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IN THIS ISSUE

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CASE REPORTS ARTICLES

The Penail. Oxle of the Empire of Ethiopia Jean Graven Statutory In1terJ.)fetation in Ethiopia George Kxzeczunowicz First Annual Report from the Dean Jam,es C. N. P1aull CURRENT ISSUES CrJ,minal Appeail.s

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JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW Published twice ann11ally at the Faculty of Law of Haile Sellassie I University In co-operation "vith the Ministry of Justice (to be cited as: l J. ETH. L.) .

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EDITORIAL BOARD .

Justice B0latcl1ew Asrat, Chairrna11

Ato Nirayo Esayas

Dr. Pl1ilippe Graven

Dean James -.. C.. N. P·aul

Ato Negga Tessema

Professor Ken11etb Redden

EDITORIAL STAFF :

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Editors Steven Lowenstein - Kenneth Redden

Editor for Administration . Stanley Z. Fisher

Press Editor · , Norman· Singer·

Associate Editors Abiyu Geleta

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Alexandra Ha.n1a\vi Nabiyel11l Kifle Selamt1 .,Bekele

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Please addres,s corres,pondence to the Editors, Jour11l1l of Etlziopia11 Law, Box 1176, Adcltl:s, Ababa, E.thri.opia . ..

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Table of Cases Reported Case Reports

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Vii

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152

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267

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• 315

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335

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349

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Articles: The Penal Code of ,t he Empire of Ethiopia Jean Grave11 by •

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Statutory Interpretation in Ethiopia by George Krzeczunowicz First Annual Report from the Dean by James C. N. Paul . Current Issues: Criminal Appeals

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Index to Cases Reported (Vol. 1) .

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360

Table of Laws Cited (Vol. 1) .

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377

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TABLE OF CASES REPORTED Supreme Imperial Court

Page

Addis Ababa Modern Bakery S. A., The v. Yv onne Noumair . . . (Civil Appeal No. 1159/54 E. C.) .

•

179

Belete Belaineh, Lt. v. The Public Prosecutor . (Criminal Appeal No. 229/54 E. C.)

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162

Fogstad Woodworks Labour Union v. Jakob Fogstad (Civil Appeal No. 1381/55 E. C.) . . . .

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185

Hajoglou, Mr. Antonjs v. The Imperial Highway Authority • . (Civil Appeal No. 204/53 E. C.) . . .

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155

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190

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170

Shatto, Mrs. 11·ary v. Mr. T1l1eodore Shatto (Civil Appeal No. 724/56 E. C.) .

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Tsigha. Wayne Tasfa Mariam v. Ato Tadesse Ambaye & others . . . . . (Civil Appeal No. 1002/54 E. C.) . Federal Supreme Imperial Court

Zeryl1un Mako11nen & others v. The Public Prosecutor . . (Federal Criminal Appeal No. 4/53) .

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195

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198

Mamalingas, Efthimia & Panayotis Mamalingas v. Messrs. Zappula & Kampus, Ltd. . . . . (Civil Case :t.Jo. 258/ 56 E. C.) . • • • . •

204

High Court

Finance Ministrv., , Advocate of v. Mr. Nicola Sarris • (Civil Case No. 782/50 E. C. ) • •

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REPORTS ,..

· Tl1e followir1g are 1:ri11e cases dec;ided by the Supreme· Imperial and. the High Courts of Etl1iopia. The Aml1aric judgment is official and always prece�es tl1� English. It is im.

of botl1 pthjopiaa. and portant to note tl1at in tl1ose cases l1eard before 111.ixe� .benches . . and one in English. foreig11 judges, two separate opinions are written, one in An1haric . . , .

Tl1ese opi11io11s are not translations of one anotl1er, btrt are indepe11dent judgments based .

t1po11 commo11 agreement amor1g the judges as to tl1e principles and final outcome of each case.

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- 154 -

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT

Div. A

Mr. ANTONIS HAJOGLOU v. The IMPERIAL HIGHWAY AUTHORITY Civil Appeal No. 204/53 E.C. G_ontract and e.-rtra-contractua/ liability - - Injury in the course of en1p/oyme11t - - Fault of e111p/oyer - Contributory fault of ernployee - - Arts. 2098, 2102, 2152, 2553, 2556 - 2559 Civ. C.

Pl aintiff-appellant appeals judgment o_f the High Court allowing appellant only partial com _ pensation for loss of eye under Art. 2559 C1v. C. when both employer and employee were negligent. He/(1: Appeal quashed as the liability of an employer for injury caused by his recklessness is govern ed, pursuant to Art : 2559 Civ. C .., exclusively by the provisions relating to "extra-contractual liability''; therefore, only partial con1pensat1on may be awarded under Art. 2098 Civ. C. to an en1ployee who by his fault has contributed to cat1se the injury despite tl1e fact that such compensation may be less tha,n 'o'ould have been a\varded under the provisions governing contractual liability.

Miazia 26, 1953 E.C. (May 4, 1961 G.C.); Justices: Afe11egus Takele Wolde Haw ariat, Mr. Stevenson, Ato Haile Aman: - The High Court gave judgn1ent in the case for the plaintiff, now appellant, in the an1ount of £$6000 as damages for tl1e loss of his left eye, sustained while at work in the employment of tl1e defendant, now respondent. The fiigh Court found that the accident wl1ereby tl1e appellant suffered the injury to his eye \Vas dt1e p�1rtly to the 11egligence of tl1e respondent and awarded d::1mages in accordance witl1 the provisions of the chapter of the Civil Code relati11g to ''Extra-con tractual Liability'' as prescribed in Article 2559 of tl1at Code. But the Cot1rt also found that the appellant by bis own negligence had contrib11ted to the occurrence of the accide11t, and applied Article 2098 of the Code, giving the appella11t the rigl1t to proportional, partial con1pensation only. As there was no basis for the c,1lc11lation of any exact amount of dan1ages, tl1e Court fixed the amou11t eq11itably as directed in Article 2102 of the Code. There is no contestation of the facts of the case as found by and set out in the judg ment of tl1e High Court; indeed those t·acts are accepted as correct. But whereas it is accepted, by the respondent also, that tl1e provisions of tl1e Civil Code sl1ould apply, the ground of appeal is that the High Cot1rt has applied those provisions incorrectly, in taking i11to co11sideration any co·ntributory negligence 011 the part of tl1e respondent, and in thus granting l1im partial damages only. The issu.e \.Vhicl1 the appellate Court is called upon to decide therefore turns upon the interpretation of the law. Section 4 under Title XVI of the Civil Code contains the rules to be followed with respect to damaoes st1ffered by employees under em,ploy1nent contracts. The provisions of tl1e Code are based on the pri11ciple of liability on the part of the employer for damages suffered by employees in their work, wl1ich in the termi!1ology of the Continental systems of law is commonly termed ''objective'' liability. That 1s, that the n1ere fact that the em- 155 -

VOL. W A L N IA P IO I-I T E F JOURNAL O

I - No. 2

ploy�e l1as s��. ere� an 1.7•.u�� ·ucurs tlle liability of tl1e emJJloyer for any conseque11t da ages 1rrespect1ve o a11y a �. �11 tl1e part of tl1e employer havi11g give11 ca11se to th e i ju Ill n Article 2553 · ry, C i 11 There are 011l y two except ions to. this' r11le as. laid dow11 in tl1e . ode . ' , see 1 1 y \V11en h e }Jrove I A t·1 Ie ?554 The employer sl1all be relieved o.f h'is 1iab'l't s that th :c��de�t �s due to tl1e i11te11tional act of the e nlployee � i1.d also where h� proves the accide11t has l1appened becau se the en� IJloy�e. ha s contraverled a regulatio11 to tba; Which his attention had bee n esp ecially drawn 1 11 wr1 t1ng. Provided t11ere is 110 proof of r1egligence or a11y _ otl� er _ f� ul� on tl1� part of _ the 1 employer, tllat is, objective li a bility only, the sc? pe of l1 s l 1 ab1l1ty 1? exclusively re gulated by Articles 2556, 2557 and 2558 of tl1e Code. If, however, the �c�1�e� 1� of tl1� empl yee � _ is caus ed by an intentional a ct or tl1e reckless11ess � f tl1e emplo)er, Ar_ticle 25)? p rovides tl1at the scope of tlie employe r 's lia.bility is not restricted to tl1e r� 1les la1cl down 1 n Articles 2556 to 2558. In any case where the negligence of �l1e etnJ )loyer 1s proved to have caused the accident, lie becomes fully and unrestrictedly l 1�ble_ �11 1, ;ort) by referenc e (according) _ to the provisions relati11g to ''Extra - co11tract11al L1ab1l1ty .

Tl1e aJJpellant's contentio11 as to law c�n b� p11t in �h?rt as follo�s: In ;iew of the basic p rinciple of objective lia bility e1nbod 1ed 111 the C1v1l C�de� Article 2)59, and in _ pursuance tl1ereof, tl1e provisions relating to extra-cont ract11al l1,1b1l1ty should not, where the en1rJloyer's negligence has been proved, be appli ed to tl1e eJfect that tl1e employee r eceives a smaller compens ation tha n he \Vot1ld have receive d if the employe r ½'ere held to llis objective lia bility OIU)'. Tl1e entire appeal centers 011 tl1is poi11t of law. \Vhat the appellant means to sa y is tl1 at the provisions of tl1e Cod e rel ati11g to ext ra-contractual li a bility l1ave bee11 applied to his detr im e11t in that the principle of objective liability on the part of t11e em.ployer sl1 o u.ld have precluded the Court from t aking into con sideration his owr1 neglige11ce in asses sing tl1e da.mage s.

It is for the appellate Court to examine wl1ether the la\v l1as been wrongly applied to tl1e facts a s se t 011t in tl1e Higl1 Cot1 rt' s judgme11t, and, if so, \Vhetl1er another a11d cor rect jnt erpretation of tl1e la\v wo11ld of necessity l1ave led tl1e Hjgh Court to assess the damages i11 a. higher amount.

Tl1ere is n. o claim u11der Article 2556 of the Civil Cod e for medical, l1ospital and si11lilar expenses. P r esl11 nably such expenses have been m et b y the responde11t indepen d ently of the action . Neitl1er is tl1ere any claim und.er Article 2557 of the Code. Tl1is Article provides for tl1e payment of wages to tl1e employee, dt1ring a period of a year, from tl1e n1oment wl1en tl1e . employ �e has l1ad to cease \Vork, wl1ere lie is prevente d from \\,orking because of the accident. It 1 s a fact that after tl1e accident the appellant continued i11 the respo11dent's eml?loyn1e11t and . was b ei 11g p aid his wa ges until a little more tha 11 lialf a year after the _ accident when h e was d1sm1ssed for reaso11s other than his i itjtiry Consequently there . could not even be a claim under this Article. As regards the scop e of the respondent's purely objecti tl1ere ren1ains lia ve bil ity �on��quently only the p rovisions of Article 2558 to be consid ered. Tllis Article puts t!1e l1ab 1l1 ty on tl1e en1ployer, after tl1e expi1·y of tl1e period 5, la id do w 11 ill AJ:ticle 2557, that 1 on� ye� r a!ter tl1e � mployee, becaus e of tl1e accide nt, was preve nt ed froni worki ng, to ma�nta1n lum a�d l11s cluld�en who are u 11d er age. pay or Bt ain it , th is 01 lia ain bi to t lit y . mainte nance, � rise s, an d tl11s n1us t b e b ?rn e in m itl d, oitly wlle is p�.ree pl oy 1 tli e n r e e manently deprived, by reason of tl1e accident, of ty lia lf or nlore tllan h alf of Iiis cap aci to work. ,In tl1e present case th�re is a greement the be tw e eii tlie parties that the loss of appellant s left eye does at maximum repres e11 t a disability of 33 per cent, that is to say, - 156 -

f I

M•r.

ANTONIS HAJOGLOU V.

The

T.........ERIAL HIGHWAY AUTI-IORITY .l..lVl..t'

he is deprived of far less tha11 half his ability to work . There canno t ti 1ere �ore poss1·bly b e any right of claim under Article 2558. From what up to now. l1as been mentioned, it results that within the limits set by nt's objective liability, tl1e appellant can claim nothing !l1e la\v for the_ scope of tl1 � �e?ponde _ 1� the case. His only poss1b1l1!y 1s a claim for damages in tort 011 tl1e ground that the ac c1de11t was catised _by the 11egl1gence of tl1 e respondent. And tl1at is exactly \vhat the High Cot1rt granted him. .

The �ase tbeing th�t tl1e assessment of compensation n1ust be wholly regulated by . . the �r?v1sions of the C1v1l Code relating to liability in tort, it shot1ld be clear that those pr?v1s�ons, as far a� perti_ nent to the proved facts, must be applied in full. There is no � xcept1on as to Article �098, �l1ich gives the victim right to partial compensation only in t�1e event tl1at the acc1d�nt 1s partly dtte to l1is own negligence. If it had been tl1e in tention of the law to I?rov1d� for s ucl1 a,n �xceptio11, one should l1ave expected tl1at this _ ,voul� have be� 11 n1ei:it1oned 111 Article · 2559. The Higl1 Court consequently was bou11d to take 1 _uto co11s1derat1on t ?e proved fact of the appellant's contributory negligence in the compensation. assessing . . . Qui.te anoth�r matter is tl13:t, having. regard to all tl1e circumstances surrounding the accident, it migl1t be that the appellant's conduct should not l1ave been considered as negligent. But this would be a point of fact and there is no appeal against the facts of the case. A11d anyhow, as described in the High Cot1rt's judgn1ent it would seem rigl1t to hold tl1e appellant's cond11ct to be negligent. . . .

•

'•

111 tl1e 1'1emorandun1 of Appeal tl1e appellant's advocate has quite rightly pointed out that tl1e ap1Jellant's negligence as described in tl1e Higl1 Court's judgment cot1ld 11eitl1er serve to free 11or to reduce the respondent's objective liability. But l1e overlooks the very important point that there is no claim at all to be co11sidered witl1.i11 the scope of the res pondent's objective liability. Fron1 wl1at is mentioned in the foregoing, it will appear that any possible diffi.c11lty of inter1Jretatio11 011 tl1e point raised by the appella11t seen1s to arise 011ly in the cases where, becat1se of tl1e accident, the employee l1as been deprived of half or more of ltis capacity to work. It may ·of course in sucl1 cases very reasonably be said that it cannot have been the intention of the la\.v that the employee sl1ould be worse off with regard to compensation, wl1ere l1is injury is due to the fault of the employer, than he would have been if. there ·was 110 proof at all of any fault on tl1e part of tl1e employer.. On the contrary, he should get 1nore. But tl1en tl1ere is the difficulty of con1parison. Under tl1e objective liability, tl1at is liability without any fa11lt on tl1e IJart of the employer, tl1e inj11red employee is entitled to a part of his \vages for one year a11d thereafter n1aintena11ce, whereas in tort, 1 1� \:vill obtai_n his ed, prov bee:i has oyer empl tl1e of fa11lt r when tl1e 11egligence or othe damages assessed in a l11mp sum. It wot1ld seen1 that there 1s no real drfficulty of inter pretation. It should be for the injured employee to choose \:vl1etl1er to claim within the scope ·of the em1Jloyer's objective liability, or to hold lum liable in tort. However, t?e point nee d not be decided i11 the present case, where the appell�nt has an actual claim in tort only. It must be 11el d that the Hig h Court has applied the law correctly. As to the assess ment i11 itself of the amount of con1pe11sation, no appeal lies against tl1e H_igh Court's jud�e11t according to Article. 2152 of the Civil Code. The - appeal tl1erefore must be dism . issed. . - 157 •

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- 159 -

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it1 .r..- = r001°lP':,_.. w1r..-1--� = h iL tt n ro"' 11- ,, ·fl ro_e9° : il (ll:1"' m.e'f' t\,l\ : U'/c;:faY}9°: 'l"lC: (lou,:f,{l(\•: "n:F: f?•{l: oncf>fi A: ro"}:�A: wC1rf•Jrtf.\: flat/ t\T : itf.:Ft\9° :: it "}Y,.-- : fUD"}"J/fl1-" : ll-'b«,f-�: 'J,{l: -1"4'11/loit A: m,e9u: f�P: (ID,:f,{lA: (D'}lA: lJ.1Ci,fcitt\: (\lll/(\1•: f 07.:Fl\(Dc: 11'1f,fi: ro,e9°: /\,I\: atJc;:fari= 0 1 : r t\ n : ,, /\ w.9t· 1: '11 C: f "4,n 'l':,,9° : flFt-.lD• : (1h· A : f 1--(lmav} : 1' 9° �.,,1:· O 1 �f..Ac; =_t,ft1'11l: flODP'b•:i,•: ro.,e9°: A�: i',il-i•J'f·}·'i": m •t\;t- : /\'1'/.e:t..'1: �m·= fOIJ,.f(t'7ij: 9°tJ1f"}": 'iC:: OtlV•: i',t\�"}: f,J•cf>{lfl: 'hif..: lf�: ',lD":: fll�� = flitv-�: -,,c: O:f> {l,: "17-: J.'ill..V.ro•: _f,"Jll�: q�: l1·(lf,f..' : /\-O�t\: ltl\U : t1£:t�: •�C: 0Ut:1'(11r"} : 11:F : a,ro, :: (t,ef." : it-Of../\ : 'hif..: 1•r.'1llD': 1111·1 O·i : l\f,"Jf1'7ij : '1� : f(tmro• : 'Pile; : mfl:J' : 'hi�.&..A°lltT : ',lD" : i",fl�A :: - 160 -

f,°1'1'1: (}(!: hlf..: i"'i"ll.m•: r+'lt\m-1: 11H•O: ho,e� : it•Of..l\: r,J-'1 0t\lD': 9°''1•0C.-: o.;:>t. : t\,1\9°: itil&.1\1« : -,1C : 'h1Jt1•1t\:,..c;: 11110·1: 'h1J;,fil l 9° 'Pt\:t· .,aJ.i ,n�.A hr-t,U?° 0,1,c .eu ilr.2: ..nc t\.e"lll�;: 'l�: 01,(lmO"l.. : -- : " : o.e Jt,flf..l\ : '11\U : Oh�, 1-�m.1: �c� : {1:,,.. : ,,,en : O,f..h(l(IO:t- : m"} "Ll"L 1.IA: :,,flJT: 'r&.CJ!..O,r.: 'b.1f.. : -,oc: ;r(Dc*l,\ :: h1-'tV•9°: f'1(Dc: ro:J>ft: ,11°1 : 9°ilnC : ,eu : nil : 0 1'l.OO..)." : 01,fl : ou,J,flf.\ : m1it.\: '1"'14,,e: ilt\lf� : 1'CO·: fDD(lht..m·: 9°ilnc-,:i·•: t\,I\ : ,J•(.Q,ITIJt : Ol/ill"Jft;: Y.:·;:><,:: '11\1"f: .e'1'1�= qi= .. r,1,h(l(l0; !:1: r1,fl : OD'1 0t.\: m1it.\: t\ODP'�r� : n,f! : Ol/lll.1(: /Llf"} : hf,71'·/,\9° :: f:'i-lD· : r o:-1, n. : ,)1� : 9°llnc : foo(lht..m•"} : 9°il hc.,:,, : h14'0 °: 'h1l;i."}: hC(l•: 1 ,1..e..: "l"'i'1t,.m,: ,e'?'l�: '1�: ovq: •OC: hhC(l• : •O"}t.\9 t\lD·: frf•«l'Ot\m· : mO:J> C,' : 'Pll : J,&.t.\"Jt.\'lt\U· : "Ot\u: -,lD. : ill\t\ 7�P,.f: h1�tLU : --out\h,J-a>c"}: ft\W": 9°llnc.,:,-.: nn,,-: m•il�: Orf-cm,f,(l(Dc: n,,,.a.,rc: ov�·l:: r1 _,... .......... f1,(l : on,J,nt.\ : ,n,il,\ : Y'll•l'�lD•"} : ODlPl.;r'P. : .,,JC: itlll."'irt',Jt A: t\lTl/t\-1": 1'1fo-1· .e:r l\t.\ ? °"I t\:.t, .e°l'l� '1� urq nc hf� ..... _ ,.._ m• = fO.Pft ,11 '? ?°fl nc : r+'1'0t\(D• : OT/Lil : <RJh 1"}.,,f: : railP�lD" : rl,9°'1·1· : P't. : h��t\v: n{TD')°IP':,.. = lP�,t-�.,,t: : r,1,omro•1 ,e.1n<i: ,t'?'lC ,J,l\t.\� F�m-1 : : 04!: OtP/fl;r htJ: Off'/.e1'l : t\0Dm1l 9°: ,flt'\ .,(De: frJ.-ccf>(lt\(D•: fUIJ.P(l� • 9°ti').C'.-)•: on'jc;."} : .,(De :t h1,e. : l l.Om·: 111/fll.P,'i: h1f..: i',lPt.�: i',�?.1 : (ltLU: lj:C�: ,1:i-: J-tfl,1--.rr,1--: l,1f. tLU: frl"lPt.: OD{l(r>: it A;J"f?°:: 9°19°: 'h1l;i.1: {ltj:C"': ft,),: f1"1t\?.'i: f'l'l.O: 111/fll"Jf: (),elf19°: 111/1 7/ (De?°: fT/Lll : lPb ,'J!:I.' : i't'lA : 0 01/'i'Ta>·?°: 9°h1f"l·: (llf1: hhfll� : 11 tf,fi : ?,1,v,,e,,, Of.\ : f 7·t\. il : fJ;,llTt\.1: f.. "},fl : h"},V,t\ : f , °l 11� : '1 �: i1 f.1 : ,nc: f,f,q,fi{\m· : t\(l,e�-- : t,,o.e.l\ : 9°"},{1 : ODOJ�flD•t;: t\,nO:J>lj: t\'Pll : lID"}"lf: Qlf1: OJ;,iJ·rt\.1 : Oh·A: ,,Pilm,e,,,(D" : ,etrC,' A 'i. '11C : °11: n,,,...�c : 2f.?i"l;-: hl�"i'ODt\hrJ,m« : ,l1 '? : .e"l'l� : 'l�: ilf.2 : ,nc: f.-J·c/'Ot\(D": (ln°1°1P'1' : lPt. ,....f',1-• : f,J..(lmm,,: Ft.'i: "i'°l()C : 0111/�f-A'i: P't.m• "} : i'tll;J"ti: t\oom 4'9°: ',a>• : f 0?.f()�: fl,f! : 9°)11y:1,: J-tA ,1·119°:: ilt\1tu hi-Lu = Ol\f, n,1·11t..1tt..ro• ?°n,.r:,- .e'1'1� '1� .r�1,t..nm·, f,"Jfl:�: i''l'"Ot\1: h�,,.l- �<D•: tj:C"": e1:,-: f&.l.f..a>·1: fT't•"l--.;-''J:.t,c;: f�flJ1': tf:C�: nm>7ic:: ,e"J'l� : {}(!: {'ODirf,: i'tt\:J>: Ot\m: 01\,e'Iu: hrJ•h(l(l(l;l.. : o,,,... = A= "* ='" fl'I� • "" �c u = ntt it.\ m1 = 'lD· l ' h DDt\ h-t = c 'PC = ov� -................ ,eu: 'i:C..�": •Ila: TC: i·r: ,f,"} : IfifjQ: '¼: 9°: om:,,l\,e = f11•lP : .,,,.,,.,_:,. . �C�: '1:t·: ll'? A K": ':f..lto:,": ,f.. (lm:: �C�: {1Dt\mm•1: h�,f..'i•m·: tj:C�·: ft.;l:h1J;..f£D•cp(Dc: ��ft"r s : 1

= .. =

1 1

- 161 -

T R U O C L IA R E P Th1 ME E R P SU Div. A Lt. BELETE BELAINEH v. The PUBLIC PROSECUTOR Criminal Appeal 1'.Yo. 229/54 E.C. Penal law - - Bribery - - Article 425 P.C.

On appeal from a judgment of the High Court convictin� appellant, a police officer, of bribery when he accepted £$950 from an individual arrested and under 111s charge. Held: Conviction quashed as the money was not accepted by the appellant in consideration for an official act or favotrr as required by Art. 425 P.C.

Ter 22, 1954 E.C. (January 31, 1962 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Taddesse Mengesha, Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Taddesse Tekle Giorgis: - This is an ap1Jeal from a jt1dgment of the Higl1 Court convicting the appellant on a charge of bribery under Article 425 of tl1e Penal Code and sentencing him to imprisonme11t for a period of one year and to a fine of three hundred. dollars (E$300) and in default of payment to a ft1rther six months • • 1mpr1sonme11t. The ground of appeal is that tl1ere was not sufficient evidence before the High Court on which the appellant could be convicted as charged. Before dealing with the merits on the facts of this appeal it is essential to consider the elen1ents of the offel1ce contemplated in Article 425 of the Penal Code and the evidence the prosecution must produce to enst1re a conviction there11nder. Tl1e elem . ents of the offence of bribery are: (a) a public servant; (b) the seeking or tl1e exacting of a JJromise of, or tl1e receipt of) a gift or other advantage to \Vhich the public servant is not entitled; (c) that such gift or other advantage be given or tl1at the promise of sucl1 gift or advantage be sought or exacted, in consideratiorz for t/1e pe1forn-1ance of, or on1is sion of, an act, in violation of the duties proper to the offic eof tl1e public servant. Each of these elements must be proved by tl1e prosect1tion before an acc11sed person can be found guilty of the offence of bribery. of tl1e prosect1tion is tl1 at the appellant, be Now allegation in the present e the ca � . _ ing an Inspector of the Police Force has received fron1 011e Said Abdulla Saleh the sum the charge ag,1inst tl1e of :E:$950 11 �er 9, 1952; liad appellant alleges that the appellant _ received certain proIDises from Said Abdulla Saleh previous to the payment of such amount of E$950. the by d arreste The case for the �rosecutio11 shows that Said Abdulla. Saleh \Vas · smug of e offenc appellant, an Inspector 1n the Sec11rity Police, and later charged with an

- 162 -

Lt. BELETE BELAINEH v. The PUBLIC PROSECUTOR

gling firearms into E �liiopia; Said Abdulla Saleh was found guilty on this cha.rge and _ sentenced to 3 years Imprisonment and a fine of £$20,000 in addition to the forfeiture of the firear�s. Oti �ppeal to tl1e Supreme Imperial Court, Said Abdulla Saleh was re leased on bail J?etid1ng appeal. According to Said Abdulla Saleh (who gave evidence for the prosecttt1o1 1 .as PW/3) tl1e appella11t took away from him a \Vallet containing E$ 350 a11d £7, a!so his passport; tl1e appellant denied in l1is defence that there were the PW/3 the to : according there £4 amounts mentioned by PW/3 and only; were E$250 -_ �allet \Vas returned to _ l1in1 witl1 only £1 while according to tl1e appellant the amounts 1n _the ':allet were coi1signed to Col. Workneh who ordered him to provide food for the said Said Abdulla Salel1 ot1t of tl1e money i11 tl1e wallet and from this amount the appel lant used E$245 for food a11d otl1er things. The prosecution also adduced evidence through PW/3 that at tl1e time Said Abdt1lla Salel1 was arrested he gave to the appellant £$2000 so tl1at the latter cotild provide a guarantor for bail and an advocate for the defence; tl1e appellant de11ied tl1is in l1is defe11ce. Be that as it may PW/3 stated that he informed an officer of the Sect1rity about tl1is E$2000 and as a result of this information tl1e police authorities decided o .n a. ''trap''; this co11sisted in giving Said Abdulla Saleh £$1000 wlucl1 he was to give to tl1e ap1)ellant at a time when tl1e conversation between them was to be tape-recorded; tl1e tape-recording, l1owever, ,vas not successful and is not in evi dence. According to PW/3 tl1e conversation between him and tl1e appellant consisted in this, tl1at is, tl1at P W/3 me11tio11ed the question of guarantor and advocate and the appella11t replied that l1e needed n1ore money; PW/3 said that he had only E$1000 but tl1e a.ppellant said tl1at l1e required E$2000; finally PW/3 gave the appellant E$950, not at tl1e place wl1ere the co11versatio11 took place but in the cell ,vhere PW/3 was detained. According to PW/3 he told the appellant that if he gave the wl1ole of tl1e £$1000 he would be left \Vitl1 11otl1i11g for l1is 11ecessities and the appellant gave l1im E$50; according to tl1e appella11t PW/3 gave l1im only E$950 for appellant to keep for him and to use for the food and otl1er 11ecessities of PW/3. The appellant was arrested soon after the money was give11 to l1i111 by .PW/3 and \Vas four1d in possession of this money. The appellant called evide11ce i11 l1is defe11ce to sl1ow tl1at previously he had provided PW/ 3 with food and cigarettes from mo11ey given by PW/3. 011 tl1is evidence tl1ere is 110 qt1estion tl1at the first two eleme11ts of tl1e offence, that is (a) a public servant, and (b) £$950, l1ave been accepted by the appellant from Said Abdulla Salel1. Tl1e next questio11 is whether tl1e third element l1as been proved by the prosecution; tl1e q11estion that has to be considered is in consideration of \Vhat_ has the appella11t received tl1is a111ount of E$950. There can be no dot1bt that the receipt by a pt1blic officer of 1no11ey or gift or other adva11tage does not, by itself, constitute the offence of bribery. To co11stitute tl1e offence of bribery it is essential that the money, gift �r ? tl1er advLt11tage be give11 or a.ccepted in co11sideration of some offici�l �ct �r condl1ct; . It IS �s sential that tl1 e bribe be given i11 consideration of an act or omission 1n connection with tl1e official f1111.ction of the accused. To constitute the offence of 'bribery tl1e gratification mt1st be prornised or offered or accepted as a_ motive or re_ward for d�ing or f ?�bearing to do any official act or for sho\ving or forbearing to show, 1n the exercise of offzczal ft1nctio11s, favot1r or disfavour to a11y person. In tl1e present case all the prosecutio11 has p� oved is tl1at the apl? ellant ha.s rece�ved from Said Abdulla Salel1 E$950; according to Said Abdt1lla Saleh th1s money was given to enable the appellant to find a guarantor and an advocate; acc?rding to the app llant � tl1is 1no11ey was give11 to hi111 to l<eeJJ f. or Said Abdulla Sal�h. It 1s also to be mentioned that at the ti111e tl1e E$950 was give11 to the appellant, Said Abdulla Saleh had al�eady bee11 convicted at1d se11tenced by the I-Iigl1 Co1irt. Apart from the fact that PW/3 1s an accon1iJlice i11 the alleged bribe a11d tl1erefore his evidence is not normally sufficient to - 163 -

JOURNAL OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

I .. No. 2

convict the acct1sed without corroboration, the fact remains tl1at even if the eviden of PW/3 is fully accepted such evidence amou11ts to the appellant ha\1ing received E$9�� to enable tl1e apJ)ellant to find a guarantor and a11 advo�ate for P W(3. �ut does this evj. dence satisfy the tl1ird ele�e11t o� the �ffence 11nder �rt1cle 425 wl11cl1 !s !I1at tl1e appel . lant bas received E$950 ''1n cons1derat1on for tl1e J)e1for111ance of or om1ss1on of a11 act,, in vi�lation of _tl1e duties proper to the appe! la� 1t '� office as a police offi� er? I11 the opini�n of tl11� Court � t does not. _ Tl1ere may be d1sc1pl111ar� �u:les 1n the Pol1ce Force (although tl1ere 1s no evidence of this before tl1e Court) prol11bit111g members of the Police Fore fro111 receivi11g money from a person i11 custody under a11y cir�t1mstan.ces and for what� ever p11rpose or reason i11 which case the appellant migl1t be subJect to discipli11ary action wl1ether he received tl1e E$950 from PW/3 to provide a guarantor a11d a11 advoc ate 0; whether he received this amount to keep for PW/3. But for the purposes of Article 42S of t �e Pe�al Code this is not �u �cient to say th�t th� appella11t I1as received E $950 in _ cons1derat1on of an act or on11ss1on con11ected with bis legaJ duties as a public serva nt. For the above reasons tl1e appeal must be allowed, the conviction a11d sentence of the I-Iigl1 Court quashed and tl1e appellant is hereby acquitted of the charge brought agai11st him under ,1\rticle 425 of the Pen.al Code.

- 164 -

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o:r6lb :

- 166 -

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div , . A Woz. TSIGHA WAYNE TASFA MARIAM v. i\to TADESSEAMBAYE&others Civil Appeal No. 1002/54 E.C. Goods _ _ Proper!)' _ _ Contractual rights of purclzase - - _Pro111ise of sale - - Art. 1416 Civ. C. - - Specific perfor,nance - - Ti,ne for exercising right - - Art. 1400 C1v. C.

On appeal fro111 judgment of the Higl1 Court denying specific performance of a promise of sale.

Held: For respondents on tl1e grounds tl1at a rjght of recovery existed in f� vour of res lJondent under Art. 1400, and alternatively that where the property l1as been sold to a thtrd party, the remedy under Art. 1416 Civ. C. should be damages. 1. The agreement between the parties was a mere pro1nise of sale and not an actual sale giving rise to real rights. 2. It is not possible to grant specific perforn1ance wl1ere a rigl1t of recovery exists in one of the respondents. 3. Limitations on the tin1e during which a right of recovery may be exercised begin to run only when ownership has actually been transferred, and not from tl1e time of a mere promise to transfer ownership, Civ. C. Art. 1400. 4. Wl1ere one has promised to sell a tiling to anotl1er, l1e is forbidden to alienate it to a third person, Civ. C. Art. 1416; nevertheless, if he does so alienate it, the remedy will not be invalidati.on of that alienation, unless tl1e tl1ird person is fow1d guilty of fraud. 5. Wl1ere land promised by one to anotl1er l1as been sold instead to a third party, and has then been reconveyed by that tlurd party to yet another purchaser, tl1e remedy for the original breach of a pro.mise to sell must be damages and not specific performance.

Megabit 7, 1955 E.C. (March 16, 1963 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Tad.desse lvfe11gesha, Dr. W. Btihagiar, Ato Taddesse Tekle Giorgis: - Tl1is case arises out of an agree me11t between tl1e appellant a11d the first two respondents by virtue of whicl1 tl1e first responde11t agreed to sell to the appella11t a plot of la11d wl1ich they I1ad inl1erited from their fatl1er, Grazmatch Ambaye Awoke, sitt1ated at the Woreda Gezat of Bolle ir1 Addis Ababa; this land was subject to be meas11red as tl1e price was to be E$3 per square mile. TJ1js agreement is dated Guenbot 16, 1950. Tl1e first respo11dent also undertook to pre se11t l1is brother and l1is sister to sign tl1e agreeme11t up to Guenbot 20, 1950. In fact, only th� seco11d resp?ndent signed the agreeme11t. The appellant instituted proceedings in the High Court a?�1nst the �rst two respondents claimi11g specific performance of tl1� agree1nent. 111 �dd1t1on to th1�, �l1e respondents' sister, Woz. TsigI1e Ambaye, tl1e tlurd res ponde11t! 1nterve_ned, cla1n1111g tl1at she, as an heir of Grazmatcli Ambaye A\voke, had ant. appell the o t he t said plot of land a11d did not agree to the sale of tlie land a share 111 the up follow Woz. person, her t t Tirouwork An? Abebe, also intervened, but slie did no n Whe e. Arobay action� probably beca?se she relied on tl1e i11terventio11 of Woz. TsigI1e d an tl1e !hir? resp?11dent 1nte�vened, the appellan t, �vitI1 t ile Cotirt's permission, adde the of land alte1nat1ve claim for specific perfor1nance only 111 respect of the shares of

- 1·70· -

Woz. TsIGHA WAYNE TASFA MARIA A.Mv, ATo TAD . ESSB fl..M HAYE & OTHERS

first two respondents who ha d signed the agreement of Gueilbot 16, 1950. The High Court dismissed the appellant's claim 011 th e ground that tb.e agreement of Guenbot 16, 1950 �as 0nl1 _a provisional agreement and not a final contract of sale, and as tl1e land wa s still undivided tl1e alternative claim for specific performance on tl1e share of the first two respondents n1ust also fail. !he appellai1t i_ s no w app�aling from that jud gmei1t. The ground of appeal is s11b stant1ally that tl1e High Court d.1d not give due consideration to the agreement of Guenbot !6, 1950 and to other documents and a.rgume11ts submitted by the appellant. It is stated 1n the Nlemor_ at1dum of Appeal tl1at tl1e High Court erroneously reported i11 the judg m�nt the various prayers of tl1e appella11t; with tl1is, this Court cannot agree; although briefly set out, the IJrayers of tl1e appellant were correctly and substantially reported in · . ent gm the jud Now it may be correct, as the appellant submits, that the tl1ird respo11dent knew about the agreemen� of Guenbot 16, 1950, but the fact remains that she was not a party to �hat agreement; i1� tl1at agreement there was 01tly a promise by tl1e first respondent to introduce l1er to sign tl1e agreement. It is also tr11e that i11 a letter dated Ter 2, 1951 (Exh. P/2) Ato Tadesse Arobaye confirms tl1at the land had been sold to tl1e appellant: by this letter dated Ter 2, 1951 addressed to Ato Dag11e Belaineh tl1e latter was authorised to let Ato Abate (the l1usband of the appellant) build a house on the land if and whe11 Ato Abate called on him. It is also true, as Exh. P/4 sl1ows, tl1at taxes were paid by the first two respondents. But the question to be decided is whether (a) there was actual sale of the la11d, and (b) wl1ether the land belonged oruy to the first two respo□.dents. As re gards (a) there is no doubt in tl1e opinion of this Court that the agreement oruy amo1111ted to a pron1ise 011 the part of tl1e first respo11dent to enter into a definite agreement of sale and an undertaking 011 his part to produce his brother and sister to joi11 in this agreen1ent. The first respondent managed to persuade his brother, the second respondent, to sign tl1e agreeme11t b11t failed. to persuade his sister, the third respondent, to do so. It is to be re membered tl1at at the tin1e the agreement was sig11ed the area of the land had 11ot bee11 determined; the price was agreed upon at E$3 per square mile, but the actual full price could not be determined until the la11d had been measured. Tl1ere was no transfer of the property by virtue of this agreeme11t. There was 110 real right created by tlus agreement, but oruy a personal obligation on the part of the first respondent. That is the position under tl1e Civil Code; in the co1nmon law tl1ere would be what is called an ec1uitable real estate created, btit that is not so und.er the Continent,11 system of law. Tl1is does not mean that when a person binds 11.imself vvith anotl1er perso11 to sell property he may not be forced to fulfill his obligation, but in the present case there are circ11mstances which make specific performance impossible. As regards (b) the fact that taxes \Vere paid in the nan1e of the first two respondents only, cannot deprive anotl1er person who also has a claim to the property from exercising his rights of ownership. In the present case the appellant vvas �way i11 the U_nited States for_ s?i_ne time after the agreemen.t of Guenbot 16, I 950. At tl1is time the third respo11dent 1rut1ated probate and administration proceedings in the Awradja Court, and from these proceedings it appears that tl1e third responde11t 1nust have known of tl1e agreement of G11enbot 16, 1950 at least as far back as Yekatit 18, 1951. This appears from Exl1. P/ which is an agree ment by virtue of which tl1e first t,vo respondents_ tra11sferred their rigl1ts _on the land_ in question to the third responde11t; the ground of this agreen1ent was the claim of tl1e third respondent to exercise her right of recovery on the proposed _sale of the land by her bro thers to outsiders· the t\110 brotl1ers received the value of therr share and left the land to their sister On th� strenoth of this document, the appellant submitted to the I-Iigh Court and to tlti� Court that ;hen. the third respondent intervened in tl1e High Co11rt she \Vas - 171 -

JOURNAL OF ETflIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

l - No. 2

out of tin1e i 11 exercisi11g her right of rec�v�ry, tl1e time_ perio� I?rovi�ed by l::i.w having elaJJsed. No\V under Article 1400 of the C1v1l Co de tl1e t�me within vvb1cl1 a IJerso11 mus t declare his i 1 1tention of exercisi1 1g tl1e rigl1t of recovery IS two mo11tbs fro111 the time he was infor 1ned tl1at the ownersl1ip of the tl1i11g l1ad been tra11sferred to a new owner. Now it is not correct to say that the third respo11dent should have de�lared her intention of exercising her right not later than t\VO n1ontl1s fro1n: the da!e 011 \Vl11cl1 she l1ad knowledge of tl1e agree1nent dated Gt1enbot 16, 1950; tl1e period ,begins to _run from the date of in formation of the t1·ansfer of tl1e thi11g to tl1e 11ew owner, a11d In. tl1e present case there l1as been no transfer of 011111ersl1ip but orily a pron1ise of transfer of 01-v11ersf1iJJ which I1as not taken place. In an alternative clain1 the ap1Jellant prayed tl1at the :first t\VO respondents be made to transfer their sl1are i11 the land; this had become impossible becat1se the first two re spondents had tra.nsferred tl1eir sl1are to the tl1ird respo1 1dent. It is true tl1at under Article 1416 of the Civil Code a perso11 who has IJromised to sell a tl1ing to a11other 1 nay 11ot alienate sucl1 thing; but whe11 a person fails to comply \Vitl1 this IJrovision, the result is 11ot 1 1ecessarily the invalidity of the sale; tl1ere are, of course, circumstances i11 whicl1 a sale ma.y be declared void, st1ch as where fraud bas been proved on tl1e part of the p ur cl1aser. There are always remedies for damages, but trntil the sale has bee 1 1 declared void t]1e sale remains valid. Tl1ere l1as been no action i 1 1 regard to this la 1 1d for a declaratio11 of i11validity of the sale by tl1e first two respo 1 1dents to the third respo11dent. Matters have becon1e more complicated i11 tl1is case by reason of the fact that ac cording to the appellant tl1e land l1as since bee11 sold by the third respondent to another person and tl1t1s specific perfor1na 1 1ce of the wl1ole or part of the land has become ab solutely in1possible. 1 1tly in respect of their acted frat1dule may be tl1at the first t\VO respondents have It . : obl 1ga.t1on to\vards tl1e appellant. But the fact remai11s that tl1e remedy of specific per forma11ce can1 1ot be gra11ted, a1 1d tl1e 0 1 1ly remedy for tl1e appellant is, if she considers that she has a claim, to sue for damages which have not bee 1 1 prayed for in her claim against the respo11dents.

On the above grot1nds the appeal must be dismissed ,lnd tl1e judoment of the High Court confirn1ed. Tl1e· appellant shall pay costs to eacl1 of the respondents of E$30. -

l - 172 -

fh- 1111 ,n°l � fFt.= 01,�nc 1t1,,,7..-:,·. { fltt > OPq q>f.\.: ',f.',•)· � n 00 tih"�: 11-l·(lm: :,-1,,,,, ,: f,'?'l:� � f"}OJ�• = ;,,°1 4,-.,rc-:f. : 9.fj� , i!':Z: :: §f:ii t; ii, if. lJ i>,...._v...........

(flJt\tl = (l&.J,1> f,"l'l� = 'lf,: 11•'1"} ,.r: &.C(l t11.ltO·: ,f,tTJC·f·: Y.·cif:fm·: 1'1Pi.t"l''l:t:m-: Oa1f•t:,. : qo,.,,t.:,• h(i:.•l·�m· (i:.CY.· n.:,. 'rf•l:m-"}: &.;l•Jl.: fh·'11.rm•"} : oo(i:.t.t1: 0'1'71111·: f,°l'l,:: 4•t.O ::

1. f00'P'Pf.\.: ',1t',:i•: 1'1� : •l·m04>: lf'f: .(11.r.:: ·�l\&.',•I:: f,f·m(l', : l1•'l1'.r: }','1/.\: (l�l\:•1 • ft�CY.- : o.:,. : (l"}"}�· : ,n°I : ,p-.,p{!'";,f. : 9.fj?.;1'<," : §fj� : UOtPt.:,-: ht:,t;Jool,\h•J.:: {lJ..:,,: fth•'l"}f£D• : J-tfl fto1· = {ll ;p I\ I\ : {l•fi (l'l : DI/:,. l':•0 : }',"o :,. : •(l "(D• : rh· fl"},r(D• : }', q "..1·· : nJPt. : (11:/ ,., nc: 1't 1 •I•?....,. . : (,11'?) m-{lri� : fl.mfl�. : ',1t',,)• : ltl\:f-m· :: O.�A"} : l\(i:.CY.- : O•."f· 1 ""'loof.\ll•)·'J° : (t&.I\'? : o,,,,,,�o�. : ,11'? :ro•fl'r: r:J'lfll··l•'}: /-"',: P'C0•1·: 0·1·4•J',DIL: oo&.?.'J°: .e1flf.\. :: 2. fooillt:i'f: (i:.(:Y.·: h·l·flm: 0:\1\: n,wtillA : h•l·(lmm·: •l·J,1111 : f,OJ'l :1;: l\"'lft:1- : rorLt1ft hA : 'J°"}9° : '11C : fft'J°::

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- 173 -

tr, t,

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= 1, flJ .t.!i' in c <;.. r1.. _ ',VJOJ.i: 'I\'}�: "]&,"] tf1: ,J,1: h'li lffffiC: fl'{iQ/I?;/fj_j: fJ'\#�t'! :1 hfl'l: fJODC,'<f!: < t:;: �t):S." : ov�f" : Tt.:11 = •lflC: 111;;1, !f:oo(IJ (11.'!f: : �{l: OD;J'ltf: {101/· f,\: {19°: A cl "' 11fm : fMfi11hll..f�!f'f,: �0:1, : rh•'l :: flt\W" : ,.,'\k 'l,,.l: : n ,J... m(l', : h·'11Y : 'l<D 'l q · � ll,.f'J,,�1.�:f!m,: o?J:.f.. : ,,t1;:: lf'lOJ" : o--i\,J:: m1f..."(ll/CP/:Y::,l ": ttit'\h� : P! n;Ja&\ b U v-0 = = = U?J'a'J � 6l. = fR fi ODA · x:t = 1',n,,.. - = n·' ,1, = •nc ,_.,... t11� 1 . ' :: 't·CP/.C: :to: hho f14.i: h�:1:m . V' ,,. ,....,... rho•£ : aoAo: o"Il' t\hij:rf•�:ro, = �C�" a,.]" = Q.rf>t:n..:o..., IPJont\h:F: h'J�,1•1t\1'lD"': ,f,U'J : f,°1'1�: Oi',cf>lCllD": 11,fi'}f : lD"fB.'T : t§ : lf'lhO.,f•'f:y.: 1'.1J',�:f-lD"'c;' : f, m· 9°: 111 If •(l: (lh·'1,Y llJ<: m :,,la i\ : i11"C�A : fl OD)fy.. : 1PI\ ti : 1.rt\:i•: (©i) ODlf)-1: Il"'l'JflD": '1i'1.�--f·A-!: 11,,P: 'l"lF:t- = DD1°1F1 ..: h� "r�lD"': 't:C�: f1·l· : OD1f1•'1: (l<fv-'rC: j/rjfi./fi.c; : fl1°7�,;': nh"},1t;,.o:1·t: 01� o-tc9° on1f1,,n n,,,...'rc "QY.1.t/9.�= noiz.111 ODOD1 J10, , : o uw1onAh1·· fh•'l '}flD": )l&,n,J"�:}.__: ;,,"l'J'i: fh ,'l'Jfm?}: ,e...1 ,(1: ,J...ta.At..PA: (t, t\"": h·'11fm•: 'h'}.Pi. &..Clt'i: fh·'11,,<'0J.i : ,h.lt·ll: flPJ.fflJ?-: d1.'1•(1 : 11«at?->-:f: 1\1,'trioo•: c,::c.r.· fl,,f:'J mf,cf>'PA==au/,\{)= (1611''1'= fh·'11fm·= �,1otJ,.re'f= fh·'11,,fla¥}: �1-0: 'l"I\At.<f>A: llOl/t\-l-: h·'l'JflD": 'h,'},1c;, t.Ch'i : ,l1,lt-O: i'\fllt: },1?1cfl9°: fmf4!fi'1··: 9°h1f;l. :;:-

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r� :;: = =

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- 174 -

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= = = f.°l'l� = 1� 1 = ht\ = F 'I = Fco,1: = ov:}f..A :

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�� : "1/'1fl'r : 'l'i : C1P'6- : l\f. : 'lfl(l.};,. -: /Llf"} : Wf.'J° : ,h..'10·"}: (lOl/..fllJ t.n:i• : 7.ltf.'}, : (lfl,l\ : ttn(LV·'i :f.'i: fl"'l1fll.i"7rT-: ODt}hA : IY ', : mf.,'J° : 0 flt\hti(t.V"'i:f. : i\C{l : C1Cl}:fll}4: mf.'J° : 0-'t�ti+c>:f. : flCY:'i' : Cli--<&llJllJt 91:µ: ODi}hA: f"1/1fl�"} :P'6 ': fiDY.oo flhT: 1--P,f.,: f"'l!1"1(Dc: hChC: tDJ!,'J°: 1.-1,cn = o•tt- = f"'i-10�'} oortf a.:i- = t\"'l.Pi.fCD4 n,1,oi �c.�· = n.:i-= J?,+ C fl A :: fltLU'J°: l."lf.': i\,.C'"}P,"}.';,.: 'lt\tth(t.f" }: f"11Cl'r1: 'P'i: ODP'tf: '1..'l·'i: fflt\PAl1J)·1= �ex-- = n,.. 1.= tt.r:�"li'i = 00 'i tf i1>;.0D C'J' ,,--�c: = "1/'i"f (O«'J° : 07 il;Jcrocf!f: 00 rtf'i : t\t\ T9° : f.U"} : foo "l(lft- : f'i:C� : {1:,• : Wl. 4>)tr::,_.· : V•lk· : 0IL.,('(D• :ttf.'" 6 ... 7i' : (1 f.. "}·fl : f.(t llJ Ir :: 'll\1-tn(lf·lf:f=: fl "'/"'ifl� : mf.'J° : 0-'t�hi"c>:f. : flCf.' : l\J!, : fl-1.. fll-l': l\ lD" = f D49°: hil: I)•/\-= ,1:,.�•0f/...f= t\m1'l\ mf,'J° n�mft�.,l·: fOIJ.f·l>Cft -l'= "'l'i:l 1--fli'b : ou��·fl : iillO:i" == m�l\l\lD" = 1·'1"1. : fOf/...(lmtu.t'J° : "1'111= fhfl· : "1/DD Ah:fa : i\�C.e: : (1..).. : noi+c•flll T: "Lltf}, ,: ..,...,ff.,1 1 : J!,+C'l/;\:: f-'tfuhi•c>:f : .. : hf..l. '1:flD": fl?.l\ = llI� :+1 : tD4il'I' : nc,.e, : h1J;.,U : f/1(Dc = !P/ilm"}cl'cl!<' m�•t\t\ : 7--'lh.: J1'1•f! : ti1Jtc'l'I' : 'Pt: ff..C;JIA : f.l\lA :: ll °1"°d fi?, :: OJJvl<=?n "�t,(1{) : .. e..1' 11 : fl h- A : ilt\,r f.. l."Im� : fP' 'I : P'CO:,,.. : 1-- � n1· = f�lnro•"} : nchc = 11�vt-�m- = �c� = fi»:'t• 'P;, = tif,(tmll}4 n<f! 9°n 'Jf�} : f�ro"�: OOif�w)" : -0.�: i,A1"+flillD·9°:: hij:,J--�t&: 'J!C..e, : Cl�-l": flP''I : P'CO,,.Ri g (ID�.,e.,A a fctlfiBW'} : hCtJC : f A,1--.:Pflt\(1,r : 'J° h"} fT : .fl �Cf.· : m•il1b � nfrltb,,,.8"1 if\� � f..V g r,,.rf..l1n:r1 = ,n;J'l! = rn1 f:i--= 1,u = f.eai '1�= �c..e, {1:t.. : lll�tlfri � luArft¥'1' !I

