Articles 27-35), provides Etluopia's Emperor with many in1portant powers; Ar·ticle 36, corning at the end of Cl1apter II, tells us tl1e objects to wards ,vl1ich those po,vers shot1ld be applied, and it adds (wl1at should be implicit anyway) tl1at the Emperor possesses all powers necessary and ·· proper to the execution of the powers elsewl1er e ex1 Jlicitly assigned .

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th Emper or to discharg a to d a le . t c e p s t1 s e , w 3) a contrary argument favot1r111g broader po,ver wotiId owe r p ' d e fin de un e, �t 11 conclusion that the re is so m e vast resevoir of indetermi _ rk o vv e m . a 1 f e th e r o n ig t0 make law in a way which vvo11ld perIDit t11 e E mperor t o . d · n ' a n 10 t u 1 -1 1 ns . o C e th of tl1e Constitution - a· conclusion wbicl1 wo11ld s11bvert tl1e as d e cit been r ve 4) � 11e · actual practice ) w o kn ,ve as r Article 36 ha s (as fa Jeror . 1 Em. Single, independe11t tl1e by source of an y law iss11ed � .l,QC .

SECTION 2

OF ES CI · E N AG . E AT E CR POWER OF 'I'HE EMP TO . ER. OR ON . CTI ISDI ' GOVERN MENT AND ASSIGN TI-IEIR JUR

Reat1.• A rticl · · . es. 27 33 f th of 1955 ,· t1on c u _ nst1t e. . A �rra' Jemb o � ere (1967)oop.cit.

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We would favour this interpretation of Article 36 becat1se: all p owers vested by that Article are subject to the Constitution; other articles of tl1e Constitution appear to mal<e exp1·ess _ provision a�equat: ' 36 le tic r A by d ne s1g as s enough for e e tl1e responsibilitie

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., j s er In this Srction, we shall conside! �h� Emperor' pow under Arti �le 27 to legislat e . -_ . ·, � laws as d a e .•: � r Or by r at1on unde leg1sl s l � Artic s11cl P . � ! en �1 � s 88 92 of th and the distinction betwe t d regar w1tl1 the part o_f �rticle 27 w h � ConSfitu. 7 gely r _ s t1on_ I qt1es ese 1 !l la � \V sttidy � ll tion. e sl ich _ t { _ ates a h dut1es wers and of all M1n1sters, executiv t � jf ''the En1peror_ ?eteri:i11nes th e. organ1sat1011, �? . e " de Par,tmen13 - ,1 ; . uld o . al u .. sho Yo e t not 1n�n vern Go t O tha tl1e of 1s s t101 rder stra 1 111n ad1 gov ern· i . and the stibjects 01ay be pron111Jgatecl under Articles. 29,_ 30, 31, 32 and 33, and that th . e se arti: � lfetent ·J · · �t be _ . J.f, anal)rsecl in tl1e context of tl1e whole Const1tut1on. · -�i:: Article 27 gives the Emperor broad po_wers over the ?rganisation and �uties of gov _ agencies and de �art.111�nts, a�d oyer tl1.e officials w1 1�. W?rk 1� t�em. The const1tutiona1 form e:�t (: of these powers 1s derived l11stor1cal]y from tl1e Me1J1 Const1tut1on of Japan of 1889 a nd f!·0Intiton · ,:, � Etl1iopian Constit11tion of 1931. Tl1e powers are generally exercised in the form �f an · 1i ced by ryal ann?11n s ls :P F are I a Gene:r: offici� of Notice. rom th e ta : _ Order, except tl1at appoint!11en�s ):,i of tl1e distrib11tion of func_t1ons 1n the R�v1sed �onst1tut1on, the most 1mp_ortan� element in t hep. tweml · ·, ,vhich tl1e En1peror exercises 11nder Article 27 1 s t]1e fa�t that they require neither the prior n . furn · · f subseqt1ent review or app�oval of Parliament. �here 1s thus � sharp distinction of form be� :1 sucl1 powers and those wl11cl1 the Emperor exercises under Articles 34 and 86-92 when he acts with . ; Parliament to 1nake law.

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The first set of problems whicl1 Article 27 raises is concerned with the first clause, governing . c gove�nn1ent organis�tions, and �11.�s part of �ticle 27 is consid�red in this Section. Th e Emperor's ;, 1� appo111t111ent po,�1er 1s largely d1st1nct, and 1s therefore dealt With later. We shall now examine the :: En1peror's po,ver to create organisations, and to assign jurisdiction (''powers and duties'') to them· tl1is im111ediately brings t1s to the problem of the relationship between th.e Emperor and the Parlia: ' ,. ment in tl1e exercise of these powers, wl1ich is one of the most important (and perh aps p olitically controversial) distinctions to be mapped out in the. constitutiona'I field. ·'

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The Nature of the ''Order Power'' Under Article 27 Origins From tl1e Meiji Co11.stitution of Japan, 1889, Article 10.

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The Emperor determines tl1e organisation of tl1e different brancl1es of the administration, a11d the salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same.

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From the Cons·titution of Et/1iopia, 1931, Article I 1. · nistra adm.i The all Emperor f o sl1all lay dow11 the orga11isation and regulations . t1ve departme11ts.

Differences between tf1e Englisl1 arid �4. 11,1!1a1·ic Te.,yts of A,·ticle 27 From Aberra J embere, op.cit., pages 14-17.

_ . Jll fro rs It sl1otild be .11otecl tl1.at the Amharic version of ... Article [27] diffe the Englisl1 ve1·sion. The lite1·al translation of tl1e Amharic version is: . .

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'ch t ''Tl1e E111peror c)etern1ining the working conditions, establisl1es the depar 1:111en 01 :� s 11?t -- --:; · '. � ca�r� on go ver _1 !11 ent f11nctio ns, and all n1inistries [literally ''minis ters' ', �ut If - ::�.' : offi� . . tre _ · th1s is a n1ispi111t]. He appoints, russes disr J!,0 -� and . J)romotes, transfers, suspends · of tl1e depa1·tn1ents." ___ : ,·_· �:)'

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gr an po tin of w g er s er to m at tl1em. TJ1 e Englisll version t th e en t · uaro O n t le. otber Em pe ro th r e no th t at o11 i ly se sag ts es llp en n1 vi i1 1 · i s t r ies execL1t1ve de p . h.and ' · · artn1e11ts · . ' . · 1e o tl f ns 1 go at ve r 0. rn m un1 e11 st t, . n1 ad e a111 ng ad 1n 1111 sti·a n · e ' and th · . t · · i v e age11c1e s ; but . . · po an we d d ( rs th eir ut zes en1pl1as1s aclclecl) e� rm in . det e by e xectitive Jaw, Wl11 also 1 t IO DS a ' Ii t ••• • certai n . mi T _ he_ writer maintains that th e cli�c1·epancy �e t\vee11 tl1 e AiJ�liar_ic a�cl t1le Eiiglis h _ b� of tr d su a lt l a t1? e 11 r the tl1 e1 tl1 11 of a _legislative 111 teil t. As tlle verSJon 18 � � ,� . correl at iv to��dt �, e . 1t1es , tl1e E11gl1sl1 v e rs1011, wJ1icI1 coilt word ''powers 1s ai il s botl and relat es them :v,7ith t�e preceding term ''01·ga11isa�io11 '', �IJpears to b e more logic�i than the Am haric _v�rs1on. Moreover, tl1e A111l1a!·1c ,1ers1on as it stands does not make sense, unless 1t 1s co�1plen1ente� b y tl1 e E11gl1sl1 versio11. Tl1 is i s anotJ1er reason for concluding that the discrepancy 1s tl1e res11lt of a bad tra11slatio11. Becat1 se J1ad the Aml1aric version been the t· r 11e inte11tio11 of tl1e legislators, tl1e la1Jguage �011Id have been more understand able and cons is tent. In spite of its ,,a gueness, tl1e Aml1aric ve1·sion creates a11 argume11t i 11 favo11r of interpreting the Englisl1 vers ion fair ly 1·e strictively, because tl1e An1l1aric version implies that only powers to reglllate the i11ter11al \\'orl<ing of tl1e gover11n1ent and the administrative agencies may be granted u11der Art. 27. In otl·1e1· words, accordi11g to th.e Amharic version, the powers th at may b e granted to ::1d111i11istra tive agencies under Art. 27 seem to be limited in scope and a1Jplicatio11. Thu s, no regulator y power may be gra11ted to adrru11i strative agencies 11nder Art. 27 of the Revised Constit11tion, as tl1e Aml1aric versio11 lirnits tl1e scope a11d application of the same provision. The tern1 ''pov;1ers '' expressly provid ed i11 tl1e English version, should be interpreted therefore, fairly restrictively, in tl1e ligl1t of the Amharic version, to mean powers to regulate tl1e i11te1·nal worki11g_ of tl1e ?ove�n­ ment and administrative agencies as oppos ed to jl1risdictio11 over third parties, 1.e. ordinary citizens.

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Tlze Rationale of the '' Order Power'' Uncle,· Article 27

Why should the power to crea te and assign d11ties to government ministries and agencies. be removed ·from parliamentary co11trol, and entritSled to the Einperor · ·on, _and l1ow does · provisi alone? What are the advanta ges and disadvantages of tl11s . it fit in with the general distribution of powers in the Revised Const1111tion? · e quence s n o c a is r e w o p r e d 0ne theory on which we m_jgl1t proceed 1s that the or ,, . On ers � P ·. O f of_ th� Ethiopian otl rat a p '�se i erpret ati on of tl1e tl1eory of tl1e � int tlle i� 1, 101 a s ;111 this view, it is fo r e a g or al 1 determine .its ow11 1 11te.r1 · th to ive ut ec ex I es of u r 11 w o 1r �ame way, perhaps, 1e tl e as the Chambers of Parliament . de�erinIJ� - · 11dicj ary, 1111der :?rl pro�edure, under Article 82. Only the o:ganisauon �� ti��J Proclamation a 1� � 109 is b a SLt pre · y ''law'', tl1at is, to be · � in erm b det ed from ed excI11d re qlllring 't eii Parliament's approva l of legislation. But Par]ia� r ro. E1npe e 1 tI is :: . �� contr�l ove r· t�e compos}tion of tl1e e�ectitiv� ?r ai1c!�J1�;: C : i ral Perso11nel t i e ne sub ect to his delegations to tl1e P1·1m e !Vf 1111ster . e t's pow er over tl1e Age ( J r1ian P · rly n y w ho imil over appoints executive officials. S i ter c ) � a l �� trol 1 co1 to ted r t ·· s · e r n nal organ1s · at1o 1s nt n1ne · r ng "JOnl n and regu]at1on o:f tJ1e gove . t' s e qt1 by . · its a · · .al cise exer 0 t bl · a n� bu�g�t, and to such perst1asion as _it rr.1a� be th e �ri �e urged tJ1at 1 nen1b· ers . of r me 1e rt1 fu . 1 trve u 1r M t xec1 ugh rr er st e It or . · ys of r wa in he ot rs matte 'Pa 1 a d t h ': t co p what wo s s rn cu_ dis into d to b not ul ent e !11C� pet bias com Or� 1sat1 cal ;oliti .n on, or that members migl1t try to 1ntrodt1ce

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U IT T S N IO O T C N IA P AL LAW IO N H T E F O K O O B E C SoUR

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1 '. r r o e er th in e ac A at m .. st t 11 t � ci � l no e h 1 1e � a1 � � a l na so er 1p in 1e u 1. tl 11 e . b l d. sl 10 . t t st1 n, �n tu � 1o on . tl g_ C 1e 1e tl t ul t im by , 1s a . e • · e 1v t1t ec · ex sp re e tJ1 o ns1b1 . - t . ce · • . 11 1 s , t ·h a . 1111 11t b e t . 0 un esi._t· . 1·i;: . o f tl1e �mperor, · • m e1. 1t a1 1d tl1 e S overe1gn. Unde .Pa1· 1a J r 11 tl1e t lle pr e ee tw � be es si or n ov tr 0 c e a bl . _ �: .! ' t sen ' _ 1t, e1 in t am he rli Pa e o1 ns fr se ated n tl 1. at pa rl1a n . 11,ct]ie [ . Eii1pei- ·or is ins. u l . -C011st_ 1 t· Lt-t10 me • . .. _. . 1 in on ses d Y ca e 1tt rm �e 1er ( w� J e 1ve 11t the �c ex l1e t . of ni mi sters � 1nvol ed, as_ 11 1 th.e c�se w1th tary s11per,,isio11 t!1e ques tio re a f, el 1s 11 1� l r _ro Je 11 11 E 1e tl n � 1a tl nin' 1· ratl1e . t tt�d b_y tl1e Co11nc1l of n11 sub et g d. b11 t!1� of n t1o a · e Ministers� 1s1d co1 r . of nuJJister·s, aiJd 1. sa n t n1 1o ga or � o� tl1 e of tb n s�o ec v ex er s11 utive might ·;: iil tllis case,. par lian1e11tary p � h v 1ch ely a1 e tiv br 1v ec ut eff ec e 1e l d l t vo de of � J t l s 1· :1I e cle Iea on e . : become possJbl e once O d ate ler en ce by be ac y bl ssi po s rder 44 of 1966_ l1a 1 1cl wh nd t1·e PrinJe Miiuster - a ; · past de, J th deca over u the t tl1 1ed � n arg1 ti cons � _ be t tio Ftir·thermore, it 111ay al � . by the e� d aid e lf tenc ant exis 11fic s1g1 n bee an ]1as ia iop Etl1 use of I of ent opm devel A1:ticl e 27. Using tl1is power bestowed by th1s Article the Emperor bas - as is ,j '. t ·, hou ged , wit lon ctl pa pro clir·e ved mo rli . es pag am r i11g enta ced y pre the y 011 11oted debate, to: establisl1 the mi11ist1·ies of government and enlarge their n umber, on a 1Jrag1natic basis, as the need arose and reso11rces became availabl e; establ ish a civil se1·vice and t l 1e 11nderlying policies regarding recruitment of the b11reauc1·acy; ( '' J devolve i11c1·easi11g power on the Council of Ministers; establisl1 the Pri1ne Minister as the leader of tl1e Government, responsible f01· appoi11tment of ministers and for policies de·veloped by the Council; dissolve tl1e Federation of Etl1io1Jia and Eritrea and integrate tl1e l atter as a provi11ce; and create (on recomn1endatio11 of tl 1e Council) a legal frame\\rork for the ' development of electecl l ocal governme11t (a,vraja) council s. l 1t1s? A�·ticle 27 l1as en11Jowered. tl1e Emperor to establish some of the �ost , T_ . �asic 111st1tt1�1ons of gover11n1e11t, a11d i11 tl1is sense it permits a degree of consti tu· °' an<l tional �x1Jer1ment a11d cl1a11ge witl1ot1t for·cing recourse to t l. 1e cumbersome l ess fle�bl e p1·ocess of co11stitt1tio11al a111eod111e11t, 11or to the time consu m ing proc ess or, Parl 1�1ne!1tary action a11d ap1J1·oval . O.f cot11·se some may argt1e that the pattern . of const1t·ut 1 o11al clevelo1)111e11t r·eilectecl by tl1e above exan1ples has been too faS t or, conv��sely, too slow. B11t tl1e c1·t1cia l qt1estio11 is whetl1er past changes have . been facJlitatecl - a11d wl1etl1e1· ft1tu1·e cha11ges car1 be facilitated - by th� fact__ -_ t ut o th�t tlJe �inper·or· ca11 1no·,re directly, 011 his own h wi y, ultimate responsibilit � _ . : u . ?eii g 0�!iged �o sectire tl1e p1·ior appro,ral of Parli r-g bea . y ma � And it am en � t. _ _ tha�, lliltil Pai·Iia1ne11t beco111es a 11101·e establishe efficie and competent bo�), ==:­ 11t d tint:l tJ�e role o_ f Parlia1nent ex1Ja11cls and tha t of �be Emperor recedes, it is_ �-f e · pol icy. to IJe1·11ut th e Emperot, . . a und r r ul - -_..,.':;: p �H · po . . co11s1ste11t w1t : 1 1 · t1·ad . 1t1011 and common · t u Un i stand vati�n. - . · ---1· . ·-·� . ng of .hi 8 roIe, to talce the lead in this lcind of constitutional inno . consw+,tunona -- ,� . Pa1..11an1ent 1s p repared ai1d 1n ...,.� ce,,..;:: equip ped role to asst1n dyna 1e mic a . · i nov tion _ and tlntil ta r p im s the 1·e � is � me n a com mo Pa rlia n of t' cha� rae�ei�- :�· - �- j ap pre cia tio n i d .e, eloping govern· ' e th ( 1 n t d of cl1 anges of this ? � · it may be argt1ed), �otl 1 _�he ti_ming an . . te:lI ._lp�-!ll��.;.--�£:� itld are best left to exec11t1ve d1 scret1on - ult rm .a Y �· 5;���"":� k Em�e: . h lon can � i � art to change tha� au�a of legitim acy esse�tial � hnI? On : h d ' P rentl iet1cally .:� m me � nt : �� th �:.;;. at const1tut1onal develop , --...- - -�.��:-=�T;�:.;;;,.���� s

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from executive Ieade ·de eloping l 11 p and of parlia rol e _ ents tl1 e so and far, !�� m i1 1 co11ntries v eve11 e dat n a wl m 1e1e i t 1 1as the . · . 1ve ap pro l t a o v t a. r o ·I 1e o po t \ve c I 1ange, l1as been al1 nost vvl1 .. o·nstitut1onal 01 1 J ass _ e . . passiv role c ot..e· for example tl1 e .relatively e · Y ) , v pla. y ecl by . ' Parliain ' . e t 11 1 1 1 Ta1Jga11y1ka (N 1o co 1 na l ( ns t1t 1an ut ge . See Cl1a1Jte1· II, Part III, esJJecia of od s p eri g du.r in lly JJ. 279_)) � Another set of argu1ne11ts 1n favol.11· of i\rticle 27 as it 1 ·10w sta , 11 d s 111 y a . e b . -· . · ev eco � 1 d _ no op mi 1ne c 11t. 111e exec11t1ve, 1 t 1 11ay be argtlecI, concern ed w1th js at de o y c1 �o t e d 011 tl1e ne ed f 01· a11d t l 1e tiinii1 g of tlle _ tt er 1 present th e be � . cre ati oil str f t1c d tt11 o e o f a p1 · o po sed gover 111J1e11t age · 11 IS and the de s1rab 1e .!Un ._ i,cy · w]-1 · 1 C .- 1O · · · be directly conc erned w1tt1 act1v 1t1es Sllc f 1 . as p la11 11i11g or s1)ecific clevelo IJJneJlt,il projects (s 11ch as water resot1rces_, n1 arket111g 01· la11cl r�for111). Certaii1 1y, Article 27 I1as been used to cr�ate, on paper at least, 111any l 11gl1Jy sig11ifica11t ao-e11cies: The Ministries of Planning a11d Land Refor111, tl1e Livestocl( a11d J\1eat Bo;rcl tI1e Grain_ Corporation and_ ma11y ot�1e1·s.. Ar�d su1�:ly tl1ere are some ad\'antag�s in reservi ng to the exect1t1ve the dete1·n111 1at1 011 ot 1v/1e11 to create tl1ese age1 1cies (a determinatio11 ,vhich depends 011 many factors st1cl1 as, prio1· st11dy, a\,ailability of manpower to start the age11cy, b11dgeta1·y pla11ning etc.) as \Vei l as tl1e deter1ni11a­ tion of wfzat its general jt1risdiction shall be, }Jartic11larly i11 rel atio11 to otl1er age11cies, and what degree of autonomous status it 111ay e11joy. S11cl1 c1ecisio11s, 011e may arg11e, are, at this s tage, expert decisions best cornn1itted to tl1e exec11tive. Finally, one may argue tl1at Parliarnent does I1ave an a.deq11ate measure of control over the exercise of the Article 27 po'v\rer to create age11cies of govern 111ent and assign jurisdiction to tl1em. Parliament l1lti1nately can co11trol tl1e b11dget reso11r­ ces assign ed to an.y agency. Furtl1er as vie sl1all see, Parlian1e11t 1111 1st vo te not 011Jy the 1rzo11ey but it must also vote the 1·erri1!atory JJOlt'e1·, i.e., tl1e orga11ic law vesti11g the agency with legal power to do an�l 1i11g whicl1 111ay affect tl1e legal rigl1ts or duties of persons ou.tside the governm ent. For, as we sl1all see, Article 27 JJ!·esz111:ably ?o�s �o! provide the En1p eror v1itl 1 the po\ver to vest gover:11nent age11c 1es vv1tl1 a JU�1sd1ct1on to make subsidiary laws gove1·11ing persons outs1cle gover11 me11t. Co�­ plicated as thls concept may be, i t is still c1·1icial, beca11se it may l)reserve to Parli_a­ ment the very policy-making decisions which m11st be 1nade ?Y tl1e 1)0p�lar assein­ bly - the decision to make th e laws whicb. wil l gover1 1 ord1nai�y decisions. These are so.m e of the arguments w11icl1 111ay be adva11ce� i11 .Sllpport �f t�Jat par t ?f ;Ar�icle 27 which gives po w er to tl1 e EroJJeror to detern? 1i 1� tl1e r�a�11 zat�o � � 111terest1no and 1sd 1ction of governme·nt agencies - o11e of the most s1g111fica11t, JU� (and diffict1lt) provisions of the Constitt1tion. . e b to 1 t / ig oi 1t ei in 1a rl a _P On the oth er side, w ha t can be said for tl1e view tl1at . s 11 ? _ more fullr involv enc ag ve � ��;: �;;� ed in an y decisio1 1 to establish a11y exec:1ti � Pe rhap s, is that tl1is wot1ld avoi d com JJlications and n11sun�ersta11 111�f si111uler a 1 l tio di :1er strib�tion of pow ers. T11ere is always � J?resltITIJJ t i c:�����J end readily 1 t 1 o easy e stra1gl1tforward cottrse. A.11d clearly 1 t 1s 110t . ow s ta' nds· A 111ore r m What the E . 1 t 11 · as 7 2 e J c . rti p A eror can do and ca1 1not do tinder . m 1 cl1 wl1 in · tion a ' o ganis s . I t·ive argu or ' · t n nroe P gover of . . w]Jetl1.er to create and, · the p 1.· ment 1s th at there 1nay be aspect·s iament should b e nc ern ed , becat1se tl�e deci s on n?w role co g if 80 �O aJ<in \ l icy-n1 t ] e to W to organise an agency j5 intimately t 1�d 1 t J�e s01ne JJart in dec 1d­ Corn� 1a t 1 1nsta to o f i-ng w1 ! ed Parlia1:1ent. Shot11d Parlian1e11t, 1· 1 �;�Ll for tl1e A1vvasl1 V�tll�y, 1 her a11y special de v elop1nent age11cy �1:ould be � Pa�l ia1ne11t be ab le t? !ns1 �t r. tttb,�r J l n 011 1 51 e fo 1n1at . e? p1r E1n Jegit l s e om 1e er 1y r of t oth a 1 a are a n 1 1. have . t "' en l ea . . iam . 1 t1 · · · . . · on 0f a Par does 111, aga M101s ' try of Hous1 11g? Or j,,,,. , .

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te to p u t la u se eg m cy co en ag � er m t en m r rn al ci ve go t . a _ t 1a tl s an g in st si P0 rt interest .in in ly f te o a v ri es p v w o t1 ta n d se n ne re p re a tr 1e tl sp rd o a o b s . it _ n rtc o e d 1 0 t 1 c 1n Id . s11ot1 . n _ . e r 1 t o a a . some bl r I 1 1 of p 1e � J t the n 1 � ri 0 · 1 f s e 1v t a t ncj 11 e P s _ e 1· p e r r o s n . r e P�l c t o t n ug 1s en ro b am li ht ar P 1n If n o ? 1·y st t1 1d 11 e th d s i1g lu e tlc tr ,e tl of ec1.: s er l1 . . · ll Sl COD der stan d.1_ng �nd su pp ort of n u n 1o at 11c _ , 11 1 1n 1n co Wh.at sions, is tllere �anger that . . Ver . . n 1e . i I p t1n im en t or ge em d sl gi b n le 1e l t at k o � ll se ? _ to : t en to rli Pa i re fo be ii es g e _ e very least, one 1ght �� m e t go th m t A gu ar b? JO e, its do is to th is a le sc nu ''i e tI1 cy etl ag ail d. , pe us elo T� ev e rul b 1ld L � the o· sl1 t � ns tio ec e11 Ex � nv co u l1 1ic wl ive 1 1 1 a are crticial 1ng H of us t ou try th 1 wi y 1 an a M ate ? cre to con � ., e.g � 1·, \ve sultapo al leg 1 e may have tl : id re la fo s be ha th it bo t1l un use s? Ho do t s some no . 1ld 01 sl1 it t, e11 iam l i· Pa th wi tion

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r d. en ne be tai ob s a 11. e As 11c a de n.fi co actical p of ion ess pr ex an of t11 1til 50111e sort e a d pe ncy of cie s ge effi nta va ad in � i e sett th. t tl1a ng d ue ? arg � be o als y 111a it matter·, _ up an agency by Order under Article 27 ma y be nullified 1f its pol-vers still have to be a1)proved . by Pa1·liame11t. Consider tl1ese diffict1lt problems, bearing in m i. nd the actual uses of the Order po\ver as illustrated both in all the relevant readings in these mater· ials and in the list of Orde1·s isst1ed si11ce 1955, set for th infra this Chapter. 'l .

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Tl1e Uses of the ''Order Power'' Under Article 27

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Tl1e pt1rpose of tl1e following readings is to sho\v some of the uses to which the Emper or's powers to create and assign dttties to government organisations under Article 27 have been put. in practice. It will at 011ce be see11 that the scope of the Order power has been very broad, and that it has been t1sed for some of the potentially most far-reaching refo1111s in Ethiopian government in recent years.

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T/1e Redistribution of Executive Powers

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Order No._ 4:4 of 1966, reprinted in Chapter IV, assigns to the Prin1e Minister the power to select �overnment n11n�s�ers and other sen ior officials; it tl1us modifies by Imperial ''delegation'', though It d�es not explicitly a111end, Articles 66 a nd 68 of tl1e Constitution. Consider the advantages_of h whi c on obje.cti n1 �king st1ch �I1 anges �l1rot1gl1 tl1e n1edit1m of Imperial Order, a nd the ,veight of any s might be raised against this procedt1re.

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The Formatio,i of Govern111e11t M irzist,·ies

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. : the and Tl1is is tl1e 1 193· · ''c la of ss c' ' tion i tise t· o t I1e Order power, dating fron1 the Constitu fi .. ' ! ·h r Minist. r (D n ti? n ? f. Powers) <?rder o. 1_ o si b a the p�ary s f 1 a:e; 1943, as served of icl l . �; � � � , � � . 4 powe r: !ndN _ nd a n isation of gove111111ent n1in1s tr1es p ed rev1 s 1 con1pletely rean� fir was t1nt1l t ¾ an l 4 6 by Orde 1 of 1966- �1:cters have aJso been t1sed for creating new ministrie s · c transferrI�g unctions between ex1stt ng o n es .

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} i . . It has frequently been . . 1 es � ns . · o ·. . �ary to set �p ad /1oc government agencies, wi th spec � f� p;\utho· l�t1es to accon1plisl1 specific ��:� a1 y sh ·.j, A _ wa ons. . the TJ1� and L1vestoc� an� Meat Board · though r1ty are two examples whicll ·tten � O . have e s !all consider later rn this Section. Such agen c1� ·j . � w_ uP set bJ no n1eans always, been e bl �ce 00uer .·.}· either by Procla mation s ws�,1 �hed by Order under Article 27. Some agencies hav l · o i t enera e � �Post tY· t G O by or ce 1966, tion of lama Proc ffi ri powers which were ne�;� . · · precise1Y stated, as with the Charter of the Awash Valle y A u · o.. · . . � . Tlie Creation of a Civil . .. ·... . ..<j . · Servzce ancl an Agency to Manage It . ; l . ··. . . .. riJ:rc >P � : :. :; O�der No. 23 of 1961 . . · ·.· ".-:t governmg the recruitme estab ll�hed tl1e Central Person nel Agency a nd ge!leral, unifo rlll p � . . . : : . . ,. : { = nt ' se 1ection, tenure tran sfer ts. ': an , , · i · serv ciVl l of · . .·:-- .._,. and dismissal , .. i .' .. ..· . . . ...�. : .. .--: . � ·::-: 1:::.·::- · .. ......-; . :,:·,�,,-4�-··��.... . ' .. . .....-,·,u.,. .. · . . .. :·,.... .. • ·.,·

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Regulations for provincial governn1ent were tive inistr a Adm JJro The oecree but u.nder Article 11 of the_ 1?31 <;onstitt1tio11, wl1icI1 was tl1e eq tii:�l�1ngt .teOf1��..1 t-ic\942 by e 27 of n 1 strat1on Order, No. 43 of 1 66 el Adm Local 55, ' S f1 · By the 9 very i i1 11Jo1 ta 1t c 11a11ges were t ha t of· 19 local governn1ent structt1re o f the cot1ntry, i11cl t1 , e ' t c di g 11 l 1 the e t s 0 ' · 1 ablisl1n · 1 nt of e ,ected local ·ion . roade r.: • . ma op ny era t gre t a s, in st1c11 i1elcls ::1s edt1cat1011, l)ttblic l1ea cou ncils to carry out alevel. ltl1, and roadlocal building, at the The orde� also est�blis�ed_ procedt1res and 9ualificatio11s for �lccl\oiis an d voters for the ne w awraja councils,. of a k1n_d similar to tl1ose pro,,�decl � Y Procl�111a t.to11 !11 tl1� c11a111 ber of Deputies electoral Jaw. This Order 1 s supplement�d by � d1a ft �1ocla111:1t1on cle�I111g witli finai1cial provisions and· other powers of �e AwraJa c?unc1ls ,vl1 1cl1 reqt11res tl1e co11se11t _of Parlia111e11t, thougll at this time (Jan uary !�69) th.1_s �roclai11at1 �11 l1�s not yet bee 1 1 adOJ)tecl; bt1t tl11s use of Article 27 never tl1eless permit s the 1n1t1al dec1s1on and leg1slat1on to be 1Jro111t1lgated ent irely by tlie executive brancl,.

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The Constitutional Limits of the ''Order Po,¥er'' Under Article 27

The Orde r power, by removing certain subjects fro1n t l1e legislative co111pe t e11ce of Parlia­ ment, creates two distinct and potentially rival sources of legislative autl1ority: tl,e En1 peror alone and the Emperor in Parliament. It is therefore in1portant to den1arcate tl1e bo11ndary between thes� sources of legislative competence as precisely as possible, a11d tl1is is tl1e ai111 of the readings below. We shall examine this subject in the context of t\VO vital legis1ative fie]ds: tl1 e power to n1ake law governing private persons, and the po\ver to n1ake law controlling pt1blic finance.

ls Article 27 a Soiu·ce of Regulatory Po1,ve,·? Article 27 enables the Emperor, among otl1e1· tl1i11gs, to detern1i11e tl1e ''JJOlvers·'' of government agencies. Tl1 is w ording of Artic le 27 in11nediately raises tl1e J)robl em of whether tl1e Articl e can validl y be used to a·uthorise an age11cy to establjsh legal controls over private c itizens and instit11tions. \\'ot1ld it be possible, f�r exa111�le, for the Emperor by an Article 27 Order to give tl1e po,ver to regt1late private bu1 ld­ _ ing to the Ministry of Public Works, (assunu11g tl1 at ti1is was a nel1l power wl11 cl1 �o agency of the government ha s already exe1·cised a11d vvlucl1 l1as never been at1 tl1o­ rised b y Parliament)? On the one hand, it might be argued tl1at si11ce tl1is wot1�d be 011e ''power'' of the Ministr y, it would expl icitly come witl1i11 the sco1)e of Article 27. . . le ic rt A t a · th Id l lOl s 1 it 0n the other hand It . 11.11 k · l t we m1gl1t be argued - a11d 27 only confers author'ity over th e internal 01·ganisatio11 of tl1e governn1e�1t, and. t11e , 1g 11 d a . re s 11 tl n dist · O 'b· s ie · ,, rz utzon of powers between different gov�rnmei�t agei1c · . ..· po�ers'' would inc]u.d e onl y matters which di d not 1nvolv� tl. 1e regulat1011 0f t111rd par ties-in the sense of regulation creating new l egal dtities. 1e l t 1 i1 d e t s e g g t1 s n e b ea l _� .e r . Qne argument for the mo re restrictive view l1 as alr · c Y e 1e tl twe en b e c · ' (froIJ?, At a 11er read1ng 1e d11iere11 tl on l)aper ) o Aberra Jembere's ro11st . 27 e cl Arti En 1 and tllat e os sup p 0 e r pro p Am har ic �ee ms texts. It �Iso h �. ic wl l utio n, � C t ons ti be fn�h etpreted so a� not to conflict w1th other prov.1s10�1 s f tl e 1or1sed 11tl a be stip u1 th at DlUSt o 11 . at ? rop e s by .�� certam regulatory matters, such � . .xp � � l e' 88 89 or 90 of the ,,.a aw en acted in accordance w it h t11e pr ov1s10 11s of rtic � uC onstit e 1 tl r 'to g P. "sent C onst· . d or c 10 ac can er� tt ma power 1tut1o many n''. reat g Again a penal tio n b re_gt : whole tlle ' 10st i l for ated , only by ''law'', inc luding ���� iii c11apter III of the under � i ' o le ­ ce referen . enac� �11 m �, � . ean Con ititu� c 55 And 11ote many otl1er to preted t 1��- See l IS 15 '']aw 27 If . le infra a so Artic pp. 469-470 of scope tnent re quiri y t�r � _ reg n the g p then arliam . t· ··-0 t ha , oval appr y entar _ .. t extent limit . ed.

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TIONAL LAW 'U l'l T S N O C N A PI IO I IT E F O K SOURCEBOO

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452

e of icl tl1e art the ited Un to 1t te le1 Sta 1iva eqt s . 110 11.as Const· ia iop 1 1 Et , se 11r , · Of co . . IJ \Ver (e1 p11as1s added) . 1v in at sl 1g1 . ,, le Co � /ze ''t � s � st re ve ng y itl ic JJl ss; eX l1 l 1ic w t11tio11 1 fic1ally reserved to tl1 e field of "law'' ec sp 1 110 rs we po · ry to la gu . .. . , . . . a11d J:1"or• tl1ose re . · _ f th o t C s en _ e 1 n o u1 e1 n q 1t s re 1 1c 1J 1t 1n 1 _ u 1e ti 11 on, past n a1 ex � to ry sa es ec 11 re . o ef er it is tl1. e e rl1 t tl1 de bu 11n tr1 to s d1_ ar pe ap 1on 1ch l1 w of s ea d i sic ba 1. tl _ powers a11 e, tic ac � pr al � leg _ e ry t on ego gh cat n11 t t firs pu tl1e In es. Article 30, vid pro 1 1 t10 1t11 nst Co ? 1. e tl 'Vl'l.1 icli ng y1 _ ''la a bur ts len 1e11 ·een ag1 on Ethiopian nal i 11at iter i � all t tha es ? _ _ _ � \Vl .1 icl1. l)rovid . 1s it al, .1ble ro OSs app to ry nta me rl1a infer from p L1re � J? req l ly'' a so11 per � s subject � _ tl1.is tl 1.at ordinary Iegislat1011 lay111g a b11rde11 on Ethiopian s11bJects person ally s11ould pe tl1e sco of �-ti?le 27? And m fro te n1p exe be s tl1t1 � 1 d J a1 , val )ro ap1 1 811c reqtiire _ is it possible to arg11e fL1rtL1er tl1at any regt1lat1on con!rol!1ng the act1v1t1es of private citize 11s constit11tes a ''b11rde11 ''? So far as legal practice 1s concerned., one can point to tl1e fact tl1at by far tl1e greater l)art of reg11latory legislation-as well as the Codes, l 1a\'e beei1 1Jrom11lgated 011ly as Decrees or after parliamentary apJJro­ val; b11t tl 1is test 111ay not be concltisive: as later readings s110\v, some regulatory powers l1a,,e IJltrportedly bee11 gra11ted by Order or even by Ge11eral Notice. But it 111ay be possible to clain1 tl 1at any legislation \Vhich affects the po,\iers of tl1e go, er11111e11t over ordi11ary citize11 s oug/1t to be aJJproved by tl1e repre­ se11tatives of t l 1e citize11s in Parlia111ent; this is 11ot simply an arg11me11t of political tl1eory; a recog11ition of tl1is clai111 may be i1111Jlied by the fact tl1at the Constitution entr11sts a co11siderable n111nber of reg11latory powers to tl1e fields of Proclamation a11d Decree, b11t 11011e ex1Jlicitly to that of Order. Fi11allj', unless one reads the term ''poV1 ers'' in Article 27 restrictively, a vast ''loopl1ole'' is opened up i11 tl1e consti­ tt1tio11. Is it real istic fo1· exa1111Jle, to asst1n1e tl1at tl1 e Emperor alone could by Order, vest tl 1e Mi11ister of J11stice with tl1e ''po\ver'' to promulgate a ''re, ised commercial code''? 1

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Re-read tl1e Lisci Sofia case (ancl tl1e 11ote to it) pp. 403-405. Refer to tl1e 1:-,ive�toc� & Meat Board Order and Proclru11ation, f1ifra tl1is Section, p. 462, for an exan,ple of legislat1on 111 wl1 icl1 tl1e respective fields of Articles 27 and 88- 2 l1ave bec-n n1arked 9 out. Is tl1e de111arca.tion cle,1r? Tl1e11 consider tl1e problen1s presented by tl1e follo,:vi1 1g readi:r1gs.

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Froin tl1 e �jnisters (Defi11 itio11 of Po,vers) (An1e11dme�t No.2) Order, No. 46·of 1966, Negarzt Gc1zeta 25tl1 Y_ ea 1· No. 23.

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22. TI:e Mi�1i�ter of P L1blic \V01·Ics is tl1e l1ead of one of tl1. Departments transacti�g e Sl,lte a�airs, 1 1a111e l y, tl 1e Mi11istry of P Lt blic "''orks. Tl1e Ministe r of Public · ., Worlcs, 1n accordance with tl1e lavv, sl1al1: .. .. ..j (d) establisl 1 b11ilding codes of general ap )lication; 4 1 (e) eiJSLtre tl1at private co11strt1ctio11 activities confo1·1n to minimum establish: •1ed Slai�cl arcls, exce1Jt i11sof a1· as S}Jeci'fic power therefore has been le gall) · .,j delegated to another Ministry or P L1blic Authori ty. ·�. ·I

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Note: Tf1·s JJ eais ent aJ · · . t.° �e a new JJower, not rn:ro Gov e the or vest Min ed istry the i11 large by Orde} �0� · 0 f 94.:,, or SL1bseqt1e11t le gi sl,1tion. 1

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on ly sai s d go ve1·nme11t b11ildi11 gs pi·eviotlsly Gi org i aile H Dr w e e s l1 pe rv 1 sed M � i11i tl1e st1 ·y of Pt1bl ic V{or l(s. Tf1e 11e . w step' J 1e added' was ·d.ur1_.n g �onstruction by · · . . g taken because b111 1d1110s o co11s·tr.ttc· ted by t111l1censed e11 o-j· 11 eei bein -·s a , .11d co11tractors o . . . . damage to prOJJerty bL1t Ill so111e cases 11ad also ca us ed on l� no t had re s11 lte d i11 loss . .. life. an hum f 0 � ce �th the power v :sted in the Ministry of Public .Work cc or d a n I s re ce nt ly p m 0 , tl1 st l1a e �p n� s \V be e11 �-a lce!1. 1-Iencefortl1 all bti i lcli il g by a r�c!� at1 .n co ns trt i c­ res 1 al �part111e11ts, s1101Js, co.1111)a11y 1de w� 11t etl 1e� vit ies , act i tion 11011ses, office b llild­ 1dent1al l1on1es, ,v1ll be co11t1·ollecl a11d s111Jervisecl e s r sm all or s ing by tlle Ministry of Public Works. H.E. the Ministe r or� State expl,1inecl at le11gtl1 abo1rt tI1e waste of ft111ds aiid labour on poor strl1ctt1res and ren1inded i11dividuals J)la1111i11g to co11str1Lct bt1ildi 11 as and contractors undertaki11g st1 ch constr11ctio11 work to be a\:vare of tl1 e da11ge;s involved. Asked about b1tilctings in tl1e p1·ovi11ces, li.E. Dr. riaile Giorgis V./orl(nel1 . Pu blic V\7arks ,:vas co11te111plati11g ope11i11 g offices i11 tl1e Minis of try tl1e said that capital cities of the Governates-Gene1·al to co11t1·ol a11d s11pervise co11 strL1ctio11 of buildings. S11ch offices are ah·eady f11 1 1ctio11i 1 1g in tl1e Gover 1 1orates-General of Harrar and Eritrea and a Ia,v concerning this matter will be put into effect soon, he said. Urging the people to engage the ser·vices of only those arcl1itects and contractors who are registered with the Ministry of P11blic Works, I-1.E. tl1e Mi11ister of State advised unlicensed architects ' enoineers tl1e1nselves witl1and contractors t o 1·egister ...., b out any further delay.

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Note: You should also consult the Civil Code, Articles 1535 et seq., and consider \vl1etl1er they have any relevance to the above case.

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Parliament's Control of Public Finance and the '' 01·de1· Po�ver'' Urzder Article 27 Read carefully Chapter VII of tl1e Constitution. Note tl1at Parlia111ent's control of IJll�lj_c fina�_ ce

is regulated in some detail bv tl1is Chapter of tl1e Constitt1tion, �,J1 icl1 incltid�s tl1e provisi ons t �� · c aw ' l Y � b pt ce ex l l1e Js ol · ab "no .tax, · duty , impos ' · or ed tic re d . , d t or exc1se shall be 1m1Josed, 1ncrease (Article 113), and that ''none of the pubJic revenues sha ll be ex1Jei1ded except as atit'11 0:1·se. d b la\v'' ,,i:: �s'' or · e 1 . ge a1 1 c · to rs (Articl� 114) . often when an agency 1s 1e � o p ) 1 (a · i t 111ay be gJ\'en crea ted, . .. · .. .· . (b) ,er to spend tl1e omes_1m1Ja i, s�ct�o 1 r exaction for services or Ji�nces_or for s0111e �.tl1er trai � ds t. n 1e n � ia rl a P ]y b : 0� d r t l a \: I :cumulates through fee-charg1og w1tl1 out consu 1 tin� a11Y ot le � ft� , ,enu es re stich c 1r _ques tion may of ire l Je aris e: w11icb powers co11cerning fee-cl1.argi ng anc1 e��tes 1/ l cons titu , at l to as ir e e�� th.e ap_proval of Parliament? The answer n1 ay �lirn on otir eci �i,�;x�endittiJe'' of ''ptiblic a ax, duty, ail d an ) 113 ticle o imp (Ar cl st ban or se'' one y, exci the lt on t1 c iffi d e s u a c rev u '' y 1a 0 s LIS f fi e sta the r ticle ½1 (Ar �ate '?B g cc!� first 114 ? ) Y,_ on tl1e ! �f t!x or ;j_111 pJy ��s a 11o�n1aJ the other. a ding to s a l<111d case the w�e Ja1 t1ct1 par r they servi_ce?, ,1ny are rded Jo rega its for � use charge rett1rn in r ,atel_y 1�1a 1 op ich pr wh ,tp �s a y _1t 111a r n ve s tio go sa . Perl1a1J nn1ental organi in � a atio11s atlis g �:· n p by d er not qu.aljtatively differe11t fro111 fees charge necesm n rivf �1 apiJiy the111 to eacl1 111d1sary lo a gre e upon 1c t a '' xes 1 ''ta ., ,;du sticl of t eric sl1i11g crit i e ir som i11g 1 s/ dist gi1i 1 establi 1 ' · a , c e Of �� 11ee,·s '' • In . . cl1arge t d as gove 1 e11 t 11 re 1a -1· rnn�e �n1powe �a! nt are �genc1es wh1c� v/1y 1 reciso� �riteria one mus _ tl1e _ 113 e · l c _ _ ? � 1 en . A1 t ?f ep _ d n keep in mind t11e essent1al ratr?nale seo11-1 ts give n w1t�1 arise rnay ilties trol o! tl1e tax c l1 s1de co� L r own spencl1ng, ou tside_ the , c � ffi . O _power n l1e expend1ture_ dent a gen 1es tl1ei to c also regard which sl1ot1lcl w1tl1 a.r e Yot1 g1ven a certa�n autonomy v. Otdinary - belo, 111 gs 1· reac e 1 tl ert &ov . · es of t/1e rr1 .) i. ,,e u� e�a111ioe tl· ie . 1m�nt Buclget. Tl1ese cases are 111ust rat e cl by on gs 1 readii tbe . 10 way ,net, 1n wl1 ich similar problems have beer1 Order power, sziprc1, and the readings i11Jra pp. 461-469, . .. . · -. tl1e f t: ·. , . _ to er re 'bl possi Y n1ay . No Pro.. I. . tltls . . ut b · rt, am repo ation � tlus of had a.ppeared at the time . : _: 0:ttier oted above . . ·,, ,_· . . · . . qu .··.: :-·· . �,. ., ..'! .:,,..\ · · . .. . .-. �..: ... . . ' ..... �--.· . ..·. . ' . . . . ... t·· , ... i..;

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TITUTIO NAL LAW S N O N C IA P IO H T E F O SoURCEBOOK

454

From tl1 e Ethiopian Antiqt1ities Administration Order, No. 45 of 1966, Ne garit Gazeta 25t11 Year No. 17.

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[After establisI1i11g tl1 e Antiquities Administ ration, the order states:] 4. Corporate and Administrative Powers TJ1e adn1inistratio1 1 sl1all l1 ave a11d may exercise, through its organs of nlanagemei1.t a11d st1bject to tl1e restrictions impo�ed by law, �II corporate and ad i1unistrative powers necessarr to th� �cc?1npl1shment _ o� its _purposes and objectives. I11 JJartict1lar, and w1tl1out l1m1tat1on, the Adrn1n1strat1on shall have power to: ... (4) borrow money and recei,,e credits as autl1orised by law; (5) solicit and receive grants and contributions; (6) cl1 arge, collect, receive a11d retain fees for adn1ission [of the p11blic to historic IDOl)llIDents]; (7) admi11ister i11 accordance witl1 tl1 e law tl1e funds received by it or placed at its disposal; ...

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Fron1 tl1 e Etl1iopian Tot1 rist Organization Order, No.36 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 24tl1 Year No.I. 6. (I)

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[After creating tl1 e Etl1iopian Tourist Organization, the Order s tates:] Tl1ere sl1all be establisl1ed a ft111 d whicl1 shall consist of: (a) all mo11 ies received by tl1e Organization for services performed as 1Jrovided l1eret1nder; (b) all contribt1tions and donations made to the Organization; (c) a11y otl1 er monies received by ti1 e Organization as the result of activities carried out by it heret1nder; a11d (d) a11 an11t1 al Gover11n1e11t subsidy based on. an estimate prepared by / tl 1e Admi11istrator a11d ap1)roved by tI1e Prin1e Minister, which shall be inclt1ded in tl1e a11nt1al Budget of tl1e Gover11ment. SticI1 [Linds sl1 all be lodged i11 a private ba11k i 11 Etl1iopia in a sep�ate deposit accot1nt i11 tl1e 11 an1e of tl1e Orga11 ization, wl1ich shall be responsible for tl�e expe11�itt1re of tl1e fu11d to effectt1a te the objectives and purp� ses .. . on of tl11s Order 111 accordance witl1 tl1e a1111tlal Budget of tl1e Organizati l the of Tl1e <?rg�111zati?11 sl1all set aside a11 d hold as reserve any portions fLin� ind i cat�d 111 subsectio11s (a), (b) a11d (c) of section (1) of the present Article 6 wl11cl1 remai11 s 1111co1nn1itted at tl1e end of a curre11t fiscal year. · J , and · Tlle O�gai_ 1 jzatio11 shall kee1J a.ccounts of expenditure and revenue ' er . shall \Vitliin t\vo (2) 1nontl1s after tl1 e expiration of each fiscal year rend a st�teinei1t of ex1Jendit·ures and revenues for tl1e previous yea:, as the _. . ,\. Auditor General may reqt1jre, to him and to t l1e Ministry of Fina nce-

Tlie Form and Publication of Enactments under Article 27

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Variations in tlie For1n of E11a ct1nents qrif. g From tlie Ethiopian Air Lines Ne Charter (Repeal) Order, No.41 of I96S, Gazeta 25th Year No.4.

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by re ed al he e pe ar re : g n wi llo fo 2 The the Ethiopian Air Lines of er Char t . ' Incorporated The (I) ·ce (Ge11e ral Not1 No. 59 of 1945); a11d (2) Gene ral Notice No. 61 of 1945 [ame11ding the Cl1.a.rter].

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m tile Ethiopian Grain Corporatio11 Cl 1a1·te r (An1e 11dn1 ent) o , No_35 of fr : Or der r d 23i· Yea No . 16. eta Gaz arit Neg 1964, WHEREAS, it is necessary to ame11d the Cl 1arte1· of tl1e Etl.1 iopiai1. c Grai c n Corpora7 26 e of o. ic N ot N 1960). o al er en (G n ti NO\V, THERE_FORE, i11 accord�tnce w�tl� 1\rticle 27 of OL1r Revised. Coi1.stitLltion and on the advice of Ot1r Cotu1c1l of M1111sters, \Ve l1ereby order as follows: The Eth.iopian Grain Corporatio11 Cl1arter is l1e1·eby a111endecl as follows: [l1ere foll o\.v exte11sive a1nendn1e11ts]

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Refer also to the Charter of tl1e Awash Valley Autl1ority, set out later in this Section.

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From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) 01·der, No. I of 1943, Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No.5. 57. Tl1e Minister of tl1e Pen in accordance witl1 tl1e law sl1all :- ....

U) control the propaganda and information services and tl1e Government Press.

From General Notice No. 286 of 1961, Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 12· : ts n e . n t1 in o p p a g · 0 ,1 u His Imperia· I M aJe v, Jo r1 sty has be en pleased to make t I1e 10

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30th Marc11 I 961. Blatta Germ he n. o ati orm Inf of atc w Tekle Hawaryat to be Mi11ister 20tl1 a Gazet t Fr om the B Negari . d et proclamat1on, 1954 E.C., No. 176 of 1961 Year No. � � 4 , time to time · from ·· 4 ou.r M'1n1ste , d e · . uir req d an u. _ , ental r of Finance is hereby authori sed · · rnm ti Gove s vario 0 n the w the f O ds ea or l1 ve a arr reser ers ist jn nt M or e r th de . of otl1er or and s cLPepartme n s nt1e reve ublic e t concerne-d, to pay out of tl 1e P u b d l e . Sc tl1e in fortll t se fun d.s o u.r s v1 ser ce d an es os rp pir pu O Em f e e r tl1 fo h· · ·· ereto· r t· he. above ' . ·· · nt amou mentioned .. .

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Consider the following readings reflecting the control of tl1e govern1nent's inforn1ation services' and the establishment of the Ministry of Infom1ation.

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Pi1blication. of Enact1ner1ts U11de1· A,·ticle 27

From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) (Ame11d111ent) Orcler, No. 14 of 1954, Negarit Gazeta 14th Year No.2. 2· All power, s and dutie.s to conduct and co11trol the propaganda, i11formatjon and press services heretofore vested in 011r Minister of tl1e Pen 1111der Article 57 U) of the Ministers (Definition of Powers) Order, 1943 are hereby transferre d to and vested in Our Minister of Fi11ance.

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AN_C�__N_sT_ _I UT _T_I_o_ 4�5�6:____�s�o_u_R_CE_B_ o_o_K_o_F__E_rn_oi__P_I __L__ A_w______ NAL Expenditure Schedule '

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o ti a m r fo n I f o � y tr is in M . . 4 2 Head ba b a A is d d A In es ic v er S d 11 a ce ffi O Subhead 1. Head Eth . $64 1,79 5 s 1t e1 m lu 1o n E 1. Personal 54 0, 60 1 es rg a l1 C r 1e 2 . Otl Subhead 2. Provincial Agencies 57,396 1. Personal Emolt1ments 15,475 2. Other Charges Head 24 - total

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From t l1e Ministers (Definition of Powers) (Amendment) Order, No. 33 of 1964, Ne0o-arit Gazeta 23rd Year No . 10. 1 �

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2. The following are l1ereby 1·epealed: (1) paragraph 57 (j) of t l1e P1·incipal Order; (2) the Ministers (Defi11ition of Powers) Order, 1954 (Order No. 14 of 1954).... 4. The Principal Order, as amended, is hereby further amended by the addition, after paragraph 88 t l1ereof, of the following:

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89. Tl1e Minister of Infor1natio11 is tl1e l1ead of one of the Departmen ts trans­ acting State Affairs, name l y, tl1e 11inistry of Information. [The powers of the Minister of Information follow.]

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The Problem of Imperial Cl1arters

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The Creation of Jnstiti,tions bJ' J1npe1·ial C/1 arte1·

u?lic Over the pas t decade or so, tl1e En1peror has by I1is ''Char ter'' created a number of p · · Organ1s a· · · or quas1-publ·1c ag encies. Typical examples are uni,,ersities foundations and service · • · h lions like the Y.M.C.A. or the Red Cross. I t l1as 11e,,er beer{ made clear wl1ether Articl e 27 15 t.; source of � l1ese ''Charte rs.'' Tl1e _power of t l1e E111peror to establish corporate bodies, �y � I mp�re­ Char ter without reference to Art1clc 27, is r10,vl1ere exJ)licitly referred t o in tl1e Cons t1tu�i n. M over, som e �'Cl1art er�·· l1ave bee� pron1t1lgated under the o_rdinary autl1ority for es tablishi�og go�:r. me_nt agencies pre scr1_bed by Art_1cle 27. Our pt1rpose here 1s to illt1strate tl1e Cl 1arter g�ung Pcern· �sit I1as been � sed w1 t l1ot1t n1alc111g any reference to Article 27, and t o raise some qu e.s tio� s co�ruch Ing the co� stit utional basis of sucl1 Charters and th e legal s ta tus of the institutions ' they es tablisl1.

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From Aberra Jembere, op.cit., pages 19-20. Prior to the enactment of tl1e Civil Code of Ethiopia of 1960, Imp�rial Cbar;:i; were granted to both pttblic and private associations in order to give tl le s� r0� corpora�e body as th�re was no legal basi s for for�ing such associa� on�� a�er wise.. Tl1at ! s l1ow th_e private associations, like the YMCA, got a� !mperial . 0 1960, 1 u bl1 sl1ed in Negar1t e od Gazeta. Since tl1e promulgation of tl1e C1v1l C . atioD, however, nIS no C!1arter l1as been granted to a pril,ate association or orga except the Haile Selassie I Founda tion.

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IMPERIAL POWERS

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Sel a!te e 1 assie � Fo· t1ndation, Gei1eral Noti H of tI rter Cl�a tlle ce No Fro m 253 . of 1 1 . 1 1 r t ea o. N 1. 1 ta ze Ga it ar eg N , 8 1959 de to sir Ot e 1r establisl1 a Fo11ndatio11 wll ic11, bY I·ts . . is it S, RE A WHE a ss . is ta n c e · · fi " . ·I h t 1e 11 e 1n.11 , t · 1 n1, t d l age , 1ose stai1d111g 111 need of µ11ys1ca tJ1e ng Yoti · 1 or 1noral ' t1 1 e . t0 . 1ose 1 n1ea11 w s . 1ose do 1 t not. per1nrt a11 edtica' t1· 011 c0111111e11st1 and on litati habi re ... ra te . . . a?. il1t · e�a111ple 111 tl1e 11elds of ed11catio11 , sci · 1h b·y 1ts 1es, and w 111c \Vith their e11ce and fi �n 11n l l p11 l e� s10 c 11 to all tl1e best .forces and eleineilts i i1 tile rm a giv e ma y arts, and Eth iopi 1nay a sta11d . as a lasti11 g meinorial to t· l1e s acr1·fi1ce belo ved Ot1r o· f lilie . . 11 q n e e d o f Us d· t1r1ng Our life ti111e to e1111 a11ce tlle welfare · h b u ee 1 as h c and labour wh1 and advance the progress of 011r beloved People; NOW, THEREFORE, We hereb)r order as follows: Article I Establishment ot· Foundation and Transfer of P1·operties A. Tl1ere is hereby establisl1ed i11 pe11Jett1it)' by tl1.e IJresent Cl1 arter a11d Deed of Trust ... THE HAILE SELASSIE I FOUNDATION, ... to \vl1icl1 sl1 all be trans­ ferred in full title tl1ose prope1·ties ... listed in tl1e A1111ex to tl1is Cl1arter, to I1 ave and to l1old said properties .in trtist so 1011g and so 1011g only as said properties sl1 all be used only for tl1e objecti,1es, pu1-poses and uses set ot1t i11 Article I\1 l1ereof. ...

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Article IV Objectives, Purposes and Uses of the Foundation

A. The Foundation sl1all l1ave the following objectives, putl)oses and tises wl1ich sl1all, at all times, deterrnine the llSe to wl1icl1 tl1e incon1e sl1aJl be pt1t: [There follows a broad list of objectives i n tl1e fields of social ,velfare, edt1cation , health, and the promotion of the Etlliopian Orthodox Faith.]

Article V Exclusions from the Objectives, Purposes and Uses of the Fotmdation There shall be excluded from tl1e objectives, puf]_Joses and l1ses of tl1e Fotindation the following: . .. . 2. [assistance to commercial organisations] . . 3. assistance to or support of any person, organisation, assoc1at1on, enterprise or undertaking engaged in any political activity. [Further provisions concern tl1e organisation of tl1e Fot1ndation.]

Article XXXIv Modifications of th is Charter; Limitations Tliereon . . . •• • • • ­ r e t n e , 1 1 io . t a is n a g r o · t0 n y C·. The Foundation shall never be merged wit� or in_ any 01· t 111en prise O'f ern Gov undertaking, or with or in to the Imperial Etl1101J�1an Pa rt thereof. tluo. . E al . erj p In1_ . . tlle of . n tio ic sd D. The Fou11dat 1o 1 11 r J e un cler tl1 e n m l co al r sh ve ne . pian G ove m •

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Arttc· 1e ,rv · from Su1t · "'.V Imrnumty � . , of ts cour tl1e in g in tand N er o , h sh_all on 1 o � s _ I juridicaJ, n f !': J 1 � u11dati · e ; whether or natui: a o 1e_ t Our of e a by 111 th ir e t o attac k er :P or 11 by whet n ke ta 1, any dec1s1on ptio1 ·. ·th ri : e··. grouotl desc or that financial assistance of wl1ate ver form .,,. . .

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ITUTIONAL LAW ST ON C AN PI IIO TI E OF OK BO CE SOUR

de le ab ma en be ail av ve to ha 11ld him sho or ise erw 1 to any otl or t · an , gr . . g1·rt, 1oan, . . ' er d t lei , a ng r se o un ri rp te t1v1ty. en ac n, 1o t a. c1 so as 1, 1 tio sa ni ga or l, la dt vi indi '

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Article XXXVID Tax Exemption all ts 1e f tax be1 exemptions provided tl1e to d itle � ent be _ ll s11a � tion nda Fou Tlle 1e gra11t1ng of wh ich 1s left to the discretion of a .ny tl se tl1 all a l wel as , law by � for � _ official of tl1e Im1Jer1al Etl11op1an Government.

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From tlie Haile Sellassie I University Cl1arter, General Notice No. 284 of 1961, Negarit Gazeta 20th Year No. 8.

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WHEREAS, it is Our desire t o establish a University in which Our students, and stude11ts from otl1er cot111tries may acquire all f. orms of higher education, including post-gradL1ate studies, of a standard eq11ivale1)t to tl1at of other Unjversities elsewl1ere in tl1e world; a11d WHEREAS, it seems fitting to Us that said University should be incorporated by Our Im1Jerial Cl1arter; ,

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NOW, THEREFORE, \Ve of Our special grace and certai11 knowledge and Our own 1notio11 do by tl1is 011r Imperial Cl1arter for Us and Ourself and Our Imperial Successors gra11t and ordain tl1at said University shall be one body politic and cor­ porate in na111e a11 d deed by tl1e name of tl1 e I-Iaile Selassie I Un.i,,ersiiy of Etl1iopia, and sl1all l1ave IJerpetual existence witl1 a common seal wliich may be adopted, chang­ ed or ,,aried at tl1e pleast1re of tl1e I{aile Sellassie U11iversity, and witl1 further powers and at1tl1orities b11t subject to tl1e co11ditions and declarations in this Our Imperia] Cl1arter contained.

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AND WE DO l1ereby accordingly grant, ordai·n, appoint and declare as follows:[Tl1e U11iversity is created; ,,ario11s powers a11d dt1ties are conferred, including] 3. �he U11iversity sl1all l1ave tl1e follo\ving dtities a11d IJowers which shall be exer­ cised by tl1e Board establisl1ed 11nder Art. 4 of tl1is Cl1a.rter: (a) to co-ordinate st1pervise a11d a.d111injster all u11its and agencies of higher edt1cation assig11ecl to it; ....

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(f) to boiT ?\V all st1n1s of n1011ey, ,;vitl1in its budgetary li 1nits, required to meet tl1e orcl11Jary expenditures of tl1e Uni,,ersity until the revenues for the cur· rent fiscal year are available·' [other powers 0111itted) ....

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· 0f the · · I1ereby establ1s 4 · There Is . l1 ed a Boa1·d of Governors which sl1all cons 1st · following me111bers:. · . ·l ' . ' (a) Ex-officio men1ber: -:, ' ' ' Tl1e President. .. (b) Nominated members: · - re· · :· Eigllt �8)_ members to b� a�pointed by U s, three (3 ) of whom sl1� ll »; ,. ·. i; _ . , ·, tp , . · :·,., present_atives of the M1n1str1es of ducation, Agriculture and Public H g} E · respectively. .....: .. · -,J · :l �

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: memb ers d Electe c) ( Where [sic] the graduate members of the U11iversity numb er t w o h undred u at d h 11 s es b gr e a en a . t1 · t tl 1e ed I to elect a me111ber to tll e (200), Board.

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Note· In other sections: various powers are conferreci ont l1e Board incltlding pre ra t·100 f a budCo qu un alifi d cil; cat the ions for variot1s fact1 tty ratlks to a e ubm itt · �s · " to '· are t e ·est ' abl i · 1 sp d l e ,, 1or g ,.eac11Faculty · s101 · c ca d en11 an · c c ''A om crea m1s te 1 to its gover11n1e11t ancl 1 ed 1. s re· quir 1 10s t n 1 0 r nt a rs Fa ct1l nc ele ty il Cou is cre.atecl v,,itl1 wicle JJO\vers to 'det e'r u rove it y.wide cted a t P l , 0 1 11 t 1 e s a n c 1 a d r . s fo r . 1s t I ne a F bt· 1 to w et es c, ac t1 ma tie l s s, to re dJp gu lo la te grees , ac a d e 1 1 1 1 c de 111atters aild advise on all _ University matters.

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The Constitittional Basis of tl1e Cl1arter .Power

The Charters of.�rtain institt1tions, su�h as tl1e National �ank of Etl1ioJJia (Order No. 30 of 1963 ) have been e�pl ic1tly granted b y ln1per1aJ Order t1ncler Article 27 of tl1e Revised Constitution. With thees there 1s no probleJI?, fo·r suc.11 Charters can be analysed in a straightforward man.ner under Article 27, and are no different from any otl1e1· enactn1e.nt under tl1at autl1orit y. In otl1er cases, however, the constitutional authority for the enactment has not been stated in the Charter, and here there may be tl1ree possibilities: ( 1) The Charter may be implicitly assig11ed to Article 27 The Charter of the Eth i o pi a n Grajn Corporation \Vas issued as General Notice No. 267 of 1960, without any reference to the constitutional autl1ority by wl1icl1 it was g ranted. 111 1964 , ho,v­ ever, it was extensively amended b y Order No.35 of 1964, wl1icl1 was ex1)licitly iss11ed 11nder Article 27 of the Revised Constitution. It might be inferred from this a1nendi11g legislation tl1at Article 27 should also be regarded as the proper authority for the original Cl1arter. (2) The Charter may be ascribed to Article 36 The view has been expressed that the En1peror, as Sovereign, n1a y 11nder Article 36 of the Revised Constitution create an institution ''necessary to ensure ... tl1e defence and integrity of the Empire, the safety a.nd welfare o f its inhabitants, ... and tl1e 1Jrotection of all H!s s11bjects !lnd their_ rights and interests abroad''. This possibility, and its implications, are explored 1n the readrngs on Article 36 in. Section 1 of th:is Cb.apter. (See pp. 441-445, s11pra.) (3) The Charter may be ascribed to ''inhererzt'' i111perial pon1ers The following memorandum explores the qt1estion of whether Haile Sellassie I University is an "administration of the Government ' within tl1e meaning of Article 27. '

From Sedler, Memorandz1m on the Law Applicable to the Relationship b�t}veen E111ploye es of t/1e University and the Jn1perial EthioJJian Gove1·11111ent (unpublished, from the Archives of the Faculty of Law). [Tbe author first argues that the fa ct that tl1e University receives g�vernment ftind � n me rn ve go and is set u p by Imperial a it Charter do es not at1tomatically make agency under Article 27.] · o· Ethi . of ror e Emp e 18 tl 1 · H Impenal Majesty is not only the Head of State. H· e .1s . in ta n co es p1a ? the monarc lu va e tl1 of 11t ne nbocli1 e1 e th h d e an th ia l op bo hi m Et sy of ·tal n vernm e ed in th; E. th.1op1a no11-g o s e . .on a n· d cultt1re. !I1us, I-I·e a1 8?.possess . ' n trad1t1 world tI1e or 8Ym olic p cl,s . moila r b d e cis r e �e lly er na ow t1o d1 s tra , powers that are nonthese ov a d of One a . 1J�J . ·np i' goer, n which have b een traditionally exercised rn E t 1l 10 Roy al or a l er . I • ' er vernme�tal power s 1 1 r Ja 1 c O t er ow . o �c [e·mpl1asis add.ed]_ 1s _the p syll?b and or a .. tio arch inon th . 5 e s peo pl � � ? for the benefit of the Eth1op1a? . A: ty ns1b 1 :if . T resp o � his are o H1s people, w ir the r o with the Empero r is responsible f is evid ce rdan o acc c�d by the oath of offi.c.e He takes tip_on _coronation in �� d uphol to the ... s sing romi er n. the �Vt �o_n� of Art. 21 o f tl1e Revised Const1tut1o ears: sw He , tion s�itu A�on 1e t1t t nder ent ut1on · u rs ncem c,'th·t ,�, s x we c: J n o and p adva to his · e rcise e d · a e a 1 e r 1 w al _ · · a: . vve·. �ill· ever. prom . i r t e . n1a nce . d adva an of:oursub1 ,.. ,, and ote the sp.1r1tual re welfa 1 1a · r . e 1nat ·. :. . . , . . ··J� p ts. and . I tia ·t In order to prom ote tl1e sp1r1 . . .. . . ,.

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ns io at iz l1 an i at rg bl th ta es ll wi ay n1 ? e � e H t , xis le op pe n for )ia O] lli Et e tll of t nlen n� ay be t1o m ? za ru ed ga at 1 o er l 1c S1 by . p pl : private pe 1 a1 J)i � io tl1 E ? e tl1 of t efi tl1 e be11 ed by 1sl1. abl est Him lly cia and spe t 11s con t10 11za 1 ro a org lled be y ina y t]le Or · s n o · pers . . c� up on sueh organ · ti en 1st ex · I 1�� ·d 1 Jt1r rs nfe iza ons, by Him. Tile Inlperial CJ:iarter c� 1 arter. In other wo rds eir of th 11s �l 1 s.1.0 v ro e 1 tl th wi c an 1? rd , co � and they operate j 11 ac ith ere art acc cl1 w e Ill nc b r rda l1e e h e1t � _ y n1a 1 ? �11 t t iza an org e tal 11 me 1 eri _ o,, n-g a no 1 ed by H 1� Imper1al 1'.faJesty nder l l1s ab est be y 1na It or de Co vil Ci � e 1 tl provisioi1 s of _ _, _ 1 ed 11nder In1 p�r1a l Cl1 arter 1s establi shed 1sl a1?I est t1on 11za 1 a org An er. art 1 CI Imperial by His Imperial Majesty in His _ca1)ac1ty as _t�e syr�bol1c leader of the Ethiopian en rnm ove al 1ng H_1s rc1s powers when exe not s 1 � 1-Ie � e sinc tly, 1 1 qt1e nse Co people. establisl1i 1 1g tl1ose orga11 izations, tl1 ey are no t organ1zat1.011s established by the go� vernment and 11ot subject to tl1 e provisions of Art. 27. In Etl1iopia then, tl1ere are t\VO aspects to the power of the Emperor. He is 1ision.s of ce the rdan pro, witl1 acco in ty reign sove cises exer d 11 , a State of d Hea tl1e tl1e Revised Constitt1tio1 1. Wl1 e 11 He acts i11 this capacity, Hjs action is tl1e action of tl1e govern111ent. Tl1 e Revised Co11stitt1tion primarily defines the governmental !Jowers of tl1e En1peror, tl1ougl1 as we saw, Art. 21 refers to His non-governmental powers i11 prescribi11g tl1 e oatl1 of coronation. He is also the symbolic leader of the Etl1iopia11 J)COJ)le, a11 d whe1 1 I-le acts in that capacity, His action is not that of the governme11t. Tl1e disti1 1ction between these two aspects of His power becomes readily appare11t wI1 e11 we look to the practice of [otl1 er] nations wb.icl1 have a monarcl1.... In Great Britai11, for exam1Jle, sovereignty is [de facto] vested in Parliament, a11d tl1e 111011arcl1 perso11ally exercises little governmental power. But, as in Etl1 iopia, tl1e mo11arcl1 is tl1 e symbol of Britain and is charged witl1 the duty to promote tl1e \Velfare of tl1e British people. Pursuant to this power, the mo11arcl1 l1as establisl1ed many i 11 depe11de11 t bodies under Royal Charter, which tl1us have jt1ridical statt1s. Last year, for exan11Jle, a number of ne,,, 11niversities were chartere? b� !lie Queen, e.g. St1ssex U11iversity. There is 110 question as to whether st1ch t11 11vers1t1es are agencies of tl1e governn1e11t; it is \veil-settled tl1at they are not. It sl1011ld also be noted tl1at tl1ese 11niversities 1·eceive government funds. ... �he next . qtiesti?11 is _110,v it is deternu 11ed wl1etl1er an orga11.ization chartered by I-Iis Imperial MaJesty 1s est�blisl1ed by Him as a governmental or non-g ove�n­ _ mental agency. The ans\ver .1s s1m1)ly tl1at lie so states i12 the o,·der or notice gra,it111 8 tl1e cl1arter. [Tl1 ere follo\\'S an example of a Cl1a1ier explicitly granted tinder Article 27-l On the otl1er l1a11 d, tl1e Cl1arter of I-Iaile Sellassie I Uruversity, Gen eral No�ce No. 284 of 1961, . .. reads m11cl1 diifere11tly:

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WI-IEREAS, it is.Our desire to establisl1 a University in Vi hich Our stude nts an stude nr ' d-grad ua �ro � otller countries n1ay acqt1ire all forn1s of l1igher eclt1cation including post � � an ; stu ies, of a standard equivalent to tl1at of otl1er Univers worl d the in e els� wl1e r ities · our by W l-IE�E d S, it rate seen1s A fitting t o Us tl1at sucl1 University sl1ould be incorpo lm per1al. Cl1arter · io11 n1ot . NOW THEREFORE , rr rxl' ,I' -..,n 0 r e 01 0Ltr special grace and certai,1 l1r10H1ledge a11d Ou . nn1nt . . d0 bJ, tl zi_s Ou, li 77pertal Cl1arter for Us l:' uccessorsd dee-d 01, 1 rself and 011r a11d I111pe rial S · d · · an ord a1n that . . an ame ' sa' 1·ct. u111·ve1s1 · · n . ·tY sl1a11 be one body pol1t1c and corporate m bY t1le name of Haile Selassie I University of Etliiopia ... " [en1phasis addedJ.

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is established under in.herent imperial powers (or und . tion itu inst r A_rt_i c 1 e 3�?), then if . But. � which govern Jaws the by govern n1ental agencies (e· g·, t e ol i-:.· contr to f,fy 1 b civi 1 service, rules } . its lia .1 ) tices prac is g in untin acco t. doub ment govern g 10 d regar ·,\ :.

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. Zoe.cit r, Sedle m Fro 1de tha d t con h the , cl ving U11iversity is 11ot a11 Article 27 age t ha u or t a he ncy, (T u as follows.] contin es Since the {!niversity is not a gover11me11t age11cy witl1in tl1e ineatling of Art. 27 not are empl oyee ''g s ,,er11 me11 its t that ws � �fficials' ', a11d that tlle govern� follo it _ ment cannot appornt p�rsons _to tl1e sta� of the U111versity (again, note that under the ct1 arter Hjs Imperial MaJesty appo111ts tl1e officers of tl1e U11 iversity), and its employees cannot be transfe1·red ·�o go,,e1·n1nent a.ge11cies. Tl1e University is free from govern mental control except 1nsof ar as any orga11ization js s11bject to the laws of the Empire. However, tlus also n1ea11s �hat tl1e U11iversity is not [automatically] entitled to the benefit of any laws refe1·r1ng to governme11t agencies.

crown l1as, l1istorically, enjoyed power-whether ''pre­ Notes to the Above: 1. The English rogative" or otherwise ''inherent! '-to charter variot1s corporate bodies. This power is now subject to limitation by statute and is, presumably, exercised on advice of the government of the day and may be questioned in Parliament. Universities charterecl by the crown receive grants from funds appropriated by Parliament, but tl1ese appropriations are recommended by a University Grants Commi ttee (made u p of experienced educatio11al aclministrators) V11hich advises the government directly in this sector. Con1pare the Charter powers of the Board of Governors of HSIU to prepare its budget. 2. Article 27 of the Constitution and various provisions of the civil and commercial codes provide legal bases for the creation of governn1ental bodies and private ''non commercial'' juridical agencies. As a matter of wise constitutional policy would you favour continued use of an Imperial ''chartering power'' in Ethiopia? If so, for what category of bodies?

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The Article 27 ''Order Power'' in Action - Problems for Resolution

or tl1e ation inistr Adi:n uities _The �tiq the on creati like of cy agen a nt new rnme gove . Ministry of Land Reform - is ust1ally a response to some specific problem facmg the government. Ver y often, as in the cases considered below, such problen1s reqt1ire, first, t�at _a ne\v governm�nt organis ation be established to handle them and seco11clly, tl1at this organisation b� veSt ed Wlth particular powers which n1ay in�Jude the power' to issue regL1lations binding on private persons witbin the area o; subject of its jurisdiction. The government then faces tl1e proble� of tl1e proper au lbority, or division between different constitt1tional authorities, to be used to achieve these ptrr­ poses. The following readings explore the problems and tl1eir resolution.

The Awash Valley Autliority

vee d c u n · o n co e 1e tl e g ra u enco The 1· n1t1a · l problem here facing the government was tl1e need t O 1ieving this l c a f l opme nt of a s an me t beS tile tl fio to nce he d an particula , y r lle Va a are ash the Aw '' . ority Auth . , ?I ' ' 1a . c e ' sp a f o t n e m I Purpose· .I� was decided that th. .s pu . r po se requJred the 1 is esta bl . area, tl1is i \.Vitbin 'tctivity and th ving to lie i n eco e t _ LiJa reg to rs v1e d t po i h ad decide bro rity ; � Autho of very also � WflS � includ�ngie It �se. d 1 n regulatio the ro and pnat1on, the charging of fees, 1erefore hav e tl d 81 1 011J that t�e \ xp and 01 con t e n t 1 i gove . i ng clirect ?I:ty se : spendi l j r � � i n from should free be fa rly own t its . a .Pa rate JUnd1 late 11ey ao<l 1 g Awash cal personali ty ' and powers to borrow mo the of · n1ent 1 blisl · a Th e legal t es tl1e . re,ere was r. nc.e s n s1o ec1 d oc _pr se the ific re edu nt me d spec ple use to im 00 Valle A t was TJ1ere · tice . to any Uar�ority by an Imperial Charter, isst1ed as a General �?s barter are given below; you. are us vario enact askeJ g tic�ilar articl� of t�e Constitution. Extr�cts from. tbi to s mean this t· consider the fusing . 0 y, legalit the relevant su1tab1l1ty where and Pro··IB1om. v· ,

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1962, of 9 No.29 GetleraI Notice

�he Charte r of the wash Valley A11thor1ty, A Ne rn Gazeta 21st Year No.7. r niste admi . to body . 1 a c spe 1 • a . • .qc�EAc,o., it e eat · er to Us s ha to 1ent d . ar pe pe ex ap ed anq; · · · . · ·de-velop tl1e Awash Valle ; y

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETIIIOPIAN CoNSTITUTIONAL LAW

462

NOW, TI-IEREFORE, on the advice of 011r Co11ncil of Ministers, We hereby order a.s follows : ....

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2_ T11ere is hereby created tl1e A:-wasl1 Valley A:1tl1oritr (�ereinafter the 'AVA') as an atitonon1ous Public A11tl1or1ty of tl1e Imperial �t�op1an Government (here­ inafter tJ1e 'Go,,er1 1ment') to be gove1�ned by the prov1s1ons hereof. [Board of Directors establisl1ed; selected articles of the General Notice follow]:

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and develop the natural resources of the Awasl1 Valley a11d shall include, without linliting the ge11erality of the foregoing, tl1e following:

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(a) to cond11ct and ca11se to be conducted sur,1eys of the Awash Valley re­ so11rces, eitl1er directly or tl1rougl1 tl1e intermediary of other domestic a11d internatio11al bodies; (b) to establisl1 plans and programmes for tl1e use and development of the resources of tl1e Awasl1 Valley;

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(c) to co-ordinate tl1e activities of all Government Ministries and Public AL1tI1orities i11 respect of tl1e 11se and development of the resour. ces of the Awasl1 Valley; (d) to autl1orise tl1ird parties to construct, acquire, manage, admjnister and 111ai11tain dan1s, reservoirs, canals, power houses, power structures, trans111ission lines and incidental work s in the Awash Valley; (e) to admi11ister all ,,,ater and ,vater rigl1ts i n tl1e Awas11 Valley and to control the flov, of \Vater of the Awash River; (f) to assign waters of the Awash River for irrigation and other purposes and to fix and collect fees for tl1e use of sucl1-water and otl1er facilities; (g) in co-operatio1 1 witl1 otl1er bodies to 1)ro111ote, organise and. author�se the establisl1ment of co-operative 'and other agricultural and industrial enterprises i11 the Awasl1 Valley; a11d (h) generally,_ to do all st1cl1 tlu11gs as 111ay be necessary to assure tl1e best use and developme11t o f. tl1e resot1rces of tl1e Awasl1 Valley. 5· The AVA sliall .l1ave separftte jt1ridical l)ersonality, a11d, in partic ular, the capacity: (a) to contract· (b) to s ue a11d be sued in its ow 11 nam e; and (c) to acqLiire, ow 11, l)Ossess and disp ose of property. e. 6· i_°y ldition to all of the norn t o er 1al powers pro vid ed for i 11 Article 5 h e f, b . r Slla ll have the following extraordinary }Jowers : t ien (a) to acqu!I"e SL1cl1 real or otl1e ven r property as may be necessary or con he t for ach1evenJ ent f its ·th · Wl · purposes by exproprjatio11 in accordance _. law·' (b) subj_ �; � e� a�d . charges for the use of water, ties facili other and land � � J :risdict1011 ai1d to use fee r e t 1 d i1 h ca rJl col s lect e a11d cha so a. rge s r a o out of its operatio B, e · ns 1n · accord. ance with policies ad opted b Y th - :

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of Directors; provided, however, tl1at any st1t·pltls 1101 requ·1red �or stich t rned be over sl1all to p ns l1 the Ce eratio l Tr 11 Li tra i eas ry of t i e G o . over111nent · . to borrow money 1n accordance w1tl1 tl1e law; to issue regulations relating to tl1e llSe o.f Water Jand atid otll er facilitie s subject to tl1e jurisdictio11 of tl1.e AVA; in co-��eratio11 with appr�priat_e �-over11 n1e11t i\1i_11 istries ai1.ci Pti blic _ f gr e to �n co t �c ss 10 r1_ t 11s 1e s, 01 t11e 11se of lancl 111 tl1 e . Autho A.. wasl1 Valley for agr1c11lt11ral, 1ndt1str1al a-11d o tl1er pt11·poses; to receiv� a.nd admi11iste1·, as age11t ot� tl1e Go,1er11ment, i 11 terr1.atioi1.al aicl and credits; when so requested, to ac t as agent for otl1er gover111ne11t Mi11 istries and Public Authorities carrying 011 t activities i11 tl1e Awasl1 Valley; and to establish and in,'est i n pt1blic co111panies a11cl to create st1bsidiary ex­ ecutive and advisory bodies witl1i11 t.l1e AVA.

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The Livestock and Meat Boarcl The initial problem facing tbe government in t11is case was rather sin1ilar to tl1at of the Awasl1 Valley. I-Jere, too, i t was necessary to encourage developn1e11t in a ,,ital sector of the countr)''s economy, though it ,vas conc.erned with a particular p rocluct r,1tl1er tl1an a particular area. Here, too, it was decided tbat thls purpose could be best acl1ieved by establisl1ing a special agency, and giving it special powers both to regttlate the production and 111arketing of livestock, and to control its own finances, includ.ing the levying of fees. The legal procedure used to implen1ent this decision wc1.s, however, differe11t from tl1at employed for the Awash Valley Authority. The Li\,estocl< and Meat Board was establisl1ed by Imperial Order, _ under Article 27, and ma.ny of its powers \Vere besto\ved by a Procl,:1n1ation JJassed � Y Parl1a111 �nt � �er Article 88. Extracts from this legislation are given below; you are as!(ed to con�1der tl1e suita­ b�Jty, an � where relevant the legality, of using these legal forms as the 111eans for granting tl1e powers with which the Board is endowed.

From the Livestock and Meat Board Order, No 34 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 23rd . Year No. 13. WHEREAS, it is known th at the la rg e livestock pop11latio11 of Our Em1Jire forms a valuable natural reso urce; a n d e tock, WHER EAS, in the terest of e economy of Our Empire, �he qua�ity of Iiv _ a � in th products and hides ' sed iea inc 1011 ct clu pro � ir tl1e should be im1Jroved. and e c n ta is s s a . d n a e WHEREAS ·1t 1s c 11 a id ti g e .-d i ov . P1 to �s s ?o_ 1 1� p11 f s ces ne se ary or the , 11nent l s li to o b a t s e le l t e ra co . � en 11 d an rs 1 te l1ta s fac der tra _ to d s, an sor , ces d�� pro Pr d an of re 1s1te n . tio era ; _ o t e ci e P il 1r :ffi tl1e for 11s 11 u 1 ili d fac o io · lat s tie eg and to pr . n vi e q . · o creati the w·H EREA S . 1 by ieved 1 ac e b st be . · t o · ca 1s r s se po e . de pu med that these of a· n or·ga , I law· by 1 c 1e . ·er fi 11 .. co be nization possessed o·f such powers as shall ' � . n: tut1o t1 Co11s No w T ed . Revis . · . Ot11 f o HE 7 2 R e ticl O Ar EF RE, in accordance W1tl1 s: and o'n th follow as · . orde1 1 b e Jere Y We advi s, ce ster Mini of the Council of . ... 2· Es tablish · Dlent of the d: Boar estock ''Liv "rt. the as n . .a,11ere k11ow . be . i. to 8 hereby created n independent 'b OdY, , · the d ar1 ·_and tors Direc of d � roar M 1 t l1 at 1 � ou tl1r . d l t oar h a . ', . . wl11ch s a l � s. .� B .· Oen·era law f vant rele Manager as provided 11ere1n and in ot,er . , ..

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETI-llOPIAN CoNSTITUTIONAL LAW

d r a o B e th f o s e s o p r 4. Objects and P11 j s o d s n rp : e a u v es p ti ec b o g in w o ll fo e 1 tl e v The Board sl1all ha y th g of a1 d tin 11e an ke ar m gh q hi d 1 a1 1 1 tio y 11c od lit ua IJr e 1 tl e ag tir co en (l) to p s; ct 11 d ro yb d an s g eg t, I ea m y, tr 11 livestock, po t e tio g th to uc tin od la :e pr n p io n, a rm fo in ce ro e at in m s­ sse di d a11 ct lle co to ) (2 , , try ul ck to po es meat, eggs and liv of 1 g ti1 ke ar m d an g tin or sp sing, tra11 by-prod11cts; ed rov of imp o isio erv stock routes , s�l? and 1:1-t me 1 is1 abl est 1 e tl te _ (3) to promo wateri11g points and 1narlcet1og fac1l1t1es; (4) to stimulate researcl1 on any aspect of livestock and poultry production, transporting, processing and marl<eting; (5) wl1en. req uested, and i11 accordance with such request, to assist in and 1ices of the Ser, ary erin Vet Govern.ment 1 tl e by 011t ying carr tl1e e facilitat of tl1eir vacci11ation and relatecl services and to cooperate in the expansion and a.pplication of ,,eterinary standards and requirements; and (6) to promote the sale of livestock, po11ltry, meat, eggs and by-products by advertising at l1ome a11d abroad and by participating in inter·national trade fairs.

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The Board sl1all, in accordance with relevant laws, be responsible for: (1) the establisl1n1ent and enforcement of sucl1 policies and programmes as are 11ecessary for tl1e attair1ment of the ob jects and p11rposes stated here11nder; (2) the est�blishn1ent of such adminjstrati,,e organization as is necessary and co11d1 1c1ve to tl 1e proper exec11tion and adn1i11istratio11 of its poljcies and prograID111es; (3) tl1e IJre 1)aration of its b11dget; and (4) tlie discl1 arging of such additional functions as may be vested in it by law.

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the Livestock and Meat Board Proclamation ' No · 212 of 1964' Negarit Gazeta · F rom y 2 3rd ear No. 13. ard; t M Bo ea Wi {EREAS, We have ordered Livestock and

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the establishment of tl1e

and � WHEREAS ' it is · o\ · necess,lry tl1at . the said Boa rd be conferred with such p ers . necessary for as a1e th· e att·a1n . ment of its objects and purposes· � nst �­ �o ��:, �EREFO��' in accor�ance with d Articles 34 and 88 of u r Revise s an . appro�e tl1 e resol11t1011s of Our Senate and Cl1amber of Depu.oe · · We h'ere . bY procla im as follows:...

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the Board: of r powe 3. ha ve. and exercise such p ow er to control sh al l oa rd B The . an cl re m o .. t 1 1 a e t ·h ' e1Jross .. p m .io o ss . n o em e , I, se e1 , 1t , u , s a e, . 1111port, and exi)ort of duct1on all livestoc·k oultry, meat, eggs and b y- pr oducts as n1ay be 11ecessai ·y to ca' rry ottt 1·ts ob�.e .' P · c t s · · 11 d g c d I 1n in w · an 1 , 10 'tl es 11 os 1 t rp pu 11 · 11. 1 ta t1 d o an n tl1 e IJOWer: (1) to construct, own, lease a11d operate fa1·111s' \Varel1 o11ses, rnar ·Ic e· t s , , 1narket m . t 1 s d n a p co n o st d , ock po!lds, 1. 11 places wJ1 ere su plac:s c 1 1 facilities are required b u t h ave n o t b ee n p1·0,,1ded tl1ro11gl1 i11 itiative of pr iv at e e t _ en co t1 rage the establisl1n1e11t i11 st1cl1 IJlaces of ad �rise an� �� eq tia te p r� :�­ ; s1ng facilities (2) to borrow, lend, mortgage, pledge ancl dispose of movable a11d j 1111novable property; (3) to designate and direct livestock a11d po11ltry marlcets; (4) when requested and in accordance witl1 st1ch reqt1est by tl1e Veterinary Services, to organize and operate tl1 e qt1ara11 tine stations for t1se in the export a.nd import of livestock, po 11Itry, meat, eggs and by-prodt1cts; (5) to demarcate and establish livestock ro11tes witl1 wateri11g points a11d reserv­ ed grazing area to enable livestoclc to be 1noved f1·01n 1Jri1nary markets to processing facilities and central tra11sportatio11 points, in the best possible condition; (6) to introduce measures designed to expand and improve tl1e livestock, poultry, meat a:1d egg industries ge11 erally, a11d in partict1lar, bt1t witl1ot1t limitation, to re�ommend to the Governn1ent to protect prodt1cers a11d processors from excessive taxation or ot11er in11)ositions wl1icl1 tend to stifle and impede t.he expansion of t1·ade in tl1 ese com111odities; (7) to propose to the Government to fix livestock, poultry, meat, eggs and by-product floor prices wl1en considered necessa1·y for tl1 e national economy; (8) to draw up and establish reliable we.igl1ing proced11res and grade specifica­ tions for livestock, pou ltry, meat, eggs and by-prodt1cts and enforce tl1e same; (9) to fix impose and collect fee s on all livestock, n1eat, l)Otlltry, eggs and by' · . P1·ovided' however tl1 at products processed in or exported fro1n Et11·1op1a, in no event shall s·uch fees exceed the fallowing rates: [detailed ra te s follow] . c: · i· ie · s 1 t (10) t0 fix, .1mpose 1 c ia 1g 11 s t1 y r lt 11 o p d n a and collect fees on a11 1·ivest·o�k ' . of any sort prov.ided by tl1 e Boa1·d, wl1etl1er livestock _and oultry markets, er­ slat1gl1t t·on { a s e e wat r suppl y centres, stock ro11tes and ponds,. qtiarantin . s e e f h c u s t ' a �b . ever, . houses and other processing C'. <l l1ow · JJrov1de · ·11t1es, 1ac1 e, ' . possibl as early shall be fixed upon a n a� uniform basis and sl1,1ll re��ct, 1e tl to vided n bei the cost and value s ie ilit fac the d J of the ser·vices an tl 1e ce finan x sers need t tl1e �ereof, � }laving due re�ard to ies; facilit d 11 a es t;�ic . xp ansion, maintenance �cl; s of ment improve and and · s as. sl1all . (11) at1on 1 regu · 0 nerally take st1cb measures and reconJiuetJd st1cl1 nt Proclamat.1on. se . pre · ·_ tl1.e � of a �in ses . ., PPropriate to realize the purpo

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st of: ll si a n l1 o sh c ic h w d 11 fu a d 1e sl li b ta es There s11a ll be l ck al to d es on ge liv ar ch , es fe t til po m fr , ry ed ct lle co meats, s lie oi m l al � (a) eggs and by-JJroducts, e to e m tim tim fro y be ma as de ns ma tio na do to the or s 11 o titi trib con (b) ft111d; and t en . nm er ov e G th by ed id ov pr y id bs su y an (c) StlcI1 fu11d sl1all be lodged witl1 tl1e National Bank of Ethiopia in a separ ate deiJosit account i11 tl1e name of the Board, _which shall be responsible for and es pos ects pur obj of this Pro­ the ct effe to d ft1n tl1e of 1re ditt 1 e1 ex1J e 1 tl cla1nation in accordance witl1 an Annual Budget. The Board sl1all keep a11 acco11nt of receipt and disbursement; and shall re11der st1cl•1 acco11nts of reven11e a11d expenditure as Our Auditor General n1ay req111re. \X/itbin three (3) montl1s after the expiration of eacl1 year, the Board shall prepare a statement of receipts and disbursements during the previous year. Every sucl1 statement shall be subject to audit and shall be published in t11e Negarit Gazeta. ·

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Any person v,ho violates the provisions of tllis Proclamation or of any Regula· ti_o?s issued i11 accordance witl1 it, shall be punished in accordance with the pro­ v1s1ons of tl1e Etl1iopian Penal Code of 1957. A 1-iypothetical Proble1n Case - ''T/1e Mi11istr;1 of Housi11g''

cil Coun e th s?urne to tliat a govern1 11ent ''Comn1 ission on Urban I-lousing'' has reported � oo 1.01sters. It l1as. �e n fot1nd by tl1e. e t of n1any h by in co11m1i lived ssion t at t l 1e l1ouses h p ust rer fih� � _ a It�rlls of the cities are too ex1)ens1ve and too poor i n qt1a lity and that tl1e government m ta_ke active steps: to J)rovide urban lo\ver i11 con1e groups better ou� (or flats) at prices which th�Y l1 1s . \VI roup be ab g le to tws af o f rd t for i.: , · 0 n1ake strre tl1at tl1e quantity and quality of houses · 11 e th ate u nJJrove d ; to coo<len1n ai1d clestroy l1ouses regul to nd ' ·' a. ,vl l 1ealthy' 1 icl1 are ''111canife un stl'-' · J tal • · · o st an d ards o f 11ew l1ouses b tii·1t 111 rome gove the · t·I1 e c1t1es, and Since cl1aro-ed tl1e l1 are ,vl1ic rents • · . 0 er th ra · s w111. c111 sucl1 . a prograrn1:i1� l'' .. Po1.1c1e tica · , wot1ld 111volve l1 igbly in1 portant and of a . "poIi are . tllan a u el y t. .cl cal nat re, it is tl n a i by exercised J�i M e 1 ti ot1gl 1t desirable tl1at they sl1ould b i � � b : ous rather t a an in ependeiit agency. It is tl1erefore decided to establish a new Minis try of H prepare Tl1e SJJecific recom111enc1attons to ked · ' . as are o f t.l.1e Con · vv . . .m1ission are listed below. You . draft Ieg1s can · 1at1·o-n to in h whic 1 pleme11 t tl1em, d 1st1ngu1sl1ing . t1ons reconm1enda between tl1e oved implen1e 11ted b y IiuJJe .·d, 1 0. d ppr on ma� r er P�ocl� an<l !1th�s� or · icb 1 �l Decree require a eitl1er pro by Parlia111e 11t, and to �o11s1.der the he pos�1b1lity that ''the Emperor as Sovereign' nu¥l1 t I a of the posed le gislation on tl grou � ts 1 t�:n s tl 1 at t prom_o�e� the ''sat:e ty _and welfare' '.of � he mh i? . a els to a.nY Empire. You sh�uld a��O d se I o g al 0 u!ution for r t1on st1tu c�o s1b J)os i 1l1ty of obJect1ons on � _the of tl1e proi)osed powers 0� 1 on t e e M th stry, b)' . mi s C and required pr . on any ocedures carrying out the Mm stry ,s progra mn1e. i

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organised into clepa1·tment ' be l1ld o sh y nis tr s as ' -..Ki iv1 . m ay e b Th e neces · sary , 2 to t u1 ec r r ment ses s l o v I d ; purp be 1011 . . sttbie . J its ct · achie e to tlie st1perv1s1011 . 0 f . gency , I A an son11e d its r Pe acco1 1nts ntral sliott· ld be at i d·Ite the Ce . d by the Auditor General. r sho uld l1ave tl1e following p owers: te Minis The J. or receive by donatio11 pri\,ate or gov le as e bu y, to (a) e1.11111e11tal lands and buildings; (bj to receive ab�ndo11ed urba11 p1·oper ties ancl pro1)erties itl esclleat, ttnles � these are specifically c on,,eyed to ,111othe1· l1olde1·; (c) to condemn a11d destr oy t111sa11itary b11ildi11gs; (d) to acquire by expropriation !l1e land 011 \Vl1i�l1 concle1u11ed b tiildiilgs are constructed, .and otl�er la1 1d 111.ac co1·da11ce \V1tl1 tl1e law, for the ptirpose of constructing sanitary dwellings; (e) to constrt1ct. houses a11d apartme11ts; (f) to rent such houses and apartments a.t re11ts low e11ot1gl1 to allow low income families t o become tenants:, (g) to fix conditi ons of lease f or l1ousing operated by tl1e l\1inistry, inclt1ding but with out limitation the p o,ver to stip·ulate:

i. that only Ethiopian citizens sho11ld beco111e tenants; ii. th,at only families with income witl1in certain 1·a11ges sl1ould become tenants; iii. that facilities may be ''zoned'', to give preference at given sites to particular occupational gr ol1ps; (h) to have access to do cuments 1·elated to the f u11cti o11s of tl1e Mi11istry from any other mjnjstry or agency of tl1e gove1·11ment; (i) to classify urban land f or residential, i11dt1strial, welfare a11d otl1er p11rposes, and to issue regulations c oncerning its use; G) to require information 11ecessary f or ti1e pe1·for1na11ce of jts dtities froin private individuals or corp orate bodies; (k) to issue general regulations c ontrolling dwelli11g J)laces and l1011sing co i1ditjons in all urban areas; CT) to_ gr�nt or refuse planning permission for new b11i!dii1gs, ��1 - a_cc_of<lance with its classification under (i) above, an d otl1er desirable criter ia' . . l11n1ts ; . de-f i 11ed witliin (m) t0 control tl1e rents of private 11.o uses 1n 11r ban ai.eas, oena p sub 10 r we po (n) to establish a th wi , try nis Mi tl1e . tribunal . within ove, ab (m) (i' ) Wl·tnesses, to regulate d1sp11tes ar1s1ng lLll . der · · t par form shall · (o) t0 draw up 1ich w] , ry t 8 1111 M' e th and present the Budget of of the Budget of the Go vernment; stry · Mii1i tile f (p) to raise 11rp oses p the ut o loans, where necessary to carry o; s loan s a er .; (q) to adm et wh , s e c tir so inister funds received from f oreign as aid· I ia · spe� a 1n · sited (r)· t0 reta � depo be ing in. rents and other designated funds, to . r te s ni adn1i , 11· n g a11 · t n :roa1 acco �-nt tn the or f d use d a ol; k, tr Ban al tion Na con � try's . _ s under t11e Minis . · llnd 1ncreas1ng th.e housing fac.1l1t1e .

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x n h l es ic al ti o h e sh e w e , ce ro l t r ti p e p d d 11 si � re an I% rb u 11 0 f l s ee o y ev to ; ) e v r m ( e o d b n a d u e in m r te e d s a t n e r m ti of tlle maxim w r la fo of c e e rc th fo , 1e te tl et b r g in av h 1s i ry ar o1 ti Ja ng 11 g re _ te ga ul ll oi pr to , s r e w o e v p o b a e l1 t f o out of any a11d eacl1 t en em of rc ti fo la e en gu th re re su s en on to u iss r de or ed in s, se 11 10 1 t ec sp in to . d 6 . n .m a .m a f o 8 rs u p o h e th n e e tw e u 11der (t) above, b

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O,·ders Issuecl, 1955-1966

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Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov.

1957 1957 1957 1957

Natio11al Co11lffiunity Development Board of National Con1munity Development I\1Iinistry of tl1e ltnperial Court Ot1r National Defence Council

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Art.27

22/60 28 Jt1ly 1960 I-Iealth Tax Adn1inist1·ation 23/61 20 Oct. 1961 Ce11tral Personnel Age11cy and Public Service 24/62 23 Jan. 1962 Ar111y Badges of Rank 25/62 27 A11g. 1962 Civil Aviation 26/62 5 Sep. 1962 Pt1blic En1ployn1eot Ad11iinistration 27/62 15 Nov. 1962 Ter1nination of tl1e Federal S atus of Eri rea 28/62 19 Dec. 1962 Central Persoo11el Agency & Public Service (Arndt.)

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29/63 8 July 1963 Tecl1nical Agency 30/63 27 July 1963 Charter of tl1e Natio11al B,mk of Etl1iopia 31/63 12 Sep. 1963 I-Iealtl1 Ta,"<: Ad111inist1·(1tion An1endrnent 32/64 '

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33/64 34/64 35/64 36/64 37/64 38/64

8 Feb. 1964 Declar�tion of St,1te of En1ergency in the Region B �r�er111g tl1e Rep11blic of Somalia. 8 Feb. 1964 �1111sters (Defi11itio11 of Po,vers) (An1endment) 14 Mar. 1964 Livestock and i\1eat Board 4 Jt1n. 1964 I1�01J!,tn Gra� Corporation Cl1arter (An1endment) 1:� 21 Se1J. 1964 Etliio1J1an To11r1st Orga.oisation 4 Dec. 1964 Labour Inspection Service 30 Dec. 1964 Regulation of Governn1ent Construction

39/65 1 Mar. 1965 40/65 21 Jun. 1965 National Bank of Etlliopia Charter (Amendment) 41/65 30 Oct. 1965 La °:d �eform and Developn1ent Authority Ethi0IJian Air Lines Cl1arter (Repec'll) 42/66 23 Feb . 1966 Institute o· f Agricultt1ral Research 43/66 14 Mar. 1966 L��l 44/66 23 Mar. 1966 ��1� Self-Ad111inistration � rs De6�1iti?�1 of Powers (An1endment) 45/66 22 Jun. 1966 !11?P1an Ant1qu1t1es Adnl.inistration 46/66 27 July 1966 Minister s (Definition of Powers) (Amendment No.2) 1st

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Art.27 ply Sup a11d es Stor of istry Min 1958 . Feb 19/58 28 Art.27 s sion Pen of y istr Min the of ties Du and vers Po\. tl1e g 20/58 31 Ivlar. 1958 Definin Art.29 y Arm rial rito Ter l eria 21/58 31 Oct. 1958 In1p 22/59 28 Feb. 1959 Malaria Eradication

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on, 1955-1966 ti la is eg L e iv ut ec Ex further This note gives legislation issued by tl1e En1peror alone since 1955 ( th er. 11 n Decr e�s), in gated by O r�er. Wl1ere a co.11stit1.itional sot promul uon � � � that to dd irce 1 i eXI)1icit 1Y 1nent1o a , ·. · n in the right-hand n1argrn. ned, this is give Charter of th e Etl1iopian Electric L 19 56 Jan. 30 56 igllt G.ZlJ/ and Power At1tl1ority Art.27 G.ZZ1/56 30 Dec. 1956 Exercise of Pr er ogative (Maderia land ' pardon, reductio11 of sentences) none 19 Ar 57 Ba m y dg es Jan. of Rr 29 u.1k Or de 156 r /57 p, A rt .29 Ra tifi 19 cat 57 ion Au g. of An 27 1en d11 1en t 20/ 57 to Eritrea11 D. (Eritrean Constitution C onst.) 195 P 7 oli ce Aug. Me da l Es 29 tab lisl 1111 ent 21/57 D. Art.31 G.22 9/57 30 Nov. 1957 Menelik II. 11e111ori,tl ru1cl Tri11ity M onastery CI1arter Art.27 G.230/57 30 Dec. 1957 Horse Racing Clttb Cl1arter none 19 Ch 59 art ly er Ju of th 22 Ha e 9 ile 5 Se 3/ lla ssie I Fouoclation G.25 n o ne G.261/60 29 Feb. 1960 An1endmen t to l-I.S.I. Foundation Charter none 19 60 Me ne 30 Mar. lik II 11 e111orial and Trinity i\1onastery G.263/60 Charter An1endme11t 11o ne G.267/60 5 May 1960 Ethiopian Grain Corporation Cl1arter no11e G.268/60 28 July 1960 Scrap Iron Board Charter (An1e11d111e11t) none G.280/60 30 Dec. 1960 Central 1Vledical Stores Cor1)oratio11 Cl1arter (An1end111ent) none G.284/61 28 Feb. 1961 Haile Sellassie I University Cl1arter no ne G.299/62 23 Jan. 1962 Awash Valley Authority C l 1arter none

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SECTION 3: THE LAW

G AUTI-IORITY PARLIAMENT

Read: Articles 34, 86-92 of the Revised Constitution; Redden, Tlze Law-Making Process in Et/1iopia; ,, ,, '' · · ees ecr · Redden, Eth1,op1an Legal Forn1book (tl1e relevant react·rngs dea1·1ng WI'th ''Orders , D and '·Proclamations'').

Having examined the distinction between tl1e fields of legislation by pe al Procla matio n o-r Decree we l� a� � � �: : tf t � raised Y proble111s the so n1e of shall not:v consider ' · s ·1 ai ment ��r of legislation (De t e d h it · w d ne er nc co re he ot 11 · ) · e . are � . 0 _ _cree an? .Procl�mat1on of thearyleg1 slat1v 8 110 te d above and in d rea tlle e s, i n pl process, which 1s described, with � xa!il � h tr r and ro cpi� JJe Em le tl il · ee � !t b er po of rather, e VII;_ \v we are concerned witl1 tl1e d1str1but1on liame:nt, 1n the mak ing o f law.

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. whic h s n1att er to and Th e w" ,,1 a . Revised Constitution makes frequent reference s to ..u t a\V" 'l word the that ' e ' : � � _ decided by ''law''. Ex.amp]es are listecl below. Would se in the se Article ti cl;s 88-92? : Y�t �� ce s refers to a law enacted in accordan ,,

19 · ( ,, . shall be anntiaIIY dete1·1uined by law· . . . · c) In case of a Regency, the c1vil 11st 11 a h s sam . e · ,, 34 tl1e afte r · · · The Emperor ws ' I a 11 a m ru procl has the rigl1t ... to have been passed by the Parliament.'' . ition s cond 45: e th . ''E 1 . 1 ' , . · wit . . e ccor· danc s ,, th1op1an sub1ects shall have tl1e r1g a in . ] 1t, . J . · arm pre · 011t w1tl . scri 1 'b d ed by law, to assemble peaceabIY an � .. , tion stitt 1 011 c , • 1' E V't' e 1 tl ey · b o · and pect eryone 1n the Empire has tl1e duty to res . ,, ·V 1aws, de re. Empi the crees of i ns s and regulatio order . ; ent: . 1 iam . .· 6. · .'·'l . Parl of bers m Cha . O ·... _, aws may be proposed to either, or b th · . . . --. ·. ..

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The Use of the Term ''Law'' in the Constitution: Who Makes These ''Laws''?

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r o : r o r e p m E 1 e tl y b . (a) 1 e1nbers of either C11a,mber of Parlia 11 nore 1 or ten by ment.'' (b) wl1en tl1e arise tl1at Chambers are not sitt· h 1cy 1erge1 1 e1 of cases 1 ,,11 in g, t e e11t sist with con tl1e rees dec 1stit Co1 1 ution , wb_JC h sh Elnperor may IJrocl,ti11 . . . . all 111 t h bl 1on e N 1cat pu n_ t 1 1· 11po ega law I' iI: Gazet a, p endin liave the force of decisio11 011 tI1e same by Parl1a1ne�t . .. : In tl1e eve11t tl1at ... Parliament s�a� ' beco aiJprove decrees, tl1ey sl1all continue 1n force and shall me law u pon ' · , I • ,,a a, sa1 e G t f o · ct az pro . ap J)t1blicati on, in th e Negar1t • vested in tl1e courts established by law." ''The jt1dicial power shall be • ''No tax, dt1ty, imJJOst or excise shall be imposed, increased, reduced o r abolisl1ed, except by law." ''No loan 01· IJledge, gt1aranty or collateral th.erefore, may be contracted •for , within or -vvitl1out tl1e E1npire, by any governmental organisation ,vitbjn ' tl1 e E111pire, except as at 1tl1orised by a law dul)' adopted in accordance with ·' tl1e provisio11s of Articles 88, 89, or 90 of the present Constitution." . ,-· ''Tl1ere shall be an Auditor General .... His functions shall be defined by I !. law.'' I

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''Tl1e organisation and sec11lar administration of the Established Church sl1all be governed by law." The En1peror's Role in Resolving Disagreements Bet,veen tl1e rf\-vo Houses of Parliament

Read carefully Articles 86-91 of tl1e Revised Constitution, and the relevant sections of Redden, I'/1e Lalv Malci11g Process i11 Et/1iopia. Tl1en consider tl1e follo\\1ing reading.

From Berelcet Habte Selassie, ;'Constitt1tional Development in Ethiopia'', 10 Journal r ica11 Lct�v, PIJ. 85-86 (I 966). Af of e. cl1ang g puzzlin TI1e process by ,vl1icl1 a proposal becomes law has undergone a Previo11sly [tinder tl1e 1931 Constitt1tio11] each c.l1a1nber was given the right to �xpress sepa rate Iy its 01Jinio11 to tl1e En11Jeror 011 legislative and otl1er n1atters, aod if th . was a differe11ce of conclt1sio11 bet,:vecn tl1e111 in tl1e sa1ne matter the Emperor c_o n· clusi� con resolve it by selecti11g wl1,tt I 1 e co11side1·ed best in tl1e two differen t :e Tl1 ere wa.s 11 0 IJro,,isio11 for a joi11 t sessio11. The situation now is ambiguous. Artie 87 JJrovides: ll bers sha . . . . . . ',All 111atter . s 1n e1tl1er Cl1amber or 1n JOtnt meetings of the cham pt as t be deternlined by vote of tl1e majority of tl1e numbers pres en , e�ceevent provided in article 131 (i.e., amendment of the constitu tion ). In t �ting of an equal division of votes, tl1e presiding officer shall have a vote." r othe e . . . . :1f �. legislative proposal IJas_se� by one chamber is not cted upon b th p id osal, � ro witl1111 two 1uontl1s tl1e tw o bodies sa 1e tl ss dis cu to 1 ll er tog 1nu f sba et1 be me st et osa If aiJproved, witl1 or witl1011t op pr tl1e day s within t.lurty . a1ne 11dm i. 1ch pr� ents 1 · W · co1um · I 88 i c ate d ' to tl1.e Emperor for action in accordance w1tl1 Ar� e ' cl1aJJ1bers U ltc h v1des that the E peror can · ·sta· t to e 1t 1 t e I� or J g e1tl1er law, it � u�n ron11ilg as ul ate e a a d l l? witll his 0b seiv o . ations tl1ereon Sh n. atio er pproY . leg1 sl of or pro wit h pos · a al new a t·ive proposal be rejected o 1Vlll rece r or u'nduly delayed in one chamb er afte

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ca at nn ter ot be re 1 so th lved at a joint meeti·ilg tl e n an d . er oth 1e .pres1de11ts by the ' rs are reqlu·r_ed to se11d f u.11 rep . . or ts .on tl1e s1tl1atio11 to tl1 e E m be cha h bot 111 p ero �' of t l� or ne a ns a _ o w proposal (Art. 91). I-Ierein · bserv l 1 is d sen y l ies ·tl1e a.in b1'11h0 ma · 1· 011 of Article 87 w · .. ty. This cannot be reconc1 led w1 tl1 tl1e c lear p1·ov1s 1 11c 1 1 s p e ks . 1 g u t ·h e determination of any matter in eitl1er cl1ambe1· or i11 Joi 11 t mee · t 1 11gs by � . . of · J1 e t � . e t Th sen v d · pre 1c e o ers a f Jo in inem b c o11vocatio 11 is vit t _ the of . ia te . vote d by tl 1e . , (d ]1 e� 1c p 1 w tl _ 1 te 1 l e _ p1ov1�1o n s of A.rt. 87) seei ns to JJroceed 1 provisions of Art. ?l o n su oin 1 c1 t o� co nv t1o oc n at1 011 J con of tl1e two cl1a111 bers, as tllottgll �ep oiis cur i a . de to li ge ber tJ1 at er a11d tl1e11 proceecl to vote as se arate eil to e 1ng they we re roeet tities. p Consider also the

Article 91 provides for repor ts to be sent t o tl1e E1nperor t111der tl1 ree different sets of circumstances: '. (a) under Article 88, if a proposal approved by one C ha1n ber is rejected by the other;

(b) under Article 89, if a proposal approved by one Cl1amber is 11ot acted upon by the other within two montl1s, a11d a st1 bseqt1e11t joi11t n1eeting fails to approve the proposal; (c) under Article 90, if the two Cl1am bers both approve tl1e proposal btit �ail to agree over amendments to it, an d tl1e proJJosal is 11ot a p proved,_ with or without amendments, after a joint 1neeting. Let us therefore consider these thr ee situations, one by one, to d.etermine whetl1er they can be reconciled with Ar tic le 87 . Under situatio n (a), th er e is no constitutional provi�ion for _ a jo�nt meetin� of the Chambers at all Artic le 91 refers tl1is sitl1ation to Article 88, in wl1icll tll e �� sibili ty of joint meeti�g is not mentioned Ft1rtl1er, by rejecting a p'r·opos� l passe } ns r t n ' , i the first Cham ber the pon ! i A�t ! le 900 C11am ber. · 11as ''fi11ally acted 11 second ' r . . · . I nd since 1c Art' � I e · e c c i . I 89, and so no Joint meeting arises under that art ' . · arises in t e e t c 1 0 JOI? . ro 1 ? .. n1e11t,'i, amend is once rned only 1 over g ments with e re disa e tl , g in t e e . n . i J01nt . . . a under that art1c1 e e1tl1er. Since this s1t11at1on d oes 110t call for e tl1er . d 11 · a se i ar m t . P.·ro·bl oes , , d 110 · e 0f how votes 11g 1 ·t· e · · · me t · J0111 a sh . ould be cast at 18 lbe refo re no difficulty in reconciling it with Article 87 · tw_ o tl1e . if n e . ev . btrt . . U y ece er arly d c_ l e 1tuat1o a t 1s s ), j n meetin ( g b fl: TI:� by A i·ticle 87,. tl1ere 1s oint a Ch m e s vote together at such a joint meet1 11�,. as 11nP_. a e l1av r s nber nevert hele ss e Cba1 tl1 1 n eet 1ts e no conflict with Article 91. At tl1e JOJ11 t m 11 , 1 1 ch.· 1. . �, nd e h am wit ·t . . . ng ovi I 0 c.e ·. betw r app ' , ds lee� an . con t s. 1t 1� ro as t app 1 1 , . g sa vin po pro 11ts the e and ndm e am t u tJ , rnaJ:�ct mg it altogether. If it is approved, with or w cted e reJ is . { �� whereas if it e ed r Art1 unde to r � unde the osal, l E f it is c. prop . . mperor or approva new a r � s w o vat la of n1 bser al : 1 o_ s �cl��lllu cated to the E�peror for his propo ; a ws l lo a -· 1 e a f b · ht Jl11g An e xample of th1s procedure .. .• . .

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following observation by tl1e editors on tl1e proble111 raisecl by Dr. Bereket.

Articl e 87 of the co11stitt1tion certai11l)' appears to provide for 1natters at joint meetings t o be resol_ve� by a vote of all tl1e 111e111 bers JJrese11t, voti11g toget/1er, since it s,1ys that tl1e maJor1ty of tl1e members present sl1all JJrevail, witl1out providing for separat e votes by tl1e me1nbers of tl1 e two Cl1ambers. It 1nl1st therefore be seen whether the provisions of Artic le 91 can be rendered c oosiste11t with tl1is provision of Article 87.

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the Y 18 t 1 , es o t1 1 w 1s I1 11 cl ep lu D 1 f st o o e er b t a h l le pro in 1e C tJ to t n se tl le tl P_ is P a! Pos Senate' it . · tl1e s t mat er tl •. t v·io montl1 · r 1e11 e go v • o .r. · 1 · o i es it f _ · o to a join'. n o t1 a r . e . 1d s 11 o c s y la ' . _ . and d. e t ( h 1 e gl es ar ou 1t en to ep D o e tv tJ1 011 1 of L s te te t e 1ost1le vo · e avour. 1 J . \V tl l icl l l n 1 , g 1n t mee . 1o .r. re r�Jected ; \tnder the tl 1 _ re s 1e a os op pr e t!1 _ 1d a1 , rs to 11a � se cirable votes of tl1e Se r ro by e pe tl1 e Em tl1 id es to Pr d tte 1 1ts bn eii st1 e ar of both rts po re , es iic sta m cu . 91 le c ti r A r e d n u rs e b m a h C s i11 t11i ce o11, �in 1ati sitt lt, fict1 dif l1 st bot n1o tl1e c11a mbers far by is c) ( on iati Sitt ee y l_ agr r on dis o,�e d an end am , sal po pro ments to it: tl1e to eed agr . y ead alr 11ave n t1o ua as 1n al, s1t os op (b), sjnce only th� JJr e 1ol w� e t t11 c e rej ot 1111 ca re o they tl1eref s, ber _the two o am of Ch e vot ref the ed_ b111 com re, cannot A te. issL at are ts men e11d an1 fail to apJJrove tl1e proJJosal eitl1e1· w1tl1 or \ ;v1tl1_0ut ame11dment, a11d un der th ese are e 1 9 1 A rt1c er d t1nnecessary . Are there, tin r o 1Je1· E1n tl1e to orts rep ces ta11 11ms circ tl1e11, a11y circumsta11ces 1111 der wl1icl1 tl1e p r. oposal ,vould 11ot be approved, with or witl1ot1t ame11d1ne11ts, after disct1ssion in joi11t meeting ., retaining always our asst11111Jtio11, based 011 Article 87, tl1at tl1e Cl1ambers vote together? Only, it seems, if tl1e matter cloes 11ot 1·eacl1 a vote at all; b11t tl1is is possible, if u.nder Article 79, the majority of tl1e 1ne111bers of eithe1· Cl1an1be1· wall( Ollt of the n1eeti11g before the vote, since t1nder tl1is article, a 111ajority of tl1e me111bers of eac/1 CJ1a1,1ber is required for voting. It is tl1erefore possible to envisage a situatio11 in which the Senators, realisi11g tl1at tl1ey will be 011tvote cl by tl1e n1ore nt1n1ero11s De_puties, \Valk out of tl1e meeti11g to preve11t a vote fro1n taki11g place, and tl1ereby make necessary the . sending of reports to tl1e E1n1)eror 11nder Article 9 1. If tl1is reaso11j11g is valid, tl1e11 tl1e \Vordjng of Article 9 I does not require thar tl1e Cl1 a111bers vote separatel y at joi11t 111eeti11gs, and the 1Jrest1mption tl1at they vote togetl1er, derived fron1 Article 87, tl1erefore IJrevails.

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Promulgation and ''eto

Pro111ulgation Read: Article 88 of tl1e Revisecl Constitt1tion. arit Neg 1942, From tl1e Establis11 me11t of tl1e Nega1·it Gazeta Proclai11at100, No. l of ., Gazeta 1st Year No.I. 2· Tlie�e is 11ereby establisl1ed tl1e Official Gazette wl1icl1 sl1all be called Negarit Gazeta in wl1icl1 sl1all be )t1blished: l (a) All � i�ocl a111a�ior1s, Decrees, Laws, Rt1les, Reg11l ations, Orders; Notices aod · s11bs1d1ary legislatioii. . .. 5. A Cot1rt shall tal<:e jtidicial tice no of· and s (a) All � 1:oclama�i o11s, Decrees, ice Laws Rules Regulatio11s' Orders, Not subs1d1ary l egisIat10 · hed in ' the Negarit Gazeta. · 11 pt1bl1s '

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Read: Article s 34 and 88 . 0f tl1e Revised Constitution.

From Redden' TJ1e Law \ Afal(ing Process i11.Ethiopia (1966), page 19. · ta arl p . . y 0f the ; · '. . Wl1enever a Le g. s1 at.veor . i Pro i Josal a maJ it hr :e thi�· by l1as ,� app1· o ved , bee11 . ment, whether 1·n Separ .. · · · ate o r J01nt· sess1on, t'he E1nperor 1nay d o one oft· e · .. ,. ·. .' ..,. ;;,; . 1 .. ·

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Le gis lat ion In tl1i . s raf t eve · n t, D tl1e Sig11at111-e and Great. the ve pro A S eal of tl1 er eto af a1 fix 1d ed l t 1e ar e M .iuiste1· of Pe11 1; 11bl.s l 1 s t·I :e Em1Jeror 1e a L Neg a �..,., n,ediately in the eta arit at \ w icl1 G z , ti 11 1 11e it n ;, � bec o1 v es e . 11ec t 1ve Ju.u� as aw L · ·fied spec1 1s date later unle ss a L e gisl at.io11 to ·tl1e Pa1�lian1e11t witl1 liis i·eco1 n111 Dra ft tl1e rn Retu . er1dat1.011s · . . r11or eitt1er cha11ges 111 t·!1e:. .p-roposa l o .r. a 11e,v Proposal · I 11 tI·1is evei1t P a 1 r . 1a1ne11 , t • • l 1e matter aga •i n 1 0 •t 11e sa111e fasl11011 [as for ot l 1er pro i)osed t s der i ons c legisIat·1011]. . c011sider it indefiniteir. Tl1e 011�y ren1edy �or tl1e__ �arl ia111e 11t i11 tl1i s eveilt is to reqt1est an expl_anat1on f1·on1 e1tl1e.r.tl1e Pr1111e J\11111s ter 01· tl 1e Meinber of lii s Cabinet mostly d i rectly co11cer11ed ,,,1tl 1 tl1e 111atte1·.

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Fro1n Constiti,tion of tlze Urzited States, Article 1, Sectio 11 7(2).

Every Bill which sl1all have passed t l 1e I-Iot1s e of Re1Jreser1tatives a11d tl1e Se11ate, shall, before it become a law, be prese11ted to tl1e Preside 1 1t of t l 1e U11ited St ates; If lie approve s l1e shall sign it, but if not J1e s l1all retur11 it, witl1 l1is Objectio11s to that House in wbicl1 it shall l1ave originated, wl10 sl 1all e 1 1ter t l 1e Objecti o11s at l arge on their Journal, a. n d proceed to reco11sider it. If after s ttcl1 Reco 1 1sideration two thirds of that House agree to pass the Bill, it sl1all be se11t, t ogetl 1e1· ,vitl1 tl 1e Objec­ tions, to the other House, by wllicl1 i t sl1all lil<e\vise be rec o i1sidered, a1 1d if approved by two tl 1irds of tbat House, i t shall become a La \v.. If a11y Bill s]1all 11ot be rett1rn­ .. ed by the President witllin ten Days (S11ndays excepted) after it sl1all l 1ave bee11 presented to him, the same sl1all be a. Law, in like Manner as if l1e l1ad sig 11ed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment preve11t its Ret11rn, in wl1icl 1 case it sl1al l not be a Law.

F om Constitution of Libya, 1951, Articles 135-137. r 135- The King sl1all sanction th e la ws passed by Parliame11t a11? sl1all promtilgate them within thirty days of the date of tl1eir co1nn111nication to l1im. 136· Within the period prescribed fo r th e prom11lgation of a law, th� King�'.111ay ame1:1 11 l _i � Pa as � 1 l � e 1ic vvl t . i11 reef r ?e law back to Parlia.ment fo r reco11siderati on, n1 e n 1e t of · 1 l y r1t aJo 1n 1d s s . 1rd con tl1 oer tw the a law · If the ·law is passed again by. r · · 1 1 a' 11d pro1n11 l gate 1 t com .·· posing each of the two C11ambers t11e K.i11g s11a11 sar1.c110 . · · 1 If �thin !he_ thi_rty days following _the c�n1IJ:1;uni cation to hiin of th� �- �: �ii at e i s : .maJonty 1s_ less t11�n two thirds �l1e bill sl 1a l l not . be re�on� of all j ority a 01 a e s100· If Parl ai l _ag ll b� l1 suc s sse pa e1 1am 11 1t s10 an ses 1n er oth 11 d pro­ a l o i � cti th 1{ m� m em?ers _co�posing eac]1 of tl1e two Cl1ambers tl1 e IU !1 g -� 1 a ;;�11e decision to I ate it w1tl1 1 t1 1ca 1 0 1 u1 1n 1n co j e tl1 f 1n ng e th thirty days ollow l1i m� cl � 1 1it · u · tl1e i11 ctive 137. Law. s . . effe come . be ch are pron1ulgated by th e King sl 1all W� e �ffic1al tJ1. 1 1 i 1 1 a tio Kingdo m 0� L blic Ll . r ei tll tlie 1n 1b�a after thirty days fr om tl1e date of sio11 provi ecial gaz.ett TI11s P a y se� days �ecrea n perio or .fiftee d may increased be 1 witl1i1 law ci· cern e :fett g I � a · of· th e� ed.The la\vs must be published 111 the officJ - .1.r Promulga . .. tion. · 3 t . Par JI, er apt Ch . , Co> . .t . h.. . m . , .r 11 11zanza, set out · · ... �Ul alio t e relevant. prov1s1on . . s of the Const1tut ron Q1 a :-/·: :.(..· : ·...

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T TU TI AN NS PI Co IIO Tl E IONAL LAW OF OK BO SoURCE

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Questions

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? n io ut it st n o C ed is ev R e th in '' lv What is ''la hi pia Et ? in h '' hic aw W ''l e are r a. ng wi ''law'' as that llo fo � e th _ of h hic W _ n I) 1o ut 1t st 1e tl on ? C of es cl ti ar s ou ri va in ed 11s term is (a) th e Constitution; (b) Treaties passed by Parl1ame_nt; l1ament; (c) Treaties not passed by Par _ (d) Proclamatio11s 11nde1· A1:t1cles 88-90; (e) Decrees under Article 92; (f) Orders 1111der Article 27 et al; (g) Notices of A1Jproval; (11) Notices of Disapproval; (i) Legal Notices; (j) General Notices. 2) Wbicl1 of tl1e following, if any, should be regarded as ''law'' for the above p11rposes? (a) Imperial Law (Article 130); (b) Martial La\:v (Article 29); (c) S1)ecial Law (Articles 5, 111, 115); (d) S11preme Law (Article 122).

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Consideration of Laws b;; Pa1·lia1nent

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3) I-low would you resolve the diffic11lties raised in tl1e readings on the implications of Article 91?

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Promulgation and f/eto

4) Wl�at limitatio11s do tl1e fo1·eign constitutions quoted supra place on the exe· cut1ve power of veto? 5) Wl1at eq1iivalent li1nitations, if a11y, are tl1ere in tl1e Revised Constitution? t amen Parli 6) By wl1at practical n1eas11res 01· co11stitutional conventions might enforce limitatio11s 011 tl1e En1peror's veto?

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SECTION 4: Tl-IE DECREE POWER

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Read: Article 92 of the Revised Constitt1ti on ·' Redden, loc.cit.

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er und , Jaw . BY us.a�e, tl1e power of tl1e E1nperor to ''pro i decrees'' avmg the force;ef approved cla m , h n Arti 1e 92, 18 now exercised i11 tl1e Parlia m�nt, are of f Enac om1 � tmen of a Decr ts ee. ecrees are ow promulgated_ by tl1e Emp n 0O o w s actio y eror as Proclamations. Parliamen tar promulgated as No. tices.

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. rov ide law d tha of e t tl1e for y c p are . not the contrary to the rov1s1on ave h all . p of ecrees must b e submitted to d uc n. · h s h fi � C S tutio onsti Parlian1ent at its irst meeti · thi s . · ng . . d ar o 1a t m m e 1tt p , nt e 1 or b su 1 ·r tl1 ey no t a r e re no th t a ·r ey rs they shall cease to have the force of Jaw. aJ)proved bY eitl1er of the �hambe

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Gha na, 1960 (as of n ame 11ded 1964), Article 55. stitu tio Con m Fro an yt hi i11 A nd ng rtic�e T,ve11ty o. f tl1e Co11stitr1tion [011 in g_ ith sta w No t (l ) Parliament] the perso� app?1�t�d. as fir�t Pres1d��t of Gl1a11a (Dr. l(\vame Nkruinall) sll ali have , during his 1n1t1al period of office, tl1e po\vers conferrecl on him by tllis Article . (2) The first Pr�side�t �ay, ,vhene�er l1e_ c�nsiders it to be i11 tl1e 11ational interest to do so, give direct1ons b)' leg1slat1ve 111st1·11me11t. (3) An instrument made un der this Article 111ay alter (wl1etl1er expressly or by implication) any enactment otl1er than tl1e Co11stit11tion.

Note: This Constitution ceased to have effect after the overthro\.v of Dr. Nkrumah's govern­ ment early in 1966.

The Rationale of the Decree Power and Problexns of Interpreting and Administering Article 92

The immediate source of Article 92 is Article 9 of tl1e 1931 Constit11ti on. Y011 should compare the two: what cl1anges \Vere made in I 955? \Vl1at reasons (do yo11 suppose) motivated these changes? The power to promulgat e d ecrees ''having tl1e fo1·ce of law'' is certainly not unprecedented. The excerpts noted above from the Co11stitution of Libya and tl1 e Nkrumah Constitution of Ghan a reflect African p recedents - and also reflect the variations possible in granti ng a law -making power to tl1e cl1ief executive. A dedicated adheren t to separation of p owers migl1t argue thf_lt tl1ere shot�ld be no such power. ''Laws'', it ma y b e argi1ed, sl1ould. always emanate from Parli� � ment - the only body co nstit·uted · (in theory) to give pop11Iar ass�nt. Fiirther,. i may be argued, an executiv e ''decr ee pow er'' m ay be ·used to 11nderm1�e tl1e essential rol� of Parliament because th e executive can, at its pleasure, crrcumv;nt th� ere t an ee leg islature by issuing im r dec a as �on I_eg.�slat porta nt or controversial after coerce or embarass the Parliament int o ratifying it. . powers'' · · egislati ve l ''al l t The American 1 a ·I t 1) Constitution declares (Article . e abl not a in t C · e _ este d le S ' '.v " add in ed) u . the !Ilp �as Co is n : res� (e 1:� pr ��o ���Wess prohibits � ision, has held that this d1str1�ut10 of la w-making po e : the P resident - even � anY. sort of eme p ower!,, ee dec� rge (1.e. cy n · aking law-m and Sl1e et n in t es of sto w oun Y 'rub un severe danger. In "The Steel Seizure �ase . ( y, � order directing a d e isSU e Co. v . Sawyer eiit sid e Pr the e 52) (19 edi at ) 579 343 $ . . U imm an h governme t s . c rea to r . e rd o n eizure of strikebound steel P1 ants in d act e t side n e r P . . Tll e setttement of 1c pro the strike and_ assur e con_tinue� steel in t� ft :�C:U·ctio11 inight not only e .of war and at a oint when d1sru pt1on. of ste e wel l as � om y eco n p nal ie;p rd1� urg nat io h t t e som ent military need s but seriously disrup for nee d the was eat S a�r ing a steel shortage. The "emergency'_' was c�ar� �tent to act. But it w�� ·. "!Uiil!. �d Co n gress was ap_Parently_ un�ec1ded a� hori �ed the sei zure. The Pres1 t a Y lear had on that g1slatt no . l e Congress1onal , . .. . ' .

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E SoURCEBOOK O F

g t n in io ac p nd ga pe po st o C cy essional en n� rg 1e en , . an as cl le 11c fe _ de de. 11t's · act was d ) re te cla vo de 3 e 6tl1 a y (b t 11r z Co sei e e ur tl1 t bu un · l . len . ob pr e l ti f · . ' . d1spos1 ·tIOD O ,,. d 1 e ec ty d ar or . aJ } l 1n . 1e t ' · r 1e fou nders fo TJ ' �, ck la B it. ed in 1jo e1 d constitt1 tional. an s es e gr th on to C e on er w al po [e ng k1 1a -11 ,v mpllasis Ia e 1 t1 d te tls ltr er il io at N is tll of od to ll go c� re do no d e ul th wo It sto �i s. ne ti1 d rical ba d an od go tll bo l i added] i 1 at lay bel:ind t�e1 r choic _tl m do ee fr r f� s 1Je J10 e tl1 d 1 e. a1 er w events, tll e fears of po l] seizt1re order �1a e11 s s1d tru re at [P th g 1n ld l1o 1r 01 rm nfi co t bt1 d til Suell a revie,v ,:vo d 1ve t u_ oa ec br l1e ex r ''T we e: po ot wr t an J., gr C. , 1 o1 ed 11s Vi g, j11 nt sse Di ." nd sta t c aniJo d ste be �n a Preside nt'] ... ve all sl1 r we po iv c ut e ex ze 't! : ys sa l1 l1ic [w II � le c by Arti nt e , de �11 ad esi ste Pr In st er. mu ast dis ert confine av to ed ok i11v be d, sai is it ot, 1 r can er s og thi ss� r de �e y bo Un . ... s res concept ng Co to ge ssa n1e a 1g di1 sen to I1imself fice, tl1e P reside11t ca11not eve11 ac t to preserve leg1slat1ve programs from of tl1e Of . destruct1011....' ' Tl1e A1 11erica 1 1 ,1ievv (reflected in tl1e above decision) may be unrealistic for cot1ntries like Etl1iOJ)ia. First, one m11st j11dge ,vl1ether occasions are likely to arise wl1en legislatio11 or cl1anges i11 existi11g legislation are urge11tly required. Second, 011e 111t1st jt1dge wl1etl1er Parlia1ne11t is adeqt1 ately prepared to deal, botl1 quickly a11d carefL1lIJr, \Vitl1 e1nerge11cy sit11ations. Tl1 ird, one sl1ould consider wl1ether the Decree po\\1er , if exercised witl1 restraint, will serve to undermine tl1e legislative process or wl1etl1er, conversel;', tl1e pro cess of p11tting tl1e law on tl1e books first a11d tl1ereafter referri11g it to Parlia111e 1 1t tor debate 1nay 11ot in tl1e long run strengthen Parlia1ne11t's role. Tin1e is often a pre1nium commodity in the legislati,1e process: even if Parliame11t spe11t 11early all j ts ti1ne reviewing t11e budget and taxes, and investigatit1g weaknesses 01· failures i11 tl1e ad1ninistration o.f go,,er1une11t programs, it migl1t be time well spe11t. Tl1e JJresstire of otl1er in1portant ite1ns on tl1e agenda ?J-USt 11ot be increased too far beyo11d tl1e capacity of tl1e i 11 stitution to make the Jt1dgn1e11ts expected of it. r numbe I11 any e,,ent, a tl1e table a. Etl1iopia t the e11d of tl1is 11 section i tl1at sl1ows . of important laws l1ave co 1 ne i 11 tl1e fo1·1n of decrees, e.g., tl1e Ci,,i.I Procedure Code, tl1e Investine11t la�, tl1e L,1bo11r Rela.tio11s la,v, tl1e National Lottery law, t1 1e Income Tax l,tw, tl1e Ptiblic Ser,,a11ts Pe11sio11 Ia,,,. Tl1 e 11eed for tl1ese law s was, presumably, great. _Wl1etl1er ,� 11 ''emergency'' (or ''t1rge11t situatio11' ', vide tl1e Amharic version of Article 92) existed 1nay be OJ)e11 to debate. But at least tl1e laws were put o n the books. 011 tile otlier 11a11cl it see111s c lear tl1at Parlia 1e11t l1 as inc reasi 1 Jgly objec ted t1 · · 1· Tl1e to use of tl1e D cr·ee J)?.\�er to legtslat 1 11g · spar1 e, a11d tl1e po,ver is now 11sed � . .· nt promtilgatioii of tl1e C1v1l Procedt1re Code 01 me ia Pa. r l 1ly a sl1ort wl1ile before n 01 �siderabl e opposition. The promulgation of a�en !�f ;:. ; 1: ;�n!f���! dc1 111g cor1?0ral pu 1 1isl1ment as a sanctio11 for certain se 1 y b type offeilces (see be' 1o,v ) was xes ta of clearly co11troversial Tl1e pro1nulgation . Id Decree c tits JJretty deeply towards o s tl1e core of power; whicl1·' one migl1t argtte, h Un�· be reserved to tl. 1e reJJre sei1t a1-Ive co . the t a asse1n bl)1 · • F11rtl1er one 1night argue t11 . ·ve· . 1s to c . vening of special sesstoi i nat r o11sider tl1ese 1neasures wou Id be a desirable alte ng · esti Tl1e Decre e JJO\Ver as 11 ·. · . . ter . · is set fortl1 111 Article 92 raises a number of in problems. Aino11g tl1 ese are tl1e following: . ric 1) ''Emerge11cy''· T11· s ha . . . 1 An n _g1 1sl1 term 1s apparently 11ot in accor� \V1tl1 _t1J�. cion''. : U · :l E . . (nflf'IJ.J!, --<;1; ) Wllicl1 may a situ nt ·urge n1ore ' literally refer an to tbat In· any evei1 t, who is to f 1 ? ·. cletermine the existe11ce of an ·'emergency''

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so to lel tl1 y e mi Em tte pe d ro r, co ca m n an. y otller . is . person o r agency . 'sio n ec1 d e, ex I am _a p co fi or t u1· 1 10 ' ld ld h t _ C �t, ou s11�ce tl1e im mediate :, ost it? ew revi P . w1 1cy em 11c l1 er 1n ge ay 1 l1a ve ex ist od of . ed 1n 1 961 no lo pe n p' · ' . 11ger exists cou . . s w�1c 1l JUSt1'fied t he p�11a1 Code . · . . (Pe11alt1es) Decree no longe; the. cond1t1on lo 110 11g D ec er ex re ist e s? tl1 It . e co t1l so d be an d argtied tJ1 at · tence st c: tlle ex1s XI . . e , . . ec d a 1s1 11o on t 1s co 111 n1 ge 1tt nc ed y to em er tl1 e jt1 di cia an ry f ar o . 1d ti 1a t " ' . . t· . h e . . f l . 1 -=· l-Vl question of the 11ee d or s�o111 o.· e?1slat1011 1s _ 11ot o1 1e ,v11icl1 cotirts cotild entertain 11nder almost a11y 1nt erpreta�1011 of tl1c Jt1dicial fL111ctio 11• Parliainent 1e tl1e op t10 11 t o review l1a 111a , y_ ha t1d , tl1e r o tl1ese qt1estio11s, as J)art of the on its general po\ver to decide wl1etl1e1· a Decree s11ot1lcl re111ai11 in force as law. 2) The b�rden of disaJ,JJJ'oval is orz Parlia11-1e11t: Tl1is _see1ns clear fro1n the wording of Art1cle 92. \Vl1at happens, l1ovve,1er, wl1en (as 111 tl1e case of tl1e Pe11al Code Amendment) one �ouse of Parliament disapproves a Decree bltt a 1najority in tbe other }lot1se either block a �o.te. (by tabl1ng tl1e 1natter) or vote approval? Or ,:vhat if botl1 Hol1ses vote d1fter111g a1ue11d111e11ts - i11dicating no approval t111less sorrze basic cl1a·nges a. r e rnade? Co11ve11.tio11s of s0111e sort may be neces­ sary to resol\ie st1cl1 problerns. It is not clear tl1at tl1ey l1a,1e yet cleveloped, bL1 t it is clear that st1ch problen1s may well a1·ise in tl1e consideratio11 of Decrees. 3) Retroactivity of Pa1·/ia111e11ta1·y DisapJJ1·oval: One of tl1e 1nost troublesome problems may arise here. Suppose fo1· exa111ple tl1at a Decree provides for a tax, and tl1at nine montl1s later it is disap1)roved. Accordi11g to A.rticle 92 tl1e disap­ proval takes effect upo.n its pt1 blication (in tl1e f or111 of a '·N·otice'' i11 tl1e Negarit Gazeta). But if some persons have l)aid tl1e tax a11d otl1ers l1ave not, sl1011ld tl1e former class be re-jmbt1rsed? Of cot1rse, wl1ene\1er a. law is repealed tl1er e is a ''retroactiv-ity'' proble.1n, a11d it is not 11nt1s11al to l1ave a sit11ation ,vl1ere X has inc·urred tl1e burden of a law bt1t Y, tl1a11l<s to repeal, I1as not. Nevertl1eless, there may be occasions wl1 en Parliament wisl1es to relieve tl1ose wl10 I1�ve inc11rred bt1rdens. .But ca. n Parlian1ent do tl1is? And can it control tl1e effecti,,e date of its ''disapproval'' of a Decree?

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The Penal Code (Pe11alties) Dec1·ee 5· From Decree No. 45 of 1 No. Year 20t11 1961, Negarit Gazeta, ng flog gi f o siti o11 . imp WHEREAS rt· 1s_ o 1e tl foi · · e l : c 1na e b n 011 e v1s1 pr� ary . t cess tha · e of . c ' . . rba n dis . tti as .a. purushm tlle _ ent 111 to te rela 1 cl wl11 s nce offe ect tain cer resp of . public opinion; ion t stit u Co 11 l Now THE vis ec e R 0Ll f f O 92 le ·tic A1 . ' l1 , t _ w1 RE ce FO a11 . rd �� i11 co ' . ac . ws: . and foll o · o.n t,be advi as ·e� deci ce of 0Ltr Council of Ministers, ,ve liereby ,, 6 · 1 19 ee, I • Th'15 De cr · . ) ies lt iia (Pe Decree 1nay be cited as the ''Pe 11al Code .e11c u • der· · n e 11' c 2· (a) Wh . 11 O a f o rt . Co u 1 } ig 1· . . I· �re any person 1s con. v1cted ted the m 1� . by com . . e Co d. . Ja. l Pet 4 1e . t of 1 ; Articles 256 ' 445 ' 451 474 ' 479 ' 480 o r 81 t1tu si1b s in rna y ' tirt C 1 · tt1e l g I-11 -�. fter 1e erson p d te comi1Jg i 1 1to f o.rce of this Decree_, t1 vic . con tJ1e e ten c . . · se11 s t101 . . 1 1'-'or t1cl e r A ·a t sa1 1e 1n I· . · · to a flog pe11alt1es pro,;1cled s. e ok Sir 0 ) · (3 . � g gjo y . . . no t e xceeding tl1irt

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ac co rd t in an u ce o d w ie it r h r a c e tl 1e provi· . b ll a 1 s1 · g in g g o fl ll e u S of s s1on (b) . e d o C l a n e P t1 1e f o 0A Article 12 te a e of its d. th ca on bli ce pu for n tio o int in the Ne garit me co aII 1 sI e cre e D lis Tl 3_ Gazeta . , . 61 ne 19 Ju y of da h 8t 2 is th a ab b A is dd A at 1e Do1 TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AKLILU HABTE WOLD Prime Minister and Minister of Pen.

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Note: Such Decrees are ct1s tomarily issued ''on the advice of Our Council of Ministers".

Consideration of Decrees in Parliament

Tl1e Bz1ildi11g Mate1·ic1/s Excise Tax Decree of 1960

From Etl1iopia11 Jie1·a!d, 23 November 1962.

