The Study and Teaching of Law in Africa by John Seaman Bainbridge (1972) by jahrastafari89

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THE STUDY AND TEACHING OF LAW IN AFRICA by John Seaman Bainbridge <;;._

with a

SURVEY OF INSTITUTIONS OF LEGAL EDUCATION IN AFRICA compiled by Terry Wood

J �\ \\J 1 8 1973

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LAW SCI-IOOL Li8RAR\'

Fred 8. Rothman & Co. So. Hackensack, N.J. 1972

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Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 72-84328 ISBN 0-8377-0304-2

Printed in the United States of America

3!8

f\ck11ovv ledgn1e11ts The followi11g l1ave ge11e1-0L1sly gra11ted per111issio11 to quote fro111 n1ate1-ial over v\'11icl1 tl1ey hold tl1e copy1-igl1t: I-Ie1· f\/Jajesty 's Stati.011ery Office for tl1e extract from tl1e "Report of tl1e Com111ittee 011 Legal Eclucati.011 _, For Sn1dents Fron1 1\frica ", 1 11e Right f-Jo11ourable Lord Denning, Chair111a11, C111nd. 1255 of 1961, i11fra pages 15-16; The President a11d Fellovvs of I-Ia.rvard College and Gov,,er, of the pLtblisher, I-Iarva1-d U11iversity Press, T I11dependent Af1-i.ca - ,..The CI1alle11ge To ,..he Legal Profession (1967), "''itl1 the approval of {Jrofessor L. C. B. Govve1·, infra pages 16-17; University of Colo1-ado Lav\' l�evievv, I11c. for tl1e quotation from Llewelly11, "Tl1e Cr_afts of Law Re Valued'', 15 Rocky Mt. I..,. Rev. 1, 3 (1942), i11fra pages 28-29. I am also gratefL1l to Professor A1-tl1ur E. Sutherla11d for permission to quote fro111 a11 i11formal paper on qualifications for you11g teacl1ers, infra pages 75-76, a11d to Professor QL1intin Jol111sto11e fo1- i11clL1di11g extracts from his foreword to tl1e Proceedi11 s of the Co11ference 011 Legal Educatio11 111 Africa, 1968, i11fra pages I O a11cl 166. For this writing and what is here writ I an1 i11debted to colleagues of tl1e law i11 Africa, tl1e United l(ingdom, Belgium, France, a11d the U11ited States, advocates, scholars, teachers, cadis, l1adjis, jLtdges, me11 of gover11ment and state, master craftsmen, a11d a fevv superb journeyrne11. To Sailer111en everywhere I am particularly grateful, especially to my ship111ates on the Project's Executive Committee: Jefferso11 B. Fordha111 (Chairman), Albert I-I. Garretso11, William BLtrnett James C. N. Paul, Max l�l1ei11stei11, Cl1arles [ Iarvey, Ru11yon, a11d Arthur E. Sutl1erlancl.

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111

labored ed s soci.at a. bee11 l1ave I wl10111 wi.tl1 l Severa i.pt ancl r c s u 11 a m 1e l t f o t f a r d y l r a e 11 a r e v o d r a l1 d , d o 1011g a11 O \V ll \V O r B . 0 d i v a D : s 11 0 . i t s e g g u s e . s vi v y n made n1a t; o l . d i 11 p a r e y w a l s s e l r e e JJ d 11 a y r a 11 i l c r o a r t x e 11 a m r le A a11d dea11, Faculty o f Sai. 1 o s s e f o r p y l r e m r o f . , i a h G . P Yasl1 , d r a w . Io B I11 l1 Jo d n a 1; n a la a S s e r a O f o y t i. s r e i. v 11 Lavv, U e v o , b d a 11 a ; r te n e C l a g e L l a 11 . 0 ti a 11 r e 1t I1 e th f o t n e i.d s Pre d r 11 . le a i a S f t o i. i.r p s 1e tl 11 e e b all, Terry \V ood, vvl10 l1as d n a te n a .d fi n o c 1e tl d 11 a , s iu n . trative ge i.ts admi.11is ly p e e d 1 n a I m 1e tl f o ll a o T coL111se llo1A to everyo11e. e i. g r o e k G n a th to e k li ld L1 o h s a1Jpreci.ative. Fi.11ally, I Â s o JJ d 11 i.m a e p ta rn o vv a yr 11 1a n d e Micl1ajlo, vvl10 tra11scri.b d 11 , a re u s s re }J r de 11 u ly ul lf l i. si.ble scÂˇri.pt a11d worked sk ul rf e e ch y, nc i.e ic ff e r e l1 d 1 11e ai 11t ai Clara Neves, 'll l10 m at . 1i n . li r 1Je pa 1d a1 s 11e li. ad de t 1s . 1 11ess, a11d patie11ce agai ti.011s. J. S. B.