- 175 -

tliJlJA/l : OliJJ''P : f.e,'2q� : iJlJht\hf : l\1'�i.. 1i\fum4 : �o;q1 � 'l� : /\i'tc/>t . tll&' = t,cnc iJlJt\il = o.61h'P fDDt\tt•:i· i-

�n:» �� fl li!C..�" : =�

'1 : = : (u) .e<2q� : qr,. : 11.q1,.r : ,11 '21 iii\ li]{! .. J U J il , .. , ··�: t1 iJlJtr�- : ;,,;,'P.: it q, q, 9°: fl. Cfl lD": hfi,:Jv A'.r

fb;.l " : fu,• :

ftl;t-:)'"... : �C�' : l1.-l" : �� : '11?-i '} : ODUDt\hT� : §)},:{\ rrff119° : 1-.�r..:}··: q"}..e,',.!'/ ODUJ(l "}: <2:.eo;J'lD": 'itlC ! 0°1,�m•SfD: /ll�c, l: �<JJ�1: ij�: ;h°l'}: 'lft .. ODhTl"t\"'i: \1'J,,q>i,ro'1: UDlPl.;1-'£: ,.e..1,0: l}{iOV\&.. iaua : f0jJ";H.,.: �CJ!.": 0,:1:.: tinA: mil'fO;J-A:: 00:J""l": �C�' = (1�•9° = ro•ti�: lD"�'T: 'h1f..O-Z:rffm":UDAfl: n6f!> f,'t�nrf--e1:f, = nc�, = 1\1Jtnt10•0 ,1.. .,r..e.c1...9° �rf\... : 'P:J : fnm" c,· rari..y 'i> .t9° lD" f : : A A:,, f : . :J' Ol/.f1'� : {llJ il ft.a it (JJ . f '°J lf' r - � · 0 rri" Q;l,OllJ t : f O;1, :r : mT ,,, �C�· : CL:t-- : flonm(l>J : f :1:l\lD" : itil4' f:'l° = f h"'ll'J ,,fro•'} � �.. t,tirrl"C:1:,: 9°C rr <i ODIr 'i : hUD lrC : {l m:,,t\t\(&19°: /flIr (D : t19°1' : htA.?."} : h } 5!uurz,z. OD�... : '1 0D A n1'· _e<2q� = qr,. r;-v', FC01" 'rf..'t\:i.. = i'tn a.A� .fODtth, t-oY} m..f..':P = OOT/�'l'2: fnmro": ro-1}�: 00l/.1fl: ',ro•

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o(u) flfl,J•ODt\h'.l·lD": ncnc:

O(t\) lll\1"ouflh,J•(Dc: hcnc: UOA{l : 06L"'P: n,,.. (}t\tw: f1°1�' : h•'l'}f: (OJJ-10C) : ,,<'/\:fro": ttno.r·1 : t,1�' : h� : ftJA : lll\lJ''l : i-.'lll"l:·�: .e..--'J°�: llt\0t'f�:1:ro,c;: f.�'9°11 : ·OAlwJ.: f4'?-:,:C: q.f\ :i-- : h�: h O.\1·1: fl\TW" : m, f: OJJOl/¥1...: llil0l/.lf1 : m:l-1\l\m,: ·1--'l>i» : fOI/.OmlD" : ,o,ta�c.· : itll,J•ffir) .. : f01/.m :,,UIJ:fm.tc; fOTJ.et.q:fro, ll..tr1 .e:1:1\A 1 'l1c an = uoAll n6J.bcr = r h-111- f lD'= q(l},h(l .f·"} : f(f'J..;i.. : .eu1 : v-�:J" : ttro·+ro-,).•'i : rf-lf:.-J.--lD"11)_, ill\lf', : flh·fl "},flD": OUi"�f..tf: f.. "},{l : o,fP·TC: 9.li/9.iltli: f,ruoflh,J.•ro✓} : :J>A: m.e..<Wc;: 1"llOtJ9°,l"W": f'.1•4 0/t•T: 'Im•::

0(,1,) ilf\,f...00 llh'.l"lD' = ncnc = h,rh1rtit!P:f5 = t,11,�ro" = m11 nP'l = '11?-i : f,'2'1�: O.A: OnChC: 'Lil.: 06J.b�6bJ.k : oorz.omm": :t•'),.JJ•11c; : a,,I}��: i't•nc- .e"l'l� = i,·}.t;f,A fD'f.hflnA "•'2 = tiflon'r?-9° ol\.e llfl ,e,'111� = i-.cf>�l,O: .P''l: P'Co:i- : "•°l : i,1,.e.rJ•onflh,1•(Dc: OT/1�lD•9° : lD1"} : 1"ht-.l1t: 0.P'l: '11?-: f,"Jfl�: O.A: 06Ih� 66Lk: O.-J.--omro-9°: ;,)_--'),..,11 : .e,"}q�: l\{11/f\1•: · DD• OT = i'tilm• 1 OtLU : (li'tV•'I· : '11C: '?1: Oov111 fl· : 'h'}f..,t-1 (\f..(JJ<1: l1'i! 1•�lD' " �Cf: : '11" : llil : .P''l: P'CO,f: : (}<l'lO m•: hChC : 4,-.CT : flf', : ro«l});: tt,e OT : llt\: �&,: '11?- : '14'l0m•: hchc : :.>C: it 1�" : l\.e, : .emil'i A-= ll"'if\�• : ',l&': ft\�W" ::

- ..176 -

1'1t.e fl�u) h,.e....,..c1"/\h--1·cw = ODf.\fl fl61]>'P = .eoi'l� fl�= ,n 1.. , T(titA= ·(Lfl· ft cl't.ll·•!" : hchc: ti.-;..�: r,'?�·: ,11'1: fl'l' ...'rC : or1l:'i': or1i : f,f.. OD -' fnh OD l\h•l'lD"l : mcJ,(tcpf,\ :: flcJ>--.'l'C : 2fll; : r•l'�&.lD•: ,)1 '? : ( Lr-, : '11/'�flC : rorz.&.Cilfl,}•"} : 9°h,,,r:,. : fl.If."} : flcJ>...'l'C : or1i : f,l'�&.W' : ,1,°l : r'1iflW /\ hrl' .t : ,l1.. lt•fl: i',f1J t9>:.f, : ill\ UD ,.- 9°'i : ill\ : -;,;;ifC: ., (D" :: f,"J '1';1i : 'l�'P : fcJ,t..fl·:1- : hchc � fl.-J--'l/\ ◄:,.. : ,,,... 'l'e:.r... : fl1'�&.£Dc: ,)1°1 : ODlP/..T : r .. rr � (tm• OT/'�fl�-: 'h,>;.&.cil: /\�c�: a.:i,: 0'JODAh"1.. = t,"tf..' 'l/\i'lhfl r·, y_,:.}:I\A: fl'11/ /\ :,.-c; rai1fl� .. : UU•l•P.f..t.r : Y.."},fl: '1,t(t•: r,1�: ,n°l: fl ,,,..'PC: /;TI:U/;fa,%: frJ •�&.lD •"}: ,.),''J: Ollflrl"t.\'i': 'l,"}J'.: ,)1 1·: un&.'1.9°: .e·1'l'Pt.\ f fl,n1': : rrr� : f."}•fl: f,J -- �&.tD<i : li'l0f./\: f0'l"�fl,;.. : UCrJ•,V,f..t.r : f."},fl : h,),'? : {ll\ : If',: t\..lP b•fl:1.·: i'1.e1'1?11: f0 .'l t.\: :: '11C: "]"} : avl,\{l : (tti/}»<p: tiJ;.(t« : r, 01�· : ,)1oZ : flm,,,(t.:J-.. : fl,,-- ,...'l"' C : !!fl(; : f,J--ouf\hrl"W...: ,11'?.'l° : lf� : mf,'l° : n1> .. rC : Qf.J�: frJ•tIDf\h,J m•: ,1,'?: flTl/ifl� .. : lTDf»b-¥:.r: lDf,9° : 'l/\i'1 hfl. (111--,c1 c r -•1 �-'f1-- = 0'.,'l .rmm ,ro,J•P...e.tf f.1•0: OJ"fl'r: "7'i':,!ro ·9°: n(Jl/'�fl� .. · . • OT 1> ?11h'},C' ;l.: f f. '1 /m•: hchc: i',fl cl>�--qo: /\ '11/")fl�: ffi1'1\I\: 1--'l>.,: <17Cfl: i'1ll ,J-ff1·'i' : lIJ•til : ti,e(l'f'fl•1" : m.e. : �C� .. : £1.)· : i',,ecpC,,fl?°: fUCJ..t.\ : .:J't.\ : h1Pi J?, 'I.'�-: it ,e t1 /\ tJ A 9" ¾ f, U : 'h1 f. ll.. U : .r /\ m•: {l 9° 9° ',•)" c,·: f"7 "�flC: av •I'P,f..t,,r : ,e.;"°: ,n1l•fl'} : f0'l..1°Pi'i: {l,) 1"1: f,J"h/\h/\ : 'i'lC: ill\,ef../\ : (D•l,\"} : /\ UD'P'f'A: rUJJ.,rfl"f/\ lD"1 = ,n;,'l! .,�� --l.· = r,1,.h,1--/\ fl'/°9°'11.--c; e.111 r,m◄ .. fl'P---'rC: /;t1:ujif�%: frl" OV/\h•rm.i: il,"l: '?Yu;J--: ft\ flr)•'}: '11C: 11:f!: r02.. UlJt\h;l,. : �(D.t ;: /\ 9"/){b : fl1"1.. �': ,)1'1: fl'P"'l'C: �fI(i) 1'1f.. : rf•',1t.. ro,c : flt\ : dJA: lfl/"1flC: f'11/'\flt....rt;0:.1.: '''"'PC: t.\h: lDf,9'1: fl' P"-'l"'C: l:r7e: ___ .,.... 'h"}J'.•l:•UV/\ ll•l"llr: {l(l: 01'\fl�: <pc;: 111111= o0 m"}: mf,9°2 fl<l "'J'C: ��" frl;: ,\1F..1•ovf\h..t•(Dc: flt\: i'-thn .. V·"} : '11/"1flC: fl9°: t,wt,C: mf,9°: fl'l' ...'l'C: [fl: }\ "}f..rf"OD/\hri'm•: {ll\ : i',h(l.f·"} : (Jl/"�flC : 'P'i : 111111 : oom'}'i: t\,ftOJ<"}'f° : ,eu; : foo(lf\ m•,: dJfo;r : fi'-t/\(lr)•"} : '11C: ',CD":: flJfOD'i'f!: .P,(1: UD;J1tf: "}"}�: '11/��nc: ODrf" P..e.tf : .�,..fl : h1f...,i"011f\h1·m• : mJ.1,. : �C.�" : f1..-1• : f01J.. ,J,Cflm· : "71fl�1 : \1°'lOD/\h1·. : hChC: U•lr : fl9°1 : Of,',,).. : on,1.�--c;: /»� : FCOrl• : ODcpt.,"(1 : h "} f..0 'l.1'l lD•: ..e."} •fl : 01/ f1J :1.. c; : ODilOT/ CJTJ,).. : ,)1 1: 'I' : ',1C : {l" l,\ rr ·, : h.1 J1. l'l.U : f/\OY} : ,,e_'},,fl: oi1-�nt..•l--'<r:t: : mf,'l° : 'l/\i',hn.V·'fi:: U•/\ .. : /\..rh"n�:, .. c;: -& fl. ,7,. 00•1': J!,1 '1/.\:: 1' ,J;..u-- 9° = o0 All = (161!•'1" flOI/'\fl� = m1>1\I\ 1 '1'1:. : f"7''1 n�1 : F b- 1 --�' n:1.. c;- : flOl/ ")fl� : ilwit,C: r,t-h1«fl,)--1: ,r>,;J-- : /\ 00 '1.t\?i": o.�--A : ill\ ar1.f11-'i: OD "l '1 '1 :,. t; : ll ,-u 9° 'I ,,l • : n. °1 .f:l'19° : fl/\ {Ill :1:t.\ oi1 "'i fl�: flOT/..J'e. .. c1 lD" m;,,It It : ·r'li'b: l\UDt\il: (l6JJ''P: '1°1'1°: m.41 01..: m•m:i..: i'1 ffl1�9": 001//\;I.. f4'lflar: ncnc ...,.. 10.. �· 'P;, fn.m· = ncnc oofl� itt.\.,.1'1"1'1° u•/\ ..t: m1'i:.f.. m,e 9°: (l 9':.1�: nOD tihIt :e:{De : fOI/. ',V/ (De : 0'/ 'i:fm•'f°: ?,,,a c; : hCh C: ..e.: i',{l;r b-'f : 7i01/ a.i l'b : er8, C fa : fl�ii01j °l lb: 1\1 .c;.m(l "} 'i ": flitfl;r b-1! : "li l1'/ '1 fb : ti f,:1' f,'i: ltf.,m(l'}: OJJ!.: �c� : fl»rrl•: i1.v,_e,,pc,fl: fl£D"A: f1•fl0'/00•: 7\ "}.. e.: (f ',: {lODt} hl\:J:m. fct �°lro": i-Ot; = ncnc hll'I'f."'l° mJ.1-. = i'lil:l"b-4! 7il1'Jailb 4'cn ti.e:Juf,c;: ti ero(}'J = n,l',r;J.. rof. = (i:C..�-- = 11:.t" /\ °1:,'l•O i:t/\CPJ,e;:A ,,eu9° = " Yo"�•: '!"UC.= f,U1'1t-: fOD()d\ g lli\ : (f�: fl°'l"ifl�: OD..-r.P,..e.tf: �,•O: 'l1. "}f..rl'OD llh,J-- w•c; : � ftdl ti ft. f"'a:9: : 1\1 f...--l"fl °'I {ID•fl:i, : itll cJ>J.'.."'l° : fl 0'11 fl� : m:,.It I\ : 1· flh.: ov:irl"lfl: Jt;\O:.U· ::

r;i:r /\ti1-lD :

(D.tti/}»

',(D.t

(D•

- 177 -

= = (D

.....

&m, . OtLIJ s (1'6".l'l� : 'i!CJ.!· : '1:i" : hll,..l•ff:t-- = htlU = 0.1a.e g it1f..1"1t\ . : « OD/,\{l : (l6J:b'f : (101/1'1tr : OlJrl•};l,.t,f : f..1-0 g f..rttmftih i"ffl '} � li9'°9'°�-}-� : •• dJ!u:J"' : 01/tiOC : lll\tt'l:l:lD"'i' : hlt:ftIY} : fl�C�" � it�-� : h�:r\lQ:t�ro,: 1 d :r « �'ltr1: fl01/ 'i(ltr: m:,,1\1\ : .,,... q�: ,,.,:,,l1l: Ii.. tfC'lr@ : h� r�m � �c�'&: f1: : t c -_ev, : '1'6DDtth:i" : iltt : P'� : P'CO � : f j,l(ltD<} = nchc � df!,:J � ODl/'1")-r: h't:�: �'l'r: lD"il'P: 'l•flrf,,: lD"'1�: (lun ilm rf:: : rf"�fa:f.. Jul\ :: t

n�:

'h1J;.�9° : ,,P,r'I- : f,"l�� : q,e : flh�--t'�OJ"' : �C�"' � fi,,�.« : Ort'h'17i : hti 1 01 7i�:,. = DD&\il = (l6Lb = l\'6 = f<l'lllOJ" = nil : Atn : (i�'P = fatt\iihf'lr·1 = �:i-- = {11111:i, = ll.'it:-:fm "' = '1,e1lJ9° = f01/.A = � llui = i 1\ 1�,.Lu = fftOJc9° 1 tiil'i' : tiCtiC : OJf. : 'i!CJ.!" : fL1:·: hDD'Pllr : flkv'I· : 002/"�(l?, : on;,� f..tf: 1'111 = O<r-'PC = :t;� = 1i1f..--rOD/\hT{&I = /\"'11fl?,: ,n;piltit = 1--()lb: oo�, . f4'lflm•: nil: l11: ft..1�l&': h'i!i";;:lD': 'i!C�': fl,,)· : f,IJ: '1·•'1"h'17i = hti7i�,l·: flJ-�: UD/,\{l: (161}»: '14>lft :'f•: till: ,:JC: '11i--}ir'l": fi\a1J"?°: 11n.D: flUDW(l'}: tJ(l,"} I ,,f(l'j"(l,f"lD": h'i!� : �1'r : £&til'P : 1•fiirf : {lj\l.f1) : (llt,1)9° : flh•t\ : rpq{t ,Y.h/,\::

nttu-..s:=

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�r

ilfltLIJ = htf..lJ: 01\f, : (1,t-ttltllaJ": ;,,.�1! : �h'J ,..f.. : _eaiq� : () � : fcrt. .. lJ ,1 l&'1 = _e "1 � = .,,. + fl1 = h<t:»t�m... = <t:c�- = t11." = r (lmm•1 = w• ti�t; = ,):-'h ff 11 7il�'P I,\ :: UV Ail : (\6Lh'P : flf.°lq� : 'l� : h..ltb• : i',"} f..· : OlJyY,. : h?°t'} : 1lC : �1};.h't:ftc: :J"!LA:: h'i!"l";;:w-: 'i!CJ.!": fL�·: m·'11llr'i': :1.--htltr: onif�1: J,'})t .t = ,.��flrl· r: f.lJ:: lD'/ . W•<f, (D t�: ,�: rtit,)--: . cf>'}: Iflr.!ll;: '¼: 9°=0"JA�= !;_ �-��=1-(lm�

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- 118 -

•

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. A Tl1e ADDIS ABABA MODERN BAKERY S.A. v. YVONNE NOUMAIR Civil Appeal No. 1159/54 E. C. Co1npa11y law, - - Articles o" Assocza • tion · • - rree I':'. dom o,J contract - - Appeal from interlocutory order - 'J A rts. 495 , ·496 a11d 1177 C0111111. C. •

On appeal fron1 a l-ligl1 Court judgment aUowing a petition by respondent for winding uf> of ap�llant company. He!�: . Appeal allowed �� the ground that compliance with the procedure set out in the Articles of Assoc1at1on \Vas a prerequ1s1te to the right to sue in court for winding up. 1. The parties _to the Articles of Association of a limited company are free to provide that a share holder, before a�ply1ng to tl1e courts for tl1e winding up of the company, pursuant to Arts. 495 ·and 496 of the Con1merc1al Code, sl1all first submit his claim to a general meeting of the shareholders. . 2.. �othing in the law precludes a party, after final judgment in a case, from appealing an order given 1n interlocutory proceedings.

Yekatit 29, 1955 E.C. (March 5, 1963 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Taddesse Mengesha, Dr. William Bul1agiar, Ato Taddesse Tekle Giorgis: - Tl1is appeal arises out of the in corporatio11 of a limited compa11y on November 24, 1956 (G.C.) under the nan:ie of ''The Addis Ababa Moder11 Bakery S.A." with a capital of E$200,000. There are three share l1olders only, viz. the t\VO brothers Nicolas and Costas Georgakas holding 68 shares of E$1000 eacl1, and the present respondent who acquired 64 shares. By JJetitio11 presented in tl1e High Court the respondent declared that she holds 64 ordinary shares in tl1e appellant con1pany representing 32% of the share capital of the compa11y; tl1at sucl1 company is duly registered in the High Court of Etl1iopia under serial No. 6/49/9 and i11 the Ministry of Commerce and Industry under registered No. 498/51; a11d asked the Court to order tl1e diss'olution and winding up of the compa·ny and appoint liquidators on the grounds that the directors have transgressed the law and tl1e Articles of Association of the company in that: (i) no general meeting was ever convened and held, thus: contravening heading V of the Articles of Association and Article 362 of the Commercial Code; · _ (ii) the directors have taken ·money from _the· company's cash, registetjng the same as a Ioa11, th11s contraveriing Article 34 of the Articles of Association and Article 357(1) of the Commercial Code;. (iii) no report or ,,erification of ac�counts w_as ever �:ubmi_tt�� _ l?Y the __directors nor a balance sheet d11ly audited ever drawn., thus_ contraverung Article 3_8 of the Articles. of Association and. the relevant prqvisions _of the Commerpial G9de; and (iv) for a whole period of five years since the constitution of the company no audit balance sheet, ·no profit and · loss �ccount \Vas ever sent �o ·the re�pon4ent and •

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d or i11forraed l1er of tl1e situatio 11. ide div any her to ted oca all er n. nev ors ect the dir In defence tl1e appellant company JJleaded defe �ts in the petiti_on on (a) procedural grounds and (b) on gro11nds of s11bstance. The appellant als� p_ut 111 a cou11terclaim for an order that the 64 shares acq11ired by tl1e respondent are void 1n la\v fo � lack of a valid consideration; the Higl1 Court dismissed the defence both on fsrou11ds 01 procedure and on substance and also rejected the cou11terclaim for a declarat1011 �hat the 64 shares ac quired. by the respondent are void. This is an appeal from tl1at JU dgrnent of the High Court. The grounds of appeal are s11bstantially the same as t11e grounds of tl1e defence filed in the High Court. These grounds are set out in detail both in tl� e de�e11ce to the petiti011 in th.e High Court a11d in tl1e Memorandum of Appeal lodged 111 tl11s Court.

As regards tl1e procedural defects of the petition the appellant referred to Articles 56, 51 and 61 of tl1e Articles of Association of the company; tJ1ese Articles provide as follows: ''56. Sho1=1ld the company be \vound up for any reason or c,1use whatsoever, the com pany i11 general meeting and under proposal of tl1e Board of Direciors shall decide upon the metl1od of winding-up, appoint 011e or more liquidators and fix their powers. The meetjng of sl1areholders 1nay revoke the liquidators and appoint others. ... '' ''51. The company in Ge11eral Meeting may ... decide the \vinding-up of the company or the continuation of tl1e same notwitl1standing the loss of half the capital thereo·f. ..." ''61. All disputes and contestations which might arise during tl1e life of the com pany or duri11g tl1e liq11i dation, be it betwee11 the sharel10Jders and the com pany or tl1e share11olders themselves, the Board of Directors a11d the auditors, regarding tl1e business affairs of tl1e company shall be subn1itted to tl1e Courts of Justice or the Head Office of the Company. •

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Each collective action or even individual suit by one or several sbare l1olders agait1st the company or its Board of Directors must beforehand be submitted to the General Meeting an d the opinion of tl1e said General Meeting will be attached to the statement of claim when submitted to court. The Board of Directors must within 15 days of such notice call for a General Meeting to give an opinion." The High Court dismissed these submissions on procedure by saying simply that they are of no value. It is impossible for this Court to know what considerations tl1e Court had in mind in so holding, for no reasons are given for reaching this conclusion. In reply to the appellant's points· on proced11re the respondent in l1er reply to the . Memorandum of Appeal submits: (a) that the appellant company was in default· in. the lower Court and had no locus standi; (b) that _the lo�er Court was un der an obligation to decide tl1e case on the merit s �nd it was r1ght that the appellant had refused to obey the law· and further that it would have been useless for the respondent to ·call for a general meeting;_ �_nd _ (c) that the appellant d1d not lodge an appeal against the interlocutory dec ision and therefore the appellant is now estopped from arguing that point. As regard s (a) it is correct, as the appellant submitted that even if the company was - 180 -

THE

Annrs

ABABA MODERN BAKERY S.A.

YVONNE NOUMAIR

in the wror1g _(which is denied) the procedural requirements had to be complied· with in· acc ordance with tl1e stattite o� association. As regards (b), it may be tl1at the opinion or the _restilt of the general -meet�ng would no t be in her favour as s11.e was one shareholder against two wl1o held the maJority of the sl1ares; but this was a.matter which was well _ known �o. �er when sl1e _s1gn �d· th� �rticles of Association, and with tl1is knowledge of the possibility of st1cl1 a s1tu�t1on ar1� 1ng s11e agreed to the provisions of Articles 56, 51 and 61. As rega_rd: (c), there 1s _ notl1_1n � in tl1e law which prevents a party to a case from a_ppea�1 11:? on a11 order given 1n 1nterloct1tory proceedings when final judgment has been given; it 1s unfort �nate that there is the idea amongst many litigants and advocates that unless an a_pl?eal _ 1s made from an interlocutory order immediately, then they are pre�luded from ra1s1ng tl1e poi11t on wl1ich decision has been given when final judgment 1s given_; futhermore, the Court did not make a specific order on this point; the High Court simply stated tl1at the poi11t on procedure would be decided togetl1er with other in tl1e case. matters . . ' A � regards point . (b ), it may be further. stated tl1at the respondent made reference to Articles 495 and 496 of tl1e Commercial Code. Article 495 lays down the reasons for ,vllicl1 a share compa11y may be dissolved and Article 496 deals with the appointment and removal of liquidators. Tl1e argt1ment of tl1e respondent ,vas tl1at under these Articles a shareholder may apply to the court for the dissolution of the company, and that being the la,v under tl1e new Commercial Code the provisions of Article 1177 had to be com plied with and tl1e Article of Association dealing witl1 matters of dissolution l1ad to be in accordance with the new Code, and if tl1ey were not, then tl1ey were to be considered as illegal. There is nothing, l1owever, in Articles 495 a.nd 496 or anywhere else in tl1e law ,vhjch prevents tl1e founders or the sl1arel1olders of a company from providing in the Arti cles of Association that before going to court any dispute is to be co11sidered by a general meeting; tl1is is not a matter wl1ich is against public poljcy and therefore the freedom of contract remains intact. Article 1177 of tl1e Commercial Code refers to matters whicl1 are mandatory, sucl1 as tl1e nun1ber of members i11 a private limited company (Article 510(2)) or tl1e 1n.irumum of capital in such a co1npany (A.rticle 512) or of a sl1are company (Article 306) or th,1t a sl1are comJJany sl1ould l1ave the words ''Share Compa11y'' inclt1ded in tl1e 11ame (Article 305) and. similar Articles. The provisions regarding the procedure necessary before bringing a case to court, such as are included in the Articles of AssJci ation of tl1e appella11t com_pany, are not illegal and therefore have to be observed by all members of tl1e co111pany. Also, it is not a valid argument to say that the general meeting would not have achieved anytlung favourable to tl1e argume11ts of the respondent; at the general mee ting she would I1ave l1ad tl1e opportunity of airing her grievances; it is possible that some agreeme11t would have been reached or some compromise; in any case, wl1atever the result would l1ave been, it wot1ld be up to the court a.fter considering the opi11ion o� the gene: al meeti11g and after l1earing sucl1 evidence as might hav� b�en subID1t! e� to_ 1t, to decide finally ,v.l1etl1er tl1e grievances of the respondent were JUStrfied, and � f. JUS� ified, whether there is a oood reaso11 for the dissolution of the company. The pos1t1on 1n the present case is similar to the case of two parties who agree to subnut any dispt1te b�twe�n them to arbitration; in this case tlie parties cannot come to cot1rt except when arb1trat1on pro ceedings have failed to give any result. For these reasons th.is Court holds that the High Court was wrong in holding that t11e defence 011 the procedure adopted by the respondent was _without value; the respon . dent sl1ould 11ave submitted tl1e dispt1te to the ge11eral meeting before coD11ng _t� coun . and the lligh Court was wrong in entering on the merits of the case; the prov1s1ons of

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the Articles of Association are to be complied with first, before starting proceedings in · court. Tl1e High Court also dismissed tl1e counterclaim of the app� llant. This action in counterclaim suffers fron1 tl1e san1e procedural defects as those raised by tl1e appellant against the action of tl1e respondent in t� � Higl1 Co�rt. T�1e appellant company alleges that the shares of the respondent are w1tbo11t con.s1derat1on and are, therefore, void This is a disput� or a contestatio� between tl1e r_esl?ondent (a s11.areholder) and the company: and under Article 61 of the Articles of Assoc1at1011 sucl1 a d1spute sl1ould beforehand be submitted to the general meeting; this has not been done, and before the court can take cognizance of th� matter, the opinion of the general meeting sl1ould be given. For tb.ese reasons tl1e High Court was again wrong in entering on tl1e merits of the counterclaim' and on this point the judgment of the High Court should also be quashed. . .

The appeal is therefore allowed and the judgment of_ tl1e I-Iigh Court js quashed. The respondent shall pay the appellant the court fees of this appeal according to receipt and costs of E$150 for the proceedings in the I-Iigh Court and in this Court•

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. A FOGSTAD WOODWORKS LABOUR UNION v. JAKOB FOGSTAD Civil Appeal No. 1381/55 E.C. Labour relations - - Po}ver or Labour Rea l trons · Board to grcLnt extensron for e11force111e11t of order - Decree 49/54 .E.C. (49162 G.C.). Procedure - - Need for opinion of Boarcl when acting as quasi-judicial body.

On appe.al from decisjon of Labour Relations Board rendered without opinion extending time for enforcement of order. lle{d: Tl1at the Board's procedure violated Art. 19 Decree 49/54 E.C. in that i t was rendered ,vith out opm1on. Rel _ations Board is a quasi-judicial body and as sl1ch possesses tJ1e inherent power 1 . . The Labour _ to grant extensions of time for enforcement of its orders. 2. The Labour Relations Board, like courts, must give reasons when exercising a discretionary power to n1ake an exception to accepted procedure.

Maskaram 6, 1956 E.C. (S eptember 16, 1963 G.C.); Justices: Afe11 egi1s K.itaw Yitatek11, Dr. W. B11hagiar , Ato Taddess e T ekle Giorgis: - This is an a1J1Jeal against a decision give11 011 Nal1assi e 22, 1955, by the Labour R elatio11s Board by virt11 e of whicl 1 the respond ent was allowed a p eriod of tim e witl1in wl1icl1 to satisfy tl1e d.ecisio11 of tl 1e Board given 011 Nahassie 1, 1955, as confirmed by tl1is Court. Tl1e appel lant app ealed against th,1t decision under Articl e 19 of tl1e Labour Relations Decree (Decre e No. 49 of 1954), th e point of law b eing tl1at t11e Labot1r R elations Board had 110 power in law to grant an extension of time for the enforcement of t.l1eir decision.. The po\vers of the Board are mentioned in Article 12 of tl1e said Decree; paragraph (a)(iii) of this Article gives t l1e Board the power ''to enforce its decisions and awards by appropriat e mea11s." Tl1 e r es1Jondent sub1nitted tl 1at tl1is powe r i11clt1des the power to grant an extensio11 of tim e for the satisfaction of a decision given by tl1e Boa rd. In the opinion of this Court the words, ''by appropriate 1ueans," mean the ma1111er in whicl1 execution of th e d ecision is to be carried out for tl1e purpos e of th e matters mention ed in paragraphs (i) and (ii). There is nothing in the D ecre e \vhich specifically me11tions the po\ver of the Board to grant or not to grant an extension of time for the fulfilment o·f a decision relating to payments of money to employees. . There is no q11estion that the Labour Rel�tions Board exerci� es quasi-j�dicial func tions, a11d as s u· ch it is invested with the same 1n. l1erent pow ers \Vhich tl1e ordinary cour ts ' exercise. Tl1ere is also no q11estion that althougl1 the principle in tl1_ e o� dinar.,y courts is that a judgme11t is to b e executed imm ediately, the courts hav e a d1scret1onary power to allow tl1e judgme11t debtor ti1ne to satisfy the judgment d e�t v�l1en the co11 r t finds_ good reason for so doing; in doing so, however, the court must give rts reaso11s for making an

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exception to tl1e accepted principle. The Labour Relatio11s Board in the exercise of qua •_ jud.icial powers is i11 tl1e sa�e positions as. a court of Ia,.v. For t�es� reasons this co::t holds tl1at the Labour Relations Board l1as 1nl1erent P�� ers to granc time for tl1e executio of its decisi_ons: In the � resent case, howeve�, the d c1s1on of tl1e Boa� d does not give th� 7 for tl1e execut1011 of the decisio reaso11s which induced 1t to grant an extens1011 of t1me and this is a serious procedural fault.. This Cot1rt �s not s�ying t�1a�tl1ere. were or th�t there were not good reaso11s for grant1n � a11 extens�o_n of time; tl11s �ourt 1s only sayin _ tl1at _ such reasons are not n1ent1oned 1n the dec1s1on ,vl1en they sr1ould l1ave bee; mentioned. For the a bove reasons, this Court finds that the Board's pro�edure violated the law _ _ and under Article 19 of the Decree returns tl1e case to the Board with tl1e directive that the Board give its decision giving tl1e reasons therefor.

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- 189 -

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. 6 N1rs. MARY SHATTO ,,. !'Jr. THEODORE SI-IATTO Civil Appeal No. 724/56 E.C. Jurisdictio11 for homo/ogatio11 of divorce - - Domicile - - Arts. 183 and 184 Civ. C.

On appeal from a judgment of the High Court denying_ �he petition for hoi:nolog_ation ?f � divorce pronounced by the family arbitrators on the gro�1;1d t�at pet1_t101;1er, wl10 ,vas resident 1n Eth1op1a for six years and had l1is business here, was not don11c1led 1n Etl11op1a. Ifeld: The petition sl1ould be granted, as the petitioner is domiciled in Etl1iopia witl1in the meaning of Arts. 183 and 184 Civ. C. 1. At least one party to a divorce must be don1iciled in Etl1iopia. in order for the Court to h.ave jurisdiction to homologate a decree of divorce pronounced by tl1e family arbitrators. 2. The fact tl1at a person may change his don1icile in the future l1as no effect on his present inten tion to be domiciled in Ethiopia. Zissos v. Zissos, Sup. In1p. Ct., Civ. App. No. 633/56.

Megabit 8, 1956 E.C. (March 17, 1964 G.C.); Justices: Mr. G. Debbas, ,.\to Mengesha W. Amanuel, Ato Haile Ama11: - Tl1is is an appeal against the majority decision of the High Court (1st commercial division) dated 16th Hedar, 1956, in C.C. No. 320/55, ,vhere by the majority of the Court, excluding the Presiding Judge, tt1rned down a petition by the appellant for homologation of a divorce duly pronounced by family arbitrators on tl1e 1st of February, 1963 G.C. Tl1e learned majority ruled that tl1e respondent is not ''domiciled'' in Etl1iopia and denied jurisdiction to tl1e Ethiopian courts to entertain the said petition. All tl1ree judges ruled, on the otl1er l1and, that both parties or at least one of them, should at tl1e time of the suit, be resident a.nd domiciled in Ethiopia, if the petition is filed by foreigners. Therefore, the only dissension in this case between tl1e majority and the minority is the question of ''domicile''; on that latter point ce11tres the disagreement between the majority and the minority of the Court; and we shall immeiliately proceed to define donlicile under the Civil Code. The best articles regarding '·domicile'' in the Civil Code are Articles 183 and I84(i) which define ''domicile'' under Ethiopian law. Article 183 of tl1e Code sets down the elements that constitute don1icile, namely (a) that tl1e person has established in su_ch pla�e tl1e pri�cipal seat of his business and interest a11d (b) tl1at such person bas the in· _ tent1on o� l1v1ng t� ere perma11ently. This intention of living permanently is to be presume� from Article 184(1) of tl1e Code wl1icl1 defines the presumed intention as follo ws: " ... if ave a person h as estab li to sl ed � his norm al ed resid ence in presu a m place, he shall be � _ _ the 1ntent1on of res1d1ng permanently at such place.'' Those being the factors that constitute ''doniicile'' we have to find out if the res ce cen li his po·ndent was or was not, at the time of the suit, ''domicil�d'' in Etl1iopia. From

- ·-190 -

MRS. MARY S1-IATTO V. MR. THEO DORE SHATTO

issued by the Nlinistry of Co · un der No. 2186/54, 1't 1s • mmerce and Industry of Ethiop1a, · clear t_hat_ the respond�nt is_ a ''�afari outfitter'', carrying on his own privat business e . s arrived in t41s country six years ago on a contract with the· Ministry in Eth1op1�- 1:'e h� of �duca�1on , �tit _he left the _ work for which he had come and ·began his own private business 1n Ethiopia, as safar1 outfitter, and was released a Foreigner's Indentity Card N�- T749, renewable every year, by tl1e- Ministry � - f Interior, Security Department-. Those being the facts, we _ c�11not u11derstand why and how the majority of the High Court could tur_n down tile pet1t1on for l1omo,ogation of the divorce pronounceq by th� arbitrators. It 1s �lear that tl1e resp ?11 �ent \Vas and is still ·a foreigner ''domiciled'' ih Ethiopia, and appl�11ng to us for_ a�plica �1on of the Ethiopian Civil Code to decide on the divorce pro ceedings. Tl1e maJor1ty thinks �pparently that t4e respondent may, one day, leave the country, and that tl1erefore, l1e 1s not a permanent resident of Ethiopia. The majority is · 011e can foresee, tl1e future, but \Ve should look certainly \Vrong to look to the future. No 110w at tl1e p�esent � i�cu�stances and at palpabl� facts..Tl1e fact that the respondent may change his dom1c1le 1n tl1e future has_ no bearing on the question of his present do micile, wl1icl1 is Ethiopia. From the evide11ce· adduced 'by the respondent, he has been living in Ethiopia for six years, where he ea·rns his·living in conducting l1is own independent safari bt1siness. What the respondent may be willing to do tomorrow has no bearing on his present domicile. Under the Civil Code, his present domicile ·is Ethiopia,· because he has established the principal seat of his business in Addis Ababa, arid is pi:esumed, under of tl1e Code, to l1ave the intentj_on of•living here· permanently.,· . Article 184(i) , . . t

This opinion of ours is supported by a former precedent in C.A. 633/56, - which also . in Ethiopia. concerns tl1e question of e�tablish. . ing domicile . ..

· Having thus established that the husband was·, at the relevant time, domiciled 'in Ethiopia, and whereas one of the parties, if foreigners, should at the ..relevant time ·be domiciled in Ethiopia in order to enable family arbitrators to entertain ·a petition for divorce, \Ve hereby rule that the. family .arbitrators have validly pronounced the .said div. . orce, as tl1ey ,vere so entitled to_ do by law. . Whereas the arbitral award dated 1st February, 1963 is clear on the fact tl1at both · and affection, trust and love · al mutu use beca rced divo be to t ough and husb and wife _ · ly arbi fami by ed ounc pron was it eas wher confidence no longer exist between them; arid trators who were entitled to l1ear and . determine the petitiqn for divorce, on the basis that at leas t 011e o·f the parties was dqmiciled in Ethiopia at the rel�va�t time; and w?er�as both husband and wife appeared befo�e us.�nd as_k�d for th� appl1cat1on of tl1� E� hiop�an Civil Code in order to determine finally their.Pet1t1on for divorce; we see no Justification to keep the matter pending any further.nd an sba 11. u t h. �l1a bot e rul l, a _ app � th� w allo ehy he� we , ing ego � for w In vie of tl1e wife are domiciled in Ethiopia, and declare tha� the divorce pronounced -by ,the a_rb1trators on the I st of February, 1963, has been validly pr�nounced, an d.that tl1e marr1ag� lved as _fr�m the _ d_ ate of the ties between both appellant an d respondent have been d1sso _ award, i.e. 1st February, l 963� Th is amounts to quash �ng �he m �J?r1ty op1ruon o� �he g d1n es1 the on Pr of 1rn op y r1t no m1 the e, cil mi do ing ard reg Lower Court and confirming, Judge. , ch ar M · of th 17 56 19 �t, . ab eg · M of y da 8th is th t Give11 an d rlelivered ir1 open Cour e th �f o, d sh an aa ne M da o Ki At r, ye law r he d an · 1964, in th e presence of the appellant respondent in person. ·· ' ·• ' . .. ' '

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FEDERAL SUPREME IMPERIAL. COURT· Div. 1 Ato ZERYHUN MAKONNEN & others v. The PUBLIC. PROSECUTOR. Federal Criminal Appeal No. 4/53 ·E. C. Penal laH' • • Conspiracy • - Art. 472 P.C. - · Participation - - Sentencing for concurrent offenc. es.

On _appeal from the Federal Higl1 Court appellant claims insufficient evidence for conviction and damage to property, and excessjvc sentence • of conspiracy on three counts of wilful bodily injury . Held: Federal High Court judgment affir med _ on the fallowing grounds:

1 : Evidence ,vas sufficient for conviction and the lower Court correctly held that a finding of conspiracy was only proper for offences committed against Arts. 538 (Grave Wilful Injury) and 654 (Aggravated Dan1age to Property) as these are serious offences within the meaning of Art. 472. 2. It is inconsistent with a finding of conspiracy under Art. 472 to hold several of the conspirators as accomplices to tl1e completed substantive crime; in view of the conspiracy, they must be co-offenders to that crime. 3. In cases such as this, of concurrent offences, the courts in assessing sentence should ta.Ice into account Arts. 82 and 189(c) P.C. (Ed. Note: The Federal Supreme Court was established by the Federal Judiciary Proclamation of 1952, Proc. No. 130/52. The Supreme Imperial Court was authorised to sit as the Federal Supreme Court, but when so sitting, it was to be con1prised of the Af�negus, a citizen of Eritrea and a person of proven judicial experience in another land, Proc..No. 135/53. It had original jurisdiction in matters between the t,vo governments and in actions against ministers and governn1ent officials; its appellate jurisdiction lay in reviewing decisions of the High Court sitting as tl1e Federal High Court, and decisions of t11e highest court of Eritrea where the case involved the Constitution, Federal Act, international law and treaties, ,vhere the validity of an Eritrean law was drawn into question· as being unconstitutional, or where the case involved federal laws designed to ensure the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental liberties. With the abolition of the federat1on, the jurisdiction of the Court necessarily ceased save for cases arising prior to abolition.)

Maskaram 13, I 954 E. C. (September 24, 1962 G. C.); Justices: Afenegus Taddesse iv1engesl1a, Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Bereket-Ab Habte Sellassie: - This is an appeal from convictio11 and sentence under a judgment delivered by the Federal High Court in Eritrea in its Ad111iralty Division. Tl1e appellants have not filed a full Memorandum of Appeal and the grounds of appeal must be understood to be, as r� gards conviction, that there \Vas not sufficient evidence on which the Court could convict and, as regards sentence, that the sente11ce awarded by the trial Court was excessive. T·he cl1arge agai 1 1st the appellants consisted of the following counts (a) conspiracy to con1mit serious offences against person and property contrary to Article 472 of tl1e Penal Code; (b) catising wilful bodily injury contrary to Article 538 of the Penal Code; and - 195 -

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JOURNAL OF ETI·IJOPIAN LA\V -

(c) causing wilful damage to property co11trary to lu-ticle 653 a11d Article 654 of tl1e Penal Code. · . tl 1 e Federal I-Iigl1 · Co11rt and is satisfied of This Court has fully 'e· xan1i11ed· tl1e record· tl1at that Court arrived at the correct fi11dings as to facts. It was sufficiently proved that the four apJJeliants en.tered !og�ther tl1 e store where Ato Amin Mohammed was workin·g; that -the first ap'pellai1ts l11t' h1m an. d cause· d him a fracture of the nasal bone; that the tl1ree otl1 er appellants, altho11gl1 not taking a11 active part in such assault, participa_ted. �y a��cj�ti11g themselves _ �n tl:e . as?ault. Sir_n ilarly as regards tl1e assault on Afo Teele Gabretristos wl1 0 s·uffered slight 1nJur1es, tl1at 1s, several contusions, the first and second appellants took an. active part in tl1e assault and the fourth appellant associated himself in the assault by not directly in.terfering but givi11g moral suppo·rt. The· assault on Mr·. ·Ekrtoh resulted 'in ·grave bodily harm, that is, a -n injury to the eye; the first appellant was assisted by the otl1 er appellants in this assa11lt. There is also no doubt that the appellants caused damage to proJJerty of the firm Veidekke Co.; the cost of repairing s11eh damage amounts _ t o between . E$250 to E$300, b11t .as -a result of such· damage tb� wo·rk ·of the·firm· was ·suspe11 ded ·for two days ·and the damage is cal culated to be about E$5,000. A? .r(?.gards.�he. cl1arge of co11spiracy tl1 ere is sufficient evidence from which tl1e federal High · Court c9uld infer that the appellants had planned both ()ie··assaults �nd tl1e d�mage to property_._· '.fhe_ Federal Higl1 Co.urt very rightly_ �e]d that the conspiracy cou}d. only b e in respect of th·e assault op. Mr. Ekrtol1 (which resulted 1 11 grave injury punisl1able under Article 538 of the Penal Code) and in respect of damage bodily _ tp_ pro.perty punisl1��le · under Article '6?4 of ·tlie _'�enal _Code, . tl1 ese b _ eing the serious offences within the meaning of Article ·472 of the Penal Code. That bei11g so t11is Court points out that once t11 e Federal High Court found that tl1ere was conspiracy in the com missior' i of tl1ese offences it was inconsistent with conviction under Article 472 to hold that tl1e second, third and fourth appellants were accomplices; in ·view of the conspiracy - . , . they. ·were co-offenders-. • · · .• · ·· • .. . . . . . . .. . . . It ·should finally be mentioned· that as t1rere is material concurrence of offences com niitted �y t,I1e �ppella�1ts· , . the· Co�_r_ts.,· .in assessi_ng s .·entence should have taken into con · r(icle� 8_2 and _1,89(c) of the: Penal Code; the Court may . -A, sidera_tion · th e_ provisions of have done so · without specifically- n1akij:ig ·reference to such articles in the judgment. This Court, havirig taken into consideration the said articles ·a nd· other matters concernino t��- p_ arti<?ip'ati9� of. thf' ap�el_�:��t;s ,_i�, th�.vari?US: :��enc�s,io'.f whfch �hey l1ave been found guilty, accepts the periods of 1mpr1sonment inflicted on each of the appellants by the Fe deral High Court; such periods of imprisonment are by no means excessive. For these reasons the appeal is dismissed and the judgment of the Federal High Court confirmed. �

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- 197 -

HIGH COURT Add1tS Ababa., Civ. Ct. No. 1 .

LA . CO Mr 1'IT v. CE SARRIS AN FIN OF RY ST NI MI E TH TE OF CA ADVO ... ., '· Oivil C,ase No. 782/50 E.C. ... ••

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'', Art. 13, Proc. No. 107/49 ds ''auto,naiically executive Taxation - - Appeal of t�x ass�ssme11t - - Wor · ·. . • construed. .. .. . Functio11 and duty of courts - - Exl1austion of administrative re111edies. •

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· - · Plaintiff-· advocate for the Minis tty-of Finance, brings suit under Art. 10 (1) of Proc. No. l01j49 ·ror personal and business taJCes allegedly due claiming inter alia that the decision of the Tax Commission of the Ministry of Finance in his favotrr is ''automat�cally executive'' u.nder Art. 13 of tl1e Proclamation. The defence� maintains that appeal.is pending ·against assessment in the Ministry of Finance and no tax may be claimed until that 'appeal is resolved; · · lfe/d: For defendant on the following grounds:

. f·. · s·urt is premature as the law provfdes fo'r an appeal by tl1e person aggrieved despite the deter n;iination of' ·taJC under Art. 10 (1) of the,Pro�Jamation. '. i.. The.:decisions ·of the collector or ·commission are ''automatically executive'', that is, require no ·further formality under Art. 13 ·:only after· approval by the Minister of Finance, and such approval · ·· may .not . be · delegated.· · · · · · 3. The words ''automatically executive'' do not deprive the courts of law of tl1eir duty to scrutinize decisions of the Ministry of Finance or its branches to ensu.re compliance with the law; on the other hand, it is improper for the courts to interfere in the assessment of taxes until administrative ren1ed.ies have been exhausted. 4. It is dishonest advocacy to bring suit without having previously ascertained that there are good grounds for it. , .. .

,(Ed. Note: Proclamation No. 107/49 has been amended; Procedure in income tax cases- is DO\V governed by Proclamation No. 173/61, especially· by Sections 54-63 of this Proclamation. Under the current law unappealed decisions of the Tax Authority, decisions of the Tax Appeal Commission, and court decisions in review of Commission decisions are immediately executive. The right of court review for _administrative findings of tax liability is expressly guaranteed.) ..