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Tl1e joi11t session of tl1e Senate and tl1e Chamber of Deputies of the Ethiopian Parlia1ne11t rejected Proclan1ation [Decree] No. 41, about excise tax impo sed on I, i equip1nent ltsed to bt1ild I1011ses. The Proclam ation was issued in 1952 Ethiopian ( Cale11dar . Dt1ri11g yesterday's joint session 98 members of the Senate and 178 mem­ I' ' b ers of tl1e Cl1amber of Dep11ties were present. His I-Iigl111ess Dejazmacl1 Asrate Kassa, President of the Senate, p resided over tl1e joi1.1t session. His Higl1ness in an operling speech to the joint session asked the 1 1! members to decide on tl1e Proclamatio11 co11cerruo.g excise tax on equipme11t u sed to b11ild l1ot1ses. ''Tl1ot1gl1 tl1is 1natter l1as been discussed i11 tl1e Parliament previously, it is 11ere again for furtl1 er consideration," His Higl1ness stated. j _Fitawrari Gabre IUrstos, Representative fron1 Eritrea, objecting stro ngly t o the id�a � f tl1e ite111 bei11g co11sid ered for tl1 e second time, quoted Article 9_ 2 of the I Constitution whicl1 i11 part says: ''!11 tl1e event that Parlian1e11t s1Jall d1sappro�e f bli· an� Sllcl1 decree, eacl1 st1cl1 decree sl1all cease to l1a ve force and eflect, upon tI1epu .. cation,_ in tl1e Negarit Gazeta, of st1ch disappro,,al." 11e said tl1at the item b� ?een di s�ussed and disapproved. Therefore, it would be in1proper to dis cuss t]u s item again and requested the 1ne1nbers of the joint session to reject it. . Ato .r:,-reshesl!a Wo!de G_abrel, member of the Senate, opposing Fitawra:; Gtbre K ii s�os said that tlu. s item was merely for !' orm��rail . ( previously rejected sa e. SJ)ea k ing f11�tl1er, lie said tl1at tl1e in 11 ss ; discu not joi 11t session did and asked tJ1e sess1011 to consider it for a 1 rt ,I de b ft h at er e. . to d . e . 'ect Ato M1c 11� aeI B:ii eIaynel1, R_eprese11tat1v ' O ' e fron1 Harrar, s�rongIY b� · uted. e Ato Meshesh� s proposal. He said tha e e to b me t the law had been procla1 d x c t!Ji s e canc_ e 1 ed. Graz1 atcl Abeb e o s s e_ 1 s the ur ed . , of the Senate, g j ew Fir � 1 n 1 l J'oint com . tai • · d · · m 1 ttee Of b otb 10 tter a Rouses be appointed to investigate t11e m � Aio · · to Ato ,Tessema Neg�e, Represen o n opp o i s t ative from Ge1nbi, i11 · �� u l rne.rel Y. il Meslleslla s comment. said t1 1at o s Y . t ution ·. ·¼ v pre i item tl1e the ses sio rej n ect did no t ti for tiie sak e of form ty .· n . . o s 1 the C c . ' 301. nt session 101 ows · . . came to _. ;; . strictly a d sk d th ali · I-:I· e sa1. d t11at tne te 1 th n1em ll1 e b 011 �rs · -:: : o t _ n t t1ssio rejec � Disc J tl item 1e . : an end 1· e ay witl1 a maJor 1 ty te · vo of 197. . �:."'" f

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Highness His Dejazmacl1 th. i s, Asrate Kassa asked 10 g owin Foll r. r a 1not1o n ar or 1 t fi w d by tl le pu n1 . _me b s er a Tl . s ropo le proposals were to tl1e e r . two . . � on . _ ct e ff ap po int be to ed itte e 1nv est 1ga te co mm tl1e nt ca se ' a· 11 cl to consi·de r tl1e 1tem th at aJ oi . as cancelled. The first proposal ":'as rejected \Vith a mi�o1�ity of 94 of t11e joint sessioii. Btit l1 st1ggested tl1at tl1e 1ten1 be co 11 �h 1? sa l, P: op o nd sec o sidered as caiJcelled, was the te 1ty vo Jor of 183 . ma a th w1 ed ort supp

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Note: The BuiJd�g �ateria}s _ Excise !ax Decree l1acl tJrevi?t1sly been rejected by both Cham�ers, and the mam pomt at issue l1e1�e 1s t.l1e_ �rocedt1ral_ q11�st1011 of wI1etlier it is proper to reconsJder the matter, or whether" t11e pre, 1ous dec1s1on for reJect1on sI1 ould stancl.

The Penal Code (Penalties) Decree of 1961

From Ethiopian Herald, 14 November 1962.

The Chamber of Dep11ties yesterday tool< 11p tl1e i1nprove1nents a11ci amend­ ments recommended with respect to tl1e Pe11al Code of Et11 iopia by tl1e Se11ate. Before general disc11ssion co11ld start on tl1e s11bject son1e 111e111bers \var1ted the documents concerned to be duplicated and distrib11ted amo11g tl1e members who could study them. They argued that tl1e isst1e l1ad not bee11 discl1ssed previo11sly in the House, s·uch a procedure would facilitate t11e clisct1ssion.

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needs careful study and consideration.'' I-Ie tl1eref ore stro11gly st1ggested tl1 at tl1e recommendations made by the Senate shol1ld be distrib11ted in pri11t as soon as pos sible. The President, the Honourable Lt. Girma Walde Giorgis, postponed disc11ssioo 00 the subject until the next sitting wl1en pri11ted copies of tl1e doc11me11ts wotild. be made available to the members. From Ethiopian Herald, 20 November 1962. The Chamb er of Deputies in t�e s!xth sessio� Parliament of the Ethiopian eld hexpe yesterday morning heard documents on regulations concerning 1ncom� r� uditure, Public 1 s1esta tlle on ation Employm P1· o clam ent Administration, ment of the Civil Aviation, sent by th. e Council of Mi11isters. · · · e d o C l a 11 e P n ia 0.ll0�1n p io P · h t E g this, documents on the a1nendment of· t11e w 1e tl f o t n e n d e s ib ted t 0 nt b n u � 1?docume {s u among The the members. � � ��� �� e t g II ri d h ·. � e wa� ap�roved by the Senate. Tl1e cl1amber w1 isc -n nett sitti g Which 1s today. From Eth'zopz an Herald, 21 November 1962. ay d er ye�t d 1sse . . 1 disc The Ch· amber etlt ia 1Par . n 1a 1op Sene of Deputies of tl1e Eth 111 d tnormng a e issu ; e Cod 1 · a e e 1 tl a tl 11 1 l95� Et ch pter on Public Flogging of cri mi11als h. Calendar· f � ber m CJ,� tl1e The- i_tem . of . e e mitt _ n Coi l1 11 ·tree rejected it t1na1 d ·t o tl1e fJ11d. 1c1ary rde DellUt ies in the ad bee· n forwa 1 . 111 . . 54 Co 1n J1 · · . e 1 T h 1ont 1 n 9 onth · o · m of M1az1a (Apr1 �) · . m i 1n m t11e lllo�sly . B _· t . · ent . d eJ . a 111· e pres . ?f Geqbo; the Senate approved the 1tem w1� l1 pa.r�Ja} em were s ber m · - . 251 0 t ou a (M 4 19 · y) or r. . > :. da 54 len 19 Ethiopian Ca ._

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UTIONAL LAW' IT T S N O C N IA P O II IT E SOURCEBOOK OF

tested agai Gen1bi, stro11gly pro m f1·o nst · cn·e Ne · Ato T. essema ·scuss ··s n r 1o a 1o d ot r. n1 to <:e 1 . d as di an a 1d e1 ag thi e th · n oi fr l r r te · 1 1e t1 . f o , · . ·nce 1·t as h J tl1e exc1 L1s1011 1 d sa sa at o , e th p r J I s a si m se s e T w to A to cl te ec bj � O _ i1t de si re P item. Tlle . d re e d e si b n t o o c 11 d l 1 t o c st e t1 q re 1 e tl age11d�L 1 10t iiJclLlded on t11e g tl1e President's proposal i!J ur vo f� a, 1o Sl n1 o fr , l1a as 1 l es M Ato Makonne 11 a t1o n an d greater study. er 1d ns co r o f e m ti e or n1 Lirged tJ 1 e members to give on, and m .ost of tl 1e member s i ss se e th 11g 1ri dt d ile va Jre y rs ve l A great co11t ro d. 11e po st 1g it po be ct je 1b st 1e tl 1 1 0 te ba de of ea id objected to tl1 e er, y rth led an he fu n cal sio ses for e . tl1 t uc 11d co t 11o t1ld co nt de esi Pr Si 11ce tl1e tta Kitaw Yitateku, Vice-Minister a Bl E. H. d lle ca e 1 l 1e ti11 1 1 ea Ivi lc ea br t1te . a tl1irty-1ni11 of JL1stice, to explai11 t]1e 1 natter to tl1e sessio11. 173 of tl1e 257 n1e 1nbers of tl1e Cl1amber we re present after the break. The President tl1 e11 said. tl1at tl1e' sessio11 coL1ld decide ,vl1at to do witl1 the item. Ato IV1icl1ael Belai11el1, fron1 I-Iarrar, sL1 pporti11g Ato Tesse111a Negre's proposal, asked for a 111 otio11 to disc11 ss tl1e ite1 n i11 tl1e sessio11 l1eld ye.sterday. Tl1js was favoured ,1vitl1 104 i1 1 favour and tl1e topic ,,:,,as presented f o .r disc uss.i o11. The President then asked tl1 e sessio11 to allow f-Iis Excelle11cy Blatta [I<.ita,v] Yitateku to explain the case. I-I.E. Blatta Kita,v s1Jeaking to tl1e sessio11 said tl1a.t since tl1 is iten1 was not i11clt1ded ?11 tl1 e. age11da l1e vvas 11ot i11formed tl1at it ,:vas a t opic for discussion during yesterday s sess1011 of tl1e Cl1an1 ber. Tl1erefore, si11ce l1e \,las not prepared to ans,ver questio!1s 011 _ i! or explain tl1e 1natter, l1e \VOt1ld request tl1e Chamber to give �im m�r� t1111e. His Excelle11c)' Ato Taddese Yacob, Mi11ister of State in tl1e Prime Mini_ ster's �ffice, speal<i11g to tl1e Cl1an1ber asl<ed tl1e sessi on for an adeq1 1.ate period of t1 111e dt1r1 ng wl1 icl1 I-lis Excellency is to co11sider tl1e n1atter. Fitaw�ari Gabre �irstos, Represe1 1tative fro111 Erit1·ea, said t11at l1e l1ad uo<l er.· st00d Tl1 e1 r Excellencies' 1·eqt1est for a11 a111 Jle ti111e to stt1dy tl1 is case. 1 riti aut o e _ asked the by hou h l_ es inembers u n1ade �o 24 give rs for a st dy to be ! ri conc tile�. Tl,e se sSio11 t1 11a111111ot 1sly acce )ted tl1e proposal pt1t forward by Fit.a.'rvra · 1 Gabre K1 rstos a11cl. tl1e sessio11 was adjo11r11ed for tl1e da y. i:,�

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Fro111 Et/1iopian I-Ierc1lc!, 22 N·oven1ber l 1962. ter p . . cha Tl1 e Cl1a1 nber of D·e�Ll t_·ies Of th e a t a1· � s ag ' voted Etb 1 op1a m ent 1 1 Parlia, · . 1 on p 11 bl·1c 1:-1 oggiilg of. cr1111 .tr1als e Sen 1n 3 is sued 5 co11ta ined Code i11 9 1 al Pe1 the j Et]1. Ca1 e1 1dar. · ve 1 ati t Tl1e n1otion wI1 le en · l1 .was l)Ut for s · r e Bekelle, ff JJ R e _ st 11 ward by Ato Ta ese from Arba-GLIG·11, ,vas ap ain ag J rov ed or, n j 4 by a 1a ori ty vote of 138 f 1 9 ' . l abste11tions. ,j . cle . sa .d that A rti Ato Taffese Bekele 8 t ess . . · 11g conseqt1ences of public :flogging . � � 811 t · -l · d . 1 � e 57 cru · 0IJia11 C onst1t1·1tio11 says . to : · of tl,e Etl11:. d . e t �ec st1 b bY h be t · at 11 0 one sl1all _ · ed 1nl1t1ma11 ptlnisfi . ss . t. '. auct st�·ongly Sll )porting. tl1e pre\riot1s re s olu t 1C:n P:b; jt efll ·l tl1e J't1diciary co:��l tee t 6 of tl 11 s fl ot se, 1 1� reques �cl t l1e �nembers t. reJ�� 1Jl �i c � ml o f Ato_ Yigebr t1 Wold.e : � � _ me 1s g ne n1 er of anyo the Hou 1f id se, that sa � i t tbJO�'. ; , ? agamst the security Y0;, 1 r.,· er1al the p J stclte, the Joo t l1e effect Gover11me11t could ·1. e fit. for tl1 e cr1· 1ne. Tl1 Y tu y b . d erefor e e ass e h s p t rong l . Y s11pported tl1e resolL1t.1on _ . = -, _ ,, � c1ary Con,m-ittee 0f .. · · "· ,,;:, - ·t··ws House.

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for wa put rd by mo tion the two this meinbers Ato za de As to ior r p faw, ed as the , ondar o ,· � � to use I r. from k clisct1ss. i i , clet' il.. Art cJ es 5 7 a11 G. e n tativ . Se e r . d . 65 rep 1 1at 'd 1 t t h e sa1 1 He gl1t of tl1 e 11at 1 o11 cotlld 1 101. 6e ut1on. onstt C · · IJrot ccte d . · of the · a1e mea st1res · emp1oyed. 111 a state a11cl aslcecl 1r.0r ity secu r t gr e a ' ' · ' . a 1not 101 unjess· 1 e ct d s Je re . w h' 1s t ut b ; ct f e ef � to this Earlj�r, tl1e �epr�sentat1ve !r�.111 the_ Pri_111e_ M.i 11 i�te 1·'s office eloqLier,tly eXJJlaiiJed :Etl nec a 11op ess 1n � 1 1 a 1s : g 1 Ie _sa id t1 1at 11e :"10 Ltld lil<e to exiJJaii, flog gin wby public 1 " rep , es rese tl1e 11ta �as t1 tc tl1111 gs concer.11 1 1 1g sectirity inatters. ura ble to the hono � for and th_ secu e rity welf oJ ar� t�1� peo1Jle," 11e saicl. '·If tl,ere is no the "l speak for firm and reliable sect1r1ty tl1ere will be no stab1l1ty,'' l1e added. Speaking f urtl1er, tl1e Mit�.is_ter_of S :�te �aid t!1�t l1e wa11ted to express I1is feelings abo,ut the m atter as a trt1e Etl11o_p1a n. Let tis lrste 1 1 to each otl1 er and collaborate on the matter. Tl1is is being do11 e for tl1e sectirity of tl1 e ]Jeo1Jle. It is wl1 e 11 a reliable security prevails in the State t11at, a go, er11111e11t is able to lat111 cl1 develo1Jine 1 1t pro­ grammes," be argued. Tl1e Representative from the Pri1ne Mi11ister's Office, q11oti 11 g Articles 131, 29, 108, 40, 42 and 65 of tl1e Ethiopian Co11 stitt1tio11, explai11ecl wl1y sec11rity is of very great importance to a country. Tl1e mai11 worlc of tl1 e Gover11111ent is to sect1re the welfare and progress of the Nation, l1e said. The Repres· entative from the Prime Ministe1·'s Office pleaded witl1 tl1e members to adopt the chapter on Public Floggi11g. Ato Yittna Belette, Representati,,e from Harrar, stro11gly objecti11g to wl1at theRepresentative from the Prime Mi1lister's Ofiice said, explai11ed tl1at wl1at H.B. was trying to inform tl1e members abot1t l1ad 11otl1i11g to do witl1 tl1e cl1apter on Public Floggjng of the Penal Code. ''It is co111pletely irreleva11t, '' l1e added. Ato Yittna expressing further quoted Articles 120A, 25 6 (I), 445, 479 _(2), 484 (3) of tl1e P_enal Cod.e and sa.id that w .bat is already put in tl1e Penal Code 1s 111�re tl1an st1ffi­ e vot to ble a is adv 1e t 11o is . t it , 1ce 1 t da i11 t1n a ti ab n A me when rumour-mongers are ? t­ por Sllp ly oi1g str 10 favour of approvi _l1e e for ere 1 TI de. Co l ng this c11apter of the Pe11a ed the proposal put forward by tl1e J11diciary Committee of tI11s I-louse.

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Parliamentary Action on Decrees 1 en r a t l i�n r -�Ja of s rm fo ng wi llo fo h 1 �� 11 :� � e frequenc y with which each of t e te: Th beenNo 11 t 1 e i o nd b n u o t Decr�e s � �:� s a N �1av eye ; been fina lly to t hi8�d � � i�ferred from the lis of Proc1amati !1s,. · ection; it 1s also possible to find out fron1 tlus 11st wl11ch Decrees actect upon by P arliament.

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ApPrQva/ of a Decree 9. No. . · Year �i : · Pro·m Noti .· ce 22nd 1 a aze G zt ar eg N of Approval No. 8 of 1963, ' 3 6 19 f o 8 . o N L NOTICE OF APPROVA a : ,. 1s1de 1 co for 1t 1me1 . . i, Parl . y . N · eere . 0 t e d D te 1 . o. ng trans havi of 48 duly � 1n . .. 19621 e been 1av1ng . 11otic . t1on pur due d 1 ai on t t ant i , c · ·1 Aviation Decree' Const to tL i R f su · Ar evised ticle · 92 ii bene given o the 1v1 e 'Tl1 · , ree t of 1962 by par11ament of tl1 e approval of s,LI'd Dec . a rs s a. force ant ] \V 'Plt u to said Article 92, co11tinL1es i.n r. . 3 196 . · ·y . Done at Ad t ,;. ia rt · d.1s Ababa, tJ11s 28tl1 day of Feb L . _ ' D E WO BT I-I U A ZA Z I J.., L � . . � E A T . TSAHAFE .. . . 0 f · p en. Sler t Mt.1J Prime Mi11ister and I

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETtIIOPIAN CoNSTfl'U'l'IONAL LAW

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t a r it et 1s 2 ea ar az Y G eg N o. 1. , N 61 19 of 8 17 o. N n io at am cl ro P From FOR THE ESTABL ISHMENT OF IDE O PR TO V N TIO MA LA OC PR A D R A O B E E F F O C L A N IO T A THE N h da Ju of be ri 1-Ia.ile Sellassie I - Elect of God, T 1e tl of n io L ng ri 1e Conq1 Emperor of Etl1iopia. WHEREAS, 011 October 31, 1957, the Nation.al Coffee Board Decree was prom11lgated as Decree No. 28 of 1957; an d · itted to Parliamen t for WI-IEREAS, said Decree was thereafter duly transm consideration JJUrs11ant to Article 92 of Our Revised Constitution; and \\'HEREAS, Parliament l1as introduced certain amendments into said Decree and approved a revised text of law;

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f NOW, THEREFORE, in accordance with Articles 34 and 88 of Our Revised Constit11tion, We ap1Jrove the resolutions of Our Senate and Cl1amber of Deputies and We hereby proclaim as follows:

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1. Tl1is Proclamation may be cited as the ''National Coffee Board Proclamation 1961." 2. The National Coffee Board Decree (Decree No.28 of 1957) is hereby renumbered as Proclamation No. 178 of 1961 and incorporated herein, subject to the changes 1 l· set fortl1 below: I·, his (a) Article 1 is deleted and replaced by the follo,ving new Article 1: ''l. � Proclainatio11 may be citecl as tl1e 'National Coffee Board Proclamation, 1961." (b) The word ''Decree'' is deleted wherever it appears and replaced by the word ''Proclamation''. 1 · . · three (c) A. rt1c · Ie 9 1s amended by del�t1on of the words ''fine not excee d_ing .times tl1e _ ault ! def: in a11101111t of cess wl11cl1 he has attempted to evade and _ ot · � of pay_inent of the fine sl1all be liable to imprisonment for a period n . in . � · t ell un nisl exceeding six mo11ths'', an d substitution of the words ·'pu accorda11ce witl1 tl1e provisions of the Pe na l Code of 1957''. . 1f l (d) Article 12 is a111ended by deletion of tl1e words ''fine not exce eding. l ,OOO 01· imprisonn1ent, in defat1lt of payment of the fine, not ex�d1�[ the .,._. _ LJtu ont hs or sub5 o bot h and uch d ', fine imp ! and riso � nme nt' e : C9 :0rds /, _:.:_i � i _ . · 1the p punishment 111 accordance with the provi of ns sio · - -{ of 1957''. i we n n 3. Tl1is Proclamat·ion c atio _:. s l1all . . come into force on the date of its pu bl1· . Negar1t Gazeta. . Done at Addis Ababa · tlus · 25t· h day of September ' 1961· . . = - :_r'.\\!" . @t � : · � -. W , B BT : HA u· _ TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AK.LIL Prime Minister a11d. MinJster of Pen. I

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.. · <at·ion f the rev1s The time .elapsing between the original Decree and the ptlblic 1ng ion. t Procla ma .. The implicit interpretation of the Constitt1tion, in tl1at Article 92 cloes 1 o t e pl1c1t ly allo w for Parlian1entary amendment o f Decrees, bt1t only for <approva' l or 1c l_sappro x val. • • 1 The replacement of specific pun1shn1ents by re ference to tI1e Penal Code .

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Decree a of al prov � Disap of Disappro val No .I �f 1963, Nega,·it Gr,zeta 22 11 d Year No.IO. ce Noti From

NOTICE OF DISAPPROVAL No. 1 of 1963

Decree No. 41 of 1960 having bee11 duly tra11s111itted to Parlia1ne11t for co 11si­ deratio n pursuant . to Article 92 _of the Revised . Consti tt1tion, a11d 11otice J1 avi 11 g .· been given by Parl1ament of tl1e disapproval of said Dec1·ee, tl1e 'Buildi11g Materials •.\ Excise Tax Decree No. 41 of 1960', purst1a11t to said Article 92, ceases to l1ave force and effect as from the date of publication hereof.

\ \

Done at Addis Ababa this 30tl1 day of Ma rcl1, 1963.

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TSAHAFE TAEZAZ AKLILU I-IABT.E WOLD Prime Minister and Mi11ister of Pen.

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Parliamentary

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Inaction

There are several Decrees on which parliamentary action has not )1et, at the tin1e of \Vriting, been published. It is worth noting that such inaction n1ay be due to a nu111ber of possible reasons, including the follo wing: (a) that Parliament has not yet finished considering tl1e Decree; . (b) that the two Chambers of Par liam ent hav e disagreed on tl1e acti on to �e taker1; (c) that Parliament has amended the Deer� in a 111anner wl1ich l1as not received the In1perial Assent.

�·•• :,;

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Questions

"Emergency''

1 ougl1 tl ' ' y c n e g r e m e f o 0 case s · ,, 1 · · on /,: the Th power nst1tut1 on Decre allows e . ·e Co the of . . 0 as to \Vheti1er tl1ere the use _ Y_. ! . al d c . o e l s Amhari de. c text atit appear l s greate r u T 1 iig� to allow rather ; �SIO Ministe ti rs, f o / i ncil C e 1 e adv i ce O �� tl cy Emperor, i_nust l�as gone into effect. 01;1 s m : the by clearly taken be ;, in ; �:_: it on a 1 a on \:v de deci ent r only not can g ts sittin and the cour 1s a �!

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w revie ry . menta . 1 01. IJarlia · Does the Revised Constitution a llow for Jlldicia w be vie I d of 1he question of whether there was an emergen�y or ��t :�alogous ��e �f · • • exc1uded, fo r instance, by the provisions of Article .J Pewer of the Emperor under Article 29. courts? the to . Or . t? lf review .is possi , h a arli to his power belo11g P _ ��fe ,·, question? oul ble s d t 0r to both? Is the existence of an emergency a ''jttSttcia ower p ree . Dec the hich . What conclus1ons w n cases i word the 1 " from , the d can rawn be ich wl has been th i w ss exercised about tl1e strictness or loosene '< emergency'' has been interprete d?

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. cases ch su n · l'i . . :.., · . ��fet· re du 1 e i . proc . the . . . . . . to or . the Teadi a et az G it ar eg N n ga in this Section and to the . . - .,·.··.: -. . · '·'.. ' ,·•.' , ..... ...... . -'. .. . . ..· · · · ":�,,· :::i . · ·..: ; • .. ". •

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Decrees

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------- 484

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ITUTIONAL LAW T S N O C N A I P IO H T E SOURCEBOOK OF

e er et th pl ei m t ly u co o approving or l1 it w , es re ec D d en am t n .. e m a .1. 1 r a P y a M 4) rejecti11g tl1e1n ? t n a en s m 1t d n st u · 1e s m e, re be approved ec D a d en m a to es ll is w S) It· Parliament by tl1e E1nperor?

'

1·s e 1b n a h C ze tl 11 e e tw e B ts Disao-ree111en

of the Libyan Constit ution 64 le tic Ar th wi 55 19 of n tio itu nst Co tl1e of 92 le Compare Artic quoted above.

s r it d ect be an rej am Ch e the on 1 er en wl oth e c 1· fo in 11 1ai ren e cre De a 6) Does Cl1a1nber accepts it? uld nt, tbe wo ural me ced rlia pro Pa by es cre De of 11 tio era 1sid co1 tl1e 1g 1ri1 DL 7) 1)rovisio11s of A1·ticles 88-91 apply?

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Executive ResJJ011se to Parlian1e11ta1-y Actiori

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8) Is the ivli11ister of tl1e Pen entitled to refLise p11blication, u1 tl1e Negarit Gazeta,

of a1uendn1ents to a Dec1·ee passed by both Chambers? 9) Is l1e entitled to reft1se pt1blication of a Notice of Disapproval passed by both Cl1a111bers ? IO) Is he e11titled to reft1se pt1blication of a Notice of Disapproval passed by one � Chamber only? .i Decrees and Proc!c1111atio11s 11) Wl1at st1bjects ca11, by tl1e Co11stitt1tioo, be cove1·ed by Procla.matio ns but not by Decrees? 12) Does a11ytl1ing follow from tl1 e fact that Decrees ''have tl1e force of law", wl1ereas Proclamatio11s ''are la\v''?

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Executive Co11sicle1·atiort o_f Decrees

Note: Tl1e text of a Decree invariably refers to tl1e advice of tl1e Cot1ncil of Ministers.

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can it re 13) Is it_ necessary for tl1e Cot111cil of Ministe1·s to approve a Decree befo be 1ss11ed? 14) Is the J)ositio11 cha11ged in tl1is respect by Order No. 44 of 1966? ,, s n ntio ve lS) Is the�e any ii1.dication of tJ1 e develo Jme11t of ''co11stitutional con · 1 011 tl11s st1bject? _ · · be . it 1 6) Sl1ould tl1e D . uld 1 s o 1 or eciee JJowe1· be delegated to the govern 1nent, s a lly a o ·d er a e n d a e a special JJower for the Empe1·or to exercis p s · ' ;� f t . ;, . overe1g11 and Head of State ? ! Annul1ne11.t of Decrees ld u ; b b s , · al 17) When a Decree 18 ar1.n11lled, ov r l 1 1sapp ega . D of J Not ice by a JJroperly issued a . l � Ill . 1·t b e regarded as ro f · d e · 1 g bee11 repealed or as 11ever hav111g exist h avi1 . . . i'i , · . .· .� point of view? - .3.1d, ::: P ·, ot n e · 18) Whe11 a Decree · . av . h O h w e impo sing · ·.. . .. . < a tax 1s annulled' should tb.os ·1t fio,. past years s . . . ·: till have to pay their arrears? :: .,:::,,:: .

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lMPERlAL POWERS

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19) ZO) Zl) 22)

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e paid tl1e tax l1a\re tl1ei1· n1oney refLlilde d? l1a who h u v e thos ld S o tl1e case when so m e peo1JJe have paicl tlie tax be ou ld 1 s1 at \Vh for the year iil whicll the Decree was annt1lled, a11d otl1ers J1a ve not? Wherl a Decree i1nposi11g p�nal sa 11c tions is a11nL1lled, sl1ottlcl tllose convicted under it be released [rom prison, or should they continue to serve the term of iroprsonme nt to wb1cl1 they l1ave bee11 se11te11ced? Should a person awaiti11g trial f014 an c1ctio11 wl1icl1 was a11 offe11 ce wJ1e11 com� mitted, tinder a subseqtiently a1111t1lled De c.ree, 11a ve to sta 11 d trial?

A Note on Proclarnatio11s a11d Decrees Iss11ecl, 1955-1966.

tt

The follo\.ving table shows Proclan1atio11s, Decrees, a11cl p arli t1111entary action 011 Decrees, promulgated in the Negarit Gazeta since tl1e pro111t1lgation of tl1e Revised Constittition. 1955 (from 4 Nove.mber)

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Proclamations 149/55 4 Nov. 1955 The Re\,ised Constit11tio11 of Etlliopia 150/55 30 Nov. 1955 Federal Ta,� (Arnendn1ent)

Decrees under Article 92 None 1956

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I

Proclamations 151/56 29 May 1956 152/56 27 Aug. 1956 153/56 30 Nov 1 956 154/56 30 Nov. 1956

Public Holidays and St1nday Observance Cl1amber of Deputies Electoral Law Cban1ber of Deputies Electoral La\v (An1end11 1ent) Maritime (An1endn1ent)

Decrees under Article 92 16/56 28 July 1956 17/56 28 July 1956 18/56 28 July 1956 l 9/56 12 ep. 1956 S

Federal Excise Tax Federal Transaction Tax Alcohol Excise Duty (Amendment) Income Tax

,

1957

ProcJamations 155 156/57 29 Jan. 1957 157/57 28 Feb. 1 9 57 { 15 7 8/5 23 Jt1ly 1 ' 957 4/ 159/57 28 A ug. 1957 ,, 0"'-'efs un der 1! , le Artic 92 2 7 0 /5 27 Aug. 1957 1;; 21 /'57 29 . 22/.57 25 Aug, 1957 23/57 2 5 Sep. 1957 (_ - 24/ 57 Sep. 1957 Oct. 1957 25/57 .26/57 3 · Oct. 1957 21/57· � Oct. 1957 ,: 3 O t. c 1957 . '2:8/57 3. 1 ;- · · .29/57 · ,I Oct. 1957 :. . . . 30/S7-- �I a.ct. 1957 ·· · '. ... Oct. 1957 · . � r'

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·., .. . : . .. . . . ·.· �· ·:.�L· · ·· ·.·.. �-:;·. -.. ' . : .' .� . . . . :•. ... :-, ,

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[does not existJ [Army Badges o f Rank Order, Federal Cri1nes (Amend1nent) Pe ·nal Code Loan Proclamation

ll nder

Art.29J

] tt1tion i Const . . ·eatl r ·t ri . t .to E· [Rat1ficat1on of A n1 endmen [Police Medal, und er Art.31] Local Products Excise Ta� t) ndn1eo (Ame 1·ture d en . xp E n io at ov en R Annual Hjghway t en dm en m (A ns io o at cc ul ba eg To R t) Jen � n en m (A Local Products Excise Tax Stamp Duty . . Business Enterprises Registration National Coffee Board . t) en clro n me (A · g Co:ffee Cleaning & Gradin Grain Board (Amendme nt)

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NAL LAW IO T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO ETH F O K O EBO SOURC

486 1958

Proclamations . .C E 0 5 9 1 , n io t a m la c o r t P e g d u B 8 5 9 1 . g u A 160/58 27

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I

2 9 le ic rt A r e d n u s e re c e D

I

31/58 30 Sep. 32/58 30 Sep.

i

t) n e m d en m rs (A � rd O e u ss I 1958 Authority to s) n o ti c n u (F l ra e n e G r o it 1 9 5 8 Aud

1959

Proclamations

)

Decrees under Article 92

J

Proclamation, 951 1959 Budget E.C. ! 161/59 28 Jul. 162/59 27 Aug. 1959 Fiscal Year Proclan1at1on

32/59 33/59 34/59 35/59 36/59 37/59 38/59 39/59

27 27 31 31 31 2 2 2

Aug. At1g. Aug. Aug. Aug. Oct. Oct. Oct.

1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959

I

Alcol1ol Production Tax Federal 1-\lcohol Consun1ption Tax Inco111e Tax (Amendment) Federal Transaction Tax (Amendment) I-Iealtl1 Tax Tobacco Regie (Amendn1ent) Federal Salt Tax (Amendment) Federal Excise Tax (Amendment)

1 I I; .

l J

1960 Proclamations

163/60 164/60 165/60 166/60 167/60 168/60 169/60 170/60

30 Mar.

5 5 5 31 31 22 22

May May ivlay May May Jun. Jun.

1960 Ehtio-Franco Rail\vay Treaty

1960 1960 1960 1960 1960 1960 1960

Maritii11e Code Civil Code Com111ercial Code Budget Proclan1ation, 1952 E.C. Cl1an1ber of Dept1ties Electoral La\v (Amendment) Bt1clget Proclan1ation, 1953 E..C. I.B.T.E. (An1e11dn1e11t)

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II : l.

Decrees under Article 92 41/60 28 July 42/60 28 Jt1ly 43/60 20 Oct. 44/60 27 Oct.

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.

Notices 1/60 2/60 3/60 4/60 5/60 6/60 7/60

1960 1960 1960 1960

of Approval 1 Jan. 1960 1 Jan. 1960 30 Jan. 1960 30 Jan. 1960 29 Feb. 1960 31 May. 1960 30 No,,. 1960

1 '

l. .! .'!. j

Bt1ilding lvlaterials Excise Tax Natio11al Lottery Annual Iligl1w c:1y l�enovation Expenditure (Amendment) Farm Workers Cooperatives

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Decree 23/57 Decree 24/57 Decree 29/57 Decree 30/57 Decree 36/59, renumbered 37/59 Decree 39/59, ren11mbered 4-0/59 Decree 38/59, renumbered 39/59

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1961 '

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Proclamation s

171/61 4 Mar. 1961 172/61 29 Apr. 1961 AniI11al Diseases Control Government Bonds

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IMPERIAL POWERS

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1 73/61 174/61 175/61 176/61 177/61 178/61 179/61 180/61 181/61 182/61 183/61 184/61

I

2 2 2 22 22

...,

'),.

20 20 20 20 20 20 2

Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Sep. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov.

1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961

: fl

487

Income Tax D.L.F. Loan Agree111ent Gt1arantee I.B.R.D. Loan Agreeme11t Gt1ara11tee Budget Proclam�ltion, 1954 E.C. External Loan Proclamation Atnending Decree 28/57 An1endjng Decree 32/58 Atnencl�ng Decr�e 32/59, rent1111be red 33/59 Atnend1ng Decree 33/59, re11t1n1bcred 34/59 Amending Decree 37/59, rent1n1berecl 38/59 AI11e11di.ng Decree 42/60 An1endiog Decree 27 /57 Cri1ni11al Procedure Code

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occrees under Article 92 45/61 28 Ju.n. 1961 Penal Code (Pe 11alties) 46/61 31 At1g. 1961 Public Servants Pension 47/61 31 At1g . 1961 Imperial Savings & Ho111e Ownersl1ip Public Association

1962

, .._,

Proclamations

185/62 186/62 187/62 188/62 189/62 190/62 191/62 192/62 193/62 194/62 195/62

29 9 30 30 30 30 7 22 28 24 31

Jan. Mar. Apr. Apr. May. May. Jun. Jun. Jun. Nov. Dec.

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1

1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962

D.B.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Agree111ent Gt1arantee Czechoslovak Economic Agree111e11t Men1bers of Parlian1ent Salaries Amending D ecree 47/61 l.B.T.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Agreen1ent Gt1arantee Soviet Credit Agreement Yugoslav Credit Agreen1ent Supplementary Budget Proclan1ation, 1954 E.C. Budget Proclamation, 1955 E.C. l.B.T.E. - I.B.R.D. Loan Guarantee Approval Courts

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Decrees under Article 92

48/62 27 Aug. 1962 Civil Aviation 49/62 5 Sep. 1962 Labour Relations

1963

i1

I

Proclamatio ns

3 29 !���: 3 22 198/63 28 199/ 63 8 2 00/63 201/63 8 202/63 2� 203/63 12 204/63 1 3 205/63 206/ 63 14 201163 2 7 20·8/63 27 31 /63 5 209 210/63 2.1 I/63 I 25 . . . .. . .

.

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' •.-.. , ' . ' .. . · -.,. ... :·.. ·'.. .·: . .'. '··· . :,.... ·,:,;

Jan. Jun. Jun. July July July July July July July July July Aug. S .ep.

Fiscal Year (Amendment) . c E · 55 · 19 n, io at m la oc Pr t e ta g en ud m B le 1·y Supp Budget Proclamation, 195 6 E,C:· . Public Servants Pensions Contr1btition t) men d e m (A t en m ee gr a A sl it o � v Cred Yug ement � gr A it d re C I.D.A. 3rd Highway Project n io at m a cl ro P l va Charter of O.A.U. Appro Cou.rts (Amend.ment) Excise Tax Transaction Tax Monetary and Banking . . of s.B.of E. . . it s ie il b ia L & ts e si ss o p A f n is o o D ti Weights & . Me;1sures 1963 Amending Decree 46/61 1963 Amending Decree 49/62 ��- 1963 Forei gn Exchange

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1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963


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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

488

2 Decrees under Article 9 ces ti c a r P e d ra T ir a Jf U i 3 50/63 2 Sep. 196 Investment /63 1 6 Sep. 1963

I I

51

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Notice of Disapproval

0 /6 1 4 e re c e D 3 6 9 1 r. a M 1/63 30

I

Notice of Approval /62 8 4 e re ec D 3 6 19 . eb F 28 63 8/

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1964

I

Proclan1ations 212/64 14 Mar. 1964 Livestock & f\1eat Board at me ree 1ntee Ag ar, an Gu Lo .. D .R. I.B . P.A .L. E.E 213/64 10 Jun. 1964 . E.C 56 19 et, 1dg Bt y tar 1en le11 JJp St1 214/64 2 July 1964 C. E. 56 19 et, dg Bu ry nta ne le1 pp Su Jt1ly 1964 214/64 2 215/64 7 July 1964 Bt1dget, 1957 E.C. 216/64 4 At1g. 1964 African Developn1ent Bank Agreen.1ent Approval

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Decrees under 1\rticle 92 None

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Proclamatio115 217/65 22 Apr.

218/65 2 July 219/65 7 July 220/65 16 July 221 /65 21 Aug. 222/65 21 Aug.

21 Aug. 21 Aug. 27 Aug. 27 Aug. 27 Aug.

1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965

Alcol1ol Excise Tax Supplen1entary Budget, 1957 E.C. Budget, 1958 E.C. Excise Tax Ainend111ent U.S.A. Loan Agreen1ent for Bailey-t)rpe Bridges Ger111an Property Con1pensation Treaty German Loan Agreen1ent Etl1. Sl1i1Jpi11g Lines & Credit Agreen1ent Guarantee State Forest Private Forest Conserva,tio11 Protective Forest

52/65

8 Oct

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1965 Civil Procedt1re Code

1966

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Proclamations 229/66 29 Ja11. 1966 Antiqt1ities 230/66 7 Mar. 1966 Land T,1x (A1ne11d111ent) 231/66 13 Apr. 1966 l.B.T.E. -1.B.R.D. Loan Gt1arantee Agreen1ent 232/66 6 !vlay 1966 Labour Standards 233/66 26 May 1966 Credit Agree1nent for Educational Expansion 234/66 22 Jt1n. 1966 Pa1Jer Co. - Exim Ba11k Loan Agreement Guarantee 235/66 30 Jun. 1966 U.S.A. Agricultural Co1runodities Loan Agreement 236/66 30 Jun. 1966 Hotel Co. - Exim Bank Credit Agreement Guarantee 237/66 30 Jt1.n. 1966 U.S.A. Comn1od ities Loan A,greement 238/66 30 Jun. 1966 U.S.A. Econ omic Projects Loan Agreement 239/66 7 July 1966 Budget, 9 195 240/66 26 July 1966 Post Offi ce E.C. 241/66 3 Sep. 1966 Co-operativ e Societies 242/66 7 Nov. 1966 An1en ding Decree 51/63 Decrees unde r Article 92 53/66 21 July 1966 Monetary and Banking (Amendment)

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Decrees Wlder Article 92 ''

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1965

223/65 224/65 225/65 226/65 227/65

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489

IMPERIAL POWERS

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SECTION 5: THE APPOINTMENT POWER . 1e.,� ,.,?7' 28 ' 66 and 67 of tl1e Constitutio11 of 1955. e Arti d: Rea

General Considerations

I,

· Constitutional P1·ovisio11s fro,n Ot/1e1· A 0·icc11z .Kin gcloms J, co,nparatrve

bya, 1951, A1�ticle 74: Li of ion ti1t i 1ist Co From pt1b s r lic ices sh a11d esta bl ap1Joi11t senior officials and rernove ! slial l � � King The tl1e s1011s prov1 of w1tl1 tl1e law. nce a accord in tliem

From Constiti1tion of Bi1ru,1di, 1962, Article 58:

[The King] shall confer _ �1e ra ?,ks in tl1e _a1·1?ed fo1·ces. _ t.!.e sl1�ll rnake a1JJJo int1ue11ts withjn the general adIDJn1strat1on and w1th111 tl1e ad1111111strat1011 of exter11al affairs, except as provided by law. He shall m,1l<e no ot l1er �tppointn1e11ts except in accordance witl1 a specific law. �._,

f.-.•

l;..,£

Appointments of government officials of tl1e ranlc of Di1·ector-General a11d above a.re made by the Emperor and notified in a General Notice i n tl1e Negarit Gazeta, over tl1e signatt1re of the Minister of the Pen. In this procedure, no distinction is made bet\vee11 Ministers and Vice-Minister3, on the one hand, and officials of lower rank on tl1e otl1er. Appoi11t111ents of officials below the ra11k of Director-General are not usually published, and it l1as not always bee.n clear whetl1er this is done drrectly O"Il the authority of the Emperor, or tlrrougl1 so111e inter111ediate offici:11 or agency. Bt1t note the readings below w11ich delegate power and establisl1 procedures for its exercise.

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lmplementaiion: Appoi11trne11ts by His hnpe,·ial MajestJJ.

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Delegation of the Appointment Power

From the Ministers (Definition of Powers) (An1endment) Order, No.44 of 1966, Negarit Gazeta 25th Year No. 10. 4· (a) Our Prime Minister shall be appointed a11d dismissed by Us. (b) Al! � tl1er Ministers shall be pro pos ed for apJJointme11t t o Us by Our Prime Minister and thereafter duly appointed by Us. (c) All other Government officials ab ov e tl1e 1·ank of Assista11t Mini5ter sl1_ all, after c onsultation with the ap1Jr opriate Ministers, be proposed _for. appoirJt­ ment to U s by Our Prin1e Ministe1· a11d thereafter duly aJJJJOIIlted by Us.

From the c · . ent v1ce . ra1 Person nel Agenc y and Pt1bl1c Se1· Nega· nt. Gazeta 21st Year No.3.

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1·de r,

N·o·23 of 1961,

9. Recr. ui' tment and Selection t10I. d 11 a d ie if ss la c f o The Agency shall be 1t I e1 1n it ru c re e 1 tl r le fo b si n o sp e r cl� !l0s1'fied Publi I. . c Servants . . . . '. . . r 1nJste .Nf ant 2.. No ap.po . Assist of 1�tment and promotion to an d below tl1e rank . ency. g or its equ A e th . ,I• f o onse11t c e tl1 ' le . t iva u o th nt wi de all · be sh ma .. t an Ass1st . of .. . Serva11t ab0ve tl1e rank I.f... . nd1 3, The _ co � 1ons t 1bl1c t of . P ice v ser' of M i 01ster shal . . . n. tio isla leg l cia spe l be determined by ,. .. . :··. ·. ·. . .. �-� .., . ·:-: , ,·,., .. . .. .· '

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ITUTIONAL LAW T S N O N C IA P IO fI T E F O SOURCEBOOK

490

il in the next chapter, ta e r d te a re g in d re e cl si n o c e b These enactn1ents will f Chapter VI. o 4 n o ti c e S e e S t. n e m rn e v go

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Who is a Government Official?

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From tI1e Ce 11tral Person11el Agency and Public Service Order, loc. cit. I

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3. Scope of Functions o ns wh rso e l ar pe to al de lu y in? an l al 1 sl degree t'' an rv Se lic ub ''P m ter e 1 . Th 1 e State, such as members of t he tl of � 1·1t tl10 a11 or r we po tl1e of s reiJositorie ts d en an ts d ag an van ser als c of the offi t e11 n1n ver go es, i riti tho au c p11bli government and p11blic administrations of any lcind.

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Unifo1·med men1bers of tl1e armed forces, mem·bers of the Poljce Force and judges sl1all not be gover11ed by tl1e provisions of this Order.

1�ro1n the Central Pe1·so11nel Age11 cy a11d P11 blic Service (Amendment) Order, No.28 of 1962, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No.6.

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[Thls 1Jaragrapl1 replaces Article 3 (1) above.] 3. 1. Tl1e term ''P11blic Servant'' sl1all incl11de all officials, employees and servants of tl1e Gover111nent and of P11blic A11tl1orities and Administrations of the Gover11ment wl1.icl1 enjoy it1dependent jt1 ridica1 status, wl1ether such Au­ tl1orities and Adnli11istrations are created by Order, Decree, Proclamation or s11bsidiary legislation; provided, l1owever, tl1at tl1e Public Service Com­ missioners, by Notice publisl1 ed i11 tl1e Negarit Gazeta \Vitl1 the approvaJ of the Cou11cil of Mi11 isters, may p1·ovide for the exclusion from the cover­ a.ge of �l�is term of designated categories of perso1 1s a11 d designated Public Autl1or1t1es and Administrations. From Legal Notice No. 278 of 1963, N·egarit Gazeta 23rd '

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eY ar No. 4.

e�s, Minis� of Tl1e · Public Council Service Con1missioners, after ap1J1 0,,a1 of tl1e · ·· hereby announce tl1e excl11sio11 of tl1e e11 11)loyees of tl1e following Public Authorities from tl1e coverage of tl1e ter11 1 ''P 11 bl.ic Ser,,ant'': 1. Boy Sco11t Association 2. National Lottery 3. Haile Sellassie I Fot111ctatioi1 4. Horse Raci11g Cl11 b 5. Me11elik II Fund 6. National Sports Co11federation 7· Re� Cross Society 8. So�1 �ty for tl1e Protec tion of Ani·mal· s 9. Tr1n1ty Monastery 1 · Won1en's Welfare Associ ion at 1 1 · ou Y ng Men'� C hr1s · t1a · n ia oc ss A tion · 12. Ha11e Sellass1e I Tl1eat re _ · I 3. Imperia l Sav� n g & H ome Ownership Pt1blic Association 14. Central Me�ical Stores Corpo ration 1 5· pasteur Institute.

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offi pos cial itio of ns, rs incl11cling. 1nilitary officers rnemb hol de in Cer ta . ers of par1.ia, Note. · t n1en app otn t I · pro ce spec . d 1a ures 1 . have a1cl down by tI1e Rev·i sed C s J' u dge ' d · ons t1tut1on. rnent a n

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Questions

ages an ? dis_adva11tages_ of tl1 e alternative definitio �d va nt the are t \Vh a ns of l) the term ''Public Servant'' given 1n tl1e 1·ead1ngs? \Vl1icl1 is n1ore stiitable for the purpose in hand ? the re are on the ons po\ ver of tl1 e E1111Jeror, or of stibordinate lim itat i Wha t ) 2 officials under delegated powers, to declare tl1at tl1e en11Jloyees of a given agency a.re ''Public Servants''? Are tl1ere a11y legal grounds on whicl1 I-Iaile Sellassie I University could claim exempt.io11 fro111 tl1e st1pe1·vision of tl1 e P L1blic Service Commissioners? Are ther e any objectio11s to the 1)rocedt1re 1111der wl1ich tJ1 e Commissioners may be able to define tl1eir ow11 j11risd:iction?

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SECTION 6:

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FOREIGN RELATIONS AND TI-IE TREATY POWER Read: Articles 29, 30 and 119 of the Constitt1tion of 1955; Shimelis Metaferia, · Treaty-making Pol11er i1z Etlziopia (LL.B. Paper, Fact1lty of Law, H.S.I. U., 1967) .

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The Conduct of Foreign Affairs

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From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pages 92-108. .. ' . Article 30 confers the w.hole powe r of foreign relations, of whi_ch treaty-1n�Jung ' 15 one, on the Emperor. This is shown by tl1e first sente11ce \vl11ch states, .T�� Emperor exercises the supreme direction of the foreign relations of the Empire. ··· There are three types of treaties an d inter11ational agreements unde� Ar�icle JO of the 1955 Revised Constitution of Ethiopia: tl1ose tl1at need no ratification, th�se that need ratificatio and those tl1at need parliame11tary approval before n, ratification. . .. se o . th . re a n o ti a c . e treati· es and 1nternat1onal n. Th ti ra no d that 11ee agreements t · a h treatie s that are d � an ts rtmen depa a11d ministries uded us concl vario the by e o e er det e Tl :; or. l per Em m i ind tl1e by ng on on ati c ifi rat tl1e b e ut pir c ho �o Em wit r� 0 er pow of sole the the k is fi ion cat ind of treaties that nee d no rati lEi n mperor .... . . by w1 11.ch· the Emperor deter1nines Th ere 18· no law which lays down the cr1ter1a th·1S. • te delega . co11ld . Th peror C e 0nst1tut1on does E e 1 · t 1er 1et 1.: wl state l .1 direc . ro tly not ver · H owe U18 treaty m H 1 b ' d · Y tl1or1ze k a a ons ng fro th fim t power in certain cases to per� . � ery e ev do not d ne m e · rst sente nce He t a h t 1� 1ropl . be ca11 by of Article 30 ... it ed gtl1en thin : lo stren f11rtller is. ng n io t as ica pl im it is directed by Him. TJ1is eror Emp <>th e� rds the oive to es �ir de ti , utio ds wor ari ,__ 1 ° in Article 30 itself. Whe11. tl1e Constit se The , ° 1 e . on . a . ''He "4c Usiv e ys sa . on erati . a-re used. 1... Power wl1ich he cannot delegate? 1t co-op of cases ' n rs, 0 ' · . 'Yith fo e1. cases of settling disputes witJ1 foreign powe .; and common defence, ' _· .· fo.· . r rati� � powers f. or the realization of th_e ends o_f sec1�1 �ternatio nal agreem ents · ·.. , _··.:�. ·.. : .cati on and for determination of which treat1es an i

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n ee y tw nc e be tl1 pa re sc A di a . is ri ha e m er 1 tl c and e er H n. tio ' ca fi ti' , ra , . to t ec b � . are su I Y _w1·th. respect .to_ rat:· fic�tion. on ne I a , 1.e 1 ,, es 11s xt te r1c � l1a _ res of co- perat1on , 1t says , ,1t 1s His tlle Englisll . ... Tlie A� su ? ea 111 h rig 1d a1 es t'' 11t sp dJ lg lit tt se of se ca In tile e at th ro th pe 1s tl1 c Em r om an fr e L1d le l de nc co ay te m ga ne [O . i1s . tio ac l . cl sti ke ta to s ra re pe of su -o ea co m d n, an es t1o ut sp di ou of th t e gh m �e tt se � ng n� er 11c co s er ,:v llis po .] n o t1 ca :fi t1 ra g 1n rn ce 1 1 co se 1o tl t o n Practice also s110\\'S that tl1ere are a large number of treaties which become bindii1 g upo11 signatt1re _by otl1�r �t1t�1orized persons. ·:. More _tl1an fifty percent of tI1 e agreeine1.1ts to \\'l1 1cl1 l?thiop1a 1s a pa1·ty � nd reg1stered w1th tl1e U. N. have come i11to force only tl}J011 signature. Tl1e q11est1ons that sl1 ould. be answered are: who is competent to co11cl11de these agreements, and whjch of tl1em could tliey validly conclt1d.e?

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"UTIONAL LAW l'I 'f S N O C N IA P IO fI T E F O SOURCEBOOK

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Tl1e orga11s wl1icl1 are 11s11ally concerned in the conclusion of sucl1 type of treaties are tl1e foreign 111i11isters and diplomats. Vie sl1all deal ,vitl1 each of these organs separately. Foreign 1ru11isters i11 s01ne co11ntries are permanently delegated to conclude certai11 tyJ)es of agree1n.ents. In Etl1iopia this was not so until \1ery recently. The Foreig11 Mi11ister vvas 011ly give11 the power to negotiate. Article 43 (f and g) of Order No.1 of I 943, 110w repealed by Order No.46 of 1966, used to state:

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he \vill negotiate n1atters of mutt1al interest to Our Governn1eot and forei gn Governments; l1e· \Vil! concluct negotiations for treaties and agreen1ents on Our bel1alf. ''

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TI1t1s llJJ to the rece11t JJr_omulgation of Order 46 of 1966 tl1e Foreign Ministe r :"as requirecl to I1ave SJJecial })OWer to cot1clt1de treaties validly. At present Etl1iopia 1s one of those co1111tries wl1icl1 l1as per111ane11tly delegated to I1er Foreig11 Minister tl1e pov1er to concl11de certain types of agree111e11ts. Article 28 (c) of Order 46 of 1966 states: ''The Minister of Foreign Affairs: i.11 accorclance \Vith tl1e Ia\\', shall:•••

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TJ1 ere migli� be two reaso11s \Vl1icl1 11c1cl 111ilitated tl1 e issuance of tl1is power. r 1e first reaso� is tl1e sa111e as tl1at wlu f r n cl1 l1ad been given for the issua c� o O �e l . � f 1966· Tl11s wotilcl be better t111derstood ria mpe I H1s by fro111 tl1e Speecl1 mad.e �aJesty on tl1e eve of tl1e co1n.i11g 011t of t11e Order; to quote just a few words: .

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negotiate �nd conclude treaties ancl agreen1ents and treat of otl1er 1natters of n1utu aJ inte�t o the nation an �- �oreig11 tates in ?a-operation with otl1er l\1inisters and Public Authorities � 0��erned , except_ � nolber to a delegated 111 so fat as S[Jecrfic po,:ver t11 erefor l1as been legally M1n1stry or Public Autl1ority. ''

W e l1ave alv,ays a_,1ticipated tl1at tl1e stage \vould be reacl1ecl at wl1icl1 Our rninisters a n d o 1 l ��1straa s, \Vhom W e l 1ave trat11ed by edt1 cat·1011 . . n11t1 . l t a.d . . en 1 t ai,c a 1 1rougl1 govern lo11g years ervice m m . of d . s . : tion coulcl ?ce their dt1t1es a�d. tasl<s are ty an bd ons1 1 ;�sp ft1ll define li, then1 selves assu. m e by tters disci1arge it I�101Jerly , tl1 L1s JJ e11n1tt1 1 _ a n n 11g tl1e 111ore of Our tin1e to n1aj or political dec1s1ons a d . of utmost 1111 P 0 rtance to tl1e futt1re of Etl1iopia \Vl1icl1 necessitate Our attentio n.'' .

a's iopi · Tl1e second rea son W.1.111c 1 t1 • l 1 1s E 1n . ase · close incre to tl1e first great tl 1 · e is • n c- e1g1 • 1 . ica . . . . . Afr i.or relat1ons. .1"'111· s inte f · ion° · rest crea of t Etl1 1op 1a tl1e 1n a11d aff wor a irs ld uMI;11· �Y. 1las n�cessi. tated tl1e per1nanent delegation of this power to t11e foreJgO ses le� . . 1111ster. Tl11s, bes1· ctes iaci r so e ra1 a I . . . er, c 1 tat1r1g ,·1· M1n1s · t · tl1e Job· of Forei gn tl1e · ·· · Itu tI·1 e Emperor from signing cu ·. as f llII l)OWers e, 1en for routine agree111ents sueh relations. '

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From ibid., pages J 54-157. . It is a co11troversial question wl1etl1 er a state by a treaty_ ��tild reStric� �l1.e nglits �aranteed by . � f r�Stric possibility it . s tl1e Etl1i?IJia Constitution. .. In u h r1 g :� ts �� h by a treaty col1ld be justified by Article 65 of tlie �onst1t1;1ti on 18 for Parl ame11t . · To · tt i to see that the restriction is i11 accordai1ce "v.itll Artie e 65 . an extreme ex t n1n r once c es t tre� : : � 1 x j take E tradition 1 e am make Jle 1 a ca thiop J ' own nat1·onaI e l o e h t n . . o . isfie ' d t s 1·r the gro1111ds latd dow1� by A _ ..' e. sa 65 e I rt1c · . h a� it se�m of � 50 e ] Articl [ by e11 bidd s th.e·dCo nst1tu _ 0t11at sucl1 type of treaty 1s coinpletely for t1 n. . .. s seem nce e nt . e s 1 As·de from tl1e first ·1 1 " seco11d . t , ma11d8:tory sente?ce being �. Mor e _to saY t h-at . ade. 111 be tl ditio ?I_lly extr of 111 treaties cases of fore1g11ers co11ld oval o·ver e appr · e tI1 � tho· u t trad a e wi tio be_ ld n cot n Su trea i !? ties concerning foreigners da of r� i n ee I�e�t; and tl1is was the case witt1 tl1e ext1·ad 1 t 1011 tre aty betw and· aE thiop . 1a The Co· t t · · u zonal Stati · nsti ,s T re oi a f ti e.s . 'l, · lati·on of . · v10 .

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· 1D c!ed ti I cone .- ·h oere we e . , . ties trea f o 1t · 1 e r__ .e pr0Visio,n-s x�m n. prob�em� coocerne�l w1th tJ1e ya_l1_c i y _t1dicial review of certam aspects of · tr eary. ..rna:ki-ng. 0_1 th e Co1Jst1tut1on, and with the poss 1b1lity of J . .. .: . .. .: ... .. .- ....... .· ... :-. .. . . . .,, " . . . .., • • . .. •• -1,,·. ,..._, . · ·� . .. '

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Express limitations of sl1bstance refer to t l1 e 1)rovisio11s of tl1e Co11stitution whicl1 forb id or restrict tl1e 1naki11g of certain ki11ds of treaties. Tl1e provisions of the Constitution which are rele,1a .nt are Article I, Article 30 and Cl1a1)ter III. . .. (Article l) on the face of it seems to forbid tl1e ma1cing of a treaty wl1ich tries , . to divide or alienate its so, ereign rigl1ts a11d territories. 1-f oweve r no country by its o,:vn Constitt1tion i11capacitates itself fro111 mal<ing treaties �,1ith otl1er cotintries which are for its own good. Tl1is bei11g the first Article of tl1e Constitution is too general, and sl1ould be interpreted i11 tl1e ligl1t of Article 30 of the Co11stitution. lf this suggested 1uetl 1od of inteT]_Jretation i s not tal<e11, J.\rticle 30� wl1icl 1 speal<s about t11e makjng of treaties which conce1·11 tl 1e 111odificatio11 of tl1e territory of the Empire or sovereign jurisdiction over any !)art of st1cl1 territory, ,vot1ld be direct­ ly in�onsistent with i\rticl e 1. Tllis, in t l 1e writer's view, is 11ot tl1e i11te!1t of the drafter or of tl1e P a.rliament. Tl111s, Article 1 may be said. to l1ave 110 pract1�al eff�ct except that of showing th.e aim of t l1e Co11stitutio11 wl1icl1 is to Iceep the integrity of the territory or ma.inta.in. the sovereignty of tl1e Empi1·e.

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From Sl1imelis Metafer.ia, op.cit., pages 120-122.

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Our purpose here is _to exa�ne wl1��lJe� tl1ere ,tr_e any. sorts of treaties which tl1e governn1ent (both Emperor and Parl1an1ent) 1s const1tt1t1011ally d1squal1fied fron1 ryial<ii1 g.

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International Agreen1ents a·ncl tl1e Co11stitution Constitittional Limitations of· Sitbstarzce

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si a n gi 1il ve ar s po 96 w ? er _ J t o [tl1e Minister of Fin of 46 er Ord an ce an d D ev an elo d pm e11 lan t] nin g w1 tl1 P of 1· e ga rd to certain [economic r ist e in M the an d nts. eeme agr l] ncia fina ab ba road are n o·� legally give11 a11y powe ssa do �s am n op ia Ethi r abroad to tre Tl 1ey ati es. ai: 1de e req t11 co r ecl to have ft1ll powers nc l1 or tiat e O every ti ine .... neg

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.cit., pages 204-212. p o From e _ 1t rnation�l agr�ement r i� o ty ea r t_ _a of y it d li va \\'hich is ... the qtiestion of tI1e o v1s1o ns.. This subJect has be e JJr l na 1o t u_ t1t s n _ co e �I1 of n the concltided in violation a r� Researc]1 of Inter arv s ..Tl1e 11 s10 s cu s 91 l ina r ct do national toJJic of coi1 siderable !h 1 s a l arge ?od y of . � 1·e 1on : c? 11_ c lus 1g 11 w o l� fo 1e doctrine I tl Law ... 11as reacl1ed t e s 1s a �.att�r wl11cl1 is determine ati tre of ty 1d1 val l a _ on at1 ern i11t e 1 d to tJ1e effect tI1a t tl 10� t u. by t1t y ns co �1 n1a _ te io sta ,,is a pro 1le 1 wl ns limit t 1a tl w, a l al o11 t i a n r e by itlt er, s uch p�ov1s1on s hav e no inter­ pow ng ak1 -m �ty tre tl1e of e s ci r exe tl1e and regulate d ans ate the . org ign by des by de a m the s e ati tre t tha stitu con and ­ , 11ce a c 11ifi sig l nationa a re binding as inte rnational engagements er pow g kin 1na tytrea e 1 tl e s rci exe to tio11 ans exceeded tl1 eir constitutional com­ even tl1ot1gl1 t11e treaty-1naking o r gan or org . ters .. n1aiotain ''tl1at the inter­ wri of tJ) grol 1 l ed is t1 ting s di pete11ce.'' An eq11ally natio11al validity of trea ties a11cl tl1e co111pete11 ce of tl1e treaty-making authorities are deter1nined, i11 part a t least, by tl1e constitutional law of the States which enter into tl1e111 ... a11d tl1erefore a trea ty wl1icl1 is unconstitutional or ultra vires fo.r want of compete11ce, is 11 r1ll and void and cons equently not binding on tl1e state whose r ' co11stitt1tio11 11as bee11 violated''. ... I It is diffict1lt to deter1nine wl1icl1 tl1 eo ry Ethiopia is adopting. The inconsistency \ provisio11 of Article 122 of tl1e Re,,ised Constitt1tion seems not to apply to treatie.s a11d inter11ational agreen1e11ts, for it IJlaces them on an equal footing witl1 tl1e Consti­ tt1tion. Moreover tl1ere are 110 cases wl1ich show the court's view on this subject.

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Sl1imelli s Metafer ia,

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Wl1 ere does tl1e borclerline lie between treaties and otl1er international agreements \vhich can be concltided by the E111peror alo11e, and tl1 ose \Vl1icl1 reqt1ire tl1e approval of Parlian1ent?

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War cine! Peace

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pages I.32- 134 .

In Etl1io�ia under A rticle 29 of tl1e 1955 Revised Co11stitution, t11e En1peror r ese rves tl1e rigl1t witl1 t11e advice a11d consent of Parliament to declare war . Even tllough tlle Article cloes 11ot eXJJressly say so, tl1e sa me is true f. or the terroinati?n ies ser 0� ar. H�w�ver tl1 i s do es a of 11ot solve tl1e p1·oble1n whether tl1e cessatio11 ; 0 rder 111cidei1ts, a cease-fire agree111ent a11 �rmis tice or a 11on-ae0gression pact ' · nse s11ou1d come WI·11111· 1 t I1e mea1111· 1g of tl1 d 11 a . le . Artic r 30 e unde treat c? y of peace . . . . �1 my op1J1JOU quent Iy need the aJJIJrova I O f par1·1a 1nent b111d1ng I becon1e before tl1ey . s o seri as all thes e above agreemei1ts are u o n . "''1th es i ostilit te1n 1 Jorary I sus1Je1 of 1 sion s 1 Id c s quences , tl,ey ai·e witl1i11 s u and I tive l execu f tl1e J ho con1 e the ete don1 �� o a i 11 � r 1 n . conten ts a re 010 · · o111e tlnder tl1e. t erm ''trea tY o · , . f _ pe a ce''. However, if their n d. _ tio . n tl1a tli ""ir n me s1g111fies , 1s J_ u r of n tl1a. t •ficat io JS, if tl1ey invo lve modi =' ng � dj b�� sovereig�ty e_ 1 1 l t 0111 ey l should be approved by Pa rliament before bec ng ' c., · = on the Emp1re. ·. . . :::;:r

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e �t is that t �e b t1 rden sl1o t!ld be ?11 Et11iopian Sll j c elem d on . sec b e ts e . .. h T !n e Eng�1s� a1 1d A m a_1·1c text 1 t I�a�es 110 tl � use ds � doti bt tli at it � the wo! orn r 111 Etl11op1a. T ht 1s tl11s ele1ne11t 1s 111tei ided to expre F de s foreigners l1v1ng ss " . excIu · s cou 1 d. be co11clud 1 . _ e ern1ng ot11er 11at1011a l conc witllottt aties J)arliaillCil tary c that tre _ . approval. two tl1es ele� e of 11e11 ts 1t see111s tl1at tl1e lJll rase is referri ilg s ana lysi the m Fro enun 1�rat� d 111 Cl1a1)te1· III of t!1e Co11stitti tio 11 ai1d tli e peop le tl�e of ghts rj the to ent1n1erated 111 T1tle I, Cl1apt er 1, Sect1011 2 of t11 e Civil Code. nality perso of ts righ .... Aside from the rigl1ts of tl1e people en t1111e1·ated i11 Cl1a1Jter III of tl1 e Constitti� tion and the rights of personality ir11 ... tl1e Civil Code, a treaty calling for military assistance to a foreign po\ver or pa) 1ne11t of a s1Jecial tax 1nay i11volve a bt1rdei1 on Ethiopian subjects perso11ally. We have already differentiated betwee11 obligatio11 a11 d bt1rden and JJave said that the word ''bt1rden,' bas a narrower a11d stro11ger 111ea11 i11g. Under Article 64 of the Constitution, [certain dt1ties are in1posed 011 i11 l1abita11ts and sr1bjects of tl1e Empire]. ... All these duties come within tl1e 1 neani11g of tl1e word obligation. But whe.n it comes to a case \Vl1ere Ethiopian subje cts ,tre to JJerform 1nilitary dt1ties to another country under a treaty conclt1ded by Etl1io1Jia, it cl1ar1ge s from obligatio11 to burden. Ethio pian subjects l1ave no obligation to figl1t for an)' other cot1ntry under the Constitution.

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Treaties Modifying Legislation in Existence

From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pages 171-172.

Thus the phrase ''modifying legislation i11 existence'' is intended to cover am�ndments of laws passed by Parliame11t ancl wl1icl1 a1·e still in _for�e. A_ treaty which adds one National Holiday is an. agreeme11t modifying legislation I? existence, because_ the National Holidays a .re already covered by legislat!o11,. wl1 �le a . treaty controllin� nuclear tests in Etllio pia is no t a modification o_ f �eg1slat1on i n existence for there 1s no legislation controlling nuclea1· tests i11 Ethio pia. Treat ies

Requiring Expenditures of State Funds From Shimelis Metaferia, op.cit., pa ges 175-178. · trded in l c in e b 11 · a c t If treat1es re quir· e expenditures of state f L1nds, t 1us n 11ou a1 · 11r­ P · t 1 1a th·e YearI b w r o f y r a s s e c 11e e 1er 1 w d . . eans tlJat ns g t1o e 1a t a1 1Jl ex th wi . . d ns an tio ca di in � . � Y o 1 1 oing ­ itu n i pe : ex e th es ov pr ap \ to be utilized. If Parliament i ��; a ft :: .in�� rli pa g e t tr ectly approved the tre�ty. Th�s a_vo1ds for tl1_e exec � . n io t L1 t i t s n o C e 1 lllenta process, l t � en � 1 e 1r e r tl1e n q ng yet at the same t1me sat1sfy1 � �ratio11 af ter the ap ­ liowe� t e to 1 es co� argu ty trea t men the get bud assumes that the t t e Prov aJ o� tt e g ei;her o11 s e 1t1v t approve d obudget by Parliament. Thus tl1e exe� or arran.ge i.n s11cl1 a way tJ1at ­ e agre an the effi ti. bef r e th e date of signatu·re or ratific,1t1o11, 1 suc I e·of 1 J xa e n e A date I e 11 t. a1n ParJ com eace l P r � v � j s e by tl1e aft approva e e to n m . . a11 Agre eme11t relating '"'- t lil the ''E�ch �nge 11� der st1tut1ng con of tes 1re No ditt 1 ei exp .1 96? tlle '--OTps Pro am si ay e s1n on et 2 gned t � ;; M 3 , gr Ababa :Ad?is bud� h at ich W 00 the ; early y . e 1 l i l are c a ap t nt o e f 1965 P · , to be 1ue11 t1oned 10 r pe Govern1n the th1op1an E . M reo �i o a er e t i n l if .large · th is : v : Allowa t _ � � ;� ; e 1 j c � so the exp not e nditure 1 e t n buct u d .'{-··· e L c 11 18 1t e nd at th r · a ed s 11n st as d ea -l1 e b t1b it ca n t fo-r, .t !n. l rte se_ en Expe11ses. t/ :: . · . . ·_ . . · {" :··:· ·:,, ·... . -. ... . . ..

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be d rove app may t1re nd.it by expe iamen Parl state g · · ijriii reqt t )' t a e r · t . a s t1 l1 · T ' d ct 1re s11 or bmiss1on of the tevAt b y get d · b11 tl1e of . . t1.y tl1ro11g11 tlle ap val pro ' indirec of the treaty.

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Tl1e most i111porta11t a11d releva11t elements contained in the definition (of mono­ .-·.. JJoly) for tl1e p11rJJose of 011r c!isct1ssio11 of A1·ticle 30 of t l1e 1955 Revised Constitu­ tio11 of Etl1io1Jia are: first tl 1at it is a11 excl11si\1e rigl1t granted ·by tl1e S0\1ereign JJo,ver to a pe rso11 or class of persons of son1etl1ing wl1ich v.1as before a cor,1111012 right; seco11dly t11at its do111i11a11t tl1011gl1 t is tl1 e sup1Jression of competitior1.... .. [It is argL1ed tl1at Etl1 iopi,1n nationals l1ave a co1nn1on rigl1t 0\1e.r tl1e Public State Do1nai11, but 11ot over tl1e Private State Domai11, 11nder Civ.iI Code, Articles •- ' 144-4-1448,] ! Tl1is means 11101101Joly \Vitl1ii1 Ai·ticle 30 ... concerr1s only properties ti1at form a pa rt of the JJlLb]ic do1nai11 a11cl p11blic ser, ices within tl1e mea11ing of Article 3207 of tl1e Civil Code. Moreover Article 30 req11ires tl1at sucl1 n1onopolies be created i11 tl1e forn1 of treaties a. n d inter11,1tio11al ao-reeme11ts to be laid before Parliament. It is 11ecessary I1 ere to detern1i11e wl10 could be parties to tre,1ties and inter11atio�al . agreeme11 ts..It is an accepted 1·ule of inter11ational lavv tl1 at the parties to treaties a11d i11ternatio11al agree111e.11ts are st,1tes or i r 1ter11atio11al orgar1izations. I11divi�uals ' \ _ tes are O bJect s and 11ot subjects of i11ter11a.tio11al law; at1d tl1 e1·e is 11otl1i 1 1g \,,.J1icl1 i11d1ca tl1 e contr,1ry in the 1955 Revisecl Constit11tio11 of Etl1iopia. Tl.1tiS, a11 agree�e�t '' ?0 ncluded between tl1e Etl1iopia11 Go,,er11me11t ar1d a foreign co111pany, even if it involves monopoly, does 11ot come witl1i1 1 Article 30.... ,. . T,1�erefore tl1e pl1ras� ''treaties a11d i ter11,ttio11al agreen1e.nts invo� ving moni; � _ n1e11ts ,vl1ere t polies cove rs ag1ee of cts obJe tl1e JJart1es are states ,vl1ere the ' ' agreeine i1t are JJll blic services or Public do1na.i 11 s a11d wb;re tl1e agree1n e11t is ii1tei lded tbe to � ll p�ress coinpetition....l�o 1uy lcno�,Iedge tl;er by e mad trea ty one only e is ' · · � op1a' 11 G ove Etl11 ,. ,,v­_ · · 1 1 11ne11 � v1I11c]1 co1nes 1111der t l 1is pi1 rase. This treat)' }1as b een appro . , 9 ed by p,�rli a 1 11e11t. T111s 1s_ ''tl1 e Traite · 19' e '' 111br . 11ov e 2 I Fra1.1co-. Etl1ioJJie du . 11 ,. Tlie · Tl1e part · agieeme11 . . · 1e 1ts. · " mei to tl ..\ \ · 1 1s Govern are t 11cl1 e F1· tl1e Etl11op1an . a1Jd sup­ .. . Il\,.' obJect of tl1e ag 1·eeinc11 t 011cer11s a . ent 1 ee agr _, Tb 1)11 (ra bl1 ilw _ do1 ay) na1 . n : � � . . � ' . ans � _ _ "'r ess�s coi111Jet1.tioi,. T111s 1s cle�lr ,, stat · 1 l11c h c fro 11 Art1 le 16 of tl1e treaty \V Iii,,' fe t;S D t 5 t oen uer regro�1 cltl cl1e11lin de fer, e11tre er ouv , Dji bo1 1ti et Add j s Abeba les det1x G 11 a11tor· 1sero11t lac constrL1 . ct··1011 d,a11 1\ ' e , ,. c1111e Jj gne concurre11t I \. ,

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t 1 1, t/1e stit and Con ion e1its z · een Agr nal t. fnterna 10 · · e ma �im that ''110 cot111try by its own Coi,stitLitio11 j 11_ th with ee agr . you _ ) Do treaties vv1tl1 otl1er cot111tries w!1icl1 are for its nJalc111g from itself tes pacita J ca own good''? s of tl1c co11clt1sio readi11g on tl1e 1 relatiorisliiiJ t with betwee11 ! agree � � you Do 4) the sovereignty prov1s1011s of Art1cles 1 a11d 30? c nclt1si 11s, 1at furtl1er ,v these witl1 sL1ggestio11s wot,ld you J disagree ? you � If S) put forward to resolve t11e d1:ffict1lt1es ,vl11cl1 tl1ese two articles raise? 6) Can rights granted ''in accordance "''it.11 the la,v'', lil<:e tl1ose t111der Article 41, validly be limited b)' a treaty approvecl by Parlia111e11t? 7) Can mandatory rigl1ts, like tl1at gra11t e d to Etl1iopia11 stibjects t111der Article 50, be limited by a treaty appro,ied by Parlia111e11t? 8) Is it for the Emperor alone to decide ·\vl1etl1er a 1)artict1lar treaty reqLtires parljamet1tary appro\ al? 9) Do the courts or Parliament have any J)Ower of review over ]1js decisio11? IO) Can a treaty amend, modify or im1)licitly i11te1-p1·et tl1e Constitlltio11? I 1) If so, would it have to be approve d by Parlia111e11t in accordance witl1 Article 131?

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International Agreements and Parlian1en t IS) Would parlia 011 s ii1va ate � iber de a for ! ed qt1i r e e b r tary men advice and conse11t by Ethiopian armed forces of the terr itory of a n eigh botiring state, \Vliicli was no t preceded by a declaratio11 of war? 16) Should another country declare war on Ethiopia, ¥/Ot1ld JJarliainei1tar � a.dvi� e el)I and consent be required 1cl1 wl1 s e 1r ast me of , ]Jia 1io Etl taking ' b y the for supposed the existenc e of a state of war? 1 idi11g • .r. , . . · l7) Suppose that the o, . p r power w1 t11 ,t 1 oreign . e11t eem agr o per Em an de r ma d a tor measures ty i tir sec of � ds 1 ei of co-operation for tl1 e realization of the _ ire co�mon defe Jnp E ... e t}J on g in nd bi nce; wou1d clau.ses in tl1is agreeme11t be Which provided, without parliamentary approval, for: (a) Eth' · iopi·a to declare war 011 a third party UIJ der certain defined cjr� cumstances? · m1·1 · . (b) fore · ' ign · 11.opia J • • ,, Et 1tary 1n up set bases be to (c) E tbiop'ia11 military bases to be set up on foreign soil? _ - , . ·. . . ..

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t en Jm y ui1 ar to eq lit mi d Ethiopia? . len to r we 1 JJo r eig or f (d) a to nt a me gn uip rej eq fo y ar lit mi power? d len to ia iop 1 l Et (e) ding on ''Treaties Layin g rea tl1e of s L1sio11 concl tl1e wjtl1 agree a Burden Do you. . . on Etl1iop1an Subjects personaIIy ''?. ca11 y011 thi11k of any other sorts of treaties. whic11 would come under this provision? Can a treaty deterrr_une 1natter� w!1icl1 fall within tl1e range of parliamentary activjt)', b11t on wl11cl1 no Eth1op1an law has yet been made, without being su bn1itted to Parliament? If so, wo11ld Parlian1e11t tl1.ereafter be prevented from making a Jaw on the s11 bjects covered by the treaty?

22) Suppose tl1at the Etl1iopian G.overnment made an agreement with a foreign power by wl1icl1 EthioJJia was obliged to provide certain ''counterpart funds" for expe11ses unde1· tl1e agreement; vvot1ld the requirements of the Constitution be n1et by ''indirect'' parliamentary approval, if: (a) Parliament a1Jproved the Bt1dget in wltich the payment of such funds . was pro\1ided for? (b) s11cl1 ft1nds were taken from the Allowance for Unforeseen Expenses? 23) Wl1at diffic11lties migl1t these proced ures involve?

24) Do you accept tl1e validity of the procedt1res in the example of the Peace Corps agree1ne11 t cited in tl1e reading? 25) Do you agree witl1 tl1e opinions and conclusions expressed in th. e readings on ''Treaties I11volving Loans or Monopolies''? 26) If Parliame11t l1as to approve treaties :,in accordance witl1 tl1e provisio n s of Articles 88-90 inclt1sive'' of tl1e 1955 Constitt1tion, is it tben possible for Par lia1nent to an1end draft treaties? 27) If so, wl1at ft1rtl1er JJrocedt1res wo1.1ld such an1e11dment involve?

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Read: Article 29 of tl1e Co11stitution of 1955.

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To sol To ial merit at tl1e Ogade11 Front, tile E i spec th 1 w d nper or ve ser orde red wlio _ . e s o 11av e wh se ? . r \red me th . _ 1011g, loyally and with clistirlction so To . ran k in promotl.00 ordered promotion 1n rank. BIJ): I:I J M a_lso accord ance in witl1 Issued tl1e Orders Empe ror's rial contro l over tl1e arn1e d Inlpe · 1 so · � · See a or1, A ·a1 N I . ·t T err1 O rmy a re 1 er, o.21 Imper1 of 1958, Negc,rit Gazetc, 18tl1 the ding inclu f rces d:>:, o - N' 2 I-{\ - year o.. . The Emergency Powers of tJ 1e Emperor 1

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETiiIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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s u en in �iz nt ci co e , to ng di e t1n st :itb w oy nj t no l al ge sie the rights. of e at st e Th · 8 t l1as se no n rci bee exe ose p wl1 sus 11 tio ed end it11 nst Co by the. la,v tile by d ee t gt1aran of 1849. e . sieg of s: f te end n sta at tl1e tl1e o e o e sieg d f e stat 0 the ·s· of the . . . . • d 9 . Ra1 111t, perio d 1ts e� 1ng 1s 1en 1 nou 1t; pro � ed nce 1111 cla pro by law; when icl1 wl1 law tlle � fixed by nt s!de of Pre tl1e tl1e of u�l ree Rep dec 1c wlie n _ a by ced 1111 no pro is Parliaing etld jts h1m and by d has lare t dec o n_ s yet :-"a 1t been confirmed e1� wl1 or , ing sitt not is t men

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ts tary cour mili t�e e, sieg continue to take notice of state tl1e of 11g raisi tI1e r Afte 1o. l1ad ady alre ch been wl11 nces offe submitte d to them. a11d 1es crin for io11s ectlt pros of

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Note: Tl1is is tl1e status of n1artial law in the Un.ited States.

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Tl1at govern. 1ne11t and co11trol wl1ich military commanders may lawfully exercise over tl1e pe.rso11s a11d property of citizens and inclividuals not e11gaged in tL1e land -l,' and 11a\1al service. It is to be disti11g11isl1ed from 1nilitary law whicl1 applies to those r11les e11acted by tl1 e legislati-\re povver for tl1e government a11d regt1lation of the army a11d 11avy, and tl1e n1ilitia wl1e11 called into the active service of the United States. It 1Jrest1p1Joses tl1e existe11ce of a state of actual war, and the occupation of �l1e d�strict wl1ere it exists by a 110s tile force, interrupting tl1e civil courts i11 the admin- ' 1strat1011 of law i11 tl1 eir accustomed 111ode. l I

Fron1 the En11Jeror's press conference 011 tl1e attempted coup d'etat of Decembet 1960, Tl1e Et/1iOJJiarz I-Jerald, 21 Dece1nber 1960. .., 1 11o_se ?1e11 wl10 ,vere involved i11 tl1e plot from tl1e outset or wl10 enli ��ed itu· Con�t the to �ol1111tarily 1n the rebel ranks will b e tried a11d p1111isl1ed. according d blishe esta tion and tl1_e law. 011 tl1is tl1 ere is no cl1oice. Military courts l1ave been 1: '. �om1:osed 1!1 part of civilia11 jt 1dges, since civilians were involved. All who are l 1m1Jl1cated 111 tl1e JJlot will be tried by tl1ese tribt111als. . Natio11al E111erge11 cy , '

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See Article 4 2 o f the Constitt1tion o 19 f 55.

· D:cIaration of, State of E1nerge11cy in tl1 e Regio Bordering the Repu li· Of S0znalia 11 b c 0rder, No. 32 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 23rd Year No.IO.

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CONQUERING LION OF THE TRl'BE OF JUDAH HAILE SELLASSIE I

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ELECT OF GOD, EMPEROR OF ETHIOPIA

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·ed on · WI-IERE AS, �he Govern 1 as ca ��e :Bthi0• alia ,._ J Som n1ent of of Republic tl 1 e cont·1n1 1_ ous c_ampa1gn of d l a n rsi · brig sub and ve age o , qog }} sabotage and a we· b.eing n . Som a' l1 ron · the · f t1er end angering the public security and threat ening . .-� ,:· 11

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� 1�' , , of the inhabit_ants of th� r7gion, _cul!31inatin ? in an armed attac k on Ethiopian �t\ safet� olice carried out w1tl11n Etl11op1a 1 1 terr1to1·y by tl1e arnled forces of tlle securitr p o f Somal ia on Febrt1ary 7, 196Li; and u i e he�· R p �' c 1 tial tl1at 1 neasL1res be tal:< en to ass11re tl1 e ess e1 is it -1·ty . AS sec 111 RE . and E H l . . sa1. d region a11 d to protect tl1 e JJersoi,s ar1d ' order ,v1t \,y a ,__ . 11n n d a. J)roiJert y ai t ain Ia,v nts t11ereof: abita h n n b i nenco-;·� ro e t · · · . of 1 a�c �11c d or e n vv1t , 11 1 · E Art OR icle 29 of 011 1· c011s titLition arld ER EF TH , . . NOW t �-1 J \1/e M1n1sters, of l 1 1ereby Cot1nc order Our as �� of follows. e . advic e h t . . �1,. on s e t D '' a 011 of State of E111erge 11cy i 11 tile Regiotl �c h d I arat1 cite_ be 1nay h r Orde is t·�v,":'.,, 1 T 1a of al , 111 er ic S0 rcl bl ''. O pu 64 Re 19 e tl1 g n .· eri rd Bo • decl here is ared by cy 11 to emer exist ge i11 tl1e region borderi ilg tlle of s tate A _l 2_ Republic of Sorn a 1a . h 1 der tb . e ad1ni11istr,1tion of OL1r Mi11ister of Natio 11,11 �11 b� all s region Said 3_ · a 1 1 ta k e st1cl1 n1eas11res as are necessary to assure Defence and said M1ruster sh the security and maintai11 law and order \Vitl1j11 saicl regio 1 1 a.11d to protect tl1e t ts the bitan of inl1a erty prop l1ereof. a11d s person ':;� y isst1e regulatio11s: Defence National rna of ister 1 Mi.1 Our 4. ;-;�� (a) delimiting tl1ose areas i n the 1·egion bordering tl1e ReJJL1 blic of So1na]ia .;: �. to wlucl.1 th.is Order sl1all apply: a11d ;, ,:: iJ1 1 of out carryi11g a11d 1 s of provisio tl1e in1plementatio11 tl1e for providing (b) ,1 1�--this Order. -· effective be to declared emergency of state The 5. is 1 FebrL1ary 3, 1964. fro11 as ' . ,-� Done at Addis Ababa tl1is 8tl1 day of Febrt 1 ary, 1964. \;�

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ese Regu ations may be ci te d as tl1 e ''State of E 1 11ergency i n tl1e Region l B ordTeri�n g tl 1 e Republic of Somal ia Regulations , 1964. '' 3· Deli mitation of Area in Which the State of Emerge11cy Exists. y . c n e g r The area 10 e · wh.ich 1n E '' e 1 tJ er t f a · 111 the state of emergency eXJsts (l1ere Area''} 1·8 ll ereby delimited as follo s w: eo. _

cl1 n y re . F i f o Solllmeoc1 ng at th r to h rr te 1e tl . i o\1/a; t h �en � t o o lanct e s poin !l l lali e r f t: i of nter Westerly direcec nda i tw t e n bot1 i s �. a t S t l'ti _ ot'l tnd � l on .to· M elo S a ·R:PubL1c of_ Soma lia; the nce in a stra1g�t lu �e 10 f e th Wester n limits of e t tion , thence m g · ong a · · n y t1 c dueS y o outherl a enerall ..

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State of Emergency in t11e Area ]3orderi11g tl1e Rept1 blic of Somalia Reg11Iatio11s, Legal Notice No. 284 of 1964, _?vegat·it Gazeta 231·d Year No. 11.

l. Issuing Authorit y These Regulations are issued by tl1e Mi11ister of Natio11al Defe11ce pt1rs11 a11t �o au th0rity vested in l1im tl1 e Declaratio11 of a State of Emergency 4 of by Article n the Regi of .32 No der (Or 4 196 on ler, Orc de Bor a 1ali Son of ring ic the Rept1bl ; 964) (hereinafter the ''Order''). 2 · Sh ort Title

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\VOLD TSA1-IAFE TAEZAZ AI(LILU 1IABTE Prime Ministe1· and Mi11ister of Pe11 .

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETHIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

502

1e Ogaden; thei:ice i n a g ener�l I ?f n sio ivi � D ve �ti �tr i11i j l111 A Ac . ly uth-Weisterly _ So tl1e ,vr�t a ancl tl1e J e to the po111t of intersection of b Ker a El ra Aw tl1e of ts Iin11 1 . ter1 g Wes tJ1e th d . t·10n,alon . . d 11ec e . . . oun . . a .1a . o1J1 a, K eny a a11cl tl 1e Republic o fSom 1 ary 11 tJ E n ee tw be

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5. EvacL1atio11 of I11l1abitan ts fro1n Proliibited Area

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WitJ1in twenty (20) days of the effective date of these Regulations, all inhabitants a11d otl1er perso11s witl1i11 tl1e Prol1jb.ited Area ,,,11 0 are not expressly autl1orised to remain ,vitl1in said Area sl1all leave said Area and shall take with tl1em all livestock and all otl1er personal a11d movable possessions.

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6. Moven1ent witl1in Prol1ibited Area (I)

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con1111encing at tl1e point of intersection of tl1e boundaries between Ethiopia, the territory of French Son1alila1 1d and tl1e Republic of So1ualia; tl1e11ce along the line of the Emerg ency Area to a point fifteen (15) kilon1etres dista11t fron1 tl1e border of the Rept1blic of Somalia ; thence along a line paralleling generally tl1e bot1ndary between Etl1iopia and the Republic of Somalia and p assing tl1rot1gl1 t l1e following points: Mordale, Biogurgt.1r, Gocti, Bibili, Hijiter, Domo, Bali-Megalli, Dubt1b, Sulsul, God-Dere, God-God, Bt1r-I-Iosh, Ararro and Woladdaie to a point dir ectl y North of tl1e l)Oi11t of i11teresection of tl1e bou11daries of Ethjopia, Kenya and the Re public of Somalia; tl1ence due S011tl1 to said point of intersection.

thereto.

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Witlii11 tl1e E111ergency Area, tl1ere sl1all be a Prohibited Area, delimited as follows: all of tha t area witl1in. Etl1iopia between _the boundary of Ethiopia and the Re1Jt1blic of So111alia, of a widtl1 at any point of not less than fifteen (15) kilo­ n1etres, and a line drawn as follows:

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No person sl1all enter tl1e Pro11ibi ted Area witl1out express authorisation

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(2) Any person at1tl1orised to re1nai11 in or to enter tl1e Prohibited Area shall

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�t all times d_t1ri11� l1is JJresence tl1ere be subject to ai1 d. comply with all lawful regula­ tioi1s a11d d1rect1011s co11cer11i11g bis n1ove1nent therein.

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Obligatio11 to Stop upo11 Cl1alle11ge Aiiy perso11 ii1 tl1e En1erge11cy Area sl1a ll i1 nmediately stop upo� b ei�g ch�� Ienged by any n1ei11be1· of tl1e Arn1ecl l�orces or Police assigned to duty in said Ar

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8. Use of F'orce by Ar111ed Forces a11d Police Any 111e 1�ber of tl1<: �rn1ed Fo1·ces or Police assigned to duty WI·thin the to . ei.gency e J n o ut a ma y, te w!t h b lun e the t , u _ e �� to sai for d Area se ce, x n� /tb � o ll . e exten t tlictt sticl1 t1se 1s reasonably justified, taking into consi deration a ande es circlimstances of tl1e case, to 1na r a ul law f r a eff ect i11t , ain law to ord an er d ! ithin t o_ J)rotect tl1 e J)er ons so11s and property o·f the inhabitants and other pers said Area. 9. Prol1ibition on Posses sion of Arms i nc Jud ng · j · ' No pe rs . . 011• with 1n tl1 e Emergency Area may possess any wea. pon, . without 1imitation, any firearm, without permission.

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IMPERIAL POWERS

503

and Police to Search Witl1011t Warra11t Forces Armed of 10. Power

ihe �r·med. ·fo.rces or Police assigned t of er to dtrty wit11in the mem b (l) Any any time, w1thot1t warra11t, e11ter a nd search a11 y preini�es at may Area ncy e r e �ro h eg Emergency Area a nd may, witho11 -t warra11t, sea· rch any perso11 conveyance ' · ' 1nr · · , pac age, 1 k a rce pac · p , k co11ta111er a�gage, or b thing f01111d 1 n, er1terircraft, a le, vehic or a ve or reaso11 a bly sus1)eclecl of bei11g abotit to le enter to ng seeki g, leavin . or ,n�er or of having left said Area, and 1 !1a y s-�op a11d detain any sucl1 person, con­ ::yanc e, vehicle, airc�aft, ?agga�e, pack, package, parcel, co11tainer or thing for . or 1t n g bu in ch ar se of e os rp pu the (2) Any article with or in r�pect of vvl1ich �n offe11ce l1_as b_een comn1itted or is reasona bly suspected of hav1ng been committed or wh1cl1 1s necessary to the conduct of an investigaiion into any offe11ce com1nitted or reasonably �u�pected or having be.en committed m a y be seized by tl1e member of 1 lhe Ar1ned Forces or Police conducting the search. (3) Any article seized pursuant to this Article 10 shall promptly be brot1ght before the authoritias.

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11. Power of Arm.ed Forces and Police to Arres-t Witl1out Warr ant Any member of the Armed Forces or Police assigi1ed to dt1ty within the Emerge ncy Area may at any time, wirhout warrant detain, take into custody and a:rest any person within the Emergency Are a ,vho is re a[on ably suspected of having violated the provisions of these Regulations or of otherwise constituti11g a threat to the maintenance of law a nd order in the Emergency Area.

13· Penal Provisions A ny person who: vi?lates the provi;sions of Articles 5, 6, 7 or 9 hereof; or fails, a_fter having es Forc ed Arm tl1e of ber mem a by been e twic ed leng cl1al or Police assigned Area; [sic] Emer gency to the duty in shall. be sub· . . . Ject to immediate arrest an d shall be tried by n11l1t ary court marti. aI · 14. Ad . . . DlID.l. &tering Aut . hor1ty . ; Delegation of Authority . .All · · · civilia ' s re b 11 a sl Area �n � ncy er�e · P�sible- Jo a n . _and n_tilitary a uthorities within the E!11 _ d h ll d charge en ,o� military � the of n tio rec di e th r their duties unde s ae is :)\):�� >·.,:: ·"· 'II!· t he Arm all sh er fic of id a S a. re A d y rc nc Fo ge es stationed within the Emer -� . .

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(4) Any per�on who is detained for the purpose of bei11g searched purst1ant to t·his Article 10 shall be deemed to be in lawful custody .

12· Reference to Provisional Administrative Line Al� references .to th� boundary betwee� Ethiopia a.11d that_ portion of th_e Re l li of omali ub S a wb1ch formerly com r1sed the �f !st T_errrt�ry of_ So ?1ali ­ c an � l J? . hall be shed establi Line deemed e ustrat1v Admir l ces referen a s 1on Prov1s to the 'I' bY he. General Assembly of the United Nations Organisation.

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-JIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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ed ir ly ab qu re to on as r re [u as es ur e ea m e th l al ke ta o t 1 secuir tY ed � er w po _ em _ _ 1 the Emergency �rea an d to protect be fully 11 e s th th 1 w r de r or pe d o an \v la n ai nt ai m d an .1ty ay be or m 1h au a leg 1cb de St f. eo er ted th a s t the so�! nt <a bi ha in e th of ty er and prop discretion o f said officer. 15. Inconsistent Legislation Insofar as any provision ofi tl1ese �egulations are i�c.onsistent with the provi­ sion of any otl1er legislation presently in. force, the prov1s1ons he- reof shall prevail.

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i t ies rit ho u A g iI1 er t is · in 1 , dn A of 1 16. Obligation (1) The adn1inist1·ation of tl1e Emergencj' Area shall be car·ried on in such a manner as to minimise any possible l1ard:hip impo::ed u.pon the inhabita nts of . .: a,11d o:her persons in said Area. (2) Tl1e Emergency Area shall be progressively reduced as quickly as cir­ cumstances per1nit in order t11at. persons affected 111ereby .shall be relieved of the unusual 111 casures req11ired to be placed in force as the result of the situation pre­ vailing witl1in said Area.

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17. Effective Date These Regulation,s shall become effective on February 10th, 1964. Done at Addis Ababa this lOtl1 d,ay of February, 1964 II!

LT. GEN. MERID MENGESHA Mini�·ter of National Defence.

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Questions

The Control of tlze A1·n1ed Fo,·ces I) Whi�h. if any, of tl1e orders given by H.l.M. in the above reading would require

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Parliamentary approval? 2) D �s Parliament have tl1e right to con lrol tl1e E111 pero,r's powers under this . es forc Ar�icle by reft1-s.1. ng Him d arme tl1e mo11e): r1eeded to 1naintain the which I-le believes lo be necess.ary? 3) W�iat powers does tl1e En1pe1·or possess over .n1en1bers of the arme d forces which he does not possess over: (a) civilian government servants? (b) Ethiopian subjects as a whole? (c) residents of the E inpire? In an�wering these questions, see also: ·

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o r e e r p th f 1n o E s r e 1rv o P l?CY ro e E m oe The . • d1f fer enc bet we es nt1 e11 al the u bst a pow ers � gra nte any d by state of re the e � by m 4) siege, · artial law, an d by st.ate of en1ergency? of whe judg ther e a state �ole of the eme rgen cy is reqtiired and eror Emp e th I 5) by down laid the s tion Co11stitu condition are n1et? the er h t. :be · autl1orities n1illtary adn1inis tering a state of emergency the of ties ac�ivi the 6) Are to review by the courts? subject powers ,vl1icl1 t he the Emperor on n 111ay · assume limitatio by virtue any there 7) Is of Article 29? r the pov,,er: ro pe the Em s ha ce, tan ins for 8) (a) to suspend th e Constitution? (b) to -:uspend the Rlgl1ts of the People granted by the Constitution? (c) to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies witl1011t arran.ging for tl1e election of a new Chamber? (d) to suspend ordinary Proclamations? (e) to legislate by Order on matters otherwise covered by Proc]an1ation?

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The Grant of Honours

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Read: Article 31 of the Constitution of 1955. to Chapter IV for the traditional orioins of the En11Jeror's powers in this respect, and Refer to Article 130 of the Constitution for the st;tus of abandoned JJro1Jerties and properties in escheat.

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The Minting Power Read: Article 32 of the Constitution of 1955. d 22n From the Charter of the Nationa eta Gaz arit Neg , 1963 of 30 No. er Ord a l iopi Eth Ban· k of · ' r Yea No 20. · Us by Article · con ferred. 10 8; T'ne ng t to coin print and issue money t11roughout 0Ltr Empire · h ·3 - of Our Constitution k Ban tbe by ed rcis exe be lo nk, Ba is hereby exclusive]. y vested in the in accordan ce with the law.

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Parliamentary and Legislative Powers

Read: Article s 33 and 34 of the Constitution of 1955. . Article 33 18· VII)· r e (Chapt consid e11t n lia1 ered Pa in on the later Chapter ! Article 34 has been considered in Section 3 of this Chapter. Jud_icial Powers

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Read: A rticl e 35 Of the Constitution of 1955. · l'ne·-Se.po

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. VIII) ter (Chap ary ons-1·ct ered in the later Chapter on th e Jud1'c1·

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SECTION 8:

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506

Cl-lAPTER VI U E IT T IV S T U IN S C N E IO X T E F O f N E M P O L E TllE DEV r

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Introduction

try and Co� �c.il of M.inisters _ nis Mi n1e Pri 1y, rcl na Mo tl1e of les Ro g gin an c11 Section 1: Tile constitutional evolution to 1960; Orcler No. 44; the acco1:1ntabil1ty of th.e Govern­ ment to tl1e En1peror, Parlian1ent and tl1e State; the changing role of the monarchy.

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tl1� minjstries; ''ad hoc'' agencies; problems 1ent ernn Gov ral Cent of cies Agen The 2: n io ct Se of jttrisdictio11 over invest111ent for econon11c_ developf!lent; problems of delegatio n of Jav,- and policy-n1aking powers to executive agencies.

Section 3: Tl1e Devel.0JJ111ent of f\.gencies of Local Ad1ninistration - traditional institutions; transitional institutio11s; problen1s of theory and policy; developing institutions of local governn1ent in Etl1iopia.

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Sectio11 4: Tl1e Develo1J111ent of I-It1man .Reso11rces ro Staff Executive Institutions - theories of civil service; tl1e clevelo1J111ent of civil service l'.lw in Etbjopia. Section 5: Problen1s of ''Accot1ntability'' - concepts of ''accountability''; diverse roles of govern111ent and diverse problems of ''accot1ntability''; securing ''acco untability"; vario11s possibilities: Parlian1ent, the courts, tl1e executi,•e. Section 6: Accountability a11d tl1e Role of the Co11rts - legal bases for judicial review; lin1i111tions on j11dicial re\1ie\v; developing a law of administrati,,e procedure; comparisons.

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Section 7: Accountability and the Role of tl1e Executive - son1e existing legal institutions; comparisons: on1budsn1en, proct1rators and conmussions; tl1e role of the Emperor.

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Introduction

f3e0�;;1_: Chapter I, pp.31-34, 43-50, 69-73; Cl1apter II, PIJ.257-258, 261; Chapter IV, pp.427-4ZS,

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. Previo1is. re�djngs J1rtve st1�gested tl1� in1porta11ce, i n �onstitution�l t��oryi of tl1e_execti tiv� in 111a11y clevelo1J111g cot111 t r1es Not only n11:1-st 1t per form_tr �dition � . exectltive f�n�t1on� sucl1 as ln.,v enforcen1e11 t:, tax-collecting , road-bu1Iding a,n school ad�1111 strat1011, bl1t it ml1st pla n and lead ecor1oniic change. Perl1 aps, too �Ile exectl�f Ve leacl_ersl1 ip 111t1st I)la,y a .majo_r role in pla njng political dev�J�pment, n f _ 111 gener�t 111 g a viable ideology o ion vi a s d of political cl1an ge. It must propoun : t i�e� �oc�ety ai1d J)ersuade JJeo1Jle to wa t pt e bd n to b1 1i ld that society - and ac c es n f �ct . tl�at tl1e process e11tails 11111cl1 work 1na11y sacrifices wrenching cl1an g � t · ' ' . Y . '. 1e oc . d1sc11). 1ine T.lle exe in � . t . ctitiv ,· e ent 111ay s l1 ele ve a to tago t 1c rec 111s onc ile a m n . 1ous ·tribal · eo (reI1g 11tm on10 c a ste o·1 ,,�I ass ''-) ; 1t n1ary c pr1 · ' n1ay a ltivate u l1ave C to ' . of al � 'amo ng divers . to n at·io_nal ui1'ity de · go od a t e e groups·' it reITTt la ha to ma ve y · · 0 ma y econoIDJc or l)Olitic 1 beh av · ion lu s on our. If one accepts these premises, the c e _ ,l 1 ki 11 . . n 0 b"' c nstitutio11 a ro law wh icl1 and ves ts _ tl1 e executive with broad policy� : � p ers and this l1as cert ai11ly been a trend i 11 Africa. ' 1nst o c Tl1e previous Cliapter was tive , ta11 subs concerned witl1 a1Jalysis of tl1.e _ 1 ese tJ ttitioilal h . ou s 0f tl1e Empe1·o r, th even that, b�t t c it is well ren1e to mber ; ra. · e in pow rs ir�� r ' � a 1 egal sense, exercised person a they r, pero ally by tl1e E m

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exe cut Th ive us, . if the tl1e of exe ctit osa ive l wa disp 11ts to promulgate . the at 5 r we an age 11cy crea ( cf. te 7 or Art 1cle 92) 2 pa ) le or J)erstia' de Pa, rl 1amen Arti c . · f . c ( t . decr e e d can reqt1est �he E mperor to act for i t (cf. Ar ticle 71 a an 33, 34), may it les ). rtic cf _ A . . ( �i.: Chapter we are l�ss concer11ed w1tl1 tl1e st1 bsta11t1ve constitu tioilal ))OW ers . 1n uu5 h d mor 1ve, n t e co11 ce1·1 1e exec u d "''Jt I1 t 11e .way i11 wliicl1. governe of � t l _ sa dispo at the l. sa o p s is 1t t d a rs e w po 01eot ex ercises . . _ . t]1e 1tl1 n1sa org t1011 of tl1e exec1itive: tl1.e allocation d n con cer are _w � � e w Thus, e ect1t the tl11 1ve, tl1e task s pro cess es and for � � � n1aicii1g JJolicy, tl1. e to, ers _ pow of i c1v1l service, the developn1e11t of a systen1 of law reve effec t an of ent Iopm . . t' 0. deve .m1n a 10 tr 1s ad ic bl pu g gulatin We are also concerned witl1 tl1e problen1s of accoi111tabilitJJ and control. One e erft1l for tiv a r the ecu essity P?W x ne �; there re1nai11s tl1e issue: To wI1 at nt a a � g my extent are tl1e actJoos of agencies o.f �l1e exect1t1ve - e.g. tl1e Co1111cil of Ministers Livestock and Meat l3oard.) . to be made ac­ or a particular_ agency_ (st1cl1 as tl1e _ coun t able to (1.e. subject to review and s0111e co11trol by) Parliament, a11d tI1 · L1s ulti mately to the electorate? Or to the cot1rts and tl111s 1tlti1nately to tl1e law? Or to some other, disinterested, official agency which vvill sec11re the observance of tl1e law and standards of conduct best servi11g tl1e public i11 terest? SECTION 1

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THE CHANGING ROLES OF THE 1'10NARC1-IY, PRIME WIINISTRY AND COUNCIL OF MINISTERS IN THE EXECUTI\1:E GOVERI,JMENT

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This Section traces the changes in the structure and orga11isation of executive government

during the past half-c.entury - but with particular focus on tl1e past fe'rv years. Tl1e readings (incorporating by reference much earJjer n1aterial in Cl1apters III a11d IV) reflect a continuous process of expansion and delegation of the fi1nctions of gover111ne11t, particularly to tl1e various Ministers, whose number has steadily increased. Delegation has meant: perforce, that tl1e Emperor's participation in the con�t1�t of execu_tive �overnn:ien_t becomes increasingly Jess direct. This changing role l1as bee 11 explLc1tly recognised 10 th_e significan t speeches which the Emperor made i n April 1961 (see i1ifra; see also IJ.421 sup� ·a) and 1� March 1966 (see infra). Delegation has meant proliferation of p ower to 111anage exectitive nc��; po!icy-ma_king within a gr_ow:in�, important �nistry beco1nes increasingly 0111plex, and �:; � W�o shotild miruSl.ry 1 ncreas1ngly powerful w1th 1n 1ts sector. Tl11s trend l1as forced tl1e problem· e enti al, overall government policies? An d wl10 should con1pel tl1e various agencies to fol­ Fkt hess 0 po .Li�ie s? B?t_h in t�T1!15 of actice and Jaw, th e _Co\1ncil of Mu1 isters, 11nder the leader­ pr of the_ Prime !V11n1ster, 1s 1ese �ole�; tl n o pe�f to osed supp 1 �h wl11 � cy agen ngly the increasi �responsible Th� Council being , ently g pend actin mde as on nct1 a f to 11 inet osed Cab supp is onJY to the Emper or and to Parliament (so tl1e En1peror has twice cleclared). t te e e din g e plore co is tl -� o in ! an n,e ty'' b!li nsi spo ''re c ·J s s : loe the at n i wl1 stio ust que x a r Can � and sl1o�ld - the answer be workecl out by law ? Or sl1ot1ld it be lef t to practice and u t1 matelY co nventi on? t s a k o lo . e n o n . Thus' there has been e h w t can fi i · sigo · constitutional changt, slow per l1aps, but it in the . . .l1e locu tif ower ms le prob -J � i n� men to fix cef�-�1l)ect1ve _ of history and traditions. And the contin·ued recr f executive policy and command that it be carried otit,_ tl1e n1etl10 o Who Will and ble ta un co ac Id de ma be s to Whom � tbe e po�e rs and the method by which tl1ey wi l l are of obvious crucial importance.

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Constitutional es Not e Som 0: 196 to t Evolut ion of Ministeri.al Governmen . . l. ihe trad1·1ional . . syste m - the persisting problems R:

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508

TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C . N IA P IO H T E SOURCEBOOK OF

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o ti a n 1d eg el a1 d of t n Jn 1e 1perial 11 ·11 e1 ov g l ct ri te ;s 11 1; 11 EarIy steps tol,varcls to execittive o_fficials

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e nelik's n 1in js tr ie s) an d pp .3 26-33 6 (Lhe M r ro e p m (E 3 32 es 032 . 1 11 r e a�. � . p a � � : d e a -r e e led R or tai 1 a l n de r � isto e o y r 1 1) F 193 of of . this p r o , on stitution . i C df tlle u s 1 e r t 1s l1s h.men t of n11n ) 50 9 ar (1 1 ag rc N el< Z . al , q as M al l c a e W si as · el -S a � �1 s ee, for exa1 111) Ie, Mal1ta· e r No . 1 of _1943, the ''Mioi_ster s fJ?�fioit! ?n of Powe rs] rcl (O 5 35 3.35 pp , _ ); Re-read: Cll a pter IV 1. 1e . 1? a Pr of t 1n ry en 1 st l m l1s ab st E pp � , '_'Tl1e 43 55 19 ?f 356 2 � o. N r e_ rd (O 5 35 p. ld ai ) '' Order a nks, th e Im per ial I-I,ghway Autho rity and �s B �h su es 1 nc ge l a _ 1a c _ spe (the establislin1ent of var ious _ th1op1a). _ E of Imperial B oard of Tele co1n111t1111cat1ons

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T/1e co11stitutior1al status of· tl1e Mi11ist1·ies under t!1e Revised Co11stitution

Re-read careft1lly: Articles 6 6, 67, 68, 69, 71� 72, 73, 74, 75, 88, 115, 118, 120, 121 of tl1e R evised Constitu tion.

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Nore ct/so t/1e jo!lo}vi11g:

(a) 1'he 1\1.inistry of the Pe11 is t1niqt1e among Ethiopian n 1 inistries, be cause of its peculiar past role in the count111 ' s co11stitt1tional de ve lopn1en t, and because it (and the Prime M.inistr y) are SJ)ecifical l)' 111entioned ancl assigned dutie s by the Rev ised Constitution. (Other ministries are not.)

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Tl1e l.\1inistry \Vas forn 1ally founde cl by tl1e E111peror Me nelik in 1908, and, after the Liberation, PO'Ners \vere assigned to it by Order No. 1 of 1943, late r an1ended by Orders No. 2, No. 14 and No. 46 of 1966. In fact, 110\ve ver, tl1e :CVlinistry l1as a far longer l1 istory; tbe traditional Tsahafe Taezaz vv,.1s resp onsible for tl 1e vvriti1Jg and sending ou t of the En1peror�s orders. Because of the in1portat1 ce of �lie E111 peror's orders i n ev e ry department of t11e go,.remn1ent, tl1e Ministry_ of �e n, rather than tl1e Prin1e Mi11ist er 's Office , originally forn1ed a natural foct1s for t11e co-ord�a­ t1on o� �overn111en t activitie s tn1der tl1e En1peror. For tl1e firs t fift een ye.-us after tl1e Lib�ration, tlJe 1':11n1sLry o� tl1� Pe11 cloes a ppea r to l1ave bee n tised as a co-ordinating instit ution in this way, ? ut sin ce the1� it s 11111)ort an ce I1as declined, ancl it l1as been st1ggested that ll1e :tvlinistry should be i ncorporate_d i nto tl�e Office of tl1e Prin1e i\tl.inister. Tl1e present Prin1e Minister is, of course, at . the san1e t1n1e M 1 n1ster of tl1e Pen. By Ar t icle 88 of the Re vised C onstitt1tion, t l 1e :CVlinister o f tl1e Pen is respons.ibl e for the publica· . tzon of Proc lania lio ns, a11 d p_resun1abJy o f otl 1er legislation, in tl1e Negarit Gazeta, V11hich h3;8 been the under tl_ 1� control ?f tlie M1. 111stry since it \Vas firsJJt t 1blished in 1942. Tl1e fu nction of preparing · Eniperor s orcler s _ i s _ ll1e res1)011sibility of tl1e Office of I-I I.NI. 's Priv a te Secretary, whic h I1 as form . the for_ e p_ar t of l�le i\1in istry _sin ce abot1t e l b respons i_ 1957. rl�he Mi nistry l1as also be en 111ade � n ions of:fi�ial g vernni eot ar�l�ives, _ancl, �vitl1 tl1 e l-Ia1 11lc 16 Co111111ittee it st1pervises certrun pe s , � der ive d f10111 tl1e t1.ad1t 10 11al 11n1)er 1a l bot 1 nty. · �na it�iti e ·'in5t h . . d�?) T Council of Ministers, establis l1ed by t l1e E111pe ror !\tlenelik j11 1908 a1Jd uon 1ize by Order No. 1 of 1943beco111es �:\ co11stitc1tio11al agency by virtue of tl1e Revised ConSuru :"rt ��les 67 .a.t� d 69 of tI1e Constitt1tion, t l1e Cot111cil consists of the. n1inisters 01.e��og lccti!1y pi 1 ? ce� e 1,g, b le for tl1e Cro,:v r t i 1in 1 .i •stf}' n. are disqt1alifi.e d f ro111 n1e111 b · ersl 1iJ). Whe1 a n ::; ' � . n 1 away, t l1e p1 c1ct1ce clevelop ecl 1' Il1 . · · t tl1a ton1 · r 0 r ti · . e f· 1 se n 1n1ster · ·ior n1111 1ster of st.ate or v1ce -n1 · er . . 1 5 . . Pa 1· n11n toat ent d 11. 1 111s 1 ce ,· 1f tl1er e was no n1 ·u11st ct1ng . ry a a ten1por er · o f st 1 a a te or vice-11 jnister ·0 ' 11 · 0 1 J' · ' : r Was Ofte n appoi. nted f ro11 1 outs1 e t· · . · o . p hout ,�,it· e ·d 1e tl 1 11 ters 111 1 nis st ry mi ° The r · e ls 1 ave n l bee a · · · · o l:>• 1 s wbo attended Counci·1 111eeti11 c1·aJ 1 ffi O r othe .· g s a1t11ot1gl1 tJ1e y l1a d n o 1 11inistr•J . s ; cw it thei r of v n ed et op · Som in1es been special! 1 1·tec I to · 1 . e dev iJ n c Co Y ' �. c . c dis ussions on pa.rtict1l ar st1bjects . The v · . � o,vn proced ure ,tn , cl secretcll ,at, 111 a ccord ance \Vitl1 .A ic le . 69. rt 1. st Co o e · Th Co un cil r ceiv the gis· e d ad isory f?O e ·s by f 20 · J and I� A.rtic1es 66, 71., 72, 115, J Je � ! . :' nl tution, wliich ·.giv e ft_ spe cifi e 1"\ J c respons 1b11It1 es for tl1e ci\,il servi. ce, conside rat 10.n of go vef praclarJJl�· Iation and pre a a o of tl s �11 dr ;� council r r e ft b sjd e con f i l g J Tl1e ce ncil 1 et. cti in Cot p t1clg ra ;: � c l ur tions,'n ecrees 0 r ers , and e �lso s ?me Le gal Noti ces . Tl1 e pl1rase '' 011 il1e a d�i c _ of Ministers'' h�s 1955 · us tiall y appeared Jll tl1e IJreambJe to Decrees and Orders since

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THE DEVELO.PMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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formalJy establisl1ed by Article 70. of the Revised Const· . ncil, cou n 1tt1t1on O\Y • Cr · 1 0n. It cons 1sts Th ) e era t· 1 L"b . h e of d"1st1ng111s11e . d traditional leade . . (c t since t Jeas · at ste. d rs, th'e e t ac . are e ex officio n1en1bers bas in f � the President of tl1e Senat . . . tl1e . C Patriarc h an conc 1ons n er 1ng f�nct al ·own by_ Articles 8, 1 o, l l, 13 and 17 seve �ive� is il � � nc Cou b en1 care f ti y. t 111ay (1lso adv1se tl1e E e Th t Exan1 . 1ne · tution. 111peror on important · .sed Consti · Revi . 1 1 1 . ons are ··��"or�1,al � d 1lc1ve 11ot.been c�eft11ecl, bt1t it is k 1 1own tl1at e o f the ; funct! e thes e matte.r� of stat ed tbe Revised. Const1tt1t1on 1tse1 f. M. Pe1}1an1, 11.1 I1cr book Tlze Gover,,,, tl1 sider e,,t con , co�nc! - i n in 1948, called it ''the central foct1s of _power uncler tl1e E111peror'' w 1,icl1 pe1 r ,:1. of l s �thiopza �:Cr tte v �er a�ot1ot; Dr. �eyo11111_ Gabregziabl1er of 1�Ia.ilc Sellassie I Universi t� n she , rote !t ; toral dissertation \vr 1tte11 later, l1k�oecl •.t Lo tl1e ''cat1ct1s'' of traclitional political elit� oc figtrr�s, ,vl1ose bt1s111ess 1t vvas _t solve a11d settle disiJutes a_t the liigl,est ted n respec ior, se � _ :d other parts tl1 d1ffere of go n_ t e1 111e11t _ a11cl co�11t:Y \York in liar1110ny. that the sure make � � and � level, are Cot1nc1I not. ,,�1 y rea_t, _,1nd 1n 1Jract!ce its role niay liave de�rown t_ I ,e of s po,ver legal � The tl1e Cot1nc1l of of M1n1s ters, and w1tl1 the deatJ1s of several 1n1portance gro,v1ng the \Vith clined Kassa and_�as A�eb� A1�agay, ,vho t1secl to be an1ong its irifluential ft.he great leaders , stich as Ras 111st1tt1t1on ,:vl1ose constitutional sig11ificance may �embers. Perhaps it has serv�d as ,t tran_s1tio!1al_ become less important tl1an 1ts ceren1on1al s1g n1 ficJnce. 1 (d) The Council of RegencJ , e.stablished by Article 1_0 of tl1e Revised Co11stitt1tion, exercises the po\vers of Regent, on bel1alf of tl1e Er11peror, wl1e11 11e1tl1er tl1e E111JJeror nor tl1e Crown Prince is capable of doing so. There ha,,e been brief occasions si11ce 1955 wl1en botl1 the E111peror and the Cro,vn Prince have been abroad and therefore incapable of acti11g, but it is not k110\.vn wl1etl1er the C ouncil has forn1ally been co.nstituted on tl1ese occasions.

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Order No. 44 of 1966

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Re-read: Chapter lV, pp.420-424. For convenience, son1e specific jJarts of t hesc readings are reproduced below.

From Haile Sellassie 1, Speecl1 of 14 April 1961, as tra11slated j11 .EtlzioJJia Obs·erFer, Vol. V, No. 2 ( l961). Henceforth, you shall work in your Mi11istries and Depart1ne11ts a11d adn1inister your programmes tl1 ere. Eacl 1 year, in accordance witl1 tl1e Coi1stitLttio11, and wit11i11 the broad framework of tbe Five Year Pla11 wl1icl1 l1as bee11 adopted, you sl 1all prepare your program.mes t·or the coming 12 mo11tl1s. W11e11 tl1e prograIIllne l1as ·b�en ?PProve d by Our Cot11Jcil of Nlinisters a11d by Us, yo11 sl1all work in accordance W�th it. �f yo u plan a!1d execute it well, yo11 sl1all be co11grat11lated. If yo11 prove urs�lf incapable or _1ncon1p_etent, yo11 sl1all be removed a11d replac d by_ a11otl�e r. � r. maJor policy qt1est1ons ar1se \'\Te are always l1ere. If yo11 encou11te� dif?culties, We_have appointed O·ur Prjme Mi t 1ister to aid yo11. I-Iis 1Jri111ary fu11ction 18 to co0rd10ate Work nt rrun� Gove of 1tio11 exect tl1e g amon the Ministries and see t l1 a t nunes .is faciJitated. If q Ltestions of policy arise, l 1e, too, i_s directed to brtn� i��!�O Us. If ame11 dn1ents in the attribi1tjon w11 icl1 l1as bee t 1 given to you ai e re quired th es e shall be fortl1 comjng. t !0 f{e� our progra111mes and je� 811 be l il \iv. 111 tl1e your j1nple1nentatio1� of � io1 a � 1�, and �p en _ comn:ients. ''In tl1e 11ltin1at e sense, j t 1s to tl1e JJeople of � tl1. � You h r st wa 011 JI). S e 1 Y for er 1 ans lSt Jlll o1 e t w tl1a l 1 tl1 a1 to � jg it en1 r spoi s b e, 1d y l'hatare s why YOll are t. en ir1m arl P . to d a1 1 Us 1 const t11tion.aJly respc>11sible to p0 ian }Jerald, ile lassie I p l1io Et i11 ed ll 1 jsJ bJ 1 JJ 22 Marcl1 9 66 ' as ch ee Sp Se1 of ' 2{ � Ha ar�h 1966. se r d n a · ln 1943·) · e pro1 s e ti 11 d ·s ' . er ow ,e 1 . t d fi11e de: gat 11ch �ul l w ed der ,tn Or . �,nsibilitj. . � n1 tl l e rules tl d �: a�� r Ou pow e r 1:f e 1_ n I iste rs. so, W� doj � 1. 1 11g d � r fu1ed a_n _ egul.:�iif con 1 p ns requ1s1te to tl1e proper ft111 ct1on1ng of tJ,e · . ·

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TIONAL LA w U JT ST N O C AN PI IO I IT E F O SoURC:EBOOK

e W e hav r, late d che rea y tur cen the rter qua stag a rly e wh ere nea w No , re. ca r . . . to tl1e1. I s , · h ge u tY fior t11e d 1 ar _ of .b · s hi 1 e ns I d po es r _ 1 s Il! tie e 1 1_ m d inc f u eacl1 Minister m11st assu �11 f h 1c ?t l s en wa w_ 1am a esh r or P� to we do 1ty b1l 1s1 d 1 po in res of re su r ea Ou 01 e th \ iog s e _ t1v Jec d ob �re an to s aim be _ 1r_ Ot If liz rea 5. 195 ed, each of� o11 t1.ti tit ns Co Revised 1 y l1t 1b1 ns of po s e re_ for ar s11 11s the 111e su as gr pro J d ess and a11 r o11 ab ist mt us of e on ed t isfi tl1a sat are e abl We e�t a� so do lt we resu , If . ion s will nat tl,e f prosperity o . 1n _ t day h 1pa eac rt1c a ple p_ pe? g r e _O� mor s�e to d a?e actively our enc are We . follow { . the t ive tha erat way Imp tl11s 111 1s ler 1t acce for , ion nat ation of in tl,e affairs of the . ed ' i11 ta at be ll 1a sl ss re og pr s 11 tio 11a the We I1ave said tl1at eacl1 Mi11ister is f t1lly responsible for 11 is duties; nonetheless \vl1en 1najor JJolicy issues req11ire Our attention, Our Prime Minister or, if necessary: tl1e Prime Minister a11d 1'l1e Minister concerned, shall bring them to Our attention. It is tl1e duty of Our Prin1e Mi11ister to e11s11re tl1at the work of Government is per­ for1ned; bl1t tl1is does 11ot in any way relieve tl1e Ministers of tl1eir jndividual res­ JJonsibilities. To place all respo11sibility t1pon t]1e shoulders of one individual while all otl1ers sit idly by and seek only to criticise and find fault is, in our era, to act co11trary to tl1e move1nent for tl1e advancement and progress of the country. A11d 110w, ... We l1ave determined t o introduce further innovatjons into the strt1ctt1re of t l1e 11L1tion's adn1i11istrative system, a11d We l1ave set them forth in an 01der w l 1icl 1 We are pro1nt1lgati11g today . ... T l 11s Order, wl1icl1 ame11ds Order No. 1 of 1943 definino tl1e duties a11d respon· sibilities of tl1e Prime Minister and all other Ministers, p;ovides in substance as follows: (1) tl1at tl1e Prime IVIinister sl1all be ap1)oi11ted by Us, and that be sl1all submit to. 1-!s �or appointn1e11t by Us tl1e proposed n1e1n bers of l1is cabinet to head the M11 11str1es of tl1e Governme11t '· (2) tl1at the �inisters sl1all be respo11sible to the Prin1e Minister; (3) tliat tlie Prime Minister and tl1e Ministers shall be collectively responsibl_e to U _ s and to Parlian1ent i11 accordance with tl1e p1 ovisions of tl1e Revised Con5tJ• tut1on of 1955.

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Tl1e Order

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From Mii,isters (D\�fi11itio11 of Powers) (An1e11d 1ne11t) Order. No. 44 of 1966, Negaril Gazeta 25tl1 Year No. lo. REAS, 111 1943 We J·)ro1nL1lgated Orde� No 1 u11der Article 1 I of our �l-l� Const1tut1on of 1930; · . atld 0 ut1 stit I-lEREAS , tl1e prom11lgatio11 by Us in 1955 of Our Revise d Con :S � o provi e� tl1e necessary basis for p th f xpa11sion an d simplification o e �1ble e the e s an.d dt1t1es of Otir M·1n 1· sters spo n e · r f O m a11 d tl1e ft1rther development of a syste Min1· ster1a . . 1 governme11t. and . 0f o. WI-IEl{EAS 1·t J1as' accord111 o • . N l er d r gly become 11ecessary to amend ' 19 4 3. e R vis d e NOW THERE F RE, .1n Our f 66 o and accorda _? 1 1ce witl1 Ar ticles 27 Constittition' W e 1iereby order a s follows: General

eot) 1. This Order m (A me nd rl1 ) . s b e cited as tl1e ''Ministers (Definition of Po wer , Y , � Order, 1966

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Ord er No. A of ?f 1 1943 21 , as an1ended, are llereby re ealugl1 thro 1 ticles P throt rt1cles 1gh of 14 tl1is I by A Order. and replaced

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Ministers hea of d all the �t11 is · Mi11isters_ a11d shall be direct]y resr Min iste e Prim Our Stat f�r e ensu nng the the and Us to sible �xecut1011 of �he duties, the pro­ . pon grammes and tl1e laws co11ce1111�g tl1e M111 1 st1·1es . Ot1r Pr11ne M 111ister sl,all have all the powers and a11tl1or1t)1 11ecessary tl1ereto. ( a) Our Prime �i!1ister s ha1I be appoint ecl a11cl dis1:nissed by Us . r. �ha 1 1 be IJropose d i?r a1)po 1 11t1ne11t to Us by Our 1111ste rs (b) All other_ M . Prime Minister a·nd thereafter dt1ly a1JJJ0111ted by Us. Government All otl1er officials above tl1e ran!( of Assista11t i1 ister �li a1l. Mi (c) a.fter co11sultation witl1 tl1e �PJ)rop!·i�te i\1i11isters, be lJrOJJosed for aJJ� pointment to Us by ot1r Pr1n1e M1111ster and tl1ere,.1ft:er duly aJJl)Ointed by Us. Before taking tip tl1eir appoint1uent, all officials above tl1e ra11]( of Assista11t Minister shall take tbe oatl1 of fidelity set fortl1 i11 Article 66 of Our Revised Constitution. Ministers may transact State busi11ess and 1nay e11ter i11 to co11trc:1cts or ,1gree­ ments and inc1ir financial liability in respect of· tl1eir Ivii11istries \vitl1i 11 tl1e Jim.its of their budgets and st1bject to tl1e reqt1ire111e11ts of tl1e lav1 a11d Ot1r Revised Constitution. (a) Each Minister sl1all be directly res1Jo11sible to Ot1r Pri111e Tvli11ister a1 1d, 1 1is Mir1isof tI1e dt1ties of above him.. to Us and the State fo1.· tl1e executio11 . try, including the execution of tl1e laws co11cer11i11g that Ministry. (b) Each Minister shall prepare and st1bmit to OL1r Cour1cil of J\1i11isters draft laws necessar·y for the proper ope1·atio11 of his Mi11istry ar1d for the proper carrying out of any otl1er n1atters co11fided t? l1is jl1risdictio11. (c) Each Minister shall make regulations i11 accorda11ce w1tl1 tl1e la\vs con­ fiding such power to bjs respo11sibility. Ministers may make adminis trative regulatio11s not inconsiste11t witl1 the laws of Our Empire for application in tl1eir Mi11istries. 'Yhen ever a Minister is preve11ted by any ca11se fro1n f11lfilli11g tl1e dliti�s of hi� ?ffic e, said duties, inc ludjog attendance a11cl voti11g �t O�r Colincil . of . Mirusters, shall be fulfilled by tL1e 11ext senior official in said M1111stry l1olding the rank of Vice Ministe o r above. r

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The Council of Ministers

10. Ou r Mi_nisters shall collectjvely form Ottr Cot111cil of �i. nisters aild s!Ja]l be resp

onsible for all decisio11s i11 Co1111 cil. tl1e1n by taken 1 l, Ou r 1111g . r1 e c . . 11 o c s 11 io Mi ru·st ers shall, after d1sc11ss1011 is c e d k ma 1 . c1 , �?t111 � · l 111 · 1 be all 1 a sl cy 1 po i of rs te ers at m 1 01 ou br 11s t 10 t c1s gh de e ll A re . fo 1n be tl1 � sub! ed by Our Prime Minister to Us. 12.. O p . . d 11 ur r im� M' · a s r ·e t s 11 11 M t· o il c 1 n1s er s11all be tl1e Cl1airma1 � of O 11r c Olin t sha ll 13. Ou CPreside at all m eetings of the Co11nc1I. 01• 1 Us r · o · t ' 1. e m 1 t r ounci·1 sl1a11 draw t 511 bmt d n a. dure 1 proce its of 1 a,n les up r. · . .. t'Prova1

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UTIONAL LAW IT T S N O N C IA P 10 1�r r E SOURCEBOOK OF

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a t et ia cr Se 11 he T o s it et cr ve Se J:a l al y 1 ar sl rs te . e is G in M r ne : of al t il nc ou C ur O 14 . e t o of co s n re y d en m m te u 1 o1 tio . a n p ap b d be 1 l p a] Our of tl1e Secret:11·iat sl1 Prin1e Mi1 1ister. s i it at of ic te bl da pu on l1e in n o e th t e rc o t to 1 · a 1 j eg N r te en rit ll ,a sJ er rd O s Tlli Gazeta.

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s n o si vi ro P l a 11 o ti i1 it st 11 o C ve ti ra a Con1JJ

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). 62 19 ( co oc or M of on 1ti ti ti 1s o1 Fro1n Tlre C and ter the nis er Mi oth e im Pr the t Ministers. 1 i1 po aJJ ll sl1a g 11 Ki e T}1 Article 24. I-Ie sl1 all tern1inate tl1 eir fL111ctions, eitl1er on liis own iojtiative or by reaso11 of tl1eir i11dividt1,1l or co]lective resignation. Article 25. Tl1 e l(j11g sl1al I preside over tl1e Co u11cil of M in.isters.

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Fron1 Tire Co11stitl1tior1 of LilJJJa ( 1951).

Article 60. Tl1e I<..i11g exercises ]1is po\ver tl1rot1gb lus Ministers and responsibility rests ,vitl1 tl-1e111. Article 72. Tl1e I(i11g sl1,1Il appoi11t tl1 e Prime Minister; I1e may remove h.im from office or accept l1is resig11atio11; l1e shall ap1Joint the Ministers, remove tl1e111 fro1n office or accept tl1eir resig11atio11 at tl1e proposal of the Prime Ivli11ister.

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Notes, Problel'ns ancl Questio11s or1 Orde1· No. 44 Re-read: ClJapter IV, pp.424-425 (''Son1e Problen1s of Interpretation'').

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1. Note tl,at_ tl1e Emperor, in 11.is speecl1 JJro1nt1lgati1 1g O·rder No. 44, declared tl,at tl1e time l1ad co1 11e to i11troduce '' ft1rtl1er in.novatio11s' '. Note also that the JJream�Ie to tl1e Order speaks of ''the furtl1er development of a syStero of res1 Jons1 ble Mi11 isteriaJ go,,ernme11t' '. 2. �otild it be accur; �te to say: ''TJ 1e primary i 111pact .of the Order is to change _ not but tile JJractices on, e11v1s 1 01 1ed by Articles 66 ' 68 and stitut i 69 of tl1e Co11 ' ·nal 10 t the l a"':' ?· ' 'J·r· so, wl1at S./Jecific cl1a11 ,:res are st10-oested? On wl1at constitu ·· 0 00 reas '- o111ng cOll Id ti 1e JJr,1ct1ce · be cl1anged \:vj tl1out ame11dio g tl1e I aw9· rbe 3· �e-read tl,e E1111)eror 's speecl1es e Not . ot� 1961 a11 d 1966 · and tl1e Order re e th f i_,Ltei,t Lise �f tl,e ter111 ''res1)011sibility'' re A Wl 1 at d.oes it mea1 1? . he · f t . o cl111erer1t n1ea11 111 gs . ses I · d an 1 1 ·r 1 11c so \V u. , to s 111 , \vl11cl1 1nea11 g ap] )ly · ter111?

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· 4. WI1icl1 of the followi·n g oy: enJ · . ,, w ,, . no powers d oes t11e pr11ne M1n1ster . (a) to ,lpJ)o1nt a.l l . sen1? · 1· ofl�1c.1·a.1s of a nuni�try? ? . w Ja. (b) to order. a m 1111ster to b 111 o Ol carr y . fu11ct10 1 1 delegated t · 1t som e � Y .. n? o ati · . c . . . ( ) to d1s1n1ss . upon 111s res1gn · a min_i·st er by asking for a.nd 1ns1sting (d) to recoi111nend 11 1s dismissa l to tl 1e E1 nperor? e ) to ( convene tl1e Council?. . . f) . to �et. the Coltn ? cil 's age11 da � ) to � 118 � 81 tl,at I,js view g he s? wi s l? Jl so pr ev ail lie i.i if i 11 e tl 1 1ci Co l 1 u ) ' h (ll t.o 1 ns1st tl1at no · · . ug o r h minister report to tl1e En1peror except. t ..

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of s!ate1ne s kinds nts b� 111inisters 0 1 1 govertlineilt �ariou tl1at r orde ( i) to bl tl1e 1c pt1 or or to ment f ore1g 11 gover11 1ne 1 1t reJJrese,, ta­ Parlia • (to policy . 1 rougl1 him? l t d e r a le c e b tives) 1ee11 two 111i 1 1is rics? ' l' t1 11a sp te io } di ct dj is bet\\ ur ''j a t e lv so re to U) ? re su a n le w p o is h at n g si re (k) to powers does tl1e Pri"I11e Mi 11 ister c11joy? ant signific otl1er at Wh I ).. the res1Jonsibility o_f �he 1nioisters t? tl1 e E 1111Jeror a11ct tile of question The ) 6. po�ers he may exert ,�,,er tl1� ��1.11 ��ters - co!I�ct 1 vely or i�1clividtt�lly _ is discussed below. Tl1e respons1b 1 l1ty of tl1 e n1 1 n1sters to Parl 1 a1ne 11 t 1s also taken up below. 7. Assume you are an adviser on tl1e preparatio11 of Order No. 44. Co11 sider very carefully the pros and cons of tl1 e following poi 1 1ts wl1 icl1 l1ave bec 11 m,tde l in the cot 1rse of debate on it: ! (a) ''The crucial issue is: Who sets policy? Tl1 e Order is a111bigL1ol1s; for example: land reform. Is respo11 sibility for i 11itiating r1evv 1Jolicies n.11cl laws thrust upon tl1e Minister? Tl1e Prin1e Mi11ister? TI1 e Co11ncil? The Emperor? Wl1 0 gives the irutiator of 11 ew JJolicies his ter1ns of refer e11 ce? Who a rbirates servious disagreements?'' (b) ''It would be desirable to clear up some of tl1 e a1 nbig11i ty ot, tl1 e Order by expanding upon it." (c) ''It would be desirable to ame11d tl1e Co1 1stitutiot1 to refiect tl1 e 11 evv system.''

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(d) "Order No. 44 is only a transitional step. If t11 e E111peror is s,ttisfied, l1e

ca n make furtl1er changes to a11gment tl1e SJJecific powers of tJ1 e Pri rne Mi nister. If not, he can reass11 n1e more direct control over tl.1e rninistries. '' The Accountability of the Government

The "Responsi'b·1· 1 rty '' o,r 1 t/1e Prime Minister and t/1e Coi1nc1·1 to tI1e E111p eror To what exte11t . . . wou1d yot1 agree w1tJ1 tl1e fo]low 1 ng? . · · · "Th rea�ing ed nd l1a be to 1s t e11 s m rn ve gg go su ct u · of nd est co at ay th day-to-d ove teh f J)er�r�� e P rime Minister an d tl1e Cou11ciJ. But botl1 tl1 e legislatio11 a11d tl,e Em ­ es eches stress th or. : ?er '.R Em t,he to t n, me ern gov l 1 i is sib l ity' � of pon 'r�s Ponsib;Jfy� . _ for . e in 111 bla t bt1 the , ty du s con 1ly · 1 t 1tut1 onal sense 1mpl1 es no t 0 fatlin lil y dut 111e Pr1 , tl,e 1d a 1 a nd ly, ve cti lle co s thu s accot1 otabiJity'. If tJ1e mi nis ter Afini! er ar ler otl or d t e med to be er1 g1n j11d ju v ors err i de n ma ie l1a e ffic ine t to or W se to havee � d atl � l ard _fai 11d sta ed al 1er ge1 to provide collective leadersl1ip, meeting 0bject ive i lar rtic pa ch a f i t_ I the m. the ss i , mi E�peror deems necessary he can dis lll n_ ist ry s ;ovne e �m Pr e tl1 s st L1� q s r� Un 11 ca a isf at ctory, the Emperor, presumably, r M�tt ister io a e im Pr ,e _tl o cc s is sm di t un . 1 e1 1 tl r n fo the situatio n·' the Emperor ca .� Mi nister or · 1n E 1e tl , · act o 1f 1 t 1 J: . r 1( Per n te h n1s 1 · . 1s adv1ce a11d dismiss the pa.rt1 cu 1ar m 0 · · . ' C. r d.o es 1 S!Qee any ·n dismiss a Prime Minjste r the wl1ole Cabi 11et sl1 o tild offer to resign, .'. �Uncil· ew Prime Mi11ister o�ght to be er1titled to appoi11t tl1 e members of tl1e a 0 �ri r t en ,m r ve go a r fo d ·. e id not �� m e Minister should not b e l1 el d accou1 1table ., ...· .. .� 1 n1t1 ally e; ufso= form .', ,. � _ . , : ··. , . · •. Section •

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STITUTIONAL LAW N N O C JA P O l! IT E F O SOURCEBOOK J ,, 0'J+ J 1 .1.1 1 'b 1 s 11 o sp e R

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and 4 . No , er rd (''O 26 a 5-4 4 .42 pp IV er pt 1 CJ ; 91 , 88 , 75, 78 73 , the .· ' 72 . , 71 s e 1 c t1 Rol e Ar . d a Re-re . 4 8 5 1 515 4 -1 1 pp. 14 . '

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The Cl1anging Role of the Monarchy

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u ruc be d cl1e uld ge rea wo sta e t t a 1at w l t r ed � h ici1Jat ant O ays . We liave alw . Mii,isters a11d officials ... co11ld, 011ce t11 e1r du t1es and tasks are defined, assume s thu ly, per t i pro rge permi�ing the mor e cba �is _ ctnd i!ity 11si� reso f11ll e v s by tl,emsel the of ters utmost importan ce to mat a11d .1on s 1 dec s l 1t1ca pol or maj to e tin1 Our of tl1e future ....

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From Tl1e Pri11 1e Mini ste1·, SJJeecl1 , as pu blisl1ed in Tl1e Et/1iopian Herald, 28 MarcI1� 1966.

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Today, I prese11ted my Cabinet to His Imperial Majesty. Tl1ese nominations I1ave been accepted a11d tl1e appoi11tments confirmed. From today onwards, this Cabi11et will assu111e tl1e d11ty of carrying i11to effect Etl1iopia 's policies in the many . a11d diverse fields �:l1ich co1nprise tl1e totality of tl1e affairs of the nation. I" . Tl1e step tal<en today is tl1 e natl1ral and logical and in.e,,itable consequence . ago years of tl1e process vvl1icl1 His I111perial Majesty rlin1self set in train so n1any '. It represents tl1e acco1111)lisl1n1e11t of His desires and \vishes, as tJ1ey have been_ re­ peatedly expressed i11 Hi s JJrono1111cements and e11actments througl1out His reig�. It inarl<s botl1 tl1e cul n1i11 ation of a policy diligentl1, and tenaciousl)' pursued lil the pas�, and � 111�Iesto11e in the co11ti11 ued evol11tionary progress of the State aorl tlie 1 1at1on wl11cl1 1s tl1e t111cl1 alle11ged ,1nd accepted goa l for the futt1re. F· As His In11Jerial Majesty has Hi111self wisely declared, t l1 e business of Govern· mei1 t ai1d tl1e co11dL1ct of 11atio11al affairs l1a, e today become so complex as to be J.:1� . beyorid tl,e _reacI1 or grasp of a11y individual, l1 owever great his capacity, lio,vever l b? Ll n<lfess.llJS _Cllerg , 1:owever qttick_ a11d foreseeing l1i i magination, }1oweve f dee{s I. s � H 1118 de_vot1011.to dt1ty. fl1e full atta1nn1e11t of by � tinc e ann o tl1e innovations ._ ., a P:t I�lIJerial 1\1aJeSty 011 Marcl1 231·d will f1·ee 0 . y dail tI1e witl1 I-Ii1 n t·ro111 co11cern tiq_n� and activities of Gover11n1e11t. T the to ass es l1is responsibility now 1J �riD l lU Mims�er and the Cabinet. The Emperor wi h I te dev o , to ena ble d ll be us t fIDl :e excl�1s1vely to tl1e hi�l 1e st rnatter d a. n ter inis s of State, leaving to the Prime M le c ab111et tl 1e k b . a . . or w trar nd ·' 1sl " at10 - 11 of agreed po 11c1es · a 1· ·1c 1· 1s rea 1 11to practical' JJrogra1111nes. l t

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1es wh'JC11 d'd : c h' 1 no t s1.1 ffer tl1e be11efits mo nar the n tlJa of col o 1 · 1 . i r a . �r ; political pd tme�nant party at the time. of indepe11de11ce was tl1 e IstiqlaJ . After �;: 1 e Iu e. The O � · I t 1n 195 8 , a11 d �t1 tl�or1·ty 1 · p s I 1 a • 1 t s q I a 1 1 d J)OWer gravitated e h t , g in k e b t r :: return ondf m mo11arc tl1e 1 . A f. t�r - t_ l1e �eat11 of Moll : n of h�nds J the V, into a i ore d n Jllo re a . r,r; � , 1n 111o to eff or ve tl1 t an e I e g11 1 1e 1 san I a I11 n1o re c0 as . 1 1stittit1011al H ' n g · ew · ' ulaated a cons t't · th. e n . N roro 111 1°6? · l l)art1·c1pa 11ts in the ;, -· Tl1e p1111 ·· c1pa 1 ll 110n '. drr�tion , plac e in May 1963 1.1ncler this constitt1tio11 ,vere tl1 e Istiqlal td'ok · Jiic ll ' ' dectio ns t·1ve par·tY, tl1e N,1 t·1011::1 1 U1_1·1011 of Pol )Lilar Forces, erva cons a ,vas now 1. c 11 by h �% w f ' t so cialjst party, and a party of wl1at \1/ere esse11t1ally tl1 e I(i 11rr 's frieilds 1 t � 1 al I11�titutions. TJ 1e I(_i i,g 1 ,lcl lloped o11sti�u C _ 1 t of J?efense tl1e for F ront · � �,:��1 :1\a1fed�he ing 1 naJ011 ty. It d1d 11ot. 1.11 fc1ct, 1t got 69 seclts wor a ga1n k wo11ld Front h e t t �i� � �ot 144 . Jn tl1e United Stat�s a broad consenst1s 111al<es it J)ossible for a Presidei1 t u b� 011ly not _dom1:1ated �11e11 of O tl1e Jposite Con�ress party b Lit by J a h t wi ork ro w 111 a ;111ode1�111z111g co_t111try,.t11e .issL1es are deeper, 1nts. o p_ v v1e\. olicy ing p oppos of men .: , passions more intense, a11d, 111 a case l1ke tl11s, op!:>os111g J)rinci1)les of Ie�iti1nacy J:-i are at stake. Governme11t became stalen1ated, and 111 Jt1 1 1e 1965 Hassa11 d tssolv· ed Parliament and decided to rltle by liimself. Parlia111e11t, l1e said at tl1e ti111e, was , .�. "paralysed by futile debate�', parlian1entary gover11me11 t \VOLild accelerate tl1e de­ :.._ gradation of the system, a o. d ''resoltrte actio11'' was 11ecessary. ''Tl1 e col111try cries •,, out for a strong stable gover1nnent. '' Tl1is effort to co111bi 11e n1.on,1rcl1ical rL1 le I,.1:,. and parliamentary government ended i11 failure. Rece11t eve11ts SLtg,gest tl1at I-Ic1ssan .. may be becoming more and more dependent 011 and perl1 aps tl1e priso11er of tl1 e J:: bu1eauc r acy and tl1e security forces. r::---r.· Politica1 parties in Iran historically have been 111t1cl1 weal<er tl1a 11 tJ1 ey are i 11 ·� Morocco. ... In 1960 and 1 961, two parlia11 1entary electio11s vvere l1eld, tl1e results ::J of which were voided becaL1se of corruption a11d tl1e do1ni 11 a1 1ce of tl1e electoral � P�ocess by reactiona ry elements. Finally in September 1963, tl1e Sl1al1, by tl1e i'airly �· direct met!1od of virtually designating tl1e candidates, got a Parlian1e11t w11icl1 wo11l:d support him. 9uestion ed about this apparent deviatio11 fro111 t11e t1 s11al d_er11:ocra�.1c proce�ur e, he IS rep orted to have said: ''So wl1at. Was it 11ot better tl1at tt11s [1.e. !11s] :,: or garuzati?n do it than that it b e done b y JJoliticia11 s for tl1eir ow11 p111·pose_s? For ! the rst ti e we have a Majlis [Parliament] and a Senate trt1ly re1Jrese11t111g t_I1e fi m :r people - not the landlords." Sl! bo1·di11ated tl1e parli ,trcl1 1nona tl1e Ira11 Thus in . . . . ment a d th artie 1 er ' ' 1 . · t ne.1 In m: the s, ed )lac d1s1 a11d hile ded 1n pen s11s co w roc he Mo : co tr n h· : p o110 �tit it ive act n bee a11d cl1 nar y mo 1 i1 ible g r11l oss p _ ive to e act n bin a com �� : m�� politi cal pa�t1es. The effort at sharing ma y als o affect tl1e speed of 1 e�o�n1, ; and it m� be : to li y 81��ficant that the kings of Morocco, wh o have gei1erall.y been willtilg e h p olitical parties, h�ve 11 tl1e a 1 tl 1 n o1· ref of y wa t.l1e accomplisl1ed less in ;' · Sha; 0;�� an, who has done his best to suppress tl1e1n. If compro · . . . 1 1° li t1 r . l a n 0 o 1 1 t· · t c ra . · se · t a ' t s 1, lclt . 1 o11 reas l1. e 1s . t. ere any . Illo nareh Y ·ca rru I mposs1bl ' n n1oder . d 10to a .me cnn t · ·r · 1 ' · t tor b 11s tra e constitut1· narch so wills be peacefully mo , ° rt 11 1 ' . s 1 a t1 s · 11 e l1 t · 1·8 not f · °na1 rnon 11 t . archY? In tl1eory, this sl1011ld be poss1'ble, b · · . . , ro ar 1 0 111 lY c n g ltn rtl m fro 1t bl , c cy ra oc m de en to am ta rli pa r y mg monar hy '.: , to oligar�rul c monarcl1y. ...

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en Wh . . al i.e. 1·1 1· ted] mon. arcli-, . th Shah asked wh l1e drd .. !-11 of · _ ··Y c not become a const 1tut1on be to n ar le an s n t . ha1e like S [r s re ported to have replied th at "When th e Ira1;11a_ I .1a h c at il o m lllod�tn r i la m 81 I Y 11 1 il ' W ' . n d a A_ eh b w S f o e ve li k th e King izer '1;�� � � . . �' y kel s. nt t e tim o sen ve c ha st1 · l na lly ter equa strong pa 1 ,:.,. .. . ... ...... · _.,,·_. -��: <.·:·� .}-·...':.,:.·..• .

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STITUTIONAL LAW N O N C IA P IO H T E F O SoURCEBOOK

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THE AGENCIES OF THE CENTRAL GOVER'NMENT

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Introduction a tr _ is in n dm tio lic A itb 61 P 19 of , lc oo db ( an H ) 6 A p.1 p , ns •21 Frotn United Natio s al tor �ic y fac oli ma p d an e k. ma n ma l1u of re adnlinisssu pre g tiin 1tin coi e s. Tll a 1 deg o t ree, as this excerpt ng ex1 p :per and ti11g stra fru t men ove r trative imp 1eloping] cot1ntry re po rt 1llustrates: , de [ from a ''It is evident tl1at tl1e orga11ization has 11ot kept pace with tl1e ra pid groi1h a11d additio11 of respo11sibilities. Tl1e Government has never had a methodical cot1rse cl1arted for its necessarily difficult travels in modern administration, a11d co11seqt1e11tlv its decisions l1ave often been haphazard. The d .istribution a11d defi11itio11 of responsibilities is made \.Vithout too much regard for balance, ofte11 011 tl1e spt1r of tl1e mo1nent, or to st1.it tl1e wl1jm of an ambitious individual, te1111)oraril:/ powerf11l. Sucl1 decisions i11evitably are unstable and invite constant amendn1e11ts. Tl1ere is a feeli11g i11 the Government tl1at a cl1ange is necessarily a11 impro'1en1e11t, and responsibilities are constantly being shifted around for no otl1er appare11t reaso11 than a desire for change." 8. As soo11 as ,L Govern1nent extends its activity from the traditional tasks of defence, di1)lo1nacy and tl1e mai11tena11ce of law and order and enters the field of economic and social se rvices, its aclministration inevitably a.cquires a multiplicity of mi11.istries, departments, divisions and i11depende11t commissions a11d boa rds. 111 a developed co1.111try tl1ese may be nun1bered by the l1undred r�tl1er tha1 1 by tl1e doze11. How are tl1ey organized so as to carry out tl1e funct1ons of government? 9. A ratioi1a] a�d analytical aJ)J)roach to orga11.izatio11 has been e,,olved in the study of pu_bl1c ad1�!1istratio11 d11ring the past decades, a.11d it l1as been foun� that, broadly, adIU1n1strative age11c.ies 1nay be orga11ized in one of four ways. (a) By J)lirpose, �.e., give11 respo11sibility for c.arrying ot1t one or n1ore of _ t he purposes wl1ich tl1e Gover11n1e11t i 11tends to pursue, such as housing, l1ealtl1, defence; (b) By process, i.e., give11 responsibility for ca rrying out a process whi�h may ser_ve _01· provide for· cl 1111n1ber of depar t1ne11ts; a department of wor 5 . and bu 1 Id1ngs or a ministry of fi11a11ce are examples; (c) By c�jentele, i.e., gi,1e1 1 res1)011sibility for deali11g witl1 a particular or k111d_ �� person; vete1·a11 s of wars, t�or example, are often :mad res1)011s1b1l1ty of a sp ecial ministry; . ·s ( d) y -�eograJ)llical div�sio11, i.e., given responsibility for the total ad::i�ra !100, or for a section of it' in a part of the State or its depen d e� 0v: g o t ·' a distric · t under a r tor1es efec pr co1nmissioner, a region u.11der a ernor, are examples. . tu(t1 1 0. Eacl1 of tl1e fou h hic . · w r _categor1es has its adva11tages and disa.dvantages, . upon sticb quest1011s as· . . · ·gle_ · � s a (a) To what extent It . y . . b d e JL ro ·. 1s · ca1)able of being effective ly cont .:. . . . · ..· · m1n1ster ' so as to fulfil Govern1nent policy;

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THE DEVELO.Pl\!1ENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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day work ca11 be readily co-01·dinated wit ?�Y -t?its l1er Wl1e t l1 tl1 e \Vork (b) ; s 1e r t 1s 1n m r 1e tl o of pt1b lic tl1e serv e adeqt1ately and witl1 tI1e least i iJcon �ill it her Whe t ­ (c) venienc e to 1t; co� to· or trib l1in t1te der wil l tl1e develop 111e11t of a11 efficient it her W1J et (d) 1 l1icl1 it de1 by 1nst the anc _ e , for ext e11t e, to_ serv v\ ic er 11a 11cts specialist care knowledge or offers a wide ra11ge of ex1)er1e11ce; a11d 1 e 111ost efficie11t t1se of tl1e JJrofessional and tl ma kes it er Wh eth ) tecJ111ical (e staff a11d services a,,ailable to serve tl1e ptibljc_ 11i�ing t_l1e �aJ�1e of orga11ization �l1ar\s depicti11g primary struc­ recog While 15 tures and relat1onsl1ips, 1t 1s also \.Veil to bear 1n m111d tl1eir lin1itations. Tllere is increasing recog�tio11 111 advanced sttldies 011 ad111i11istratio11 tl1 at many aspects are ignored 1 n Stlcl1 cl1arts. Cl1arts do not sl1ovv tl1e vo1 L1me or flow of work, tl1e con1plex 11etwork of co1n1111111 ications a11d the informal relation­ shjps wl1ich prevail in adm.injstrative orga11izatjo11s a11 d \vl1icl1 n 1t1st be stt1diecl by other iecl1niques. In its growi11g emJ)l1 asis 011 tl1 e study of co 111m·u 11icatio11 s, informal relationsl1ips, decisio11-maki1 1g processes au.ct ad1ni 11 istrative be­ haviour, contemporary literatt1re of p11blic ad111i1.1istratio11 reflects tl1 e searc] 1 for a more realistic analysis tl1a11 a single cl1 art of a forn1a1 l1ierarchy ca11 reveal.

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mous bodies should be kept as low as possible. Tl1e poi11t \v,1s clearly 111ade and the advantages listed - in an expert's report: "Before ... there were only five 1ninistries in the co11 11 try, Tl1e great in­ crease in government activities since 1950 i11evitably resulted in 11ew Mi1 1 is­ !ries. In their creation, insu:fficie11t tl1ougl1t was give11 to t11e 11eed for group­ ing together those \vitl1 closely related activities, thtis sec11ring tl1e be11efits of more co-ordinated plan11ing and exect1tio11, better use of tl1e experience of the senior officials and greater economy in run11ing expenses.'' There is a great temptation for Governments, wl1e11ever a 11ew f11nction is adop�ed, to create a new ind.ependent organizatio11 t1nit and to entrust tl1e functi?n to a new department or to ad hoc boards or _other a�1tonomous agen cies. The proliferation of new age11cies and boards w1tl1 v�r�1ng degr�es of auto nomy and with functions wbicl1 often overlap tl1ose of ex1st111g agencies reSults in the twin evils of t e�den iiJdep many T?� . rsio11 dispe a11d dup licatio11 centre� of power are te. a in_ ?rd c?to r 1ste 1n1n e prim or e11t sid ted crea for a pre 1h18 _means confusi i'" on for the pub lic and �omplexity _for the adininistra_ti_onj n parlia mentary governm itic� pol for se? rea 111c are rs ents where ministe l ci tin aso�s� this may co or t ne i b ca e iv ct fe ef , iit kr operate agai�st a �lose ly �� . mini sters, and make co-ordination harder. The great cluste to . in . ll fa t n e m n over G rs of substantive functions of a modern . tern . pat \VO�Id · e th t ou 1 � ug ro tl1 t tha ;n can be found witl1 m in o.r variations, e s s 1e nan general tl1ey � r � l1e1 T _ . correspond 'to tl1e principal 1ni11istries. t0 d en , A , s ir a 1 1 . l n . a n · r · genera l te ote the�r n ' I s ir a 11• I .AA-" rna E�te 11ce, F1na r: acte char Nfatio and h a r leg Te e o� , l1 e-fence, Post Office (ofte11 includrng Telep fu D l )a e as Racti Justic , d b m o c es _ 1� omet (s , l1 lt e a le r , d re u lt o cu ti ri ca g , A n tle al�h nd E u attern e h of the : Welfar�) and Pt1blic Works. T_here is greater v ���f�JI'i ; Mfnerals, n Wer fun 1 1 y ( Energ ctions, such as Con_servat1on and .

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IO T U IT NAL LA\\. T S N O C N lA P · · lO f I · ·r E ,.. F o · · " B·OOK bOURCE

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. s a, r1d Wildlife)· I11dt1strial and Con1me-rcial Developm en t ( or r e v 1 R . s t . s .W'elfa. re a11d Socia 1 I ns11r. ance,Labo ur· Fore gi Re . · o on ti n ·ta ' or SJJ al · ' -_ 1 . . 1 T a 1 ) , ' : .. J' 1n 0 _ . 11 Eco t no no 1s rn1 1co t · u1 I n g. s1n o11 for I:f a cl a11 d 1g mo 011 a11 Pl e · rn \:vn To t. . . , . 1 1 1� 11 I . p o e ,, . e D . . A . s ou or om t u on 1. m se s. 11e 1st to 1n au n1 no ty e11 tw mous to n tee fif ve 1 a 1 o t S.tat e · . I b 1 nk' 111g, spec1a a tra cen as nk ba lds fie s cl1 tor s11 i11 in1t ler va e IJi· ' e • 0 a r s . 1e . · 1c . c;1 k · . ag · .. ng r et1 o f ma 1t, d . ere 1 COID a ur 11lt r1c d ag ino iti es' · 1 developrueiit and · dU.StI.Ia a · 11 t er 10 er n d an ge ow JJ e, ns ag tra 11 a1 dr d an sio mis _ y 1Jl n, 1p st er at w , es iti il ut c )ltbli n rt, of io o at po rb er ha op e th , r ur fo d an ai 11, io at ig irr 1d a1 rp ort l ro nt co od ho me f of rn ril?-8 al ve er go fed t, 1 1 11 the or­ es. iti cil f,l ? � n tio rta po 11s tra er 1 and otl , l rn na tte e tio pa th na l1 e w1t b! em res ay special 1 11 el lev te sta e tl1 at 1 o1 ati niz . ga e r: nt a Go he me W es. ern 1 1t1 or tl at1 ns a ow al loc tl1 � wi _ s o11 ati rel 1 e111pl1asis 01 . tl1 le w1 con rab 1de ses pri ter en d freedom an s 1 101 rat po � cor c bli p11 of 1111111ber fro111 ce11tral co11trols, special }Jroblems are pr�_sented of tl1err control and co­ ordi11atio11 witl1 11atio11al }Jolicy.

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'fl1e Ministries of the Government We I1ave seen tl1at tl1e ministries of tl1e Etl1iopian Government ,vere first establish�d by the En1peror Menelil< II in 1908; tl1eir po,vers and organisation \:Vere codified by Order No. I of 1943 a11d st1bseqt1en t an1endi11g Orders; these Orders were co1npletely re,vritten and reissu ed as the M.inisters (Definilion of Po\v, ers) (An1endn1ent No. 2) Order, No. 46 of 1966, from \vhjch the pre­ sent (January 1969J 1Jowers a11d c!u ties of tl1e n1inistries are derived. Tl1e n1inistries provicle tl1e ordinary ad1nin .is trative n,achinery of the government, and by far tl1e greater part of its routine ft111ctions ru·e ca1·ried out by one or other of the ministries, as a glance at the list of n1inistries a11d tl1eir l)Ovvers vvill s110\1/. Fro.m tl1e standpoint of a constitutional l..1\vyer, tl1e 1ninisLries are JJlai11ly gover11111e11tal ora£111isatio11s. and are therefor� subject lo the vario u s provisio ns of tl1e Revisecl Co11stitt1 tion wl1icl� deal \Vi tl1 ·sucl1 oroaoisations. Tl1ey are several tii11es �xp_licilly 111entio11ed in tl1e Constitt1 tio11, and at oll1er points t11e; are clearly included. T�eir organisation, povvers a 11d_ dt1ties are det ern1i ned b)' legislation pron1ulgated pursuant to Arncle 27, and tl1e staltis of tbetr JJerso11nel is go\1er11ed by regt1.lat.ions 111ade tinder Articles 27 �nd 66 (�onipare _Order No. 44, s�lprc1). Tl1ey a re liable i n t11e cot1rts for tl1e ''wrongfu.11' acts of the ir ?ffi· cials (J\.rt icle 62), and. tl1�1r prese11t direct accou11tability to Parlia . n1ent seen1s defined by Aruc!es 72 and �3 - The autl1or1 sat1011 of tl1eir bt1c!gets n 1t1st confor111 to Ar'ticle.s 114-118, and their fina�c:al tr� nsactions ar� o pe,, to ll1e inspection of tl1e A11clitor Gener,1l 11nder Articles 120-121. The minis­ t ��!c tl�u_s JJ:ovid� exa111_1Jles o f ''standard'' gover nn,ental organis ations, and can usefulJy be com· P l vitl1 agei1c1es \Vl11cl1 n1ay be ''go,,er11111ental'' in son1e respects but not in others.

of From tile �inisters (Defi11itio11 of l=>ovvers) (A 6 No . Or der , 111e11dment N·o.2) 4 1966, Negarzt Gazeta 25tl1 Yea1· N'o . 23.

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"':l-IEREAS, in furtherance of the objectives expressed in Order ��- 44 0� 0 1966 ' it llas becon1e 11 ecessary to revi s r 5t i e xte11sively tl1e powers of th e M ru se e 0 Llr G·overrunet1t · tions NO W, TI-IEREFORE, in accordance C ed wit1 1 Article 27 of Our Revis ttit·IOI.l, W e 1iereby order as follows: .

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nt dme I . Thls Order n1ay be cite . . . n ....,e A L · . d as tl1e ''M1n1ste1·s (Definitio11 of Powe,rs) (_n.JJ. N 0 · 2) 0 rder, 1966' '. are 2. Articles 22 tl1rot1gl1 . d ' d n am e e 91 inclt1sive of Order No. I of 1943, as . 11 erebY ie1)ealecl ai1d. replaced . by Articles 15 tbrougl1 34, as f ollows;

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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'' MINISTRIES 11

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est ablishe? are as follows: pr�sent at l jstries l Min 15. T e Ministry of Nat1?nal Con11nu11 1ty Developme11t a11d Social Affairs Th e e alt l1 1c H bl u P f o ry st l ni 1i :tv e Tl . and Re�o r 'I�l a11d Ad1ni11istratio11 L of istry 11 Mi The 1 t1 1_1cat1ons 1m n o C of y tr is in M . e Th The Ministry of In�or1nation a11d Toll r1s111 The Mi11istry of M1o�s The Mjnistry of Pt1b1 l1c Works The Mjnistry of Ed:1cation a11d Fi11e Arts The Ministry of Con1111erce and Iodt istry Tl1e Minjstry of National De£e11ce The Ivlinistry of I11terior The Wnistry of Ag1·ict1lture The Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Mii1istry of Finance The Ministry of tl1e Imperial Court The Ministry of Pen Tl1e Mi11istry of Justice Tl1e Ministry of Planning and Develo1J111e11t The Ministry of Posts, Telegrapl1s and Telepl1ones

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''THE l\1INISTRY OF FINANCE

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"29. The Mjoister of Finance is the l1ead of 011e of tl1e Departme11ts transacti11g State affairs, namely tl1e Mi11ist ry of Fina11ce. Tl1e Mi11ister of f'jnance, i11 accordance with the law, shall: (a) receive bt1dget proposals fro1n eacl1 Mi11istry and Govern1ne11t depart­ ment each year, including the developn1e11t bL1dget; a11 al yze said bt1dget proposals; consolidate said proposals into a single consolidated bt1dget, prepare appropriate altern ative bl1dget proposals, and prese11t said co11solidated bl1dget and said alternative bt1dget proposals togetl1er ,vitl1 a report setting forth tl1e differences in tl1e two p roposals a11d l1is recom­ mendations thereon, to tl1e Cou11cjl of Mi11isters for revie\v, modification and approval; (b) administer the budget of the Governme11t; (c) en5 u�e that the fiscal system of the Goverrunent is appropr�ate to and co�sistent with tl1e rapid advancement of tl1e 11ation and is �-egtilarl y revi ewed to ensure that economic and social deve­ of i t meets the needs lopment·' (d) ensu re that tax laws a re p roperly enforced and that all reveilties due from taxes, custo ms and excise duties, fees and 1no11opoly dues atld 0ther sou rces are pr accot111 ted for; and operly collected assessed (e) wed anis ollo be e to f r ures ced pro gu _ l ate ting I _ oun and � acc , tro the con . �;g · all M1n1 str1es and Government departm ents; (f) sub. illl_ t . . tll iiig dur s to the Council of Minister s periodic financ.i a.l report . � a�d the annual report of the acco11nts of the Government requi re bear 'Y Article 120 of the tion; Co ns tit R ev u ise d .

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SouRCEBOOK OF ETHIOPIAN CoNSTITUTI ONAL LA iv

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(g) take all finarJcial . a11d. inonetary. m eas t1res n_ecessa�y _for the bala n h ced f develop t 1ne11t e social nation, and { econonlic wit h 1n the � fra mew ork , ent n1n ver e Go of t11e poli c ies of tJ1 / (h) negotiate ai,cl coi1.clude, in c?-OJJerati o n witl1.. other Min.istr ies �nd AtitI1 orit ies co11ce rned _and 111 . accorda11.ce _w1tl1 approved proJectsPublic , grammes and plans, 11:1ter11at1onal fi?anc1al agreemen� and arranprog e111te and 1·11al loan s to be mad e or received n1.ei1.ts and external by the Go- 1 veri1.ment, except i11sofa!· _as specific �ower the�efor 11as been legally delegated to a1Jotl1 er M1111st1·y or Public Aut hority; (i) s11perv i se and adn1iniste1· the nat ional d ebt; U) be tl1e repository of and safegt1ard tl1e Govern1nent's shares, n egotiabl e a11d non-11egotiable i nst1·ume11ts aud otJ1er si milar financial assets; and (k) accot1nt for a11d adn1i11 ister i11uno,1able property of the , Go v ern me nt wl1icl1 is 11ot bei11g ad111inistered or llsed b11 a.11y other Ministry or Pu bli c , A11 tl1ority. I•

''T I-IE IvllNIS1'RY OF PLr\NNING AND DEVELOP �1ENT ''33. TJ1e Mi11ister of Pla1111ing and Developm e11t is tb e he ad of one of the Depa.rt­ n1ents transacLi11g State affairs, na1nely, th e M in is Pl tr an an y d of ni ng DeveloJ)ment. Tl1e Mi11ister of Plan1ung an d D ev el op i11 accordance 1n en t, with the law, sl1all: (a) be ge11erally responsible for tl 1e conduct of the Go\1ernment's planning activities; (b) s11pervise a11d co-orcli11ate tbe activities of the Government's pla11n ing adnii11istratio11; (c) ir1 co-operation witl1 o tl1er Ministries and Publ ic At1tl1orities concerned, initiate, preJ)are a11d organise lo11g-te1�1n developrnen.t pla11s and submit tl1e same for aJ>provaJ b y tl1e Cour1cil o f M· i uiste1·s; (d) rec�ive each year f1 ·01n tl1e Ivii11istries and Public Autl1orities co ncerned , 0�, if the same ar e not so received, initiate and p repare annual development PI ogran1111es a.1,d tl1e s11pJJorti11g cievelop111e11 t budget p1·oposals; a 11 alyze, evaluate a 11d co11solida te said an11ua1 devel op111e11t programme� and develo1)me11t b11dgets at . e 1d na p nc 1·e se i1 1 t F tl 1 of e sa M n1 in e is tr t th o y e for consolidation in to the a11nt1al Go,,er11ment budge t ; e ( ) in ag�·eement with other M inis tri es a n d Public Authorities concer n1 estabhsh appropriate a n d e ffective p ro cedures to ensure that p pr e developm ent plans a a o� 1 a n d p ro g ra m mes are properly implemented aod � h. tlie dev�lopinent budget is p1·o pe1·ly expe11ded fo th purp oses fo r w c r e appropriated; (f) carrr o ut or lit cause t o be ca1·ried ou y bi si fe a ic m t ec t e on cl 1n o an ic stud1es 0f in al d · ct·ivi· dual developm ent projects; g ( ) fe r�sponsible for the secu b. p n , a ri m n g u , ti co pilation an alysis, colla on d ication o f data and statistics '·

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TtlE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

521

in ccor danc conc lt1de e witl1 approved projects, pro, and e � tiat nego (b) mes a;11d plans, agreem�nts a11d a�ra11gements concerning the provi ­ ram g n1t 1lt1 lat nd er l ass a 1sta c n e a� bila t � of : siotl _ _ �, and co-ordinate the same ,vitll other M1n1str1es and Ptt bl1c Autl1orrt1es co11cer11ed; 11era l cred enfo g it rce Ol a11d � tilate :f? forro . icies of Government fii1a11cial (i) institutions and corporations engaged 111 tl1e fina11cing of clevelopment plans and programmes; and be resp onsi y toge ble, the1· wi ncipa ll th otl1er M.i1listries and Public pri U) Autl1orities concerned, t·or rep1·ese11ti11g a11d protecti11g the interests of tlie Gover11.n1 �nt i11 public financial institt1tions a11d corporations engaged in the fina11c1ng of develop1nent pla11s and progra1nmes." '' Ad Hoc'' Agencies of Government

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l n addition to its ordinary n1injstries, the gover1m1ent consists of a great 111a11y special ag encies with separate ad111inistrative stru:t�res of their own. Tl1ese are known by a variety of titles� Agency, Authorit�, Board, �011u!uss1on, and so fortJ1 - bt1t a1110!1g lawyers ''age11cy'' is ,1 comn1on term to characterise any urut oJ governn1ent, a11d ,ve sl1all use 1t l1ere. Special agencies have been set up wherever the goverll111ent or an expert advising it l1as felt tl1at so111e task would be better performed by a specialised organisation, perhaps auto110111ot1s, tl1a11 by a nu11istry. Agencies are especially common in fields related to econonuc develo1)111ent a11d regt1la.tion of econo1n.ic activity. Some agencies are essentially ad111inistrative. Tl1ey carry out n1ucl1 the s:1mc sort of work: as the ministries, apart from the greater need for specialisation, ru1d s0111e st1bjects l1ave been tl1e re­ sponsibility at different times of both m.injstries and ag e11cies. The Plao11ing Boarcl and tl1e Land Reform and Development Authority, for instance, \.Vere in 1966 converted into tl1e i\/linistries of Planning and of Land Reform and Administration. Ad111inistrative agencies 111ay also be set tip in order to give greater attention to a particular subject, or siinply for aclmi11istr�1tive convenience; they are usually given g r eater .financial independence tl1an n1i11istries, and tl1ey n1ay enable necessary technical work to be carried on \'lith as little interference as possible. Other agencies are essentiilly co1n1nercial, and are und er governn1ent control because tl1e s�rvices which they provide are too important or expensive to be left to private enterprise. Etl1io­ pian Air Lines and the Imperial Board of Teleconu1111nications are among tl,js kind of agency: they provide services for sale in. n1ucl1 the same way as a11 ordinary co1111nercial company, tl1ot1gh because of their importance and monopoly position they are directe d a11d owned by the governn,ent. Because governme nt agencies cover sucl1 a wide rang e of subjects, they vary greatly. i� t�eir leg l powers and status, and they cannot therefore be l L1 mped togetl1er in tl1e sa111e \Vay as n11ntS t ries. Soma e age�ries, like the Ethiopian Tourist Office (see p.454 supra), owe tl1eir existence to O!·ders uoder Article 27, in just tl1e same ed lSll eSlabl \\'.as Board Meat L and ck ivesto The way as ministries. by an Order (ser p.463 si,nra) b11t ee P-464 (s mation Procla by it given were s power many of its ' '1' • •• · �1e -?7· Th sunr ) · . e r a' ')ffice these were beyond tl1e scope of the law-n1aking 1sed by Arti-. 1 autl10 power t t o the ost Office ey _Auth ori tr, all 1 sl V A\ov� e _ l1 T _ 111 . P alone ation has been changed by rocla P !a� f o ependent or semi-indepen den t bod ie s like the Hail e Sellassie I U1_11vers1ty and Haile Sella�sie <l _ 1 °#�uociation ). ,�,a Sl -463 456 pp. (cf. s tice No ral e have e n G been founded by Charters issued as _ ed So o the : ren lai e l1av , rity tl1o Ati � 'comi:ner�ial '' agencies, like th e Electric Ligl 1t an_d Power f as 1: te ee n b l1as d a led, o 1Jea ed e r rter Cl1a orga r its rusat1ons '· but EthioJ)ian Air Line s has l1ad ar_ Ii nst1tu r 1e tl o 1e n so eco a d e, d t e c a d 1 · 1erci Con1n . �? a _ g . ther govern. 1ent eoasterpn?verncnent-owned share company tind er tl1e Investment Co�x porat1on is ano ses have been set up in the san1e way: tl1e _ exam·Pfe, aoct its legal basis is examined below.

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An Exan1ple : The AVA From the Cb 1962, of 299 No. Notice ar ter of tl1e Awash Valley Autl1ority, General e 1V garit GaL.eta _ 21st Year No. 7. l. �her e is ' VA 'A h er aft ein e { :� ( ty ori � hereby created the Awash Valley Aut� en 11 er o ro at o o s . v G 1 a1 p1 1o tl1 E J aJ r1 th pe f t h ut e m u ic P bl y o i u A or m on bne go�ve rned by the provisions hereof. ,

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\\1 A L J A N IO T U JT _, T · s r-1 o C N SoURCEBOOK OF ETJ-IIOPIA

V s er f a w d o o a s p A n io 11 ct A n a fu p ap 1e tl e l1 it r w 1 g . t 1 Ji ea d p s n o si vi ro p r P te ar 1 l [C .] ra p u s· , V r te p a 1 I C f 462-463 o IO. Tlie AyA sllalI 11 ave a.11 an11t1al b11dget _which s�all be appr�ve� by tli e Boa rd portion of _That said below]. [see b�dget Comnlissioners of wh1�h 1s not fina nced resources shall 011t of 1ts be 1ncl11ded 1n the b dget by tl 1e AvA direct])' u of the Government. 11. ,.fl1e fiscal year of tl1e AVA sl 1 all be the fiscal year of the Government. 12. Witl1 i11 tl 1 ree (3) mo11t]1 s of tl 1 e end o� eacl1 ��ancia] year, the A'YA shall pre­ pare a11 d s11bmit to tl 1e Office of tl 1 e Prime M1n1ster a report sh.owmg the results of operations carried 011t d11ri11 g said year. The AVA sl1 all also at tl1e same time sl1b111.it a fi11ancial report for tl 1 e same year to the Ministry of Finance a11d to the Office of t11e A11ditor Ge11era1. 13. Tl1e powers, respo11sibilities a11d functions of tl1e AVA pro\1id.ed for l1erein sl 1all be vested in tl 1 e Board of Commissioners (herejnafter ''the Board''). 14. The Board shall be composed of se,1e11 (7) n1embers comprising the General Ma11ager, one representative eacl1 from tl1 e Ministries of Agriculture, Com1nerce a11d I11 dustry, Interior and Public Works and Communications,* all of wl 1on1 sl 1all be appointed by the Minister of said Ministries, and two (2) members to be ap1)ointed by Us.

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[Other JJrovisions deal with procedure for 01·ganising tl1 e Boa.rd, conducting its 1nontl1ly meetings a.11d wit11 power a11d d11ties of tl1e General Manager]. 20. Tl1e Board may adopt by-Ia,vs consistent witl 1 tl1e provisions l1 ereof and may f1X tl1e remtrneration of its me1nbers.

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A11other �-..'Ca111ple: T/1e Invest1ne1zt Co1po1·atio11 The <:;o rporati ?n ,vas for!11�d by }Jreparing and filing its ''Articl�s'' and its ''Memorandum" of Assoc1 at1on ,v1tl1 tl1e M1111stry o f Co111n1erce and Industr)'.

Frorn Etlziopia Observer, Vol. X, No. l, 1966, }Jp.89-90.

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ARTICLES OF' ASSOCIATION 01= ETI-llOPIAN INVESTMENT CORPORATION, S.C. (A Sl1are Company) · me 2· The Coiupany shall be governed by these le_ a b lica app Articles and other � ures. Tlie . Cor11Pa 11 Y sl1 all l1ave separate juridical personality and in particular tl 1 e capacity (a) to contract, (b) to sue and to be sued in its ow n name ' and (c) to acquire , own, IJOssess · and dispose of pr operty. _ *

Order No . 46 of 1966 N lic . . b pu f 0 eg. _Gaz. 23rd. Y �a_r, No. 23, divided the former M1ms trY . . trY of Works and Conunu · nications into the s iru M the and Mll listry of Public Works Communications.

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n d functions of t�1e Co�pan y sl1 all be vested. in the Board of a s er ow ,, The p the Boa rd ).. The Board sl1all forn1ttlate called after (here tile policy s or t c Dire e n 1ent of tl1e Compa11y. ag an m e t� se rvi pe and su sist of fiv� �irect o.rs to b� ap1Joi11 tecl by tl1e General M con shall oard . eetThe B shall be J0111tly respo11s1ble. s r cto dire T g he n i . tl1� fulles t powers for operatio11 on tl1e Company's gra11te d is rd Boa The . business in accordance with_ t �e purposes, obJects a11cl fu11 ctio11s set out in the Memorandum of Assoc1at .1on.

MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF

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ET.HIOPIAN INVESTMENT CORPORATION, S.C.

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(A Share Compa11y)

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We, the undersig ned subscribers, do hereby under a11d pursuant to tl1e provi­ sions of the Commercial Code of tl1e Empire of Ethiopia of 1960 ai1d tl1e Articles of Association hereunder, associate ou.rselves as a body co11)orate in t�orm of a sl1are compa ny, hereina.fter called the ''Compa11y'' to be l<11ovvn as:-

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Ethiopia n Investmen t Corporation, S.C.

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(A Share Company)

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l. The names, nationality and addresses of tl1e s ubscribe.rs were tl1e following:­ (a) Ministry of Finance, Imperial Ethiopian Govern1ne11t, King George VI Street, Addis A.baba. ssie la Sel ile (b) Ha , ian i 1iop iop Etl Eth y, t i o1· h an t· At1 ct er Ele ic Pow ht r and Lig ' I Sta.r Square, Ad.dis Ababa. (c) State Ba n k of Ethiopia, Ethiopian, Haile Sell,issie I Ave11t1e, Addis Ababa. (d) Ba.l1 r Dar Textile Mill s, S.C. , Etl1iopian, Sn1t1ts Street, Addis Ababa. (e) Imperial Insurance Company Ethiopian, Cun11ingl1an1 Street, Ad<lis . ' Aba ba. ., 4· The e th se: po ur p _ i aii o _ e thi oti pian .Investment Corporation, S.C., l1as_ .� 1? elop m� nt v mo?111sation and e d e _ l tab ofi pr 111 investmen t of all available fun.ds n pia hio Et ProJects co plyin.g l. r1a e 1r) In e tl1 of m with the De·velopment Pla11 est e n of i e er y ng a · Jl 1 f i ov nment. To fulfil this purpose it wi ll offer a. � 11 1q J _ media to i11sti run int 1na ll wi d an /e, tu.tional an d other l1 olders of f11nds, icab t prac . be resources, e. �loye may as fully se . d an I y d . OId manage 1·e ve m as m un er at 1 . ·u . .· .' at sh0 te h 11 wi t ' 11• 10 I · · at l1g ob , rts i 1n · r 1J to 0 op m pr on ap t te o1 ria p1 � and dtsp . 11ot. d b tl1 Govern men t , be1ng . . ose of the 1nvest Y e a folio �� t po t e1 t. r men � ! invest guided' always new · r . fo is oc fu 1ze b1l mo by to e th ed g ne 1n r1d er ov ',"'-·?" ... . . .

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETHIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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It will proniote tI1 e sale of s11a�·es i� existing enterprises, a11d to that end Will . ate ues pri iss pro ap in t rke n1aintain a ma

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Otl1er pu1·poses and objects are: (a) to provide fina 11ce in tl1e form of investn1ent loans and by sha re parti­ cipatio11 ; (b) to n1ake ft1nds available by ?elli:13 g s_l1ares and loans from its ow n port­ folio by borrowing and by 1ssu111 g 1ts ow n debe11 tures, depo sit receipt s or other evidences of indebtedn.ess; (c) to ft1rnisl1 ma11agerial, tecl1nical and administrative advice and assista nce to a11y e11 terprise on st1ch terms as m ay be agreed; (d) to float, sponsor, underwrite an d deal i n any issu.e of shar es an d securities I of any 1<i11d; r (e) to issue, accept, disco1111 t and deal in bills of e xcl1ange and promissory notes, to disco11nt and deal i11 treasury bills; (f) to guara11 tee loans an.d obligatio ns; (g) to l1olcl, acqt1ire, n101·tgage, sell or lease re al es ta te or any otl1er form of prOJ)erty; (11) ge11erally to do al l st1cl1 otl1er tbi11gs as n1a y be appropriat e or related tl1ereto 01· otl1 e1·\v. ise enl1ance tl1e ' b11si 11 ess of th e Company. 5. Tl1e an1ount of tl1e capit,11 was Etl1 . $10,000,000 divided into 100,000 shares of tl1e J)ar val11e of $100 eac l1, f11lly subscribed as follows:,,r

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(a) Mi11istry of Fi11ance 99,996 b ( ) E.E.L.P.A. I (c) Co 1nn1e1·cial Bank of Etll iopia Sl1are Co1npa11y I (d) Bahr ?ar Textile M . ills Sl1are Co 1 npaoy l (e) I1n1�er1�l I11st1r,111ce Co1111)ai1 y of Etl1101)1.a, S.C.

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TJ1e above. s11ar·es . c ': c a 1·e 1 10w f11 11 . y .g . etiv l\1e Of Sept e111ber 16 p,11d. and at tl1e Extrao.rd1na1·v aJ 11e 1' e · � 0 . 1965 to · ' t·he capi. ta l .was ,_111creased to Etl1. $20,000, 000 a·1 1'ded ,n 200,000 8 ·11 a, res ot'· · -1 v 1_ arest.·J1e pa r valtie o·_ � 1 '· m: s Tl1ese liave b ei r· E. t.l1. $100 eacJ1 by jssue of 1 00,000 new . k ta � up by been paid up � , M1111s try of Finance, a11d 25 perce nt 1185 aJre-a,dJ.. ---� eii -· 1

Fro1n Eth·lOJJz·a,z Heralcl, Dece mber 7, 1966. The Etl1 io1)ia11 I11\'e Sln1e . of ·. nt Corpo1·atio11 $40 mi·11·i on i n prod . · ltct·i ,,e develo fo11r yea.rs. p111ent


THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

525

. losing at a11 interview . held here yesterday,. . tl1e. corporation's manager ' DJSC . t t 1nves men t oppo1· t} t 1a d 11n1t 1es 111 Etl11opia are ''limitless' state er, Oliv B. ' B · fi ' ,, ' · Mr I-I. . e 111 0 1te . r a s d e e n 's y tr n ii co and tile ?oration, Cor forn1er]y 11vest�ent lc11_ow11 as tl1e Investment pian l Ethio � , The if,.. , its operat1? ns t_o"vards eco11om1 cally a11d coininercially direct� pia, Ethio I of eank proJects 111 order to clccelerate tl1e rational 11 tilisaagricultural and rial indust r. a.,1·bJe encot1rage tl1e to resources, le of goods and availab . . diversified production �t,,10 n!i of · d 1e pro 11ct1ve capacity f o · t I tl1 e 11at1011al eco11omy, tl1e cor increase to and es servic poration's anni1al report for 1959 E.C. states. .. l In order to carry out its operations, tl1e I 11vest 111e11t Corporation fosters tl1e � r'! saving and investment pote11t.ial of tl1e cot1 11try a11d facilitates tl1e co-OJJeratio 11 of owners of capital and sponsors sol111d development projects, tl1e a11nual report said. Last year, the Investment Corporation sold sl1ares valt1ed at $2 n1illion and . . bought shares worth $1,730:000. Tl1e co1-po1·atio11' invested a total of $5 1nillio11 I, in various development projects. The corporatio1 1 s loa11s a11d credits for tl1e sa111 e I year were $24 million, it was learned. I

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An agreement for $20 million l1as already been signed witl1 tl1e Age11cy Jor International Develop111ent. Tl1is a,1ailable credit, wl1icl1 awaits 1Jarli,11ne11tary ratification, is to be utilised by the I11vestme11t Cor1Joratiou for tl1e purchase of machinery.

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Tl1e Investment Corporation I1as substantial stakes i n tl1e follo\ving e11ter­ prises: the Etbjopian Shipping Lines S. C., the Etl1 io-Japai1ese Sy11tl1etic Textiles, Pabr Dar Textile Mills, Etl1iopjan Grain CorJJOration, Eritrea Cen1e11t Sl1are Co1n­ pany, National Meat Corporation of Etluopia, R11 bber a1 1d Ca11vas SJ1oe share c_ompany, R _ as Hotels share company: Sabean Utility Corporatio11, Te11daho Plauta­ lJons, Afr1can Match and PaJJer Com1Jany, Etl1jopian PulJJ a1 1d Paper S. C., and the Ethiopian Farm Development.

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· . Policy Cons1·derat1ons 1n Rega,·d to ''Acl floe'' Age11cies

th r n t the int oductiot1 to this Section fro111 the U1Jited Nations 1/airclbook of Pt,!Jlic e eadi g a i�.strat RAdevrnrnr ion, si,pra; theo rconsider the following fron1 the san,e sot1rce.

Prom United Nations, A Handbook of Pitblic Adn1;11i.r;;trc1tio11, op. cit., PP· 73-75. 234- Three � · tration r.or t·l 1e �d m i·n.ts _ r f . s ecl L1s o f en be . y iz all an . er rg n n ve io ge at l1a � . m ? . · of ptibli _ente r1 es iv ct Jc ?? 1 e tl 11 e� tw be e 11c ]a ba c r1J s, se cl ea 1 acl1ievjng a different of operat1ng 1e Tl . 1es l1c po Jor ma eir tJ1 of to aL1 ol ntr co my no nt me d rn an ve go 0ld .est · o n . to 1i ' a '' f o fo g 1 n d 1 r ea l e 1 ·I t . _I!l cannot, strictly speaking, be placed l111der mo·u_s _111st1tu tions t_1 e1 � artn dep ent ro er11 gov l ' ma nor '. Jt: e 1 tl is of th n for1 e · a nun1stry c::r · r te 1s · 1 n m a f o n o 1 t c ire ' d s . t 1e a l: t r . ed de un b 1d l a1 ne on er rs re pe �a y ,, It I a • es ? 1c rv se r l 1 1a_ 01 t 11a of 11 c 1 L tio 11ly tra r· 1is '" d u i n1 bee11 se u1 0 ' 11o the ad J· · ra1 d •rl. oni osp01on ' an s ice ·ies, for instance rv se c ni l,o ep tel d an ic 1 pl ra eg l tel sla po ' . waYs. ' This fi0 rm of organizalion enst1res fu 11 co11troI by. tl. 1e G. overnment · . e b ,The danger of ay m n L1o ra st 111 11J 1 e acl tJ1 at tl1 is th is _ r 11 fo jo 1n t . , za of 11j . ga or : . th

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io ct el ri 11 s and may not h st n n re so . er p d an al sc fi e iv ss ce ex a e Sl lb�ected to v r me v gic as olo 1c s hn tec al ers att l1 1 1 p im 1 n i11 o . e · n t s, 1 tio ac of , J:' d · m do ree • 1J e . t a . a eq11 � 1 nn g, rso t1n pe 11n n1stration and co m1 ac ad d an ce an fin ii, io ns pa ex capitai l ne on t :s en 1s pe u m �q 1·n ad ve g? e ly t rained at e 1 er l w , er ev ow I J:g. ptircllasiil l s ca s� ni es ch oc te d pr an �v vo 1n l ria ge ed, a.nd if na ma e tl� r fo ed pp ui eq aild . s1o t an an p _ pl n � tl11s for m ex r e f� ad m be 11 ca s on 1s1 ov pr l ia c 11 1a of fi1 ial spec ly y, 11ar ntl t1c1 cie par effi 1n the tradition­ e rat ope to e11t pet com is on t orgai1.iza i . ne 1o 1Jl le te d 1 a1 hs ap gr le te s, st po of s al field

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235. The second general form may be referred to as tl1e joint stock company the majority of wl1 ose share s are l1elcl by t l 1e Go�e�nment._ Go\'ern ment control of this kind often come s abo11t beca11se an eX1 st1ng, privately financed com­ pany passes i11to governn1e11t possession. A similar form of organization is a ''mixed enterJ)rise'', ,vl1ere a Government for 011e 1·eason or another is in partnersllip ,vitl1 I)rivate e11terJJrise. Ofte11 the intention has been that the Govern111e 1 1t sl1011ld ultimately sell its shares to private inve stors, but t11ere are 1 11a11y instances to sl1ow that this is not easily done, with tl1e result that t l1e Gover111ne11t remains i11 control of the company for a long pe riod. Examples of tl1is for1n of' mixed e11ter1)1·ise may be found in the mini11 g industry of Swe den .

236. Tl1e most recent for111 of p11blic e11 terprise to develop is that of the public corJ)oration. Here, adn1i11istrative .authority to conduct a specific public enter­ prise or group of related enterJ)ri ses is given, 11sually b)' [special] statute, to a corporate body aJ)I)Ointed by tl1e Government, employing its o,1/n staff a11d witl1 complete or ne a1·ly con11Jlete freedom from govern mental control i11 its day-to-day opera tio11 s. Gi,1en tl1 e 1 1eed to assume responsibility for a public �nterp�is�, G over111 11ents see adva.ntage.s i 11 tl1e public corporation beca�1sc 1t has 1_ n_1tiative, flexibility and operating freedon1, a11d relie ves mi11isters of direct ad1run1str ative respo11sibiJity .... 240. I-I: ow far sho11ld_ tl1e Gover1 1111e11t kee1) co 1 1trol of its public corporations and 110w far sl1ol1ld it go to grc111t tl1e111 al1tono111y? Tl1is is tl1e dilemn1a tl1at ma11Y Go�ernments are faci11g, a 11d 011e ,vl1icl1 eve11 adva11ced co1111tries bave not ei1t1r�ly solved. Tl1e corporate f orn1 is 11sed beca11se it js assun1ed tl1at t?e ptibl�c co1. p_oratio11, pa_rtic11larly tl1e one e11gaged in competitive com1n e�c!al � ai1 cl 1_o<ltist1_-1al field?, will tl1ereby be gi,re11. greater freedom of actio11, fleXI. bility and. 111centives. !t 1s given s0111e of' 111e c l1aracteris tic of a privately o�ned s business ente1:1)rise s _tl1at it 111ay l1ave inun1 18 ! !0 a op er t -da y day-to its 111i in ty � fr?m til e detail d J)ol1t1cal a11d adn nis­ nii the 1 gov er1 1i 11 istr ativ e c � ontrol s wl1 ich tri s. In 80111e 111.st::11 1ces it is desig 11 ed er­ own e priv at for event11al transfer to � . ship au c ontrol �s it establishes ent lm 5 inve private con fide attr nce � acts and 11 otllers it ren1a 111s te n 111 lo )Ublic sell rm 1 ownersl1i1 gt o l �011d but is au.tl orized ) s or debei 1t11res to tl1e ge11eral public to fi 11 a11ce its capital JJrojects. 241. B11t con 1plete 1·n1intt111 ld fie . tl Je ·tY r·ron1 1 11 · · . larly l gover111ne 1 1)artic nt control s · ' .. . 1e o f PIa1111J ng and gei1era l l)O1icy, tl 1 l hic · or w · f es may . obje defe ctiv at the very ·1 c o or�tion was established. T ia n the a s he ver stre c s o rpo ji r anc ma tio o n y 1 rt )r ta o s l . t side and fail to re11der less profitable l s. . t erv ic s e ... ial t I en 1t b ma e Yiv a11 d s s proJects and tlie ]) �.od uc t·10� . . . on � �con 1 o f ra good ge11e s II1JUr1ot1s to tl1e rout of 11_ar11100.¥ WJtli a r1a ve . 0 ., to t1o n ay al pl lo a11 of It 1en de m p ve t. n teD<l · charge t 1 1e co11sumer an . . � rces· · d 1111derpay i:t11d exploit its \1,,ork1ng 1o . ..

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Problems: Ju.risdiction o,,er Pt1blic I11vestinent For Economic Developn1e11t .l The_ re �di11 gs in thi?, Sectio�1, l1ave �xplor�d tl1e fu11ctio11s ct J a11 } ower s of two 1 c agencies. With respect to each of mimstnes and two ad 10 these agencies: ( a) What, if any, func_tion_s �o _th�y have in co1nn1on? To what extent is th�re any_ overl�pl?in� J_unsd1ction betw_een any of then1? In w ha t w ay s JU rrught policy or r1sdict1onaI co11fl1cts ar1se betwee11 a11 y of tJ1 ese age11cies? (b) To what extent, and in \Vhat ways, migl1t - a11d s11ot1lcl - eacl1 agency be subject to tl1e control of (i) the Prime Minister? (ii) t11e Co11ncil of Ministers? (iii) Parliament? (iv) civil service regulations prom11lgatecl by tl1e Ce11tr,1l Perso1111e1 Agency? (Cf ..i\.rticles 27 and 66 of tl1e Coristi tutio11 a11 d the readi11gs on the development of a civil service l,1\v i11 EtJ1 ioJ)ia, Sectio11 4 of this Chapter, infi·a.) (v) the Auditor General? (See Section 7 of this Chapter, i,ifra.)

2. (a)

Consider the budget-making powers a11d d11ties of tl1e Ministries of Finance and Planning as set out in 01·der No. 46. WJ1at is a ''cieveI01Jn1ent budget''? How is it prepared?

Consider the following from Fraser, "The Administrative �ra_n1ework for Economic Development in Etbio1Jia'', 3 Jou,.·,zal of Etlzzopzan Lal,v 143 (1966): ''The key problem of economic plan1Jing is to keep �rojected plans with.in the limits of available fina11ce a11d, at t11e same_ t11ne, to ltse to the limit all financial resources wl1icl1 ca11 be made available. · · UtJder · prese nt [i.e. before Order No. 46] proced111·es, no esti111ate [?� f 1111ds f o r te 11s 11 M ut1 sab1 e for developme11t p1·ogrammes e th 1 1· 1t 111 l b e . of. . ] 1s· ava1·1a F.1nance presents his complete proposec1 b11 d get to the Co11.nc1I Ministers. TJ1is is however too late to e11able [tl1ose res1J 01151ble fior plan ning ] to mak; clecisio11; at tl1e proper time.'' . t e e m 6 4 o N r e d r O Assuming tl1e validity of this o bservat1on, does the _problem? 3. A� e 6 4 . o . N 1· . e . · d r O f o at 11 · m th�t the t ime is shortly pnor to the promu g l . . n io is iv d e lh 00 cil of h t o t g t in a i !� e . i s lem ob pr r n us i io M n va er ist g sin s is discus e of.t �J��ris ? i Pr e th in 1 c avvy l diction among the vario11s ministers. Yot"J ai·e a · n i 1 1 & n1ster'8 c i ,v11 h w 6 4 . o N . r e d r O d e s o C . . op . ce, . }ffi and. yo11 ]1ave a d.r aft of. J)I .: s fact 18 1. l m }Jro ,v bl e ing 1 e follo T d ent1 . cal Section to tl1e text quoted above this are referr ed to you for ' advice: .. ng 111 .1 nta co (a), \4 . 111 dl1 1v1r. A, a Un ited Nations expert J1as vvr.1tte11 a 11 1e1:nora11 ter de of ss e oc pr . the fi011 owi· ng: a Is ' · . 1ce 1 e ess · I . ''Developn1ent pla110111g, Jn ve de n i ter ) 'rt0 1 l s 'd a in ng- ( t, l tlll1t- - g, Prior· ity i tie o1� pr· · 11g o ii . f o s . · · p ramn onsibi a. n d l o es ' · · 5 1 e o,� u m s s a t s 11 1 11:te,nt J:) roje 111 , _ ent : cts. In Etl1iopia� Gove1·n., in (b)

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ent lopm deve cts proje for s ft1nd able roads l avai , in­ ising l i mob for ed ey ed on ne e m r tl1 fo of . t os M development . etc , ion at uc ed dlistries, l ans for th�se proje e p Th nt. 1ne rn ve Go e th n1 fro in co cts � projects rotlst 1 dget ev en th ou gl1 the l)IOJects them ­ b1 al nu an e th 11 1 d cte e l ref nltlst be 11 annual budget. The basic a n tha e tit? of iod per ger lon a n SJ)a selves . 1 1t �hat t l1 ey �ust be taken at the fica s1gn1 so are 11ing l 1 a 1 p on ions decis 11igl1 est level . F11rtl1 er, tl1e office re�pons1ble for ult1_mate �o-ordination of developroe11t plans m11 st work 1n full co-operation with tl1e office .'' et dg l bu na tio na e th g in ar ep pr r fo le sib 1 o1 res1J

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Mr. B, a1 1otl1er ''fere11je'' expert, argues as fol lows: ''I agree witl1 Mr. A, but I go f 11rtl1er: effective IJlanning means that tbe office generall y re­ SJ)Onsible for co-ordination of all activities of the agencies of tl1e Go,,ern­ ment sl1011ld also be respo11 sible for co-ordinating ibe plan and for insur­ jng tl1at tl1 e bL1dget foll ows tl1e p l an. I agree that tl1 e budget is of tbe greatest i1n1)ortance beca11se t l1 e b11dget is the annual programme of the Gover11me 11 t for carrying 011t previo11sl)r-established socjaJ a11d economic policies. Tl1e Minister of Finance's role in relation to economic de velop­ me 11t decisio11s to be reflected in the bt1dget sl1ould be purely one of imple1ne11 tc1tio11 of decisions taken by other bodies, 11ot 011e of policy-1naki11g." Is tl1 is view reflected in Order No. 46? '

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Ato D, of tl1e Ministry of Fina11ce, writes: ''Tl1e proble1n is not simply one of drawing up pla11s, deter111i 11ing priorities and declaring policies. Tl1�se respo11sible for tl1e budget n111st also l1ave responsibility for eva�11at1 �g pe,:for111c111ce. For exa1111)le, it may de,,el oJ) tl 1at an agency 15 wast1 11g n1oney or spe11ding it i1 1efficiently 011 projects, and someone �tist be en1powered to n1ake tf1at eval11atio11. And, l1avi11g made that Jtidgn1ent, a determi 11,1tio11 ca11 tl1e11 be made i11 the future whet.her a givei1 �ge11cy neec/s aJl tl1e mo11ey it reqt1ests to continue })fOjects assign· ed to it. Tl1is is a task \\1l1icl1 n1ust go to tl1e Ministry of Finan, ce. '' To wl1at exte 11t is tl1is ,,iew reflected in t l1 e Order? 4· Assume Y011 ,tre � n1 e_mber of a con1111i uv of 1roe nt ttee stt1dying establisl � l gover�11 11�11t age11c1es: (1) a11 agency to develop tl1e A\\,asl1 VaUey a,re� tliroug _ fo co�_Slrtict 011 of dan1s, irrigatio11 faciliti facilities a11d tl 1� 1r tise n� pow es, er � �gr �ctilttlI � l clevel op111e11t; (ii) an age 5 lro� nve 1 e pri vat 11cy to stimul ate in 111d L1�trial a.nd agri�11lt111·al busi11ess inv es est 1 g p11bli c . f u11ds, bu}?b�� by i1 . . . oss 1 a11 d se 1 111 1g s}1pr·es, m p the a g 1 k n. g 1 oa 11s, et·c. T11e con11Illttee 1s co11s1"derm · ·' , . . . . . . e ar . ad1n1n1strat1v e structure and org ces oi What ch a . n ic es la ci o w th f en e g a open to tl1 e comniittee? O i o\V 5. Consider tl1e foliowing·. o . . t . a po51·t·oo . ion 1s 1n 1 · ''T11e l. Inve stm e11t Corp orat _ . ' . e es \ h t co11troll 111g 1nte1·ests 1 1.1 n1any of � s o t c . d1re · sn1a · · . tl1e l 1 elect bt1sine · r . sses w and to . e . . deJJendent revi . e11terpr1 ses ·. B11t ti1ere 18 no satisfacto 1 1n . ry a1 fo1� . mecl1a1 1 ism d . n a of tile ,1ct1v1t1es of al l 1oe 1a1 . orn perf tl1es e · tl1ei1 · com ll ' 1Ja 1 1ies to e,,aJt1ate tio a or v I 1 t tl1e Ilational co . th dev � eJo tl1a p1n ent . ce ass ere L1ra 1 Tl . 0 is n t· 11 rp o ts !'· W�1 1 ·l1 : lle . 1°1 ow t l1e pla11 _ or 10 sti ,,e · 1 0 · 1ts g even the 'p11blic i 11terest'-i11 makin - · · · · t;

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Problems Arising from the Delegation

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is authorised to build hot�ses and flats. for lower-i11.co1ne fan,ilies in tirban agen?Y An . sing Hou ()a areas whe re there 1 s a sh�rtage. T!1e age�cy \Vtll be autl1or 1 sed to acqt1 1re land (by expropria­ d�elling units a11d lease tl1en1 a.t 11 1oclerate rents to Jower-ii,con,e bwld necessary), where _ tion families. The agency 1s authorised to pron1ulgate r11les J1av1ng tl1e force of la,v to carry out its powers.

,, (b) Health. A government agency is a�1tJ1orised .to 1nake and e11force rules regardi 11 g sa11itatioo and protection of const1mer l1 ealtl1 1n all business places processing ancl selling f oocl, including �· canneries, butcheries, stores retailing food, and restaurants. 'I

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: (c) Land Reform. An agency is authorised to condenm farn1 land O\vned by abse11 tee owners and convey it by long-term renewable lease arrangen1 ents to farn1 er occtrpiers and co-operatives, •' subject to conditions relating to proper and effective use; tl1e sa111 e age11C}' is authorised to .,-. make farm impro vement loans to farm owners and co-operatives for p11rcl1 ase of 111ac!1inery, ..1 I ., ferit lizer and various other capital improvements; tl1e agency is at 1thorised to Iice11se n.nd regulate co-operatives; the agency is autl1orised to promulgate r11les to carry out tl1 ese objectives.

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Development. An agency is authorised to build dan1s and i1·rigation facilities ma certam river basin, to distribute water to farmers o f the area s11bject to conditions pre­ scribed in rules to be promulgated by the agency.

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(e) � Communications. An agency is at1thorised to establisl1 and n1anage gover11me�t �e\vS media,_ to P�orn�gate rules governing private publication of 11ewspapers, books and per1?d 1 cals aoct dissemmat1on of films ' and presentation of theatrical p11blications and regulation of I broadcasting.

. (Q Tra"'l!"r t R egu]atjon. An agency is authorised to issue rules governing truck and bus trans­ ��;: llon to p roD?ote more effectiye, safer �nd cheaper ser,1ice by motor carriers 1 n all available f the Emp ire. The agency 1s at1thor1sed to regl.1late tl1e rot1tes servecl, rates cl,arged a nd &ervi� offere d by st1ch carriers. �) Urban Land Use or · I f an tise d lan � ter as 1 n tr a C�n p ol. elo dev An agency is empowered to _ a n urba area and ve d� blic pu and e ,,at pr1 , Jaw in by j a te, accord nce with tha t plan to regula lopm 0 n f a_n_d_ within the planned ar ea inclt1ding regulation of tl1e use, size aod pJ,ysica l natui: �l facili s tie put upon the land. (h) Regu1a •o nse to �e 1 1 d rise l1o at1t are s V es nci Speciali ed Professions and Trades. arious age all rnedj�canl of s er v ri d k c t1 tr d pract· · an I e 'l b o Itl o n1 ners , lawyers architects bttilders , teac. l1ers, at1to and other . . '. . . ' . . · occuPations regu1r1. 1ntegr1ty. n g and skil spec l ial h) l' a.xes �:io e, 111 co �11 ( s xe ttt us units of of s nd an agency ar e authorised to assess various ki intport xta g in rn ve go export , la nd, trans s ile rt action, turnover, etc.) and to prom11lgate as.�ment p o r cedur es.

l'he ab·ove s n o t1 c a 1n la ro p ar , . rs ie rc e simply examples of· tbe kinds of laws, o and decree· _ o­ p lllulgat e � Wh1ch ha . day, be r s me o eftec · ' d, .Ea-cI1 i.J ve_ a 1 r;ad,y been prOJ?Ulgated ' Ol. ma y'. . . and developi11g c ty ' · . ri :. ttve. no""· .. , lustra t1on 1s concer11ed w1t l1 a complex a tivi ' .· f u5 o 1 .1 e s o . . wi..ll e11ta ·11 a num t�rob1· .. �'vern.tne t . . . . r . e b · 1 1ty s t1v t111 c t Jn pa 1on . rt1c Pa . · n a. .. o F :: . s : � . ,-........ ,,: ..... , . . . r exan:ipJe . •. ::?{\:::�;:\· I .•.<. ./·. . ·i· ;_ - ' .

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STI.TUTIOI�AL LA\\' N O C N IA P IO I-I T E F O SoU.RCEBOOK

n) la io oc at tin Pr d ea an cr g er rd e O th ., .g (e e ag s w Ja � 01 ncy iv /a ic 1 , ga or z cti ) (l t e� m 1a rl d � J?-USt . determine Pa an en 1n ts af dr e 1 tl d; te af dr mt i st be carefully t t1o ha d w ta an l1ffil ', C) ns �n ag a 1e l t nd to '' y ed lic at po eg el ''d be l r!c oi sl i s er v J, po ai / J v 1, s er 1e ga w tl le po de of se d; c1 te er ex 1e tl n o d se po im be ld gtlide- lin es shou A/hat k�nd of l c w) ni la ga e or th y (b cy' gen ''a ed ' �n m ter de be o als 1 st . mt it (2) ; 1ty t e y t1v t}J rr ou ac ca st n be ca n) 1o at or r1) Co d, ar Bo , (e.g., Ministry 1at tl1e necessary work tl so sed a11i org be i1st ncy age t/1e ed, 1 isl abl est 1:1 (3) 011ce e ; s th of cy nt en ne ag rt1 pa de e 1bl ns J)O res to d ne sig as ly 11t cie can be effi. (4) co111petent personnel mt1st be rec�uited and �rained to �arry out agency activities; a n1inister or agency l1ead wl1 0 1s saddled with lazy or incom petent sub­ ordinates ca11 accon1plisl1 very little; (5) a bi1clget n1ust be prepared and procedures developed, e.g. for adminis­ tering tl1e age11cy's ft1nds; (6) fJrocedures 111t1st be developed to facilitate intr a-agency communication, for maki11g stt1dies and gat11eri11 g facts on wl1ich policy judgments can be based, for forn111l ating fi11al l)Oli cy decisio11s, for enforci11g agency policy; these procedures m11st cover botl1 forn1al a11 d i11formal transactions; (7) age11cy rules mt1st be prepared to ensure tl1at formal transactions are carried out i11 accordance ,vitl1 tl1e law, and otl1e1· sz,1,bsidia1JJ legislation must be IJrepared to formalise, as law, tl1e policies \Vl1ich the agency intends to foll ow; for example, tl1e hot1sing age11cy may l1ave to deter111ine (tl1.rough rules having the force of law) ,vl10 will be eligible to live in its facilities; tl1e l1ealth agency may wish to ma�e rt1les (l1aving tl1e force of Ia,v) wl1icl1 ,,lill prohibit people from doi11g things wl11cl1 tl1e age11cy believes will 1)ollt1te streams or wells; thus, cumulatively, a vast body of law ,vill be J)rom11lga .tecl to carry ot1t tl1 e tasks ,vhicl1 Parliame nt deleg ates tl1rot1gl1 tl1e orga11 ic legislation. ed ?p devel be TI1ese ml1st exa!11J)les ill11strate son1e of tl1e macl1i11ery wh.icl1 . 1f gover11 1uen 1s to do tl1e job _wl1icl1 is proposed. To the ex tent that tl1is m acl1ine �fl � _ hol1s111g, l1e,1ltb \VJ· m.mes docs not woi k well, tl1e a progr devel op1nent · or otl1er Sl1ffer. "en· l vita T�le 1, a wyei�, if a I1e is broadly trained and co111petent, may play . , giileeritlg role ! 11 tl1e co11str�1ctio11 of tl1is 1nachi11ery. Tl1e tasks ra.nge from. research� problen1 ailalysis and l)la1111111g to recrt1itme11t moti,,ation and coo1ma d of person n nel, to fi11�nce, to cot111selli11g, to l1un1a11 relatio11 s and psychology. Ther e 15 of�en . ve ct i e eff 110 clear l111e bet,veen tl1ese . _ 1�t111ct10 . to• . . · 11s. Tl1e government lawyer and. anf . . .. ... ,, 16 he f adm inisl iator _ ls , mtist skil ,. acqt11re often painfttll'-J'' a wide variety of i op e dev • 1ender a gent1111e cont11··b t1t1on ·. 1rough · 1 tl y to the cot1n tr deve 111s lo1J1n of e11t 111e11_ t o f. ejj.ect1.ve IJllblic agerlcies. bove all, the lawyer will I1ave to draft tl1e organic laws establishing the g ! "' �; l oJ l e l 10 . . an d ·tAlJe rt1l es of l)roced.tire tlnd subs1d1 to s_ ary laws which the agency propose . e retaancl . 1.1e w�.11 l1a, ,e to advise otl1er agency officials on tb .e ,vise and proper i nt fP t io n . o f tl1ese laws. e w h wit . . . Tl1e materi·als w- hic . d e er ' 1 l con 10 .r. ll o,v o 1n S i n primari c ly this D f ect on are io . t · � 0 f· organic laws prepa rat10 g� dele of er me11 and a Jat pa 1 ·ticu pl1e larly no witl 1 tl1e · pol i · �J'-n1ak_ "111 g a 1 1cl law-1nakiug power to execlitive age.-11cies. Materi als in s.ections touch· ·upon a Iltlm ber , of tb.e otl1_ er problems l i sted above.

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OF EXECUTIVE lNSTITUTIONS THE DEVELOPMENT

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Powe,·s: aking Co11stitutio11c1! -M v La11 d Policy P · bl a, of n atio o , en1 s t eg J)e · . . . . The . Legisl ative Polve, ation o.f ·s i,z EtftiOJJia (Min1 Deleg er, eograpl1, 1963). ras F o111 fr has to be isst1ed i11 ,1ny cot1 11 try lltldei· mod tl1at law of nt o u am er11 · . The con . . · · t · l . 1es 1or1 at1t 1e ves 1 t tec I w1t tha l1 t . t1 1 e J)r i n1ary respo s t va so ·s -61.11 ty i r diti. ��5 1 n pproving law find it very diffi cu It to keep pace � i th the v���1 111 e. T 1� da a g i l. 18 c rea nsulted over ma11y years,. ·i11 tl1 e at1t l1orities. - Parlia111e 11 ts State c , , ' . ot111c1 1. s, has-re . . uncils of M1 ruster . s, etc. . g1v1ng 1.in1tte d au �l1or1ty to \'ar1ot1s bodies i 11 tl1 e acl111 i1 1Co 1 :11de1· certa111 s�fegt1ards,. ''laws_" l issue, and e prepa r . to deali tlg witll istration . lesse r 1n1po of be rta11� e, to wl 1 Jle r�serv 111g tl1 e1r own ti ill ered onsid c e for . m atters sn iderin g and enact 1 11g la,vs on the n1ore 1111portant 1sst1es. S li cl, law issLi ed by d gate ed dele term is legislatio11. ies, bod nate ��bordi The authority to make law in Etlliopia is ,,ested, by tl1e Revised Constitutio11 tl 1 e Emperor. _Tl1e Col111�il of 1\t1i11isters 1 1orinally con­ �n?ment Parlia in 1955, f o �ders legislation before 1t 1s passed to Parl1 a1nent or, 111 tl1e cc1se oJ· legislation isstied . t ive, before it is fi11ally approved a11 d isstied by tl1e preroga r's Empero the r unde Emperor. Legislation approved by Parliame11t is issued by Proclan1atio11, wI1 ile legislation falling \Vithin the Empero1·'s prerogative is issl1ed by Order. Decrees are reser ved for legislation wllich would no1· m ally be co1 1siderecl before iss11e by Parliament and issued by Proclan1ation, bl1t wl1 icl1 , beca11se of a11 e111erge11cy arisi11 g when Parliament is not sitting, is isst1ed by the Emperor and passed to Parlia1ue11t for consideration after issue. The legal form i11 vvl1 icl1 delegated. lcgislatio11 is jssLted is the Legal Notice; all delegated legislatio11 is contai11ed i11 Legal Notices a11d Legal Notices contain notl1ing bt1 t delegated Iegislatio11. A considerable number of Proclamations, Decrees and Orders already isst1ed in Ethiopia contain provisions at1tl1orisi 1 1g Minjsters or otl1er at1tI1orities to issLre subordinate legislation and to some considerable extent tl1is l1as bee11 do11e. Examples [of subordinate legislation pursuant to delegation] are:l. Income Tax Regulations, 22/1 (1962) L.258. Issued by tl1e Ministe� of Financ e under Art. 71 of 20/13 (1961) P.173, tl1e I11come Tax Proclamatioi i. 2- Venereal Diseases Rules, 10/3 (1950) L.151. Isst1 e� by. tl1e Mi11ister of Public Health under Art. 15 of 6/10 (1947) P.91, tl1e Pt1bl1c Healtl1 Procla­ mation. 3· Execution of Jud ents Rules, 12/12(1953) L.176. Is�u�d b� tl1e iVIinis�er gm of Justice under Art. 20 of 1/1(1942) P. 2, th e Adm1111strat1 011 of Justice Proclamation. e h t y b · d e 11 s s . I 8 · 1 2 4 N �tI?na1 Coffee Eoard Regulations, 18/5(1959).. L· · D.28, 957) 17;4(l l f 0 l M 1n1 ster of Commerce and Jndt1 stry under Art. the National Co ffe e Board Decree. . . or teri I f 5 st M e uu th s by r: ed � u eg s R Is L � . n o 29 ti .2 la 0) . , 96 ns (1 /7 19 io 1;1 at l a · Arm ro Uu<ler Art. 2 of 1/2(1943) p 13 the At1thor1ty to Issue Orders . . . . f ' · o te1 s M1111 . the p by d 6 �.stage Rates Regulations, 21/2(1961) L.245. Issue e tl 7, 1 1 P. (! ) 942 l p st:s, /4 f 0 2 Art. Teleg r unde s raph ones and pl1 Tele post Offic e Proclamation. ed Issu _ p _ .267. . L ) . 1962 5 b 22 l c 7 bn t E�p!oyment Adminjstration Re�ulations, 1 � u.nder Art. 18 of t e o t el 1 e r. 2i � M1n1ster of National Commu111ty Dev _ l?� Orde n . io t l 62) 0.26, the Public Etnployment AdmtnJs · a · 11 ( ,9

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UT IT N ST IA ON IONAL LAW OP C -II TI E OF K SouRCEBOO

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. o . r r e n 11 r e 11 0 s1 0.23 1s · m in o C e . ic ' the Creat1on rv e S c l ] b 11 ,"' P . , r er d y O c n e g A I e n n o rs e P l a tr 11 e C of tl1e . e lativ leg�s ers, I?Ow 1g ga�i1 as already state d, de�e for ason e i· . Tlle principal is r k Pa ies. 1am w v bod s �nt t1ve e om 1sla leg bec �J r ry_ �a o pri d er 011 o rk . wo ll e. press re of ly ate qu al ade _de to 11l� c i. d1ff 1t d fi11 ils unc Co �1t�1 all draft la�s c oming : Ministerial t_ tmen for enac �iles 11p. Public s ervants ! n lat1o leg1s of log ackb a a11d em before tll ged chan e rativ _a11d 1111st adm new witl1 sittiations while 11g copi i11 s ultie diffic get into they a\vait tl1e e11actme11t of appropriate la w. The primary legislative bodies are often 1·eluctant to delegate tl1eir powers, but press11re of circ11msta11ces compels tl1em to find means of sb.eddi11g their load of work. It is better for tl1eI11 to delegate legislative powers in a systematic wav. retai11i11g tl1e 111ore i1nportant n1atters for their O\Vn consideration, than to find that 1 de fa.cto admi11istrative practices are creeping in to fill the vacuums left ,vhen there are 1011g delays be tween tl1e 11eed for legislation arjsing and st1itable laws being en­ acted. ,v11en tl1is l1appens, tl1ere is 110 proper discrimi.nation between wJ1at a.dmirns­ trators sl1ould do a11d vvl1at s l1011ld be left to tl1e primary legislative bodies. Planned 1 delegation of tl1e law-1nal<:ing power is esse11tiaJ to the well-bei11g of the comm. unity I under 111odern co11ditions. If tl1ey do not delegate, tl1ey will be under constant severe presst1re deal.i11g ,vit.11 111at t ers of all sl1ades of importance and they will inevitably ( fail to give tl1e detailed a11d co11ce11t rated study wl1icl1 tl1ey sl1ould t o matters of greater importance. . A seco�d r� aso11 f'or delegat jng i s to aclueve flexibjlit)' ,:vl1ere necessarf. Sub· or�111ate leg1slat1011 can be re1 )ealed, 111odified or replaced much more easily ao<l j qui cl<ly tl1an prin1ary legislatio11. It does 11ot 11eed to go tl1rougl1 all the pr ocesses of e11actment tl1at prin1ary legislatio11 does. If it is felt tl1at cl1anges in circtimstances I ?r of policy or IJriorities over a 1·elati,,ely sl1 ort p eriod 1na)' require i1um�rous changes [ 1n tl1 e law, tl1e11 tl1ere 1na.y be a case f<.1r s11bordinate legislation. Even 1n such cases, ho�ever, tlie pri1nary legislati,,e bodies sl1ot1ld 11ot s11rre11der the pow er to en at� Ieg isl��i011 ,vl1 i !1 tl1ey feel to be of s11cl1 importa11ce tl1at on�y they t.l1ems elves 5h,0� eilact it. Expei�rence seems to sl1ow 110\x,,e,,er tl1at tl1e1·e 1s a stro11g tei1 denc) 01 -, ' to · tha t 0 deI ega·te wl1at cot1ld be q111. te eas' .ily a11d legi _ timately delegated, rath- ei n I delega te wl1at sl1ot1ld be retained. j � not can · . · . Parli�ents A tl11r d reaso11 for delegat111g is tecl1nic,1lity. Bodies like dern � 111 e �xpectecl to be familiar witl1 all nce, J i1 � complexities of modern sc�e tl1e eta � s ess _ or ev i� inodern ad i11ist�· late 1 is leg to W ry nec es_ a i o11 s t a . is l1er it e � (: sfed . � � si _ � s 1?-1 0 s cl1111cal 01 Involved sub ects 1t IS er exp � tl1e to a 1t leav e ofte to 11 bes \ t in j d er b 1awyers) to 111ake the law, a d n a l ratl1er tl1a 11 ha ve it debated in detai the _1 \ :n �mb�r of Parliai11e11t i11 wlticl1 few ' if any ' members are koowledgeab e ·ncipJe s '#-rt p s11b�ect 1n questio11· It IS, d . • · . a l bro n e h o · on tl1e otl1er l1and most important that t up ed r 11 d ene:_al rnetl1.ods of a applying tl1en1 ·� l1ou1d ·be understood a �d gn: and-.t�e � ; 1mary law-makin a Jlle r Pa g by h ( iu; , E , aut � h thiopia � orities i.e. in B e o )_ tJieY -� b • 1G · � . . arJ'iam i lt is wl1 p ee De cr � � co nc er1 1ed wit l1 wi th Pr a oc .nd lam ati on s, �� J2e,1sti ns, review after issue The --, tlO � L aroa · · o cJ · ..: -1 · . Co 1 1 c..:. er p unc1 ; · d . 11ll . f o cons1 1n1sters 11sr1ally ��" M. :;?� . ;. " · . e and O·rders befor 1 1 , • . 1 · ° c n · C u o ·J the� a:e Issue s · Je t or . d Pa1·l1 �l1e a. m ent n st . t . rovi o� :-'" ?�, · �crutin.ise ro e . �" . ,,,,,,...: d .sb? s rneY Sp tIJa re ens� l l sl1ou they 11, lat10 eg1 lpal P�lllC so ud r;r Uc d d s l l e · le makin g of -:::!.c: ', __ subordinate laws, in appropriate_ case ·. -- 1

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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tha� no power� a r� �el egated �l1icI1 sI1 otild ilant �ig rly properly be icula ar t be � d by Parli a1nent or the E111pero1. At tl1e san1e t1111e t 1l ey sll oti ld co . 1111nen t . . . . . retaic1ne y n c 1 ll de 1n p o i . . d t · r 111c 1 a e en t eg_1slat1011_ l�.111111porta11t details �� ?�Y t1) . ! n a o a . crit l l l d. we ll b e d· ea l t ,v1_tl1 1!1 st1 bs1cl1ary laws a11d tl 1 c? I �111� s10'11s pro�1 tl1 us 1 or minor 1 e1r time 111 11nnecessar1. y co11stder111 g tl1 e111 tl ng nsumi co aVOl'd ·. · i�ered as aJ)_�ropriate 111,1tters for d.eleg con wer s e wl1 at n j s tudy ation iil a a As m be _appropriate to consider t 1l e delegated legislation issued ay 1t field r cula rt i . pa . s c p to l1 lt a e h i c li b u p on ion of 1943 (P.26 2/2) st ated:­ Article 3 of tl1e Pu bljc Hea lt.11 Procla111at . may I11terior n1ake of rt1les J)rovid.in g for: "Our �finister (a) the dec laratio11 of i11fect i ous di seases; (b) the preventio n and supp1·ession of i11fectious djseases; (c) compulsory vacc ination aga inst s111all-pox; (d) the disposal of sewage and 1·efuse; (e) the licensi ng, regulation and i11spectio11 of tl1e pren1ises of bL1tcl1ers, retailers of meat and fish-mon gers; (f) tl1e licensing, regu lati on and inspec tion ot� bake-J1ouses a11cl bal<:eries; (g) the licensing, regulati on a11d control of bre,veries a11d clistiller.ies, ice factories and minera l water factories: (h) the inspectio n , reg111ation and cont1·ol of cemete1·ies ancl tJ1e 11otificatio11, disposal and burial of corpses; (i) the closing of wells d eemed t o be da ngero11s to l1ealtl1; U) the sei zure of food-stuffs exposed for sale, if dee111ed to be da11gero11s to l1ealth: (k) tl1e se izur� and destruction of dogs fo11nd . in an y p11blic plac� witl�ot1t any m arks of i den tification. or co11sidered to be s11ffe1·i11g fro111 a11 111fec t1011s clisease: {I) the co�trol and inspection of cesspits, Jatri11es and 11ri11als, wl1 etl1er pt1blic or private; (m) the manufactL1re and sale of ice-crea1n; (n) the control, l icen s ing an d 1·egt.1latio11 of prostittttes an d brothels ." Article 15 (i) of the Public Healt l1 Proc lamation 1947 (P.916/12) provided that: c s h e 11 ib cr es pr d an s e l ru i 1 k cl su m nister, assjsted by the Boa rd, may a e M he fiees, ''T as 11 e may think fit for all or any of tl1e followi 11g ptirposes :1 e1r tl nd a (a) the_ organis atio es ic rv Se h lt ea n an d adminjstration of Public I-I Uruts·

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[�{ the P;evention, notification and suppression of diseases; tl1

e control of' epi dem ic and e n demic diseases; (d) san. l ta t·ion �nd s l1ou ing; ; cts jnse ) and (e the r en t ls i1na a r t o vec n p o e n an d destruct ion of dis eas 1 �v (f ) .. (g �metries a d . ) e cont n burial services; ' s l be t bro d an r�l es a nd regulation of prostitut (l1 ) th . (i) th: adop!Jon of emergency measures; '.111d n· ver Go ns utio stit . 1 a . 0 tr l pec o i . .. ·:: .._. tne. � ° o , re�ulat io� and ad mi n jst1:"at_1on � � toria, :� 1a e t , �a 1 s m n .. . '. . asy0 a1, or priv ate, 1nclud.1 ng hospi tals, . clinics, se e safegti ard of tl1e · . :. : ,· .· l u.ms, homes and o ther ns ti t utions wh1ch ftirtl1 er tlJe · : · . ; _,. puhlic hea l .', i ;· . ': : · th .

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IONAL L.<\ \1/. T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E SOURCJ3BOOK 01:.

vi pro ded tl1at ''all rule Jy cal cifi spe n . tio ma cla pro s thi s . ·wi111 e repea1-1ng p ·26 2/?· b d d 111 e sc s I y re a es le un ru ·ce o1 or f 111 be le to ru e u s i11 11t co ll · 1a l s r e 1d 1 11 re e n1ade tl1 tion' '. 1a n a cl ro P s li tl r e 1d 1 11 1 11ade 11g ri the following topics:­ ve co ns io at m Ja oc JJr l se 1e t d er 1 11 1 Rules were made g in s ain ice nt ot co N l les ga ru Le ; ed on 21 itt ?m ta ze Ga · it ar eg N to [Citations differe nt subjects l1ave b een issued.] r d elegated expressly in tte ma ct bje su ly 011 r ve co n ca 1 1 o ati l o-is e e l t ina d r i bo St in :it th or spi _wi ter let er in ei�h t c_ 1fli co1 _ the 1�t 1 _ 1st n�1 It . ion islcrt leg al 1cip 1 pri 1e l t e d or_ an� other prJnc1pal leg1sl�t!o n; �1s 1 �110 1 a1 1s t 1 l 1c w!1 e 1· � n t1_ n tio isla leg JJri11ciJJal 1 11 so far as it does, 1t 1s void. If tl1e pr 1 11c11Jal leg1s l at1on states that tl1e M1ruster (or otl1er a11t l1ority) ''sl1al l '' issue s11bordir1ate leg isla tio_n on. a certain t opic, then tl1ere is an obligatio11 11pon l1in1 to do so; be has no d 1scret1011 not to. If, o n the otl1er l1a11d, tl1e pri11cipal l e gislation state s that l1e ''may'' issu e subordinate legisla­ tion , tl1e11 it is vvitl 1i11 his discretion as to whether 01· no t he issue s any such legis1a­ tion. Princi1Ja l legislatio11, e 11acted in proper for1n, can repeal, amend or replace any otl1er legislatio11, wl1e tl1 er JJri11cipal or del e gated. It can do so either expressl y or by i111JJlicatio11, tl1011gl1 it is always b etter, if repeals are intend ed, for the legal drafts1ne11 to SJJecif;, tl1e laws, or parts of Ia,vs, being repealed . De legated legis.Iation, 011 tl1e otl1 er l1a11d, ca11 11ormal ly 011ly reJJea1, a111e11d or replace otl1er de legated legis­ lation made by tl1e sam e a11tl 1ority. In some very ex.ceptional circumstances, prin­ ciJJal l egislatio11 111ay, wl1en delegating pow ers, gi,,e express and specific autl1ority to repeal or ame11 d certain sta te d JJrovisions in the principal l egisl ation, but this is very rare and sl101 1ld b e avoided wl 1erever possible . Parliame11t, tl1e Cot11 1cil of Mi11ist ers a 11d tl1e Prime Mi nister's Office must have ways and. 111eans of cl1ecking tl1at tl 1e powers t l 1at are deleoated are prope rly exercised, bt1 t it is in1porta11t tl1at a11y cl1eck·s n1ade sl1ould 11ot b� time-consuming. I� wo_ uld be 9t1ite ridict1lo11s, for e xan1ple , if Parliaine11t were to spend as much �1 me 111 _cl:e�l<111g a11d co1 1trolli11g s t1bo1·dinate legislation as tl1e y would have spen t ' 1n scr11t1111s 111g tl1e san1e 1J1·ovisio11s i11corporat ed. in the principal Jaws. So far as tl1e Prime ivli11iste r's Office is co11cer11ed there sl1ould be no queSf.ion ? f tl1e officials tJ1ere att en11) ti 1Jg to s11bstitt1t e tl1eir o�n provisions and their o�n : Jttdgme11t for tl1 at o f tl1e officials i11 tl1e Mi11ist1·y or Age11cy concerned. The aim · J sho�ild be, a_s a �11at�e r of routi11e, to see \vl1ether a l l tl1at is incorporated in the sub- ,. o�d111ate legisl atro1 1 1s. properly tl1ere; tl1at all tl1e p1·0\,isions are made in pur suance of �owers ac t ti_ally delegated by t l1e lJri111ary legislative body and that there are-no obvious gaJJs 1n tl1e s11bo1·dinate legislation proposed. � 1 Tile cl1ecl<s 111ade by the Cot111cil of Mirusters wl1en they need be made at alb ;J t t cotil d be relati,,ely info1·1nal. Drafts of subsidiary legislat u_ I a circ � __;__ � ion could be �� u all members of tl1e Cot1ncil, bu t tl 1e drafts nee ncil Co u d not be considered in 0 ?ne_ or niore 111embers object to one o r more of the proposed provisions. s�cr - - -. � i,e 1 ect i ns s 05 � ? b.ott ld be mad e, no t because tl1e detailed provisions could P � � to: . ·_1 -J li. un proved upoii, btlt because provisions hav eit m see -· · le been i11clu ded ,vhich ai Y . 1t 1 . be contrary to ct1 rr ent policy or to . r o th u a · : 1e 1 t to . exc e e d g1,,en tl1 e pow e rs v1. . ro p th orised t.o issu e tl1 d ute · dis p st1 b ordi11at e legislation. Even then, only the . � : s1ons need be considered in Co .;:, -�.·� ,. - - . '{ uncil.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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concer11ed, tl1ere is . are ment . tl1ree Parlia possible as J)roced tires . . w 1 So 1,rai· ucl i . h e 011 t 11nporta 1 1ce of cl1ecki1 1 g 00 tl1e dependent ed, · . , dopt pa i·t·ic LI 1ar. pto. a be . ld . . u . co f . . L1 1� 1east 111 11?orta11t prov�sioils, IJOWer case o e t .1 �11 . stion que : could be visi ons in sub 1 ate law s to 1sst1 e tl1e1n w i tI1oti t ord 11 tl1e g 1 1 1 r . . rep a p tho fur se tlle r· e 1 . r. · 1 1 e to 1 _ e11 ce . . n . . (J1ve . . b n�.?re 1 1�1porta�t su ord 1_11a�e laws, 1 t COltld be JJrovicled t� 1 at1011 . :e In ment. ia to Parl 1 11 Parl 1 a111ent w1tl1 1 11 (say) forty obJec�1 ons to ct SlibJe are clays of be1· 11g . . . . . . that they 1 s are ra1se d w1t111�1 t 11 ,1t t1111e, or if a11y objectioJJS obJe ct10 no Jf d. wllic l l � . publishe _ 11 the p10\11s 1 011s s_l1ould sta11d. J 11 relatio11 tl1e ted, st1pp?1 11ot are d to eveii . are raise 1 11 ate lav-.rs, 1� cotild be p1·0�1ded tl1a� tl1 ey mt1 st be aJJproved u ord s tant_ � impor more . 1 : o. 1 1ses bot re of Pa�·lta111e __ ?f r1ty \ nt w1tl1 1 11 �say) �orty days of o maJo l� simp � � by a tlie two latte_ cases, r ol 1t_ eacl1 cot1ld be prov1cled eitl1er (1) tllat In . s. h ed 1 publ being operative vvl1e11 pt1 bl1sl1ed a11d remai 11 OJJerati ve tin less beco111e laws 11ate uborcli the s voided by a majority vote or (2) tl1 at tl1 e subordi11ate la,:vs do 11 ot co1ne i11 to operation until tl1e forty days have elapsed and, i 1 1 tl1e latter case, u11til botl1 Hot1ses of Par­ lian1ent l1ave ratified theu1. It would be i111porta11t to SJJeciiy, i11 every case of dele­ gation, in wl1ich category the s11bordi11ate laws wot1ld fall; in the abse11ce of a11y such provision� the subordinate laws would co1ne into operatio11 witl1 out Parlia­ ment taking any action whatever. In tl1e last resort, Parliament can always change tl-ie law, wl1 etl1er it co11 sists of primary or delegated provisions . Parliament could, if it so wished, set llp a Co 111111ittee to scrL1ti11 ise delegated legislation and bring, to the notice of Parliame11t a11 y cases i 11 vv11icl1 it felt tl1at dele­ gated powers were being exceeded or abused and also a11y cases i11 wl1 icl1 it felt that undesirable provisions ,ve1·e bein g inserted i11 st1 cl1 la.ws, so tl1 at actio11 co11lcl be taken to prevent abuse. Parliament could also, if it wished, pass a law s1Jecifyi11g l1ow st1bsidiary laws should be prepa1·ed a·nd issued, w11at k.inds of l)rovisions could or c_o�1ld 11ot.be embodied and even specifying the for m and content of certai11_ prov1s1�ns \vl11. _cl1 shou�d be deemed embodied in an y· subo1·dinate legislation cover1n_g certain co11t1 11gencies �e.g . the setting llp of committees: co1npositio1 1, age11da, m1ntites, frequerlcy of meetings, duties of chairm an and secretary, etc.). So far as judicial co11trol is concerned, i t is for th e Co11rts to_ decide, i� aily ry pri on m d s rai � be b ougl1t before them in addition to suc l1 q11estio11 s as ma y f r fas: and e i latio n, ven g _ been \V �; as 1 � l io11 slat u legi k 1 ; whether pow r to n a e s · bsid iary lgs tin bo e th er th e bsidiary 1n tl1 ,vi ed b as, in fact, been prepar m tio la gis n e le ad Su � 0 the po wer given. From � JJChechter Poultry Co. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1953)· . w ell to bear in n1ind tl1e .1s case .it- 15. In orde a . i11 ) orld economic r tol pprec�te tl1e ''crisis-like'' atn1osphere of tl1 w e 1 tJ er o ll v a s e tri tin co r l1e em ot t s which co�ronted �11e U.S. (and 111os the era of :�he great econorruc depressi on''. � .As . - one auth_or1ty . . . s 1be �escr crisi s it: o1nic on e e ''Th de r s an c t1ced od pr ,, 3 . 9 P-Fobab]y uneP- e sion _wh1ch began in the Fall of 1929 had, by 1 :�. e nillion persons were un­ ern�loye d;" thq� all ed in the rustory of the United Sta�es. At least thu �eec �e� industries l1ad �ropp ed to ·$16.1 3 Pee ave age wages of those still employed 1D twent y-five se . and truct1on 1 ns co 1g iri t r a r f; s­ 111anu c indti e o�r d t �ortatio Week in �ebruary 1933; wages receiv ed in mi11�r1g, an t c n 37 n alle ha ad l l'raJ Pro·ducttn b declmed fro1n 17 to 6.8 bilJion dollars. Prices � f d the· banks were cl?s ed ­ g n 1nter. nti h b d of y re Li we m? ee it ;; s lve cie ant �,amcy llttt �; va c Jn . lf n �t ost in so alm qu ha tJ1e � of · 1 Sl mea re e e fat eo nitnerce' hadnue fr�lght carried by Class I railroads, a fair . declined 51 pe . .

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535

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l\fAJ., LAV..; IO T U IT ST N O C . N A PI IO T I T · E · F O · SOURCE·BOOK

. me la� v June 16 , 1933, \Vas �a �1 be ruc w _ �, Ac ry ve co . . Re ial str du 1 ''T1_tle I of_ tJ1 .e_ Nati �1 11 1 strat1on 1n an _ efl o�t to halt the wnw��e n Ad1111. velt · e Roos �� e do l tl : b d n e of_ a series o f stattite� 1 e natio11al economy. Wh11.e ot11er 11Jeasures de alt tl e igoral re-fnv d a SJ? tral of tl1e depr s 1011 ed \Vith tl1e depres sio11 as it directly afe :d grappl Act c ry Recove f � � e � tl1 11 e J o 1e t t o s differen t as�)ect of tl1e 11· 1,1· s ses was to be incre ased tl1rough the power asing dc fl; 1 Jr I pt1rcl J t de e 1 l T . ry . en11J 1oyme11 · ,. . labor a1 1d 1ndt1st · n1ng, b a.rga1 ve 1 t was collec t to free be mcreased establislunent _ of n1inin,un1 wa(Tes ancl ss 111 en, in combinations sulJject to Gove sine 1 · Bt s ation J 0 ' 1 gt e 1· ot11 1 l 1rnme 1 · ·· .nt . .. . ·. througl 1 n1ax1n1u1 . . · . 1 1111ate \1/asteful compet1tlve p1act 1 ces and cut-tl1ro at conlpetieJ11 to d e allo\:v be o t e er 1 va w a_ppro r vvage biJls and to rest ore llighe tl1e ces, pay to pr i11 e i decli11 1e tl alt 1 I to ' tl;en1 ble na e o t as t1on so ..,...J' · 1 ce an · · CI ause d t 1e 1 at1ona 1 Economy, busiiless to a 11ealtlly condition.'' R.L. Stern, ,,T1 1e con1n1er 1933-1936,'' 59 J-Jarvard La,v Revie111. 645, 653 ( 1946). Section 3 of tl1e National Indtistrial Recovery A. c t declared: ''( a) Upo11 tl1e a1)plication to tl1e President by one o_r more tr�?e Of indt1 strial ass�ciations or groups, tl1e Pre sident 1nay approve a code or _codes of fa.if _cornpel!i 1 on 1or tl�e trade or 1.odustry or subdivision tl1ereof, represented by tl1e applicant or ap1Jl 1 cants, 1f the President finds (1) that sucI1 associations or groups in11)ose no iuec1t1it�ble res�rictions on_ 8:d!-lllssion to n1embersbip therein a 11d are truly representati\1e of st1cl1 trades or 1 11dt1s�r1es or st1 �d 1. �r1s1ons tl1 ereof, and (2) that such code or codes are not desig11ed to pro1note n1ono1)0]1es or to el1mJnate or oppress small enterprises a11d \vill not operate to di scri111inate ag,tinst tl1e111, and will tend to eflectt1ate tl1e po]jcy of this Title: Provided, tl1 at s t1cl1 code or code s sl1 all not 1)ern1it n1onopolie.s or mo11opoJ.iEtic practices: ... The President 11 1 ay, as a conclition of l1is atJproval of any such code, i1npose st1ch coodition s (including reqt1iren1ents for tl1e 1nal<.i 1 1g of reports and tl1e keeping of accounts) for the protection of con­ st11 11ers, co1 111)etitors, en11)loyees, a 1 1d othc:rs, and i n furt11 erance of t be pt1bJic interest, and may provide st1cl1 exce1Jtio11s to and exen,ptions fro111 the provisions of sucl1 cede, as tl1 e President in his di scretion deen1 s neces sary to effectt1ate the policy herein declared.

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"(b) After the President s1 1all l1ave approved a11y st1cl1 code, tl1e provisions of such code sl1all be tl1e standards of fair co1n1)etition for st1cl1 trade or industr). or st1bdi,rision thereof.... ''(c) The several di strict cot1rts of tl1e United State-S a.re l1 ereby invested with jurisdiction to prevent and restrain viola.tio11 s of any cocle of fa ir co111petilion approved under tlus title; ... . '�(f) \V11e1: a c�c1e of fair con1petitio11 l1as been approved or _prescribe-d by tl1e President under this _title, any v 1ola t1on of any J)rovision tl1ereof in a ny tra11saction in affecting interstate or or foreign comn1erce shall be a n1isden1 eanor and t1pon con,riction tl1e offe er shall be fined reo nd an f not more tl1an $500 for eacl1 offe11se, and eacl1 day sucl1 ,,iolation contint1es shall be deemed a separate offense.'' �11 tli_e Sc!zec/! t �r case, tl1e Scl1echter Pol1ltry (f) above) n Co . sub \\'a pro sec s sec tio (se ute e d for violatin_g_ JJro,,1 sro 1 1s of tl1e ''cocle'' regt1 lat hours ing ll1eir indtist ry (sp and age Vi s eci 1 tl fic e a l l)' · rules prov1 s 1ons). T he evidence as to tl1e ,,iolation ,vas clear. But tl,e con,pany arguec1 tl1at Section 3 effect, in ,,,a s l1a t1n d, co 11s tit Co titi ng o11 res be al s cau se made a stattite 0� a type �;hicl1 it _(Congr �Jen t ess ) co tilc 11(>/, t111dcr t11e constitution, en act: tl1e enac l r esented . �n .111vali� clele�atio1 .1'' - i.e., tr::11,sfer nt. ide Pre s tl1e ci of to leg isl at.1 ati tl1o ve rily ( t�1er constitutto11 al 1 ss11e . s ra1seli by t11e co111µany are not treated l1ere.) ,e lower cotirts rulecl against Sc d J eal e ap p l1 ecl1te r on tl1is point ter T �11 others) <·1d a " . Scl1ech ··· (ai to tb e St1pre-1ne Court. ExceriJts fron1 tl1e clc:cision foll ow:

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Mr. Chief Justice Hughes deliv ered the opinion o f the Court. ... } � Fi,·st. · · · We care · n ptio · ado t old tl1at ·tl1e pro,11s1o · e · n o f tl1e statt1te at1tl101·1z · 1·ng t'·Ll ; 0f codes mtist be iewed i11 tl1e ::1 ligl1t of tl1e gra,,e national crisis witl1 \vluch Congre-� � a confroi ited. Undoubtedly, the lw a '. are: � _ sed con dit ion s ad dre s to wh po ich we r s i t? e coi1sidered v;,J1e 11 tbe exerci se of po e 11 o d ar w r i s cl1·allenged. Extraor in y c 1v, �t·· . 1011s 1nay call for extra orct·11 ary re 1 s . ps r--0 ·1 i s . f 1ed 1 1 . s. � Bu .r. 1 tl1 · ec t ar e ess · gtt ar m e11 1:1t . � . of an att JJt to _JtlS tify ua ! al � oJ ? act 101 � tut 1 i wl � 11c h . nst i l1es · ot1 co tsi _. of de . spl 1ere the •. thority. xtraord iiary er w 0 · condi tions do not create or enla1·ge consti tutional 12 i _ ; - �

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TrIE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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537

· Delegatiorz of t/1e of Legislative n i testio Power • Tlle Co11gress Q· e ,.,.. 7 1 . d Secon J. ' • ·.· • . . . • tra nsf to to er otl or 1er s cat tl1 . e e i ess ab e11t d 1al leg to islative flii1.cti·ons d itte m per · · not · · ve el?ea h e I · t dl y e\. W ec d e 1 . g 1 1 1 vest e� tl1� neces?ity of adapting � � si ith wroch it is thus � .. w . t· to con1plex concl1t1ons .1nvolv1ng a 1.10st of details w1t11 wI1ich tl1.e Il . atio n 1 . a 1 a IeglS ion . dea I d'1rec�1 y . 11.1 po111 • te d . ut vv e 111 '. Le I Pc111a111ct Co,n_1;a,iy case [cita� ot cann . ture le_gi·sJaro ' cl] tliat the Co11st1 tl1t1011 l1as 11ever been 1egardecl as cle11y11 c 1g to tte 011g ress J · · · t1on ° 1 ·b·1· l �tr a11 d 1)ract1ca _·1ty: w111cl1 'vV1ll e11able_ it to ex1 f fl O 1:ces resot IJerform tl1e necessary_ laytn do\\'D pol1c es a11d est b�1sl1 11 sta11d ! �_ � � g �rd.s, wJ 11 Ie _Ieavii�g to its funct�on 1 n 1 11g of s11bo1cl.111ate r11les w1tl1111 })rescri becl Iiinits mak t11e t1es menta l1 1 t ,nstr cted se1 e wl1icl1 tt1e :polie)' as declared by tl1e Iegislattire to facts of 1 m.inat io1 deter d the an · · co1 1e a11 1·ec 1s 'd l I t t 1at t o sa1 1t10 1 11 . of tl1e 11ecessity an d validity we But � ply. � � ap is to ra11 w1de e of the a. d 1111n 1strat1ve al1tl1ority wl1ic11 J1as been a11d ns, provisio g such of developed by n1ean s o � tl1em, cao11_ot ?e allowed to. obsc11 re tl1e lj1nitatio11s of tl1e authority to delegate, 1f ou1· co11st1t1rt1011al syste1n 1s to be 1nai11tai11ecl. . . . ...Section 3 of tl1e Recovery Act i s ,:vitl1011t p1·ecede11t. It s11pplies 110 sta11dards for tany trade, industry or activity. It does 11ot ll11dertal<:e to prescribe rt1les of con­ duc to be applied to particular states of fact deter111i11ed by a1JJJro1Jriate ad1ni11is­ trative proced11re. Instead of prescribi11g 1·ules of co11dt1ct, it a11tl1orizes t11e n1al(ing of codes to prescribe them. For t11at legislative ltndertalcing, Sectio11 3 sets 11p no e11eral ai1ns of rel1abilitatio11, correction tandards, aside from the statement of tl1e g s and expansion described in Section One. 111 view of tl1e scope of tl1at broad decla ra­ tion, and of the natu·re of the few restrictio11s tl1c1t are iinposed, tl1e discretio11 of the President in approving or prescribi11g codes, a11d tl1t1s enacti11g Jaws for tl1e government of trade and industry tl1rol1ghotrt tl1e cotintry, is virt11ally u11fette red. We think t11at the code-making at1tl1ority tl1l1s co11ferred is an l1nco11stitutional delegation of legislative power. . .. Mr. Justice Cardozo, concurring. . .. . The delegated power of legislatio11 wl1icl1 l1as fot111d expression i11 tl1is code is not canaliz ed within banks that keep it f1·om overflowing. It is unconfined and vagrant. . ..

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· Ieg is l. Read t h . Iatio11: · e in certa following e xtrac ts from a N rit Gaze/ g , e a (a) Tl1e Ministry of Pensions Order, No. 20 of · 1958 17th Year No. 9:

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Questions an the Above . Th� Schechter case, of course, is n.ot law in Ethio1Jia. The CoL1rt was interpretin� a_ Consti_tu­ �on which vests "All legislative powers ... i n a Congr�ss'' (�rt_icle 1) and '1: Co11st1_tLition w��� � efl�ct s a theory of ''separation of powers'' 11ot foL1nd 1n Eth101J1a - ai1d qLiite possibly not

desirable in Ethiopia. . Neve rth · e1ess, the essent1..al problem of tl1e Scl1ec/1ter case 1s · l11:;"'rent,,1·r1 '·:1.ny syst. en1 of co11· st1-.? · in . 1 1or1ty tut1onal law· Should t t1 a g 111 k a 11 -1 v \> la te a eg el cl '· there b e any 1·1m1tat1on · · on tl1e p ower· to . . Wha t are the basic issues and argL1ment s? Re-read · ·. Chapter I, pp.38-50 - proble111s of policy c117 uI th eory; reconciliation o f t1.,.1e va l ues of1 .ati·on of po\1/ers witl ar sep government by consent and parliamentary control tl1rotigl1 the values of strong and efficient governme11t; C hapter IV, Section 4 (pp.393-39 7); to S /aJl' ce ,,,c1/ to ver Cba�ter V, pp.451-452 and pp.469-470 - tlze allocatiorz of po• Parl1an1en t. ConsuJt: Chapter VII,. pp. · .r. tn;1ra.

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S OURCEBOOK OF E'THIOPIAN CcJNSTITVTIOl'�1\L L.,.\ W

538

''SO(d) . He sllall make st1cb amend1nents to tb_ e pe11sion laws when ­ n e cessary and expedient." ever it is found (b) Tlle Ministers (Definitio11 of Powers) (Ame�dm_e11t No. 2) Orde r, No. 46 of 1966 (Article 22). [The text of tl11s Art1cie 1s set out on p.452.J (c) Tlle Transport Procla1n,1tio11, No. 35 of 1943, Negarit Gazeta 2 nd Year No. 7, (now repealed): ''59. (i) The Minister of Comm·u ni cations m ay make regulat io ns for car1·ying tl1is Proclamation into effect. (ii) In particular and wit11out prej11dice to the generali ty of t11e foregoing powers, such regulations may prescribe ... . U) tl1e 1· 11les of tl1e road� and tl1e signals to be given d an obeyed by the dri ve1·s of vehicles ... (t) tl1e pe11alties for breacl1es of regulations... (iii) Ai1y mod ifications or adaptations of or exemp tions from tl1e provisions of this Proclamation whicJ1 may be p.re­ scribed by regulations 11nder this Article shall h av e eff ec t as if tl1ey were contained i n th e Proclamatio n." (i) With respect to the two Orders: Do tl1ey dele ga te any Jaw-making a11tl1ori ty? If tl1e IJrovisio11s quoted above we re p re se n te d as d raft Proclama­ tions for yot1r review a11d com1ne11t, w h at , if any, advice would you offer?

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Does tl1e ·Transpor t P1·oclama ti o 11 raise a n y proble1ns- constitutio11al or IJolicy? 2. (a) Re-read tl1e case of Lisci Sofia set fo1·tl1 pp.403-405 supra N , . ote also tl1e 9-11esti?ns, p.405. Wl1at is tl 1e re le,,a11ce, if a11y, of this case to a cons;1derat1on of the limits o f tl1or1ty? W11at ''wa1·ni11g'' d tl1e power to delegate law-mak. ing au­ o es it offe1· d raftsmen of organic and dele­ gated legislation? Cb) ob!e ms o f cre p r ating "petty offe c s � n e '' by regulation, co�su!t owenstein, l'ifaterials /01· tl1e St,1cl ,

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J o_f t!1 e Penal Lau, of Ethiop ia (1965), p.297 et seq . 3 - Procl mation No. 39 o f 1943 (dealing w � ith taxation), N egarit Gazeta 2nd tear No. 10, state d: "5- Our Minister of Finance, with the conse nt o f the Council of Mini5 !ers, may by 1·egt1latio11 publisl1ed i11 t11e N·egarit Gazeta (a) aiuend the rate of [customs] duty payable in respect of any itenl _ co11ta1ned 1 n tl

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(b) grant total or pa r ial exempt�on from the paym n t of duty ! _ e any go?ds wlucl1 �� _

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1n tl1e public interest should b e granted su

exemption.'' AsSume t l1 at in 1956 r aske d: ''Is Article this Proclamation is under revie w. Yo u a:e 5 of the Proclamation constit tional? If we amend ot/1er parts of u - . the Proclamation , .

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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must we amend Article 5?'' (Cf. A.rticle 167 of Proclan1ation No 14S of 1955, Negarit Gazeta 14t.l1 Year No. 7.) (ii) Assume ftirther tha� t_he �inistry of Finat1ce I1as argued: ''For a variety of rea_s�_us 1t 1s desirable tl1at \¥e l1ave tl1e l)OWer to raise and lower tar1.tl rate s- as we l1a,,e, 1111der P1·oclamation No. 39 of 1943. '' Can you see wl1y t11is may be trt 1 e? Can the power req11ested by tl1e 11inistry be gra11ted witl1 out creating constitutional proble111s? ·Toe Coffee (Cleaning and Grading) P .roclan1atio11, No. 1 21 ot' 1952, Negarit 4 Gazeta 11th Year, No. 5, delegates vario11s powers to regt1late tl1 e marketing of coffee, and states: ''6. The Minister of Commerce and Industry is autl1orised to issue re­ gulatjons by legal notice or circular for the carrying out of the pro­ visions of this Proclamation.'' Comment on the above provision. Migl1t jt raise a11y constitutional problems? 5. The Ministers (Definition of Powers) Order, No. 1 of (1943), Negarit Gazeta 2nd Year No. 5, stated: ''13. Ministers may make administrative i11structions not inconsistent with any of Our Jaws for ap1)lication i11 t11 eir Ministries. No such administrative instructions sl1all be put i11to effect until Our pleasure has been signified through OL1r Prime Minister."

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Section 1 of this Chapter.

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What changes were made? What are the arguments for and against the cl1anges made? 6. I� what ways might Parliament review the output of ''subsidiary legisla­ tion'' in Ethiopia?

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A Further Problem

o tw ed os op pr 7· Assume that ve ha Planni11g of y tr . is in e M e xp th ''e ' s' rt in s e . r u t · a e f . e th f o e m o S alternat1ve to be followed in drawing up the 11ex t P1 an. of the two alternatives ar e No. I: s · 1 . o t a v i t l u c t 11 a n - redistribt1tion of large absentee-land lord ho1d .1 1,gs to te thro i1gh a land-refor· m scheme; . tl1 eal 1 1 c · · 81 a b . · n o 1 rn ' t a - a or 1c L d e ary im pr � public investment in housing, facilities·' er ov . . es ari sal d an s . me - increased taxation co 10 rent · of b1,1siness profits, $500 . : . No 2· m­ oo a on rs _._ . . ., . - tu ne ow by d o la f o as . ·, -, :.. ·'. ·- :. ·.. . .... . . m-e n o ti a iv .e lt ure u c e g to ra ... u o c en . .- .· .. ·0.:0,.-�. -,,_ :._. ·. · · 1ll·.·er·era . 1 basis·' .. . :· · : _. :·,: ; . ··� .�·:,- ·. �

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a ur lt cu al ri l pr u ci ag er od 1n m . co io ct : in · n t en tm es a nd v j11 c · i · bl . . )tl . . J . - maJor . . � , 1 y ea ssu1g, grain tr 11 m c� o p ro p s., 1 e1 1s t1 er (f es r1 st ti d in agrictilttlral . e a1 m c1 i r m cu co r1 r . ag fo s ce re ur tt1 so re r te w a sec· ' • sto raoOe , tanneries)·, h • p m 1t a co arat1v�Iy limit ed ( n io at uc ed l a c gi lo no ch te 1d � 011ctary a1 l c1a er ra e ric m ot ag co om pr ur to ult s e ad ro in ; s) nt de 1 1 st in e as e cr in selected a reas; 1 tary education a nd basic rural e1 m ele t o1· pp su to e11 rd 1 bl tax g _ sll ifti 11 s; 1t e1 un rr ve go l ca lo to es ic v r se 1 l lt l1 ea . ies d te str lec du se in ju 1t 1 e tm es v in te 1o on pr es to v i - incent Assume further tl1at tl1 e ex1)erts are in general agreement as follows: Prograu1 me l\To. 1 wil l 1)rodl1ce a low increase in t11e pe,· capita national prodl1 ct, in i11comes ancl co11sun11Jtion; Programme No. 2 will increase 1 agrict1ltt1ral prod11ctivity, tl1 e pet· caJJita national prodl ct a nd resources available for ft1rther inv estment, if consumption can be controlled.

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decides whicl1 - if eitl1e r - of tl1ese plans should be developed? Wl1 at f11rtl1er ql1estio11 m11st decisio11-makers ask a11 d answer?

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SECTION 3

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGENCIES OF LOC�t\L ADMfNISTRATION Re-read: ChaI)ter I, PJ).52-53.

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It 1 11ay well be asl(e d why a sectio11 on local go·,.rernment sl1ould be placed in a cl1apter on ''execl1tive i11stitl1tio11s' '. I11 fact tl1e topic ot� local go,,ernment is very complex a1 1d arg11ably cleserv es at least ,1 separate cl 1auter - if 11 ot separate bookle11gtl1 tre,1t1 nent - of its O\Vtl. . . . Becatis� tl1� stibject is so cornplex, it is 011ly ''i11. trod11ced'' in tl1is book. An? 1. t is place d 111 tl1 1 s cl:apter becat1se, at tl1is J)Oi11t i 11 J.:.t1 1iop ian political d evelopinent ! oblein of de� ising a '.'mo dern" sys muc h y v�r is t tem n gov of ern loc � me al ;��6J: in for exectitive gover 1 1n1e11 t (tl1ougl1 Pa1·l1 a111e11t too 1nt1st sl1are 1n tl1e deci 1. ?10 �� t_? be �lade!. Until rece11 tl)1 tl1e political tre·n.d L1 as bee11 to ''ce11tralize''. t}Je . . 111st1tl1t1 on· s l11stor1 ca' lly. l1s�c I t· O go,,ern tl1e . 1es n1t 1nn1u co d1 verse l11stor1c regto11s a11d ' n hic llave 1��? e lIJ) _Et�1101Jia , a11cl i11 tl·1is r a �, cot111try tl1e po,ver of tl1.e EmJJero ers �e ;:pre se_ntatives of 111s gove1:n1 11e11t l1as steadily lead loc al of t 1a tl reJJ lac ed · 1 . e h . . the. governt11g . . t . f · of s loc .· a . . ' l a1e as 1 s a f u11ct1 or1 largely carrie d Ollt by appo 111tee o . · . l executive establ1· sl1 . 1 101s . a 11 d 1·eg1. 01 es), ·srr1 · · men 01 t 1 ( . gover m 1al represe11 tat1ves from tl1e . , . , d ce atld. a SYSte11: _of ''direct rule'' pla re y I and ''central adn1i 11istratio11'' l1as larg el . var1ol1s tr,td1t1011al arrang e111e11 ts. � ed de t ti e �ateri als which fol In y. B; l low show that changes are ag ain under wa ] most . ve °l)IIlg cotintries are confronte e f g ?a � , \ ;n: vie :v w o 1 1 d n witl : 1 1 i prob tl e le of po1 I �ca1 and eco110111ic dev 1 dev scbbe ld elop1nent \\'11at so rt of a sl1ou sten1 sy ' , to prov1de io . . su . " r ''go. ve � l ·. na ,.-t·10 . . . rn·111g'' tlie ''ar1ol1s geograpr1 1ca.l or etl1111c or tra ot ·, 1 ·n nationa I co1n1111111Lt1 es and Y 1 . r g d un · e . group ! n gs wh1cl1 make llIJ tl1e st at e ?_ A ' . � '"direct'',_ __ preinise is t11 e .need fo. � a s s_.tem . _ 1Jg ex1st1 · 111c tl1e r J)laces, . to son1e e xtent, te � � � � ea ''centralized'' inst1·ttLtJo cr . ns tl. 1 ese u1st1 to sary tut1ons may well l1a ,,e been 1 1eces · · -·-�.: . :.. �J;

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· d'tions of political order an d unit� i n tl1e past; tl1ey may rerve well en ot igl l ba�1c. con 1 co nc er1 w1 1ed tl1 are n1e rel )' ern ing ''adn1inisterirg'' for purposes go v of s k s t i f the � s0 ta co 111 g es lle e cti b1 n 1t x as an ; tl1 d os e ta eac slc s e ,re ex1Ja i1cled' as g p 1n . , f keep · · ' o · · · ct c tn e e d co pr n ov 1 1t1 0. n s o 1 r l1u 1pts to 1na n 11 att e be ter 1 ne 11t _ roacls, nt r e . ' .. over un . . . . · e.e "et ct1 1 . I s, 1� :po,�er �nd otl1er a1 nc111 t1 es gchools, health services, 111ar atl cl as _ . s v rnroent 11ndertakes eve11 more sopl11st1c ated taslcs sl1cl1 as ''pla1111111g' , and e ID: d1 01· 1ce pr e, to p n y 111ore j�e t s xes, a11d as g)Vern111e11 t �e_eks inc �nt lg lop it � _ ��ve � _ . _ . de11 at1c 1oc1 �o,, for e1111 ne11 t ut1o ns tl11 ot1gl1 tl1e JJroce. sses of IJ01itrcal to dev elop inst1t col1. elec nc1ls - as tl1ese goals de,,elo1J tl1e 11 it be comes ted nd ns a elect io on, pressi ::cessary to change the ��ste��l. T.l1e proble1.11 is 011e o� d_ e �_i_ s ing vtlicl tl1eories and measures for ''de-ce11t1·a/1sL11g s0111e execl1t1v·e respo11s1b1l 1t1es ana clelegctting them to local agencies of go,,er1m1ent.

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Choice among p.aths to\vards cl1a11ge are i11fi11itely ,,aried. [t is possible to ... '�conceive of regional or lee.al governn1ents as e11tre 11cl1ed co11stitltional creatio11s, ·''' . .. . enjoying a \vide meas11re of autono1nol1s powe1·s witl1 little or no cirect supervision �...:. .. by or a ccountability to tl1e central gover11n1e11t. It is possible to create u11its of local overnment, inclt1ding elected bodies, wl1icl1 are n1ere age11ts of national govern­ g ment acting 11nder a netvvo.rl< of directi,re s fro1n above. It is possible to cre ate tiers of governme11ts witb varying geograpfzical jurisdictio11 (provi11ce; or regions, to districts, to villages) and varying sitbject 111attet· jt1risdictio11 (eccno1nic pla11ni11g, r0ads, schools). It is possible to devise a ''1)art11ersl1jp'' systen1 \vl1e1ei11 local govern­ ments enjoy an independent existence but sl1are variotLs JJO\Vers a1d revenues vvitl1 the national government. It is possible to create all sorts of l1ybrid arrangements. l hoi ce of systen1 sl101Lld presumably reflect tl1e 111ost car{fL1l j11dgme11t � · ,ve1gh1 ng and balancjng many competing claims a11d. 11eeds, s11cl1 a� 1. the l1istoric claims of t,-aclition, geogra1Jl1y, regional and groitp interests; ., 2. t�e need for pO}Jt1lar i111de1-·staridirzg a11cl acceJJtance of tl1e P?litical insti�11t1ons to be imposed 1Lpo11 a co1111nu11ity (traditional :::l11efs, autl1ority figu res, or elders' councils cc1.11 easily be deposed by lav, bt1t tl1e actual . ('I status, power and e ffectiveness of tl1e o r. ga11s to replace tl1em cannot be produced by law alo11e); . 3· tl1e need for z,nitJl (s 1 d a lti s f­ o Y� � > l1 ibal or 1 · cl1i paro ! g i1 l1bo1 dinat _ ! � � r a an fere ns tutio 1r5ii nces t1cal 1Jol1 m ' r l ltnde 1non tl1e 1mbrella of 'co { basic loyalty ta the greater co1nn11111ity wl1.ich. is tl1e 11atior1); , , · . . . ocracy · 4· the c Iaims of JJ0!1.t1cal 1 · ,.., / ''dem r e · greaL. 1s · goa . theory ancl zdeofoo y (1f tl1e .. e tl1.rough competitive electio11s ope11 °·poJJ11lar debate aL d re1Jreseiltativ _ ' '! e · acl1 1ev · Iat1ve to ts 11 e 1-.egis 1 111 . over organs, then th,e struct11.r111g of loca_1 g tllese e11ds will ·be stro ngly argued); per hap s h vvl1i 5. ti" e· cI a·ims of econom .c cle1,1efo1;1nent c ( . , · e · r,c1 '-'fJ 1· · :c 1 1 1101111 c eJ i . eco a11d i . 11111�.. · 0f loc'al governdepend o n analysis of tl1e f1111ctions to be delegated to ; ). · g tho"e men·t a11 d. analysis of tl1e best way of acI11ev · 111 � t,sks , . . eepIe p . ,,at e . n1o t1 . 6. /Jsye . 1 \<VI 1 l best , Izologitaf , factors (ar1alys1s of wl1at� sy5ren nan l1u1 tax es f to n1ak· e more . form ' . · . ·b .· the J in ns t1t1 sacr1fice s a11d co11tr1 . 1an ? rrta r alit l1o is effort, and _ . es Juniti coro tl1e1r coope � ration to i1nprove e nt rnm . gov · e ll'tn gover. nment t · Jec · - . by comm d. 1nor e ef1c1 res ' · J tl11s · t · fi 111 en a11 , . · .;· ? . �y C()nsent, cot1nselli11g a11d. cc,11ci liation :); . and _ · . ' . . ·... tlte 11· """' . . nge s " ""°' cha d1c d al 1 ra or . 10g civi c edt1,cation preced :-.:i · · . t��.-·'.-:".�·-· . ·� . ...·,:..... . .�.� ': .. ..,... ..... . . . . . .

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SOURCEDOOK 01:. ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTIT'UT10NAL LA\\'

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8_ the need for hun 1an ,·esources (in tl1e forn� of capable Ieader� a_n� publ ic a11 d energy time spend 1n more remot e, pr1D11t 1 ve serva.nts willi11g to com­ mt111ities to n1ake t1 1e system wo1·k). ObviotisJy other co11siderations m. ay also be invoked.: t11 e judg�ent on polici es t o be adopted is st1btle and 011ce agai n tJ1e IJfOblem may call for continuo us research and a form of co11ti11uous polit;cal pla1111i11g.

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TI1e decisions are essentially decisions of 110w t o delegate jt1risdiction and duty for t11e carryi11 g-ot1t of responsibilities presently committecl to the exec11ti,1e i• orga n s. / Tl1e decision may affect many ministries (eg. Interior, Heaitl1, Edtication, Ag rict1lture ,. and J11stice) and n1any specialized ad hoc agencies (e.g. nat ional marketi11 g boards, regt1latory age11cies, po\.ver and water resot1rce a·uthoritie )- I 11 a mo re profound � sense, tl1 e decisio n on \Vl1 at system of local gover1unent 1s to be d eve lop ed ma y . affect natio11al constitutional development over the long haul Just as sj nificantly ,. g ,. as changes in tI1e wri tten co11stitution itself. Con1parative SJJSfems lf. From Alderfer, Local Gover11111e11t i11 Developi11g CouJ-1t1 ·ies (1964), pp.3-16. Tl1 e Fre ncl1 system of local government is establis he d in a l arge portion of tl1 e world today. . .. Wl1en N·apoleon ca1ne into power, lie thor o u ghly revise d tl1e organization of local governn1e11t. In t l1e la w of Febrl1ary 17 , 1800, I1e set up a systen1 that was to last, exceJ)t for mi11or cl1 a11ges, to tl1e .. p re se 1 1 t d ay . It ,,.,as orderly, symmetrical, an d logical - tl1 e prodt1ct of a gi·eat n 1ilitary n1i 11d opera.ting in a civjl fra111ewor k. An t1nbrolcen cl1ain of co111ma11d ft1n ' ct io n ed from t11 e national governn1ent through departn1 e nts a11d a1·rondisse1ne11ts d o w 11 to the su1allest com 1n11ne. A corps of adjut­ • ants - Joyal, traine d, co1nJJete11t, ' a nd disciplined - tl1e prefects of tl 1e depart­ •, ments, and tl1e sub-prefects of tl1e , a r1 ·o n rl is se111e11ts. carried 011t tl1e will of the ce11tral gov ernment. Ministerial regt1Ia tio11s, fro111 ,1/l1 icl1 tl1ere sl101tld be no deviatio n, m�d � govern111 ent throt1gl1011t F . ra 11 ce 11 11 ifor111 a 1 1d precise. A bod y of non-c om­ nuss10 _ n:d officers - the co1nm1111al 111ayors a11d co .. lo 11.ncilmen - obedje11t, yal, and 111d1 ge nous to tl1e c on11111 1n it y and of tl1e soil of F1·a11ce. c on stituted tl1e lowe St rung of tl1e J1 ie rarcl1y. . . . 'I , . Dtirii,g tJ1 e centt1ry and a 11::llf of its existe11c e, it be,carne gradually more demo­ cratic. I 1 1 1831, t�1 e co 11 1n 111nal co1111cils were made elec '' ceased to be non1 L na te d by tjve; in 1881, tl1e ma�or 'l. tl 1e c e 11 tr a l gover111ne11t a 1.1 d becan1e an elective official c hosen h y and '.r0m the _1ne1nbership of _ 'l the council. By the Municipa l_ Code of 1884, �hich is st,11 the baste t l a w , the_ counc il w a s given powers of decisio _ e of puiely 10?al conce(n ; n Il l m a tt r but not without an elabo .' rate complex o f chec� � n th part of tile l11glier officials . l.' o f arror1dissen1e11ts, departm · s. · n t s, a11d central min1st-rJe e · Certain legal principles and p ractices are basic in Frenc local goveromen� !-,ocal units are organs h di o f t h e central govern Iba n t ex m te e 10 England o r t n t r g to m re a u te c a h h e United State _ s, They h ave no powers th a t are not granted to !betII �y a const1tuted auth o rity._ �urth ermore, as the France � 1 ts 0Wn riglits and ex in ec p u o ti w v er e dtit1es d1st111 ct fro1n tl1o y , o 1 oc� 1 govern!1 rl u il i se a e o ra tr 1 1ted b y the leaisla v 1 ent is Sll bject to the exect1tive b;ancl1 for examp in such fields _ as po�ice! s�cunty, hygie 1� ne, a11cl safety. In ve 1.rt 1 fact ' all p11b]j· � serv ex e� Jurisdict10n. Tb·is gi· v. r un de co · m ic . e . es es tl. 1e m . c:1yor of a co1nn1une, . for example a dual· ca, p ac�ty - . -.. , • • f '

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exe cut a11d ive an ofl1 cial cen tral foll owi the 11 g tJ1 e directives g· ,. of . n t · _ e ge n i, . . as an a local COUOC. J·1 • pI? all th.e ex_ect . , 1_t·l �� b· . 1 r_ a 11c 1, al�l10 ll�l l adn�1r11stratively ]JJS by him tive and 1sla 1 al . b1 a nc h es, is sti_ll nO t in le Judi c the bot�_ 0� nt dependent � independe . 1rts are se! �p to deal �1tl1 cases tl1at arise between co: at1ve ms!r Adm.t citizeils of law. .e agencies and officials. Tl:e l11gl1est of tl1ese cotirts is tli e Con.seil 1,, at r ist dmin and a 1 rts are the con,')e1/s de p1·efecttire . .. col lower the while . d'Etat, One of tJle basic cb�racteristjcs o .f E1 �glisl1 local gover1111 1ent i s tli a.t, exceJJt l 1e lo�al l1n1ts are free fro1n co11trol of other loca l � exceptio ns, minor and few for . authorrt)' bet\vee11 tl 1 e111 a11d tl1e 11atio1 1al miriistries and no 1s There s. e riti autho Parliament. Th.is contrasts sl1arpl)' ,vitl1 tl1e l1 ierarcl1ical syste1n of Fre 11 cI1 local rnmen t, wh,ere higher _loca! t1n.its l1ave_ a?mi11istra.tive _a11d fi 11a11 cia1 controls gove JJ ' over the lower echelons. L1kew1se, and aga 1 11 111 co11trast v.11tl1 tJ1 e Frencl1 system, English lccal government is decentralizecl ratl1er tl1an deco11ce11 trated. Dece1 1tral iza­ tio n means that there are local decision-1naldng agencies witl1 1nore or less inde­ pendent ex istence a.nd powers; deconcentratio11, on tl1e ot11 er 11and, 111ea11s tI1 at all governmental powe·r lies vvith the cent1·al go,1er111nei1t, a11d local t111its, eve11 i n tl1 e P case of electi, e officials, act simply as agents of tl1e ce11 t:ral gover1 1n1ent. E11 glisl1 local authorities are ge·nera11y multipurpose, or, as [P1 ·ofessor] Herma11 fj 11 er IJt1 ts ' it, "c ompendious'' - they are not ad lzoc, co11fined to one fu11.ctio11, like scl1 ool '. districts in the United States. ... While English local government is more decent1·alized tl1a11 tI1 at of France, �nt� authorities are gaining increased powers in local admi11istration. St1c�1 ad 1nin1st�a!1ve control is exercised through various natio11al mi11istries, es1Jec1ally the MinIStry of Hea, lth. It consists of the approval of some appoi11t111e11ts, tl1 e tl1reat I l of substitute administration , the making of regulations to implement parJiame_ ntary statutes, the refusal to approve certain local actions, the granting of prov1�101_1al 0rdei:s , and the giving of· advice and information. But especially in1portant is in­ spection, which is the characteristic Englisl1 mode of ce11tral ad111inistrat1ve coiitrol. · · · I . The theoretical basis of Soviet local gover11n1ent is ''de1nocra�ic centralis�"­ This con cept was transfer red fro m the organization of t h e Com1nunist party, w _ luch cans f?r th e electio h eSt, ig h _ e h t to t;st Jow the n of all leading party bodies from e lin ci peno�i cal reports of rty dis �ty l)a p . ict str s, on rty or_ga1 1izati pa s pa die to bo I� Which the 1aracter c1 g 111 1d b11 e tl1 d an minority is subordinate to the majority, re s th de ci sions of h an rg � ll a _ o , nt 1ne rn ve go I e er bodies upon the lo w r. n igh f1nk s �1n one conti· nuous chain of gover11me11ta 1 power. Local a' ge· 11c1es are . 11 ot in· tended as d n a , · s te 1c 1 e g a s a ' t t1 b la , n · i er w t 1e ·1ets a tl -m · f o ki e ng ns se ll cie f1t en e ag s th in th e execu v . o s e 1 tl o t Iy o1 t t· 1 no I of v comnuttees of th� lower so�iets are respo�s1· bl. e � L s sov iet their l � but oc al l. he I h1g t nex to the of the execut1 �e comlUlttee elect a c n 1 o c ; e v i t u c e x e 1: :� an , a deputy cha rman, a secretar.f, i:nembers 0. t1 a t o m r i is 0Utte e a dinn tee i co e f 1 e ­ embers of It h t _ d 1n h � e t W1 c s. tee mit ng . com ndi sta Pre si<liur:: D? om �� is �� : y o b 1 i I h acts as e x" e i� at er hb de t the executive fo r he k r o w e h t f lloBed of 1�� t� e s i ·v 10 5{�:'.n " w ls cia m offi . y cit of the soy1·u ,- i e municipal, district , or regional the rad f J t c1 e th gu re tn !ol'j t h �� 1' ]ll: e, m pl am ex r pa de r iu . Fo ts id es en pr tm _ 1 e tl� e as e hil w rs e n1b nu u dep ties, the executive committee s r e b �ti of m e m t e i v o 5 s l a oc a . etary h t tend rCteive no t ainnan, eight vice- chairmen, and a secr , a ey th . while o sa ary , s o r r1 g e t· h e bs jo 1· e th o t 1 e o h e p iv y e y c 1e a tl re u t b a-st·,.ona . . . . oec . I . _. . 'Incre: , . _ meet·togs of the sov1ets. 1n s c n ze ili of tl tio , . . ince 1940 , stress is placed upon the p ar�tcIJJ,l n, star1ding corn� .. , - the.: �-giy s �1� -· es. Rel tanee O -:- �ua:1 Proc . · c en i ag 1d n al . nt 1e r k ve or e go 11 of · w . a'f :ss · _ · , · _,: · ;'i·.,r-i.�>: r::� ... ,.:,:.;:··· ;· . . . .. .. ..,:... �· . . � ·:·�·· .._ ,

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e op e of sc !li of l_ ca t lo en m ge we r . po la en rs 1 a1 is d an noted 11s io iss 111 m co or n1ittees 1 ·ol ov er 1n. du str1es a11d agr1cult1rre. �urt nt �o of n_ io at liz ra i1t ce her ­ especially 111 tlie de l ca m of lo r� ve rs g� be e1 1� .officials and u 1n 11 111 1 1 0 1 t u? red a 11 e be s 11a inore, tll ere s, al cie t . en en ag 1 r� lud ve 1nc go 11g the a�l of e tiv jec ob Ioca½ all erov e 1 TJ persoiJnel. 1 1cl social devel�]Jment o� th� c_on1n1uni ty. a 1 c 11 o1 on ec 1e l t r fo 11g ni 1 is social istic IJlai 1 br oa oe r tl1an Jt 1s .in Fran ce, l 11c 1n � e11 n1 rn ve go l ca lo of e p _ sco e tl1 . TI,is nJakes s t ec! �f vie asp So a�I 111_ l c n. govern ment in t1·e e �l1 . tes Sta d ite 1 U1 tl1e or England, 1 ty_ 1n t]1e work of the state �l leg 1st 1al soc 11 po u s as1 1 pl em tl1e n bee s I1a rs )'ea rece11t 1 elop1ng 1ts o,vn law and uuj de, n bee has tem sys iet sov the is, t forin apparatt1s, tl1a regt1lations t11Jon wl1icl1 t o set sta11dards f 01· pe1·formance a11d procedure. For ex­ ample, tl1e boolc of regt1lations for exect 1 tive conunittees of local soviets is a tome of 1,800 pages. Tl1is establjsl1n1ent of legal 1 1orms for adminjstration is based upon tl1e co 11stitt1tion, statt1tes, directives of tl1e party, and tl1e regulations de·vised by t}1 e l1igl1er levels of govern 1ue11t, and i t can be assu med that tl1e ioten.;>retation and applicatio 11 of t11is complex i 1 1volves increasing reliance 11po11 burea11cracy from above .

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B11 t tl1e 011tsta11di1 1g feature of Soviet local government is t11e Comn1u11ist 1els of govenunent. T 11is is especiall 1 evident le, all J 1i l a11d n at leaders directio )arty j 1 l in tl1e ma1 1ner i11 wl1ich elections a1 ·e l1eld.... Nominations are made by worker, occt1pational, and peasant grot1ps, b11t t l 1ese nomi1 1,1tions are screened b)' party secretaries and ratified at 1neeti1 1gs of tl1e Cormnu11ist party,. Wl1ile public opinion J1as limited i 11flt1e11ce, and tl1e ca11 didates are gi,ren a11 op1)ortu11ity to disc t1ss their quali�cations and ideas, t l1e cl1oices a1·e always controlled. Ho·{.ve·ver, effort is_ made, especiall y at tl1e lowest le\ 1el, to i11clude 1 1011-party persons, recognizi11g tI1ose who liave n1ade co11str u ctive co11trib11tio11s to tl1e eco11omic a11d social life of tl1e com­ mt111 ity wl,ere tl1ere is 110 da11ger tl1at s11b\ ersi, e ele111e11ts \Vill get juto power.... 1

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f 0 term s. � !raditj? 11al local governn1ent, in 1110st places, 111�1y be described in l ority { a cliief, a village l1ead, or so1ne l<ind of local leader, c-itl1e1 acti 1 1g as sole aut 1 or more often_ assisted by a cou11cil of elders. rfl1e power· strt1ctt1re is in te rm_s of an _ of 5 ? 10 extended t n a11 ' f 11ly, cl,tn, tribe, religio11s elite, or eco 11omic class. Tl1e fu c �ov.eri� �e11 t are c?nso11ant \vitl1 tl1e c11ltt1ral stage of t l 1e JJeople, and tl1e j:1risdict.ioo A a. a�e 18 111111te� to a village or a. grol1p c 1 ap.l1 of villages i 11 a contigt1ous geogr 1 u b_ s t r nt al 1 ? � � JJart ?f _tl1 e la11d .is O\Voed ancl ,vorked in con11non, bl1t t L e e �s : �� 111divJdtic�l owuersl1i1J, es1Jec1 ally of 111ovable property Original ly, accord1 110 d 1.)' ao I<.roJ)o.. tkin, tl1e vi· 11age con1111t1111t· )r wa.s 01 1e oJ' free 111en· de1nocr acy, equa1·t, 4 _tl1e sp1r1t re of inutt 1 al aid.W l1ile sucl1 a patte1·11 may seem �imple tJ1ere is mu ch n1o 1 r1 ore tl1an meet: s tt1 e eye. Ct1stom, traditio11 r i al ceren e m � .ai:,crne· tl ll . a 1 d a1 1 1 1onia l t u ' ' ' · Il . v1 1 . . deep '· tl1�1 � t311g ie Soii ].ed webs are tl11ck . der. outlan ,v 1 th aoe the 1nysterio to us _ ·tern 0 i:; sy . . . . com1nt1111t1e.s . are p i· o d ·Ltcts· Of a 11 ·1 ·ger · a 1 I a. . o f : 1.J parts 1 clegree' of s01Jl11st 1 cat 1011, gl . gra _ _ or . ted tl,at 11as disinte cl1aoged, sornetin1es older than \,\Testern time. · � aPY m � i11 · · Sociolog·18t s ai1d kindred cy . 1 n 11 m . " oe com nt. observe rs villa the l1ave t,ound ta parts 0f. �lle �or_ ld, ai1 d tl1ey believe i t .existecl i11 others w ber� jt is no longer exturv� :; "'" _1 oen . K.rOJ)otki11 ' c1t1ng . 1 . . entl e t e _ ;'\/ s- 1 av1G ·-'=;! . ·. t1 d1 es done 111 the 11m finds 1 . .· __.. m �ny a1 1t11ropolog1cal st d . tl -18 J · 1nst1111tion in tl1e early Sla t n e pre s til ] i11 as l l we vo 11ia un as n u ltu c re . O · lanc· ls, 10 E ngla11d du r· 1nc i v r � . 1irv . s · afl 7 �g . 1e ". 1 tl ar S a.x:011 noa11d t11nes, Norn1a 1 1 sc.otia � � p .f � Id t11e 11i 11 etee11111 c t . = Y _ 1 1 on o o ,v11e sl1ip· of - .� t at tl1e 1Jza ' ! 1 orga u botton1 tl of l i ·soci('. e r � lrela11d ' and W a� e � ' in _ � A rva11s -. ·� . . Fra1 1ce wl1ere tl1e village folk1J1ore co11u.no n ° on�r,..; · � . ... lai...,.ld l)et sis n d · t ec · 1 ll11t 1 I Ttirgot 's day; lll an 1s 1 a. , '. : l\ry bc.,tJ) India, whe1·e -.-,-i

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Af gh an ist a1_1 , M i� on fo1 g? 1nd lia , i _ s Ja va , Jt M it. ala ya , r nde Abyssinia, tlle u h·ved �f r 1ca, tl1 e Pac i fic ar cl11pelagoes, a11c1 No of r io r int e rt1 1 311 ct Sotttl l the d Su a�c' before tl1e coming of t l1e \\1este1 ·11e r. ''111 sl1ort, '' I<.ro )otlcj 11 t co l clti.des ' :. . 1 . . . Allleri a h e I 11n; __ �n s.1 n rac g one e 01 011e s1i1g le nat1011 wliicJ1 Jias of now not k not ll ad "we do . eo·od of village commun1t1es. its p

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From Perham, The Gol'ern,nent of Et/1iopia (1948), pp.275-276 (footnotes 011utted). Toe chiqa-sh� occ11pied sometlling like tl1e po�itio11 of tl1e Elizabetl1n11 jL1stice of the peace. In his office central a11d local autl1or1ty 111et. I-Te vvas respo11sible to the governor's dis trict chief for tl1e p1·oper pcrfor111ai1ce by l1is ow11 co11111111nity of their duties and especiall y for tl1eir pay111e11ts to tl1e pro1Jer atitl.1orities of titl1e and tax and of dues jn kind and labour. I-Ie ,vas tl1e judge to w11om, if wayside arbitration failed, the litigants would first apply. He would be prese11t at local ,ved­ dings; would pr eside a t meetings of tl1e vill age cot111cil; a11d wo11lcl be especially concerned with all transfers or allocations of la11d and disputes aboL1t it. 1-Ie \Vo11ld see that orders fr om tl 1e higher authorities were p1·oclaimed by a crier i11 tl1e village.

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According to an Ethiopian account li e is 'tl1e officer of tl1e district, livi11g 11pon ,, the soil as o·ne joined to it'. He is the agent of tl1e Empe ror. 'f-Ie will be a11 A111l1ara and may accuse even the Governor. If a ma11 toucl1es o r strikes l1im, l1e (i.e. tl1 e 1 striker) will not pay compensation, but all l1is goods wil l be co11fi.scate d.' Co11l­ beaux defines him as 'le maire de la commu ne ... tt1tet11 ·, pere me1ne'. He mar1ages �e affairs of tl1e village like his own, a11d l1is patriarcl1a l at1tl1ority �s sac re d. H_e 15 generally the genealogical chief of the com1nt1nity, and calls t�1e v1ll ag� c?un cil toge!�er unde r a tree. Certainly these vil lage cl 1iefs, r eprese11t111g co_11t1nt1ity of r! aditi?n and the sedentary agricul tt1ral life, were tl1e stabilizi11g factor 111 a sy 5lem 10 which ch�nging governors, roving armies, and a dista11t ?I111)eror IJlayed tlle ore . de d o a k struc � ly l vv P! at1c ia espec b Tl1is : 1!1 , ut often the more superficial, parts. � Tbere 15 in each village ,' he sp lac.... d di be 10t ca111 at 1 tl r e offic e, 'one hereditary t wro on any prete · nce � ear aJJp e 1 son es serv pre nce t and l one tl1a a it is on t11ti i this nst · 1 fo order 10 · st tl1e wI11·1·l 0 f revo ' I u t 1 o 11 s · the abse amid nce of a11 written doc11me11ts, an d the rap'1 d . . , nors. s11ccess1on of dynast1es and gove r r 11 t l1 tis i terestin g confirmatio m i Br e_ tl1 ��1; � n o f this comes from a l ater date:. n in I� rep 1 f s l1an t e r � t�1e � . ted nce e1·ie �xp · t tha te1 e bit aft r o s of two year _ ��� could n9 ot run llai vi t a ans tl1e country withoL1t the co-ope ration of t l1 e Etl1iopi leveI, and · · were tryin · g to restore tl1e village or gan1za1ion. tl1at e ssu1n . . . Th e E�peror a inay e w t 1 m b 11t _ . . claime cl11qa-sl1 10 this d to the appoint so o d to d and in the ve other matter s disct1 ssed in this cl1apte1· l1e 111te1 n1a 1 a' n1an to When a n smL d where he too . Jlv enera g h �d the power. The s l1um was attract im . lay his p , doubt tlt e witllO P naJ Jd, 1 atte wot or ntion . ed by the o0 ,,er11or and a strong govern Part in the at the re matter . According to Krapf tl1e sl1u13: was appoi · t l t1.ed at :a n tlle ; lt o f r 0 ne do aqu�st of tt1e villagers and paid twenty piec es o _ e· �e' clioi ce, wl1etl1er ll r r tl ear· y a e foi i a l y 1 01 o ce; ppointment , wl1ic l1 he J1cld de by· E, offi e �a t]1 of r racte 1a l c p l� tie l eror by . . ·m · ·ted or er. · 1 1n11 I •· Id I govern 110 y ear · or, was c l tl1e -u of . -�a e d Ja city ./ � ,,;, ..:·· · _lepeo.rled upo11 ca e J tiv ta .. the local stattts a nd represe 11 > .. . .. ... .. �,.,;,-.,.. . .. .. .. . . ·. . ... . .

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETl·IIOPIAN CONSTITIJTIONAL LA \V

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In son1e co1nm111Jities tl1e appoi�tmen.t mi�ht be _for a period or even for life, b ut 11ortl1 for tl1e tl1e 10 office custo_ n : to d a e spre r?tate yearly amon it was also a wid gst generally those whose prestige rested upon tile leading 111e 11 of a few fa1111l1es, thei r �rou p. Tl1ere fo1111cled th. e wer�,.of co11rse, a nuinber descent froin the family wl1icl1 of ·pri\iileges and p erq11isites in tl1e for1n of gifts for the sbum. There �ere differences iil Jiis ofl1.cial re,,,ards; in so1ne areas l1e got ?,O more tba:1 ex�mpt1on fron1 taxes. In a vivid Etl1ioJJia11 comment, 'l1e... pays tr1b;1t� only wrtb his legs, r�nning up a11 d do,vn to carry tl1e orders of tl1e Governmen t . In otl1er parts, however, 1t appears tl1 at I1e retained son1e proportion of the taxes he collected for the government. It wo11ld be very val11able if furtl1er in vestigation co11ld be made into this obscure b11t all-important office a11d into tl1e position which, after all that has happened s ince 1935, it l 1olds to-day.

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Re-read: p.331 (''The Adn1i11istrative Divisions'' established in the ''Unpu.blisbed Commentary" to tl1e Constitt1tion of 1931.)

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Transitional Institutions From De cree Approving Administrative Regt1lations for Provincial Gov e rnment, No. 1 of 1942, Negarit Gazeta 1st Year No. 6.

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Parts of tl1is Decree are set fortl1 on pp.361-362, retlecLing the powers of the Provincial Go\'emors General. The Decree was an1ended by Decree No. 6 of 1946, Neg. Gaz. 5th Year, No. 10, to cl1ange the refere11ces to "Provii1ce" and ''Awraia'' t o ''Teklai Ghizat", ''Woreda" !O "�wraja Gbizat': and ''ivlisle11ie'' district to ''Woreda Ghiza t". Th.e-se changes mu st be kept in mi11d wl1en reading the following provisions, which are printed as in the original Decree.

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PART l. 'T11e E mperor will ap1Joi11t on tl1 e reco1nn1enda tion of the Ministry of_ th e In terJor, 011 e Governor General 1·esponsible for tJ1 e adn1inistration of each Pro vince.

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PART 2.

T�ie Gov�r 11 or-Gener,1l is tl1e Government representative for t11e Province to �111cl1 11e _is_ ap_I)Oi11t�d� G-o_vernors sl1all exercise general supervision ove� �l� � Mt�l 0 f'.licials IJ I) 0111 ted 111 tl1e11· _ P rov r �tl1e d i nce by tl1e Mi 11istry of the Interior a·n � . tr�es . Bu� �l1ey are resp?11s1ble to tl1e Ministers of Finance, Justice, Ag_ri culture a� - - � t M tiler tl 1 ? r1: sters accord ing to tJ1e 11atu1·e of t l1e busi 11ess. On matters d1rec y -�e i r t s 1ng a JJart cu lar Minister, t e tha l1 l i i a c Gove ic r11or t s w direc t s on1m tly ll 1 MroJ un l . · a e . . _c J _ . . ra ne 0n m · at te . . . r� . 0 · f ct1�ect concer11. to a partict1lar Minister but also affecting ge wii1 _ �l admin .1st !ative IJo1icy tl1ey will consult witl1 the Minister of tl1e Interior. They · r -1 pass col)Jes of all corresponde11ce In · · i tl of ie ter o -:-A witl1 other Ministers to tl1e Minister -- PART 3. -1 � vin G· overnor-Generals shall reside in ��-'._�$� the appointed capital of the Pro

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·�� PART 4. · _,___ . � � -= fff w = tth c . ac 1�.11e Governor-Gene1·a l is e . nc d . ""r 0 · a · -.mrlll'.\Js,. ·_ - �� . , ·_ . e m re empowe ers · d or · d give to .;: . �, � : --� v J� ·�. . . . -5o il re01 · · . -at � . · . . o" ions issu · ed t0 I11·m by tl1e M1111stry of � · ctor . t11e Interior, to the Dl're .