- Ouenbot -17., .195� .E.C. _(May 2�,. 1.959 G.C.); JucJges: Dr..w. Buhagiar, Kegnaz match T�g�gn · ab·e �h, _ Agafari Bekele A�gaw: - This is a claim brougl1t by.the Advo�ate · H of th�, �1mstry o_ f F�nan(?e_ for the pay�ent of the �um of·E$20S,448 in respect of person� .! and business· tax alleged ·to be due by the defendant, a merchant ·irr connection with his business of alcohol,·oil and· soap factories and flour mills. The a�ount of tax alleged to b� _due 'is· J?lade. . up as follows: . . ·.·. -� (a) in :respect ·of the alcohol factory, E$96,200 (including penalty) for the -years · · ·· .. : •.· ft9m _1941 to ·1948 (�.C.); . • _� . . . . · (b) .in respect: of :the. oil factory, E$34,500 (including penalty). for the .years i94o· and 1947 (E.C.); · :. ... .. .. ....... �. �

ADVOCAT.E OF Tl-IE MINISTRY OF FINANCE V ·

c·

MR . NICOLA SARRIS

· (c) in respect ·of· the soap factory E$34,500 · including penalty) for tl1e years 1946 ' and 1947; . (d) in respect of tl1e �o�r mills, E$40,248 (including penalty) after deducti the ng su m of E$4,500 paid 1n respect of th e total sum of E$44,748, 1or c the years from . to 1948. 1946 . In support of tl1is claim tl1e follo\vi11g Notificatio11s of Tax Assessme11t addressed to the d_efendant were. produced: (i) Notification No. 4�52/48 sl1owi11g the assessme11t of £$60,000 for tl1e years _ 1, 946 1n respect of tl1e alco from 19�1 to hol factory; this amou11t does not, of course, 111clude tl1e penalty; (ii) Notification N�. 4053/48 showing the assessme11t of £$20,000 for the years . 1947 and 1948 1n respect of the alcohol factory; (iii) Notification Nos. 4552/48, 4654/48 showing tl1 e assessn1ent of E$30'000 for the years 1946 a11d 194 7 i11 respect of tl1e oil factory; . (iv) Notification Nos. 4 553/48, 4655/48 sl1owi11g the assessment of E$30,000 for tL1c years 1946 and 1947 i11 respect of t11e soap factory; (v) Notification Nos. 4054/48, 4055/48 sl1owing the assessment of E$30,0 00 for tl1e years 1946 and 1947 in respect of the flo11r n1ills; (vi) �otification No. 3 564/49 showing the assessment of E$8,400 for tl1e year 1948 1n respect of the flour mill. Tl1e 1nain line of defe11ce of tl1e defendant is tl1at an appeal has been lodged agai11st all these assessme11ts and that 11 0 tax can be claimed until tl1ese a_ppeals have been con sidered and a decision given tl1ereo11. In support of this defe11ce the defendant prod11ced the following doc11me11ts: (a) Ex.h. D 2, a11 appeal to the Ta.x Appeal Commission concerning Notificatio11 No. 4052/48 concerning tax for tl1e years 1941 to 1946 in respect of the alcohol factory, a11d concer11 i11g Notificatio11 No. 4053/48 concer11ing tax on tl1e s,1me factory for the years 1947 and 1948; (b) Exl1. D 4, a11 appeal to tl1e Tax Appeal Con1missio11 concerning Notification Nos. 4552/48, 46 54/48 for tax on tl1e oil factory for the years 1946 and 1947, and con cerning Notification Nos. 4553/48, 4655/48 for tax on tl1e soap factory for tl1e years 1946 and 1947; (c) Exh. D 8, a11 appeal to the Tax Appeal Commissio11 concerning Notification No. 3564/49 concerning tax for the year 1948 on the flour mill. All the above exl1ibits sl1ow a receipt in hand\vriting by the officer in charge of receiving appeals. Witl1 regard to Notification Nos. 4054/48, 4055/48, i.e. the assessment of E$3 0, 000 for· tl1e years 1946 and 1947 i11 respect of the flour mills, the defendant produced Exh. D 5 and Exl1. D 6 · Exh. D 5 is a letter dated Tekemt 6, 1949 (Ref. No. 59/49/114/1) fro1n the _Ministry of Fi�a11ce to tl1e defenda11t by which the defendant is invited to effect settle ment, inter alia, of a sum of E$8,400 (plus E$1,680 as fi11e) as tax for the flour mill for tl1e year 1946 and of a siinilar an1ount for the year 1947. Exh. D 6 is a letter dated 6th Novem ber., 1956 from tl1e •defendant to tl1e Director General of the Imperial Inland Revenue De ' partment in whicl1 it is stated, inter alia, tl1at ''as far as the flour null is concerned we l1ave already paid- 011 tl1 e 25th April; 1956 tl1e amount of E$4,5 00 for t�e years 1946 and 1947 and this payment settles fully the Income Tax for the flour mill for th� years 194_6 and 1947. '' TI1is letter concludes \Vitl1 a request that the matter be reconsidered and if -- 199 -

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. JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW

..:_ VOL. I - No. 2

ttee of · tl1e I11land R�venue Dep i mm C y or s vi Ad · l a ri i � te in s M art necessary refe rred to tl1e nu 1d ve la1 e Dep art Re l1e In t _ by t eip ec r a s w o sli 6, D h. meilt Ex , me nt. 1�his docLtinent i ,,e tli e defen� 11t regar?in s w ly re1) t ha . w w o sl1 to h _ Ex 11g tl1i � � � � . ? (Ta.� Office). Tl1e re. i s no _ _ _ at1on, be tl1�t �s 1t rn ay,_ 1t 1s di fficul 1 1de ns co r de t1n ll 1 t s 1s r e a tt m t D 6, an d pr esumabl)' tI1e try 111s tl1e rvi1 of of Finance (Exb. ter let the ng 1di ta1 s itl1 t,v 11o , 11y w to co11ceive tl1e reason D 5) i11 whlcl1 the defe11dant \Vas a ske d to pay E$8,400 for each of the year s 1946 and 1947, tl1ere is 110w a clain1 for pay111ent of E$30,000 for tl1e sam e tw � years - ap_art from the fact tl1 at according to Exl1. D 6 tl1e defendant ba s settled tJ1e cla.1n1 for tl1e said two years. · Witl1 regard to tl1e appeals reFerred to. b� t!1e def�11?an.t . tl1e � d vocate for the plain �t 1on e1tl1 ra t s adm1n.1 s er that the defendant pla1nt1.ff tiff l1a s stated tl1at tl1ere i s no trace 1n tl1e filed i11 due co·urse sucl1 an appea.1 or tl1at tl1e Appeal Comn1ittee l1a s accep ted and dealt witl1 tl1e defe11dant's demand ; thi s is no fault of tl1e defendant, a. s tl1e Exl1ibits produced by lutn sl1ow clearly tl1a.t tl1ese app eals l1ave been received, a.n d the d efen dant i s entitled to a decisio11 before tl1e t a x ca11 be claimed. A11otl1er arg11n1e11t of the a dvocate for the plai11tiff is tl1at tl1e def endant has failed to com1)ly with the provisio11s of the Proclamation No. 107/49 and tl1e plaintiff was fully entitl ed, by vir tue of Article 10(1) tl1ereof, to demand pay1ne11t of sucl1 tax as in his opi1uo11 was due a 11d payable a11d sucl1 plaintiff's decision, u11der Article 13, was auto1natically ex ecutive . Witl1 regard to this argum ent it is to be poi11 ted out that i11 the first place no evidenc e exists befo re thi s Court to shov., that the defe11dant has failed to co1nply witl1 the provisions of tl1e Proclamat ion and that the tax l1as bee11 assessed u11der Article 10 of the Proclamatio11 - that the defendant ha s failed to comply witl1 t11e provisio11s of the Proclamation has be en de11ied by the defendant. 111 tl1e second place, eve11 if a tax is fix ed 1111der Article IO of the Proclamation, the law provides for a11 ap1)eal by t]1e person aggrieved. Thirdly, under Article 13 the decisions of tl1e collector or of the Commissio11 a re a11ton1atically exec11tive only \1.1hen approved by tl1e Mi11.ister of Fina11c e; tl1e decisions of tl1e Minjster of Finance and of the :\ppea] Con1nJittee become at1tomatically ex ect1tive witl1out tl1e n ecessity of any further for111ality. Now i11 tl1is case, if tl1e decision relied on for tl1e bringjng of tl1is claim is that of the collector or of tl1e Comn1iss io11, it m11st b e approved by t]1e l\.1inister of Finance be fore actio11 can be taken tl1ereon· ., a11d there is nothing to sl1ow i11 thi s case that such ap {Jroval has been give11. If the decisio11 relied on i s that of tl1e Minister of Finance or of the Appeal Committee, there is nothi11g to sho\v that either tl1e Minister of Finance or tl1e App eal Com111ittee has taken any decision. It is very important to point out that ) r fo s11ch approval or decision is not a ma tt er of mere mality; it is not something which is t o be assu1ned; i t is an essential i11gredient before any action i s brought for the enforce n1e11t of the claim for ta x and must be strictly proved; it is also t o be noted that the pov,er vested in tl1e Minist er of Finance i s a po wer wl1icl1 c annot b e · delegated; tl1e law makes r10 provision for such delegation. From some of tl1e arguments put for\v a rd during the trial, it also see ms that the advoc_ate fo� tl1e plai11tiff is of the opi11ion t hat tl1e words ''auton1atically ex ecutiv e" L1s ed 1n Article 13 of the Proclamation (No.· 107/49) n1ean tl1at any decision taken by the co]l�ctor or tl1e Commission or tl1e· App eal Committee o r tl1e Minister of Finan ce is not s�bJ ect to_ the control or scr u· tiny of the courts of l a\v. Thi s is a misconception; the Jaw gives various officer s a11d at1thoritie s mentio11ed in tl1e s aid Proclamation· various· po':"'ers ; these powers mt1st be exercised i11 a ccordance with the law , and a s they are po\vers _ wh1cl� afle�t �l�e property of the subject a11d 11ot just admi11.istrative power s, they must -� exerc�sed 1u11c�ally and not arbif:rarily; it is tl1e rigl1t of the subject to apply to.the.cou �ts of .law, and. it 1s tl1e duty · of . tl1e. courts of law to ens u re that the l aw is complie·d ·w1t!1 _ t �t the pow�rs veste an� d in any public officer or autl1ority are not .abused. Tl1us��f 11 � _can �':' s�own to a cot1rt of law tl1at a perso1 1 l1as bee11 taxed ess �in bu hi$ _ on profits in _ when it has been clearly proved to the taxing autl1ority the in ts pro fi tl1at there.. were no·

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ADVOCATE OF THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE· V . MR.

NICOLA

SARRIS

b11siness, such a de cision would ?e. a11 arbitr ary decision and would not be upheld by a court of la,v: On the other hand, it 1s not proper for tl1e court to interfere with assessme nt · · of taxes lintil the procedure laid do,vn by the Proclamatio1 1 has bee11 fulfilled. 0 11 e ftirther point whicl1 sho11ld be me11tioned is in con11ectio11 witl1 taxes on the alco�ol f� c�or y for the years 1941 to 1946; the defe11da11t cont ends tl1at tl1e present defend ant 1s no� liable for thes_e taxes as they co11cern Panayo tis Sarris; the plaintiff submitted tl1at by �1s O\VIl declaration No. 5328/45 (prod11ced as a11 ex11ibit) the defendant declared that he is the o,vner of t l1e .factory. Tl1 e defen.dant I1as prod11ced t,vo documents, Exh. D 1 and D 2; from Exh. D 1 it aJJpear s tl1at Pa11ayotis Sarris assigned the business to his son and tl1 �t f:om 1946 taxes are to be clain1ed fro1n tl1 e son, the prese11t defendan t. Tl1is doc11n1ent IS Signe � by the Chief Accou1 1tant of tl1 e I1 1land Reve11ue Department. Exl1. _ an 11ndertak111g by Panayo tis Sarris to pay by installments tl1e s11m of E$29,067.50 D 2 IS d11e for tJ1e _years 1942, ! 943, 1944 a11d 1945, an amount agreed upon. after decision made ?Y. the_ Advisory Con1 m1ttee of tl1e Income Tax Department. 111 view of these documents it 1s d1 fficL1lt to 11nder s ta11d 110w tl1e plai1 1tiff is now claiming tax from tl1e defe11dant in respect of tl1e releva,1 � years. Be tl1 at as it may, tl1ere was an appeal lodged against the assessment f or the said years as mentioned above. In view of tl1e persistence of tl1e advocate for tl1e plaintiff tl1at l1e was 11ot aware of any appeals lodged against tl1e assessments i n dispute, the Court asked the advocate for tl1e defe11dant to prodL1ce a document from the Appeal Committee to the effect tl1at appe,:1ls are pendi11g in respect of these assessn1ents; l1e _produced a letter from the Cl1air man of tl1e Appeal C on1mittee stati11g tl1at appeals were pendi11g in respect of tl1e n1atter \Vhicl1 was before the Court. Tl1e advocate for tl1e plai11tiff was still incli 1 1ed to disbelieve tl1e accuracy of tl1is doc11me1 1t and l1e was asked by tl1e Co11rt to verify tl1e trL1tl1 of its contents. After 1naki11g the necessary investigations he admitted tl1e accuracy of this document. In vie,v therefore of the establisl1ed fact tl1at appeals on the assessme11ts i11 dispute are still pending, tl1 e institution of these proceedi11gs is premature a11d tl1e claim o f the plai11tiff must be dismissed. It should finally be added that this case could l1ave been disn1issed \vitl1out goi11g at great length on tl1e arguments produced by one side and tl1e otJ1er; i11 my opi11ion, however, tl1is 11as been render ed necessary to show how mucl1 tin1e of tl1e plaintiff, o f the defe11da1 1t and of tl1e Court has bee1 1 wasted by tl1e fact that the advocate for the plaintiff did not n1ake the necessary investigations as to 110\v the position stood in the Appeal Co mmittee \Vith regard to tl1e appeals; it is. in n1y view disl1onest advocacy to bring cases against the subject without having previously ascertained that tl1 ere is good reason for br inging tl1e case; tl1e advocate for the plaintiff n1a.y be excused i11itially, but when the defence was filed by the defenda11t it was l1is definite d11ty to find 011t \Vl1ether the appeals wer e pending; l1e has tl1e fac.ilities of the admi1ustration and or�anization of the Ministry of Fi11a11ce bel1ind him and it sl1ould be an easy_ matter !or hi� to find out what the position was. Instead, l1is attitude tl1ro11ghout the trial of t�1s case ,v�s �h�t he knew n othing about the appeals a11d stated that there was no trace 1n tl1e pla1nt1ff s admin istration either that the defendant filed in due coL1rse SL1ch at1 appeal or tl1at the of tl1e fact tha�· there is now clear Appeal Comnuttee ha d accepted the appeal. In view _ erence to dr a\v 1s hat th ad:'ocate � evidence that sucli appeals are pending, the only inf _ � _ for tl1e plaintiff itever took tI1e tro11ble to make tl1e 11ec�s �arr Invest1gat1011, which 1s ve1� deplorable. It is 11nfortunate tl1at tl1 e advocates fo r M1n1str1es do not l1ave to J?a� _co� 1t fees for opening cases as there is 110 doubt tl1at n!ore care would be taken before !n1t1at1ng proceedings against the subject. t ten e of E$100. ex tl1 s to fee s te' ca v9 ad nt da fen de e· th o t l1e .T plaintiff sliall pay . - 201 -

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HIGH COURT

Addis Ababa, Con1m. Ct. No. 2 EFTYHIA Mi\MALINGAS & PANAYOTIS MA1vfALINGAS v. MESSRS. ZAPPULA & KAMPUS, Ltd .. '·

Civil Case N o . 258/56 E.C. ,

Law of obligations - - En·1ployer /iahility for J1ar1n suffered by en1plo;,ee - - Words ''arisinrr fro,n his lvork'' construed. - - Arts. 2554, 2559 Civ. C.

In an action by survivors to recover against an employer for the. d�ath ?f an employee killed by ''slliftas'' \Vhile n1aking a trip for the benefit of the em� loyer, tbe pJarntiff � larn1ed that the employer was liable, as the accident "arose from bis v1ork'' as requ1red by Art. 2549 C1v. C.

Held: Judgment for defendant, as the harm suffered by the employee did not ''arise from bis work." 1. The words, "arising from his work," are construed to 1nean that the \York must be the cause of tl1e harn1; that is, tl1e work 1nust be related to and connected witl1 the harm. 2. Tl1e employer is not liable for harm resulting from unknown and unforeseeable causes.

I-Ian1le 1, 1956 E.C. (Jt1ly 8, 1964 G.C.); Judges: Ato Belatchew Asrat, Ato '\Volde Mussie Yihdego, Ato Meko11nen Getahu11: - After exami ning tl1e docket, \Ve have arrived at tl1e following decision. This case prese11ts a11 issue t hat calls for our decisio n c oncerning extra-contractual liability a11d liability arisi11g out of employer-en1ployee relatio ns. For extra-contractual liability it m11st be proved that tl1e person alleged to be liable caused the damage either intentionally or by 11egligence. 111 the prese11t case, plaintiff's c ou nsel l1as admitted_ tl1at tl1is cannot be proved; tl1e issue of extra-cont ractual liability is therefore excluded. ·we now l1ave to determi ne the contractual liability of an employer. We have not fou11d many prior decisio11s in similar cases that are of assistance. Articles 2548-2559 of the Civil Code provide for the contractual liability of an emplo yer. In particular, Arti cles 2549, 2550, 2551, 2552, a11d 2554 are relevant to the case at bar. Article 2549 states that : ''The en1plo yer shall be liable f or accidents whicl1 tl1e em ployee suffers arising from his w ork.'' This provision needs interpretation. The phrase, ''arisi11g from llis \Vork, '' should be interpreted to mean ''havi n o connection with the thing l1e performs." It means that in cases wl1ere an employee, ;l1ile operating eq �ip . �ent, suffers a11 accident �ue t o the equipment, or, if an. emplo yee, wllile workin g 1n a given place, contracts a disease d.ue to the unl1ealthy condition of the place, then the employer sl1all be held liable. But wl1ere, for instance, employees w orki 11g togetl1er quarrel and �ou11d each o the�, �e11erally the e1nployer is n.o t liable; again, where an eropl�yee \V �o 1s sent out o n a m1ss1on takes a taxi to the place of the mission a nd the taxi coll ides with another vehicle, causing injt1ry to the employee, tlie employe/ is n�! liable. By the - 204 ·-

£FTYHIA MAMALINGAS

PANAYOTIS MAMALINGAS

v· ;.1v16ES · SRS .

zAPPULA &.

·KAMPUS, LTD.

san 1e token, .wh ei:e the employee suffers an accident whlle doing something that is not connected w1th his work, the employer is not liable. Tl1e phrase, ''arising frotn his wo�k,'' refers to the work being the cause of the harm. If these words were construed otherwise, the employer would be liable for accidents tl1 at employees suffer by uriknov.,n and unforeseeable causes. That does not seem to us to be the intention of the law. In the present case, if the deceased were killed due to the mechanical defect of tl1 e vehicle he was driving, the defendant woulcl l1ave been held liable as in the above-mentioned inst�nces. If tl1at w �re tl1e case, t �e deceased would have been in the actual performance of his work at tl1e t1n1e of tl1e accident. But tl1e deceased did not suffer injt1ry due to me chanical defect of tl1e vehicle; he was killed by ''shiftas." It is not tl1e duty of tl1e defendat1t to provide protection against ''shiftas." He was not a\vare of tl1e existe11c e of tl1e ''shiftas.'' No evide11 ce l1as bee11 produced to sl1ow that the defe11dant ordered tl1e deceased to drive to the place \V}1ere he was killed. The argume11 t wl1ich l1olds tl1at beca11se the deceased was killed a.t a tin1 e vvhen he \Vas discharging l1 is work - in otl1er words, wl1ile driving - the em1Jloyer shoL1ld, tl1 ere fore, be liable, 111ust be answered in the ligl1t of the above-discussed provisio11 s of the la\v. It is evident that the decei1sed was performi11g l1is work at tl1e time of the accide11t, but the accident l1 e SL1ffered was not due to sucl1 \York. He suffered tl1e accident fro1n a caL1se beyond the employer's limit of liability. Where the employer cannot be responsible for the ''shiftas, '' we do not see why l1e should be respor1sible for the accide11 t caused by the ''shiftas." Basically, there is no rela.tionslup between the work of the deceased and l1is death by the ''shiftas." It \Vas a coincidence. That coi11cidence sl1 ould not be regarded as a constitt1en.t part of tl1e cl1aracter of tl1e deceased's work. It is foreseeable tl1 at a driver n1ay be ir1volved in an accident of the type where the vel1icle he drives n1 ay over-turn. Where such an accident l1appe11 s, it may be said to ha,,e connectio11 witl1 his work. B11t the foreseeability of l1is being killed by ''shiftas'' is limited, becat1se ''sl1iftas'' do not have connectio11 \Vith his work. A perso11 wl10 is engaged in work 'rvhere deatl1 by ''sl1iftas'' is foreseeable wot1ld be a different case. We have sl1own what is mea11t by the phrase, ''arising from his \York," as provided in Article 2549. We }1ave, therefore, decided that in accorda11 ce \Vitl1 Article 2554, the accident suffered by tl1e deceased l1as no legal con11ection with his \Vork, and the defendant, therefore, has no liability as an employer. The parties sl1all bear their own costs.

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i't•fl,11.C : fli',?°llh·: &. 'rt' : n1,il:1-- 1'i,(l• : fl (lOJ-- : Al";, � f(lmro• '}: ',�{I: unm, (l ..f.• : l\&.n1 t, : 11 1 :{ : t\�m· C : f.,, .. (l,11 lD• : P' A «11 : '/1 ,,e,.f..l\ 1° c; : I\ ,"h h.c; r,.: <Dcl7 t,.: }\"}�t\"I· r,: : 1' �: (la;-"}: :,..'I°;J-- t\ U: "ll f-o: l, 1 P, A 6. C ..�"fl :1 •: ,l1 °I: �&.Cl' 1 t1.e.'l£1 ,, e. o:,.. 111..f., r,)11• {IEJft"t11'i: ,e:,�n"n = 1,.c ,h = � 1 1»•-l: : aoi-- ,11 <,:: tiA"'l"'lflfl: .eu1 : fucQ;t,t.q: :1,1TJ7• : 1,f.mil19'°:: ,eu 1,9'1: qai.•e f..C"lllr : ,l1°1: r.-t•(lmm· : 11'),ctJJ.,,. J',,, {1,h.C: ov(J').'J: fllP/on"}: foD',ffim•9'1: hi'1 flW•: fL:J>W•"}:,..: {lov(f).: fo17{,Q,l'1": &.tr-,:.'r: 1'1 9°/th: },"}f..a0(f).: (1011(.t), "h1f.tf'I: ll17.:-,l1: ,l,ll.. 'i"ro•: [JD•fl..: t.7a·cv•9°: �c.(!--: f"l·(ln1ro• : hl,C(l.. : 10 1 ° · ',, h'r1.,)·: ,,9 )·"}: Jtll..(!; l!': ',m• 1 o.••r.c 11 = ruua1ro• : ACPJY.:: "'i"mt,C(l: 1,fl : JfOli"}: ilt\f..t.(l : •1�9° : fi.lf"}: 'i;qu,)--: <j:C..�"'} : :1,n1:,.. : 'J"t·IP : 'l?P'·'I:: Ir ti :1: m• : 11 'l 7. ). : a•1 f., &.. 7' 9°: lfCf: f J·I.U "}: '}.e', :,.: fll '1 f, : f,,r "f" : {1 "'J �lD·?° : �C..(!;· : {1.:,.: W·/}1$,P:}":. : lJ•t\◄ : "A_'}P1,.cf,C,.fll\.TlD•: '?J!n:J': ',ar: (1<11J.f\(lr: ,1, 1: h t}·•'}?',: ,e IPt,c fl;J-- A ::

n = n:l··i\�,,� =

= r�:,..

,.n,::

n;;:

:r r

ilflt1.u i"m•'l1:1 (\uc"Jnr. h1--t.t\1 r1·1-Y'1-:. ,l1°l r,,.,--'ll\m· {]1J�--c1,tj;= rro"}j!(\�: : mrq,6li],(D•: h'i'=A: i',/..�7.9°: f07.tl"l"t\0J•: ODLJ•l:J--'P.: 1'1'1•{1: rhcflt 011.4'llJm·9° = ,,'P ,,f 1 1 F'C'¼,,.,. ,1.01 = "flc�1 = flm:' tr)• = 'J't; ..:,, = f'?A = 'Im· &,m•: t�(l• : ',lD· { 'r-i,"l:9° : ()f..l(lm- : "1,.�:,.. : £1D(Jl"} : llD�lil : .e1'l'PA f rari.fl ro-1 �\9° '1:,-- ilt\lf'I llFt- = 1t,e o'Uq> A riooln:,,1 r7..11, = c4':,- ll,19° • : tfaz;"} : ,eu1 : j'UI,\: J'1C�: fO'f/{l,f•'PA : °l?°T : ,,,f t\lD•: (JD[f',- : -i·W• : /ttt•r i f 0 1\1.e.: f1( :,t•�;:: c/!9°: 'i'lC: f 'l.�n1C: JtY:c.·�:,--1 : A 'J(l,nlD•: ;e1'1'i"A:: llflf "I 9° : r,r"}:J-.'f a},"} : i't£S:C: flouh,f'A : fl ffOD.,. : ,em(l'} : f', nllD"?° : �'"11� n 1·1.. u.. = cm ,n 1 = httov ). = ;, c = .,,.,.1u llllf. fl a,::- 11]1 ). t\ 1·1••r 1 7...1 L: •t-·iltTCJ 0'l. = 'h1� = ·, flt. : /}"}ft.,;, : f(D"} )!A : 7"lL·tlt : ,,,11 t\0 : ,,en1t.. : t1., fllOr?° : {/l! IJ'l.:J�'P.: i\ll"n ;,c ·= ��9° .,,.a0 till.e',:,.. .f t\ar : l\1J?.. : 'lflt.9° : "h'i'il;J--<D·tif\1 ;- n1·L u?° = n4'c ;,, .,n.,,;:w .. 1 7..,- 1, = r ;,,1- = ovlPt.:J .. ,n....f1 Jtllfl·,: -.. = rJt,tf'l· tt{JlJ'> = on"}&.{l: l,1,,e. 0'L"l 9°,,.,,. CD•: fl ll£/IJ ). : Clfm1 .,1,.: u,r ,n '} : h·tti.: mf..: "L f·f:, .r ,,e. l.1 w� : : f hC fUD �7a'A = ?°� : ll . *C'P : f·l·a>(l', : '?9°:,.. : t\,(l,na>•: lltT'/ .e,:A : tr�t: rf-. 6-• � cf, : f''? ."J� : f £)\ : h lPt, C : 7"t\,. "l; I')"} : .eJl : h ',' 1 ')' q> (\ "}:: flf',: IJ''f

}

- 216 -

rm, ��0° t.fro•·} = r �-- ,,,..c;: = ,7,"l =

/\ cm 01,rt..:1-. =

r,1,..�t..,,, ro• = 'Pt..:,..

= 0•

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J1 l&. lD·: i\f)<J,.r;qo:

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'tti.,1·r-A-.e

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c/ ,V.tPJ"J!

(Ili:,.,liliJ,:

,,,,. .. , •

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_. ,

,:,�/\ : P'f\(t. :

fi"l•V-' : '11JP;f .. ',;l• : IIW•.,f.' : (),·f•cf>,V.

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I 2 f1'1-LP: "i'IP'•l:: OO'}OJP'·1·: lll\ 2 oo•ft·: P'A"11: 'li'}�t-(1. {&•fl: ..,-�.6: oo'oo'} .. }:fiI� fj'.[;: '¼: 'J'1 : ht n11;t_y,., : ;JC: (l rl•�l1W•: (JlC',;I. : fof.·'P : f..•A: i"t"'·/r"l.. : fl.1')·•1· : f,l1�C"l. : mif•ft.e • 'l1f : '{,�O-A. : t-il : <.IDho'}"} : A� � fVJl}i\ : pft(r, : fA"f_". : f.\:r._:: <;:fm• I :1·m•t\Pt:1:m·9" : O<l>T:J · : OD{lanc : 11'}1· .P-' : (l(l_oq,>'} : IIC I ('0011} : ',(D• :: 1,1� : ll.:i·r◄7. r: ll,1,A ., f11·� : 'i'}P'1•', :. m -:i-1 2 it •Y.· fl l·<?P.?r, 1 = tiuo, ou"1"1P':J·:f-m·: ;},e.i\: pl\(I. = ,f·fli\ ! .etJ 'F" fP'l\.fl.9'•1·, ;},e.A = OT/fl,)· : ',m• u

f',(l,,),. :

.,1.

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= ,,e..1,,n:

ll t\ : ..-1,11 .li

q, fl]:,...:

OD ..-j--1\ t\ c,::

,, 11fl t?-CrfR: y @.J Sl h ;P·· ti

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r lI'

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m; 9°t, f: f..., ..,,f. l1.. :,..: }'1, OJ•(': ;r: ,l111':

r.�

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= = �,,,,,.,:,.:

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t..: �•}�'fr �7.t\.il 1 'h'f�9' 1 f. 1 S..•to¥ 1 "L.'iA 1 � 1 {LJ.'1:1:i' 1 "J:'ift.il : O•f•'lt\lD' 1 a,-{l'I': '1T/S..·�S..·: (1, 1 t.. 1 h) Xflf!li I f�.C.a>·1 • 1� 1 f:f!,� r ,eoot\:thA u 43

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i',1c : f"1.1"f. : m;J·.e..e:r. : t1u·1t-:1:a,. :

(Jrlif,b :

lf}lD• :

1,1Jl.V·9'° : rro;J·�C"} : o}P..1· : ro� : ,hl'l·1· : fOD/\W'J''} : ro,e.'/° f°1'J'1,1·1' s ro1lt\ = f"'J..('9:,r.au•:1,: v:1• "11·: ),m(}(I'} : �1;,1.9'':i·: (.,,.. : 1:f·rri: "h'-r : Efftu) ! fro;J·�C1 I 9°flm.C: {loo <TJft?.•: Ofl.01/.lP",,: ro'}1.t\o":f·· : (,,,.. : gfg) 1 f((lC: 9°Clt'1: ro/!.,9°: fro;J,�!= : ")Jl--f•� ,,.,,�,ODA'J' 0°'1.�l°l: {)11.rrrz.v,t.: ro,:(!t\: (,1,-.: gf:lX) 1 ftD;J·Y..C: Ji'lA: lf'r: fl�;J..:J·lD- 1 rof,9° 1 fltP/�tf:fro• : 01JJC:.t.'l;f:m.: o.9':f.: t\,e. : fllc,y,:,. : m1;f.A : (L t.�9° 1 ro!!.,'I° = f!i��..:,$1 = ro,e.�� fOI\/!., 1 n�:!:P1 · ffif,'/° : f((lC : V- /r-'f!--l:'} : ·flt.:,. : ftr}ar'} : o:J •: {lOD(ll;'J, : il/\"1.t.ft•OD� •: ro ,"f..A I (<f>'- : iXct1?i 1 '> 1 ,p•• = �: u) i m�'J°: '1,9°}:1•1 = 0a1,1.�t\ 1 m,e.9°: t\((lC, tPt-'f!i: = Ji1A'?':�I· � frf•OD�O-:r-1 1 U•O·Y·i' = Oon{ll:1, : {l<JJJtlt11 � m.er : (l,JDJ.'.,.0:1, : {l/\01LJ.?·t"00lD- : m1lA : (1>-- : 7:rX�� : au) " 59

- 245 -

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rari

= ,,,

= =

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n. r·, =

= r,,,

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ARTICLES THE PEN.AL CODE OF THE EMPIRE OF ETHIOPIA by Jean Graven Dean, Faculty of Law, ·university of Geneva President of tl1 e Court of Cassation PART ONE

INTRODUCTION I. FROM TRADITIONAL LAW TO IvIODERN LAW Since tl1e Portt1guese Alvarez, wl10 was l1ere from 1520 to 1526, and t11 e Scotsn1an Bruce, who can1 e here during his explorations of 1768 to 1773 numerous travelers J1 ave described ''mysterious Etl1iopia," tl1e country of the Fabulous Qt1een of Sheba, of tl1 e axumite ki11gs and of the legendary Prester John, as tl1e African empire of tl1e N·egus. 1 All have spoken, more or less accurately, of her ancient customs, jt1dicial practices a11 d laws. 2 They l1ave enjoyed recalling the ''thrones of the judges," now deserted, in fro11t of the motl1er churcl1 of ''Mariam Zion'' at Axum; or again, in Gondar, the antique and prosperous capital of Ki11g Fazilides, recollection of ''the judgment tree, the l1uge tree with leafy brar1cl1es in the shade of wl1ich the kings formerly exercised justice." Tl1ese writers l1ave described tl1 e Ethiopia11's passion for law, tribunals and all thi11 gs relating to justice a11 d eloqt1ence. They stressed the prestige tl1 at tl1e lawyer ertjoyed as ''the skill ful a11d fluent pleader'' and noted the general custom so deeply enmeshed ir1 tl1eir dail)' life of ''passi11 g judgment,'' whether it be i11 the in1 provised courts of tl1e jt1dge-arbitrator ( dagna) or in tl1e tribunal ( chi!ot) where judges well versed in tl1 e law refer to the vene rable Fetlra Negast the a11tique ''LAW OF Tl-IE KINGS," before applying capital or corporal punishment i11 accordance with ancient traditions. 3 I. See notably A. M. Jones and E. �1onroe, Histoire de l'Abyssine (Paris, 1935); A. Zervos, L'En1pire d'Ethiopie (Addis Ababa, 1935); A. Gingold Duprey, De l'invC!s[o11 a la liberation cle l'Ethiopie, vo_l. 1 (publication for the Imperial Jubilee, Paris, 1955). The off1c1al modern name of tl1e country 1s Ethiopia according to the etyn1ological tradition which is found even in the Old Testament; the classic nan1e of Abyssinia ha.s been abandoned. 2. Among the modern works' which are becoming more and more numerous, we cite: fl. Norden, Le dernier en1pire africain, En Abyssine (Paris, 1935); J. D'E�me, A tra,,ers l'e111pire de Menelik (Pari�, 1947); Mrs. Chr. Sandford, Ethiopia under Haile Selassie (Londo�, 1_946); D. Buxton, Travels 1n Ethiopia (London, 1949, re-edited 1951); S. and R. �ankhurst, Eth1op1a and Erytrea (Essex, 1953); ?· E. Littmann, Abessinierr (Hamburg, 1935); �1. Kam1I, pas Land des Negus (lnnsb:uc�,11,1953); · Leuenbe rger, Aethiopie,,, Kaiserreic/1 seit Sal�1non (Zurich, 1955); H. Jeo?r, Aeth1op1e L�ncl 1m Aufbruc}z (Stuttgart, 1957). We naturally omit the works of a clearly pol1t1cal, pamphlet-lJke, or romantic nature. 3. Cf. on this subject: Graven, De /'a,itique au nouveau droit _ pe,!a/ etf1i�pi�11, La Vie �udiciair� (Paris, nos. 445/4--16, 18-30 October 1954), and Vers un nouveau dro,t penal _etJ110P_1e11,. Revue. 111ternat1onale de cri1ninologie et police tecfrnique (Geneva, 1954, no. 4, p. 250 for this period 10 part1ctllar, pages 252 to 260).

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I - l\To. 2

i11g it1n of beg tl1e 11ew Etl1i opiai tl1e and es tim n der 111o of n daw Until tlie recent 1 f de 0, Co 193 1a whic}1 occt1rred with Pe1 the of � ion lgat mtl pro � tlie to U!) Empire, iiideed, _ lo 1 fied, \\'ritten or co� 1n d legal sys un l1ad i ia iiop Etl r, )ero 1 En t se11 1)re � tem . tl1e adve11t of tl1c 1 _ l1r th c-C for pt1 Co 1st1a11 po pulations t, gas Ne l1a Fet tl1e e wer la\V of � s gii1 ori Tile l)riilcipal 1s t101 ula pop tl1e for _ , law slem ivfo t11e ?( Harrar an.d tl1e coastal es; vinc J)ro t of the an · cien s ion er reg of the country whicl1 otl1 tl1e for , law ary to111 ct1s tl1e d a ; 11 Sea Red tl1e areas of 4 se. sen lar pu are considered 111ore ''African'' i11 tl1e po

I. The ''LAW OF THE KINGS'' or Fet/1a .Negast Tl1e Fet/1a Negast or (Neguest) is a juridical a11d social n1onun1e11t of tl1e first order which embraces the religious and tl1e civil domai11s at tl1e same tirne. Its extraordinary irlfl.uence on Etl1iopia is explained by the fact tl1at tl1is co11ntry l1as, fron1 time imn1en1orial, attacl1ed itself to the Coptic Church of Alexa11dria. Its first bisl101), Saint Frumentius (for tl1e Ethiopians, Aba Salama, Fatl1er of Peace) \Vas consecr,1ted by Atl1anasius, de fender of tl1e Nicaea faith, sl1ortly a.fter his pron1otio11 to patriarch of Alexandria in 328. Later, i11 the 13th ce11tury, the patriarch Cyrill III (1235-1243), ·anxio11s to introduce a ge11eral reform of l1is cl1urcl1 \Vl1ich l1c!,d been weakened and threate11ed from all sides, establisl1ed a code, or more acc11rately, a compilation of religio11s a11d civil precepts which was to serve as a guide. Tl1e s011rces of tl1e Cyrilian Code are the Old and the Ne\\' T·esta n1ents, a. certain 11umber of apostolic ,vritings, the ca_ 11.ons of tl1e first cot111cils and some writings of vario11s f atl1ers of tl1e Cl1urcl1. Tl1e first part is devoted to t11e religjous and liturgical life (cl1apters I to 22), tl1e seco11.d to sect1lar aftairs and matters concerning govern me11t (cl1apters 23 to 52). Tl1is part of tl1e civil law owes 1nucl1 to a combination of rules and sente11ces of tl1e Nicaea Cou11cil convened by· -tl1e Emperor Co11sta11tine in 325. The Fet/1a Negast expressly refers to Constantine and to tl1e ''Tl1ree I-I1111dred Sages'' or "Wise Me11'' (Selest Me'eti, the 318 Fatl1ers of tl1e Church), wl10 are rep11ted by Ethiopian tradi tio11 to be tl1e authors tl1emselves.· Tl1ese precepts blended with n11111erous quotations fron1 the books of J\.1oses (Pentateuque) and often refiecti11g tl1e principles of the con:i pilation of Justinia11, co11stit11te the ''LAW OF THE KINGS'' or, as •tl1ey are also son1e times called, the ''lm1)erial Code," whicl1 ruled Etl1iopia ·for centuries. 0 11e m11st there fore not be sur1)rised at tl1e Biblical and Cbristia11 cl1aracter of tl1e ancient Ethiopian law and its dista11t relatio11ship witl1 tl1e Roma11-Byzantine tradition, \Vl1ich brings it closer 4. Under the regime of the Italian occupation, 1nany works, as diverse as tl1ey . were numerous, ,vere devoted to t he custom s of the different provinces �r re gions of Etl1iopia and Eritrea. Tl1us, see those by Capo Mazza (Asn1ara. 1937), Petazzi (Asmara, 1937), Conti Rossini (Flore nce, 1937), Costan zo (Ro_rne, 1940), Mazucci (Rome, 1941), Nli.ninni (Rome, 1941). The Ministry for Italian Oriental Africa had also publi sl1ed two voltim es, e ntitled: Religioni 11si e consuetuclini de/le p_opola zio11i {!ell .4.frica ita/iana (Ron1e , 1941). We can only briefly point out tl1is realm in considering t11e whol e picture. . 5. This _mo�ument_ was tra�slated and annotate d by Ignazio Guidi, unde r the title: JI Fetha 1Vegast, o legzslaz,�ne � lei Re, Co dzce ecclesiastico e civile d'Abissi11ic1 (Ron1e , 1889, 551 pages). Un Con,p e!idio _ dell: L �gffl cler Re was gtven by L. De Castro (Legl1orn, 1921) and a syntl1etic study and resun1e �f tl1e Jud1c1al part, based on tl1e magistral opus of Guidi, ,vas publislled by t11e lawyer It. Rossi Caneva ri, under the title: F�tha Negast _(II Libro (lei Re) Codice de/le /eggi ab;,ssi,1e (Iv1ilan, 19J6, 318 pag�) _ Thes� a�e tl1e �tud1es upon ,vh1cl1 we l1ave ba�yd our preparatory works. There also ex ist some fof!1l�; JllfiS pub]1cat1ons,. 1.e., Arnould, Libri Ethiopici Fetha Negast (1841) us <;01p , and Bachmann _ u,r1 Abess111or (1869).

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to Contine11t al law. Translated into Ge'ez tl1e learned lang uage of th 0 . e E . . th i op • 1 an . C _ l 11 r 1 c 1 1, ' Emp- eror Z•ara Yacob (1426-14 and adopted _ , tI. 1ey s ay, upon tl1e order· of 60 ) a p ri nce · us tic m s uc e h d J 1a e t l lo 1e v o co nd e1 11r1ed his owr1 s011 t o deatl1 for the m 11rder o·f a \Vit � �} Slave ' ar1d wl10 studiecl tl1e LAW · O F THE KINGS'' 'assi·duously. ·ThJ··S 1a\v . \Va s · receiv · ed L d an Ol l ay Ca Co de 0 tru e la w, witl1 its con�ents in sqme way inviolable ·ar1d sacr as � � � . ed _ , sc l1o , la ie t r r s s a p nd e th J11 I cl1 sts � wh1 ! taugl1t ,_ e xpl�11�ed and ca 11sed to· be resp_ ected. through _ : out tl1e g 71 1erations. Tl1is imposing arid minut e s ummatio11 of ·precepts and ordi1 1ances ha� been J USt!Y labele� a glory of tl1e_ Coptic_-Alexandrine civilization · and brings_ l1onor ts ce 1 1t 1i �y and to �l1e A_fri �an Or1e11t. It l1as succeeded in elev� to 1ts autl1or, _ i ti11g the people for \Vl1om it wa s d est 1 t1ed and 1n br1ng1 11g back t he Coptic Cl1t1rch (in spite of some in evitable cl1 a11 ¥es)_ to tl1e tl1ougl:t ar1d tl1e spitit of i ts begi�n.i11gs. Tl1e Ge'ez ve rsion be came for Etl11op1a t l� e fo11ndat1011 ar1d tl_ 1e g uide of tl1e· Jaw ::1nd acquired the a 11thority of a true _a11d un ique code. It constitutes the gr eat Ethiopian Code whicl1 l1 as led tl1e _mag1stral path to tl1e_ con1mu11 ity of the Abyssi11ian people, a11d · it has laid ·the foundation _of all t_l1e l�\\'S wl11ch s ucceede d tl1emselves, in this vast Empire, from th.e l8tl1 _ n1 onic dynasty, the cent ury until our time.' Or1e co11ld say that witl1 faith in the Solo "LAW OF TI-IE KINGS'' l1as been the ba se and stre11gth of the Empire, which wa s so often tl1reate11ed. Tl1e first par t of tl1 e civil or secular la\v de als witl1 Family Law, social institutions (incl11di11g serfl1ood, \Vl1i ch l1as no connectio11 witl1 tl1e slave-trade that is so ofte11 con.fused \Vith it), the main types of contracts, corporations, inherita11ce, et c. It later deals \Vith procedure, nan1ely, confessions, judge s and witnesses (cl1apters 39 a11d 43), ar1d : finally with penal I a.\V (cl1apters 44 to 50). Tl1e cl1apter 011 tl1e kings (44) includes, a 1nong otl1er matters, disposit ions in rega rd t o tl1e fate of prisoners, the l1arbouring of f11gitives and traitors. The follo\ving cl1apter (45) gives rules conc er1ting responsibility for da 1nages caused to a tl1ird party by animals or by dangerous construction, the retur11 of lost objects and. fraud. Th e law tl1en lays down (46) drastic provisions witl1 respe ct to apostates, blas phemers, sorcerers a11d doers of evil, agai11st tl1ose who incite others to abj11re the Christia11 faitl1, against idolaters and various forms of s11perstition. It rules 011 homicide (47), for1 1icatio11 (48), tl1eft a11d brigandag e .(49). Finally, the chapter 011 ''vario 11s otl1er fau.lts'' (50) contains a wl1ole list of pres c;riptions on dr 1111k eru1e_ ss, 11s 11ry and fra 11d11lent use of the royal seal; i t fixes the J) Unisl1me11t for a rebellio11s son, .false accusers a11d false \Vit nesses, involur1tary or i11tentio11 al arso11, and . punishes violent occ 11patio11 of a11other's land, distt1rba11 ce of public assembli es, tl1e rigl1t of sanctuary ju temples, etc. We find, tl1erefore' carried ov er i11to the sec11lar f ramework of Ethiopian life, tl1e l1abit 11al, pri6. According to tradition, which Zervos rep o�ts (op.cit., p. 274), it was pr�bably ,the mother of the Emperor Yassou I, known for her taste 1n the arts, ,vho ha� �ranslated into . Ge ez the work of the council of Nicaea toward the �nd of the 17tl1 century. Tl1e or1g1nal text had clisappeared and was found again in an Arab translation written in the 18th century_ by �bou I.sha� Eben ElAssal (accord ing to some, tl1e very author of the Cyrilian con:ipi"I_atio?)· It 1s tJ11s last _version of tl1e _Fet!ta f!egast, preserved almost intact, ,vhicl1 furnisl1ed th� Etb1op1an Judges the text ot the la\11s_ appl1�d until 193�, that is until the first EtI1iopian Penal Code. There are pro�a.bly _only five authen�1� copies o� the ori ginal translation into Ge'ez in existence in the world. An ed1t1on 1n the p resent off1c1al An1haric langu age has been made in recent years. 7. Such is the opinion of :tv1gr. Galbiati, prefect of the Ambro�ian Library, in his preface to _the_ \Vork of Rossi Caneva ri . Tllis op inion is not always shared, esp ecially b_Y Jones and _:tv1_onroe (H1sto1r;, p. 98), and by Poletti in llis notes on the Italian edition of the Co_d�ce P_enale 9b1�s1110 (I 938, .P· _7 !), On the contrary \1/e are also convinced, after seve�al years of _ J1v1�g 10 Etb1op1� and working \VI th n, ret the Ss1o tha .m1 tive com isla leg the 10 t gas Ne ba the prese nt gu� Fet the of s_ ' rct·_ian · gs'' has indeed been the "Book'' in some - t aou ,1 tl1at the "Law of the Kin men1b ered app rec1at 10n 1s JUS . ,. wri· tten 1a"':, \Vl'tl10�t overIoo ki'_ng t1..1e of e rc_ �ou que sacred v,ay. It is also the fundaniental and uni ces or 10 those which st. vm 1ote pro ren the m lly ecia esp , 1 ·ve a1 and · t tao , Cust por · 1m omary so 1s 1 1av-t w h.1c · . ce dure o pro f 1m h rea e t 1n Jy ·a1 ec1 es , ore rm the fur p · · ve siti sen d an n St 1II escap e I mper 1a ti·o , tra · · · l admtnlS and of exect1tion.

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I · No. 2

, ity ic l1n bl e mm pu , tl1 co ith fa ls, ra mo per sons and d an ion lig re st ,1in ag s n1itive i11fraction property. Tlle general conceptiori of Etl1iop}a� Penal L,lV✓ is bo�l1 Cl'lristia� and loft y; the Fet/1a Negast demonstrates tliis clearly 111 1ts cl1apter on tJ1e k1i1gs 3.nd cl11efs and on the· duties. As the Apostle Patil pointed out in _l1is letter to �he llo1r1ans: ''All 1nagistrat:� l1ave bee11 constituted by God and He has give� tl1em tl1e1 r po\\,er, and_ l1e who resists a cep pre f God, his C� eator; tliere a nst 1 aga ng elli reb � is , him t ins aga els or reb te tra � gis ma _ ates 1str ncl mag efs do �ot inspire ter ror Cl11 d. ishe pun be ll slia � st Him resi who se , tho fore _ gs. !,� ..�here� ore, brethr en, you tl11n do ev1l o w se tho in only � but d, goo do who se tl1o in do not want to l1ave cause for fearing a magistrate, do good. ···:·· ··· _But if Y?U do evil, fear tl1e 1nagistrate, for it is not in vain tl1at he wears a sword �t hzs s1d�; he 1s a minister of God and i11 h.is righteo11s anger he punishes tl1ose wl10 do evil an� he 1s tl1ereby vindica ted. Tl1is is why we n1ust be subject to him 11ot only ou.t of fear of 111s anger, but for our con science.'' The king, moreover, must be the first t� be Just: ''1�h� king n1us_t judge amongst 11.is people with justice, and he must not be partial either to l11s ow11 whim or to tl1at of others, hetl1er it be l1is so11 or l1is parents, or l1is friend, or a stra11ger. ,,: ::: * It is writte .1 in relation to judges, that an honorable king loves justice, but the unfair king loves evii 7ise One, has \\ the 11, Solomo And soul. proclaimed: own his of ruin the to and injustice 'To foster justice and to help the oppressed is worth more than offerings and sacrifices'." The administration of justice is tl1erefore conceived, as it still is for St. Louis and Bossuet, as a grant fron1 God to see to it that divine law (s1)iritual and internal law), which is con fused with l1uman law Uudicial or external law), as emanating from a just autl1ority, be duly respected.8 Tl1ese principles can still be naturally applied to a pastoral and warring societ)' wl1ich is almost Biblical, and in \l.1l1ich are found, next to tl1e king, tl1e priest and the judge, the master a11d his serf, the soldier and his prisoner, the pious person and the i 11fidel, the adulterous women, the goldsmith taken for a procurer and n1a.gicia11, the astrologer and a sootl1sayer, tl1e huntsman armed \Vith a lance and the plow1nan. A11d yet, one cannot l1elp being struck by the loftiness of those rules and their perfect accord \Vith the time. The n, arrow and pi,tiless taJdon law under which the puisl1ment is an propor· tion to the harm done has long been extinot. Concrete cases a:re cited, for laws develop o-nly slowly from the sp.eci,fiic case -to the abstr-act -rule, f.rom the ''casu,is- try'' [that -pa·rt of theology that deails with cases concemin,g conscience] to the d·octrine from which there appear the pr.inciples that dictate them, especially concerning problems of 1:esponsibility and gujlt, pairticopation, penalty and .its propo1rtion to the fault. Mis<take and coe.rcion-, legitimate defense and necessity, instigation, complicity and bei-ng an accessory after the fact are all taken into consideration. The extreme oases of cin·tervening causes and brawls, which still wonry jurists nowada. ys, , a.re iresolved in nuances Wlith •rema,rkable common sense a.nd juri dical finesse; The ''personality of the fauli it'' is clearr,ly defiined: ''Fathers a,re not to be

·w

8. Chapter 45 on "t hings d rawn from the Old and the New Testament'' from wh icl1 it is fitting to quote, state s, '�Sin�e. m�n. is made up of a bod)'. and a soul, i t is n�c�ss,1ry to give hi two la\vs: ex(_erna! law, �h1c h 1s Jud1c1al law and concerns things corporeal and visible as well as the�Judgment of crimes, and internal law, which is spiritual law and is a "Ia,v of perfection'' concerning spiritual n1 at�ers. They are largel � confused, because the second one did not succeed in taking care of the fi �t, since _ ,I have not come to Our Lo�d said: destroy the law, but to fulfill it." Justice and spiritual punishinent, as considered by larm:n, therefore play a very important role whicl1 must not be overlooked. . The end of the cha�ter indicates what these penalties a.nd penances are. Just as in our Christian M1ddl_e Ages, they doffilnat: an entire real of the law. Tl1e infidels, the in1pious, and the persons excon1 n1ur u; i:n _ ca�ed from the Chr1st1an community b ecause of a spiritual penalty, as for example , murde rers, t� os guilty of adu� ter y, and w�n1en w.ho allow tl1e mselves to abort, do not }1ave the right to ente r int� _ church, that 1s, into the circular passage wh ich surrounds the ''holy of holies''. T he mekdes, wher t he tabernacle or t he tabot is located for Ethiopian churches, round or octagonal, continued to be constructed on the model of the temple of Solomon.