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orders i11_ give accorda�1ce to an? �itl1 als r�g11Ja�ions offici n tow . d n a n1es officials departmental ap1Jo111tecl 1n J·11s Province. their to s strie t · M isle ' · Mini �r \� 1 • ed by other \ e, t 1ssu Ya� PART 5 { 11p0ri e, •d nr-i) ti1e ,tll �ransact JJublic busi11e�s ?f J1is Pi ·oviiice shall neral r-Ge erno Gov :-: e e e dia:�.1 tl1 of rector the , e 1 I ac l of tl1e P1·111c11Jal Secretariat' Tb the 1·ntermediary of Di · · frorn,' i· tbrough . I e111es M1s and s ernor . the Gov ·� f 0 rur� i

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responsible be shall tl1e for . ral su1)ervisio11 of tl1 e due or-Gene Govern The ' , '{ Government Treasl1ry of all taxes a11d dues legally fixed by t11e the into yment ·�� collect to forbidden is it taxes a11d dues 11ot legally fixed As ment. Govern ial f!per officials o st1cl� and ers, d en. ff 1ment 1 Gove1· all sl employees _ ment 1all Govern the by � t.U,� be prosecuted before the Cr1Ip.Ina1 Courts.

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PART 7.

In accordance with the new administrative regi.1latio11s, Governor-Generals, &·:-.,. Directors, Governors, Judges, Mislenies, Soldiers, police officers a11d tl1e police ,,._,, and all other Government e1nployees are paid mo11tl1ly salaries accorcli .11 g to tl1e rates fixed by the Imperial Government. Tl1ey are forbidden to receive ,111y 111oney �;-. from the people other than what has been fixed for tl1e1n by tl1e Gover11me11t. ,,

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PART 8.

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The Governor-General shall exercise all necessary care in accorda11ce \Vitl1 i'.B:· the regulatio ns for the proper and peaceful protection of tl1e people i11 l1is Province. 1 He shall transmit to the Ministry of tl1e Interior a montl1ly report on the co11ditio11 of the peopl e and the country. In telegrapl1ically 11icate 1 co1nn11. sl1all l1e urgent cases i;J•' or by SUch othe r means as would speedily deliver l1is 1nessage. :t:: , ., ;.'

PART 9. y'B virtue of the fact that he is the Government r· ep1·esentati\1e in tl1e Pr·ovince h to W iCh he . · · . • 18 appoi' nted, the k a_ m _ o t 1s01 v s11pe�· e st11)rem tl1e 1s nor-G neral e Gov�r · : . the Gover.nment _ "' M1n1str1�s s y iou plo var em tl1e by ees 1t se1 er ls cia und offi ru the m and fulfil !he regulatio bee e av 1 I l1 1ic \Vl s ns on ati rel d an al 1t11 o mt cti tru eir ins ns defini11g tl1 n ssue d to �l1e l, era ei1 �he -G or r11 m ve Go by 1e Tl ir . the ; ·ies st1 respective Mini Dire indiv�d:�:he Princi pal �ecretary and Governors s 11all co11s11lt . togetl1 er 1·e� pectii1 g be ap 0· ' W�ether natives of the Province or ot11e 1·s found 1n tl:e Province, t_o d r e 1 de in ma '. '. cha ing hav _ r � and e ts l of po � � _ administrative or other &: ect i�n1: 11s! 11 M the 1n �1� or 111f to 1 1 e n11 1t1 y str co c?ncerned. They sl1all M ru �es o 1 ; c?��ed 0°nn t t l e f i i bi pa ca m na d a11 k es ge v ed wl no vic ser d es of ar , di ictuais d es1gn nd sta � il ' · a post. ated for

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o d·' ,.u, Gov · or a11y · s I at u r F t11e :� o'lfe!,ences .be:: -General can give decisions b· ased_ o11 �i o ir the t g ee sin i n ar . �Ctal. Government employees under 111m ar1d , du. tie· s. . . _ re is l1e S . s n . 10 at ho 1l t g· re d ul e th e , e id ts th ou matter be of a nature ..... . .. . '·-:. ,·.: ....·..,...-·!. - . ·,.-., . ·. ....

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THE DEVE LOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS .. ,, '-'

549

PART 29.

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mendation of tl1e Ministry of the I11 terior tli e . m rec o tlJe E . 0n ill J)e . . ror w1 11 appoin . t p . . rov ,. 111c l w e 1os e h d eac t1ty .. wi ll . for be to cto rtssist t1·1e Go\,e-rnor..-G· enera one DI.re r l in J1i s work.

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PART 30.

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Tlle Director shall administer· tinder tl1e Gover11or-Ge 11eral t11e Provi1 c H t s r esponsible to l1is chief, il1e Go,ier11or-Ge11eral, for tl1e proper i admii1i;t;�tio� of the Province. .. t•

PART 32.

The Emperor will apJJoi.nt one Oflice.r of tl1e Pri11cipal Secretariat for eacI1 Province to direct tl1e Principal Secretariat of the Provi11ce.

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PART 36.

The Emperor will appoint 011 tl1e r e con1me11dation of tl1e Mi11istry of tl1e In­ terior Governors whose dut�{ sl1all b e to adn1i11ister tl1e ''Weredas'' 11nder a Governor-General.

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PART 37.

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A Governo.i sl1all receive his instrl1ctio11s fro1n the Governor-Ge11eral, and he is responsible to his chief tl1e Governor-Ge11era l for tl1e cond11ct of affairs.

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PART 38.

The residence of a Governor shall be tl1e town appointed as tl1e centre for the administration of the ''Werecla''.

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PART 39.

ng sho,.vi 11eral nor-Ge A· G.?y ernor must forward a mo11tl1ly 1·epo!.t. to . t.11e Go�e[ tl1e i11 tants the _cond1t1on itll1abi e h 111 . � r rde 1n of y cot the inl1 111t 1 n d abi � a tan ts _ · ns 11la tio reg terr1 and . . . . aws . 1 · h he 1s ad 1 1e t w1tl1 ce . tory wh� 1c n da· , m1n1ster111g 1n ac cor 1natter tl1e Jd 1011 v s1 1�;�� means as would f� :� to him, may be protec�ed in a proper and p eaceftil . r �ent 5 by he sl1all communicate tele graphically or . speedily · er 11is me · · d e1 iv ssage.

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PART 4S.

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· � year. 1c '' tw . ereda � ''W T Gov .. . . . f hjs O of e . ion · r nor l l tl1e parts 1 'I _ he v1 1 a ondit must spect s and c 11 t e the r mu t "10 · 00 · t r repo the s . r�v ard to the C?�vernor-Gene�al a . wri·1ten · cou ntry based r. tou h1s ng duri on enqurr1es made -·

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s th ct 1 !� nd !� ici c � ? s ll sha l1e the s'' nie isle t11e ''M ve Go rnor i s the cl1ief of _A g of his area and other affairs for the public welfare tl1.ro11gh tl1e Mislerues, a to the regl1latio11s.

PART 41.

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SOURCE BOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL Lt�vV

550

PART 47.

eve i� ted n itu ver nst go co be !1ip ors ll s11a to discuss � r i1o ver Go e tI1 of cil un Co A nt ta e b1 tl1 l1a � e 1n 1· s fa d an l we e e tJ1 tl1 to ng prosJ)erity at rel rs e t � at nJ 011 e vis � ad _ aild . ar es a ye m ee ti 1r tl t e e m ll 1a sl 1l 1c u1 o C of t11e te i·rito1·y. Tl1e

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PART 48.

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In cases wl1ere a meeting is t1rgent tl1e Governor may convene the Council at ti1nes otl1er tl1a11 stated above.

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PART 49. Tl1e Cot111cil of tl1e Governor sl1al1 consist of the Gover·nor as Chairman, the Cou11cillors bei11g tl1e Pi i11cipal Secretary of tl1e ''Were da' ' ,, t.be ''Wember�' of the ''Wereda'', tl1.e officer of tl1e town mt111icipality,the Mislenies, and the officials of tl1e ,,arious Mi11istries who may be statio11ed in tl1e town and shall include not more tl1an two local elders.

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PART 57.

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TJ1e E1nperor will appoi11t on tl1e recommend.atio11 of the Ministry of the I11terior 011e Mislenie for eacl1 Mislenie dist1·ict i11 a ''Wereda' '. A Governor may, l1owever, reco1nme11d i11dividuals st1itable for mislenieship to tl1e Governor-General wl10 may st1b111it s11cl1 reco1nmendatio11s to tl1e Ministry of tl1e Interior.

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PART 58.

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TI1e ''Mjslenie'' talces 11is i11structio11s from tl1e Governor and is responsible for tl1e worlc to his cl1ief, tl1e Go,1e1·11or.

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P1\RT 59.

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Tl1e ''Misle11ie'' shall resicle i11 tl1e appointed town of the district.

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PART 60.

As tl1 e ''Mislenie'' is tl1e 1-Iead of the official staff i11 l1is area l1e shall tran sact all matters cleali11 g w.itl1 t11e admi11istration a11d tl1e welfare of lus district tliroug h the official staff 1111.der J1in1. _ Interior (a) (b) (c)

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PART 71.

EinJ)eror will apJJo.i11t 011 tl1e recomme ndation of the Ministry of the tl1 e followi_ng officials fo1· tl1e di1·ection of Municipal affairs: One Kant�ba for the city of Addis Ababa. 011e Kai1.tiba for the city of Go11dar. 011.e officer of the tow11 in every other town.

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· ._-:_\ PART 72. • � -i:., e !L . J • . ·J:t;, fro.111 ct1rect . . . -- -·.-· Tl1e Ka11t1ba 0f Add·1s A.baba sl1all · = receive h1s 1nstruct1ons ns \v O J t M" 11 ·118tr. ·f. t.l1e Inte . or. f O ers Th e Kantiba of G·ondar and the other offic -· · ·=� n ? y _ _ s 11al 1 1 ece1ve 1 11s tructi. · ons , . -: .. . . . from tl1e respective Governor-Gene1·als. · . · · ::::t · � L• • -

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PART 73.

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Cot1ncil \Vith tl1e Kantiba or ofl 1. cer .. of til e town as. Cl1a11m . . a11 p111 1e pose o '1 r 1 ae · f · b l ior erat1 11g � · a11d ,1dvisi 11g o11 matters I ea1·1, g ball s ·1·h· tl1e prosperity of tl1e city o r. tow11 and tl1e welfare of its i11l1ab� c '. I ta11ts an d nto w1 . . . • accoidan� . . . .... \Y,i tl_1 tl1e la,�. Tl1e <::;0�1n�1Ilors sl1all be tl _1� taxe s a.1 n1c1 � rot1 1 e re 1re� fix � . tov a . nu r 11s s of l1e Vc11·1-�11s 1'I1111 stries a 11c� c1t1 tl1e 111 es ativ se,,en Etl, ioJ�iail t sen_t � y1 . f r 11 an 1gst� pro ' reSJd·eiits elected yea1 o1 101 . 1Je1 t y ovv11ers aiid p1-111 c1·pa1 . 111erc11a11ts ·b)' tl�e·1r ,vor k"S a11 d gocj� cond t1ct. Electio11 is 111ade after tJ1 e el lers and ki1own c . ed en ve be ult l1a ns y co cit or n tow of the al A M tinicip . 1t.ed be inst1tt

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PART 74 . The fo11owin� ��e. the principal �atters to be exec11ted by the M ti niciJJali ties under tJ1e respons101I1 t1es of tl1e Kant1bas a11d officers of tl1e tow 11s: (a) Tl1e n1aintenance of tl1e peace of tl1e to,v11 or city. (b) Registration of prope1ty i11 t1 1 e to\v11 or city. (c) Public l1ygiene i11 tbe city 01· tow11. (d) Inscr. ibing the inl1abitants of the city or tow11 i 11 tl1e ''Register of l-Io11o t1r'', i.e. births, marriages, deatl1s. (e) The construction, repair and mai11tena11ce of tl1e city's or tovvn 's \Vater supply, light and roads. (f) The proper st1pervisio11 of a11imals and cru·s and s t1cl1 like for peo1Jle moving about in tl1e city or town, accorcli11g to tl1e lav-1. (g) To register and give pennits for all vel1icles proJJ elled by petrol or 11apl1tl1 a or carts drawn by animals, accordi11g to tl1e law. (h) To give certificates of capability to auto1nobile and lorry drivers, according to tl1e law. (i) To maintain and guard places of pt1blic asse1nbly i 11 tl1e tow n _or city. (k) Issue licences for t11 eatres, cinemas, l1 otels, resta11ra11ts, p11bl1c I1011ses, shops, bu tc]1eries , me at shops, stalls, according to �l1 e law. (1) Define areas fo r cemetaries and control and register gra,,es. i re. ttt il<l pe ex d ise or 1 1tl at e 1 tl (m) Receive the authorisecl mt1nicipal taxes, and IJay (n) Define market and toll areas. (o) Maintain fire brjgades. .rown. .. . (p) Generally, carry on th e good administration of the city or 1

PART 75.

on ded n expe be a11 · 1·1Y sJ1 J I · ipa 1 a eve n _inu r � y tl1e to wn or city taxes p id into beh n . Jose ur er 1 l o alf of the to wn or city and sl1all not b e appo1ntecl for any t l P From· perham, op . cit., pp.349-350.

llernember

that Perham 1s . wr1t . 1n . 1948 . . g 1n

l fina the at aims t I ee decr ] [1942 On� th'ing stands out above all others in t11 1s· .tJ1at most European ll dest t1on of a away ping rs le r the old provincial government, sw ee_ obs:uc ' j u t}1e of osit on p e form r and . ·s earlie r ·any yea1 q uite exactly' as fet1dal in the of thrvers describe, not . 1n , n . e p.ro. ·inces . 11 beg . · n. 11, reig se s 1e e l1�v e elass , Th1s 1:1rocess }1ad, as . w . � rst a rt of Haile � W as. carr· � ower p tl1e of . ong _ led a b .. m l fi l E r 11tes 1op1a 1� way in uch o f th 1b a att But .e f l t11e near r on Y th , iti l defin ful m first e o er _ · b ti lega l e, y ... :. . .

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552

SOURCEBOOK OF ETI·IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

possessed by the provincial rt1le1· tl1rot!.gl1 almo st the whole of Ethiopian history are sllorn a,vay. We J1ave see11 a�rea.dy 1n tl1e cl1�pte� on the �rmy tl1at he has lost his private ariny; he now lo ses l1�s r1g11� to appo111 t 111s o. wn. hier�rchy _of provincial officials or to recruit I1is o \v11 police. His co 11trol of prov111c1al tribute 1s tak.en from him and instead l1e becom es, in effect, tl1e chief accountant for the government. He is to be assisted, wl1icl1 1neans that l1e will b e watched and cl1ecked, by other important officials appoi11ted by tb e Emperor a11d responsible to tl1eir several ministers at tl1e capital. I-le and all tl1ese office rs are to be attached directly to Addis Ababa by tl1e payme11t of tl1eir sala1·ies from the central treasury. Anotl1er feature of tlus scl1eme of g o vernment will strike all those wI10 are interested i11 African ad111i11istration. It is tJ1e abse11 ce, with an exception to be noted Iate1·, of any trace of tl1e principle s gene rally clescribed as indirect rule, o r even of any local self-gove rnment. It may be of inte re st to reco rd that some years ago, before tl1e Italian co11quest, a11 Etliiopia11 st11de11 t was sent to Europe to make a study of tl1e n1e tl1ods followed i11 Af1ica by the several European po\vers. In a dis­ c11ssion witl1 tl1e writer, l1e made it clear that bis 1·e po rt wo uld be stro ngly in favour of the Frencl1 policy of assi111ilatio11 , 1·atl1er than tl1 e British one of ·indirect rule'.

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A possible reply to tl1e com1ne11ts in th e last paragraph is tl1at t11e decree pro­ v ides only for tl1e 11pper la)1e r of administratio n, and that tl1is will be linked with tl1e lower c11stomary strata of kind1·ed grot1ps, shu1ns, and community leaders tl1 at we have alrectdy re viewed. That n1ay be ; i11de ed, to son1e exte11t, it must be, at least for a l)eriod. But tl1ere is 110 l1int of tl1is i11 the le gislation; there is no reference to the cl1iqa-sl1t1m, to locally elected 01 selected c ou11cils or cl1iefs. The effect of tl1e decree, as it becon1es ft1lly effe ctive , n111st be to sap initiative and responsibility from local institt1tions and leaders a11d to provide it mainly fron1 above. The parlia111ent is 11nlikely to prov.ide m11cl1 cl1eck UJ)On tl1is o r to afford for many years mt1cl1 eXJ) :essi on _to lo cal senti1nents or partict1larities, especially for tl1e more back­ ward reg1011s. Wl1atever n1odifications prov incial realities may t'orce upon the �ove :nment, tl1e . dri ve t ow ards rapid ce11tralizatio n and u11iformity is apparent 1n this decree as 1n so much of tl1e E111peror's policy.

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Fron1 Proclamation 011 tl1e Co11trol of M t111icipalities a11d To w11sllips, No.74 of 1945, Negarit Gazeta 4tl1 Year No.7. I . Tl1is Proclainatio11 n1ay be citecl �1s ll1 e M t1 nicipalities Proclamation 1945· nis­ 2Adm I11 i tl1is Proc la111a tion the ''Ad mi11i ans strat m i\re e Regt ns'' 11ati o . . trative Regulations 1Jro1nt1lgated i11 Decree No. I of 1942. 3· A Mtinicipal Co 11ncil as defined in part 73 of tl1e Adminjstrative Regulations sl1all be compo sed as follows:(i) Offic ial M embers representing Mi11 istrie s shall be non1inated by ea�h ' · · M11ustry 1 11 tJ 1e case of Addis Ababa, a11d by tl1e Govern or-Gene ra l 1n other cases. (ii) Seven Resident Members shall be elected by the owners of imm,ova I,l··e· n i ; tiba _ �roperty in tl1e tow11 at a meeting to be summoned by the Kan tl1 e t?wns wl1ere tl1ere is n Kantiba, by the Town Officer; . .son ro . ot e � l)rovid.�d always tl1at no alien or perso n under sentence of 1ropn or u1;1discl1arged bankrupt shall be entitled to be s111nn1oned to the said n1eeting or to vote tl1ereat or to be elected.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIO NS

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C o u��il shall h a v e p�wer to consider ip a l un ic M and decide tli e followi . 4. A n g sl de 1 1a c1 ll co s10 m 1 e st1 in ch to fo rc 00 e bu un t til it ha,. s been co11 fi1rn1ed matters: . . ,,1 , by r rio te In e th f o r iste I � . our Min p ro po sa ls. et dg bu I f wn To (i) . nt and collectjon of Mt111icipal taxes as well as tlle ss m e As se l (ii ) ' ad m · · 111 1s t ra t· 10 n al ues · · o reven f c1p a11y Mun1 ki 11 d . of I kee�.i11g o� streets, squares, brid (iii) a) Laying out, closi1�g and ge s, _ }Jr o_ p a1 ub 1d s ga li n1 c rd en en ade s, tl1e fix111g of fares for taxi cai·s ! ' ' car · t s, · a1;1 ur en 1·a b d e, d t c ddl t1 011 a1111· 11als; scl1 e111es affecti11 g se sa_ ,) . vv er a ge, I alignment of bt11!d1ngs, a�d general!)' tl1e wl1ole of tow11 ptrblic se rv ic es ) such as water, I1gl1t, pav1.11 g of roads, clea11si11g, 1narket-areas ce nl e­ I teries, s1a11gb ter-houses and d1·ai.11s, tl1eatres, all p11blic J1 ou;e s an d batJ1s and a11ytlung tl1 at is likely to co11trib11te to tl1 e e1nbellisl1 m en t and the clea11liness of tl1e tow11. b) Tl1e fire services and all meast11�es relati11g tl1 ereto; c) Poor 1elief, Asylu.ms, Hospitals, Scl1ools a11d otl1e1· M1111icipal \Velfare institutions; d) Town health and l1ygiene services not o tl1erwise provided for by the Medical Department. \• e) Any other laws and regulations which the Gover11111e11t may ask s11cl1 Council to deliberate. f) All plans for buildings, large 1·epairs, demolitio11s, tJ1e 1vvidtl1 level and construction of any new roads and generally for all works to be undertaken by private i11dividuals; wl1icl1 sl1all be first of all s11bmitted to the Municipal Cou11cil for consideration as to tl1 e p11blic l1ealth and safety standards. 5. Municipal Councils shall l1ave power to draw 11p tl1 eir inter�al reg11latio1 1s and submit them to the approval of Our Mi11ister of I11terior, wl10, if l1e_ approves them, shall cause such reg11lati ons to be published by notice in tl1e Negar1t Gazeta. 6, (i) Th. e towns specified in Schedule A. in tl1is Procla°:1atio11 are l1e_reby de­ clared to be M11nicipalities for the p11rpo�es of tl11s Pro�Ia111ation,. The towns specified in Schedule B. will be classi:fied as TownsI11ps of tlie :firSi, second or third class. . . 1 ici1 11 M s a re la ec d a) 0ur M .1n1ster e m · ti t o e of the Inter i o r may f ro m 1-11n . n 1a 1 t ns w to er 1 l ot 1y a1 s as cl i d lit pa es or Townships of 1st, 2nd o r 3r those specified in Schedule ''A'' and ''B''. · . . . . . b) Our M1n1ster of Interior may fro111 t1me to t1 ine c11ange tl1e Tow11sl1 ip _ 11 y of a f o t s l d n a d n 2 class from 1st t o 2nd and 3rd o r from 3rd t o tl1e townships specified i n Schedule ''B '' · . . 1 1a11 be s a, 6 · a · . 11 · . b . A ) Addis ( . The boundaries of all mun1c1pal1t1es, otl1er tIlaJl . rverno o G· 1 e tl by , or ter ed e 1 tl � I� of h wit r . ated· iste Min the fix , approval of the · · ·General of the Province in which tl1e Municipa1 1ty IS Sltu . r...:._ . , [

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role of the· Emperor in q:uests for local assistance.

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554

The Development of a System of ''Modern'' Local Government: Problen1s of Theory and Policy I

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Read: Article 129 of the Constitution. Wl1at otl1er articles express a constitt1tional theory of local government?

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From A Handbook o_f Pztblic Acl111i11ist1·ation, op. cit., p.67. Tl1 e case for the gradt1al clevelopment of locitl self-government is well described i n tl1 e followi11g extract from an expe1i 's report: ''Tl1e matter of bridgi11g tl1e gap between t11 e government and the peOJJle ought to be give11 priority... Tl1 e e11tire co-operati�n of tl1 e people i� urgently required at the IJresent ti1ne if tl1e raJJid implementation of the extensive development pro­ gramme undertaken. by tl1 e Government is not to fail. ''I-Iowever, tl1is is not a matter of transferring autl1ority from tl1e ministries to tl1e gover11ors a11d otl1er go,1ernn1ental agencies. T11.is form of decentralization will undot1btedly be co11sidered va lt1able, bt1t it does not affect tl1e influence and IJower of decisio11 of tl1e IJeople with resp ect to local affairs. ''Tl1e most effective and st1itable n1etl1od is a gradt 1al developn1e1 1t of local self-gover11n1ent, wl1 icl1 wot1ld c1·eate local indepe11de11t units w i. tl1 the power of decision in matters \Vl1ich co11cer11 tl1 em, in so far as tlus is consiste1Jt witl1 tl1e in­ terests of tl1e State and tl1eir caJJacity to ma11age tl1eir o,vn aflairs.... T11e ob\1ious practical ad\1antage is tl1at st1cl1 institt1tio 1 1s are well qt1alified to meet tl1e reql1ire­ ments of tl1e JJt1blic i 1 1terest, because of tl1eir direct acquai11tance witl1 tbe local problems a11d tl1e people tl1ey reJ)rese11t, pro,,ided tl1 ey are fttr·nisl1ed with satisfactory administrative estin1ates and adequate revenues.

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''Atte 1:tio1 1 sl1ould also be foct1sed 0 11 tl1e i 1 111Jorrant role which tl1ey can pla)' as mo_t1tl1 p1eces of a free a11d. infor111ed pttblic opinio11 .... Effecti, e local self-govern­ ment is also an essential conclition in btulding 11p popt1lar confidence i11 tl1e govern­ mental system as a ,vl1ole.''

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Sene 18, 1958 E.C. (La\v Scl1ool Translation).

In a �1eeting l1�ld yesterday, tl1e C.l1,1111ber of Deputies l1 ea ,rd a pr?posal pre· �own _ it concer1:111 g water a11 the 1n t, a sented t� giz d 1·oad difficulties in Yeju A ,vraja . e , utte comn a of Woldia , ai1d clec1clecl t11at tl1e n1atter be 1·efe1·red for ft1rther stt1dy by This_ proJJosal was n1 acle by tl1e l10 11ourable Ato Yos11f Ali, a repr esentative from YeJtl Awraj a gizat i11 tl1e province of Wollo.... Tl1e town of Woldia [l1e said] is situated in a suitable position to enjoy a wide are e niarket aud inany sotirces of income; and si1 1ce · cattl about one tl1ot1sand J tliar r ugbt fo!· sale every n1arket d ay, in 0 1 1e marke e or m t day a. [tax revenue] of �f 11· $7?�-00 (seven hu11dred Eth.$) migl 1t be made.Tourists who now and then ° to visit �asta, Lallibela a11d . other historical places encounter difficulties w� ! 1ey �eacli tl1e tow 11 of Woldia [and loca l business suffers]· Although tl1 e [20, co1 · . 1n 1 1ab1tants of wo . . · ld'ia t ow11 1 1 ave of ut O . ding 1 bu1 previou . sly n1ne-ro b111lt on1 · a re·· a . a rtlgated iroii for secondary scl1ool by co11tributing money, the teachers who

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scl1ool freque11tly this ql1it in tJ1eir teach jobs . . . . [TIle speaker . to . d . . . e ass1gn went . 1c h h I I 10 oca \V ways servi ces other wer e 1 11acleqliate , e .g . , wa e scrib de to 1er, roads, ' on pawer.] 1i QU�OD,• Who has jurisdiction over the problen1s recited above? t

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In 1964 tl1ere was established in Ethiopia a ''Tecl1ni�'ll Co111n1ittee'' to sttidy tl1e establish­ ern1;11ent. Excerpts fro111 tl1e Con1111ittee's report ment of a new system of local gov are s t f h Co tl1e nU tha 1tte ? e quotes extensively fro1n: U.N. Teclii,ical As: ist���e below. You will note _ � Programme, Decentra/1 zat1on for National and Local Develop111e11t, �nitecl Nations (1962). This is a valuable monograph for anyone wl10 \vants to _pt1rsue con1parat1ve studies in depth .

From Report of tlze Tech11ical Com111ittee on t/1e Establis!11ne11t of a Local Govern1nent Svstem (1964).

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We will , in tL1is Part of tl1e repo rt, give tl1e n1ai11 considerations 011 \vhich we base otLr recommendations: 1.

Decentralization

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a. We find that Etlliopia has now reacl1ed tl1e stage of' develo1)1nen.t where an administration concentrated in the Cent1·al Gove1·11me11t 111ay l1a111per tl1e ft1rther

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economic and social development - and, tl1erefore, tl1at cl decentralization of tl1e administration will ·be o f great importance to the further J1a1·mon.iol1s development of all parts of the country.

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b. In this connection, we quote the following fron1 Decent1·alizatio1z .for National and Local Development, a study isst1ed by the United Nations in 1962: . '' 14. The problems of dece11tralization in de,�eloping countries n1l1st. be seen in the co11te xt in which they arise. Altl1ougl1 differi11g an1011g _tl1�11Js_elvcs 1n m a11Y years, most developing cot1ntries have the fol lowing cl1aracter1st1cs 111 cominon. . ''(a) The basic human ne ed s - for fo od improved heal tl1, clothing and ' housin · g - are far tl1em · et . � t O e l b ·1 � avai m y l e t a immed i . greater than the reso11rces M�reover, the gap be tween the peo pl e's standards (or expectat1011s) of lIVIrlg and t 1e rnn their actual level of l ove 11 i1po s a11d dem � � g is steadily wjdening . an d tl1e ivin · 1 e v e d n for m a t n ta s · n o c e r o_ . an d better services and otl1er r emed1a1 111easures aie . i ncrea sing. '' h Altl1oug . . · areas b al ( ) f:. large percentage of th e pop11lat1on Jives in of levels i11 c ond'1 t· ons 1 n ences r ��; the ·, ooi p develo generally ping are co11ntries .le itflit� tlle same a1·ea are livin � etw een urban nd rural areas and betwee11 �eop se1·­ pt1blic of � usuafI reat atiotl :eJltr con g . b vices fn th� T�ese differences are aggrav�te? y ��e at1d tlJis is a 1uajor �ause national capital and otl1er pr1nc1pal cttJes, ed design of th be tist 111 s a r og id i to re:c{ p growtl1 of such cities. _D�velopment p · �r-:�: rogrammes are to p au<l to benefit le peop e th n1e11t. the large maJor1ty o f lo e dev �ain Wides p and pread support ancl are to contri·bute to natJona1 1101·ty wide. . . t,.( with ecl . cotIIJl · · · s C} D'"' . . t d· t · d1 1011 , J 111erences 10 l angi.1ages, c11ltl1re an i a . 10 � u !·es , . facilities . ra SPteau .11ite tion on. y co m m and rustrat1 a_ n d ro . hl 11 c· poor i transportation l)hysica{· �� ems of ad · aiid Cl.l ltural isolation and compl1cate th e P .

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d nd re la an nu te e t1r e ct st sy ru st m e 1ic ar on on ec e oft , n n · tio za · ni . ga . or , . 1 · 1a c o Tl1e s · d d e e e ne ar 1 t 1n es 1e ur se circumstance s ea m l ia ec Sp . oe an 1 cl • to . • . • s b add1· t·1onaI ob sta, cles 1 e at 1p tiv 1c ac rt on in pa ga by to l d al an ele es tic ac pr t en m d an s s ea id \V ne e tic od tr in to . es m m ra g ro p t n 1e n p o el ev d of tl1e popt1lation in ''(d) s11ortages of public revenues a111 of trajned perso�nel seriously handicap . public adniinistratioi1. Moreove1·, co1�un1ty,_ ,,oll:n:tary, private and.otl1er institu­ tion s otitside large t1rban areas, espec1�lly capital c1t1_es, s eldo� l1ave tl1e leadership, skills or funds to initiate tl1e new service s and funct1ons required locally· for social and eco11om.ic bettern1ent. Li:

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''(f) . Introdticing . 11ew idea s and practices amo11g tl1e people, stimttlating 1 poptilar 111volvement 1n develop111ent progra111n1es and de,,eloping local gove�n­ men� a�d otlier _l?cal i11stit11tio11s to n1ai11tain a11ti bt1ild t1pon tl1e in11ovations, with . co11t1nu1ng part1c11)at1011 by tl1e peOJJle; ''(g) Su1Jervisi11g a11d s11pporting decentralized units; and · ·· ' f ''(l1 ) E. xectiting ° on ructi ' const over-,111 develop:n1e11t 111easures, sucl1 as tl1e . . maJor ptiblic works, wl1icl1 will increase tl1e opportu11ities for frt1itft1l local effort. l l fi . ''16· All Gov �rni11e11ts perform s 0111e of tl1ese fu11ction s , but tl1e distin gt iishing eat�re �f de,,eloping co11ntries - ,1nd indeed mea ure of their u11de-rdevelop· a s rly - ment - 1s tl1e de. g1·ee Of 1e u]a · JC par t· . · more . 11ance t1po11 tl1e central government and . . In . upon_ 9eci�ions in the 11atio11al c,1.1)ital ally loc for pt1bl ic s ervices carried otit ·, ost . col 11:t:1es 111 th� earliest stages 1J) e th but all of of dev elo con pm duc e11t tl1e t · ' rt ad1t1ona1 a' ffairs may be cente1· . ed 10 tl1e 11atio11 's capital. ''P urpo:,es of dece11t1·alizatio11• · i• � · y idl · . rap . ''l 7.. .Govern1nent s n111 st d as · ons =-:-. - -+ dec1s1 a ecent1· 1 1ze take · to autbor1ty rt. t :.:i as IS . · pract1cable Ill O 1·d�1 u "an . nt . ar.1 d. social deve . t o acceIerate economic . 1opme J . . .:... mli�L . . make the e fte ts_ of 1e 1r n rves _a u n p1·ogranun ,�1 se tl Decentralizatio e s . g lastin. of purposes re1ated to de velopm e11t. _.,;.._� . reli· e es· . eniJ,er�.. '' 18. 'Decongest1· 00 , .. of government 1n tl1e nation's ca1J1tal . v II!. rel)'. �- ,:...i� · of the leg1s � � _ u p · 1ature and of tl1e na . . : v n . a m . t·1onaI executive from mvol\1en1ent 1n � .,-· 27:!! J ::_ �-�,i§J

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. offic from ials oner ous key and frees detailed tasks a d 1.�crea ues iss 1 a Joc ses_ the adm ini str of ati on ene at ss all ect iv lev e ls . De cetl�raliza;1 11 esp ee d and ;ff e ally co r 11n ies t he vel re op ing . rapid e xpa11sio11 of p:1blic 0s r I? \V p ortant in de c1 tly v1 c s grea ��ro p er of governme11t transactio11s a11d cons eqt num b e tl1 e s ientl.,, t�l 1e l11�nc !ranees . 1ncreas a-ort r est1It·1ng f rom overcentra 1.1zat1on of co11trols. e11 d e wast and ''19 · The· following are examples of s 0111e of tl1e effects of exr,e. ssi.v· e centra 11z . ation: ''(a) Approval at t l1e hjghest leve l 111 ay be reqt1ired before eve:i minor actions can be taken: �or example, e xpe11s e vo11cl1ers 111ay 11.ave to be sigtecl by directors or even by m1n1sters before pay n1e nt can be 111ade; appoint1ne11ts of even tl1. e lowest arades of personnel may have to be cle a.re d tl1ro11gl1 t l1e office of tl1.e 11ead of the ;xecutive; �xpensive engineering macl1ine:y may lie idle for lack of spare parts whjch await headqu arters approval; e qt11p1nent n1ay 11o t be 1n01ed to anotJ1 er district for u rgent purposes without per111issio11 fron1 tl1e capital; tl1e bead of tl1e government may h ave to intervene in jurisdictio11al and ad1nini&rative disputes between ministries over trivial matters; ''(b) There may be uneconomic distrib11tion of st1 pplies; i1stead of direct of supplies from mant1factt1rer to place of t1se, 1najo1· items may be freight­ shi ment p ed to a central supply depot and the n l1 auled back to tl1e 1)lace wl·ere they are, or could be, manufactured; ''(c) There may be excessive prescription fro1n tl1e centre. F)r example, the practice of producin g in the capital desigi1s f 01· e,1e11 tl1e 1nost sin-:ple elements of public works' construction may cause delays and failt11·e to use Ioctl materials and skills; ''(d) There may be exces siv e a dl1 erence to 1·eg11lations _aft�r changes in �ir­ cumsta nce s have made them 11nworkable. Altho11gl1 de central1zat101 of pt1rcha_s111g authority may take place, its value m ay be stultifie d if fi11ancial linits are retained after inflation has reduced them to absurdity; l ta pi ca �, tl1 in ik o w 1· fo 11 ve gi ''(e) The material and social rewards whic11 are or at regional headquarters m a y ma ke it difficult to r ecruit field p e.Gonnel.

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partia.� W. e agree to [sic] the w tl1at it wot1ld be of a dva.tltage .to vie l. e v le l ' a c lo or 1 iona cipation of the people in g tl1e public admi11istration 11 a re nal Natio for . · . bn · ·alizat b · In this conn t ·' · . e,i Dec · 1 fron ection we quote the follow1ng a,zd LoeaI Devef opment' [op. czt., si1pra]: 1n · 1 e p eo p tl1e . by 1 atio1 . icip, t· ''22 · · Decentralization· involving effective par all, of First • 1J ue· r. . t s e b gov e n ent many ld · es. can yie . s o y m og ll pr prop ca lo m t m d ra e ou ie s t rr nt ca ernne v o lh g 1 ti' r� People will l1ave a better understanding of wl1 at �o pt the new ideas and a · o�gh this under to y o t Jjk�l ces more sour be e wjJl standing they . r a rd rt 0 . f f · e Practices use 1 ow1 r ents tl1e1 m t e t JllS 1 ct· ·b . . r1 t l a e �o�� r ' J� ff � sery1c�� ered, o r uctv 11st. th.e p g a o c e n1ak ng nd ma� s thu J·n , ·· · t � r mme, give v1ab1 l1 ty to ·n.ew 1nst1tt1t1ons· � pos(d o pr es g c1an he1r. :1·. 1 on 1 ti . t tiva ia · tves that 1 · 101 cu tJ1e mP may swt a ted by be necessit ting · th· u. t ' e st1· b . sti · ch· a"n g-es endu . . of s fit r1ng ..For exan1ple, the bene .· ...

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rm�rs jf � l1ey are to _ d by _ fa oo st er nd u ly r ea cl be t us ad m ce op t ri of n io t a, iv 1It c1 ll hi r fo ts en m 1n st r e1 Ju nt tl1 ad 11e eq ay \\' on of e tl1 l e al lif ke a � n1 and � d an es tic _ ac r JJ tlJe new s. d a le re tt a se re e th 1 11 y r sa es ec n e b ay · n tl1 at , m, · at10 organ1z t a?t!"'ities can be made e11 m iop ve e d_ ' nt me rn ve go l ra � nt ce e th ''23. Secondly, . nt ns 1o r�a c1s po de 11n r 1n Llle lly Ft ca lo le o1J pe ac. couiit e tl1 g vin ol inv ' b) c sti more reali 1leclge, 11eeds �nd 1nt ere sts. �oreover, _n1ethods o\\ l<n al loc of en tak _ wi ll thereby be _ readily be devised .1or fu1fill1n g local re 1no 11 ca ces tan 111s ct1 c1r e tl1 to appropriate needs. ''24. Finally, popular participation increases tr1e likeliI-1ood that services and ame11ities, once establisl;.ed, will be maintained and even e,xpanded. Moreover, st1ccess in fulfilling a comm11nity need encourages people to try to meet otl1ers. The experience in establisl1i11g and n1anaging a coD11n11nity facility is cumulative and ne,v so11rces of initiative and leadership arise to draw upon , it.

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''25. Tl1e Wo1·Icing Gro111J on Decentralization stressed the value of local autl1orities fo1· trai1li11g people in self-governme11t. Local authorities pose problems of .go,1ernme11t on a small e11011gl1 scale for tl1e individual citizen to take an intelligent and effective i 11terest. F11rtl1er1nore, experience in deali11g \\'ith local affairs gives people a11 apJ)rcciation of wl1at is involved in dealing with more complex isst1es on a wider geogr<1phic basis. Local gover11n1e11t t1)11s pro,rides s11pport for parliame11tary a11d otl1er reJJresentative systen1s at tl1e national level and also serves as a training gro11nd for future national leaders.

Altl1ough devolutio11 is ofte11 assumed to l1a., e a divisive effect, it can be _ �esigned to contribute towards 11ational l111ity. For example, giving local autl1or1t1es a se11se of partici1)atio11 in tl1e fo1·mulatio11 ,111d exec11tion of 11ational develop­ ment programmes can strengtl1en tl1e ide11tification of con11nunities with tl1e national go,,ernment and witl1 peo1Jle elsewl1ere in tl1e co11ntry. '' ''26.

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3. TI1e Establisl1ment of an Independent Local Self-Go,1crnme11t System.

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h ug We t11r ncl tl 1 at tl1 o only pe_ o ple's i11terest can11ot be expected to be raised � � � a ft�r�J1e1. dece11 tral1zat1011 of tl1e Central Govern1ne11t's administratio11 and �he participation of the J)eo1)le i11 sucl1 clece11tralized acti, ities in an advisory capacity. b. We, tl1erefo_re, feel tl1at tl1e clecisive a11d exec11tive po;er on tl1 e administration . Loe ns mea of the / a[a 1 rs that of a11 area sl1ot1ld be given to tl1e people of that area: � tl1e esta,blisl1me11t of a11 i11de1Je11de11t local se lf-gove rnn1e11t syste1n. c. Inclepende,it local self-gover11111e11t 11, to ti istra . o rhe n1ea11s that tl1e local adroin carry out tlie activities tra11sferred sl1a of y mer c the on ll not be depende11t ' c entral Gove rnme11t ve ]1a ·11 WJ � tc., or tl 1e fees, neces sary taxes fu11ds Certa , i11 . � . of . the , to be ,as.,1. r ... gned to u local gove rnments and sl1all fo1·m tl1e 1na11J s o ces d reve�u � - at least to 111eet tl1e o f , ases o a v 1 ' u 1 x 11 rdin dit11res. '.11 c . r pe r 1ing n nee e . j · . · ' al sh gran , ts-u1-a1d may be re 11dieie nts gra . _. sue . d Y b h but the l nt, e Centra n1n. Gover . not be th . e n1a1n source of revent1.e. 1 We feel tllat wl1en tl1e people k s o g ra ed t e l1 t-0 now etc ' b i taxe l s 1 e l at ro · � t 1e tlle adva11tag e O f tl · t · . · · . b own ieii es · area, d e d as re e cid d e by pr sentativ ele-cte . h Y p,tgpte· · · s elves th ssessments and collection will· impro\'e, a 11cl tl1e wil]j11gness o f t e -� � to co�tri u e to the develo pment and the v;,eJfare crf the area ,vill increase. · -�-· � .;, ·fi 1

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---=------=-� 4. The Fields of Activities of the Local Governmen·s.

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ab ov e, (b) we item me nti o1 1 ed tl1a.t the focal 3, n ecti o S at=-a' 1·1.8 of a1 In . . . es of the 1oca 1 .. 1 area a. . . go act ver 1v1t 11 1 1 11e11t. Tl1 1s 111ea11 . the be · s c · · tJ a Uld 1 stic l i O t· . ac sh 1v1t1e s 8!e oc, a a_ al n e 1 d h t ma y rn be exp�ctec] to be 111orc effectively . whicl1 only c�nce )erad at-1 Jst 1n m f 0 t o ?l1 a.ll � le_ v el be ass1g11eci to tl1e lo0ll gover1 11 11l formed on this 11ts. � Not only the main fi el as of tlie sove1�1gn cot111try, but also sl1cl1 activities wl1ich are found more ade. qt1ate and econo1n1ca1ly to be performeci 011 t�e cotintry level shall be reserved for tl1 e Central _Go�er11n1ent. b. As to the scope of dece11tr1 al1za t 1 011, we - agai11 - quote fron Dece,1 trciliza­ tionfor National and Local De1 elopme11t [oJJ. cit., sttJJra]:

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(ii) in the fi�ld of p1�bli_c l1ealt�1: . of. cli· u., cs aiJd sa1iita. . the bu.ildmg, furrush1ng, ma111te11ance a11d o�Je1_. ar. 1ng . ' tion and other public l1 ealtJ1 facilities of s11rular categor. (iii) in the field of pt1blic works: otl1er ( es bridg 0. · _ sa d the construction and maintenance of loc�l ro�d ; y) � 1vrit than bt1ilt and mainta.in. ed by tl1e Im1Jer1 al Higliw,ty en.t: deveJopm • r.: . (iv) in the field of community . 1 . · 11eld , . . · . tt11s 111 ' · · State Cooperat ion w1tl1 the act1v1ties of tl1 e ( v) in the field of nt p111e develo trade an.d commerce: tfe d an e d a tr fo stering th e development and th e growt11 o f of local marketing arrang. ements; (vi) in the field dete be may �f general affai!s: as ers matt � r . oo_ntrol of the t o w1 1t private construct1011 and _st!cl1 f I11te rior ju igreeroe1 . 0 mined to be local affairs by tl1e Mi111ster the Minist.e-r or Ministers concerned.

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(i) In the field of education:

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''27. Prematt1.re or excessive dece11tralizatio11 can also be .l1arnf tt l and waste­ ful, although its effects a1·e t1suall)1 diffi.ct1lt to disti11gt1isl1 from tl1osc of poor ad 111i11istration generally. For exan1ple, wide-spread corrtt1)tio11 a11cl otl1 er abuse of JJLlblic office may be a result of excessive decentralization of fi11,1r1cial at1tlority or simJJly of the absence of adeqt1ate acco1tnting and at1ditii1g controls or tl1 e fu.ilt1re to pc1 11isl1 offenders. Improper performance or no11-1Jerforn1ance of a funclicn locally could be due to decentralization of more respo11sibilit)' tl1an local pers�11nel can carry out or possibly to the failure of a supply systen1. A readily ide11tifiatle and commo11 example of over-decentralization is tl1e devolt1tio11 of ft111 ctio11s to t1e local at1thor­ ities which lack the technical perso11nel and funds t o IJerform tl1en1. T11 us,_ tl1e �orn1 and degree of decentralization must be adapted to circun1stances, ncl11cl1 11g, 111 so far as devolution is concerned , the readiness of people to accep1 and discl1arge responsibility.'' c. The fields of activities for the local gover111nent may, later 011, Je expanded but , in the start, we will recommend tl1at the follo,vj11g activities sboild be the fields of decision and execution of tl1e local gover1m1ents:

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560

NAL LAW IO T U IT T S N O N C IA P IO I-I T E F SOURCEBOOK O

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5. TI1 e Level of the Local Governments.

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1 can be said in. fa\r our of m akin l uc m on i at tr , is in m ad _ g a. w11e 11 establisI1ing local e , r th ea le ar al th e sm 1e ro Tl _st . ze ll si er ng s1n a ll wi _ of n tio ra ist � in _ 1 _ n ad of its tin the 1n!erest 1n th e admm1 stration and d an to n t1o 1ec n1 co of gs lin be tl1 e lJeople's fee 1 ves to al l p�ts of tl1e area. On t ta en es 1Jr re s le' op pe e 1 tl of ge led oreater the know d d ed ine n 8: at tra uc nis ed mi of ad e tag to or tra sh e th rs n, tio tra nis mi ad 1 1 i e sid r l1e ot e t11 e th re ut, e th 11r mo er lt all cu iffi sm . d e th d may a11 n, tio ra ide ns co o int en tak mtist be . le op pe e th om fr es tiv ta en es pr re d ie lif 1a q1 1d fi to t it be We, tl1 erefore, agree to tl1e establishing of local government on th.e Awraja G11ezat level. Some adjustments of the present A,vrajas may, however, be made. Tl1 e Awraja Guezats 1nay be so establisl1ed that they form appropriate administrative units for tl1e exect1tion of tl1e activities mentioned in Section 4 above and so that they l1a, e tl1e eco11omic fot1ndation for tl1ese activities. T11e Awraja Guezats must also forn1 appropriate administrative 11nits for tl1e Central Gove,rnment activities within tl1e areas.

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Geographical cl1aracteristics, con1munications, the suitable size of population etc., sl1ould also con1e i11to consideration.

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6. Towns and Municipalitie.s.

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a.. �ith regard to towns and villages, [t}1e r11ajoritJ' of tfze Com111itt ee is of the], ... op1n1on: Tow_ns and villages - bt 1 t 11.ot Cl1artered Municipalities - situated within an AwraJa Gtiezat clrea sl1all forn1 parts of t h. at Awraja Local Gover11 ment. Wit!1in tl 1� ��neral a_ctivities given to tl1e Awraja Local Governments t�ere d . specifi? activities reqt11red for towns. St1c rJ�e �re pre sc · b e h a. ctivities will have to in re�ilations to be i� sued by tl1e Minister of Interior, - including general in· strtictions to the �wraJas co11cerning tl1e establish1nent of tl1e adn1inistr ation for t e proper exect1t1011 of tl1ese activities.

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b. [A. ,ni,1oritJ' of the Co11'1tnittee l1as] .. . tl1 e following opinion: (a) So far as t�e activiti s specified in Section 4 hereof may be involved, t�; � local AwraJa Autl1or1ty sl1all have und er 1·ts adn11'nistration the whole �r-: · · 1es · al1t · · of the AwraJa 1nclud1ng towns, witl1 exce 0101 o·f Chartered Mu · P ption only. . . . own - · h shall.: be� -�--:-._ . . . ,¥hie (b) However ' towns sha11 have ad1n 1rust rat 1011 of their . I! c r spo�;8 1 ?�e for tl1 e n1atters e th of loc al � 1 ara cter .not belong ing to cl ;s opb · _ ·_ · ra rag 0( ) activi!J.es 0 the Local : · p a :: n i ned me A � ntio ,vra ja Government ·_ ,_: a O f t h 1s Section 6. ·.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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reven ue . sl1 all be assigned by law to . of es sourc ain .· tl 1 Cert e Ad . t m1n1s . (c) ration . " fi . ce a o � r� � f er tl 1e _p a . c t.1v io . 1t1 r es 111e 11t 1011ed jn 1)aragra1)l1 (b) of Towns . m 1n d 1s at 1 on sl1al l .l1ave I ts ow11 bu A tr d 1 a s and ve, clget. abo ow s h all be s11bject_ to st1pervisioi, of tl,e ns t of _ tio :11 a nis tr Ad roi (d) Aw raj a as t l�e R ep1·ese11t�t 1ve of tl1e Ce11tral Gover 1 Governor act1ng -�1.t 1�er 1111 er,t , or, where the act1v1t1 es specrfied 1n Sect 1011 4 l1ereof 1nay be involvecl ' as the CJ1airman of tl1e Local Aw·raja Co111 1cil.

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Mt1nicipalities co111 the 1 11i ttee will obscrve: the to regard With c. We presume that a local self-govern111e 1 1t, 1nore or less si111ilar to tl1at of tile A\vrajas, will also be given to t 1 1e Cl1arterecl M1111icipalities. There may, lio\vever, be some differences v.ritl1 regard to the SCOJ)e of activities.

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Therefore, and owing to tl1e specific co11di tions a11d to tl1e provisions of Article 129 of the Revised Constitt1tion, 01rr recon1mendations clo 11 ot deal witl1 t]1e ML1ni­ cipalities. It is found to be n1ore appropriate to i11stitt1te tl1e local self-go,1er 111nent for the Municipalities a11d to give tl1e det ailed J)rovisio11s connected, i11 tl1e cl 1 arters to be given to them. A stand ar d cl1arter m ay be worked ot1t. The main consider ation as to tl1e q11estio11 of establisl1i11g a town as a self­ governing municipality should be the proper econonlic fo11ndation for tl1e execution of the activities to be tr ansferred.

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The Municipalities Administr ation legislation will have to be revieweci.

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7. The Organization of the Atvraja Local Gove111ment.

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a. The local government shall be exercised by the Awraja Cot 1 ncil, �omposed of representatives elected by the inh abitants of tl1e Awraja a1·e a as me11t1oned. . All Woreda.s of the Awraja sha ll be represented in tl1 e Council, as far a� possi �l_e ts pai g min 10 proportion to for ns tow tl1e also so a11d the sizes of popt1I ation of the local government, but specific rules'will have to be give1 1, to seclire the proper representation from towns. s n io is c . . e . d 's l ci 11 u o C 1e tl b· The proper adrrun1str f o 11 ·0 t1 u c e x e tb e 1or y t1ve a d o b etc. WI· ·11 have to be established. .f:'.

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8. The Central Government.

n­ Gover al . Ce11tr a. I p orta t ta tl1e . 01 £ d eserve 1 be · still sks i of will � m rn adm ation nistr Proe tl,e t 1 oligl ir tl ,,. 0.' of whi or ch many will 1nost c onveniently be JJerforined by j 11 trobe ·11 w1 n1 . ,tnc1al A d ·rustr syste . · at1o t 11 e 1 n"D: ve o g_ 1 loca n the a le . wh.1 y, er, reov Mo cot111tr e J tl f of � duced to t e a_d�a terest' in 1e t 111 o als certain superVJ ntage of the whole country, Governineil ts b� tlle ce11tral Go�­ s1on and control over the Local tl1e1r 0111: ern""' carry ts e11 · ·�11ent w1·11 be rnro Gove 1 e n b ecessary, to ensure th at the Loca to ls a ner . . Obligatio ·· ns in or-Ge . vern 0 G e h t l 1ne accordance witl1 the l aw. We find first tl1e - ind.ispe· of arJce ., . nsable 10 1n • . .-i." . , ' per101 c r tbe most effective and ex1Jed ient . · be 1 1 w1 t1011 nistra . strPervisi· 0� an� i Adm. 1 a c1. 111 ov Pr le n l1o co w l. tro e th N , r lly tu a a . . in11olv ed 10 . · . this task. ,. · . ·.. ' . .. -. .' . . , • ',.. • , .' I ..•.

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N A.L .L,'\ \'/ IO T U lT T S N o C N fA P lO l·l T E SOURCEUOOI( OF

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\Ve, therefoi·e, find it necessary tl1at the Provi11cial Administratio11 be maintain­ e d as a regio11 al orga11 for the Central Gover11ment. b. Tl1 e Miilister of 111terior will l1ave to make most of tbe prearrangem�nts for tlle proper in1plen1entatio11 of t!1� local government system, - however, 1� � ome cases in coJlStlltation \Vitl1 tl1e M1n1sters concerned. Even t11ough the otl1er M1nisters 01e11tioned will also take part in t)1e s11pervision and control, t he main burden of . tI1e seco11 d line s1�pervision anc1 co11t1·ol will fall upon th.e M i11ister of Interior. It v.,ill certainly be necessary to establisl1 a seJJarate Local Governments De­ JJartme11t witl1.i11 the Ministry of I11terior.

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9. The Implementation.

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We find tliat the local govern111ent system cannot be implemented a.t once. A 1)rematt1re introdt1ctio11 wo11ld most p1·obably tum 011t to be a failure a1Jd, in fact, a step of retrogradatio11. A transitional period will be necessary for all tl1e prearrangements to secure tl1e proper implementatio11. If sucl1 a transitio11al period is fixed now, it may be found at the end of th.at period tl1at tl1e 11ecessa1·y co11d itions for the proper implementation may not be ft1lfi.lled in some areas. I-Iowever, it \1/ould certain! )' l1a1nper the further development of tl1e more de\1elo1Je d areas, if tl1e i11troduction of loc-al government to these areas sl1ould be }JOStJJ011ed l1ntil it col1ld also be introduced to all otl1er areas. We , there­ fore, fi11d it necessary tl1at tl1e Mi11ister of Interior should be give11 tl1e power to postpone. tl1e i n:tplementation for tl1ose Awraj as which, at tl1e time of t11e general 111trod11ct1011, m1gl1t be fo11nd not yet ready to fulfil the necessary conditions.

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Proble11'1 meoda­ recom a above you re I wyer to tl1e tl1e above convert �uppose Con1n1ittee. It is your task to _ _ � t1ons tnto leg1slat1on. in (i) What i111porta11t problen1s of policy are rzot co,,ered in the above reading, and rema to be resolved? legisl ation ry (ii) If tlle rccoinn1eodation is to be carried out ' wl1at fom1 necessa the will · t:'lke? (iii) WJio is to in11Jler11ent this legislation, a11d how? I

Developing Legal Institutions of Local Government

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Fron1_ Mi11is�ers� ( Definitio11· of Powers) (Amendment No. 2) Order, No. 46 of 1966, Negar1t G'azeta 25th Year No. 2 3. .

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. Tl1e Orcler a1nends tl1e att1 r'butio11 . s of power of the Min ister of Interior as follows: _

tc · . .. nsa ''26 Th� M1' n1ster _. . of Inter10 tr the Depart111 ents . � ·i·n the f s e o head � o on f � ing State· aff�irs , nan1ely the M or, eri Int r of Min , T 1111st iste ry of Inte . rior l1e . . acco1da11ce w1tl1 tl1e law, shall: · · . . (a) eiisu�e tlle 1nai11te11ance of peace and securit throt1ghout the natio n; . y -:! f.� law (b) prov!d_e for tl1e establishme11t of and adv1 tlle re ensu and · counse1 uuse · · · ..· ..:. cl · ' · . ' · · -'-in a. d·m1n15trat·1011 of, prov111c1a ·. . l and other l ocal ad 1ninistrative un1ts, 111g cl1artered in· . unicipalities; . . :j .. �. ...

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prepa:e and, upon approval, in1ple111e11t progra1n111 es in tile field of town planning; direct and supervise the police; 1 ise the adminjstratio11 of super, and priso11s; ct dire · wi ot M l1e tl1 in ra ist tio rie n s a11d .Pt1b1ic AtrtJ1orities conceriled, co op e in ! . provide for tJ1e re· g1strat1on of a11d co11trol tl1e 111ove111ent of foreigrl nation als to, from and witl1i11 tl1e 11atio11; arrange for, st1p�r\.'1se a11d ca1·ry out tl1e S)1sten1atic registratio11 of birtlls. marriages and oeat11s; of a ce11s arrange for and �upervise tl1e taki11g us of tl1e population at regtilar _ intervals, excel?t _insofar as spe �1.fic powe: tl1erefor l1as bee11 legally clelegated to another Mirustry or P11blic At1t]1or1ty; direct and super,,ise tl1e election of deputies to tl1e Cl1an1ber o.f Deputies;

and U) be principally responsible, in co-01Jeratio11 witl1 other N[i11istries and PL1b.lic Authorities concerned, for t11e control and protectio11 of ir1Ia11d waters,

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From Order to Establish Local Self-Administratio11, No. 43 of 1966, Negc,rit Gazeta 25th Year No. 9 (B).

WHEREAS, it is Our desire tl1at Ot1r beloved people shall enjoy tl1e benefits and facilities provided by a moder·n administration wl1icJ1 n1,tkes full J)rovisio11 for their active participation in the bt1siness of local go,1ernment; a11d WHEREAS, by Our Decree No. I of 1942 We JJrovided for tl1e estab!isl1111ent of a system of modern provincial admi11.istratio11 tJ1rougl1ot1t OL1r E1nprre; ancl WHEREAS, the tasks and responsibilities of tl1e territori l s1ibdivisio11s � : � Our �mpire have 11d eco110 m 1 c a tecl1n1caJ continued cing adva to tl1e v1itl1 grow � evolution of the nation so that a further dece11tra.lizat1011 of st1cl1 systein wotlld 110w be advantag. eous; . NOW, THEREFORE ConSli Re\,jsed Otrr 27 of in Article witl1 accordance tution and on � the advice of O·ur Council of Mi111sters, We I1ereby 0rder as follows·

1 · Short Title . '' 66 19 , er rd O This Order may b e cited as the ''Lo cal Self-Administration 2' Instit ution of Local Self-Administration . . d ca o ra Aw l) There is hereb j : ��� t { f) an � �l : el lev ja ra j Aw y establ shed at the s ( h e s rci exe to '') tr ion rat o ati n t nis mi Ad r (he einafter the ''J_,ocal f. r. de Or of . s thi loc al by fsel adminjst1.ation instituted . r�d chart be � · (2) All · . to ter . . hereaf . . or rusAdnu .. towns other than muruc1pal1t1es presen�l Y Local tlle in 1 'tJ wi sed 1� �ccord a. be compr1 ce n all sh ! . th .. i w· e law th tra t. . ' . . . t1o · n. _, ,� r�'"":.:-·;·--. . .... :. . . -

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Note that in point of time th.is Order post-dates the legislation set forth belo\v.

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3. Legal Statt1s dy e co b? at i r o. �l rp p� d a an be l al sl1 liti po n tio c tra us 1 11i � d1 A l ca Lo y . er Ev , (I) 1 h 1 a1 s on r at tr fo us 1r o dm rp A pu al oc s L se a by of d de 1 it 11c co t ac tr il co (2) A 1 d b d u y e . nc . an c? t_ nis ac mi 11tr ad co a ed trative e1n de . be 0 196 of de Co tlle Civil id 1s of sa 01 de 1s1 Co ov pr e n t11 ati rel to g to ct bje su be all sl1 d an ity or autI1 Administrative Contracts.

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4. Po"vers and Duties (1) Every Local Admi11istratio11 sl1all, subject to s�pervision and control as provided in tl1is Order, l1ave all powers and duties necessa.ry to make and carry out witl1in tl1e area of its j11risdiction decisions in the following fields: (a) in the field of ed11cation: tl1e b11ildi11g, f111·11isl1ing, maintenance and operation of elementary scl1ools; (b) i11 tl1e field of J:>ublic healtl1: tl1e b11ildi11g, f11rnisl1.i11g, mainte11ance and operation of l1ealth stat.ions, l1ealtl1 centres, sa11itation a11d other public l1ealth facilities of a sin1.ilar or related nat11re;

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(c) in tl1e field of JJ11blic works: tl1e constrt1ction and maintena11ce of local roads and minor brid.ges otl1e1· tl1a11 st1cl1 as 1nay be b11ilt a 1 1d n1aintained by tl1e In1perial High­ \Vay Autl1ority;

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(d) in tl1e field of water s11pply: drilling for t1ndergro11nd water; tl1e provision of com.munity water SllJ)IJlies; and tl1e b11ildi11g of s1nall irrigation canals and minor dams; (e) i11 tl1e fields of agrict1lt111·e arid corn1nunity development: collaboratio11 witl1 tl1e Mi 1 1istries perforn1ing activities in these fields; (f) in the field of tra.de and con1111erce: fosteri11g and e11co11raging trade and co1n111erce and. the development of loc,11 marlcets a11d n1,1rketi11g arra11gements; and (g) in otl1er fields: control of JJrivate co11str11ctio11 a11d sucl1 other matters as may be d�ter111ined to be local ,ltfairs by Our· Mi1 1ister of Interior in agreeme nt witl1 st1cl1 otl1er Minister or Mi1 1isters as may be concer ned. rie car be � Tl1 � �ctivitie � me11tio1�ed i11 JJaragra1JJ1 (I) of this Article 4 shall an s ram. 011t 1n acc?r_da11ce w1tl1 sucl1 national or regional plans, J?�og _ policies general as 1nay be adopted by tl1e competent autl1or1t1es. Tll� Local A�mi11istration sl1all, within the area of its jurisdiction,_ c� out s�cl� spe�ific tasks on be�alf of tl1e Central Goverrune�t_as Our Min1st �of 111teri_or, lll agreement w1tl1 such other Minister or M1n1sters as ro aY. concerned, may direct.

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5· Basic Organization _ th¢ er Tl1ere sl1all be establ'I .1led Ill . . · aft annn.. e (herein t� Awr�Ja an Awraja Co11nc1l � · . ''Co11ncil'') to carry out the functions assigned to it by tl1is Order, and an a -

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on t o i111 plen1ent tl1e deci s io11s of . niz ati org a tJ1e ti· v e Coti·11c11 and to . . . 1s. tra f. . un ct io s as may be assigned to 1t IJt n ot l1e r ch su ou t irstia' tl· t to tl11· s 0rder · . carry · ropr1ate -1 eg1s1 at1011. p. ap by ise rw or othe n its ow e t. l1av dge b11 ll sha cil oun C The o Co un ci l of Mi11i sters to cleter 111i11e t po \.v er gi ve s cle [Arti ? cl1anges i l Awraja boundaries.]

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(I) Representatives shall be electe d t o tl1 e Co11ncil for a t erm of fot1r (4) years. I I (2) Representatives shall be eligible f or re-election subject to tl1e!r co11ti11lting satisfaction of the qualifications set fortl1 in Article 11 of tl11s Order. ( [Articles dealing with pro cedur e for elections and convening tl1e Council omitted.] 27 Election of Chairma n and Vice-Chairman (l) (a) Th e Repr esentatives shall in tl1e first meeti11g of a new Council aod f fro t c e_ el s, r a ye ) (3 e re tl1 n g i11 \V r i th e first meeting of ea ch of the f o}lO 1 sue in ct a to n, ma r among tl1emselves a Chairman and Vice-Cl1�i capa cities for one (1) y ear, sub ject to r e-elect1011(b) Th e Chairman f or an y on e (1) year excep t tl1e fo11rtl1 year sl1 all_�oiive�-� 1 n ti e si e pr r e 1e tl ll the first 1neeting o f th e following year and sl1a . the new Chairman is ele cted. i y n a r fo s n o ti ra e ib i (c) The Coun c il shall n o t commence its further del ( ,i year until the Chairman is elected . · 1 t1ona educ a (2) The nt e ffici ' Chairman and the Vice-Chairman shall posses� 511 qualifications to enable them to perform their funct1ons. ..1on · t a . pos1t . sucl1 : (3) The �ha1. from . . rman or th e Vice-Chai rman m ay res;f� re. tl1e for on elect i n� time, and b a e Y fi be hall s the vaca11cy , . r e ·· s ulting . . 1 :-?. :.·.- . ,:_. :: .. ma nder of the year. .

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9. Terms of Office: Re-Election

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The Council shall co11sist of tl1e followi11g 11t1111l1er of Represe11tatives to be elected by tl1e voters of eacl1 electoral district: (1) (a) two (2) Representatives from eacl1 Wored a electoral district; (b) one (1) additional Representative fro1n eacl1 Worecla electoral district having a population of more tl1a11 thirty-six tl1ol1sat1d (36,000) inl1abitant s or ha,,ing mor e tl1a11 11ine tl1ol1sa11d (9,000) registered voters: (2) (a) one (1) Representativ e fr om eacl1 tow11 constitt1ted as a11 electoral district pursuant to paragrapl1 (2) of Article 8 of tl1is Order [i.e. a town of 3,000 or mor e people]; (b) one (I) additional R epr ese11tative fro1n eacl1 st1cl1 tow11 J1 aving a population of more than six tl1011sa11d (6,000) bt1t fewer tl1 an ten thousand (I 0,000) inhabitant s ; and (c) two (2) additional R epresentative s fr o111 eacl1 st1cl1 tow11 11a vi11g �1 population of t en thousand (I 0,000) or more inhabitants.

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(4) The A\vraja Act111i11istrator sl1a!I provi�e a11 official of tl1� Local Admini s­ tration to perform tl1e secretarial functions of the Council.

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28. Regular Sessions t l1 e Council as provided of n tio 1ra gt at1 in e th to 11 tio di ad in (I) There sl1all, ee (3) reg ular sessions of the r th be r, de Or is tli of 26 le c i t Ar for under e held at the appr o­ all b sh 11 sio ses cl1 su (I) e On . ar e y 1 cl ea g rin dt1 Co11ncil th e Awraja budget for of n tio ina 1·m e t e d d an 11 sio ct1s dis for e tim e iat JJr tl1e coining fiscal year. (2) (a) Tl1e Cl1airn1a.11 sl1all conve11 e eacl1 meeting of the Council. (b) Tl1e Cl1air111a11 sl1all, in consultation with the Awraja Administrator, fix tl1e ti111es of tl1e sessions and meetings. (c) Tl1e Cl1airman sl1all, i11 co11sultation with tl1e Awraja Administrator, determi11e the agenda of each session and communicate such agenda to tl1e Representatives in due time before tl1e session begins. Tl1e Cl1airman sl1all i11clude 011 the agenda all s11ch items of business as n1ay be requested by tl1e Awraja Adminjst.rator. [Otl1er de tails of Co11ncil proced11re omitted. Enderasye of the Teklai Guezat may conve11e s1Jecial sessions.]

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(I) (a) Decisi ons of tl1e Col1ncil sl1all be made by majority vote of the Repre­ se11tatives voti11g i. n tl1 e presence of a quor11n1. (b) T'l1e Cl1air1na1 1 sl1all l1a, e a casting ,,ote. (2) No _clecisio11 shall be take11 by tl1e Council at a11y session on any matter 11ot 1nclt1ded 011 �J1e age11da con1n1l111icated to the Rep. resentati\ es i11 ad.vance of the first 1neet1ng of s11cl1 sessio11 , 11nless: (a) tl,e inatter or tl1e t1rge11cy of tl1e 1 11atter l1as arisen after tl1e dispatch of tl1e age11da a11cl so la te tl 1at a11 additional age11da could not h.ave bee 11 expected to 1 ·eacl1 the Represc11 tatives before tl1e meeting; au<l (b) tl1 e 111ajority of tl1e Re.1Jreser1tatives present fi11ds tl1at the matt�� is of sticli an. urgen t c bar,tc ter t l1at damage will be caused if no dec1s1011 be rnade. (3) If Representative sl1011ld be of the opinion that a decisio n put up �or � V? t111g wotild exceed tI 1e autl1ority of tl1e Counci l or would otl1erwise violate tl,e I�ws� tl1en 11e shall state l1is objection before tl1 e vote is taken, and SucI1 ObJect1011 sl1all be recorded in tl1e minutes of the meeting.

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the · b (1) Tl1e �roce�din�s of meetings of tl1e Co11ncil shall be recorded Y d·n i g cor Sec etary In m1 11utes e for r

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The staff of the Local Administration sl1all be respo11sible, 11nder tl1e st1per­ vision of tl1e A,vraja Administrator, fo1·: (I) advising the Council on all questions witllin tl1e fields of activities specified in paragraph (I) of Article 4 of tlris Order·; (2) (a) implementing the decisions of tl1e Cot1ncil \Vitl1in such fields; (b) carrying out all prep arat ory and exectitive f11nctio11 s connect ed there­ with; a n d (c) coordinating these activities witl1 tl1e natio11al or regio11al progranls adopted by tl1e competent at1tJ101·ities; 1 a11 tl (3) i· mpIementing tl1 e decisions of tJ 1 e Cot111c1·1 In er 1 tl o s ie it iv ct a f o s Id e fi _ · · · c . those specified in paragrapl1 (1) of A.1:ticle 4 of tl11s <? rd ' w_h tl1e per for m ance of such activities, either generally or specif i ca��Y, JSefaid t1po11 the Council by Ot1r Minister of Interior·; f o . r te is in (4) 1· 0 accordance M r 11 0 y b d with general regulat1011s to b e 1: �s11e . Interior in consult ation with Ot1r Minister of F1 nai1ce · ts e g d 11 b . y r a t n 1e 1 1 e l p . J 11 a) 1 s ( prep.aring the ann ual b11dget and , as 11ec . essa�.Y� s t 11 u o m a o t s a l i a of t �e Local Administration, witl1 al??rop���e d. t l ia r o it r r e t . s u io r . a v �e tl r required for the various fields of act�vJty an ns; tow _ _ rtered a 1 c 1 s11b-divisions of the Aw1·aja, 1nclud1ng non an d t; b11dge . ed 'b) pprov \ account·1ng 1or a 11e t · f <. ex ) ecu tio th � n e • r unde d e . • reqw . .to the Cou1.1c1l as . . (c) preparing accounts for subm1ss1on Article 54 of tlris Order; and

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40. Responsibilities of Local Administration Staff

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(1) 01rr Ministers iespo11sjble fo1� tl1e variot1s fielcls of activities specified in pa.ragrapb (I) of Article 4 of tl1is 01·de1· sl1all JJrovide for appropriate in-service training of staff 1nembe1·s of tl1e Local Adn1i.nistratio11 in tl1eir respective fields. (2) If necessary, the Cot1ncil sl1all partal<:e in tl1e expe11 ses of st1cl1 training f of sta f members.

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g n ffi a d t n S a n o ti a iz n a g r O 38 _ (l) The Awraja Administrator sl1all be tl1e .l1ead of tl1e J..,ocal Admiiiistration. (l) r11e Local Admi1�strat ion sl1all h av e s�1cl1 organi. zatio11 a11ct staff as ar e me 1ts nee et ds to a11d ed pe1·for111 its fu11ctio11s. req11ir (3) o11r !"fjnister of Interior sh,111, i11. co11st1ltatio11 _ witl1 st1cl1 otii er Minis te r as m s M be co a. y ncer11ed, 1sst�e. ge11e�:al 111strt1ctio11 s fo 1· or 1n1ster tl1e organi­ zation and staffing of tl1e Local Adn11111strat1011. (4) 011r Minis ier of Interio1� sl1all is su e ge11 eral 1·egL1latio11s a1)1Jlicable to tlie Local Admiuist1·ation co11ce1·oi11g tl1e activities and tl1e establishm e 11t a.nd administration of non-cl1artercd tov111s.

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568

Sc·ORcEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTI1.UTIONAL LAW

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(S) carr),ing out all ot11er f1111ctio11s of the Local Ad.ministration ju its capacity as a p1 1 blic body co1·1:>01·ate.

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41. Responsibilities of Awraja Administrator

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(2) I11 l1is captcity as adviser to tl1e Council, the Awraja Administrator shall: (a) in tl1c first 111eeting of a new Council, inform tl1e Representatives co11ceu1i11g the functio11s of t.he Co11ncil and of the Local Administra­ tion, ind tl1 e relations of the Co11ncil a11d Local Administration to tl1e c�11t1·al Go,1ernme11t; ...

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(g) answe: ques tions p11t to l1in1 by the Representati,,es, speak at any

time en 1natters 11ncler disc11ssio11 a11d advise tbe Council on all prob­ le111s, �specially on interpretation of la,vs ... .

(3) As l1eacl <1f tl1e Local Ad1ninistration, tl1e Awraja Administrator sl1all:

(a) e11s11re tl1e proper ad111i 11istratio11, i11cludi11g tl1e _proper protection of movable a11d iIUinovable property, of the Lo cal Administration; (b) ens11re t11 e proper exec11tio11 of tl1e decisions of tl1e Council and report tl1ereo1 to tl1e Council, as req11ested; (c) draft J1e co11solidated a11 n11al budget of tl1e L.ocal Admi11 istration and slpJ:>leme11tary b11dgets, as 11 ecessary, witl1 appropriate explana­ tions ,11d s11·b111it sa111e to the Co1111cil, witl1 a copy to the Enderasye of tl1e Tel<lai G11ezat '· (d) e11s11re t11e proper exec11tion of� appro,,ed bud cre ts, be respo nsible for tl1e a11tl1orizatio11 of JJay111e11ts ,�it11i 11 tl1e bt1d;etary apJ)ropr.iatious a11cl . m=tke t1se of bt1clgetary ap1)1·op1·iatio11s only as necessary for the efilc1e11t a11d eco11 0111ic ad111 inistrcltion of t 11 e Local Ad1ninistration. ···

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get Bud al u Ann 47. oc of tl1e al t _ Ad _ . 111i1:ist1�atio11 sl1all, i11 accorda ilce b1. 1 dg e � 1 aJ 1., a111 1 The wi tli eouJations issued by Our M1111ster of Interior 1 1 1 const1ltatio11 wit1 1 Otir Minister �(Finance, provide estimate of all i_ nco me ancl expenclitu re of the Local Aclmi11_ istration. The b11dget st\a11 const1tt 1 te tl1e 1eg�l basis for the adiniilistration of all income ru1d. expe11d1t111·es, a.11 d 1 10 expe11d1 tt1re sl1 all be n1 acte 1111 Iess pro­ vided for in the b11dget. . ..

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50. Publication of Annual Budget Tlie annt1al b11dget as approved by t11c Co1111cil sl1all be 111ade IJttblicly 1<:nown by suitable 111eans to tl1e inhabitants of tl1 e Awraja.

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54. Submission of Annual Accounts

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(I) Except as otherwise pr·ovided in tI1is 01·der 01· in otl1 e1· legislatio11, t11 e Enderasye of the Tel<lai G11ezat sl1 all be 1·espo11sible for tl1e :fi1·st line s11per­ vision and cont1·ol of the Local Admi1iistratio11. (2) The responsibility for second line supe1·vision sl1all rest witl1 0111· Mi11ister of Interior. (3) Our Mi1iisters co11cer1 1ed witl1 tl1e fields specified i 11 sl1b-paragra1Jl1s �a) tl1rougl1 (f) of Article 4 (I) of tl1 is Orcler shall, eacl1 witl1in his respect�ve �e1d, have power to supervise and con trol tl1e activities of t11e Local Adn11n1stration in such field.

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60· Prin ciples of Supervision and Control (I) The authorities specified in Article 59 of tl1is Orde1· sl1 all ensure tl1 at: (a) the Local Administration shall perform its functions in accordanc� witl1 the law, and decisions of tl1e Co11ncil sl1 a11 be 1Jro1Je.r1y exectited, ­ pl (b) decisions of the ii the r cl hin or h wit t flic � � � Council shall not con _ me11tation of tlJe plans, p1·og1�a1ns a11 d IJolicies 111e11t1011ed in paragrap 1 (2) of Article 4 of this Order; a11d . (c) decisions of c 111 o1 on ec or l cia 1an 1 fi e 1 tl the Co11ncil shall not e11danger stability of tI1e Local Adn1inistr atio11. (2) (a) Th. . . . . . .e auth�r1t1es specified 1n A t 1 cle 59 0 f ti 115 Order may at a11y t1me, � . 11 o ti a tr us ir n i send officials to d A l a c o . conduct an inspection _of the e th r o il c n u o and ay req u st C e th L of an irm ha C e th s rt om fr po re _ � e y s a r e d _ � n E . . e h t t h a t oweve!, h ed, vid pro h; bot or or rat 11st m11 Ad ra,ia Aw d e .. t c u d n o c 11 10 " t of the Tek lai .. ec sp 111 of any ed m or f . n i at l be ez al u . sh G . :··,.... . ·. .

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y d rit 1o ifie 1tl ec a1 sp y in parag rapli an by ) (a h ap gr ra pa bsti unde� tllis (2) or (3) of said Article 59. t a raj nis Aw rnj the Ad d a11 or rat cil un Co e 1 tl shall of n 1na 1 1· ai CI e 1 (b) TI furiii,11 all information and sl1all pr od uc e all sucl1 records and ot11 er es riti tho au the specifie d under by ted t1es req be y ma as 1 o ati 11 1 infor d m by ate tl1e ign to conduct des 1s so1 per or er Ord 1 tl is of 59 ide Art an irspection 11nder sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph (2). (3) Tl1e a11th<,rities s1Jecifi.ed under Article 59 of this Order sl1all in the exercise of tl1eir f1nctio11s of st1pervision and control render all possible assistan ce to tl1e Cru.ncil i11 tl1e perfor1na11ce of its duties and obligations.

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61. Powers and Dlties of Enderasye (1) Generally (a) (i) VI1ere tl1 e Enderasye deterinines tl1at a Local Adn1inistration vitl1in the Tel<lai Gtrezat is not pe1·forming its duties and ob1iga- 1io11s in accordance witl1 the law, he may order the Council to ake aJ)propriate re111edial measures and to abandon certain ,ctivities witl1in a specified pe1·iod. Sucl1 order shall be given i1 writi11g a11d sl1all specify in detail the measures to be taken ,nd tl1e activities to be aba11doned and the reasons therefor. (ii) Vher-e ap 1)ropriate, tl1e E11de1-asye s_ball, pr·ior to the issuance cf any st1ch order as afo1·esaid, give to tl1e CotLncil tb.e opportunity, vitl1in a specified JJeriod, to express its v .iews and, wl1ere investiga­ tons l1ave been carried 011t, to submit supplementary infor1nation and reports. (iii) 111e Co11ncil may, vvitl1i11 fo11r (4) weeks following tl1e receipt cf st1cl1 an 01-der, appeal tl1eref1·om to Our Minister of Interior, vl1ose decision on such appeal shall be final. Such appeal shall SJSJ)end the order, pencling decision tl1ereon by Our Minister cf Interior, t1nless tie shall otl1erw.ise decide pursuant to sub­ µi1 ·agrapl1 (e) of At·ticle 62 (I) of this Order. (b) Tl1e :E1 1derasye 1�1,1y direct, pending tl1e n1a.king of any decision or order: that [SJ)ecrfic powers and p1·oced11 1-es to impleme11t sub-para· gra1Jl1 1 (a) on1itted] .... (c) �fte �1na.king a directive t1nder s11.b-paragra.ph (b) of tllis JJaragrap� (I) _ _ grave and complicated cases to Our Miru5ter tl1e Eid�rasye may s11b1n1t of I11t!1·1or for appropriate decision and order. (d) ·u 1Joi1 reqtiest by Our Minister of Interior, tl1e Enderasye shall c�n­ duct 1D: a�1)rop1·iate investigation to determine wl1ether tl1e dutJes a Gue � i : ai1 d 0?11gat1ons of any Local Administratio11 within t11e Tekla _ th to t ar � ?0ng fulfilled 10 repor all accordance witl1 the law and sl1 M1n1s:er the results of such i 11vestigation.

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62. Powers and Dtties of Minister of Interior (1) Generally: . :�

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(a) Our.Minister of Interior shall decide such cases as may be_ referr; to hin pursuant to sub-paragrapl1 (c) of Article 61 (1) of trus ord

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of Inter.ior sl1all decide cases in wl1ic11 J1e 11as r M in ist e Ot ir · (b) req · . ue s t e d · ve st n e c 1g d b 01 at 1 1 1o uc 11 te d an by a11_ Enderasye as provided in that . sub-paragrapl1 \d) o[ At._t1cle 61 (1) of t111s Order o.r by J1is ow 11 inspecters as prov1ded 111 st1b-paragrapl1 (a) of Article 60 (2) of tI1 is Order. (c) Our Minjster �� l11te1·io� sl1al] decide 011 cases apJ)ealed to Ji im ptirst1ant to item (111) of Article 61 (I) (a) of tl1is Order. (d) Our Minister of J11�erior sl1alJ, before �e�i�i.11g 01 1_ qt1estio11 s relati ii g to the pro:per exec11t1o_n of a11y of tl1e act1v1t1es_ 11!e11t1oned in paragrapl1 (1) of Art1cle 4 of tl11s Order, co11st1lt tl1 e M1111ster or Ministers co11• cerned with t11e field or fields of activities i11 questio11. (e) In cases arising l111de1· sub-1)a1·agrapl1 s (a) tl1 ro11gl1 (d) of tl1is J)aragrapl1 (I) Our Minister of Interior shall l1 a,1e and 111ay exercise, 111utatis 1nz1ta11dis, the pov1ers specified .in itc1ns (a) (i) and (a) (ii) and st1bparagraph (b) of Article 61 (1) of tl1is 01·der. (i) In tl1e event an Awraja Col111cil sl1 all ref11se to carry 01.1t a decision (f) made unde·r any of sub-paragrapl1s (a) tbrougl1 (d) of tl1is paragraph (1) or a decision made 1111der st1b-paragra1)l1 (a) of f\rticle 61 (1) of this Order, Our Council of Ministers n1 ay, on recommendation of Our Minister of Inte1·io1· or, in cases i11volvi11g a decision tinder s11b-paragrapl1 (d) of tl1is paragraph (1), on the recommendation of any other Minister or 1vli11isters concer11 ed, dissolve the Awraja Council and call for tl1e J1olding of new elections within three (3) montl1s fron1 sucl1 clissolution. (ii) \Vnere a question has been refer1·ed to Ot1r Cou11cil of Mi1:i�ters for decision under item (i) of tl1is s11b-parag1·apl1 �f), Ot1r I:,11n1ster of Interior may suspend tl1e !Jowers of tl1e AwraJa Co1111c1l pending such decision by the Council of Ministers. (iii) Where an Awraja Council l1as been dissolved or its po\vers su�pended under item (i) or (ii) of this st1b-paragrapl1 (f), �l1 e AwraJa Admi11istrator shall, subject t o any specific 111struct1ons n1a�e by Ot1r Minister of Interior, perform tl1e functio11s of tl1� A\vraJa e th or l 1 c 1111 Co j� ra Aw ew 1 1 a cil Coun pe11ding the electio11 of decision of the Council of Ministers, as appropriate. (2) Specjfically: . r io r . te In f o r In aceordance with te is in M t· u . 0rd er, O of· t1 11s . tl1e 1 Jrov1s1on shall: , d e n · r e c 11 o c s r · e t . · (a) determme is in · ster 01 M M1111 tl1e 1n with ment agree · b-paragr,·aph · pursuant to s11 · ' to be designated as local affairs the functions (g) of Article 4 (I) of this Order; · or er t 1n1s ' M (b) �-e er 1 ot] h � appropriate, and in agreeroe�t wit ..11 {11 cI to n stratio Adininj � 1 n1sters as ma y be co11cerned, d1rc�t _a oca c tasks 00 bel1alf carry out within the area of its jurisdicti�n speci'fi le tic Ar 3 ' of ) ( 1 1 ap agr of tl1e CentraJ par n 1 1ed 1 ntio nme11t as me ver Go 4 of this Orde r·' . l 6 of tl1is Order, as (c) a .emp t to sett1e disputes arising under Arti e e st1ch a11y settle to bfe re� erred to him by u11a re whe an Enderasye, and

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(d)

(e) (f) (g) (11 ) (i) (j)

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djspite jn aaree111ent with the par·ties concerned, re fer the matter witl1 J.1is co1n�11ents to Ou · r Cou11cil of Mi1liste1·s; 1� J)erformance of tl1e functions of t1 i11g rn ve go 11s tio 11la reg . isstic 1 sl11ne11t of registers of voters; l tab es 1 e tl d an ds r a Bo l ra o Blee. iss11e model Standing Orders and approve tl1e Standing Orders adopt ed by Councils; iss11e ge11eral regl1lations concern.i11g rem1111eration and travel allow­ ance; d11e 1·eprese11tatives for atte11dance at Co11ncil meetings and co1nnittee meetings, as aJJpr o1Jriate; in ccnsultation vvith s11cl1 otl1 e1· Minister or l\.1inisters as may be con­ cer11,d, iss11e general instructions as to tl1e organization and staffing of tle Local Administration; iss11e general regl1lations to be followed by the Local Adminjstratjon co11ctrni11g the activities and the establishment of administration of n)n-chartered towns; in c0Js11ltation with 011r Minjster of Fjna11ce, iss11e general regulations co11cerning tl 1e p1·epa ratio11 of tl1 e Local Admi1ustration budget and tl1e leeping of acco11nts; 1·eco11mencl persons fo1· a1)pointn1ent as Awraja Administrators; and foll oving co11s11ltatjon, as necessary, \vitl1 such otl1er Minister or Mi11i;ters as may be concerned, advise 011.r Council of Ministers concerning grants-in-aid to be rendered to Local Administrations fro1n tl1 e Ce11tral Government Budget.

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63. Inter-Minister.ill Relations

In a�y case vher� 011 r Minister of I11 terior may, p11rsua11t to the provisions of tl11s Order, act_ II?, any field i11 const1ltation, agreement or witl1 tl1e approval of s1�cl1 othe1 M1111ster of Mi11 isters as 111ay ·be co11cer11 ed, 011r Minister of In.�er1or or a11y s11cl1 otl1er lvfi11ister or Mi11 isters 111ay, wl1ere I1e dee1ns appro­ prJate, 1·efer t1e case witl1 ltis recon1me11datio11s to 011r Council of Ministers for decision.

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64. Effective Date�

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.) ; (E.C 1959 This. Order sl11ll ente1· into fo rce on the fu·st (1st) day of Hamle, provided, I1ove,1er, tl1 at: (l) the �rst Co11ncils to be constih1ted as provided in Chapter I, Section 2 of this Orl, er sl1all be elected on tl1e first (1st) day of Yelcatit, 1959 (E.C.), or 01?, Sltcl other date or d11ring s11ch otl1er pe1·iod of said year as ma� be s uon elec provi?ed Jtirsuant to tl1e pro,1iso to Article 17 of tlris Order, in held 1n accordance with this Order ; ­ enty t 1e (2) the Councils so elected sl1all be conve11ed fo1· inaugl1ration on tl '":' seventl1 _(77t!1) day of Miazia, 1959 (E.C.) and sl1 all tl1ereafter disc �� s e for and dec1dt the a11nual budget of the Local Adn1inistratio11 th fi0tli) year from the first (1st) day of Ramie, 1959 (E.C.) to tl1e tl1irtietl1 (3 day of Sme, 1960 (E.C.); and

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- concer11·in� Awraja Ord� tl1is Ad111inistrator f s shall �pply : visions _ � pro e l tl J) . ( 1 g t.I1e pos1l1 0� of Aw1aJa �over11or as of tl1e date of inatI­ old11 J 1 ons pers _ to l e 1c1 111 tl1 111 A,v1·aJa. Co t s · fi1 e th of n guratio [This Articl� was an1endecl. by Order No. 47 of 1967 to delay all tI1e dates ] r. a e e n y o y b 1n re 1e tl d te a st

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t c en bli nm 11ts Pu ver r,'a Go Se al ntr Ce of r e nsf Tra 65_ As and from tl1 e effective date of tl1is Order all Central Gover111ne11t Ptiblic Servants cl1arged with tl1e 1Jerfo1·111ct 11 ce of activities 111e11tio11 ed in }Jaragrapl1 to err f trans. a11d cl be becon1e · 1 all 4 1 e en1JJloyees of tl1 e tl sl .. e Artic 1 � of _ ! ) ( . . Local Adm101strat1on 1n s11cl1 A,vraJa..

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From Haile Sellassie I, ''Speecl1 _frorn tl1e Tl1ro11 e' ', Nove111ber 2, 1966, as tra11.slated. in Selected Speecl1es of Ifis I111perial 1, ra_jestJ' 1-Jai/e Se/lassie First (1967), P}J. 436, 438. In 1955 We paved tl1 e way for a1J eve11 dee1Jer a11d wider i11 volve111e11t of Our people in t11e d irectjo11 of t.l1 e affairs of tl1eir co1111try. ... Tl1is past year two additional meas11res l1ave been tal(en to accelerate tl1is process and ensure the col1ntry's f11ture IJolitical stability a11 d gro\vtl1. The first ... occurred only eigl1 t montl1s ago. '\Ve tJ1 e11 a1111ol111ced tl1 at tl1 e principle of collective responsibility ... wo11ld be en.larged by tl1e designatio1 1 by Us of Our Prime Minister vvho vvo11ld, in t111·n, select l1 is cabi11et for appoi 11 tme11 t by Us. 1

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This i nnovation ... p1·epares the \Vay for tl1 e in trod11ction of a totally 11e,v series of modifications of Etl1 io1Jia 's institl1tio11 al fra1ne,:vorlc. ... The second of these vital political n1east1res Vi'as initiated several years ago, �hen �t11dies were 1a1.1ncl1ed into one of the n1ost sig11ifica11t and critical exercises 1n nat1011al growth yet attempted in Ethiopia. Tl1 is wo1·lc n1at11red i11 tl1e scheme of local admi11istration based at the Awraja level, introd11ced by 011r Order only a short time ago [Order No. 43� supra]. This vast project has slowly taken form tl1 ro11gh years of painstalcing rese�rch _ and profound examination of tl1e needs, the beliefs, the aspirations and the capac1t1es of every segment of the entire popl1latio11. �s this programme is imJ)lemented, major responsibilities in. many �reas ?f pres srng c oncern to each i1 1 dividual and co1n m1111ity tl1 ro11gl1out tl1e 11at1on will e en r ted ?1.n t us to locally elected Awraja Councils. Co1111cil n1e1nbers \vill be cl!osen formal elections. T11e judgment and discretio11 of tl1e Etl1io1Jian people will be c · . . tested as ne �er b · econollll· c . 1e1r shaping tl e ns efor 1s1o dec the as of e a tion larg por , . and social life b ecome their respoi1 sibility. . .. Notes to tl1e Abov e

'."it! ls, osa op pr e ov ab the Co nt m ]Jle ini e tte J mi to on tt � ati submi ed draft legisl m �ta'!;: � la cgts ft dr8: its l a11cl ort Rep s e C 1tte e J 1 art on1n h e 1 ar 1s. 1c11J iten T e wl1ole of t tion ( b'tch l nts on p omnare order l1 wit y ftill un e r ca. d 1Jar lish com pub be e cl ed t1 sl1o btit in l No. 4� 0: 1 tl1e La w Library) 96 set forth below. . . 2 . The re w ere t e t ion) lJ mtl� 1.5 ion ulat m pop not e tee ( '' d E d e that ''exclucling ritrea estimat nu 90 aw.· _Co anct 537,0�0 422 weredas. Tl1e ted �n,a �st 1 an n fro ied (Arba rd: var ts Lini popul,1tion of fhese gu) to 23, ? 00 (Geme raJa aw ll cac lJm \.Vlt as red we of er n1b nu l and H.amer Bako). Tl1e

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does tl1e Order affect_ tl1e _posi�ion of Awraja V:'�ys ant signific at wll . In _ Gove1 no of rs-General pos1t1011 of Provinces? Tl1e ors? vern Go Does the Awraja Administrator l1ave adeqt1ate powers? Does he 11ave init he iate Can laws? Is it tl1e tl1eory of tl1e Orcler pow ers? ' ''vet o' y an · ''s tro11g '' '' · '' , or a 1 1ave a Id t executive 1ou s ''weak'' one? tllat an A\-vraJa Wli;, are there two _ _"li�;s of �kt1pervisio11'' of local governine11t? 111 what areas is ''st1perv1s1on mos·t I 1 e 1 y to create conflicts betwee11 Awraja governme nts and the ''st1pervisors'' ? \Vhat role does the Executi,,e play i11 Etltiopia i11 tl1e establisl11nent of Awraja ''self-government''? Wl1at ro 1 e does Parliame11t play? When did - or will - tl1is Order becon1e ''la\v''? Wl1at proble1ns con­ fronted tl1e drafts1nan i11 preparing tl1e transitory provisio11s? �/l1at dis­ cretion in implementing tl1e Order is left to (i) Awraja Go,1ernors? (ii) the Provincial Governors-General? (iii) the Minister of Interior? (iv) the Prime Minister? (v) the Council of Ministers? (vi) Parliament?

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The Problem of Finance of Local Gover11me11t I

The ''Local Self-Administration Order'' reflects a deliberate policy of trans­ ferring r esponsibilities heretofore assumed by central exect1tive age11cies to 11ewly­ established local governments. Perhaps one of tJ1e more diffi.c11lt a11d controversial elements of this policy is the proposed tra11sfer of responsibility for fina11cing tl1e services and the activities which the Order pt1rports to vest i11 tl1e nevv Awraja gov­ ernments. The ''Technical Committee on tbe Establis11n1ent of Local Gover11me11t'' (see supra) prepared a draft Proclamation witl1 its draft of tl1e Order (wlucl1 became Order No. 43, supra). This draft is shown, in part, below: ··· in accord ance with Articles 34 and 88 of Ot1r Revisecl Constitt1tio11 V./e approve tbe resolution of Our Senate and Chamber of Dep11ties a11d We l1ereby proclaim as follows:

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1. Title. This Proclamation may be cited as the ''Awraja Local Government Revenues Proclamation, I 964' '. 2. Revenues. Tbe following revenues are hereby assigned to tl1e Awraja Local Government· · (a) revenu es from: ��) land tax (witl1out tithe); (11) education tax· (iii) health tax· a�d (iv) cattle tax ' due and collected in the area of the Awraja;

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on ds tes ra lan aJ e1· 1 1_ d. (ge an tax il rty bti op pr dings) tJ1e m fro � reve.nties _ t e 1 s w1th1n � �r�a of tJ1e Awra ja with 1 tow 1 11 d cte lle co d an . assessed s; 1e 1t al 1p 1c 11n M as ed er rt 1a cl s 11 w to f exceptio11 o s itie g tiv d ac din an tra for profe ssfor s ce en lic · fo1 s fee m fro s 11e en rev ional 01· vocatio11al occ111Jation, whic.11 sl1all be collected within the Awraja area witl1 tl1 e exception of towns chartered as Municip alities; fees f01· services re11dered by tl1 e Aw raja Local Go·vernment, inclt1ding water 1·ate; fees for registering property and surveying property for registration; fees for conside1·ing and approving construction plans; reven11es from tl1e prope1·ty of tl1e A'ltraja Local Government; gra11ts-i11 -aid, wl1icl1 may be given to tl1e A\'\1raja Local Governn1ent fron1 tl1e b11dget of tl1e Central Go,1er11 111ent 11pon tl1e recon1n1 endation of Ot1r Mi11ister of I11 te1·ior or, if 11eed be� of Our Mjniste1· of Interior in cons11ltatio11 with tl1e Minister or Mi. nisters co11cerned; . cal Government do11ations whicl1 1nay be received by the A,vraja Lo for ge11eral or specific p11rposes.

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3. 'faxes on Land. T�xes on and e11 111nerated i11 Ar ticle 2, ite1n (a) of tI1is Proclamation shall b� _lev1ed t1nd�r apprOJJ1·iate Iegislatio11 d11ly adopted in accorda11ce \Vitl1 tl1e pro­ v1s1ons of Article 88, 89 or 90 of Ot1r Revised Co11stitl1tion and sl1all be assessed and collected by tl1e Awraja Local Go,,ernn1ent.

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4. Pro11erty Tax and Fees for J_,icences. (i) !l1e 1naxin111n1 1·ates of tl1e p1·operty tax me11 tioned .in Article 2, item (b) of tl1is P1·ocl:.:1111atio11 shall be tl1e follo\'\ri11 g: (ii) Tl1.e 111axim11111 rates of tl1e· licences fees mentioned in Article 2, ite111 (c) of tllis Procla111ation sl1all be tl1e followi11g: s.) rate um [Tl1e Con1mittee 1u,1de 110 recon1 11 1endation on an1011nt of max.in1 (b) (i) Tl1.e Awraj,t Cou11cil sl1,1.ll isst1e reITT.ilations regarding property tax a?d fees for lice11ces mentio11ed i�1 . Article 2, items (b) and (c) a), n ( 1 f ite tl1Js of Procla 111atio 11, limits a11d sl1all - within tl1e � (i) ,tud (ii) of this Article 4 - determine the rates of sajd taxes and fees. · ct ubje s (ii) Tl1e regtilatio11 s and 1·ates of (a) of tl1is .iten1 (b) shall be to tl1e app1·oval of Our Minister of Interior. (a)

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to tl1e approva st1bject l of tl1e Governoi·-Getleral be sl1all fees Said (b) of the Province. . ans Lo 6. shall be empowered to 1·aise tl 1.e followi11 g Joaris: Co11nci l Awraja The (a) (i) Ioa11s for specific p11rposes - a11d (ii) loans for th.� prompt pay111e11t o.f expe11 dit11re dt1ri 11 g tl1e fiscal year, a11d wh1cl1 sl1all not exceed 011e tentl1 (I/ l 0) of tl1 e orcli11ary revenues of the year and sl1 all be repayable 11ot later tl1 a1 1 tl1e end of tl1at year. (b) Said loans sl1 all be raisecl only from domestic sources a 11d sl1 all be s11bject to the approval: (i) i 11 the case of item (a), (i) of tl1is Article 6, tl1e a1Jproval of O t1r Minister of I11terior and Ot1r Mi1 1ister of Fi11 a1 1ce; - and (ii) in the case of ite111 (a), (ii) of tl1is Article 6, tl1e ap1Jroval of tr1e Governor-General of tl1e Provi11ce. (c) Witl1 the application for approval tl1e Aw1·aja Co1111cil sl1all s11 b111it: (i) explanations concerning the 11ecessity of raisi11g tl1e loan a11cl purposes for wiucl1 it shall be used, - a11d (ii) the plan of .repayment. (d) Repayments made shall be 11otified by tl1e Aw1·aja Local Go\,crnment: (i) in case of loans mentio11ed in ite111s (a), (i) a11cl (b), (i) of tl1js Article 6, to 011r Minister of Interior and Our Mi11ister of Finance, - and (ii) in case of loans mentioned i11 items (a), (ii) a11d (b), (ii) of tl1is Article 6, to the Gover11or-Ge11eral of the Provi1 1ce.

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(i) The tax revenues to be assig·necl to t]1e Local Governments will -

in the rural districts and fo1· tl1 e ti1ne bei11g - l1 ave to be tl1ose from taxes on agric11lt11re. Tl1e p1·01Josals of tl1e draft are based 11pon the present taxes - but vve will 1111de1·li11e t11 at we have come to this conclusion exclitsively on tlze JJrctctical reaso11s not to complicate the introduction of the Local Go\rern1nent system1. (ii) It sl1011l d, however, be 1nentio11ed, tl1at witl1 tl1e total amo1111t of revenues from t]1 e present land, ed11catio11, l1ealtl1 and cattle taxes ($1 6.6 million as es timated in tl1e 'bt1dget for tl1e year of 1_957 E.C.) - tbotig11 J1jgJ1 e 1· than tl1e re�ent1e from tl1e pre_se11t tithe on land ($11 millio11 as estin1ated 1n tl1e same b1idget) -

· · amalga atio n · I e Jan.d tax, of the p rese�t Janel tax, edt1ca.tion tax and l1ealtl1 rnto �ne sing to be levi ed : _ !oned, t a ent t xes �, e rate tlue tl1e o of s .sho uld c rrespondingto the total of the present rate

� not c e te a of on at1 1fic 1pl s1n tl1e for ed end h mm the tax d � � eco s be wi d o ll r �y uc c n1p · lications, an a m1n1strat1on .

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11:e Technical Con1mittee also submitted the follo\vi11g ''Con1111ents'', i11ter alia, on tl1is draft . IegtS1 at1on:

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d ne tio s , in en m m s ite 1e 11t ve re r (b) th.rough l1e ot e tl1 an d even e th , s nd f� de ad t us ,tf th dr e tl1 of assigned � 2 cle rti A (ll) of . n� be c1e t r ffi. no fo su ll wi tl1e prop er � 1!t e 11. n1 er ov G l ca Lo e to t]1 I em d to tl1 re fer °:s 1n tra . : . _t�e draft.. . cari·yj11 g out of tl1e act1v1t1es Local Self-Go,,ernment Ord.er. First, to take the act1v1t1es within tl1e ed11cational field 011.ly: We are informed that the annual 1 t sen tot p1·e als $11 m illio n, at io ca! 11 edu ry ma pri 011 p e it11r end ex a11d tl1at tl1e expenditure for tl11s pt1rpose at the end of the Second Five Year Plan period - i.e. at the time when the Local Self­ Gover111nent Order is expected to come into force - is estimated at a.pf) 1·ox. $17 n1illion per year. witl1

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At this writing, a draft Procla111ation along the lines above has been submitted to Parliament, but so far it l1as not received parlian1entary approval.

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T/1e 1'Jroblen1 of Co-orcli11ating Local Goverriment Activities wit}z Natio11al Plans j udgments which may d licate con1p tl1e of some s t sugge e abov erials t a. 1 n Tl1e l1ave to be 111ade in i1nple111enti11g Order No. 43 . If, for example, the next Develop­ me11t Pla1.1 sl1ould propose any of tl1e following:

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(i) a dramatic expansion in prin'Jary education, (ii) selected development of feeder roads in selected agricultural

areas, (iii) a systen1 of tax incentives and penalties to promote commercial agric11lture and e11coura.ge culti,,ation, d (iv) Ia.nd refor1ns wl1icl1 would promote transfer of lands now owne by absentee la11dlords to J)easant culti, ators, wl1at 111igl1t be tl1e possible i1npact of tl1ese measures on Awraja governments? Aiid :¥hat ste1)s migl1t t]1e ce11tral gover11me11t wish to take to secure tl1e help of AwraJa gover11111ents i11 ca1·ryi11g 011t its aims? 1

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Tl1e Prob!e,11 of Establis!1i11g Gove1·11!'11e11t .for Large U,·ban Cent,·es

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. , By �verwhe�ining n111. 11bers, the J)Op11Iation of Ethiopia now live in a rural, VIilage 01 small own s�tt111g, a11� 1na11y of tl1e great problems of natio11al_ dev�lop­ � ment ar_e concerned w1tl1 cl1a11g111g tl1e conditions and economy in which the�e J)eOJ)le I1 ve 11.� orlc? tl1e tradit�o11s, 011 tlook and view-points wl1ich moti�at� tllelr � � _ coildtic�. Bu t if t�e city JJopulat1011 is relati,,ely s1nall, it is still a higl1ly s1gn1�cant element, for obvio11 sly tl1e big city (Addis Ababa today otl1ers tomorro ,v) 15 ilie foctls of some cI1a11ges, tensions and press11res wllicl-1 ,�ill profoundly a f. fect thde te fut111·e of the ent·ire 11at.·1on. Tl1ese proble1ns b a c . er a e . or ge11erated whi cl1 are x . d Ste a_s POJ)·ulation growth proceeds. n1ontl1 by 1�onth gge su be can yea r yea by r ' . . bre kdown . s1mplY .b_Y 1IS · t·ing · a_ nu1nbe. 1. of. wor · ds and phrases : cr1me .' t1on, a . -1'' pro st1tu ; a of traditiona_l family structur e, health and sa r s urb 1:1°- p w01 t tra ni ns tat po io r n, ; " · r (tltlpl�niied , 111effic 1ent patterns of developm abl e � sir �. , unde e oth ent erw ugl is y or ' C 1. 1 i. a· so.cial or. ecouom·ic view1Jo·1nt) ; an . tra d ase . g, 1ncre (from 1ncreas ed .· rate accide1 1t . · . _ s1n . 1ndt1st11al1 sat . u o h, -· 10 · 11 d · an , ple · at cre peo o · i · · 11 o f new f o acc1 conge ent ,, s1 s' s) r1s st1on k ct · g in · . . cost s.., gr ow '. urn ' ' schools ·, tinem1J Ioyn1e11t,. cash economy, increased l1v1ng. · •

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n d betwee11_ labot1_rer a11d wl1ite-collar einployee; poor a. an d ric� n wee bet _ s gap est, ts, unr 1·1ty wan 1nsecu . new , ons cat1 ni mu com 01ass are not only peculiar to tl1e Ia_rge llrban centres, generally, , blems pro e Thes I nd they are tl1erefore wortl1y of special focLtsecl study a uro-en t; iy 0 · ' · · but peellll· ar · If · · · Id e 1n 1� a!1cl, , for fie a law),ers, s 1 t h 1s field a. 1 w1 icl1 n'' c?in?ines � �. . 4 "Urbanizatio _ d qt11te ere n t1ate onally �1eas of tl1e lc.1w, e.g., co11�tittit, 011al !raclit1 of � ents � elem ,, the n1e11�, �axal�o11, laud law and J)la11n111g, penal g�v�1n oc� l _ _law, at1�e inistr and adro f law and its ad1u1n1stratto11, JUctic1al adn11111strat1011, labot1r 1,1w - a11d otJiers. Here we are co�cerne� witl1 tl1e devolt1tion of cc11tral a11tl1ority - according I to some planned policy - to a _new agency a nd. a 11ew syste111 of gover11me11t. At this point we sin1ply note tl1at, w1tl1 tl1e prom11lg�t_1011 of tl1e Cl1arter of Acldis Ababa b in 1954, a major step - bt1t pres11111ab.ly a tra11s1t1011al ster) - ,:vas lal(e11 to tra 11sfer considerable jurisdiction o,1er tl1e problems of 11rba.11izatio11 to a 11ew ci Ly govern­ I ment, a creation semi-independent of national gover11n1e11t. Exceri_Jts fro1n tl1e I Charter are set forth belo,v. I

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from Charter of the City of Addis Ababa, General Notice No. 172 of 1954, 1Vegarit Gazeta, 13th Year, No. 10.

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WHEREAS, it is Our desire tl1at Otir beloved people resicli11g in 011r Capital shall have the advantage of, and enjoy tl1e benefits and facili lies pro, ided by a modern administration; and 1

WHEREAS, the tasks of the Municipality of Addis Ababa are i11creasi11g from day to day and with the advancing technical and economic e,,olution of tl1e city; and WHEREAS, the City of Addis Ababa is not only a large a11d witJ1 God's l1elp furthermore successfully i ncreasing community, but also Our beloved residence, the cultural, economic and administrative ce11tre of Our Empire; _NOW, THEREFORE, We of O t1r s1Jecial grace, certain l-::11owledge and m�re motion, do hereby grant an d ordain to 011r Capital, Addis Ababa, tl1e follow111g Charter on the basis of self-administration: I. The inhabitants of the City of Addis Ababa, witl1in tl1e cor1)orate limits

as 0?w established or as hereafter establis11ed in tl1e 111anner provided by law, sl1all conti nue to be a municipal body ·politic and corporate in per1Jetuity, tinder tl1e name of the ''City of Addis Aba ba.'' 2 The City of Addis Aba·ba l1ave sl1all se]f-ad111inistratio11, on of basis t11e · 1 owe s granted all witl1 to togetJ1er � � � laws tl1e by municipaliti ships n tow and s t e implied powe rs to carry i nto effect and execution all the powers so grante d. cl1 wl1i City irs a aff lic JJttb all to rn d ove t n atte 1 to me t n n ll te sha co npe be G b av eTbe n?t been defined by law to belo11g to the competency and J)owers of any otlier · authonty.

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he City of Addis Ababa on th e basis of self-administratio11, sl1all be T I ge a]ly· ent'tl ' 1.1 • p1e1�1ent·ing 1. ed to prepare and a 1 1c s d a11 pe sco al loc � � s of law � t op d by-la ws which are of ct effe into g ryin car a11d a ess ion nec cut exe ry for· the better the Iaws of the Imperial Government within the area of the City. 3

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SoURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN Co_ NSTITUTIONAL LA w

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vested in an C be sl�a11 ' ci el�ctiv ty u e 1 tl o f o n ! � . e l iv � , 4_ All legisla.t t l c l a. ca al lo en sl sh gi 1 le cl l11 n w io at , l , c1 111 o1 ''C adopt 1e tl as o t d e f rr e re r e t lierein,if ' b11dgets a11d dete rmi11 e policies. I ba 1ti e a1 10 th K w1 in st 1 a1 re l sl1 al sh e ex ity C e 1 tl cute . All exectitive JJowe r of y. 1t e C th of 1t e1 nm er ov G e 1 tl r e t is 1 i1 tl1e Ia,vs and adm ,· 8. Tl1e I(a11tiba of Addis Ababa shall be appointed directly by Us. 9. TI1e I(a11tiba is tl1e con1petent representative of the Imperial Ethiopian Gover11n1ent in regard to tl1 e c apital City of Addis Ababa. F11rther1nore, l1e is in JJers o11 al union tl1e P1·eside11t of tl1� M11nicipal Council a�� tl1e chief_ exec u tive I officer a1 1d l1eacl of tl1e ad111injstrat1ve brancl1 of tl1 e mun1 c1pal autI1 or1ty of the City of .A...ddis Ababa. . r· � 1 ,�; As representative of tl1e Imperi al Go, ern1nent t]1e Kantiba is responsible for ' tl1e 111 ai11tena11ce of tl1e IJe ace in tl1 e city and COllllnands tbro11gh tl1 eir officer the . police forces at1t l1orise d f 01· m11n.icipal d11ties. .. 10. To tl1e I(a11tiba, a Vice -I(a11tiba sl1all be appointed. Tl1e Kantiba, wl1 en L·· \ ' present, sl1all defi11e tl1e dttties of tl1e Vice-Ka11tiba. �Tb e never the Kantiba is pre­ ve11 ted from a11y ca11s e fron1 acting in tl1 e d11tie s of his office, l1is duties sl1all be discl1arged by tl1e Vice-I(antiba. I 1. Tl1e Cot111cil sl1all l1ave twe 11 ty 1nembers, elected from among the Ethiopian I citize11s in st1cl1 a 111 ar1ner t l1at e acl1 ctist rict of the City will ele ct tv10 1uembers for I • .. tl1e Cot1ncil, a nd eigl1 t officials fron1 tl1e diffe rent govern me nt administrati o11s. ' I • T11e te 1·ms of office for Cou11cil111e11 sl1 all be two years, and one-l1alf of the me n1bers s11all ret ire e very year. If it is found 11 ece ssary to increase t]1e nun1ber of I , tl1e Cot1ncil me mbers, i t sl1all be determi11e d by tl1 e Co11ncil and approved by Us. i 1 12. Co1!11 cil1nen sl1aII be qt1alifie d elec tors of tl1e City, and if a Cou.ncilrnan s11all be co11v1cted of a crime i11volvi11g 11101·al h11·pitude, his office sl1alI inm1ediate1y I becoine vaca11t. [Ins tead of sayi11g ''Cou11cilme11 sI1 all be qualified elec tors of ' tl1e City,'' �I1e A1nl1ctric ,,ersio11 of tl1is Article 1·eads, ;'PeoJJle wl10 are permitt ed to elect co1111c1l1nen fo1· tl1e city sl1 011lci be Etl1iopia11 s a11 d als o citizens of the Cjty''.] 13. TI1e Co11 11cil1nen sl1all 11ave rem1111eration for· their se1·vices, which shall be fixed by the Co1111cil. f _14. T11e <;011ncil sl1all be presided ove r by tl1e Ka11tiba who shall have a Vice ­ Presidei1t ap1Jo111ted by u·s, fo1· tl1e Cou11cil d11ties only. ' T�1e Pr�sident ai1d tl1e Vice-Pres ident shall be 11on-elected members of the I Counc1l, be1ng men1bers of tl1e Co1111cil ex-officio. . 1 ?· All legislative JJO\Vers of tl1e Ci ty and tl1 e de. te1·mination of all m atter s of policy sl1all be vested 111 tl1e Co11 ncil. Tl1e Cot1ncil sl1all have power to: • (a) levy taxes, rate s and fees for any municipal or pt1blic pur pose; . (b) adopt tl1e b11dge t of the City; (c) at1thorise tl1e iss11a11ce of bonds· ' · t o the co11d_t1ct . of a11y office, department or agency Of th · in · e · �1Uire (d) 11! . c1ty and make 1nv est1gat 1ons as to Municipal affairs; . (e) d�ci�e on the sale and purchasing of la11d and property for the Mum- . c1pal1ty; · pow e r

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the t s fi1· dt1ring three montl1 s of eacli year: revise and ive rece (f) on the_ finances and acl1n!11istrative activities of tl1 e govern­ rt repo a (I) ment of tl1e C1ty fo1· the preced111g year, pre1Jared and sti bmitted by tl1e adn1 inistrative b1·ancl1 of the Mt111ici1Jality; �Ute I (2) a report concerni11g tl1e a11dit of acco1111ts a11 d ot11 er evi de 11ces of financial transactio11s, pre1Jared a11d s11b11 1itted by tl1e com­ r petent audito1·; . 1an. f i11 relatio11 to tl1e JJroperty, affairs or s w Ia. loc,11 an1e11d d n a· t adop (g) 1n I 1 t o� tl1 e City, tl1e co11d11ct of its inl1abit,111ts a11d tl1e pro­ e1 11 1 n gover· !Ve tection of their property, safety a11cl l1e,tltl1. the I ' l6. Neitl1 er tl1e Co11ncil 11 or _ any of its me1nbers sl1all direct or req11est tl1e fro.r:11, office by _tl1e I(ai1ti ba or by a11 y br � appointment ?f an y per �o11 to, or 11 1s r e1�1oval _ ue of lus s11borclinates, or 1!1 any 1na11 1:-e� tal<:� part 1r� tl1e a1)po1nt111e11t or re111oval of officers and employees 111 t11e adm111 1strat1ve services of tl1e City. E xcept for tl1 e and its �e111bers sl1 all d�al witl1 tl1e ad111i11istrative � Cou11c tl1e int1uiry, of purpose � n . ,. ( service solely throt1gl1 the Kant1ba and 11e1tl1e1· tl1e Col111cll 11 or any 1ue1nber tl1ereof � \ shall give orders to a11y st1 bordinates of tl1e I(antiba eitl1 er IJltblicly or privately. •• 31. For the exect1tioo of tl1e admi11istrative ft1nct.io11 s of tl1e Mt111icipality, the Ka ntiba shall establisl1 a proper a11tho1·ity co1nJ)risi11 g offices, agencies a11d l institutions as necessary and accordi11 g to tl1 e bt1dget. lie sl1all e11gage tl1e personnel and provide for the required materials, b11ildings and la11d pro1Jerty. [Tl1e A111l1aric ver­ sion of thi s Articl e lacks the second sentence vvhicl1 a1J}Jears i11 tl1e E11glisl1 version.] 33. Tl1e Kantiba shall e11gage s11cl1 perso11 11el as will be necessary for tl1 e I carrying into effect tl1e good gover11n1e11t of tl1e City. Tl1e qt1alificatio11s wl1ich are required in regard to the difl:erent employees accordi11g to tl1 eir official ft111ctions , and th� �alaries as \veil as otl1er rem11neratio11s IJayable in 1·egard to tl1eir worl< I and �c_t1v1ty as the Municipal author·ity shall be sti1Julated a11d fixed by a partic11lar I Municipal legal regulation. The engaging of personnel will be limited, l1owever, by ·tI1e provisions of tl1e budget of the respective fiscal year. ·t) of The S�c�etary General and tl1e Directors General of tl1 e vario11s departments th� murucipal autl1ority Us 011 the recomn1e11datio11 of the will by be appointed / K antiba. * 3 • he disciplinary power to orde1· for1ual adn1011itio11, fi11e or p11nisl1ment, T �· d r ecide ? 0 the discipli nary mea11s of discl1arging or of s11spendi11g JJersonnel sl1all � e ted 111 tl1e Kantiba · but those who are appointed by Us as 1nentioned in the S e v . la st para . ' . 1 · graph of Article 33 may only be s11s1Jended for a grave offe11ce wl1i. c 1 gives sufficient gr otinds for sucl1 st1spension and 111Jon s11bmission of a report tl1ereto. I 35 ly on l ig ed tirr inc ati be ns l wil A on ba A ba bel1alf of tl1e City of ddis t by a · · Ob o Wntten en actment sign 1 in1 · l by l · rec owe en�1) o11 pers ed a by tl1 e I(a11tiba or by . No otlJe . es�nt e1Jr r _ cia t�e C ity :rffi l_ or emp�oyee of tl1e Municipality sl1 all be �nt1tled t ? A l1 1ic wl tY 1 is tiv �d ac of a 1d Ab lu1 e1· 1 ba otl in entering contracts 01· a11y Will cat1se l1g ars doll d atio 1sa11 · tl101 o ns one ll l to p for the x ess 1sin b City' e cept sucl1 b ($I 00 0 ) l1er ' · W e the amount will ' be paid immed.iately in c,tsl1. '

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*To Wh t · ext . a . en t are Ar icles 0• "3 N d . · er of 1961 Or by ded amen or 33 and 34 impliedly repeale? and the regul � . ations issued thereunder, infra, Section 4? :

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAt-7 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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l• to pt ed ce er ac w ey po on e1n 1n is ity for the accou al ip ic un M e 1 tl of ee oy No emJJl nt te ye pe lo m 1p e co en th e of t p _ e c� th ex y, lit 1Ja cash depa�� ici tin M e tl1 of lf 01. on bella s f ee o cl1 oy su 1Jl s em �e of tu 11a e s1g e tl1. th of cash departns sig de ct a11 1es an 11 meil t. The . e ay w at r1 JJ rO 1J ap 1 a1 1 i1 n w no k e ad m be l al 111e11t sh { the by ted Council not l ater than the ' _adop ally fo1�m be sl1all et btidg 39. The . ar ye al g sc in fi · ed ec pr t l1e of 1 1tl 01 n1 st la e th last day of Ti1e bt1dget law sl1all be published in tl1e official Gazeta and shall contain state111ents as follows:

(a) tl1e adoptio11 of tl1e b11dget and tl1e figures of the total sum of the reve1111e as well as of tl1e total s11m of tl1e expend.it11re;

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(b) tl1e a1nount 11p to whicl1 tl1e Municipality will be authorised to borrow n1oney d11ring the fiscal year. Sl1011ld the Co1111cil tal<e no fiscal action 011 or pr.ior to such day as defined abo,,e tl1e budget as st1bmitted shall be deemed to have been finally adopted by the Coun.cil. 40. At anJ, ti1ne in a11y b11dget year tl1e Council may make upon the recom­ mendatio11 of tl1e l(a11tiba e111e1·gency appropriations to meet a pressing need for public ex1Jeudit11re, for otl1er t l1an a reg1tlar or recurren t require.ment, to protect tl1e pt1blic l1ealt l1, safe ty or welfare. Ti1e tot al amount of all emergency· appropriations made i 1 1 a11y budget year sl1all not exceed five percent of tl1e tot al appropriations made in tl1e b11dget for tl1at year. 43. Tl1e City 1nay inc11r i11debtedness by issuino its neootiable bonds, and notes in antici�:,ation of bo11ds, t o finance any project .;llich it may lawfully construct or acq111re. 44. Tl1e City sl1all at1tl1orize tl1e isst1a11ce of bonds or notes by tl1e affirmative votes of at least tl1ree-fiftl1s of all n1embers of tl1e Cot1nci1. 59. Tl1e In1J)erial �over11n1e11t sl1all s11pe1·vise tl1e good carrying on of �be self-gover11111e11t of tl1e City of Addis Ababa. For tllis reason tJ1e Mi11ister of Interi or sl1all exect1te s11cl1 legal st1pervisiou by tl1e following thJ:ee measu1·es: (a) co11trol of tl1e 1awft1lness of tl1e City budget a11d all legal projects as ador>ted by the Council; (b) in tlle event tl1e City governn1e11t 1·ef11ses i 11 a pa.rticula r case to execute a cltlty statec! by law, tl1e Mi11iste1· of Interior ma.y give a written Ofder to the_ I<a11 t 1ba to exec11te tl1is matte1· 11nder the responsibility of !� e Im1Jerial Governn1e11t, b11t at tl1e charge of tl1e Mu11icipality of Addis Ababa; ( c) in tlle eve t tI1e _C?1111cil refuses or neglect s to accomplish i ts function� � prO_ J:>_erly, tl1e Minister of I11terior may invest the K antiba t ? be Cotme of on ecti di� � 1111ss10_11er an. d to goverl?- tl1.e City according to the f r eas Impen� Government without hearing the Council. This m tu e e s11pe1·v1s1on sl1al� l1a,,e t�e �ffect only for t11e time o� at mos ot�:il mon!hs and _ aft�1 the_ expJrat1011 of the three months penod th � � uuto· a e shal_l be re-instated 1n !ts proper constitutional powers, u<ltn., om· m�t1?all y at tile same time the special powers of the Kantiba as C m1ss1oner

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as defi11ed _above t111cle1· (b) a11d (c) are applied, on supervisi of ures eas 111 �e tl1e r1gl1t to appeal to Us. If have sl1all t nmen gover City nar the ordi Y 1ent Parl ia11 of Role the r , I 0'1 e,n rob . . rhe p l1as steadily developed a policy of ''d elegating'' Executive the seen, e hav As \Ve c:t k t cer a111 · as. s f o 1or gover11111e11t to 11ewly-created 1ty 1 ·b·1· ns1 respo n g · rri �e 11 . · . trans d I · 1 an 11c_1 \.V�·11 operate s_t1b�ect to a co11s1clerable 1neasure w 11men� gover of electe d organssupervision. This policy 1s reflected 1n Order No. 43. e v r· u exec 1 f o 110 stro11g ''grass roots'' 1)ressL1re for tlie was tl1ere that fact a ably prob It 1·s t l1e ''Tecl111ical Co111111illee'' a11cl ]ater cl1aracterised b)1 proposed ally origin . . . . 1 . . . chan_,0es . cr1 1ca l . d an exercises ca11t 111 I fi 11at1011a pol1L1cal growtl1 ''one of the most s1g111. 1966, tl1e No,,e111ber E1nperor, i11 111 s1Jeaki11g fro111 si,pra) (see pted'' : �:t attem : Parli ame nt remin ded , thron e the "Pendin g before this session ... is tl1e draft . Procla1nation cleali11g witl1 Awraja local revenu es ,vbich give ·final substa11ce to tl1e for111 already c1evised for tl1is great in government. YOLt sl1ot1ld act 011 tl1is proiJOsal as a n1atter and crucial experiment '' of urgency ... . Parliament� l1owever, l1as not yet appro,,ed tl1is pro1:,osed legislation. A 11L1mber of questions and objections l1ave been raised; perl1aps tl1e 1110st ce11tral co11cer11s are whether tl1e new syste1n ,vill ,vork efficie11tly to provide for co1n1nt111ities tl1e services, facilities and opport unities wl1icl1 are l1rge11tly desired: wil l it be easier to develop schools, clinics, roads a11d markets tl1rol1gl1 tl1e vel1ic]e of local gover11ment - or should the central gover11me11t co11ti11t1e tl1ese tasl<s? Tl1e a11swer to this problem 1vvill be worked out in tl1e future, blt t a 11e\.v system of local gover11n1e11t ,vould seem an inevitable necessity, a11d, perl1aJJS eqL1ally i11evitable, tl1e sticcess of local government will depend fo1· some ti1ne 011 tl1e i11itiative a11d leadersl1ip of the central government; for the establishment of viable, useful local govern111ent is a task of central government, and tl1is fact l1as not bee11 overlool<ed i11 Parlia1ne11ts' deliberations.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF I-fUMAN RESOURCES TO . AGENCIES STAFF EXECUTIVE J11trocli,ctio1z

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Re-read: Chapter I, pp.33, 43-46 (the need for ex1Jaodecl, stro11g exec11live govern111ent; tl1e 1}�ed for government by well-selected ''eJites'' and ''experts''; tl1e problen1 of reconc1lmg government by the well-chosen expert witl1 govern111ent subject to popular control); Chapter IV, pp.432-33 (the proble1n of re cruit111e11t of executive leadersl1ip).

. Transztion · · from ''Tradit ional'' Leadership to a '' NI oder11'' Pl1blic Service

Re-read:

Ma

. . ihapter IU, pp.296-303, 310 -31 2 (traditional_J:?o litical ''elites''); " ,, . ,, . �-, PP-312 -315 (features of a ''moder11'' pol 1 t1c al systen1 and tl1e role of DC\.V political ehtes'' in · the process of ''modern ); ' isa tio n' �-, .PP-315-325 (traditional institutions); . . . . . rticle 11 of the 1J 1 Co nst1t11t1on of e l l\l tl1e of 10 icle Art clre i 111p itut (co on of 1931 Japan) (p.337). Const Chapte r .IV, pp.355-3 ( 56 the growth of specialised agencies froin: 19 45-195�). . .

t1 ild .1i, g st d? d ioa g. (e. es es r1s erp e11t J) ve ha em1JI1asised that develo 111ent or a pu�lie � u i health programme) often lag, not necessarily for wa11t of e11abl111g laws

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SECTION 4

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in ?p el o de a g . a1 sk te ta l1e of officials T � n. io at tr is 1 1!i1 i11 ad � e iv ct fe ef _ but for lack of · s d sk g ne ta tn �1g m o1 as rf f pe 1s o a e bl di pa ca . 1d a1 fficult s al o g ed re ag to cl te ut conm ri ous I1andicap, bu t se ne be y_ a _ m 1· we o p an 1n � ed in tra , ed one. Laclc of expei·ienc es t1d a t1t m c at st1. e n1 us ro ca cl1 11a cials d offi a11 1s o1 r iti d tra � rs: l1e ot 11 .fte . o there are d ys 1 1c h a ''modern,, l w an wa ds ar 1d a1 1 st e tJ. o t g i11 rd co ac 1 a1 1 tl se _ t o beJ1ave otl1er\vi e 1 c ag a1 f ay be sh 1p c er in ad le IJ O t_ e tl1 ; � es m � � su as � �pable em st sy e tiv ra ist 1 i1 _ . adin ot1:at �. o n a11 d d1sc1pl1n� wlucl1 impels m tl1e ng ati cre d an y i1it sib 1 1 o p res o f delegating 1el1 an d rapidly; v\ ir Job the do personal o t a11t v l· o t e'' iev 1 stibordinates to ''acl ate ; to str ion fru sly act les ed ne ate per o officials y 1na s ial ffic o o tw e11 we bet n o t fric i servants of tbe pt1blic; ratl1er the notion of t11 e age11cy ma y fail t o see then1selves as of ''public service'' beco 111es, in a st1btle ,vay, a concept of service to st1periors and service to tl1 e systen1 - bl1t 11o t 11 ecessarily service to the public interest; tl1e civil service becomes a ''11ew elite'', b11t no t a ''revolutionising elite''. Ii1 case -studies of newly created agencies of developme11t in deve lo1Jing co11ntries it has sometimes been s110,vn tl1at, despite co11siderable ''inp11t'' into an agency (in the form of laws, ''ex1)erts'', ap1)ropriatio11 s of mo11ey a11d universit)r-ed11cated, comparatively well­ paid employees), tl1e ''011tpl1t'' (tl1 e actt1al acluevement) remains lo w. No doubt tl1ese problen1s are world-,vide, but tl1ey are especially serious in societies wruch can ill afford to waste resot1rces on i11 efficient pt1 blic enterprise. Tl1ese are not legal problems; bt1t tl1ey are certai11 ly part of the co ntext within wl1 icl1 lawyers must st11dy develop1nent of la}v e11ablil1g i/1e pla1ir1ed develop1nent of l1un1ari resoi,rces to stctff governme1-zt, fo1· tl1e lav1 must be realistic - relevant "' to tl1e problen1s at l1and. 1 11is body of law aflects a sig11ifica11t gro11p of Etluopians; tl1e g1·eat 111 ajority of tl1 ose witl1 l1igl1er edl1cation a1·e 11 0,v employed by govern­ ment, or by ''ql1asi-I)l1blic'' age11cies. Tl1is is a body of law wl1ich can facilitate or l1an1 per - effective recr11it1nent a11d 1Jerforn1a11ce by these agencies. Tl1_ � readi11gs w�1i�l1 fol�o,v prese11t, fi1·st, a sl11-vey of wl1at migl1t be called the _ ,,classic , tl1eory Second , of c1v11 servic e lavv theory . and tl1at tl1e11 o critiq f s o 1ue ue . tl1e _ 1·ead1ngs l)rese11t parts of tl1e relevant la\-v of Etl1iopia (alo11g witl1 s0111e com­ parisons) a11? s�1ne IJroble111s of i11terpretation. T11 e ir1itial legal iss11es to be exami �-­ ed are co11st1tut1011al, �or tl1e co11stitt1tio11 11111st allocate povver t o so1ne orga11 ,vith1n gover11me11t to d�ter1n1ne wl1at tl1e law go,,er11i 11g pt1blic employn1ent sl1 all be. The law 1nt1st deal wrtl1 sl1cl1 qL1estio 11s as: Wl1at basic objectives s1101 1 Jd s11cl1 a Ia,v seek? Wl1a � discretio11 yvill_ tl1e �cl111i11istering body I. 1 a've t o make lav., itself? :\' 11at powers \vill it e11Joy to adj11dicate disptrtes between governn1e11t ao<l its e1nplo)1ees? Wl1at role shotild la\v IJlay in en,tbling the pla1111ing of l1uman resource develoJJ111e11t? Of cotirse tl1is is a \'ery big a11d co1111)licated. field, a .nd tl1e materials here 0111Y in­ t �o.duce son1� of tl1 e problems. 1:..IOJJeft1Ily t.l.1 ey also unde1·score tl1eir importance. It is a. field t oo often neglected by lawyers co ncerned witl1 political d.evelop.ment.

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SOURCEBOOK . OF ETI-IfOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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Theories of Civil Service

Historical Note: Englis/1. Expe1·ie1ice; the Brit .. is/1 ''Model'' _ . -. .. . . , . aland · . · · , 1s Tl1e 1"dea of _ a ,,c1v1l service n 1 d · . develope \\,. 11 E e- d l ' it comparative y ne E · · · · . n n · ,_, a and t1rope d11r1ng tl1 e 19th century. l . . . '. · E · · g . . · .· ..:" :,:. TI1e l11sto1·y of tl1e ''c1v1l ser. v1ce .1n -.

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TI-IE DEVEL OPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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c e .nt11ry, inde ed later, gover11me 11t e1n1 Jloyees 8tl1 e l tl1 Until . 5 Lructiv . e · 1n e tl1 e King'', ratl1er tl1a11 of l1is government. There of nts b ''serva aY ' as m · · n see · · · e ct · eff · · ,vere , 10 e ' lStll century, 1nn11merable 1 nl1er1ted , arcl1a1c pos1t1011s - s111ecures were, by �h r served any useful p11rpose . Tl1ere was 110 salary scale; patro11age, ,vbich_ 00 ��t:ry and siinilar ��tl1ods �eterr?ined �PJJoi11t1�1e11ts. Corr111Jtio11 was nepoti sro, le e mergence of pol1t1c al fact1011s 1n parl1_a111ent 1n tl1 e l8tl1 ce11tL1ry led Tl t. an ramp ers, and thus to t11rnov er 111 otl1er offic e s a11d co11seq11ent minist of es · chang t en qu fre to . instability· . . 18tl1 �e11t11r� a11d _ 1 11 �lie tl1e be of 11111111g part of tl1e I?th, latter the g � Durin e d. A series of 111,,esl1gat1011s d1sclosed corrL1p t1011, develop m refor . for . . Pressure 5 l pressure prodttce d by tl1e cost o f a seri es of 1nanc1a F' waste. d 11 a ce peten . 1 011, force � 1n!!1isters �o exa111i11e their _Napo ea to def struggle the notably � :��;s� � . , . enditures more carefully. Tl1e 111dl1st11al 1evol11t1011 a11d tl1 e develop1ne11t :;Pa "busine ss class'' prod11ced �e� co11ce1)ts a11d 11orms of e fficiency, loyalty, honesty and work, and new pol1t1cal leaders wl10 extolled those virtL1es. Tl1e machinery of governme11t became e,,er 111ore complex as gover111ne11t 1111dertool( more "services'' to tl1e p11blic - con11n1111ication, ed11catio11, ''poor relief'', etc. Toe government of Britain's colonial empire also required 111e11 of ability and better methods of recruitment.

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These various influences pro duced change. Tl1rougl1 a grad11al process e11tailing disclosure of scandals, study commissions and la,v-1nal<i11g, govern1ne11 t jobs were removed from the area of patronage; recrL1itme11t was made de1) e11cle11t 011 edt1cation and other qualifica. tions; pay scales were developed; employe es were given te1111re in office; pension schemes were d eveloped. In a prag111atic way a civil service was developed, and with it the basic civil service tl1 eory tl1at 011ly tl1e top policy-1nalci11g offices were ''political''; that tl1e ''politicians'' staffi.11g tl1ese offices wol1ld come and go as their parliamentary support waxed or waned; b11t tl1ese ·'1nasters' ', whose leadership of ''llis Majesty's Govern1nent '' depe11ded on l)Olitics ratl1er tl1a11 i11defi11ite u n �; re, should be served - scrupulo11sly - by a JJer111a11e11t st aff of co1.11pete11t _servan�s'' whose loyalty must always b e to ''His Maj esty's Go\' ernment'', irrespec­ tive of its political complexion.

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Nations, Ha11dbook of Ci1,il Service Lal-VS a11d Practices (N w York, f;66om), Uppnited . 37-38.

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62· The salient feature of the Britisl1 system is tl1at it envisages a ''service'' d . . an a ''ca reer',. he recruit n co1111no l1av111g e' T ''servic ts serva11 ' is civil a of grou1) . . · . ment cond'itio ns and com.mon prospe �ts� and tl1� ''career'' 1s an a�cep table !1fet1�e em lo ent for en 1s what of: e � w1 contrasted Goyernm �? s � 'm so�et1me is ent. This � des ri d as the Am erican'' system - recrt11tment to a 1Jart1c11la1 Job for a JJ1es­ crib d tenure al�ho this ap1)ears t� _ be ugh, St�tes, cl in Unit e fact, in tl1e even yiel�ing before _ t sh 1 _ Br1 the affects t co11cep ideas basic e of Th r''. e e'' ''servic ''care d an recru· ent and organi�ation. Recruitment i s not to, or for, a post, and for a period of ye�: b t to a service or class to wluch for career p11r1Joses, s1)ec1fied posls or 'r u 01�oups o po8t ' · · · · recrt11tment, accord1ngof ly , 1·8 not to 8 are made available ' and forever· · Tl1e a1m . fi n d _ a man equi�ped to do a particular Job _ but to find a man of sueh a calibre th a (if necessary, e p_osts th ll i f can he c�) nen e exp d n a available in aide n g ni by 1 tr3: . . � �he �areer wh ich 111s appointmeiit opens to 1111n: �osts_ are d1v1�ed Ve rtical} Y, according to the nature of their d uties, general adnu111strat1on, technical


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d an o 11d riz ]ci _ho t1s 1·io y va all nt ?f ,_ 1Js io at according fic ali qu � t i1a sio es of pr and . e d1:-t1_es. Appropriate . . t tJ1 ou y r1 c� to d ire qu re groups to the level of co1npetence of s 1I up c1v nt gro va ser ate pr1 pro s a1J or to r ''se le ab ail v a. vices'' e ad 1 n 11 tl1e . . are ts s po of 1s f lio1 �nc �s n f?1· mo 1Jer com ts 1 ar to serv l civi all minis­ of t1p gro h suc 1e 1 o 63. n or o_ at1 l 1str era n1n gen ad1 l era gen ser\'ic es. The to e lat e 1· ons 1cti ft11 ese Tll s. trie grotlp is divided i 11to st1b-groups, �a1led _c1asse�, according to the level of tJ1e work tl1ey do - tl1e ''Treast1ry Classes 1ne11t1o_n�d 1 n _paragra1Jh 54 �bove. T11ey number six but tl1e 1nain 011es are tl1ree, tl1 e Adm1n1strat1ve, the Exect1t1,,e and tl1e Clerical. Tl1� classes tl1us listed are i11 decreasing order of tJ1e difficulty and responsibiljty of tl1eir work, a1 1d, thus, of tl1eir lue1·arcl1ical importance. Tl1ey are sub-divided horizontally i11to grades. 64. Tl1e Ad1ninistrative Class is a s1nall elite class of under 4,000 (under one per ce11t of tl1e non-indt1strial civil service) wl1ose dl1ties and responsibilities are ma11agerial, co1 1ce1·ned with tl1e formation of policy, the co-ordjnation and jmprove­ ment of tl1e worlcing of gover11n1e11t, a1 1d tl1e general admi11istration and control of tl1e deparl111ents of tl1e pt1blic service; at tl1e top of the hierarchy are the per­ n1a11e11t secretaries, assista11t secretaries and p1·incipals, witl1 tl1e grade of assistant JJrincipals at tl1e recrt1it1ne11t grade. Tl1e main grades are of principal and assistant secretary witl1 te11- and seve1 1-year incremental scales, respectively. 68. TI1e nor111al or typical career offered is restricted to 011e class, and some­ times to one or t\vo grades of one class, excludi11g tl1e trai11ing grade. An atypical career wo11ld include 1 11ovi1 1g lip a class, for wl1icl1 pron1otion arrangements exist; in sucl1 a case, con1petence derived from experience is a substitute for competence JJroved by edt1catio11. Tl1e n1ajority, l1owever, spend their working life in tl1e class they join wl1en tl1ey e11ter tl1e service, and n11lcl1 of it in a single '{career'' grade.

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75. TI1e n1ost i111po1 ·ta11t co11dition is tl1at tl1e n1e11 a11d women employed in tlie career service sl1ot1ld SJJend tl1eir workino Ii,,es k 110,vi 110 first. tl1at they will 0 be sectire ii, tl1eir JJost� pro,,ided tl1cir ,:vo1 ·k is satisfactor;,' a11d: seco11dly: tl1at tliey l1 ave the opportL1n1ty to ad,1 a11ce in ra1 1l<, a11d e,,e11 to attai1 1 to the highe�t per�anent rank, by den1onstrati11g progressi,,e ability i 11 the perforn1ance of their duties. 76- If !11eri�, fit11ess ai1d tl1e public .i11terest ar·e to be tl1e sole criteria for entry and JJromotro 11 111 tl1e career service, it follows that political or private influ ence sl1ould play no l)art at all. for 78· m, Polit ical rietit syste ralit y is meri an t esse1 1tial tl1e com . plem to ent it gliar�titees tl1a� tl1.e career officials \Vl1 ced van ad and 0 have con1peted. for t11eir posts by merit to tlie lit�l1est rank will give tl1e Govern e · m� cal poli ti its wl1atever men t ch up - abs�lutely 1111partial advice, criticism a1 1d assi whi mat ter in any stan ce concerns rt. y t .79· Political netitrality mea1 1s more tl1an the cti,,� l a polit ic a of abse nce mere 0� 1 af on t lle part of tl1e i 11dividual care er official· it means that the career official WI1 a ways respond to tl1e will of tl1e Governme;1 t.

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his for p _ a:t, o� ci� 1.n�1 l, st acc ept r e s�m e limitatio11 of J?Olitical care _ e Th _. 81 l1t1ca l r1gl1t to vote 111 . es. He may r·etain l11s ·basic po .v1u loc al 1 d na t io11al a1 ' el ec· · · · · ct1 a_ b t i .is standing as a11 _1�1pa_tt1al adv1ser a11d acl 1n1111strator woLilcl be im pa.i J r ed t t 5 �1on , a g act1v1ty 111 sl1cl1 a 'vvay as to co1111nit l1in1self wl1olly to tl1e al po liti c in ed o a . . theen y one party views of an or gradi�g is_ a11 i11?ispe11sable first steJ) i11 tl1e btiildiiJg atio11 ass�c l C . 83 ed on n1cr1t. \V1tl1ol1t 1t, J)tOJ)Cr nor.111s ca11not be eslablis11ed bas e servic eer fa car l , 11or ca11 tl1crc be a t111iforn1 basis for givi11g equal perso1111e of on selecti the r��k and pay for eqt1al work lo all i11 tl1e ser,,ice.

present t_her� are t,vo basic cl assification syste1ns wl1icl1 arc 'vvidely 85. ·ts of tl 1e \vorld. 011e is pa� d�l1er e11t 111 nmc11 ts a ''duties classificatio11'' used by Gover illustrated by those t1sed 1n tl1e U n1ted States of An1erica ancl Ca11ada; tl1e otl 1er is a "rank c lassific}1tion' '. t1sed tinder varyi11g forn1s i 11 tl1e United 1(i11gdo111, Fra11ce; India and tl1e Gcr1nan Federa 1 Rept1blic. Tl1ese two basic systen1s, ]1owever, are not mutually exclusive and ma)' be used in co1nbina tion. Tl 1e first type was ad o1Jted primarily to enst1re ''eqt1al pay for eqt1al worlc'' a11d is esse11tially a syste1n of post or position classification related to du tie s. At

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DEVELOP MENT (!!)F EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

86. In contrast to tl1e United States practice, t l 1e Europea11 cou11tries base their classification more on rank and JJersonal st att1s tl1a11 on duties and JJositio11s. For exampl e, the French system operates as describ ed in tl1e fol lowjng ql1otatio11: '' ... here the salary structt1re d epe nds 011 the care er s truclt1re, wl1icl1 is relatively independent of the adntinistrative structt1re. 111 o tl1er worcls, l1ere tl1e co11cep t adopt­ ed is that of personal status. To acllieve tl 1is, tl1e wl1o l e system J1as been based on the interm ediate no tion of the cadre. Tl1e cadre con1prises a series of 1)osts ¥1 l 1ic l 1 have certain features in common, 11ot in regard to tl1eir functio11s bt1t in their pllrJ.)Ose (for instance, adapt t11e operation of t l1 e ad1ni11is tratio11 to ge11era l l)olicy of tl1e Governm ent, prepare bills, etc., altl1ot1gh tl1e dt1ties tl1ey carry ot1t n1ay differ some write reports, o thers take cbaro-0e of an ad111i11istrative section, etc.). Tl1e caclre is divided into classes (grades) and eacl1 grade i11to ec/1elons (ste1Js). Tl1e 1)ro1notio11 from one step to the next depends on se11iority and ql1alificatio11s, bt1t i11 tl1e norr�1al way any official of average capacity is 1)ron1oted \Vi tl1ot1t difficulty. Tl1e promoti_on from one grade to another depen ,ds on seniority within tl1e grad e, bt1t a l so on relative competence of the various candidates, since t l1 e l1ig l 1er t l 1e grade , tl1e sn1a l ler tl1e numb er of posts. Selection is based on 1n erit, and a board n1akes a choice among the c andidates on the basis of their k11own e fficiency a11d tl1eir ap tittide for any more difficult and re sponsible ftinctions wit l 1 wlucl1 tl1ey may be e 11trtisted. The scale of remuneration exactly reflects the grade and st ep structti�e of t.l:e caclre, d_an employee usually takes twenty to twenty-five years, the duratio� of his caree�: � 0 rise from the lowest step of t he lowest grade to tl1e top s tep of tl1 e liigl1est grade. · 87· There are a number of advantages to the EuropeaL1 systein of classifica­ tem. S sy er e r rti ca cu a la t op ad rly to og i n_ gi� fo r countri e s which are just b e \t�· i ja [ often be found simpler to explain a11d adm1n1ster. rtan t po i1n is at wh t ha , W ted op ad er ev is g in ad m gr syste of classification or is ·th!- �·.it should be applied consistently and should observe sonie of the general pr1nc1ples set out below: range of Post8 in different ministries having the same l eve l of work or_ _ a duti� ') or the same degree of responsibility, should be assigned to a s 1n1 i l ar grade

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIA1'P CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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ld nt ou me sh rn ve ve Go ha e th t ou 1il 1 sin gl ou tl1r ar titles: sts po ar iiil sii d an k, ran or st a nk ?r or class of p ositio 1·a po to 1ed cl ta at be lly 1a rn no 1Jd 01 sI1 e n, d a gi· (b) A 1n ordance witI1 its lev acc ed n�1: � e1· det be ld ot1 1 sl it cl a11 ; 11al ivid ii1d ei an and 110t to d the 1ty an b1J io 11s1 cat po res edu of n and skills ree deg e 1 t1 , ties d1r of ge ran of work or req11ire d; (c) Eacl1 ki11d of 1Jost sho11ld be analysed witl1 a view to its allocation to the proper· grade or 1·anlc; ( d) For eacl1 type of grade and class, tl1e technical, professiona.1 and adminis­ trative q11alifications a11d skills 1·eqt1ired sho1ud be determined; recognition must be give11 11ot 011ly to levels of adnlirlistrative responsibility but also to duties carrying l1igl1 JJrofessj o11al 1·eqt1i1·e1nents st1c]1 as tl1 ose of doctors, scientists, engineers, teacl1ers and otl1er l1igl1ly trained specialists employed in the career service;

(e) Tl1e 11u1 nber of grades or ranks sho1tld be kept reasonably few; inter­ mediate steps witl1in a grade sl1011ld be provided in order to recompense t11e in­ cumbent for lengtl1 of service or goo d perf 01·mance witl1out bis having to a,vait actual pro motio11 to a l1ig11er grade;

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(f ) A salary plan based 011 tl1e classes of positions and tl1eir g rades or ranks sho11ld be ado pted; s11ch a pla11 sl1011ld take int o accou11t the cost of Ii, i ng, the salaries paid outside tl1e p11blic ser·vice fo1· like positions and tl1e value of pensions, social security a11d otl1er e11titlen1ents a11d ·'fri 11ge be11efits'' ;

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(g) A p11blic official sho11ld be promoted to a l1 igl1er grade or rank only if 11� l1as den1 011strated progressive capacity to perforn1 a Il igl1er level of work or a v11der range of duties or to ass11me a greater d egree of 1·espo.nsibility.

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89._ Practically every cot1ntry will ha,1e to make pro,rision for eigl1t broad categories of posts:

_(a) Exec11tive a11d admi11istrative, or posts involvi11 g a l1igl1 co11tent of decision­ mak111g a11d s111)ervisory ft1nctions;

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(b) Pro fessi o11al at1d scientific, or posts 1·equiring higl1 ly specialized training and slcills;·

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(c) F oreign se1·vice and diplo1natic; (d) U11ifor1ned ar1ned forces;

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r­ ente rial . (e) Atito1101no11s i11stitt1tions, Gover111nent corporatio11s and indust prises; (f) Secretarial ai1d clerical, or posts requiring a combination of basic ed�.ca­ .· tion, g�od general ii1te!lige11ce a11d office skills sucl1 as stenography, typiiig, filing, comp11t1ng and tabulat111g; (g) CttSlodial, or posts incl11ding tl1ose of watchmen, guards, couriers; _ : clas . h n ofte anual, or skil\ed and unskilled manual labour; this group is � sifieJ · �Y g 11 eral trade t1111on agreement an d s11 bject to l101rrly rates of pay. - -�-90- Responsibil ity for the initial classific of pOSIS sbo'f1 irrading ation or be _entr11sted to tl1 e ce11t1·a1 perso a y n age nnel agency as soon as osucl1 a11 c h s -� �'"'� -� ,.:--; trained personnel to unde rtake the j o b. ,· .-· :.�:.,...":-._, ·-- -· ·--·

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THE DEVELOP MENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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. ed Nations, JIandboole of Civil Service Law.fJ a11cl Prc,ctices (New Yoi·k, nit V ll frol 6 5 . • · PP · 1966)' . · d d' 11 o e aw or_c c e 1a 1stm rom f the s e own al gen its s need � � 1: ice serv � civil IO. The ca t1se tl1 e c1v 1 l serva1 1L 1s regarded 111 111ost co 11ntr1es be va11t r se and r t s Ja w of rn� l �y pe of servant, disti11ct f. ro1 11 se rva11ts o f 111aslers i1 1 tl1e private sector as a _specia cases distinct from servants of the state in economic and similar enter­ y ai n 1 e 11 vvl 1ere tl1e disti1 1ctio11 is ci e11 ied, an_d i ro , ucted or finance d by tl 1e state. E\ · ·1 · Prises cond · I servic c1v1 e st 1· 11 11eed its 1e s t . l s10 · 1)rofes 1 1al code , ta en fundam as . treated or 1s not . 01 1s. t 1 a eg L1l l r sio p na ro fes and its J l. It is no part ?f this survey t? reco11nt the devel?p111e11 � ?f tl1e tl1i11ki ng 1e ,v 1de�p_read establ1sl1111e11t of tl1e spe�1�l pos1_t1.011 of tl1 e state tl to led has 1 cl wbi e c1v1l serva 11t as en1plo yee, tl1a t c1 �1 l. service codes reflect. th of and er, einploy as The classical theory �as tl1at tl1e state as employer, and tl: e c1v1l ser��11t as e111-p lo yee , were boti1 si,i gener,s and tl1at tl1e codes are a11 esse11t1 al recog11it1on o f tl11s fact, accord ed by the state i n its o,vn interests, tl1o t1gl1 containing provisions operating to the ad vantage of tl1e employee . Tl1e 111o st pro111i11e11t of tl1ese })ro v1sio11s are those estabLisli ing a career syste m u11der wl1icl1 ci,,il serva nts are recrt1ited a11d promoted on the basis of merit, are pro1nised a lifeti1ne career, a11d are protected, subject to good behavio1rr, agai11st pre111att1re or arbitrary termi11ation of tl1eir employment. At the tim e tl1ese arrange1ne 11ts were fir st 1nade, tl1ey v-1ere special to employees in the public sector . As tim e l1as passed, ma11y, especially i11 tl1e more adva1.1ced co untries, l1ave be en inclt1ded eitl1er i11 stat11 tor)' labot1r codes or i11 agree­ ments betwee n employers a11d tl1eir organized staff. Alth.ot1gl1 tl1e s1)e cial relatio11sl1ip between the civil se rvant and lus empl oye r is, in sucl1 cou11tries, 11 0w less special, the recognjtion of it in the civil service laws and special codes ren1ai11s t111in11)aired. In the less advanced countries tl1e need f or tl1e co des is u1 1cl1a11ged. 12. The first major pro blem, which probably affects tl1e civil service of e very country, is I1ow to control its size. Civil services s ee1n to l1ave a11 inl1ere11t capaci ty to expand so as to utilize whatever sh are of tl1e 11ational res ot1rces tl1ey can sec11re for tl�emselves, and limiting tl1e share to wl1at is reason able and tol erable is a prob­ lem 1� most countries, not solely in developing ones. It i s probable tl1at in all countri�s the budget autl1orities, f or once jn accord witl1 tl1e taxpayers, dislike tl1e propo rtion t_bey are de voting to this pl1rpose; tl1 e differ ence is tl1at col1ntries wl1i ch are e�on om1cally advanced can better tolerate their co11trib11ti on. Nevertl1eless, even 10 tl1 ese countries, instances repeatedly occt1r wl1en wl1at is l<11ovv11 to be good _ olicy has been st1bordinated i11 a1 1 lI11desirable way to p11rely financi al �ers� nn el p ons1d erat1ons . A Critiqu · e of the Concept of ''Political Nei,trality'' c1r1cl ''Ter1i1re'' From Debat · bl epu ic a R for an sals Propo nt rnme Gove ka t ganyi amen Parli on T es m (l96S) (R emark s of Hon. Julius Nyere re). . I d on't accept . necessary tl1e t h .e whole tl1eor y. A manager of a ny bl1s111ess l1as power t e an� ot � c lly a lo emp re we an e) yees laus � (app f : that ness busi ? see this° r YSltc al theory wl11 cb deprives the ma11ager of a bL1s1n ess of a nat1011 of tli e _po wer even to s ay, "That felJow is good enough to be an office boy." This s e cann ot underst _ w s:' and. We r ealize the practical 11ecessity to co11t int1e a Civii rvic e, not to play about wit l1 tl1is power; to have u1en of ex1J erience in tl1e

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rfI-JIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCEDOOK OF E LA\V

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Civil Service, 110 t to go i11 tl1e Civ.i l Se�vice a1�d wipe ottt eve1:ybody a11d sta� with a e x,1Jer1e1 e � I Jeo Jle. �i1at we re ali corupletely ne\v broon1, co111 JJletely 1n _1� ze. B�t � _ tl1at is a. coiupletely differe nt 111atter, Sir, from tJ1e_ 1clea, th� PJJ1losophy f a Const i­ � _ ttrtio11 t11 at tl1e Execltt i ve sl1 ould l1ave 110 say at all 1n tJ1e buJJd1ng of tl1 e C1 v11 Servic e. Tliis Sir we do 11ot a cce 1Jt. TJ1e IJracticaI 11e c essity of havi11g p�ople of experie nce i 11 tl;e Se�·,,ice tl1is we see, but whe11 it is 11ecessary for tl1e Exec tJt1ve to say, ''I tl1 ink that person c�uld do tl1at job very well'', tl1e Exec11t i ve n11,st I1ave that power, and yo11 1nust 11ot de JJrive the Exec11 tive of a 11ece ssa1·y pow er to carr out a man date � fo1· wl1.icl1 it l1as talce11 res1Jons i bility f1·om tl1e electo1·ate . (''Hear, 11 ea.r'' and Applause). A11d for tl1at reason we are saying t11at tl1e President ougl1t to I1ave tl1ese powers [over p11blic e1nployn1ent]. Fro m Nyerere, Freeclo111 a11d U11ity (1966), pp.180-181. ... No, it was rigl1t tl1at TANU itself sl1ould be like Tanga.nyika, and that its Ieadersl1ip sl1ot1ld b e rep1·e sentative of tl1e co1111try as a whole. On ly in th is way cotrld Tanga11yil(a be Ied toVi,ards ge1111ine se1f-govern-11-1ent, 1·a tl 1 er t!i an govern111.ent ) bJ tl1e l1igl1/JJ-educated fe1v. [E1nphasis added.] Nevertl1eless, adn1ira.ble as tl1is situation may be , tl 1e circu.mstances wl1ich brougl1t it about contai11ed also tl1e see ds of f11tur e d .iscord. For today it can lead to friction an.d mt1t11al resentment between ou r po lit ic ia i1s, of wl1om the majority l1ave 11ot l1ad very n111cl1 edt1cation, a11d tl1e m en 1bers of our civil service , o f wl1om tl1e majority are very \Vell ecit1 cated indeed . A nd tlus da11ger is aggravated by tl1e existence of a rule wl1ich w e l1ave i11l1erit ed fr o 1 n tl1e Britisl1 , a11d which I, for one, d o 11ot belie,,e is at all rele,1a11t to 011r o w n po li tical circ11n1stances. That is, tl1e r11Je v1l1ich sets a dividi11g wall between tl 1e politic i a.t1 and tl1e civil se rva11t; a11d wl1ich �orces a 1na11 to 111a](e a cl1 oi ce betwee 11 enteri 11 g politics or th e ci,,il se rvice. Tl1is 1s absttrd, for it te11ds to 111ake lls t1 1i11l< tl1at c ivil ser\'ar1ts ca1111 ot be good poli ticians o r eve11 good }Jatriots; a.nd, vvorse st il l ' it le ad s us to fo1·0-e t tl. 1at all of 11.s are the serva1 1ts of tl1e J)eople of tl1is co 0 11ntry.

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WJ1at cri ticis111s i s Nyerere n1al <ing of tl1e Britis11 n1odel? On \\rl1a Ar e 1,is argume11ts lin1i Led to tl t d o es l1 e base his criticism? 1e sitt i.1 tio11 of a 011C-J).:1rty stat s ta te ? �? Do t11�y als o apply to a ''no-party''

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Tlie Developn1ent of Public Ser,1ice La,v - Constitutional Bases

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Read: Articles 27 28, 29, 66, 6 7, 68, 74, 75, 94-, 96, 101, 103 , , 1 1 1 , 121. Re-read: Cliapter V, JJ.489 (Delegation of A JJJoi11 Ln 1e11t Po\ver). 1 A:ticle 6? of tl,e R�vis�d Co11s t itution distinguisl1es w �o . are a1Jpointecl a�� disn 5 fers, M b e in t\ i \1e e1 V M 1 ic in e e an r is s t d 11 ofl_ic� a� s,_ whose conditions ssed b y tl1e En11Jeror (SL1 bject, si11ce 1966, to Order No. 44), ao<l �tber of e1nploy111ent are go\1er Mtniste!� and appro,,ed ned by regulatio1J s made by tl1e Coti ncil of b ;Y t�1e En1peror. Tlus distm the political_ l,eads. of_ n11. ct io n co rr re ce bet�n es n po di th to nd ff e e s 11 1s tr 1es, wl10 are li a ble t o be and tl,e ordJ a_r):' civil s c l1a11ged o r dis1Tussed for poli tical reaso_ns, between ''po�l1t1cians'' e rva,1ts '"1110 ar e sit11ply in gover11111ent service as a career. This disti nc:tron sent stage of. th· e developme_ a.nnd ,,c1·v 1·1 _s er.�1a11t. s ,, n1 ay be, to some extent, a n art1..fic1. al one at tlJe_ pr · e .· t of Etl1101J1a n p11 blic ad1nini tr � . tend. ed to make tl1e cltffere s atio n, but recent tl1eory a n d practice a. b_ nce 1nore real. � ve- _ =e nistra tion of thec jvil _serv ice fa go�erned_ b y the C t Serv � 0���r. of 19 1 en ral Pers onnel Agency andPubf " .-.--, � Li d 811 b�1 d111ate . . leg1slat1�n; c1v1J serv1ce pensions have bee.n deal! w1th _ ·· -le is1 10 d�rived � fron1 the Pub.lie S�rvan ts' �ens1 D Y. � 0 ci!J 11 19 61 n e ec , re e ca pr of esum�bJy becai1se th fi �.��- -:: �-,.--. P tions of these Jaws requ i red parlu'lme ntary approva un l der Ar tJ.cles 88-92. - .

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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Sierra Leo11e (1961). of n io ut it st on C e Th From h e re sl1 all be a Pt1 blic Service Co1 n111issio 11 for Sierra Leo 11 e wl1 icl1 shall _ T (1) 94 less tl1a11 t,vo or not more and tl 1 a 1 1 four otl1 er n1e 1 nbers. chair1nan a of t consis tl1 � Pt1blic Service . Co11u1 1issi� 1 1 sl1 all be apJJoi 11 tecl by of _ members 1 e TI 2) ( 1 n accorda11ce v1 1 tl1 tl1e adv 1 ce of tl1 e l)ri111e Mi 11 ister. acttng ral, or-Gene Govern the (3) A person shall not be qt1alified to l 1 old t] 1 e office of a 11 1en1ber of the Pt1blic Service Comn1ission if l1e is a 1nember of the I-Iot1se of Re1Jrese 11 tati,1es or a Mi11ister . olds or is acti11g i1 1 any I)t1blic office. or a Parliamentary Secretary or if l1e h (4) A person who has held office or acted as a 111e11 1ber of tl1 e Public Service Commission sl1all not, \:\1itbin a period of tl1ree years co11 11ne 11ci11 g \vitl1 tl1 e date on which he last so l1eld office or acted, be eligible fo1· ap1Joint111e11 t to any p11 blic office. (5) Tl1e office of a member of tl1e Pt1blic Service Co1n 11 1issio 11 sJ1 alJ l1eco 1 ne vacant: (a) at the ex.piration of five years fro1n tl1 e date of 11is aJ)JJoi11 t111e11 t or sl1ch shorter period, not being less tl1an tl1 ree years, as 111ay be SJJecified at t11e time of his appointment; (b) if any ci.rcumstances arise that, if he were 11ot a 1 ne111ber of t11 e Co 1nrnissio11: would cause l1 i1 11 to be disq11alified for aJ)point1nent as sL1cJ1 . (6) A membe r of the Pi.1blic Service Con11nissio11 may be re111oved fr o1n office by_ �11e Governor-G·eneral, acting in acco1·da11ce witl1 tl1e advice of tl1.e Prime !Yf1n1 s�er, for inability to discharge tJ1 e f1111ctio1 1s of l1is office (wl1etl1er arisi11g fro1n infirmity of mind or body or any ot11er cat1se) or for 111isbel1 avior. (7) A me mber of the Ptiblic Ser vice Co1n1 nissio11 sl1all 11 ot be re1 noved fron1 office except in accordance wit11 the p1·ovisio11s of tl1is sectio11. ... Of Power to appoint pers?ns to hold or act ii ! offices i n the public ser�ice (gi�-cludm g power to make appointments on promol!on and to confirn1 ap_po1nt­ � t s). and to dismiss and exercise disciplinary co11trol ov�r. perso11s l 1 old 1ng or :� Jng 1 0 strch offices shall vest in tl1e Public Service Co1n1n1 ss1011: Pro_vided that the Commission may, with the approval of the_ Prime Minister and sub�ect to this section. , bysuch conditions as it may tl1 ink fit, delegate any of 1 ts pow�rs u�ider dire ctions in writing, to any of its members or to a11 y ptibl ic otl1cer. _( l) The power to transfer persons l1olding or acting in offices i11 tI1e JJtiblic se sfer m one department ran t _ h suc ere (wh ll sha er oth an to ent of nm ver go . do�:o�� · invol�e P!omotion) 1b 1 I 1 ty for s on sp re e th 1 on 1 wl to er ist st jn ve the pub lie in tl1e M serv 1ce 1s for tl1e tim e being assig11ed. · The provisions of the of any to on ati rel in ply this section sha ll not ap follo(�)1 ng

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a) the office of an y · · 1dge Jl 1y a1 of or l ea pp A e t of dg rr of o1 e C t11 s. u· preme Court.' Ju

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SouRCEBOOK o·p ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAw

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o, 1ts e1 et er tm tl1 in e th po ap o 11g ak 111 ce ffi � of of es os p 1r· p1 e tI1 r fo pt ce (b) ex s; 11 0 1 t1 ct se ro P c li b t1 P f o r o ct i:e D 1 e tl t; di t1 A f o r to ec ir D e 1 tl of e c : o:ff 1 (c) tl e h es :bi n lat (" io re ut tit to ns Co of js � !� 86 n io ct se h 1ic wl to ce _ offices _ ( d) any off n) 1o ; ss 1es ffi1 pl nl e ap 1c Co rv Se l 1a 1c 1d J1 e 1 tl of 1 1 io ct di ris jt1 J1e in with h s n hic ate (w tio rel itu to ns Co tl1e l1is of � 96 1 1 tio � sec 1 icl 1 wl to e c l of (e) a11y _ offices of tl1e pri11cipal represe .ntat1ves of S1e1·ra Leone abroad) appltes; h at rel l1ic s (w to ion tt1t tl1e sti Co is t1J of 97 � n tio sec 1 � icl 1 wl to ce ofl (f) a11y offices of per1nanent secretaries an d cer tai n other offices) applies; or d ly ate on dai cul a cal is ich wh of er old 1 l e 1 tl of n tio era u11 rem e 1 tl e c . 1 off y (g) a1 rate. ( 4) Tl1e p·ovisio11s of tl1is section sl1 all not appl)' in relation to an� office in tl1e Sierra Ltone Police Force except in tl1 e following cases, that is to say: (a) \¥ith r�spect to appoi1 1t1ne11ts (incl11ding appointments on pron1otion a11d tl-:e co11firn1atio11 of a1Jpointme11 ts) of persons to hold or act in tl1e office of Cl1ief Inspector or any office of l1 igl1er ra11k and the dis111issal a11d di;ciplinary co11trol of IJersons l1olding or acting in any sucl1 office; and (b) subjec1 to tl1e provisions of s11bsection (5) of tlus section, with respect to tl1e clis1nissal or reductio11 i11 1·a11 k of any person l1olding or acting in an off:ce below tl1e ra11k of Cl1.ief Inspector . (5) Unles Parliament otl1erwise provides, tl1e power to dismiss or reduce in ranl( any 1Je�s011 l1olding or acti11g i11 a11 office in tl1e Sierra Leone Police For�e below the ra11l of Cl1ief Inspector sl1all be exe1·cised tinder subsection (1) of tl11 s section 011ly OJt tl1e reco1rune11datio11 of tl1e Co111n1issioner of Police. (6) No �)poi11tme11t shall be n1ade under tl1is section to any office on t�e personal staff )f tl1e Governor-Ge11eral 1111less tl1e Governor-Ge11eral sig11ifies hJs approval of t1e ap1Joint1nent. (7) Be�o� tl1e P �1bli� Service Co1nn1issio11 appoints to any public offic� an_y perso11 hold1�� or a�t111 � .111 a11y office po,ver to nlake appoi11t 111e11ts wh1cl1 1s vested by tl1 1s Co11 st1tt1t1011 i11 tl1e Jt1dicial Sei·vice c0 1 11n1ission ' it shall consult with tl1at Corr.n1issio11. r 0the any Tlie ?tiblic Service Con 11nissio11 sl1all not dismiss or inflict (8) e . to ed bs IJlin1sl1m�11t 01 a IJ\lblic ofl.1.cer. 011 tl1e grot111ds of any act done or oroit� _ 11 nles him upon done by _tl�at olic �r 1n tl1e ex�rc:1se of a judicial ft111ction confe1·red the Jt1d1c1al �rv1ce Co11un1ss1011 co11curs tl1erein.

, York ' Ne"' Fron1 U11ited :-.iations, flandbook of Ci1,il Service Laws and p,·actices ( 1966), p.21. . de ­ i se Tl1e �ons'itution of Ceylo11 set up a Publjc Service Coinm.ission who _ � pe11de11�e 1s se�� 1red by pro,1isions ... s11ch s fixity of tenure, fixity of cond1t 1�fs � . _ ?f. servic� a11d t !1e l1ke. Men1bers of the leg1slat11re a·re debarred and meinb ers. � Is 1nconsiste11t �1th co11tint1ed 111en1bersl1.ip i 1 1 the ci\iil service or witl1 furtl1er app oint n1en. t as a IJltb1c officer. But when tl1e Constitl1tion deals with tl1e fu11ctions of tile .:..

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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. . it breaks radically with Indian practice; tl1 e ap1Jointn1ent tra1 1sfer ()JJD!11!Sa('°:d disciplinary control of civil servants, with certain excepti�ns whicJ; ?1s01�! !roanei1t secretaries, is vested i11 tl1e Com11 1issio11 [wl1ereas i 1 1 Ii1dia t11e 1nolu . P. only advises 011 tl1ese matters]. IIUlll SSI00

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What are the ft1ndamental differences bet\,,ee 1 1 tl1 e vario11s co11stit11tional and the corresponding quoted supra, provisions in Ethiopia? ons rovisi p What differences in tJ1eory and political experie11ce do tl1 ese various pro­ visions reflect? Why sl1ot1ld a constitutio11 say a11ytl1ing abo11t lavv governi11g public employment?

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Other Relevmzt Articles?

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Consider: Articles 37, 38, 4 I, 43, 47 a11 d 65 of the Co11 stit11tio11. \,VJ1at, if any, rele­ vance do they l1 ave to Ia,v governing e1111JlO)'me11t in age11 cies of govver 111is connection conside r tl1e applicability of tl1e followi 11 g ment? In tl .. cases and readings.

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From Greene v. McE/roy� 360 U.S. 474 (1959).

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Greene was an officer of a pri,,ate con1pany \Vl1ich produced aeronat1tical equi1Jn1e11t for the Defense Department. The Department, after ex parte investigation, re, oked l1is ''security clear­ aac�" giving him access to classified docun1ents, and as a rest1lt Gree11e's con1pany lost tl1e op1Jor­ !un1ty to do business with tJ1e government and I1e lost l1is job. Greene suecl tl1e Secretary of Defense 10 the courts for a decla ratory judgment and injuction, alleging i11ter cilia tl1at tl1e actio11 of tl1e agenc y was, in effect "ultra vires'', because it lacked a11y legislative basis a11cl it l1ad de1Jrived l1im of _ prof �ssio nal employmen t in violatjon of the constitutional guara11tee of ''due process''. It \vas a?mJtte� that, despite an adminjstrative "1Jearing'' on tl1e n1atter, Greene l1ad never been confronted e1tber \v ith precise charges explaining \vhy clearance was to be ''\vitl1drawn'' or \Vitl1 tl1c evidence to support those charges. Tbe majority of the Court (per Warren C.J.) declared i11ter alia: 1

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Certain principles [of "due process of Jaw"] have re1nained relatively i 111mu_table in our jurisp rudence. 1 ese i s tl1at wl1ere gover11mental action of 011e tl ;eriously injures an individual ' and the reasonable11 ess of tl1 e action depe11cls on · iact findin_g the · , n , evide 11t s �a�e ml�st be d 1 scI� se_d ce r111ne Gove used e 1 to tl prov � · � to the ind1vid al is 1s . [Tl1 ... 11e so r 1111t 1s 1 t that t tl1a w he sl1o y to 1n1t has o1·t1 an opp e Peci.ally i_ u � ant] where tl1e evide mport 11 divi<l11als ,vl1ose i of y 1 o1 testim of sists 1 1 co nce · · . "''emory mig · · ht be faulty or wJ10 might i 11 fact be ... 1 not1vated by 1 na1ice, vindic.liveness . , and cross _exan1inar100 are intolerance, prejudice or jealousy . ... Confrontation · 1 1f · t� e ideal of d11� process is t o r m�·1 .11 _a �1·t a I iOr essentia 111 011r {." ce Public life. . : � 1 _ . h ave r·10 We deal here with the rep11tat 1 on of me11 a 1 1d tl1e1r 11g11 t to work· · · · \Ve the rudi tlus case] · ·: a �ystem where gover111ne11t ... �onde1 n 11s a 1na 11_ · · · witl1out me sof a fair tria l.... Before w e ar e asked to Jtidge_ w l1etl1 er,_1n t11� co11text of security �� . Ptofes sion � arance c ases a person may be dep rived of tl1 e r1gl1 t to follo,v l 11s cl1osen 1 1115t be ·t � d l t e ' 11 f ro 1 1 co lllade cle W1 tho tit c.10II �e ' be g ay in n1 ar s where acc11sers . ar t hat the Pr esident or Congress ... has decided tl1 at tl1e .111 les 1 n1posed ar� nece ssa Plici�y... r !nd has authorized their use. .. . Such d_ecisio�s .. . must b� made.ex­ . e for ena . h re rnu ibl ilS JJO IeS e os t11 st by ] be n t1o ra de ref ca 1 ns co ul 11l and purposef ctIn · g and . p im Ien1ent111g o-ur laws. ,

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IONAL L A W ' T U IT T S t-I o C N IA P O II IT E F SouRCEBOOK O

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s ri '' 1o it tl lic n p au x. io at ''e no , as w in r 1e tl e t th 1a tJ 1cl fi1 _ to � 1 01 t en w t ir ot C [Tlle t 1r ld o1 l1e he C . T se en re ca G e is th 1n ed as w w llo fo s 1·e l11 ec oc IJr e 1 tl r fo , w la t 11 releva e11titlecl to tl1e relief sougl1t.]

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es ic ct d ra an ew P (1'1 S tlV Lc , rk e ic Yo 1·1, Se il iv C of c ol bo 1cl a1 J-I , 11s io at N d ite From U 11 1966), pp.55-56. 122. Tl1e Pal<ista11 Constitution contains a F11nda1nental Right [forbidding dis­ crin1inatio11]. No citizen 1nay be cliscri111i11ated against j11 conn.exio11 witl1 appoint­ n1e11t to tl1e civil service, 011 gro11nds of race, religion, sex or residence, ex.cept that fo1· a IJeriocl of fifteen years fro1n tl1e enactment of tl1e Constitution, [government] posts 111ay be reserved for 1Jerso11s belo11gi11g to a specified class or area to secure tl1eir adeqt1ate represe11tatio11. i11 t]1e service. Tl1is provision was made because there were 11otable variatior1s i11 tl1e eco11on1ic and educational progress of some of the forn1er federati1 1g t111its. R.eser,1atio11, eve11 tl1ot1gl1 temporary, of a l)roportion of posts v1as to give ti1ne to set tl1e balance rigl1t. ... 123. All provisio11s, 011 \Vl1atever bas.is j11stified, givi11g preference to educationally or socially retarcled grot!IJS are limitatio11s 011 tl1e merit system, as well as tl1e prin­ ciple of equality of access to pt1blic ofl1ce. . ..

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Fron1 Means, ''E1nployees ¥ll10 M::1y Not Strike'', 4 Joi1r11al of Ethiopia11 La�v 167, 174 (1967). For 1nost e1111Jloyees in Etl1iopia tl1e Labot1r Relatio11s Proclamatio11 l1as con­ ferre� or JJreser\1e� tl1� rigl·1t to strike. Tl1is 1·ight is 11ot a11 1111qualified 011e. ... Onl)' a u111?11 may exercise 1t, a11d. even a 1111io11 111ay 11ot do so unless a d.ispr1te has been sub1n1ttecl. to. tl1e Labo11r Relatio11s Boa.rd at least sixty days previously.... TJ1ere are two i_111J)orta11t grotIJ)S to ,:vl10111 tl1is ge11era1 pri11ciple cloes 11ot extend. The first are ''p11 bl1c serva11ts'', a ter111 defi11ed to i11cltlde ,,irtually all govern.merit en11Jloyees otl1er tl1an tl1ose worki11g i11 J)t·ol1.t-111aki11 g e11terpi·ises. The second are _ e1111Jl �y�es of �nterpr1s�s that ])rovide p11blic services sucl1 as transpo1· tation and ele�tricity. ·:·. [See Article 2 (S) (i) (2)G of tl1e L-abor Relatio11s Proclamatio n, wl11cl1 1Jrol11b1ts stril<es by 1111io11s representiiig emi)loyees in sticl1 itidt1stries.] In · · · ation. rvices] Proclam [.PubIic · · · sta.11d outside the Labo11r Relations · _ ?� der cy O Agen r IJlace of . 111d1v1d11al or collective bargai11ing tile Central Persoilnel l1as ]Jrov1de ? for tl1 � 1Jro11111l gatio11 of 11 :1ifoi·in pay scales . ... Nor ca11 it be said that _ _ rd Boa ur Labo �l1e Agency .1s plac �a by 1 _aw 111 tl1e IJOs1t1011 of iI111Jartial arbiter [as tl1e is, wl1e11, by la\.v, 1t arbrtrates dis1J11tes between 1111ions and en1ployers].

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Questio11s on tl1e Abo pe Readings

I. 2. 3. 4.

Wl1at basic co11stitt1tio11al J)t·o ble1u does eacl1 reading raise? J 2 1ero prob Wl1at co11stit1.1 tio11al JJrovisio11s i11 Etluoi)ia are releva11t to tl1e What factors are rele\1 ant in i11terpreting these articles? .ts : :i. va;o ser Note tl1at 1blic the operatio 11 of laws 1 p o-overoinoof -· O o emplo,rm . J· ent l n ' t 1ay ra1 e otl1er cons co 1 it1 tio al e proble � at 1 s. i���J� a · � wl s. � � � � � � Consid r_ : e _ tli � n :i . out 1ss1tes 1n1ght be ra1sed set 111 _ � tl1e 1nter1 Jretat1 on legisla tion of the _ next set of readings. ;__ -_:..,.,�- �-4 ·:

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE lNS'fITUTI ONS

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595

Public Service Law - Legislative Bases of opment Devel The

e t· Agency and P1 1 blic Ser,1 ice Orcler, No. 23 of 1961 nnel Perso entral � 1,. f rom _The C a111ended b (as , Order 3 o. No. 28 of 1962., Neaari; Year, N 1 21st b --eta ' AT uartt GQ.t, ' ' I iveo . 21nd Year, No. 6). ' Gazeta, .., t RE AS We ba�e dee me_d 11ecessary a1 1c l a1-)1)ropr1,1te tl1at all inatters relatI � HE u ' � . V Our P blic Service a11d its system sl1ol1ld come l1 11 cler a1.1 i 11111 1ectia tc a.11ct . . . ino to d an n; 1ct1o sd n ju. a .., ce�tr ljsed 1ed b)' Etl1io_J)ia reqt1ires ie, acl 1 pr?gress tl1e t J�c establisJ 1111e11t • . WHEREAS . f of a b omogeneo1 1s P1 1 bl1c Service go,,er1 1ed b)' 11 n1 for111 rL1 les a11cl J)ri 11 cipJ es ; ,111 ct t derive tl1e greatest be1 1 efit fro1 n OL1r PL1blic Service to desire We AS WHERE � ; se en p ex ry a ss ce 1 ne m 1 m i. m.in l' 1 \vrth tlie i11 accordar1ce witl1 Art. 27 a11d L1 r Revised 66 of RE, O THEREFO NOvV : �J, : ; l Constitution, \Ve l1ereby order as follows . 1. This Order may be cited as tl1e ''Central Perso1111 el Age11cy ancl P t.1 blic f Service Order''.

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2. Establishment

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The Central Personnel Agency

1. We hereby establish a Cent1·al Personnel Age11cy (l1 erei1 1 after referred to as the "Agency'') to act as tl1 e executive body to establisl1 a11 d 1naintai11 a 11 01 110geneous Service in Our Empire.

2. There shall be a High Public Service Corm11issio11 er a11d two (2) otl1 er ( ublic Service Commissioners and, to act in tl1eir abse11 ce, s11cl1 Dep11ty Co1 11 1 11is­ r'' � sio ners as may be necessary, appointed by Us. Eacl1 or all of tl1 ese 111ay be reinoved J a utl replaced at a.n y ti1ne by Us . Such appointn1e11ts sl1 all be p L1blisl1 ed i 11 tl1 e Negarit (· Gazeta. The Co�ssione rs shall fra!ne Regulations, to be published in the Negarit \ Gaz:i·a for the d1 str1 b t100 r , 1 cl tl1 e 1 r de1)11t 1es a11d fu of a1 themselves u 1 1ct1ons amono. ::::, . . Lr ior t1le or��111sat1on of the k of wor 1 tral Perso11 nel Age11 cy 1)rov1 ded tl1at a 11 the Ce1 ma·Jor de cisions must be taken by majority vote of tl1e three (3) Co111missio11 ers. f( 3· Scope of Functions l e ter Public Servant'' l of th� GT l m '' shall i 11cl1tde all officials, e1nployees a11 d ser va11ts r n e ove t and of Publi_c he r t of G s n tio tra nis 1ni Ad d es an riti tho _Au ? : j. ntentwhi ��: n_m _ oy independe nt J11r1 d1cal stat1 1�, wl1 etl1er _st1cl1 A11tl10�1�1e and . _A I �111 _ 1 1stra�ions � � ar�J created by 1 o11 , t sla leg1 _ y _ a s1d1 s11b 01· � 1 ;D 1 r t1 er, a 1 o Ord 1 cla1 e Pro ecre f pr vided, howe _ : r, 1blisl1ed ve P1 1 n th N 1ce 0t 1 t 1 tha by . e s, th er o11 ssl 1 bl Pu 1c Service Comn1 e ari t for the e:� � Gaz. eta with the approval of tl1 e Co11 ncil of Niinisters, 111ay provide o n o the s perso j an of rl i ories categ 1ated 1 rag cove e of this ter m of desig ct desi��teS fr � i, _2 . d Public Authori ties and Administrations. . . 1J ° d ces For ce Pol J e tJ1e of , s ers ber 111 ed Arm of n1e d tI1 e Forces ? ., aoct ju ge sn�1 :1renotm m be gover ned by tl1e provisions of tlus Order. : 1

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

596

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ere er, t diff Or ng ( is ra tl1 ar u o e em � 1g yi1 r a1· nts o � y � ma es os rp ptl �� _ _ 3_ For tl1e l _ r d fo he nt l1 re t ab ffe es di ce vi 1 go se ate of ries of � . _ ? be nlade and differe11t co11d1t1ons t ren ffe 1n di g or i11 rk: ti wo 1sa an ts an rv Se s, on lic 1b P1 and � r fo d an ts a11 _ rv Se Ptiblic ct of pe 1·e lar 1 d, icu ate art leg e d. be o teg ca ay 1n cy e11 Ag ? � ries 1:1 e tl1 of ies lit ibi ils JJO res tlie t1 l1 ns sa l11c n1 , ga all or sh t en 1n however, ' rn ve go r l1e ot � � to ts, an rv Se of Ptiblic s d ion ue lat iss gu Re by the t11e by wn do d lai Agency es ipl inc pr ral ne ge e 1 tl follow as ame11ded fro111 ti1ne to tin1e. •

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4. Personal Responsibility 1. Tl1 e Commissioners and Dept1ty Commissioners shall, d11ring their tenure of office, h.old 110 otl1er official post 1111less duly authorised. 2. Tl1e Co1nn1issio11ers and Deputy Commissioners shall operate und.er the g11ida11ce of Ot1r Cot111cil of Ministers. 5. �

Administrative Ai·rangements

Tl1 e Commissio11ers shall appoint the staff needed to c arry out their functions and sl1all be f11rnished with accommodation a11d otl1er facilities. Tl1e budget adopted by the Commissioners sl1all form part of Our national budget.

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6. Public Service Regulations

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1. The Agency sl1all isst1e Regi1latio11s necessary for the establisl1ment of

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a l10111oge11eot1s P11blic Service according to tl1e p _ri11ciples laid down in Part 11 of tl1is Order, witl1in six (6) n1011tl1s of tl1e Connnissioners having been appointed, a11d shall issl1e amend111ents a11d additio11s to tl1ese Regulations as required there­ after. 2. S11cl1 Regi1latio11s sl1all be 1)1·ese11ted to 011r Councjl of Ministers for . approval ancl sl1all be J)ltblisl1ed i11 tl1e Neg,1rit Gazeta and sl1all not enter 1 nto force 1111til so p11blished.

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7. Position Classification

· e th on d base · . � Tl1e �racli11g and salary strt1.cture of Our Pt1blic Service is fied n� tl e posrt101! class1�c�tion syste111. The Age11cy sl1all determi11e tl1e classi � 15ter�' ltllcl�ssifi.ed ser�,ice a11d sl1all a1JJ)rove tl1e cla.ssificatio11 plans of Our M1n _ pl1bl1c autl1or1t1es and cl1 artered governme11t age11cies. e . ll iss.�f . �- Tl1e Agency, after co11st1ltation with Our Minister of Finance, sh�. prin�JJ)les _ ai1 d sta11dards for positio11 classificatio11 and may order a rev lSlon class1fi.cat1ons from titne to time.

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8. Surveys

· . p_ u bljc . f . 0 . O .1 ' Tlle A �ency may make appropriate surve·ys for the preparatJO th ,.at�s:i1flf_:" .. ServJce .Regulations_ and any 11ecessary a1nendments thereto and ens ure _._ Regttlati. o11s are being carried out. ---- - -:==� �.· 2 On Ou_r �eq�est, the Agency shall make studies fthe perso�nel o . tion ·f Our 1:f1 n1s�r1es a11d cl1arte1·ed gov � _ th · � cure-; :::= ��� -� e to � agen cie s ernm ent s . of 111� ad.m1n1strat1on witl1 tl1e minimum nece · ·· se . ex pe n ssary

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THE DEVELO PMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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"-f and Selection t-'t: · 9 Recrui·tm ent · . . . respo11s1ble f01· recrl11t111e11t �� classified a 11ct 1111ciassibe 11J:,1:: shall ncy Age e Th �tl::i�f':.� fi�d t·ublic Serva11ts and 1�ay_ cond11ct st1cl�1 open �o.11:�et1t1ve exa111i11 atio 11 s, i il terl 1e ser, 1 ce a.s v\1111 Ja 1 rly test tl1 e relative caJJacity to t adm1ssto f 11 or tests otlier :;�: ess of the pers�ns �x a�! ned fo1· ��-e pos i�io11 to be .filled._ 1e qtialificat.io i:1s 1v1dua 1 pos1 ions 01 gro111Js of. JJ0s1t10 11s s11 all be laid 1n d 1or . reqt11red l s skil d/ r isst1ed be ttnder to Article 6 of tl1 is Order. ns Reg11latio tJ 1 e in ��\VI� to and belo,v pron1�tio11 tl1e ra11lc of or Assistant Minister n1ent appoint No 2. made w1tl1ot1t the co11se11t of tl1e Age11cy. be shall ler1t equjva its or J1 ·� · '·. '", ' 3. The conditio11s of service of Public Serva11ts abo,,e tl1 e ra11I< of Assista11t Minister shall be determined by special legislatio11. . i

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IO. Registers I. The Agency shall keep a register of a l l perso11s e111ployed in tl1 e Public Service in Ethiopia and Ot 1r Diplon1atic I\1issio11s. 2. The Agency shall also keep a 1·egister of eligible applica 1 1ts for appoint:,,,:_ -,....�...-·· ments in the Ethiopian ad mi11istration .

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1. The Agency sha.U submit to Us and 011r Col111cil of Mi11isters a11n11al reports and any necessary special re1Jorts. '. 3. Such annual reports shall i11ter alia co11tain details of tl1 e total 1111111ber :� :r-� of �u_blic Servan. ts en1ployed by grade, t11rnover, 11ew a1J1Joint111e11ts and otl1er :�:.,. stat1 st1cs . I

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PART II

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Public Service Principles 12• Vaca ncies, Recruitment . . 1· All vacancies in the Pub tl1ey as cy 1 1 Age the to rted repo l be l a 1 s ice l Serv lic aris e, un less power has been delegated under Article 3 (3). .� 2 . i1ts lica app he of j: ard 11d en sta Ag l1 big cy a sha 1 1 · l tai l ob ise to ely ert wid adv s 1t ·le T andidates shall be determined by co1npetitive exa111i11ation. The sa me c � a? . · t prin clples apply in cases where the power to recr11it l1as ·been clelegated.

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13, Select· . al ion, Med1c Examination

�3 e ie re Tl tl1 d 11e g e�· _A nc co cy ice � en off e shall, wl1erever possible, of fe r to th eligi�ie n po ap d a t i i ect ii sel a ate y 1na e ffic for o , e th l1 m eac y ich nc wh n ca s va fro ' o e. c utl d

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en be s ha he pe ss le un on �s t an rv Se shall be appointed as a Public llledi��u:� an11ned and passed as f i t fo r service . 14. APPom • tnien t . No p .nt1:11ent nt oi pp A a of er tt Le a ss le lllcnt·bas �; shall be dee1ned to be effective t1n n tssued to tl1e Pub lic Servant. ·. . . ,

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SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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15. Training 1t ic a1 bl rv g Pu Se ti at sjs as all at lev .ed 1n ai is els � e � ic rv Se ic bl Pu e tl1 11 j _ Traii1ing 1 e1 r personal capac1t 1es. tl p lo ve de to d an ly 11t ie fic ef to perform tl1eir work

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16. Responsibilities for Training s itie d or an tl1 c au bli ch pu , artered ies str ini M e th tl1 wi 11 tio era op co 1 1 i , cy e11 Ag e 1 Tl ng of s ini ne tra 1e1 e scl tl1 g of tin 11a ir 1nt the or f r fo le sib 1 Jo1 res is s, cie 1 e1 ag t e11 1 1m 1 r ve go ili tl1e sib te ega pon res del ty for y ma y enc Ag e Tl1 t. ou n1 tl1e g 11 ryi car staff and for es and riti tl1o artered u c a· ch bli pl1 s, rie 1ist 1 Mi to the 11g i11i tra l ica 11 l1 tec a11d d lize specia go,,er1 11nent age1 1cies 1111der Article 3 (3).

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17. Duties of Public Servants I. E,,ery PL1blic Ser, 1a1 1t is obliged to concent1·ate l1is whole energy a11d ability on tl1e \¥clfare a11d tl1e i11 terests of tl1 e Etlliopian Empire and nation. 2. Eefore e 1 1teri11g 111Jon l1is f1111ctions each P11blic Servant sl1al1 take an oath of ficlelity a1 1d loyalty to the Emperor and to tl1e Constitution.

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18. Liability of tl1e P1.1blic Servant Tl1 e legal 1Jrovisions co11cerning tl1e liability of a Pt1blic Ser\1ant for dama.g e caused i11 co1111ection witl1 l1is official d11ties sl1all remai11 unaffected.

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19. Personal Condt1ct Every PL1blic Serva11t is ex1Jected to 111aintai11 at all times a bigl1 sta11dard of integrity and co11d11ct.

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20. Protection by the State As_ co 1 11JJe11sation for fidelity ,111d lo)r,tlty e,rery Ptiblic Serva11t enjoys the special protection of tl1e State.

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21. Leave 1. Every P11blic Ser,,ant sl1all be granted ru1nl1a1 leave, appropriate to his grade. 2. Every PL1blic Serva11t sl1all be gra11ted sick leave on full 01· part p ay. 3· _Uiider s1:ecial circ11111sta11ces a Public Servant may be granted special leave w1tl1 01· without }Jay.

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22. Disciplinary Penalties and Procedure � 1. For breacl1 of duties tl1e followi11g penalties may be impos ed: . � c........... . � a) warni11g; -b) re1J1·ima11d; -· - · · c) fine, not exceeding two months pay; . �; ": � tl� e�� d) postpo11ement of tl1e 11ext increment of pay for a period not -.�fou1· years; e) dow11-grading; .-..--· �--�-���-:���..--=..:.. ,.a·. f) dis1nissal; ..

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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25. Resignation, Retirement

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I. A P11blic Servant may resign from the Service at a11 y tin1e. 2. A male Public Serva11t sl1a11 retire 011 attaining tl1e age of sixty (60), a female P11blic Servant on attai11ing tl1 e age of fifty-five (55); provided, l1 ovvever, that a P·ublic Servant may be retained in service beyond the retirement age for a period no t to exceed ten (10) years. 3. A Public Servant shall be retired jf 11e does not ft1lfill tl1e medical conditio11s of s ervice, unless there is a prospect of recovery within suitable ti1ne. 4. A Public Servant may be retired if his positio11 is abolished.

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26. Dismissal 1. A Public Servant may be dismissed on gro11nds of inefficiency, by a formal procedure . 2· A Public Servant is automatically dismissed without special procedt1re if he 18 sentenced by a court of competent j11risdiction to two (2) years imprisonment.

· ·es and Allowances 27· Salari 1· The pay for men in 1 e sa1ne conditions of service and t1 and er n 11nd me wo the sa·me pos1t· 1· 011s ·1s equal. The salaries in the Public Service consist of a basic salary and possible · actctit1o �- nal allo wances.

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28. Rank, Title, Grade , Pay Scale

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24. Transfer A P11blic· Servant may be required to serve witl1 in tl1e \Vl1 ole ad1uinistratio11 in any part of the Empire and dt1ty stations outside tl1 e country.

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23. Promotion 1. TlJe princip,1 1 reaso11 .for pron1otion a.11d t1·a11 sfer is the in1prove1nent of the admi nistration. 2. Promotion sl1all be based 011 tl1 e grot111d of ot1tsta11di11g fit11ess a11d sl1 al1 onJy be made to vacant or newly created positions.

l. Ranks, Titles . on a�i fic ssi cla 1 io1 sit po by d ne mi and Grades shall be deter =i'i11ance shall issue T e } o� en er s M ui O 1 l ra i Personnel Agency an d ur � . a Uni�ormI C t pay scale for the Public Service. If suitable, 1nd 1 v1dtial pa y scales m ay be i be l al sh s le �or specialised bra.11ches sc y pa iel St e. ic rv Se � � the PtLblic of in the Negarit e. tim · to · e tim m fro ed end am Gazeta and ma y be

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PART III

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General Provisions

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29. Making of Regulations Regu1atioi1s for the implementatio1� of the provisions of this Order may be made, altered and supplemented fro1n time to time, by the Agency.

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30. Interpretation of Regulations Decisions of tl1e Public Service Co1nn1issione1·s on tl1e i11terpretation of this Order of Remlations made tl1ere1111de1· and on the scope and exercise of any dele­ gatiods 1nad; tl1ereunder, ,lre final and conclusive.

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A Note on Piiblic Service a11d Pensions Legislatiorz

Tl1e followi11g additio11al legislation l1as been prom1tlgated:

Tl1e Public Servants' Pension Decree, No. 46 of 1961, Negarit Gaze/a 20th Year No. 17. The Public Service Pensions Co1nmission Cl1arter, Legal Notice No. 250 of 1962, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 6.

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The Central Perso11nel Age11cy and Pt1blic Service (Amendn1ent) Order, No. 28 of 1962, Negarit Gc1zeta 2211d Year No. 6 .

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Pt1blic Ser\rice RegL1lations No. 1, Legal Notice No. 269 of 1962, },legarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 6.

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Regt1lations for the Organizationof tl1e Ce11tral Perso11nel Agency, Legal Notice No. 270 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 9. Pt1blic Serva11ts' Pension Contribution Procla111ation, No. 199 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 15.

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Public Servants' Pensions Proclamation, No. 209 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 23. E111ployees Exclt1ded fron1 tl1e Coverage of tl1e Term ''Pt1blic Servant'', Legal Notice No. 278 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta 23rd Year No. 4.

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Employees Excltided fro1n tl1e Co,,erage of t11e tern, ''Public Servant'', Legal Notice N·o. 285 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta 23rd Ye.:1r No. 12.

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From Haile Sellassie I, ,:s1)eecl1 fro1n tl1e 171ro11e' ', Noven1ber 2, 1961, as translat ed in Selectecl Speec/1es of· His ln1pe1·ial JvfajestJl Haile Se/lassie First (1967), pp. 423-424 [B]y In11Jerial Order \Ve have ... establisl1ed the leo-al frameworl< for a public service systen1 ':'l1i�h will gover11 tl1e hirjng, promotio�1, dis.missal and disc! �line of tl1e g�eat n1 aJority of govern1nent em1Jloyees. This legislative act will fa�1litat e 1 tl1_e creation_ of a �orps of career publjc servants who may devote themselves without stint to therr duties, to the exclusion of personal or special preoccupation s. I [H.I.M. als_o noted the enactment of the pension law.] These t,vo enactments are epocl1-making in Ethiopian history. They �y, at .,.,....... -: tl1e outset, be administe1·ed less tl1an perfectly. The f tlll measure of their 1�ipa ct on tlie c�rying on of responsible government in Ethiopia may not be immed1 ately � ife£ lt. But impact there shall be. Henceforward each employee ... will know ,.��- .... , he perfonns efficiently and well he will be promoted, and if he slack;s or su:u_ · · · j -- -.---;� i

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THE DEVEL0Pl-.1ENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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fina11cial gai11,· l1e will be discipliiJed .s dut1.es Or abuses l1is position for l1is perso11al · dut1es� 111s · I11 aware o f · 11 1s · b b � :VI e r1gI1ts. an d obligatio ls. . H arged discl! even t loyal , ly natio n l1e�1 l1e 1s b�s old,_ or se:ve d siclc, �r fee�le, lle ving h � an:d after a . d l1e to e11 n of l11s life. Upon pensi o 111s deat11 [t11s fan11 Jy] ... hi_ s eed ra�t � gua �ill be e11efits . .. . . b . ] . n o s1 1 e p is [h � . rnaY enjoy . the p11bl and s ervice syste111 will be ad 111-iiiistered 1c scl1eme. pens10? tl1e . Botll �n 1ndepe�dent b� l1eaded Board of Co 1umissio11ers. The bodies ous nom auto b C?1nn11ss10. � 1ers ... 1_ s to e11s11re �l1at 11� 01ttsi de i 11 ·ftl ience these of_ task ta! 1 mei . r1nda .involved 111 a\vard1ng pensions an d 1n d 1rect111g tl1 e pt1bl1c service system. If free­ �chie,,ed, ev�ry is Etl1io1Jia11 will in�1�e11ce lc11ow tl1at public politi�al from �om e of virtu a11d by it tlon mer \Vortl1 .... pos1 t11e1r hold ts servan

from Toe Public Service Regl11ations of 1962, Legal Notice No. 269, Negarit Gazeta 22nd Year No. 6.

These regulations, isst1ed pursuant to tl1e Pt1blic Service Order supra, cleat in detail witl1 such rnµtters as "classification'' of jobs, ''recrui tn-;.ent'', "selection'', ''appoi11 t111en t'', "prornotio11' ', ·�ransfer'' and related matters. The regt1lations, \vl1icl1 are an interesting exan1ple of stibsidiary legislation. go on to deal ,vi th other matters as follo\:VS:

IV. - CONDITIONS OF SERVICE 3. GRADES AND SALARIES

48. Principle The pay for men and women l1nder tl1e same co11ditions of service a11d same position shall be equal.

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49. Pay Scale T�� scales of pay shall provide grades fo1· every classifie d position or gro11ps of pos1t1ons and sl1al1 provide for increments (steps) witliin the grade.

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52. Promotion . In ca se of promotion (Art. 20 et seq. above) tl1e PL1blic Servant sl1all receive in the new grade his salary of the whi ch is equal to or tl1e next above t he salary step fro m which he ha s been promoted. 5. REPORTS ON STAFF

58, Reports 1e 1 to ) e ad ! be � ll a sl1 a s nt a rule , efficiency reports on al l Pt1blic Serv H JIo As the Mi�istry, Cha tered Government Agency or otl1er �t1bl1c Autl1or1ty f r Wi��-1 the first s. _ t o rep ch s� n rs1g 11te ou c : The fead f esix (6) months of eacl1 year, wl10 sl1all y 11t 10 1tl A:1 1c bl P r h ot th or o cy �n M inistry, Chartered Government Ag � at� atlY time. or th.; Cen tral Personnel Agency niay req1:1est a d dit1011,1l reJJOrts c li b u P r . . e th o r o y c n e g (2)· Th e Head of tl1e Min A t 1 1 . istry, Cl1artered Governme . Auth r t o e y nc J cie 1 e e 1. !fi y th J �i a delegate tl1e power of co u·nter- signat11re_ ?f of tb� t� bl ' er en -G or ct ire D u c , er st iru r M S� Direct· o·r or u vant below th e rank of Assistant eq ivalent. • •

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602

SOURCEBOOK OF E'fI·IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

(3) All efficie11cy reports, t1nless otl1er wjse decided by tl1e �entral � ersonnel Agency, shall be forwa.rded to tl1e Cen_tral �e rsoni:�I Age11cy for 1nfor mat1on. Such reports, 11pon co1111Jlet1011 of tl1 e required formal1 t 1 es, shall be d.uly forwarded to . th·e respective Ministries, Cl1ar tered Government Agencies and other Public A1ttl1orities. (4) A copy of the efficiency re1Jo1�ts o°: Assistant Ministers, Director -Generals, Directors and equivale1 1ts sl1all be reta111ed 1n the Central Personnel Agency. 60. Secrecy of Reports (1) All reports 011 tl1 e e:fficienC)' of Public Servants shall be treated as con­ _ fidential and b e j11corporated jn tl1e personal file of the Public Servant (Art. 85 below) after tl1e Central Pe1·sonnel Agency has take 11 11otice of such reports (Art. 58 above) and l1as affixed its official stamps to st1ch reports. (2) Efficie11cy 1·eports wl1ich are not in conformity to tl1e provisio11 of the Art. 58(3) above sl1all 11ot be consid ered to be p ar t of the personaJ file. 61. Inefficiency Reports If any n1arlc in tl1e efficien.cy report is ''below average'' the r eporting s11pervisor sl1all discuss orally tl1e wl1ole report witl1 tl1e Pt1blic Servant concerned. The Public Serva11t may com.1n ent in writing on the report and sucl1 com111ent shall be incor­ l)Orated in tl1e personal file togetl1er with the 1·eport concerned. 62. Adverse Reports In case tl1e efficiency of a pern1anent Public Servant (Art. 17 above) is so low tl1at a decision 1111cle r Art. 68 below I1as to be co11sid ered tl1e s upervisor sI1all mark tl1e report as an ''adverse repo rt''. No action 011 sucl1 report shall be taken before tl1e Public Serva11t has received prope1· additional tra.i 11ing. 6. COMPLAINTS

63. Principle Ev �ry Pt1 blic Serva11t sl1a11 l1 a,,e tl1e right to co111plaJ 11 if he feels prejudiced 1e elapsed ed e e r, 11ot before aggr1e 110,;v at l e ast (24) hou r s ha, r v tw e nty-four � � � since _tl1e 1nc1dent oc �l1rrecl. Co111pJaints s]iall 11orn1a.Ily b e inade in writing to the super101· of tl1e Public Se r,,ant �1110 launcl1ed the complaint.

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64. Formal Investigation and Decision (1) Wl1e� 11ecessar y the Head of tl1e Ministr y, Charte red Government Agency or otl1er Pt1bl1c Autho1·1 ty may order a fo1·mal investigation. lic Pub other Tl1e Head of the or Minist r y, Charte r ed Agency (2)_ Governm ent _ A11tbor1ty shall decide on t]1e complaint.

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V. - TERMINATION OF SERVICE •

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68. Dismissal on Grounds of Inefficiency and without Special Procedure (1) A Public S�rv �nt may be dismissed on grounds of inefficiency on at least a four (4) weeks , notice in accordance witl1 Art. 26 of the Order and Arts. 61 through

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DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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1e di�1nissal by a_ lette1: of discl1arge, of tl ied _ n oti be ll givi sha il g tile . He ve. .62_ a�o findings of tl1e a11d 1n.vest1gat1 011 n1acle. d1scJ1arge the of date effective · · · eemec · e l .d 1�m1_· ss�d w1tl1ou sh. a 11 b d nt · t a special procedtlre Serva c Publi A (?) Jetent con1 of Jl�r1sd1 ct1on court 1 a lo two by enced ( 2) years impriso11_ sent : . 1e Order), 01· �nore, or if 11e 1·eft1ses to re11der tlie oatl1 l)res­ tl of 26(2) (Art. m. . Art. 1 7(2) of tl1e Order and. Art. 69 below. A letter co11 firmi11g tl1 e fact · cr1bed In · · t· he da t e sl1a 11 b e se11t to 111111 a 1 1d a copy to tile deter· 1n1n1ng and sal dismis of his . cy Agen nel al Person

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VI. - DUTIES AND RIGI-I.TS OF PUBLIC SERVANTS 69. Loyalty (1 ) The Pliblic S�rva11t is obliged to_ co_nsecrate _l1is ,vhole energy and ability to the welfare and the interests of the Ethiop1a11 E1np1re a11d the Etb_io1)ia11 �Jatio11 (Art. 17(1) of tl1e Order). (2) Before e11tering 11pon his functions, tl1e Ptiblic Servant shall in accorcia11 ce \Vith Art. 17(2) of tl1e Order take, before tl1e I-lead of tl1e Mi11istry, Cl1 artered Government Age11cy or other Pt1blic Al1tl1ority, tl1e following oatl1 of fidelity and loyalty to tl1e Ernperor and to the Co1 1stitution: ''In tl1e name of the Alm.igl1 ty, I :hereby swear fidelity and loyalty to my Sovereign, His Imperial Majesty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a11d tl1at as a Public Servant, I will faithf11lly place above all else tl1e interest a11 d wel­ fare of Ethiopia, and of its Sovereign ; tl1at I will, at all ti111 es, faitl1 ft1lly res_pect the Constitution and laws of the E1n1)ire, a11d tl1at I '?'till disclose no secret or confidential i11formation revealed to n1e i11 co11nectio11 with my official duties. So hel1) me God.'' (3) The Public Servant who ad1ninistered the oatl1 sl1all 1nal(e a relating entry in the personal file of the Public Servant "''110 rendered the oatl1 . I

70. Personal Conduct The Public Servant is expected to maintai11 at all times, witl1in and 011tside the office, good behaviour and cond11ct wl1 icl1 will gain tl1 e respect and confidence of the Public . 71. Obedience · b'111. (l) T he P ublic Servant shall perform l1 is d11ties to lus b· est knowledge and � �Y: He is required to discharge tl1e l1s11al d11ties of tl!e grade and tl1e positio11 w 11ch he has been appointed and otl1er suitable duties. (2) The ublic lic Servant t van P Ser ll 1e ord ers of l1i� s11periors. A Pt1� tl sl1a ey b o· sball refuse to law tl1e with ce rdan acco y obe 1n an not er ly ord ious whicl1 is obv � and all repo t en tl� ver Go � ere rt art 1 Cl h suc y, � str ini M ; . i�cident to the Head, of tl1 e Age ble ns1 po res o ts r r1o pe s11 er the 1 es cas lic ub er Autl1ority. In all otl �h P for th� fr egality of his orders. 73 . Rela tion s with the Public

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lic inter_ ests of all citizen Pu1? 0 s ioiJ ac the by nt exte � _ s are affected t o a great Serv��· It IDJ nd 111 16 therefore necessary tl1 at the Public S erva y ntl sta con rs bea nt .

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604

Sou.RCEBOOK OF ETI·IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAw

tllat tl1e c!tize11 l1as a rifl:t to ex?�ct, not onl� th.a·t his affai: rs wi.11 be _ dealt \Vitl1 effectively a11cl ex1)ed1t1?11sly, but also �l1at his l?ers?nal fee· l1ngs , no less th 11.is rigI1 ts as an individ11al, will be sy1npatl1et1cally and f airly considered. Tlie Pubfn ic Serva11t is to serve tl1e citizen ancl 11ot to be served.

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74. Secrecy

(1) Tl1e P11blic Servant shall not disclose to any person, other than in dis­ cl1arge of l1is official cl11ties and tl1rot1gl1 official channels, any information gained in tl1e co11rse of his official d11ties or otl1e1·wise, unless such information is of minor i1uportance or ge11erally lcno\vn. (2) Tl1e P11blic Serva11t sl1 all 11ot disclose information, proceeclings, plans, meast1res or si111ilar official matte1·s wl1ich, in accordance with regulations, have been decla1·ed secret, confide11tial or anything simi.Iar, to anotl1er person in the discharge of l1is official duties 01· 011tside, t111Iess Sllch other person is officially per1nitted to l1a11dle st1cl1 matters or if tl1e Pt1blic Servant is so ordered.

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VIII. - DISCIPLINE

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GENERAL SUSPENSION FR01'.1 DUTY

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87. Insubordination A Pt1blic Servant who neglects or fails to perform J,js duty, or corn�ts any other breacl1 of discipli11e, sl1all be liable to be dealt witJ 1 under the following pro­ visions witl1out prejudice to any civil or cri1ninal proceedi11g to wl1 icl1 l1e may have rendered llimself liable.

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88. Suspension from Dt1ty (l) A Ptiblic Serva11t may be st1s1Jended fron1 duty for a. period not exceed jog two (2) montl1s i f tl1at cot1rse is 1 1ecessary in tl1 e )Ublic interest. A Pt1blic Servant l ce off e n nary I1all b� st1s1?e11 ed }f l1e is for111all r cl1arged ,vitl1 a c1·i·minal or discipli ) � � t Cen The for which !us d1snussal is to be expec!ed if it is pro�ed against hi�j Per? o 1 n.el Age i1cy n1ay exte11d tl1e per.rod of suspens1011. Tl1e Publi c Servant sh � ne�l ut eabo be nfori wher , ai1cl 1·easo11s for the st1spensio11 gi,,en i 11 w1·iting. If tl1e � � s the of th_e Pu bhc Serv�nt �re not k d ha nown or it is otherwise not possibl� t? o rteru:d peilsion orcler to 1111n, 1t sl1all be fixed to the 11otice board. of the Ministry, Cha susG overnment A_ge11cy- ?r ot1 1er P11blic At1tl1ority for at least ten (�O) d�Y�- Tl1e .· a · nst . . pen�ion shall take effect from tl1e date on w11icl1 it is banded 1n writmg ag i a _ fixe �eceipt t o !11e P 1iblic Servant or f1·om tl1e day after the day ,vl1e1J it 11as been t o tl1e notice board. · esQectiv-e, (2) · n·Is�i·p 1·1-?,ary actions and/or proceedings may be undertaken irr of anY court actions and/or IJroceedings. When � Public. Servant is suspended, bis salary shall be withhel d-SO as s��? s nsion co t1 o ed v te f!!'.t� nues. � Ch� � 1:he G _ inistry, Head of the �� � �; Ageoc; _ l t her P u��Ic ':-utl101·1ty n1ay, 1f a stify i, _ ,- .'--�.:c:� the _c1rc11.mstances Ju payment of a part of the salary, bt1t not exceeding ]1alf of the salary. _· ____ :,;�;�;� . If as a res11lt of a y . · . �=--� t11e J?.tl D · . . . 1 · st l cri ·1runa1 or d1 sc1pl1nary aga n: un . n proceedings Ser va11t is n o t ct·ismis 9�_. ::�:=:;;�� � .. 00 _ _ ::£� � of�sed, l1e sl1all recer\,e his fi.111 pay for t-he. p e· r1od · .. ... . .... -- -· · -.. - �- ��--�.. ..... -�. .......

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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o ut interest. Tl1e _ effective d. ate f1·on1 \v]1i�h tile salary of ith w it_ of nce bala e th or w1t be sha l1l ll 1 eld, sl1all be stated 1n tl1e decisi Ser van t . c l 1 Ptib or1 nde d e · · be l1a11cIe d to t1e · the susp · · u 1 c P ' b l S · erva.1 l· · t · 1 1n wr1t1 11g aga111 st receipt or s}1all ion decis The e board like the s11spension orde1.·. ic not the fixe·d t0 ?erva11 blic t, l1is dl1_ Pu � ies t and �f �igl1ts ren1 ai1� t111a�ected s_ t ah1s 1 e TI � (4) · � , _ of Sl1cl1 . d11 ties a11d r1�l1ts as are 111constst�nt except10 tlie wit� , ension susp � by the e and_ J)t1rposes o f. tl1� Sl1spe11s1011. !11� P11bl1_ c Serva11 t may dLtring natur tlle with 1 ate W?r_k wl11cl1 pr1\ dertake u n o n 1s co11s1ste11t suspensi witl1 J1is positio 11� of eriod the p Heacl. of tl1e M1111stry, Cl1artered Gover 11mer1t Age 11 cy � t he informed has he after 1 or1ty accordingly . l t1t A lic b Pu r he ot or

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ORDINARY DISCIPLINARY PROCEDURE Disciplinary

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For breach of discipline the following pe11alties, as set fortl1 i11 Art. 22 of tl1e Order, may be imposed: (a) warning, (b) reprimand, (c) fine, not exceeding two (2) months' pay, (d) postponement of tl1e next increment of pay for a period n.ot exceeding four (4) years, (e) down-grading, (f) dismissal, provided, however, tl1at the legal provisions on forfeiture of pensions rights remain unaffected.

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90. Inquiries If cases are ·brot1gl1t to tl1 e attention of the I-lead of the Ministry, Chartered Goyernment Agency or other Public Autl1ority which may reql1ire disciplinary �ctio_n, he sl1all designate one or several P11blic Servants who sball condtict an 1nqu1ry.

91- Decision ( ) At the conclusion 1artered Cl , try nis Mi tl1e f o ad qu He the of the in iry I G a �iern.me�t �ge_ ncy or other P11blic Authority sl1all disroi�s tl1e cl1arge 0r, or�er · ·nnal discipl111ary pr ocedl1re (Art. 92 et seq. below), or 1m1Jose any of tlle dis­ c 11 ary of 2) 22( � : r A_ in al pen for ed s vid tie pro r . (A t. 89 above), except in cases . thtpe � r er. g ttn sta ilg iti wr 10 e nt d Th rva Se ic decision sl1 all be handed to tl1e Pt1bl t e e s ot �nown, re ns 1: nt a _ v Se� in aga c bli u · 1 t e � � receipt. If the wl1 ereabo 1ts of t� � or i; f1 ?18 all sh 11 o, ]JJr to 1 101 0th s 1 c de 1 erw se no t possible to band tl1e disc1pl111ary be fl.x.ed to the notice board for at least ten ( 10) days. c P er o t? . r o e y Th nc e Ag He �� Auth�l. t ay ad of the Ministry, Chartered Government rt . (!) of this A I �(A ( -A ub (S a ns leg k de o i m cis de t te his authori y to a e I , IVitb en Y m nontl1 s pa y to a � lf l1a g din d cee ex in fi arn g, repr·imand and ne not ; w . 89(· a)'�· c\a)r' 1 o a er (c) above) to subordinates of n o lower ra nk than Director-Gen · ·· .· .. · . .

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it s equivalent, provided such decision is m ade with regard to a Public Serv of no higher grade than tw o (2) grades belo w th e grade o f the Pu an t whom such delegation ha s been made. In th b li c Serva nt t e case o f a formal discipli (Art. 92 et seq. below) the decision shall n ar y procedu� a lw a y s_ b e m a d e ?Y the Cl1artered Governn1ent Agency or o Head of Ministry, th e r P u b lic Authonty. In cases of diffi communications or lo n g distance cult s between a Ministry, Cha rtered Governm Agency o r other Public Authority en a n t d th e ir s u b o rd in a te u nits the Head of Ministry, Chartered Government A th g at e n c y o r o th e r P u b li c Authority may delegat his full authority (Sub-Art. (1) o th f e is A r t. 9 1 ) to t h e h e a d otl1erwise provided b y law. of such units, unless (3) The Head of the Ministry, Chartered Government Agen Authority may establish a dis c y or other Public ciplinary committee t o advise on the decision. 92.

3. FORMAL DISCIPLINAR Y PROCEDURE

Charge Sheets If a formal disciplinary pro c e dure (Art. 22(2) of the Orde sheet shall be handed to r ) is o r d e r e d , a c h a r g e t h e P u li b c S e r v a n t c oncerried. The charge sheet sha tain all facts which cons ll c o n ­ t it u t e a b r e a c h o f d is cipline, the suspension of the Pub Servant and withholding li c o f s a la r y a s i t h a s been ordered (Art. 88 abo name of the disciplinary v a e n ) d th e in v e s t ig a t o r . A fo1mal disciplinary procedure sha a be observed if punish ll ls o ment or postpon ement of the next increment (Art. of the Order) is to be 22(1)(d) expected. 93. Powers and Dutie s of the Disciplinary Investi gator The disciplinary invest igator shall establish facts the law, the power to and shall have, subject to apply the necessary proced ures. 94. Defence Counsel The accused Public S ervant has the right chooses at any stage t o be represented by anybody h e of the formal discip linary procedure. 95. Closing of the Investigati on Before c_losing the investigat ion the accused Public Serva disciplinary investigator shall give . tbe nt a n opportunity f o r f i n al comments within reasonable time. 96. Final Report After careful consider ation of all facts and shall return the case evidence the disciplinary inveStigator to the Head of the Ministry or other_ Public Agency Chartered Government Autho rity. In a final report he the }'.ubhc Servant_ r whethe shall express opinion is his guilt y or the charge Public Servant guilt should be dismissed. In case be finds tbe y be shall sugge st a penalty. 97. Decision

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If th. e inve · 51Jga · does not the M'1?�stry, Cl · tion appear to be sufficient or complet� the H ead of 1 artered Gov an add1t1onal _ ern · Jovest igat·10n bY ment Agency or other Public Authority may �r.der ·in acco the same or anot11e rdance W:it . h A rt. 1s1on . r dec in v e s a ti w g 1s O a e to tl 1e r . r 91 above shall be made.

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TuE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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4. APPEAL

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Tribunal e vic Ser ic 98 Publ a Pub ished · ic estab e Service Tribunal within the Central be l shall h � re T (I) _ . s ces pro to y nc Age Personnel declaratio11s made t111der Art. 6 of tl1ese Regtilatio115; st agai n als appe (a) dow 1 01· disn1issa 1 (�rts. 6 8 a11cl 89(e ),(f ) n _ �gi·ad i1 st _ a gain als appe above) (b) � and against. a�y ?ec1s1on (A1 t. 97 �hove)_ wJ11cl1 l1as bee11 1 nade follovving a formal d1sc1pl1nary procedt1re, 1ncl11d111g tl1e post1Jo1Je111ent of i11 cre­ roents exceeding six (6) m�ntl1s, �11 sucl1 appe�tl procedttres to reqt1ire tI1 e prior consent of tl1e Public Ser,11ce Co1111111ss1011ers; (c) any other appeal or qt1estion relat.i11g to the i11te11Jretatio11 of tl1e Order and Reg11lations made 11nde1· AI·t. 30 of the Order, specifically referred to the Public Servjce Tribt1nal by tl1 e Public Service Con1rrussioners. (2) In t11e case of delegation (Art. 91(2) above) the PL1blic Servant concer11ed may appeal to the Head of t11e Mi11istry, Cl1a.i·tered Gover111nent Agency or other Public Authority, who shall decide fu1ally.

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99. Notice and Memorandum of Appeal

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Notice of appeal made in accordance with Art. 98(1) above sl1 all be given in writing by the appellant or his defence co11nsel (Art. 94- above) to tl1e Ce11tral Personnel Agency, witlun one (1) month after the JJerti11e11t decision l1as been deliver­ ed to the appellant. Within two (2) weeks after the 11otice of apJ)eal l1as bee11 given, the appellant shall file a memorandum of a1Jpeal \vitl1 tl1e Ce11tral Perso1111el Agency. The memorandum of appeal sl1all set forth concisely and 1111der distinct heads tl1e grounds of objection to the decision ap1Jealed against. Tl1e n1emorandum of ap1Jea1 shall state the nature of the relief that is sot1ght.

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IOI. Appeal to be Forwarded to the Public Service Tribunal (1) The Public Service Commissioners sl1all: (a) in the ca,se of an appeal made in accordance witl1 Art. 98(1 )(a) above, refer tI1e appeal immediately to tl1e Pt1blic Service Trib11nal; (b) �n the case of an appeal made in accordance with Art. 98(l )(b) and (c), immediately request from the respective Ministry_, C11artered Gover11me·nt Agency or other Public A11thority all pert1ne11t record� a�d/or exhibits, and decide whetl1er co11sent to tl1e apJJeal proced11re 1 s given. (2) The Public 1e to tl t en ns co e 1 tl ny de 1ly 01 l al jce 1 sl ry rs Se ne Comm.jssio appeal proc edur e (Sub-Art. (I)(b) of tl1 js Art. 101) if it ap1Jears from the men10(�)dum _of appeal (Art. 99 above) a11d/or the records and exlubits (Sllb-Ai:t, (I) ti A 1 e th to nt e _ ns co se ca In it. er m s e ci ck s ert. 09 �at the ap-peaJ prima Ja la ap �� b roc ce rv Se c i 1 1bl Pt e tl1 to re du d IS given, the appeal sh all be forwarde 'fribunJ.

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102. proc edure of the Public Service Tribunal th n the case of an ve abo ) ( t.9 A� J S h wit d � appeal m ade in accor ance Chai�anI of i 1 vVJ a pe ap the h the uc \.Vl on Pl..l y da blic Service Tribunal shall fix a .

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, �y t is_ e in ter th M ar of Ch ed d ea H e t� ve Go d an rnment 1 e TI . d aI· be he 11 10 �1s e th de rt. 91 ab ove) \Vhich . :, � (A arl m _ o wh y r1t 1o 1tl A1 ic ibl PL r· he ot Agericy 01. e. m e ti u 1 d 11 ed fi tr o n e b ll 1a sl , st jn had been a1jpealed aga (2) Vv711ere tl1e ap1Jella1 1.t or l1is defence co11nsel (Art. 94 ab?ve) is not present on tI1e day fixed for tl1e l1ear111g of the appe�l and l1e ha. s been notified of the hearing date, tl1e appeal sl1all be strt1ck oltt, provided that the ap1Jeal may be restored to the list wl1ere the a1Jpella11 t or l1is defence counsel can show that l1e was not present owi11 g to circ111nsta11ces beyo1 1d l1is control. Vv'here tbe Head. of the Ministry, Charter­ ed Government Agency or other Public A11tl1ority or a 1·epresentative is not present, ! the appeal sl1all proceed in liis absence. (3) Tl1e appellant sl1all ope11 the appeal. The Head of the Ministry, Chartered Go,,ernn1e11t Agency 01 otl1er Pt1blic Al1thority or his representative shall be given an · op portl1nity· to reply. (4) Tl1e Public Service Tribunal is a11thorized to take or admit any evidence it considers to be 1·eleva11t. aJ)lJella11t

103. Findings (I) At any ti111e du1·ing the hearing of an appeal the Public Service Tribunal shall recom1nend to dismiss tl1e appeal where there is not sufficient ground for interfere11ce.

(2) Wl1ere it considers tl1at tl1ere is s11:fficient gr ou·nd for interference the Public Service Tribunal n1ay recommend to: (a) reve1·se the decision (Art. 91 abo,1e), or (b) affirn1 tl1e decision (Art. 91 above), or (c) �11 clisciplinary cases red11ce tl1e JJenalty, or (d) 1m1Jose a11y of tl1e disciplinary pe11alties prescribed in Art. 89 above. (3) Tlie P11bljc Service Tribt111al sl1all take all decisions by majority vote . •

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104. Decision of Public Service Con1missioners on­ c and valid (I) All fmclii1gs of tl1e Public Se1·vice Tribunal sl1all become . rs, one missi st1tute a de?isio11 01 1ly 111 Jo11 confi11natio11 by the Pl1blic Service Com . ed ress aild llO fiu<liilgs sl1 all be 111ade lcnow11 before sucl1 confu·matio11 bas been exp ce Ser� c Publi (2� �lie �ublic Se1·,,ice �rib11�al sJ1all present its findings to the r1.ng, ea h tbe Comlllissioi1.ers for confirn1at1011 w1tl1i 11 one (I) week after the last day of .· (3) Tlle Publ_ic Service Commissio11ers sl1all not be bound by the recomroeutl a­ t1on of tl1e Pt1bl1c Service 1"'ribt1nal. 4) The confu·ined recommendation (decision) sl1a]l be handed in writing r n e t0 t�e appellant , ai1d sl1 all co11tain the reason s ' pun quittal i hm t � ac ' the s for . · . 1oners. such dec1o.tl1er measure and 8.h a11 b e sig11ed by Comm1ss the Public Service sion s 11a 11 be final with no poss1'b·11· 1ty of a furtl1er appeal. 105. Exec,1tion of Disciplinary D .. ec1s1ons b d cute y ( 1). AJl discip1inary dec1s e · e 1ons (Arts 91 and 10 4 above) shall be x · - rr. d --0-ea . . · · . the M1111stry Cha tered G the b -tho y overnill: e nt A � _ rit Public Agency u y or other ,c : .::=;,,. : of wbicli the' deci. sion in the . . first instance (Art. 9 I above) had bee n m ade .. ._.. ,

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OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS NT LOPME DEVE TI-fE

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Qt1estions 1es of tl1e laws re1Jrodl1ced o econo1nic d n a. social bjecti, political, the are t a Wh I. above? Cf. Problem 4, i11_fra. 2. Wh at significant powers does the Central Personnel Age11cy (CPA) enjoy? What sjgnificant powers - if any - are missing? Wl1 at po,vers do tl1e Co1111 11is­ sioners enjoy? To whom do tl1e Comrnissio11ers ''report''? To wl10111 are tl1ey "account able''? \i\111 at role does the Prime Minister enjoy ir1 t11e p1a111ung, de, el­ opment and administration of the ''Public Service''?

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disciplinary of costs e procecl11res sl1all be borr1 e istrativ admin era1 (2) T?� � Cha rtered Government Agency 01· otl1er Public A11tl1ority wJ1 icI1 is n by the !vfj p;ocedtires, or, in tl1e case of appeal, by tl1e Ce11tral Perso .n11el Age11 cy. h s ue· cts d . con u . or ot. he1· ev1dence tal<en experts d11r111g tl1e procedtires ses, witnes "or 1 c . . ts os ' The I · d 1e t qtteste 1 e 1·111g of evrc1e11 ce. 1ea 1 wl10 · party tl1e by ball be borne s The costs of a Defence Counsel (Art. 94) sl1all i11 a11y case be bor11e by tl1e Pt, bli c Se rvant.

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3. Why should the CPA be organised t1nde1· a Co1111nissio11? W l1 y 110 t create a Ministry to carry out its f11 nctions? Cf. J-la11dboolc of Civil SerJJice, OJJ.cit, JJage 31: "A Commission is a body of experts able to co11tr.ib11te expertise, bt1t co11ditio11s may not favour its exercise.'' What conditions? Cf. ibid.: ''co111 missio11s are so111e­ times inclined to take an excessively detacl1ed view'' of tl1eir res1Jo1 1sibilities. Is tlus "risk'' dealt with in the laws quoted above? 4: . Cons!de r the problem of defining wllich agencies s11ould be covered by t11e civil se rv1�e _law. Start by asking the question: Wi1y, in a develo1Ji11g cot111try, sl1 0L11d the law d1st1nguisl1 between tbe law of employ1 nent i11 tl1 e ''1Jt1blic sector'' a11d tl1e la\v of e�pioyment in the ''private sector''? '\V11at are so1ne of tl1e eco11omic, po1itical d. so�ial �heories 11nderlying the disti11ctio11 ? 111 so1ne ''s�cialist'' cot1 11t :ies tl:e �� nc� i 1 s for ma1:1y pt�rp? �n, Wl�y? Can 1t be argt1ed L�1at : 1 1 drawn. not ses, , , � ; Et.· opi a. ll enterpr ises A s 1 gn1ficantly concerned w1 tl1 develop111e1 1t, \Vl1etI1e1 state, P lV te or 'mixed'� � should l aw of recrt1itme11t and en1be common f a governed by p oyment of perso nnel.'' 5 nt eo her hand we have noted that n1any agencies wl1icl1 111;g/1t be classified t ? a·.s ,,o public''" 1�r so_me purpo�es are no t and '' d · er r O · e vic 1 Ser 1� 11� ''P tl1� by ed r ve co _ subsidiar !, l�gislat1on. Consider th.e case of Etl11. 01J1a11 A1rl111es (see pp.454-455, supra) � nside� 1e11t l?}� 1u If a). _ SUJJr ega1 90, (IJ.4 ice Not 1963 No. of 278 � in Et�o 1 � � 0 A irlines 1s is a it t tha ry 1eo t l . o? tl1e law ed ern te'' gov iva _ by ''pr 'businesf, �· . he lcl y wh ou ? sts t Po no of � y � str ply 1 aJJ 1n M e e th th to e le iJJ sam inc pr _ Commissio'n exclude _ law? postal employees fro111 tl1e coverage of the Ptiblic Ser vice 6 · The ''T . . . ec ei1t nm i m ve System'' se h cal Com mittee on the Establisl1me nt of a Local G? e a e 5 ve go a l· I aJ Aw of ees t plo em ? m tha ra) om sup ed rec ?, end r p � _5 y 11\ents ani muni c 11 .111g cei1 t1 al ip ,;;ei go law e lit1 0 e vic s ser not il a civ be placed tinder the & vernme nt en1ployees. Why? 1

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' le''? Wl1 0 co11.ntab ''ac ant if anyone_ h as an 7. To wl1om is a p11blic serv . . affirmative d11ty to: eva I11ate l11s per_f:ormance .? to d"1s1:111ss.h"1m 1·r he is inefficient_ 01- sin1ply not needed? to t1·a11sfer I11m? to up�rade 111s_ �kills and u.tility? And who 11as a11tI1 ority to see tl1at these tasks of s11perv1s1on are d1l1gently and honestly carried out? 8. z. l1as j11st been appojnted � Mi?-i�ter, and you have just been .appointed ltis legal adviser. Z. tells yo11: ''Tl11s M1n1stry l1as been stagnant a.nd inefficient· we need to get rid of son1e of 011r em1_)loyees; I wa11t only men, in top positio ns, �vho are loyal to 1ne and ,vl10 will back my policies.'' Z. further asks you to advise what steps can be taken to get rid of: 1. A .. a Vice-Minister wl10 is ''too old''. 2. B., an Assistant Minister, ''\vl1ose very ortl1odox political views are com­ pletely i11 disagi·eement witl1 my id.eas abo11t new programmes we should

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3. C., an official below tl1e Director-General rank, who is so greatly disliked by otl1ers in l1is de 1)art1nent that co-operation tl1ere is seriously lacking. (S11p1)ose yo11 l1ave reason to believe tl1e dislike is based on religious or etl1nic differences.) 4. D., who, it is ''alleged by n1any, l1as taken bribes''. 5. E., a 1·ecent University graduate, who is ''utterly incompetent and in· effective, des1)ite l1is higl1 salary''. St1ppose Z. st1cceeds i11 1Jers11ading eacl1 of tl1e above officials to resign, and l1e tl1e11 tells yo�1: ''I wa11t a free l1a11d in hiring replaceme nts; I wa.nt only tho�,e wh.o will be loyal directly to 1ne, will obey orde1·s, resign on request and work hard

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Prepare a ca1·eft1l 1nemorand11n1 011tlining the la.w governing each case. 9. A gro111J of employees of a gove1·11ment agency l1ave voiced the following co�­ j n­ plaints whicl1 l1ave been referred to yot1 b)' the Pri111e Minister's office for �ve i re t cann de1Je _ndent consideratio1 1: ''E1nployees in our position and grades � � s ng starti e ay ��� 111c t ·e111e nts above below $X � pe1· month 1no11tl1. $100 per !l1is is : � � . for U111vers1ty grad11�tes wl10 co111e 111to o�r g�ncy and do n�thl1 �g use�ul, � they s e 1 tl JObnd we �e who l1ave bee!1 l1ere for· n1a!1y yeaI's are 1?el1g� ble for pro1not1on to take because �f 1rreleva11t edt1cat1onal q11al1ficat1011s. We work very �ard, a te _ . 1·va ,, P : tlie feel we a1·e unJt1stly treated. We believe s0111e of us co11ld earn m ore 10 ' action,. ' · 1·eviewed en bloc we intend to take co11ective sector. ·u·11 Iess our case rs • ees ar e:: oy empl Does it matter·, a11d sl1011ld it, in tl1e above ca.se, wl1ether the -� 1 ) teacl1ers 2) accounta11ts · . 3) constructio11 workers? · 51 0 �oes it matter- and sl1011ld it- wl1ether l1olders of comJJarable .P u . · eg_ · . tn th.e P1�ivate sector are membe1·s of trade u11io11s enjoyin.g co · 1l1· ts. ba1·gain1· ng r1g · ? . after ::a. _ -· � ,� , , . �0 - p. �s ? �)U?lic servant ':110 �!�:·,:,.;� � l1as su� ered a disciplinary ''pena.It{ionsJ , :: � : � :· � · formal disciplinary proceeding. (See Article 89 et seq. of the R�gula· · _ · . . . ---= ---= -- ---'"' ...._ --�--·· ,-

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE L'ifSTITUTIONS

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and review �d ''affir. 111ed'' tl�e decision, and tl1is actio bas nal . Tribu ice n publie Servonfri m ed by the Conuruss1oners. P. 110w b1·1ngs a11 action in tlie fl" . 1 g11 c . been . has . g 1n g court, al le . .. . 1 e t evidence to st1pport tl1 e cliarge; nsuffic 1 was � I) the re _ 1911t to be represe11tecl by col1 11sel of J1 is r the den ied was cll oice at aily Z) Lle s g in d e ; e c o r e p th f o e g ta s severe in grossly pro1)ortio 11 to tl1e cl,arge; was enalty tlle 3) p per so11 was ally bia sed " igat or agai11st P. beca11se of a qtiarrel 'inv est ' . the 4) . , e rs t1lt fiv yea 111s o ag d ege all an 0,,er be?) 111ove to clisn1iss for wa11t of jtiriscliction . tl1ey sI1011ld (who da11ts n defe Tlle II. Consider tl1e following fro111 flandbool" of Civil Service, OJJ. cit., pp. 113-114: "302. ·what actions constit11te offences calli11 g for disci1)li 11ary actio 11 di ffer from co u ntry to cotintr�. Gl1a11 a l1 as a defi.11ition 1111der tl1e Civil Service Act caiJable of very wide in terpretation . 'Any act done witl1out reasonable exct1se by a Civil Servant whicl1 a1 11ol1nts to a failure to perforn1, in a proper man 1 1e1·, a11y dt1ty i 1 111Josed ltJ)011 I1 im as such, or which contravenes any enact111ent relat i ng to tl1e Civil Service, or which is otherwise prejudicial to the efficient co11dt1ct of tl1e Civil Ser­ vice, or tends to bring the Civil Service into disrepute... ' constit11tes misconduct, and for tl1 e removal of dot1bt, tl1e con ·\riction of a civil servant for any offence whatever is declared to bring tl1e Civil service into disre1Jt1te. This general definition is then partic11lai·ized: absence fro111 d11ty witl1 ot1t reaso11able excuse; insubordination; involvement i11 politi cal contro,,ersy are SJ)ecific,tlly de­ clared to amount to misconduct.

"303. While the Ghana definition is broad, it does 11ot affect tl1e standard of proof. The disciplinary authority must l1 old, as a :findi11 g of fact, that t11ere l1as bee� a breach of dt1ty, or corruption, or wl1 atever is cl1arged. Malaysia follows a di�e�ent course. Regt1lations impose certai11 d11t ies as ,vell as certai11 prol1ibitio11s on civil servants, failure in each case renderi11 g tl1e officer liable to disciplinary procedures. The first of the duties is: 'to conduct himself in such a manner as not to bring l1is JJrivate i1 1terests into conflict with his publi c duties, or in s11cl1 a ma11 11er as 11e lc11ows, or ca? r�aso�ably be expected to know, is Iil<ely to cause a_ rea�o11ab�e suspi­ cion in the minds of the public tl1at l1 e has allovved I11 s p1:1vate_ 1 n�erests to come into conflict witl1 his public duties a11d there�� to 1mpa1_r h1s. use­ f ulness as a public officer or has used his pt1blic 1Jos1 tion for 111s private advantage'. · · · · "The po ·nt of im I on it Y ts ; rct 1 1dt sco 1Ill of ed po ed ne t no e nc rta is i is t of tha pro neede d of reputati o n of misconduct . . 304 . In Pakistan efforts to deal wi th wh at was believed to be grow.ing c_or­ ru 1 " n �n in.effl_ 0?1tilg t.1 011 P: ive ess cc st1 e tl1 ; � nc cie to � _ amon g civ il servants led ofP t�� ces v ?ei Civil Se�vices (Preven n �l 1 �iv the 3, 95 , ) Rt1les on pti rru � tio Co of (Natio d · nal S ecurity) Rule '1n ine i1Jl isc (D ts 1 a1 rv Se 11t s ' 1957 ' and tl1e Gove. r11111e Effi . ciency) RuIes, · Effi d an · 1 · · · e ro p ci is D e th 1n , 59 19 ed at ciency R fore they w er e consolid be ule s of 1960 . The latter include as grounds fo r penalty:

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\ tho n of io in e tl1 op th mp co n i is nt t ete a11 � rv se , au M l 'Where tlle gov er11me11t �t, u1 d rr er co 1d b ecause 11e or ns co be y l_ ab 1 1 so ·ea 1 : _ �y any 111 or rity, corru·pt e so11rces for wh1cl1 �e caru1 ot reason r of 11 10 ss e ss po 1n s 1 ts 11 ­ te . of lJis de iJe11c le of sty 1ng ?ed l1v n1 sl1 as s yo l1a be e 1 l e nd liis us ca be or t, 1 111 co ac ably ostensible n1ea11s.' '' 1 2. Eli Gi i1zberg a11d Herbert S1nith, in �a11power �trcttegy Fo,· Developin.g Count­ g ents (pp.91, 92, 93): 1n m w 1n llo 1 co fo e tn e ak m 7) 96 ict ( io tfz E n o, p Fr s 1 o, ries: Less ate d from the univer­ u d· y gra wl ne n ma a of ary sal al n11 an tl1e are mp co ''Let 11s y tor r fac r�e e wo Th e. y� plo em may earn y tor fac d ille sl< a of gs 1 i n 1 ear 1 e sity wi tl1 tl e rece i ve d five an d a l1aif times as mucl1. t 11a ·ad i g e lleg co e11t 1·ec tl1e ly; 1 ual ann E$ 000 I ted s nec 1 the sub­ l thi wit con is and o tw tl1e 1 of ity ctiv d11 1Jro e ativ rel tl1e Wl1 at is �y ctic ble, pra is ossi n ·iso imp pa1 com but I ect dir a l1 Suc ? tial 1 re1 e f dif e wag tial stan perl1a1Js we can sl1ed some oblic111e l i gl1t on it. Since tl1e overwhelming majority of college grad11ates are en1ployed by gove1·nn1ent, let us atten1pt to determine how \veil are tl1ey 11tiJjze d ... ''Additio11 al difficulties witl1in the govern111e11 tal structure militate aga.i11st effective 11tilizatio11 of the rece11t college grad11ate. Tl1e department may be sl1ort t l the wl1ic1J to uns progrr ro11gh 1 tl 01· ca1Ty la11nch to le b 11na. e of ft111 ds and therefor better traine d yo11nger peor>le cot1ld make a distinct contribution. Because of the d elicate political bala11ces tl1at m11st be 1naintained at a.11 d close to tlie top, many Ii seni or officjals understandably are loatl1 to delegate a n. y responsi bility to tl1e younger n1embers of tl1eir staff, especially if tl1ey do not have reliable supervisors. Since IJOwer is tigl1tly l1eld by tl1e 1ru1uster and a few associates, many young people are left for long periods of tin1e witl1 no specific assignn1ents, or with assignments which l1ave little sig11ifica11ce and less t1rgency. ''To co1nplicate n1atters still furtl1er, tl1e detern1i11 ation of all your1g college gra�11�tes to . find a bertl1 i11 Ad dis Ababa gre atly re duces tl1e possi bility of tl1eir rece1v111g ass1g11ments in wl1icl1 tl1 ey could make good use of their skills... · ''011.e 111ore cl1aracte ristic of tl1e civil ser·vice struct1ire ,varrants attentio11 . Des1Jite the 1�e_lativ�ly freq11ent cl1a11ges at tl1e to1J, c11r 1·e11t polic i es look witl1 disfav?r 01� n:obi_Iity at th� botto111. Once a 111a11 l1as acce1)ted a posi tion in a ministry, h.e 18 not �iee to leave eitl1er becat1sc l1e is dissatisfied or beca11s e l1e l1as located a better open ­ in_g. _I-Ie ca 11 leave or1ly "'1itl1 tl1e ex1Jress co11se11t of l1is sup er,visor. And $in ce n1ariy ?ffic1.als are 11ns11.re of tl1ei1· posi lions and believe the h1r11 ove1· in their sta ff may �e i� th 1 ter1? re�ed as a f�iltl e on tl1eir t �a n to t part, they are f1·eq11ently rel11ctan_ � rmiss � . e i o_ n_. I<.now111 g tl1 1 s, the yo1111g e P. 1le 1 W c n1an ofte11 . does. not even seek 1t.· l x s e b s1ve 1nob1l. 1ty ca' n be a' dr. awb ac1(, t·h e p1·esent s1 to Ily · uvoca 11neqt see111s tuat1on . . . . ,, .1zat1on. character1zed b y too l ittle inob'l1 1'ty t·o ass11re e.uect1ve ut11 Wllo 11as responsibility withi11 the exec11tive to evaluate these observations? A��ui:n,iil g they 11ave some validity, in what possible ways can they be dealt with 1n law? el nn 13. Review the powers of the rso Ministry of Planning and tl1e Central Pe (.f.'

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DEVE LOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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The problem which concerns 11s now is l1ow to n1i11i1nise tl1ese rislcs. Tl1e approa�h is through the concept of acco11ntability - tl-e idea tl1at all officials are responsible to externally imposed pri11ciples a11d stan::lards of bel1avio11r arid to external sources of al1thority designed to control tl1ci1 conduct. ne el;ment of the problem is to consider careft1lly wl1at v�lues a11d co11cepts O _ of duty a�a st andards of performance need to be clevelo)ed to gt11de t11e bel1av1our 0f e cutive officials, individ11ally and corporately. A seconcl eleme11t is to consider : ; lac �0 unery 01 eiiforceme11t - what institutions a11d IJrccedures ca11 be de veloped secure compli ce wit h the standards presc1·ibed. an ma y be helpful to recl1r - to A I. Cl1apter in cisct1ssed the ble1ns pro cent r� con�em there was with questions dealing witJ1 tlle ends of governn1e11t and With q est10ns u powers its ought ffi be exercising government cials o and to have - about l1ow . the princ . 1pIeE- underlying accountability. We may ostu p late some principles fo r considerat.on : I. 0 e t n l deep y re?i :�1� o ught, in an u�timate ?ense,. t o rct i� accordance . w!th _the e�rly expressed desires of 1ts c1t1zens whlle tl1e leade1sl11p role of the gov t 1n,.f�·r!lling.op!nion may be s 1·essed, it 011ght not to 111dertal<e rnaj�r dep!�::: � ! . or 1n1t1ate s1gn1ficant laws w. 1tJio ut :first secl1r111g a b1 oacl co 11sensus of su A PP Ort for tl1ese 1neasures. 2. 8 · and °: a corollary to t he · · .r.orn - - 1a t10n above government o·u g1t to prov1·cte 1n1 _ ussi. - IJern:ut d'isc on and methods for expression of views and cominunication .

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o,,erslrido\vs establish111e11t otl1er sectors, nmental both gover e v tl· he xe ! � ���at e, in m?st de�elopi11� coun��·ies. It is ofte11 tl1e clo1ni11ar1t 1118�s_ _ public a0 fs b e 1s o prest ge att a11d s: tl1a11 otl1ers - parl1 a� 1n r e�JOY fficials o igl1er 1 10 ell1P ��� or judges. T�e ''�lites'' o� tl�e 11_: 1t1on a11cl tl1 � r�1ost_ tale11ted, �dt1ca_ted s ta e n 1t, and 111c�easi11g�y co11ca1trated 111 t11e cap1tal c1ty. w ro into 1 1 f dra ten o youlb re ment may 111creas1ngly reiect tl1e develoJJ111e11t of a establisl1 ti,re execu � s t T�� c la :s _ younger, educated, u1·ban-?rient� d, cos111opo�i-�a11, relatively �fflt1e11t � 0 1na11)' of scept.1cal tracl1t1011s, people, - cleter111111ed to of mass the to d e r �omp� new projects on a t1-aditio11al o.riented 1nass a1d witl1 a growi11g co11sJDlpOS . ·. . r e e ,v v J1 f o t1 p c e co 1r 1e tl o ciousness 1e officials, 1nore pheno1neno11. tl1is i11 Exect1ti risl(s · subtle artict1late, are e r he T expert, and enjoying superior. status, per}1aps entre11cled i1:i tl1eir _positio11s \VitJ1 tenure may tend to forget tl1e1r role as se1·varzts of tl1e IJU bl1c. Parl1ame11t 111ay be ignored, down-graded. Personal goals of self-aggra11dise11e11t, 1nateri,tl co11s11111ptio11 and personal comfort may st1bvert ideals of sacrifice, wcrk a11d scr11pt1lol1s l1011esty. Indolence, disdain or lax proced11res and cavalier atttt1des r11ay i11crease wl1ere there are no critics, no pu.blicised scandals, no serio1s threats of discipli11e, no motivating ideology of development. The risks of an en:rencl1ed oligarcl1ic, 1111pro­ ductive, wasteful bureaucra.cy - delays, lax11ess, disl10.nesty, failt1re to talce decisions, inefficient procedures-are aggravated, witl11·est1Ita1t waste of precioL1s fi11ancial resources.

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ways (to and froin the citize11 ry) about tl1e issues to be resolved , the goals to be s011gl1t. s s it en �f ts �iz gh ci l ri li ga le e ti th ita m t ec sJJ re ons to ht 1g 01 t n e . -: 111 1 r e 3. Gov , 111 � , on n 1t1 fi �f de 1d �1 t ol Je rse, be c OJ sc ir tl1 1d a1 , ts _ _ gh ri t _ ba W . ity r lo � _ 011 its atltl s, e bt es r1g 1� 1t do es, as th es at ul tic r a n . �1o t11 st1 1 1 Co 1 e tl ce n o t ope11 to debate. 3u 1ty d1 e d of th e an tl1 d we ro r ve 11a Go s 1 te rnba de r fo ld e fi e 1 tl s, on iti os op pr legal 1ne11 t clear. 4. Governn:e11 t 011gl1 t to promote n1ore economic opportunity and equality in sl1 aring the f1·uts of wealt11-pr od11cin� resources. I°: �n undeveloped cot1.ntry, at least it l1as tl1e res1Jonsibility of pla11 n111g and orgaruz1ng reso11rces to promote eco11oiU:ic growtl1 to serve tl1ese ends. Once the principles are stated with some JJrecision, it becones a d11ty of government to promote and secure them. 5. Gover11 rr:e11t officials 011gl1t not to 11se their positions and power to advance personal i11terests: eitl1 er economic or otl1erwise; they_ ougl1 ! 11ot to d�velo� �hem­ sel,,es as a ''11ew class'', if by tl1at is meant a class vvb1cl1 e111oys supenor pr1, 1Ieges i11 society. TI1 e retdi11 gs from Nye1·ere a nd tl1 e TANU ''Arusha Declaration'' (e.g., a deep concern with ·this subject and an Cl1apter III, JJp. :52-255, 260-261) 1·e flect : attem1)t to d efi11 e ,alues and d11ties in this a1·ea with more precision. 6. GovernIIBnt ougl1t to be admiuiste1·ed \Vell-its leaders must demand adl1erence to vari)llS sta11 dards of acl1ievement and integrity, and be capable of measuring l)erfornance agai11st avowed policies and planning goals.

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Of c ourse, tle: precise ,vay i11 wliicl1 tl1ese principles are articulated is open to debate.B11t orce t l1ere is a co11sensus, t11ere is a fr amewo1·k by wl1icl1 we can measure 1Jerfor1nmce of go,1ern1ne 11 t a11 d its officials, and tl1e problem the11, for the lawyer partict1arly, is to develop legal i 11stit1.1tions wl1ich ca11 n1ake tl1e govern­ me11t accot1ntable to tl1ese f ran1e,vork pr inciples, to cont rol its activities in ac­ cordance witl1 tre111 . W� I 1 ave 11otcd , for examJJle, ways i11 wl1 icli the lead er ship of govern ment in . Etl11op1a can be 1rade accot111table to tl1e E111pe1·o1··-conceiving of tl1 at office, now, as 011 e 1·e111oved fro�11 di�ect res1Jonsibility fo1· 1 1 1anagi11g gove1-111nent operations. We l1ave 11 otecl \Vafs 1 11 wlucl1 tl1e go,,ern111e11 t ca11 be made to acco1111 t to Parliament, and tl1is s11bjec t i� investigated f11rther in Cl1apter VII. A1J�rt f1·om f-arlian 1e �t's a�t�o11s, tl1e1·e ar e otl1er \l.'ays by wl1 ich government c�n be 1n�11�nced �y pt1bl1c op111 1o n �nd made nlor·e re§ponsive to tl1e n eeds and views o� v,1r1ot1s go111Js, ways by wl11cl1 comintinication to and from governm�n t can be mcreased.Son1e of tl1ese a_re explored in Chapter IX, where we �xallllne legal bases for fredo1n of express1011 and political organisat.ion, censorship, pro­ paganda and tl1e e.ect�ral p1·ocess. (See also Section I of Chapter VII.) res­ p s rule nt 1 1otei_ t�1 �t the law itself sets forth matly of tli e importa _ ..We l1ave e th f o ept r1b111 g tl1 e ��spomib1l1ty of gover11 me11t; we have co11sider ed tl1is conc � e abl rce enfo rul � of law ; aii( we have exami11ed the statt1s of tl1e constitutio11 as ts 1 co1 e 1 � tI _ �, we coiisider fur ther tiie power of legality �aw 11: tl1 e co11 r ts. [11 Sectio�1 6 ·belo to review not only tl1e co11st1ttrt1011al1ty of government actions but also their measured by stancards set forth in other laws •

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w r ay in s co 'Yhich. t?e exect1tive can JJolice ns id e l sh al e w IJy . its elf t fina 0 an d bas law ic s he pol t to 1 t1cal pri11ciples · Tile relati·ve lity nta bi 00' power . . ure ace .ials and orga.ns:-1co1npa:e d to Parl1a ass n1e offi nt, ptlblic opiilion, tile c e tiv ecu · of r�cor�s t he 1mpo�· ta11ce of tl1is toJJic. We sun ?e co ur t he t an d s i ave noted l :1a w ne . nce of .the. le. gal 1nst1t ut1ons govern111g. recr11it111ent of til e civil service p orta · the JD1 orm pe a anc e. In Sect1011 7 we exa111i11e otl 1 er du. 1 rfi 1v1 d n f i o ent essm control s . and ass can impose t o mak� . gove:n1ne11t accotlntable-to pre ut�v e �xe c the vei lt whic h and w�ste m�ladm1111strat�o11, and 111ore geilerally to c1en cy, 1neffi ption , assess corru age� vari c1es ous cl1ar ged tl1e w1t of l 1 tl1e resJJo 11 si bility of sup ance orm rf l ying pe . p the public or of developing some sector of tl1e ec01101ny. the to s rvice se

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EXECUTIVE ACCOUNTABILITY TO LAW ENFORCED BY TI-IE COURTS:

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JUDICAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE A1CTION

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TIO NAL LAW U IT T S N O N C IA P IO I IT E SOJRCEBOOK OF

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. d in an , op tem vel de sys a ing cl1 st1 co in ks ri ris unt are es ere 1 1 .... s an g or · e ecut r ts e e ur th pl co e e , ar r fo e giv f, a m xa n . nt I re b pa ap o � b d ly _ ial ec sp J�i x e y m s s these n al c j is ere s e th th k ion ris cis de ive of ut ec ex of i ud ses i ba i; � y lic po w t e 1 rev t owers nce . nt of me rn TI . ve ns go ga or 1 e ex er ? 1 l ot e to ist d tte mi m co fi" . s ld � p to · f" d · ·· n 1 · D · . · 10 t n e 1nterv e . rt t su � 1� o n co ze sp t1 re c1 ir ectiv e of re s t1 sa 1s d y an t p in e t ay n _ of judici al review ss I le 1 t1gat1on may prod uce d 11 ou f gr o e m lu vo e rg la a d an · the merI·t of his claim·, ts A ec t · d oJ , en � 1t pr . m �n is ve t go n gu ta ar o� r-: , im ed e at tr us r f 1 cl l.i w ts os c 1d delays ar of es us al �1 ab t w offi po ns ai ers: the ag s al du �1 d1 in t ec . ot pr to s r a: w tll ere are ot11er l nt c1a ra e �r th o� s t o accou nt; 1J ca ?d a _ ns tio ga e l al us rio se w ve e r y legislature m a s c1e ial to �n ec ag ar sp d _he an ion t1t s 1-1e im cla of ne ls an cl1 e vid o rr y a 1n e v uti c xe e tI1 e , iew the rev o� rs , we ges po Jud ted o an wh gr e ar ts ur co if 1t, B1 n;. ize cit e i ved r g ag of s ou o ger int c ollision, ced dan for be y ma ly, ent nd epe ind e rat ope to e d are s11ppos i h ted wit rus nt ent me sensitive ern gov of es nci age h wit n, o t1si l o c ble a sir e or u 1 1d tasks. And finally, it nay be argued, judges may lack tl1e status, prestige, independence, and in some insta 1 r;es tl1e competence to discharge the bjgh r esponsibility which a syste m of judicial review often presumes. Arguments of this sort have led some coIIllnentators to \ e sceptic al of the value of introducing a system of executive acco untability to tre courts in societies undergoing revolutionary change. On the other l and, a durable politic al system must, presumably, be founded on popular conceptons of ''legitin1acy'', and a s ociety wJ1ich values i n dividuality and mis trusts too mucl1 del egation of discretionary powers o,1er enjoyment of fL1 n damental rigl1ts will se el< ways of assuri11g accountability to law. While the cou�ts are no! tl1 e 01Iy way of polici11g official action a1 1d redressing official wrong, nor In �any 1nst� nces tl1 e be st w ay, courts n1ay p rovide the be st forum to resol�e some kinds of d1sµ1t�s b et\\--een aggrieve d citizen s and ag ency officials. And, 1t may be arg1i ed, ti:� ex1stence of the tl1reat of judiciaJ re,riew, i. e. requiring gover n­ mentctl accountab1l 1 iy to r11les of law w l1icl1 are ultimately i n terpreted and enfo rced by cotirt� - may ac1 as a strong incen tive to force officials to consider more carefully tli e legality of a�tion; :wI1ich 1nay adve rsely affect tl1e i11 terests of particular individ­ uals or groUJ)S 1 n s�ciety. Aga i1 1, a sys te1n of accountability to court-enf orced law tends to fo:ce tl1 e e1ec11tiv e to co1 nply mo re closely ,vitl1 the ''intentions '' of Parlia­ ent (as 1_ 1 1tention ' are ex re s sed i11 organic Ia,vs). for wl 1 en a court determines J) mtl1at tl1ere''1s no Ia :, -' . . ' y to undertake a give · n _w e�i�abl·Ing a11 exec11t1v e offic1aJ or agenc a�t ' ·t 1 is · Oft� n 8�Y1.1 1�, 1 0 effect, tl1a t if tl1 is par ent m Par lia ne o d tict be 1lar to act is riiust atitli�_rize it 1.0 far n1ore ex1)licit vie w re cia l i jutl te r11 1s tl1an it .y'et l1 as· Thus may sometim es re1 1force th. e l)O�it1 the tn h" w1� · · .· �11 and prerogative� of Parl1. an� nt e ' co11stit11tional sYste aiid tl e_ y m ich a wh principl es of ''democratic'' law -making n, l underlie it.

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I n any eve nt tl1eissues I,ere c · s · itio · s propo an not be studied in terms of abstract ; It is in1J)ortant to fio..,... � 00, op e de_v niore_ to co�,c�et e ible s s problen o 1s. p be It n1ay a system of judicial .re,� e 5 ues is � the aild st1Il g limit tl1e ro]e of the courts by limitin whicl1 courts can en.er�ain and e os th ing by prescribing careful procedures for rais issues. . . . revi of . . w e · .i Ethiopia's legtl. sy tem provide · s various legal bases for Jt1d1c 1al adm nistrative acts- i.e. : l b e 0 r a f gov ernmental accountability to rules of law en o c e.t : by the courts · We l1a,. e re rp . te ev pr 1 ous..'y st u · 111 to · d'ied tl1e cruciaJ power of the court s and e11force the c01st· . t . n . . v . 1t1 1t1 le ou '. and much of th at material Is 1mmed1atelY re· a d here. The ultimate IX> wer Of the courts to adjudicate some claims based on al1ege .

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INSTITUTIONS THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE ___________ _______ ________:6 17 ::,:

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e Constitution. But, as the readings below wi · th 00 s rest 11 n . . sugges _ , t actio · l � · · a act 1v1t1es, cou p 1ed w1tl1 the e11 actment of the rnm ent j)Jeg gov e of 0 •0 C . o 1 d es IQ ,, xpans · e o 1 f e u ,, tra � octr v1res_ and ·'dt1e process,,, introduce 1� the . d evelopment of d . s al e t and h · in that field adm1n1strat1ve law which has to do witJ1 J·tidicial of . · rev 1ew ty . 1 . Ce ex p 1 11 1 co es. act1v1t1 n tal me Of [ of govern y us:1a are II treated �s a bra11cl1 of administrative law whic h iee ( ms, _ oble pr se The obl1g at1on f s, taxa tion, crimi11al proceclure, property law elj the of ts � c aspe _ . and as ed l1ere. 'Ye_ are �oncer11�d first with 1ntrod�1c nl_Y e ? ar ects), _ exploring subj r _ othe _ , ind :ni, revi ew of Jt1d1 adm1n1strat1v c1al for e es acts 111 bas Etlltopia ' secondly l lega s · _. variou lir!J · ·t the roIe of tl1e �011rts 10 t l11s · · h 11m1 wh1c sp I1e�e� and thirdly witli ples _ ci n pri . with deta.iled problems t o be solved 10 ref1ntng tJ1e Jaw in the the of some of rvey _ a su . 0� o f oratio 1 n s01ne comparative approacl1es to tl1 ese probleins. exp an 1ng includ efutur !]11

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Legal Bases for Judicial Review of Administrative Action: The Constitution Consider the followi.ng two readings very careftilly. Do - and should - the doctrines set out apply to Ethiopia through the Revised Constitution? Can you think of any desirable qualify­ ing statements whic.h, in your opinion, should be added to tl1e principles set out below?

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From Jaffe, Judical Control of Ad111i11istrative Action (1965), pages 377-381. Judicial review is sometimes derived from tl1e nature of the jt1dicial power in a government organized on the principle of se1)aration of po\X1ers. I

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An alternative constitutional grounding is due process ....

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These rationales are closely related. Tl1e proposition that dt1e process may require a certain measu.re of judicial process may be thou,gl1t just anotl1er way of saying that the judiciary is the constitutional organ for tl1e determination of qt1estions of legal power. Each does, however, approacl1 the question fro1n a son1e\vl1at cij fferent direction, a n d may in some cases give differe nt a11swers. Due J Jrocess emphasizes the protection of individual rights or interests. Judicial power empl1asizes tl1e control of executive action and can be used t o st1pport judicial intervention even when individual rights are not involved. •

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... M.r. Justice Brandeis concurring i n St. Josep/1 Stock Yards Co. v. United States [declared]: Th� Supremacy of [the Constitution as] law de mands tl1at there sl1all be 0P1? 0r­ tunity to h ave som e court decide whether an erroneous rule of law was applied; aoct whether the proceeding in wl1ich facts w ere adjudicated was conducted _ regularly. To that ext e , urce s its r teve wl1a t, � righ a g rtin e nt, the p erso n ass shoul ? be entitled to the ind end ent judgment of a court on tl1e ultiiuate ep quest1 0n of constitution ality. Pro m ibid., p ages 384-385. e We <:an then nclt ti� tra oiS mi ad an of t jec ob co 1de that when a p erson is tl1e Order Wh1ch 1s e . . l1 11 so er p r o 1...: ty w· er p 1 11 be enforced by' a writ pr 11JS . '. � levying upo.n at so me· .i so? it is y 1 wl po nt entitled to a , so be s thi judicial t est of legality. But if Perh a ad br a at th w Io e uffi � b e cid e t � . ratio��-iza � �ien answer at this po in t (we may � _ n 1o ut t1t ns co e t1on is nece ssary to k tl1 111 d un fo is ta e care of oth er cases)

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SCXJRCEBOOK OF ETHIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL

LAW

grant of the judici,l power.At least insofar as the ju�icial power is invoked in the all of tl1e relevant. law. apply . n1ust J:'. rcen1eot of an , order, a co11rt The relevant . en1o . . . law does not stop vith tJ1 e adm1n1strat1ve or�er.Tl1e order 1s not 1n 1tself a sufficient sotirce of valid and !nforceab!_e law.T11at law_1_nclu�es t�e st�,t ute and the Cons!itution upon which tI1e legislature 1n t11r11 ba_ses 1ts autb�r1t�. fWJhe�ever the Judicial power is called intoplay, '' said Mr. J11st1ce Rl1tledge 10 111s d issent 1n Yakus v. United States, ''it is respa1sible directly to tl1e_ fu_n?a1nental law_ and no _other autho rity can intervene to force or a11tl1orize tl1e JUd1c1al body to disregard 1t. The problem tl1 erefore is not soely one of individual rigl1t or due process of law. I t is equally o11e of t]1e separati)n a11d independe11ce of the powers of government and of the constitutio11al integity of the j11dicial process.... '' This, of course_, was the basis for Marsl1all's docri11e tl1at t11e Co11rt was empowered to app]y the Constitutio n in tl1e cases wl1 icl1 came before it. By a simi1ar line of reasoning the court must determine wl1etl1er 1n administrative order is within t11e grant of statutory power. It may be true t]1a tl1e logic of judicial power does not inevitably compel these conclusions.A j11dicial 11ower witl1011t a11thori ty to question the validity of a statute or of an administra'ive order is conceivable. B11t logic is rarely sufficient to validat e the master conceptb11s of the Constit11tion.... Haji Ali Ahmed AJog1z v. Mu11icipality of Addis Ababa, Hig h Co11rt of Addis Ababa, Civil Case No. 832/50 (1957).

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This case raises a very important constih1tional po in t .hat is th e power of the t, Government or of t1e M11nicipal A11thorities to expropriate la nd for a public p ur­ pose. T!1e plaintiff_ in his claim states tl1 at tl 1e M 11 nicipality o f Addis Ababa in 1964 demolisl1ed certain_ 1 011ses belongi11g to l1im o n th e corner of General Wavell Street and Gobene �b_at1i11 Street witl10 11t re ceivin(Y ar1y co1npensation tl1 erefor and O hat tl1 e Mtin_icipa .ity of Addis Ababa l1as given l1im an order to demolish �Lirther 11 01 1ses_ in tl,, same area . 111 bis cla i111 tl1 e plaintiff asks for compensation for �l1e 11 ouses _wl1 ich we·e d�n1oli sl1ed i11 1964 a n d p1·ays for an order tha t tl1 e Municipal 1 � y 0.f Ad� is Ababa )e restra.ii1ed fro111 demolisl1 i1100 fu rtl1er l1ouses unless compens a t100 1s pa1 d therefor. Tl1e defenda 11t ''dmits t11 at · · ' co 1n pe 11 sat1011 1s pa ya bl e fo r th e l1ous ed h · 1 1s de and WI··tl1 regard to tl1e mo es · orde . · 1 f . or . · tl _1e d em t o 1 1 �n t1o d n �e� of en c. ft�r alleges tI1 at the M11iicipalit . the he l1o r t use s . . y 1 s act11Jg tinder tl1 e pro,,1 sions of the Mun1c1p a l1ties procI amat·1011, 1945 (Procla111a tion No. 74 of ·) [This A rticle is set out SUJJra, J)age 53 ] 19 45 ) Ar tic 4( le · i 1 1 ' . .j A .. . 5 t·h e defei . · 1d a1 1 t l1a on t11e seco d · � t .s bee11 asking for a Judgment urge ntI.Y t _18 tl le �e111ol ition of fur ther houses of the plaintiff, th1 s judgment is �es����ei t� tl ho11ses already dem d1· sh lat point, l:aving tl1e mat ter o f compensation for the ed to a. ft1rtl1er Judgm ent. Tl1e order given to th . . e . I a . t . ff P i ii� by H1s Excellency th e Kantiba of Addis Ab a ba. for the dem olition o.· tl order it is stated b e 1iouses In questio� is No.119 38 dated Sene 9, 1950. In th1� r} appearance of th� �� Y, �at the houses 1n question are not suitable f ?r _th e �: n a 11 t h at t �ey should b e demolis�ed by the: plai ntif f fifteen days and bu.ilc � WI . hers according to tl1e plan of th e D1 str1ct Engineer. N'ow there .is no . q11esti on tllat t�.wn _plan�. . . · town and i 1n ct g as ts a very 1mporta.nt pe n anY particular!·, in a to w n · which 1s being developed aesthetically as Addis · . .

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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.. for this purpose the Municipal Council of Addis Ababa 11 as by A rt·ic1e 4 Aba ba 15 ' nicipalities Proclamation, 1945, been given tl1e ; to cons1_der powe u · M . . e of th de on quest1?�s of town p1ann1ng (se� Art1c . 1 e 4 �f tl1e Procla1nation); under d deci by the Mu1:c1pal �01111c1l is not to come into _ t �ken n n dec1s 1o y a cle force :at Arti the M1n1ster of 1 ter1or. Let 11s assun1 e tli at in I1 the y b ed tllis case tJ1ere nfinn . . . . . unt1.1 co • a1 Co11n�1.1 o n a tow11 J)lan_11111g project and 1p 1c M h e n t f u o n 1o 1s c e d tl1at . . b a s been_� 1e M1n1ster_ of tl1e Ii1terior. Tile �y tl_ conf1rm e� bee� has ioll: question that such decis the Muruc1J?al1ty o� Addis Aba�a to ptit this project into 1s how s 1 es aris then plannin g proJect_ tow� affects private property, and private ev�ry rally Natu ct. effe up son1e of 1 �1r pro1)erty to tl1e Mtinicipality g1v_ tl to e requ1 r�d be may or the rs owne expe1;1ses _111 co11;1plying :-Vitl1 tl1e town planning incur to_ r�qu1red be mar or . State wl11ch quest arises 1or.i �s l1ow ate 1s tl1e private owner to be protec­ 1�e d1 The ct. proje ted in the co�fl1ct betw�en pr1vate ownersl11p and tl1e int�rest of t11e community at large that 1s the publ1� purp?se of aesthetic town pla11n1ng? Tl1e answer to this question is to be fo11�d �n Articles . 43 a11d 44 of tl:e Revised Constitutio11. Under Article 43 ''no one w1th1n the Empire may be deprived of... property witl1 out due process of law''; Article 44, whicl1 is n1ore pertinent to tl1e case 110w under con­ sideration lays down that ''e,,eryone bas the rigl1t, withi11 tl1 e limits of tl1e law, to own and dispose of property. No one may be deprived of l1is property except upon a finding by ministerjaJ order issued p11rsuant to tl1e requireme11ts of a special expropriation law enacted in accordance witl1 tl1e provisio11s of Articles 88, 89 or 90 ofthe present Constitution, and except upon J)ayment of j11st compensatio11 deter1nin­ ed, in the absence of agreement, by judicial procedures establisl1ed by law. Said ministerial order, to be effective, shall be approved by tl1e Cot111cil of JVIi11isters and publisl1ed in the Negarit Gazeta''. Now, the attention of the Court l1as not been dra,¥n to, and tl1e Court is not aware of, any legislation dealing with expropriation of property for a pl1blic pt1rpose, and there is not any ministerial order publisl1ed in the Negarit Gazeta in accordance with the provisions of Article 44 of the Revised Constit11tion. tit­ Cons sed Revi tl1e of In 44 le lt Artic defau by of lated n any emp latio cont legis . ution, the effect of tl1e decision of the Municipality of Addis Ababa on_ any to�n plan�ing project becomes nugatory in defat1lt of tl1e private _ �wn�r agreeing to give up his land or to accept tl1e compensation offered by the Mun1c1pal1ty. The only power which the Municipality of Ad dis Ababa l1as, a� the law now stao<l s, to order the demolition of a bt1ilding, is tl1at co11ferred by Article� 4 and 5 of th� Public 1-Iealth Proclamation, 1942 (Proclamation No. 26 of 1942). This Proclam­ ation was repealed by Proclamation No. 91 of 1947 but Articles 4 a11d 5 have been t sen preserved. The provisio pre tl1e to ly app t no do , ver we ho ns of those Articles, case and the defenda.nt is not relying on sucl1 provisions. e th y nc !le · �n view of what has ce Ex is H by n ve gi . been stated above, th e order n witb ive g ti s wa 1;s us ho of n ha A�dis Ababa for the demolition of the plaintiff's d � n u o b ut the auth ority of t o n JS ff t1 1n la p e th d 11 a id o v d n law a ll u and n is ' therefore ' . to com I . PY With such an order. . . · · en Jn this giv The question of costs IS nt me dg j11 al fin 1en wl tl1 wi t ll al wi de be C ase. What provisions of law give the court jurisdiction over the above c.a.se 7 . .r·ia ) ,. . . S01 Re-read·· Ch apter IV, pp. 403(Federal Prosecutor l_ '. L1sci __

405 Id., PP- 405-406 (Ministry ofFina11ce v. Avedis Savad1ran) ·

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l ,, a, na I pi ur io Jo th E in of s p aw io L th E of ian 1y cl ar er -fi ''l Law z, ic w o n zu ec rz K From 112, 114-115 (1964). n, io d ut e an �it th e ns �h Co to e at n-s in no rd overeig n o b su e ar ts ac ve ati str ini m All Ad ) e'' y tic ar to No d1n al 01:' eg ''L ' b? isl ed leg h i 1bl p1 ation. e os th � g. e. _ g din clu (in es on n ts, �nd their no�enclature is e ctm ena ve. at1 1str n m1 ad of iety var at gre ,, There is a uffi w w. I s sho 1 et a ill w1! s ! � r1t z ce here ega G ''N st pa at _ e nc gla a far from unified, as nst1tut10°:aI or l�g1slat1ve category, Co e _th y, vel cti pe 1·es , hin wit 1ile ,vl t tha _ to stress n ) equal, Administrative acts are further tio eta rpr inte o t ct bje (s11 lly ma nor are rules subordinated to o ne another: a) Acts of lower authority obviously ma y not contradict those of higher auth­ o rity; b) According to world precedents and the ''communis opinio doctorum'' (e.g. G. Vedel, D1·oit Administratif, Paris, 1958, vol. 1, p. 161), an authority's par­ ticular decisio n may not infringe its o wn general rule or order. Until changed or repealed, such rule sta nds above its maker.

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Infringement of either principle (a) or (b) or, a fortiori, of superior legislative provis­ ions or of constitutional precepts, would be an illegality amounting to a ''wrongful'' act in the sense of Art. 62 o f tl1e Constit11tion and Art. 2035 plus 2126 of the Civil Code, and wo uld thus enable the ordinary courts to grant relief where appropriate.

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As to t�e provision in Article 62(b) relating to ''malicious'' or ''unfounded'' suits, Professor Krzeczunow1cz further comn1ents, in a footnote:

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Legally, it is meaningless: (a) Even wi!ho ut tl1i s provision, tl1e Administration can, as an. y defendant can, claim damages if the co11rt fi11ds tl1at tl1e suit was malicio us in terms of Article2032 Civil Code (I11tent to injure ). (b) Even witl1 this provision tl1e Administration sl1ou]d no t, it is submitted, as no defei1dant sl1011ld, be awarded damages (apart from cost-awards) on tl 1e sole gro und tl1at tl1e suit t11rned out to be ''unfo unded''.Indeed, no legal "remedies or penalties" to such effect hav e been enacted here �r e� se where, and none could be so enacted witl1out affecting everybody 8 right to have a legal d.ispute determined i 11 co urt.

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o nstitutio ��y ; It is · SJff,1Y a cominitn1ent to th e pr d' ag e m 'da oposition tl1at the individual who is on g u govertlinenta] actio 11 may seek appropriate relief in the courts. But r: ; wha . �s 'wrongf11 i� t/7 is context - must be determined b refere nce to 0th er y prov1s1ons of 1 aw, inc luding the Constitution.'' o

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From the Civ il Code of hiop Et ia. Art. 394. - The State.

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as a person. _ �- . - s su h 1 (2) te cns .1 can �ave an d exer ci se, through its orga ns, all the .rights wlilil!i · · ;i co istent with its nature. . . - . .. . -,..� .

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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rial subdivisions of the State. -Territo 95. Art, 3 ja Guezats, Woreda and Mektl-Woreda Aw rad s, Gu eza t ay Te kl (1) Guezats

and urban and rural communes s�all also be the st1bjects of rights. (2) As such they ca� have and exerc1s�, _tl1rougl1 tl1eir organs, all tile rights which are vested 1n them by the adm1n1strative laws.

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Ar t, 396. - Ministries. (1) The ministries of the Imperial Ethiopian Government are the subjects of rights. (2) As such they can have and exercise, tl1rougl1 tl1eir organs, all tlie rights which are vested in them by the adn1inistrative laws.

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Ar t. 397. -Public ad,ninistrative ai1tl1orities and establislzments.

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All public administrative authorities, offices or establishments to which personality bas been expressly given by the administrative laws are likewise the subjects of rights.

Art. 400. - Powers and organs. •

(I) The powers of the bodies referred to in tl1e preceding articles as well as the organs ,vllich are autl1orized to represent sucl1 bodies sl1all be prescribed by administrative laws. (2) They may impose on such organs tl1e observance of specified conditions or forn1alities for the exercise of certain rigl1ts.

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Art. 401. - Faili1re to comply 1'Vith legal requirements. (1) Acts performed by tl1e bodies referred to i11 tl1is Cl1apter in excess of the

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powers given to them by law or without tl1e observance of the conditions or formalities required by law shall be of no effect. ( 2) The provisions of sub-art. (I) sl1all apply notwithstanding that nullity is not expressly provided by law in such circumstances.

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A rt. 402. - Nullity. (I) The nullity provided for in Art. 401 may be invoked by any interested party. (a) It may no longer be invoked after ten years have elapsed from tl1e date when the act was performed. Art. 403. - Extra-contractual liability. (1) The bodies referred to in this Chapter shall be liable fo� any damage arisin g from the fault or act of their organs or servants 1n accordance ­ on -C ra xt ''E to 1g ti1 la re e od C is th wi the provisions of the Title of tl1 tractu al Liability and Unlawful Enricl1ment'' (Art. 2027-�16l). (2 ) They shall in cordance witl1 the provisions of tl1e same Title pay back ac any unlawfu l enrichment they have derived (Art. 2162-31 ?S).

Note3 on the ab . . ove C1v 1/ Code Articles. . . n­ b nu pu ad lic ing rn ve ws go ''la a// to ers ref ly ab "a�rninistrative laws'', supra, presum rmclud istraJ:.�e.tn mg the Constitution itself.

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di scu ssed supra. Does Art. 401 se, ca fia So sci Li the t res d an ra ate sr,p ? 40 1 40 s . 1 ie rt A r e d ? s1 .c�n l� of la\.V w�1 . h .' to-be derived from t he Constitu tion in an y event a pr1ncLp re ted? rp te in e b to 2) 40 . rt (A ' y' rt pa d te es r - :! · · · · ,, • How 1s the term ��10 dm1rustrat1ve actions (Arts. 40I a es v1r a ltr ''u iy d ge e l al of w vie e r 1 al · d ·c·i . • . • Tl1e problem of JU s�ct�o n . s 11 tl ra ,if r I t ta e d re o n1 in . _ and 402) is treated . . ' e m rn d s ve n nt a, it officials IS also y of the go l1t b1 l1a rt) (to �l u ct ra t � -co tr ex of a The problem treate d in later pages of this Section. .

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Legal Bases for Judicial Review of Administrative Action: ''IBtra Vires'' and ''Due Process''

'' Ultra Vi,·es'' - An lntroductioll

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We l1ave already noted tl1e general doctrine that an agency which clearly exceeds powers given to i t by organic law acts ''ultra vires'�, !;e. beyond i_ts �uthority, and tl1e ''acts'' wl1.icl1 are ''ultra vjres'' are ''null and void . Cf. Const1tut1on, Art. 122; Civil Code, Art. 4-03. The cas es of Lisci Sofia and Ali Al1111ed Abogn supra, are classic exa1nples of tl1is doctrine; in eacl1 case a gover nment agency attempted to under­ talce acti,,ities for wl1ich tl1ere was, cl early, no valid legislative authorization, nor any valid Constitutional aut!1 orization. But other lcinds of problems, often classified as ''ul tra vires'', may arise. The Civil Code (Art. 401) declares tl1at a t1 agency acts ''ultra vires'' if it fails to observe ''condi­ t io ns o r f ormalities (i.e. pro ceclures a1 1d sta1Jdards) reg11ired by law''. A nd tl1e Consti­ tutio n ordains tJ1at ''acts'' of a11 agency w11icl1 are ''inconsistent'' with tl1e standards of t he Constitutio n are ''n11I I and void''. Analy tically, application of these principles raises problems wl1icl1 are differe11t fro1n tL1 e issues raised in tl1e Lisci and A/1med Abog11 cases. In the Ahmed Abogn case tl1 e agency had 110 power to do w11at it did; bu t suppose tl1a t � la� l1ad given tl1 e n1 11niciJ)al gover 11n1ent tl1e power to condemn arid d�stro� �ertain l,:inds of b11ildi11 gs: tl1e 1Jlai 11 tiff n 1igl1 t stil l l1ave argued, e.g., t�1at 111s bti_1Id1 ngs wer e not of ll1 e category wl1icl1 could be condemn ed, or that the city Jiad �ail e_d to n1 ake a fair determination of tl1 at issue (e.g. there was no l1eari�g, cf. C_on��itut ,o?,, Art. 43), ?r l 1at t he Con�ti�ution (Art. 44) required a "Ministenal � deci� 1 ?n and ?on1pe11sat1011 , for tl1 e b111ld 1t1 gs des troyed. These cases, essentially entailing a� I egation of abt� se 0 · l so a are t1 1 i , 1 11 se s po of we po r we of 1·, ab 11o se1 t 1ce � , often class1fiecl as , t1ltra v1res'' cases. Tl1e terin ''ttltra vir es'' is si n1ply a co11ve11 a in at e, de sig n us ie n t label to he lp v ry gen�ral way,_ a cat�gory of admin ; istrative or constitutional law problems. But r n s dec�ptively siinple; if you say: ''tl1 e issue in this case is whether the agency �� � � � . c e ul ra vi:es', you 111ay l1a ,,e said very littl e. It is still necessa.ry to pinpoint In a more pr ecise way wl1y tl 1e iss11e is ''ult,·a vi,·es' '. '' '' Ultra Tf· Y zres - Son1e Illustr ations

From Brown and Garner, .rrenc z:h Ad,ninistrative Law (1967), pages 118-123 · This read ing is included b · · tra ''ul f O ec� us ds � it kin may help to indica te more precisiely the vires ' proble

' ul ms wllic h m ref r s e classification of tliese iss ay a � in tl1e co urt s, because French law has attempt ed a � raw as a source. At tlie sarn �es , �n be catise '\rt. 401 of tf1e Civil Code may d�w �n Frenc citlY e t me i I e n u st eithe be 1 r · ealized r xp! rne tf1at t he F rench classification 1s n , it t· he law of EtJ11 op=' a, nor .1s suc · · · . h too ss cla · · 1 · fi l cat 1_ ca po n · tm rtan� point is sim of oyerr1d1ng unportance as an �nalyt . s !? d kin I t P r e t of allegations ofilleg J ? _ al1�e tl1at ultra v1res'' cases may involv e various di fferen m in� aJ whether the allegations � i f���•:trative _ action. an� the �undamental �ask of t�e cou:t is to d eter . · _ _ , constitute a valid basis for corre ctive Jud1c1al actio n. ;z:

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_pr esc a rib es li�1 leg e of ali ty con�uct for the administratioi1 of . le cip prin T heb h co with m1tt out 1ng n depa n rt e � not � xce.f de poilvoir. Any violation c ca it i froro w . ci ple can be a ground for review ( cas d oi1vertt1re) a11 d will n1al(e tlle act oft�e .P;; voi d. It is mainly fo r l1istqrical reaso11s tl1at J)roceecii 11 o-; are base� admrnis if inco mpe nam tenc ely, e, vice , de Jor,ne ' vio/atio,1 de la lo·1 roun ds r fo f. g u O on o ne · • These tra d1·1·1ona 1 gt·01 1 1 1_ds are by 1� 0 me�ns ,, pouvo1r. ue m:n� mtitiially and ditourize 1t 1 s not always easy to see wl1y a pa1_t1c11lar case 1 s considered und er exc Ius1.-ve , and t I:er. o 1 n n a a h t r e h t a r one head Translated into Eng l i�h ter:111s, [i11com_petence] is J)erl1 aJ)S tl1 e 11 earest tJ1e French v1res; 1f an official acts co 1 npletely witl1 011t atitllority llis ultra e tantiv subs to t incol11 for p void ter1ce. 1s, if tl1e ad 111i 11istratio 11 t� I<es decla: ed � Tl11 be will ion �:cis \ 11 t by tl1e Co 1 1stit1rtion, tl1 e decision parl1an1e for reserved domain c a 4i in sion i de �ill be annulled on this g�ou�d. Everyda:y �xa111pl�s of tl1 is _sit11atio 11 i 11cl11 de cases �; · of civil servants wl10 are dismissed by tl1e1r 1 n1n1ed1ate superiors wl1ere tl1 e s1rperior :e [ has not had delegated a11thori ty from tl1 e n1i 1 1ister to take s11cl1 action .... r,li t. Translated into English, [vice de forn1e] n1ea11s a breacl1 of proced11 ral ultra i vires.... As m.ight have bee11 expected from d1·oit ad111inistratif, tl1e courts \vill not insist on a rigid observa.nce of all procedt1ral forn1 a1 ities, a11 d tl1 e)' are q11ite l)rel , pared to accept the distincti on to be seen in some Englisl1 decisio11s ... between 111 a11 datory and directory procedural requi rements; tl1e Fre11cl1 also make a di stinctio11 between substantial and insubstantial formalities. 011ly a fail11re to observe a s11b­ sta ntial formal ity will lead to avoidance of tl1e s11bseq11 ent JJroceedings. Tl111s, a slum clearance order l1ad been posted in all tl1 e di stricts 1nost concer11ed, b11t 11 ot (as was required by law) in every djstrict of Paris wit!1 i11 5 kilometres of tl1e bt1ild­ ing; th.is was a n ''insubstantial'' error i11s11:fficie11 t to invalidate tl1e JJroceedi11 gs [citation omitted]. ... However, i n [anotl1 er case], an extrad i tio11 order wl1icJ1 \Vas m�de without consultation witl1 the appropriate gover 11 n1e11t departme11 t \Vas l1 eld void for want of compliance with a procedural r11le of s1 1bsta 1 1ce....

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acte administratif: this is the concern of tl1e l1 eads of i11co1nJJetence a11d vice cle forme. But granted that the administra tive agency is competent ar1 d l1 as acted in dt1e for1n, I uo<ler the head of violation de fa /oi tl1e admini strative judge moves on to examine he actual �?ntent of the acte itself in ord er to decide wl1etl1 er it conforms \Vi tl1 the :egal condit 1ons ( set upon adminjstrative action in tl1e J)arti cular case. An example I ma y make this clear. '• ( i ci lin y action cannot t. faul at is he ss 11nle ant_ serv l i k civ a st 11 be ta en agai A Dd� p �r ngly , if s uch action is ta.ken, tl1en qu i te apart fro111 q11est1011s aboiit tl1 e pro�e­ i tI d:i:dop ted and the competence of the discipli ning body, tl1e c�1 1 rt _11 1ay etlqtiire Wh.e b the er etl� w�1 , 11 t10 1sla Ieg cti san 11t eva rel on imposed is author i secl by tl1e the :a:tsr alle f 1st1 J to Y as t so e tlt fat to 1nt are 10 y 1 r g n a. e ad the t, he ou 1et wl d , m an so if disciP1·1nary � I action. ...

w e i rev of . _ nd ou gr e tiv inc ist de o d an ] nt oir rta p pouv is im an ent ? em l.i};e[��� ial tr ac e l t �i ol i n�r co de to e e la loi, it enables tl1 e adminstrativ Jt1clg . conte nt o� anon , ve ct1 b�e s� lly e t1a act en ess i:5 m invoivin ad · oi1 uv po inistratif; but detournement cle _ r as to tra n1s m1 It ad e 1 e tl do d s ire sp in an l1 q en uiry into tl1e m ot iv es w.l1ic so to act�

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As a head of classi ficati on in tl1 e moder·n jt1rispr1 1 de11ce of tl1 e Conse;l d 'Etat,

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e rn u ment de pouv01•r, . p1e terms it may be said tl. 1ere b a s been a deto · or . . In s1n1 1on r h ret as been exercise·d 1o ,, ·r an administrative po we r o r d"1sc . 1 r , r . We o p f · o e s b ''a u cret1on was conferred by the d 1s r o er w �o h _ 1c � � r fo t 1a tl an th er l1 t o ct je b o e som n d t b b ou e no , on l ew y vi re y s b 11 th t l g e n s1 p c1 er ex , c· in re , l il w se rt u co . e h t . . . ' d an e t t1 a t t s e statute which created th o f t [ � e b � � ] e h t . [ r e 1f 11 o ls a l il the . , but w t erms of tl1 e statute ]. . . ry e v to . t1 is la h 1s g e [l t n a v le re . .. y n discretionary power] from a n ng �i ki rt r . e ce d pa ad �n m c d affi h� tr r yo a _ m a regu. t l1a t ed ar pe ap it 1 i he Tllus, \v · sei C y, e l1t th 1n rs ca lo ne th ow e e cl l11 ve on l 1a rc ne l ill.l co 1 of g tin ee m a r te af t ns io la e t ad d ei: no m h,e ha r ey fo th nd e th ou gr ­ e pur tl1 on s n tio 1la g1 re e th 1 ed l as d'Etat qu . ts . s al re c1 te er m m n1 t ec co ot pr to as so t bu n, tio la gu poses of traffic re 7orks, 2 Journal of Ethiopian Law 298 Tif ic tbl Pi of y str From Mesfin Zele/few v. Mini (1965). The Petitioner is the owner of two motorbuses and bolds valid licence s for their use in public passenger transportation on the Addis Ababa-Jimma road. Ey a letter dated April 20, 1963 Exhibit P/1 , the Ministry of Public Works and Commt1nications i11formed tl1e pe titioner that tl1e Transport Board bad decided on ·I1 April 11, 1963, tl1at in the ft1ture I1e was entitled to serve the Addis Ababa - Jimma ! circuit only six times per 1no11tl1, tl1 at is, three times with each bus, instead of eight {:� . times per montl1 as he l1 acl been until then. Tl1e petitio11e1· no\v clain1s that tl1e decision of tl1 e Transport Board was without �ny l�gal basis and prays tl1 at the Mi11istry of Public Works be e11joined from preventing l11n1 fro111 malci11g eigl1t trips per montl1 as hi tl1 erto. I 1 t�at and 1 Tl�e. Ministry maintains i11 defe11ce that the decision was lawfully given �l1e petitio11er l1 as n? valid objection to i t. Tl1e Ministry contends that the restr:iction l 1 1: tl1e 11limber of trip s tl1 e petitioner is allo,ved to make wi th hi s buses is within the rigl1 ts reserved to tl1 e Tra11sport Board t111der tl1e co11ditions upon whicl1 the licences I were gra11 ted . ' l ti e in . !11e Transport Procla111atio11 of 1943 ' Proc. No.35 of 1943' declares y imp ·Ar osc e 21 (11.1). tl1at ' .tl1e T1 ·ai1s1Jort. B oard, wl1e11 approvi11 o tl1e issue of a licence , ma 0 · · a . . · · nee} cond1t1011s It tl1inJ,.s ca to 'fit an d t} 1at 1t 111ay req1111·e tl1e l1ce11s1ng off1cer . . were . . 11cence for a breacl1 of a. hat t · 1 orms '1 1y co11d·1t·ion. Tl1e pr111ted appl1cat1on c: . . .' used by tl1e petitioner wl1e11 l1e aJJplied f 01· l1is lice11ces contain the following cla uses: I 111 _tl e event tl1e above described vel1 icles will be licensed as public s er vif. ve1iic�es I llereby pro1nise a11d agree tl1at sucl1 vehicles will be operated 0 verrotit��? on t�1e tii11e scl1edules, for tl1e fa.res approved and in accord WI �le conel 1t1011s laid down from time to tin1e by the Transport B oard. ! Tl1e licences actt1al ' lY 1· ss11ed to 1111n contain cla11ses to a similar effec t. le ab ·met . It follo\\'S from tl11. s ti1 a t t Ile pet.1t1011 1 1 r an� ve obse er would. be bound to . e t h of set up by tll e Tr·'IlSJ)o ice :1. ser rt r Board to regula en v s ure 1 with an . eff e c tive and circuit in tl1e int_er�st 0� t!1 e public. It P c?ID Yina1c-e t s mu e 1 l sl1 ou at 1 ld tl als cle o be ar any amendm ? ts 111. ex1st111g �cl1 o t ered fit ed11l es cons id tl1a t the Boa . l1ad rd � from time to i1ne with tl1e said . . ])Urpose in view. h 1c wh . y Tl1e representative 0f ti1e M"1n1. . b e bl stry prodl1ced 1n court the tuneta lf} b eta j the petitioner is allowe� to m ti e li 1 se�ve mont . the 0 route six per J T ly :over 1 1 times rt shows tllat otlle b ow er tra , ake er 1 o cen �� ed s ng sse to pa 1 _ e � us ir tl1e 1 in es b . s ! � ii �� w tl1e same route ;er l so re e w allo _ stncted 1n tl1e 11umber of trips the were y . .. _ . · :

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tl1is that the petitioner ca11not complain if the fro m eas jly w foll o i eell1 to · s ht t th e · · ' pe 1t1one d r . re s uce nt1mter of t rips in order to set to ssary It JJllg nece it d . d deeme t1,01et . 1 e b ffective � . e . . Bo�n . . . up wo11l not d give howe ver, st1ff 1c1�nt atten tion sion, to tJ 1e real clu con a h Sue . tl1e Clea Boar n. rly d ' l1as decis io rovecl too n1a11 v licences , ! aw s d r Boa the rr 10 nd t. 1e · · · Tl re a � e at p rc se 1� t 19 vali� licences for ma ir 1 the C l l J C � J u g ,0 on ses er b n � sse a fi e to say tl1at tl1e .Boa1d , 1n approv111g so inany 10� . sa q111t e seem s It it. circu 1 e n �s si g t ror. Article 21 (iia) of tl1e Transpcrt Procla1 nation provides er an made as l1 cenc es, h tha t: appl icatio any n tl1e Boa refus ing rd sl1all I1ave regard to the or ng ranti In g following: and conm1e service rcial vel1icles: Tl1e extent to wl1icl1 tl1e p11blic of case the In route in respect of wllich tl1e application is 111ade is alre1dy served. tl�s b�neficent o,,erlooked provisio1 is q11ite clear from the �as Board_ the That remark of the M1n1stry's representatives 1n Cou rt tl1 at: ''Pe1)ple apply a11d we grant.'' The issu e of the case is in sigl1t. Tl1e time sched11le l1as bee11 set tip by tl1e Board no t for the single purpose of ens11ring a regular a11d good service i11 tl1e interest of the public, but chiefly to regulate and restrain the con11)etitio11 bet,vee11 too many li censees. There is no doubt on this point. Tl1at tl1e Board, in restricti11g the petition­ er's number of trips, has been motivated by a desire to ,)btai11 wl1at it may have deemed a fair distribution among the bus ow11ers of tl1e tri}:B over tl1e route is evident from the letter, referred to above, tl1at was addressed to tl1e petitioner by tl1e l\!Ii11istry, and it is openly admitted by the defence tl1at s11cl1 a distritutio11 of trips formed tl1e real ground for the decision to restrict tl1e numbe r of trips and the res11lting tin1etable. We have now reached the true issue. Tl1e restrictive timetable was not set tip for the sake of setting up a time scbed11le, but for tl1e s1ke of regt1lati11g private competition. Neithe r the letter, nor the spirit, of the Tra11�ort Prociamatio11 allows t�e Board to impose on licence holders a condition based en s11cl1 a ground. Regula­ tion of existing private competition is not the concern of tl1e Transport Board . . The distinction may be s btle, but it would appear tl.at no objection could be u rais ed to a condition inherent in a timetable that l1avi11g c ue regard for tl,e interest of the publ·ic, 1·0 a ' r passe11g ers . fo le scramb .nable reaso ssary unnece ed way obviat B ut' let us take a a 11se to gra11ted n was extreme licer.ce a example. tl1at Suppose . ve h icle as a u bl . . . se rvice vehicle on a 1·oute wl1icl1 co11ld eas1· 1y s11pport da1· 1 Y se rvice, IC p . nd t he oard tl1ere imposed t11e condition that the licen�e cot1ld drive �nl� once B th Tbat would be equivalent to depriving him of 1he benefit of I11s licence, · anJ:e co ndition would obviou sly be unlawf11l. let us consider has He ion. r crite tl1is the to cli11g case r acco of the petitioner Ucences to serv n ve E · s se u b ti wo t 1 e ·1 1 1· w1 1 n m · allowin fior e l ma route in passenger transportato . 111�11 si� layo te_ mo � ers for repairs an.d the like, l1e co11lcl rr�ke 1na11Y trips p e; 0 0th 1 e 1� preven 1t1 1 witho m0 !�_l a x �1ps 0 ut W d t the si least difficulty. itl1 11ly le to ta : d se eat a n ex tent �rom 11po 1 n 1 o d1t1 . c�n g e. Tl1 po using l1is buses to ca�aci�y. u n hi m a r o t o nn ca t n s. ce s en I lic to 111s J1 be a lawfuI mcou � . nothing less than a virtual depr1vat10 of nd1t1on. to The result ight cences I· · r d 1 · � 1 ap ad . Use the ]J � b es mon t have been di fferent if the petitione r b �ran ice � 1� 111s ted _ en e With th at u:� be ro c ute on a part-time basis, an l l1ad ��;; � er stancling, t 0 ! s no r ia e ion tit pe -ie Tl bu that is no t the case at all. .