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ETI-IIOPI,\

u t to death insrte ad of t he ir sons; a son is· not b . , · · e pu ni · sh ed · fo r: bi · ' s P a f th · e : s r · crim e nor · · a , · S '' · · · ' so ns . 0 ·t 00 I 1llS or f h t IS e p, rmciple of the ''indi-vid1"""' · l fatl1er · 1"'1i'za . t· -100'' 0f the pun1s 1e all . no o do cr1m . JUt , e s o w "D . r the sam .t. , 'th · • e J·l· 1dgm l·n en . en- t . u1 i,i.: e p11n1s • hm . . f·o. r h. e who . . ent . . . no 1s to t ac be tio th e ns punishment for J1e who si·ns· ·by wo ·ct •' a··- d · sins by ,r or ee . Th·ere are · • · ag 1s e a1 o 1 1 st d \vr 1 on ,v 10111 o11e m ust become o1 g · ·r·1·t,ated an d ,v certai n J,, 1 r 1 . J h 01n 011e must . . . . scold; for otl1ers, ? 0e inust o_rcler tl1e giv111g of alms or fastii1g, still otl1ers mt1st· be bauisl1ed from the churc� in proportioi1 to tl1e crime committed; for the Law of wl os es . does' not imp ose � ne _P11n isl1 111ent fo r all tl1e gt1ilt_y. Tl1e pu1lisl1ment for one vvl10 commits ;a crime voluntar.1ly is not the same _ as t]ie p11111sl1n1e11t for one w1 .. 10 does· ·so i11voluntarily·. For s01ne tl1e penalty of d�atl1 is dti:, for sorne ::t floggi11g, for son1e a levy on tl1eir goods,· a11d for otl1ers the ptin �sl1n1 ent ot �l1e ''talion;'' they 1nust suffer wl1 at ll1ey 111 ade another sufef r. Kr10\V tl1en a different pu1usl1111e11t for eacl1 guilty one in order tl1at tl1ere 11ot b� any iruqt1ity on yo1 1r JJart, f. or it is said, as you judge, so shall yo11 be judged.'' It is 11aive to be st1rprised or sl1ocked, as one s o ofte11 is, because of the lack of his or i1 1 forg�tti11 g tl1e perspective of time, tl1at judicial co11ceptio11s and toric�!- k 110\:vledge _ prin1 1t1ve pu11 1sl�n1e 11t s . are d1ffere11t from our conceJJtions and our prese11t day purusl1 ments. Tl1ese qt 1 1te obv1ot1sly are better s11ited to a. prin1 itive society, wbicl1 is co11cer11ed n1ostly wit1 1 its ow11 protetion, a11d to 1ni11ds bro11ght 11 p i11 tl1e idea tl1 at tl1e expiation of a, sin is tl1e conditio11 for pardon . Tl1ey are in accord \Vitl1 tl1e beliefs. tl1e needs a11d tl1e custon1s. It is 11atural a11d even 1 1ecessary tl1 at tl1 ey be of a vengefu'i a11 d purifyin g cl1aracter as vvell as bei11g exemplary a 11d i11timidat.ing. Tl1eir ai11.1 is 11orn1ally to IJU11 isl1 the \vicked, to reassure tl1e i11 nocent and to prevent tl1e repetitio11 of tl1e cri1 ne. It is by no 1neans surprising tl1at a 111a11 be ''1Ju11isl1ed in tl1e n 1 a 11ner i 11 vvl1 icl1 l1e l1 as sin11ed," and tl1 at the penalties be tl1e natt1ral, primitive pu11isl1 1ne11ts \:Yhicl1 n1 ust strike tl1e in1aginatio11 i 11 order to better illt1 strate the relation bet\veen tl1e cri 1 ne a11d its sa11ctio11 a 1 1d to acl1ieve tl1eir p11rpose: death for the murderer, bt1rt 1ing for tl1e arso11ist. 1nutilatio11 of the to 11gL1e for l1e ,:vl10 con1mits JJerjury a 11d of tl1e J1a11d for l1e \vl10 cou 1 1terfeits tl1e royal seal or coi11s, flogging for t11e lo\v or stubborn.ly perverse creature, or as tl1e con 1n1 e11ts 011 tl1e . Fetf1a lVegast later prescribe, sl1ooti11g for l1e \vl10 sells gt 1 1 1s to tl1e e 11e111y. ·Nor is it more s11rJJrisin g tl1a.t i 11 a judicial system \vl1ere tl1e idea of private \.vro11gs a11cl remedies still prevails, accide11tal or 1 1 npren1editated l1on1 icide ca11 be ex1Jiatecl by tl1e payme1 1t of blood 1noney, st1bject to forgive11ess by the victi1n's fa rnily a11d the cl1t1rcl1 a 1 1d duly recorded i 11 court. I-lave \Ve 11 ot see 1 1 cri111 i11als i11 sacl( clotl1 a11d asl1es con1e forward to n1 ake l10 11orable a1ne11ds a11d to beg forgiveness? 1 11 reality, Ethiopian law, \Vh.icl1 travelers un.fa1niliar witl1 its Ieaal l1istory, repute d to be ''cruel'' or ''barbaro11s'' because it retai11ed the spirit an d pu11 isl1;1ents of ancie11t la\v, i11 partict1lar hangin�, 1nutilatio11 at tl1c \Vt:i �t and flogging, was I::1rgely rece1Jtive to forgive11ess, to the sacred r1ght of sa1 1ctury, to SJJ1r 1 tual sa 11ctio11s ar 1 cl reh,1bilitation; a 11d it has never known tl1e legal st 1btlcties of tl1e ordeals a11d con1 bi11 ed tortL1res con1 mo11 to all the 11 1ost civilized Et1ropean 11 ations up to the 9 y. tur 1 ce11 l8t] of the 1 d e1 tl1e period of the so-called ''enligl1te11 1nen t'' at One c,tnnot forget, after all, tl1at generally, i11 this country gover11ed by Cl1ristian la\vs a1 1d prii.1 ces , respect, for the acc11 sed was sucl1 that tl1 � �egus alone co1 1 l_ d pro110 11 nce a sente11ce of deatli; a11d tI1 at lts1 1 ally for f�ar of co1n11utt 1 ng an error :vl1 1c� cot1ld �all back on l1 i111 j 11 ,tfter-life or in tl1e re alizat 1 011 that God aJ011e, \Vl10 gives life, l1as tl1e tl1e F �t/1a 1Vegast right to tal(e it a\vay, h e \;ould 110t pro 1101111ce it directly. · He �,o�ld order _ _ _ 1 e law tl 11 g 1 sent e 1 1ep1 (tl1e book of tli e laws desce11 cted from t!1e ''fathers of tl1e fa1tl1 a1 d. . t tha ws 0, · sl1o in pia 152 hio in Et ssy ba Etn se gue rtu Po the to t 9 • The tes t·1n1ony of F�ranc1sco AlVu,, 1.e z, sen t 1ou 'ti ,v1 t u s, b d ay e os e 1 1er ,v h t · ery in ev e tru s \Va as " 1 '' ift · sw · J·ust'1ce tl_1�re ,vas ce1 ta1n Y very cru. de an d . . authors. Jones and Monroe sum1 the � ruelt1es and exaggerat.1ons cocl1_fied �1d _Justifie� bY 0�•r_ anc·eot 0· 97_10 · · PP e, uu yss Ab I de 1re sto H1 ir the ar in s on ati se m ize the consider

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of tlie Supren1e Judge) to be opened and read before bis court so that it ,vould be the law itselfwhicl1 decreed the sentence of capital JJt1nishme11t_io l{ence the dee? ly rooted tr � tion, still in force today, tliat the Emperor alone has the power o� decl�r111g enforceable a _ death sentence, and all sentences of this nature must be subrr11tted to Him personally,

Tl1erefore, the application of the principles of the pe11�l law fou1:d in the ''LAw OF THE KINGS," in light of Christian canons and doctr111e conce�111n� personal fatilt and its reparation, is wortl1y of attention and is very adva.nced f?r its time Bearing in _. 11arsh mind the conditio11s at tl1at time, as \Vell as tl1e fact tl1at pu111sh1ne11ts did 11ot shock anyone because they were in accordance witl1 the pop. ular senti1ne11ts a11d seemed per fectly adequate to wl1at migl1t be called the ''cri1ninal policy'' of tl1at epoch, it must be co11ceded that the said principles often correspond to what is required today of a law subjectively evolved. Ancient corporeal punisl1me11t was, incide11tally, on the decline at the time of the penetration of wester11 ideas into tl1is l1igh fortress whicl1 Ethiopia re presented,it and the Penal Code of 1923-1930 will l1ave no trouble leading al111ost effort lessly into a new regime.

II. THE FIRST ETHIOPIAN PENAL CODE (1923-1930) The first effort at modern codification in Ethiopia was accomJJlished in the domain of penal law. Tl1is was 11atural, since this is the la\v wl1icl1 above all others needed to be separated fron1 ancient customs in order to be adapted not only to the needs of present day ''crin1inal policy,'' but also to t]1e demands of individual protection and to the principles of legality included in modern writte11 la\v, so as to create the conditions for a better and more general enforcement of the law at a time when Ethiopia \Vas opening its doors to international relations, trends of modern tl1ought and foreigners. The Etl1iopian Penal Code of 23 Tekemt 1923 (Ethiopian Cale11dar) or of Noven1ber 2, 1930, (Gregorian Calendar) 12 was proclaimed 011 the occasion of tl1e crov,rning of the reigning Emperor, His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I. 13 Conceived i11 the fashion of our codes, it includes an important Preamble of 22 articles, whicl1 exprelises, according to the Sovereign who gave it to His people, its reason for being, its spirit, its scope a11d the results which it expects to attain. A General Part covers tl1e general principles concerning offences and liability to punishment (book I); the Special Part co11tains tl1e definitio11S 10. In Ethiopian protocol, it is not the king, the Neg11s hin1self, but the President of the Supren1e Court, who is called for this r eason Aja Neg11s (the Ki n g's Spokesn1an), and ,vho 11sually rules over the trial a nd pronounces the sen tence. 11. Cf. the iz-r:efutable testimony in the official report of tl1e chancellor of tl1e French Legation, in June 1918, repn nted by P. Alype in hi s book: L'En1pire des Neg11s sous la couro1111e cle Salo,non De la Reine de Saba a la Societe des Natio11s, preface by H. De Jouven el (l>aris, 1925). 12 . The date w�s sometimes given as tl1e end <;>f 1930, sometin1es the beginning of 1931, on account _of the c h �n ¥e 1n the calendars. We have established, o n tl1e basis of publications a n d official documents, _ tha� 1t 1s 1n dee � th e Eu.ropean date of November 2, 1930 ,vhicI1 is exact. Cf. our article: Vers 1111 nouveau _ Revue citee, 1954, no. 4, p. 260, note I. dro1t penal eth1op1en, 13. The so� of Ras Mako nn�n, victor of Adua in 1896, governor of Harrar, a n d gran dson of Sale Sela �sie of the line of . Sol. omon, Ras Taffari Makonnen, Regent of the Empire took accordi ng to Ethiopian custom, a ''r. �1grung name'' at the time of His crowning ' namely Hail; Sela wer "Po s n mea whi ch s;ie ' of the Tr1ruty. ''

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nish1nent for offe11ce s against the State , person aiid the pu · s and property, as we ll as p etty 1..1 1ences . o 1l:i:'. TJ1e Preamble , reflecting a feeling for prog·ress and 1"o 1 r equ1·t· y, h as demonstrated . • • . \V�ll_ (111 1 _ts � rticles 5, 15 a�d 16) how a modern l egis lator can still be inspired by the spiri� of Jt1st1�e and co� rect1oi1 o� the Fetlza Negast or of the ''LAw OF THE KINGS," a11d 1t has poi nt:d out �LISlly (article 3) tl1at tl1e principles of the modern European Codes 1 are s till oft�n ve ry close t o tl1ose wl1icl1 are found expressed in t s el 1o as d e us � � his vener _ abl� �eg1sl;:1 t1 ?� 1, a fa�t wl�icl 1 _1s n� t surprising after wl1at we have said about the Ethiopian jud1 c1a l tradition being tied 1n with t he gr eat Cl1ristian trend. Whether common sources J1ad been tra?srnitted by way of �orne, as in Europe, or by Alexandria, as in Ethiopia, on n1any points tl1e Roman-Occidental conception, reflected in tl1e classic Continent al Codes, a11d tl 1e _ Oriental or Alexandrian, r eflected in the Ethiopian tradition, joined to gethe r a11d easily al lowed tl1e modernization of t he work on this ground. The Code of 1923-1930 is a first inter esting atten1pt wl1icl1 is praise\vorthy in this sense, as it has op ened tl1e patl1s to,vard tl1e d elicate task of modernizing and codifying Etl1iopian law in general. A primary fundame ntal ad va11tag e of tl 1e Code is the defining, in an exact fashion, the crimes and respective punisl1me11ts. As its Preamble indicates, when the law was being ad.ministered so lely accordi11g to the ancie nt principles of tl1e ''LAW OF Tf-IE KINGS'' or customary' law, the result \Vas that the judges, after having determined tl1e guilt of the accuse d , did not know what punisl1n1ent to give him, and tl1ey had t o limit themselves to a finding of gt1ilt a11d tl1en send bin 1 on to tl 1e Gover11or for sentencing. I-Ie11cefor ward jud ges \vould know t he exact provision to be applied, and they would be in a po sition to judge b etter; and the citizens, for their part, would know which would be the pitfalls and tl1e punisl1rnents that they would have to avoid - something wl1ich would inevitably lead to progress (article s 3 and 4, 10 and 13, Introduct ion). A seco11d attribute of the Code is that it not only defined a11d restricte d but al so considerably softened and improved the penalties. The fi11es were set in proport ion to 14. The Penal Code of 1923-1930, in the official A,nharic language, was translated into English (not publisl1ed) and into Italian. The Italian version, with an introduction, a commentary, notes and additions thanks to the lawyer Edward Poletti, ,vas edited in MiJan, in 1938 (Ed. I-Ioepli), with the title: JI Codice pe11ale Abissino, Con le relative, nor,ne consuetud�narie. This is a precious sou! ce of knowledge for foreigners and although it is not altogethe� e�act,_ 1t �1�s been very useful � o tis 1n our researcl1. A comprehensive idea of the contemporary Eth1op1_an }ud1c1al systen1 1s found 1� _ the study of Nathan Marein Advocate General and advISer of the Eth1op1an Governn1ent: The Jud1c1al System thei� �td.), �h!cl1 is a c,ollection of and the Latt's of E;hiopia, revised edition, Rotterdam, 1951 (Vus _ texts and not a con1n1entary or a systematic study. In a thesis on La reg11ne Jur1c/1que des etrangers en Ethiopie (Geneva, 1936), J. J. Auberson, then lega_l a�viser to the Ethiopian Government, also gave certain information, not altogether exact, on Eth1op1an penal law. 15. It has been said (Auberson, Marein, op.cit.) that the Ethiopian legislator of 1923-1930 had "c?pie� the Code of Siam'' with a few changes, or "incorporated �any aspects of the law of Indo_ cbrna, which saying is not only superficial, but c_ontra�y to the official statements of the preamble itself and to a deeper study of the texts. The confusion might have sten:imed fron1 the fact that a French laW?'er ation stationed in Djibouti who had spent a long time in Indochina, w_hen _consulted for the elaborenc of the Etl1iopian Code of 1923-1930, might have natur�lir been inspired b):1 the C�de of (Fr h)d e:gent, some conten Indochina. As for the very spirit of the codificatio_n, �p1n1on� a�e no less d1v n, ), co the on ers on ers oth ub (A its tra us no 1ge rnd to g din on sp that 1·t 11as a mod.ern aspect, not corre . 1 ,v ,Y .,., egast "'as 1 ,,a r::re th e as w h ere ,, e tur na 1 ti� ac _ pr d . an ial trary, consider th is code to be of a "judic ly, th e coord1nat1on of r ful ca d Co the d die stu s � ha � o wh ne yo an r ov ab e all etllical an d religious. Fo t. ren pa s ap ite s de qu co 1 rn de mo of es ipl inc pr e e th Ethiopia n customary Jaw wi th th

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Jou.RNAL bF ETHIOPfAN L-Aw - VOL. I - No. 2 6 a 11d a aIJtecl ia, iop 1 Etl in to tl1e rank � � _ the rece11t eco11on1ic a11 d mo11etary sitt1ations ). l\1�t1Iat1on � were fu11da ion o Int uct 9, to 6 ? arid , ·2 s cle rti � (a e on l1 eac s of rce ot1 res tl1e a11d n1e11tally abolisl1ed and totally exclt1ded, a1�d tl1e _re1na1r1111g tr,1ces or :lie talion 'Yere for l 111p e of eJ,a tl1e OLI1 l1 \V1t g pin kee in � and , io11 itat I1es � co11ntries, such cl1 te mu f r 1. de1 . A bid as E11gland, 011Iy floggi11g was kept as a for1n of co_rJ Joral. p11111sl1rnent. Even then it was as es, ll ok d we srr as the maiiner ize hor aut of r 1be nun · tl1e to d r a. in reg d, 1ite lin ctly stri _ _ in whicl1 it vvas to be inflicted a11d the rare cases of serious offe11ces, st1ch as violent or armed robbery, in wlticl1 it co:ilct be orde red. ·!t ,vas also forn1allf prescribed t1:at judge s could substitute fines for flogging wl1enever circun1sta11ce�, espec�ally a less se rious char acter of tl1e case, \vould make this action seen1 appropriate (articles 2 to 4, _C.P.). De privation of freedom or o ther detention co11ld 11ot be aggravated b1 tl1e _m�ru1er 1n w]1ic11 it _ _t ed, and humane was enforced (article 5). Tl1e co1lfiscatio11 of property _was also str1ctly l1m1 to avoid dispositions were establisl1ed i11 regard to good � not !!able t� co11fiscat1on 111 order _ the complete rui11 of the condem11ed a11d o f l11s fan1 1ly (,1rt1cles 25 to 34). Exile or forced residence of a specified duratio11 cottld only be give11 by tl1e. Emperor's Tribunal (article 8), an.d a pe11alty of death could never be e11forced except aft er aJJpeal to, a11d confirmation by tl1e said Tribu11al (artic,e I).

It is, tl1ere fore, absol11tely erro11eous, 1111less done 11nj11te11tio11ally, to pt1blish, as certai11 supe1-ficial travelers looki11g for se11satio11 11ave clone, roma11 ticized accou11ts of various mutilations, floggi11g to deatl1, bra11di11g or death by fire, wl1 ich reveal nothing but fantasy or a11cient, ·\vild accou11t a11d do 11ot corres1Jond \vl1atsoever to the actual penal system. I11for111ed persons have refuted tl1ese affirfD:ations, i11 recognizi11g tl1e huma nity of tl1is Code and the courage tl1at it took to plt111ge thoroL1gl1ly i11to tl1is path of re forin.17 If Etlliopian Lavv see111 ed ''cruel'' up to its first .modern codification, it is simply because, as disti11guisl1ed from wl1at occurred in 011r more adv,1nced coL1ntries, it had remained i11 tl1e primitive state of expiatory a11d intimidati11g law and continued to apply in tl1e presence of foreigt1 observers wb.o were as unfamiliar with tl1e history of our la,v as tl1ey were lacking a deep understa11di11g of the customary penalties; the usual ancient JJe11alties tl1at Conti11ental la\v l1as also k11ow11 and wl1icl1 \Vere even more rigorous and syste matically ''atrocious'' i11 tl1e ''civilized'' cou11tries. Tl1e law v. as still in keepi11g \.vith tradition and wi th the 11eed of expiation and protection for1nerly commo11 to everyone, wl1icl1 11eed was that of tl1e people to wl1om tl1is a11cient form of law had con tinued to be familiar. 1

1 6 . Until 1800, according to tl1e Ethiopi a n calend ar (\vhich is seven yeai-s bel1U1d the Gregorian calendar, the time tl1at it took for tl1e birth of Cl1rist to reacl1 t11e 1nou.ntains of Ethiopia, according to J egend) the fine or rep aration for d amage to the injured JJa rty w as paid in livestock; from 1800 to 1900 in bars of salt; since tl1en, \Vitl1 th e a dvent of a n1ore modern orga nization and the development of n1eans for payment, in rhalers. Tl1alers of tl1e Empres s M aria-Theresa of Austria were once popular and foremost in Ethiopi a ; l ater, the En1peror Menelik replaced them by tI1alers n1ade in l1is o\\rn likene-ss. Thaler:s , replaced no\�a days by tl1e Et11iopian dollar with tl1e likeness of tl1e En1peror l-IaiJe Selassie, can still be fotind fa irly abund a.ntly as objects of collection or ornament. 17. One n1ust categorica lly sort out fa ntasie s sucl1 as those of L. Farago in I1is book Abyssinia on the Ece_ (C!1a.p ter IV, Juslil:e in Addis Ababa) London, 1935, p. 33 and of I l- . De Monfreid (ouste d fr?m Eth1op1 a 1n M ay 1933) 1n t�e collective workL'Afrique Noire-Etl1 iopie-Madagascar from the collection Le Mond� en coule�rs, Paris, 1952, pp. 350 to 353. Auber son, legal adviser to t11e Et11iopian Govern n1ent unt� l the Italian occt1pation a nd as sucl1 ideally situated to judoe fron1 first band kno,vJ ed�e, a fter h aving clearly stated the essential reforn1s of the Code of 1930 in J1is thesis at the Univ ersity of Geneva on Le regi111e juridique cles etrangers en Etlziopie (1936, p. 190), concluded justly tl1at one , could no longer sp�ak of the. "savagery'' of Etl1iopian la-y,,, wl1ict1 "\vas n1ore ap ,arent than r_eaI b� 1 cau� e ? f the practice of paying compens ation.'.' Mrs. Sandford, a n i111pa.rtial witn ess who !ived in Ethiopi�,from_1920_t o 1_935 and t11en returned 1n 1942, revealed"tl 1e sincerity of the humanity an.d �oura ge of 1� 1� legislative product in her book Et/1iopia 11nder Haile Selassie (1946) p. 85 ao<l lbis IS also the opinion of Professor N. Beotwich wl10 analyzed tl1e Code in Co11te1nporary ReJ1iea', May 1941, p. 269. .

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A tl1ird very interesting an d very a cceptable aspect in the pri, 11cip · 1e, 1'f not 1n for e t m h • 1 1 bee r ope d a a e t h ·t d · 1 h ' 15 · the man11 er in which tl1is first Code, w i11 VI'hic . • ith in the ·ust idea er h1 1 pl gl ac 1s wl ed 10 , no 1 on re e cultt1red or more favored b good that J � ' · or t un is gene a .11y y m be 11s an t m d or e gt1 ilt se y rio us ly puni�l1ed so that a true equal1t and a �e pere� more y be 111 me a as nt s11 red , tre at l1a s al y str.ained to i11d dic.i JU iviclu ali-e a ·penalty b Y mak1. ngfi!-t 1 propor· · · · e, the railk, the dtit1es and the resot1rces of 1 c_rinl tionate to t_le the Presents tl1 1s with a great_ deal of good sense an d clarity in tl1e tracriminal. The Prean1ble 1·t10n d · al st yI e w I11c · . h 1s · ,, * . * * o n tile 0�her l1and, especially dt1ring recent times, tl1os wh ha suit• ed .t o it· . . o ve e comm1_tted crimes_ becatise of 1gi1orance of tl1e law l1ave been more 11umerous tl1an those wl10 did so knovvin? wl:at_ tl1 e _ la� was; wl1ence the 11ecessity of distinguisl1ing one case from a1 1othei:, tl1 at �s, dist1ngt11sl1 111g tl1e case of one who commits a crime because of a simple error 1n negl1�ence from 011 e who does so inte11tionally. Jesus Cl1rist Himself l1as said, as 011e ca11 see In tl1e Gospel according to St. Luke: 'For he who knows much shall be punisl1ed mucl1, but he wl10 knows little sl1all be pu11isl1 ed little.' !11 the same ma11ner, the Tl1ree Ht�11 dred Sa?es, �ecognizi11g that it is 1 1ot just to i1 1flict the same penalt y on a person ,vl10 1s so111 1d 111 m111 d and 011e vvho is mentally deficient, establisl1ed penalties i11 sttch a ,vay tl�at o�der perso11s �i_th sou 11d minds be punisl1ed more tl1an yot1nger persons \vho V11ere deficient. In perso1 1al 1nJury cases, one must take into accou11t the person \1/ho is injt1red, tl1e positio11 l1e holds and tl1 e seriot1s11ess of the injt1ry, because it is 1 1ot just to treat all cases eq11ally. Distinguisl1ed persons 1 11t1st not be p11 nished in tl1e same vva y as tl1ose wl1 0 are 1 1ot so, and an1ong disti11guisl1ecl persons tl1e most in1porta11t one will pay according to l1is ra1 1k, and tl1 e sun1 wl1ich l1e shall pay V11ill be gi,1en to tl1e poor and also 11sed i 1 1 tl1e supJJort of the scl1ools (articles 14 to 20). '' £,

•

The Gener,:11 Part treats exhaustively the a1nou11t· of fi11e dt1e, in additio11 to con1pensation for the ,vrong done, i n the variot1s cases where tl1e o.ffe11ce i11volved base11ess, abuse of power, er1vy, perfidy, vindictive1 1ess or a11ger, or where tl1e doer caused more harm tb.a1 1 lie had i11te11ded to or mis11sed l1is rigl1t of self-defence. 111 tl1ese cases, tl1e la\-v prescribes tl1e min.ima and the maxima for the clifferent persons, going fron1 the l1ighest placed 011es, whetl1 er they be soi1s of chiefs or even of tl1e Negus, to tl1e 11otables (from the title of bala111baras to tl1 at of ras), to judges (from the title of 'rvo111bar to tl1at of Afa Negz.ts), to the officers of tl1 e State, botl1 civil and militar y, a11d finally for sim1Jle citizens both ricl1 a1 1d poor (articles 52 to 148) . :tvforeover, r11les are give11 for the rnitigatio11 of tl1e IJenalty i1 1 case of presumed ignor ance of tl1e law (a rticles I2 to 21 or for other n1otives, s11c.h as lack of i11te�ligence, repe11ta11ce and s1 Jo11ta11 eous confessio11 (articles 22 to 24), as ,:veil ,1s for the increase of the penalty in cases of conc11rre11ce of offe11ses a11d recidivism (articles 42 ff.). 011e can see, tl1erefore, tl1 at principles of individualizing and fixing penalties �ccording to tl1 e serio11s11ess of tl1e cri11:e, tl1 e 1notives, tl 1e circt1mstances and tl1 e perso11al1ty of tl1e culprit l1 ave already bee11 ir1at1gurated. All that remains _to be done is to develop then1 syste1naticall y ar,d forn1t1late tl1 en1 into ge11eral rules vvl11cl1 conform to tl1e preser1t day legislative tecl1niqtre in ordei: to elaborate tl1e base of tl1e modern Code. Finall y, tl1 e Co de of 1 923-1930 ha s also created a well ex_pressed Special Part, setting its sights on the tllrce great classic categories of protected i11_terests; tl1e State and col lectivity (Book I.I, articles 160 to 272), perso11s (Book I�I, articles 273 to 415),. a11d IJ:o perty (Book IV, ar tic les 4-16 to 418). One can find �l1ere111_ most of tl1e _11sual crimes w1tl1 their penalty . T11 e book on }Jetty offences ag�inst cir�ulat1on and pu?lic order \Book articles 469 to 489 completes th e system v,1b1ch furnishes, once again, the basis for_ its fut11re develop merit A certaiil 1 1umber of these provisions l1ave been able to serve as po10.ts · n aturcier aft de , · Co w ne e tl1 · of ns o 1· s 1· ov pr e th . c·0f departt1r e 111s1J 1r· at1on or comparison 1or · b' · tical ac t pr en es pr e th d to te ap ad d an ed et pl m co ally hav1ng · ed, · l ly review een met110 · d'1ca ·

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aild juridical requiren1ents. For it is obvi ous that tl1is fir_ st tra i1sitory l� gislation did 110 l suit m odern requiremei1ts. It presented still too ma11y _ vestige� of the anc:ent _ system \1/]1ich were both formaiistic and rigid according to the anc1e11t uruversal trad1t1on (articles 404 to 419), such as tl1e applicati on of various fines a1:d their ra� es, si;11ilar to those of the _ customary feudal l aw (articles 52 to 142), the gene1al cor1cept1on 01 ext� nuat1ng and ag gra vating circumstances, excuses and justific ati on, no longer corr�spond111� to an elabor _ ate metl1odic systen1 for keeping an acco11nt of the exte11t of a crime a11d its pun.1sl 1ment (articles 46 to 51, 145 and 151), or the regulation o f homicid� �nd its penalty, still partly b ased on the old rule of agreement with the family of the v1ct1m and. payn1ent of blood money in case o f excusable homicide. In this sort of con11Jromise between traditional principles which still had a marked private character a11d tl1e necessity of regulations and modern public order, there was an element of perplexity and o f difficulties v1hich had to disappear.

III. THE CORRECTION OF GAPS AND THE COMPLEMENTARY LEGISLATION OF ''PROCLAMATIONS'' The first codification, surmounting such a signific ant, historical step as that from traditional and customary law to written law, was not yet able to foresee and regul1te everytl1ing, and that is why it had to establish a·n elastic principle in its preliminary pro visions. Emphasizing the fact that in passing o ver to the new judicial system there would be no lack of occasio11 f or stumbling into cases unforesee11 by the law, the Preamble speci fied that it \vould be suitable, in dealing with these cases, to a_pply on the one l1and tl1ose rules which by their wording covered tl1e case under consideration (article 1 1) and on the otl1er hand, t o l1ave entirely new cases whicl1 \Vere .aot c o vered by the wording of existing provisions decided by tl1e Supreme Court (article 12). This s olution, wise enough at t11at stage of the law and in accord with the teachings of history an. d the requiren1 ents of reason, was, needless to say, to be reviewed at the time of the definitive co dification, since it was . ot compatible with tl1e strict principle of the ''legality'' of incriniinations and penalties n which is co mmonly embodied in exhaustive codificati ons, n or witl1 tl1at of ''separation of powers'' which, i11 c o untries that have written laws, tends to reserve for the legislator a lone tl1e formation of the law and avoids its form a l ''pretorian'' creation by the judge. But this was only one step, and the Preamble also brougl1t o ut very clearly t]1at one must not lose sight of the necessity of making the penal law ham1onize witl1 the conditions of l1is time, recalled by tl1e precept of the TL1ree Hundred Sages (articles 2 and 5), and of tL1e fact that ''time marcl1es on'' (article 7). It proposed tl1at steps be taken very cautiously, as emphasized by its dispositi ons regarding the retentio11 o f corporal punis11ment (article 3, C.P.), the effects of ig11orance of tl1e new law and its inno,,atio 11s (articles 14 ff.), the metic ul _ ous measure of fines (articles 53 ff., 158 and 159), and tl1e purushment of in sult, bodily harm and h omicide (articles 273, 339 and 404 ff.). na tl1e f o ent 1 After the period of tl1e Italian occupation, and witl1 the reestablishn a ive la io a on regime a 5, y M legis the ocl the t 1941, l, was Code mpleted, o c a pen the and ! �! d she publi J _ udicia,ry system was put to the test by a series of ''proclamations'' or special laws _ es elv ours in the official Jo urnal or the Negarit Gazeta fro m 1942 t o 1952. We shall limit - 276 -

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to citi11g t�e p �oclamations on the o ffe�c�s co ntrary to the provisions abolishing slaver y, iB of z t1o tl1 a n e ar m y a rg h nd o 9 m ilitary o ffences,i !he attacks on pu bl ic secu t e � � 2° ri ty , 2 cotinterfeit· mo 11ey an d forger.y, tl1e c ontrol of explosives drugs narcotics gambl 22 tl1e e n d ' ' in g ' es , an ge ot ri ter n i g o f public comm u11ic ations 23 . and l , vagrancy,24 also the organizat io n of prisons a n_d t!1e e11f �r ce?1ent of imprisonment,25 without m entioning pro clamations o n the orga �1 zation _ o f JUst1ce 26 a nd the establishme11t of public prosecut ors 27 in the pr ocedural do ma111. In tl11s wa y one has strained to meet, in the best possible way, the most urgent modern needs; tl1is, h owever, was inevitably detrimental to the simpli city of tl1e sy?tem as a whole an d the consistency o f the applicable principles, and com plicated co11s1dera bl� tl1e �11owledg� a_11d appli catio n of the pertinent penal pro�isions ,vith out eve11 fully 1mprov1ng certa111 important gaps. Thus, the General Part did not deal with the scope o f tl1e ap1)licatio n of national legislation and conflicts with foreign penal law, pe11�l responsib il�t� �11d t?e _co�ditions and forms. of guilt, the speci al pe�al treatmer1t of n1111ors and rec1d1v1sts, l1m1ta t1on of the prosecution and sentence, nor with tlie prob le1ns i mp ort,rnt i11 modern la w, of probation, co nditio nal release and rehabilita tion concei,1ed as metl1ods of penal tre atment. In addition, the Special Part of the Code d.id not regu late sufficiently certain fields, su ch as tl1ose of offences against the law of nations, publ ic in terests (l1ealth, comm11nications, administratio11 of justice, etc.), rights in property or economic interes ts.

IV. TI1E DIRECTIVES FOR THE NEW PENAL CODE Su ch ,vas tl1e fo undat ion upo n which was to be built a new, complete an d clear penal law in accord with ''directives'' revealed by His Imperial Majest�, th� Emperor, at the opening sessio11 of the cons11ltative Commissi?n for _the new legislat10:i. o n Marc h 26, 1954. Tl1e prese11ce of tl1e Cro\vn Prince, of His Beati tude, Aboi,na Bas1ltos, he ad of t l1e · confusion (voluntary or i nvolunt�ry) the ion, quest 18. Proe[.amat1o this n no. 22, of Aug. 26 , 1942. On . . . . tha t occurred, and tl1e steps ta�en by E�io� ia m this con� ec f10�' see Graven• Apropos du problerne ,le /'esc lavage et cle sa repression en Etlz1op1e, add en dum o ou writing in the Revue internationale de crinzino/ogie et police technique, 1954, no. 4, pp. 279 and 280. 19. Proclan1ation no. 68, of July 28, 1944. 20. Proclam ation no. 4, of January 31, 1942. 21 . Procla1nation nos. 76 of Apil 29, 1945, and 41 of July 31• 1943· 22. ProeIarna t.10n nos. 19 of July 28 , 194?-., 24 of September 13, 1942; 77 of October 31 , 1945 . 23. Procla111ation nos. 16 of June 19, 1942, and 35 of March 1, 1943· 24. Procla1nation no. 89 of 11ay 29, 1947. 25. Proclamation no. 45 of January 3 o, 1944· . 90 0f June 28' 1947-' 102 of December 4, 194 29, y Ma of 62 26. Proclamation nos. 2 of January 31, 1942; 30, 1948; and 149 of November 4, 1955· no.s 118 a nd 123 of July I 27. Proclamation no. 29 of October 31, 194'- d complementary proeIamat"on was s tter ma al pen and l civi in tice jus of n io trat inis d 28, 1951 and 1952. <?n the federal plan, t e a e�ber 30, 1954. �or_ all t Sep of 141 and 1953 25, :!r em Sept of set up by Proclamat ion nos. 130 (a) V, Cr,,runal ap. Ch cit. , op. rein Ma cf. tem sys 1 en p the the legislation \Vhich completes or amends ! regulatj� ns and instructions as for example the 1er Lalvs p. 130. Naturally one n1ust add tile � �� n Government of 1950. ia op thi peri E the instructions for the Police Forces of

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s ter nis d l, n1i an 1ci 111 Co gl l1i n 1 dignita o\V Cr e tI1 of ers tnb ne e 1 .· 1 son • ,. p1a . l 11o "' f Et Iles . . · d . Ch· urch O . .28 . 1 c r . e 1 be ca r1 out. to .:ik ta e 1v at sl 01 Ie 1 e o• . tl . f o • · p9r t�11ce · d t1 1e 1111 empl 1as1ze 2 �. ''coi sid ir�g e pir Em e th tl1e of i ior 11t tit ns Co acquisi � �� e tl1 · i sed g. rev vi°n ter. l1a Af ,- als of� tl1e ft ture , . t 1e de s ·tl wa 1d ai 1t e1 e pr fitting to e tl1 � of s � ed � . 11e e th e st, � tio11s of tl1 pa , leaiung t wai <ls t.l1e r fo re m ai1d Jle\v 1a11ced legislative 1Jrogran1 � , d ad an ad for1n ''tl1e b .ro r de 111 or s to Ia al ur ap ed ad oc r _ t the co n. d an l na pe � , 1al . rc ne 11u co p il, 11 of civ codificatio _1ctr. on, accordi. g to nv co . tl 1n s n� n1� ire g11 re rn de � �no .to o � , , the Im1)eria l d_itio11s of Etl1i 1Jia _ � ent pm e]o r dev ?u · The IJrofou1 1ct aiid e rlif ou to key tl1e be st mu s� niessqge , ''tl1at progre . _ 30 the ''11eed of p-µrst1111¥ . resolutely th program of so 11s, tio cia l constit11tiorial i11nova .uty � 1 a 1d tl1e ''nee d for aci,,ancemeu.t ·and of ·i11tegratio11 in a11 enlarged social_ con1mur commercial arid .111.arit11ne con1n111nicatio11s'' inevitably led �o ''th� closer ada1)tation of t_ l1e legal system o·f EtliioJJia witli ·that of ot11e�� countries w1tl1 wl11ch tl1ere �xist cultural a11 ct con1D1ercial relatio11s'' j 11 order ''to establish ,111d strengthe11 these relations 011 solid . lavv tl1e of ty 11ri sec ·rou.11da.tioi1s'' and ins. 11re tl1e cla a11d rity . . . . . . A·s for tl1e n1eth6d to be follo\ved, two esse11tial · IJrincipl.es \Vere to serve as a guide and ,vere reaffi.rn1ed · i11 tl1e Imperial Preface of tl1e 11evv Code. In a wa.y, altl1ough Ethio JJia miglit jt1stly clai1n ''wl1at is, perl1aps, the lo11gest- 5 tandi11g system of Ia,v i11 tl1e world today,'' the E1111Jeror observed, ''\Ve l1a.ve never hesitated to acloJJt the best tl1at other systems of la\v ca11 ofter, to tl1e exte11t tl1at tl1ey res1Jo11d a11d ca11 be adaJJted to tl1e genius of 011r pa.rtic11lar i11stitutio11s''. Tl1at \Vl1icl1 l1ad bee11 tr11e i11 tl1e pre1Jaratory vvork of the 28. Accounts of tl1e opening session of tl1e Cod ification Com1nission, as wel l as t J1 e speeches given on t hat occasion, \Vere publ ished in tl1e n e wspaper s of 1-\ddis Ababa: Tlze Ethiopian Jferald, Iv1arch 27, and L 'Ethiopie d'aujourd'hui, 1\pril 2, 1954. \Ve have dige sted the general tre nd of these in structions in our articles: f/er url 11ot1veau droit penal etlziopien, Revt1e inter11ationale de cri1ninologie et police technique, 1954, p. 250, and L'Ethiopie 111oder11e et la cor!ification dzl noveau droit, Revue penale s11isse, 1957, no. 4, p.. 398. 29. TJ1e ''fi rst constitution of tl1e history of tl1is tl1ree tl1ousancl y e ar ol d en1pire \vas presented to Etl1iopia by His I1nper ial Majesty Empero r fiai le Se lassie I, in tl1e seco n d ye ar of his reign, on July 16, 1931 (9 Han1le 1923, Ethiopian calendar). The de cree th at proclain1s it demonstrates the spirit an . d aims of the Sovereig n: "Having been called to tl1e I1npe rial Throne by the grace of God and by . tbe tmanimous voice of tl1e people, and l1aving the cr o\\lll and the throne Jegitin1ate ly according to law, We are convinced that there is no better way of expressi11 g the gratitude du e Our Creator, Who has bestowed on Us His tr ust, tl1an by IJroving Ourse lves wortl1 y of tl1 is by 111eans of n1ak:ing every . . e�or� to provi9e wl 1�n1ev.�r follo�s u·s \.Vith. tl1is co11fidence and \Vith the po\ver to \.vork in conformity . . , w1tl1 _t11 e .l a\.vs e xpressed in .the principles s et fortl1. Bearing in mind the prosperity of the country, . , .- We I3ave d ecid ed to work:9_Ut a constitution \Vllich gt1arantees a prosperity based on l a\vs.... Having receiv ed fron1 th e h ands of Go� a lofty mission for the ful fil ln1ent of His plans, \Ve consider it Our duty to n1ake decrees an d to back.up a ll necess ary 1neast1res ... to accrue to the well-being of Our peopl e and to its progress along tl1e r oad to J1appine ss and to the civilization rea ched by independent and cultured n ations." Cf. Gingol d Duprey, op.cit: •p. 79. . 30. On tl1_e 25th. a11nive�sary of J1is · crovvnin.g, ·Nov. 4, ·t955, ·before botl1 I{ot1se-s of Parlian 1ent, �is Imperial !Y1aJ esty l-I?1le. Sel assie ; recalling -tl1e Constitt1tion prese11 tecl 14 years e arlier \vhich bad "laid tl1 e found�tion of the Govern111�nt of �tbjqpia'' and_ had "proven its valtie a nd its durability," declared hLn1 self "l1appy to pre·se nt ,i revise d constitutio11, whicl1 stre11gtl1eos tl1e points that _have been reacl1ed and pre pa res the way to future progress." The extraordinary transfor111ation (as point�d out by the sp�ecl1 of tl1e Monarcl1) w11 ich had been realized \.vitl1in tl1is interval of ti111e indeed re quII· , . e� a.q .� da ptat1op of .the fi�st �onslitu_tion, i11 or�er t o allow tl1e En1 iJire ''to go forward in its dcvel_op· n1e�t. Th e·�evi sed_ const1�ut1�n ," containihg 131 articles (Procla111at.ion no. 149 of 1955), ,vas publtsh· ed _1n �n1l1ar1 a�d 1n Engl1sl1 1n the N_e garit Gazeta of · 1955 (15t11 yea r, no. 2). A Frenc h trans· Nov . 4, _ � . .· . . l ation was pub�sl1ed under tl1e �� aus pice s of t l1e Interparlia111entary u·nio11, in Gene va i n J956. T _·. �re !1 t!an�lation of tl1 e spe ecl1 fr<:11u _tl1e Tl1ro1 1e of Nov. 4,1955, appe are in tl1 e Bulletin c/a Jubi le �: :: ·. d 1 zinpe, ta!, edited by tl1 e _Franco-�tl�1op1an ·Chan1be r of Con1n1erce 2. 11 34, PP· no. : 195 in Pa 5, ris, : e ha re ente W� d _a glim p se· of it 1n: Graven , .Le jubile clL, couro11ne1ne,1t i1nperial et la 11ou11e//e /egi s � l? � . :·. : latzor.� .et,11op1e11ne, 1n �a Vie Judicia [re, Paris Oct. 1955; nos. 445 A 25-3 0. and 18" 23 pp. and 446, Spa111sh language version appeared 1n t he Barr,eau Re vie w of Madrid, Astrea 1956, nos. 47-48. '

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to be trt 1e fo r t l1e plans of the ge11e co1.i.st.itt1tio11 ; :\vas also ra · -· r. • ' l cod"fi 1 ca1·10n. 3L The appeaI . . 3? pean Jll11sts 1.01 the elaboration of the var1·ous ma' de to .. E uro · code proJects ,., den 1onstrated • ,vant. ed a rnoder11 . . work, 111 keepi1 1g witl 1 tl1e reqt1ire ments of tha t Etl11op1a ler11 science . 1noc . • 111de ed wl1at mt1st be t1n.de fS t00 But ' o11. tI1e o· t l1e1• h an d, an d th·is ts d \VI1en speaking Of . er1_. e11ce 1nt1st also ke . e. xp adaptat1 011, tl1e l )ast. a.11cl ep tl1eir Ia,tv,,8 , ''The POI!· )t Qf depar t·life n1u st ren1,111 1 the ge i1 1us 0_f �tl1iop1a1 1 legal traditions a11d the institt1tio11s which l1ave ori�r1s of 11111 )aralle le d _a11 tiqti1ty an d co11tint1 ity._" It \Vould not be fitting sin1ply to copy fore1g11 codes, �1?\''e ver good arid fan1 ot1s tJ1e y 1nigl1t be , ,vitl1out co11sideri11g tl1e 11.is torical ancl political developm e r 1t of ,vl1 ich they are tl1e JJrod t1ct or tl1e conditions and custo1ns for ,vI1icl1 they ,vere made, 11or those often so totally differe11 t fron1 tl1e cot111try for ,vhicl1 tl1ey are i1 1te11ded. r

•

A code 111 11st be both tl1 e reflection a11d . the re gulatio11 of custon1s. A cou11try is an individuality \vit1 1 its o\.vn cl1aracteristics a11d 11 eecls; i t is im{)Ossible to overlook tl1 is fact if 011e ,vants to asst1 re its sot1nd d eve lop1ne11t a1 1d its harmonio t 1s gro\-vtl1 . This ,vas ,11,vays th.e visior 1 a11d tl 1e ai111 of the En1peror, .I-Iaile Selassie I, Wl10, ever since tb.e procla111 atio11 of tl1e first Constitt1tio1 1 in 1931, I1a.d expressed tl1 e rule in tl1e se terms: ''The {Jrese11t Co11stitutio11 l1as 11ot b ee11 pre pared at rando1n and is 11 ot co11tra1�y to tl1e custon1s of tl1 e cot1ntry. It is i 11spired by and. closely ap1Jroacl1es the pri11 cip]es of other civilized peo1Jles. It l1as been plan11e d ,vitl1 tl1e assista11 ce of O trr Pri11ces and Dig nitaries a.11d \Vitl1 tl1e collaboratio11 of Ot1r most e n.ligl1ten.ed subjects . That is 1vvl1y, eve11 i_f ma11 l1as tl1e JJower of comme11ci.ng lus 1111dert,:1ki11gs, it is for God alo11e to bri11g tl1en1 to a successful co11 clusion. There was reaso11 to l1ope tl1at tl1 ese efforts \-VOt1ld e volve a product \vhicl1 ,vill facilitate Gover11ment actio11 wlulst asst1ri11g tl1e ha1JIJir1css of tl1e people ,vl10 will, in a ddition, derive from it an h.01 1our wl1icl1 \-vill 11ot fail to be reflectecl on futt1re ge11erations an. d will permit the E1npire to enjoy the i11estin1able benefits of peace a1 1d sect1rity." Tl1erefore, to sum1narize, it w�1s a que stio11 of elaborati11g a systen1 of penal legisla tion ,v1u·c11 ,vot1ld be totally origin.al a11cl tr t1ly 11atio11a], corres1 Jo11c1ing to tl1e tradition of jt1stice, the vitctl 1 1eeds and tl1e possibilities of enforce1nent i11 tl1is co1111try. TI1 is diffi cult \York of co1n 1Jlete re1 1ovation i11 keer>i11g ,vith the Etl 1iolJia11 spirit, a11i111ate d by tl1c best contributio11s possible from fore ign legislative experie11ce, the 1netl1od of wokr 31. The speech, n1ade at tlie tin1e of the solen1n signi□g of the first �onst�tut_ion by the E111�eror , to al l the official groups of the State, set forth very clearly the essential pr1□�1ples. After having recalle,d that "ho one doubts that laws bring tl1e greatest advantages to hum�.b�1ngs and tha_t �ac�1 person s honor and interests depe11ct 00 the \Visdom of the laws, _just as h�1n1l1�t1on, ,s,h,�n�e, 101qu�ty a□� they Jest denial of h unian rights sten1 fron1 the absence of or the 1mperfect1on of laws , I�l1s I i:n per1al Ma s _or Haile Se1ass·ie eniphasized t lie follo\ving principles: "... 2nd - � Law, 1,vhetl1e� 1t brings rc�ard l au11 a ctic ce� pra the Sin 6tl1 .. -: I<?D ept exc u� tho \Vi n� ryo eve punishm e11t, n1ust be apJJl ied equal ly to law:s n1ust be fouo ed se the :, ple nc1 pr� t h�s hig the th _\vt ord · or la\vs is to develop 11uman progress ih acc � l er the P g of t en e ro i s ou on � np . �� · on scientific n1ethods \Vhicl1 l1av e as tl1eir aLm a harm i � �� f � o of things." Th e 7th princii:,Je is th e one \Ve recall at the conclusion o t s paragraph. . mg . uprey, o1J.cit. p. 83. : . . . , ris) (Pa a arr Esc n . rs: Jea s o fes pro ing o\v ll fo the 32. � . he authors of t)1e ne\v .Etl11_o_p1an le�1slat10? \Ver ie projects of the tJ for ) ris . (Pa vid � Da e en R e, d O the of for the Co mn1erc1al ancl Mar1tm1e proJects -'ects of tile Penal Code ro u1e f ev en (G en rav _G ·Civil Code and tl1e Code of Obligations ; _Je�n � l �rocedure Code and t11; � Ci f�e ou t b the Judiciary Code (organization an� jur isdi ction � -� � ! �) c on to complete the up ed al l was e l l 1 ar� x Penal Pro cedu re Code. Professor A lfred Jauffret ( �5 author 1 of 1 Commercial C ode \Vhicl1 was interrupted by t l1e deatl

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33 were Co1nnlission legislative the adopted, and tile cooperatio11 of �o mal(e � ossible its realization in s1Jite of foreseeable o�stacles. These �ve:-e surr.nounted !n el�.t1vely rai) �: a11d, we tr11st, satisfactory manner, s111c_e tl1e C?:11nussion, as. well as tl1e - c.rl1ament, co id n and real1t1es l1ad neeos sidered t11at tllis adaptatio11 to Ethiop1a11 met the demands of tradition and rece11t progress, of tl1e past and of the future.