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r ge po�tation over th n 1s a1 se tr as p c li b u p 1 i1 em th ve i·i d to e an th es tis b is 11 r fo tise en d h �e w d pl o ! to ap rs de 1n r fo t y rl �a d cl an e it � t q : s as Wa w at 1 tl d an e, 11t ro a m m Ji k t d d en e er o l 111 o e 1f the Transport �v h l so a 1t gl 11 n on t1 1a t1 si I1e grailted llis licei1ce. T r he on e es ot ut us o r_ b s hi s e at er n op he w to er ey th on ti ti IJe 1e tl ed ,·. ' w lo al d 11a Board } �· t ne no do . s 1s ha th rd he oa at B R 1e tl t i r, bu e, t 11t ro has a m in Ji e th on ed us 1 110 were f t e o r ar th te e. p m ea ti gr e th r fo le id d an st es us b e th simply dema11ded that ce t, e sin ui er rc th e ci ar is o to tl1 on n io tit pe many m co d ne ai str 1re u1 d an TI1at f11II .. . r be , fo e ay rs th m ne ow ', s o bu titi pe e m so r ner fo e 11r ail f to ad Iice11ce I1olders, mjgbt le s rs al ne bu du ow ld vi ou di sh in 1e Tl t. � ur hav Co e tl1 by red ide ns co be to int po a t no is ing d ply an for ap s se bu es. eir enc lic tl1 g in 1ir q1 ac 1en wl ity bil ssi po at tl1 co11sidered ' g vin en '"' -· pro wh it ap red nc lice ide ns co ve es. l1a . ld, ou sl1 d an l, ulc co ard Bo rt spo an Tl1e Tr , ver t, we no ho can ces be e­ en rem lic ny 1na too g vin pro ap i11 ard Bo tl1e of or err e Tl1 k ng use of t11eir i ma m fro es nse lice the g tin ven pre by rds rwa afte died by tl1e Board lice11ces. \Vl1at tl1e Board ca 11 do is to refL1se to grant additional licences and to cancel existing licences vvl1ere la\vful occasion to do so arises. as for instance when a bus becomes u11serviceable. It s11ould fi11ally be mentio11ed tl1at in so far as tlJe decisjon of the Transport l'ti: Board i11terferes \vitl1 a private arra11ge1nent betwee11 bus owners; regulating compet­ itio11 between tl1em, tr1e ·Boa1·d's decisison is also illegal, provjded that such arrange­ 1 .. ment does not 11pset tl1e effecti,1e service of tl1e route, which there is no indication J ',.. that tl1e an·a11ge1nent did. In :i�w of vvbat is 111entioned, tl1e co11rt l1olds tl1at the injunction must be granted. T_I1 e petit1011er appears_ to be satisfied if allowed to drive eight trips per month with hi� �wo btises a� prev1011sly. It is, tl1erefore, s1i:fficie11t tor· the court to enjoin the M�n!str� of Pu_bli� \\:orks and Co1nm1111icatio11s from pre\ enting tl1e petitioner from dr1v1ng tl1ose e1gl11 trips per 1no11tl1. . !11e Co :irt n�ed !1�t c?nsider tl1e 1na1111e1� .i11 \Vl1icl1 tJ1e Ministry has set up a timetable for tl1e c1rc111t in v1ew of tl1 js i11junction. all . Ille 1·espoode11t, tl1e Mi11istry of Pt1blic Wor·ks and Com sh ns nicati o mu ........ · · · Ato to re11nburse tl1 e pet·t lng 1 ion · accord er, paid, 1vlesf1t 1 Zelellew, for Court fees . . _ receipt, and \1/1tl1 $200 for otl1e1· costs ot� tl1e case. �

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··· ) . ') . . u1 Tl1e Court in tl1 ,. b ve a e d1111tted c t1cle �1 ] tl1at _the statute (Proc1an1atio11 No. 35, A! provided tl1e Tra11s1J�r� i ar� s i f n i · ce ce I � [1n fit iok r we s po to it tl1 1 i s 1 on y � iti an os nd co �p � '' tI d and to ''ca11cel a licence fo� b 'vVI t n e ri c e o e r � ,1 f a11� cond.1t1o_n [1111posed in the licence]." On w t :�n d �ion in tl1e I icence \Vas tl1e l�ce11s�c ar Bo the s by l?ron11se to down abide by schedules l aid ' the It was implicit tl1at tl1 se scl1 1 t e ? ��o l _ clud con n11 e l1 be urt Co ged t an t11e e cl1 l n . n w tl1e ca Ho i � � � n Board acted ''t1ltra-vires''? Is j l Oll_It, Ill effec�, addi11g a limiting qualification to the lerlS a t ioD Is tl1is a proper process of st atlet ' ll ory interpretation? (Cf. Article 21 (ii) (a) of tl1e Proc an-ia qt1oted s1,pra). ide . Tl1e Court gave tl1is hy tl · rov o ier 1 carr etica 1 . a case: �uppose licenses , tl1e Board first his ''daily serv ice''; tll ereafter T ce P, � serv r � e s t e h ,, carrier r ''month to redt1ce its business to �y ! on·be unsays the Court would 0 b . . · i acti . , vious 1 Y at1ve be t unlawful'' adminis . Why? Would such r constitutional? ' \ g as· Suppose you are Jeg t d · sor to olloWI! it oO tl th� 1� f r: _giyen Tfl:ln�port Boa are d and you signn1en�_: ''Our experts t i �l � own us tl1at It 1s c :av! ier oIDP ...�...11 carr lLID1t econon1 to 1cally wise on tl1e J1n1 ':'' . betwe.e � o t·her �-did . n1a route a nd encoura.ge bus1· nessn1en to develop better service �.g. Adcl1s and Leke nlte . urt o c But do th is if the Courts behave tl1e way the iJ-l g� a.Dlend-. tl1e 1:fesfi11 case? And do 110� we neeC:� ::. k t1 .nent to mak"e y · . :ents n l e 0 overn.111ent Parlia1 to ask · - · ': i the Procla mation?'' . \Vhat advice would yo u give? . . ·.·W. . . -�

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On the above grounds the petitioners pray t l1at tl1e Col1rt decl are tl1e said Stat­ . ute illegal and l1ence null a11 d void, wl1 icl 1 declaration, tl1ey SL1b 1uit, will e1 1title tl1em to be awarded their degree in July (Hamlie) tl1is year.... Both parties made submission to tl1e Court, botl 1 oral ly ,ind i1 1 writi11.g, developing he argum�nts arising from tl1e pleadings mentioned above. Tl 1e argume11ts I?ut � ard ll be co nsidered in the course of tl1is judgn1e_11t, bt1 t 1?efore J:>rocee_ d1ng r:: . w! her it 15 necessary to consider the Charter of tl1e 1--ra1 Ie Selassie I U111versity or such prov,si · · ons thereo 1e present JJ111-pose and t I1 e t1 for f as ant relev are be or may s whose validity is being contested; tl1ese two documents are tl 1e 011ly evidence s��=; ted b y the parties to tl1e Co urt. The C _ harter for Haile Selassie I University (publ isl1 ed as Ge 11era_l Notice No._ 284 inN egar,t rive Ui1 e �li ze Ga 1es isl bl ta es ta l1 . lic l No w 8 t e11 1 m of e c1 th do a ) th is ar 20 Ye sity a · o . . l 1e t · s ne body po1 ·! · r fo es , 1 t1 l . d .. d . ... 11 a s er w ? P t s ic and orporate, I?rov1d1 n g for it est ablishm·e � the _ of rt pa nt st f11 of 1e T1 s. t1e ri 1 va dt s ou d Pr e amb · le of the Charte bodies and tl1e1r powers an r reads as fallows: · reas it ts de st ur � u ich O wh is y in O ur desi.te to establish a Universit !�ents , c in , i io at from other countries tic ed er gh Jj � l of s -� - s re al. l form ui q ay in g p 0stg ac 1n 1 11 vers1t1e · U r 1e radu tl o f 0 . t · t a 1a tl e stud1es, of a standard eq111 vale11t to else here w in the wor l d.

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�i ( . . se 1 1101·. students of tl 1e Factilty of eight by uted instit 'I;; t Law, is I-Iaile n a ctio is T� University. who sta�ed t_hat on_ Hedar 5, 195_6 (Eth. Cal.) the Faculty Pon !�� I Selas� 1 aile Selassie I Un 1 vers1t� , a�t111 or p �1rport111� to ac� ttn�er tlle r powe � H of l ; coun i 1 sl 11ng tl1e I-Ia,le Selassie I U111versity esta b� r Cha r�e the by it n (JJtiblislled d upo a t Nega ta No n of . the 20th yea_r) passed a stat8 G N�. : 284 N 1 . n z: 1� otice a l � . er 1ty Serv1ce �o�ram , t!1e s�1 d Statt1 te sta_tes 111 its JJreainble> ers Un1v a lnln �t e crea ting 1 tl11op 1 vers1ty Progra1u '' 1s a reqtiiremeiit 1a11 e n U 1 E t tl1at , terms ain o�! . for cert 1 to Ethiopian aw�r?ed citizens attending the University mas dip and es ) ? � :tJe: tt1.l as full time stu�e nts . !l1e pet1t1oners are c?ntest1ng ��1e legality of tlie Stattite creat­ rtt:i ing the Univ ersity Service Progran1 on the g1ot1 11d tl1at. e�, no! gi,,e doe_ s t�e ha. � ter power to tl 1 e Ur1iversity Facul ty Universi ty the C: (a) . : : � 1 vers1t_Y Serv1ce Pro gram a11d coi1.seqtie11tly the n � Eth.1op.1an the issue to il �;:; Counc sta tute providing for the program 1 s ultra vz,·es and tl1 erefore nt1ll ancl ,,oid; (b) that even if the Faculty Council l 1as t l1 e po,ver tinder tl1e Cl1 arter to deter/ 1 1e Stat11 te is 11 t1ll a1 1d void as bei11 g co1 1trar)' to element gr " requirements'' e e mi de ne �·-i p rinciples of constitutional law; y tar ;�, ' �! v l1 e Faculty Council l1as tl1 e power t111 der tl1.e Charter to deter­ en if t e (c) that :::1 \ m ine "degree requirements'', tl1e Etl1iopian University Service COltlci 11ot be c,111ed ( a degree requirement and l 1�nce the Statute creating it is i ll egal; ,··�, .. that the (d) even if it Ethiopia11 Universit:')' Service is degree re­ be assumed a .' t qui rement, its application deprives the petitioners of tl1e equal protection of tl1e laws iD' in violation of the Revised Constitut io11 of t l1e E mpire of Etl1 iopia c111cl a11 y act wl1jcl1 is contra ry to the Constitution is null and void by virtue of Arti cle 122 of tI1e Constitr�f1 ution. t

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IO T U IT AL LAW T N S N N O C IA P IO H T E F O SoURCEBOOK

on of ti ta ds re or w rp te in d an l1 it w ph s al de se ra e . s . e th Us f o , , . · d 1 2 e tic Ai · f c· d s e d a II e 1n 1s s: 10 n w o o . tl1e Cl1arter and therein ''l1igher e ducat1 1n th e �eco�dary level, and include nd yo be , n io at u� e� ns ea m s 'higller· eduction ty s1 l er u a uv co rn r te s; U se ex r . d n a g 1n 1n a tr er l1 ac te n post gradtlatio ty e rsi th ye of ni U � and on� of these is: t�e du d an rs we p� e th r fo s e id ov pr Article 3 r hig l un al ts d r an ste n1 ci en .1 ag ad es d an e of m.1 se, rv1 1Je 1 s1: h { (a) to co-ordinate, education assigned to 1t; 1 of ard s Bo the nor ver Go o! nt me and for its ish abl est tl1e for es vid pro 4 Article rs to d we be an po s se rci tie du exe e th r fo d by the s ide ov pr 7 le tic Ar d an constitution le by tic in it Ar 3; amongst th.ese ed est inv se tho to ion dit ad in rs no ver Go Board of additio11al powe1·s and dt1ties w e fin d th e f ollo\ving: (b) to establish and determine the general policy bot h academic and adminis­ tration of tl1 e University; (e) to establisl1 and maintain such centres, departments and institutes as it may deem necessary; (f ) to provide facilities for research work and where desirable to publish th e results of such research; (q) to do all other tl1 ings not inconsistent with this Charter which the interests of the University reqt1ire. Article 12 provide s for tl1e establisl1ment of a Faculty Council and its constitut- I ion and_ Arti�le 1? provide s for wl1at tl1 e Fact1lty Council n:iay do subject to the gene1al or special d1rec t1on of tl1 e Board, i11ter alia: (b) establisl1 and maintain witl1i11 tl1e establisl1ed faculties, centres , depart� ments and i11stitt1tes, such chairs and courses of instruction as it may deem. necessary; (c) determi11e tl1e degrees, diplorna. s a11d certificates of proficiency to be d, nte gra be granted by tl1e U11iversity a11d tl1e persons to wl1om they sl1all and to grant st1cl1 degrees, cliplomas and certificates; (ll) deterinine tl1e general n1ethods and conditions for exan1inations ao<l the general st,111dard for granti11g degrees, diplomas and certificates; cted e s 11 a '? tJJ ril .17, 1964 (Gr. Cal.) - Miazia 9, 1956 (Eth. Cal.) - tl1ere w _ n� ing the fina versior�. 0� tl1 e ''U11 iversity Stat blish sta � il E Cou nc Fac ute ulty of tl1e pr gr 1 . Etl o r e r rt o °: :pia11 °f i Ui 1 u t the i ivers ." i to y C Serv ed ic 1 ci e g attac 1 wl l is ich � � . in ea a 1c 1 d 1 is of l1ere1 naft 1 ose e1· refe1·red to as ''tl1 e Statute· '' For the pur p � , te w wit Sta . e th � ·h tl1e nJatter at issu. e 1· t ·i s 1mporta11t · from · extracts to give a few Section I ti1ereof provides: . of · o 10 By tli1 s U 1!1v · Statute, tl1e Faculty Council implements the reso1_ut_ Vifi-· ersity its E· �ect1t1v � Committee n ia thio 963 and creates a Program of E p _.aro . --- - of 1 _ �_ _ _. vers1 t Y s erv ce as a requ·i . d1p aw __ __ s · oma I remen 1 t certai n for . all degre and es . .izens to Eth·iopian cit -· · 2·_ . _ e attending the University as full time stud. nts : =dis·_ . --:d ., Tl1e idea of nat ·o na1 r . e -v · . . n ce2" · e ·: d�� se e ce be �� n by : an"��-Un1vers1ty students has cussed and studIe �r _1 d b -v 1 .. r":" -' st 1 1n · ro d var y ,ou a s . gro d I . 1ps, student, fa�u ty aru . _ r_ 0.•osa :E:�""=.,-·_:·· . 1 th� Executive Co m. . "' � � 'fm = e tte of ved the 1: 1 tl e o pr .: lt ap cu cil Fa un y Co pnnciple last ea� , �1 : oun Y ' the Program has been welcomed by the C cil:a -��=---.,-.,:._�-S':.,.� .'-·=' tttiftt:::#.t�:_,tfz:-� c11 arte1•

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Section 2 gives a definition of ''service'' wlnch is as follows: 'Service' means: (i) work in the field for tl1e purpose of establisl1i11g contact and re 11clering service to essentially rural communities; (ii) in any capacity entailing the use of special skills developed by University training; (iii) with an adequate living allowance provided; (iv) for a period of one academic year wllile tl1e University is in session; (v) for the purpose of aiding national welfare by co1 1tributing to the \Velfare of local communities; (vi) and for the purpose of improving student understanding of local commuruty needs, problems and develop1nent . Then follow provisions as to persons to wl1 om tl1e service app lies a1 1d provis!o?s for �xemptio ns from service . The rest of the Statute deals mainly witl1 tl1e adm 1 n1s­ tra trve part of the worki . 11g of the Program .. . . Tbe argu ments of the petitioners may perhaps be put more c learly in the foll­ Wi g te tute Sta tl1e s by ed vid pro t wha as t is ; men uire req ged alle is ree t the deg tha ?is non rm t�� academic al requirement for tl1e purpose of obtaining a degree, diplon1a r ce�tifi ture. of na cate; the requirement is in fac t ''work in the f ield'' and is _of tl1e � . n llonal servi h t me so m is e �1c ser al ce n _ tio na t or tha � d" h iel f suc k e . in or th "w 11/ c � i _ a be prov ided for by Parliament and not by sucl1 an 1nst1tut10. n a� tl1e U�i ve:, sity a�.d if� the University tries to impose sucl1 an obligation of ''servi ce i n _ tlie fi�I.d or nati o� al ,on t osi_ iinp sue ic serv d an e, ent liam Par it � is of ing ers um ass is i n onsi the pow _ si1y �as S1ent with the aims and purposes of the Universit y; and f 1nal1 Y I f th_e l! Ill ve_r ­ the alid inv , is e tut pow Sta tl1e er n . tl1e to , d in th at fiel . vid pro the . in e e for . ''servic · It CO0tains · d1scr1minator, provisions which are unconst1tut1ona 1 ·

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from the standpoint of Gove�n�ent collaboration and it is now formally ters Faculty Coun.c1l 1 11 accordance witl1 its CI1arter powers to the by led blisl diplomas and to establish t11e basic elements of and degr�es fo: nts eme ��;equir . licy po c i dem aca y Universit Etl1iopia's n . ati?nal instituti?n of I 1igl1er learning ; it Ilas �s . ersity Univ Our to prov1de 1 1beral edt1cat10 1 1 to yot111g men a11ct woolen m1ss1on engin� chall a . of learn111g an�. tl1t�s se �-v� tl. 1e nat 1 0 11 by prodti ci i1g indis­ 1elds f us vario in , i Etl11op1a d a will who s deve1oJJme 11t a 11ct JJrogress. resources n huma le nsab pe �l1erein pr?gra� a that. U11i�ersity stt1dents spend 011e aca­ believe� ncil i Cot The 1uvers1 ty tra1n1 1 1g to . provide s�rvices to local commun­ U t�e!r using year mic de l y to the nat10 11 aJ welfare b t1 t to tJ1e sttidents in on not benef1c1al be will , ities an educational sense; tl1e progran1 will e11able stt1de 11 ts to t111derstand, in a much more significant way, tl1e problems and tl1e 11eeds of their country, par­ ticularly its least developed areas . .. . In essence, tl:tis statute establisl1ed general standards defini11g tl1 e service to be rendered a,nd the procedures for its adn1inistration . .. . It is the intention of the Statl1te to permit, to tl1 e exte11t circt1mstances 111ay permit, diversification of t11e ways in wl1icl1 stude11ts may en1ploy special sicills developed through Unjversity training to discl1arge their service obligation in confo r mity with the uniform standards set ot1t in tl1is statt1te .

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m cannot be considered i �a e og th Pr at �h ed itt bm su 1d a1 er rt 11a c . in A�·�cle 15 (11 ) of the \ ca as p m d1 es lo d gr de an ng if i tes' t1 rt an ce � gr _ fo �· a1 �d a1 d · st l ra ne ge he ''t , as establisl1 i 11 g t c s te e h tu ta 1n t . e d d Jo n1 1 ca ov pr be as 1t 1 o e m re u1 eq ''r nsia at 1 t} d ie gt ar en be It 11 as dered a ''standard''. ns ' a ea �' m su ar ea nd ''m ta ''s at tl1 '' re ed itt bm and \ 1 s11 t 11 de on sp re 1 e tl y pl 1 11 re l can �r r eth a ng su "".h de ea 1 stu m of i s nt ea m � a is e 11t at St e tl1 r de the Progran1 un I ; d ive e 1n ce l1e th m re ss ns cla s� les al roo t1c re eo 1 1 put to practical aJ)pli cation a11 y tl d d e_ _ e nc an us va as ad _ in a means t s� re su ea m or rd da 1 1 sta a o als is ''requireinent'' 10 a particular f1eld both fro m on ati uc ed of el lev ed sir de a g rin asu n1e o r scale for i ts application in fie ld work depending d an o11 cti tru ins om ro sscla of w vie of tl1e point y; nit lillu the con of re, ds refo the nee r ula tic par tl1e d a11 1 ten sys al ion cat edu e 1 tl on s ty cul Fa the er unc l art Co i Cl1 11a e 1 tl of (b) 15 cle i t Ar er und ed, it has bee11 st1b1 nitt tl1e power to establisl1 s11cl1 a Progran1 as J)rovided for in the Statute. On the question wl1etl1er tl1 e Service Progra1n ca11 be considered as a degree reqt1irement, the respond­ e11 t sub11 1itted tl1at tl1 e fact that the Pro gram provided for exemptions does not ' ' cannot be considered as a field the n i vice ''ser of e11ts irem i111ply tl1 at tl1e reqt1 requirement for a degree, di1)lon1a or certificate; the purpose of an educati onal institutio11 i s to serve tl1e con1 111u11 ity in \Vrucl1 it ex.ists and considering that the Univer- j sity serves tl1 e Etl1 io1Jia11 co11.m1unity witl1 an e nrolment of almost totally Ethiopian 1 citizens, it ca1111ot be arg11ecl that tl1 e r11le for the requirement does not have uniform- \ ity of a1J1Jlication on tl1 ose it is intended to apply, simply because tl1ere are e>.cep- 1 tio ns. On tl1 e qt1estion of de11ial of rigl1 ts, tl1 e respondent sub1nitted tl1at tl1e petitioners hav_e not _sl1 0\v11 tl1 at tl1 ey are sufferi 11g from a burden not generally imposed on others 111 tl1e1r gro11p, tl1 at i s tl1 e st11dents. j Fro111 these argt1me11ts it is clear tl1at tl1e petitioners contest the validity of the :. Statt1te pt111?ortin¥ to l1 ave been e1 1acted under Art icle 15(11 ) of the Charter and the l respondent is rely111g for its validit)' on tl1e same Article of the Cl1arter. The Statute 1 makes 110 reference to any provisio11 of Cl1arter i11 pursua11ce of which the po wers � to enact th�t Statt1te are exercised by tl1 e 1�ac11lt)' Council; looking, l1owever, at the i powers wl1 icl1 are gra 1 1ted to tl1e Faculty Cot111 cil t111der Article 15 of the Charter, ·· paragra h (I1) is tl1e only 011e �1nder wl1icl1 tl1 e powers could have been exerci�ed; J ? s (b) a�d (c) can11ot, 111 para�ra1Jl1 a11y way, be said to enable tl1e Faculty Council to 1 �r?vide for rec1tiiren1e11 ts 01· standards for tl1 e grant of degrees diplomas and cer- 1 ' �¾ t1f1cates. It is for c�nsideration, therefore, whether Article 15 (h) of the Charter give s tbe �� Fac11lty Co1111c1l tl1 e JJower to e11act tl1e Statute. .l!nde: tlle Cl1arte1· tl1e various bodies establisl1 ed thereunder have been giv_ �n ified rig ts ai1d d�ities; in the exercise of sucl1rigl1ts and dutjes an element of a.is;. 1 ::t1011 mtis :n_ec:ssarily be left to tl1ose bodies; the exercise of such discretion mus � ere h owever� be w1tl1 1n tl1 e frame of tl1e Cl1 arter I t n o ti h "or higher educa • l n· prov·iding 11 . · m11st be matters O.f I?01 icy · · to be �et�r1nined and tl1e Cl1arter provides for tlus un,der j c Ql ArtIC� p · 1 ?(b). Now, it IS a sound pr 1nc1ple tl1at if p on matters of � a{ - -I decid e ower to s Ila ve �e11 coilferred on an at1 thority it o h e dec id w ��itS "� to is Cou not rts the for ' a 11thor1ty sl1 ot1ld enc-11orce the po1·icy, :n ·.i. acte . d has so long wiu.u as author -� ·:a�" ity that . . Powers' in sucl1 cases tl1e Court ca11not decide whether the policy is wise or u,�� �- .�- .-:l n� _:-! =-{ r. � � r e �o d��i �t. tl1 a� the main object of ed?cation is to provid� � = � · who 1 �i:�t �heir activities, 1n whatever sphere of life tl1ey may�be =:t.owa�� :,tl:

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wit nit h a _se_nse of citizensl1ip; and in tllis y com mt1 who le e th respect weifare of and woman who l1as bad the pr1vilege of a l1igher education in a u · e_ er e ::eater responsibility for tl1e future welfa�e of tl1e. coti�try. Tl ,is ind:� �s � 1 SJ Y h e aims of the Statute as appears from Section I \Vl11c11 gives an ''Explan · tion . . . one of t . · · . h e aim t t IS , ct · prov ? 1 icy 1 e . ,, p o c1t1z ens \VItJ1 Un_iversity trai iling and . se o h Purp . e of t with academ_1cal �nowledge bt1t. a1so witl1 tile practical only n�t ippe � equ who are _ kno\�le �ge, .111. tl1 1.s respect t11e idea of til e of field ir the in ce Progra111 is experien ach ievi tl 11g 1 at for a1n1 tl1e Statute provides for ''service But le . enda b . mm co . very . '·essent1 . i" . , , 1or a 11 1 con1111t1n r�r i_ t 1�s y a tl1� purpose not only of giving In n'' obljgatio degree, diploma or cer�1f!cate pr_act1cal knowledge j11 tlleir sphere a get to about those of ?se a1d1ng p� the ?at1onal ''for also but . welfare by co11tribtiting to ies, d � of stu added to tl11s tl1ere 1s tl1e object of serving tlle ; c�m�t1n1tles 1 ]oca_ of re welfa the l1t1n1an s e resot1rc_ 1nd1spensable wl10 will aicl Et11iopia's ctevel­ producing "by nation opme?t and . pro fess.". Tl1e Pr?gra1n tI11:1s comb111_es tl:� reqt1irement of JJractical experience with � the idea of n�t1onal service by U111ver�1ty stude11ts''. In so far as the Statute prov1des for a reqwrement of practical ex1Jer1ence tl1en, subject to vvl1at will be stated hereunder, sucl1 requirement may be considered as a manner of estab­ lishing a ''general standard for granting degrees, diplomas and certificates''. Bt1t in so Jar as tl1e Stat11te provides /01· ''service obligatio,1s'' t/1en t/1e reqitiren1e11t can,10! be considered as a,1 academical require111e11t [en1pl1 asis added]; if sucl1 . reqt1irement were purely academical, why provide for exemptio11s witl1 regard to foreig11ers, persons in Government service, married perso11s vvitl1 dcpe11dents? \1/l1 y provide for "voluntary contributions of service'' by 11on-Ethiopian citizens? \h/l1 y sho11ld the "service obligation'' be in rural areas?

No doubt great profit and education can be acqt1ired by practical experience in one's spher e of studies; but is the }Jolicy adopted a11 d tl1e n1eans JJrescribed in the Statute for establisl1j11g a ''general standard fo1· gra11ti11g degrees, etc. '' witl1in the powers granted by the Charter to tl1e Fact1lty Cou11cil? Jr1 tl1e opi11io11 of tl1is Court it is not. In the first place tl1e idea of ''natio11a] service'' or of a11y service obligatio n by students before the grant of a degree, diplo1na or certificate is a matter of major policy; the Statute itself lays down tl1at ''tl1e idea of national service by University students . .. is now formally establisl1ed ii1 accordance witl1 its Charter powers to fix requiremen ts for degi·ee and diplomas ancl to establish tl1e basic e_Ie­ men ts of University academic policy''. Under tl1e Cl1arter tl1e power . "to . e�tabl1_sh � nd determine the general policy both academic and administrative'' of the U111versi�y 18 uatl�r Article 7 (b) vested i n the Board of Governors a11d not tl1e Faculty Council. ��ere is no_ question of delegation of powers by the E card _of Gove�n�rs to the Fac­ Y Cou ncil. be�ause there is no evidence of sucl1 delegat i on a11d 1f �l1ere I1a? b_een such dele gation 1t would have been of no effect tinder tl1e well establ1sl1 ed pr111ciple �:at " delegat11s non potest delegare''. Ft1rthermore,_ i n tl1e.opi11.ion of !his Cotirt _tl,� rd of overnors l1 a er de t isl, ail� abl est to (b) 7 ve no t the IJOwe r 11nder Article ·nae a G � �eneraJ academic policy by providjng for the type of req11ireme11� as JS 111en­ ed in t�e 1 tl by d cte 1 � t res are · ors r� ve tu Go Sta te. Tl1e powers of tl1 e Board of ��� � _ . t an r er �hich established 1�e �n ati uc ed �r 7 l l11g of 1;: s the University for al l form ing of _this 1er l l11g l1 11c wl to r ing ph rd co ac ase is given in Article 2 o f th e Charter ed a 0.st P n ti� e� icl clt �n '' <l ao m l ve le ol ns ea l1o sc education be yo nd tl1e secondary gr: �0 in g ii, tJ, 11o 15 e _ r �. 1e Tl tea '· ' s _ se e� ur ch training and e x ternal University co this �:} tio or Interpretation to in clude practical work 10 the f.1elcl or atlY typ e of servi :� n

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632

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NAL LAW IO T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT SOURCEBOOK OF E

s n h y a b ic e d h n m w s y a ov w pr r� a re io � is th n t a th d d a o t_ ry � sa es ec n e It is llardly ? e a t th u op h b et d te m d t� e ta S th d n d e n o t � t en m i t en em ir u q re le ti r fo e d a m e could b c n a rd e o cc t m a h o 1L n w re t a is l ex ci n g u in o C y lt cu a F 1e tl y b d m and the powers assu law. rs r te he ed at is ot m ra h it w al de by e to th y ar ss ce ne t no is it e ov ab e th In view of d rs a ne e io ' m th tit ai � pe cl w l� al rt ?u n C 1e tl 1s oi as re petitioi1ers, and for tl1e above op am gr i of ng th ro a E P h1 1s bl ta es ian il nc ou C ty ul ac F e th of e ut at St e declares that th r il de e nc un th ou ty C r­ ul ve ac ni F U e th of s er w po e th s re vi tra ul University Service is . id vo d an ll nu e or ef er th is d an sity Charter

n tio the na ised in lic mi ita ter e de th is e ov ab nt me ge d ju e th of t ar he It is fair to s ay tl1at the t ore no ref permitted t'', the en em uir req l ca mi cle ca ''a an t no is e vic ser S EU t tha e, statement, abov e up a lmost e xclusively ad (m ty rsi ive Un the of cil un Co lty cu Fa e Th er? art Ch by 15(11) of the d pre am ble t o the EU S ''statute" makes ote qu the as e, wis 1er otl t ugh tho sly iou of te achers, obv ulty fac t of tha the for '' tise per ''ex and tion ? Or cre dis its ute stit sub rt cou the very clear . Did e issue is not one for disc re­ th ng; wro y enl pat s a w ncil Cou e ''tl1 ct: effe in is the court saying, of tion or expert judgement"? But if that is the Court's theory, how can the Court be so sure its pren1ises about the acaden1ic value of work in the field? Could the Faculty of Law prop erly require law students, st11dying for a degree to acquire ''practical'' experience in the courts-just as medical schools can require similar ''clinical'' experience of doctors? Could similar require­ ments be made for those studying to be teachers? Public health officers? Builders? Community es de velopers? Ca n a U11iversity in a developing count ry, particularly, formulate new premis about ''field work''? Sl1ould coi1rts answer such questions? The court ultimately saw the problem as simply a tecl1nical one of interpreting a few words in the char ter, and apparently i t declined to hear evidence. Might not evidence have been useful? If so what evidence ? Many ''exper�s'' or comr:ientators on higher education, and notably higher e ducation in developing �011ntr1es, _ha ve cla1n1ed: (a) that tl1ere are grave dangers of creating graduates v.1ho are "elitist", _ur� an-or1ented ", "status-oriented'' - oriented too exclusively towa rds ''white-collar", "pres­ tige , e mploy1;1e�t; (b) that too many graduates have too little actua l confrontation with some of tne v_ery difficult proble1ns of developing rural a reas. In tl1is connection, the EUS program w� s pra ised by the Em�eror's '' Advisory Committee on I-Iigl1 er Education in Ethiopia" (a com· 1 ade ul?. of Pr estden_ts of some of tl1 e \:vorld's great universities) as ''an inspiration of ���sT· (See its Report of 1966.) Con1pare President Julius Ny erere on Edi1cation For Self r: g . e, set forth s11pra, pages 254-55. R e11anc The Court notes that ther e are other legal \.Vays b y \Vl1 icl1 the ''requiren1ent't of and BUS gra c uld be developed. What ways? I-low serious})' miol1t its decision disrupt t.he progr am? · b1�rup� va� � a ble deve lopment progr an1s? Are these questi�ns rel evant? • Court's The Un1vers1_ ty a ppeac led • • • ti1e cI ecision to the Supre111e Cot1rt whicl1 vacated the High 1e declara t · dg ed e 1d111 vis !1 ad r er fte rtl1 l1e a ing rea on the al. ers pe on 1e ap titi Tl pe r _ ¥.:� Court tl�:i they r:f;�ea ; wit ra\V lJrosectit1on of the case, asked for dismissal of the action and tl1ereafter tipon EU�.

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A Further Note on Stati,tory Interp,·etation and ''U ltra Vires'' Cases Both the A babiya (EUS) case an d the Mes/in case involved interpreta�1o · _n of· 1 legislation. In each the Court was surely lt c u diffi more confronted witl 1 a problem far . . than a, nnounc1ng the pla10 · meanirig · of plain words· The problem was one of deter· whether pol·ic · s adotp�d by tl1e ts ml·n1ng gra broad n under agency permiss were ible of powers given tO t�e agencies by e I?r �blems the Th organ them. ic creati law ng surely could t nd. should not - be solved simply by playi g with d1ct1on� r:h n definition an��he m : · aning of words and phrases in the abstract. The Method wbJC good Judges must use to solv . . on. s uc h cases . h e Sllc problems defies easy descr1pt1 ... _ e often call for the exerc·se of 0d The . r J u�g,n ent term in the best sense of that J d¥ d must identify with e t �e statutory language he is interpreting (as the court i _ in the EDS case) bu�� Ilat IS ers tt a m 001� the beginning. The court must conside r such ;l, as: (1) What is the u pose f --·= the orI11 .·--� in e b hind the legislation (which is usually cast P r ----

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_ w e'e agenc�) _ w/1 the the to powers in powers question y eral gen . of ts an gr d kinds of What d1scret1on were to be left to (2) a ends? o what br plish of o o �v en? T a� !d what areas of discre�i�n were_ to �e l!nited ? (3) Wl1ere much t�e ag�ncYto formulate policies and_ su�f1d1_ ary leg1slat1on 1 � cl�legated , courts s_ l1ould d1scretr?0 o licy to be ''ultra v1res simply becal1se tle Jttdges do not like t11e nev�r fin d � � must reme mber that judge� are not polic1-n1akers, at least in tl1at policy 4) ��en the c ourt utt�rs !l1e ma�1c words ''ultr" vires'', !t �s sayi11g the sen se. serious condem1 a 1aton, cl1 1s a11d 1t 1s lly-wh1 ofte11 also illega cting age�cy(15 .a ff c _ this problem mt1st be referred bac1 to Parliament (and tl1e t e e 0 1 saying_- r Mini sters) for legislatjve clarification of tl1e powers of the agency; but · Counci 1 O r · t I I · 111g at l f 11s e,,e 1s o I aw-ma k' 8n a that ct11nbersome,· expener ememb ust m ts · · · cour · d th ere must s11.reI y be recog111t1011 of· th e seriousness an process, uming e-cons tim . a freque11tl ere is difference bttween s�ying: this parti­ T (�) uence. � conseq � �;�hat , · lar action js ''ultra v1res because tl1e policy you seek to enforce 1s totally unauth­ ��ized (as the court �oes in tl1e EUS case�) �nd sayi_ng, _tJ.-js _action �s ''ultra vi res'' because you are seeking to e11force a per1russ1ble policy 1n tl11s case In a way wl1ich thelaw-makers djd not mean to permit (the A/esfin case?).(6) Sometin1es tl1e Court may have "leg i slative history'' to aid it in tl1e construction cf legislation - an official rep ort on the law when it was submitted to Parliament, arswers to questjons raised i n Parliament. Published material of this sort is infrequert in Ethiopia today, but that situation may change in the ft1ture. (7) Sometimes the relevant purpose of leg­ islation may be i nferred- and should be inferred - by careftil study of the entire statute, or an ent i re section of a statute; obviously, single articles should not be rea d in isolation from each other.

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"Due Process'' and the

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''Administrative P,·ocess'' -An Jntrcduction

Re- read: Ch apter II, pp. 88-90, 120-124; Chapter IV, pp. 380-381 (The Public lligl1ts Procl1n1ation, notably Articles 3 and 4), 405 (the Avedis Savadjian case); Chapter VJ, pp. 593-594 (G,·eene v. McElroy); Cha?ter VI, pp. 617-622 (the Constitutional Rlses for Judicial Review). have _seen that the guarantee of ''the due process )f the law'' l1as become, thro�� conti ued legal development, a guarantee of rrocedural fairness. Tl1is n guara�t e g es beyo nd ordinary crjminal cases; it appljcs whenever government enfo rces e o e�u_ latory _or punitive law aga.inst an individtal in a way wl1ich may curtail hi: � 1 act a boJishi : c legal Interests. Indeed, this princiJ)le was ·ecognized long ago: _tl1e that agenc ·, g the. Star Cl1amber (pp. 120-124, supra) was a r,rotest, not only against s _ spe e m ntally 1 cial crirrtinal jurisdiction over cases of secition, but, 1nore funda­ 0st !0 the tr�di 1f any special government tribunal which ''pJnisl1ed'' without reg�rd elements of a ''fair'' judicial proceeiling ,nd without any permissIble re vie w0 . c a se by the law courts. T Oday " of fh. · , modern', governme Cf'a1r • s · a11 1 t · 1ng a 11 reg 10 ed g,g en in societ nts are mo re actively ov�ll.en th a er controls tl1ey ment govern J c: �ed were n nd · only ro c1·tlllany.ct Y ago a e · few decad .. · · · ' 1verse a t ·1v · 1es . · : n ds tl1ousa of w&· rzens eve ry c 1t may affect 10 serious ways tl1 e Ie,a1 interests . .1th affect · Y�a�. Government officials must perfo rce �ake individual decisions an 1nd1v1du · · · · al's Inter · serious IY· s t1me sorne ests way, 1n a r cula parti :.,;. .· . _ �., .. .:,_ .,

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634

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UTION AL LAW IT T S N N Co IA P IO I-I T E SOURCEBOOK OF

: s e s a c g in w o ll o f e Consider tl1 f y o as tr a X is ss in e M M e e th ng e in r, rs a j e y n g ee ft fi r fo d e rk o w s a l. A. wllo ll '. t' c u d n o c is n1 r fo d e ''dismiss e e n c c t 's th li M a te c a ini o v d a try n � r of o es � li p � p � e t , a u d ra g l � o o ch S f b 2_ B, a Law v o b id se d d au e e ec e n1 n b ee as ce en n 1o at 1c pp ''a s t l11 1a tl d se Jtlstice. I-Ie is advi 1 of past wrongdoing on your part''. y i ar sc r in di fo s' pl '' on as ol re '. ho sc ry a . nd co e s a om f1· ed nd pe 1s s1 is 3. c, a student, 4. TI1e D Con1pany applies for a licence from tl1 e Transpor t Licensing Board to establish a bus se 1·vice between Axum and Asmara. The application is denied ''because we do11bt tl1e financial soundness of this company''.

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5. Tl1e Coffee Board (purs11ant to enabling le gislation) f ixes prices wllich E, a farmer, belie ves are unfair. 6. Tl1e Municipality of Addis Ababa denies, without eA.rplanation, F's application for a per1nit to erect a Bar on a sn1 all piece of land whlc11 F owns near the ''Piazza''. 7. The Ministry of I11forn1ation denies a licence pe1·rnitting exhibition of a foreign film wl1icl1 l1as bee1 1 importecl by G, ovvner of a cinema theatre. The film is said to be ''immo£al '' and ''contrar.y· to basic precepts of the cl1urch''. 8.. H, a farrner, is served with a notice by a Hjghway Auth0rity official that acer­ tai11 portion of his land will sl1ortly be taken by tl1e Highway Authority, with011t wl1at l1e considers sufficient compensation. 9. Tl1e ! Company wants to build a ne'\v l1 otel in Dessie. It applie s to the Ministry of_ �1nanc_e for tax_ relief (in t]1e forn1 of tax ''holidays'') which (assu111e) t� e will h whi s'' Ministry i s a11.thor1sed c e (in its ''industri discretion) to bor ant to . '' '' promote tour1s1n . IO. Tl1e J Company is a new l_ )Ott _ltry bl1siness i 11 Sidamo, partially owned by the Investn1ent Co �p�11_y, wl1_1ch invested i11 it in tl1e l1ope tl1at tl1e J Company would have a s1g111f1ca11t 111 11)act on de ,,eloping po11ltry in tlus area. A group se inc an f mploye o 1 ? e rea es f tl e J Con11)a11y 110\v wisl1 to forn1 a unio11 and secure in wag �s ancl_ otl1er cl1a11g�s i1 1 working co11ditions; tl1ey l1ave petitioned . the L�boui Relatio11 s Board. 111e J Com1)a11 y claims that tl1e union is not de�ired iness bus the t b} ino � en11)loyees, and tl1e new ,vage scale den1anded will make 11nfeas1 ble. pec· 11 · K, a merchant, �uys sheep and transports them to Addis for a feast day. Ins . f . e . s isea ors rom tl1 e Minis t 1Y d d . exa1run · ? f Hea I tl1 them · ce e ronoun the animals, J) 1�nd ui1fit. . foi . ll e ep . COtlSLltnptton, a11d order K to s the of ''slaughter and dispose _

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f eac\ r° �he above cases, it is quite possible to assume that valid l aws . s exis/� :r h . t t e h . gency wit to � decide � as it did. Our co11cern is not now o. ��� : be . to. stantive re t g cedu er 1111 1 g tl1 e pro � power of the tl1e agency . to a. c t i t is witl1 · · _ ' · followed �n tak1ng tl1e decision. -- ·-:· . f .o� . e the- ri·g·htS - - . Wl1at sort of admini·stra1·ive procedlire . ,.._:� - _ e rmin det 1s 11ired re to q A, B, c, D, etc.? --·" "'" -· -a , . . .· .. Sometimes a _ e _ statute, L e.g. R _ � rnfra; l tion� Act, s �� the abour e a p tell us sometliing a���f a� ed . . p oc ure to be foilowed 1Il enforc1ng a particula - -- ."::: •s;.��i� . · - � ,... :--t,�

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���-----=-= ine shortly a proposed law drafted for the purpose of laying

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down '-.. ( and � will exam . all cases of the character of those posed above. But at preseii t th w / · ere e ' ' fa:0� apart from Article 43 of the Constitt1tion. guide-h� j no Ieg1s . IS �t.l 1! I Forei gn Doct of rines rabili ty'' of '' Di,e Process oif La,-,v', zn ansfe ''Tr · the 1o o Note n . t1tut1o . . n Consz n z-·o'f)ia E � N} A the t,11 len�. tl1: word '�dt1e s ense , p�ocess �f law'_' (or til e ancestral litera l their in � n , , or tl�e1r Amh�r1? Take . eqt11v alent land 111 Article 43) inean very the of law _ e ''th _ te rIIl nor righ 1s t, ed 1t very )ll3', gua ran te easy to tra11slate tl1 e ter111 ''due a of ,vay the . . 1e 10 htt · to a11y otl1 er l a11 gt1age. O11e 1 n·1 gI1 t arglie tllat if d 10, pro ?e s s of law'', as a term of art , in tl1e liter cot1 by rts, ally follo,ving its A1nl1 ar·ic 1f'orin 1·t be­ eted · nterp r •'n� 1 .:,1 1 · s 43 e 1 1 Artic admonition to judges to follow the law - wl1atever it sdys. But an ly simp s sho�ld be weigl1ed. All moder11 systems of govern­ arg11ment this of ences nsequ o �i�! the wrestle w1tl: JJroble1n: must _Sl1all _tl1e law lay down mably, presu ment, standards, enforce�ble by cou:ts, des1gued to secure 1mpart1al consideration in public administra�1�n by securt�g procedt1ra� �afegt1ards wl1 en age1Jcies engage in adjudicatory activ1t1es? A constitut1onal pr?V Is1on - such as A�ticle 43 - ca11 be prevent the dangers wl11ch co1ne from brt1sh111g aside problems to tool a as ed u �{ s procedural fairness without careful tho11gl1t. ,�! of f It may also be argued that the ''dt1e process'' clause - ArtjcJe 43 - is an arti. t ficial importation into Ethlopian Ia,v. It is \Vortl1y of note tl1at so111e of tl1e infl11en­ �. l tial framers of the Indian Constitution appare11tly debated and rejected tl1e idea of " including a ''due process'' clause, patter11ed after A.Inerica's clause, in tl1e Indian Constitution. See Austin, The Indian CorzsitzLtion: Cor11erstorze of a Natioiz (1966). The reasons for opposition were neitl1er unifor1n 11or always clear, bLlt tl1e principal objections were based on fears that (a) Indian Courts might attempt to import Ainerican doctri11es of substantive due process, notably restrictions on governmental freedom to adopt necessary ll economic regulatory legislation (cf. Loc/111er v. New York, supra, JJp. 209-215). In fact, these doctrines ha ve long been repudiated by tl1e U. S. Supreme Court, and it would be odd indeed to revive them in developi11g countries. (See Ferguso,z v. Slcrz1pa ,, 372 U.S. 726 (1963): ''The [substantive due process] doctrine that prevailed in Lo�!zner 1 ... has long since been discarded. We have returned to tl1e original constitut1011al , ,;j proposition that courts do I and economic beliefs for the social their tute not substi ,1 Ju <lgment of leg islative bodies.... ") I .I fi01. (b) Indian courts were unfamiliar with the contours of due process and miglit low 0ther American :I cited l1ave courts I11dian fact · (In y ents blindl preced too ' I' and used A · 's Basu II ra gene e ee Y s s. can case _ y man , ions n i decis where relevant, mn Commentaries on the Constitution of India (I 965).) The protectio ns desired could be achieved i n other ways._ (This is . cert�inly ( I true· 1he law coul s. io� uat t si_ ent fer dif for d s ent em ll uir spe ou t the procedural req Th ant ge ib fle I ­ e x us S cla '' ess oc pr '' l e d du an n ra va disad tage - o f a gene v � ilit;.,�.iscr et1on is left to the courts.) In any ' Article 43 · n of ev . · . sio . ver e� t h 1 15 , t h g En e . evidence is fairly clear tl1at the . . of the c0 0st1 t ution was the original version of tl1e Article, tl1e Aml�aric � t�e � ffi�Ia 1 translati ; 1�� n, aoct the t h it 1 ? t t rpre ircumst� ask is to see how the courts should int� � c ' t . ic ,, nces. Certai_ nly at th ia op l1i Et 1n it would be dangerous to argue

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E SOURCE BOOK OF

e e st r th ac fi pl In . ss ce l1 o uc pr m e 11 d of n o t w la t ha se ca an ic er m A ,, s t r r 43 ,,·1 m h em l st ra sy l de ai fe e ev th pr g of in 1t gl t li in e od e· to rs de un be · ly ]JO · n o . n a c 1 aw case hi h h ry c to w h as 1s o n ly limite d 1c rn o n co -e 0 c1 so a to ed . . . SecondI y' much of it is ti a r se , t � th 1? e ca I � h _e f pu o ew e vi os re rp g n t1 of 1a 11 im cr is d a , er ev 'H, o fl relevance. an p1 y 11o b tl ts d � te :1s 1u ap , a1 e b ul n_ wo �a 1 d cl l1i w es pl ci n i pr al . er n ge extracting h w 1:i t ke n ri ou o_ st u s m o t �t is ur n an t J p1 wi 1o t? E e th or at th . er ith E er d or n i em se f ch o u g g s1 m in an th o fic n ru to e. ed uc d re c 1s 3 4 le ic rt A r O e. nc no frame of 1-efere ''Due process of law'', of course, need not be c�n�eive� as an end in itself (tbougl1 some legal pl1ilosophers_ might well argue that it .1s an 1n esca�able �ompon­ ent of j11stice). It can be conceived as a n1eans to secure more del1berat1o n and accuracy when administrators act again st individuals and the act entajls possible seriot1s con seq11e11ces. Procedure, rigl1tly used (and not distorted, as it often is by lawyers, i nto a game for its own sake) is a device to produce a more rea.soned decisio n based on the legally relevant criterja. A system of public administration which ignores - 01· w/1ich even appears to ignore - the evidence, arguments and interests of tJ1e very individ11a1s who a1·e tl1e targets of an official order may ultimately (and perhaps quickly) breed mistrust and .resentmen t against itself.

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The General Require1ne11ts of Dite Process

Let us start with tl1e assumption that ''due process '' - the right to a fair hear­ ing and an u n biased decision - wo11ld ideally require tl1e right to (a) adelJUate notice of tl1e issues to be determined (a hearing may be of little value if the issues to be heard are never clarified in time to permit a party to prepare l1js defence); (b) oppor­ turiity to present a defence, inclt1ding relevant evidence and, sometimes, assistance _ ng party to procure tl1at evjdence (e.g. subpoenas); (c) conji·ontation, i.e. enabli _a opp�rtu n1ty to l1ear the case agai nst 011eself and cross-examine opposing witnesses �nd inspect and challenge tl1e V,llidity of other evid ence (e.g. documents); (d) if the ISSue_s to be I1eard are cornplex and if tl1e threate11ed sanction is serious then it wo uld require the rig/it to counsel or sin1ilar competent assistance; (e) a decisio11 based on th� c�_se presented, _ pres11mably a decision wllich makes the necessary factual deter· m1n at1ons and applies to tl1em tl1e relevant law. The problem, as has been noted above is to deter1nine first in what sorts of cases sl1oui d tl1e co11stitutio11al rigl1t to d�e process apply' and ' wl1en it applies, how much proceduralfor,71a/itJ,1 sho11ld be required in tl1e partfcular'case in hand. In eac�1 of tlie c�ses posed in tl1e Introduction above, when we consider these ; ns, tl1ere are, in effect, two co1npeting rcequest.o enfo the d han interests · On the one ' ment of governmen t po1·JCie� pr?ce· · rate ai1d elabo laws must by not be hamstr ung · le d ural req u1re m_ents. For i feas b various reasons it may be n either desjrable nor . for to bring the d1sputes betwe en gov�rnment rts o . a11d citizen directly into the c u . e d · · . p a full .hear1n g and final determ1nat1on by tl1e judic 1 q e ill u be J may p udg es iary to d de 1!1 any of t !1 e issues. Tl1e courts of Jaw� ent e � forc are n not e m entr witl ust 1 d · . r ou dea]��gt wIth ic1 e n s1n g' price fix· g Iand la b Iuat1on, .. ly eva use s, trol land con , to . relations ta s ent_s, public health, etc.; expertise and efficiency a re_ prec � � y the obje�tiv� �;::�gat ng power . e nc1 � D ·n age _to ! enforce various these to aws J may also beco· e a crucial factor e t d 1r an t1 if well, 1e agency is to do its job o w� be consumed fe h - 8�. can easil other �t­ y 1e �e tl appe On aled cour to ts. the presumably t�e iins�I�u Iona1 a is com m1t me nt '' law c to of ' due pro ess c?zens ,,.�' m ent to ''fa·ir procedures to resolve issues wluch affect vital interests of cio

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me, are bound t o make sure that this guarantee is ass u ma y we t r e and th co u �ed by the agency when it acts. bser r o y l e P roP '' ue proces ''

s t ''d may sat·isfy a 1 aw student's psychologic ou I b a � ''ru stated y al ;. ri. gid, simpl comprehens1ble law. But such a rt1le may also be totally unrealistic • "Jy 1 for eas yearnings • • . •

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from �l11 ef J11stice Warren's OJ)inion in following the lJy carefu consider s1s l1a 0) : d] 11p 96 (1 de [e1 0, ad 42 . .S U 3 36 e c/z ar ah v. L ,

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. co_ n It cep exa t. elu ct sive o�nclaries are 11ndefinab1e, aild a� is s'' o�es � � p ue (''D r accord ng to specific fact11,1l contexts. Tl1 us,

i w/ 1 en governmental s varie nt t e . co� its make binding determi11t1tiorzs 1-v/1icl1 clirectly affect tlze legal or icate adiud · • auencIes th e t J o a t t · c 1 es z se tI1e procedures w/1ic!z 1 1ave se age11 ividuals, zt zm z i t . .. pe,:a ind s � � � &h f , so . d h : 1 l z 1c d U oc�ss. 011 t 1e 1e z J tr t w 1 otl1er I1a11d, wI1en govern­ te ia c o ss a n e e b y ll a on traditi k e o f an adJll pdi�?a!1011, as for exa.1nple, wlien p_ a rta. n?t do�s a gei1eral mental actio_n t condt1ct ed, 1 1s being 11ot ne ts ess�ry tion tl?at the investiga ftill JJanoply djng � t-fin fac Therefore, as a general1zat1011, 1t ca11 be said that used. be res procedu judicial f �ue proce ss embodies _ the �iffe�ing r11les of fair play _wl1icl1, tl1rougl1 tl1e years, have become associate d with d1ffer1ng types of proceedings. Whether t/1e Co11stitution rig/1t_ obtairz in a specific proceeding depends requires that a particular [procedural] u pon a cornplexity o_f factors . T/1e nature of the alleged rigl1t involved, t/1e nature of the p roceedi11g, and the possible b11rde11 on t/1at proceeding, are all consideratio11s 'J

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111'1ich must be taken into account).

Justice Frankfurter wrote in the same case: "In the application of the Constitutional guarantee of 'd11e p1·ocess' to various governmental activities, our concern is not witl1 absolutes, eitl1er of governmental power or of safeguards protecting individt1als. I11q11iry must be directed to the validit y of the adjustment between these clashing interests - that of Government and of the individual, respectively. "Barring rare lapses, this Court has not unduly confined those ,,,110 l1ave the responsibility of governing withjn a doctri11aire conce1Jtio11 of 'due process.' The Court bas been mindful of the manifold variety and perplexity of tl1 e tasks wl1icl1 the Constitutjon bas vested in tl1e legislative and executive bra1 1cl1es of the Govern­ ment by recognizing that what is unfair in one situation may be fair in another.... Whethe r the procedure now questioned offends 'the rudiments of fair play' is not to be tested by loose generalities or sentiments abstractly appeari11g. The precise �l:�re of the inter�st alleged to be �dver�ely a-!fe?ted or of the freedom of action e � to be curtailed, the manner 1n wl11 ch this 1s to be done and the reasons for d i.m n t, the balanc e of individual hurt and the justifying public good - th�se _a�d o � g 8,u ch like are the conside rations ' avowed or implicit ' that deter111ine the Judicial d JU gtnen t when appeal is made to 'due process'."

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Approaches to ''Due Process''

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� i n in�c�i:c�co�ce pts u�de�lying ''due process'' are, of course, widespread and per ha1iic in� f�r Justi ce and in recog nition of the precept that_ a gove rn1!1ent w 1 . 1 eel 0 ! respond to ese 1ty, u sec n ow its y, wa s iou ser ins t st �? mo incts may ultimately undermine, in the � its ''legitirn to e espoD<l ve r ha s m ste sy e read ng s l ga le r he the bas i :d." Th below indicate bri efly how o t i c

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IONAL LAW T U IT T S N O N C IA P JO I IT E F SOURCEBOOK O

l'n m d l It o n is l ea a C g w n n E th in v. ' a� e' L ic st u � ! l a 11· t1 Ta ]\ '' f o I. Tl e Principle eloped_ tl1e doctrrn: at

�h ev d s r� an t1 _ co di in l1 1s gl n E d­ yi e ag �t y rl ea an at g n Beginni se n ce se t? a t1 li . av .g pr (e a 1t �l r1 e o� e_ pr bl 1a lt va io ss n, f� o ed iv pr de e b t o n d til lo u al sl y it un to rt o e po th ve ha 11g y1 Jo s hi en 11t l10 rt se w _ ca p e) 1r 11t �e s ie rr ca l l ic l l \V a job e, s as ge C pa ,,; 120, where m 911 on B r D f. (C . al � 11n 1b tr � ed as bi 11n : heard before an , en us wh an Th .) t Ac es of dg Ju be rli ot Pa nn ca a­ ·s o1 ns ce /1,e ''t ed ar cl de Coke c.J. d d ? oy an str em nd an co n to sa un , g. e. ry ·, e1 ita w po 1 itl w � 1cy e1 ag an st ve ld mei1t wou ng d1 an st e th 1th tw , n at se no th ab ld he ce t 11r co of e th , re tu uc str g in us ho fe or 11nsa d ar d he sed � bia be un to ty ni rtu ie _ rev po op w e, tic no r fo on isi ov pr lar cu rti pa any ide ov t d to pr un tha bo s u wa ced pro cy en re ag tl1e s, im cla r's ne ow y ert op pr the of t, ec the urt eff d in co ; rea law ing se t1s the l1o tl1e ing orc f e11 of s ces pro tl1e of rt pa a as nt me t rli no did at Pa _ th y end or int the the on ly ab sum e JJ1· , law tl1e o int ts requiremen e a t tur r a. mi from the dep to per ry tra con tl1e to ge g11a lan ar cle of e e11c abs i11 tl1e of rd Boa al k Loc wic etli v. Sn1 ns JJki ., Ho e.g , See ''. tice jus al tt1r ''na of nts me uire req Health, 24 Q. B. D. 713 (1890). Compare Local Govern,nent Board v. Arlidge [1915] A. C. 120 (court will not 1·eq11ire any specific rules of procedure so long as, overall, the process is fair). See also U11iversity of Ceylon v. Fe,·nando, [1960] All Eng. Reports, Vol 1, 637 (A student accused of cl1eating and tl1reate11ed with expulsion is entitled to be heard on tl1e cl1arge; but tl1e Cot1rt reiterated tl1e following dictum: ''There are, in 1ny view, no words w11icl1 are of universal application to every lci11d of _inq�1iry and every lcind of [administrative] tribunal. The requirements cf natural J11st1ce n1ust de1Je11d on tl1e circt1mstances of the case the nature of the inq11iry, tl1e r11les tinder \Vl1icl1 tl1e tribt1nal is acting, the subject-�atter that is being dealt with and so fortl1.'' i

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The c<?ncept o� ''oatur�l jt1stice'' \Vas read into the .tvfalayan Constitution in the case excerpted belo\v, wh1cl1 provides an informative illustration of i ts content.

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A peal (No. 9 _of 196�) [to tl1e Privy Cot1ncil] from an order of tl1e Court of Appeal {. e Federation of Malaya (December 9, 1960), setti1 1g aside a judgment of the ig .1 Cot1rt at Penang (Marcl1 24, 1960).

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: The following int oductory staten1e nt is taken fron1 the ittee m Com Jud icia l judgment of the � · of · T he appe] lant, B . Sur1ncler Singl1 K . ancI a, �a� ai1 inspector of P<? lice in the Ro_yal Fed eration d Malaya Police On Jtil 7 19 5 l e n e o t o sn11�se? e n � u Police � ? was l �, � tl1e 1 of .n Con1m ssioner Y 1 l that he l1ad bee Y th gui t of' a !fen_ce agaii�st d1sc11)l1ne. ti _ac an Ul on 00 Inspector Ka nda brought Higl1 Court cJ1allengi;g tha� � sm 0f an sal. c t is liigby J. was void d eclared tl1 � dismissa l at is h effect. Tl1e Government a d. he Court of Appeal by a majority (Thomson C.J.. and J:Iill_J-�, witl1 Neal J. d issentin g) tifi!�� t ( · 1 d1 appeal nuss validly � and a was held that or s Inspect a nd K He now . appealed to the·Ir Lord sh1ps' Board TI1e appeal ra·t e d two questio . ns: · · hitn· (1) Tl1e first questi�on was . 1 s r e w h e th t h � e h Co d1 to !lln:1ss1oner 01 a power any Police of . s ·ce d Inspector Kanda said tllat und l Sen'l Police er ie t the Const1tut1on h wit the power only rested Commission. · (2) The second question wa: wh �th. e� the procee ings which resulted in his dismissal� cond ducted in accord ance with na J ur a ustice. Inspector Kanda said they were not. 1 ,, · · gust.

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uncil, nda C · v Federation (Privy o of [ ya, la Ma 2 1962] (Malaya) 3 W. 115 R. L. a K

The Federation of MaIaya . u A s wa came into being on Merdeka Day, tl1at 31, 1957....

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r Me rdeka Day, two men \Vee cl1arged i11 tl1e Stipreine afte t95 7 r b e (�Jo Sept ro ! �ith �ittering forged lottery tickets . Tl1e prosec11tio11 failed. The e t t 11· cour a � ;:;;use the prosecution called a 11t1mber of vit11esses, i11cl11dir1g police false. t Tl1e accused 1ne11 vvere acqtiitted. palpably e _ wa ason Vi'O was v ce iden r e 5 h s be ,\ officer , w ? �oner of Police ordered an inq11i1·y to l1 ld. Tl1e e board of i11qttiry . l corom.1ss1 · o:ill1cer. It reported that The re 'de d ov er by Mr. D. w. yates, a very se11101· po1ice ,vas p ? ' d fo r use at tl1e trial. ate ric fab n bee had false ev1dence . . . Con11n1ss1011er of Po the ice report clecided tl1at proceedthe rina Onside c o . . . . . After nda. Not cr111111al pro eed111gs before nspector K I ag��st taken be � . � • 0C15 should \ 10 proceecl1 11gs u11der ,,,}1:'lt tl1e d1sc1pl1n ary Police but Regt1lations La\V of . ts . . ' I11 the cour . ' � con11n1ss1011er Th ' . u:e d Proce tJJ}J01ntecl Mr. Strathair11 Room erly "Ord . cal1;d the adjttdicating officer to 1nq111re into tl1e cl1arges. \1r. Startl1air11 was junior � the inqt1iry'. Mr. Yates crafted a s_pecin1e11 cl1arge, conduc�ed l1ad who ates , !��Ir.Y He own. drafted bis a11_ o tl1er. preferred Tl�e cl1arge, _ a s eve11tt1ally n Strathair Mr. but was that he bad Kand_ a , failed tQ disclose ev1de11ce vvl1ich Inspector t agains lai d to his knowledge cottld be given for the two acc11sed 111e13: or alter11atively, tl1at l1e / bad been guilty of condt1ct to the prej11dice of good orde1 and discipli11e i11 that he had submitted investigation papers to his superior officer knowi11g the san1.e to be false. Another charge was afterwards added that l1e wilfully disobeyed a lawful command to subpoena a witness. In April and May, 1958, the cha rges were l1eard by Mr. Stratl1air11, tl1e adj11dic­ ating officer. He found Inspector Kanda guilty on tl1e o r:gi11al cl1arge of failing to disclose evidence and recommended that he be disn1issed from the Force. I-le also found him guilty on the added charge of disobeyi11g a lavful com111a11d and reco1n­ mended an award. of a severe reprimand. The Commisgo11er of Police approved the recommend anons. .... On October 1, 1 959 [after exhausting inter11al appeals] i11spector Ka11da br_ought this action [in the High Court] against the G1)ver11me11t of tl1e Feder­ ation of Malaya claiming a declaratio11 that his dismissal was void, inoperative a11d of�oeffect. He put it on two grounds: (1) His disn1issal wts effected by an at1thority which had no power to dismiss him, contrary to Article 135(1) of the Co11stitt1tion; (l) h e was not given a reasonable opportunity of being :1eard, contrary to Article 135 (2) of the Constitution......, The High Court gave jtdgment for Kanda. The Appeals Court reversed.

This appeal follwed:

April 2· The judgment of their Denning, ord by ered L delv was s ship Lo1·d wh0 stated the fa cts set out above a n d continued: ...... e gove rning Article of the Constitution on this poii1t is A rticle 135(2), which com�into ?Peratio n on Merdeka Day (August 31 1957): '' 1 35(2) No member of su ch a serv1 · ' . · or ce d 1sse a 1sn1 d a be ll sl1a a ores e] thes . id ·[the police se rvice is one of r edu c e d 10 s f · · ra 0k wit· hout being lieard · ' ' eing b f o given a reas ona ble opportlln1ty al o plaints were made by Inspector Kanda of a fail�re to coi:nply with this i:;:� e c m 0ne corn ,_ but 0 ? 0e of them survived for arg um en t bef)re the!r Lor�sllips exc�p� laint wh h �as n ot �o _ i� related to the report of the board of inquiry· This complaint did no t k nta ined in the statement of clai1n, but this wa� beca11se I1!specto r_ Kanda ow t e contents r L or�Thei ial. r t the of y d1. r t1rth of the repo t until the fo ships thini t h it rm hat an amendme pe of ge sta at th at n e·re nt should have be en made

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of . urt pe d Co n Ap a l ·as if an a· J R y igb ore bef . d e am de cee pro nd se a c .1 1e t as t b 1t . w j g on be d wr ul to wo ut sh i k 1in t t t ou s ] ip t sh rd no . im,e11\t l1 ad b een mea.de ' tl1eir Lo a sev ere condemn ation of Ins d ine nta co y l1ir i11q of rd a pector bo . . The re1Jort Of tlle . . · ire qu 1o ._re h e s a t t o in e _ b +to in er ic �ff e th g t1n ca d1 ju ad charge, e tI1 o t t n e s s wa It Kanda. t In spector K anda _ never Bu !s· en t n_ co s rt: of e dg e l ow kn ll h.ad He read it and 11ad fti , ed he v de .. ne In 1t er got 1t until the th w1 ng �l1 de of ty 1ni rt1 po op an it. He iiever 11ad t hi s to ok pl ace between the judg e 1en wl n, tio ac is tl1 of 1g ri1 a he e 1 l t fourtll day of s m ote fro qu urt the Co e [tl1 ord rec ent nm ver of the Go e 1 l t to r ise dv a al leg tlJe and I-Iigl1 Cot1rt proceecli11gs]: ''T/1 e court to legal advise,·: A.in of the opinion t h�t in the interests of justice the ade av ailab le to the cour t and to the be m o t gl1t u o t1iry inq of rd boa 1 tl e of ings find plaintiff and privilege waived tl1ereon.... ''Legal adviser: Must b e some 111ist1nderstanding - they have always been available - and no privilege claimed thereon. ''Court: It is 1ny clear imp1·ession tl1at botl1 in court and throughout earlier proceedings i11 cl1 a1nbers, privilege has been consistently claimed in r espect of the board of i11 quiry file and tl1e findings tl1e1·eon. '' Tl1e report w as tl1en n1ade avail able to Inspector K anda and his advisers. It dealt ju de tail witl1 tl1e evidence of eacl1 witness heard by the board, and expressed views as to the credibility of e acl1 witness, and tl1e weigl1t to be attached to his state­ ment. It ref erred to inq11iri es m ade by tl1e Board itself apart from the evidence given by �itnesses. In tl1e result i t presented, as lligby J. s a id: a most damning indict­ m_ent against I11sp�ctor I(anda as an unscr11pt1lous scoundrel, who bad suborned �1tnesses, botl� l?ol1ce and civilian, to commit perjury. It said: ''Tl1e board are unan­ imously of op1n1on tl1at I11spector K a11da is tl1e 'villain of the piece'.... The board wer e forced to tl1e conclt1sion tl1at I11spector Kan da is a ,,ery ambitiot1s and a thor­ otig�Iy :i-1nscrupulot1s �fficer wl10 is prepared to go to any lengtl1s, includi�g the fabrication of false evidence, to add to l1is reputation as a successful investigator. Tl1e board c�uld no t l:el conside ri11g l1o w 1n a11y of his previous successful cases had bee11 acl11eved by s1m-p1 l a1· n1etl1ods." !11e 9-uestion_ is wl1etl1er tl1e l1earing by tl1e adjudicating officer was ,�tiated by his be_111g fur 11tsl1ed witl1 t]1at repo rt withou t I11spec tor K a nda bein g give n any_ r �ruty of �orrecti11g or co11t1·adicti11g e t re bef b o 11 nt arg it. M ume cl1 of t11e r:� : 1 a _ ll't tha l)S rld, 1nde�d,_ b�fore tl1e �Ol11·ts 1�, g t fo? the i11 M on ala .ya proceeded tl·lis,, pended. on tl11s ftirtl1er qt1est1011: Was there a ''real likelihood of bias ' that . ts,. a? o1Jerat1v e prejl1dice, te wl 1et l 1 e1· conscious or u11conscious' ' on tl1e part of b adJUd1cat1ng office · 1 J·udge ' · :r' . Mr. St rat.11a1· r11, aga1.11st Inspector Kan da ?' ... Tl1e tr1a Rigb J 1 Id tll at t e w as a be�� e the � m very B r�a] likelil1ood of bias. ut all of tl1 � C�u�� of ppebalr�t e l1 real 1oug l1 t l . o t no l1erw 1se. They held tl1at there was k hood of bias. S0 tnspector K a nda failed on that w ay of lookjng at the case. In the opinion of their · c is . · Lord�h1p h a ro ap s [_1.e., this Court], ... the proper p somewhat different Th is d a l1e e is one tlung. The right to be raIJed another· Tllose two· rul rule against bras · es are t h e essen 11a n · c oft e · · 1s 1 at c 1 h w a l f ract o er1st1cs natural justice. They a . . the n i e e tl\{ two maxims .· Nern0 r th twin pillars supporting it. The Romans pt1t thern ' n e e J11dex in causa. .riu_a: rec v and Ai,d'z alte been put in tlie two --- ram parterri. Tl1.ey I1 a nce pts word o s, · I e pa. a r t c 1 a 1 m l a ty �nd Fairness. But the y are sep r t and are govemed -0r ec t bY separate consideration I ns case nt e s e pr I p s. n the

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

641

lain ed of a breach of the s�co�.d. He . said that llis corlstittitional I(and a :�n infringe d. He had been d 1sm1sse d w1tl1011t being given a reaso­ a right h � . d r a e g h in e b f o y it n u ;t 0 o p le p . nab . . d 1s to be a rea l r1gl1t wl 11c h is wort�1 he ar be �o gh t a�ytlling, it mtist ri If the �ccused man to k_now tl1e case w}11ct1 1 s 111ade tl1e of righ t a it aga with inst c: l1as evi bee s den n k ce 1ve wh n a�1? wl1at stat�n1e11ts llave been at w � n u_ t ? �h He m _ and then e m 1st be ven f 1r ff _b 1 him _ a ,1 OIJIJOrttir�ity to correct or g ectin � a : ade Jl1 all tl1e .1n case s app f1 ears on1 tl1e celebrated Judgiuent of Lord Thi s them . diet cont r aurn L.C. in Board of Education v. Rice [1911] A.C. 179 at }J.182 clovv11 to , tl e . . Lore b · . ' d 111 C e Ion U11z versitJ, v. Ferr1ando [I oar · B Lordsl11ps their 60] � of I W.L.R. � 10�.. ,' decision � . _ tl1a Jtid cou tl1e ! ge rse, or _of \Vl:o ws, ever l1acl to adJtidicate mlist not foll o It ) I� .C. • 223, o _representations fr?m 011e side bel1ind tl1e back of tl, e otlier. re�e1ve or nce evide hear T e cou rt will 11: ot 1nqwre wl1et�er the ev1 de11ce or re1)r�se11tatio�s did work to l, is h _ u m1gl1t d o so. Tl1e court \V1.ll 11ot go 111t_o t11e _Iikelil,ood t h�y that ffi.c1e°: t S dice: p er ju of preju dice. The r�sk of 1t 1s e�ougl1. No 011e \Vl10 l1as !ost a c,:tse will believe lie has tiu� l been fairly treated 1f the other si d e has bad access to tl1e Judge ,v1tl1011t l1js k11owing.... f I� ' [The Court then cited vario11s cases.] ApJ:lyin9 tl1ese P.rinciples, their Lordships are of opinion that Inspector Kanda was 11ot 1 n tl11s case given a reasonable oppor­ ) �, Ji tunity of being heard. They find themselves i11 agreen1e11t witl1 tl1e vie\v ex1)ressed '.SScj I by Rig by J. in the words: ''In my view, tl1e furnishi11g of a copy of tl1e fi11clings of m1� ! the b oa rd o f inquiry to the adj11d icati11g officer appointed to l1ear tl1e disci1)li11ary tfll.1 cha rges, coupled with the fact tl1at no st1cl1 copy was furnisl1ed to tl1e plaintiff, i�. amo unted to such a denial of natural j11stice a.s to e11title tl1is court to set aside tl1ose a proc e edings on this ground. It amounted, in 1ny view, to failure to afford tl1e plain­ l.." J tiff a reasonable opportunity of being l1eard in answer to tl1e cl1a.rge preferred "", ' against him which resulted in his djsm.issal." Tl1e 111istake of tl1e police autl1orities ··1r1,�· was nodou bt made entirely in goo d faitl1. I t was q11ite pro1)er to let tl1e adjL1ciicati11g officer have the statements of the witnesses. Tl1e Regulations sl1ow tl1at it is 11ecessary of r rum to have them. He will then read tl1ose out i11 tl1e presence of tl1e accused. But their Lordships do not think it was correct to let lum l1ave tl1e report of tl1e board of inquiry unless the acc11sed also had it so as to be able to correct or contradict the statements in it to bis prejudice.... i,1 ( �·· heir Lordships will therefore report to tl1e I-lead of tl1e Federation as tl1eir �··.1 ! . 'l opiruon that the appeal shoul d be allowed, tl1e order of tl1e Court of App�al_ sl1otild �' ·. be set aside , and that it should be declared tl1at tl1e dismissal of tl1e pla111t1ff from > •• tbe Fede ration of Malaya Police. . . was void, inoperative a11d of no effect.'' i'

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' ard te t ; t�� re ' ''�e ,?e _to i�l1t t r e t Ka ) da o n th he 135(2 . e gav Ma] Constitution of aya, Art w i� ha ffia�e n fact a full hearing' but the Court' invoking principles of ''natura l Justice , said tl 1e he_a iing o red ct·1d no� meet the requirements of tl1e ConstitLition. Wl1y n�t? Sh ouId Artic · I e 43 b e 1nte . r��led to requi� a sir:niiar result if the case involved Ethiopian po l ice officers? Are th er e practica 1 &Uments against this result? For it?

2) The Development of ''General Principles of Law'' by t/1e French Co11seil d'Etat Re-r ead: Chapter II, pages 205-207 (The Conseil d'Etat).

ncil ou C l1 nc Below i s a_ epo�t of a re F e 1 tl of s ct e asp f er fam?us c�se which iJ lt 1strates a nt1n1b � of State (des�rt � Gouu d e ir sa is n1 n o1 "C 1e t l e� 1 t e �n not th e reading cited above). You shoul d � vernement '' is ificant gn si i11 l10 , vv ·1 c n a ou 1 e l d1s t to 1 _ 1nterest ed government lawye r - attac l1ed cases r; bilssi�� ��t� his views on the issues to the Council thr ough botl1 ?ra �argu�:e � ��ndl :� itten st1b-s , l e ust, auto · is not exp ected to act as n se e t n i nt advocate for the Govern1ne

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NAL LAW IO T U IT T S N O C N IA P IO I IT E S O l R C E B O O K OF

j ry e , ve in ew . vi se e re ca th e f :1f o t �c argu es the b _ o _ 1e tJ is 1 cl J1i w on ti ac i y 1c e1 a oper mterpreta t1on of the law mat.ic.ally defend the a pr tl1 wt tly en ist ns co , 1ld oi s/1 t en · m rn ve _, pos1t1on w'111.c11 11e thm· k', tlJe go take before tl1e Coun<il.

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ed d at u an sl od an pr tr re as d er ce vi ra -G er in 1;i 1n ro T e iv ez V e 1 n .ba of se ca Fr on l tlle , . . J 0 z, 45 o 11 ll 19 a D m o fr 7) 5 9 (1 i n te ys S Von Mel1 ren, T/1e Cvil Lalv

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r , by de an ted or an of the gr s wa av ier r -G ier 11p o1 Tr . s r M 5, 1)2 ay M 30 ''On o n the Boulevard ted ca , . lo 69 o d an N st ,vs ne g rin ve o c se en lic Prefect of t l1e S eine, tl1e pl o yed at the Ministry em s wa o wh r, vie ra r-G pie om Tr . s r M ri�. Sai11t-Deni s i11 Pa w ne sstand to Mrs.­ t11e of nt me ge na ma the t s tru en to ed riz o h 111t s of Agrict1ltt1re, wa the manageress of nd of sba hu e, ng La . Mr of t 11 Jai np co1 tl1e cn t1p La nge. In 1939, ­ rs, the 1ini do adn ven per spa new of n tio a er fed tl1e f o 11t ide s )re nd a nd a tl1e 11ewsst tempted to extort · at had er avi G1 iermp Tro s. r t M tl1a ced vi11 coi e am bec 1 o1 strati 40,000 fra11cs from the Langes t111der the t hreat of withdrawing the management of tl1e st ancl fron1 1·1e ir ha11d s. On 26 D ecember 1939, tb.e prefect inf ormed Mrs. Tro1npier-Gravie1· tl:at l1er license for tl1e newsstand would expire on 3 1 December I939 a11d ,vo t1Id not be renewed.

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''Tl1e petition Q)ntes ts tl1e fac tual basi s for tl1e decjsion, and maintains that it invo lves a 'detot1meme11t de pouvoir'. T11e petitio n also indicates, but does not empl1 asize, that Mrs Trompier-Gravier wa s not per1nitted to defend I1erself against tl1e a cct1s at ions n1ace against lier.

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''Tl1is allegatior, wl1ich the petitioner makes in connection with an argument relative to tl1e �e1·its. co11stittLtes, i11 spite of tl1e l ack o f empl1asis placed on it by the party, tl1e mo st IIDJ)Crt ant of tl1e objections agai11s t the challenged decision. ''T11_e exami�atior of tl1e f a cts does not le ave any doubt. It would be up to Mrs. Tro �1�1er-Gr�v1 er tc sl1o w tl1 at tl1ese facts were incorrect.· It appears from t_ h e dossi�r, es1Jecially fr)m tl1e rep ort o f the inspector of police ... that Mrs. Tromp1�r0avier dema11cled a la rge s u1n of money f1·om Mrs . La11ge a,s the price for co� tin ­ uii,� 11er_ as a 11age-ess of t�1e ne,vsstand. 111 doi t1g tl1is tl1e petitioner com mi_tted � an 1 1:1moral act, JJerl111Js a del1ct, a11d a11 act con trary, in all events, to tl1e regulations applic able_ to n_ewsa a!1d�, fixed by tl1e prefectora l order dated March 13, 192�; the newsst a iid licen� _i s, 10 pri11ciple, personal; it is subject to annual renewal; it ca11 not be m ade an CbJect ?,f con1n1erce, st ill less of extortion. . . , . ''In ca11cell_ i11g Mrs· Tron1p1·e r-Grav1e1· no · 1·0 · was 1 rustrat1on s 1 cense, the adm1 .on . . . . w�{' �s tlle p�titio11 argued, 1nterferi11g in a private litigation. The administrati w1s 1e to p11n1sh b y l proper s a nction an improper ac . t. :'Tlle c hallenged decision thus does not lack a leg al basis' nor js it vitiat ed by a 'detournement de pouvoir'. . . of 'This decision �aises, however, a problem of proc ' ce rtan impo the . edur e ' . whICh transcends the d"ispute b etween rs. Tromp1er-Gravier and the Langes. M ,, lt .s _ est . ro i ·abl!shed that the c hallenged decision was ma rs . M t wi tho u de · . T Jil� Pl er -G rav1er hav1ng �e n inv . to · ite · d to present her defence. ng di lea Tl1e proceeding

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avi lice er's nse was pier -Gr :l1erefore not an adversa' ry �: _.---- . Tro m Mrs . f . O n [) cance.llatio cr a I ProceedIOo· · · · T ? ' ' · · 1s d h t grot1n d on e as1 l . 1s set 1s 1 e tl be qt1.est10 11 to \Vlltcl1 sion we J de--i 1e \; 1 t · , ''ls ! ust examine. even 1n tl1e. absence of a11y. statt1tory provision , often have, ons · decisi ( JD "your d' 111g 1s necessary. Tl1:s r11le, based 011 JJri11ciJJles procee sary adver an i affirnled that an absol11te or r11le. �01ne universal decisions fail to aJJply a not ever, how ,t of law, ..is, . . scope ?. its 1s then, t, Wha it . i [Discussio n of cases omitted.] ' of tl1e puJlic service, d.irection the Administration, is 11ot "Thus in tl 1 e reqt1ired . the absence of an express provision of law, t o put interested parties in a position �� discuss its decisions. �uc? a requiremen_t wo11ld hi11d(r, witl1out a11y corres1Jo11d­ ing advantage, the fu11ct101:11ng of !l1e �erv1ce a_nd wot1!c paralyz� tl1e act.io1.1 of tl1e adwinistration. However, 10 ce1 ta111 fields, tl11s }Jract1c1l rL1le g1,1es way before a higher principle. Due to their nature and their object, certain decisio11s 1nt1st be preceded by discussion, or, at least, tl1ey cannot be 1nadt 1111til tl1e interested parties are in a position to discuss tl1e grounds for tl1e decisio1: - TJ1is is tl1e case vvith respect to all 'judicial' decisions and all disciplinary 1nea:t1res. I-Iere 011ly a pro\'isio11 of law can ju stify the administration i n djspe11sing ,vitl' a11 adversary IJroceeding. Although these principles are certain and affirmed i11 a long li11e of cases, it is still difficult to mark 0L1t their limits in practice. Certain JJr)ced.t1res do 11ot talce };lace before a judge and yet require, in view of tl1 eir object.i�s, judicial guara11tees. For example, the setting aside of an election by a minister re:i11ires, i11 tl1e interest of tl1e public serv·ice itself, the support of an adversary prcceedi11g. [citatio11 on1itted]. · . "Your decisions also extend tl1e requirements of �11 adversa.ry proceeding to neighboring areas, 011tside of what is, properly speakini, the 'j11dicial' do111ai11. "This rule has had a similar extension outside its traditio11al civil service setting. Wh�� an administrative decision takes the form of a pe1alty and affects vitally tl1e os iti_o� of an _individual, your ca.se la\v reqL1ires tl1�t tl1� i11ter�sted party be put in � positio n to discuss the gro11nds for tl1e measure wh1cl1 aiects I1.1m. [Discussion of decisions omitted.]

'_'If \Ve a.nalyze tl1e decision that tl1 e p,refect took wi1l.1 reg,trd to Mrs. Tro111pi�r­ G vie , e c· pr�_i r w can demon strate that the cli allenged decision l1as tl1e nattire of a dis­ I nary penalty. - .. Mrs. Trompier-Gravier on at� z ori . tl1 a11 e 1 tl of y rth ;vo 11n sl1owed herself to be th t � ad bee tion tila n reg e 1 tl giv of er en lett tl1e her a11d She · it spjr had vio latecl the · r�laat1ve to · · . d e eng 11 ne a 1 ·I 1 c e 1 t ssta at . tl1 w 1e, . alo1 nds . se t tl1e ·on 1s on a11d s L1nd se gro the I deci ' · . . s:i 1s. bas ed· vx, . ·s Trom. . M 1--· · e vic ser · ·1 ,ve 1 c1v e 1 l are of1 l a certa1n y outside of tl1e are. . ·P1er-Grav1er . · 111 · tl1 e l?ost t1011 · · 18 is not 1e l S i n any sense an agent of tl1 e adm1111st1at1on. of a . o n g ven the 1s 1 at10 1z l1or at1t l: SLtc o n. I p nai cl 1 L ht c rig bli l to b s tl1e s r�ver are r pas ove · 0 ca .le · d r s groL1n ' . tl1e .. t 111� . an d 1ca d 111 t h e n �e administration could, witl1otit 1.o r its deci ion, t d cle ten 111 It . so ve �o ha t 0 11o Bu s 1d it t �Unish a (aSu uppressed tl1e 11ewsstand. � 1 co lt. It aced its elf ese t 111 r .ll . Jon tions it act y r> llar li ci dis of n P� a thi tl wi are 1 e c ould not ic . b p11 . . . . wl1en even ag , ove1·ns · ' in o ur optn1on I e ti 1a.- g uc1p . .. en ·ts are n ot . pr1 . ignore a · · ' 111ary · 1 . . cl1sc11J · all inv ctes ol v 1 ve ' pro d and no express prov1s1on. of 1aw �:;o :

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proceedings. TJ1e per son against wl1om a _penalty is imposed has a right to kn ow nce. defe ent s lus pre 1d to a1 the grotinds for tl1e action ''We recomn1en d that tl1e cI1allenged decision be set aside.''

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Tlze Consei/ d'Etat:- Tl1e orders of the Prefe�t of the Seine of 13 March 1924, 11 December I924 a11d 22 Ja11uary 1934 duly considered; - The Law of 1 8 Decem ber 9 1 40 duly considered; - Whereas it is established tha� tl1e cha�Ienged decisi ­ I on, by wrucl1 tl1e Prefect of tl1e Seine witl1drew from Mrs. Tro1:11p1er-Grav1er-the �utho I riza­ l tion tl1at she l1ad bee11 accorded to sell newspapers 1n a newsstand situated on tl1e Boulevard Sai11t-De11is at Paris, was taken becau se of the misconduct o I' ' tl1e petitio11er was gt1ilty; - Wl1ereas, taking into account the character f which tha t th e decisio11 l1ad ' 11nde1· t 1 1e circu1nstan ces of t11e case, an d the gravity of the pen lty .' a st1cl1 a decision co uld not legally be made without Mrs. Trompier-Gravier being given a11 opport11nity to disct1ss tl1e cl1arges brought against lier; as the pe titioner, not l1avi11g b een invited i11 adva11ce to presen t her defences, prop ( er ly ar gue s th at the chal lenged decision ,vas re11dered by th e P1·efect of the Se in e w j th ou t proper · procedure s l1aving been observed an d is, tl1ereforej i11 exce ss of his powers. Article 1. - The decision of tl1e Prefect of tl1e Sein ' e, da te d 26 D ec em be r 19 3 9 , is set aside. ( _Note tl1at 110 legisiation reqt1ired tl1e I1olding tl1at 1vfrs. Tron1pier-Gravier was entitled to a hearing. But tl1e Con1n1issaire, in a n1ost la (r�se precedents) of th e Conseil, classifies wyer-1 ike way, carefL1l Iy recites the ''jurisprudence" trial-type, ''adversary'' J1earings \VOU!d tl1ese decisions and argues. con,,incingly that although ne_ver_tI1eI�ss, the,:e ''�ract_ical_ '' considera ''paralyze tl1e adn1ini3tration'' in SOTI1.e circumsta.nces, ti?ns mt1st ''give _way'' in ••certain fields'' to a ''higher principle a�d tl1ese_ pr1n_c1ples ar� the rule de: fining tl1e situations requ �erta1n and affirmed 111 a long line of cases''. He then states 1r1ng ''adversary'' proceedings. Tli_e Commissaire is 11ere referring to \vl1at are called ''les princi pes generaux du droit'' which are derived from tl1e case la\v of tl1e Conseil d'Etat.; tl1eir ''sou '' rce'� is discussed below. , From Brown and Garner, F •t rench Adn1 inis trati ve Law ( 9 I 67) pages l l l-112. nie e prin ciples may be compared with the (a d: ! English pr inciples of natural justic_ e _ � 1 alte,a,11 JJarten1 ancl freedo1n fron1 bias) b11t un _ zst, atif like E11glisl1 law' droit· admzn· l1as refttsed to b� ie· s tri· ct ' · ed to a s1nall o r precise nu1nb o defi I and . 1· t 11 a ?on·s.i�lered �,. ip e p r1 .. ;,' n f er n e d c itself free to recog11ise •• � cons1ders tl11s des1rable 1 en tt a ,v n 1 e w le '' g '' p e ri n n e c ra ip l · . . r ·: · n . Les Grands Arrets I ar 1 . im p o rt ant passage, reproduced 10 de la · . ·.s . den�e � · d, 111 1.strative, 4 th e d n., at p . 3 s h descri6 � a u �� a 44 n� B P f{ , re o e 1 a u si f � d f e n t r111c z1Je . . P_ s ge11e raiLx du d1·oit as ''unwri I eg1s Iat·1ve vaI1d1ty e . h h r tt w en hi la le a w s u o f c ' v 1d wl11· c 11 have SLlcl1 effect o n tl1e administration that they cann t be overrtilecl by a110�� o e r l l e g a l p i· o v . js io11 ... Tl1ey cannot I1owev b e describ ed s f ing a system of cust e r' ' a oma 1·Y ad�lI· DIS · . lrat_·1v� Ia as tl1ey have, for tl1� �ost part, o0nr.1111Yrecently bee11 reco� ": a creation of the �:� ed �_Y. the _ ad1:11n 1str�tive l l e . are r !es court a s pnnc1 These p c . t.s o uginatrng in as to assure the . J eq u n it y an d o e g h n a ve b b een rought i t b i prot ection of the : ,j' · individual rigl1ts of citizens." , _ = ..,,._.

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pro fession. Assuming tl1at tl1e standards of tl1e . of ber s ·tr..., mem co nd1 ct . ve prospecu (an pre d thi cis s, ion too, is a requirement of due proc e ; e ona bl rea s w ith . ss , d ) . te sta a re a ntion of A an_d B IS now fioc t 1sed on the_ proce dtire for determi11ing guilt ) th e tte h arg d c h e an d p11n1sl11ne11t. Tl1e discussion are on s vio lat i w ere bet ween es as c (in .fio11ows. as ceeds pro AandB · ent 'Ie d to d it 11e process in tl1ese cases; tl1 at is llis I_s nt _ s tud e sed acc u An ConA: stitutional right (Article43). no ''1·ig!1t'' t? attend t!1e Law Scl1ool.It is a privilege. is_ ere Th se! sen Non : B And when a stu�ent 1s expell�� l1e IS not depr!ved of ''life, liberty or property''. He is only �e�rived of a p1·zv1lege, an d Article 43 does 11ot al)I)ly to depriv­ ation of przv1/eges. A: You'll never pass tl1e LL.B. course if you play witl1 words Iil<e tl1. at! You must know by 110w tl1at pi1111i11g sin1ple ''concl11sion labels'' 011 a case is not a lawyerlike ,vay to argue it.Of co11rse, U11iversity education is a " "' ''privilege'' for sorne purposes. B11t it is not tl1 e ki11d of ''privilege'' wl1ich l! �it'!) r can be curtailed or restricted on any ter1ns yo11 migl1 t cl1oose. '

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For example: Could tl1e University ex1Jel yo11 because yo11're a iv1oslem? B: Of cot1rsenot(Articles37 and38). A: Could they expel you because tl1ey don't like your radical politics? B: Ofcoursenot(ArticJes41 and38). A: Could they expel you because the Deanjust doesn't l1a1)pe11 to lil(e yot1? B: That too would be unconstitutional discriminatio11 . A: Exactly! The whole point is tl1at tl1e Co11stit11tio11 does li1r1it tl1e povver of the University - and any public agency. U11 iversity ed11catio11 111ay be a ''privilege'' in tl1e sense tl1at only a few can get it.B11t for tl1e few wl10 111eet the qualifications it becomes a ''rigl1t'' for certai11 p11rposes - 111 eaning that we are entitled to the opportunity if we qualify, and tl1e la,v will protect our enjoyment of that opportunity, at least from certai11 lcinds of action designed to deprive us of it. A man expelled fron1 tl1e University is certa_in­ Iy iujured. He loses not only an education but tl1e economic val11e �l11cl1 education may bring. Tl1e harm ca11sed by exp11ls;on is ser_io11s. (It 1s _far worse punishment tl1an being tossed in jail on Sat11rday n1gl1t for being drunk.) Expu1sion must be treated as a form of punislzment for ptii-poses of applying Artic]e 43. And 43 applies wl1en tl1e State punislzes people. And the Unive1sity, for these purposes, is the State. B: Well, I'm not fully satisfi ed wit h all that. But assi11ni11g you are rigl1t, wl1at follows? A: If you woul d only read mo re constitutional law yot1 wotildii't a�k such questio?s. What follows is this: when you, B, are. acc1 1sed of cl1eati?g 0� _( are �ntitled to a l f a YP l l, tria , you � written statement of cl1,trges aga111st s s cro hea ring, the right to to t_ 1 l r1g e 1 tl d an cou1 1se11ed, d an ted be en res rep · · examination. The '' b 1.as' ' a11d f:' r 1 d ge 1 ei 1 · 1 ch� be . cl.� ''jud ges'' in your case can . Ill f Y.,h en they decide tll wi n io ci� de ei� itt wr er a nd re e th to ve se ey l1a ca th in g� ?f fact 1r e th al pe ap to led tit en o als d conclusio· ns of law. Y 01 1 are an · decisI on to tl1e Courts if any of tl1 ese procedures are ignore d

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the es, rul tio it11 ed nts 11ir Co req n e is ar e os 1 absurd. You tI If ! S l lol icu Rid B: y bod el �ny exp to for ble ossi imp cheating beca use no l it <e mal to g are goin ill w _ agre e to go througJ1 the , _ hers teac �he a11d n Dea t11e bly nota ord.eal one, al o� 1t1on scho trad l1e I t _ 1n de atten , add _ _, when the d ight 1 n I . e qllir e you r . ugh t]1e boy bro 1n and said: ''You're JUS� l1e r eate 1 cl � a l1t ca11g Director ence. Wh at ha:'e you to say?'' lf the evid tl1e e's Her g. atin e ch of d e accus boy , didn't co11fess, the Director would ask a few questions and then say: ''I don;t believe yo11 (u11less l1e did). Y011're dismi�se_d �or a t erm. Clear out in 15 mintites.'' Tl1at Director ran a tough, d1sc1pl1.ned, good school. Thanks i to the fact tl1at it was to11gl1, I made it through the E.S.L.C. I think his ''proc­ ess'' was ''due'' eno11gl1. A: Suppose the Director you liked so much had left and suppose his replace1nent was an ar1·ogant, stupid man? B: Tl1at's fate.

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A: D11e process is supposed to reduce fate as an element affecting our careers , and pro111ote n1ore rationality i11 tl1e judgments which may ''punish, men, n1ore co11fidence i11 tl1ose j11dgments.

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B: All rigl1t. But l et's take 11p your points one by on e .I think some of these 1 formalities yo11 wa nt to req11ire are contrary to th .e public interest in having an efficient university witl1 l1igl1 standa1·ds a nd with no cJ1eating in the Law Scl100I. If I'm Dean a11 d I accuse yol1 of cheating, why must I prepare a written cl1arge? Tl1at seems unnecessary. A: You forget tl1at if tl1e Dean is tl1e acct1ser. someone else should hear and judge. (Read D1·. Bo11/1c11n 's case agai,1 !) No� the judge nee.ds to know what the case is. A11d so cloes tl1e ,1ccused. If lie is innoce nt how does l1e necess­ arily l�now_ 110w to defend l1i111self ag,1i11st a ge11eral cl1arge of cl1eat�ng? If ! I1e cla1ms 111 11oce11ce, 11.e sl1ould be i 1 1formed ot.. the case against lum. 1 B: Well, all 1�i_gl1t - in s0 1ne cases you rnay be rigl1t, if the accused really �laims l t plJca comJ)lele 11 1noce11ce a11_d if the Cclse is seriot1s and possibly com : Btit I wotilcl gt1ess tl1at 1s tl1e t1nust1al case, not tl1e 1101·mal one. But wby yoti ask �or tl1e ''ri l1t to cott11sel'' '? Tl1at onl y n1akes things more compli­ caled, noisy ,1nd ted�1ot1s. I syp A: Becatis_e even if I were accused, e an d I'1n a brigl1t lawyer, I may not b cl1ologically able to defen d 111yself when myself am on trial. 1 I · g n i h t . B: A i e · l g a o i 1 1 1· t see1ns �o n1 e 1 l to depend o· n just. how co1npl1cate� the w . . y i vel ti ·ec is. If tl1e cl1arge is clear-ct1t an d sim ple all we need to do 1s loo k oblg,1, t'' to · . . at tl1e e:1· dence. N �w I , 1n ''r1 ' d e ll: · cl�t also very sus_p1c 1ous of your .. d se u . c . c a co. nfi· or1.tation. It m1gl1t be , 1 n. l a nt, 11111 ocla s you ery en1bar Are ras nt sing . de stu . 1 . c1·oss-e · ht to stude11t Iias a rig w� Ilo . ie as �· ,veil · a 1 n1ne as ross� . e achers t x . t ,vlio 1;11ay b e witnesse s? If so I nts 1 e · stud · e for e us practi say c bad is it a � � a ad i � x m �e teacl1e1·s (no matter� what we tl1i nk of them). It is. b .. · ·� s �jrc11 . a It wo11 t work o . int � ·ty 1 a , 11d I·t 1lllg . I ve 1t 1 . ead to converting a un1vers� e · 4 d e I tl�in . · k .we better Worry · we . · y rsit nL � 11nive e more a d abou of t kind wl1at tu s ping a � ose wl at tipp i5 sta11d.a1·ds we will l1 ave. Furtl1ern1 ore, s �e � h � e v · a b ports to the Dean tl1at . o . s . t ... , di fuse -! _re 111u 1e l 1� l buI did n cheat see ' , you . rt ::_ 11 a m e ilis fo � · _ .. _ in � closed or to be a wit the v..es ness. No\v, if the Dean 0el1e - ·: �; ·-

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A: There you go again, playing around witl1 generalizations based on semantics, not functional anyalsis. You can't just say ''denial of edt1cationa1 oppo!"­ tunity'' and make the cheating - expulsion case the sa111e as an ''academic dismissal' ' case or as a ''denial of admission'' case. They are fundame11tally different cases because different issues are at stake . I agree that d11e process applies, but the issues to be deteriruned are different and so the requirei_ne_nts of due process are dif f e rent . Tb e k;nd of.decision to be made in tl1e admission and acade mic dismissa.I cases does not lend itself t o, or require all the �o_rin­ alities of procedura.I due pro cess, in order to secure a !air , rational dec1s1on. In the case of a decisio11 wh ich turns on an academic test, tl�e paper you write is the whole ''case'' to decide. Unless you can sustain the heavy burden of proving bias or ar bitrariness, 1 10 court is going to �o�pel the · · ,, . U n1vers . 1ty to have 1ts tests graded ''d.e novo bY people who didn t teach . e wl1ere c n a tr e n t he course. n o n ·o · cisi e d a The same reasoning app11es to . . acade·mic grades (E S L C an d otl1e r tests) are the sole criteri�. If, howev·er,: r 1t · 11 u y ll ·. a 11 10 ·. ss a man was deni·ed adm · 1 ss1on because he was sa1·d t be ''pro_.fe . or for a simila r reason), I would argue he WOltld be e�tit·. led to_ a 1 1.e ;ri·�! �If he disputed that charge. He wo11ld b� enti t led to d1sp1� te the used t o support that nclusion, or to dispute the conclus1on dr a:: !r�m co the evidence.

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B: Well, the Court is going to have to acce pt yo11r tl1 eory of due process and un­ derstand the law. I'm not sure the judges will, today. Ft1rtl1ermore, tl1e whole thing troubles me in another way. If w e ap1Jly you1· rules to cheating-expul­ sion cases, what do we do about otl1e r cases? Si,ppose I am to be disn1issed because I failed two courses, but I claim the teacl1ers didn't grade correctly, and I want a trial-type l1earing. Or suppose I am dei1ied admission to the Law School because they say n1y grades as a FresI11nan vvere too low; but I can explain all that - my family called me a\Va)', a11d I lost 4 weeks, etc., etc. Am I entitled to your ''trial-type '' l1eari11g? If I l1a·ve all these due process riglzts in one case of denial of educatio1 1al op1Jortunity, wl1y not tl1e same rig/1ts in another case whlcl1 also involves de11ial of educatio11al oppor.,, tunity?

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te llj ng is th m e an t�u t th but won't tes tify ''in open in fo r th e if and co urt'', r by you d cal eate hni def tec rules. justic e will be But if the informant is lying just to get revenge on me, what t hen?

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A: No. I don't claim he is entitled to have tl1e case tried again; bu t I am claim­ ing that due process gives hjm certai11 rigl1ts, and if I1e can prove that tl1e Universi ty denied tl1e fai r l1earing req11ired, tl1en tl1e Constitution entitles rum to relief- reinstate ment or a rel1earing.

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ecisi?n on cross-exama tio n tip to tlie d a lea ve I'd th ink judge's discretion. B: 1 Anyway, you. see my point. We really l1ave to look very careftilly at each of these detailed rules yoll: want and explore tl1e implicatioi1s. The law (Artic le 43) sho�ld . �ot be interpreted to 11n:pose self-defeati 11g burdens or confusing t�ch_n1 ca.I1t1es. Now wl1at abo11t t l11s b11si11ess of judicial review? Ar e you cla1ming that af ter a s�11�ent l1as been found guilty of clieating he can start the who le case ove r again 1n cot1rt a11d sue the University?

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p u g in e in et in h d m w at a t 1 r l d e m e h , _ it w � c ro g n ei r: ag ess re a u yo t ) as T le \\ t a l el B: look at al l tl1.e circum· stances in . 1n ac giveil sit11at1on' w e l•1 ave to . . • . • ' reqt1.1res · • I act1ca consequences and implic.. r p 1e tl d, de ci de be to e . ' · ild of 18511 . CIlld Ing tlle ki J:."o rm aJ"1 ty . you re becom1ng more reasonI ar ul 1c rt pa ations of reqtiiring any al � rm e le fo l es u_ _ru al t� yo are requir­ r ve o k c a_ b go to <e lil ld able. Now, I wou c ti e ac al ill th pr n 1c ai pl ag l ations..... ce n o e in m a ex d an s se ca ing in discipline e ov e si ab th us on sc t di en . m m on co to t t ha in W po is th at d ke as e er w 11 y0 Stippose ? d d a u o y ld t1 o w t s en m u rg a new

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A Jiypothetical P,·oblem: Regit!ation of t!ie Operation of Taxicabs in the City. I A c o1111ni ttee of tl1e City Co11ncil of Addis Abab a has been investigating taxicab service in the city. Tl1e com1nittee l1as made a number of f indings and has recommended some p olicies. Tl1ey are as follo\vs: 1. Taxi service is very sig11ificant to tl1e economy of the city and to the welfare of tl1ousands of citize11s who depend 11pon thls service: Many people use taxis as a means o f transpo rt to a11d fro1n worl<, as a means of transporting goods. The city will need a11 i11c1·easing 11 umber of taxis as its population and geographical size grow. Bt1t for reaso11 s set fortl1 belo\v tl1e busines s of operating taxis should be 1 regulated by a Municipal Taxicab Com1uission. 2o Taxi drivers l1ave a rept1tation for b eing bad drivers. Taxicabs are often a traffic hazard, because tl1ey stop s11ddenly at unexpected places and bec ause they p11ll out into traffic s11dde11ly. Tl1ey have b een involved in a n111nber of accidents and have been tl1e direct cause of many otl1ers. These accident s are an unnecessar y cause of economic loss to many wage ear11 ers and families. The committee wishes to require tl1 at_ �11 taxi d�ivers obtain a special taxi driver's permit from tl1 e municipality in add1t1on to tl1e1r regttlar driving license. Tl1e s pecial permit would l1 ave to be renewed every year_. It wo trld no� be �ss11ed or renev.red if tl1e driver in the previous year has be_en co11v1cted o f two v1?lat1ons of traffic regt1lations under the Tr ansport Proclam­ �tio n, or_ has _been c?nv1cted of reckless drivi11 g. It wo11ld be revoked perm anently 1� the. driver is �o11v1cted over a period of tl1ree co11sect1tive years of three traffic abs, iolati_o s, or t wice for 1·eckless d1·iving. In a 11 axic t g invol vin s t un1ber of acciden � �he victim s �iave 11ot bee11 fully co111pe11sated beca11se tl1e taxicabs were not covered by 1�stirai1ce. Tl1e co111IDittee ,va11ts to req uire that each taxicab be covered at all time� by at lea�t $5,?00 i n ins111·ance for liability to pers ons injured or property dam ged in connect1 011 wi tl1 tl1e operation of tl e taxicab. 1 � aces 3. Tl1ere 1s prese lltiY no 1 11n · 1· t 011 fa1·es. Tl1e ct1stomary fa1·e for a trip I P · ost m .. . ·l n tl1e _c1ty is 25 ce11 ts dt1ri11 g the day ar1cl 50 ce11 ts at nigl1 t after 9 pin. S ometi mes · er the driver attem· pts to get mo.re, l1owever, . . · riv d tl1e res11lt1ng 1n argument s between e and. th� passe? ge �. If tl1e driver a11 no1 tl at e far . 1 1nces his intention to collect a higher er beginn1 ng of tl1e Jour11ey and tlle . v dri e t prospective passenger refuses to pay, h_ . . 0n often refuses to tak tl e passenge its l ' ximu im r. i u . The m a committee t want p m s to fares It is not re l�W _tllese s�o a u� te uld crea be fix ed. to wa Tl1 11ts ere for it e � � · cipal Taxic ab u axi issio n W�lich w�uld issue regulations establishing_ m m ut �= fares for trips b t ed s o ea in 1r e qu tl1 re 1 ty ci be c ihe xi d Ta a b rs ou ne w . ow a list of tl1e fares in t�ef; . e · abs m at see h a place � t could where all engers pas s r committee is also conside ing onl y ��·n a · fares reqUl r�me nt tl1 at char . all ge taxic bs a ding to taxi meters h � o ld ou e the c t ins ed all s � nt wa i� �he . It cab �;:-to · ... ,. � � to inv�stigate this po:si� t; need i · are a nd,. Y 1� the co�ss,on believes meters . . prescribe regulations requ1r 111g tl1e1r 1nstallat1on, operation, maxi1num fares, etc.. - -·_. ..

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few taxis available i11 many parts of the city after 9 P .m. very often are 4 Tb ere �� t · · ct n1g th 1 · l t diffi· · I 1 t and result11 1g 1�1 I1igl1 nigllt-time � · ,)Q, fI at n ig. ·ht roakin.g trave I dur1ng reg�lat1ons_ should ta�e care o� tl1e Iiigll fares, but til e fare u m axim m The . fares that son1e taxis be required to operate at 11igllt C, l req11 1re to want s also !\, I · t tee co� least part of each 1nontl1. It �oul� Iea�e tl1e problem of desigilati ilg tll e ir, } durin g at enga 111 ge to 1 tt1n1e 01Jeration to the n1gl cabs , of ity ident comm ission . and ••' er b nuro . . . m11n l1ave 1c1p� not_ l b11s�11ess lice1 1ses. T!1e committee is do s tax�c ab y Man tat S. 1 1s beca11se bus111ess l1ce11ses are a primary soti rce tl abou t worr ied of larly . . . part1. cu 1 1 e to 11se t_ wants i cense as a tool �o pay_ t1 1e costs �f regu1t 1 so, ue. A re�en _ l � cipa . muni co1rur uttee vva ons. The 1 1ts tl1e b11s1r1ess I1ce11se , wl1 icI 1 will opera ti ab taxic ' of . . 1ati.on st1ck�r, to be pasted colo11re �11 �J1 e r1gl1 t �ro11 t window of tl1 e d a by d esente repr be and police co11ld tell_eas1ly 1f a11 y tax� l1as a valid license. passeng ers that so ab, taxic a 11 1111ally. A!so 1t wa11ts t� req_t11re tl 1at all t�xicabs ne":e � be would license The � pain� on eacl1 side of tl1e vel1icle 111 botl1 Engl1 sI1 and ted the word ''TAXI e av h re Amharic. lS ta.xicabs i n the city, a11d tl1e nu1nber is growing. Tl1is will many are There 6. y ,. re-sult in cut-throat competition in the ft1ture. Already tl1ere is excessive service at some times during the day bllt very little service at otl1 er ti1nes, e.g. during tl1e nigl1t. e It wants The committee wants to limit the 11ltimate nun1ber of taxicabs in tl1e city. 1 do this need (''r1ecessity certify tl1e ') for addi­ by requiring Con1 1 nission to that tl1e l tional quantities of service before any new taxicab business lice11 se is iss11ed. It1 tl1is r way competition can be controlled and service reg11lated. 7. The committee wants rules requiri11 g tl1at, st1bject to stated exceptio11s, a taxicab driver must accept as a passenger anyo11e wl10 seel<s to l1 ire tl1c taxicab. 8. The committee wants the Commission, witl1 tl1e ap1Jroval of, tl1e police, to establisl1 taxi stations in congested areas of tl1e city. Taxis oper,1ti11g in tl1ese areas may only stop to admit or discharge a passenger at tl1e places so marked. 9. The committee wants to give the Conunission a11tl1ority to 1nake such ft1rtl1er re gulations as it sees fit regarding the operation of taxicabs in tl1e city. 10. The committee wants to l1ave a taxicab operator's pe1·mit revoked if he does not co��Jy with the requirements of the law or witl1 regt1lations issued by t�e . �omm1 ss1on, particularly if at any time tl1e taxicab is 1 1ot covered by tl1e requ1_s1te insurance, does not display the word ''TAXI'' and the license sticker as required or does not operate at night when required by the Con1mission. These matters would also be grounds for non-renewa of the lice11se. l �I. The Municipal Taxicab Commission would be composed of three persons ppointed by the Kantiba �e with the approval of tl1e Council. They would serve for nn s of two years. The Kantiba agrees with to draft a law to imp!e­ you on calls and gs these findin e th� com mittee's recommendations. Tl1e draft law will be sub mitted by 111 m : �� e City Council fo r it s approval. ou may assu me that a), Sup� 579, e (pag ba Aba is Add pu.rsuant to the Charter of th c�1ty ouncil has the p�wer to enact the proposed law. B11t consider the follow i ng C Pre0blem s to · · yo be so1ved 1n ur draft legislation: l . � the city �ouncil delegates po we r to th e Commission to fix ta xi fares,_ to i ssu e new licensing regulations and to promulgate other rules goverrung

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t, if n b� w hi s, yt le an ru e es g, t� l ou e sh rc fo en d the law 1d a1 s xi ta of n io operat s u r o e ri w se a o e v p f s? th o e is rc e x e e th r fo re u d e c say about pro Procedure for issuance of new licenses b y !he hCom�issio�: can a new license be reftised to someone present/y engaged 1n t e t axi bu�1ness on_ grounds of lack of ''necessity''? (see paragraph 6, supra.) Is a hearing requrred when license is denied? How is ''necessity'' determined - is a hearing required; wl10 is entitled to be heard? Procedure for fare-setting by the Commission: is a hearing required when fares are fixed? If so, what kind of a hearing? What constitutional provisions govern the fixing of fares? Procedure for revocations or non-renewal of Taxi operator per111its or licen­ ses: Is a hearing required? Penalties: the relation of tl1e Commission rules to the Penal Code: can the power be delegated by the Municipality to the Commission to prescribed penalties (or violatjon of its r11les ?) What are the releva,nt Constitutional articles? Penal code articles ? Judicial review: sl1ould tl1e law to be drafted provide explicitly for judicial review? Could judicial review of all Commission decisions be excluded? Could-and s11ould-judicial review of any questions decided by the Comm­ ission be excluded? Should some Commission decisions require court revie,v before imple1nentation?

A Hypothetical P,·oblem; Regulation of the Meat Prvcessi11g Industry Consult pages 463-466, supra.

Assume that f111·ther efforts are to be made to develop tl1e meat industry, notably as a SO\lrce of �xports (and tl111s foreign excl1ange) for Ethiopia. This object is to be acco l 1 shed� in P�rt, by e11couraging local investn1en t in production of cattle of ?_J quality and 10 businesses wl1icl1 will engage in : I) buying cattle from local farn1ers and herdsmen in designated meat gro wing areas; 2) slaughtering, })rocessi11g and packing meat, and 3) exporti11g meat.

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Assume furtl1er tl1at tl1e governn1e11 p t olicy is to: . of a) encourage development of a . tor c se private meat the industry of as part t I1e economy; b) make sure that the farmers re ceive a ''fair'' price for tl1eir cattle; the c) make sure t[1at Eth·iopian . on ce pri · tinned meat 1s · t1ve . . comp et1 . sold at a domestrc and world market so that tllis domestic industry. will gr o w;, ch d) make certain that Et'I · whi . 5 I ltopia . n meat 1s produced under health contr o . emeet th o . e req u t irements of tl1ose foreign countries in which the mea , b Pd · . fullY, is to be sold · Tl · . an e eas · · ius, stringent rules to prevent the spread of d15 . t 'be tl1e slaug ht r g nd d or l o w..,q uality beef_ mus, -:.. _ =-: _, : oc �: pr s es � ng of e as se di i developed a _, .._ . nf reed. -

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of th�se gov�rnmental ? bjectives a Proclam pur sua nce in tha t er ation furth uJJJe th ot ings, will autl1or1ze th e Meat Board he r am on g h, wh ic ary � to si necess . . are ', , ''ma rk et 1ng � d ' . as are . 0 and quarantine as, ing ' ' ' gro alfl w 111s pec t10 ''m eat p (1) :t �res'' in order to ''certify'' cattle eligible for s lat1gl1tering, processin g and n export; to p nece even ssary t spr�ad of jnf�ctious diseases in ''meat­ if and, � tine, an quar 2) slaughter any d1seased a111mal or a1111nals exposed to a serious to '' area s g grow in ( ctisease; d to assu re desi san g _ n itar y pro�es5ing of meat and assure that es gate � l � u prom (3) meat packed�1n _Eth10�1a meets �tandards of f 1tn�ss for l1t1man consuinption fjxed by fore1gn 1mport1ng countries; to condemn meat processed for export in viol ation of these rules; (4) inspect all cattle and meat processing facilities to e11force the above rules; (5) regul ate the price at whicl1 farmers will sell to tl1e meat processing companies-i.e. the price to be paid to farmers for each class of anirr.al sold to the companies; (6) regulate the maximum price ,vhich the processing ccmpanies may sell their meat to domestic distributors or to exporters. Consider the application of Article 43 to eacl1 of these functions.

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Some Illustrative Decisions Interpreting t/1e Applicatio,1 of Due Process in Various Ad111inistrative Proceedings

1. Agency formulation of rules of general aJJplicability. ''Tl1e [due process guarentee] does not require all public acts to be done in .. an assembly of tl1e whole.

Gener_al statutes ... are passed that affect the perso11 or property of individuals, so�et1 i:nes to the point of ruin, without giving tl1em a chance to be heard." Holmes J., mBzmetalic Investment Co.v. State Board o�t· [Tax] Equalizatio11, 239 U.S. 44 I (191_5). �n the a�ove case the Board was determining wl1at gener1l formt1 l a would be appl ied 10 assess1ng land taxes based on property valuation. The Company den1anded a_ full _ hearing, claiming that the proposed formula would affect its operations in a serious way and claiming the right to present evidence and arg1ments. The Court held that due process did not require the Board to give the Company a hearing. C o n sider the following: <� �hen an ageney is formulating r·ules of ge11eral r:zpplicability (e.g: tax !ates, 100s for is uin a lice se, _ rules gov rning operatio11 of motor vehi�les) 11 can _ � � � d to be acting 1 0 ''legi� applyz�g is agency an vl1en wl1ereas, slative'' capacity a e al rule l!cab� l ­ app 1 ? tl�e 11g erni : a go� p s fact : lar rticu n ; � whe on pers or group and it � _ h� ru� e in this case are in ai _ s IS ut dis e tl1_ 1g lv11 � res In � � dispute, the agency, � to be acting t ica Jud a in ly ial ent ? an ess dju 1s ''a y enc ag v an ati dic e'' capacity. When ing the som r �ban ''leg islatin g''' e vid pro to s ces pro ; dt1e ; � it may be required by sort heari a utt reb d an g ts en tim to arg ie , rev n:;e ide ev w, to the ag � fairly, the applicant's ency s case. · lar ticu 'ings of a ''legis par «Pro ceed e on .. n er nc co t no do r usuall y te ac lative'' ch ar Party's 11· ab1l rn tu y 1e tl . r 1ty, d 0 not turn upon .1nd1v1dual1zed 1e tl a r . . · . 1ng d 1act-fi n c: ?, . Upon ge eral_ _ e 1 re are h hl Vant to :Xer facts, the weight to be given to variot1s coJsiderations � � concern_ c1s e of policy-m is g d1n cee p1·o the r� mo aking discretion. But the

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ed particularly with the rights a11d liabilit y of one individual (or a _small identifiable, _ argument for accord1ng those affe tl1e compelling particular group) the more cted the eleme11ts of due proceS'I. >> ar ul P ic t rt ee lic M to ub ss ce r ro te P In ue P_ est of � ts en m re u; eq JJ_ R of n io at pt 2. Ada _ g M v. er zn In w ng . E t1 ce an -;1 rt & p ­ Im ss Ca ng dz ri ve O _ of be � to d re de si 1 o, C 1 ts en Requiren s � sig g ned t o pr otect la de 1n rc 1fo e1 it� w d ge ar c� , cy en ag an elber,·y 339 u.s. 594 (1950) ng e gi th le !s s al be ug la dr n the on ai rt ce ed iz se , es in ic ed m d an d oq against unsafe f at ic re to a bl th as pu w t . lth uc ea od h pr e th re fo re t l1e d an g in ad e isl m contai11ers were y ar s ss g wa ce in ne ar to ­ 11e a ter g de in im cla , e_ ur iz se t s hi in jo t e11 o ed tri TI1e Co mpany e t re th uc fo od c be ls pr ould be la e th by ed isl m be d ul wo le op pe t no or 1er mine whetl re re zu fo be sei g s wa rin t 1 ea no a t l t l1a ld he t ur Co e 1 Tl et. rk ma e tl1 m fro d e v be re mo s t ces tha re e pro t tl1e of du be en em uir eq ''r a s ay alw n t o is t i t tl1a g rin cla de e d, requir d ize urt log Co e ana the Th ''. sed rci exe be n tio cre dis o1·e bef g rin hea pe t l-ty ria a pre-l1eari11g seizure to tl1e case of an arrest of a st1spect fo r crime. In Freedma,1 v. Mc1ryla11cl 380 U.S. 51 (1965) one issue was whether a film censor­ ship agency co11ld prol1ibit exl1ibition of tl1e f ilm pendi1zg final deter111ination of the qt1estion whether i t violated t l1e statt1tory standards (e.g. obscenity). The court held that tl1e re q11irements of dt1e process apply to censorship proceedings; the burden of pro of is 011 th.e censor, and f t1ll, trial- t ype hearings are required. Further: ''[due pro cess requires] tl1at the censo r will, witl1 in a specified, b1·ief period, either issue a license or go to co11rt to restrain the sl1owing of the film''. [empl1asis added]. The Court's application of d11e process in tl1.is case was based on its view that ''the admi11istration of a censorsl1ip systen1 ... presents peculiar danger$ to constitution­ ally protected [free] speech''. In Wilner v. Co1nmittee 011 Cl1a1·acter and Fitness 373 U.S. 96 (1963) one issue was h�tl1er tl1e Cofi1:111i ttee, whicl1 was vest e d ,:vi th a11tl1ority to detern1ine the appli­ ;' cant s fitness fo r a l1ce11se t o JJractice law could receive and consider info rmation ab ot�t tl1 � apJJlicant's l:onesty fron1 JJe rso11s \Vl1ose identity was witl1 held from the applicant. Th e �o mn11ttee agrt1ed tl1a t some inforn1ants would be t1nwilling to Su �pl y relev �?� inforn�atio11_ if tl.1ey �11e-vv that at a later stage tl1ey might be for�ed !0 confro nt tl1e ,lJ)J?l1can t 111 a l1ear111g. 1/eld: ''We think tl1e need for confro ntWoatul� ion is a nece s ry c o11 ltis1011 from tl:e req1�.ire111ents of'1Jrocedural due process.... '' � � � �ot1 agree· Is �l1e1 e a co111pron1 1se wl 11cl1 °\-Vo11ld secure both . the object of confront­ r c ts a n d tl1e obJect of caref11l scre e11i11g, t l1rot1gh i 11 fo1·i11ants, of an applic n ba a���r ; Cf. Greene v. A1cE!roy, set fortl1 supra, p.

An Admi,zistrative P1·ocedi,re Code?

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i}i In 1966 some lawyers in th pr · e M. .iste rifY a I c to ed design � �� . � �'s Offi� prepared a draft code uire · the procedures in cases involving _ _ re where the q · adll11ni strat1ve charac dec1s1o ter os'' of a · , . ments of due process m1gl1t apply. . � , d e w Tl1e draft code has not bee n enacte ·e i . rev fully been an has not known) yet (as far is as � � �, · · fron1 the standp oint of I·ts over-al 1 . des1rab1l1ty and feasibility· . · the B ut , whether or not Etl11·op1a e · l , · is · LI 1 t1· mately !O have any Adn1inistrat.ive Code, let a on, f o draft set forth below it should n ratJO prep a be usefu l the to cons in ider the problems inherent sucl1 legi�lation. . ' -· . , ollS ti Consider carefully ho h'is proposed . u� e th q to code apply i set fortl1 below, would s , con previously raised in tl1e pr�It -. � . · �·� of a project o prepare sue� em �ases we_l,ave a�ready discussed. Then consider the _pros a� ft. a co e, and the merits and possible pitfalls of this part 1cuJar ·. · · · .. t

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THE DEV ELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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growth of uing national develop1nent requ1·res a corres contin the AS ' · E ·t· HER · W · tl1� _scope of attendaiit discretionar . g growth in the respons1.b 1 _ 1t1es .and 1n Y din ve at1 on 1t1 str or ru th m1 au es; an d p the ad on up red r nfe . co . . . s wer po effec a_ n d. t1ve 11ess rel1a b1l1t of y. tl1e aclm the inist ratio n AS, will be RE HE W r1gl1ts c_ 1 v1l gt1aran teed by tl1e Revised Constitutio the and ered furth ly tial e�tab o� l1_ ?le�r s l1men t a11cl JJercise_ niles and procedtire� the_ by d a�de fegu t�t�:�a 1�1 all proceed111gs wllere the exercise es 1 a11tl1or1t_ ve adm1n1strat1 tl1e gu!de which shall etionary powers may affect tl1e l1f�, libert_y or property of aiiy person; of their discr accord�nce witl1 Articles in E, 34 a11d 88 of Our Revised REFOR ,THE NOW Our of resol11t1ons the Senate and CI1amber of Deputies app:ove We on, tituti Cons s w o ll : s a a f tm la c o r p y b e r e h e W and CHAPTER I - G·ENERAL

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1. Short Title This Proclamation may be cited as the ''Administrative Proced11re Proclamation, .' ' 7 6 19

2. Definitions

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In this Procla.mation, unless the context otl1erwise requires: (I) ''administrative authority'' sl1all mean any Mi11istry, p11blic autl1ority or other administration of the Imperial Ethiopia11 Govern1ne11t, incl11ding CJ1artered Municipalities, competent to re11der an acl1ninistrati\ e decision; (2) ''administrative decision'' sl1all mean every final decisio11, order or avvard of an administrative a11tl1ority havi11g as its object or effect tl1e impositio11 of a sanction or the grant or refusal of relief, except decisions: (a) as to the selection or tenure of a public servant; or (b) based solely on inspections, tests or elections; or (c) as to the conduct of military or foreig11 affairs f11nctions; or er l icia jud P?':" tl1e of se rci d) exe it1 of any de ma of the co11rts establisl1ed by law ( as referred to i n Article I 08 of the Revised Co11stitution, or any decision subject by law to review de nova by any of said courts; or (e) establishing rules or regulatio11s; (3) ''appe al'' shall mean an appeal against an administrative decision; (4) ''Court'' shall mean the Supreme Administrative Co11rt established here­ under·' (S) :'hearing'' shall mean a h ea ri ng conducted by an administrative auth0rity in accordance with the provisions 11ereof; r, te ar ch , on ti ra st gi (6) ''license'' shall re mean any permit, certificate, approval, membership exemptio n or form of permission; 1ereof; l (?) 'par ty'' shall ) (I 5 le ic rt A mean a pe rs on so classified under : (S) 'person'' ·a · · I "' 1 ,· o 1 rs pe a 1c h· r1 Ju 11 · r s a. mean an y physical o

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AL ON TI TU TI NS Co AN PI IO f IET OF OK BO CE R SOU .

654

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(9) ,, roceedings'' sliall ni�an all a .cts! invest!gations a�d proceedoi�gs con�uct­ e� by an administrative authontr _wh1c� are ?�rectly and lll).lllediately related to tlie renderi11g of an adm1n1strat1ve dec1s1on;

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(10) ''relief'' shall mean any: (a) grant of money, assistance, license, authority, exemption, privilege or remedy; or (b) recognition of any claim, right, immunity, privilege or exemption; or (c) other action beneficial to any person upon application by such .person therefore; and

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(II) ''sanction'' sl1all mean any: (a) prol1ibition, requirement, limitation or other condition affecting the freedom of any person; or (b) the imposition of any penalty or fine; or (c) destr uction, taking, seiz111·e or withl1ol ding of property but excluding an.y expro priation carried out in acco rdance with a special law r egulating the conduct of tl1e same or (d) asse ssment of damages, reimbursement, restitution, compensation, c osts, cl1arges or fees; or (e) revocation or s11spension of a license.

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3. A menclments .....•

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4. Scope of Application Ev�ry ad _ mjnistrative decisio11 1·equired o r permitte d to· be taken and all roceedi ngs In COililecti on tl1erewith shall, U raw, con n ess otl1erwise expressly provided b l fo rm 1 y ? a i 1 d b e c o 11 d t1 c te d in acc ordance with tl1 e pr inciples a11d require. ents se fo m �tl� In tl1is Procla1nation; pro � vide.d, l1owe\rer ' tl1at nothing herein shall be deemed to l 11n1t or restrt· et . m o re · r1 . go ro11s pr111c1ples a11d requirements however the same may b e imposed.

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CHAPTER Il

PRINCIPLES OF ADM INISTRATIVE PROCEDURE 5. Parties, Notice and Appea,·ance (1) Every person wl10 e 1· t ests m by an administrative ay b e dir ectly an d immed i�tely a ffe cted �r decisi;n s la be deemed a p a rt y to th e proceedings. . (2) N0 adm1. u1str · n sh_aII be m ade or, effective as to any p ative dee·1810 d e e d b if e m sh a al d e, l em arty un1ess and until sucl1 party sha1111ave: (a) recei. ved suffic ient d ir ect noti· ce o f th · n o e with tl.1e dec1s1 ne c ctJ o n d u c t co n o p f ro ce in edings · · on; and · (b) had a reasonab ar : le O p pO r. tunxt • y to request a before the ad tn e . · a p p h to e a r se o in th g o e rw r i · i·strativ e � · autl1ority concerned and to ese to t at aut o · rity such tes t1mo pr nt h b - . ·.· ny and evi·ctence as may bear on the decision.

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.ired Requ

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prior to the taking of an administrative decision held be shal l ring 1( A hea ) where: law; or b! ired requ is it a . . . . () render1ng tl1e dec1s10�1 so rules; or authont_ y e istr�t1v admin (b) the n arty to the proceeding so requests fol 1ow111g notification pursuant p (c) a yArt to icle 5 hereof. is condt1cted, eacl1 JJarty to tl1e proceedings sllall hear ing a even t the In (2 ) have the right to be present througl1 t, and to: othe evid r ry �n ence to a11d testify directly before tlie doc� men ta � sub� � (a ) admin1strat1ve authority, (b) present witnesses to testify before t!1e authority a11d request tl1e a11thority to summon persons to appear as witnesses; and ( c) hear or ins-pect al l testimony �d e�idence �ubmitted to t!1e autl1ority in the proceedings and cross examine witnesses 1n the proceedings summo11ed by the authority or any opposing party.

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1. Time and Place of Hearing

In fixing the time and pl ace ot· a bearing the administrative at1thority shall have ) d ue regard for the needs and convenience of tl1e parties and tl1eir representati\ es.

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8. Hearing to be Public

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A11 hearings shal l be conducted in public. Hearings in ca,rzera may be l1el d only I ) in exceptional cases where publ ic security or morality so requires and, in s11cl1 cases, only to the extent necessary to satisfy such requirements. f>

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9. Deciding Officials

{I) All officials charged with the making of or the participation in the making of an administrative decision ll perform al l of their functio11s i11 connection with sha the proceedings in a fa ir and impartial manner. 2 ( ) fi _An y ?fficial who for any proceedings deems himself disqualified from so llng_ hi s f u nctions by reason of personal bias sl1all witl1draw from ftirther ?J?l per Parti cipation in the proceedings and from the making of tl1e decision tl1 erein. (3 nr part� to proceedings shal l be entitl ed at any time pr!or t� tl1e maki?g A of th ) d rity st auth ? e rativ at1ve 11:11st a�m ff e l sion deci with t to � file an a idav� con ce:� dnuru �� _ P��ceedings. �lleging the per�onal bias the 1_1:1 of any offici al part1c1�a�1ng The authorit y sh,all d.eterrrune the matter as par t of the adm1n1strat1ve decision. 4 For p rpo u ses of this Article 9 an y official witl1 a direct personal inter�st in th� ) c ity or : ?me of any administrative de�ision and any offic ial relat ed by c�n.sanguint o erso 11 on si 1 i dec cl s by ted p t ns t r ffec m who wjll o r ay be di ec l y a � be conclun�i ye , e a sl p and ngs res edi proce l disquaJif·Jes v Y umed to hav l bias in the e a na perso d fr om partic ip ation therein.

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656

UTIO NAL LAW IT T S N O N C IA P IO H T E F O SOURCEBOOK

ity e o or id th wh _ es �u pr at � tiv ra ist e in th m ad rec 1 a1 t of ep rs ce offi ion e m sa le Tl (S) n, pt ei ce er ex th �n s1 he c1 w de e re th ch er su nd e re 11 1� s1 c offi g in ar 11e rs y an of evidence in . y it r o th u a 1e tl to le b a il subsequently become unava a v e e nc he ma or in d e of a ng g_ es � p inv � tig e en ag or � � ti e ye plo em er, ffic 6 o No ( ) 1t� 0 � 1_ or an th au � se ca !1v a , all sh str n1 m.I ad in ny a r that fo ns io t c 1 1 fu g in tit or prosec e t1v ra ust 1r m an io ad cis se 1n vi de ad thereon n or e at cip rti pa , se ca d te la re y all ctu or a fa r. so vi ad r o l se n 11 co s, es n it w as t excep de as to clu so the pre te g era op all kin sh ma 9 le tic Ar of s tl1i of ion vis pro No (7) ti the n fica of so ali qu rea dis by gs on from din cee pro y an in ion cis de e tiv a t r nis an admi h the d t wit rge duc cha con s of son per or such son per t l1e of n rei tl1e 1 io1 t pa tici par proceedings on the making of such decision.

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10. Rig!1t to Counsel ( Every party to proceedings shall l1ave the right to counsel and may be represented � in tl1 e proceedings by a licensed advocate or other specially qualified person or per- j sons.

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11. Powers of Ad111inistrative Authorities

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WI1ere a11 administrative a11tl1 ority conducts a I1 earincr0 in connection with any proceedings, it sl1all, as necessary to tl1 e proper and lawful conduct of such hearing, have power to: (I) issue comp11lsory process for the s11mmoning of witnesses and the production of doc11mentary evide11ce; (2) administer oatl1s and take tes timony tl1ereu11 der; counsel or (3) determine �l1e q11alifications of perso11s appearinoas it before 0 representatives of parties; (4) establisl1 a�1d enforce rt1les of proced11re and evidence wl1ich shall as a mini­ nt le a u irre 111 r v of de for JJ tl1e n1a inte11 a11 ce of order and tl1 e exclusion ?1 ? i v , inunater1al ,t11d ll11duly i·epetitious evidence; and (5) JJetit_io_n to �I1 e Col1rt for tl1e enfo1·ce111ent of its processes orders ao<l final ' adn11111strat1ve decisio ils.

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12. Reports and Records

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. 11 · tr· at.1ve · al1tl1or1ty a. f The adin1· 111� . ? ord rec :· n wr con itte cer ned m sl1 a int all a ain . . . trat·1ve dec1s1on, Proceedi·ngs carr1ed out 1n connect . ion · wit . 1 1 the rendering of an adm1n1s 1 S11cl1 record 11 11 se o1�! in re n sta curo cir � asonable the to det � � a il, regard having � all prelimina1�y fn sta su ati e v e tl1 SiJ� V reports and � 1 and to b .t recomm ade enda t n ions y � · of all testimony an ev idei1c n · t utho a e received and considered by the administrative t 13· Form of Decision .. j i · a Every administrative of . . ts ere · · n d ec i: sion r . · affecting adversely tl1e r1gl1ts o 1 � s· II be . ·\ part), to the pro eed 5h a gs in a ii� �very such decision made followi11g a hear g . .. - ·-' � reduced to writi:g. �7 ie decision shall state: · � ..


U IVE INSTITUTIONS THE DEVEL OPMENT OF EXECT

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or controversy t1nder considerati011; stion que the (l) of so relevant testimon y a11d evide11 ce receiv t1� ce a11 d tan ce sub s the ) ed i il tlle (2 course of the proceedings; an m� d tl1e de fac e t valt1atio of tl1e evicle 11ce of din gs_ fin the vVllicli leads tlle � (3) _ administrative authority to make sucl1 fi1 1d11 1gs; (4) the determination of tl1e question or co11troversy; a11d (5) the action to be taken on tl1e basis of such clecisio11.

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I I D ON S EC E IV T A. fR S N I IVIA I OM FR AD L EA PP ID R CIIAPTE 16 · R' h ig t of Appeal · . . Except i· n cases · essly · · expr 15 n sio dec 1ve . i where a.ppeal from an adm1111strat · Proh:ib't te d by l . d e t LlC l con e e n be as . h a w , every party to proceedings w here a 11e.a� ing. shall be ent . ee d1·1:g s. oc t itl ed to p Sltcl 111 on i � appeal agai11st t he admi11istrative decis The a n tIO uS ha ex sh ng wi llo all fo t ur Co of a1tl:1 � lodged in the Supreme Administrative her ava ilable aclministrat1 ve remedies.

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15. Suspension of Decisions

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14. Notification of Decision An administrative decision sh al� be noti�i�d in pe rso11 or in writing to all parties to the proceeding�. A copy of �he w�1tten �ec1s1 011 a11d order a11d accom1)anyi11g fiild­ ings and conclus1ons, as specified 1n Article 13 l1e re of, sl1all be 1nade available to such parties or their representatives upon reque st. A co1)Y of tl1e su1nmary record of the proceedings maintained p11rsl1ant to Article 12 l1ereof sl1all be 1nade available to such parties or their representatives 11pou payn1ent of a1)propriate cl1arg es to cover the costs of reproduction t hereof.

(l) Where a party aggrieved by an administrati ve decisio11 notifi es the ad1ni11is­ trative authority rendering suc h decision of l1is intentio11 to pursue fL1rtl1er adrr1i n j­ nistrative remedies or to appeal against st1cl1 decision, tl1e at1tl1ority co11cer11ed may su spend such decision for a reasonable period to l)ermit tl1e instigation of such remedies or the filing of an appeal and tl1e con fir1nation or vacatio11 of s t1cl1 suspension by the reviewing authority or t he Court. S11cl1 decision sl1 all, i11 a11y event, be suspended for st1c h period where tl1e i1n1nediate in1ple 111e11tatio n tl1ereof would cause irreparable injury to the rigl1ts or property of tl1e 1Jarty aggrieved. . (2) � ny administrative authority entitled t o review a11d r evise tl1e administra­ . llve �ec1s1on of another administrative a11tl1ority sl1all, llpon reqt1est by a11 y party aggneved by the decision and except as otl1erwise expressly provided by la\V, w here · · · t:he en ds of Just · i·ces so req·u1re have power to suspe11d s11cl1 dec1s1011 or any part · ' · · · · thereof througl1011t the period of sucl1 revi e w and pend111g a11 y sucl1 revision. (J) Nothing con tain ed in this Article 15 shall be dee111ed to li111it or affect � he � o�e.r 0� the Court to_ enjoin or restrict tl1e iropleme11tation of �n y adini!1ist�� t� ve e ion ac ed tu inSLi duly � n act1 i upon ordan ples d ce � c ID with or inary judicial princ by ? � y party to the proceeding s or to gra nt temporary relief against s11cl1 deciSion pend10g the resolu tion of an appeal therefrom loclged vvitl1 tl1e Cotirt.

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17. Period for Filing of Appeal (I) An appeal against an adn�nistra!ive �ecision shall b_e. filed with the Co_urt not latei· tI1an ti1irty 30 days follow111g not1ficat!on of sucl1 dec1s1on or the exhaustion of all ft1rther available adminis trative remedies. (2) Tl1e tin1e limit specified in pa_ragraph (1) of t�s .Article_ 17 for the filing of an appeal s11all in no event restr1�t any grea�er l1Jlllt pro�1ded the_refor� b_y applicable legislation. Tl1e Cotrrt n1ay 1n an� p�rt1clar cas� waive the time l1m1t for t l1e filing of an appeal wl1e1·e t11e ends of Just1ce so requ1re. 18. Jvlemorandum of Appeal Upon filing an appeal, an appella�t shall s:1bm.it to th� Court a. brief memoran­ dum setti11g fortl1 in clear and co11c1se fasl11on the basis of the appeal and the nature of tl1e relief sougl1t. 19. Si11nn1arJJ Disin1ssct! Where tl1e me1noranclum s11bmitted pursuant to Article 18 hereof fails to set forth sufficient gro11nds for tl1e taking of an appeal, tl1e Court shall order the summary dismissal of the appeal.