PART TWO THE NEW LAW; ITS STRUCTURE, PRINCIPLES AND SPIRIT Tl1e 11ew ''Pe11al Code of the Empire of Ethiopia'' was promulgated o°: July 23, 1957, the En1peror's 65tl1 birthday. It was tl1e �rst of the new codes, a11d went into_ force on Ma}' 5, 1958, tl1e an1tiversary of the liberat1011 of the country and the restorat ion of its ancient rnonarchy. 34 The importance and the spirit of the \VOr.k l1ave been 1nade clear by His Majesty Haile Selassie Hin1self, in tl1e Preface to the Code, a part of which is here included as an appe11dix because of its llistorical interest. ''The codification of the IJrincipal branches of law of any country is always a difficult task, since it must be profoundly gro11nded in the life and traditions of the natio11, and it must, at the same time, be in keeping with and responsive. to the influences, not only juridical, but also social, economjc a11d scientific which are i11 tl1e process of transforming the nation and our lives and wl1ich will inevit a.bly sl1a : pe the lives of those \Vho come after us. 33. We set forth this mechanism in our summary in Rev11e perta!e suisse 1957, p. 402. The Great Legisla tive Com111ission appointed by His In1perial Majesty the Emperor, \Vas composed of approximately twenty-five members, Ethiopians and foreigners, representing a cross section of la\\', government and business. In the beginning the Commission was called upon to learn tl1e general scheme of tbe project, and it readily approved the leading principles suggested unanimously by the three experts charged with elaborating tl1e various Code projects, with the idea of insuring unity of mind and rnetl1od as well as of a mutual effort. Made up of judges, magistrates, governors and senior Ethiopian officials, immersed in the knowledge of their own customs and law; higher judges, lawyers and foreign legal counsellors established in Ethiopia for a long time; and bank directors, business executives and chambers of commerce, tl1e Commission was qualified to give general opinions and bring to a head tl1e instrument of tl1e so-called legislative preparation. After the elabora tion of tl1e texts was completed, it was up to the Commission to examine the result as a whole and to give its ideas on the codes before they were submitted to Parliament, as was done for the project of the Penal Code. For the project to be etrective, the discussion, and tl1e sorting out of the problems, a less complex and a more expedient machinery was needed to function on a standby basis: this was the Small Commission, drawn from tl1e General Commission and representing it. It \Vas composed of a certain number of Ethiopians, the most competent and the most experienced according to their high posit.ions and foreign presidents and vice-presidents of the Higl1 Court of Addis Ababa,\vho \Vere distinguisl1ed jurists, of varying backgrounds, connected with the two great systen1s of law (the Anglo Saxon, and the Frencl1 and Continental), tl1us assuring a balanced recognition of the elements of botl1 tradition and comparative law. The Small Commission met witl1 the drafter, under the chair manship of His Excellency tl1e Minister of Justice or, in tl1e event of l1is not being able to attend, Hi� E�cellency the Vice Minister of Legislation, who gave the project complete support and wortb �vhile impetus. !t is tlJis same. Co.n1n1ission that did all the work of exan1ining and compiling (includ ing the tra�slat1on�) the ��ltiple w?rk of the experts. It put a stamp of definitive Ethiopian ch �racter on tl1e proJ�ct wl1ile a\va1t1ng _par11a.mentary approval, and also assured its indispensable un.�ty. Its co�prehens1on _and �ense 0� ra1rness of ''.law'' in_ the Ron1an concept of tl1e art of equity a11�1 1LStt__ce, _ e which \Vh1cl1 has _remam _ ed_ its trad1t1on, I1as never erred 1n tl1e search for tI1e ''best'' of the ''possibl the Imperial d1rect1on had assigned as a.n ideal goal. 34. (! 011qi1ering Lion of tl1e Tribe of Judc1lt, Haile Selassie J, Elect of God Emperor of Ethiopia ... Gi 11e11 1,z t/1e 21tli year of_ 011r Reign, tl1is 23rd clay of J11/y, 1957. Proc/arria tiorz No . 158 of 1957, Negaril Gazeta , Gazette_ Extraordinary,. 16�1, year No.1, p. V. On the new Ethjopian Penal Code and its general o� gan1_ zat1on, cf. our notice 1.n Revue i11ter,1ationale de politique crirninelle United Nations ' Ne\V York, ' July 1957, No. 12, Legislation, pp. 210, 214 and 218.

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''Tlle e co ider ions apply \vith particular valid ity to penal legislation at . � � � a time w en, t roug ou! th � world, the expanding frontiers of so brougl1t cie ty th ro th t�g e h about �ontribut1ons of science, the complexities of mod lif er e and n consequent increase 1n the volume of laws re · ye t b.1g bly hurna11e · qu1·re that e11ec er- t1ve, · · 1 era1 procedures be adopted to ensure that and l.b le g1s a · I 1· 1ve prescr1pt1ons may • have _ th� �ffica cy intended for them as regulators of conduct. New concepts no t only J_uridical, bu t also tl1ose contributed by the sciences of sociologv, psych�logy a_nd, _1ndeed pei1olo_gy, ha.ve been developed an d n1ust be taken in�to considera t1 on 11 1 tl1� el�boration_ of any criminal code wl1ich would be inspired by tl1e pri1 1_ c1ple� of Justice and li�erty a�d by concer11 for the prevention and suppression of cr�n1e, .ror �l1e welfa1 e and, indeed, tl1e rel1abilitation. of tl1e individual accused ?f cr1n1�. Pur11shment _ca�?ot be avoi�ed since i t acts as a deterrent to crimes; as, 111deed, it L1as be�� said,_ one who w1t11esses tL1e punjshment of a wron.g-doer \Vil] become prudent. It will serve as a less o.n to _prospective wro11g-doers. ''We L1ave, tl1�refore, taken upon Ourselves the responsibility of ensuring to Our beloved subJects, botl1 of tl1e prese11t and of the future that the codificatio11 whicL1 We are today promulgating is, in all respects, conso'nant \Vith these lligl1 pri11ciples and preoccupations.'' •

Let us therefore exan1ine, i11 thi.s introduction to tl1e Code, the broad ot1tline of hov., this work 11as been carried out, bow these instructions have been applied, and }1ow these preoccupations of a new pe11al policy have bee11 put into effect in the la�v. I. THE STRUCTURE AND GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CODE Tl1e project was based on tl1e principle that a law so 11ew a11d so in11Jorta11t, both for the order a11d ft1ture of tl1e cou11try and for the lives of its inhabitants sl1ould be as clear, co1nplete and precise as JJossible. Since tl1e Code formally establis11es 1Jri11ciples of the legality of offences and pu1tishment, a11d si11ce the \Vritten Code sl1ot1ld be tl1e 011ly source of penal la\v, excluding botl1 custom and judicial additions, it is to be expected tl1at tl1is written Code sl1ould really be able to serve as ''the g11ide of the judge a11d the citizen''. Now a 1111mber of preser1t day codes, even some of the greatest of them, co11tain grave 0111issio11s 011 essential matters. These inclt1de the exact application of tl1e law of tl1e country vis-a-vis foreig11 legislation; the pri11ciple of the 11011-retroactivity of the penal law and its derogations ; 35 the definitio11 of tl1e infraction of tl1e law, and tl1e tin1e a11d place of its comniission ;36 the regt1lation of the different forms of intellectt1al and material participation ir1 an offence;3 7 tl1e field of justifications, excuses, and legally admissible extenuati11g or aggravating circun1stances;38 and the � xpla11ation of t�e reasons for the suspe nsion or cancellation of penalties. 39 This annoying state of affairs had to be and 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

of n tio lica of app d fiel tial spa and al por tem the h wit ally dic The new Ethiopian Code deals metho penal law, Articles 5 to 22. This is the purpose of Articles 23 to 25. to 40, and les 32 tic Ar es, nc e f of ary din or r fo th bo n, sio eci pr th Tlie Ethiopian Code sets this out wi for offences relative to p11blications, Articles 41 to 47. . . � res of m ste sy e to th 00 at1 rel m , to 84 64 les tic A Section will be found devoted to tliese problems, � 193, to 3 18 les tic Ar ts, ec eff ; 63 to 48 ponsibi lity an d guilt, Articles 6 to 247· 21 5, 21 to 4 19 s cle rti A , is tl1 to d o te Tw subdivisions are devo

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?e an d ed exp excus i1 lai e? 1_ tl1e European 1t te1 ex ? n1e so to 1 1 ca It d. cte rre s of course \\'a co en ,;, rttd Isp J11 aiid 1n ctr do of � ion clit tra g lon � a e :va1lable _ to every. � cot111tries vvl1icl1 I1av 11ce of n1,L11� treatises, co ste ex1 tl1e to u 11e, ryo � eve � to n ow kti one and assunied to be m _ are_ take11_ as s�If-ev1d�11t, textbooks JJilatioi1s aiid 0�t1er ,vorlcs, vvhere certai11 pr111c1plcs 1 , 1ne em 1 ana tl 1e e Stip da uc1 e 111e Court is and � � all rec to t a11d com111e11tar1 es are p1·ese11 . on l1a11d to correct a11d co11fu·n1 them as 11eed arises, g1v1ng them a gen .era.I autl1ority wl1icl1 is scarcely cballeiiged. J11ridical science a11d jt1rispru�e1 1ce are also ca_ rried to _ the llighest 11tl1out of art 1t. I. 1 1tegr 1 1 But v. form �11 st al111o � : a11d e, Cod l these, Pe11a a _ pitch, u11der such and u11der conditiot1s as differe11t as tl1ose of anc1e11t Etl11op1a, all tl1e essential rule s of tl1e 11evv legal system l1ad to be set dow11, being so foreig11 to traditional c11stoms and so complicated \\'l1en co1npared with tl1em. Tl1e Etl1iopia11 la\V l1as tl1erefore beer1 codified in its e11tiret)r; j11dges, lawyers and litiga1 1ts ca11 refer to tl1e Code on every point, and sho11ld find tl1ere tl1e answer wl1icl1 tl1ey are seeking. Tl1e wl1ole of the organization of the Code has tl1e same purpose, \Vith its subdivi sio11s \Vl1ich are al,va)'S IJrecise a11d clearly related, a11d its articles each of wl1ich l1as a nun1ber a11d a title. Every effort has bee11 111ade to form11late eacl1 precept methodically, in a \v,:1y wl1ich is easy to grasp and, so to speak, po1Jular, wit]1ot1t ir1cl11ding technical or complicated ter·ms. Jnspiratio11 l1as been drawn from the methods of Bellot, in the Genevan codification of the last cent11ry, a11d of Euge11e Huber and Carl Stooss in the more recent S\viss Ci,1il a11d Pei1al Codes. Brevity \V_as sot1gl1t by taking as much as pos sible tl1e forrn of 1 11axims, wllicl1 the Etl1ioJJians take to and remember so easily; they have al\vays cL1ltivated a11d used tl1em tl1rot1gh tl1e ce11t11ries, ir1 tl1eir ''La\v of tl1e l(jngs'' and the legal a11d canonical la.nguage (Ge'ez) vvlucl1 tl1ey still retair1. The ne\v Penal Code, lil<e tl1e otl1er Etl1ioJJia11 Codes, is ,1 detailed and extensi,1e \Vork, beir1g based on the latest co11tribt1tions of comparative law and crirni11ology; but at the same tin1e, it bad to be si111ple ancl available to everyo11e, a11d its strt1ct11re and definitio11s easily understood. This is also \Vl1y each offe11ce i11 tl1e SJJecial Part l1as been concisely set out, \vith its essential elements a11d the pu11isl1111ent attacl1ed to it, separated and set forth i11 the same consiste 1 1t 111a.n11er:10 Tl1e co11cern for 111etl1od and clarity l1as led, also in a systematic way, to tl1e freqt1e11t setti11g ot1t of tl1e basic ''pri11ciple'' at the he,1d of the cl1apter which it illL1minates;11 a11d to tl1e clear distinction betwee11 ordinary offe11ces, which one m1ght call norn1al, and offe11ces whicl1 are qualified or aggravated. on the one ha11d, or privileged, 011 tl1e other; tl111s tl1e degrees of a si 1 1gle category of offences are i 1 11mediately apparent. This is sl1ov\'Il at a gla11ce i11 tl1e chapters on homicide (Articles 522 to 524), abortion (Articles 529 to 533), offe11ces agai11st person an.d healtl1 (A:rticles 537 to 544), offe11ces against JJropertJ, (Articles 634 to 637), or offe1lces relati11g to proceedi11gs for debt a11d bankrLIJJtcy (Articles 680 et.seq.). Tl1e legal disposition itself very freq_uently separates aggravated or attent1ated cases by its title so that the jt1dge ca11 iinmediately pick them out. 42 l1e �an1e. co11 �er11 for clari�y c1lso explai11s ,:vl1y co11crete exan1ples, allo\-ving the � . _ : . extent ?f tl1e d1s p. �s1t 1 011 �1 1 1d the 1nte 1 1t 1 011s of the legislator to be easilJ' u 1 1derstood, have very olte11 bee11. 1r1serted i11 tl1e ge11eral articles; at tl1e same tiine, tlie pri11ciple of ab40. This typograpl1ical sepaTa.tion l1as unfortunately not always been observed in tl1e printing; it l�as only_ been d� ne fo� tl1e complic�t�d articles including subdivisions. This is regrettable fron1 the point of view of l1ghten111g and J)rov1d1ng the best general I)icture of tlie text. 41. See, for instance for tl1e Ge11e �aJ Part, Articles 41, 57, 85, 88, 120, 133 170, 194,206, 213: 161 , 138 ; , 225 233 and � 2; for the Special Part, Articles 410, 521 528 537 574 ty Pet of Code tl1e 'and 627·' for ' ' ' Offences, Articles 733 and 793. 42. Thus, for aggravated instances, Articles, 270 330 and 334, 350, 5 I 7,572, � 86, and 381 513 , 396 466 , , 598, 601, 606, and 620, 642, 654 and 655, 670 and 678· .,so, 87, s Art icle for attenuating inst'ances ' ' 533, 584 and 662.

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ab le to n1 oder11 codes, has bee11 chosen 10 prestr act gen.era! a11d fle xible definitions' s11it . . . · · td d ou at ' sys e t th e11 e 1 t o f co 11str1:t1�e lists, whicl1 is always too ] 1eavy, tho11gh � ference _ . eless i11adeq 11ate an d leading to o1111ss1011s.43 Tl1·is pro neverth · ced 11 re visa was .y espec1a . ll d • l1ose ai..tic . . • ' 1 · w es h h cr IC eate d ne w o�ences, unkno\vn able i11- t or still ill-defi11 ed i11 Ethiopia, w the y are con1m1tted and tlieir im 50 as to better sl1ow ho · pli'catio ' ns , an d 1n . · s01ne way · to make e�e11 t I1e 1 eas t 111for111ed people aw are of this n.ew la\v wl1icl1 m11st affect tl1 e life of tl1e 11at1on so p rofou11 dly, and which everyo11 e is presumed to know. Then ca�1e tl1e desire to i11dicate tl1e vario11s waJ'S liable to pu11isl1ment i11 \Vl1ich 011e cot1ld commit a 11uinber of offences \Vl1oc;e nature is, in ge11eral, fairly uncertain. These inclt1de the breacl1 of gu� rd duty a11 d military iostru.ctions, and tl1e d11ties of militar y honesty a11d l1ono11r (Articles 316, 317, 320, 323 to 327, 335 a11d 337), i11jury to tl1e State through unlawft �l refusal to p:1y taxes, offe11 ces co11 cerned with monopolies, or tl1 e falsi ficatio11 o� official _ 1narks (Articles 360, 364 a11d 373), s11borni11g of witnesses (Article 449), help11 . 1g ,1 pr1s011 e r to escape (Article 456), i11terference \1/itl1 tl1e rigl1t of voting or electio11 , corrupt electoral practices, or falsification of tl1e expressio11 of the will of tl1e people tl1rot1gl1 11nfair 111a11oe11vres (Articles 461 to 463), comn1ission of aggravated tl1eft or breach of trust (Articles 635 and 642), or agai11, wl1at constit11tes dangero11s vagrancy liable to punish1ne11t u11der tl1e law (Article 471), harbouri11g and con1forti11g of evil-doers (Article 473), prolubited traffic i11 arms (Article 475), and 1111la\vful exercise of tl1e 111edical or p11b]ic healtl1 professio11s (Article 518). It l1as bee11 fot111d convenie11 t to clefi11 e i11 tl1e same \V8J', by co11crete i11stances, the ideas of arson and explosio11 s (Articles 488 a11d 491), the general 011tlin� of tl1 e crimes of dam�lge to services aJ1d i11stallations of p1 1blic interest, a11d. grave endangering or sabotage of comn1 11nicatio11 s or transport (Articles 499 a11d 500), as well as tl1e ideas of offe11 ces agai11 st perso11 a11d I1eal tl1 (Article 537), enslaven1 ent (Article 565), receivi11g and extortion (Articles 647 a11 d 668), a11d. taki11g adva11tage of the distress or dependence of a woma11 or yo1 1ng perso11 (/\.rticles 593 a11d 594). It \Vas also fou11d 11seful to deli1nit the va.rious \vays in \vhicl1 cert,1in offe11ces co.11cerned with e11dangeri11g people ca11 be co1nrnitted, wl1 ether by 1na11 t1facture, carriage, storage, offeri 1 1g for sale, distrib11tion or proc11r e1ne11 t. Tl1is apJJlies notably i11 tl1e field of public co11fide11ce with cou11terfeit or debasecl curre11cy, i11 tl1at of }Jt1blic l1ealth vvitl1 injurio11s or dan1 aged 1Jrod11cts, \vhether tl1ey lJe toxica11ts, foodstuffs or fodder (Articles 510 to 512), a11d in tl1at of the protectio11 of morals vvitl1 obscer1e 1J11blic:1tio11s or perfor ma11ces (Articles 609 t o 611). Fi11ally, in a vast co1111try wl1ose institt1tions are a11cie11t and son1e of wl1ose regio11s are aln1ost desert, it \Vas 11ecessary to malce clear wl1,1t was to be n1eant b:y things witl1011t a11 owner (1\rticle 646) a!1d dan1a? e to tl� e property of anotl1er (Article 649), by fraud11lent exploitation of p11bl1c cred11l1tt (Article 661), an� , of the prese11 t time, :w 11 at exactly 1s s ent pm elo dev ial soc and \.Vith the rapid ic 11 11o1 eco . . fere11t facets (A t,cle 673), ba11k d1f y � to co11stitt1te u11fair coinpetitio11 with its ma ny ver _ ge or . ty, s11bJect to pled ruptcy (Articles 681 a11 d 682), or p1111isl1able damage to proper lien (Article 684). J 11 tlie field of petty offe11 ces, it \Vas no less necessary to d.efi �1 e 111 a1 co111 and111 g 0\ er of l ss ele car the d tte 1 it nst co ly cal _ idi 1r jt at vvh te cre mani,er wit]J exainples, rs (Article 770), ont o1 e oth of t es or rk wo of e 11c ba ttir � dis l � � cia 5), f i of papers (Article 75 , _ of streets (A1·ticle 78 2), a11d 1:iilfering and tl1e deprec1at1011 of another perso11 s pr ope1 ty (Articles 807 and 810).

Penal nch Fre the of · · · and 408 • 405 es ticl Ar ce tan ins for d a • e 43 • To b e convinced of this, it 1s enough t O r different its and ft the on 399 to 381 cles ti Ar f; e or Cod� 0!1 fal�e pretences and breacl! of trust, �� ;mi�� ith theft by tl1e single Article , w deals t t ras qual1fy1ng �rrcurnstances. The ?wiss Pe�al Co e duc , pro to pts en1 att ich wh de Co ian iop Eth tlle Y or F 137, and w1tl1 robbery by the smgle �ticle 13�· . ns) , cf· Articles 630, 635 ' 636, 637' 641' 642' 1 tio tra us il a synthesis (witl1 an abstract rule clarified by and 656 to 659.

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ce l1 an wit the ord acc in spir�t of Ethio is les mp exa e cis pre wn do ing d lay The metho of ge le nta adv ub do the has it n, iti add � ? f 1:1aki11g it n1ore in 11; tio r isla ? pia a11d l1er for1ne leg certain tl1at the judge and t�e accused :will u_n �ersta11� tl1e la� whil �{ur11�s�111 �g a guarantee to ng rd1 I-S s1)1r1�, 1n a cord anc acc law tl1e of t1on eta � rpr 111te the s o11r It fav er. � latt e the to e tl1e pos e pur iev 1t has 1n view'', ach to as so e tur isla leg the d by nde ng inte ani 1ne witl1 the as is formally laid down by Article 2(2) of the 11ew Code. Finally, tern1inological difficulties also 11ecessita�ed. tl1is way ?f dr�wing up tl1e Ia\v, since these were great and at times co11ld even seem 111solub!e. This s�r1ngs from the fact tl1at tl1e Aml1aric language, the old lang11age of tl1e province or kingdom of Amhara wllich has become tl1e official, administrative a11d judicial language of the Empire, is frequently \\'ithout words for tl1e tern1s, objects a11d . in_stit�tions \Vhicl1 are e11throned in the new legislatio11. Like all old orie11tal languages, 1t 1s simple and concrete, given to imagery, a11d little suited to the abstractions and formulas of mo�ern_ law. It was there fore necessary to bear tl1is i11 mind when formulating the 11ew leg1slat1on so as to suit it to tl1e spirit of tl1e language of Ethiopia. The precise working out of the Amharic text (like that of the English text which is equally official) was a delicate task even when com pared ,vitl1 tl1at of the codification itself. In addition, from this point of view it will have led to a considerable enricl1ment of tl1e Etlliopian cultural a11d legal heritage. It goes without saying that the technique adopted, for the reaso11s just made clear, was bound to lead. to a fairly long an.d detailed Code, and in fact this was one of the first comn1ents n1a.de abroad on it. 44 The important tl1i11g in such a case is clearly not the n11n1ber of articles, wl1icl1 does not exceed tl1at of many codes (comprising as it does 820 articles, i11cludi11g tl1e code of petty offences) and which ca11 in addition be artificially increased or dimi11isl1ed by changing tl1eir scope and numbering system; what is import ant above all is the actual clarity, brevity and handiness of tl1e whole. Now it is not dif ficult to state that tl1e general orga11ization of the Code, 'by unifying and systematizing tl1e wl1ole field of penal law, must gain in impact, cohesion and clarity. Tins e11d is attained in a still more important manner by substa11tial structural re forms, whicl1 realize certain basic pri11ciples long sin.ce i11sisted on by tl1e criminological science of our tiine.45 The ''subjective'' tradition of the ''Law of the Kings'' with its doctrine of indi\1idualization, and the absence, fortunate in this sense, of tl1e scholastic routi11es and doctri11al cadres which have paralyzed attempts at renovation in so many cou11tries of Euro1Je, have made it possible to b11ild tl1e Code firmly a11d rationally. The Etl1io1Jian genius, unl1a1npered by Co11tine11tal prejudices, had tl1e necessary freedom to create \Vhatever seemed to conforn1 to its sense of justice, whicl1 is very acute and ex tensive; and what seemed to it to be useful and practicable, also seemed to it to be just and worthy of being put into effect. Its desire for improveme11t at1d progress d.oes not rec ?il before a comprehensive ''advanced'' solution if' it can be given the guarantee of a valid example that can profitably be applied in its internal conditions. At the center of the penal la\v l1as resolutely been placed its proper object, namely, _ the man to be Judged or the yo11thful offender, a'l1d no lo11ger tl1e abstract crin1e and the so tenacious ''e11tities'' of classical legislation and juridical meth.od. 1�11e Ethiopian Penal Code has thus bee11 relieved of the distinctions and classificatio11s which are today so arbitrary and so vexing for the progress of penal a11d social institutio11s. 44. Report of A Qt1intano Ripolles, in Anuario c/e clerec/10 pe11a/ )' cie,rcias penales Madrid 1958, p. 348. , , : _ 45. On this sub3ect, see e� pec! al�y the basic work of M. Ancel, La defe11se sociale nouvell Paris, 1� �4e, . Cf. Graven, lntrocluct10111ur1d1q11e a11 proble111e de l'exarneri ,nedico-psyclzo/ogique et social des deh11q11a!1ts, Acts of ! he 1st ! nternational Course in Criminology, Paris nse defe et pen al Dro 195 it 2 · and ' ' soc1ale, Rev11e pe11ale su1sse, 1955, No. 1, p. 1.

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0� the one �a u<l, ab a rrdoni�g the famous l1istorical ''tripartite di vision'' of offences su pp th os eir ed ly to different natures' in according to felon· ies misdemeanors and pett·y · pian law Iias de 1·b 'e 1 er at el y ofef nces, the ne\V. Et.l1io en th ro ne d th id e1 1ti . ty of tl1e nature of re 1n ta th in e ed Pe n ce a s l Co.de ' al l of· them simply called ,,ofiiences,,, an the. offen d th. e ge ra e n r t I e · h · in I P ci es a � 11 which are applicable to tl1em. On the otl1er ha11 it uruty of _ d, t em h ro f 1 e m h d h e mi no r, de form al and petty offences,40 whicl1 form the subject has tac n1atter of the_ C?de of Petty Off�nces. Here the natural distinction betwee11 evidently dif ferent fields 15 1 nst antl y perceptible, sine� petty offenders do not in general indicate a really dangerous cl1ar?ct:r, they are no t dishonourable and are sent before distinct tribt1nals wl1ose procedt�re IS sim_pler and swifter. �tit th� unity of metl1od and i11spiration, as well as the connections between tl1e two parts 1n their structure, principles and disposition, are assured by the .fac t that all offe11ces are brought together in the same law and de alt \\ itl1 as �a rts of a �1r1�Ie overall pic�ure. A study of the Code will reveal this ge11 eral agree . ment, with s?me Just1fi�ble exceptions botl1 in the General Part (Book VII, Article 690 . Petty Offences (Book VIII, Article 733 et seq.). Tl1 ese et seq.) and 1n the Special Par! on t\VO Books con1plete the ea rlier ones, and tl1e different parts should complen1ent one another and form a bal a11ced wl1ole. The law itself m akes sure of a natural tra11sition from one field to the otl1er in the borderline cases (Articles 87 331 748 662 812 and 813). The Ethiopian legislator thought, like us, that both theor; and' pra�tice {vould be nefit from it and the rest1lting sim_plification is striking. The Etluopian Code has in additio11 abandoned the no less famous ''bipartite di vision'' of penalties, and tl1e absolute distinction, rather artificially established, bet\vee11 "punishme11ts'' and ''me asures." The two, furthermore, are often very difficult to dis tinguish, and are mixed up in a l1ighly contradictory m an11er as is sl1own by the orga11.iza tion of tl1e Swiss Penal Code, whicl1 has provided tl1e law witl1 the model and first positive effectuating of the distinctio11.4 i Tl1e Ethiopian la w-maker, taking llis ins1)iratio11 fro1n a broad view of penalties and tl1eir different ends, \Vas preoccupied neither witl1 ''111onism'' nor with ''dt1alism'', but \Vith a r ational and effective criminal policy. In seeking a practi cal solution to his problen1s, he went beyond these controversies \V.l1ose sterility a11d lack of genuine useft1lness were notably displayed by the bitter and frt1itless disct1ssio11 on tl1e subject at the Inter11atio11al Conference on Penal Law at Rome in 1953.48 For him tl1e result was more import ant tl1an the theory. He cared less about the ''jt1ridical natt1re'' 1

46. "Offences'' consist of "acts or ommisions whicl1 are prohibited by law'' properly so-caUed, Article 23 \Vl1ether it is a matter of the Penal Code itself or of a special complementing la\v, Article 2 (1); a petty offender, on the contrary, is one ,vl10 "by an act or an o�ission, infringes tl1e 1uandalo� �� proh ibitive provisions of a regulation, order or decree lawf��ly issued by a co1npetent author1�y (Article 691). Tl1e criterion is simply one of external and pos!t1ve law (U1e na.ture of .the te�� making the act a crime, and the nature of the social reaction wh1c�1 supports tJ11s). Tlus positive b. ase can serve as an adequate starting point since it is always the le�isl�tor, aft�r all, who makes. the cl101ce, and also since this choice is not only a matter of external cr1ter1a, but is u�ual�y deter1!11ned by the "quality'' of the offence conJmitted (i.e., the n1ore or less dangerous, ant1s?c1al or . �1Sbonourable character whicl1 it indicates in the offender; the need for a more or less repressive, pun1t1ve or rep�ra tive punisl1n1ent to remedy or to prevent it; an� th� greater or lesse� degre_e of simple reprobation, . . or on the contrary of social condemnation, wh ich 1s attac�ed to this punishment). o or1g1nally We have discussed this problem in relation to the draft Swiss Penal Code of Stoo�s ,vh e hav e ; ing and dar too b to ed kon rec , ver we ho e, tim w_ � the at s . ract1ons c/11 introd uced a similar system, which wa _ 1nf 11 des t10 fica ssi compared it with an d explained the Ethiopian syst�m: Graven1 La cla ge to ofessor Logoz, 195 8, Pr Code penal et ses ejfets, in Revue pe,zale suisse, special number lll homa especially at IV, pp. 33-43. . .. . . . . 1c1 a, du ,11, Pa da Ce /a def ore on 1n r1d g1u • t1 rzt Sc sse sui l 47• Graven, L es pe111es et 1es ,nesures l c.u dr oit pena • ns, P 53· ' io us l ne co · 1952 Vol · TI ' witl1 references·' off print, notably . 4, No 1, ' 195 , nal pe it de dro le o11a ati ern int · vue Re · 1e tl · · ·• 10 48 • see the general report of Professor Gr1sp1�1 tes officie/s of t11e r1c the and , ete d sfir · ie s' re su ,ne es et 1ne pe p. 481, Le probleme cle l'11nification de la Conference, Rome, 1957, Question IV.

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VOI�. I - No. 2

1 m tl1c 01 f n1 o o. f tw tl1a� a_b�ut ap tt1e een �� : of penalties aiid tlie ideal disti 11c�io11s be t� _ c a 1na_ltc� �f p1ov1 d1ng tll e 1s e1. J;, Tb 1111 n1a plyiiig the111 itl tl1e inost a_pJJropr1 ate practical _ petlal treatmei1t v\,J1 icl1 seen1s best, i11 eac.11 �,t�e tak111� acco1111t of the .111d1v1dL1,1l,, a11tll rol )O� biological, JJsycl1ological a.11d social co11drt�ons w!1 �cl1 apply to eac]1 yo_11tl1ful offe11der de has 111a l1e 11, social enq11iry a nd. 1t10 add 111 y, wl1 is is Tl1 er. end 11I off tI1f you Je of or ty1 _ 1 r) str�n1e11t�s o� the }Jei l al. essa 11ec 11 ofte a11d ry i11a ord �� 111edico-legal exJ)ertise into tl1e . jL1dge, as 11111cl1 for tl1e judgrne11t o.f adults i11 dou�tt·uJ. ?ases req111r�ng 1llun11nat101 1 (Article 51) as for tl1at of 111111ors (Articles 55 and 161). 1l1e title of ''p1111!sl1n1ent'' or ''n1easure'' is 11ot, after all, very i111porta11t provided tl1at a11 a�equate �a11ct101: ca11 be a1Jplied, a11ct tl1e i11cide11tal protective guara11tees, ea. c h appro1)r1c1te to its 1)art1c11lar l)l1rpose of· re 1itl1 tl1e flexibilit red, ass11 be v\ can , 1ne11t treat y ai1d or 1 ctio1 J)rote , ction l)ressio11, corre tl1e eft'ective11ess ,vllicl1 are desired. The Code also abando11s tl1e differences a11d 11seless complicatio11s betwee11 tl1e various types of JJU11islm1ent deprivi11g tl1e offencler of l1is liberty. It is f11tile to try to m11ltiply the nu11 1ber of tl1ese in tl1e law, 1111 1ltiplyi11g at tl1e same ti111e difficulties concerning pe11_ ite11tiary i11stitutio11s, q11alified staff, a11d tl1e e11forcerne11.t of sente11ces. Experie11ce I1 as tended to favour a return to tl1e ''single p1111isl1n1er1t'', i11tel1igently ,1da1Jted to individual cases; it has con1e do,vn a.g,1inst tl1e ''scale of p111lisl1n1er1ts'', wllicl1 is already traditional i11 1na11y co11ntries, as for i11sta11ce i11 S,vitzerland. Here, the revisio11 JJresently in pro gress is doi11g all it ca11, 1101 \Vithout difl1ct1lty, to refor1n cl system of differe11tiated pu1lish me11ts whicl1 tried to be exe111plary and all-en1braci11g, eve11 though rel::1tively simple and far fro1n tl1e con1plication of tb.e Fre11ch p111iisl1111e11ts \Vl1ose mistakes \Vere evident even before they co11ld entirely be put i11to force.&0 Here aga.in the Etl1io_pia11 system, wl1ich vvas to benefit fro1n foreig11 experience and cot1ld not plu11ge i11to diverse a11d over-expensive institt1tio11s, is based 011 a realistic a11d practical vie\vpoi11t. It tries to 1nake it possible to n1eet every 11eed tbrot1gl1 a S)'Stem of in11Jriso1u11e11.t for wbicl1 eitl1er n1ore or less rigorous a111ot1nts of labour, disci1Jline and liberty are prescribed (''sin1ple in11)riso11111e11t'' and ''rigoro·us impriso1une11t'', .Articles 105 a11d. 107). By tl1is is 1nea11t more or less ''ope11'' (\vitl1 open-air \Vorl( after the exainple of tl1e Swiss 1Jei1a.l establishme11ts for agricultt1ral a11d artisans' work), or ''closed'' (,·-vith s0111e for1n of protective confineme11t), accordi11g to tl1e 111ore or less dangerous 11ature o.f the offe11der a11d J1is cri1ne, arid the d.egree of protectio11 11eeded for tl1 e comn1unity. 1�111s system of p111lisl1me11t by de1)rivatio11 of liberty is at ot1ce botl1 adequate and very simple; it also r11les out the absurd a.11d l1arn1ft1l sl1ort priso11 se11ter1ces, \\'l1icl1 are re placed to adva11tage, except in cases where it is more reaso11,1ble to exact a fine or vvhere a suspe11sio11 is jt1stified, by provision for compulsory labour, either at liberty or ,vith certai11 restrictio11s on liberty (Articles 102 a11d I 03).51 Tl1is is ,t IJenalty both healthy

49. The original French �ext of tl1e draft sho\ved tl1is 111ore clearly; the term sanction, ratl1er tl1an peine, was t1�ed very extensively. The two \VOrds cannot be disti11guisl1ed in An111aric, and tl1e English text, foll?w1ng generally accepted tradition, bas al\:vays translated tl1em by pto1ishn1e11t, penalties, n_nd punishable (for tJ1e Frencl1 encourt, or est passible cle). Tl1e definitive Frencl1 text of tl1e Code, which follows tJ1e Official A1nharic and English tra11slations l1as not retained tl1is shade of n1eaning, and in it� terminol_ogy mak�s tl1e clearer distinct.ion bet\;ee11 peines and rnes11res vvitl1out n1ean.ing to modify, by th is alteratlon, tl1e very spirit of the work and the greater flexibility t11at is found in avowedly "dualist'' systen1s. 50. See the ?1aay studies devoted to tl1is problen1 by lt1/or111tc1tions penire,1tiaires suisses, and especially tl,e s1Jec,1al � _ �1nb�rs 011 tl1e single punish111ent, 1953, ·No.I; tl1e discussions at tl1e General Asse1nbly of_ the Soc1ete su1sse pour la re/or111e penirentiaire at Altdorf, 1953, No. 2; the problen1 of penal esta bl1.shn,ents, 1954, No. 4; the revision of the Swiss Penal Code in tl1is respect, 1954, No. 8; etc. 51. !he i_d�a of conJpulsory pe11a.l labour, already fot1od for insta11ce i11 tl1e Yugoslav Penal Code of 19?1 • JS gairung ground. See the discussio11 of it in France of Nf. Ribe ttes, Revi,e pena/e et penitentiaire, 1959, No. 1, p. 7.

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TI-IE PENAL CODE O F TI·IE E MPIRE OF ETHIOPIA 1 a vas t country needing to be opened i1 ul, . tise f d up to an pr og re · ss an · d productio • ' . · · n In · · an a 1n ts 1 d res m1 . u n1s tra tiv e 1t economy whose extent· can eas11y b e measured add , ition . · Another essential sin1plification l1as finally been obtained by the recasting • roan d 1nt . · . into . . . I p,.enaI co de o f everything which Justifies J'udicia· l corr · t,e dt1c t1on ect10n. 0rd'1nary · · ·i law and m11·1tary l a\v; r,?- ·t i1e pena1 law applicable to the police Dorceli3 and to c1v1 serormal adult offendersriri and on minors ,•oo the pr1·nc1·va11ts of all ranks; 54 t h· e 1a\v on abn . · · Iat1011 1�_ varying .fields of law a11d administratio11, such as those 011 pies of spec1. aI 1egis _ n1(ttters01 and com fiscal and eco1101n1c mercial a11d maritime ones;58 all these have been included i11 their proper place. Tl1t1s, all the essentials of punitive law are henceforth to be found i11 the Code. Ef1ch field l1as tl1e dispositions proper to it but is at the same tim e attacl1ed to tl1e general dispositior1s on application whicl1 give t; the whole its character and its t111ity. It l1 as, co11sequently, been possible to abolish the multiplicity of differing Ja,vs \vhose principles are often disco11nected or contradictory. These turn tl1e penal law of a nt1n1 ber of cot1ntries into a11 unknown and unknowable territory, full of traps for the uninitiated, tl1us making the classic principle of ''Error juris nocet'' ridiculous and even ineqt1itable.

It l1as thus been possible to bring the law of many ''Proclamations'' under a single and coordi11ated wl1 ole. The applicable principles and penalties have been made clear (Articles 354 and 355, 733), thus per1nitting tl1e Proclamations merely to refer to them in a way botl1 certain. and t1niform despite the variety of the contents of legislation having to regulate the most diverse and sometimes the most rapidly changing things fou11d in the evolution of the needs and conditions of a country i11 tl1e full flood of progress and growth. There is not the slightest reason for diversifying and separating what can be unified wl1en one l1as the good fortune to be able to establish moder11 codes at a single bound without being tied to a more or less ossified systen1 that can scarcely be to11ched witl1out shaking the whole structure. In pa.rticular, there was no good reason for maintaining the distinction between gener al or ordinary la\v and military or special law, the nature of 011e in no way differing from the other. The increasingly pronounced tendency to bring them together, and, for instance, tl1e a.bsolute identity of so ma11y of the provisions of the Swiss Military Code of 1927 and the ordinary ·Penal Code of 1937, strikingly demonstrated this and seemed to us to be decisive. Wl1at is natural, just and necessary is, 011 tl1e one hand, to take account in the Code of purely military offences; this ca11 be done in tl1e same way as with econo mic offences. offe11ces acrainst tl,e State, or offences committed by or against civil servants. A special titie, as ha.s b:en see11, can do tl1e job easily and exhaustively, and the Ethiopian Code has therefore followed in this respect, the example of the Yugoslav Code of 1951. On the other harid, it is eno�gh to ta.ke account, in the ordinary dispositions of the Code, 52. 5 3. 54· 55. 56· 57· 58·

). ces en Off tty 9 74 (Pe 7 to 74 d an 0 71 6, 70 les tic Ar Book III, Title Ill, Articles 296 to 348, a.nd Article s 349 to 353, and 750 (Petty Offences). ). es nc ffe O ty et (P ?6 to 1 75 les tic Ar � d an Book IV, Title III, Articles 410 to 437, d 709. an 6 6, 70 69 les t1 7; 13 3 13 to s cle � rti � Book JI, Title I, Article 48 et seq., an d A Article s 52 to 56, Princi1Jles; and Articles 161 to 182, AppJication. ffences). Book III, Title l\/, Articles 354 to 365, an d Articles 741 to 746 (Petty O ffences). Book VJ, Title Il, Article 671 et seq., and A.rticles 817 to 82Q (Petty O

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JOUllNAL .OF 'ETI-IlOPIAN,' LA\1/ - VOL.

r· -

N'o.- ·. 2

of the pa.tti'ct1lar 11ecessities of tl1e a1:my· a11d military . l�e; ··this. also ca11 b�- e� sily. acc 001_ , i.)0 plished· by a few· dispositions, both in the General Part and -in the Special Part. Go

· II. THE. RECONCILIATION'"OF TRADITION AND PROGRESS The precedi11g comme11tary is en?ugh to indicate the· novelty_ ?f the �thio1)ian Penal Code� it is no less true that this Code rests 011 tl1e age-lo11g trad1t1on wl11cl1 we have re called ·and could. not entirely break :witl1 it witl1ot1t ru111u11g the risk of imbalai1ce or so me greate� upset. These ·could :have unfortunate res11lts quite Ol)IJOsed to tl1e be11eficial ends which the Code was desig11ed to serve. ·The fi1�st esse11tial of a piece of legislation, ho\v ever g·reat its innovations, is to be ap_plicable and.11ot to run contrary to the convictions of those for vi1hon1 it is n1ade. As long ago as tl1e Esp1:it .des lois, Montesquie11 made this obs.ervation; and the members of tl1e Legislat�ve Commissio11, ,vl10 well kne\v tl1e nature and requirements of the co11ntry,_ ,vere constantly guided by this j11st concer11 as \Veil as by the standard of what tl1eir profo.und conception of j11stice and national utility could accept. Although the Code set itself firmly in tl1e patl1 of the ''11ew concepts," 11oted in the Imperial Preface, i11 order to attai11 tl1e ends of tl1e new crimi11al policy, it did not and could. not sacrifice tl1e idea - dee1Jly ingrai11ed i11 tl1e -Ethiopian 1nind a11d-tradition - of criminal fault a11d deterrent a11d expiatory punisl1ment, simply because of the principles of social readaptation and the. tendency to make the la,v syste111aticall)' milder. A firn1 a11d admonitory penal law is. essential in a vast Empire, all at once. very old and very new, which until now has bee11 -governed- by penal institutions wl1ose b,1sic concepts have, io a.large extent, been tl1ose of its. an�ient pastoral and martial .society and wl1ere the pre requisites of l)Ublic order and ge_neral protectio11 are still far ahead of the need for ps_ycho logi�al examination and individual reformation. Withi11 this lavv, i11 addition, exemplary punishme11t can become a mea11s to ''resocializatio11,'' an instr111ne11t for tl1e maintenance of, or reintegration into tl1e framework of 11ormal social· life. The ne\V Code could not ignore these considerations and ab,111don, almost ,vithout any transitio11, the spirit and principles which, equally, still form, in a more or less latent manner, the very bases of all of our classical codes of expiatio11 ap.d 11tility. This is wl1y its fou11dation ren1ains the penal punishment of offences in cases where a ge11eral ,varning of the dangers of breaking the law has not been enough to deter the offender. At the same time, of course, it does not exclude the ends; set forth by the policy of order and progress for \\ hich tlle penal la\V is surety, of correction, improvement, treatme11t, · and ,vhere necessa.ry, physical elin1i11a tion. The Code clearly sets forth the prit1ciple, and dogmatically defines its position in its very first line (Article l). 1

59. This will be the case especially in dealing witl1 the scope of application of the la\v of U1e. country to m� 1;1bers of t�e Arme � Forces abroad (Article 15); tl1e legality of actions foroung a noro1al · p ar � of _ al military function� (Articl� 64 (a); .�1e division of responsibility in tl1e event of tl1e giving of a cr1nu � order by a s�per1or, �n � i� execution (_Articles 69 and 70); tbe state of necessity regarding the m� 1n· _ tenanc� of m1�tary d1sc1p! 1ne and. ob�d1ence i!1 certain s�riot1s cases (Article 73); n1ilitary reg_ulat1o ns regarding purusl1ments _ w1tl1 depr1vat1on of liberty' (Article 113 for in1 prisorunent; a.nd Arucle 706 (1), fo� arrest); tl1e pun �sl1ment of exe �uti?n by sl1ooting (Article 116 (1 ), para.2); a.nd; tl1e secondary _ penalt1es of reduction 1n rank and d1s1UJssal fron1 tl1e arn1ed forces (Article 126). 60. In cases of �orgery and suppression of n1ilitary documents (Articles 387 <-ind 389); breacl1es of. m�tar)' secrecy (Article 404); escape of prison�rs of \var and military internees (Article 457); theft con�11tte_ d by a member of_ the armed [orces against the person with wl1om .he is lodged or billeted, agaU1;5t _his fellow� or supe!iors, or against the army, Article 635 (2) (a); or breach of trust or ntlsappropnatJOD comIUJtted against the military organization• or ·the armed forces; Article 642 (d):

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ETHIOPIA .

111 .tJ 1e Etl1io pia11 c o11text it would in particular have bee11 <an .1·nconGe•1vab. Ie m1.stake · ssi·b·1 1·t 1 Y' o 1bol·is�1 tl1e death pe11�lty rnp i ' ,til � ev en ? nd a t tl1e present time It is no t only a . ot c cia r e p l i tio , s r bu o t f IS based on the ve ry · deepest feelings of the Ethiopian � 11e cessary _ � for Jt1st1ce and for aton• eme11t- :- tl1e destruction of 1:e: le eop 111e, the· 111g · hest acw i..:evement P of the Cre�t� r, c:11. on I Y be paid for :b y the_ sac rifice- of the life of. tlie guilty person. As i11 �l1e Cl1r1st1 a11 �u rop eai l �ys_te� of. tl1e ��1ddle· Ages, death is always a necessary c on dit1011 for tl1e_ pa r d?11. a i1d salva tion- of tl1e s11111er; and- aJ.so for expiatio11 for the evil wllich J1e l1as con1n1itted;_1t is ac �epted_ a i1d a pproved by all, and i11 the first place by the cri.ininal \VhO l1as deserved i t, �ltld is �a rried out rn a dignified a tmospl1ere qt1ite different from that o f our former ex ��t1t1011s vv1tl1 tl1e axe ? r tl1e guillotine.o-i Corporeal p:i,iitishmen_t (flog ging), wl1ose_ abol1t1on \V as ,:1_11:eady e11:1saged by th{? Code of. 1930, _is a11other ex ample of tl1e co11fl1ct b�;v�ee1: tr�d1t1011 a ncl idea s co11cerni.ng pi1nisbme11ts. It ca11 be regarded as a ''barb,1r?i1s · 111st1tt1�101�, cont r ary to presently a ccepted ideas about legal progress and respect for l1t1ma11 cl1g1uty \vl1ose demoralizing 11ature mt1st make us react- from it· but it is 110 less pos sible to regard it as a. ttseful i11stitt1tio11 amo11g a p roud a11d coura.geou; people \Vl10 are afraid 11ot of s t1ffer ing b·ut of loss of respect, and wb.o would approve of it, precisely becat1se of its ethical i1nplicatio11.s i11 cases i11volving villainy, baseness or cynical brt1tality by tl1e offen.der. After a g reat deal of besitatio11 and .discussion, it, was this traditio11al co11sideratio11 tl1 at eve11tually carried the day before Parlia1nent wl1en a n1ajo r ity of tl1e Comniiss ion b::1d previot1sly bee11 i11 favour of abolition. Bt1t \Vhile t11e Code of 1957 retains c apital pt1nishn1e11t - al,vays subject to Imperial connr.mation witl1 floggi11g as a seco11.da .ry punish1nent, it l1as natt1rally taken g reat ca re in regt1lating the conditio11s whic l1 provide botl1 for the li111itation of tl1e cases i11 ,vl1icb tl1e cour t can in1po se then1 a nd for tl1eir execution u11der decent and ht1111,:1ne conditions (Articles 116 to 119 for tl1e de,1th pe11alty and the possibility of its comm11tation, Article 120(A) for floggi11g). 62 Etl1iopian tr adition is also evide11t i n the field· of pecuniary JJt1nisl1ment especially i11 tl1e confiscatio11 of property, to a -limited ·extent, i11 the case of serious crimes a gainst tl1e Sovereign a11d tl1e State (Article 97), and i11 tl1e provisions for tl1e }J ayment of com pensation for d amage cat1sed to the injt1red party. I-Iere, it was 11ecessary to take accoi111t of the ancie11t private payment of ''blood 1noney," or pect1ru ary reparation, the pri11ciple of vvliich l1as conti11ued d0w11 to the present clay. Tl1ese passages shovv how the transition from customa .ry l a w to modern law has · been carried out, and how a firnda mental concept of jt1s tice can be reformi1lated \vl1 ile retaini11g ge1!eral acceptance. The .limits set on confiscation, in order to s afegi1ard the mea11s of s11bs1stence of tl1e offen �e.r · and bis fanlily, a11d to p revent tl1e leas t encroacl1ment 011 tl1e perso11al goods ? f a11 innocent person, liave been taken direc tly from ct1sto1n as co11firmed by tl1e wri tten· la w (for these were already presei1t i11 Ar tic les 25 to 39 �f: tl1.e <=:od� of 1930). Tl1ey are cl1arac teristic of tl1e se11se of eqiiity wliicl1 domi11ates trad1t1011_al Justice, � nd of tl1e adv�11ta�es, ap1r 1ns tl1e d m 111e fro a g e b s 1ne et1 som y ma h c i wh w, l cve11 for tlie p r ogress of moder11 a tio11 of a11cient soli1tio11s. 61 .

62·

· . · · r. in our • study: Vers clea very ect J sub . this · on ws vie our e k ma , We have had the opportt1n1ty to . ologi. p�fJ ��e l9'i4 un nouvea1, droit penal ethiopi�n,. Rev11e intern°:tio�ale dJ dcr,rru� ; . is Ab;i;; �d /:.:'A /r� on sse re a n tio 1ca un m , h.1 p1.en11 , �ollow ,11ale et . 270 et seq , and to return to 1 t 10 a com pe 1on at de la codific � rit esp o_ le ab rit ve Le e· l to t't e th 1 th l ·b· 't w1 T ve, e u ene � r1. n� de G , . adg he d1n ea 1sl in sly os gr e l tl1 1 at ne be ct oje . pr n tio ca difi · ing an art1c l e 1n tlus newspaper reporl 1··10·0 o the co line: Au pied des gibets eil1iopier1s. . • s wa ed sl1 ol1 ab st r fi at , on isi · ov e pr tl1 at th . ct fa , n This exceptional form of n11°:1ber1ng _is t�e resu lt Of the tio era um en 1 e whole tl ge an ch to· ,e tin r ge on · . 1 no s wa -restored to th e Code · by Parliament wh en there syste111.

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le, g I1e cip tin rin ul reg tl1e extent and 11s i vis pro � J? l � era sev of ? d sai be can e Tlie sam 1 t ; 101 lun 111, ra ns 1de ary 1nis!akes or co o 111t g � kin Ta ilt. gu al du ivi ind t � _ tlie punishmen of ell1ge.nce 01 �no.ersta11d111g, pre� 1nt excusable ignorance of tl1e law (Article 78); la�k of _ . vious good conduct, lofty motive or sincere conv1c�1011, or repentance 1mn1.ed1ately shown d erfi and bas motive, and 79); e t1cl (1\r es sta um circ p ting t nua e r as 11de offe ?� by the y . � X: � . __ _ 1!111 ces t..:1rc ng r "tan vat1 agg as (Arti cle 8I), � or the abuse of a pos1t1011 of power or pr1v1lege _ are takei1 directly from Ethiopian practice already sa11ct1011ed b�,r law 111 the Code of 1930 (Article 44 et seq. ), but ha,,e been given the mor e abstract a11d general form su ited to a modern system of law. It ,va� in the same spirit of adaptatio11 to Etl1i�pian needs_ a�� ct1stoms t�at tl� e draft retained the old and still active pri11ciple of collective respons1b1lity for certain crimes of a tribal or anonymous nature (such as raids or homicide committed by nomads or in outlying and still prin1itive areas). It goes witl1out saying tl1at tltis formed part of a juri dical system in which shades of responsibility were taken i11to account, and which was inspired by the n1ost modern principles, notably th.ose of i11ternational penal la\1/ (Arti cles 52 to 55 of tl1e draft), with a correspo11di11g series of appropriate pe11alties (Articles 174 to I 8 I). We saw in this one of the most origi11al contributio11s of tl1e new law, resting on a custom whose practical and juridical justification was incontestable, which it \Vas particularly valuable to confirm in a reformulated form. These provisions, however, had to be removed from the final text si11ce they were inconsistent with the principle of exclusively personal responsibility guaranteed by Article 54 of tl1e Revised Constitution of 1955. Finally, in a 11umber of other respects it was not possible to go ''too fast'' or introduce innovations that were too daring and perhaps too risky, wl1icl1 prudence advised against attempting in a country tl1at is opening up in the fields of crin1inological a11d social sciences, and particularly in criminal psychopathy, psychology and pedagogy. The Code showed itself to be extremely progressive in going so far as to accept the principles and tl1e different measures whicl1, after the examples of tl1e Swiss Code (Article I I et seq.) and a number of other modern codes, regulate tl1e problem of linuted responsi bility (Article 49), and its legal and judicial treatment i11 a man11er that is I1alf restrictive and half therapeutic and protective (Articles 134 to 137). In Western cot1ntries wl1ere the system is applied and is the subject of constant observation and study, one can naturally argue the question whether it is really suitable, in sucl1 cases, to con1bine the ''punish ment'' for the proved partial guilt (which punishment is mitigated because of tl1e reduced responsibility) with the curative ''measure'' or internment for the deficiency or tl1e bio psychological trouble which has reduced tl1e responsibility. The International Conference on Penal Law at Rome in 1953 (before the drawing up of the Etl1iopian draft) decided, after sharp controversy and by a simple majority, that this con1bi11ation shot1ld be avoided and th·us that the judge should preferably conclude in .favour of tl1e ''n1easure'' alone without any punishment. But no rece11t legislation or reforn1 has gone this far, and al though we consider the system to be now outdated, being based on a fiction and not on criminological reality,63 it is clear that one could not introduce, i11 a country still seekjng its modern forn1 and institutions, a revolution whose consequences were so great a11d lized specia presuppo hi a sed hich developed hly penologists, of system psychiatrists, � � _ Judges and special establishments that only a few rare countries car1 gather togeth er. In the same way, we do not feel that the systen1 (Article 181) governing the ''young t. men ove impr the ''inter·mediary period'' is very rational and think it capable of adult'' in 1

ilite,

63. Graven, Le role �t /es poz,�oirs du j11ge pe11al par rapport a I' expert medical e11 ,,1atiere de responsab Revue pena/e su1sse, speci r I number in honou.r of Professor Germann, 1959, p. 265.

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i1 1 t l1e Swiss C od e . rticle I 00), an It is the san1e as ,(A · · d tl·ie pe · . ,, · . r1· 0d 1s • , a•bstractly defined as . cr 1n 1s h 11n 1 . e a e1 1 n1 aJ be or tw 1 t y • ,, a nd hi s absolute or ''leg that . 1 a m aJ or . . 1ty . The system t a� I te f ie p 10 a_ t l 11 'd f ti . ?� 0 e s_ le v1 pr�nc1ples and pe11alties applicable pro . to an adult, with t1g of at n1 y 1n t g l tl 1e lat ter, instead of providing for hi tlle poss1�1 1 � m a strengthening system e t at r n:i ai en id t. Nevertheless, l1ere a gain it is not for th of educ� t1on e Ethiopian legislator ,v wi or th ld tli a e n e e xample of refor1ns to _provid t hat are still in controvers y everywher e. e 11t sta of e pr t _ _ h e� e t e la w, l1e l 1as already made satisfactory prog \V1th th ress in at least Jti l1e dg ab t th e ili e y t givin¥ to �,? choose b etwe en this system a nd the measures applicable to minors _when t!1e offender 1s undeveloped pl1ysically or mentally for hi s ag e or did not c_omn11t a s�r1otis offe1 1ce an_d, according to expert opinion, still seems amenable to curative, e dt1cat1ont1l or corrective measures provided in respect to young offenders'' (Article 182) .64 Tl1e l1eritage of tl1e past and the taking into account of Ethiopian traditions and 1 1ecessitics natural I�. also affec t s quite a nun 1·ber of the provisions of tl1e Specia l Part. There are tl1e prov1s1011s on tl1e protection of the Sovereign, ''Elec t of God,'' and of tl1e Solomonic D)111asty, wl1 icl1 is woven i1 1t.o tl1 e history of the country, and h as been one witl1 it tl1rougl1 the ce11turies (Article 248 et seq.). Again, one finds, in fields of differing i mporta11ce, sig1 1ificant provisions on the repression of illicit traffic in precious metals and n1i11erals (Artic les 358 and 741), the protection of l1istorical and natural riches, and the flora and fauna (Articles 803 and 804) . Tl1e legislator has also take11 account of customs and circumstances i11 procla.iming the severe provisions on abductio1 1, enslaven1ent and mainte11a11c.e i11 slavery (Articles 558 et seq., and 565), and the more flexible provisions 011 adultery, co11cubi11age and biga my (Artic les 616 to 618). Similar reflections of the life of tl1e country are fot1nd in t l1e many articles on tl1e spreadi11g of epiden1ics and epizootic diseases, contaminatio11 of water and p ast ur e land, sources of the country's wealt1 1, and creation of states of f ami11e or distress (Articles 503 et seq., and 509), as wel l as damage to property illicitly c aus ed by herds or flocks al lowed to stray in forests or pasture land (Article 649). Tl1ey are found again in tl1e pt1nisl1me11t of injt1ri es to l 1ealtl1 caused by philtres, spells or sin1ilar n1eans (Article 516), tl1e activities of magicia11s or ''sorcerers," ,vitl1 tl 1e exceptio n · of l1ealers worthy of co11fidence , wl1ose experience is r ecognized by the communit y to ,vl1 ich tl1ey belong, Article 518(4), or tl1e exploitation of public credulity by sootl1sayers a nd tl1 ose wl10 call upon spirits or indicate means for finding a trea sure (Article 815). TI1e regt1latio11 of l1ome arre st (Article 705), and tl1e provisions for policing at night in ti1nes of curfew or restrictio11s on traffic (Ar ticle 780) are also directly inspired by local conditions. 1 11 retaini r1 a suci1 crimes tl1e Code has 11.aturally al,vays given itself the task of also "rethiriking'' 0; ''rejtivenati�g'' them in their adaptation to moder11 . conditions, and in integrating tl1em logical ly an d inconspicuously into th e whole work, lay1n� down a penalty in accordance \vitl 1 their import ance to tl1e life and interest s of the n ation.

· • · · t de police technique editorial note regarding 64. Cf. our v1e\vs · ·nologze m Revue 111ternat1011ale de crzmz th t the 'International Conference an article on the juvenile judge, Bibot, 1959, p. 1 1t . s k.00 · lts adu ng you of m ble pro e �am s hi ;f i ss d on Social Defence in August 1958 at Stock11olm isc UN o Section of Social Defence' �f: on. tJtis subject the ex�lanation of M. �ope� Re , f;;a� ihesn� of Ge�eva, proposed an increased 1b1d_.,. 1_95�, p. 3. The S\l11ss report on. this point, 6 This is in effect the de. Co al Pen ian iop Eth · th! e _ a dopted fl x1�1l1ty 1n_ age classes, a�d _the solut1or:i t proposing, sen pre at o als is de Co al Pen � iss Sw . t h of n, solution wl11ch the Comnuss1on on Revisio 1 it pen.al dro de et le ne/ nzi cri ce ien Sc de · ue ev R sse, 111 s . a pen cf. Germ ann La revision actuelle du Code co,npa re, 1958, p . 799 et seq. It is still insufficient.

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III.. TfIE NEW SPIRIT AN'D CHARACTERISTICS A Illlmber of legal provisions referred to above l1ave alre� dy �how11 ,vl1at the Jlew spirit is tl1at a 1 umates the 1 1ew Code. lt is 110w 11ecessary to exam111e 1t ratl1er 1110.re close]y witl1 t11 e I1elp of so111e provisio11s take11 botl1 from the G e1 1eral Part a1 1.d from the Special Part. 'Tl1e fundamental maintenance of deterre11t a11d exen1plary p111usl1ment has IlOt pre ve11ted the affirmation of the modern metl1ods, perl1a1 Js to a greater deg�ee than in any other Code now in force wlucl1 l1ave seen1ed most useful for the preve11 t101 1 of offe1ices tl1e rehabilitation of thos� criminals who are able to men.d tl1eir ways, a 1 1d the protectio� of society. The Code 11 as not done tlus at rando1n, i11 a11 indecisive or fragmentary \.�ay · it has do11e so syste1natically, i11 tl1e aware11ess tl1at tl1e profot1ndest i11dicatio 11 of th� cl1aracter of moder11 penal la.w is, perl1 aps, not the part ¥ihicl1 is pur ely ''penal, " or re pressive i 11 the na,rrow sense of the \vord, as muc� as its whole ''social'' outlook, and the p.reventive or. corrective measures ,vJ1icl1 it is able to offer to the jt1dge wl10 is better informed tl1an others about the real causes a11d rational t1·eatment of crin1e. A complete syste111 of ''measures'' a11d penalties a11d a clearly defined ge1 1eral te11dency will best ac co1nplish this goaI.65 Contrary to tl1e majority of Codes, v.rhicl1 defi11� 11eitl1er tl1eir ends 11or the general spirit tl1at inspires them a 1 1d m11st govern tl1eir _ application, tl1e :Etluopian legislator bas believed i11 giving tl1e judge tl1e precise directio11s whicl1 illumi 11ate t]1e Code, and sho11ld guide him in a task \V�ich is so 11ew for him and to \vhicI1 ]1e is so u1 1accustomed. The penalties and other ''meas11res'' provided ''m11st be applied 1 1 1 accorda11ce with tJ1e spirit of tl1is Code so as to achieve tl1e pt1rpose it I1as in vie\v'' (Article 85, para. 1), tl1at is to say, tl1e general preve1 1tion of offences,· the pu11ishment and reform of offenders, and protectior1 against tb.e commiss.ion of ft1rtl1er oflences (Article 1); their a.pplication ''shall always be in keepi11g with the resp ect du e to hl1man dignity'' (Article 85, para.2). Its punisl1ments must not be exclusively ''afflictive'' nor systematically ''dis11onouring," for that V.'Ol1ld be to nullify its end. from the very .begi11ning. The penalty which is imposed in each case 1nust take into accot1nt tl1e degree of i11dividual guilt, bearing in mind the more or less dangerous cl1aracter of tl1e offender, his background, 1notives a.11d pt1rpose, his perso11al situatio11 and degree of education, as we11 as tl1e gravity of Iris action a 11d the circumsta.nces 11nder \vhicl1 it was carried out (Article 86): this is t _o say that individualizatio1 1 is an obligation and tl1e very fou1 1dation of every judicial decision.66 Tl1e secondary penalties and tb.e various measures for _prevention and protectio11 have been syste1uatically developed to meet the ends of tl1e 11ew cri11 1i11al pol.icy. They can be applied. by the court, in conjunction with tl1e principal pt111isl1n1ent, whenever t �e . ge�eral l egal co11ditions em are .realized and tl1ey se e1n ap_propriate i11 the in th for _ _ d1,,1dual. case t? attain tl1e pp.rticular result - repression, protection, preventio1 1, edt1cat1011 or treatll?-ent - for whic11 each of tl1em is i11tended; it is not 1 1ecessary for an article �f the_ Special Part to 111ake specific provisio1 1 therefor (Articles 120 a11d 138). Tl1e appl1cat!on 9f the �yste1 n is certainly fairly delicate, s.i 1 1ce it JJrest1pposes tl1at judges ,vill s11 �,v _ _ awareness of 1ts_ effects, knowledge. of the mea 1 1ing of tl1e law, ability i 11 its use, .and 1n. �5 .. For. �e·oyerall-J? i�ture, see Graven, De la 111ise e11 oeu1•re des iclees de la cri,nin.ologie 111oderne dans , at101z po 1t1ve, a pape base_d -la legzsl r ne, at the VIth Inter natio nal Lausa n Cong � ress at on 11 unol Cri ogy , )(pn a comparative study of Swiss ,ind Etl1iopian Ja\.v. Spaaisl1 translation published in Anuario de dereo/10 pe,zal, Madrid, 1958, No. 3, pp. 473-506. . · .. '6•6 0!1 thif s _ub�ect, cf. our paper on La pe1:so11nalite dr1. delinqua11t dans -le Code penal suisse et le Code penal eth1op1e11, Lecture at tl1e International •Faculty of Comparative Law, Luxemburg, Ma.r cb 1959, •

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. t are . t l1ese not the . . · siglit iii· its·pronouncement :· bu c o nd t1· i o ns of ·all 1n • d1v1dua11zat1on' · to . · · w f h h i a c o s 11 d" c1e Jtl · 1c1 1 al act1011 must in f act ·respoiid ? . the exige 1 Wifhi�. this g e_ nera l framework , tl1e various penalties have all been re gulated 'in a on a . �1 11ov 1 11 spirit of al\v ay s related to ·tl1e · position a nd ar e Fi ne s - r�sources of the g111 · · 'I ty person, bearing _ . . l11s . . · i· ncome, t_ he 11ecessary xpenses ue to 1n n1111� lus family and his age and, of course, � � the ser1ous11ess o f his_ offe11c� �Article . 88). Tl1ey are organize' d into a whole system of recovery and suspen�ed execution , grad.ed a11d exten ded as need arises by means of suit able �uara11tee_s. (Art1c�es 90. to 9 6). Tl1e i11tent ion is :to make. them at once pr ofitable, effective and Jt1st ,. wh ile taking �ccount of the econon1ic condit ions. of the country. We 11ave already n1 e11t1011ed t l1e pu_1ushment of compulsory l abour with deducti on of wages to tl1e benefit of _ t he S�ate, wb'Jch 1?� Y. be either at liberty or with restrictions (Articles 102 a11d 103). Tl11s pt1111sl1n1.ent , :wh1ch 1s both o riginal and in the spirit of the times, will allo,v at tl1e same t1n1.e, t l1 e acl11eveme11t o f work s i11 tl1e general interest the disconti11uance of sl1ort ter111s of imprisonment, and. t he conversion of fines, whe� they cannot be paid despite the facilities allowed, i11to c ompulsory labour rather' than· ordinary impriso11111e11t (Article 92). Pe11alties en.tailing loss of liberty (Article 105 ·et seq.) are orga11.ized in acc orda11ce witl1 a progressive an d corrective system, in \vl1ich compulsory labour, education an d spirit11al assistance are to be assured (Art icles 110 to 112): These two as pects of the system · sl1011ld, at, t l1e s ame t i1ne; meet· t be ends of protectio11· and reform, talcing account, 11o t of the more or less· general t l1eoretical charact eristics, but of the degree of actt1al gravity of tl1e offe11ce for whicl1 the pu11isl1ment is give11, and the pot ential d.anger 111 the cl1aracter of tl1 e offe11der \Vl1icl1 must be guarded against. Articles 105(1) and 107(1). Inveterate offenders are removed from t he scene for an in defin ite period of time by in ternmen t (Ar ticle 128 et seq.), wl1ile irresponsible, abnormal and ment ally deficient ones are accorded tl1e curat ive or pr otective mea sures best st1ited to then 1 (Article 133 et seq.). Arrange1ne11t s are made f or s11spensi o11, wl1etl1er it· be for suspe11sion of pronounce1nent or t he penalt y, suspe1 1ded sentence (Article 19 5), or ,suspension of enforceme nt of the penalty (Art icle 196), 137 ,vl1enever tl1 e gravity of t he part icular offence does n ot preve11t it, whe11 it seen1s to, be called for or wl1en the judge has ''a reasoned c onviction '' that it ,vill dissuade t he offender from furtl1er offences. This is its very p11rpose, and in volves both a11 enq11iry \Vhe11 1 1ecessary (Article 199), and appropriate ''c onditions of co11trol'' laid dow11 by law (Articles201 t o 203). 111 order .to prevent.11ncer_ tainty an d �b11se, it is 1nade clear tl1at the gra11t of a s�spension i�1plie s '. 'an a1Jpeal to t he co _operat1on of the •offe11der for l1is o,vn reform'' and tl1at· i t ca11 be rev oked \Vl1enever tl1e c1rcumsta11 ces show this co11fid�11 ce l1 as ·been �isplaced. (Article· 194. ). In the same way co ndit io11al re lease from a JJe11 al ins tit11tiol).. after a cer tai_ 11 time, in cases ·of good �011duct and when the outlook is favou1:able (Articles 207 a11d ·21Q),•is applicable tl1�ough?11t the Code. It �oo must be e_xpressiy· ''regarde_d as· a rn:ean� o f r�fo rm a nd soc1a� re1nstate�ent, f orrni_ng part of tl1 e progressive r egim� ·of _ e11fo�cement ''. _(A1:!icle 206). . Like s.u�.p�ns1on a�d re1n state1nent, \vl1icl1 also 1nust alw.ays be· de� e�ved (Art1_cle 242 et seq.), 1� 1 s thus an integral part of tl1 e ge11er al sys tem ,_ and i11volves the reparati on, �s fa�.�? poss1bi e, � f. t he damage caused by · tlie offei1ce; t his is the first indicati o11 of well mearung an d t he sp1r1� of refor �.• last1 � a�t�orit s l1o o r ian ard g y, l mi a f ir t,he f o � y t ili � . M inors are 11nder. tl1 e respon sib _ ies uritil tlle. age of rune. Tllereafter, a system of ed11catronal, curative or d1sc1pl1nary 67. Tllis is the system extolled by tile tlJesis of R. Berger, Le systerne de probation �ngla si _e� le- surs is con _1 e,. R . ecu 1 n11e tt1o nd s1s co sur du sse · tal, Geneva, . . 1953,. as well as 1?Y ours�l •es· Graven Le systeme.su1 t1nen_ n el on diti coh s· i ' suis _ du _ sens Le d · ··an ros .· .. · 1• • us · · C i de trava�x of tl1e. Geneva �acu�ty of L �w, 1952,. ��'! hon�ur of·Professor Thormann; · 19'54, ..: el son developper11ent, R-evue penale su1sse, Spec1a1 um.. . . : · · seq. � et 291 . . p No. 3, sketch of a fully evolved systen1,

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se inc� tide rerJrima nd, tl1e rr1; to the ed pli ap is n itio nd co d an e ag ir tlle ted to sLri res asu me e .l ,or or1 ry , un ssa ece ere wl1 d, a11 � ion cat 11: edu d � ise , erv �shme11t (Article est sup l arr �. scl1oo _, the e. ) o 1f1ab] JUdge a�cordi ilg 1n 11g be1 , led cal soly � per � pro s," ure eas ''ni 172); tliese to tl1e circu1nstances (Articles 16 1 et seq., 170 et se q.). 1hese me,isures are ��plied u11til tl1e age of penal majority, whicl1 l1as been fixed, tal<111g accou11t of tl1e co� d1t101 1s of de velopn1ent of tl1e co11ntry, at fifteen, or, wl1en _ the 11nderdeve1oped pI-L_Ys1cal or mental conditio11 of the you11g offender w�1rrants it, u11t1l tl1e full adult age or e1gl1teen. The sus pension of sentence and placing 011 probatio11 �an �e applied to tl1em at any time (except in very serious cases specially dealt with by Article 173), whenever _stich "· co1 1rse of action provides a reaso11able cJ1ance of success. Tl1ere m_ay even be a ciel1�erate abste�tion from judicial action wl1en it is justified in cases of minor offences (Arti cle 17�). Finally, the measures and penalties imposed upo11 young offe11ders shall not, except 1n very serious cases, affect their civil rights, so as not to obstruct ti1eir reform and future integration i11to society (Article 177). Tl1e broad system of secondary 1Je11alties, preve11tive and protective n1easures which is combined \\'ith the system of principal punisl1me11ts has the same clearly reforming an.d social inspiration. It includes: 1) firstly, secondary penalties, such as warning, repri1nand, a11d even the traditio11al apology, wl1ich is still useful and sl1ould be used more exte11sively in a modernized form (Article 121); a11d tl1e loss of certain civil, l1011orary, professional or family rights, according to the circumstances (Article 122); 2) preventive measures of a material kind, sucl1 as tl1e recognizance to be of good bel1aviour and tl1e co1 1fiscation of dar1gerous articles, even, if 11eed be, before tl1e commission of a11 offence (Article 139 et seq., and 144); 3) measures which restrict or suspend. certain activities that have been or could be abused by their author in committing or repeating an offence; tJ1ese apply in cases similar to those involving the loss of rights, and include the withdrawal of .Patents, concessions or licences and the l)rohibition or closing of establishments or under takings of any kind (Articles 146 and 147); 4) measures restricting personal liberty which limit the temptation and the danger of committing crimes, such as prohibition from going to certain places, residing i11 or the obligation to reside in specified areas, expulsion, or tl1e witl1drawal of official papers for a specified period (Articles 149 to 154); 5) finally, informative n1easures designed to provide a \varni1 1g or protectio11 against further offences, such as the notification of tl1e sentence to tl1e competent civil! administrative or military authorities, tl1e publicatio11 of tl1e judgment \\1l1en the public -interest or -�egitimate private it1terests so require, and entry in the police records, the 11eceg��ry guarantees being provided that thjs should. be a reliable and necessary so�rce of i11formation on criminal antecedents for all the authorities justified in knowing them, without becoming a possibly insurmountable obstacle to the desirable reinstateme11t of the convicted perso11 by their con1munication, as tl1e law expressly provides, to tl1ird parties not havincr a justifiable interest in 0 seeing them (Article 160). The si�ple e�umeration of these different steps, ordered a11d systematized in ac cordance with the1r overall purpose, seems to be enough to indicate their progressive character. . A br! ef lo�k at the Special Part of the Code, sucl1 as we hav e already carried out, w1Il provide s_t1Il further convictio11 on this score. A . very large number of provisions, and often entire cl1apters, bear witness to this character.

Tl-(E PENAL CODE

or;

Tl·IE \EMPIRE OF ETI-llOPIA

F ollowing tl1 e logical order of tl1 e Co de ' it is appr opriate to draw . . attent10 • 11 first to · beside d the v 1 e 1 t· e opmen_t of the law dealing witl1 nationa the 11inova 101 '. . l defence (Articles pe rfe 1s ctl 1ch 1 y wl na tural 1n a country of mi·11tar · · y trad·t q.) ?6 ... 0 et se · s and 11onour sueh 1 ton • · 0f in · · � the wl1ole ne\v field of offences again �orporatin as Eth1op _ 1a, st the law of nations · · boldly into tl1 e national law, 1n order to guara11tee the effectiveness of · t 1 0 (B k I II , Title II, Articles 281 t � 2�5). These are infractions of the l1un1a�i:!rf�: ��n�enti��1s of !l1e I-_I�gu_e atld Geneva, lat? dow11 more systematically and completely than did the S\�I�S M1l1ta1 y Penal C�de revised by tl1 e law of 21 December, 195 0, and the Yugoslav M1l1tary Penal Code revised on 27 February 195 1, or again certain special laws like tl1ose of the Netl1 erlands of Jtily _ 195� and May 1954, after tl1e Diplomatic Conference at Geneva on the Red Cro�s Convent�or1s 111 1949. 68 111 this realm, tl1e Ethiopian Code l1as really given an exa�ple wh1cl1 places 1 t at tl1 e head of the laws of tl1 e World: t11 ese oftences against international law are all regulated a11d punished in acc ordance \Vith the ordinary prin.ci ples of the la\\1 of tl1e cou11try.

I1movatio11s just as great appea r i11 tl1 e \vl1 ole system of offences committed in or against tl1 e adn1i11istration of justice (Articles 438 to 459), of w}1 jch only a few are provided for in tl1e classic Codes; and against the exercise of the rigl1ts of the people (Articles 460 to 470), \1/hicl1 are usually covered by special laws: extensive protection of these was de sired by the Revised C onstitt1tio11 . A wh ole Title also brings togetl1er systen1atically � from tl1 e point of view of tl1 e pttblic interest, breacl1es of military, official, professio11al, scientific and industrial secrecy (Articles 404 to 409); further titles bring together offences against law a11d order and breaches of the peace (Articles 471 to 487), and against pttb]ic safety a11d con1n1u1lications (Articles 488 to 502), g oing far beyond traditio11al oflences alone, and to some extent adding a whole new social section to the old bipartite division bet\veen offences against tl1 e state 011 tl1e one hand, and offences against individuals and property on tl1e otl1er. Tl1is co11cern for protection of tl1 e general interest 011 tl1 e part of a country wl1 icl1 is as yet little developed technically a11d industrially, a11d tl1at is anxious to create the conditio11s most suitable for p rogress, is fou11 d in provisio11s like tl1ose regulat i11g a11d punishing tl1e culpable i11fringeme11t of building rules, tl1 e removal or culJJable omission of protective apJJaratus or devices i11 public or private t1ndertakings (Articles 495 and 496), tl1e enda11geri11g of installations, communications a11d n1 eans of tra11sport by land, sea and air (Articles 499 and 500), the guara11tee of the freedom of moveme11t and freedom to wo rk (Articles 569 a11d 570), and tl1e punishme11t of damage deliberately caused t o macl1inery, installations, plantations, or public utilities essential to the 11 ational interest. Article 654(b). Tl1e same can be said of tl1 e fields of l1ygiene and public health, tl1 e protection of tl1 e fanlily a11 d you11g people, \vl1ere lies the vital strength of th� nation, �11d protection against economic and con,mercial offences w]1ic11 are bound to proliferate wi th new developments. ood time. Consequently, g in te sla Ifto govern is to anticipate, it f ollows that it is also to Iegi _ the exercise of the medical a 11d JJublic healtl1 professions, where �lmost all modern con ditions are still to be created, J1as bee n reg·ulated with care (Art1cl_es 518 to 52 �). �ro _ l1cat1o�s visio11s have been made jn advance against the danger of o bscene or indecent p ub _ sty, erot1and perforn1a11 ces, the risk of c orrupting youth by appeals to �rut�l, blo�dth1r and antisocial instincts, an d those actions \1/hich disrupt the family, ;!�c': �h1s_1s�?fortt111ae te]y one of the greatest manifestations of t]1e conquest by western c1v1l1zat1on of tl1os e

Revue 68. On this subject ' see Graven ' La repression penale de s infractions aux conve11io11s de �eneves, in l gium ha prepare d . Be seq et 1 25 ·n rnat1o · nale d� crin1i11ologie t pol1· e teeIznique p 4 No 56 19 ' · , 1 �; � ndard offences sta of t en llm nis pu the n ' � ·d. ar e 6 19 a _draft Iav-1'' (ideal lav,), published 111 Fe bruar y ?.• r g_ . i gt those in Switzerland and Bel gium against the Geneva Conventions. In Germany, a rev1s1on SLmt 1ar o is under study.

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i o11 lat of tl1e vio d the a11 , ed op vel rde de lln �1Jty of pare nts . as . rds ga ·re 1 it icJ . 1 colIIltries wJ _ le l1ab rus e (Art1cle 626). It lias pt1 d a. 1 n 1 bee ise ew lik l1as 1· rei ild � cli up ng to · a.11d guardiarrs bri _ _ ·also bee11 11 ecessary to foresee tl1 e 11 eed for definite pt1 11;1sl1 1ne11t of tl1e draw1:1g of cheqlies \Vithout cover a11d 1nisreprese11tation i11 i11surance (Art1cl es 657 ,111d _659); llllsmanagement n atio ctil spe or to tl1 e carr ying o age a11t adv r's tl1e ·a11o � for e11t s, tem rest i11ci inte te riva p _ of out ·of prejtidicial assigr1ments by taking a�vantage �f a n1111or or _of a persoi: 's carelessness, co11 fidence or 111a1ufest business inexper1ence (Articles ·663 to 666); u11fa1r competiti011 i11fringeme·11t of i11dt1strial ·a11d commercial marks, a11d literary or arti_st!c copyrigl1t (Article� 673 to 676) ;60 and tl1e illicit obtaini11 g of votes or- frat1dt1le11t obta11u1�g . of a compositio n i11 111atters of ba11 kruptcy (A1·ticles 687 ai1 d · 688). Fi11ally, the J)rov1s1ons dealing with offences coiJ1mitted by or agai11 st corporate bodie_s ·sbot 1ld not be 11 egle_cted, co11 sidering tl1e great uncertaJ11ty prevaili11g i11 this field ·(A rticle ·574, offences against honour, aiid Article 689, offe11 ces in the 1na11 age1ne11.t of a body cor1)orate). St1cl1 provisio11 s are also conti11ued in tl1e Code of Petty Offe11ces; v.,ith adequate JJe11alties attached. to then1. A. whole series of provisions. adapted to 1nodern life J1as been provided in additio11 to tl1e .classic petty oftences. Tl1 ere .is, for i11sta11 ce, tl1 e use of expired or falsified transport titles (Article 737); the co11 111ussjon of fra.ud in official competitions for tl1e ,JJt1 rpose of obtaj11ing a certificate of pr.ofessio11 al caJJacity, a diplon1a or a degree, ,t11d tl1e illicit use of docu111 e11ts of tl1is kind (Article 738); or tl1 e 1na11 y 1Jrovisions on tl1e st1 pervisio11 of tl1eatrical performances, e11tertainment a11d public places (Articles 776 a11d 782), of buildings, comn1 unicatio11 s, ex: plosives a11d dangerot1s substances (Articles 781, 783 and 784), of public h.ealtl1 and l1ygie11 e,. dr.ir1 ks, toxic substances, other commodi· ties, a11d so on (Article . 785 et .seq.). ,. '

.PART- THREE . - CONCLUSION

011e sees, the11 , tl1.at these are all the featt1res of evolved contemporary life \Vhich tl1e Code of I 9 57 i11corporates a11c,l_ 1�rotects·, al611g-side t11e traditional features ,vJ1ich are co111 111 011 to every Code. In the overall m_etl 1od, as i11 the detail of tl1 e provisio11 s� the Ethio pian legislator J1 as n1ade e\1ery effort tp constrt1 ct a complete edific e. , ''une maison nouvelle" as tl1 e authors of tl1e S\viss Pe11 al Code of 1937 JJllt it for tl1eir part, wl1 ere 011e can fi11d order ar1d peace, security a11d progress, united in a si11 gle \vl1ole. l\1ay tl1e application of the Code attai11 this end and co11fir111 tl1e l1opes placed i11 this i11strument wbicli. is ,,ery 11 ew a11d doubtless very bold for tl1 e country a· nct··tl1e condition s u11der whicI1 · its effects may. be felt!· No · 011e 'bli11ds himself to tl1e difficulties. and as \1/e have 11oted,His Majesty E1nperot Haile Selassie, tl1e ·Legislator ar 1d Re11 e\ver �f Etl1iopia, l1as, \Vith the lofty sense ·of His, duty and His 1nissio11 and tl1 e faitl1 in God and tl1e love of H:is people which are tl1e · esse11tfal eleme11 ts of H · is cl1 aracter 70 assu111ed tl1e reSJ)onsi bility for this work· \Vl1icl1 really co1istitt1 tes a peacef t1l revolt1tio:1-. We l1a,,e dealt else\vhere . .

69. ;l1 is again is an e�pression of tl1e Ethiopian legislator's oesire not to scatter penal provisions tJir�ugl� . · ,nnt1me�a�l_e special laws, but to make sure of tl1e· overall picture and t11e unity of pr1nc1pJe� and penalties 1n tl1e Code wh'icl1 is known· and· use' d by everyone. - 70. Every act and speecl1 of the Ernperor reveals th is, and ··tl1e robservations of l{imself and·His reign , . for tli�se wlio l1ave tl1e privilege of undertaking it, are convincing. It is enougl1 to re-read the Prefa�e - _t� tlie Penal Code of �930, th_e Decree·pron1ulgating the C,,onstitution.. of-1931 and tl 1e speec h on its · signatl.ire -before t�1� d1plomat1� corps and assen1�Ied · bodie s (cf. Gingold Duprey, ··op.cit., PP· 79 to . 84), as w_ e ll . on , �he occaston as - �he speech from th e TI:i-rone, -of wl11cl1 ·a few : extracts _are ,given :in footnote s- belO\V,,on of . th e solemn proclamat1011 of tl1e Revised .Constitution and tl1e-new legislative se.ss in November 1955, Bul/eti,1 du Jubile i111perial, Paris, No. 34, p. J 1 et seo. . .. .'

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ET.l'II . OPIA

· · ll_el_ 1n•e��u· res· taken ·to en · ata . the ., devel op , .·sure ll· - t· · lie·•· ·p . ,vj t me · . t · n f e d uc at . .. . 1o n, .tl1e fo . rm at . io n . 1 · 1 · fi 1 t re. me t c o f i:u n ,. qu 1e a · t led s 1 , . Jt1 dges a11d. .magis·trat·es, and the . ·reorgamz · · • · :. . of el1te · · at1 i:· ·011 o f •I 1ere1o · var1- 011s- coµr-ts ,. a nd I·1.·· is ,t re. u11 nec . ess ary . n. tt1,..1s co11the to ret u r11 to · th ese su b �e c t s · 1 · : · 1:s · . . . . . a1111·.ru· � ' as· 111d· ed·· Sa 1 d · · l n · �IO l sl �x. 1 ould,:·tl1e prospects for the f11t11re � . cltl : . � ,-' : 'w :V 1en � l _ _ fir 1�v l 1ed l us e a ato th • eir 1s · • • .. task , 1t will·. be 1i:-•0 r:.tllos tbe . . Je isl . e wh .o put 1·t · 111to e11e n- ct · to take . t en u or o r . e s. de tl1½ r rea•l s11ccess of this histori·c e[iter,,. pri·se of the tip the�irs 1t1 · d · 1110 ermza · t·1011 · .. . · . · •. ici ) · d a ct· n · t� e . lo ga 1 lo t l, . g1cal -s�ste�1 of a- country whicl1, tl1ro11gl1 th e- centur . of- the :l�,. : . � � ·! !1as ret�111ed·.. the Dl�S� ai1c1e11t I_�w a11d· 111s. t1tutio11s -in tlre ·\vo!�ld' '.- This task of putti11gjesit. _ diffic_t1l t of. tl1. t l1 e 11o t les e t Jll s t \ ff e rnto � � � �1 . _ bl �ms, perso11al �. �o. 011� ��11 im_agine tl1� pro _ittit1��1aI,_ ": . . � 1 cI1: . as _ 011e 11 11gl 1t. p11t it 1 � a str1k111g s11mming UJ) of tl1is enterprise, and 111st _ _ 1t10 1 fr on1 1 1 �1a t l1 1 l 1e e Co _ t de be�tr1c;l,e : a11 or Corts.tantine or frop1 the �ode of tl1e . of J11st11u � _ . odern E111p E111p�ror Zar� Yak . o Q �9 tl 1e C o. de of the m _ ire of Haile �.el assie.71 ';fhis en ter_pr1se of pat1e1!ce, d �l1cacy a�d·coura?eous perseverance is 11nder way.- 72 We · l1ave faith a1 le Sel ss1e I gauged· its ·importa11ce i11· sayi 11 g to·the Codifi · in � ts success. _I�l �s !vl,'t.Jesty � � · _ _ cat1on Co111n11ss1011, at its 1na11 gt 1rat1011 111 Marcl 1 1954: ''We JJray tl 1e AI 111igl 1ty to see fit to spare Us 1011g e11ot1gl1 to carry i11to effect this s11pre1ne acco111pl isl1ment of O t1 r life, as ,l mo11t1.n1ent for tl 1e generations ,vaiti11g impatiently 011 tl1e thresl 1old of existe11ce . '' And He g::1uged its decisive advantages for tl 1e futt1re of His co11ntry, of \vl 1ich we 11ever lost sight thro11 gl1out tl1 e 1011g a11d clifficult but exciting \Vork of drafting, 73 i11 co11clt1di11g tl1e Preface to tl1e 11ew Penal Code of 1957 \V.ith tl 1ese \vords of sere11e cor1 fide11ce: ''We are certain tl1at witl1 tl 1e aid of tl1e Almighty, Fountai11 of Justjce7'1 a11d So11rce of all \Visdon1 and benefits, tl1is C ode will c o11tribute to the ,velfare ancl progress of Our bel oved subjects of today a11d of tl 1e f uture.''

\��

71 . Cf. our article, Vers un nouveau droit penal ethiopien, op.cit., 1954, p. 276 et seq. \Ve have, in parti cular, taken note of tl1e results achieved in the creation of educated elites, especially of qualified law yers, by the creation of the University College (with a School of Law), inaugurated on 27 February 195 1 , and by the giving of n1any scholarships to undergraduates to carry out and con1pletc their university studies abroad.

72. The speecl1 before Parliament of 4 November 1955, on the Silver Jubilee of tl1e Coronation, gives n1ost interesting details on tJ1e extent and results of this balance sheet on t\venty-6.ve years (Bulletin, op.cit., p.11 et seq.). The nun1ber of l1ospitals and clinics in the \vhole of Ethiopia \Vas only 48 in the year of the Coronation, and had risen to 240 by the Jubilee in 1955; efforts in the fields of public health and hygiene l1ave brought about a noticeable increase in the standard of living, a reduction in infant mortality, and a general increase in the population: There \Vere _thirty-six times 111ore s_ch?ols in 1955 than in 1930. Exports and in1ports 11ad quadrt1pled since 1946; \VIth coffe� alone (the pr1nc1pal object of export \Vith oilseeds and skins), tl1e value of the crop _exported had increased 1nore. tl�an tenfold during the twentyfive years of the reign. The annual na_t1?nal . budget, less tha? fi�e m1ll( on Ethiopian dollars before t11e war, ,vas more than a hundred m1ll.1on Jn I954; m<?n�y 11:3 c1rculat1on had risen fron1 eighty niillion dollars in 1 946 to over two hu1:1dred and tv1enty n11l11on 1n 1954, and the gold reserves 11ad increased by twenty times in the same p�r1od. The ¥eneral developn1ent naturally had repercussions on tl1at of judicial affairs and the courts: 1n the previous twelve ye�s, the num?cr of courts, incltiding tlle moslem courts or Sharias, l1ad increased from 182 to 593, w1tl1out co1;1ot1og the numerous n,inor local cotirts (known as Mektl Woredas). The rest of the speecl1_ de�ls with .U1e new duties and the nevv national responsibilities \Vl1ich this favourable state of affairs involves 73. I-lis Majesty Haile Selassie paid a fine tribute to the Eu ropea� jurists,_ :alled t1pon_ to _"codify, under re I-Iis direct and constant supervision and in the light of tl,e an:1�nt trad1t1ons of Ethi?p1�,a?d her p_ing _ 1e laws �f the . Empue, 1n referr sent and future needs, the civil, penal, commercial an? n�ar1t1n .rage to the ,vork undertaken an d already realized under His direction and with H1s . cons_ tant encou ping J□ the fu��e �l1e ment ha d been ''gigantic." His :tvlajesty concluded: '.'We are confident of. reaof wl ch le, eo p _ ur g ein ll-b we the for t _ou ed rri ca en be s ha 1 �er Just �1car10 n� or positive results of all of tl1is ,vork whicl ot no be n ca is, as He sa id elsewl1ere, ''tile so le ideal of Our life,'' since "there a governn,ent no n1atter what its form''. apita l 74. The in1per1·a1 s'peecl1 also d"v,'elt on the fie ld \Vhich is of special interest to us; that �eing tl1de cfun a d • an ts h rig n . ma • · · hu for ct spe "re to 5 195 f importance attached by tl1e Revised Constitution "eacl1 of vvhicl1 es icl e art nin tyen tw , n tba r ewe f ° no ' 1as n1 n1entaI liberties''. The chapter devoted to the 1

. � :291 -

JOURNAIJ OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

I - 1'-Jo. 2

l1as a precedent, eitl1cr in Ethiopian tradition, or in _ constit�tio_n� firmly_ estab!ished elsewhere;'' amount to the principles ''adopted for the prote�t1on of 1ndrvadual r� gl1ts 1n the most adv th ey coun�ri� of th� world.'' Tl1us,. n� one sh�II be �en1cd tl: e e�t1aJ prot�t1on o� the la,,.•s,_ !her e sh:Uced n.o d1scr1n11nat.1on an1ong Eth1op1an subJ�cts. with respect to tl1e enJo:y1nent of all c1v,I ri ghts, be so on. In the field of penal law, the Const1tut1on 11as confirmed tl1at every person accused of a a. nd sl1all be presumed to ·be innocent until proved guilty, and tl1at no one shell be imprison ed for �1�1 e except in case of legally proved fraud. TJ1e Constitution also establishes, ''in contrast to me t, countries. of tl1e world, the right of any inhabitant of tlJe Empire to bri11g suit against the governm. any • • ent . . 1 t·ty thereof, 10. .r r v1rong1u. ,. J acts resulting m any ministry, d epartn1ent or oth er 1nstrt1menta subst anfai dan1age;'' it recognises th.at ''everyone in the Empire shall l1ave the rigl1t to present petitions to t� Emperor'', and it stipulates that not only the co11rts btit the So\·ereign himself are at all times oblige� to ensure and protect these hun1an rights. The En1peror concluded: ''We s11all always be ready to take positive action to e.nsure respect for these rights by every or a and every official of the government. Thus, the humblest subject of the En1pire, the poorest as !e� at all times tl1e ass �rance that the Sovereign �s the r_ichest, _ and even the guilty person i � prison,_po�s ess 1s keep1ng mc�s�ant watch for the pr ?tect1on of �1s r1�.h. 1s and fundamenta� l1�erties." This, in a nut. shells 1s the sp1r1t of the great renovation and codificat1on of the laws of Eth1op1a..

- 298 --

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STATUTORY INTERPRETATION IN ETHIOPIA• by Professor George Krzeczunowicz Faculty of Law,. Haile Sellassie I University

I. INTRODUCTION The purpose of thi_s paper is? fir�t, to i�tr?duc� the readers to general ·elementary problems of s�atutory 1°:terpretat1on 1n E �h1 �p1a, � n_d second, to derive some specific rules _of leg�l 1nterpretat1on from the Eth1op1an C1v1l Code provisions governing con struction of contracts. Reduced to its simplest terms, the problem of Ethiopian law interpretation involves two basic questions: First, WHO is to interpret laws? Second, HOW should one inter pret laws? We shall discuss them in that sequence.

II. WHO IS TO INTERPRET LAWS? ''In ordinary life, if someone says something that you do not understand, you ask him to explain his meaning more fully. This is impossible with the interpretation of statutes [laws].... " 1. ' , Whom, tl1en, shall we turn to for explaining the laws with some authority? To tl1e scholar, the judge, or, exceptionally, the· legislator: (1) In their doctrin.al interpretation, scholars merely try to persuade; (2) Judicial interpretation has legal authority in the case concerned, and if ''settled," i.e., customary, it has at least factual authority over like cases in future; (3) Legislative interpretation, if any, has, of course, complete legal authority in all cases. We shall no\v discuss, in turn, the doctrinal, the judicia.l and the legislative interpretation. .'

1.• Doctrinal Interpretation ,

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. • Doctrinal interpretation is that ''which is made in books, in reviews, in the cla�s write or law on e tur lec y the en wh rs ola oom sch al leg the by d is stly in� mo for per It :''2 r law _ ure fut the uld mo ks boo d an s, icle legal- art art es, tur s lec icle or textbooks. Such law , ''

· • Abbreviations used in the text and footnotes will be as follows: · 59), v. Planiol- Planiol, Treatise ori'the Civil Law, 12th· ed., trans. Louisiana State Law Institute (19 I , 1, No. 199-255. Williams - G. Willia1ns Learning the Law, 5th ed., London 1954, Chapter 7. . . . . ' ive lat g�s ovel Le N "A 1, . No ies ud St ian op hi Et of l 1 na ur Jo in zu , Krzcc no,\ icz I - G . Krzeczunowicz Approach to Custon1. '' .on.,, ati uc Ed Krzecz unowicz II - Krzeczunowicz, ibid., ''Ethiopian Legal Note: square brackets denote our interpolations. ' 1 w·ru I 1 ams, p. 87. . 2 Planiol, No.· 200. I • •

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i ons ropo_u?de-� tl1erein have ''no a� t re_ erp i1 l �a i ct� do t11e t, ;! tl1a � in fro othe r yers. 3 Tl11s 1s �est ach1 ved tl1r ough commenting o � use tllan to itlfluerice court dec1s1ons. . n l�� 111��1_,'e?. �� n��o�o�1� case�, �nd stre f. 1s:o �?� g n upi gio , o��s _ o_pi l a ci i . jud _ � a11d ws la ss , es tJ_1e in Judg 11 dec1s1ons. Etl11opian cases, crop may · that · any; • if p. es, enci iisist iiico i iig being 111ostly 11nreported, cannot be, as �et,· so _ d�scussed. Abr?rtd, tl1e scholarly com :tl1eirt :op1ruons :ar.c u11a1111 11ot1s (con1munis . l1�n 1 t w nges o str is : ence influ opin io . mentators' . :· � sto : :. � !1a ' cu. r,u;� · . l.'.; to o�tr . •�:4 �J 'i · _ t u .. mo a . · s th11 doctori1n1.) and :

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Judicial Interpretation

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''Judicial interpretation :is that wl1 icl1. emanates ·fron1 a:· court vYhen, in .order to.: decid e 1 . before ' d .. Such interpretations are it.��· disb11sse n ng:-is i a e m : · whose w a I :; a a case, it applies· · called quasi-judici al. when ema11ati11g from• a11.:adn iinistrative ,organ :in -adversary pro· ..:. :·:·.�· . - 1 . .. , . , ceedings. . . Many . Jtid:gme'ri:ts ci_ nvolV� -�d,' iii�yrp��(atto�s, .. bhly ·sinjpl;e· applicati on_s bT' l�w. The . � · _ · TJ..le �. jse is often .11ot disp· 1_1�ed. 111eani11g of th'e'I aw to be -applied to _ _ ·t_l1� ·ra��s· c9nt�nd�� . . is then WOil by the party who proves· 'J1is. facts: Appreciatib11 or·· evidence on facts fies, witl1in few legal limits,5 in the court's discretion. T11e facts once established, application _ i,or .inte�·pretatio11. For instance, the fact of a clear rule to tl1em will follow wi tpoµt_ p.eed of my having borrowed ten dollars from.you ·may 'be· deriie ·ct wi tl1out questioning the rule that, if so borrowed, tl1ey should be repayed. •

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. Where a ,l�\,1/'s 1:i1ean i�g-is: dispu,te d.- before ..th·!:! coµ,:t,. tµ� decjs_i-on i�volye� -its inter pretatio11. A line of similar i11terpretatio11s leads to ,vhat some call ''settled'' case-law or �w. source a the I ''In ju.dicial c11stom. Judicial int�rp��tatjons_ tl1us. ,become f <?,. judgments . . � , alone is to ._be found fl1e law in .its living:to:rm� . 6 T1us i_s hardly tl1e.c ·ase iJ.i Ethiop1a,,\11here , .. :,·esearched· · b�i 11 g .largely.. unrep-orted, and,: most judicial opinioris· . are no..t .exl1austi. v�ly . . · · · . . .. . e;ann· ot be read.i.. ly ''found. " 7 · ..._._.· .. ·... . .. . .. · · . : ·· ··. · . . ·. · . ' . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ' . .. .. . . .. ' �.. .. 3. Legislative Interpretation .. .. . . ... .. .. ., ' •

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Legislative interpretation i s tl1at made by tl1e law-maker (legislator). Under the mo dern principle of separation of powers, inter1)retation of law .iJ.1. litig�tion pe longs to, the judge, 11ot tl1e l aw-maker. But this was not always so. Under 'some monarcl1ies,' the law m�tker had to b� �sked, where �ppropriate, ''to explai n l1is mea11.ing more fully. ''8 In old France, ''t1i�. k. i ng alone could i nterpret ·his ordinances. It · fo:llo\Ved, therefore, that Whe·n ·tt1e. m��p.ing of orie· of �hem was· doubtfu1 jiidges s·hottld ab' sfain from inierpreti�g it: . .. The action · was s·u·spe11ded ancf · the parties· sent b·efore tl1e king in• order· to liave tl1e �eaning o� the law definit�ly establisl1�d. ..... At. prese 1 1t, ��ch .aPP..�al_s _a_re: _µq l�nger t is �s1lent, pe�D11tted .,. a Jud.ge mc!,-y npt fy(u�e to p3;ss_j_udgme11t o_ n tl1e pre�ext . la\\ e tb, that . . .. . 3 Planiol, No. 201. -' ·· .. , .. ·', .. . .... , -• . •.-, . / . .. ' .•, : -� - . -4 ..:-�laniol,: -No. 202. . . .. __, · . ,. . . . . . ' .. .. . · . 5 \\'hich, in our system without juries or very extensive Jaws on evidence, se1dom,requi on rpreta ti inte re . . . 6 Planiol, No. 14 B. ... :.... _ . , . : .. . L • • . • . : ••: ; •.• • .• • .• ••• : • : • • • . ,: • . • : 7 See Krzec zunowicz II, s.v. Case Reporting. . :· ...... . : . . . . . ,.; · -,� ;,;..:" ·..::·;. · ··: · · .·-: 8 Cf. s'!-pra, Not e I. Such practice is impossible in the n1ode circt1 by n islat:io . ass-le g of.' rn in n1sta nces . . . . _ transient bod.1es. ,. , : . . •

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STATUTORY INTERPRETATION JN ETI-IIOPfA

1· St·dice. ..... ,, 9 · · Ui1der pr.es�nt obscur e or insufficihent. H e would be guilty of 'a denial ·'of JU I refusal to pass judgment might be charge as suc law, pian tl1io E a breach of official · I e 412 pen aI code, unless the va·rious Codes 0f proc . duty und·er Art1c edure provide otherwise, whic11 t he pena l proce dtire Code of 1961 does not.10. ·. As already mentioned, Ethiopian judges ma · y no t stay a cas e demand'1ng I eg ' . 1··s 1 at·1ve . s. Bu t tl11s · does not prevent the Government from de · etat ion erpr int mana·1ng tha t a c1ari·ry• · · ing prov1s1o1_1 b e enacte d· por instance, the Higl1 Cot1rt may not refuse to decide whether a Moslem divorce _ case sl1ould or sl1ould not be transferred to the Kadis Cowicil for de cision under . Shar ia Law· B�t the Government may require a clarifying enactment ''... on the quest101: :'hether - - in tl1e face of t�e sweeping Repeals Provision [Civ. ·C. Art. 3347] � - tl1e d1st1nct perso11al statt1s rec�grnzed to Moslems in a: prior procedural pro clamat1011 must be deemed abrogated w1 tl1 tl1e rest of past Civil law and ctistom. l'lt Such � 11actn1e1 1t �ould not co?stitute a 11e11, provision, but a legislati've interpretation of Ci,11 1 Code Article 3347, acting back to September 11, 1960, when tl1e Civil Code took effect:12 For an actual example of st1ch moder11 legislative interpretatio11, see ·t11e Interpretation of La11d Tax Proclan1ation of 1947 (No. 93), wl1ich explai11s wl1at the prior Land Tax Procla.n1atio 1 1 of 1944 (No. 70) DOES NOT iv1EAN ! . Sucl1 legislative interpret:1tions (as distinct fro1n _ direct amendments) of prior law are a rarity. More frequently, a law contains, from the outset, a section defi 11 i11g the 1nain terms used in it. Tl1is tecl1nique, ratl1er unfamiliar in Co 1 1tinental Europe, is prevalent in Common Law countries and l1as in recent years been introduced i 11 Ethiopia. TJ1t1s, see Chapter 1 of the Etl1iopian Labour Relation;; Decree No. 49 of 1962. Rather tinfor tunately, \Ve have n o sucl1 ''legislative glossaries'' in tl1e Aml1aric-E11glish versio11s of tl1e Ethiopian Codes, \Vhose divergent translations fron1 the Frer1cJ1 n1aster-drafts are a con 13 y.· overs contr legal and tic 1 of sema1 tinuing cause III.