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. 20 Trans,nittal of Record Tl1e administrative at1tl1 ority concerned sl1all, upon notification of an appeal, submit to the Court tl1e reco1·d of tl1e proceedings n1aintained pursuant �o Article 12 l1ereof a11d, t1pon 1eqt1est by tl1e CoL11·t, tl1 e full text of such otl1er reports and recomn1e11dations as may have been submitted to tl1 e at1tl1ority in connection with the proceedings. 21. Nature of Revie'l-v (l) A qtieSiion or dis1Jt1te on a p p eal from a n administ1·ative authority shall not. be. 11eard by tl1 e Cot1rt as if rle 11ovo, bt1t tl1e Court shall rev. iew the admirustrative decision on t h e record submit ted by the authority and shall app e same unle ss: ro v (a) tll� autl1�rity I1 as failed to co1n1Jly w it l1 applicable rules of procedure or evidei1ce 111 sticl1 way as may l1ave prejudiced the appellant's cause; or f;). tlie fi 11? i 11gs of fac t n1ade by tl1e autl1ority do e vi d p ro , 11 a s11 c1ent basis for o la t m w o a a f s a tt er tl1e decisio11 or any part tl1ereof; o; the findings o f fact ';Ila de �y �he authority are clea o r le a cann �/ be supported by so n u n re a rl y b t l1e ev1cle11ce indicated in t l1e record; or (d) t e auth ority has � exceeded its power in suc h way as m a y hav e prejudi� t 1 e. appellan t ,s cause, w l1 e th e Jo r n in ci a s ss u m d in e g th j u e ri m sdiction to ake or I n. any .a_spect of tl 1 e conduct o f the proceedin·gs or o f the decision ma de or drspos1t1on ordere d. . (2) ��· he Court sh a ll _ not have jurisdiction � n · · } ce en ev id y ppeaJ except to a a l_ d ta d k it e ion w it l1 tl1e express consent of tl1e admin rative aufbority concerned. ist

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(b) Where the C�urt determines that_tl1e recor� sub111itted by tJ1 e autllority 1�complete as a basis for review ?n aJ)peal, it sllall order or nt ci� insuffi is hear tl1e case to or st 1 cl1 port10�1s of t11e testimony �gain ty uthori a or the not adequat are �ly pre sented 1n t]1e record. It may as therein ence evid . . assign an officer of_ the Court to ass1st !l1e at1tl1or1ty 1n tl1e tal<ing of tlle recor d. The autl1or1ty shall, on tl1e basis of tl1e revised record confirrn reverse or modjfy its initial decision. It sl1all tl1ereu1)on. tra11smit td tI1e Court the revised record togetl1er witl1 its decisio11 as based tl1ereon. (3) Where the Court det�rmines tl1�t any error s p�c�fied _in paragrapl1 (1) of of ma tJ1e_ 1n an king_ occurred ad1ru111strat1ve decis ion it shall l1�s 21 Article this reve rse such decision or an appropriate portion tl1ereof and shall prepare a writte11 judgment setting forth th� grounds of st1ch reversal a11d orderi1�g appropriate action to remedy the error. The Judgment of tl1e Court shall be tra11smitted to tl1e appella11t and to the authority concerned. Tl1e autl1ority sl1all tl1 e11 take all ap1)ropriate ftirther action which may be necessary pursuant to and in accordance \Vitl1 tl1e judgment of the Court.

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22. Limitatio11 ofAppeals

The decision of the St1preme Administrative Co11rt in a11y appeal brougl1t under t hls Proclamation shall be final, and no ft1rtl1er appeal tl1erefro1r1 sl1all be entertained by a.ny court; provided, 110\vever, tl1at 11otl1ing l1 ereir1 sl1all be deemed to deprive any person of l1is right to petition. CHAPTER IV - SUPREME ADMINISTllATIVE COURT

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23. Creation

There is hereby created a division of the Supreme In1 perial Court; to be known as the Supreme Administrative Cot1rt.

24· Composition of t/1e Court {I) The Court shall be comprised of suc h judges as We may a1)poi11t f�01:U among er s ns prop sed at f in_g train _ � l lega al form g J avin by the Minister of ustice as l1 o f o 1 thre e _years al ici er Jltd pro f 1d 1 a d fie ali qt1 � l1ly hig {3) ion e i durat and as oth rw s � °. or e Su Judges shall be ( ee tl1r �) 1an t! er _few t no er, mb appointed 1n suc h nu m orp r. e� � than fifteen (15) , as shall be sufficient to deal effectively wrth tl1e btisiness co g efore e serv to s by U d ate 1 ig1 des b the be ll sha Court. One (I) of such, judges _ as �n resident of tl1e Supreme Admi 11 istrative Cot 1rt. ) Judges so be s, it rm pe s ie it dt ir 1e tl inte. d m· ay ' as th e d iscl1 arge of po ap a·ss·ig(l 1 cl1 ned. to si·t in . . 1 s f o es lo 1c J·1 t tr b t , · I c our . . · oth er d1v 1 s1011s of the Supreme I1nper1a . . .. 0. ve Col1rt other d v1s 1 1� ns shall not at t1. 11s 1 1 1n Acl 1e en pr 1 S1 � be assigned to sit in the Unl ess Ppo1nted thereto. d ges, j ee a h case before the thr of � nel pa Court shall be determined by _a e��)1;atc d es JU ( ) ee 1 tl W � e tli r he e the Presid.ent of the Court o r a majority of � 0rigin aII Y empa. r o a . 1n f o J s n · o ti . e s u q s · ise ne 11ed to hear a11y case deter1n1ne that 1t · ra constitu . e r · ti n tio na l imp e 111 e by ed in Court. ortance, the case sl1all be 11.eard at1d determ

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Ad1nirzist1-ative Mcttters

i11 n o ti ic d s ·i ,, i J e iv s l 11 c x 25. E i a to n rt o te ti n en ic sd e ri pp ju a e s v al si u cl ex a e v a n I1 ai g l1 st 1a sJ rt li o C e ll T ) (l adn1i11istrative decisio11s. e rc to fo ti en ic e_ sd th ri ju r e te si in l11 x ?� tor cu ve !o l1a y ".'. so al II � � a sl 1rt 01 c e _ Th : (2) d to 1t es an r 1o sh t1 ni au pu e 1v ola at vi tr 1s 1n _ � 1n ad n tio of s 1s 01 1 1 s c de l 1a fi1 d orders an s e of oo th rt s1. ou c1 C de d ; an rs de id or ov pr e th , ed 1 e1 be d I1a e 1n sa 1e tl if as f tI1ereo r or de al or n ch fi su io y cis an e de rc fo n en to ler wl se f11 re e l al sl1 t ur Co e tl1 at 1 tl r ve howe g in e rn tl1 ve es go ur ni ed mi oc ad pr · 01 v ati str ws la e e tl1 of n io at ol vi in e ad n1 is n; 1 sa tl1 e . d 11e er nc co ity or tl1 au y red be ma fer as con ion ict isd upon it jur r tl1e fur l1 s11c ve l1a ll sl1a urt Co (3) Tl1e by law.

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In tl1e pages \vl1i ch follo\v we exan1ine, primarily, the provision.s of the Civil Code g overning tort liabili ty of tl1e st ate and its e1nploy ees. This subject is examined in other Law Sc .boo! courses, but i t is imJ)Ortant to no te tl1at th e Civil Code provides a set of rules and principles which amplify Articl e 62(b) of tl1e Constitt1tion and wllicl1 provide important base s for review o f administrative actio11.

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Tfze Civil Code: Liability at tfze Staie a,1d its E1 nployees ir1 To1·t I

Re-read: Article 62(b) of tl1e Constit11tion; Article 403 of tl1e Civil Code, set fortl1 s11JJ1�a.

torts f o S:hapter XIII of th e Code (Extra-Contractual Liability) deals principally with the la w , , · s an (''del1cts'') · A tort (or ''d e1·ic t'') is · o f e1 1 defi11ed as a ''civil [i.e., non-crinlinal] wrong , or a t . geme t of a non-con_trac t�e · 0frin_ t ual legal obligatio11 for ,vl1icl1 tl1e law i 1nposes liabili ty. Th us } � tort la\v 10 1 el_1ctlial liabi lit),'') is to ansv.,er tl1is kind of problem: D has engaged �"cl s���� a . · · of conclt1ct wl11cl1 l1as, allegedly Cc'lt1secl so111e kind . of h arm (''dama ge'') t o P, nd pr · ' o c Ia1n1 s t11at tJ1e law sliould m.ake D pay a noney se '· ca� d e . h award to con1pensate for tl1e harm i . ·. t1 the law s]1otil I e ss t 1e ha1 n1 in so111e otl1 r la 1o 0� v d ege all an i a on ,ro in1 y. J> cla wa ng is b s l1is e t o of a contract t�af tf a �011 ge '> all �­ c � � ed t�e to by on D 1 1 im 1 cla 1ay e tl1 e n s) se 1 so 1; ( _ �t i ; ba P . } O\vl�e 18 5 1 missio11 of a c�in�e �g i btit 1 l s not coi1ce��ed w1tl1 _cr1rn11 1al punisl1 ment of�; � c � � ! �e l, na so private ; it is b,tse'd 0. tile tlleory tl1at 1rres1Ject1ve l t I l a cr1m1n a t bt , Y ra a or of cont ctual law sl1ot1ld reco gIlise t. 1le. 1irum caused by D and requ ire D to redress the dama ge caused. eD . Issues of tort liabili ty ar i� us b · e in · 111a11 Y different ways. P n 1ay claim damages from D. eca use ''trespassed'' o n P's o t 0 be r catis e D , wl1ile driving a n auton1obile, ran into P; o :fnj'ury � D insulted p or strti�� �i% � � . ffice cau e D sold P a def�ctive prod uct which c aused _so �' to P; or because p was serio �sI� i � � o s oor n 1D .. ed p's building; o r beca tise D in ter[! d _J ure w1 1en l1e �J ipped ?n a greasy spot on tl1e _fl t

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. y 't1 is laden . Tort l1�b1Iit y is a con1plex . . . . . it ie·Id , l ike tl1e st udy of contractual or cr1m1nal l1. a�il . 1 ri1er. w1t11 tecl1n1cal concepts _ 1 fi TI1e 1naterials here can onl �:yer words ?f _art. It is a field you will study 1n lde:�tudeot, - .( gge t t e pr inc1p!es and p roblems whi ch c nfro n� th e a . t-- x tent, Y 11e _ �-: � re e _ o !m �son for our brief di ess1. _ on intoil t?rt law is because, n orta to a considerable and irn.p J E!l11opia (as elsewhere)� ,, 7a 1,; is ate a11d zts er,:rployees are made subject to tort law; r1s tocoun ¢le t one i111porta11t ve/1icle b t li,/ 1icJ t� y . ; .: a u to standa�ds of law officials, are m Juridical re z state ( as �o Hn�. person)' a 11d it a a s t o forced b �I o r t e11 . som e basic rule s whicI Y ie � u_ �s. �n the paragrapl1s whi ch follow we attemp 1� _pplY __ --�; a 1 gov

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e of Chap te r XII I ( A �ticles 2027-2161). Tort liability is based on _ f. Art. 202 7 ) , The schemtheories c ( 1'ble 055 three P tted a11 ''offe11ce'' which catised comml has nt defenda the use Beca ) (l m Code 1e ( tl1e ter1n ''offe11ce'' j 11 tlie t1se ? ; t clai.man_ T1 h e t to da age but ''fat1l t'' 1s a better ter111; tl1e 111aster , translati on h Englis ial offic ed e t1s th 111 de '.) ter te' Co e au th ''f of ft dra ch Fren tiv of b1ame\vor \l1y_ co��dt1�t (e.g ., tl 1e con11nissio11 of a c irres se �e�ua �: :, , , or � , cr1111e ), . (2) _ , tl 1e defe11dant l1as e11gaged in civil ''o ff e nce or fat1lt certain k.inds of conduct for wl11cl1, for reaso11s of policy, l1e is l1el d s trictly accountable (i.e., he incurs a st,·ict liability) if t l1e co11duct ca11ses damage to a ''faultless'' claimant; (3) Beca11se the d efen?ant is, by law, l�eld accountable ('_'a11_swerable'') for a tort liab.il.ity actuall y mcurred by a tl11rd party u11der pr111c1ples I a11d 2, supra; this w e may cal l vicarious liability. A common illustration is t.I1e princiJJle that, generally, an employer is, by law, held accot111table for torts comn1itted by his employee if t11e employee was discl 1a1·ging employn1ent d11ties ,vl1en the tort was committed.

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Following this scheme, Chapter XIII first deals witl1 ''offe1.1ces'' (i.e., liability "fault'') on based ty based on an ''offence'' - or a ''fa11lt'': ''\Vl1osoever liabili and ,) causes damage to another by his offence [i.e., ''fa11lt''] shall make it good.'' Wl 1at, then, constitutes an ''offence'' - or ''fault''?

Chapter XIIl sets fortl1 some broad rules and some specific 1'l.1les to define , ' "offences' ' ("faul ts'') which give rise to tort liability. Tl1us: (I) a "person'' is liable for ''negligent'' acts ca11sing da1nage (See Art. 2029, cf. Art. 2031); (2) a person is liable for damages ''intentionally'' caused (Art. 2029 (2), cf. Art. 2032); (3) a perso n is liable if he ''infringes'' any ''specific and explicit'' law and thereby causes damage (Art. 2035); l ar (4) a person is liable if u rtic pa i11 '' ers ow ''p of he ''abuses'' particular kinds ways and thereby causes damages to ano ther (Art. 2033, cf. Art. 2034). I , e te rms e'' igenc l ''neg ts'') ''faul 'ences'' (or used to denote tl1ese ''ot:l u1 . 1.t ''i"teT� . . '' nt1onal'' Inflict rs we JJo f O ' se bu ''a d an s'' io n of ''in�1ury''' ''infringemen· t of law · · - are y d u t of c. urse, terms s d e ·1 i eta d , ble ra of art - concepts req11iring conside And i� a � � tl de ·cula r rules cove y i l lar cu rti pa for fied ''ofte r1ng ''special cases'' of tort l1ab1l1ty ng al de i ) 5 06 -2 38 ' 20 . ts. Ar or e e (se e ar e s le pl t ru am l ia , e ec x er sp th F ' � ? , th Wi h e Oue nce s,' of ; . (a) Ph I! • ysic al assault, r (b) interfe re· �ce With anotl1er's -physical liberty, c ( ) d e1ra !: mat1on (d) tre spa ss .upon e ' another's land, an d ... . ( ) nu llle . .I; rou s other ,,spec. 1aI cases''. . .

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IONAL LAW T U IT T S N N O IA C P JO I I· T E F O SouRCEBOOK

1 s se of th ca t wi ric st ls ea bil lia it y, proceedin Next as we 11ave seen, tl1e Code d y t no ma t be uc nd gf co on wr of ul ds kin in a e som t tha mo ral org ,{ on ' ti �p J. ' 11 t1 ss a . 1e tl . on . · 1ty f o b·1· b 1 acc1 a . d d pro ents ase incre h whic an te crea are may lik btit se, 1 1 sen , y soc1a e . . _ . y o f · p 1 ic s n o e.g. so r ea r b ,_ �o F s. ecause 11 so r e p t it is con- I en c o n in to y r ju in se u ca to h me u _ suc ass to red s, pa risk pre be a bec 11ld sho ise use it is r erp ent an t tlla ded elu e nc a gh ur_ ou 1ns or thr m by the b er sor ot� ab can means of , se pri r te 11 e tlie t tlla llt ug tlJo · l�r 1cu �rt er �f mb nu �s. �ul � l1 o�t f 1c� s wh set p establjsh passiilg tJ1 e burden - �h� Code 1v1 es. act Tb1�,I�a?1l1ty exists despite o nds r � ta1n ce � fro 1g ! 1s11 r a � age �am � liability f�r , , . -�ed 1 ca: who son lilJ�rr, Fo r example, r pe the by e enc ''off any of n SSIO the COIDfill par ticular rules of "strict liability" are set forth to govern inJunes ansmg from I · (i) ''dange rous activities'' (e.g: the ��fendant's _"e rection_ or us�'' of ''high �; 1 r o ives, his explos of creat i ''use his on or of lines'', ic other .1 :· r elect tensio11 kinds of dangerous conditions which do in fact cause damage (Art. 2069); � .. (ii) auto1nobile accidents (Art s. 2081-2084); '' (iii) defects in man11factured goods (Arts. 2085, 2086).

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Finally, tl1e Code (Arts. 2124-2136) deals with vicarious liability - ''liability for tl1e actions of otl1ers' '. Fo1· example, a ''father sl1all be liable under the law when l1is cl1.ild inc11rs a liability'' (Art. 2124), and an employer is l1eld liable for torts committed by employees wllile acting within the scope of their employment (Art. 2130). Liability here is grounded on policy: the father or employer stand in special relationsh_jps to tl1e child or employee and (in theor y) can control their conduct, a11d sho11ld be made to bear tl1e rislcs of tl1eir tort liability; otherwise the innocent ''victim'' of the tort may ha,,e no practical remedy. By a similar line of reasoI1ing, as we shall see, directly below, the State, corporate�y, may be held accou11table for some kinds of torts committed by its employees wh1 le tl1 ey are acting within tl1e scope of tl1ei r official duties. Thus the provisions of law sketched above are generally applicable to the State.

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F rom T/1e Civil Cocle of Et!i iopia (19 57). Ar t. 2126. - Liability of' the State. I. Principle. e (l) AI1Y civil servant or govern111 ag da m ent employee shall make good any he ca1Lses to aI 1otl1e1· by h is fau [o lt ffence?]. n (l) ;'here the fault is a professional ti nsa � pe claim com fau lt the ma vic y tim .ron1 tlle State, pr ovided that the State may subsequently clai m fro m t e servant or employee at fat1lt. (3) The State shall not be liable where the fault is a personal fault.

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Art. 2127. - 2. Profes sional fault. w (I) A fault. .sha11 �o so n er _ be d. eeme_d to be a p rofessional fault where the p . · of b,is co�Itt ed _It beli�ved In p good faitl1 that he acted within the sco e . .. . . ·;:.€J: d u ies aI1d In tl1e Interest of the State. .. ..

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(l) A fault shall be deemed to be a personal fat1lt i 11 otl1er cases. (J) Unless the con_trary is pr?ved, the servant or employee sJ1aJI be deemed to have acted 10 good faith. s. d se te a a c il im ss A . 3 8 12 2 Art. The provisions of Art. 2126 and 2127 shall apply to the liability of servants or employees of a. territorial Sltbclivision of the State or of a public servjce \vith legal stat11s.

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From Friedman, Law in A C/1angit1g Society (Pelican ed. 1964), page 300 (footnotes omitted). Contemporary French law is based on the distinction between jaute de service andfaute person.nelle. The public official is personally liable for a wrong committed by rum }1ors de l'exercice de ses fo11ctions. Tl1is is constr11ed fairly widely, for personal fault includes not only such action clearly '011tside the scope of e1nployiner1t? as tl1e use of a government motor-car for personal b11siness, but also any act characterized as malicious or grossly negligent, e.g., commitn1ent, in error, of persons to a mental instead of an ordinary hospital, or a l1ospital for prostit11tes. Tl1e public official is thus not perso nally immune from liability, even for acts wl1icl1 migl1t be construed by Ang lo-American courts as being, however objectio11ably, committed in tl1 e exer­ cise of public functions. Personal liability is, in Frencl1 jurisprl1de11ce, in a sense a penalty for such actions as are so clearly unwortl1y of public office as not to be prop­ erly attributable [to the state].

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. _It ma y be appropriate at this time to consider the broad policies whicl1 s11ot1ld underlie tort _ a !i biJity of the State and its employees. Such liabili t y is by no n1eans a t1ni,1ersally es t ablished fact m �JI legal syst ems, nor is this an easy subject to analyze. I-IistoricaIJy, many governments l ave ? claimed � ge�eral ''immunity'' from tort liabili t y - an immunity wl1ich could o� Jy be wai ved _ . �Y e�pli�!t l e�sla�ion. Indeed., only in recent decades have t11e governm�nts of Br1ta1n and U.S.A. 'waived their "i mmunity'' to suits predicated on the ''tort s'' of t l1err servants.

The Rationale of Imposing Tort

Liability on Public Agencies and P11.blic Servants e, Stat arti �ts th� g suin les for es bas ed uot l lega e ve som h abo blis esta q � a e 1!1e i s ncie age a lic pub its uld sl1o B w11y �." � ' ' loy emp ut _ t ees, , personally for to 0; � ��c oct P b I servants be forced to assume su ch I 1 ab 1lrty? �onside r and criticiz t tha to s wer ans d lifie mp r-si ove e the following ' quite que stion :

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be I. The _S tate is ll sha it t tha s ain ord made liable because the Constitution (Article 62 (b)). ic . s . a b f o s 2,. The le S ip c in . r t p a_e e · t . and its employees are made l 1a bl e bec�us 0 n ed at J� st1ce dictate at tre be d l 1_ 01 s11 s cie en ic ag · bl th pu d ic an bl ts pu an rv se e e s ( d differe nt! from e u g r a y e ic D s A agencies. ,, a· ate ate priv priv z citi or ens Y _ the of ,, aw Ch a ter , p. 1 y ar in or e th to j t ec b su 2 ls be ia ld fic · ou ) of sh 13 ' II I and·p th ey · ' must not be ''exempted.'' r e t t e . b e c . u d 3. l'he State. a its o r p l il w is . h t e aus b bl 11a ye de plo ma em es �� e r a· � �� ul f g n o r w PUbl.ic_ adm inist r o t n e · ig 1 neg 1 ab1J1 ty for l · ration tort of . t the threa . . ' . .. e acts W1 ll creat · ·1ng m.·istak·es· desirable incentives for avo1d

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s l of on vo a� r ne re fo be le t en ab li o e ec ad m e ar m no s .. ee oy pl n 1 e s it d an e at St 4. The rm C on l1a ll e ?i th on ec in�oc ent'' e '' m so _ t us hr t lly ua us ' ' s' rt 'to ic policy: ds re of nd In rp l1u d te ge en ga en es ris e Is at t S e and tl1 y da to rt; to e tJ1 victiin of ic om j on g ury to others in ec in us ca of ks ris nt re l1e in l t ai en c h i wh activities iv_ities, �pe�a�ion of electric � �c n tio uc ��r co , les . l1ic ve r to mo (e g., operation of � innocent InJu�e� _ Ind1v1duals , should power li nes); tl1e State, rather tl�a� c t1v1t1es whenever, in an a e es th m fro ng 1s1 ar ts en cid ac of sts co e absorb th n to te rso ar pe iva be pr a e the loss. uir req uld wo law the , i on t ua it s analogous

her these propositions het ve, abo 4 gh ou thr in � 2 s ent um arg the of is lys ana r you Consider in s - or, are th. e re reasons r1e cou ped elo dev erund d �n p ed ?� elo dev to ce for al equ l1 _ 'tvit _ ly app uld sho e�tal! Y differen t con_d1t!on_s _fun dam wit ed ont nfr co is � 1a 1op Eth of _ ity pol the use beca _ t tl1a ing 1 1. arg for _ s of public tort I1ab1I1ty m Ethiopia must be from, for example, the polity of France, the pr1nc1ple ? nce ere ff d.i the ke ma ich wh s ion dit con the are at wh so, If nt? differe Re-read: Dicey's arguments on the personal, tort accountability of public officials, Chapter II, pages 132-133. Note: many ''modern'' commentators argue that Dicey misses the point: the thrust of tl1e law sl1ould not be to impose irzdividi,al liability on public servants but to impose liability on the state treasury; only in more or less exceptional cases of seriously blameworthy conduct should tl1e en1ployee be held personally liable; in other cases the state (i.e., the taxpayers?) should absorb damages caused by the torts of public servants. To wl1at extent d .oes the law in. Ethiopia now follow this ··modern'' view?

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A Classificatio11 of Torts Cor11mitted By State Agencies and Public Servants.

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Consider the arg11ments pro and con liabil ity in the following cases;

Case 1. D, a tru ck driver employed by a n1inistry runs over P ' a student ' causing serious bodily injury and p roperty damage. ' Case 2. The I. H. A. stores dynamite needed for road construction work at .its and camp located near P' s farm. Tl1e dynam bodily causin g explo it des e · property darnage to P. Case 3- D, the janitor in _ a mi� is try bui!ding, fails to clean up a greasy spot on _the floor,. ai1cl P slips o.n 1t, break111g several bones wit h consequent medi cal expe11ses and loss of' wages. Case a. D, an �flicial 0� the X Ministry, denies P a l icense to engage in a specIBc occlipatioi�; D ts vested by law wi th d iscretion to assess P's qualifications and to decide whetlier issl1a11ce of a lice11se would be ''in tl1e public inter eSt,,. · · . . P a 11 .eges, tl1at. D' fior va. rJOllS · reasons, made an improper (1Ilegal) dec 1 s1o n denying the license, and he sues D (and the X inistry in tort for damages. ) M tbe Case b. J?, a judge, awards judgment to X in the civi l eal, app case of Xv P. On au<l h1�ler c�urt_ rules that D l1as clearly misread nt em e jud g s reve�se law th e 1 t, or e�s d1sm1ssal of the case. p sues D tor in e) c (and Mid is try of Justi the . . . ce, tJ1at D's alleg.1ng that D's erroneo us dec1s1 on was based on negl i gen uld e 1·1 genc: damaged P sho try) in \'arious ways and that D (and tl1e Minis �1 e Iab le in tort to p for this mag da e. Case c. P sues DI ( the M" · nt a t s · i Ass inister of Health) and D2 and D3 (Vice and . · e M1n1sters) and D 4 (the . th . . ns, M 1111s try) cla1m.1ng that for various reaso " · nt . · . defenda t's 11 u· 1d b_e held_ v.e pre to steps liabl e_ for failing to take ad.equate ari outb�a ; O� a senous · · .. ·, a se di se 1n s P' . ct ri st di .

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between Cases 1 , 2 and kind 3, co11sidered as a group in ence differ ea Is t he: ? p u o as a ed gr er d si n co c, d an ,b . es Cas nd . . a . grot1p of cases.(�, �n� _ 3 2 ) \v1ll 1rst f �rc�111�r1ly entail what T�e yes. ably, . As . ;° called questio ns of operat1011al activity lzabzl,ty. Tl1e 111J11r1es in this group ht g IIll b ase� on accidents which are likely to occ11r i11 the ordi11ary operations of any are 1ate. Tl 1e ''to t'' pro blem� prese11ted �y · p�1� 1· or 1c �ub e, C_ases 1, 2 enterpri� . � exten sive . gr1st fo: tl1e �amil1a! court �e mills; tl1ey raise issues o f rd1nar�ly o would 3 nd a to 1ss�es s1m1lar wl11cl� n1ay be ex1)ected wl1en persons are qu!te are which ity liabil e pr1v_ a te la:ge b11s1ne ss; a_ of and �to tl1e �at1on extent t�at the law o p the by red inju holds business es liable for s111?-1lar accidents, sho11ld 110L the same baste rules of liability apply to public agencies? The answer _may deJ)end on wl1ether it is wise policy, in an under:develor;d C?llntry, to say, Ill effect, !hat t}1e governn1ent will have to act as an ''1 nsurer against tl1e costs of tl1ese accidents, to tl1e same extent as private industries. Whether or not it is wise for goven1me11t to accept liability on the same liberal terms may be, basically, an eco nomic problem: can tl1e government afford the policy? or will a policy of liability cost so 1nucl1 tl1at \Ve must conclude that the expense of paying claims arising from sucl1 accidents will significantly diminish resources for governmental expenditure on 11rgent development projects? In "rich'' countries tl1e trend to wards a liberal law of governmental liability is very pronounced. Ethiopia (through the Code) a1)pears to be accepting policies fallowed by tort law in the ''rich'' countries. Whetl1er it will be able to afforcl such liability, in the future, as the risks of operational activities increase, is a question v'1l1ich deserves further an alysis in other studies.

Cases (a), (b) and (c) may be said to involve considerations v1luch may no t be pre?ent in usual cases of ''operational liability;'' Cases (a) (b) and (c) arise, not from a�idents which may normally be expected to occur in a11y big e11teq)rise, public or private, but from activites which are peculiarly governmental; these cases are predicated 0 ? alleged wrongful exercise of official discretion, and a critical, recurring problem m these cases is: Under what circumstances should officials exercising discretionary and policy-making functions be held liable in to,·t for their errors in judgment? . �?mittedly th ese classifications - o perational activities vs. official discretionary hactivrties- are far from clear-cut ' perl1aps not useful for a n11mber o· f purposes. But ere the purp e o r ge blems pro 'th wr 1s I cern con sug a cip g stin prin m our e the is aus bec ?� of . o ta to the courts of officials wl10 exercised official discretion improper1 _ De�c<: �n bility law�:ination of such liability raises complex problems in all syste1n� of public r?blems are, perhaps op vel de in ' '' P ers op vel e de w''la r fo lt ly r cu la. ct1 diffi ing countrie . parti ' s In thinking. a . . . argur'1l ' ge11� b o e som ut er furth cases · ider e cons of this character m nts t r and again�t policies favoring liability. In favor o f rules I1olding either the stat� or the official (or both) liable, o ne m.igl1t ar gu e: .. . 1 pr · Im oper exerc1s - · e of discretion can cause s·1 gr11'fi cant dam ' age to c1t1zens afr cted by at t11 cte ara ch � a t cl1 su e h decision· if tl1e official's error was of W ee can , . t11e f 1 ' ed urr occ reas av onably conclude '' this erro r sbot1ld never b e . ofii · had been d?ing his job properly," then it is just that the "1nnocent vic :�. . · of th e official's actions be compensated. 2-Iftb e . · of a·iscre1· o state itself is f �, orced to pay . damage s for improper exercise su.pe rt_ ; 1e1r t ors will try from nce more actively to sec11re better performa

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l rs c t in na pe n ca rt ey th ize bil al lia re ls cia 9 � ity offi � ? all if d an e:; at in rd bo su _ t en lig 1n th e di or err m be ll t wi or eff ey th s to s, ion cis de al eg ill or s es rel ca for es ur d ed an oc a pr nd er sta op pr w llo rds of fo to d an , law tl1e y o� d an rn lea conduct.

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But consider: (a) It is not alvays in the interests of society to force a ''wrongdoer'' or his superior to )ay damages for harm he bas caused; sometimes _tl1: law allows wrongdoers to escape liability in order to promote some pr1nc1ple deemed more important to society. (Compare, for example, the argument: ''It is better that nany guilty go unpunished than that one innocent suffer''.) We must, theref)re, determi11e whether particular rules of public tort liability for alleged misttkes in decision-making may produce undesirable consequences i11 public adni11istration and thus conflict with superior, over-riding public interests. (b) If public off-cials and the public can easily be sued in tort for alleged mistakes, disappointed citizens will use (and abuse) the courts to press many meritless claims in the lJope of squeezing money settlements out of the government. (c) If public oficials ca11 easily be sued for every allegedly mistaken decision, none migl1t be willing to risk sucl1 liability; the official might be tempted to resign or at least he m.igl1t be unwilling to stick his neck out to decide a difficult case in the future. :(d) There are o ten otl1er remedies wl1ich can be used to correct official errors or abuses, i11d these are usually less drastic tl1an compelling payment of tort money awards to the aggrieved citize11; official actions which are ''ultra vires" or contrary to la\v can be enjoined; the courts can also provide declaratory .udgments or habeas corpics in appropriate cases. (e) It is _incon:istent with tradition, and it \vill undermine the prestige and capa �1ty of fovernment, to per1nit l1igl1 officials to ·be brought to court (e.g., awr�Ja co11:-s) and forced to respond to citizens' complaints; ordinarily it is unwise for J1dges to, sit in review over tl1e conduct of tl1ese officials; and other agencies of government can be t1sed to discipline blameworthy offic_ �als. (E.g., t �1e Attor11e� Gen�ral ca11 prosecute tl1em; tl1e Emperor, on pet1t1on ! or Parl1ame1t can 1nvest1gate allegations of wrong-doing or abuse of power.)

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T�e· probl�m. in dt�op!ng tl1e law l1ere is, obviously, to weigh these competing policies, to reconcile confl1ct1ng cbJect1ves.

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Tort Liability Arisizg out of Discretionary Governmental Activities: Relevant Code Provisions.

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· · s O f the . · With these genera iss.ues 1· n mm • d we turn now to examine some particular prov.ts1 on · Cod e wh.ICh 01 �Y be e �e�mll rel vant to determine cases involving tort liability based on alleged � t: o w � �lf'fiul exerczse of 0..izcza/ d1scrt1on. Consider the following bases of liability established by tbe e ClVl1 CO d e:

(i) Liability Jo- negligent exercise of discretion Art. 2031. -lrofessional fault. · (l) A P�son practising a profession or a specific activity shall, in �he_ pracbce of such profession or activity, observe the rules governing th.at )ractice • •

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He shall be liable where, d1 1e r�gard lx:ing had to scientific facts of the accepted rules ?f tl1e prac!1ce. of l11s_ �ro�ession, J1e is guilty of imprudence or neg l igence const1tut1ng def1n1te ignorance of llis duties. •

usin ally g disc retio inten nary tion for powers to cause harm or fior lity Liab i ) (ll.. . . proper 111otzves fi . or im n tio cre dis abusin g . e 1r j1 to t in n te n I . 2 3 0 2 Art. (1) A person co1;11mits a!l offence wl1ere he acts with intent to injure another notw1tbstand1ng t11at he seeks no personal gai11 from his act. (2) A person commits �n offence where, with full knowledge of the facts, he causes substantial dan1age to a11otl1er in seelcing personal gain disproportionate to tl1e da.mage caused.

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Art. 2033. - Abuse of powers. (I) A person commits an offence wl1ere he tun1s to l1is own advantage powers conferred upon him in the interest of anotl1er. (2) A public servant commits an offence wl1ere he turns to his own advantage or to the advantage of anotl1er individual, po\-vers conferred upon him in the public interest by l1is office.

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Art. 2034.- Purpose of rig/1ts. Subject to the provisions of the preceding Articles, tl1e 1nanner in wl1ich a right is used may not be challe11ged on tl1e grot1nd that it is contrary to the economic or social purpose of that rigl1 t. (iii) L iability for exercising official discretio,z in a way i,vhicli violates duties or standards imposed by law

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Art. 2035. - lnfringe1ne11t of a law. (1) (2)

A person commits an offence where he infringes any specific and explicit provision of a law, decree or administrative regulation. Ignorance of the law is no excuse.

Art. 2036. - Hierarchical order. (I) (2 ) (3)

The fact that a.n ac t ha s been carried out on the orders of a higher authority shall not necessarily relieve tl1e doer of liability. The doer commits an offence where he is aware of the illicit nature of the order, in particular by reason of the lack of competence of the person giving tl1e order, and the cri1ninal nature of the act ordered. There is no offence where, in t]1e circ11mstances of tl1e _c�se, �nd in particular having regard to the strict exigencies of_ �dm1 n1strati ve military discip line, the doer w as placed in s11cl1 a po s 1tio� tl1at he cou not discuss the order received or ac t otherwise than he did.

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. . ed by ifi a u q e b th Th e Pote ntial . I·1.ab'J· er ev w o ' . h , t mus 1 Ittes established by the above prov1s1ons e fol1 ow· · mg articles:

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e labl avai '' nses defe to r l gove ecia ''sp n nme and t s'' nitie officials mz, ''lnl (iv) . gn ei er e ov S Th I. y. it un m im al eg Art. 2137_ -L ce c en an off ommitted by Hi o n sed ba ity bil lia r o f n o m may ti ac No r or of Ethiopia. pe e th Em ty es aj M is H t ns ai ag L1t tig o be br t en am rli d an of Pa rs . es be dg e,n Ju M s, er ist in M 2. . 38 21 Art. No action for liability may be bro ught as the result of an act connected with tl1eir functi on s against: (a) a 1nember of the Imper�al Ethi?pian Government; or (b ) a member o f the �th1?p1an Parl1ament; or (c) a judge of the Eth1op1an c ourts.

Art. 2139. -Exception. The pr ovisions of Art. 2138 shall n ot apply where the persons mention­ ed therein have been sentenced by a criminal court for acts pertaining to tl1eir office and inv oked by the plaintiff.

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Art. 2140. - Refere11ce to tlze admi11istrative law. Where the State is liable, the rules of administrative law determine agai11st whom tl1e action shall be bro ught and which. depa.rtment or service sl1all finally assume the burden of the debt. Art. 214-1. -Burden of proof The victim of the injury sl1all establish the amount thereof and prove the circumstances which render the defendant liable t o make it good.

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Consi�er also Arts. _2039, 2048, 2053, 2054, 2097, 2099. What special defences , if any, might each provide for a public official?

Some Notes and Questio11s on the above Articles

(i) Im1nu11ities ancl other dejences. Tl1e En1peror's in1munity (Art. 2137, ConstAi·t. 62(a) is, of course, traditio11al and c omparable to tl1at of other heads of state. As to tl1e in1m1111ity of o tl1er officials, established y Art. 2138, b . consider tl1e following:

From Davis, Adn1inistrative Law T1·eatise (1 958), Vol. III, sec. 25.13. . C�urt� are not tl1e only autl101·ity of government with competence to m ak e_ �in al determ. 1nat1ons of gov·e rnn1ent po11c1es . . · · and LS1o ns de · es c i Some t gove1·nn1ent action. m made 10 the le�islative or exec11. nd e e ranches of tl1e go,,ernment should b b y� t ive b . the .area of Jt1d1cial review · · If a11 01 1on act . s e g . a . d -1 a c o 1np ma an y ve wa pr o nt t o Ill s . . taga1nst the governme11t t l1at . 1c1e n . . suf f g ·1· t h � . n e S tate 1a1 . i In Dep art1n negl ent igent was . . . IY to press its · . , ex�ropr1at1on °f cla1m fOr c ompensatio n fo r a fo reign go vernment s he its oil pro ert Y, tile cotirt t . If e. pr o bably sho uld refuse t o consider the evi denc by pe deral RP re . the eserve Board rest_ric s r te . t t ·s es or 1nter expa a nds adju cred sting it by ld ca usin 1· flat.·on r ' ou h l de flat o o n p and ! � i injuring tl1e plaintiff, a court � b�b y 1cu1atrefl1se fo :q uir ca e w1ether tl1e Board was ne its g kin ma gligent or mistaken in ions. .

. td . In the exercise of . o . J rlY sh � . ea some· ty pes of d1scretto n s be 1�mune from tal u it c buse of ·diS·· nary i t.l1 en , funct governm , ons en Ii · a 1 c damages on b'l·tty .tor cret1on. account of negligence, fault, mista kes, or a. - .

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e S. rem (U. Sup 335 ll. Wa Court, 1871). * 13 er, Fish v . di frolllBra ey

plainti!Y �n advo�te. During the course of a trial, defendthe judge! trial a was 'f he defendant a action agams� the pla1nt!ff �or l11s all_eg�d improper cottrtro om i conduct. discipl n ry d de .. or ant re �f • proceedmgs w�re _dismissed. Pla1nt1ff sued for damages. The Court linary discip the . ' ' subsequ entIr must be d1sm1ssed, even thot1gh defendant's disciplinary order dam ages for claim 5 Id that thi J,.J�;; b · Id, J., o bse.rved ·. Fie ful. 1 unlaw I .-., .:SS in fact

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to [liability_ subjected i� t�rt] . ·: i f!- a civil action, however be cannot ndant defe the �a�e been, .a�d 11.owever 111J�r1?us Ill its co�seqt1e�ces it may may act e 1 tl eous ��on 1ff. F�r It_ IS a gene!al _p!1nc1ple o�_ tl1e l11gl1est importance n� a1 pl e tl1 to ed ov pr have trat1on of JUStice that � JUd1c1al ofl'.ic�r, 10 e�ercisi11g the author­ 1s admin r pro pe the to �o act llp?n �1�s o,vn free conv1ct1o be n s, without apprehension . shall him, in vested ty i of person al consequences t� himself. �1ab1l1ty to ans:ver to _everyo�e wl10 migl1t feel himself aggrieved by the action of tl1e Judge, woulcl be Inconsistent with the possession of this freedom, and would d estroy that in dependence withot1t wl1icl1 no judici ary can be either respectable or useful. As observed by a distinguisl1ed English judge, it would establish the weakness of judicial authority in degrading responsibility. [Citation omitted.] The principle, therefore, which exempts judges of courts of superior or genera.I authorit y from li abili ty in a civil action for acts do ne by tl1em in tl1e exercise of tl1eir judicial functions, obtains in all coun tries where there i s a11y well-ordered system of jurisprudence.

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Can we argue that Civil Code Art. 2138 is ''inconsistent'' with Article 62 (b) of tl1e Constitu­ tion? Or with Article 75 of the Constitution? Do the agruments for providing immunity to judges apply also to executive officials? To all executive officials or only some? The Code extends immunity only to a ''n1ember'' of tl1e "Govern­ �e�t:" �ow_ is that category to be defined? By wl1at reasoning should tl1e Minister of Justice escape liab1hty 1f his Attorney General can not? Can tl1e Minister's immunity bestowed by Art. 2138 somehow be imparted to the Attorney General? (Cf. Arts. 2036, 2100.)

P_ rof. Davis argues vigorously (in his Admi11istrative La1v Treatise, op. cit. supra, at �e�i�n 26) that ''immunity'' is the central problen1 in developing a law of tort liab1 1tr of public offici als. He argues t hat effective (e.g., ''fearless," ''co11scie ntious'') f dD1Ini stration requires extension of at least a qualified inm111nity all tl1e w_a1 down n the ranks of executive officials, to the policeman. Recogn1�ng that perhaps even ther e are many cases where the plaintiff may l1ave a ''deserving'' case, Davis would �ot_ e�te nd the same d extend to its officials, ,voul ie as immunity l e11t to gover11m the 1nd1v1dually. . But con sider whether' apart from immunities wl1icl1 attacl1 to an. individual by ' Vtrtue 0f b'is o ce certain ' types of gover nmental actions sl1ould be ''11nmune f rom ffi , ' . ·JUdIctal re�iew via the vehicle of tort claims. Here tl1e focus is on what was done, ot who did it. Suppose for example p sues the state claiming that a carelessly � f ed reg lation has nd �1? t �,f he in �� � ' gence' ''negli O ? � c�used him da age ri�f n � r tl1at g affairs �as caused him business losses? Cf . the doct_rine of ''non JUSltciabil ty ' � pa e �37-2� 1 in ch en Fi z, rt a l1w Sc om fr g ap 111 Ch w llo fo ter II. Compare, also, tl1e Ad�;nlSlrat,ve Law and t/1e Common Law World (1954), pages 160-l63: c rding to a ays recog al � I1as _ law 1 F ] cl ren [D an i:��i ? n English observer, icey t��� n. tte class of acts p of or y polic gl1 l11 of . tters a m . h, whic 'as they concer n secunt o_ r to n dea 1i ngs cer con or y uch s, tie a tre up on foreign policy or the execution of With fiore1gner s, must be left to the uncontrolled discretion of the government, and

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ev e r.' Th e non-revie wabili ty of thes 1at wl t ur co y n a of n io e 1.ie qui· te out81·de tl1e jurisdict n of th e l aw of May 24, 1872 the isio v pro a n i is bas i gal r l e ts acts 0.f g?v rnment h s er the Third Repub lic. This' law d n u te Sta l of ci � n Cou e orga c ns rum nt ;� th t s the le gality of which the ac e v i rat ist n i m ad e r we e ier : l z t � expreruss lyi recogn1 ed ·11at · , , o d t f ac e s go r ve m rm n te · ce en t. n os e si th w e vi re t o n c ul co te a St Council of e d to contain? It would include acts r t fer e r a th as ch su t lis a ''What acts wouli • in tl1e following cate�or1es: e legislature; th h it w s n o ti la e r s it n i ve i ut x� e 1. Acts of tli e ve rnment wi th a foreign power, Go ch en Fr e th of s n o l ati re e t h l g vin vo n 2. Acts i es falls; an d s ca of r be um n t es e at gr e th � fa by 1 icl in wh 3. Certain acts rd.ated to t l1e conduct of wa r and the national defense. ''Like the Frencl act of governm ent, action of th e American executive that l control. icia jud m fro ne ll mu m y i o wh s is n ,tio l e qu l a itic po to tes ela r ''One cannot but 1ot e tl1at the categories contained in a list of pol itical question s are rougl1ly similar to those covered by th e French concept of acts of government. Botl1 include certain �cts relating to domestic gover nment, sucl1 as those touching upon tl1e acts of the ex!cu tive in its relations with tl1e legisl atur e. A nd both the French and tl1e Ainerica n do;trines empl1asize the autonomy of the political departments in tl1e field of foreign ,ffairs.'' Co nsider also whether a court sl 1ould entertain a claim for tort damages whe re otl1er relief (e.g., an in_unction) is av ailable and wou ld substantially protect th e plain­ t iff's interests. Suppost P bri ngs a tort suit bas ed on ill e gal arrest a nd illegal imprison­ ment a11d s uppose it issl1own that P never attem pted to bring J,zabeas corpus to secure a n immediate release ?Cf. Arts 2090(2), 2097(2), 2099, 2104 of the Civil Code . . (ii) Negligence in tie exe1·cise of official discretiori. Negligence is a term of ar t. Co11sid er the f ollo\ving from Scl1wartz., op. cit, supra, page 277 (footnotes ani t ted): '' 'Fault,' a recen_1 text on tl1 e Fre ncl1 law of torts states, [speaking specifically of the fault of ''Negl�e11ce ''] 'is tl1e non-perforn1a11ce of a duty that tl1e individual should_ l1a ve k11owr1 oJ a11d be en able to perfor111.' A nd the duty i nvolved is to act according to tl1e norrral sta11dard of a careful a nd prudent man. The i ndividual is at fatilt when such a 11an wo11ld l1ave foreseen a11 d avoided the act tha t cause d the da mag�.. 'Fault is tl1e ict or tl1e failt1re to act tl1 at wo ul d ot l1ave been committed n ?Y a dil1 gent mai1, a p:11dent 1na11, a careful n1an' all of w11icl1 it sl1ould be noted, is 110t too f�r f�oin tl1e standard of tl�e 'reaso11able 1n a n' ap pl ied 'in the Anglo..Ameri­ can law of tor ts [q11otcd fro m Sa,,at1er, Traite de la resJJonsibilite civile (1951 ed.)]. ''If an ad mi nistrctive officer in Fra11ce ha s d e vi at ed from the standard of a ar ful an� a l_)rudent o::i-an w l1ile acti11g in the scope of hi s official functions, then �e ;ia s ordina rily comnitted a service-con11ecte d fau l fo w t r hicl1 tl1e Sta te is liable.'' Tlus concept of n�g · . ' . li bly g '-' "" n ce · Is ma 1 · stm , · ar pre su to . d An glo a -Am n . l erica n aw . is. embO ct·ied tn Ethiopan law. l1u t s s, T e da rd ne j gli g e sta nc n ob e iec is tiv ud e g d by J ;i 1 s unreasonable cond uct_ unreasonab le 1· n tl ,gen 1· ce eg n 1 e sen fin se ds tl 1 at ur a t if co th _c tirt co 1udes thzt a re t n ud a as on ab le de fe pe rso wo n e t1ld not ha ve done what th 1� v di� � e!n more dil igent. T�e implicatio11 of t.his is that a thoroughly ; i: � f ��� � con c n s o 1� _na� ?e found '' neglige ve �a ma y t'' n ige a lthougl1 his negl nce been the result of �us imbility {through poor training, or insufficient basic education)

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. ·ob prope rly. (Bu! cf . Art. 2099_ on mi�igation of damage s in sucI1 cases.) is h o y in Section. 5, supra) to the e ffect tl1at one d to -n1j J OUr earlier readings (notabl . . !cal problems in a deveI oping country 1s to secure proper sta,iclards of R�, too of �e c ir ti _ perhaps the problem can11ot simply be solved that recall and on, · strati ni · n ' ' and wr1· u·ng laws and d bile a rni pu . le panac eas '' edt1cat1o mant1a Is for adini11 istrats1 rnP t e by th patterns of bel1avior, weak trai11i11g progra111s ai 1cl a deep seated iiltj11.4, ed p cce �Q 0rs·' long a ' ep t o f h ·1s ro Ie 1nay comb111e to aff e ct tlie conc s man a · ff e cting a d e cultura1 ttitu er now the followi11g argume11t: id Cons jobs. their do waypeop�e 1ilititn� ''In theor y the pote�ti�l liability of the G overn�1e11t for neglig�nt conduct of av enu_e for corr�ct1011 of_ n1any grie vances w}1ic l1 s1gnrficant a e s pos ation . adtnirustr elop �ga1nst a�enci�� of tl1e ir gover�11:-ent . Consider dev may public the of rs �� m embe e �nab1l1t y to g_et a c�ec1s1011 tal<en, tl1e complarnts: tl1 well-kno":'n of ude multit the �tr �� failu er of an agency to provide _clear-cut delegat1011 of a11tl1or1ty �I11cl: :vot1Id e xpedite its business, the loss of some i mportant docu1ne11t tl1rot1gl1 fa11lty f1 li 11g, tl1e ref11sal ·;(�.,_ to answer a letter, the taking of an imprope r decision tl1rougl1 lack of a\vareness of �::; all the relevant facts or inattention to the gove rning standards. Are these failings to s·:�: be considered ''negligence''? The Ia,v of public tort liability, if so interpreted and if ,::;:::- eve r really enforced, might lead to an astonislung volume of liability; the result :-�: J: might be a useful prod towards better public admi11istration, but it migl1t also i1npose ::� too mu h liability on the government and put tl1e col1rts in an lindesirable role.'' c Is this argument sound in its legal assumptions? In its fcictual assumptio11s? Is it �b� �....:... sound as a statement of policy implications? To wl1at extent s/1oulcl tl1e ordi11ary law ·:--­ ;: courts be arbiters of proper standards of public administration? Consider also the problem (suggested si,pra) wl1ether all decisio11s of govern­ :21 ment agencies s hould be subject to re view on the groltnd tl1at they were ''11egligently'' made. It may be one thing for courts to I1old tl1at because tl1e imn1igratio11 office del�yed unreasonably in issuing a passport to P it is tl1erefore liable for tl1e neglige11c e �,.. of its offici�ls. But suppose P's complaint is tl1at tl1e Ministry of flealt]1 delayed 110r e as?n ably 1n supplying vaccine to a community? Or tl1at specialists in tl1e Ministry of . :tJ !gric�ture were ''negligent'' in failing to dete ct and correct a def ect in some fertilizer �t; pphed to P and hundreds of othe r farme rs? Suppose that tl1e government's explan­ atio� of the alleged neglig ence of an agency is: ''We don't l1ave sufficient f11nds to �:·' proVIde resource s to enabl e the agency to do its job prope rly." How is a court to ;:; evaluate ·such a defence? :l• • ,:� · 0f a �h� t_ erm ''discretionary functions'' of gover111nent includes a broad specturm tiv_ities. Some discre }:: tionary e routine of administration; some of th acts are part � ,. io s ta en at the highest l vel. Sltppose, for example, that � l1e city of �d�is e � k �· f� ab:�ecide s t? del�y provision of needed stre et lighting on a public road, _deciding that this �x peu<liture 1s a lowe r order priority than using tl1e funds for otlier improve­ � ment roJects. Suppose, p further, that pis injured as a result of tl1e absenc e of street / lighftng. Is the city to be liable? f it ma y _be argued that the following principles should be (allowed ;' cases :� a eg�d neglig sl1o ence in the e xe rcise of discretionary powers: (I) officials not aut ti � 1at t e nc e ly et cal in� co d an be g n ini u ass med to ha ve a de gree of tra ca nnot ��s on e m st enc li g abl neg for st be ; e t 2) expe cted in Ethiopia tod ay ( the be cast . ahe p y � r 0 11 s lem ro p ers ­ . � tl1e b _ 0 nt ing � � ective of Ethiopian p and n tio tra inis adm public i ee p ec , d ng i ew vi e r in e nt u� io ut ) ( laken at hig1 lo � ; 3 courts should be e xtre mely ca �J ��� m m co policy levels lest the courts usurp functions wh1ch are not

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g in rv i se e nt de m ai pl so to , ir ffs fa 11n t bu be . e th ay 1 n s · y ie lic po ar e e es tll . 4) , . s e g d l Jl to . . . s of pub lic p o 1ic · , y 11 10 t ra e d 1 based on ove.rriding cons s s rt ci on de t (A , up . 32 rr 20 d co an ). e 33 ag ,n 20 da of on ti � lic � iiif al ,i io zt e, it J, (iii) _ es pl ch �1 hi 1n w ss s pr e ee m e pr ex a� m s �e jn m tic _ r a e s e ently tl1 ct ra st ab e l ti In l e , th ey 11?- ay b e very ?1gnif ica b o pr s o� r1 se a 1s er w po of nt. e us ab � just; indeed, jf e rpr etat1on and 1mplementat1on. In the t 1n of s lem ob r p al tic ac pr e m But consid er so d se, an tr _By rn nis lho mi Ad G� e ve (se ati le dd Bi v. Law: ·e oi1 eg G1· se, ca n ca Ameri ? ne by e s ta1 th de wa n tor e At oir eg Gr ey 4), 36 e g pa Gener­ 0), 96 (1 ,zts me 111 Co d ari ses Ca ''. ) en l an �li ua erm ent (G Ev my ly ne ''e a11 as , gregoire o11 ati isl leg me rti wa to 11t s11a r pu al r ele ase thr�ugh habeas ed his ur sec d an '', my ne ''e an t 11o , ch en r F s p;oved I1e wa e r ho e_ had d his detentio n) (w ord al n�r �e 11ey tor At the d s11e n tl1e ire ego Gr us. orp c claiming damage s for the tort of wrongful 1mpr1sonment and all eg1ng that the Attor­ ney Ge11eral l1ad acted, not simply n egligently, but ''maliciously'' (i.e. intentionally) to deprive plai11tiff of his liberty contrary to law. The court held that this complain t should be dismiss ed. Learned Hand (a famous judge) wrote the judgme nt, which said in part: ''It does indeed go witl1out saying that an official, who is in fact guilty of using his powers to ,1ent his spleen lipon otl1ers, or for any other personal motive not conn ect ed witl1 tl1e pl1blic good, should not escape liability for the injuries he may so cause; and , if i t were possible in practice to con.fine such complaints to the guilty, it V11ould be monstrol1s to deny recov ery. Tl1e justification for doing so is that itis impossible to know whetl1er tl1e claim is well founded until the case h . as been tried, and tl1at to submit all officials, tl1e innocent as well as the g1tilty, to the burd en of a trial and to tl1e i11evitable danger of its outcom e, ,vould dampen the ardor of all but tl1e most resollite, 01· the mo st irre sponsible, in th e 11nflinching dis�harge of their dutie s. As is so often the case, tl1e ans we1· must be found in a balance between the evils ! inevitable in either alternative. 111 this i11s tance it has been thought in the end better to leave l1nre_dressed tl1e w1·011gs done by dishonest officers tl1an to subject those who , try to do tl1e1r d uty to the consta11t d1·ead of retaliation.'' !�dge Hand rested l1is decisio11 on ''immt1nity," but l1is ce ntral argum ent was tl1 at 1_t 1s eas� eno11gl1 to make a llegations of ''int ent to harn1,'' ''corrupt motives,'' etc; but 1�. offic1_ als �re to be tried in co111·t e,,ery time a plaintiff simply writes such . al �ega�1011s into l11 s co1nJJla1!1 t, p11blic ad 1ninistration will suffer. Do you think Judge H,lnd s argliments are a1Jpl1cabl e to Etl1iopia? To wl1at extent d o Articles 2032 ao<l 20� 3, supr�, create rislc� of u11d esir ,1ble ''l1arrassment?'' Is tl1ere a way of ''scre enin�'' seri�tls claims f�om frivolous cl,:1i111s? Sl1ot1ld the plaintiff be required to furni_sh detailed allegat1�ns and doct1 n1e11tations, e.g., affid cla im bis t sup po r to avits, before a cot1rt will l1ear it? (iv) Violation of a specific and explicit rule of law (Art. 2035). . . It should b e noted at the outset that Artic 15 it n; ati o app lic le 2035 has a general a. n t ai ed specrfically at ptt'blic officials, n dow lays but rather at all citizens; it . � rr � a�: : standard of _c�r.e : all p�opl� �re obliged to follow this stan�ard o_ f care _ m . i g _ on_tl1eir act1:'111es (_ e. g. 1n d r1v111g ong nr r 1n ion, a u pro ca r, fes in s pr ac a tis ing a re�a. uiant or a r etail serv1ce). Oi1 r e source of tlus Article (which l1as no ex act cou nte - . art_ in F rench law) s � · t u_ !at e 5 may be tl1e comn1on law doctrine that violation of � ed others f�o m i_njury may give rise to tort liability if the injuf}'. r::Jt� is by the violation (e.g ., violation of a statute which requ !fes insp d. 1 . tion f cars to s ee if th e brakes . .· eJ JIC de op erate prop e rly). The violation of the law is � 1 au afi t wrongful cond uct, ·, · · per se, wi· thout proof of other faults. . .·I. .

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c kg r ou.1_1d in 1:11ind we ma� co_nsider how Art. 2035 appl ba this ies to With o_ ffi c1als. l e 1n effect may �e a Tl1e Art1? public of s_ c t a_ e ecific amplifi­ sp v trati nis adroi . e of negl igence. In effect 1t ·comn1a11ds official s j11 carryi ng ot1t cipl prin · e th f · ' · cati on ° 1� 1 w 1 h" l l d ay · es ru ow n, 1os 1n e c ear t l an d precise ternls, tlle li,11 its obey to I es, dut i their er, the standards wh ich are to co ntr ol tl1e e xercise of discretioil, tlle pow ial of offic e followed. b to re edu proc . . tl�e ce11!ral qt1est10�1: In wl1at vvays aga to 11_1 r�f er �o rta nt imp o shoul d tile is It e ca?t1on 1n_ e�forc�11g tl11s Article?. �011s1d er for exa111ple wl1e tller it rcis exe ts cour Sofza case. Cot1ld a c1 t 1ze11 wl 10 clai111s a d enial of ''du e Lzscz the 1n d invoke be uld other consti tt1ti�11al right i n :oke tl1e �iolatio n of some of violatio� � ?r '' ;�ocess t or t damages? Wl 1at m1gl1t be tl1e 1nter-relat1onsl1.ip be­ laim c to on onst.Itut1 the C nveen the Public Rigl1ts Proclan1ation (No. 139 of 1953, see pages 380-81, supra) and Article 2035 of the Code? Note first that Art. 2035 reqt1ires viol atio.11 of a ''specific'' rule w l 1icl1 is also "explicit'' (i.e. clear) in its command. Note , fur t her, t l 1at t he essential isst1e in the case might be rephrased: wl1etl 1er the defendant was ''ne glige nt'' (or \vheth er his conduct was even more blamewortl 1y, i.e. almost i11te11 tio11ally \Vrongful). These issues should be weighed in an Etluopian perspec tive: liability sl1011 l d depend on a finding that the official's conduct was clearl y belo\V a standard \Vl1ich can, l 1ere and now be expected of s11cl1 an officer at t l1is stage in tl1e deve lop1nent of pl1blic , administration. Obviou.sly the official's ''ig11orance'' of l1is duties is 110 defe11ce; but that is Puite different from maki11g a determi11a tion tl1at a reasonable mistal<e in interpreting one's l egal duties is not a defence. Ignorance of tl1e law may be interpreted to mean a.n absence of knowledge of law or ignori11g 011e 's respo11sibility to find it; but that kind of ''ignorance'' may be differe11t i11 qt1ality from a11 l1onest mistake in interpreting a known principle of law.

A Note on the Civil Code Provisions dealing 1-vit/1 Government Contracti,al Liability. A. government engaged in ''development'' activities may be expected to engage i n nun1erous C?mmerci�l relations with private enterprisers, for there n1ay be so�e projec�s - e.g. tl1e constr�c­ tion of bridges, dams and buildings or the developn1ent of certain material resources - _which c,n, more efficiently, be delegated to private agencies. I11 any event the S:ivil <;ode _a�sun1es this ,nay �/he �, -�d contains special provisions, discussecl below to de�l. �1tl1 tl11s �ctiv!ty. Fo� prese_n� : l act1v1t1es can 1ve ris� to l_vgal dis os i 18 mp t ort 1erc1a �nt, to note tha government comn p es_ t t � PPutes which may require settlement by the courts (t1nless some otl1er ad lzoc tribunal 15 designated), aoct to see how th e Code approaches that problem.

From D avid, ''Ethiopian Administra tive Contrac ts'', 4 Journal 01 Ethiopia,z Law 143 (1967) (footnote s om i tted). o a rench jurist s11ch as I, tl1 e distinctio1 1 between JJUblic law and priv �te F I "T a more pa ticular ems e ssen tial se , law ive t tra nis mi ad ly between civil law a11d r t��� o<l nd tlle f d l � e las aii� ent re� si rep a o t io fi cat n. Government administra tors are pubJ�1 �nc d 1fferent a terest, and 111 t fac 1.11 are wh.ether it is acknowledged or 11ot, they . Pos'1t1c_ 1. · u11der· - 00· from private erJy rop ' · · ice, t l 1 P JllS individua l s. It is in co11for1n1ty \Vlt sto d t� e .110 1 · tlia11 r e tl � _ ? es, _ s ubje l 1·11 l ct contracts concluded by them to s1J e cia f of �h' 1 1 0 1 iar ecu p ics 5 i ter c i , aw at least wl1.en these co11tracts l 1ave tl1e cl1ara �vI ! 'adnJ0istr at1ve con tracts, .,, ed . incre as . l1e It was .v des.1rable t of ise B ecal_ · �rea . !111s to 1�. c la l ar w tl1 ify e functions ·a s u .ies, adnii· llistrative _ rit tl1o au ed by the sta te and i ts adm1111strat1ve contr ts. h s mbe . · receil t y ears as rue T · ' ac . ave · come more importa11t in al 1 cot111tr1e s Ill

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e d th te ni U en es ev at St d an , it , is om gd i11 . K e ev . n . ted ni U re 0 . 1 . .1. • e . 1 tl , e c . n a . F I . 11 1 is tl11s en t f . m e 1 ev op t 1 o c d . e 1 1n 1es no o u ec co ntries mus J:e T . s 1e tr 1rn co . g in t so i1 1 tl1e develop c h mu s as s a. 1ng or k a ert d re . than firo· m mo un 1c 1bl p1 nisei d an c: l·c lbl · ' co111e fro111 pl a I' y 1 er om "b ''l a on f o �c k , it or ew m 111 a · � f1 e te of i� in n 11 ve be E . . e s ri rp e 11t e te ,,a ri e e at P at ul iv pr im rp st te to en s ct ra nt nse co e 1v at tr is in nl ad e lts t o necessary l in al i� as tr un a, p� c� s 1io t1 r E he w i11 e ls ai ev pr capital y rl ea cl n tio ia tl si Tllis s ion by ess ed nc co aid en be giv · st 111u to do t e11 pm lo ve de mestic 's try un co e Til . ce . . . is scar rk s, yvb1ch. w1·1I often involve wo 1c bl pu ny 1na e 111r req ll wi it e s; s pri ter en aiid foreign , ble ssi of en be po ve ur l1a co d_ ul se, to draw wo It es. ess sin bu te iva pr th wi s contract � ne wa rs �o as yea ago , on for s�! e c_ con cl1 ,�a for English s'' ter 1ar ''cl ual ivid d up in try uld nis co mi h ac op E _ . vel s de nze ag np co, ''form l1 e nc Fr d an ' 1s' io1 rat rpo ''co . ese . Th ons rks uti wo c sol bli , ac ce ptable pu of cts tra con for d 11se e b to ' cts' tra 11 co ited tio to lim ula s n , seem out­ reg wa y nom eco e h t e in rol nt's 11ne 1 v e1· go tl1e e 11 wl1 ch roa and become more app this ned ndo aba e hav es stat dern Mo . 110w ed d o m systematic, regul ating by legislation things that wer e formerly left to charter or to ordinary contracts. Tl1e sl101·tage of trained lawyers in Ethiopia and lack of trained personnel in tl1e government req11ired that general n1les be drawn up to deal \Vitl1 ad1ni11istrative co11tracts. A framework had to be provided, with the under­ stand i11g tl1at witl1in tl1is fra1nework tl1ere would be room for adaptation by the administrative autl1orities and tl1e persons with whom they contract. n-i

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111 a cou11t1 y lil(e Etl1iopia, wl1ere there is no tradition to guide the Adminis­ trative a11tl1orities and wl1ere judges are still usually not jurists, it is particularly important to establish a framework f 01· administrative action. Ethiopia has neither the tin1e nor tl1e means to e laborate its own l aw judicially a. s the commo n law has d one a11d as France l 1as done in the a.r ea of adn1inistrative law. . Co�ification is an im1Jerative for a country that wants to renovate its structure ra1)1 � lf In ? rder to moder11ize a11d raise its standard of li\ring. Tl1is is as true for �dministra:ive I�w as for civil law. Formation of the law by judges might result In a law ricl1er 1� nua11ces a11d bette1· adapted to the society for which it is made, altl1ough e�en tl11s adva�tage is far from establisl1ed. The plodding of judges has . perio d s cost ml�ch In certa111 ancl i11 tl1e con1n1on law cou 11tries the law would b e filled with archa!c c_oncepts and rules if the legislator had not frequently intervened. In any c� se, Etl110JJia cannot wait tl1e severa l cen the for d nee de be wo uld tt1r ies tha t elaboi·at1011 of a jt1dge-made l aw jt1st so it will fit lik e a custom-made suit.

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A Note on Other Codes as Legal Bases for Judicial Review of Administrative Action. li enal C ode lays d own b ��;,f rning a number of standards of conduct gove "�� sc serva �� e, for exam�:,Ie, Ai·ts. 410-426, Arts. 7 51 -756.) Some of tl1ese provis�on will be n J la ter Section 7 ) , o ti eta : r rp te in , d an e of w s l m al le e sh . se ob at ( pr th · similar t II terpreting the t hus . C ivil C ode Articles noted above may arise T , � Pen al c � �orces a sig ar e � · s ifica nt rl tho c 1 l resp o1 as sibi ity on the courts' a� well h an ged_ with iru-1�Iat1011 of public . . ret rp e pr t tn osec 11:t1o to ns (e.g. tl1e Attorney General), en force s tandard �f t tha d e not some of these st:n a .conduct laid down in law. And again, it is to be lII fro e ds an i ( � th e concepts underlying th em) have be_en tak t tract foreign law_ f s 3 th ra er d i_ff�re n t P?l itical th� 10 xi». ll � validity r res. Thei may be clear en��� cultu . � e g e 1' but their 1mmed1ate v rais qtiestio ns. applicability to Ethiopia may

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Codes deal witl1 spe�ific co1u 1nercial activities, Maritime and er�ial The Comm ?f �ov�rn 1ne11t regt1lat�o11 of tl1ese activities (e.g. s�stem a part, 1n , . ovide and they pr Eth1op1a), t11l1s the 1n provide ration l�gal corpo bases for judicial a of � tion crea the governmental regulat1011 of business activities. of aspects cular parti review of in a sense� 1 11l1st be related to otl1er codes; it procedure, Civil of Code The between courts and pro,,1de� rl1les wl1icl1 gover11 t11 e bri i1 ging c�ion jurisdi cates allo government (o� a.n o:ffic1al, personally) (cf. Arts. 21, 109) th_ e nst agr suits u civil of i ef. It also _ pr�s�r1bes _a procedure_ for_ /1abeas corpus cases _ rel of grantin� the and for JUclic1al review of certain kinds of allegedly illegal procedure special a thus and adminis trative acts.

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Legal Bases for Judicial Re't'iew of Administrative Action: Partict1lar Legis!ation Legislation - e.g., specific sections of the Codes or other enactn1ents, such as tl1e Labour Relations law, infra - may provide in an express way for judicial review of particular kinds of administrative action. The scope of review, the procedure followed to obtain it, tl1e court witl1 juris­ diction to grant it - all, or some, of these n1atters may be speci lly de It witl1 on tl1e theory that the p rticular activity which is the concern of the law requires a particz,/ar set of rules. Consider: i) Arts. 1460 - 1488 of the Civil Code d�<tling with expropriation. ii) Arts. 177-179 of the Code of Civil Procedt1re dealing \Vith /1c1beas corpus cases. (But cf. Art. 43 of the Constitution which, presumably, guarantees this particular form of judicial review in any event.) See Chapter II, pages 88-92, 126-129.

From Labour Relations Proclamation of 1963, Proclamation No. 210 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta 23rd year, No. 3 (originally enacted as Decree No. 49 of 1962, Negarit Gazeta 21st year, No 8 . ).

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.interThis law establishes the Labour Relations Board (Articles 4 and 5) and vests it \\'ith power, alia, to conciliate and arbitrate ''labour disputes'' and to issue ''awards'' and ''decisions'' to resolve s c� dispu � tes, to consider charges of ''unfair labour practice'' (a. term whicl1 is � efined) t proh_tbi t "such practices'' 12 le Art c means'' )( i iate appropr ce ·· by s decision ? its r�. and to enfor u icial review of Bo ard decisions is provided for as follows:

Article 19 - Appeal

(a ) Any Party who eal app y ma ard aw or n isio dec is not satisfied with the Board's to the Supreme l appea At� days·· (30) irty · Imperial Court within the period of th by ay d ne mi ter de be as e t tak fac n of 1gs on questions of law only, an d fi11di1 :e Bo attl shall be conclusive and binding upon tl1e Cotirt. (b) 1� the Court: utls that the Board erred on a question of Jaw, or � ) nds that the Board's procedure violated the law; the Cou t y ma urt 0 C e n. Th actio shall final r retu for n rd Boa r the e 1 tl case to at th sa · rd ' oa · B b e to · t law e me 1u· e, g1v f O e binding directives on ql1est1ons n · c( ) 1n t 19, Article he ab tlus . _sence of a f 0 (b) 1 1 paragrap under finding Court by the he t dec1·s1on o r award shall be deemed confirm ed . (d) AOYthing . . 1f itse . not may h C 0urt h erein e t to nding, the contrary notwithsta -. -lllodiry o r amend a decision :;.:.- o:r award of the Board.

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676

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N IO T U L LAW A IT T S N O C N IA P IO H T E F SOlRCEBOOK O

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n io t e c iv t A a r t is in m d A f o w ie v e R l ia ie d u J n o s n o ti a it Lim . ') ' n io t a g le e d '' r ( e t p a 1 l c is l1 t a r p 1 . s , s e g a p d Re-rea es ti vi n ti ea ac l m ta ia en ec m sp rn ve i go at lis of on n io at is al ci so d in 11 tio sa Moderru ch s hi � I �f a w t _ st en ve tm ac rti e� pa ns r e� la _ cu m 11 io at lis ia ec sp d an of government; 0� t1 to 1c s s� ci r1 �r JU ex e y ar o? t1 re y­ sc lic d1 po d oa br h it w es 1ci e 1 ag governn1ental . ns t1o ng r� lli de s1 ca r on ._ fo C ns tio nc ­ fu ve de ng ci or nf -e w la 1d a1 f in ak -m making, law e e m iv rn ut ve ec go ex nt e tiv ll ec ca eff d an for gy er en , se rti pe ex {, nc cie effi. of t en lopm . s · e1 w po e 1 es tl f o on ti ga le de us uo in nt co d s an tr cie nis en mi ag ld ad l1o rs to ato r we po th wi d ste ve be y ma ts 11r co e 1 Tl r he d o ot an ion ati ut isl tit leg ns n, Co e tl1 by th bo d se po im s ard ni sta to le tab u11 acco tl1 rs wi we se e po the l car ise erc est ex 1st m1 ts 11r co 1 e tl t bu e; od :: , il Civ e 1 t] ing lud inc judges substitt1te tl1 eir ow11 autl1ority for that of the officials ch ose n_ by law to carry out taslcs assig11 ed to tl1em by law. Remaining pa�s foct1s on some principles wh ich ma y be developed to limit furtl1er tl1e jt1dicial role i11 1·eviewi11 g administrative action in order to preserve the delicate bal ance )f power· in1plicit in the scheme of separation of powers establish­ ed by tl1e Constituton and otl1 er legislation.

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The Requiren1ent of Standing

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Consult : Article 108 of tl1e Constitutio11, of. Article 62 (b). . Re-read: Cl1ap�r II pages 235-236 (tl1e limits of ''judicial power''); pages 241-244 (tl1e requ1rtn1ent of ''standi11g' '). Civil Code, Ait:icle 402 (1) (the 1·equirement of a11 ''interested party'').

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· fol 1owing · ent terms. The · and- self-evid · ''Standing'' or ''in--erest'' are not aI \.vays self-defining _ e tl1e . n,)t to gtv is a we11 -kno\vn atte se concepts furtl1er 111eaning.

ro 1e 01Jiiio11_ of Frankfurter, J. in Joit1t Arzti-Facist League v. McGratli tl F in (A .ttorney Gi,a,·d) 341 U.S. 123 (l951). · · [Fra11kfL1rter J · ·ir · · st 11otes tha t the cot1rts are vested only wit ''Jud1c1a I power. ''] · h . . . L · 1m e t 1t a t1 0 11 by 0 11 h 't . l sed 1e Lld"1c1a ·1 Powe1· of the United expres J is . States'' · requ1reme11 t tl1at a ltig'ant 111 · . ,, eI�' iv hens . llS t h compre ave sta11d.1ng.... to sue'' or ' more . _ . that a .. court 111ay �ntertairi a controversy rit ac e cl1ar Both ' ' 011ly ''justiciable it if · is ' · . · zat1ons mea11 tl1 at a cottrt w1·11 11 t d · e t·on 1. ac the of ure nat ec1d a 11 tl1e stio ess que unl . ? . . _ cl1alle11ged, tll e kin,i O 11 1 .I 11 1 s tie ar p _ _ Jl � Y � fl �ted, a11d tl 1e relationsllip between th e f _ are sucl1 tl1at jtidicicl detei ing , _ ina,tio11 IS co11sonant eak sp ally gener was, what witl1 � the business of tlle co ltI�s · · �l1en �l1 e Constitution was framed ... The sc�pe and conseqttences 0.: e I�view e · _ utiv exec with wh1ch 1 e jt1diciary is entrusted over tl � d an legislative actiQJ. iequ1 re 11s to observe these bounds fastidiot1sly. . . at · o s in (l) The s1n1pl_ tst ap 1 ·cat ·on tu i n _ si to of '' '' is the t i P pt conce ng of standi . whicl1 the1 e 1·s no· r�al cont t1on ara sep ro�ersy between tl1e parties. Regard for tl1 e of IJOWers, see Mus� a e to an r t v .. United St tes, 21 9 U.S. 346, and for the impo t � - 0 r r correct decision of d � c i h see uate prese�tat1on of issues by clasl1i11g interests, C ntaged � G. T. R. Co. v. �( e _· e p e an ues 143 s , r is 339, U.S. in to s restricts the courts in an adversary i · s m e s unl b_� _ s et ·t � A er ition sue o d 11 p does . st in 1er ave h ot an ''interested in and e r r s ected advers ely by the decision'' of ,vhich _he seek ev W.�l_

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677

i11tervene _in tl1e_ absence of� statute, liowever, eitlier t? cour t a re reqti i T� (Z) exerc the ise of 1n or 111l1er e11t ec. gro11n 111table }Jowers sometlling ds nal · t utio 1 · tl · · cons on ' · e terest 1s ne 1n d d _ e 11 . _ Tl · · s ersonal add 1t1_ 0 1!al p eleme11t se is lISlially adver than . more d t 1 1��,t 1e 111Jury 0111st be ''a wroi1 g 11ch _assume .the �nswer. t. 1s sa1_. wl terms in 1 1 defined of a legal v1olat1on . 11gl1t. .. Or that tl1e co 11 troversy 1n the results tly direc h h' to11cl1ing tl1e l_egal relations of parties I1avi11g adverse concrete, and te defini be :�ist 1ese te�ms have 11:ean1ng only _wl1 en contai11ed by t.l1e facts Tl ... sts." intere legal seeking to In detern11ne applied. whetl1er been i11 tl 1e cas e before have ey 1 tl which to us the standar ds they reflect are met, tl1erefore, "'e 1n11st go to tl1e decisions. T11ey ;1j11ry l1as t11r11ed 011 tl1e ans"1er to 011e or more of _ " legal'' i e existen 1 c the that show u : the action cl1allenged at W1ll any time (a) s bsta11tially affect questions these of the ' 'legal'' interests of any person? (b) Does tl1e action cl1allenged affect tl1e peti­ tioner with sufficient ''directness''? ...

Problem. In the Ababiya (E.U.S.) case, would the plaintiffs l1ave ''standing'' if tl1ey had cl1al leoged the legality o f the law: a) while serving on E. U.S. ? b) af ter completing their year of ''service''?

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The Requirement of Exhaus·tion of Administrative Remedies From, Jaffe, Judicial [control] of Adn1inistrative Actio11, (1965) page 424-425.

A party will usually be required before challenging tl1e validity of an ad1ninis­ trative action to exhaust l1is administrative re111edies. The logic of tl1e rtile in1plies that the remedy is (a) available to him on l1is initiat.ive (b) 1nore or less imn1edjately and (c) will substantially protect his claim of rigl1t ...

E�haustion has its analogue in the usual req11ire1nent of finality as a condition of review by an upper court of the rulings of a lower co11rt. 1_e Execut�ve tl to he n give job udi � _ a 1 iary witl rfer ! will inte no· tly 1 ligl c T J ·:· u. nhl. it is clear that the Executive bas exceeded its 1na11date. Tl1e exl1a11st1on doctrine 18' th�refore, it 11as And my. autono an strative admini io express n and of ve executi · . Petul1 erti· n ence when e 1 arg en giv n bee as 1 1 ncy age tl1e e cas tl1e . as 1s en so oft ' ' discret�o p . . . rs e th to · 11t 1 eva n re ry 1s p ers a pow ese owe 1 tl of and tl1e potential exercise so1uti. ont of th e issue for which early review is sougl1t.

e a em t y al k d e M s. S s leg r t majo I t 1 al to t n'' is a pparen ly ' comn on Th oc rine of ''exhaustio. SUre No Youe:under ' rule. stand the reasons heh.ind the e k Quest,on· . If you 1a n u yo ld u o ,v 10w l ra, sr,p SU.re You had·prope �� re lawyers for the pla�n!iff in_ tl1e Mesfi,� cas,� , rly exhausted'' your adnun1strat1ve ''remedies?

Limitations

. M k' Functions ing a yPolic J udicial Review of Discretionary and Entrusted T o The Agency. From Jaffe ''J d' . Review . . Law rvard cz · H 69 , u 1c1al Rev1ew · Quest1ons of Fact '' lo20 IOss ' ' (1960). ined disi11cl � [A] combinat·10 n of ore d � 11ore an 1 rts cou tors fac the de l1as ma or Perf . The m 1 f.rincipal f . ��;ency] · .. J�nctions in }v/1ich discretion p lays ci sig::jic:;:;;i�istra .. lV c c func a . of cot1rse 1s the increase in tl1e ra11ge and con7plexz � done tions, tlle be t tis ro Jt ne courts know tl1at if suc.11 work is to be well do 00

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678

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TIT'UTIONAL LAW S N O N C IA P IO H T E F O SciURCEBOOK

. t·7ed orgtns. TI1ey 1·ealize that th ey do no t have [adequ.ate] resources fi r o bY . s pe cab pp r ed l dg by r ica lit po c be ite y j11 bl ita ia ev i11 a ll wi li t ] ey tl1 [ _ a.z r �t at le 1 · · d · an · doing 1 · · · ' · ·11 e d 1 �r th b w an e _ r en e I 1_ t ai p In im t _ 1a tl d en m an t ; n o . ti 't re oJ sc di be ,, f o se ci er ex 1e to tl ns al io c1 ct dz un a f 1u e ph im m pr [E e sis added], th t or pp su to l ec ed ,e e ig st re precious p 1

to f s r in re th rm t e ed ov ci ab li ita e excerpt? th do , ely ret nc � co � � � , at \\h 1) _ _ Qr,estions: ns e t1o 1v m which _"d i_ sc-ret ion plays nc at fu tr 1s 1n m ad e m so , le 1p a ex te re nc co . � a) Identjfy, by _ -or plays only a l1m1ted role. lea ro ay pl t no es do n t1o cre d1s 1 1cl wl1 in a role''. Identify son1( s e sen in n ich i -_ wh ntme the vern go m of ter s' is used an � . org � � sed ali eci � ''sp t, e som fy , b) Identi cise d1scret100 ? er ex to ed ne es ci en ag e es tl1 do s'' r,e ou es ''r above. What J '' ria ica ' lit ite cr l po . �Y does Professor e ta ich ns io � ci de e � tiv tra : i� 1;1 n1 � . � me � c) Identify so , are beyond the purview of the er1a cr1t cal courts? Jaffe argue tl1at detern1nat1on of relevant ''pol1t1 1: 11 ? ries u ng opi d to vel lie ;, nt ''de app en co wh ce s for les or re mo Do you agree? Do l1isarguments carry I ry'' iona sion cret a of deci y ''dis gor cate h 's e f whic Jaf fits ng owi foll the of 2) Which, if any, the court shoL1ld not �eview (assume that legislation authorises the decision in each case); a) An official Ian 1l �.ssessor's determination that P's land is worth $1,000 an acre? b) An official Jani assessor's deternlination that P's land should be expropriated as part of a commt1nity land refcrm scheme? c) An official fl.In censor's decision that a particular film is ''immoral'' and therefore "con­ trary to tl1e public i1terest''? d) A l1ealth offici,ls decision that an animal was ''diseased'' and that it should be ''destroyed' .II· to prevent spread of infecJious disease? ,1

From Brown and Garner, op.cit., pages 127-29.

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review of"dis­ to Tl1e follo\ving approach ism atten11Jt D''Etat's at analysis of the Conseil _ cret1onary'' ad1111nistative acts.

n· discretio er_ e the_ (''pouvoir adnini_ s tration has an ''absolute'' discretion . � narr� !· He_re, i n In!5l1sh law, tl1e courts have virtually no control at all over the administrat1o11, bui 1n French law this applies only in tl1e quite exceptional case of t�e acte d_e go1ive1·nement ... 111 all other cases, altl 1011gh the discretion is absolute, dge w_ill ensu-e t]1at the adminis�rat!on has committ e_ d �o mistake of law ?r Jt� }� �t �1n�ltidii1 g 11n cer tl1e former a11y 1nfr111gen1ent of a pr1nc1pe general du droit) and is 111 nocent al:o of a11y deto111·nement de pouvoir. In Ba!e� (C.E. �8 May 1954) tl1 e n1.inister responsible had refused four y�u� g rus m e � J)er dDll 1111 ssion to s it tl1.e exa111i11 �1tio d'A nale n for e11try to tl1e Ecole Natio · t d ·ae rat1011. It wa' s s11giest ed i· n a nat ·ional ne\vspaper i e d d ha c ut tl1at t l 1e government t 0 re fuse entry to ti1 e exam ·1 11at1on b . , t is .· · s mun . com were to any cand wl10 i dates 1n · t d · a s11 ort t..i·me l ater ll1e n111· 11s de a m . er en1ed this categorica l ly in a statement · h tl1e Nat1· 1 Assenbl�. The young men concerned then referred the m�tter t? �� s Conseil ���tat wlu (111 an t111us11ally speedy decision) quashed the m1·n1ster ' ' d ha fusal, b eca11se he ,.ave no . . . . ter is · min . the reasons If 1ust1fy1ng scretion. d i l11s . be adnlitted (if this \�.,rQ'"' in try. en _fact the case) tl1at the candidates were refused h ·t cause they w e e;;.. er rf u _ sts th C o se il d 'Et te in to d ha at would have 1;1 ) the exercise �} t��niru ; � dr en ster s d i screti on as a mistake of law (''e rr eur : lU.I l a . n amely , 1 . on a nd equ ..11·s v1·0 1 at1)n of t he genera 1 . . ru op1 of ple nc1 m pr1 of edo s fre . . access to the c1v · 1 1 se · rvice.

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s tat11te_ and as s essing, or ''qtlalifying' tl1� interp�eti11� by nite, ortu l'opp ' of its lun the 1 e s 1t�1�t1on 111 tl1e .l15h! �f tl1 tern1 s of tlle statute tl of facts the say, � ch ren . F e th as the dec1s_10!1 of tl1e ac1111111strat1on n111st be 111otive ver, Moreo ed. rpret as;0 inte 1 e adm111 1strator (or as s11bseq L1e11tly el Ltcidated b; tl _by declared s a the motif er1ns of tl1 e s1atute. t e . e which fits t h on be must :e court) e i s l)repared to � 11rb its cie s ire to coiitrol tl1e practic _in 'Etat d seil Con The types.of case�. Tl1e fi:st concer11s tl1 ose c,lses wJ1ere two 11� only n situatio a of facts st1ons of pol1c� are 1�1 ,1olve_d, s_t1cJ1 as meast1res co11cerni i1g q11e nt importa emely extr 111v?lv1ng cases conce�ns sc1er1trfic ?r si1nilar tec!1nicalities. second Tl1e ners. foreig 11est1011 ,vl1 etl1cr a l1 a1r lotion ,vas poiso11 ous, q tl1e r�v1evv not would court the Thus in Societe To1·1i (C.E. 27 April 195 I); nor whetl1er a ,v.11e was wortl1y of an ''ap1Jella­ 111dicat Agricole de La!a,1de-cle-P�n1erol (C.E. 14 October 1960). S; in e'', controle tion In Gon1el (C.E. 4 April 1914) a prohibition 011 b1ulling ,vas j 11stifiable 1111der t11e statute only on the gro11nd of preserving a11 ex.i stilig view of arcl1itectt1ral val11 e ("une perspective monumentale ex.i stante''). Tl1e C,)11seil d'Etat considered itself competent in such a ca se to consider whether s11cl1 a view existed.

Limitations on Judicial Review of Factual Conclusi ,>ns Reacl1ed By 1'he Agency.

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From Interstate Co111111erce Corr11nissio11 v. Union Pacij.c Ry. 222 u.c. 541, 547 (1912).

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In this case the Railway Co. ,vas ordered by tl1e agency to reduce certain rates. Tl1e Company appealed to the courts, alleging i11ter alia that tl1e agency had nade erro11eous "factual'' deter111ina­ tions about the economic con.sequences to the Company of th� recluced fares. In approaching this question the Court declared:

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. There has been no attempt to make an exl1aus1ive stateme11t of tl1e principle involved governing judicjal revjew, but in cases tl111s �ar decided, it l1as been settled that the orders of tl1e Commission are fi11al t1nless (I) beyo11d tl1 e power wl1ich it could co�stitutionally exercise; or (2) beyo11d its s:atutory power; or (3)_ ba�ed upon a ?13Stak e of law. But questions of fact may be .i11 volved .in tl1� de!e�m111at1on f � quest10 ns of la�, so that an order, regt1lar on its f�c�, !11ay. be set a side 1f it_ ap:pears ��t _(4_). the rat� 1s so l�w as to be con�scatory and 1n v1olat1011 of !l1 e co�stittitiona� p hibiti on against tak.tng property w1tl1011t due proce ss of la�, [1.�., w1thot1t_ pay ment of co mpensation]· or (5) if tl1 e Comnlission aded so arb1trar1ly and unJu st1.Y t if (6) or r it; ort s11pp tes to u nce v.iie , ra t con_ y r : t to evidence or with? � �e � fix � uthority therein involved l1as been ex ercised 1n �ucl1 an unrea sonable manner s to c�use it to be within tl1e elementary rul e that tl1e �11bstance, a11d not the shadow, � etenru ne s tl1e validity of the exercise of t]1 e power. ·· · de�ermin.ing t hese mixed questions of la w an� �act, the coti�t �on �nes its;; f to · pow it� ultimate que s tion as to 1111 l wit ed act 1 . er the Comm£s101 eth wh It will n t t1 s te . . e k li n o r 1e co tl ie o · ct l s, w or er ' n · t h e erder, e th of en expedi dom wi . or s cy rno e, rs cou . . . of ] , sion . n y, It Would have made a s1m11ar conclu · s · · agerc1 [Th� rul11Jg. s . . � ubjec 'i '· not tllat . · .t to review, fina as d e J)t e acc 1s but ence evid its dec 1s10 · wl 1 y b · en t por d e sup · . e b can ts es e n, t · · 1 i ic � Ill ptib i olv t vas n ng 1 l suc as 'i e f t it and v d s ny so ma doe p su port e � y a 1 e b no a l V:il · e mer s 11t °,11 t�; or��r� _scintilla of proof-but tl1e co� � furt h.er ;han to . determine whetl1er there was substant1,d evidence to suStain

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UTIONAL LAW IT T S N O C N IA P IO I-! T E F O SOU:lCEBOOK

680

' ? ' act f and of a '' si g . clu din n con '' f a on n fi wee o bet ff ' law . • n : Wl1a i s fi di erence ' ..If o t� s e u l ora q is i1?1m ''of cte cb� nt lica app r'', is � the this t tlla . a fin ding' . Iley finds :� e l e t l , e s a c g l 1e fin d ing be rev1ewable? t 1n a l1cens1n d ul sho , all at if x ' t ten . � ? e t l . a l N T o ? . . w la r O ' ct' 0 f ''fa se impo mum to maxi cy agen ' an ls renta ses tJ1ori i on h ouses at iopia l l · e 1t_ Et n w 1 t 1 a As_sun1 _in each case the rental charged ''shall be that d ndar a t s the own d lays md le�sed in �d�is A�a:a s 1on by the agency that a rent is ''fair,, clu con a Is ." lord land tile a and t n a te 1 � t 0t ? o t fair � o � l�w?· Or botll? An d to wha t extent is it reviewable in the courts ? ' . ,, ,, . . . , conclt1s1on of f;a c t · . abJe e 1s cen re and obs refo k the boo s ub X Ato unp t tl1a . s1on lISh clu con s soi' W]1a t abO ut a cen • . s cene '' materials ? b o ,, o f n o s1 es Jr pJ su ng ti 1it rn under a Ia"v pe

''Political Questions�', ''Actes de Gouvernement'' and Similar Problem s of Non­ reviewability. II, pages 237-291; Re-read pages 678-679, Stp1·a (actes de gouver11ement); pages 668-670, Stpra (immunities); pages 677-678, s,pra (reaso11s for not interferi11g with an agency's di scretion). Cl1apter

From Jaffe, op.cit., ?ages 366-67 .

. . . 111 Reaves v. Ai11swo1·th. an officer discharged by the President as mentally unfit for dl1ty sol1gl�t to r·eview tl1e order by certiorari. He questioned only the s uffic ien c y of the evnence and the fairness of tl1e procedure; he raised no square issue s of statl1tory a1tl1ority. In dismissing the writ the Cou.rt said: The col1rt s have no powe1· to review. The cot1rts are not the only instru­ n1entalities of g1>vernment. Tl1ey caru1ot con1mand or regulate the army. !o be promoted or to be retired may be tl1 e right of an officer, the value to him of l1i s commissi on, bl1t greater even than tl1at is tl1e welfare of the country, and, it may be, even its safety, tl1rough the efficiency of the army.

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· · · Or�off v. Wlloughby exe1u1)lifies tltis, if son1ewhat ambiguously. Orloff was a. m�dical ma11 vl10 l1acl been drafted into tl1e Army and was tl1en refused a con _ umssion becalise .1� decli11ecl to a11swer qt1estions concerning subversive co � ne�­ tio�s. �e was first as1gne d to 1·a11do1n tric ychia s p and details, bl1t later to medical :�;;s. H� w�s fo_rb?�e11 , l�oweve.r, to ad111i.ni ste1· hypnotic drugs, lest I1e worm ary secrets e ?ltt a ol _ lus dem )at 1en ts J t l a1 d � 1 Or ransmit t 1 em to tl1e enemy. loff fir a � d commissi on,_ md, if not that, a review of h fat � d, � a en t, gn m as wo si rk is n ho�� of tli�se, a disd1arge. 1., gh 11 _ e Cot1rt l1eld tl1at wl1atever Orloff's statutory ri t,� a coz:n.11:1issio _ n, tl1ePi·esident could not by manda1nus b e ordered to grant it. !he cornrn1ss1on1 ng of ofice.18 . ce . vm pro · in e t h e t h · A r . . with my . in 1s a n1att er d1scr · et1on of . of the p e · d t b 1 . C T :�: it is no; :it�� ��e mmander i � Chief." he Court was also of the opinionh r ower of tl11s Court by habeas corpus to determine w ? · specific · asstgn.me11ts to d11ty � e er · · . h [f] · · II ner .la · wit h. 10 pet1t1o tl1e of basic · ation c classifi ml1s t be a wide 1atitlde . allowed to tl1ose in command.'' ) Fr om C/1icago &Sout . . . 8 (194 1iern Ai1·/z11es v. Watermansteamship Co., 333 u.s. I03 e Und r a statute the ing oriz · th p resident was e 1np were d to review decisions of an �g enc overs eas, tommerc y ? anrve ial air s to rotites. The Pres and app_rov1ng is suance of licenses to air carr1e� t the� w _as �h etl1er tl1e iden 's ci��: t � on � 1 . to review such matters was very broad. On_e issue fa ce with c c dire ctions from ourts oul d rev iew_ an agency order whicl1 had been made in accor n the Prestlent. On this issu e th.e Court said:

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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we a11d t�li11k q�1it� rig�:tly, �11,tt it co11Id not review conside red, w belo rt cou The _ result ed from r as e P1 es1den ord t1al e th cl1rect 1on. of T11e President' iis visio O r p · such · cm· e f and as tl1e Nat1on s orga11 for foreign affairs, h. as ' · · inanderomm C . th as e rv1�es wl1ose repo �ts are 11ot _ �nd 011gl1t 11ot to �e ptlblished s igence intell ��ailable _ 111tol tl1at erabl co11rt e s, \v1tho b 11t e 1ld tl1e 1 wo relev ant It 111for . 111atio n orld W ' e · th to · · 111ry act1011s of t· 11e Exec1 1t1ve take11 011 infor111ation n11 perl1aps and w revie . shOUld . �ar11era 1r� or der to be ta.lcen i11to exectitive s ecret. Nor can coi1rt s s1't 111 eld 1 1 rly _ rope rts co11!d r�qture_ . �1111 d1sclo� 11r�,.tl1e very 11at1 1re of exe­ coi 1f eve11 But � es. denc fonfi 1s l1cy pol1t1?�l, 11ot Jt1d1c1al. S11cl1 clecisions are P fore1g� to as ions ? decis cutive _ wholly confided by_ our_ Const1tut1on to t�1e pol1t1cal depart1ne:1ts of tl1e governine11t, Execu tive a11d Leg1slat1ve. They are delicate, con1plex, a11d involve large eleinents respo11si_ble _ of propliecy. They are a11d sl1011ld be 11nd ertak�n on}y by tl1ose direc�ly to the people wl1ose welfare they advai1ce or imperil. Tl1ey are dec1s1ons of a k1nd for which tl1e Judiciary l1as 11eitl1er aptitude, facilities nor res1 )011sibility and wl1icl1 has long been held to belong in the do1nai11 of political !)Ower 11ot subject to judicial intrusion or inquiry.... We therefore agree tl1at wl1atever of tl1is orcler erna11ates from the President is not susce ptible of re view by tl1e Judicial Departme11t. . ..

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We conclude that orders of the Board as to certificates for overseas or foreign air transportation are not mah1re and are therefore 11ot susce1Jtib1e of jl1dicial revie\v at any time be·fore they are finalized by Preside11tjal approval. After s11cl1 ap1)roval bas been given, tl1e final orders embody Presidei1tial discretion as to political matters beyond the competence of the co11rts to adjudicate.

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Questions I. What ''law'' is this decision based upon? Does tl1e Court's decisio11 rest on the theory that: a) Or ders of the Chief Executive are always unreviewable? Or that: le of b) Review of the Order made in tlus cas e would violate son1e princip . . separation of powers somehow ded11ce d by th.e Co11rt from the Constitution ?· Or that: c) Co rts are in fact not competent to review sucl1 orders because of tl1e nature u of t he issues to be reviewed? Or: d) W hat?• • 2· Does the reasoning of the above case apply witl1 more or l ess force to EtlJiopia? What ar e so levant re e som are 1at Wl me relevan. t articles of the Constitution? _ · s 1n c ons1deration · in· terpreting tl1ero? 3· o � mpare the rules of executive ''immunity'' i n tort la w (discussed sup ra) with ent, ext . . . ·· wl1at To n· ·e of,,non-Just1c1ab1 case e doctr1 · bove e a tb b d y 1 ·. 1ty'' expresse 1·r at s? eSi ter Jn all, are both doctrines d ao s e i lic po r ded on simila un fo 4 o · forth · t 1 0 l11 Et . · C nsuI r fo e ur ft ed ra oc Pr e iv e at tr od is in }ud �11dicial of dm A <; _ D supra at p�ov1 1ons does it make, if a .oy, to re,nove-or JJr�c � rev ie� . icles? et art · evan re e 1 t1 cert are ain What kinds acts? e of istrati a. d mi ;� What � . � the relevant underlying pol1c1es?

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682

SOlJRCEBOOK OF ETrlIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

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ts en w d . o la u tw st , y b A d ts an en em , B at st . o W tw g in hich w o ll fo . . le tl . . . r 'd e Cons1 · t t t· na 1 f I I ns u 1o co o aw r n fo 1o 1t os op pr o hi Et a as le ab a? pi r fe pe · is lk 1it tl ti o y do t? n e m te a ;t e ik -l r e y w la As a t ur co t, �, us th ch m hi �, ,� � de �r _ ?V s se e ca !in f _ o s ju�s ­ 11d ki i1? ta cer e ar e 1er TJ : Ato A s_ d g st _an r� am �e a� 1n st te ria to op pr ap ve raise l1a ies rt pa e th if . en ev d j ction, on t1 1c : to sd ew r1 vi e JU re in cl de d ul 1o sl ts 11r co 1e tl e, 7l am the case. For ex g din of n or a 29 fi le tic rg Ar me ''e r de un ency'' '' cy en 1·g me ''e of io1 rat a) a decla under Article 92; b) a decisi o11 b! tl1e Co1111cil of Ministers to reduce the requested budget alloca­ tion of a particular agency; c) a de cisio11 1:y the IHA to locate a new highway along one route instead o f anotl1e1·; d) a de cision cf a Minister to dismiss X and appoint Y to a particular job-­ where tl1e Minister :s given s11ch discretion of removal and selection by law; e) a decision. cf the Attor11ey General to prosecute-or not to prosecute-a given case.

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In each of tl1e� cases, and otl1e1· exa1nples I could mention, the courts must decline jt 1risdiction becat1se tl1e case is ''non-justiciable''. Whether we use the tag ' ''1)olitical questio11': or ''act of state'' or any otl1er tag is irrelevant. The p oi nt is I tl1at the iss11es invol,ed are i11 tl1ei1· essence , ''political,'' and ''executive'' in chara c ter, a11d the courts mt1g; de cli11e jt1risdi ction to review these issues because review is not withi11 tl 1e sco� of tl1eir ''jt1dicial powe1·.'' Ato B: <?ccasionallr iss11es n1ay a1·ise (in cases calling fo1· judicial review of gove:n� _ eing n1ent actro1:1), wl1e rc_ tl1e co11r t n111st decide vvl1etl1er tl1e particular decision b cl1 a!lenged 1� o r�e wl1cl1 tl1 e co11rt sl1ot1ld r. evie,v. Occasionally tl1e court must simply �ecide tl1at it will not re view anJ1 asJJect o f tl1e decisio11 being c l1allenged. The ques­ tion �efore tl1e co 111t i11 s11cl1 cases, .is not 011e of ''jurisdiction''; it is one of scope ?f ,·eview: som e exec�rti,,e dec isi o11s ot1gl1 t 11ot to be 1·e\,iewed 011 their merits because, r_n respect to tl1ese ili cisio11s, tl1e disc1·etio11 co111n1itted to the executive officer ought to be treated a� abs�lt1te- or nea1·ly absol11te, a11d thu s tl1e decision challe nged be­ comes 11on-rev1eW,l le. l ) l�Iow d'o w�- I·eC)giuz · e tliese ca.ses? Wl1en should the court treat tl1e executive ' official's discret1on as absolt1te-or 11 early absolute? : Wf mtist apply a ntin1ber of criteria to tl1e particular case and evaluate the strengt 1 of a 11um1er of considerations. d1. The law Tues the I�w . . n ba t e. a statut � 1e _ .1 � the 1tut10 �ons� r and/o to appear to confid� a solute irs a a publ i ) discr c etion of 1n secto this r part1 � c11lar · I who made ' le the officia ro l · a nt1 es�e e · tJ1 h' . · c e II a h t enge for d dec1s1on? respect Does ? responsibilit n o isi e a de n d s atus of tl1e office call for judicial deferenc e to thJs Y . , his 2. The nature of th d t Is d ise e e c e . s1on, tb . ex to be r �I re" ci kind of ret1on e d1s . . . the kind of d . .1 . c . .. wl ucl 1 cotirts in Eth�op ia �nd elsewhere, l1av�, �e er �al re�'ew? fu sed to revie�� � ·. '.:11 so why? Are there d1scerruble standards for Judici '

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cons. i de1·ation of i1 1 for111ation a11 cl )olicy criteria reqt1ires which , e l n 1'sion o ;1 Is !·he :: courts �hot1ld not attempt to addti_ce or e_valt1,1te? Was tl1 � dtcisio11 chal4u1 \vmcb de at h .1g11 levels as a 1 natter of l11gl1 _policy? Cf. tl1e read1112 from Jaffe ' �t� t_ lenged ma

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decision and reversed it, l10,v \l'ould tlie court enforce he revie,ved court ! the H J. .its own deci..sion? And what nnght. .be tl1e consequences. of atten1pts to enf(,rce its deci. .

k t1on to ma. e dec1s10 11s wl1 1cl1 reqt1ire �01nplicated pos poor a 1 a in re rts Cou for thei1� enforce111e·nt. Courts sl1 0:t1ld be .;ery caref11J s_ rr�o_ g ement a ive istrat ::�n 1 1cl1 1nay 1 11 ,,olve tl1e court deepl y 1 11 tl1e nanageme11t wl dec1s1011s making about ic age ncy . publ a of •• ..... .--.·... These I suggest are some of tJ1 e qt 1estions to be asked. There are ceitainly s0111e executive decisions whicl1 may i11 effect be no11-reviewable, as Ato A's 1st sl1ggests. \! ·} There are others where the co11rts may declare tl1e ot1tside para1neters o� tl1e discre­ .. tion confided to tl1e exec11tive offi.cer-tl1 e outside limits of tl1 at discretio1; tl1 ey 1uay what those decide review cases wl 1 ere tJ1e 011tsil, e limits of outside limits are and .... . discretion ba\,e been violated. Cf. tl1e cases cited i11 tl1 e readi 11 g fro1 1 1 Brow11 and ., < '"" . ... • Garner, supra page 678. •

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But I fttrther contend tl1 at otrr Co11stit1 1tio11, by virtt1e of Cl1apter III, and Articles 62(b), 108, 110, and 122, places an i1nporta11t e111pl1asis 011 JJrot(ctio11 of an individual from serious punish1nent ,vitl1 ot1t adhere11ce to fair proc!dt1res and standards required by Chapter III. Tl1 ere are some kinds of exec1ttive acts ,vhich 11111St be reviewable in the cot1rts. w·here the exect1tive is OJ)erati11 g against 1 partic111ar individual, and a severe sanction is to be imJJosed 011 lum, partictilarly a sa11ction depriving him of some basic interest, s11ch as his freedon1 of 1noven1ent or 11 is personal property, tl1e intent of the constitt1tion is tl1at absolt1te discreto 1 1 ca11 not be committed to a.n executive official with no ''cl1eck'' in the form of r!view from the courts . This competing value must be preserved. " ln�b ort the issue is not one of jurisdiction. Nor do tags l ike ''politicalq11estio11 '', exec utive prerogative'' or ''act of state'' get t1s anywl1ere in a 11alyzini t11e l1eart of the case . We must look at tl1 e factors noted above·' cot1rts mtrst try �o JJreserve the fu damental valt 1es · · · · dli·a1 d1v1 1n basic tl1e bly 11ota o11, ed tituti 1 secur by tl e cons .h ? :i � itersendea vours t_o secure t_hrough judicial protection, and the _basic ;eparation_ s es nci age t 1tr otl to a ns kes ctio fun in l 11ta ing me cat ern allo gov er oth m i W of Pgovernm ent.

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Legis. ·)ati.on Wh ich Explicitly Precludes Judicial Review.

u ec i nal ly p ovisions pr �� l b ar 1;e ap l1 1ic w1 1 io1 at isl leg u in fo ay m nd be r Judiciafre s v�iew: it s vest ltY, age an i i.e., hes blis esta tl1 e particular law in question With reg u1ato 17ency . · · · h e ·1 i · . · 111 y 1 t ' for sett}'tng .1� r and law enforcing powers' provides a. procedure WI 11 rtl1�r· provi' des �es Wllich arise in the course or e.11forcing tl1e law and .f that th ' con o ) · r al'·''fi · e dec1s10 · 1 1 · . is n , f t 1 1n h t e rd, boa Ceiv ably 18 ' age11cy (or an official or a O tb er y an in 'fin or t ur al co and sl1 al l not be st1bj�ct t� review in any forum.,: ? a

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. Do sucl1 pro · · , s e c n a t s . 11 1 . · ,1, c r i c l l d 18rni ss · s ion� 1n effect mean that a co1�r� sl 1ot1Id u,id ? a· e, · v�_ a.ny 1awsuit ' . Wb1cl1 seeks review of a dec1s1on by tl1 e agency·

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, e ic er v rd c er O li S . b op u P t. d ci n a e y (S 1c e1 g A io ct l 1e 1 n 4 n so er P l ra 1t e1 C e 1 l T Fron1 ). 0 0 -6 5 9 5 s e g a }J a , p �u · of tl1is Chapter, . s n o ti la u g e R f o n o ti 30. Interpretl e interp�etation of this th n o s er on si is m om C e ic rv Se ic bl Pu Decisions of tl1e e d se op an ci sc er 1e !l ex n o of 1d a1 y an er nd eu er 1 dele­ tl e ad n1 15 01 Order, of Regttlat sive. lu c n o c d 11 a l a n fi re a er d 11 u :e 1e gations made tl n tio 4 ec of (S t. is ci th . op , 61 t 19 ap of Ch ns er, tio la gu Re ice rv Se lic ib Pt 1e Tl From supra pages 6() l-ffi9). lish ab 23 a . �st r_ No de Or in d procedure for ate leg de y rit tho au to ant ? rsu pu The Regt1lations y 1 ns cis ma de us rio va m en fro to e ls the � Ap ''. � nts � va ser lic ub ''p � ing � 11cv 1 re d an . ing lin discip vice n c Ser bli ss1o Pu mrru the Co ers. The for n 1s1o dec a nds lne olll rec icl1 wl1 al bt11 Tri e vic Public Ser ns atio r e gul the e ra. Th .r fur sup , 103 provide: 98s. Art See n. isio dec a e tak en 1 tl rs Commissione

104. Decisioo of Public Service Commissioners ••• •

(4) Tl1e conirmed recomme11dation shall be han ded in writing to the app ellant, and shall [co1 1tai11variol1s 1Jrovisions]. Sl1ch decision shal l be :final with no possibility of a furtl1er apptal. Questions on tl1e ''Finality'' Provisions in the Above Legislation

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I. Wl1at was the i 11tent of tl1e draftsmen in preparing the above Articles? Were tl1ey, in effec� spealci1 1g to the courts? Or to the CPA? Or to the ap pealing pl1blic serva11t, who might wisl1 to appeal from the decjsion of the Commissioners to his Mi11istcr, or to tl1e Emperor? Wl1at were tl1ey trying to say - and why? 2. Sh�ul? tl1e legislation be interpreted to preclude judicial review even if the pla1nt1ff's allegation was: �- ) the CPA did 11ot follow its own rules i11 deciding n1y case; 11) tl1 e CPA :'ollo,ved procedltres ,vl1icl1 resulted i 11 a denial of due proce ss 0� law in my case (e.g., I wa s denied opportu11ity to '·confront'' hostile witnesses); iii) tl1e CPA'f sa11ctio11 was too severe a punisl1n1er1t; law iv) tl1e ��A �c�ed_jl�risdic tion; I am e tl1 under ' . 11ot a ''public ser\'ant' governing Jl1r1sd1ct101 1 of tl1 at age1 1cy '? rtain · . 3. Sl1 ould le g t e is lat n e i0 · 11 b e t even 1 r 1 . d t .erp, cannot to e ·e 1nean that tl1e courts . . · 1 :lSible, s_erI�llS, prope1·ly-p]eaded clllegatiOilS a p ted vio la age ncy tl1at the } dJ?r; c id o il n ti 1.1 0 1:1 a l 1·igl1ts 'l 0� sho_tild tl i �me dr�t col11·ts assume that the � � � . e wer Ot iave tlloSc kinds of allegat1 011s 111 1ui s 11d when the ''finality'' prov1 s1on . �rit_ t ??_ If leiislatio11 is iuter1J1·eted any e tak ot to mean t]1at tl1e courts cann � aY JU:Is i ction _ tc _ review co11stit11tional lf itse ro slation legi alle gat the io11 s · tlie n e ai se co t�tttional issues of seri � can w e rev i ou j11d s icia pro � l po rti� If us 15 1os � in some cases, can it be le · pro ro This cases b forec ? all losed ���� in d sse� 1. 11 chapter II, pages 178-179, an d in Chapter IX, infi·a. Legislation Which L un . . . . · its . Jud . 1c1al Review To Partic ular Issues cla Re-read: pages 67 5-681 s . o . . . rr . . . ons , this Rela Section (prov1 s1ons of tl1e Labour a ti mation which 1ii· n .t tile I�p, SSUes to b e decided b y tl1 e Supre.me Co1 1rt). i

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Inland Revenue De1;artn1ent, I-Iig]1 Court 1956 v. Razi k Syid ob Mahy EC G.C.) ( Civil Appeal No. 416/56, t1nrep orted) (Law School trailsl;tion). · ·

of 1961 creates a tt1r1;1over tax. Tl1e a111ount of tax owed by a n,ercllant 173 No. n matio octa sales. Merchants are re ��11 �·ed to keep certain account 1?ooks: If �Ile agency gross his on 1s. b;d d Revenu e pepartment) fin?s the taxpa)er s account boo�s to be unrel iable Jt inay proceed make an est1n1ate, b_as�d on all, ;eleva11�,ev1dence, of the taxpayers gross sales. .e., 1 on'', mati (J�� A:PP�'ll Co�ss1011. An appeal 111�1.y �l1ereafter be taken to tl1e I-Iigh a� ! the to lies al _ belo v). In th1s %urappesub c o th lim1tat1ons of Art1cl_e 59 (qu?ted case tl,e taxpayer (apiJarently Co tii je mt t w�thou couns�l) _s�ed 1n tl1e H1gl1 Co�1rt,, apJJare11tly seeking a declar atory judg­ � appea ng hi sel f i l1ad been excessively assessed. Relevant excerpts fron, the l1ab1l1ty tax his that h effect e t ment to w: follo ent s judgm Court'

In his statement o f appeal [from tl1e Tax Appeal Connnissio11 decision] stib­ mitted on Nehassie 10, 1956, Appellant Ato Mal1yo b com1)lai11ed [as follows:] I. In 1953 (E.C.), I paid t11e st1m t o tal of E$3,024 in tax 011t of \vl1ich $324 was on the sale of flour and $2700 on the sale of tobacco. 2. In 1954 (E.C.), I paid the sum of E$2,307.20 out of wl1ich $216 vvas on tl1e sale of flour and $2031.20 on tl1e sale of tobacco. "There is no doubt that there has been a lin1ited increase i1 1 my trade. Tl1 e condition b eing such (i.e. limited increase), tl1e tax of E$5,600 wl1icl1 I was asked to pay in 1955, as compared to tl1at of 1954, was 111ore tl1an dot1ble tl1e amount of that year (1954). I therefore pray the High Court to re·vievv tl1e assessment in acc ordance ,vith Arts. 58-60 of P1·oclamation No. 173 of 1953 (E.C.)."

a statement of defence submitte d on I-Ieda1· 5, 1957 resp o11dent contested: [Omitted.] [Omitted.] According to Art. 59 of the Pro clamation, tl1e Cot1 rt shall hear and deter­ mine a.ny question o f law an d after 1·eacl1ing tl1eir decision ret11r11 tl1e case to the Com.mission, but tl1e Cot1rt sl1all i11 no way enter into tl1e merits of the assessment." [Emphasis added.] Therefore, since there was no mistake of law i 1 1 tl1e decision of tl1e Co1nmission 00 which appella nt appealed, the resp ondent prayed tl1e cot1rt to dismiss the aJ)peal. An examination of the file reveals tha t appellant aJ)pealed on the ground tl1�t d pai e had l1e ax tax tl1e wa ble he. 1 t o d s 11 ske tl1a a _ re d to pay in 195 5 (E.C.) was mo :: � 1 54. He d1d not appeal on a question of law. and de cide As esp ondent stated the d uty of tl1is Court on apJJeal is t o exa ne ini · ·r1 there r·18 any ·1011· Tl1e Court ' ss 1 n 1 1n o C sti que on of law a11d ret11rn the cas e to t]1e has 00 duty to decide on the merits of t]1 e assessment. cle 58 of Proclamatio n. No . 17 3 of 19 53 (E.C.) states, ''�11�u1d ··· a Fit nm Co i e ° hl l pea d i Ap s Tax sati b the � fied of h wit n isio ( :;� the dec �:� J: . irty n y, na at t n t 1 s erroneo us on any matter o f law, tl1e appella i I h etent days fr om the d . comp a . . to 1 JJea · ap . ry of no t1:ficat1on of sa1 d dec1s1o n, a t · e o f e d 1 1ve court of appea l fo r a J·udgment tl1ereon ' . · · ' · n t ues 10 A rt· l 59 r_min det d � te sta a°: r �ea s, ''The court of appeal shall ;h :;:Ci, no tify of law a ��1n g c1 � 1on d r on i the � g n the appeal and shall, a.fter ·reachl their de-cis1� y ma e cas o n l11 on. 0 0 to t e ss m o C .1 i the ro. o t 1 ie h part s and rett rn the case the cou rt of appeal enter int o the merits of the assessment." In 1. 2. 3.

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Tlierefore, according to tl1e spirit of thls Jaw, s_ince this court is not empower ed to examine the 1-eqliest of tl1e appellant, we ha ve reJected the appeal. Question: Assun1ing tl1e a�pellant a�ove, �ppeared witl10 ut coun s�l to aid . him, and assuni ii1 g yoll �e�e a JUd�e hear1�g tl11.s �ase, �ould you have Join ed in t l1 e_ appare11t s1101ma1· dismrss�l of tl1� _case: WJ1at I;fue, ,�� essence,_ was �ppell�nt � tl1e court? Was 1 t an issue. of la . :W�at 1s the 1nte11tion t1po11 trying to press ;'; e cide the to d not �ot1r� tells th e merits of an assessment? it of the l egislation wl1e11 \Vhat policies un der lie such l eg1slat1on? Compare tl1e case of Ministry of Fi11a�ce .v. A vedis Sav�dj_ian, Chapter IV, _ pages 405 406. Is tlus decisio11 consistent with tl1e Maliyob dec1s1on? Problen1

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Sup1)ose yo1L are a lawyer for the Ministry of Fjnance and you are asked to prepa re a n1en1orandt1m on enforcement of the income tax, and the extent to whi ch legislatio11 sl1ol1ld per1nit j11dicial r eview of the rele,iant evid ence and tax liab ilit y of taxpayers w110 co11test t11e decisions of tl1e Mirnstry's tax tribunal. In preparing tl1e n1emora11dun1 yol1 sl1ot1ld consider: 1) To ,vl1at exte11t does A r ticle 43 provide a leg al basis for review of tax de cisions? 2) More J)articularly to wl1at e xtent can statute, cons istently with Article 43, preclude tl1e colr rts fr om ascertaini11g wl1at evi dence the agenc)' ac ted on to reach its ''factl1al'' conclusions? Its ''legal'' con clusions? SECT IO N SEVEN: ACCOUNTABILITY AN.D THE ROLE OF TI-IE EXECUTIVE I,1t1·oduction: Tl1e Need for Exec i1ti11e Age11cies to ''Police'' t/1e 0JJe1·atio11s of tl,e Execi1ti1·e B1·a11c/1 Our _co11c_ er�, in the latter se ctions of tl1is Cl1apter' l1as bee1 1 with the developme11t of 1nst1t11t ions tO coi 1t ro I gover11n1ent o pe1·atio11s · Thus tl 1e co11rts are criven · p. owers t o revie ' · 0 · w agei1cy act1011 alleged to · violate standards laid down by law. Par· Iiament (as we shall see · pri·ni e M'tni. ste r, and ' Cl 1'aPter· v1·1) e11Joys power· to question 1n1·n1s he t d a1 ter s 1 otl1e r i11vestigative IJOv'le1·s d e facto a t least ' to expose facts a b out gover11111e11t ope · ' . rat1011s, ex1Jress cl1spleast1re over alleg·e d .i:-1 a1• 1 ures or a11d e mbarass the gove rnment sl1ort co111 11 gs. It can fu · power over tll e blld .. , .ta _! · · rther exer cise controls throu gh 1_·ts opinion or at least ii ,tu<l �at1on. 1 1 tl1eory at least, Parliam ent reflects pu.b lic o11s sectors of 1t-wl1e 11 it exercises these powers of review. B ut tl1e legal powers b . . of . 0 th th e co 1 11 are limited M .e_ over . . . ts . io n an d t· ac Pa r cia lia l me nt rev to offi iew , · � � � _111 a po litic_al sense, it may be un realistic at this tim e to rely too mticli t COl1rts and Pa 1·l1a111ent as a ge11cies t o poli a control government ope1·ations� ce nd Further more of effective gove manY Of t il1 . e si•gnifi t • ca11t problen1s en p1 ve lo d 1 e re late. d to the r 111n ' 1 e11t ar e beyo tllose organs ca nd : th · e urts co m pe t . co e nc e e h of t Pa 11 11 ot..- �1 rl i am ent and d 1? as inefficie11cy de ed should ern no JJr ob tl de a l or su di re ch � ct wi ly th co rr��; i on 10 gov. ; for reo rga11izati er_ r 1m e� t opera n ee tions; organization and th� on; p onnel ad m i n1strat1on; efficient fisc cont ; continuou�s al rols

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collectively tnake ti . 100 of the : 50perv1s st1 gg pro est P ble ed n1s by the the se lab et els Y oft e11 t." refl ect .,.,e n basi.c . n er · j.� gov th '' e . h preve11t age11c1es , and gover11111 e11t as a wllole froin b wh1c . es 1 stacl . o 0 ij aifficulae s· ' · · w1 th a11n ot111 anc ce e d po 11c1es · · a11 d desired sta,,dards 1n accor d s n�·: task og r 0 1· the in Thi d Five Year Development Plan (!968) (at page �i perf As noted ance. ':I of per,�: 11a the of tio na fai l IJla11 ,v�Il cle1Je11 d 11Jore Lipo11 tlle lt�r _ e o_ r ess succ eni; s�� 144), ' ad ministrative ability than t1 _po11 a11 y otl1er s 1 11gle factor. Acl i,1 i 11 istrative "l\u11 coun try s . cor11er ?f tl. 1e e co11 0111_y; tl1e very e per1neat s��cess of tlle pla,, can s esse � weakn · . or ga d 1u , 1 011a 1 ca 1Jac 1 ty to t1 t1l 1 ze to tlJe fLill tlie 11 za r al t a u t c 11 r t e s th n o d en ,, ter tt WI 11 dep avali able resources. In this Section \Ve t11rn our a�tention briefly to p1·oble111 s of tl1is cl1 aracter ancl Parliament _and _ th� c?ti_rts, tl1at l1ave j11risdictio11 to fr�m apart organs, other to "police" gove rnme11t o.ffic1als and agenc1eS-Jt1r1scl1ct1011 to call then1 to accot111t 1 . ��! for various failures 1 Of course, in practise many officials at vario1 1 s le,,els a11d i n differe11 t offices : ::1i '.::� may exercise some ''policing'' and ''watcl1dog'' jt1risdictio11 over s0111 e operatior1s -,-::� of government. For example, each mi11ister is, i11 a legal se11se, ''respo11sible ...... for the execution of the dt1ties'' a.nd ''the laws'' pertai11i11g to ''his Mi 11 istry''. (See iii� Order No. 44, si1pra: page 511.) Sin1ilarly, l1is st1bordi 1 1ates may be assig 11ed broacf responsibilities. It is, presumably, the task of a legal advisor to a11 age11cy or a 111i 11istry to u.se his inflt1ence not only to ass11re age11cy co11Jplia11ce ,vitl1 tl1e relevant 1,1,vs '.\:1r'. bu t to advise on proper procedures to perforn1 age11cy bt1si11ess. Otl1 er officials, e.g. ..::. directors and accountants, \Vill supervise performa11 ce of e1nployees or tl1e JJroper expenditure of agency funds. But experience undoubtedly proves that so1ne failt1res ca11 be dealt with 011 1) �y giving review and control powers to a gover11 n1e11tal body 011tside tl1e agency itself._ Consider, for example, the following categories of problems of develo1Ji 1 1g effective public administration in Etl:uopia-Problen1s wl1 icl1 reflect diffic t1lties _\vJ1icl1 government must overcome if its annot1nced policies and targets are to be acl11eved: .., to I) Pro�len 1s of pla11ning, orga11izatio11, p1·ocecli11·e a11cl 111et/1 ocls': ho,v a11d \Vl1e�e allocate Jurisdiction. delegate power and assign resiJ011sibility to carry otit parti, cula r · s · d ob�ect task an d proJects and accon1pl1sh . · · ·1 ves. · desire • f.l' �) Probl s em of person nel ad,ninistration: ho w to 11tiiize 11 t1111 a 11 resotirces, .e · · . uectively voi·ding Jred ai 1 tra11 · � to l 110w gy; e ener wast of an n1a11power and l1111n .' a pare O cials 1ce ina 01 f to i per 1re ca sect r ry a11d · d k 1an out den d g11e to assi how s tas a t d esir!fied ' levels of achievement. 3) Prob/en:s ,r . . . . 1 •· l10\V to ass tire J t ·1 01 l ·1 1 11tary i1 aco na1nta · 1n111g fiscal co11trols a 11 cl fiscal � . that the public '. ow 1 J. , ses r1Jo 1 1 6 zed n 1 mo r tl1o a11 ey is spent in a legal way for legally to assure P · money 1s that . spent vv1sely . and efficiently. 4) Prob/e . 1: 110w to defi �1e ar1d n1ai 11tai1 1 _ ms 0if abuse of power ancl corruptzo 1 . ap propriat e sta . " . . 110w ict' ndards of integrity wh ich s11 011Jd. character1ze official coi1clt to enfo rce thes e standards. . expressi· n of grieva11ces ,r ,. atLon . s a 5) Pr ob/em.s 01 �� � · . 11 . how with the pi1blic: how to pe· .rm1t nd Viewpoin s t10 .,i br c1t1zens ac lo dev al nt e m rn ve go lar cu rti d pa cte e f af eio me so by p 111 ' ;ti. 'r\'1 s�rv1ce-oriented r the o v1_ l1a be � ed'' '' rather tl1an ''authority-orier1t Pllblic servi . con filCie1·1 c e 111 ecrove·1 ,1ce, and, gen ally, er how to develop more lJltbl1c

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_ _ _ _ _ 6 �8___ -=8 t en ch m hi rn w ve go ck a la 11, s rt1 p . ng . lo lic ub e th 11 j su r (fo · . . 11s t10 . ra t or e op 1t 1 P dP 111e an m e e, ot 1g a1 om ch pr lo to ve de e tl p lit o d. t en ly ab ob pr · · 1 1 ca e Pro. 1c 1 e d fi 1 n o c . a1 1 d . ) y t ie c o s e l1 t 1 i1 l1 t 1i "\\ gress g r s � Ie n _ � t co ro 11 t p ro e f � o es _ g ri � v�rnments, te ca 1e 11 s0 ! Iy ? 11 0 � Tllese are � o 1t1 1lt !n ct ad tr l £f: _ d1 na ly ar u� ci 1c ?o 1t 1:� ies et b� ay m 1 s n Which le ob pr e btlt tlles n, 1o at an tr om pl 1s on 1n ec m ad ic ic bl pu l ve e �e 11z 1 r op de 1o ''n to men t g iil pt nl te at e ar s w of ne red ks nd tas hu d 1t an 01 . r1·y ca to rea mc s o11 rti 1 se the tit iiJs w 11e ate e · I C d ll .a · s. e ic rv se l a n io it d a tr f o ss 1e 1 -effective , ion es_ cat tu? atti edu of �s ter towards authority pat ge, g11a la11 o11, diti a ti· Ctllttire, , a �le b t ts11_ n e_ can e� n1fi 1�v s�g ach d an pl com 1·k wo ex of , t11s sta t1t abo as ide aild . on at1 str ich 1n1 wh adm . 1n rks wo y wa the ect These be­ aff 1ay -n ors act f l ora avi 1 bel havioral factors n111st be u11derstood if tl1e difficulties of developing effective admi11istratio1 1 are to be defi11ed: 1111derstood and ultimately resolved . Consider for exan1ple tl1e ,·easons vvhy, in son1e sectors of administration in Ethiopia, it may be difficult for senio1· officials to delegate a11thority to juniors, or difficult for juniors to accept tl1e delegatio11; wl1y the applicant for a license from an agency may have to \\1ait a1 1d wait for a decision; why officials may be secretive; why communication bet\vee11 officials 111ay so111eti1nes be vag11e or less than candid. It is clear then, that the study of l)t1 blic adn1i 1 1istratio11 11111st 11se the sciences of behavior-notably psy­ ·cl1ology a1 1d sociolog)1-to gai1 1 i11sigl1ts into the actt1al working of administration a11d the obstacles to its i1n1Jrovement. Effective adn1inistratio11 also 1·equires the development of legal institutions to sec11re acco11 11tability. Tl1e la\vyer e11gaged i 11 administration (a1 1d many are deeply e11gaged i11 it) 1nt 1st pay a good deal of atte1 1tion to this subject. The n1�teri_als _wl1icl1 follow exa1nine s0111e aspects of the problems noted above a. n� so111� 111strt11t1ons \vhicl1 I1ave j11risdictio11 to hold officials accou11table for vario1rs kinds of wro11gdoi1 1g or fail111·e. The subject is vast a11d complex, but hope­ f11lly these n1aterials will i 11 trod 11 ce it.

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I Iypotl1etical Problen1: The Deficiencies of the A Agency the 11 are � !,tw),er assig 1 1ed to \Y k y y � created b a , or with s 1)ecial con1n1ittee . ao<l Cot,ilcil of M1111sters, ''to i 11vestigate tl1e A ,..t\ nce a. orm per f its eva lua oe1 te 1cy 0 · • ' . . . l · s s recon1·111e e n 1 1d refor1 i1s , 1·r 11ece_ssary, e v 1 t c er: eiie to 1 1 11prove its ad11111llstrat1on and . .to . acl1iev e tl1 e ei1ds for v\1h1cl1 it vvas c 1 1 ·ea.ted." The orga'. 1 11� · Iegis '. 1 atio1 · 1 ot· this age 1 1C)' is sum111arized below i11 syno psis· _ .form 1t witl1 s01ne s1g111.fica11t pa.rts .i q11oted directly. .Swnmary and Synopsis of Order No. 1000: "The A-Agency Order." · � d e . ne ,, ,, P1·eamble: Cites 11eed to . · . . rea a . dev elo . p the · co1 n1n e1 agr 1cu 111 c 1al ltt1 A re ' ' ' ·d 11 i c-0r a.11 age11cy t assist · n a n .. . · 10 · that developme11t · . t u stit Con of � ' cites Article 27 "''orders'' as f'o11ows . 1 Art. I. Short Title of the Law .· -ccj : A Art. 2. Cre ates t/1e e -'l th . ju region, partic11la� Agen�y for th� purpose of developing a¥1"1culture rod·ucti�Jl:_ � Iy to assist local farn1e1·s 1al crop P rc com n1e to develo p . . -c; . ::1 d Art. 3. Create�,;; . _ . ap . . re Jtu . . .Boarcl if D11.ectors co1:1 1I. . . . cu g of M1m National Commu s1s ng of sters n A k ncl _ tbP; �-. -:a � nit n a evelo nt · nt pme B D me velop 1recto1·s of the De Y ·_::: ·

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. ultural · Res�arch I11stitute and �a11ager� of tl1e Grai11 Cor_J)oratio11 aiJd tile .��11c Authority; vests the Board \V1th ove1 all })Ovvers to orga111ze tlle A Ageilcy D11 t B1ghw�Y t s reso11rces a11d e xercise po,vers set forth be i budget es, polici lovv''. ts i e dete�Jnth procedures for Board meeti11gs a11cl decisio11s. n�I se1s ior r e sl1,1ll b e a Jvla11ager a )poitlted ''Tl1er ar1age Jvf of Of f ice l� es Creat by Us 1 . . Art· 4· · fri: to s e rve at Our pleast1re'' . ''St1b�ec t to a11y d1rect1. on f·ro111 Board'', the Ma11ager e A ge11cy · '' ,· l 1 '' 1 ay clele�a_te 111� powers to Q exercise s the ''exec ut.1· �e po\vers of th � � . 11ec tho1 essary for e ffective aci1111111strat1011''; 11e is 1ght 1s tl11s whe n ates rdin subo , oth e e nt of r staff pt1rs11a11t employm to r t 1l e s set for by Board ,. ''resp on sible ' s A 1 of er Po ge11cy. v , and es pos Pi1r tes Sta 5. t, Art (a) The Agency is give1_1 ''j11ridical perso11ality''; ca11 O\v11 l )roperty; co11tract; i '1 I, sue and be sued; borrovv and l end 111011ey; pt1rchase, leas e a11cl sell property .,I of a.ny kind a11d generally engage in b11si11ess operatio11s 11 ecessary for '' objects noted belo\V. (b) The Agency \Vill ''plan, organize, coordi11a te and assist i1Ctivities of ail bodies to pro1note develop111e11t of com111ercial relevant governmental · ' agriculture in the A area''; in partict1lar the follovvi11g activities: '. (i) development of extension services to assist farmers; (ii) development of facilities a11d local e11ter1)rises, l)Ll blic or l)rivate, to provide loans and credit to farmers for pt1rcl1ase of seeds, fertilizers, machinery and similar supplies; (iii) development of farmer co-operatives; (iv) development of research relevant to im.proved agrict1ltt1re i11 tl1e regio11 a11d transmission of re st1lts to exte11sio11 services a11d far111ers; (v) development of marketing facilities; (vi) development of roads to assist agrict1lt11ral develop111e11t; (vii) development of experimental and den1011stratio11 far1ns. . . (c) The Agency will seek to develop the A are a by 1)la1111ing a11d co-ord111at111g tb.e activities of other agencies, a11d for the 1)11r1)ose tl1e Age1:cy n1ay_ loa11 money or provide technical assista11ce to other age11cies, p t1bl1c or private, to develop the activi ties in (b) above; b t1t, ''wher� 11ecess ry the Agei1cy � �ay engage in any of t he above activitie s (lis te d 111 ( b )) directly throt�gh Its 0_wn staff or through co11tracts and agreen1ents V11ith otl1er age i1c1es, public or private' '. 1 6 e e rate by en s e ve1111 � · e r i that nt n1 th Arra idi11g s cial prov � D als w Finan · nge e ex en y are to be deposited for ated i ­ r rop app g and 1k i n the Com1nercial Ba1 peen:iturec e �tieSt r by t he Board. · sett ing f<l's Boa tl1e ti11g 1nit s11b forth procedt1re for �or an ' · · to be a se1)arate item nn a I appropriation a , ' . from the government, wl11ch 1s in the nn.u ted di e au b to l a y enc Ag gov ernment budget; req uiring acco1111ts of tl1e by auditor u a genera.I ''in accordance witl1 the releva11t la\VS''· of ��� r A rtic/es cleat .11t 111e 11d e n a1_ d a11 , �vit tive date ec eff h tie as ali ch rm su s, Fo order. The Prob/e ms of the A A gency. After 3 y ars m11ch e . nerat . e g o t d e 1 ai f � . of 11tly e r exist appa e has nce cy the Agen new activit i y n the A area. ,, . ,.,_ . ,, "'ue A gency ffice 'n o n tnai . a from now e mploys 200 people a11d operates I lo! "I

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It is A. z of ni 1 ga w1 or to e d into va.r e th i11 '' ce offi o · i aI 1 i , io eg us ''r a c d 1 1 a _ a b a Ab A.dd. i..s . l 1 n · Jo m :11 $1 f o t e g d t1 b ly r a a c s ca ye l1 w 0 1 1 d 1 1 a 1s 1 d1v1s1 0 d s te 1e 11 o t1 o o n ti ll a fo er p w o s g it in d ie , d t1 a st s g a on h m t a 1 11 ee t t 1i 11 n1 o c Tile otl1er proble1 11s : . . be m 1e -n er !s� rs complain with � 111 tl1 111 ; ar ye _a es tim 3 ly on s t ee n1 I. The Boar d I ' ty 1e '; tl v1 t1 s y ac c n_ th r _ ge fo A 1e 11 t1 a M ed it i1n ge ''J na r ve 11a � ey 1 tJ t la tl l i o ti ca justifi tings, t �e Boa_rd an d. the �anager have ee m e I or n1 _ 11d te at to 111 e tl1 d e t s e qu re 1 lJ as 110 rly ith ea ns w a ssigned duties, cl io at er op of 1 a1 pl d ile ta de 1t, ct rfaile d to prepare a clea s. le b ta 1e n ti 1d 1 a s et t aro 0 g uin ng ;1tin rki co1 se, wo clo li�h a� tion est rela to ­ led fai till s s ha y enc Ag e Th 2. , re tu ul the lop ric of ve y Ag De r_ 1st 1n M e ment th of e vic r e S 1 1 io s ten Ex he t th s11ii)s vvi al er ent d oth nm an ver te go titu Ins u· nits; ·ch ea1 s Re the 11, tio a r o J r Co ai11 Gr the Ba 1 1k, 1 y e enc the hav Ag of not been s t1re ced p1·o and e s 1·11l l r11a e i11t a11d 1 o1 i t za a11i org t he ( 1 riti11g, let a lon e reviewed by the Board or the Manager. 1 v\ 1 i t1t o set ly ical n1at e s sy t 3. Certai11 Age11cy e111plo)1ees and depa rtments cha rged vi1ith various tasks, (e.g. worl<i11g 01 t a pla11 fo1· loca l exte11sio11 services) appear to be quite unpro­ d11ctive. T·hese en11J1oyees 11ave proper educatio11al q11alificat ions but they seem to lacl< pract ical i11sigl1ts a11d experience. Beca1 se a lot of esse11tial staff work is l do11e poorly, tl1e Age11cy l1as faile cl, so far, to plan a11d uiitia te n1.an)' projects. Ft1rther, a11swers to a confide11tial q11es tion1 1aire circulated to various staff 1ne111be rs i11 d icate tl1at n1a11y officials ''have little i 1 1terest in their work''; their '' attit u des tovvards tea111,vork and corporate 1 ·es11lts are i 11compatible \vith better age ncy producti vity''. It has also bee 11 11oted that l1ea d s of various d i,1isions are re�uctant to d ema11 d ,:vor1c from t heir s11bordinates a1 1d to discipli11e those \Vho i fail to prodt1ce it. �gain, sta 11darcls a 11d proced11res are lacking . Or1e Agency offici al �as SL11111necl t�p l11s attitt1d e i11 t l1ese ter111s : ''I dor1 't enjO)' ·1n.y \\'Ork. I just come I in eacli clay, sit at 111y desk, do ,vl1a t I am told a 11d otl1erwise ke ep quiet except to pass orders 0 1 to n1y st aff'. TJ1a t is 111y ,,iev\' of lite he1·e. If fate favo1i 1·s me, I will soon be proin�ted a11d give11 IJerioclic J.)ay raises; a.11d tl1en I ca11 buy a ne,v ca r and l1ous �! � pro�icle n1o _ re s11pport for 111y f,t 111ily, wl1icl1 is consta11tly pressing n1e to hel �y aradoxically i t 11,ts bee11 1 1o ted tl1at i11 ,l f'or111al ersit univ are s sense' the offi·cial • ' o· rad LIates, 8 0111e J1ave c:ilso ' con , st t clted ,1broad for adv a 11ced degre es or attended � 1. 11ces aiJd otl1 er vari oLts SJ.)eci,11 ofli­ j tha t oed tr,1i11i11g progra111s ab1·oad It i s alle c ta 8 of �he Co-o1)erative Divisio11 1· y del o e s t e at farn1e 1·s wit l·1 s 01ne disdain re f u r a : tl1e 11ear111g of conl ) Ja111ts · • d · ie "fi verr . . are a 11 cl tl1ereafte1· fail to act when compla111ts l . Tbe _ ct·. 11 e� tor h t o ctor �f .111e Pt1 rcl1 as.ii1g Divis .io11 d islil<es a11d dire the f nsets mist s rt1 · · Eii g 111e er11 1g D 1v1sio11 a11 d 1 ·sitjo I I· b e; _- ! et as ee 11 co11clt1d ed t to t_ mee g l1at to ''tl1e ion faill . s 11·e divi of ds of ! hea ; and ca1 clid y d isct1ss pro . ble1 11s_ of tl1e A Age11cy is significant; these offic . 1 al s baVs j never reall tho l1t ab rm refo . ting ut this initia prob lem of and poss the ibilit y �f on their o�n w1 ot1t � ord ers f1·on1 s11pe1·.iors. '' -_,;__ � · J uld 4· Some offici als 11 . o sh eve ve ei gag d · i bel t -- · �� e e itte 1 t1c mm 11d co co u wl t the cl e � ��1 � J_ n ? ''sl bject to furtl1.e1. �investiga ro oy p em ted tio 51ve· - c: 11 . acc ep Fo 1 n the A A cr r exa Y 1np le At . · o ency WJ. 11101 1 t disclosi 1� tha e e . o t l1is e 1 u11c -Ilt.-·of: le and other relativ s w properties i n A o � xte . :..· d . or m.p a are . . y an agrl :ll1 tt1ral engineer, has been. diSCUSSIDg_ 1 eX� tJJ$6!::',, �:: agr1cl1ltt1ral I?c:lc � hi i� el· fr � 1 . 1 at � p · us · - J , 11as flow 11 Y to visit I· y . ?- tlie E i satz Compa11y; that comp n)' a . . 1 ed· in \,ar10 s 1 pla 11 t s 111 · Et1.rope; on the way home y · · a ls o vacat101 . =--: =;:._:�;j '

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iss11ed i1 1 flated statistic� co11 ceri1 i11g tl has Y se; expen l e qtiailtity 's rsatz E at c1t1. .: nery \Vbich s11 011.ld be p11rcl1 aseci for _tl1 e·: A_ re�1011 . z, a �irector of tll e of · ach . i p rently procured tl1 e e13:1p.loy111e11t of N, 11 1s 11 epl1 ew, 111 tl1 e Jro iect J · A!!ency, a p a _ J · c 1n t1 d ''Nt . o o 0 1 r 1 tl e 11 '' ' t · M y a · l ag 1 p 1 o e1 1r s 1 t · was later J)OIIlted , 0 y b e c ffi o 'lit, .., 1'b�at) fe;; 1 e fISIU � of ?�1t '' ?"1<e d ''flu had N �ol�ege of B11si11 ess Ad 111 i 11 istratio11 . provides a sala1 t1on )' of $650 p_ o s1 a n1 011 tl1. M, tl1 e Manager s N year; econd s � bis 1 1n poor health_ a11d 11 �1s bee11 abse11 t fro111 J1 is office a great bee1 has y Agenc � the deal of t11 1!e trytn? to proc11re a scholarsI1 i J to )tlrstie gre�t a �pe11t also bas 1 J deal; .w1 11cs a.t a fore1g11 U11 1vers1ty; M bas 11 ot told t!1 e Board eco11on 1n s studie . . . ura duate 11npact 01 1 I11s dut1es, . d 1ts an 11 . or of l 1 is desire to qtiit tJ1e condition health ms �f . d a o r b a o g d n a cy en g A 5. Apart from the above, the com1nittee l1 as co11 clt1cled: ''the at1tl1orized a11 1111al budoet of this agency is now 11early $1 n1 illio11 , b11t Vl'e are t1nable to state wl1 ether thls �llocation of pt1blic money is too little or too mucl1 111 relatio11 to tl1 e pt1r1Joses for \vhicl1 the Agency was created. v\1e believe tl1 e Age11cy is 11 ov\' overstaffed, a11 d most staff are under\vorked because tl1ere is no effective pla11 11ing a11 d i11 ter11 al aHocatio.n of expenditures or careful analysis of rest1lts gained from expe11clit11res made." What ac/vice? As lawyer for the i11 vestigati11g com111 ittee yot1 are 110w asked io prep are a rnemorand11m on ''the legal aspects of tl1e above J)roble111 s, "''itl1 JJarti­ cular reference to the question: who l1as wl1 at respo11sibilities \Vitl1i11 tl1 e gover11 ment to take corrective action and to preve11t these 1)roble111 s fro111 arisi11g, and what legal steps can the Council of Ministers tal(e to refor111 tl1e age11 cy a11 d preve11 t such problems from arising again?'' . Consider also the drafting of Order N·o . I 000: cot1ld this la\\' have bee11 vvritte11 differently in any respect so that the prese11t problen1 s of the age11cy n1igbt ba ve been avoided ? Th� °:1ateria1s ,vbi:h follow st1ggest variot1s ki11 ds of legal a11 ? quasile�al co_11tro Is, \VIthin the exec11t1ve brancl1 , which may be develoJJed to police executive offi­ .cials and agencies-and thus secure more ''acco11ntability''.

Controls Over The Organization and I\.1Janagement of Governmental Agencies From Urut�d · · · · , 0ifPi,bl'ic o/-., ,c!bo }Jar o Nati A . airs ns, Aff · t. ial Dep Soc of Eco11on1 ic & Adtn1n1strat1011 (1961), pp. 33-3 . 4 t ona o gan d a ine er det m is e11t n1n ver Go to k eRe 1� � r ization will be achieved only if a • • . mind the need c• 1 e 11ecestl · e p n l< ' a m o t d 1 1 a , a11 1or a systematic organ1zat1011 pI sary a 1 . . . 1) 0 C IS · na YSIS to prod t 1e 11 1 11 ·1 r g 10 · ew 1 ' · r. P n tl1 e 11 10111 e11t a ·1. tce such a pla1 ce1ved· a· llt . 1 f ro1 · · f o . iOCLIS tl116 a · will · 11 ot be do11e s I a t ec crea 1s 1 cy age.1 central t1n]ess a i nis a adtn · tr l ' ' C . ,1re LISt 1 tra e1 · . ' 1 , t : llec 0r an ttve 'a1,alysis· a11d pla11 11 i11 g. Stich. age11c1e c ' lly ta s ,, · g jz t 1e i 11 o c on a e b . e v a 1 J !I r .. nd ' . M a d . . I s ,,0 a11 1 M etJ1 0ds O·ffices'' a11 d tJ1eir 111 1t1,1 � amiJjar b 1 ave 1 · . . ' . s 1111ent · c reat, c a br ev·Ia1·ton 1n , . 1 Gover 1 gIY eas11 T11c1 t ce acln 1 1 1 11 parla1 1st1·at ve · · · ed su c11 ce11tral . o <l 1 1ea · f 1 . t t 1e ,' h · o bl e s1 1 t� c respo t� t � O a.rid M. offices. TJ1ey are t1SL1ally a ·rit e ·Gover11 · t 0 L · · ent e 1 ' rn . or to a ra11 k1·ng m1·n ,·ste1· and are d I )' · 111 ct1 ng cJ 1 arged WI tl1· . · tl ·� ' . a 1 1zaf . , . naty orga1 . . r onaJ str and rl1e n1 al<ing of recon1 me11dat1ons on c111�st101 1s o uctu1�s,as �ec staff e d, . _ erl p pro tS, orne n1o ' \Veil as of metl·1ocls and procedttres. Su_cl1 llf)l a11alysis re ai,d mo � lio et 111 <l ao a ' 1 re expert i 1 1 tl1e tasl< of org 11izat101 ..,'

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, e k y ta o · d a is s n m m a e b s! a w e­ h b � 1u y n g 11 ti en v re p e, ic 1·v se aild can rei1der a 1najor t. n e m rn e v a o f G o r e 1s v d a 1d a 1 '' ry 1o 11 1e n '' e v ti ra st 1i 1 1i n d a 1e comii1o-b tl e n s av ·d ee h b a1 a d ep an pr st 1d 1 d a re s p o el ev d < rl o w of d in k s ii tl as Ftirtl1ern1ore, 1 o 1 t th e Govern­ gh t1 ro t p th ce n co e 1 tl ad re sp to at the ce1 1tre, it beco1nes aclvisable e no rg d to la an au y tr is 1in s n ou 1 m cl ea n l1i it w s 1it t11 M 1d a1 O 1g 1 n1e1 1t by i11stitt1ti agenCJ'· Tl1e Ce1 1tral O and M office 111ay be set tip in a variety of ways, but in ge n eral it is established as a sta11da1·d-setti11g cleari11g house serving all departments. Its ft111ctio1 1s are to n1al<e st1rveys and analyses and to give detached and critical advice 01 1 specific proble111s or operations to small agencies which do not have their own O and M t111its. Tl1e central O a1 1d M t 1nit can also play an important role in han.d­ li1 1g stt1d.ies a11cl proposed legislatio11 involving more than one ministry or depa.rt­ me11t, for i1 1sta1 1ce, distribt1tio 11 of fu11ctio11s amo11g ministries, ge11eral organization a11d creatio11 of 11e,v agencies. Notes, Probler11s and Qrtestio11s 111e11t.