I-IO\V SHOlJLD ON E INTERPRET LAWS?

If laws were to be explained in n1ar1y differe11t ways, legal sect1rity \Vould fot1nder. Interpretatio1 1 of law s is governed by certain widely accepted rt1les, ofte11 d.ating from Roman times. Suc l1 rules, evolved by commentators and accepted by judges; are based n 1 tl1 e works fro ant ext are n atio ret erp int of es rt1l l1 suc No se. sen on logic and co111mo11 of past Etl1iopia.n comn1entators (if any) or judges. 1 11 other words, there exists in Etl1io pia no doctri1 1al or judicial ct1stom as to a_pplicable rules of interpretation. _For tl1is reason, on ati lic pp ''A on o,k Bo l cia spe a n i ed, uc rod int tly ren pa the Civil Code's 1958 draft ap 's od vil Ci the m fro d � 1de clt ex en be � s J1a: ok Bo his .T on ati ret of Laws'', some rules o·f interp . 14 Does tll.is mean that on e can explain our laws .arb1trar1ly . 60 fi11al version enacted i11 19 ion as one likes? By no m ea ns . Certain basic rt1les of legal interpret_ation hav� w�de recognit h ug ro th ly ct 1re em 1 nd th n 1o ct 1 1 sa to s e1n se _ or at isl leg thro ugl1out tl1e ,vorld. Tl1e Etlri6pian , r,n fo ted ap 1n ad , 15 l�s e ru os tl1 te 1o q� l al sh e W .' s making them applicable to cor1tract :. . 9 10 11 12 l3 i4 15

· · Planiol, No. 208-9. will not. s m see it io at er id ' ns r co de � un w no , i� op . hi Et And the fort11coming Civil Procedure Code of e. . fin in m, sto Cu of n tio ora . a separate. pape,r orp Inc z zec . . hoped, 10 Kr unov1icz I, s.v. 1t 1s d, se us sc di be ill w ws la in rta ce of ct The problen1 of the retroactive effe · ' to be publisl1ed in this Journal. · . ·. · . _ See Krzeczu110\vicz, II , s.v. L.anguage Pr9blem. . _674 . p 4 t , ef H , 61 . 19 of t if . 1r cl ts ei Z s el ab See R. David, "Ly code civil ethiopien de 1960''., at,R ·1 • · '' Articles 1733-7, Civil Code. 1

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10 s. ' tie r ' ar r' fo to ''p la is eg ''l ' 011 tl1e other liand d an , t'' ac tr on ''c r fo '' aw ''l . g in ut l SUb st·t . ' 1 a d" 1scuss1on y are ... . 1 • 11 ' JU a d" e ess . l L� x1) 1: d � � in � tl _ e ''the- princip?l rules used In every�a� ,!�� _ ue ll 1t1n s co1 tl11s us�ge 111 discussing We � . ists Jur ld the by � n1 th en giv ? Iatin · forni � . law IS .-(1) clear, (2) _ L1ou tl1e b1g an1 ere s, (3) silen t, the rules to be applied, respectively, wh (4) c'?ntrad.ictory, and (5) unreasonable. ' • . . •

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1. Where the· Law.· is CLEAR

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Ubi /ex non distingilit 11ec i,.os distingui1nus (short versio11), which means: ,,.... no distinction· must be draw11 where the law draws none.'' 18 Eng]isl1 case-la\¥, per Wiiliarns :19 ''Where tl1e words of an Act of Parliament are clear, tl1ere is no roon1 for applying any principles of interpretation.'' Ethiopian Civil Code Article 1733: '''Nl1ere the provisions of a ... [law] are clear, the court may not depart fro1n tl1em a11d determi11e by way of inter pretation the intention ·of the ... [legislator]." As mentioned before, many judicial opinions involve no interpretation, the applicabl� rules being clear. In s11cl1 cases, judges may not render arbitrary decisions based merely on their dislike of a Jaw �,}1ich may be unjust or un.reason.able or work hardship in a particular case.20 This J)rohibitio11 may be eluded in only one case: where a given provision, though ''literally'' clear, wot1lc;l lead to aq evid ent ly uncontemplated absurdity. For i11stance, '' ... if a law had provided a penalty _for blood letting in the street, a surgeon who had 'bled' a patient injured in a street accid ent ... would ... be held i11nocent'', 21 although thjs is drawing a disti11ction where the law d_raws none. Rationale for so holdi11g: Far from endangering people's safety, which this law protects, the patient-bleeding surgeon was preservi11g it. Rather than assume that the legislator was absurdly out of his \Vits, \Ve presume tl1at, had he contemplated this con..: tingency, l1e would evidently himself .have made our distinction. Save in such extreme cases, derogati11g a clear rule is inadmissible,22 lest legislation become pointless an d legal security vanish. '

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f I

2. Where the Law is AMBIGUOUS (A) Word lvfea11ing. ''The meaning of a word is to · be judged by the company if keeps."23 Th.e · same logical principle is foµnd in Article 1736 of 011r Civil Code: ''Tl1e provisions of a ... [law] shall be interpreted. through 011e · a11other and each provision .

16 In o�r v�ew, contract in�erpretation rules n1ay apply, 1r111tatis mutandis, and wl1er�· pertineQt (this qual1�cation excludes Articles 1732 and 1738-9 Civil Code) to laws. Con1pare· C. E. Odgers; The' Con str1,ct1on of peeds and Statutes, 3d ed. (London, 1952), p. 179: ''It l1as been said that no further rules of construction shou.ld be placed on statutes [laws] than upon any other legal documept [e.g., con tracts ].'' In both cases the aim is to ascertain the authors' intention. 17 Planio1, No. 215. Latin maxims are used also in Common Law systen1s. 18 Planiol, No. 217. 19 p. 91, quoting Scott L. J. in Croxford v. U11iversal J11sce. Co. [ 1903] 2. K. B. at 280. 20 I_t is �rguable , however, that the En1peror rrzay derogate clear rules by virtue of-his equitable j1;1ris_ di�: tion 10 the Yeziifan Celot. See Robert Sedler, ''Tl1e Chilot jurisdiction of tl1e En1peror of Ethiopia. 8 Journal of African Law No. 2 (1964). , ·· 21 �- G. �sborne, Q. & A. on _Jurff'P�ucle11ce (London, 1948),°p. 33. For other examples, see S. D. Elliot, Techniques of Interpretation , in B. Schwartz Tl,e Code Napoleon and the Co1r1rno11-La1v »;orld (New York 1956), p. 84. ' 22 8�. contra: Supreme Imperial .Court opinion 'in ' 1Mrs. Cl,a Avaki�,,- v. Afr. Artin · Avakian, ke · C1:1� App eal No. 1114/55 E.C. in Jo11rnal of Etl,iopian Law (1964 .. ), Vol.· :1,· No. 1,'·p.· ·· 26. . · 23 Williams, p. 87, per MacMillan. ' .

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shal l be give11 tl1e n1ean in g r e quired by the wJ 1ol e . [l aw]''. .Th_is IS . th co te e n l1 xt o · r tota fe ge . c � 11 throug _ e d 1n te 1:p retat1on perspecta .24 For·1-.-nstan . ce' In ou r CIVI e h t se n se of tl1e·te r m ma.sterdraft, 1·r l Code s Fren ch ''creance'' is in doubt · · , th· e · In · dex w1-11refier us to other· article s c? n�ai � in g tlle s�m e t er�, a c o mpar_1.s o n ately, ou'.,o�cial ,:': I?hanc-Enghsh cod versio o f which will clarify its se nse. Unfortun� n s c � e i n the t�rm .. c a ce its�l f_has been English-rend ontain no such index;and, what is worse, er e d i n at l eas t six c ontradicto ry way s ,25 c a th i th s se e �fficial _context, far from tl1at 111 so hel ping, only makes n1atters . more c onfusing., TJ 1e fact o f hav1_ng 11e1tl1er an i11dex, nor a pr operl y tr . anslat ed text, s hou l coura ge_ us fro m �r ying �o ascerta111 the m e d not dis..! aning of l egal provisions of the Civil Code in tl1e l 1gl1t of tl1�1r specia l an� ge ne ra l co 11text. T 11 o para gr ap� r section . The rest 1s general context: e sp ecial contex t is that of the same f o r instance, we shou ld n ot appl y Civil' A 1c r� le 2 Cod� s 94?-2974 o n Le ase o f Ho�ses \Vithout giving the m , where a ppropri,�t e, the mea n1�gs require d b y tl 1e c�gnate _ Articles 2 89 or l1011se] 1n G e11eral. Those articles, 111 turn, si 6-2944 on Lease of Immovables [l and n c e a l ease is a contract, sh o11l d be read in tl1e l igl1t of rel ated provisions 011 Contra cts in G e 1 1eral (Title Xll). A given provision shoul d tl 1erefore 11ever be consid ered apart from its special or general context.� 0 It seems so that me of 011r courts, in their decisions, occasio nal l y overlook this principle. The l atter also aJrects tl1e J Jroble1 n of legislative amendme11t s. Since ''eacl1 provision shall b e given the meani1 1g required b y the whole [law]'', each am endment requires a revising of tl1 e wl1ole legal context to avoid inco11sistencies. Incide ntally, it is tl1is precise difficulty that delays the sorely needed integral re visio11 of the no\v 160 years old Fren ch Civil Code.27 · I11terpretation thro ugh the context incl udes als o r eferences to provisions whicl1, except for figuring i n the same co de, are n ot signi ficantly interrelated. 28 Even such 1 10n. cognate rt1les m a y hel p ·us to cl arify the m ean . ing o f recurrent terms. For i11stance, distinct Civil Cod e provisions a utl1orize, re spectively, tut or s, association direct ors, 11 11sbands, succession liquidat o rs , co11tingent h o lders of assets, ge 1 1eral agents, etc., to perform ''acts 29 of administration''. But on ly col lating and reading tl1em togetl1er gives us an idea of \vhat the co11cept ''acts of adm inistration'' means (in Pr ivat e Law). ao We sl1all 11o t elaborate here on the two common serrse rules suppleme11ti11g· that of interpretation through tl1e context. One, tl1e eii,sdem ge11eris rul e, is described by Williams (p. 93) and is expressed with respect to Contracts i11 Articl e 173 5 of our Civil Co de; the other is tl 1e rule of positive interpretation31 defined by tl1e Civil Cod e A rticl e 1737. ,. (B) Legislative lnte,zt. Where a provision is neither clear in _itself,_ 11o r fully ex plajned by the context, the judge is still not quite free to follow l1 1s wl11m, but sl 1ould try by otl 1er n1eans to discover v.1hat the legislator had in n1ind. ''W l1 ere a pr ovisio 11 of a ... [law] is a 11 1biguot1 s, the ... i1 1tention of the ... [legislato:J shall be_ sot1gl!t''. (Civ: C. . Art. 1734). If the l aw's ow 11 context does not suffic1e11tl y cl,tr1fy the legislator s 111te1 1t1on, source doc1 1ments, sucl1 as a le gislation's ''pr eparatory studies'' ?r co:11mit��e r epor ts should be co11st 1lted. Althougl1 their use sl 1ould be prt1dent and d�scerrung, , 1t ma y be expected that the practice of referring t o these reports \viii extend itself ... beca use they

24 Digest11n1, l, 3, 24. 25 These are, with number reference to the CiviJ Code Art icles con erned: d bt (1048), cre� 1t (1347), � � _ claim (2865-8), cliose in action (2411), thing (1012), obl1gatory right (heading above Art1�le 1962),. 26 Including, \Vhen appropriate, the Constitution: see �ts Article 122. 27 See Planiol, No. 118-119. · . .. 28 Our Civil Code's booJ{S are not headed by a connecting "General Part. ,, 29 Also translated as "acts of management.•• 30 A b are d· efin1t • ion • o f thi s concep t 1·s gi·ven by Article 2204 of the Civil Code with respect to Agency. Com _pare Articles 2203, 280(2), 429(1), 65_6(2), IOIQ(l),. 1874. 31 As expressed in the maxim: lex i11terpreta11da est 111 ya/eat.

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32 of tl1e ing or w ct. A . '' I!1 Fra 1 1ce, a legis tl1e n _ � la often supply the best co111me 1 1tary 1:1P� e: lucl 1nc ''the texts of the projec ts ... of ers pap ng rki wo or s'' die stu ory rat tion's �'prepa _ e laws, acco�ipanied by state1:1en�s of _reaso�s [and so11rces] for ,��;in; the reports Tilad rs be . o e 1am tl1 t,v Cl -of s on ss1 scu 91 ic bl pu e tl1 ; ... cts oJe pr e th on In Etliiopia, code-interpretation througl1 t!1e con_text is .sornetir? es in1practicab le because of the translation· errors in tl1e Amhar1c-E11gl1sl1 offic1a] vers91011s. In addition. ta !11ed f;�1n �ur codificati�n. S working papers: ce s 3: be .r ot can11 tion inten e's latur legis ur ? . !111s� aclded to th? fact that we can 1f any, because they ren1a1n, so far, unpubl1sl1ed. also have no settled case-law before our case- .report11:g 1s fL1�ly organ1 zed, leaves judges n1plated. It 1s s11brn1tted, hov1ever, tl1at at least a freedom perhaps greater than was co11te 35 and the Codes, Fre11ch r11astertexts s (froin wI1ich the Emperor's prefaces tq tl1e Code the translations were made) sl1ould, in do11btful cases, be co1 1sidered as indicativ e of the legislator's intention. On tl1e otl1er l1and, tl1e legislator's intentio11 may36 be glean.ed in directly by his having borrowed a concept from a foreign legal system. In this event relevant foreign doctrines and cases may help to clarify l1is i11tentio11 011 such poi1 1t; e.g.: the Romanistic legal materials may bring out tl1e restrictive co1111otation of the co11cept ''default'' (French. version's de,neure, tl1e Roma11 1nora) in ou.r Civil Code (cf. Articles 1758, 1772 ff, 1798, 1803). Sometimes, even terms which, in comn1on parlance, see1n the simplest, require in terpretation. Words lik� ''building'', or ''family'', l1ave a ''fringe'' meaning. 37 Such ''fringe'' may be widened or na.rro\ved. Tl1us ''building'' 1nay be broadly interpreted to cover a bare wooden hut, or restrictively to exclude it; ''fan1jly'' may mean merely parents with cltlldren, or a whole group descending from a more or less ren1ote con1n1on ancestor. The legisl_ator may have had or showt;.1 no particular inte11tio11 i11 this respect. If this hap pens, the court might be free to cl1oo_se such meani 1 1g as it tl1inks fit in the ligl1t of Ethio pian tradition, custon1 or equity .38

3. Where the Law is SILENT

A rule may l )roclaim the point or ent11nerate the points it covers, onuiting oth·er matters. Such enun1eration may appear as merely illustrative (e.g., in Civ. C. Art. 1793), tl1at is non-exclusive of other similar matters to wltlch tI1e rule will extend by ana logy (argument a pari or of ''similar reason''), or the pro 1 1ouncen1ent may appear as that is (as in Civ. C. Arts. 1806-7, or 2369) excluding- a11y non-enumerated restrictive, . . s1tuat1ons (argun1ent a contrario or of ''contrary reason'') fro 111 the rule's operation. 32 Williams, p. 92-3. This method is especially adequate when tl1e legislation concerned is relatively recent and has thus not been bypassed by new patterns of social thouol1t and behaviour. 1�11e Ethio pian codes, far from being so bypassed, are, on the contrary, still ahead of the peoples' thinking. :E'or some time, the social evolution in this country may be to\.v,1rd t11ese advanced Codes rather than beyond them. 33 ?Iani�l, No. 218, note 17. The legislation's working papers n1ay eitl1er directly clarify the legislator' s 1ntent1ons, or els� may indicate llis borrowings from tl1e foreign or national sot1rces which, in turn,__ . will help to elucidate doubtful points. We dispose of no sucl1 indications in Etl1iopia. 34 See Krzeczunowicz Il, s.v. Background Data. 35 CT. Krzeczunowicz I, s.v. Judicial Interpretation. · 36 In �he a_bsence of leg�l�tive indications (see note 33), such borro\vings n1ay be inferred· from the identity of the prov1s1ons compared. But the work and expense involved in st1ch uncharted com parative research are immense. 37 Williams, p. 88. ·· 38 See_ Krzeczunowicz I, s.v. Judicial Interpretation e.g. on tl1e meaning of '(family'' in Civil Code ' ' Article 1168.

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o not1nce1nents. or e11un1e ratfoi1 s . pr cti ve str i are 1 nore USllal h owe ver,_ a::cl: 1. 1 ·= · ry. Re � ,;; � � -� •? g, ' sho uld no· t· be t1sed at ra11do1n. Its use· is·. • p�ohib.ited i11 · . re g ar d ' to , p · a e n �n l e"' d c ep t io n . e I e n na e ct. d � p I c ·d; Arti�le 2(1} -spe.c_ ifically provid al'' provisions. es that ''fhe court ·may 3 n ot create offe!1ces by �•1alogr · As to excepti_onal provision,s; cl wdrld-kn6wn maxim: runs :· E;-.:CeJJ flO . est. strictae l_nterP_retationis. . A�y rt1les_ tl1erefore providing exceptions: " lTil ule I al I�t �e s 11e 1 b� I nterpre_ ted strictly, w�1ich e·xcludes their ex e 1no from. 10r ten sio n- by' ' a o ex f , _ a )' e 1 n1 ": By )l t le us suppose tl1 at a o ne dollar tax pe r head is _levied aiialogy. or i exp 1 be g res i, s]) ' exe · mptecl. Tl1e · goat's· exemption ·must n ot· be extended · By cattle, goats ' • p e 1 ! l e · s · · · : '- . analogy, to . . . Tl1e argt111 1��t o� �11alog y _so .1 11 etimes takes the form known as _a J�rtiori (''witl1· eve�. _ It by ). 1s 1 eas this o1 r argt11ne11t tl1at we l1 ave extended certai11 rules of. inter ger 11 stro pr e.tatio11 of contracts t o i11�e r1Jr�tatio11 of laws. Tl1 is method sl1ould 11 ot b e ab�sed. 6ur· analogy would JJerl1aps be 1nv,tl1d as too remote, were it not for the fac t tha t the inter pretatio11 rules in que stion are �lso ge11 erally recognized in the Continental l egal systen1s. tipo11 \-Vl1ich ot1r O\\'n l egal order is largely based. · . Tl1e law's siler1c e regarding s o me 111atte i:-s Ill�Y amo 11nt to a c6n1plete void, a 1idcuun1. In sucl1 fully on1itt ed. st1bject matter, cit1r Civil Code's Repeals Provision (Article 3341} does 11ot bar resorti11g to prior or c t1stomary rules. Bt1t the 01nissio11, for example, o f tl1 e institutio11 ''coo perative'' fron1 our legislation,41 creates 011ly a pri,na facie va ct1um. Indeed, co11tractt1al c ustomary c ooperative s (sucl1 as the ''Ektlb'') are, pendi11g special· legislatio11, eas ily gover11ed by tl1e Civil Code Title 011 Contracts in General witl1 its rule on "ir 1cide11t::1l'' effects of c ontra cts (Article 1713). 011 the contra ry, tl1e lack of any ''Priv ate I11terr1ational Law'' rules constitt1te s a real vacuum in our law, and \vhat is worse is• that there are no prior or customary rules to fill this void. The result is an erratic court. practice in tl1e e ntire field of Conflic t of Laws. I

4. Wl1ere the Law is CONTRADICTORY

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. Under tl1 e princi{Jle of hier;:1rcl1 y of l aws,42 a lo\ver e11ac tme11t n1ay 11ot contradict 011e of l1 igl1 er ranl<:. But \Vl1 at will l1 appe11 if' the co!1tradiction _oc�t1rs between rules of · y two 1na�1ms of legal sc1 e11 ce. The �rst run,s,: the same ra11k? This proble1n is solve� b lex posterior clerogat priori or ''posterio,r law pre vails over [de�·oga.tes fron1] JJr1or law .. A discussio11 of tl1is JJrecept does not perta in to 011r present topic, bt1t to that of �'Re pe_a l of Laws '' , \Vl1 ich will be con sidered, it is hoped, i11 a separate paper to be publ1sl1ed 111 this Journal at a later date.43 The secoi1d nra xi111 \Vl1 icl1 co11cer11 s us l1 ere rt1ns: /e.,--c specialis derogat getzerali, or "special law prevails over [derogates from] general law' '. When two rule s, of the same 39 Sub-article 2 of the same Article provides_that t ?is _does �ot prevent ''interpretation of law'' (by other. . . . metl1ods) in ord er to ascertain tl1e legislator s mtent1on. . . . . . ., uld be interpreted strictly (1.e sho s ion vis pro ory 40 A ccord'1ng t o An gI o-Amer1can doctrine, all statut · tions from . cause all statutes are deemed t·o-b e mere excep be gy) alo should never be extended by an . an ,. · · . er1c Am nt ine an em ently challenged by �he_ con11non law, \1/hich ·1s Judge-ma_d e.' s U�h doctrin . e' rec . i•a whose con,mon ia,;v is not judge-made Jurist (Roscoe Pound), wo11.ld anyw<l:y be pointles; in Ethiop Code). il Civ 7· 334 icle Art · (cf ive ens r�h p com , 1orm y utor stat but, precisely, statt1tory a1.1d, in this _.. . 41 See Krzeczuno,Nicz I, s.v. Filling Code Vacuun1s. . . n Law (1964), p. 111. . · ·ia, '' 1 Journal of Eth1op1a 42 See KrzecZ11no\-vicz "Hierarchy of Laws in tuop . · EI · . · · · t • 43 Of special interest ;ill be a discussion of Article 3347 Civil �'?de �d of the concept O.f taci or imr1 ted repeal which seems to I1ave been ignored · by some pract1 ioner · -

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try ai u t? ert asc icl1 we 'Nl1 is more genera}, t, flic con e tim 1e san � the i_n at �� d cte ena ra.nk, and y, t1sl we 11 l. , v1o bet Ob ecia t\vo prop ositio ns: ''sp re n1o ng bei , und gro � less ers cov ich and wh _ (I) ''On cattle, tax is due'', �nd (2) ''0� goats [a ki�d of catt]:e] tax 1s 11ot due'', tllere is no full contradiction. The second rule 1s more special _a11d, w1tl1 re�pec� to goats, it pre vails over [derogates from] the general rule on cattle. Be111g an �xc�pt1on_, 1t must be stric tly int�rpreted, that is, a co11trario to goa�s, �II other ��ttle, ::en1a111 taxed 111 accor? a�ce with the context. Another example: tl1e pr1nc1ple tl1at any gover1unc11t servant 1s liable in d�mages for his . faults (Civ. C. Art. 21�6) is n1erely derog�te� ?Y tl1e_ r11le that the judge, a special .. kind of government servant, 1s free from such l1ab1l1ty (C1v. C. Art. 2138(c )). Thus there can be full, inexplicable repl1gnancy (co11tradictio1.1) only between two rules equally ·general, 'neither of which can be u11derstood as �n exceptio�1 f �om the other, so that if we apply one of them the other loses all effect. For instance, w1th1n one and the same ·Article 1706 of our Civil Code there seems to be sucl1 a full contradiction between its sub-articles (2) and (3),-14 whicl1 require us to evaluate dt1ress i11 two mutually exclusive ways! Such full contradiction cannot be explained away without extremely artificial con structions. The court's choice between sucl1 rules is, in fact, of necessity, arbitrary. But the judges' repeated preference for one of those rules will solve tl1e difficulty thro1igh 45 in this matter. m custo ial judic d settle a creating 5. Where the Law is UNREASONABLE The lawyer should know history and economics. He should not only master the formal maxims and devices of juridical logic, but should also 1111derstand both the his torical background of legal institutions and their prese11t social and economic purposes. Where a law appears to be grossly unreasonable in that it violently l1urts tradition, justice or progress, the judge should search whether the rules of interpretation do not leave some leeway for applying the law in a more reasonable sense. \Ve l1ave already given an exan1ple of when this can be done, quite exceptionally, in contradiction of even a clear text (the ''blood-letting'' case). But tl1e most frequent opportunities for judicial discretion arise where the law, being ambiguous,46 adn1its of more than one mearung, with no clear-cut solution imposed by either context or legislative reports. For instance, tl1e so called ''frin meanings''47 can be extended or restricted to suit tradition or justice or social needs in Ethiopia. Recurrent concepts typically lending themselves to sucl1 judicial manipulations are those of ''good faith'', ''morality'', ''fault'',48 ''reasonableness'', etc. IV. CONCLUSION In the absence of any legislative, judicial or doctri11al principles governing statutory interpretation in Ethiopia, we l1ave attempted to abstract son1e applicable pri11ciples by a.nalogy from the Civil Code provisions on interpretatio11 of co11tracts. The results reached 44 Bot� w �re rashly bo rrowed from tl1e long criticized Article 1112 of the French Civil Code, which Article, In _turn, has i! s orig!n in a� inadvertent misreading of tl1at old authority, Pothier. On this topic, see G. RJpert� Tra,re, El �menra,re de Droit Civil c/e Pla11iol (1952), Tonie II, No. 237-8, ao<l F. P. Walton, Tlz e E_gyp11an Law of Obligations (1923), Vol. 1, p. 227. French courts evaluate duress by the subJ_ ect1ve standard (as expressed in sub-ar ticle 3 of our Article 1706). 45 See supra, ad I, 2. 46 See supra, ad 2. 47 See supra, ad. 2, B, in fine. 48 Mistranslated as ''offence'' in the Englisl1 version of our Civil Code.

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j I

STATUTORY INTERPRETATIO N IN ETHIOPIA

int erpretation trends prevailing in a legal system to r 11e us g � brin whose basic features _ are no t unlike otirs_. The Quebec r� ovince of Canada underwent Continental type codi fications. Tlie resultiilg codes are b _ilingual. Common Law concepts p redominate in Public Law a11d �rocedure. Tliese Caiiad1an Code analogies with the Ethiopian situation justify a concluding referen49ce to Lower Canada's rules of interpretation summarized as follows by F. P. Walto11 : '' 1. Tl1e first and leading rule is that when the Code is clear and unambi guous upon tl1e poi11t at issue it cannot be controlled or explained away by re fe rence to any otl1er source .... 4. Conditions and qualifications are not to be im ported into the Code by reference to other sources. - 5. The English and F rench versions of tl1e Code are of equal authority, and the one may be used to interpret the otl1er. - 6. When the Code is ambiguous or uncertain it must be interpreted. 7. For s11cl1 i11terpretation the best guide will be the Code itself. - 8. If by collating tl1e articles of tl1e Code tl1e interp retation of the article under discussion is still uncertain tl1e most reliable guide will be the reports of the [codifying] Com missioners. - 9. Wl1e11 tl1e question is not concluded by refe renc.e to othe r articles of tl1e Code or to tl1e explanation� of the codifiers, the next best guide will be the decided cases upon tl1e point.... 12. When a provision is derived from the F rench law it is to be interpreted by reference to French authorities, and when it is derived fro1n the English law by reference to English authorities." Precepts 8, 9, a11d 12 would have little current relevance for Ethiopia because (a) our Codifying Commissioners' reports, if any, have not as yet been published; (b) repor ting of decided cases is only starti11g and its development will take many years; (c) the sources f rom \Vl1ich tl1e particular code provisions are derived are not yet ascertained. An additional difficulty concerns precept 5. Our codes' French master-versions have no official authority and the French language is not currently well known. It is nonetl1e less submitted that all above precepts of interpretation l1armo1uze with those propounded by us in this paper and tl1at the p rovisional obstacles concerning application of precepts 8, 9, and 12 a11d, rniLtatis 1J-1utarzdis, 5, do not detract from tl1eir pern1anent value for the future interp reters of Ethiopia11 Law. 49 The Scope and Interpretation of the Civil Code of Lower Canada, p. 80 ff., as reproduced by Y.G • Castel in: The Civil La1v Systen1 of the Proi ince of Quebec (Toronto, 1962), p. 202-3. 1

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- 332 -

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333

•

FIRST ANNUAL REPOR't FRO fvI THE DEAN For the Year 1956 E . C.

.By J ctn1es C. N. Paul Professor of Law and Dean Faculty of Law I-Iaile Sellassie I ·university ·TI1e Board of Editors l1as suggested tl1at eacl1 volume of the J · · 11 L w f ifE / should co11tain a rei)ort from the Dean of· the Faculty of Law of. Ha,?1 Iur o . t I1iU 111vers1ty e Se11a liass1e op1 � � · ns may hav� access to an accurate version of the llistory of tl1eir �o tl_ 1at_ f uture g �neratio 11: stltt1t1on. 111 t� 11s respect ,ve sl1all l1st 011ly wl1at has bee11 doi1 e aiid perceived \Vitliin our first year of ex1ste11ce 1956 - E. C. In December 196 ! ; His In1perial Majesty Haile Sellassie I declared, 11pon tl1 e occasion _ of tl1e first Convocat i on of Haile Sellassie I University: ''We \vould as� for tl1e immediate fot1ndi11g of a Faculty of Law, where 011r O\\'Il students 111�y be tra111ed to enter the legal professio11.... Our E -1 npire has 11eed, in its govern ment a11? its _comn� erce, for well-ed11cated la\vyers and particularly for tl1ose who ] 1ave been trfL111ed 111 tl1e1r own University, i11 their own codes and c11stoms." 1 ally forn of Chancellor as En1peror, the 1963, 23rd September On niversity, u · tl1e . dedicated and ope11 ed tl1e Fac11lty of Law, and a new University center for legal - educatio11 was launched. THE NEED FOR A FACULTY OF LAW

Only a limited nt1n1 ber of Etl1iopian citize11 s l1ave yet received professio11al uni� versity trai11i11g i11 la,,,. Th.e 11eed, 11 0,v, to increase t]1is s11p1Jly of ]1uman reso11rces, in otrr opinio11, is cl m:1tter of tl1 e I1igl1est _priority, a. very sign.ificant task confro11ting tl1 e university. Etl1iopia ca11 rig11tly boast a vener;;1ble a11d ricl1 legal traditio11 ; Ethiopia can rightly boast a modern lega l systen1: a 11 e\V Co11stitution; codes in tl1e area of criminal law and 1Jroced11re \Vl1 icl1 reflect moder11 co11 cepts of penology and the u.se of the rule of law; to secure fairness and l1u1nan dignity i11 tl1e administratio11 of crin1inal law; modern codes in the areas of ci\ il' comI11ercial and n1 ariti111e la\v - legislation wl1ich is designed to facilitate, a11d indeed is esse11tial to, co11 tinuing eco11omic and social developn1ent. Et1t co1nplex, written law, to be effective, requi� ·es_ capable l1 11111 an reso11rces for its admin.istratio11. The more ''modern'' and tl1us sopl11st1c:1ted laws becom.e a11d tl1e more complex a society becoi nes, tJ1 e 111ore urgent t11 e need for these l111ma11 reso11rces. To make l1er n1oder11 legal institutio11s work, Ethiopia n1 11st prod11ce a far greater numbe.r of broadly educated, well - trained lawyers. r o l1e on up it wa 11 ca ich vvb ry xu � lu a t no is ce sti j11 TI 1e effective ad i ninistratio11 of v aspects of developnlent; it is as important as hospitals, ro�ds, a11d scl1ools. I bel1e _e e 1t us ca be st, fir 1s: o1 as re sic ba e re th r fo i1t effective aclmi ilistration of justice is importa 1

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JOURNAI., OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW - VOL. I - l�o. 2

is i·ight in tile abstract; seco 11d, because witl1o ut it a society can be t111dermined; t!Jird because it is a11 indispe11sable to ol fo r the develo pment and 1m1,rovement of social instit ' tions. All so cieties, I beli�ve,. ar� only i11 th� p r. ocess o� d eveloi:>i11g tl1e administratiotl justice _ simply becal1se Jtlstice 1s pr?bably Lhe hardest concept t o define �nd administer in tl1is world a11d because tl1at task 1s pe�f o rce t1tt�rly de1Je11de11t on a ki11d of 1l uina iritegi·ity, wisdo m and n1 ental disci1Jli11e \V�11cl: m,111k11 1d so. o fte� lacks. All societies have� in a sense under-develo1Jed systems of JUSt1 ce, bt1t I believe, 1t n1ust be a matter of dee concern wi1en the gap betwee11 � sizeable a11d impress�ve body of_ Iayv o � tl1e books an� tl1e supply of professionally trru11ed lawyers t o l1elp implement 1t 1s wide.

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Lawyers are needed i11 Etl1iopia, n o t 011ly t o staff the c o11rts an.d IJrovide legal services in the traditio11al sense. I believe la.wyers are needed f o r o tl1er vital roles i11 the process of rational devel opment. I11 terms o f Etluopia's Five Year Plan, ''develo1Jment'' means among o tl1er tl1ings: the conception a11d i111plementatio1 1 of land reform laws a1 1d othe; legislation desig11ed to spur _agriculture and u_tilize l�11d reso 11rces; i�vestme11t an� banking ru-rangen1ents; the assembling a1 1d condem111ng umts of land for hJghways or airports or mines or agrict1ltural plantations; vari o us ki11ds o f new welfare legislati o n; an expanded efficient revenue system. Developme11t means expanded eco nomic activity, and t11at mea11� an increasing amount of contractual negotiatio ns \Vitl1 foreign business co11cerns and foreign gover11ments; tl1e development of tech11iques fo r effi.cie11t arbitration; legal ne gotiations between business concerns; tl1e d rafti11g of cl1arte rs of organization for all s orts of enterprises. Modernizati o n inevitably e11tails specialized legislatio11 and adnlinis tration, careft1l drafting of laws and regulati o11s. And the doing of all tl1ese thi 11gs calls for the use of special skills wl1icl1 only come tl1ro t1gl1 inte11sive, discipli11ed legal training. As so many of tl1e 1nea1:u11gful texts on ''develo1)ment'' so g rapltically teach, ''deve lopment'', no n1atter l1o w defined, sin1ply do es not co me without l1 uman resources to provide these skills. Finally, there is tl1e still broader role \Vl1ich lawyers sh o uld play i11 a society \Vhich would live a11d develop under the rule of l,1w; tl1ey a re - or sl1o u1d be - me11 with civic awareness a11d a keen civic conscie11ce. Etl1i opia has a rich t raditi o n of respect for law as the n1eans of solving dispt1tes. The 11eed to make tl1at traditio11 serve moder11 demands and work in a changing society is surely o f the esse11ce.

SOME PROBLEMS IN FORivIING A FACULTY OF LAW There are many interesting problems in organizing t111iversity legal educatio11 i11 Ethi opia. signifi c ant A difficulty confronting us derives fr o m the diversity of so urces of Ethio . p1a.n la�, co upled _with the �iversity of languages relev,111t to its study and tl1e paucity o f published materials analyzing and explaining this mo dern legislation in depth.

Substantial are�s of Etl1iopia's private law are no w patter1 1ed upon the Civil Law system: th�s, effect1�e tea�l1ing in tl1ese areas calls for a kno\vledge of co11tinentaJ la� and a read1ng profic1ency 1n French by all teacl1ers. Other areas e.g. l)rocedure and public law a �e �ore patterned 011 A11gl o-America11 c oncepts, a 11d tl1e sources of la\V a11d t?us te�ching in these �reas ca!ls fo: expertness in th1:1t system. Other areas e.g. law dealing with la_nd and family relat1onsh1ps require understanding o f traditio nal i11stitutions as ,veil as foreign law. The eff ort t o understa1 1d relatio nships between law a11d ec onomic develop- 336 -

FIRST ANNUAL REPOR T FROM Tl-IE DEAN

lias 011 ly rece11 tly been ttndertaken 1 11 a systenJat·ic way .in tl1e world of legal education a11 d it IJresents for 11 s a 11 important Ilew field.c . Arnl1aric is tl1e official text of tl1e law' the text of most court recor ds le is ti ve pr o g la ma er 1 ter · I ot 1a d · s 1 1 \Ve a1 . n1t , 1 s . t s tudy as well as tile la · ceedings ' c n · tta ge o t f 1e t la w g 1n act1011 '· · a11 gu e l h • ag 111 e 1 l t 1c I wa 1 \1/ tl s 1 e 1 cl dra ftsn1en of 01a11 y of tlie cod�s thou 1it a11d wor�ed Freii g 1gt la 1a 1 of e the i 11 11c ]1 tht ts ba s ic is g sot1rce ina' terial and ' ., E 11 g1 1·s ]1 1s the l anguage of 1n· . · 11 - and tl1t1_s of ''�l1 111ki11 g'' in tl1e La\v Scl1ool. This in struct1· 0 11 for I.· 11gI 1er. ed t1cat. 10 ea s we 11 n1ust h�lp s tud e11 ts d ev el op a_ ne\v profic1e11cy_ 111 co1 nn1t111icatio11 and conceptual thinking in En· g· l1sl 1 and tl1e11 ce Aml1ar1c; \Ve n1t1st requ ire a readi iig proficiency i tl Freilcl1, t o secure . ; a11d, ft1rtl1er, \Ve 1n11st lear11 110\v to bridge ad?1t1onal l �rlgtia_ g e_ t00 l s 11ee de d 1r.:or t 11e Job u111que a11d· 111te1e·st1 11 g gaps a11 d cl1ffere11ces betwee11. eacI1 of. tl1 ese · 1 a11al yz1ng lail O'tJa o-=-s e 11 o o · those _prov1s1011 s 1 11 tI1e 1a\V \V 1 1e_r.e tl. 1 e texts may differ, as 111evitably tliey do i ii their fortnt1lat1011 of so1ne co11 ce1Jts, or 111 tl1 e 1n.ore mi11 t1te details of traiislations. Fi11ally, it 111 t1st be reiterated that tl1ere simply are no ready-made texts com111 e11taries co11rt reports or sot1rcebooks 0 11 Etl1iopiar 1 law. 111 tl1is respect 011r sitt1atio11 differs fron� n1ost otl1er cot111 tries i11 Africa \Vhicl1 l1ave ''received'' foreig11 legal institt1tions. So 011r teacl1ers n1ust \VOrk up tl1eir ow11 n1aterial, botl1 text books a11 d case books - a job made more diffict1lt. s i11 ce tl1ere are yet 1 10 publisl1ed n1 aterials 011 tl1e legislative l1 is tory of tl1e codes, fe,v publisl1ed co11rt decisio11s, fe\v otl1er secondary materials at all. 01e11t

Tl1ese factors co111bine to pose very t111ique problems i11 rec1 uirements for fact1lty selectio11 , in tl1e en1phasis we mt1st give to res earch, in tl1e proble1n s of pla1111 in.g a curricu lun1. To meet these problems, it is desirable, to the extent no11 -Etluopians are enlisted 011 the fa.culty, tl1 at tl1ere be a diversity of backgrot111 ds a11d expertise amo11g foreig11 staff; it is also very des irable, es1Jecially in tl1 e formative stages of a11 i11stitutio11, tl1at tl1ere be effective commt111 icatio11 a 11 d team \Vork by tl1e faculty. Curriculu1n plan11i11g, i 1 111Jrovi11g teacl1i11g metl1od s a11 d co-operatio11 i11 researcl1 , depend t1po11 sl1�1red ideas, excitement, easy con11nt1nication a.nd tl1e s ens e of cl _joitzt ventt1re. The Fact1lty must tl1us be botl1 diverse a11 d i11tegrated i11 various s ubtle ways. Tl1ere are problen1s wl1icl1 derive fron1 the JJec11Iiar nature of the i1npact of legal educatio11 011 students and the develo1Jme11t of effective teachi11g metl1ods a11 d relation ships. Tl1e essence of u1uversity legal trai11 i 11 g is te,1cl1i11 g me11 l1ow to a11 alyze and reaso11and tlzi,s learn how to use legal 1naterials. TI1e lawyer's work, be l1e judg e, advocate or col1nsellor, calls for skills at proble1n solving, precise identification of isst1es ,111d. the con1peting argt1n1e11ts a 11d otl1er i11terests beari11 g 011 resolt1tion of tl1ose isst1es, a se11 se of procedttre a11 d its importance as a device to assure fair11 ess a11 cl full consideratio11 of an isst1e, a11d, fi11 ally, the skill of communicati11 g clearly a11 d effectively. Wl1 ile a good lawyer mus t have a vast ft1r1 d of informt1tion in l:us mi11d - kno\vledge of cor1te11t of written so11rces of law - tl1is inforn1atio1 1 can be da11gerous when it is not coupled with the skills depicted above. Thtis, the process of legal e_ducati_on mt1st be t?e very 01Jposite of rote-lecture learning. Students mt1st, in class a11 d 1n their total exper1e11�e. l1 ere, learn to analyze a11 d arg ue i ssues. Students must painfully learn_ tl1 at mer� repet1 t1on of wl1 at they l1 ave read is no t at all the purpose of a class or wr.1tte11 exerc ise. They must lear11 that law has, sometimes, a11 illusory certai11ty. Th�y n1t1st lear11 to edt1cat� tl1emselv�s. Tl1ey mt ist learri tli at la ws are the solution of social probl_ems, the expression o� social rly policies. TI1 ey must study la w i n tl1is co 11text. This is a d1ffict1lt process - part1cula here wl1ere so mt1cl1 of tl1 e law is relatively 11e,v. stra!ing experience tr a fr us h is t_ is, ys al an m le ob Law study, as a form of cliscii)lined pr 11e to yo er ev 1n cy en al t1r 1c lo l1o yc ps g a g t os m al to every novice la w student for tllere is

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JOURNAL OF ETI·IlOI)lAN LAW - VOL. I - No. 2 know, or feel, tl1at somewhere there is alwa�s a si11gle ''rigl1t'' a11s\ver to _every legal proble111, and to be told what it is. But many_ legal �roble111s l1a�e 110. _certa111 . a11s,ver, ,tild n1a11y require botli dee1J study an.d l1ard tl1ot1gl1t...Teachers a1e 11ot 111 �act infallible l1us the trL1ly challe11g1ng proble ms l legal oracles and do disservice wl1en tl1ey IJose as sucl1. _ t argurr �ents �re often criti develoiJed in class disct1ssio11 are often left dangl111g; stt1de11 _ cized a11d seldoin accepted witl1out fL1rtl1er cl1alle11ge. TI11s co11frontat1on ,v�th u11certai tlty ar1d use of ''socratic'' 111etl1ods frustrates rnat 1y stucle11ts at first - especially ,vl1e11 tlie process co.n1es as q·uite a 11ew edt1cational experience. Stt1de11ts 1n·ust also learn to ,vrite papers - which are rather mercilessly criticized - fron1 S_Y�1t_ax to s_11bstance - and which n1ust be re-written a11d. re-writte11. They mt1st learn to cr1t1c1se their O\VIl worl<:. That too is frltstrating. Thus, tl1e first )'ear of law scl1ool is the hardest. 1�11ere is a clifficult psycholo gical as well as academic adjt1stn1e11t. But stt1dents also gradLrally lear11 that it is the )'ear in whicl1 tl1ose who do in1n1erse tl1e1nselves in law a11d d.o work l1ard a11d do erijoy it also beg111 to d.evelop a 11e'vV ot1tlook a11d esprit wl1icl1 becomes excitin.g to tl1em and v-,}licli permits f. ar more sopllisticated study in tl1e future. TJ1ey becon1e lawyers - members of a profession. That I believe is happen,ing here. I1: is exciting. Tl1e Faculty has mucl1 to learn i11 n1eeting these 1Jroble1ns in the prese11t context. We profited greatly from a team of exter11al evaluators ,,vl10 spent 1nany days l1ere at the end of last year, goi11g over course materials, reports fro111 Fact1lty, examination papers and otl1er matters. Such exter11al evaluation will, of course, be coi1tinued as a11 indispensable tool to tl1e acl1ieven1e11t of acade1nic excelle11ce. We ca11, ho'vvever, take n1odest pride in th.e first year's ''test''; \Ve can profit from many mi sibakes.

THE LAW LIB.RARY Tl1e center of law stu.dy is tl1e law library. 1LlSt as c.l1emists cannot work without test tt1bes il11d doctors \Vitl1out 111edicines, so la\vyers 1nust 'vVork \Vitl1 books and the ideas w11ich co111e fron1 books. Books are the esse11tial tools of our profession. Thus, i11 the library tl1e stt1de11t comes i11 direct contact \Vitl1 tl1e sot1rccs of the la,v-codes, statutes, decrees, decisions of courts and the writings of 111a11y legal corn1ne11tators who have thougl1t abot1t tl1ese tlu11gs. It is l1ere that l1e e11gages i11 the i11dividt1al research and i�urther study wl1icl1 is not only necessary to law study, but is wl1at he constantly will be doing ,vhen he is a la'vvyer, irrespective of the particular patl1 which l1is legal career takes. Witl1 the help of a grant from tl1e Ford Fou11datio11, t]1e Law Faculty l1as developed the framework of a law library, wllich, it is l1oped, vvill be useful, 11ot only for tl1e a.caden1ic study of l,l\V, bt1t for tl1e future needs of Ethiopia's legal profession. At tl1e e11d of the ac ademic year 1963-64, tl1e la'vv librar)' co11tai11ed a total of 5,000 volu1nes, all properly indexed and shelved. We are most gratef1.1l to all the do11ors - t·oreign gover1m1e11ts, u11iversities and individuals whose st1bstar1tial gifts have e11abled us to acquire materials we need. Tl1e library is staffed by a full-tin1e librarian and stt1de11t assista11ts. A professional la\Y librarian is servi11g as library consulta11t in helpi11g us identify a11d buy the books . _ we need. The l1�ra� y cont,1ins a co1n1Jlete set of the Negarit Gazeta, numerous copie s of all �f t!1e � thiop1a11 Codes, and otl1er materials tl1at have bee11 published on tl1e Ia':" _ _ sections on Africa11 of .Ethiopia; 1t � ontruns Ci,,il la\V, the Common law, Ro1na11 law , law �nd 1nternat1o?al and co1nparative law. In additiot 1 tl1ere are n1an)' leading textbooks, _ ls, case report tr�at1ses, legal per10�1ca s a11d a great variety of 1naterials dealing not only with the law, but wi th tl1e social sciences.