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Jitriscliction To Police 01·ga1"1izatio1z and 1vfa11age-

I. Co11sider the j11 risdictio1 1 ar1d 1Jowe1· of: the E111peror, tl1e Prin1e 1Yli11ister, tl1e Cot111cil of Mi11isters ' the Mi11istry of Pla11ni11 g and tl1e Ce11tral Personnel Agenc)' . to deal ,,,1th t�e proble1!1s of organizatio 11 and fat 1lty ad1ni1 1istration within the A Agenc�: In tl11s co11 11ect1 on, re-�ead: Order No. 44, sLip,·a, pp. 510-512; Order No. 46, sup1a, pp. 518-521 ; Order No. 23, Sltp1·a, pp. 595-600 . . 2. WI1 at i� t_he r�le of tl1e natio11al develop111ent plan as a d .evice · to force co-. ordinated adn11111strat1ve refor1n? This qt1estio11 is co 11sider·ed below. 11 d-co�1 ld ,tl1e Orde1· creating the A Age1 1cy provide for the esta­ 3Sl�otild-� . , f blisl1111e11t of �11 O_ an_cl M o fice? If so, p1·epare tl1e draft of an article desig ned t0 5 ec11re t· h1s ob�ect1ve.

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rfhe Role of the Pla11 and .tl1e_ Planning Process in the Improvement of Organ1zat1on and Management . · a,1d Ad P1·oble111. 1v1 "Aro. I.· Pia. n111ng · n"1 · n · ,. z·s·te1·1 ng R · eg1onal D evelo1;111ent. · · Co11sider very careft1 1ly .· what ' . 0b�ect s, proJects a11d problems is Order No. 1· 000 ain1ed at?· Wh'at is th · e Or der t 1·y11 1g to do? · t It l1as been freqt1ently poi11ted out e.g. in e m � op el ev D r h ea Y e iv e F ·d i, h T � , ' .. . . 0 18 Plan (1968), that the development ea a � com�erc1al agriculture in many _ r � . essential to ecoiionlic r wth and requ ires a pac age'' proach to solve a �ar. 1�ty p a k _ � e �n v ct of inte1·-related roble obJe i AsSuming, for example, that the government's · i11 tl1e A A 1.P s t age and assi_st individu�l farmers to develop c.ash cr�ps : . ur for co1nme;ii:1 n 1� ri� t�� thus raise farmer rncome, the project may requrre . some or all of the follo�i��� : · . · l) � d:1 · rannme asu ble res to e?c na our age distribution of land in reaso : o ow11er-occup1ers; �-_:-...� ::�

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servi�es . to provide a si s t a nc e to d_eveloi) seeds, fe n nsio exte � rtilizers. 7) farm cu!t1vat1on for _ tl1e c_ro_�s fot11 1d st1itable for tile partictJlar of hods met .. and easing prod11ction s1gt1ific antly; incr thus ar eaer-gird the abo,,e; d n u to ch ar · · · 3) rese · to as es s 1 11 1 tI1e proc�ss ?f l)ro_c11r111g t er ativ co-o p 0� n latio fertilizers, � 4) forn seeds, machinery �nd other r eso111ces a1 1d to a ss1�t 111 seII111g [Jrodtice; so that farmers or co-operatives ca11 IJroctrre essen cre� it for sion tial S) provi ( e.g. tra.ctors); ... e n� pm 1 q11. e d an supplies 6) development of market111g and storage fac1lit1es a11d seed distribu tio11 facilities; 7) developme�t of distribution centers to s�ll a11d servi�e macl1i11ery a11cl spare parts (possibly developme11t and fi11a11c1i1g of a business to e11gage i,1 tliis activity); 8) development of roads ; 9) developn1ent of comm11.n1ty development ce11ters a11d progran11)1es orie11ted towards the above objectives ; IO) improvement of schools a11d healtl1 services; a11d II) continuing economic studies to evaluate a11d pla11 tl1e J)acl<age progra1nn1e.

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A g ain, these are only some steps whicl1 may l1ave to be tak:e11 to i1111)len1ent I - such a project. 1

Note that a number of ministries (e.g., Agrict1lt11re, J...,a11d Refor1 11, Coi11111u11ity Development, Planning), a number of a11tonornot1s agencies (e.g., the banl<s, tl1e Investment Com·pany, the IHA, the Grai11 Cor_poratio11, tl1e Institt1te for Agric11l­ tu ral Re search) and, of course, the local at1tl1orities (the Awraj a Adn1i11istration) ma� have to be brought in.to close cooperation, and their activities coordi11ated into 1 a single "pack age'' if the ultim ate objectives are to be realized. F11rtl1er, tl1e costs � of the package will have to be carefully estin1ated a11d fi11 a11ced. The planning and administration of these projects re q11ire the pooli11g of 1nany talents and diverse ''exp c,ricL1lt11ralist, the n1at1ager,ertise ''·• t h. e e co1 1oniist a0 tl 1e · , . · · .. and. c_ertainly at var. 1ous criti cal points' the Ia,vyer. Consi · der, 1ror example, such questio as : ns I) W�at i11d of agency should gov ernme11t create to plan a11d s11pervi se a k 1

2) Who has jurisdiction and r espo11 sibility to worry abo11t such problems ? Where sho ld th e initiati fr co om? m ve u e s ) J kind of legis!ation ma y b e necessary to acl1ieve tl1e t ask? Do . you a did e O 1 OO . No p r hy de Or othetical draftsman of l1ypothetical go0d � Job?

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1 acce &ricult ural dev be· can . , rs e rm f a t easa11 elopment, �articula r} p l sma� 01! g � ti �e rated t �� � efined 1 d hr r a l o s gh ll, a m a -­ concentration of act1v1t1es 1n r elatively s l . .P Y 1 regions'' Tl u s b su e h t t 1 . n gly, _ overnment accepts this app \Vi 1 1 and accordi11 G cl tr · �COutial he·l P le roa · . 1op1an b of Et and th ' cy e n s e n Wedish International D evelopme11t Ag 1: a terpart f 1 t Unit ds, eve ral has D lt c t establi Agri f . u u !?��; proj ect :� Chilalo shed he t o � t �s planne d to be a series of �' ac age p rogramm s k : � ult Prov n: ss1 ti. r e r . ic i ag .p nt e 18 a ten ye }·�-, · ar scheme for ra1s1ng the l evel Of pea

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11a te d aI?plicatio� of a n _umber of ,,.. i rd -o co 1e tl s Iie in:i I? Tl)e packag e coi1ce iJt 1�g �erv�ces, credit , as well et k ar m t , r po 1 �s a tr of 11 0 s1 1 relate d actioi1s, SllCll as tJrov 1 stnbut�on of better seed s, d . as h l� Sl , 1 1s 0 t1 ac 1 al 1 lt1 c1 ri � . . as re l ated se t of e sse ntial ag i ces, promot1on of t ac l pr ra L1 lt cu r1 ag d e v ·o p1 1u 1 11 0 disseinii1atioi1 of ii1forinatio11 e s�ggest ed range �f acti­ t l al e r o � to e v ha ot 11 � do � fertilizers, e tc. Su c11 proje cts e d, or !11tr1cat e a? -d compl1 c�ted, t 1 d I1m 11 a st e od 1n be 11 ca s ct e . vities. Pacl<age J)roj I . 1ty 1 e t1v c va e a_ P Th en ev 1 d Ch an o t � Ial 1 e1 m 1 e r1 : v go i11volvi11g al inost a ll spl1e1·e s of e d as a full-scale w 1s vie ich \1/h e m e h sc te ra bo �la 1d 1 a e x pl 11 1 co project is a �e1ati_vel� : e velopment. d ic m no e co of 11 1d s k 1 tl1 1 11 11t e n1 experi TI1e j11stificatio11 for a policy of conce11trat�ng G_overnment funds and a_ ctivity in relatively s1nall area s a rise s fron1 otl1er _con�1 dera_t1011s a� well. When skills and ft111ds a re all scarce, a policy of concent rat1011 1 s desirable simply because there are not eno11gh of st1ch resot1rces to cove r the entire cotllltry. I?e ally th ese are� s should ! be selecte d i11 "vl1icl1 tl1e 1·et11r11s to such concentrated action would be highest. It sl1ot1Id be recog11ized, l1ovvever, that e ve11 vvhe n data and analysis are insufficient to jt1stify clea rly tl1e selectio11 of certain are as over others, t he re are economies res11lti11g fro111 tl1e co11ce11tratioi 1 of r e source s in small areas, by virtue of the in­ te gratio11 of tl1e activities. Tl1e J\1 i 11istry of Pla1111i11g a11d De velopme11t ...... ,,,il l ensure that [a11y] regional developme11t JJrogra111111e is i1 1tegrated i 11to the national deve lopment plan a. n d that i11divid11al regiona l cle velopme11 t projects are consistent ,vith the 11ational economic i11terests a11d a re in11Jleme11te d according t o the plan. Tl1e st1ccess of the regional developn1 ent progra1n111e, 011ce integrated i11to the 1 1 ational eco11ornic plan, depends la rgely 011 con1petent im1Jlementation. Close co-ordi11ation will be requir ed, both at tl1e ce11tre a11d in tl1e 1· e gio1 1s, a11101 1g all the age11cies contributi11g to each project. I n1pleme11tation of proj ects reqt 1ire s p eriodic evalt1atio11, to determi11e the con­ .J' ti n t1e d adl 1erence to tl1e natio11al Pla1 . 1 , tl1e 111ai11tena11ce o.f tirne schedules, a11d 1 the effectiveness oi� tl1e project adn1i11istratio11. Eff01·ts to obtain external assist ance J! for regio1�al a11d loc�l proje_cts 1nt1st b e centrall )' S )'l 1cl11·01 1ized. A Regio11al Devel�p­ me11t Pol1 �y Con11111tt�e will be e stablisl1ed con1prisi1 1g all development ministries a11_d age11c1es. TI1e Reg1011al U11it of tl1e Mi11istry of Plat1 niug will se rve as its secret­ ari at. i Th� a11ticipated 11ee d f'o1· a ssistance for regional deve lopinent pro jects will be 111e t 1n part by a str�11gthene cl _l<.egio1 1al Se ctio11 of t l1.e Mi i1istry o f Planning a11? ! Develop111e11t._ Tl1e Reg1011� l Sect 1?11 will be staffe d by e xpei·ts traine d and ex� er1- 1 � e 11ced 111 reg1 �11�l e co1 101n1cs, agr1c11ltt11·al econo111ics ng, eeri eng in and aoronomy, 1na11power t :a111111g a nd � ev e lop111 e11t, physical i·e so lirce de v�lopment (particula�Iy j ! vvater !-e s� u1 ces), �11d. re g1011al cl evelopn1e11t ad111i itistration. The section should aun - � i to 11�a1nta111 �t1ffic1ent capacity a11d 1nobility i tl o i·der to unde rtake researc h or to _ p�·o�1d� pract1c� l a.ss�sta11ce in partic11.la1· re gio ns fi·om time to time. The perman nt j 7 _ staff of tl1e sect�oi1 will be st1· e11gtl1ened by spe cialists drawn fro m operating age nci es, � . 1 as t .he need arises. \ � str�1 1g R�gi o11al Sec�io11 will be able to provide in-se rvice training in regional pla�1 n111g for _ s111!able candidates, both from the ce nt re an fro the region. The. . m d . m�1n co11straint 1n this 1·egard is the. shortage of technical rsonnel. At first, roost I p e bB w!l� �ave to be sought from exte rn3:I sources. Suitable wil l ff sta loc al technical _ _ l nt, recrtiit ed to wo rk in c�ose coll�b?rat1011 with the foreign ex · This arrangero� al . �J;, pe . rts . supple�e11te � by co11t1nt1ed tra 1n1 ng programme s, will eve �c h ... tec a vid e o ntu pr all )r .team o f reg1011al developn1ent planners . · -� �� . . . : a',$ I

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

,..r ngle organizational formula suffices for regio11al activities. TlJe reoi . b' o11a1 . . and nature, coverin . size 1" o si g n1u 1t1-pt1rpose r i ver basiii projects 1n vary les · aIIlll ' mes, urban growth program centres, etc. age pack ral P;fuitu a he Awash V alley . Authori�� patter11 will b e follovved 011ly if tl1 ere i s clear T of cond1t tl1e area and the nature of tbe j 11 ter-rela 1011s ca! ecolog 1 h the at ted t 'dence requires such a hlgh degree of conce11tratecl respo11sibility.

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The "pack age programme'' approacl1_ to regional dev elop111e11t reflected j11 tural De�elopme�1t Unit repres�11ts_ a differe_11t orga11 ization al Agr_ i ct1l lo Chila the co1�s1d�rable at�tl1or.1ty 1s _made di rectly r espon sible \¥1th offi�er proJect A ture. struc w�cl1 1n tt1r_ 1 1 1s respon�1ble for tl1 e co-ordi11atio11 n 1r_ e ,_ Agr1ct1ltt of ry t is li :tv to the of activities among the part1c1pat1ng age11 c1es. Depe11d111g 011 the 11ature of tl1e project similar pack�ge _programmes ca11 be att ached to a11y age11cy wl1 icl 1 ca11 ensure proper co-ordmat1on. For ex ample, for tl1e wester11 lo\v-la11ds re gio11al de\,e­ lopment (Setit Htlillera) a similar st rl1ctt1re t o Cliilalo is b eing establisl1ed, tl1 011gl1 on a larger scale. The smaller regional projects, 11an1ely tl1e ''town groYvth ce11tr es'' a11cl tl1e "programme to support local initiative'', will reqt1ire a cliffere11 t arra11ge111e11t. The "growth centre'' approach i s in essence a conce11tratio11 of gov er111ne nt activities for each sector in designated towns. This can be achieved by i11tegratio11 of tl1e pla11s · eve­ of the vario11s ministries and agenci es. Agai11 tl1e Mini stry of Pla1111 i 11g and D lopment, in close consultation with other mi11istries a nd age11cies, i s logically place d to provide effective integration. In the case of the programme to support local i11itiativ� at tl1 e centre tl1e Con1munity Development Board, with 1·epresentatives from tl1e Mi11istri es of N·ational Community Development and Social Affairs , Interior, and of Plan11ing a11d Deve­ lopme?t, \vill assume the primary respo11sibility for i11itiati11g, acl111i11ister i 11g and financin g any programme based on local initiative. Problen1 No. 2: Ji,riscliction ancl Responsibility for Overall SitJJervisiotz of Gover,i­ mental Orgm1ization and Manage1nent From lbicl., pp. 416-421 . · One of the lessons to 1en t Plail, J11 lo1 e v e D ar Ye ve Fi 11d rn be t fro m the Se co lea 10 the area of of i� pla the in k lac tl1e s wa icy formulation an d iropleroe11tatio11 pol . c lear identifica t1?n · ta en m e l imp and tion, respo11sibility and timing, for i11itiatio11 tion ·M oreo ver th e . . . ' crea the e exa1 11pl or r. _ . ? .· .· ' 1 ting, . mere respec of pol1cy 1at.J.on enunc · , . . . . . of ��w 1 st1tu u 01 the � i at isl leg of ge sa tions, the introd·uction of r e forms th e JJ,1s n e 1 s10 v� � o� existing laws di d no t contrib11te m � cl1 to JJ1a11 i111ple111e11tat1011 , even ' if th e inst · 1 tutions t· 1 ced · t1od 1 11 and reforms recommended were · e­ · d y grea t . l The Governm e · · P �rFY 1 0 ·f tl1 e 01 1ent at1 nt 1mp len 1s awa the re that .yiil Otlt . pends O . ·.� carr . fo e ?1 the 1 18 01 s1J re pa 1s ca o1 rs Ja? ce ty pe ci e d os an readiness of th the pr or c . ognra mme, c a 111 , 1s . � 10 t1t it st i.11 cl an a . s nd w for adn1inisteri ng the la With t h e 1 t101 me11 ta . . IIDIJl e ir �ect1ves so that co11clitio11s favot1rab1 e for tlJ e are cre plan b' ated. . In the tr,1n s . . be . . to . e s r lated in �O110�111g pages th e ma i11 tasks, respons1�1Li ti es alld. .1neast1 oiitlitle. I-Iere to ·. otit t s e e t c ai s . c 0nly tl bodie r� ! : _by _various institutio11s a11d · . 1d �� l a1 lg, n t ii le. nfarn i i r 1nst1tut1onal reforms , laws surveys and stt1c1 ies, .t . ed ..... the m1·0· .t,. t . 1ca is ry Or age d · 111 '. . re a ' ion · t . i1cy respo11sible fo r tl1e1r 1ropleme nta

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IO T U NAL LAW IT T S N O C N IA P IO I-I T E F O SoURCEBOOK

e s a ed . r th esponsibility h rg a cl1 y d ? b � o r te is in M o n t e 11 t i b a . C e h t e r o rm e Flirtll d d e te n _ a a th re efor m� i�tro­ s . r c n o t1 u 1t s� 1n e th . , d � ss a p re a s w la e th t a h t e e s .t o f the p o!1c1es as des1�ned an� adilll o t ly on e st ni e 1n1p�c ? t r­ t 1a tl e · 11 s1 1 1 e to so al t dliced, bu t en i fl st d si n e n a 1v 1 1 co t e h it c w e e y th a u in t ai n co 1s s m t, 11 e ag e bl si on sp e r h ed by eac . ... . .. le o h w a s a 1 1 la p e th f and objectives o The prepa1·ation of specific and cle_ar progran11:11es, and timely r_eporting, are a 11ecessary discipline in the process of 1mplem entat1on. To ensure this, ministries agencies and public bodies will s11bmit q11arterly pr?gres� reports on i mplementatio� to the Ministry of Planni11g and Development, which w1Il then prepa.re a summary for tl1e Co1111cil of Ministers. Tl1 e Ministry of Planni11g a nd Developmen t, in con­ sultation with the Development Ministers' Committee, will establish a procedure setting 011t clearly the t asks, and their timing, for each ministry and public body, for progran1nung. The ''deadline'' i11 dicated in the following pages means the time (according to the Ethiopian Calenda1) for the coming into operation of an organiza­ tional cl1a11ge, or for the competion of draft legislat ion, or for the completion of a s11rvey or st11dy.

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Office of the Prime 1l1iniste1·

1. Administratio11 (Thro11gh the Ad1ninistrative Reform Committee [proposed elsewhere in the �la11 ], �he Office o� the Prin1 e !vli11ister is to Sllpervise, co-ordin a te and assist 1°; the 1 m1)lementat1011 of all administrative reforms recomme11ded in the Third Five Year Plan). Tasks

Deadline

(a) Appoi1!tment of a l1igh level Ad mi11istrative Reform Committee 1961 (b) Creati�n of a Ptiblic u·tilities Co111n1issio1 1 1961 ( c) �om�i �tee �or fi11a11_:_ial a�d 11.1011etary problen1 s 1 6 9 1 (d) PP011! 11"?e11t of_ a F1nanc1al I1 1ter1nediaries Re oroanization z::, · Comm1ss1on 1 6 9 1 . . (e) Establisl1 1nent of a Perma11 ent T'r 1 6 9 a i 1 "ff C o_ m 1n1s s10 1 1 (f) Establis1·11 neut. O·f �,t M. . ai1p' ov. ver Co1 . 1961 11111 1ss1 o n + 2. Legislation . . Tl1 e Office of the Prim . . . .e. M· 1'111st.er. ai1d t. l1e Adn1 1111strat1ve Reform Com m1ttee have ge11er•aI res1Jo11s1b1I1ty I · · o · fi d, e a 011g 1· n . e _,vith r ' · 1 ru co11c _the . m 1 ncy e s t ·y or ag . l al legislation pi·oposed 111 t he Tbi1·d F iv e Year Plar1. Ministry of Finance

Tc1s!(s Deadftne 1 · Administratio11 (1) Transfer· to the 1 a ev of certain enterp::s �t d�veJ�pment financial intermediary s are oldings (b) Estab lishment � of evelop.ment B_udget Review Comn1ittees for each ininistr . Y a 1 1d agency Jointly f Planning and Mi1ustry o with the · Developme11t 1961

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B11dget into f tl1� a Develop 1ne11t Btidget � cation sifi . Clas (c) &;,' [' strat1ve B11dget 1n1 dm A an 1962 and �� .�:, - l solidated P11blic Sector Bt1 dget Systein Con a of on I oducti 1962-65 (d) Intr ' I '<! s Studie and eys 2. surv existi11g t a xes a11cl_ ado1)tio11 of adeq 11 ate of review and Study (a) < ' property and other taxes for fin anc111g local gover11n1ent res ndi tu exp e ll I vI Mi11istry of Plan11ing a11d Develop111.e11t ,.I 'I Deadline i Tasks : ( I. Admini stration • (a) General strengthening of the Ministry 1961-62 (b) Strengthening of the Dep artment of Technical a11d Financ.ial Resources I

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(c) Expansion and strengthening of the Regio11al Developme11t Section

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(d) Strengthening of the Community Develop1ne11t Board to act as an executive Board responsible for initiating, a dminis­ tering and :financing the programme for l oc al i11itiative

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(e) Establishment of a Regional Develo1)ment Policy Comn1ittee

(f) Establishment of Training Programme i n Regional Develop­ ment Administration

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(g) Establishment of procedures to

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e 11sure satisf actory co­ ordination and effectiveness of the government al 1 )lanni11g machinery

1961 1961

1961 1961-62 1961

l a 46 u< ) e No. er d (Or_ 52! pages 518), 4 N . (O s 12 ?I0-5 pag 4 -rea_d pa J o rder � _ sd1ct1on to accomplish 527 2 theg follo\·? 8. Consider carefully again the allocat1on of iun ving objectives: ) t I. decl are p la n target s and policies; 2' pro pose m; the ieve ch. a to ary administrative an d legisl a tive reforms 11ecess the · 3. prep are, mtr ote pr on 1 O · t ires 51 1nea oduce and enact the necessary l egal . eform s , r . la11 p . of 1t 4. review an d evalu l lig itl s · cie articular agei1 p ate of e the nc ma for per _ targets and admjnistrative measlues requir ecl by the plan ' s reste S. hold rele a11t p en . t ple in 1 · . .. a1lt1 . . re to IJ? v offici als accountable a11 y for f mi a tive istr n quired b Y_ the ad d ire qu re 1t e1 e1n pl iro a1 pl 1not ably ste ps to ·· Ch anges. Do Yo·u th· tnk a ny· legislative changes would be advisable·? . ... . .

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N N O C IA P IO H T E F O SOURCEBOOK

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duct Should be Pro/i ibit on JJt C ru or C of cls in K t !1a T¥ ' ?' ed? Wliat Is ''Cor,·itJJtion t be e igh m _ �v p ab rru "co n o ti_ es n qu tio st fir is ,, e th that con. to er sw an l a iti in An 1king men. 1t h c . tJ1 Su tgh 1·1 an by d ne sw an em er nd co 11g ha.· r0 ,,, is h lic l w t d t uc nd of ds co ar nd ed riv sta de ity l ·a 01 fro n1 on m n tio tIJ rrt ethi: :� , co of t ep nc co � 0� s is a ysi s_ a1;1 thi qu t de tha ina es� gg �11 ate: If i� fact t gl1 mi t 1tis e s�i 1 l ; ia Bu� a �oc t ha 1t e_ 1s hy W or w m y, et ec ci pr so ly !11 ise m le ob pr 15 the s ou ri · se a 1s 11 . t10 lp corn the ted in no tte es cas COillD11 the e's r report 00 de nsi Co ? ng ysi l a a11 are we p.roblem h 4. ap gr ra pa a, ,pr si y, nc ge A A e tl1 i11 s n1 le ob the 1Jr I11 son1e of tl1ese cases, the co11d11ct ma y seem ''technically dishonest''-but '' ty may even be debated. !. nes sho the ''di e som e. l In sib n1is pe1· rs, still , to tl1e acto , ''I am only f oll oiving common 1e arg1 n1ay r acto upt corr l y eged l 1·11 som.e, tl1 e al ' t I?'' In still other cases the actor may argue, 1ldn shot wl1y it, do practices-if otl1 ers ''I did 11ot violate a11y law 01· clear instruction." •

Bl1t co11sider the co11sequences of· condoning such conduct. The cases may have a com1non ingredient: the actor has used his office in a manner inconsistent I with the objectives for ,vhich power was given to him. The harm caused may be an eco11omic loss. Or the u11dern1i11 i11g of a pol itica l objective. Or a threat to public safety. Or a 111ore subtl e psychological l1arm. Bt1t to the extent we can identify a h arm rest1lti11g from the way official discretion is abused we may be concerned with the actio11 and al l it ''cor1·t1pt' '. In poor countries. w'here funds, energy, ze�l and . other resot1rces are des1Je1·ately 11 eeded in the pt1bl ic sector to prom?te _P?bbc servi ces . a11d developn1e11t projects, the ci1n1L1latil1e ilnpact of less serious 1nd1v1dual harms 1s greatly exaggerated. I. ' ' cou�­ is ping so1neti!ll e s ''develo said that co1· 1 in · t 1ption problem is . a special .. �� r-' trres. A11 cl so it_ n1ay _b_e-�l1ot1gh corruptio11 n1ay flourish elsewl1ere too, �.g. in d ibute ai1.y l arge Aineri ca11 c1t1es , 111 so111e ''sociali contr l y st'' states; corrt1ption sure � to t�e dowi1.f� ll ?f P1·eside 11t Nl<rL1mah 's 1·egi1 ne · a11d tl1e do,v11fall of the fir5t Re­ -� public of Nigeria. Tllere_ are �i·obab.ly several 1·eftso11s to explai 11 wl1y cor1·uption does become . . prevale11t 111 vari ou·s JJl 1 a , . ces, a, t \ a1·1ol1s t11nes. T·11ese 1nay include: J I) Tfe sc ope 01 the ten1pt ations: Those who enter the urb an "m oney sector " : 8 ciety m y be special_Jy ressed to find sour c s of inc�m e. Jh:;,� _ � p �1 00r� aid � � iv . '. Y p � _ il se1var 1t wi ll valt1 e ' p· e rhap· s nee d hi s small bit of gz· h'ts '· ' m t IJa fro · a t1l t1c r y l d ve 1f 1 · t s i deri . se en as 1111official acceptabl e income . . a to ;' ' · . . 1 n rt . so pa c11Ia1 · office T· he ,, e1 1t s ll 1 · � send ..e ,, servant wl10 to str1v1ng 1s · ate e . l · r 11 ge good sc10 . ]- 01 ' as . to r st si a 1 · re at1v es a11d· acquired th111gs that ap_pe ' _ I .r�spect fro tu p op · e 111 others, n1 c1-y be he r w �� tie s e . sin so 1il ci ar ly te 1 1 mpted. 1 ct I 1 t r . s re . n1t ies to acqt1ire c a'sl1 an . .d_ mate1·i a l things by 110 11-corrupt mean�� ar e ions J _ tat ed, btit ,vb. ere coi1Sumpt1on _ · temp the , l goa becomes a w1d ly s11ared l a re especially strong. d, � e de 2) Tlie attiti,de i . n n see e a u ,d corrupti must . , s t n: C w u b o traiJl!S. j orr pt cond ct felt to be I1 r11 � s v 1 -and P pl1l arl y cond e n e ifi e i eff f ct co ses ... '�;� -if l1 st1c o mned as . � are to be rp u Ulp osed Up o11 It. Particularly in commt1nities \\ here the p ·-_:_ .r:.··_,,7. i .. �- · -::-.: :r.rr...· · _ - -;--=...�'... � .;;-- -�- --�

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ept of _service to t he public-are neitll conc t�e s-a11d e offic er \Vell of ptib lic appreciated, this att1tt1�e m a y be ]acki11g; a11cl tlle f ail tire nor od understo es may also be re111forced by tl1e concltlct of ''eli t attJt ud stich es'' elop dev eople w�th statt1s a11d p�lice ra ti o11alize ''_payitlg off'' th� � , e pl exa m }1, for him to tear tl\) h1s st11111no11s 011 tl1e grotltld tlJat induce to er offic t affic e s 110 real l1ar 1 1?' ', tl1 e11 t11at l)ract i ce will and ''do ''t�ot1ble'' s redt1ce t�is act n1ay sp_read to 0�1er tr�11s�ct1011. If it is assttmed that 1t �nd alent prev be e sup�r1or to offic1_al ?bl1ga t1011s, tl1e11 bestowing f,ivours a� gauons i obl family v\r e1�l1111g the delays, red-tape a11d othei­ bt1s1nessn1en I. f ne�. condo be will vagaries of_ o�:1als they mt1s� deal ,v1tl1. con1e to s_ ee a ''corrupt'' acti on g et things do11e, t he y too w1ll 1)ro111ote tl1e practice. to way e nt ffici e " an as

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off'' becomes the ''efficient'' way to ''get thi 11gs do11e' '. Perhaps tl1e enst1i11g.... corruptjon ,vill compou11d tl1e i11e:fficiency-a vicious circ-le.

4) The weak,1ess of the deterrents may also contrib11te to the volt1me of cor­ ruption; it i s obvi ously one tlling for the l aw to co11de11111 a11d a11other to find machin ery to enforce the sanctions. 5) The abse11ce of a la1il tfrat clear/JJ JJros cribes t/1e co11duct i11 a 1-vay iv/1ic/1 is clearly i1nclerstood may limit the effectiveness of a11y deterrent by making it difficult for an individual to know wl1at kind of acts l1e is s11pposed to be deterred from commi tting. Thes e factors are cumulative , over lapping and, 110 do11bt, only a parti al explanation of contributing causes of corruption . You sl1011ld add to the list.

[ Our concern th en is to examu1e laws which the exec11tive 111igl1t develo1J to 1 de_fin� and condemn corrupti on-and the 111achi11ery used to in1ple111e11t these pros­ cnpt1ons.

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Constitutional Sa11ctio11!:i'

I From Tl1e Constzt. ut zo11 � . of Somalia (I 963). ce offi in . d , 8 in per ir the A ing dur -S U s ters rie inis eta ecr and er M nd : 0(2) rt m 0 tio nc fu e h t_ d an r ex� te vo e cis l ra cto ele � othe� public functions, except the l 0 m co l, na sio es of pr 10 111 th e ag � e National Assembly nor m ay they e11g p · me f: y leas: 1 or :�at :uctu5trial or financial activities . The y m ay n?t dir�ctly or indirectl to i ro pe ty es us ho pt ce ex _ es di bo � ic bl pu S lo be to or ing te �g e ta to th r p ,: � Used ( s o_ go se lea e ir personal r e or te a n lie _ a not ay m . ey th e, ce or en � rm . sid he 1rt F1 lon it gin ac y p 1' ca g al otl t rs pe a rn Sta te o the St ate or to public bodies' or participa te 111 . enterpris · · es or enterprises by the State. controlled : Questions· ia's 0 Ethi I 1 · W i� wh · � · hat conduct does Somalia's Constit·ution IJrohib · · it r does no t a ic c o 11n r �e 11 ca ! fr A w fe e � th e ng 1o an e S ar ia a al pi lr \Vhose c; io om d th a? E an rs ve v �d c1a 11 a 1u · fi . te . a nst1 priv ·� . tr lls tution8 _contain provision limiting ay the w som _ e s 1n � o . . cti . . ti,ti o,z n o � ti 7 n_s a o e s h t 1 8 f n i c s i M on 1s1 o ov pr te nis rs ve a h. . Is to it i le . ab sir c de subje t? Who enforces th ese laws?

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700

U IT NAL LAW T S IO N T O C N IA P IO H : T E F O K SoURCEBO O

, 6) on ti 96 p tu (1 p ti 1s o1 C 1 n 6ia 11 er ig N . 19 , n o · 't ,s . ,1 •l 1g i o ,1 T , o Fro1n Awolow

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, n re co fo ain re th pr , ld io ou vis sh � on 1ti ns for rules it � i1s co � � � _ Tlle new ie ar et cr ry s, se ta sl e1 gi le am 1 .I or ar p at , s, rs te 11s 11 1n membe.rs � r fo ,e : lii p ci is of d r d he , an ot 11s on 10 rs at pe or rp s co 1d ld a1 ho ds in ar bo s, g posi­ on si is nl m co of t: c e ff e e th o t ... ... t s t1 tr c tio11s of l)t1bli r at , sl be or gi , em le m ry ta of commis sion, I cr se y ar et _ ao n1 ·li ai p � r, te is in m l) that no e ic ic er of profit or bl y off th pu he an w g in ld ho 1 o1 rs pe or n, io at or rp co board or not shall i) borrO\\' n1011ey from the Government; ii) obtai11 adva11ce for any p11rpose whatsoever from the Government; iii) owe a11y 1noney (wb.ether i11 1·espect of loan, advance, or a.ny transaction ,, whatsoever) to the Gove1·11ment; iv) have business tra11sactio11 of any kind whatsoever with the Government; v) enter i11to a11y contract whatsoever with the Government concerning the sale, p11rcl1ase, or lease of land, house, or any fo1·m of building, other than a contract of 011trigl1t acquisition by t.he Gover·nn1ent, compe·nsation in respect of whicl1 must be determined by a superior court of judicature after hearing evide11ce fro1n Government valt1ers and land office.rs;

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vi) have st1bsisting co11tract, exec11ted after I October 1960 and within 10 years immediately precedi11g his asstllllption of office, with the Govern­ ment, concer11ing the sale, p11rchase, or lease of land, house, or any other f orrn of b11ilding;

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vii) receiv � _ or e11joy, at the expense of the Go,,ernment, any of the following _ perq111s1t1es 01· privileges, tl1at is to say:

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a) car basic allowa11ce·' b) drive1· 's allowa11ce '·

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c) transport allowa11ce ·' d) travel li11g allowance. ' e) e11te1·tai11n1e11t allowance . f) garde11er's allow ance· '

g) free housi11g o1· accom modation.' 11) free telephone; i) fi·ee supply of electricity;

j) free furniture· ' k) free medical trea tment.' I) expenses for holidays in or outside Nigeria;

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------ - --THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS '

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ro) a nything in cash or kind, b y wha tever 11�me called , other tl1an h is salary or emolument as approved by the Leg1slatt1r e; info rma ti011_ vvllicl 1 co.111es to him by virt tie _ a ny or n o posi ti bis e of llis viii) 115 . office for the p ec11n1ary bene fit of h1111se lf o r a11 y o ther perso11; or take poss ession ?f a11y pro1) erty ?f wl1atever clescriiJt io11 be­ use ak� ro x) i longing to the G overnment fo r p11rposes wh1cl1 are personal or wl1icl1 may be deemed, c onstrued , or s11spect ed by n1e.111bers of the l)ttblic, to be personal; x) accept �y . kind of_ prese11t in �ash or lci_nd fro111 a11y person, o rganizatio n , or business es tabl1s.hment which, to his k11owledge , is seeki11g t o en ter or bas actuall y entered in to contrac tual r elations \Vith the Govern1nent '· 2) that no minister, parliamentary secretar y or ft1ll-time 1nember or com1nission, board or corporati on shall i) be the sole or j oint proprietor of, or a d irector, sl1ar eholder or part11er in, a ny business or 11nd ertaki11g vvl1ich is carried 011 for }Jrofit, notvvitl1standing that such busine ss or orga11iza tioi1 i s 11ot actt1all y mal<i11g profit; ii) carry on any business, practise any professi o11, or l1 ol d any office i11 trade 11nion, co- operative m ovement, or an y organization other tl1an cbaritable, sports, athle tics, or p olitical organizatio11; iii) be an elected member of a l ocal g overnme11t council; iv) visit disreputable night clubs, or gambling hol1ses or places; v) participate in an y lottery or game of chance run or ovv11ecl by tl1e Gover11ment; .

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3) tha t every minister, parliamentary secretary, or f11ll- ti1ne n1e111ber of co1n1nissio11, boa.rd or corporation, shall with in 7 d ays of his a1Jpoi11tment 111ak:e a full dis­ closure of all his assets and liabilities t o t he Pre sid e11t a11d shall d o the sa1ne thing \Vithin 7 day s of his relinquishing office ....... There sho11ld also be provision i11 t he c ons titution making it 1na11clatory for Gover nm ent t o in itiate or opera te l e gislative or executive n1eas11r es for tl1� p1;.1rpose of_c o�ba ting and stamping out c orruption wher ever and i11 vvba tever g111se i t may ex1st 10 the Federation. nd � d ate e _ rep f. o ite s sp in t ar tl1a reg e d l d cal s this last pr oposal, it will be r e A v�hement demands by the public, the g over11ments of the First Rep11bl1c d id °:otlu !1 g e�ther by legisl ati on or executive act io1 1 t o arr est or d iscol1rage the 1n°11nt11!g in­ e s. l circ cidence of corruption in l ia c ffi o t 1 1 e rnm e v o g h ministerial and other hig In retrospect we now realize tha t the old c ons titution l1as pre511med mtich too muc h in · favour ' of o ur rul ers.

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Penal Sanctions From Pei1al Code of Ethiopia (1957). Art 410,-Principle.

ity o h t au or r l ) All persons e w � o p e th who are to any degree rep ositories of· · ( ent o·f fi c1a ls n 1 r11 v� o g 0 f the State, s, e s11ch as members of the public al1thor1ti

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702

SoURCEB OOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW '

gover1 1me11 and tl1e of public administr serva11 ts � and ents a and ? atio ns po or arm lice of ed the for ces of rs me mb e (he rea ft r k . o d 1 11 er any . · · refe · · rred ·h t t e o to J?lllll subJect 1 1ve are provis servants''), ions c b. l i u ' ,, p as w hich follow . . o ce, ffi d t . u ies or emp1 oyment, the y · tlie dischar°oe of t he1r wI1ere, 111 . com . . nut r te ap is ch th er 1d u1 a11y of tl1e offences . (2) Where the act which_ they have done_ or omitted to do in the discharge . of their dtities, a11d 1n respect t o which they �re charged� comes within the scope of ordi11a�y- crimi11al law, but t�ere 1s ag�ravation to the offenders' p11blic pos1t1on and the breach the special respon s1b1l1ty rest­ virtue trust 1 of the placed 1n them, the relevant provisi i11g 11pot1 tl em by ons of tl1e other titles of this Code shall apply.

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Art. 411 .-Ad111inist1·ative Pe11alties and Con1pe11.sation to be concurrent. (1) Pe11alties in1posed under this chapter are without prejudice to the

tion of app1· opriate administrative penalties. (2) Nothi11g i11 this chapter shall affect claims for damage.

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Art. 412.-Breach of Official Duties. (I) Pt1blic serva11ts who fail to carry out their d·utie s in a proper ma.nner and to the prej11dice of the p11blic, are p11nishable, w he re , damage has been ca11sed thereby wit

h fine not exceeding five h1mdred dollars, or, in more serio11s cases, with simple imprisonment n o t exceeding three months. (2) Where s11bstantial damage, whet her public or private, results from the offence, both simple impriso11ment a11 d f in e m a y b e increa.sed to the general legal maximum. Study also Articles 413-414, 420-426, 733, 738, 740 a n d 746 of the Pena Code. l Tl1e P1·oblen1 of Vague11es s irz Penal Laws

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. Co�side� Art. 412 of . the Penal Code supra. Wh a t k in d s o f conduct might �- Article include ? Apply the a rticle t o th e p r o b 1 ch of the emplo lem o f t he "A Age ncy", supra, yees of the " A A ge ncy . " a r e criminally liable ? Is it fair to ap ly this 1aw to p11bl1c p serva nts?

· m Co,1110/l:y v. G Fro e,ier al Co11st1·uction. Co., 269 U.S. 385 (1926). That tl1e terrns of a · . p. e ii a l s t a tt . it . e creating a n e w offe11se must be suffic1e· ntly explic·t1 to 1111o · .r.- rn1· tl1ose who are su b�· ect. to . the1n liable t ·t en . . t · w h a t co11duct 011 their part will render 1 a_1 .1 e s, [is a Well r eco ordin ary g

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gnize d requirement, consonant alik e �itb not��; f fau' J.?lay aud settl e d rules o f . · es· / fo,·bids or 1.equir . [And] a statute which e,ther la w ] t 1e do111g of arz. act 11· 1 ligence 111ust ,zec e1·1ns so vague tlzat n1en o_f comm on intel-· . . .1 gu.ess ! ess at its n1ean11zg a12d diff r _ l te tl1e first essential if l e a s to its applica tion, vio a s 0 �-lte JJroce ss of law. [Emphasis Motes and _ Ques added.] tio11s on ,, Void r fio1· rYagu eness . I. The ''void for vagu.e ne_ss ,,(d ue pro 111 the con cept c le e ss) d o c tr ine " h · of · =--= p "llat p a rp ur s co a a u n 1 te � n n eleme11t of ''11atur · ci _c J,� s.t1ce (see sipra, pag al es 6 3 3 -644) . t hu s it is sa1d, a b 1 . · J u s · t� Ice . -.--�, warning before as d_��1s the requirem ' . ' 11e i s sub. an e n · t e · tl · a· 1a t c n a o m a d n u g b e iv e e n �ecte d to punish · si ment by penal type laws. . . .. . . .

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7 0 3 ----------------� t THE DEVEL OPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

docl:i11e is easy �no11gl1 to state, btit 111 �re di'flicull ene ss'' vag u for oid 1 The "v arily set forth 1 n very ?ro�d terr11 s. 1 t 18 certai,1 ly ess nec are s Jaw al pen r,: .. 1 Y . (JSomec , m 1 bec at1s �. to apP �avv e, on first read111g it ap 1)ears to be broad pen al a 1 o nde to not enouOh n ct. Co1 1s1der the releva11ce of Sl1 cl1 factors as: abstra the i and vagu e by tl1e statt1te-eve11 if vagt1ely defiiied-is proscribed con�uct _the her Whet (a) _ 11se that the h e a 10 or ,v? ab!e lcl o_ r , objecti?n _rcas011ably ougllt ntly : � � inh ere �� t 1 1l? harmf t is ct nd c I, his o u

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to expect n1ore precisio11 in tl1e particular legisla­ reasonable is it r Whethe (b) of the lav\' has done all vve cot1 ld expect of J1im. draftsman the r whethe or tion

(c) Whether the !egislation . depends ?1 1 fl1rtl1�r ad111inistrativc gt1ideli11es or this connect1011 co11s1der w l1ether gt1 ilt t1 1 1der Pe11al In tation? implemen for ru l es J l Co de Article 412 req11ires proof that the defe1 1da1 1t violated s01ne rule or well­

) understood standard of co.ndt1ct laid dow 1 1 by the CPA or .l1 is e1111)loyi11g age 1 1cy?

i'Jachinery to Enforce Penal Laws Dec1li11g Tiflit/1. CorritJJtio11 a11d A bLtse of Poiver

ll The problem of dealing witl1 ''corr11ption'' a 1 1d ''abuse of J)ower'' tl1rot1gh t penal type la\vs may, as has bee1 1 indicated, be analyzed broadly t111der two heacl1 ings: I) what standards of conduct sl1all the law JJrescribe, and 2, \Vhat 111acl1i11ery can be created and used to enforce these laws.

In Ethiopia, as can be seen fron1 tl1e Code provisio11s above, pe 11al law ra11ges ' wi�ely in imposing special standards of conduct 0 1 1 pt1blic serva11ts. Wl1at n1acl1i11ery exists to enforce these provisions? Is it adeq11ate for tl1e p11rposes? f I 1 The materials which follow exan1 ine these q1 1 estions, first by look:i11g at son1e I relevant powers of po]jce, Attor11ey Ge11eral and Minister of Justice (tl1e officials �. charged �ith enforcing the Code) and bri�fly co111pari11g tl1e positio11 of the Attor11ey r General In Ethiopia with the position of the USSR's Procurator Ge11eral, a counter­ ce existence in some socialist countries. Tl1e con1parison is offered bec�use offi · e role of pen al law as a device to police the conduct of officials may be especially p rtant in �ot1ntries when �� , the panoply of state activities is great a11d the IJositio11 �e l. govt executive organ of government dom i11 at1t i11 relatio1 1 to other brar1ches of ernmen · ·t and to 1 the influence of the private sector. ( r . . . i F om Ministe rs (Detirut1on of Powers) (Amendmen.t) Order, No. 46, I, Negar,t· Gazeta 25th year, No. 23. ! 32 · The Mini ster of Justice ...... in accorda11ce vvitl1 tl1e lavv, shall: (d ) lire an s for all the h · wit . enfo e anc 1pli rcement of the law and con � �� � (1 • o�ed ures prescribed by ]aw or reg11lations for the ad n11 11 15lratioil 0 Justice·' () the e ponsible for by d ute sec pro s ion act al min the cri t all rs duc of e �over11m con ent .' � (f) . t agai11 s sup ervise t-he cond or by ()'ht roue, b s claim uct and [ of 11s actio all civil th e Gov ern ''1.··. ment·'

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UTIONAL LAW IT T S N O N C IA P IO I IT B F O K SOURCEBOO

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d t ca es ac g vo d 1n a 1 a1 In s y an or ut ec os pr case brought t sis s a. 1d a1 (0o) aclvise. ; t n e m n r e v o G e h t t 1s i1 b)' 01-, aga 2nd a Gaz Yea�, arit _ ( Ne No. _942 2 f Su 9 · 2 �; ? pp!e � . ti ! io � t . a l IJ ment la c o °. r ) P , the 1n u r uto try sec 111s Pro M1 c J bli of P11 of stic e a nd s _ o11 i siu po b ,, . . . -establ'is ed tl e '' ffi h T f e o ce o r. P to r1nc1pal 11 c se ro P c l1 b Public Pro� 11 P l a ip c i1 ri P '' the office of ate voc Ad al, later calle d th of ner Ge ce offi the e am bec tly uen seq sub tor'' of � rit 19� ega (N 123 eta No Gaz 1 tio1 1na cla 11th Year� Pro See l. 1era i Ge y r11e l�� _. on n1ti The de _ icle Art Attorney Gen eral �), fi ( Cod � � e d11r ·oce 1 p 1al 1 ); i . No 11 Crin1 J 1ce f o _ us� and try rus M1 is !he erv �up 1n ces es a staff offi pal nci pi·i the of 011e heads e h 1s ity ons hor resp aut ible for litigation of on gati dele by . a11d e ctic pra By . yers of law of the ers ey pow orn the Att 1s Th1 rt. co11 i11 General and y 1istr Mi1 1 e tl by tecl duc con the Mii iister 111ay be dra,;vn from Order No. 46, sitJJra, pp. 518-520, and the Crimi nal Procedt1re Code. Study Articles 8-12, 16, 22-30, 37-43 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 1961, Conce11trati11g 011 tl1e 1)0,ve1·s tl1ese Articles give to police and prosecutors, and the Iin1itatio11s of those IJOvvers.

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A Co1111Jarisor1: T/1e Proci1rato1· Ge11e1·al in tl1e U.S.S.R.

The i11stitt1tio11 of tl1e Proct1rator General is probabl) worthy of careful study by lawyers i11 develo1Jing co11ntries. As the readings below indicate, the Procurator, is, first, a ''prosect1tor'', specially placed b y the Constitution in the hierarchy of the orga11s of gover11 1ne11t a11d specially endowed v.rith investigative powers. However, tl1e concept and scope of tl1e office is broader than that. He is, second, a ''superv_isor' ', _cha1·?ed with tl1e responsibility of e11s1rri ·ng the ''legality'' of all administrat1ve act1011, irrespective of tl1e enforcen1ent of pe11al liabilities. In this respect the Proctirator's reviewing ftinctio11s may (a11d in Russia to a o-reat extent, they do) d�spl�ce t�e jt1 risdictio11 of tl1e co11rts as a11 organ t� 1"evie; questions of ''ultra yires actio11 or ''proceclt1ral'' defects in admi 11istration-thouo-h i11 theo ry there s 18 no reasoi� �l1y_ b t/1 the co11rts e i exerc t cann o 1 1d a offic a �r l1igl gov 1 ernn 1e11t ? conct 1 rre11t Jt1r1sd1ct1on over admirJ.istrative legality. .011 r coiicer11 here is with tl1e povvers of tl1e Procurator to prosecute erra nt officials. 7

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From Hazard ai1d SJ1a1Jiro, T/1e S011ie • t Legal System (1962) pp. 49-50. ,'. Statt1te on Prosecuto1·'s At1dit i1 1 the U.S.S.R. : le Art. 5._ Tl1e orga11s of tl1e g sin · _ ; _ a te titu pro sec uto co1 1· ' s 1s office of the U· S · S · R · -� centr.·alized systen1 11ea ded brubo · with s . _ ·� , the Y S.R Pro sec1 1tor U.S . the G· e of . nera l · d111at1011 of lower )rosect1t 'i ors to h1g 1 ' h.e r. :S� or� sis tbe e a of Ar t. R. 117 � of u.s .s. th Co nst the itu ���� tio of n e 1:· _ito� s office perforn1 tl1e1_ r functions independently of any local org :{ being fubordinate only to · · tl1e Prosecutor General o f th e U.S.S.R. ::, e 'i lll Art. 7. The Prosect1tor re . Sup . e G t e h eral of o ·_ \ ssion· � _tl1e U.S.S.R. is responsible t Soviet of tl1e ·u ·S ·S · R · e s n 1 aiid wee Is i bet Sub ord in ate s per iod to . e it of the Suprem th ' but in the f . e Soviet of the u 0 uill 'di res s p s t . · R ., he is subordinate to the Supreme �oviet of · the U.S.S.R. , ·,

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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General of t11e U.S.S.R. n1ay _l)rese11 t to the Presidi r sec t1to Pro The 11111 9· _U.S S .R. a pr?posal 011 q11es_tio11s reqi irii th� of : Sovi et eme siipr 1g soltttioi1 �e .

req 1 nterpretat1011 of a la,v 111 accordt u1r1 ng or n, slat1 o legi 11 ce ,vith the h · throug · · o ( c 1011 t' sec b r f 49 t A f ) I Stl . 1n · o · t 1 forth e Co1 1 st1t11t1 set on cf tlle U.S.S.R. roc edure General_ o[ tl1e {!-�.S .R. a11d. tl1 e prosec11 ta·s stibordi,1ate ut? r P�o �ec The 23. irt. 1 cipate 1_0. the P:·eJ1111 11 1ary �1tt11�gs of a �01�rt to cletern111 e l)rocecltires part (I) im: to h 111 the ex�111111 at�o_11 of cr1�11 1 11 al a11 cl civil cases j 11 cotirt p�r�1 c1pat e (2) wed; follo to be sessions and give ?Pinions as to q\1es_t1 ons ar 1 s111g dt1r111g tl1 e trial; (3) supJJort the state's acc11satio11 1n c?1� \V_l1 e�1 _cr1n1111 al cas�s �re exa111 ined; (4) bri1 g strit j 11 civil proceedings ?r _as a c�v1l � 111t Jo111 e� to a cr11 11 Inal 1)r?se? 11tio11, a11 d s11 pport suits in court if this IS required 1n protect1011 of state or social Interests ortl1 e rigl1 ts a11d legal interests of citizens; (5) fil� p�otests i11 tl1e 1�1�n11 er established )Y la,�, r1gai11 st illegal or unfot 1nded sentences, c1 v1 l Jt1 dg 1 11 eI1ts, dec 1 sI011 s a11 d r11li11 gs o· cot1rt orga11s; (6) give opinions on crimi11 aJ a 11 d civil cases revie\ved by J1 igl1 er cotrts 011 appeals or protests; (7) provide an audit over the executio11 of co11rt se11ta1ces. Art. 24. The Prosect1tor General of the U.S.S.R. a11 d all prosect1 to·s s11borcli11 ate to him have the right \-Vithin tl1e limits of llis a11tl1ority, to de111 ai1d a1y civil or cri­ minal case from the cot 1rt organs for verficatioI1 i1.1 accorda11 ce witl1 a11diti11g _pro­ cedures.

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From Berman, Ji,stice in tire U.S.S.R. (1963), Pl), 238-24-1, 246.

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The Soviet Constitution states that ''s11pren1e st1pervisory l)0/11er o,1er tl1 e strict execution of the laws by all ministries a11 d i11 stit11tio11 s s11bordiratecl to then1, as ,veil as by public servants and citize11 s of the U.S.S.R., is vested i11 1l.1e Proc11rator General of the U.S.S.R." The Proc11tator Ge11eral is appoi11 tecl by tl1e SL11Jreme Soviet for a term of seven years; he, i11 t11rn, appoi1 1ts proc 11rators ol� rep11blics, territories and regions, and confirms the ap1)oi1 1tn1e11t by tl1e rep11blic1n procrrrator of area, district, and city procurators. ''TJ1 e orga11s of tl1e Proc11ra:or's Office,'' states the Constitution, ''perform tl1eir f1111ctions i11depe 11de11tly of a11� local organs whatsoever, being subordinate solely to the Proc11 rator Ge11 eral of fle U.S.S.R." The ''s11preme superviso1·y power'' of the Proc11racy tal<�s _n1an� liverse for11 1s: The p�ocurators keep \-Vatch over the entire systen1 of ad1n111 1strat101, to_ see tl1at e�e�utive and administrative bodies do not overstep tl1 eir legal atthor1 ty. They sit 10 as consulta11ts on sessions of the local city co11ncils a11d receive CCJJi�s of or�c�s aoct _regulations issued by 1 1111 al a11d rep11blica11 a11d f. ede�al _ exe_tL1t1�e- ad111 1 regio strativ_e orga11s. When tl1e of n v1)1i:ltio 111 s 1 act an at 1 tl the ers co11sid ator procur Const1_tution or of l1 e 111ay ''prc-test'' 1? the laws bodies, or higher of decrees �xecutive-��minjst ra,tive organ immediately superior to tl1e body w�ch has issu_ed a mi�istry a� exceeded its tl1ority, tl�e procurator s protest !: I dged \-V�tli f au � leg�lity � �telCoun cil of � Ministers. The proct1rator also 1s supposed to s11pervI,e the . an or e tness o _ l epti e � I of t1 R as l_ ,�el a� ris r a � f actions of the state sec1 rity org " 101�str �esc of rote , rs i rnal 1 � : Ii �ff3 e 0� s strie 1 M.111 O ction of Social rder (tl1e for11 1er P � the police, 1 st�t11t11 or ab e tiv e ec rr th co e 1 tl g or 1d 1 a s n an io o f cr· iminal inve. stigat ' ions. It do es· not , however' have st1perv1sory power over tl 1e u ·S ·S · I'... Co11 1 1c1l o f t-x· · 1v11n1.sters.

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706

SOURCEBOOK OF ETI-IIOPIAN CoNSTITUTIONAL LAW

l agen c y to w ia . . ati·ve coi1 trols req11ires tl 1e cr. eatio11 of a spec . atc11 o ver of ad111 111.1str e 1c a1 on rt w ns h r co e1 h a. t re r· pa te la e al se nt l al 1 le sJ . e W l ga s or syste�, at tr · 10 1 d 8 e 1 t 1t we . B1 st ty mu cie so o ais of d p · 1 ex wa �: a � n as lai ,11t � t iga Jjt . h m hs e 1 ;1 s re 1 1 c w1 i e 1 e ch ar rt R w pa ns t11 of tio di tra e d lu a11 t si s us ea id e a1· cu l ura · l tor1� ca Ily , 1·11 te1�111 s of tI1 l1eritage. ...... . o �2 17 Fr in the m cy \1ra o� gin Pr be the ni 11 g the two ed nd 011 f t ea Gr tlie ter Pe d. ke e e lin er Th vv o Pr curacy se rved on 1s1 rv pe 1 s1 d 11 a 11 io ut ec os pr of r1111ctioi1s te, d na de Se ich un fo wh y wl at ne e at tl1 th e1· ov tim e w: ol 1tr o1 c of t 11 1 e 1 n t str 1 j1 ail en , wh ter at La cur t. pro 11r co ' ors n1e e o 1· s11p a d ffi ces were 1 a1 l 1ci 11 1 co vy pri . a bot ll te to ina the ord sub cur d� Pro n1a re we ator Genera l y the , ces 1 vi1 pro the in established er l the ov cia d vin ise pro erc ex be t governors....... igh 11 1 11 isio erv s11p l 1tra 1 so tl1at ce We 1nay learn sometl1i 1 1g of the 11 att1re a11d f11nction o� th� S _ oviet Procuracy by studying its eightee1 1tl1 -century cotinterpart. U11der Peter, Jud1c 1al administration was so ba.d tl1at the Se11ate, acti11 g as tl1e S11preme Co11rt, was unable to control the ac tivities of tl1e var.iot1 s local cou1·ts; ft1rther, the judicial bran.ch was closely i11terlocl<ed ,vith the acln1 i11 istrative brancl1, a 1 1d hence s11bject to the pressures of local expedie11cy. Peter tl1erefore sought to constr11ct a hierarchy parallel to th.e j11 dicial a11 d admi11istrat ive, to be the ''eye of the tsar," as he himself calJed it.......

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111 an i1nportant se11se, the Proc11racy is a fourth bra11ch of go,,ernment in tl1e Soviet sys te111 , independent of tl1e exect1tive, legislative and jud.icial branches. For altl1011gh tl1e Proct1 rator General is appointed by the Supreme Soviet, the very 11att1re of that body 111a1<es it impossible for l1in1 to have more than the loosest �011nec ti�11 wi th it; a11d altl1ougl1 his s11pe1·visory functions extend only to the 111tern:ed1ate. a1:d lower levels of the exec11tive and judicial bra11cl1 es, a.nd n?t to tl1e l11g11est, It IS 11evertl1eless n1isleadi11g to view the Procuracy as a part of either. Tl1e Civil Service Larvs, tl1e CPA arid '' Co,-·,·uptiorz'' Re-read: Article 27 and 29 of tl1e Co11stitutio11;

pages 595-609 si11Jra. (civil ser·vice legislatio11).

Wh�t P0":'e_r s doe� th_e <;PA l1ave to pro1nt1lgate sta11dards of condu ct proscribing official act1v1t. y wl11ch it f11 1ds to b ''co e 1·1·t1pt''? · · What sa11ctions ca11 tlle age11 cy 11· 11 · 5 d ? ar d stan ese pose for v1olat10.n of tl1 l • Is the civil service Ia pe t h na e · • A:' c: \\, a 11101·e ei-1ect ha11 t sn1 1ve 1nech an1 01· less effect ive law for dea1-ing vVItl . 1 ''cor·.Illl) . ·t1011 · '' -as we have defined that co11cept ?.

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Codes of· Et/1icJ' ar1cl· Quasz ·-L egal Standards of Col'zdz,ct Re-read page 26 I (T1 . 1

of ''leaders'').

ns atio ig e Arttsha Declarat1 011 - excerpts dealin . g with obl .

l From Nyerere ''Aft N tion a a er 0 th e t ss Arusha ddre · 1 '' (P Decla1·a A tio TANu Confe;ence . UhJJftl residential 1 . 1 17 0 ctobe r 1967), as published i 1 1 Freedo,n a1·1d Soczalis,, . · · 3 a N Ujan1a, p. 9s: . It is not part of e jn_ :. ,_·• l . . p eo . .y, or a Ta�zanian leader ,s dut . the P eiiv e, u·a. g b.ave· . ; · · e11co t y simply. to to turn that e11vy o .. d es he into h ost'li B t u 1 ty 01· bat1·ed against others. . . ·.:._i

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707

Fiscal Controls ancl Auditing

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�eople that he is 1. 1ot l1imself _an101 1g _a gr�tI{) \Vlicl1 is 1111 fairly the to clea 1" : it e roak to.. 1 s for this reaso-1 1 that tl1e leaders]111) qt1 It · al1 ficat 1 o11s lave been· lai ed ' ' d Pr1v11eg · n o ti ra . la ec D a sh ru A e th n · J down for at the very le_ast it �11st be clear to �1:1r people that 11 0 Iea&r will become 1 t10 11 or by ex_plo1t11 1g otl1ers. pos his abusing by y \Vealth You are furtl1er asked to ''st1ggest \Vays i1 1 Vi1 l1icl1 tl1 is Order 111 ay be i1111)roved objects of t be Order. _C�1 1s11lt JJages _i11fra (legislati)11 iniplemeiit­ 10 facilitate the ing the Tanzanian ''Perma11 ent Com111 1 ss1 01 1 of E1 1qt1 1ry''). 2. Consider other ''0011 legal'' or ''qt1 asi-legal'' steps Vi1l1 ic.l1 g�ver11 me11 t ca11 take to deal with the proble.n1 ot� ''corrt1ptio1 1' '. Co11sider criticall)' the followi11g asse rtions: ''An ana Jysis of vvl1at corr11 ption is a11d wl1y it exists shovs clearly that we are dealing with phenon1e11a \Vhich ca11't really be co11 trolled by creating laws and law enforcement n1achi1 1ery. Req11ired is a J)t1rita11 ical' regi111e v11icl1 co11sists, loudly and constantly, that every p11blic serva 11 t i11 every ecl1elo11 of gcwern111e11t ta!(e 11 est, wl1ich _)t111isl1es every a stern vow to be honest a11d to keep his c0Jleag11es l10 f case of corruption by making a l1arsh exan1ple of tl1 e of e11der, \,Vl1 icl1 11ak.es I 1011 esty in public service a religion and corr11 ptio11 tl1 e \VOrst of all mortal si1s agai1 1st tl1,1t religio . Lav1yers, \vith too mt1ch insiste1 1ce on legal JJrocedttre a11 d co1stitutio11alism shouldn have no part to play in tllis J)rocess."

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The preparation, defence and execution of tl1e 1 1atio11 al b11dget are ge11erctlly considered to be executive functio1 1s. Tl1e legislative arm l)lays the i11J)Ortant role of revie\v, criticism and final a11 thorization. Tl1e location of tl1e 11 atio1 1al b11dget agency within the executive is a p1·oblem \Vhicl1 natio11s l1ave solved ii1 a 11t�mber of_ ,�ays. The prevailing practice, however, is to place tl1e ce11 tral bt1 dgct office 1n t�e mtrustry _of fi11 an.ce. Some countries have placed it i11 the exect1 tive offi� of th� �resi­ dent or 10 a cabi11 et secretariat closely related to the office of the p:i1 11 e minister. The conve11tio11al fiscal orie1 1tatio11 of the b11clgetary 1).rocess s fa111i_liar _to all Governme11t s. Viewed from tllis poi1 1t of vie\V, the budget is co11sidere? IJrJinaril_y a� _a legal and accot1 nting i 111 strt1m e11 t, at1d the b11dget agency l1as the tastc res_p�i1s ility of co 11 solidating 1noney estimates of expe1 1ditt 1re 1 1eed� _f� 11 the varI?tls � . � )f coi1 trolling epartf!lents each year. In n1any cases it has the f 11 rtl1er respo11 s1b1l1ty ttires after 611dget passage. E1 npl1 asis _ is placed i11 _the b�1d�e � docti inei it �:pen?i obJec ts of purch _ 1a11 011 tile tl . he rat es, 1 l 1Jp s11 d a11 ase ,1Is 1 r cl ate 1 su es 1 as 11 ari sal ' ' · amount of serv1ce to be purchased with a given a1 11 ou1 1t of· 1110 11 ey. 0eti11 ° Acco rding . tl1e newer ' to 1d bt e 1 11 11 .. 0 0 ogra 1 p d . a11 1ce 1 na 1 or perf . of e1Jts conc the bt i dget ''is i 11 esse11 ce a wo rk pla 11 specifyi11g tl1 e_ concr�te _ob Jectives t o eano a cu�I 11 tl1e o d l11e 1late 1 11. ved for is It l by fi . year the Government d.uring the 1 1ancia b as�1s of the . 1n 1e1 1t, a 11d · work to be do1 1e or services r1 \e o G e 1 11 b d t ·c e t Y prov1 . to be pre . 1. s ste sy 1g n t11 t hese toge t11 co ac 1d 1 a g 11 rti po re er th 1e " Tl n th . wi tl1·eir· costs . .· aresde· es1g t� .ne , . . me }Jrogram � f _ · d t _ · O to Otl �titL exe vi pro de, at stated periods during the info ��tt d e lys a an e on ar eSE l T.l on . res ttt e 1 th work accomplisl1ed an d related expend i·n renn l at1o x . e d e n n . t0 one another n la p d 1 1 a . k r ' o w . d a1�d compare? vv1 th tl1e p 1 an11e Pendlttlre for tl1e correspo1 1d 111 g period 111 the a JJprovecl btldget..

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708

N IO T U L LAW IT A T S N O C N IA P IO H T E F O K SoURCEBOO

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ed ly up ral gro 1 1der an ''o 11e u ge e ar s e u· it1 11d pe ex g 1 r bie eti dg bti ' ct J 1 '1o11 al In t1.ad't · ls. In 1· e pp , av su ., 1es r t J · , ia 1es ter ar 1 ma . sa as s i11g ad , be , cl1 stl per er 11d 1 1 , n t·· io r, · a c 11 s s cla · · 1 1 ke d to a speer'fic segment of 1 1 y t I 1c1 1· p ex are n1s ite 0 rk wo se tlJe 0 i· t e· , dg c, ll . . · b . e c n 1a n for .· d·t . 1 ur e 10 a given period and n pe ex te 1 n1a est the 1 . ee1 tw be o r service. Tl1e relatioii · por . . . · . · a1 1 1ro . tan t p h ase of perforrna ce IS 1t to I1 t10 la re In t .n en n1 1 l lis the acttlal acco1 11p budgeting. ut y ho er ug ev rt ro pa th de 1ds te1 ex ment an d at th 1 o1 ati er op a11 is l ro Fiscal cont ly se d, gh clo ate ou th rel al te ra era pa op se e re tl1 tions e ar e 1er Tl t. , 1 1 me r11 ve go of ageilcy i11volved i 1 1 fiscal co11trol: to ure res ens itu t end tha exp . they are sed po pro i�g rov app a11d 1 g 1i1 1 i an1 Ex (a) d to pon get res bud cor � t�e t allotments tha ed, 11rr 111c ally leg be y 111a y the t tha prtlder1t, . led the en cal oft 1s control of the is (th se 1 rpo pt the for ble ila ava are nds 1 ft 1 at tl a11d pre-aL1 dit f u11ctio11); . ing the (b) Cond11 cti 1 1g a11d 1·eco1·di11g the act11al treasury business, includ receipt, disburse111ent, allocatio1 1 and. acco11nting of ft1 11ds (called here transactions a11d acco11 11 ting); r

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(c) Exami11ing a11d verif) ing the completed t1·ansactions a11d their related accou11ts (called tl1e post-at1dit, or often si1nply the a11dit). 1

Tl1ere is i 1 1creasi11g accepta11ce, as a basic 1·t1le of good fiscal administration of tl1e view tl1at eacl1 of tl1ese tlrree ft1nctions sho11ld be perfonned independently, that is to say, if 011e official ,111thorizes tl1e pa)rn1e11t, a second sho11Id actually make it, and a third sho11 ld a11 dit the accou1 1t. •

The fL1nctions of co11 trol or pre-at1 clit, disb11 rsal of ft1nds and accou11ting are often lodged in tl1e 1ni11istr:>' of finance, or wl1ate,,er con1parable ministry is in charge of treas11 ry functio11s. In orde1· to ens11re 11niforn1ity of p1·actice i 1 1 tl1ese transactions, ce11tral sta11dards a11d proced11res 11eed to be establisl1ed a11d e11forced. But once s�icli sta11dards l1ave bee11 established, co11siderable dece11tralizatio11 of these func­ �1011s ca�1 be accom1?lisl1 ecl . The ce11tral office ca11 establish subordinate units of its OV'i�n _ 111 _tl1e various 1 ni11istries a11d departme 11 ts a11d i11 regional a1 1d area offices. Or min�stries ca11 be encoL1 raged a11d assisted to establish their own budget and accotlnt111g offices worl<.i11g 11 11de1· tl1e tecl1nical standards and controls laid do\VO by the central office. . . Tl1e. 11 �cessity for st1 cl1 controls is wiclely recog11ized. Bt1t U11ited Nations tech· cal as 1sta11ce experts l1ave ofte1 1 fot111d tl1 y b ted ad op at tl1 e 1nea.s11.res of co11trol . � n1 : Go vern e11t 11ave bee.11 so co1n1Jlex as to beco1 1 e self-de le . p ex am Tl 1is 1 1g. 1 fea ti 1s re 1 eva 11 t: '' Tlie ex1J�rt \Vas asked to study the possibility of simplifying the _pr o­ ce tlr s by w��h a�cot111ts f�1· l?ay d i t ce and me nt � ed � we re checked, authoriz � if � ; wi h tlle special obJ ct of rel!ev1ng g s of M n rt th e bu rd i e ist er he of av th y e i oWo nu111erotis docu 111en�ts of ,vl11cl1 h e stated h e h a d little knowledge. "'!�e r�queSted stlidies revealed a tendency i n th e Government's :fin ancial . adm1111strat1.01?- to reqltire a1 q· do c to 1d s ob tain an excessive 11t · 1mber of signature · m e11 ts tJe1·ta1111ng to d'! sb res atu n sig urs em ent s of suc h ft111 ds. It ma see ny_ me tha d t . . . cotild have l i ttl� more y n a � tha n tha t . me rely for1nal val ue' a1·1 d it is do11btful Of tll· e s1gnat s · c o1· ies cotiId uon · a lic · possess a 11 adequate kno,vledge of the irop ..

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TI·IE DEVEL OPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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i,. .-__ ! I ents curo d O i . . of the

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to which they subscribe· d. ·I·f all tl1e signatories bad acqtlai ' nted · · · at dea l of SLl})erfltiou I • ntly wi• th sue h imp11cat1 011s, a gre cie suffi s es 1 se tbelll. ed.'' per form bee n e hav ,vorrk w�uld sho uld be ca reft1lly recorded i11 accoLIIfts wJ 1ich ctio ns tran sa ncia l l fina The .11t. Pei_ l1a.ps tl1e co11seque11ces e 11 d c urr a complete rate of dist1011esty accu t · ' n . . ' lete11ess are too obv1. ot1s to 11eed en11)l1 ar. e bo es ' . incorop as1z1110-. But tl1e conb . n1 accuracy and · 1 a11d eqt1all y ser1ot1s. A1 1 eXJ)ert reports . comn101 more perhaps are delay 1 sequences of . · I "Unless an.cl until adeqt1ate arra ngen1 e11ts are made to e11st1re tl1 at tI1e nation's accounts reflect ct1rrent :financictl transactio 11 s, tl1ose accot1nts I1 ave no practic al v�lue. They b ecoll?-e 1nere forn1al istic re�ords. of past eve11ts that can have but little day-to-day interest. They are of little, 1 f a11y \Vorth to tl1 e President and to his ministers in their importa11t tasks of 111 a11agi1 1 g tl1e natio11al I \ financial affairs. The time, effort and n1 01 1ey expe11ded t1po11 t l1e111 is largely ineffective in any practical sense. Worse, in tl1e expert's view, is t l1e lil<elil1ood that the current absence of up-to-date fina11cia l accot11 1ts 111 ay be depri\1i11 g " the Government of large sums of mo11e)' a1111 t1all)'. ''

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Accountability fo·r the obl igation, rece ipt a11d expe11 ditt1re of l)t1blic fL111 cls is ! 1> a basic necessity of sound administratio11. A ll Governme1 1ts face the prob]en1 of 1 devisin g suitable institutional a.rrange ments to enst1re the proJJriety, legality a1 1d ' integrity of the management of tl1e pttblic fina11 ces. There will be a considerable variety of patterns in view of varying. constitt1tional and legal req11ire1ne11 ts. Tl1ere are, ho,vever, certain general principles which n1 ay be adopted adva11tageously µ as a part of any system to ensure accou11tability. 1 A clear-ct1t distinction should be made be t\vee11 the ft1nctio11s ot� fiscal co11trol (or P!e-audit), whic refers to approval prior to inct1rrance of an obl igation or exh 1 peo<lit ure, and audit (post-audit) or review of such expendi tt1res. It is desirable 1 1 ot ha ve t�ese �w? f u.�ctio�s vested in th_e same �ge11cy. The i11depet1d _ e11 t re�ievv � , � tbe audito� 1s 1 mpa1red if he bas been 111volve d 10 tl1 e process of prior a1Jprova l of a t:a�sact�on. her �urt e, th mor e respo11sibil ity a nd accot111 tabil_ity o� a Gove�n­ ! mn 18 impa ired. if a c l ear- cut distinction in these roles a 11d f u11 ct1 011s 1 s 1 1 ot m�111t Aod ta�ned. ofte tl1e settlti1g n i11 delay there ve ssi e is xc f e d 1 dupli a1 c ation effort of ' 0 g · · 1111g · overnment accounts a11d payments \vhe11 these ft111 ct1011 s are 11 1tern · Ied · s uaUy the ftinctions of nt te com1)e a ir1 d e � vest be should ) contro -at1dit e l (pr depa e t of 1_a1 1 le t 1 to e ist1:y . n I 11 h mini l t1st1a � 1e tl �try fi� of � ance, which s also the :u;� � : s au<l � 1s111 n1111 J 1n ac: s e 1c 0 of n �n.t1 cl oste ot1tp g and re gi_o t1ons. By a series of f11nc �s, the ministry fi of 11ance can expedite the re view a11d coi1trol of expen?itures g iv in the 1� respective tl gre of s n atest cisio i e d possible attention to policy· g· 111 ni�te r s, under · · 0! 1 Jt. 15 .t. 1·ti e .tl1at " llDitorm b0th in standards of procedt1re a11d 111terpretat1 · North �n d ctron s 1 ft11 e tl1 S ng sti ve th oti America there has be en a history of of cont r ol a the it of ent exd and nd epe ind o acc l:cutive br� t , l, era gen ing unt er oll in ptr a com nc of the ie rev and in w� IIlg be are 1ns e t sys r1 ove e s 1n l1e B 1e t G ay nt. tod ut · · · n bet\vee1· 1 cont 101 and a many cases m- 0d1"fied towards a more cle ar ct1t d1st111ct1o udit.

be to Ver·1filhati� runctions O f a _11 .111dep . d e : iz recog y 11e_ r all _?endent a ud1 t age11cy are ge . ,11ew c on of the l_eg. ty e d 1 a1 ns t1o c a 11s al1 and propriety of individt1al financial tra an ct ce .mitl � "" rt·f 1 ic atio c a, ex ld n of gover11m,ent accou11ts. The at1dit agency s l1oti :

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SoURCE1300K OF ETI-IIOPIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

· 710

l al ns of m tio ac 11s tra ie str ini al 1ci 1a1 fi1 s, p de e th ar i ior · ter Os tm · a t n eP k ec s . . · . and ch . · , a t s. r n o p io r d o c n a s 11 10 1t tt t1 1s 11 s 11 o m o r1 · to 1 1 a d 1 1 a agencies . the n e of tri tio en nis att 1ni s tl1e a11 to l cal p ina t1ld sho pro .. . , ncy pr_ 1ate 1 age . . . The at1d·t . . e to ty giv 1n1 rt1 1r po the op e tl1 fi ti · Jus s ter 11s 1 nu io cat . tlie · . ns lg vu gi , , . s orl as i . act . t1ans · · on 1n1 are d op an ss1 po 'b le on �t1 ret erp 10 1nt of tt ma es nc ere ers f diff st ne llo y ld ve ha ou the sh c� ��1 tho ag at1 1t_ ·L1d a rity 1e _Tl to repo� t g. tin 11n co ac d an e tir dit ����n s ve ro to e pl? th sa d1 ad 1t he 1 1cl wh of of s the on ct1 sa 11 tr·a Gove rn­ 1 01 s on isi ec d its final to ht ke rig ma the ve ha ual ann 11ld s]10 and special It e. t11r isla leg the to d an metlt ent nm ver of go s t nes oun 1nd acc so1 s and fisc-al the 011 nts me com its I1 wit reports proced11res. A ''b11siness type'' of audit may be made in the case of governmen t corpora­ tions. 111 tl1e case of mass transactions, the a11ditor may audit every item, or if in his jt1dgement tl1is is 11ot necessary, he may adopt a scientific system of sampling tra11sactions. Fron1 A11ditor Ge11eral (F1111ctions) Decree, No. 32 of 1958, Negarit Gazeta 18th Year, N·o. 1.

2. Tl1ere sl1all be a11 A11dito1· Ge11e1·al who shall be appointed by Us in accord­ ance witl1 tl1e provisio11s of Article 121 of 011r Revise d Constitution and who shall serve at Ot1r pleas11re. Tl1e A11ditor General shall perform the functions a.nd duties set forth herein and sl1all report directly to Us and to Our Parliament. There shall be a First Deptttj' A11ditor General and a Second Deputy Auditor General ,vho shall assist the At1 dito1· Ge11e1·al, both of whom shall be appointed by Us. Minis­ all 3. of T11e A. Departn1ent of· independent Auditor be sl1all General . tries, Departme11ts and Age11cies of 011r Government.

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B. The De1)artn1e11t of A11 ditor Ge11eral sl1all be 11nder the direct super vision ai:d control of the A11ditor Ge11e1·al, 01·, in case of liis absence or incapacity, of the Frrst Dep11ty Atlditor Ge· 11e1·al, 01·, i11 tl1e case of tl1e absence or i11capacity of b otb tile �tlditor Ge· 11eral a11cl tl1e First Deputy A11dito1· General, of the Secon d Deputy At1d1tor Ge11eral. C. �he bttdg�t of tl1e De1)a1·tn1ent of A11ditor Ge11eral shall be prepared by 1 t_he A ttd it�r Geii.eial a 11 cl sl1all be t1·a sha � wh o ce, 11sn1itted to th e Minister of. Finan c1 incllld e said btidget in tl1e b11· d. un Co e . th . 1 d to · et g f o subm1tte Ott1· Gover11me11t . on, of M1111 ' ·sters l)l1rs11a11t to tl1e provisio11s ut1 st1t Co n ot� A1·ticle 115 of Our Revised i ro The 1u itor General shall establish to ned p � t� desig audit a syste of m g full · s oSure O t e res11Its a n ent ern of the fi Go v na nc ial Ou op r e1·a ' tio of m nroen t ns · 0bta111 t he fina11 ver · cial O it'!} G orm a t r 1 011 Ou · 11ec ess a1· of y . for ma · nag the em ent ds ' and tli e exercise of effecti n u f res ' 1 ve coi1tro l over Governn1ent i11come, expend'tu property and other assets. ke B. The Al1ditor GetleI roa . hall 5 d . an s I h all 11�s a11 �1t all Governme11t accou . s As used periodic reports to Us � d and to O au '' 1 said t r Par liam of ent _ e sult 011 s the i �l :Mini s­ r l1�rei11, the term G tries, De .partnleiits � :ernn1en� accounts'' shall comprise the accot1nts O · all auto· of a 1 nts Agenci . h our es . of acco Ot1r . u the Govern me11t and nom ous bodi'es· ex1st ·. h 1c · · . w · . . 111g b in · Us _vir t�ie Y )' of b Im per ial Charters granted Government ·has a fina11c1al interest. .:

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shall at1dit all Gover111ne11t accottrlts in an Ge ner al or t i Au d The efficient C. a nd, in performing sttch attdits, shall satisfy J1imseU' tl1at: manner, ts are properly st1p_ported by vot1cl1ers or otl1er proofs en pay m all of pay(I) ment ; tu res and a_II sun1s debited to the accot111 ts I1ave bee11 atit di exp en all l,orised (i) by comp etent authority,_ have bee11 cl1 arged to tl1e correct accot111t and are prope rly chargeable e1tl1er to Ot1 r Gover1111 1e11t ,;vitl1i11 tl1e Ii 111its provided in the bttdget or to an at1to11on1ous body described i11 Article 4 B t1ereof· (3) all entries relat ing to tl1e receipt and isst1e of stores are correct and ar� properly supported by ''?Uchers; (4) all income and re�enue 0\\11ng or du� to tl1e Gover11 1 11e11t J1as been properly collected and received a11d ,111 st1cl1 111co111e and revent1e bas been properly brought into accot1nt; and (5) all immovable and movable property of the Gover11n1e11t l1as been pro­ perly recorded, and proper records \1/itl1 respect to s11cl1 property are being maintained. D . The Auditor General may audit accou11 ts i11 full or by a system of spot­ cbeck.ing, whichever he shall deem appropriate i11 any give11 case; provided, however, that any report \Vhich the Audit or General shall s11brnit to Us a11d to Our Parlia­ ment concerning the resu l ts of audits of Governme11t accou11 ts shall contai11 a state­ ment describing the natu re and extent of the aL1dit co11ducted witl1 respect to each account. E. The auditing by the Au ditor General of all Gover11me11t accot1nts shall be completed not later than seven (7) montl1s after the close of the preceding fiscal year. F. Audits conducted by the AL1ditor General sl1all 11ot cover periods earlier than two (2) fiscal years prior to the fiscal year i11 which the audit is to be performed, unless the Auditor General shall have determined tl1 at sucl1 at1d.it m11s t be held be­ cause of some serious deficiency in the audit earlier co11ducted or be�au se evidence �as been . subseq uently developed whicl1 indica tes that fraud or d1sbo11es1!' \vas mvofv ed in the concealment of fact s and material essential to the. coi1ducting of a proper audit.

l 1era Ge1 The itor Aud of A ent artm Dep itor d the of eral bers Gen and mem u_ aulboG: rised by h im shall have free access to all books, doct11ne11ts, ledgers, vouch�rs aorl 0ther ma terial al w�ch g relatin to accounts being audited by the Au ditor Gener e may deem useful or necessary for t he prop er auditing tl1ere?f· If t l1e Aud1tor � ene al has reaso or t dtile fratJ iJ a 111 kept 1 been n has to 1nt believe t hat any acco d_sh r s book nes l u , l ma <l e S pouo 1 n in o t l er, ity 1thor l n he shal have the right a11d a dt c o l may he as ent t 1 t11 s acco 1 st1cl ledg m ] to ers, vou chers and other material re ating , u_ cins1d er necessary. H.. At the completion of an y au dit by the At1ditor Ge11eral ?f any acco� nt or p ti n m o perf tor i aud t : �e t f ereo by , a summary report sl1all be prepared :! the oUr ? � 1t b e e , h ' t r ich cov r d perio tl1e , at1di shall th f ct ob th ify spec t e W find�in d1 e je o t d -iu d�t 0 f rse cot g the the Sclf _ i auditor and any objections raised during so and e plan d 1 n d gne i i _ a � be tions submi l sba! tted in response thereto. Such report cate �y sa1d �1�; cc� a tl1e for ble d i au itor and the official and/or employee respons coneerned, each of whom shall retain on e signed copy.

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O N C IA P IO H T E SoURCEBOOK OF

1I s aI ha j en �r ob G r to t i e� d u A t? e t� y an , t n u o c try c en a y n a g n i it d i t a ii i I. (I) If, f o t e ic su�h ob�ect.i?n shall be no t ·, un co ac d t sa n� ni er nc co or other matter ? l� po s _ ee s1b r re 07 fo pI i em sa r d acco unt, /o d a� al ci offi e th to promptly give11 f 1 y i st or sa d }U n 1 y a1 tr p en ex to or ty n1 t1 rt at po m op ter an 11 ve gi be l al sh who or al it er ud en A � e l �l �h sh If , be :1 ke t� en tis be sa s ha fi­ 11 io ct je ob ch hi w as to te notation shall be ria op pr ap n, t1o ca 1fi st Ju or n io at an pl ex ed as to such . w ? ve to ed ha e em be de be d a ith sh w �I n ra io ct je n made of this fact and said ob 1 at e th an to pl as x on d e_ fie tis or sa j be t o ­ n_ tifi l us al sh al er en G r ito ud A e th If (2) l� s1b r on fo sp e ee re th oy pl em co ac ?r l a c1_ unt o:ffi e. th by ted en es pr cation r e 1to t!i e, ud al � a� er m �n s G �a n t1o Jec shall ob id sa ich wh to t ec sp with re n io at e itt fic sti bm or Ju su d in his n io at an pl ex e th d an n tio jec ob ch enter st1 report.

5. A. The detailed report of receipts and expenditures (hereinafter called the ''Annt1al Report of Government Accounts'') which is submitted to Us and to Our Parliament by the Council of Ministers each year pursuant to Article 120 of Our Revised Constitution shall, promptly upon its receipt by Our Parliament, be referred to the Auditor General for review and comment. The Auditor General shall, within tl1ree (3) months of receipt of said Report, present his comments thereon to Us and to Our Parliament. B. The comments of the Auditor General on said Annual Report shall contain the following:

(I) a statement that the accounts concerned in said Annual Report have been exa��ed _by him in accordance with the provisions hereof; (2) an 1nd1cat1on of the procedures followed in reviewing said Annual Re port and the extent to which the Department of Auditor General has audited the ac�ounts upon which said Annual Report is based; (3) a detailed statement of his comments on sa.id Annual Report; (4) such other recommendatio11s a11d observations in connection with said Annu�l R�port as he_ may deem necessary and appropriate; and (5) a certification that said Annual Repo1·t is correct or incorrect. Note: The a�ove Decree was apl?roved with one significant amendment by Parlia­ t nd re-issued as Proclamation Yea r, 21s t No Gaz . 179 eta, Ne of gar 196 it 1, ��� 3� "��:�en i�en �(to Article _ 2 ) requires _the "Auditor General or his deputy" to e am ers wh�n his l)res�nce 1s requested by a majority vote ... of either Chamber · · · to explain concern111g execution of the functions entrusted to him.,, Notes and Questions

1. Before the Revised C onst · n ctio s fun . s itution General' of 1955, the Auditor were lodged 1·n the M1m . reasons imp I " .str.y of p·ina°:c�. por a number of practical · � �" mentation of the const·tu 1iona1 thi g s shin prov ision (A estab s 0 li rticle s 121) 1 2 and offic e came slowly O 0 e ecen am t ly r arli haye full reports been submitted to P � These have not y�t �� n nen m de a reco yailabl � e W to nn the public. ould you that these reports be ma d h lic pub at W e? tim um doc . E '' this ents in at pia are some of the cons1d � thio erat1ons?

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OF EXECUTIVE lNSTITU"fIONS THE DEVELOPMEN T

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e 11er�l's offi.�e di�co�ers eviden�e of a cash G tor Audi e th �: short age ose u S PP 2. ncy and ev1de11ce 1mplicat1 11g an official. What J. urisdiction 't· · the accounts of an age · e Iy w1'th the st1spe cte d OfA:'. 1at d' i:e e nc le r? 1mm W hat steps can he deal to � .ID ve h � does?b;h�t jurisdic t!on do es the At�orney Gener ! have ? � �: take. audit the accot111ts of tl1e Invest1ne11t Company? General or Audit the Can ? e ral'� ?ffice part of the '' e xect1tive en < or br�11cl1'' of governAudit the Is c 1v1l servi ce la ,;vs? Sh. ot1ld the At1d1tor Ge11eral 11ave to ? u subJect d be ' it l ho • ment. S , , . o ce . . any "tenure in ffi ? l torates Inspec ilJinistry !. Some ministries and oth er large agencies may create offices specially designed o� I?O\Ver and �pecifi cally autl1orized_ t? investigate abuses poss��le on heck to c complain ts from c1t12e�s. The �rustry o[ J1;1s�1ce �as such an o�ce; 1t 1s concer11ed, among other things, with allegatlons of JUd1c1al n11sco11dt1ct. This office is discussed I infra, Chapter 8.

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The Citizen's Right to Petition Tire E,nperor

From "Rules Conc erning the Ligaba and the Office of Public Relations (Yebizb Gudaie Makrebia) (1942)'' as tra nslated by Yohannes Herot1y in Redden (ed), Ethiopian Legal Forn1book (1966), pp. 72-73.

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The office of Public Relations presents to his In1perjal Majesty all petitions directed to Him an. d sees to it that they are effe cted. In particular the followi11g belong to its jurisdiction. 1. Cases of patriots to be prese nted to His Majesty. 2. Disputes arising out of Maderia lands. 3. Applications of petitioners. 4. Cases of sons of patriots. 5. Cases of sons and wives of patriots or service me n. 6. Cases of ex-service men, in particular those withot1t helpers or acquaintances. 7. Errand duties outside the pala ce. 8· In_ general receives the petitions of those who wan t to present their cases or grievances to His Majesty. SECOND

is Majesty's Ligaba is respon sible for the effective carrying out of the duties 0f thHe office of Public Relations. ,

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igaba e ce of P blic lati the L t iS ass to h ary ess c ne l as Re. on· s sh a l have ' so far �ffi D · u in h1'sTd ut1es · several . f secretary, 1nsp ectors and ' a eJ Agafar1 (Asst · Ligaba)' on e chie . out of · other secretarie a-. . ctive carry1ng · s and ue e the for office men as are necessary the Work.

FIFTH

. assistone and . His MaJ·e 8tY,s L1g y ar t cre aba under the assistance of one cb1ef se ant sec reta y esent pr ll i w d n � s ce to Bis r tshall review cases forwarded to i t by its branch offi him. · M aJes Y's those cases which have bee n dL1ly forwarded to

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SIXTH io d at ic an ns pl io ap tit pe 11s to e iv ce 1�e be . l al sh e pr s ba ga Li ented 's ty . s e · J a M H1s o s, c ce to ffi ra b h e 1ch h wh to t er is conce rn. e ev m sa e th � 11d se l al sh 1d a1 to His Majesty l al e s sh b . g . ed en in ce th ro p y ul ch d su er ft e A pr . gs 11 nt se i ed ce ro p to er ll rt i ft r ed fo ed nt o se e _s b re p . ld u ut o B sh s be em de e_ ul h co . ch d hi _w s se m ca hi ­ e os th ty es aj M is H . it r e o n m e v a s h 1k 11 th e l1 l 1 1c l1 w self decide 011 cases o i ' SJ t 11i 111 en o1 n an C of m er P ry ui 's q ,1. 11t E cle si 1·e P /1e T 1iar a1 ,1z Ta Con1pa,·iso,is: d ration of The Presi­ i e �s Th Co r Fo m du an or em ''M , n la us cA M 7 From Ghai and n 1 st tio tt1 on of Tanganyika ''. he C T In s ge 1 an Cl er id ns Co To n io iss m m o deiltial C [1965] pp. 101-13. n tio 1·a ist i11 n1 Ad e t/1 of on isi ,·v pe Si d an 0I · 1 11t Co (c)

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ich wh one the Commission and ic top nt a o rip 1 in st mo a is tlus at 1 tl eve beli 21. We has bee11 i11vited to consider by the inclusio11 in its terms of reference of the principle, to ,vhich we have already referred, tl1at there shall be ''ultimate control by the people over all organs of state 011 a basis of u1tiversal suffrage''. One of the most effective ways in ,vl1ich tl1 is c ontr ol may be exercised is through the legislature but it is here tl1at tl1e absence of a formal opposition party may make itself felt, for one of the matters which st1ch a party ofte11 co11cerns itself with is the control of the Adminis­ tration, tru:ol1gl1 asking qt1estions of Ministers, or through vetting subsidiary legis­ lation made by Ministe1·s and o ther officials. We do not go so far as to suggest that a legislative body composed e11tirely of members of one party, son1e of whom n1ay be part of the Adm.i nistratio11 themselves, will not be able to exert any control over the f\dministration, bt1t we think it realistic to suppose that the amount and i_n­ te ns1ty of control will be lesse11ed. We also ta.ke into account the fact that the legis­ lature does not sit for long periods in Ta11gai1 yika a11d so, even if there was the desire to control, there n1igl1t not be the opportt1nity. 22· w_e are consciot1s of' a view tl1at co11trol of tJ1e Ad1ninistration often means � slo"Yin g�down of the Ad1 11_i11istratio 11 or e,,e11 sabotaging what the Admi11istratjon ts tryin_g to do, and t?at th is can1 1ot be tolerated in Ta11ga11yika to-day, where_ the accent is on the need f or speed . We think it 111ight therefore be best to set out briefly otir reason f r co11 idering tl1at so me co11trol a11d supervision is needed:� ? � (a) It is 10 the interests of den1ocracy. If tl1e people are really to control the the gover ninent, then the1·e 111ust be institutio11s provided ,v ich control h 1 1e way the go vern1ne11t works· it is not enoug that once every five years h em, t ie people have an oppo 1·tu11it; to ch tli vern o o ose those wh� are to g �y � ust b� enabled to keep . co a }� n t inuing w atch o n them. (b) ��:n the interests of efficiency a nd economy. An Ad ministrati? n whi ch is on ontroll �d and supervise b c p of d may well become w asteful u !J rn �Y . � y 11d 10 olent in the o nob be perforn1ance ot' its duties since there will :o prev n Co . t . . ent this and the Adm.1n1s by ere · i th r ffe su n t t1o no f ra ill el w its · ' sur cy 1 ' trol will a1 en at the Administration is carrying out the P� t e � laid d w . . the · the abinet, r C from an d f o N P llo instructi w ing ons � (c ) It is i t� e int erests rt s e som tll; _ of of fai1 · 1 ID s . con gov trol er 1 Wit t e1 hou 1 t it is too easy or the f<l ega disr ', Administ ration to take ''short cuts' Js do law rid g h an od p r it o th e ] what al a p SO , e v eopl though r�: j� t th J is e s te (Oa en erests of the people, the manner in whic11 it is done a '

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ing bet\veen tl1 em ancl the fee ba l d ca 11s es an d e, Adnl inistration th eopl . m e e v h r t e s o t is it ty u d \V;o;e the fo. princi_ple in tl1e tern1s of reference qtioted as r well as ns reas o e ._ 23. for thes -.. for the cons1 derat1011 of tl1 e Co1nn1ission soine of the out set we Zl ph ra . . ' . . ', . p arag 1 may b c e ntre11ed 1n a den1ocratic One-Party : n . whi ch the Adm1n1str�t10? e 1 10 ,' ,vayates. we deal first with inst1t11t1011al co11trols:,,. St �tre z irz lat �h� terr gis Sys Le e tte 11ni Co11' ) The (i s a11 1n to earl t?1 1er paragral?l1, a11d we will 11ot reJ)eat referre d y alread have . \Ve what \Ve said ther_e. An �dd1 t1 onal advanta�e of tl11s �ethod of co11 trol not • mentioned there, 1s that 1 t ,vot1ld 1 1ot req111re any radical reorganisation of '' government to. bring it into effect: The following are the types of Standing Committee ,vh1ch could be established: (a) On the p�blic c?rporations; t? e11st1re t�at tl1ey are confor1ni11g to govern­ 1 ng manag ed 1 11 a11 efficient ma1 111er and are respo1.1sive to be policy, ment ) public opio io11 and public interest. (b) On subsiduary legislation; to e 1 1sure tl1at it is intelligible to tl,e layn1e11; and gives d11e warning to those to be affected by it; a11d ap_pears fair is ,·• to be in confor1nity \Vit.h the pare11 t Act. (c) On Union affairs; to anticipate ot1r detailed recom111endat io11s, vve recom­ mend that the N.E.C. of the U11io1 1 and the National Assembly be combi11. ed; this Standjng Commi ttee could s11pervise tl1 e work of the U11ion Head­ quarters and the regional and other branches of tl1e U11io11. (d) On Public Accounts as already exists; to ens1 1 re tl1at tl1e 111one)1 wl1icl1 has been voted by the leg islature has been s_pent for tl1e pt1rpose for ,vl1icl1 it \vas voted, and witl1out und11e extravage11ce.

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These Committees could have access to gover11me11t files a11d cot1ld be empo,ver­ ed to request M in isters and se11ior civil serva 1 1ts a 1 1d officials of tl1 e U11 ion to appear before them. We see these Comn1ittees as introduci 11 g i11to the system of govern­ ment in Tanganyika what we would call co-operative control of the Administrative, where the legislature would co-OJJerate w itl1 the Admi 1 1istratio11 i11 its tasks tl1rotigh the permiss ive ontrol it wo c uld exercise over it. 24· (ii) Co11tro!s within tire Acln1i11istratio11 In t h e comm on law world, of wh ich Ta11ga11yika forms a _ pa�t� the cuStomary melb od of supervising the Ad 1ninistration is v ia the courts - Jtidicial control. Tl,e advantages of this law, the are that 11 so far as co11trol n1eans keeping w i tl,in the i courts are the best organ for determining whether tl1e law has been adl�ered to or not, aa<l that it be to ly like 11ot s i ch whi re n ensu orga . . . s,vayed b y po1 ·1t1. cal s that a completely impartial . 1n1str ation. prejudices is controlling tl1e Ad1 11 25· The. ' · · 1istr'atio 1 1 · . disad_ vantages are that wl1e11 it comes to controll111g A dmi,_ e t ·h the d c1 ary 1 1 11ea � s oft l � tro con s _ s; so me i t 1 1 t imp art ial as at other as lhe Ju su bst1tutioi n metimes no 1s h . . f o . . e is c r e x e 1e tl r fo o ge f an exercise of his d1scret1 on by a JU · d discre tIOU · · by } b t 11 e f. r11 ve go S a all 111e . judges ratber Minister or a civil serva11t which i11 tur11 0 1� us t d (ao arid great . m por than government by M i1 1 ister� and civil serva11 ts, contro . of t law n tl1e e of i hi 11 c · l1y op Tanga.nyik a today) the p -los admini�straLiva ive t Execu . e . ' . tl 1 of e s er 1 . a � - practised by l he JUd1 c1ary - that tI 1� P0': . anct Ad n, · ce ian var at l t rat1 s le l on \Vith th e � tt o:1ght to be lim ited ,ls rn·ucl1 a _s possib . t �=� i Executive he P i osophy ot gove t , ies ntr cou rnments i11 most developing


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k in ey th th as fit rn th wi ve go . as to t lef few be . ist mt t res . 011 r t1 a t r ai. nts 1l. s 1 n 1 m d A d an . le ib s s o p s a m e h t n upo co n tro l slightly outw ial dic of jt1 s ge nta va ad dis tl1e . eig h the .. . . . 'fi · 26. We cons1· der tha' t · · d t h ou mo t t I ca i on could pre wi f It o 011 at1 nu i nt co a d atl cipitate . .. advar1tag es thereof,. . . . I t e t th a �o we t ac ' . s11 ( f; I rea 1:1 e 11:c .. v i t 1g cu e Y, ex d an 1:� ry c1a i ti sla d ju on a clash bet\vee11 ik ny n ga 1o In an at T a, tr 1s or 1n dm A ov e pr th of id n i ng for a 1-g 0 ,v 11e e m so g in at e cr es the rts lt1d exc cou sly res m exp fro s, ter nis t Mi con by · de ma rolling e b to s an s1 · e c1 d . . s s o1 hi t av h t e e wi. . :1 ·a d' ill dva 1sa s. 1on c1s de ge nta or s and s a11 g 1· 0 se tho y wa n y a in the am ou n_ t ?f co�trol over th� Ad at _th an me es do it l, ro nt co ial dic mi­ dangers of ju t1o tra the n1s n has bee n incre as­ ID1 as e Ad tim e sam the at d ene less n b · e e 1 as I io11 rat t nis i11g in size and po,ver. :2.7. To offset this tre11d, and in r ecognition of the fact that c.ontrol via the legisla ­ tur e can 11ot be a co11tinuing control, we wish to suggest that the Commission give con side ration to the possibility of creating, within the Administration, an organ whose ft1n ctio11 it would be to con trol and supervise the workin g of the Administra­ t.ion. Paral lels are to be f ot1nd, inside Tanganyika, in the regional local government officers who check 011 tl 1e wo1·kings of l ocal authorities, in the Attorney-General's Chambers, whicl1 vet subsidt1ary legislation made by any Ministry before it takes effect, and i11 the D epartme nt of the Auditor- an d Comptroller-General, and certain section s of the Treast1ry which vet expen ditl1r e , before an d after it talces place. Outside Ta11gan yil(a, the closest parallel to wl1at we have in mind is to be found in the Office of the Proc11ra to1·-Ge11e1·a l of the U.S.S.R.; an office \Vhich exists at central gov er11ment, a11d all regional an d local government, levels. It has been des­ cribed as fallows:Featt1res .of this organ which might be of advantage to Ta.ngan yika ar e that it operates 1ndep ende11tly of an in dividual making a complain t to it, thu.s it could not b ecome a f?cal poin t of political opposition to the governn1ent; it coticerns it�elf ?,0t on ly w_1th l egality of administration but a lso with \vh ether the ad.ministration 18 conforming to polici�s laid down by the policy-making bodies of the state an d the C.P.S.�-.and tha! 1t has a variety of ren1edies at its co1nm.and to ensure _th_at faul_ty a�ministrati.on IS corrected, vvithout at the san1e time hinderi ng the Admirus­ . tration In the performan ce of its d t1ties. 28· W e�e s· uch an i11sti t11tion to be iI 1trod11ce d into the govern me11tal syste m of Tang�nyika, �e co nsid er tl1e followi11g f e ve, abo ed n tio n at1 n1e 1re s otl1er tha11 ·tl1ose ought to be included witlti11 i ts fram ' ework. (a) Reports mad� by tl1 e institt1tion shou , den� Presi the ld be placed before a� !he Exectitive 1:.Iead of State wl10 l1as i­ ons res p and ove r t1lt con in1 ate tro l �ilty for t he _Admi1:ist1·atio11. The President wou ld normally place a c?PY . the rep? rt ?efo1e the legislature ves att s _ ent e repr so that th e _people's ! � co? si�er It and the as we!\ s t Cab N inet disc us I and B �� the wou ld P. . . (b) . . institutioii s l1ol1ld ha a th , we rs ve po . bo th ma n datory an d permissive I s it ought to be empo\ve1·ed , o_ u t ed car ri to be . giv e mu st dir ec t wh io1 1s ich k to such bodies as Ad · t e . li · ' s . ncie IDI01s . · rat1ve ng age Tr1b11 11a ' ake rule-m l s or aki R egion�l Dairy B oards b11t rn and rt sl1ou repo l d be to empo� only ered suggestion s on the work.i n . . . gs n o f t h U111 o e Min he 1str . t ies . can and (c) The ins· titutio . n o tigh . t to have it at t ac ce file ss s go to vernmental so h · be as horoug ly ac · � quain h t ed as possible with the worki ngs of the Adn11n 1stration.


THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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sma 11nit ll , since adva11tages are to be gained f a as kept be to ght ou It d) knowledge _ that will be b11ilt 11p thereby. It ( and spiri t orate corp 1 the Iso be possible to keep control of 1t if it remains small. should be appointed by tl1e P:,e_sident �nd l1ave � t�nure of o.flice rs �e� be (e) siIDJlar to that of _n1embers of tl1e C1v1l Service Com1111ss 1011, provided however tha� appointments are so made tl1at there is always contintiity in the body, 1.e., 1t should 11ot be necessary for everybody to resig,1 at once and members should be eligible for re-appoi11tn1e11t. ins?t the u_ t�at t i_ o n descr ibed _ consid er above either wo11ld or sI1ottld not do We 29 ry e of n c1a tl1 d1 s1o f:on� 0e sphere o� control of the admi­ JU �lu ex e let mp co the to lead nistr ation. It would . still be ne 7essary for_ the_ JUd1c1ar� to consider, on appropriate occasions, the legality of subs1dl1ary leg1slat1on, for 111stance - whe11 t11e defe11 ce to a criminal charge of breaki11g a regulation was that the reg11latio11 was 11ltra vires the parent statute. \Ve think that it rnigl1t be desirable if the President was given power to refer a?y le�al- questi?ns in a repor� n1a�e to him by the i11stitution t? the High Court for 1ts oplillon which co11ld be g1ve11 10 the forn1 of a declaratory Judg­ ment a.nd, we do not evisage any change from the present positio11 wl1ere the F11ll Bench of the High Court is empo\vered to i11terpret the Constit11tion and this n1ay \Veil involve the High Court in considering the practices of the A.d1ninistration. The main bulk of control of the Administration would ho\vever be tra11sferred to this new institution.

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From Tanzanian ''Permanent Commission of Enquiry Act of 1966'' (Act 25 of 1966).

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Powers and Procedure of the Commission

8. Subject to subsection (5) of section 67 of the Constitution, the j11risdiction �nd powers conferred on the [Permanent] Commissio11 [of Enq11i1·y] n1ay be exe�c1�ed notwithstanding any provision in written la\v to the effect that an act or on1ro1ss�on shall b_e _final, or that no appeal shall lie in respect thereof, �r that �o proceecling or dec1s1on shall be challenged, reviewed quashed or called 1n question. er­ e11t ore bef ll, sha ) ( on ub issi mm Co , ject to the S tion sec the s ons thi visi of pro ?·iag uIpon any enquiry. (a) record the nature and scope of the enq11iry it proposes to mal(e; . (b) inform the appropriate authority of its intention to make the enquiry and furnish him with a copy of such record. (2) If in the course of any enquiry the Commission considers that the 11 at'Ure , or scop e of the enquiry should be enla;ged, the Commission shall cal1se a _ f L1rt�er th wi record to be made rity tllo ati te ria op pr ap to that effect a·nd shall furnisl1 the a copy thereof. an f o pe o sc 3 r o e r_ t1 ) at � �here the Commission m ak es a n enquiry, or the � en q11Iry 18 enla rged on the direction of the President, s11 ch direction. (� �f i n w;11ti�g, shall co.nstitute such record aforesai�; . ) . if not in writing, o11 s om the { by l <; m.i ! · shall not be recorded sha l be � and f 10 any_ t t or t Y Ll . ate pr� pro ap such case, the President is the , � { or y uir enq : nece;sa� to info he e ma to n t1o 1nten rm ion's him miss Com of the to furn sh i him with a copy of suc h record. . n sectio . this with ) (4 A record and any further record made 1n accordanee shall corm part of the proceedings of the enquiry·


ONAL LAW TI U IT T S N O C AN PI IO I1 T E F O K O SOUilCEBO

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ecl�ding th e Co pr as om fr ), (2 be ssi all sh 1 o1 on, cti e s � s i th iil g · J� tb (5) No 11 strued co nducting a n exam1nat1on of o c or (1) n ctio se ib st ·th I · complying· W before . · t1ct or abt1se o f offi.ce or author1·ty sco 11d oug ht 11 11 y n a t tha , es e g . II a 0 h V: n any pe�so ity in hor aut er te ord ria rop app e th that it g ltirl lsti cot 1 n ro f or ' d e at tig s to be inve · . made or whether e b . or uld sho not the y t1ir enq any ' ot n r o er th e l 1 w ne i rm n1ay dete e d. rg la en e b 1ld ot sh ry t1i nq e an of e p co s natt1r e or

10.

(I) Every enquiry shall be conducted in private .

(2) The Con1mission n1ay hear o� obt_ai11 information from such per sons, and may carry otit sticI1 investigatio11s, as 1t th111 ks fit. It shall no� be n ecessa�y for the Commission to 11old any hearing, and no person shall be ent1tled as of right to be heard by the Co1nmissio11 : Provided tl1,1t if at a11y time dt1ring the course �f the � nquiry it appears to the Comn1issio11 tl1at tl1ere may be st1fficient grot1nds for 1t making any rep ort or recom111 endation tl1at ma)' adversely affect any perso11 or any department or sched�ed organization, as the cas e 1 11ay be, and shall give st1ch p erso�, department or orgaruza­ tion a11 opportunity to be held; and 110 comment . that . it adver s e to any pe�son, departn1e11t o r sched11led organ ization shall _be �onta1ned 1n a r�port to the Pres1d�nt unless sucl1 LJerso1 1 , depa r tn1e11t or organ1zat1on has been given an opportunity to be l1eard. (3) St1bject to sectio11s 13 and 14, the Commission may h ear and obtain infor­ n1atio11 whether or 11ot the sa1ne be evide1 1ce witl1i n the meaning of the law for the time being regt1lating the admissibility of evidence in co11rts of law. ' '

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11. (1) Subject to the provisio11s of this Act, the Commission n1ay require any perso11 who, i11 its opinion , is able to give any i11formation relating to any matter relevant to an enquiry to ft1r11i sh it with any sucl1 information and to produce any documents, papers or tl 1ing wl1ich n1 ay be in tl1e possession or under the control of that perso11 and n1 ay, by order 1111der the ha11d of a Commissioner, require any sucl1 person to attend before the Comn1ission at a tin1e a nd place specified in such order and to be exa1nined 011 oatl1 or to prod.t1ce a ny such docu n1ent, paper or thing. (2) Wher e the Commission orders any perso11 to be examined Comn 1issio11er n1 ay aclminister s11cl1 oatl1.

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. . (3) An order made 1111der :tl1is section shall be ser ved on the person to whom � t 1s d1rectecl by a-p�rso11 hold111g o�ce t111der tl 1e Co111 n1 ission o r a police officer 1n the manner prescribed for the service of a sum1nons on a witness in civil proceed­ ings befor e a cot1rt of a law. (4) If a person to who1n a11 order unde1· tlus section is dir·ected does not attend at the time and place mentioned th erein, the Commission may, upon being satisfied that the order was dt1lly seved or t11at tl1 e person to whom the order is directed wil­ f ully avoids service, iss�e a ';¥arrant under the hand of a Commissioner to apprehend ed specifi before the to bnng h im Commission uch person and place at a time and � _ 1n the warrant. Every warrant issued under this section shall be executed by a police officer. (5) Wh re a perso11 is arrested in pursuance of a warra 11 t isst1.ed under thi� � . section a11d 1� not bro11gl1t before the Con1mission within twe11ty-fotir hours of his arrest or earlier released by order of the Commission on his u ndertaking to attend


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THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

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it, he shall forthwith be taken before I magistrate by d specifie ce pla and e tim t a · mae:istrate shall. a d sueh .... · ce for · 11 1s· aJ)pea,a11 ce n ( ·r ch perso11 enters ·into a su1 t · a b I e reco g 11 1za11 _ before a a) 1 su · · f 1! ill: se · 1 ct1sttl d y; or ro h ea I re , on 1 1ss mm Co the to be de_ta1_11 ed 111 ct1stody t111 til st1cl1 ti111 e a, J1e ca11 be person such r orde (b) . . bro11g ht before t�e Coo?n1 1ss1on. by req111 tl1e Co111_1111ss1 01 1 to attend befo:c it for tlJe red 1s p�rso n y _ a n When (6) sl1all be e 11 t1 tled to tl1 e sa1ne fees, 1llowa11ces. i on, such perso11 sect tb1s of . purposes . � b c v1tness e ore a a court f o la were , he ,v a1 1 x 1 t 1.f d, for tile pt as i d rposes s o an e pense · · sh aJ 1 a,,e ·tI 1e powers of a co11rt to fix )r cl i sallo\\' I 1 · c , 1 oner omm1ss a n, io t c subse is th the amou nt of any such fee, allo,,,a .nce or ex1)enses. (7) For t he avoidance of do11 bt s it is hereby declared tl1at t l1 is scctio11 sl1all apply whethe_r or not _ t h7 p�rs_on concerned is a person in respect of who:e co1_1duct. the Co�m1ss1 on has Jtir1sd1ct1on to enqt1 1re a_nd :vl1 etl1er or 11ot st1cl1 pe:s011 1s e111ployed 1n any department or scheduled orga111zat101 1 a11 d wl1 etl1 er or 11 ot )t1 cl1 doct1ments, p apers or th_ing� are in the ct1 st ody or ti nder the co11 trol of a11 y �epart111e11 t of scheduled organ1zat1on.

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12. {l) For t he purposes of t his Act, the Co111111 issio11 may at a11y tin1e !11 ter 11po11

any permises occupied by a department or any scl1 eduled orgc:111izatio11 211cl i r1 spect the premises and thereon carry out any i11vestigatio11 for tl1e pttrposes of ,11 e11qt1ir)1•

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(2) Before entering 11pon any premises, t l1 e Co1n111 issio11 sl1 all 11 otify :l1 e appropriate authority. (3) !h� President may, from time to ti111e, by 1 1otice to the Co1 nn1issic11, excl11de

th � apphcation of subsection (1) in respect of a11y specified Pren1 ises or clLss of pre­ . m,ses_ �f he is satisfied that the exercise of tl1e po'vver conferred by this sec1io11 111ight preJudi c e the security , defence or internatio11al relatio11 s of Tanza11 ia, i11clt1cli1 1g Ta�an ia 's relations with the governn1ent of any otJ1 er co11 ntry or ,vitl1 111 y inter­ nation al or an ization . g ,,/�;,..1 1 ( ;:;, 1 I l Subject to section 14 of this Act every person required to give anl in for01a­ or ordered to atten_ d _to give evidence_ or t� produce any docu_mmt, �per � 1 j· ( g b efore, the C omm1 ss1011 slJall be entitled 111 respect of s11 cl1 1r1f)rm,tt1oi � ·d n·ce, �:; . d ocun1ents, papers or things to the sa1ne rigl1 ts a11 d privileges as \Vit, 7 esses 10 a co urt of law. ,� E,cept on the trial of any person for an offence �ontrary to sedo 11_s 102, _ es '.'.··· 103, \�6 l 11� ) • or � l of lar 11 1 n s and y J�1r of )er the to ate al rel O h Pen Code (whic 1 or sec ti�n 19S IO� of this Act , no staten1ent 111 ,tde or a11s,-ver g1ve11 to_ t�e C_onn?1 551011 ' by tha t or any the 1 �e er vid 111e le s1b 0 111s r 1 ad so per be all sl1 n in the course of an e11 quiry ;: against y pers on in any court or in any other proceedings, an� no e�dence Bl 1 l'esJ>ec t �� , 0ther h �roceedings before the Commissio1 1 sl1aJI ·be g1ve11 aga1 11 st a11 . persoil t an in furth · · er proceed·i ngs before the Com1111ss1on . 14 · · · (I) Where th e Pre v · s ver·I n a. ' t 1 · · · , · 11 0 1 . a 1 J 01·1 sid t 1nf ent certifies tha t the giving of any � tog of an y ue . t _ :: (a) q g ,on or the production of any document, paper or thing:1a n . a z . 11 a · f · nught preJ f o · s rJ 1 ud 'o t a J Ice re 1 t a h e · 11 at1on . 111ter 1ty, sec11r or ce defen . i . , ( ncl d n anz t co ty � tit r lie ot any of 1t g e1 ia 111 an rn ve go l r n e io th h at it el s w 's or w�It· hi a T · . 11 . 10 t c e t · e l r · o 1011 n r 1 1ga of 01A'1ences;Y nter nat1011 al organization) ' or the 1 11vest or 1

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TIONAL LAW U IT T S N O C N IA P lO I-l T E F O SOURCEBOOK

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a of the ns e io lib at de er lib de e r th ns of tio re su t clo dis of the lve vo in he \, t gh mi (b) or .

. 1 Cabi11et; . . e a t o f h C d et, b · 1n gs 1n or ee oc pr _ of of y r� an su lo sc di e th com•.. lve vo itl t igh 111 _ ( c) et cr or a se of e d i nf �s co !te ma to ntial nature, · " 11g at1 rel et, bin Ca the inittee o·f , st re te in c li b u p 1e tl to r s u io 1r j1 in e b and wo11ld

, o er en be to sw giv an or as t ion at rm r fo h in e th ire qu re e t no all sh n io iss mm h Co t e uced.

od pr be to g in th or r pe IJa t, en m cu do e th , be ay n1 ,case n ' itte y wr l�� an r e_ oth of � ion vis than the p�o the by d 11n bo son per (2) No v1l the C1 or e t, vic Ac S�r ces rvi Se t, Ac 1al d1c J11 the to ce, an din Or s ret Official Sec _ ll be sha r, tte required to supply ma y an se, clo dis to t 11o or to, on ati rel i11 . 1aintain n any infor1nation to or answer any que�ti?n put by the Commission in _relatio n_ to that matter or to p1·oduce to tl1e Con1m1ss1on any document, paper or thing relating to it, if con1plia11ce ,vith that 1·eq1lirement wou ld be in breach of the obligations ,of secrecy or no11-disclost1re: Provided tl1at, if a11 e11qui1·y is made as a consequence of the complaint of any perso11 a11d st1ch co1nplainant consents in writing to the disclosure, any person bot111d as aforesaid 111ay be reqt1ired by the Com.mission to supply information, to ansvler a11y qt1estion or to 1Jrodt1ce any document, paper or thing relating only to the co1nplai11a11t, and it sl1all be the d11ty of st1ch first mentioned person to comply with that requiren1ent. :standing tl1e provisio11s of a11y other law:(a) no perso11 may refuse to disclose any information to, answer any question by, or produce a11y document, paper or other thing to, the Commission on acc?unt of �11y j11dicial, official, or state privilege or any privilege relating to tnformat1on as to the con1mission of a11 offence; (b) the disclost1re to the Comn1ission of any matter i11 relation to which any perso11 has take11 an oatl1 of secrecy shall be deemed to be a disclos ure b� such perso11 �11 the co11rse of his dt1ties, for an authorized purpose, and with the at1tl1or1ty of tl1e person empowered to authorize the disclosure; (c) 110 p_erson sl1all be liable to p1·osect1tio11 t'or a11 oftence contrary to the Official Secrets Ordinance, tl1e Jt1dicial Service Act the Civil Service Act, or a11y otl1er written law, other tha11 sections 102 io3 106 108 or 109 of tl1e Pe11a� Code or sectio11 19 of this Act, · by reasdn of 'his c�mpliance wit? a11y reqt11reme11t of the Con11nission under sections 10 11 13 or 14 of this ' ' Act.

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15. (I) . In addition to �ny other n1atter reqtiired to be containe in a report to � d t the Pres1de11t 011 a11 enqt11ry, the report shall contain a statem tha n act io an y of en t has been taken �y �ny 1Jerso11 wl�ose conduct is under eil nt r:tm e de pa th e quiry, or by -or schedt1led orgaruzat1on �f which st1ch person is a mem e� 1s be wh ich in or be r : ployed, to correct or amel1o�ate any coiiduct, proce.d 15 at th on omissi ur or e, ac t .adversely comn1ented t1po11 10 the 1·eport . (2) Where the C�mmissio11ers a1·e 1iot agreed on any report to the President, _ the rep_ort 1 ee­ shall co11ta1n a �ta_temen:t of any matter which is the subject of disagr .n1ent signed by the Con11mss1oner 1n disagreement. se · 16. Save as may be- directed by the President th clo dis · not hall e s C , omm1ss1on ·the conte11ts of any report made to the Preside11t.


721

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS

after . the th.irtietl1 of' J�1ne in every year tie President be ma y as n soo So l) ( 11. laid before the Nat10 11al Asse111b]y a r�port of·· 1 11.1e and ed prepar be to · · · se · · hall cau · · · s 1e 1t 1 d v 11 d 1 1g 1 t1 n c a th a e t,velve 1110 1 1tI1 s J)Ieceding tlle operations 's n o si is m �om r. . yea h suc in July first of d bef �re the N a_tio11al �s�e111?ly s11 all tlot clisclose be la.i to quir ed re rt repo A (2) 1 h.i_cl1_ may give a11 1 statemen t \\ any contain 11d1c�t101 1 or _as to tlle idetltity tity iden the the Con11n 1ss10 cond11c 1� 111ay l1ave e11q11 1 red 111 t0 er j 11 respect � whose n perso of any 1 q111ry may be pend111g before the Co 1 11 1nissio1 . e1 any ct condu e of whos

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Pri,1ileges ot· the Commission

18. No enquiry, proceeding or process of tl1e Co111n1ission sl1all be leld J1ad for any error or irregu.larity of form, and, except on the grou11 d of 1ac1<: of �urisdictio11, no enquiry, proceeding, process or report of tl1e Con11 nissio11 shal] be lable to t11e challenged, reviewed, quashed or called i 1 1 q11estion i11 a11y cot1rt. 19. (1) Subject to s11bsection (3) of tl1is section:a) no proceedings, civil or criminal, shall lie agai11 st a11y Con11ni£i 011.er, a11y ( '. person holding office under the Commission, or a1 1y police officer e1n1)loyed rr-. ".-... to serve or execute the orders or "''arra11ts of tl1e Co11 1111issio 1 1, f,)r a11 ything .....�.L' he may do or report or say in the co11rse of the exercise or intenced exercise J! of bis functions under th.is Act, unless it is sl1ow11 l1e acted i 11 bad faitl1; (b) no Commissioner or any such person as aforesaid sl1all be calecl to give evidence in any court or any otl1er proceedi11 gs of a j11clicial natt1c i11 res1)ect of the proceedings in any enquiry or a11ytl1i11g comi1 1g to his l(11 ovvledge r;' ·.• in the exercise of bjs functions under this Act. (2) Anything said, any informatio11 s1 1 pplied, or any doct1ment, pa�r or thi11 g produced by any person in the course of a11 e1 1qt1i1·y shall be JJrivileged i1 the sa111e ,.....• manner as if the enquiry were a proceeding in co11rt, a1 1d a report of tl1e Con11nission shall be privileged in the same manner as if it were t11 e record: a1 1d j udge1nent of a proceeding in court. ' ' (3) No�hing in subs�ction (1) shall _apply in the case of a11 y proceecing fo�· an :,'\' 1 . against the oflience 1 1 1trary o secr1011s co nce e off l an Officia for , s nance i Secret Ord '' IOl, IOJ, 106, 108 or 109 i1ce of the al e 11 relatio11 to an enq11iry, or for an offe i Pen Cod contrary to section 20 of this Act. Note and Qzlestion s

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The legislation implementi ng Article 67 of the �onstitutio11 of �aiizania � has �en set 1 ch �tist "'h ms out ble }Jro at al ctic pra gth len e tb. to indicate some of he on ronte ider1s co d of tlle r in use beca 1 estab and k tion lishing this ind of an instit 1 f abI� inte regt and pote ntial importance of this development. n hat respect r ato cur ro e 1 tl J le nb 1 e res 1 io1 does the Permanent Commiss Gen;all ofWthe USSR? In what respects do es it differ? . 3. The first p be. · · . 1nay ssi i mm Co '. cn t the rac f o· i cal results of the establishment deduced;.i·n_ par�, f�om_ the readin g low. In yot1r reading of the r ort cor1 s1d.er· c-0uid a llJUla be �� irgu ts r the of J e mst som tution be created in Ethiopia? What are Pro and f�� ror n mp o · e E he -t ort rep z i Pr me Mtn� t?e T wl1om should s11ch an orga11i atio1 1 Id 1 01 811 rs r we po t l1a W a he _ ?. T Co t1ncil of Ministers? P arliament? h ve? Wh;: lim its on i ts power?

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S0 UllCEJiOOK OF

ETHIOPIAN CONSTI1"UTLONAL LAW

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, iry qu of En n ,1.e io Ju iss 1n 66 om 19 C nt ne 1c1 r11 Pe , u . 1· 1e e Th 0r .1. 01 e R 'J I ua r1n A ·1J n F ro1 1967 (1968). i�n iss the mm Co ce, Offi 1 com of h t : 03 c !1en the ed ing tak er aft ely iat ned s. Inu ed . to to ur Regi ons, Distri cts v l so e r s wa 1t e w, 11 s wa · · ' · d r. . . d11t·1es. As t·lle 1· 11st·ittltior1 its an n s1 st s 1s m ,o , m o d C an he t to ha w � t bh ge � Pu � e th to � n ai . pl ex to es ag ill V and s_ d on an 1t1 nd l um ca co rc lo CJ ith w n sta ed nt ai s qu ce ac n io iss in m Co e th of rs be mem ea id me �o as � ll the we p �s ,_ rk ractical wo e th of s em � bl ro p _ e th of t igh and get an ins - ns peculiar to localities. 1o 1t nd co of lt su re a as se an ld ou w difficulties that eople why the permanent e p th _ to ain l e xp rs e n sio 1is n1n Co gs e tin e 8. At Ptlblic n1 at s rt of complaints wh s, on c�1 un f _ it w ho d,_ ate cre s wa � iry qu En of ion Comn1iss es tio n time, the Pu blic ask for further qu g 1 ri11 Dt t. no e r a 1 at \vl d an le ab eiv are rec e of the q uestions h.ave been som , int po r ula tic par a on o11 ati cid elt1 or n atio inform e been asked alm ost v ha s ion est qt1 two le p xam e for al, ion tt1t 1sti co1 or 1ic 1 acade1 r st Vic e-President e xcluded J:i and e t n_ sid Pr� the re a 1y l W 1) t-( \\ien we e r e y,vh r eve fro1n your jt1risdictio11? (2) Why is the First V1ce-P re s1de11t only excl uded and not the Seco11d ?

9. Questio11 ti111e forn1s the second par t of the p r og ramme. The questions are based 011 tl1e SJ)eech. No con1plaints ar e allowe d at this stage. The third part of the progra111me is tl1 e receiving o ·f co111plai11ts. To avoid embarras ment, the n1eeting is closed a11d members of tl1e Con1111 ission r etire to a seclude d place, e.g., School, Pri1nary Cot1rt or Divisional Executive Officer's office etc., and receive complaints 'bro11ght by the Pt1blic con1i11g 011 e at a time. It n1ust b e noted that neither Party 11or Governn1e11t Officials are allowe d to be with tl1e Cornn1issio11 \\1 hen complaints are bei11g l1eard. Tl1e Con1 n1.issio11 gives advice s, notes se rious compl ai11ts, settles 011 the spot so1ne of tl1 e cases. Tl 1e rest a re dealt "''itl1 at the H eadquarters in Dar es Salaam. 1e r e are three metl1ods by wl1ich c.on1plaints a re received by tl1e Com­ _12. Tl . m1ss1on :-

per so11 who tl1i11k s tl1at h A11y . e has st1 flered i11justice as a res ult of maladminis­ . trat101: ca_11 con1e to tl1 e Co111 mission hin1 sel f. This 111etl1od is u sed 111ostl y by peo ple ,vho l ive 111 Dar es Salaan1. wl1e re tl1e offices of the Co1n1nissio11 a .re. Btit some up· cou 11try peOJJle 11_0 �11atte r 110,v far away tl1ey live, ha\'e t ravelled to Dar es Salaam �o see t?e Con1n11s�1011 perso�ally. It 01t1st be poi11ted ot1t that \Vhile the Commission is t_ounng the regions, aggrieved 1ne1nbers of the public have the opportunity of see111g tl 1e Co1111111ss1011 1 t1 JJerso11. 1 3· Tl 1e seco11cl 111etl1ocl is for tl1e co 111p lait1a1 1t l1imself to \Vrite to the Commis. . sion _ . It inust be realized_ that quite a big percentage of Tanzanians cannot read and wnte and under these c1rcun1stances those people handic ap ca n ask_ wh ha th o is ve a friei�d to write for tl1 e111. T l1e tl1ird metho d is applicable to th e very old an d. the very Sick Slich people cat1 ask a11 ho11est f to or o t w rit r e ie 11d . or re la e r to · · e eit tiv h '. · co111e and see the C 0111n11 ss10 ur av o · 11. B en t1t 1 de i1 s t1c h ca se w s . see the Com·m1·581·· 00 ould ' to � -· the o11c or· tl,� sic J �·· W so k , m an �efore au enquiry is commenced. This i � do":e . to avoi. d cleal11 1g with l1ypothet1cal cases of pe opl e_ who m ay 11ot be rrr exisfeP. ..fY'\. · ;;i 'i�fi�:aints th� t d\d not fall under the Co� mission's purvie w forroe ds..6aS:J.a..­ perc o t 1e lie c_ a se s :a 1e _ o i ce 1v ed . -t T he s_ e :,vere complaints that could be taken _ "-C.. institutions e.. g. Tnbunals, Cou 1� 5 il'i 19 rt s, M C 1m om stry's machinery, etc..Here the . ··-

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ExEcu1·1vE

INSTITUTIONS

723

a caf!lpaig11 to edt1cate tl1e n1ass to Ioclge their COill p. laints . t h�t ion opin . of the venues 1s 1n1perat1ve. 15 r e . prop to cases _ir1v�stig�ted, 52.6 per c�11t \.Vere foLttld 110t jListified. the all of Out 22_ J L1st1ficat1 0 no wl1ats�e:'er 111 �l1e �0�11ptaiiits, tlie Comwas tl1ere say to is � That tl1e fo1n1er dec1s1ot1, be 1t M1111stry's or Division's co11fi rm or r concu to had n •• . . ro1ss10 . . . . . t ot1g 1t 1 110 to e11te1 1 a s 1 c ta111 a11y tre1)1dat1011 011 tile Coinoffi So et�. ' , ders Lea or .mission's findings. 29. Out of the 1,060 cases declined, 439 \\'ere decli11ed becaL1se tl1e Co1111nission i11 t�is c�tegor)' i11clt1de tl1ose agai11st East Africa11 Complai�1ts ction. jurisdi had no Common Services Organ1zat1on, U111versrty College ar1d fo]lo\vi11g 11atio11alization effected early this year Banks, a11d tl1e 11atio11alized establisl11ne11ts [t11d decisiot1 by Courts of law. It shot1ld be 11oted tl1at the law establisl1.i11g a11d gover11ing the Permanent Commission of E11ql1iry \\'as passed before 11atio11alizatio11. I11evitably nationalized and partially natio11alized establisl1n1e11ts \\ 1ere 11ot i11clt1cled i11 tl1e Schedule. As to CoL1rt decisions, the Con1missio11 as it l1as already bee11 P. oi11ted out, has no jurisdiction bt1t it can be said that the decisio11s wl1icl1 \Vere referred to the Commission \Vere those made n1ai11ly by Pri111ary Cot1rt 11:agistrates. rt n1t1st be pointed out that members of tl1e Pt1blic, partict1larly i11 tl1e Rural areas ,ire not conversant \vith Cou.rt rules and procedt1re. Ti1 ne a11d again the Co1n111issio11 has received complaints to the effect that a person has bee11 reft1sed to appeal agai11st a judicial decision or that judgment was give11 in his abse11ce, etc. St1cl1 procedL1re is unknown to the people. The Commission feels that people lose tl1eir rights i11 this ,vay. Something must be done to help tl1e illiterate l)eople.

32. 114 cases were dealt \Vith to conclt1sio11. Of tl1ese, 60 were fot1nd 11ot justified and 5� �ound justified. Of the ''not justified'' cases, tl1e Co111n:iissi_o11 fou11� tl1at the M1�1s_try, department or organization acted rigl1tly the way 1 t did. That 1� tl1e act, dec1s1on , direction or recommendation was rigl1t. It n111st however, be pointed 0.ut l?at some of the cases which were brougl1t to the Perma11e 11t Commissi?n of 0 E�q�iry and which were later found to be 11ot Jt1stified i11dicate that the· parti·ctilar ,. Min; 15t. ry, depart ment or scheduled did not infor111 tl1e Con1pla11· 1a11t of its d ec1si· on, � or if It did inform the Compla for stated were reaso11s 110 decisior1 inant its about ' the d ecisio · · n or, at least wroi,g tl1e , stated were 11s reaso i11 tl1e .here w some cases ' · made. It 1s ·one s. were · therefore st1ggested O f '' N 0t er b 11t1n1 the Lice red to order that in. . · · ' JUst1fi e d'' cases, offic1· · 1 11g th'is or ct 1 dec or 111g act for als s son uld rea sho ir te the sta the other \V ay. 33 s it has s tlli es, cas d e ifi Ltst 54 j re n we bee pointed ot1t above that tl1ere · As · re e sent n e ta tion a c k_ p a of out line _ The ; 46.4 per cent of th cases i 1 1vestigated. b b y tr · h e 'r · · s . e ri a Perm v t 11 . e . d . s1 an ·e 1. . p tle _en · t• t t? c . g rtin · repo 1s omm t1 s1011 whe of uiry h Enq it W h t � o<livid ., es s1d o tvv tl1e of 1s ual 1ot 11sc co e cas . s. The Commission is always of the ;o n tde es Pr e at h t t_ to 1d is 1e1 111 on to rec say when considering what to � the Com �s � m . the for ro 1e doi ? c. n has be n vvJ1at cot1ld es J cas er ble in ifia t1st u S · to consid Plaina ·· nt-reve · . . 1npe11sat1011, . 0 rs 11111 · I ng � 1ng J)ay the order, . · . sa 1, dec1s1on, cancell tl1e 111g < and th e n W. hat i 1s . ro 1s d · g 1n 11 . r could b. e done to the offic1a a \V :, t ran sfer, t s 11 1 ga d ,1 _ -;- il P � a1n e 1 con 1p s l will lt sid ei r e t ° · d e end demotio at1011 , etc. d In 1ne11 recom all the these cases n O p 0 the nature a11d gravitv of the complaint. ! ., 34. of'ficial.al� th e category of ''justified cases'' the Commission fot1nd tl1at a part1ct1lar c s . \Va ed he ere wh e Wh t . ac re · to ... · . . he OL1ght not to have acted, or o1nitted i•

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ry la ra to nt de co 1· g m co e re er w ch hi w ni n sio ci � � de ? so al e ar �ed e er Th . to ed suppos e of or er s m nt wa 1s1 is m Th c. et eta , pr rs de or tio l ra ne ge n 11s io Iat 1 gl re ' ' les rti e ' tl·c prac · · were c1s1o o b ns · v1ou e · s h d I y · 1c h · w 1n s se ca wron g so al e _ er w e er h T . se el 1g i1 1 l yt thail an ry go o, te to er is ca th th er nd e U ar . em t.l1 ck ba offi­ _ to � ce en id ev ed ck la ey th e becalis e rs th ed we cis po er ex o ey pr m th . i d � a , rs v per­ o\ � p ry na tio re sc di � 11 ve gi e ar _ 10 � v,,1 cials s c1 1on de re rs, we we po ry sed ba on et1 ci d1s on eir � th 11g isi erc ex � i11 : J)le am ex r ly. Fo en t. t n in u_ tak co re ac we n t1o lud ra Inc d 1 ns co ­ 11t va ? � ele irr at th ? or ds lin _ gro nt va irrele . de th e. \v1 ma lic e ma ar ich wh on 1s1 Lastly, de e ar o als t lis ses ca d e fi sti jti � is th ed in . re w, of the La s re urt we C 111g some lu 1nc nts me art � dep ny ? n1a to es pli ap s thi and _ . ses ca th wi ng ali de 1n s lay de le ab tifi jus un d ee i11d d an d i11e pla unex on issi mm t of Enquiry Co nen ma Per the of on icti isd j11r the l1in ,,,it t 11o is It 35. e ctur at this t to state jun ben um inc med dee is it but , law the in ects def 011t 11t to poi _ that i11 the col1rse of ou1· work obvious defects 10 some laws were detected, for. ex­ amJ)le u11der a certain act there is laid down a procedure to be followed if an em­ ployee is to be disn1issed from work. It was discovered that there was no provision deali11g with a situation \\1here the employee follows the procedure, and a NUTA Official does not discl1arge his duty, and the case becomes statute barred. O bviously here the fault is that of the NUTA official and not that of the employee and yet the emploJ1ee is subseq11ently told that his case can no longer be entertained be cause tin1e has expired. [A brief description of representative cases follows:] 50. Tl1e Con1plainant lost in a Civil Case but appealed and paid the usual money for appeal. This was two years ago and up to the time he came to complain to the Com1nission the case has not been heard. The Commission took the matter, interviewed the Magistrate concer11ed \vho said that his case file has been se nt to the High Court, Dar es Salaam. Tl1e Commission came to Dar es Salaam checked with the Registrar who told the Comn1ission tl1at the file v.ras not with t h. e High Court. Tl1e Con1mission went back to tl1e Magistrate and the file was found in the cupboard i11 his house. The Con1plai11a11t was then able to appeal.

55. The Con1plaina11t ,vas a bt1sinessma11 i11 a certain town and h e came · to �on1plai� to tl1e Commission tl1at he was ordered to demolisli his house. He demo­ l1sl1ed b1s house and when he asked for a con1pensation (he had right of occupancy) _ he was told l1e w� s not e11t1tle r d to ma any tte tl1it 1g. Th e the Co mm inv est issi iga on ted _ and f011nd that his_ right of occt1pancy had expired and therefore J1e was not entitled to any compensation and l1e was ad.vised accordingly. 57. The Complaina_11t alleged that the Liquor Licensing Board had unreason­ _ ably refused to rene:V his licence to sell spirits. Asked as to what he thought could be the reas?ns for th1s refus�l, the c;omplainant stated that a lot of Party and Govern­ me?t O_ffic1als �ad. bee11 �aking sp1_ r1ts on credit and many of them had failed to set�e t�e1r bills. This had driven tl1e Complainant to taking action against them. This did not please them ai1d so they decided not to renew his licence .

It was found that it was true that the Complainant's licence had not been re-· h wh ic �e �ed but not so much for the reason he thought bu t for an n, rea so ot he r · 1n itself was no t valid. The Complainant had his licence renewed.

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res in ide nt a wer e par ticu lar ots locality and the I 11 d i. aina ropl C :,,� ·1 74· o t 1 at � n ; a for ; ai d cert uire an 1 . t re ject pro was q d this 11 taile d . e1n moving l11\lt��� \\� �-�.. p�•cu1ar locality ' . er� ·�t.tr.11 · away from their 1and. · t··'at�I!; b · etween t T en an an1a agreem gover11 u1 e11 t and a1 1 xter a I z w �1l\\�1�� an as There or b project 1 tl this ­ at these peoi)le sllould be pail co il �e ha��� . tion re spo nsi le for e sa aniz etc All tl1e but farms, Co 111 miJa �100 -­.. . r houses, plai11 ants 0o-ot tlleir �c-1n pens t : � i ��\itlt hei : r · 10 t ¼i_t�, -:i uon ·,�tJ;� :t�-;:,. The Complainants saw the Area Commissio11 er a11 cl tl1 e Lai1d Ofi�1 cer ab . C Qut • came o ut and s o t hey bro u ght. t11 e1•1· co , '·� mpl 1' 11 ts to tl1 e 1:=ollllnissio a g in h ot n t bu n. · this ���:�·i�: The Co�mission investigat�d tl1e cas e a1 1d S11 s. 41,093/50 �as 1 n,de available i on to the Complainants. They l1 ave now been paid. ensat comp i;�.��t· as ii:� -;� }i 83. The Complainant, a District Medjcal Officer alleged that hjs Area Com -· · missioner was inte.rfering in the daily administrative work i11 the IIos1itaI . At oi1e :t� :�� had pers�nally gone to the H_ospita� a11d ordered S)n1e govern­ o:��,;;t: time for exampletohego to a village to treat a _pat1e11 t w1 tl1_011t _the n1 eclcal officer's -:: J.: ment employees �l.,., .;...·- · knowledge. Secondly, he called a female nurs11 1g orderly 1n h is office 111 d tried to ;��·�i teach her what she should do in her ·work. Thjrdly, that the Area C)m1nissio11er . .:.:::;�accused the Medical Officer of flirting ,vith this fen1 ale 11ursing orclerl� d 11 ri11g and : after office hours. Fourthly, the. Area Commissio11er one day \Ve11t to f1 e I1ospital,. . held a public meeting, the gist of whose speech was a perso11 al attacl<: on tl1 e Iviedical Officer in the presence of the hospital staff. -. 1

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The Commission took the matter and an i1 1vestigatio11 ,,1as made wlicl1 revealed among other things that he was interfering with the administration of :he IIospital �1:i,;.. and that there was no evidence whatsoever as to love affairs b etween tl1 e lv1edical li��; Officer and the nursing orderly. The Area Commissio1 1er ,vas a I1 ot te11pered man, ;;;�) and lacked diplomacy although in fact l1e is in charge of the District He shot1 ld r!l�). have called the Medical Officer in his o ffice a11 d disc11ssed tl1e n1 atter. It must be 1 oin ed o t 1::::; , p � u th.at perhaps all these misundersta11dings \Vere caused b y ·he pres e?ce· . of this female nursing orderly who apparently seems to l1ave attracted tl1 e attention . : of the Area Commissioner. r:�1 " · to n 7 . The Commission take he 11ld sl10 o11 acti e riat rop app ed that end m recom. l; give the District a fresh look. 1 i,v 84 �he Co�plainant alleged that a Regional Commissioner s11:pe11ded his tf � tra ding· licence without any reason. e Com mission took the matter an d after an investigation, it Wt� re�ealed Th · · 1· ng cera10 .vi lla · �,,,)1 � that on e d ay the . ges: 1! v1s ile wh Regional Commissioner concerned ;, , ha e r ne io iss d to pass m Can al on gi Re e Th n . nt near the shop of th e Complaina f'; sa!Pa li� ntly ar app o wh ttle � per ( kee sc op u 1 sl le occuring between children of tl1e r w ff L 11a !0 eg � C: a� �sia n) and a n tle d an 1 e1 ? . The scuffle w as pu t to an an ic fr A n er 1on 1ss 1 s s one r n1 Ca 1al 1 g10 Re fi e Th ed tri _ to find out the cause of the ght. . 1 -· allern: ey th t a g d lliat the tll �rrl ly de ru m hi Asian boys and their mother answered. , · had o rea b s u s e · e c m 1 c l e th n t son a t O beat the African. Thereupon he ordere d tl1 e ! P nde d . l l a in im r e Co C e 1 t t f · · Je d Th an . aspect f . m, �1ss1on examined th.e facts as above out 1-1ned . Here· I

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SOUllCEBOOK OF ETI-fIO:PIA.N CONSTJTUTIONAL LAW

the Cominission found that_ the �w_ner of the licence w�s n�t on the spot when the fight occtirred aild tl1e figl1t 1 tsel� 1s 1rreleva11t to_ the trad111g l:1cence. The Commissio n and the licence was given back to the o reported tlJe 01atter to tl1e President wner.

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The Role of the Emperor

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I. Wl1at specific 1Jowers are 110w vested in the Emperor to review: a. the perfo1·n1ance of the Council of Ministers and the Prime Minister? b. the performa11ce of the pt1blic service in general? c. problen1s o.f corruption arising within government? d. the ,1ccot111ts ,1nd fiscal affairs of government agencies?

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2. Could tl1e E1111Jeror delegate son1e or all of his present jurisdiction to revie\v matters st1ch as those listed above to the Prime Minister? Or to a special office respo11sib le to the Emper? 1·? �ould such a delegation be wise? What ,1re son1e o ·f t 1e re evant co11s1 derat1ons . ? 1 1 3. Specifically� co11sider agai11 the legal aspects of creating a.n office analogous to the Ta11za11ia11 President's Permanent Com.mission (see supra). Could a sin1ilar institt1tion be created in Ethiopia? To whom should it report? Sho�1ld it be �iven po\vers of ''control'' or ''disci.pline'' as well as powers _ of 1nvest1gat1on?

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