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FIRST ANNUAL REPORT F.ROM THE DEAN

THE H O N O R S Y S T E M Students \1/110 enter our la w school seek to enter a' pro"11ess1·0n...Jt 1s c ss1· on where · a pro1e · · �racti· ced as � 11 1atter of cot1rse. In recognitio11 of honor is priz· �d an d is tl 1is the students in the Faculty o_f Law l1,1ve volL1ntar1ly put tl1en1selves under an Ho11or System-a system \vhere t!1ey trtist_ �hern�elves �nd are trusted by otl1ers to be truthf t1 l, jtrst and scrt1pt1lously honest 1 1 1 all tl1e11 deali11gs \V1tl1 tl1e Faculty. Exan1inatio 11s are co11ducted ui1der tl1e Honor Systen1 and are no t .� roctored. Sttiden�s a.re left on _tl1 eir l1onor not to give or receive aid, nor to use any as� 1sta11ce not at1tl1or1zed by tl1 e rnstrt1ctor. Similarly, stt 1 de11ts are on their 01vvn l1onor �1tl1 respect to all otl1er standards of conduct expected of all 1 nernbers of the Fact1lty of Law. The Rt 1les of the Ho r1o r Syste111 \Vere drafted by the stude11ts in const1ltation witl1 the Fac�lty and are ad 1�1 i 1lis�ered by an Honor Board cl1oser1 by the students. Tl1e Board dea�s w1tl1 cl1 _arges o .f v1olat1ons of tJ1e 11onor System and reco111mends a1Jpropriate dis ciplinary act10 n to tl1e Dean. THE LAW STUDENT ASSOCIATION As befits future members of the legal profession, students i11 the Fa.culty of Lavv have their own gover11i11 g body. Representatives elected by tl1 e st11de11ts meet with tl1 e members of tl1e Faculty to disct1ss variotrs la\v scl1 ool matters. Tl1 e Associ(1tio 11 has adoJJt ed regt1lations relating to the Honor Systern, proper library co 11duct, tl1e takin.g of exa nii11ations and other rules. TI1e Law Student Associatio11 a.lso l1as 1Jrese11ted a 11t1n1 ber of important fu11ctions during tl1e year a11d sponsors an a11n11al La\v Day, at \vlucl1 the f\1oot Cotrrt :fi11alists argue a case before a cot1rt co11sistin.g of .members of the legal pro fessio11. Witl1 tl1e increase i11 size of ot1r stt1dent body, the Lavv Stude11t Associatio11, l101Je fully, \¥ill become a11 active professio11 al body interestecl i11 proble1ns of lavv a11 cl legal de\relop1ne11t i11 Etlliopia. PROGRAMS OF INSTRUCTION (a) Tl1e Fi1/l-ti111e 3 JJear LL.B. Program. We accepted 21 applica11 ts as full-time LL.f3. students. _Tl1 e n1i11imal entry_ reqt1ire ment was completion of 2 u11iversity years of st11dy plt1s a l11gh overall acade1n1c record which de111onstrated that the a1Jplica11t had ar1 adeqt1ate breadtl1 of stt1dy a11d l1ad de monstrated. st1perior aca.demic ability. 111 fact most of those ad1nitte? l1 ad co1nple_ted more tl1a11 tl1is inini i nal 11criod of studies, and n1a11y ha.ve had co11s1 derable 1Jract1cal experience. Three years of i11structio11 are reqt1ired for the LL.B. degree. (b) Tlze Part-ti,ne 4 year LL.B. Progra,n. As a temporary project; vve e11rolled 40 stt1dents as LL.B. candidat_es in an eve1ling_ cottrse requiri ilg fotir years for coo1pletio11. Tl1e JJur1Jose \Vas. to pern:11! perso�s qt1al1fied for admissio11 as LL.B. candidates, bt1t wl10 l1 eld responsible pos1t1 �11s \Vl1 1cl1 tl1ey cot1ld no t forsake for f till-tin1e study, to try for the degree. 111 al� essential respects . tl1e evening program is tli e sa11 1e as the day. Th e same materials are studied, t!1e same exan1111a 1g progra13:1 pt1ts e 11 11 ev e Th . sly ot1 ym on an er, eth tog tions are given, ar1ct all are graded vigoro11s deinailds on those who undertake it. Tl1ere has alread� bee1:1 a st1bstant1B.l �t 1 trition, tllere nlay be more. But tile rewards wo 1 1 by those '\\ }10 stick \.V1tl1 the course wi ll - 339 -

JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VOL. I - !'10. 2

be, 110t only IJersonally beneficial, b11t the J)rofession in Ethiopia.

ge11ui11e contribt1tion to the develoJ)n ient of

(c) T/1e Lalv Certificate and Diplon1a Progran1s. Early in I 962 on the i1litiative of s01ne of Ethjo1)ia's u1�iversity-trai�ed lawyers, a program of extension instructio!1 in l �w was es_tabl1shed. Tl11s pro?ram 1s now a part _ _ of tlie Fact1lty of Law. I11struct1011 1s 111 A111har1c. Tl1 e course co�s1sts � f two a11d oiie half years of part-tiu1e atte11da11 ce, a11� upon s11c�essful co111 ple�1011 or t�e � ourse til e Certificate i11 Law is awarded. The ct1rr1c11l11m con�1sts of co11rses 1n Const1tut1onal Law, Civil Law, Penal Law, Procedure and Co111merc1al Law. Ca11didates for admission n111st be flt1ent in tl1e Arnharic la11gu.age and satisfy the Admissions Committee of the Exte 1 1sion Law Progran1 tl1at they are capable of benefiting from the co11rse. The first gro11p of 200 st11de11ts successf11lly completed tl1e course in July, 1964. Members of the Parlian1 ent, public officials, judges, advocates and other governm ent officials con1 posed tl1 e class. Tl1e graduatio11 l1eld this year, with !-Iis Imperial Majesty presidi11 g, was a memorable and moving evet1t. 111 our first year \Ve 11 1,1de tl1 e decisio11 to broade11 part time legal edt1cation further by adding our eve11ing Law Di1)lo1na 1)rogra1n. Teaching i11 tl1is program is in English. Tl1e admissio11 standard is liberal, but the co11rse is i11te11sive. At the beginning of this year we e11rolled son1e ninety students in tl1 is progran. 1 . Finally I sl1ould report tl1at ir1 011r first year, discL1ssions were l1ad on various occasions relative to tl1e establisl1me1 1t of an exte11sio11 progra111 in Asn1ara. This year we have lau11cl1ed courses in Pe11al :La.w a11d Procedure the·re. HopefLtlly tl1 ey mark the begin11ing of a fLill fledged Exte11sion Scl1ool. LAW JOURNAL AND RESEARCH The deartl1 of available material on Etl1iopian Law cannot be overempl1asized. Law ca1111ot be u 1 1derstood a11d i11telligently adnlinistered \Vitl1011t commentaries to explain it. Ethiopia's written law is, to a substa11 tial exte11t, sui ger1eris; it draws on diverse sources wl1ich need to be studied if the la\v is to be understood; little of tl1is work l1as yet been systematically undertaken. We l1ave no commentary 011 tl1e codes; no volumes of reports of court decisions, no basic manuals for officials ad111 inisteri11g law, 110 st11dy of tl1e 1ny riad of important JJroblen1s arisi11g day to day: e.g. the settlement of accide11t claims; tax administration; la11d and business transactions; 11rban expa11sio11; foreign investn 1ent; natural resource development; crin1i11al law e11forcement; adn1inistrative procedur es; problems, practical and profound, \Vl1icl1 arise inevitably i11 a legal setting. Tl1ere is little published information on the land tenure systen1 a.11d otl1 er legal i 1 1stitutions, \Vl1icl1 �x1sted before the codes a11d whicl1 n1t1st be u11derstood to appreciate 11e\v problems aris!ng under tl1e 11ew c?�es. Etl�opians 11eed to learn abo11t tl1eir cou11try's new constitution _ and its past trad1t1ons - if they are to be useft1l citize11s for tomorrow. As a first step, �embers of the Faculty and otl1er scl1olars a11d la\vyers in the Em1Jire have begu11 prepara tion not �nly o� teaching materials, but of vario11s other writings on Etl1iopian la\-\'. In collaborat1011 with the I11stitute of Etl1iopi,1n Studies, t,vo n1 onograpl1s 011 Iai1d tenure _ have now been sent to the printer for fortl1coming Jt1blicatio11. Other material is on its I way, and I look forward to the OJJporturuty to a1111ounce con1 pleted projects in a later · report.

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- 347 -

......

CURRENT ISSUES CRIMINAL APPEALS

(Nu,11ber of apJJeals - Parliament's i11tentio11, a,zd J10 w it }Va·s ca,·r,·e.,t out - Cases w11ere , . oes 11o re l d t GJJ !. d pea Co 11st ri1c sec tzo o11 1z or a 195 (3) 0,'Jr ti·1e c11m 'J Ar • t• . .· • 111a 1 pracedi1re Cocle - P�w�rs of appellate court on appeal .fronz co1zvictio11 o,zly; fro,n sente11ce only· , fro1t1 co11v1ct1011 a11c l sentence.) ✓

INTRODUCTION A�co_rdin � t? Article 182(2) �f the Crimir:al Procedu �e Code of Ethiopia, two ap peals lie 1n cr1m1nal cases. Thus, 1f a11 appeal 1s lodged \1/1tl1 an Awradja. Court from a judg�ent given by a W �reda Court i11 its original jurisdiction, a secon.d a_ppeal lies to _ t1rt H1gl1 from the Jt1dgme11t given by the Awradja Court i11 its appellate jurisdiction. the_ c; � _ This _ prov1s1011, l1owever, 1s 11ot as ge11eral as it may appear to be since Article 195(3) specifically states tl1at, wl1en. tl1e first appellate court confirms eitl1er the conviction or the sentence, a seco11d appeal lies 011ly so f::1r a.s concer11s tl1at part of t}1e jt1dgment of first instance wl1icl1 was not co11firn1ed by the first appellate court. These tvvo provisions, if read togetl1er, mean tl1at tl1e second appeal provided for in Article 182(2) lies only on the co11ditio11s laid down i11 AI~ticle 195(3). This \Vas 1nade quite clear i11 the Draft Code \Vl1icl1 \Vas first st1b1nitted to Parlia1nent. Article 182(2) origi11ally co11tained a ge11eral proviso to which Article 195(3) was designed to give effect, stipulating tl1at ::1 seco11d ap peal would not lie unless tl1e first appellate court varied tl1e j11dg1ne11t of the court of first instance. However, desirous not to impose restrictio11s on aJ)peals accorcli11g to the result of tl1e first appeal, Parliarnent deleted this ge11eral proviso, overlooki11g tl1e fact tl1at such deletion was purposeless if sub-article (3) of Article 195 re1uained. For, whether or 11ot the J)roviso was cleleted, tl1e rule of specialic1 generalibzis derogant would still lead to the conclusio11 that tl1ere were restrictions on seco11d appeals. Only tl1e deletion of Article 195(3) would have \Varra11ted the contrary conclt1sio11. Tl1ere can be 110 dot1bt, tl1erefore, that a seco11d appeal fro1u a conviction and se11tence does not 11ecessarily lie i11 every case. But are there cases \vl1ere a second appeal does not lie at all? It \Vould. see1n so. Tl1us, since Article 195(3) prohibits a seco11d appeal from a conviction, if tl1e conviction recorded by a Woreda Court is m�1intai11ecl by an Awradja Court, or a second appeal fro1n a sente11ce, if th� sente11ce passed by a '!'oreda Court �s maintained ·by an Awradja Cot1rt, it sl1ot1ld logically follow tl1at the r1gl1t of appeal 1s exhausted whe11 botl1 the co11victio11 and sentence are affirmed by the first appellate court. Needless to say, this co11clt1sion defeats the purposes � vluc_h Parliam�� t l1ad i11 view \.V�en deleting the aforementioned general proviso appearing 1n the � r!ginal _ text of Article 182(2). In order to circumscribe the exact scope of the latter prov1sI011 as 1t st�nds today, a choice 1nust tl1us be ruade bet\veen the conflicti11g i11terpretations of Article 195(3). On the one hand, it ma y be said that the _\vords of the _law are clear, so tl�a� there is no need to inquire into its history. WI1 en logical_ c?nstruct1on of a legal provis1011 l.e�ds to a result whicl.1 \Vas 110t iiltended by Parliament, 1t 1s for the latter _to an1_end t�e prov�s�on rather tl1a11 for the courts to attempt th e necessary am�nd�ent by 111vest111g tl11s provis1on e res11lt th e uc od pr r to de or In 1g ru1 e m l c gi lo ith its an � � some ot I1er interpretatiorl th � d en an t pu ay m al pe ap st fir a at th 1ls ta e11 1t n, Intended by Parliament. If this view is take

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JOURNAL OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

I - No. 2

to the c,tse regardless of the fact that Parliamen� did 11ot desire �o a.cl1_ieve tl1is restilt. 011 the other ha11d, it 1 1tigl1t be s11�m�tted t�at Art1cl:e �95(3) co11flic:s �v� th _ A.rtic]e 182(2) ,ind since the scoi:>e of tl1e restr1ct1011s laid dow11 1�1 tl1e forn1er p1ov1s1011 1s not perfectly clear, 110 greater restrictions 011 appeals sho11ld be_ 1 �1Josed �h�11 are_ a?sol11tely necessary. What is ,tbsoltitely necessary, it may be alleged, 1s to prol11b1t 11n11m.1ted appeals, wllich is \vl1at Article 182(2) does, but 11ot to prol�bit a seco11d ap1Jeal altogether when tlie judgment given i11 the first insta1 1ce is not �ar1�d by tl1e firs � appellate court even though this may be implied i11 Article 195(3). If t!us view 1s taken, 1t 1nea11s_ that tl1ere is no case where a second appeal does not lie, e1tl1er as to part o.t: tl1e_ Judgment, as in tlie . ca�es mentioned in Article 182(2), or as to the whole Jt1dg1J1e11t, as 111 tl1e case 11ot covered wl1ere the wl1ole judgment is ·mai11tained. 111 support of this construction, it �ay be said that the Code does not expressly prol1ibit a seco11d apJJeal V11l1en the judgme11t is 11ot varied by the first co11rt of ap1)eal, as tl1e words of Articles 182(2) a11d 195(3) are flexible e11ough to admit an i11terpretatio11 effectuating Parlian1ent's i11te11tion, which was that tl1ere sl1 ould bt� at least two, but never more than two aJ)peals. All things considered, l1owever, it \Vould see1n tl1at the first interpretation sJ1ould prevail, for one would set up a rather dangerot1s precede11t if 01 1e \:Vere to disregard the natural and logical 1 nea11ing of a legal provision 011 the ground that it states something else than what one would want it to state. Yet, it is obviot1 s that, if this first i1 1terpretatio11 is adopted, the scope of A.1:ticle 182(2) becomes qt1ite narrow, as will appear from a11 analysis of the various situatio11s tl1at 1nay occur t111der A.11:icle 195. ILLUSTRATIONS

For tl1e purpose of the following remarks, it will be assumed tl1at the accused, A, is convicted of tl1eft 1111der Article 630 of tl1e Penal Code b)' an Awradja Court and sentenced to thJ:ee years simple in11)risonme11t. 1. A appeals from his convictio1 1 only. The Higl1 Court may either confirm the con viction, as is implied in Article 195(3), or acq11it A, i11 accordance \vitl1 Article 195(2)(c). (a) The Higl1 Court may 11ot, it seerns, alter the conviction and find A gu.ilty of, say, unlawfttl 11se of another person's pro1)erty u11der Article 644 of the Penal Code even tl1ot1gl1 one of the i1 1gredients of theft is missing and the court is satisfied that .A. had no intention of obtaining an 11nlawf11l e1u·ichine11t. In otl1er \\'Ords, it \Vould ap1Jear tl1at the rule laid down in Article 113(2) of tl1e Criminal Procedure Code does not apply i11 such a case i11dicating that the appellate court may riot co11vict the accused of an offe11ce of lesser gravity, \Vith wl1icl1 he migl1t originally have been charged i11 the alter11ativei rather than the offence cl1arged. Ass11n1ing however, for purposes of argument, that Article 113(2) would apply ir1 tllis i11sta11ce, one fails to see wl1at ki11d of decision the I-Iigh Court might make with respect to pt111ish1 11ent. For, althougl1 Article 644 of the Penal Code carries one year simple imprisonn1ent as a 1naximun1 penalty, the Higl1 Co11rt woul� �ot be in a position to reduce the sente11ce of three years passed by tl1e A\:vra dja Court since tl1e sentence was 11ot i11 issue and Article 195(3) of tl1e Crir1tinal Procedure Code does not en1power the appellate co11 rt, 011 a11 a1:>pe,1l from the conviction only, to � ary the sentence _passed by the Court havi11g given t11e judgi11 e11t from wl1icl1 tl1e appeal lies. (b) If the �o �viction is mai1�tained by the I-Iigh Court, there is no second appe�I from the co11v�ction under Article 195(3) of the Crin1i1 1al Procedt1re Code; Since

- 350 -

.. ..

•

CR:IMiNAL' APPEALS

. .. . .... .

•

• • tlie se1 1te11 ce was not' in ;isstie in · the Hi gh Co · ui· , ·t t · 1 se em s t h at · ' a . . fter t1.tle co11v1ct101 1 ..h·as · ' • · · · t b h e nf Y d Hi gh um e Court, A sl1ot1ld not be entitled to appeal-. .rti . . bee1 1 co ' · f ro · th·e sen · . tence the Awr ad by J a . · passed Court. .: . : �. . ···., ... .. · .. ·• '- .• � .... . · (c) If� is acqtli �t�d: by t�e Hj�h· . �outt ·11�e. Pf<?secutor may a�jJeal to the--·:St,1iJreme _ � ac t l1e � t l, 1 wh 1 fro icl 1 urt Co ur t may reve rse the order ·or acquittal arid re.-try A c;o � � �� or cause_ him _ t o be _re�tr1ed , and A may then be sentea.ced ''acc. ording.tP: law'' under Art. 19�(� 1(a) O!! th� C1:1rmnal �r?c�� u :e <?ode. Tl1er e is .110thing · i11:-(he..CQde t6_.i?r, ey ut the . 1 ry 1ng re 1 s. at fr _ m 1uc re� s 1 g court t� 1 th �,. sen�ence 1:,asse� _by ��-.A��a?jq) Cpurt aiid � _ � � : sentencing hlffi to, say, fi,,e yea�s rigorous 1mpr 1so11 Illent. Since tl1e r�-tryrng cow . t ma y vary the nat ure or exte11t of pumsl1 ment and is 1 1ot bound as to the maximu.m�b'y: t lle ori gi11a l j_udgment of th� A�vradja Co urt; A is in- the same _positio11 as thougl 1 hi ·11 ad been sentenced by t l1e AwradJ� Cot1rt to· tl1e pe11alty:_ordered by the second court of appeal ru1d had 11o t bee11 at1thor1zed to appeal fro1 n the sentence. To avoid tl1is, it. n1ay_ be held that v.1he n �he sente11t� is 1 10� in dire ?t ·issue, tl1e· seco11d app. ellate.cot1rt .is e�pec t.�d .to ac t ·as•an u1nprre and d ecide wluc]1 of e1tl1 er · of the.subordinate cot1rts ar1·i�ed·.c\t tl1e.,proper decision . \V.ith respect to guilt so that if· the· co1 1victio11 recoi·ded· : by eitl1e1· st1bordi11ate cot1rt is resto red, the se 11 terice passed ' by tl1at cot1r t . is automatically also restored. Yet, if the ·secoL1d ap_pellate court were expected to· do o nly tl1 a t, tt cot1ld hardly be regarded as .being · entitled to pass sen.tence ''according t o Ja,v'' .. . Ft1rthermore, tl1e vie\\' tl1at the .seco ;n_d appella�e co��rt .n�ust ac t as �11 t1mpire· sl1 011ld logically apply _\vhe11 tl1 er� · are co11fli�_tj1)g decisio11s, not oruy �s t� conviction,· btrt also as to sente11 ce. Bt1t · this wo·_t1ld be inco11 sistent ,vitl1 tl1e p£ovisions ·of Article 195(2)(d) tin der ,vhicn tl1e court of �1p1Jeal · or red uce the sente.nce ; a11d 1nay, on an aJJ_peal from tl1e sente11ce, maint,:1i 1 1, increas e, ·not 1 11erely corm.rm t11e sente11 ce passed by either · subordi11a te court�- -To dverco111e the latter objectio11, it 111ay be co11 tended that tJ1e provisio11s of Ar t icle 195(2)(d) apply only 0t1 a first a.ppeal. Tl1ere is; J 1 0\,\1ever, no support in the law for. tl1 is conte11tio11 . . •.

•

1..

2. A appeais fro 1n his sente11ce 01tly. Accordi: ng to Article 195(2)(d), the·I-Iigl1 1 CoL1rt < may 111ai1 1tain, increase, o r reduce the se11 tence. ·

(a) If tl1e se11tence is n1 aintai11ed , tl1ere is no second ap1Jeal from sente11 ce u11der Article 195(3) of the Crinu1 1al Procedure Code. Furtl1er-1nore, it see1ns t11 a.t 11either the prosector n or the acc11sed n1ay a ppeal from tl1e co11viction since the co 11viction \Vas n ot i 1 1 issue i1 1 t l1e High Cour�. . . (b) If the sente11ce is varied either way, tl1� prosec11tor and the accuse�_may n 1 ake a s econd appeal a nd tl1e Supreme Cot 1rt wi!l tl:eu .be, 1111der the la\v, 111 tl1e same JJositio11 as tl1e I-Iigh. Court, i.e., it 1 11ay 111 a1nt,11n, 111crease, or red uce tl1 e senten�e passecl b)' the High Court i11 its appellate jurisdictio11. Howe ver, wl1 at l�as bee1:1 sa�d tinder the illustration in paragrapl1 l(c) ,tbove. ho lds _goocl l1ere. There 1s �ot�11ng 1n the law to prevent tl1e St1pren1 e Co t1rt from 111cre as1ng tl 1e te_rn1 or mod1fy1 ng the nat11re of the sente11ce of tl1 e first appellate co urt, so long ,1s tl11s may be done 11nder the Penal Cod e. ·unfortt1nately, tl1 e law co11siders it imrn�tterial _wl1etber tl1e appeal, detr�me11t. It seeo1s that _ or �1s efit ben l1is to es rat e op , d se 1 1 acc \,Vhe1 1 lodged by the olub1ted _ _1f 11ot so far s con pr en be v� _ha e cas a ch st1 in ld oti n sh � izti pe '. reforn1atio in _ .. n ot fi11al ':'l1en 1 t d iffers from the de s 1 ich wh o n n o i cis de ie (tl al pe ap ns st cer the fir l 1d and �11al appea t co e se tl1 us er nc c? as _ r fa o s st a le at c ision giv en iii first iiista iice), 1mum-w1 se, ax d, m t1n bo be e nc sta 111 1 1 a cl1 1 s1 i11 t ur co te so t hat tlie second apiJe lla by the sente11ce o f tl1e first appel late court. rse ve re he ei t ay ur m C h ig H e Th � . ce ! en nt se 1d � a1 n 3 A appeals from his convictio 1) of the Cr1 ID1nal Pro)( (b 2) 5( 19 le ic rt A r de un , m Iii t l1e fu�d i,ig an d. sei1teilce aiid acqtiit - 351 -

JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN

LAW -

VOL.

l - }\lo. 2

_ dure Code or with or without altering tl1e fi11di11g, n1aintai11, i11crease, or redtlce th e l e ina t1r ed .im . oc Cr de Pr Co the of i) )(i )(b 5(2 19 le tic Ar r de un ce ten �;n (a) If the High Court reverses the. conviction a1:1� se:1tence and acqu its A, the prosecutor may appeal from the acquittal. Tl1e pos1t1on 1s then the same as in tlle illustration under paragraph I(c) above and calls for tl1e same observations. (b) The High Court may alter the convictio11 and 1nair1tai11 the sentence. Fo instance, it is satisfied that the_ act is not one of abst� ·a�tion _ but one of appropriation: and consequently, under Article 113(2) of tl1e Cr11n1nal Procedure Code, finds A guilty •�f breach of trust under Article 641 of t11e Penal Code, which carries the same_ punishment as theft. Neither A nor the prosecutor may appeal from the sentence A may appeal from the conviction with a viev✓ to bei�1g acquitted by the Suprem� _ Court. The prosecutor may also appeal fron1 the co11v1ct1on thougl1 one fails to see why he should since the sentence may not be varied by tl1e Supreme Court. More correctly, the sentence might be varied if one were to take tl1e view that the prosecutor does not appeal on the ground that A was found guilty of breach of trust, Article 195(2) of the Criminal Procedure Code, but on tl1e gro11nd that he �'as found not guilty of theft, Article 195(2)(a) of the Code. This view is, it seems, unacceptable for it defeats the purposes of Article 195(3) of tl1e Criminal Procedure Code. (c) I.f the High Court alters the conviction (breach of trust instead of theft) aiid varies the sentence either way, an appeal lies from the conviction_ and sentence and the Supreme Court will be in the same positio11 as the High Court. See the illustrations and comments under paragraphs l(c) and 2(b) above. (d) If the High Court maintains the conviction and sentence, it seems that a second appeal is excluded altogether. (e) If the High Court maintains the conviction but varies the sente11ce either way, the position is the same as presented by the illustrations u11der paragraph 2(b) above and calls for the same observations.

I I

CONCLUSION These rules concerning criminal appeals may be found unsatisfactory. But, since they are clear, logical and consistent, any amendments which may seem desirable should be made by Parliament and not the courts.

-- 352 -

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INDEX OF CASES REPORTED

Page

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Appeal of tax assessment

Courts retain jurisdiction to scrutir1ize a_dministrative decisio11 despite words ''automatically executive'' in Proclamation No. 107/49 - ADVOCATE OF THE MINISTRY O.F FIN'A}'fCE v. NI�OLA SAR�IS ·..... ... ... ... ......... 198 Exhaustion of administrative remedies

See CIVIL PROCEDURE

Words ''automatically executive'' �

Construction of Proclamation 107/49 (prior to an1end111ent) re further formal requirements· after tax commission decision - ADVOCATE OF THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE v. NICOLA SARRIS .... ... .. ...... .. .......... 198

BRIBERY

See PENAL LAW CML CODE

Relationsl1ip of Civil Code to prior customa.ry law - WORKINESH BEZABIH v. YEDENEKOU . . ...... . . . ...... . .. ... . ... .. . .. . .. ....... .. . ...... ......

See also, OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF CIVIL PROCEDURE Action to claim status

Wl1en brought by child must be i11stituted against mother - WORKINESH BEZABIH v. YEDENEKOU ......... .. . .... ........ .. . ... ...... ...... ............... •

Appeals

Interlocutory orders may be appealed after final judgn1ent - ADDIS ABABA MODERN BAKE.RY v. YVONNE NOUMAIR ..................... 179 Exhaustion of administrative remedies

Suit for collectjo11 of tax pren1ature where law provides for administ rative ADVOCATE OF THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE v. NICOLA

;�;�IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

••••••••••••••• ••• • •••• •••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

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198

Interlocutory orders Appeal after final judgment - A D D IS ABABA MODERN BAKERy v. NOUMAIR E .......... .... · · · · · · · · · · · · YVONN . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·........ • .• 179 Jurisdiction of courts Relationsl1ip of Civil Code to prior customary law - WORKIN ESH BEZABIH ,,. YEDENEKOU ..................................... ............ ....... ..

Labour relations board

Board, as qt1asi-judicial body has inl1erent power to extend time for enforce ment of its orders - FOGSTAD WOODWORKS LABOUR UNION v. J AKOB FO GSTAD .. . ... ...... ............ . .. . .............. . .. . . . . ........... . ..... 18 5 Board must give reaso11s wl1e11 making discretionary exceptio11 to accepted procedure - FOGST,\D WOODWORKS LABOUR UNION v. JAKOB . . .. .... . .. .... .... . . ...... . ..... . . ..... ... . . . . . ...... . ...... . .......... . ... . . . .. 18 5 FOGSTAD Suit for collection of tax premature where law provides for administrative appeal

ADVOCATE OF THE MINISTRY OF FINANCE v. NICOLA SARRIS

198

COI\1PANY LAW Shareholders' agreen1en ts Parties to Articles of Associatio11 n1ay bind themselves to submit disputes to general meeting prior to litigation - ADDIS ABABA MODERN BAKERY v. YVONNE NOUMAIR ... ... ... ...... . . . . .. . . . . . . .... . . . .... . . .. . .. .. .

179

CONCURRENT SENTENCE See PENAL LAW CONSPIRACY See PENAL LAW CRThfINAL ffiRESPONSIBILITY See PENAL LAW CUSTO.f\AARY LAW SH E IN K R O W w la y ar om st cu or Relationship of Civil Code to pri • • •• • • • • •• •• •• • • ••• • • • ••• • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • BEZABIH: v. \TEDENEKOU

- 361 -

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DAMAGES

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as quasi-judicial body l1as inl1ere11t power to exte11d tin1e foi· e1uorce-. 1nent of its orders - FOGSTAD WOODWORK.S LA B OUR UNION 185 V. JAKO.B FOGSTAD ...... ······ ............ ········. ................................. ... .. . . . . ...... . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . -� ..·�... . -.. . ... ... .. .. . ... . ... ..·"· ·-.. .' . . , .. B oard,

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Employer liability for harm suffered by employee .-.;.,•· · .. .. :-:· . ... !.••t•,:;:" EmJJloyer not liable, where harm resulted from unfors , eeable ca. use. !� Words ''arising fro1n his work'' coilstrued _ .. HIA AMALINGAS & N I i� LIN TIS MA YO NA MA PA GAS v. MESSR · · PULA- & T(AMPlJS, LTD... 204 . . t I

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Fat1lt of en1ployee ma y relieve employer of du ty t co · · m·pens· ate, ior. d1• srn 1.ssal MAM N 10 YINBERBERU v. YIRGU ABEB� · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 36 . . . . ., , liability Extra. contractual . . .. .. . . . :·. ., ·, . . ,,. . . . . . . . . Damages on em plo · yee ' -cl saim : b ase d · on· ·y-r·' e . plo e · m · o ,. s ,•nee • 1 l gen ce 1: 1m1 : ·d te , .b y . . , en1ployee s contr1bt1tory 11egl1ge11ce t111der Article 2098 of Civil Code_ ANTONIS HAJOGLOU v. IMPERIAL HIGH\VAy AU· THORITY ... 155 ' . .. . . PATERNAL FILIATION .. • • • :

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1-:lolding of co11spirators to be accomplices is i11co11siste11t \11itl1 fi11di11g .. of co11spiracy - ZERYHUN MAKONNEN v. PUBLIC PROSECUTOR ...... 195 Bribery Convictio11 improper wl1ere 1noney accepted \vas 11ot. in co11sideratio11 of official act - BELETE BELAINEH v. PUBLIC PROSECUTOR ...... Conspiracy

162

. Gr:1ve Vlilful inj11ry and aggravated dan1age to property constitt1te ''serious· . offe11ses'' 1111der Article 472 of the Pe11al Code . -. . ZER . . YI-IUN. Iv1AKONNE N v. PUBLIC PROSECUTOR .............................. . :.... ............ 195 .. . . .. ... . .. . . I •• . Criminal irresponsibility .

''Psycopath'' t111ab le to control impulses, not criminally irrespo�1p ib�e . u �� r Articles 48 and 49 of tl1 e Pe11al Code - Words ''ab11or111al or deficient condition'' construed� GETATCHE\V GIZAW v. ADVOCATE GENE_RAL •

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de Co l 11a Pe e th of ) 9(c I8 d an 82 les tic Ar nt Wl1ere offe11ses are conct1rre IC BL PU v. EN N N O . AK M N U H RY ZE t-� un co should ·be t,Lke11 into ac · · ·· PROSEC U TOR ... J . ·_........ .: ••.. ; ............ · • · • · • · .' · · · · • : • • · · · · · ·. • · •'• · •• · •· • • • • • · · • · · J·

- 363 -

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Action to claim status

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Divorce Domicile - Court's jurisdiction to homologate divorce decree reqt1ires at least one party to be domiciled in Ethiopia - MARY SHATTO, v. THE...................................................··· ··· ············ 190 ODORE SHATTO

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Domicile Possibility of change of domicile does not affect current status of domiciliary MARY SHATTO v. THEODORE SHATTO .................... ....... .........

Filiation, paternal Proof of filiation - Child to be deemed of unknown father unless capable of proving paternity under rules of Civil Code - WORKINESH BEZABIH V. YEDENEKOU ............ .. ....... .... .. . ..... ..... . ........ . .... ... ... . . . ........

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PUBLIC WILL See SUCCESSION

PSYCHOPATHIC PERSONALITY

See PENAL LAW

REAL PROPERTY Contractual rights of purchaser Remedy for alienation after promise of sale -TSIGHA WAYNE TASFA MARIAM v. TADESSE AMBAYE .. .. ... ... ... ..... . ...... ........ ............... 170 Promise of sale Agreement held mere promise and not actual sale - TSfGHA WAYNE TASFA MARIAM v. TADESSE AMBAYE • •• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • • • 170 Specific performance Not granted where right of recovery exists in another party- TSIGHA WAYNE TASFA MARIAM v. TADESSE AMBAYE .................. 170 - 364 -

Time for exercising right of recovery begins to run onl . en owne rship h T nsferre �� d - SIGHA WAYNE TASFA MARI actually tra , v. TADESSE . YE A . . AMB ..... .. ... ....... .. . .... ............ .•• • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

170

REMEDIES See REAL PROPERTY RESTRAINT OF TRADE

See OBLIGAT/0 NS, LA J,f' OF SENTENCE, DEATH OR CONCU.RRENT

See PE1VAL LA 141 SPECI F IC PERFORMANCE

See REAL PROPERTY SUCCESSION, LAW OF Form of will

Three witnesses sufficient where intent of testator is clear - CHAKE AVAKIAN v. ARTIN AV AK.IAN ......... ................................. ...... Reversing - IN THE MATTER OF THE ESTATE OF SETRAK AVAKIAN ................................................................................. TAXATION Appeal of tax assessments See ADkf/NISTRATWE LAW Suit for collection of tax

See CJ.VIL PROCEDURE WILLS See SUCCESS/OJ./, LAW OF WITNESSES See SUCCESSION, LAW OF - 365 �

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1 24

...... ......... ............ 70, 302, 309, 310

�1..�'L : 49/54 q:9°: .. ................... 34, 183, 302

27/62 q:9° : (>.J-i.J-t)............... 104

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TABLE OF LAWS CITED (Vol. I)

...

•

REVISED CONSTITUTION OF ETH IOPIA·· 1Jrticle

Page

Article

26 .... . .... ....... ..... . . . . . . .. . 26-36 ···········.·········.······· 36 ······························ 37-63 ........................... 54 ······························ 59 ··············�················ 62 ······························

113, 116 112, 113 113 113 290 14 112, 113, 114� 115,116

63 87 88 88-90 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 92 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 122 •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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o O o o o o O O O O O I o o O o O I o o o o o o O o o O O o

o O o O O I O I o o o o o O • I O O O • O O O o o o I o o o

••

•

131

• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•

•••

113 113 • 113 112, 114 112, 114. 111, 112, 113, 114,116,319 Ill, 113

CIVIL CODE OF 1960

89 90 ... ................ .. . ... ..... 183 ........................... 184 ······..................... 205 ... ....... .. .... .. ... ... ... 280 .......................�.... 351 .. . ...... . .. .. .... ... . . . . . . 369 ...... ... ......... .. . .. .... 429 ........................... 5.)-o . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 560 ........................... 562 ...... ... .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. ... 581 ........................... 582-586 ........................ 588-589 ........................ 591 ........................... 592-593 ........................ 595-597 ........................ 599 ....................... ·, ... 600-60 I .. ... . .... . .. ..... ...... 602 ... .. .... ...... . . . . .. ...... 603 . .... . ........ ...... ... . ... 604 .. ....... . .. ..... . .. . ..... . 608-609 ....... . . ... .. . . . . ... ... 612 ........................... 6 I 7-618 ... .. ... . ... ... ..... . ... 620 .... ... . . .... ... .. ..... .... 623-625 . ..... ....... .. .. .. ..... 628-629 .. .. .. ..... . . .. . ..... ... 6 30 ........................... 631-632 ........................ 633 ··························· 634 . .. . ..... . . . .... ... .... .. .. O

•

o o o o • • • o o o o o • • o o o o o •

74, ' 19 190 190, 191 84 319 147 .. 74 319 74 76 76 74 74 74 75, 76 76 76,77 78 78 77 77, 82 77, 82 80 80 81 81 82 8 3 .. , 83, 86 83 83,86 83

635 . . .. ..................... .. 636 ........................... 637 .................. . ........ 638 ........................... 639 ........................... 640 ........................... 641 ................... . ....... 643-646 ............ ...... . ..... 648 ...... . ..... .............. . 649 ··························· 650-652 .... . . . . .. . ..... ........ 653 ............. . ........... .. 654-655 ...... .................. 656 ··················......... 658 ........................... 659 . ..... ......... ... ......... 660 .... ....... . ...... .. .... ... 661 . .................... .. .... 663 . . . ................. . ...... 664-668 . .......... ............. 669-670 . . .... ....... . .... . . .... 671 ········ ···················

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672

..............

! ••• • • • • • • • • •

674-675 ························ 676-677 ........................ 678 ........................... 680-681 .... .. ...... ... ........ . 683-685 ................ .. .. . . . . 686-688 ..... . ............... ... 689 ... . .. .. ... .... ......... ... 690-696 .... . .. . .. .. ........ . ... 70 9 = "i:, ..../·,..,I

;;;.:_

84 83,85 84 84,85,87 84, 85 83, 84, 85 84 85 87 8.:::t 87 86 88 8.7, 88, 319 83, 93 89 86, 89 89 77 90 91, 82, 91 91

92 91 90, 91 92

93 93 94 90,92, 94, 95,99 . .. ... ... .................. 96

JOURNAL OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW - VOL. I - 1�0. 2

Article

Page

Article

1874 .....................······ 319

710-713 ...··· ···· ··· ···· ······· 97 715 •••••••• .. .......... ....... 97

1962 ......... ········· ······... 319 2028 135 2032 ··························· 115

717 .....····· ···· ··· ···· ······ 97 718-720 ................... · . · · · 96

♦

.......... ........ ... ...... 90, 9 9 .......................... · 99 ......... .. .. . . ... ... . . .... 99

729 ··························· 730 ··························· 732-735 ............... ........ . 737 ........................ ...

739

2081

90, 91 97, 98, 99 99 90, 99

·····················...... 18

7 40-761 ... ... ............ ...... 17, 18 746-757 ............... ......... 18, 98 758 ... ...................... .. 147 758-762 ··················...... 18 769-777 ........................ 17, 1 9, 20, 21 778-795 . ...... .. ............... 20 782 ...···············......... 19, 147 792-793 ························ 19 881 ........................... 26, 27, 32, 33 882 ··························· 27, 33 885 ··························· 27, 32, 33

906

1010 10 1 2 I 048 1114 1347 1400 1416 I 706 1713

........................... 28

···············............ 319 ······················..... 319 .... ..................... . . 319 .. ......... . . .. .... ... .... . 94 ..................······... 319 ... ... ..................... 170, 172 ··························· 170, 172 . ............ ..... ... ...... 322 ··························· 321

1715 ························... 6 1732 ························ ... 318 1733 ·--�·-····················· 318

1733-1737 ····················· 1 736 ············ ··············. 1738-1739 ····················· 1758 . ..... ........ .... ... ...... 1772 .......... ..... ............ 1793 ··························· 1798 ························... 1803 ··························· 1806-1807 ...... ..... .... ... ...

317 318 318 320 320 320 320 320 320

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203 3 ... ............. .. . .. .... .. 113 2035 ············•·· ········· ··· 113, 114, 116 135

721-724 ························ 98

725 726 728

Page

I • '

• • • • ' • 1 1 • • • • a I• • ' • • • • •• •

137

2095 ............. . ....... ...... 147 2098 ......................... .. 155, 157 2102 ........................... 155 2 I 06 . ..... ...... .... .......... . 144 2116 ··························· 1 47 2124-2125 ..................... 147 2126 ··························· 113, 115, 116, 322 2138 .... .............. . . .. ... .. 113, 322 2140 ... . . . ...... ... ...... ...... 113 2143 ........................... 1 40, 146, 1 50 2144 ••••• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • l .),..0 2146 ........................... 138, 140 2148 . . . .... . .... . .. ......... .. .. 141 2149 .............................. 141, 144 2152 .••........................ 155, 157 2153 .. .. ... .. ...... .. .... .. ....... 148 2203 ...... ... ... .. ........... . .... 319 2204 ............ ......... .. . ... 319 3269 ..................... ... ... 320 2411 ... ...... .. .. .......... ..... 319 2549 ... ............ ... .... ... .. .. 204, 205 2550 ··....... . .... .. .. .. . .. ....... . 204 2552 .. .. . .. .. .................. ... 204 2553 ............................ 155, 156 2554 • • • •••••• •• • • • • •••• • • • • • •• • 156, 204, 205 2556 ······...·················· 155, 156 2557 ........... . ... ... .. . .. .... I 56 2558 ··························· 156, 157 2559 ······..................... 155, 156, 157 204 2 567-25 93 ..................... 36 2865-2868 ..................... 319 2896-2944 ..................... 319 2945-2974 ..................... 3 1 9 3312 ........................... 140 3344 ....... .. ... ............... 141 3347 •··········................ 97, 317, 321 3348 ··························· 17, 21

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TABLE OF L Aws CITED

COMMERCIAL CODE OF 1960 Arti cle 16-21 305 306 357 362

••• ••

• •• • • • • • •••••••••••• •• ••• • ••

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•••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

Page

Article

85 181 181 179 179

495 496 510 512 1177

Page

···············...····..... 179, 181 ··························· 179, 181 181 ··· ··· ········....... . ..... 181 ··························· 179, 181 O

t t t t t t t

t t t t

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t t t a t

CRIMINAL PROCEDU E CODE OF 1961 4.4 .............................. 94 . . . .. ............. ........ .... 109 ............ .. . ....... .... . 113 ··························· 124 .... . .. . ... ... ....... ...... 128-129 .. . ...... .. ...... .... ... 133 ........................... 136 ........................... 137-138 ........................ 139 ........................... 141 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 142 ... .. .......... ... .... ..... 146-147 ........................ 148 ........................... 149 ........................... 154 ...........................

148 1 42 141 350, 352 141 136 143 143 142 143 144 142, 145 144 145 145, 146 135, 136, 143 148 ........................... 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 •

155

•

156

........................... 135, 136, 141, 142, 145 157 ........................... 135, 136, 138 158 ··························· 135, 136, 144, 146, 149 159 .........·················· 135, 136, 146, 147, 148 168 ........................... 138 170 ··························· 138 182 ........................... 349, 350 183 ··························· 113 185-186 ···················"··· 148 195 ........................... 349, 350, 351, 352 204 ... . .................... . .. 14 210 ........................... 149 222 ........................... 14 7

PENAL CODE OF 1957 1 .................. ... ......... 2 ......... ... . ..... . ... . ....... 3 ............ . .. . .. .. ... ... .... .. 5-22 ··························· 15 .. ........... . . . . .... .. . ... .. . 23 .............. ........ ....... . 23-25 ··········· ................ 32-40 ......... ... .... ........... 41 .............................. 41-47 ············...············ 4.4 48 ······························

288, 292 284, 285, 321 137 281 288 285 281 281 282 281 148 11, 12, 13, 287 48-63 ... . .... . ............ ... ... 281 49 ······ ········..........······ 11, 12, 13, 290 51 .............................. 12, 286 too o o

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o o

52-56 ...... ..................... 55 ······························ 57 ... ...... ..................... 63 .............................. 64 ..... ......................... 64-84 ... ...... . ................. 69-70 .. ....... . ........ ......... 73 .. . ............... ............ 78 .. ............................ 79 .. ......... . .................. 81 82 .............................. 85 .............................. 86 ............................ . . 87 .............................. 88 .............................. 90-96 .... .......................

- 379-

O o O O O O O O I o O t o t o o t O I t o I O O O t O O O O

287 286 282 147 288 281 288 288 290 290 290 195, 196 282, 292 292 282, 285 282, 293 142, 293

JOURNAL OF E'fJ-IIOPlAN

92 97

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..................... .. .... ••••••• •••••••. . .. . . ... . • • • • • • • ••

· · · : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

101 •••••••••••................ 102-103 ........................ 105 .................... ....... 107 ...........................

1 09

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . · · · · · · · · ··

110-112 ........ . ...............

113 116

293 289 136 13 s, 147 149 286, 286, 286, 141 293

138, 142, 293 293 293

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · . . . . . . 288 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

116-119 ........................ 120 .................. ...... ... 120(A) ........................ 121-122 ........................ 124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 ........................... 129 ........................... 1.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 ........................... 133-137 ........................ 134-137 ...... .................. 138 ........................... 139 ......... ........ .... ... ... 142 ............. . ............. 144 ........................... 146-147 .................. . . .... 148 ......... ......... ... ..... . 149-159 ........................

289 282, 292 289 294 141 28 8 136, 293 136 143 282, 293 142, 143, 287 290 142, 282, 292 143, 294 142, 143, 145 136, 294 144, 294 145, 146 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 294

160

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 294

172

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

181

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

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161 ·········......········.... 282, 286, 294 161-182 ························ 138,287 170 ......... .................. 138, 282, 294 173-174 ························ 294 174-181 ························ 290 177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 294 182 ........................... 291 183-193 ·····················... 148, 281 189 ·····················...... 195, 196 194 .·····..................... 282 293 194-21s ........................ _ 2s1'

No.

195 ··························· 293 196 ......... : ................. 293 199 ........................... 293 201-203 ........................ 293 206 . . ......................... 282 207 . . .. . . ........... . ......... 293 210 .........·..· ·.···......... 149, 293 213 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 282 216-247 ........................ 281 222 ........... ....... ......... 147 223 ........................... 150 225 ............... ... . ........ 282 233 ...... ...... ............... 282 240-24 I .... .... . .......... ..... 150 242 ... .... . . . .. ... .... ..... ... 282, 293 248 ........................... 291 260 ........................... 295 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 273 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 135 281-295 ........................ 295 296-348 ........................ 135, 287 316 ........................... 283 317 ........................... 283 320 ......... . . .... ............ 283 323-327 ........................ 283 330 ............. .. . ......... .. 282 331 · · · · · · · · ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 285 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 335 ............ ............... 143, 283 337 ........................... 283 349-353 ........................ 287 350 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 354-365 ...... ... ... ...... ...... 287 3 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 360 .. . ......... .. ........ .. ..... 283 364 ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· 283 373 ............................ 283 380 .......... . . ... ...... . ..... 282 381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 387 ..... .. . .. ................... 288 389 ... ........ .. . ........... . .. . 288 396 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 282 404 ........ . .... .. ............. 288 404-409 ......... ... ............ 295 410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . . . . . . 282 410-437 ........................ 287 412 ........................... 80, 317 425 · ......... .. ............. ... 162, 164• 438-459 ........................ 295 449 . .. ............ ............ 283

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'"fABLE Page le Artic 456 ............ . .. ... ...... . .. 283 457 • • • • • ....... ... ..... . . .. ... 288 460-4 70 ....·· ········ ··..·· . .. . 295 461- 463 .....· · ..··· ·..· ........ 283 466 ......... . .. . .... . .. .. ... ... 282 471 ........................... 283 471-487 ........................ 295 472 .........·.·· · ·............ 195 , 196 473 ...... ......... ... .. .. .. ... 283 283 47 5 488 .........·.... . ... ... ... ... 283 488-502 ... . . .... ...... ... ..... . 295 491 ··························· 283 495-496 ........................ 295 499 ...... ...... ... . .. ... .. .. .. 283 499-500 ... ........ .... ......... 283, 295 500 .......... ... ... ..... . . ... . 283 503 ....... . .. .. . .. ... ...... ... 291 509 ........ . ... ........ . . .. ... 291 510-512 ........................ 283 513 ........................... 282 516 ... ... . ..... ...... ... .. .... 291 517 ··························· 282 518 ........................... 283, 291 518-520 ........................ 295 521 ......... .... . .... ... ... . .. 282 522 .......... .. . .. . .. ... ... . .. 11, 14 522-524 ... . . . ... ........ .... ... 282 528 282 533 .. . .. . ....... .. ... .... ..... 282 537 ........... . . . .. . . ... . . .. .. 282, 283 537-544 ........................ 282 538 ........................... 195, 196 539 ··························· 139 558 ........................... 291 565 ........................... 283, 291 568 ........ . ... .... .. ..... . ... 80 569-570 .... . . ... .. . . . . ... .. ... . 295 572 ......... ... .. .... ... .. .. .. 282 574 ...... . .. ... ... .......... .. 282, 296 584 ........... .. .... .... ..... . 282 586 ...... .. . ... .. .. . .... .... . . 282 593 ......... . . . ... . .. . . .. . ... . 283 594 ...... ... ..... ....... .. . .. . 283 598 . ..... . . .... ... ...... ... ... 282 601 ...... . ..... . .. .... . .... ... 282 606 ............ ... ... .... ..... 282 607 .. . ... . . . ..... ...... . . .. .. . 7 9 609 . .. .... ... . .... ....... .. . .. 283 610-611 ·················· ...... 79, 283 o o

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OF LAWS CITED

Article

Page

614 · · · · · · · · · .... · · .. · · · · · .. · · · ... 79, 80 615 ........................... 80 6 1· 6 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ..... 79 80 ' 616-618 . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ......... . 291 619-620 ························ 79 620 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .... - ..... 282 625 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ........... 13 5 626 . . . ........................ 296 627 ................. : : �.. . . .. ... 282 630 ........................... 283, 350 634-637 ... . .. ... ... ...... ...... 282 635 ... ........................ 283 288 635-637 ........................ 283, 641 ...................................... 352 641-642 ......... ... ...... ...... 283 642 ...... . ... . .... ... . . . ... ... 282, 283, 288 644 ....... . .......... .. . ... .. .. .. .. .... 350 646 .................... . ...... 283 647 ....... .............. ...... 283 649 ........................ . .. 283, 291 653 ........................... 147, 195 654 ........................... 282, 295, 195, 196 655 ................................. :.J .. . . . 282 656-659 .... . ................... 283 657 ........................... 296 659 ......... . .. . .. ............ 296 661 .................................. 283 662 ....... .. . . . ............... 282, 285 663-666 ...... ........ . . ... .. ... 296 668 ...................................... 283 670 ......... ...... ... ......... 282 671 ··························· 287 673 ... ... ........ . ......... ... 283 673-676 ....... . ......... . ...... 296 678 ... ....... .. ... ........ . ... 282 680 . .. ............... ......... 282 681-682 ......... . . . ............ 283 684 ... .. . .......... . .......... 283 687-688 ......... .. . ...... . . .... 296 690 . .. .. ...................... 285 691 .............................. 285 696 .......................... ... 287 7 05 .... . .. . ....... ............ 291 706 ............ ........ . ...... 287, 288 709 ............................ 287 710 . . ......... . ...... .. ..... ... 287 733 ... ..... .... . ..... .. . ...... 282, 285, 287 737 ................·............ 296 738 .... ........... ............. 296 - 381 -

JouRNAL OF Er1-1101>IAN LA \1/ -

74 1

780 781

78 2 ...... - .. -............... -. 783-785 ........................ 7 9 3 .... ... ..... .. . ............ 803-804 ......... ... ... ......... 807 ...... ...... ...... ......... 810 ...........................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

741-746 ···············......... 747-749 ........................ 748 ... ...... .. . ...... ... ...... 750 ........................... 751-762 ........................ 755 ........................... 770 ......... ...... . . . . . . ...... 776 ... ........................

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Vot. l -

287 287 285 287 287 283 283 296

812

283, 296 296 282 291 283 283

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

813 ......................····· 285 815 ··························· 291 817-820 ························ 287

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

I i

PROCLAMATIONS 2/42 4/42 16/42 19/42 22/42 24/42 29/42 35/43 41/43 62/44 68/44 70/44 76/45 77/45 89/47

........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................ ... ..... .... ... ............... ........................... ...............•.•......... ........................... ............ . .............. ........................... ......····················· ... . . ........ . ............. .................. . .. ...... ...........................

90/47 ........................... 93/47 ··························· I 02/48 ......... ... ............ 107/49 .. . .. . .. . ....... . .. ..... 118/51 ························ 123/52 ........................ 130/52 ........................ I 30A/53 ........................ 135/53 ........................ 141/54 ........................ 149/55 ........................ 158/57 ........................ 173/61 ......... ... ........ . ... 195/62 ························

277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 317 277 277 277

277 317 277 198, 200 277 277 195 277 112, 195 277 277, 278 280 198 113, 116

DECREES 49/54 ··················......... 36, 317, 185, 186

19/56 ..................... ...... 115 49/62 ........................... 36

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··························�

A joint venture of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and Faculty of Law of Haile Sellassie I University

L AND CHARTERS OF

NORTHERN ETHIOPIA by: G. W.B. Huntingford, D. Litt. Professor, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

PILOT FI ELD STUDY C HORE (SHOA) by: Dr. I-I. S. :Nlann, Ph. D.

Rural InstitL1tions Officer, F.A.O., U11ited Nations

Available soon in Ethiopia from the

and outside Ethiopia from

Faculty of Law

Oxford University Press

Haile Sellassie I University

P. 0. B-ox 12532

P. 0. Box 117 6

Nairobi, Kenya

Addis Ababa, Etl1iopia

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