Glossary

the common ter111 i11 East 1-\frica fo1- East Iildiai1s _ _ a11d Pak1sta111s. East Africa: the collective ter111 fo1- l(e11ya, �ra11za11ia, a11cl Uga11d� .. ,..The ge11e1-al area i11clL1di11g Etl1iopia a11d S0111al1a 1s son1etimes referred to as Easter11 t\frica. Establishn1e11t posts: \Vitl1 refere11ce to a university tl1e_)r are positio11s autl1orized by tl1e ap1J1-op1-iate gover11i11g body of tl1e university for \Vl1ich buclgets l1ave bee11 app1-oved.

1 I

Faculty of Law: Often used in Af1-ica a11d tl1e U. I(. i11 tl1e sa111e se11se as Scl1ool of Law in tl1e U. S. Pealer: the acronym for Progra111 for Coo1Jeratio11 i11 Africa11 Legal Eclucatio11 a11d Researcl1, a predecessor to Sailer. "Professional'' School: a "professio11al scl1ool '' i11 la\v provides a practical course for tl1e la\v graduate wl1ich is usLtally p1-ere quisite to admissio11 to the bar. Sailer: tl1e acro11ym for Staffi11g of Africa11 I11stitutio11s of 1 cl l1i w t ec oj Pr e tl1 h, rc ea es R al 1d 1 a1 eg L Educatio1 \Vas started in 1962 a11d \Vas later n1ergecl (i11 1967) into the I11ter11ati.011al Legal Ce11ter. BecaL1se of tl1e co11ti11L1ity of its activities a11cl for co11ve11ie11ce of refere11ce the acro11ym Sailer is L1secl to refer to its acct vities from 1962 to tl1e JJrese11t. V

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11e relati. 011shi.p between t es lJ ri. sc e d " t 11 e "011 seco11d1n . s l1i. rne d ho an ad ro ab 1g 11 V r e s r e h c . . c • ex1Jatri.ate tea a11 1 l • . s e 1s 11 r 11 aa 1t 11 1a 11 r 1e cl wlli.Ch the te a ry la in e sa om h t a s e u g ea ll co is h h w it _ i11creases and le11gtl1 of serV1ce.

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To1Jpi11g: lly ' ua r us la sa c si ba a to ry 1ta e1 em y Jpl SLl 1ts 1e1 payn l L1sed to refer to tl1e addi.ti.011al sur:ns 1JroV1ded �n ex1Jatri.ate teacl1er abroacl by a tl11r_d _party� Sa1ler' or the Overseas Oevelopn1e11t 1\d1111n1s tr� t1011 of tl1e U. I<. , o�, a foun?.at10�. The _ Forei.g11 Office � f tl1e _ basic salary \v; l11cl1 1s thereby to1Jped 111_ay �e !Ja1d bJ' tJ1e 1\frica11 u11i. versity or by tl1e Fulbngl1L prog1-a111. U11i versi.ty College: a11 acacle1ni.c i11sti. tu ti . on of L111i versi t y statLlS wl1icl1 has a sL1bordi11ate or "s1Jecial" relati. 011sl1i.p to a u11iversity \:vl1icl1 gra11ts i . ts degrees t o tl1ose success full)' completi11g ap1Jroved progran1s i.11 tl1e uni.versity college. Officers of a u11i.versi.ty college a11d uni.versi.ry: \Tisi.to1- a11d Pri.11ci.pal l1ave tl1e same 1-elati.011sl1i.p to a L111i.versi.tJ' college as Cl1a11cello1- and Vi.ce Cl1ancel lo r l1av . e to a u11i versi�r. The posts of Visitor and Cha11cellor are largely 11 01101-i.fi.c and cere11 1011i.al. For exan1ple, N)rere1-e \111as Cl1a11cellor of tl1e Uni.versity of E::1st 1\fri.ca and Vi si.to r of tl1e U11i.versity College at Dar es Salaan1. l(e11ya tt a \Vas Vi.si.tor of tl1e Uni.ve1-sity C ollege at Nairo bi, a11d O b o te \;vas \Ti.�i.t�r of 1\1akere1-e U11i.versi. ty C ollege, l(am1Jala . Pr111c1pal a11cl Vice Cl1a11cell or are tl1e executive l1eads of tl1ei.1- 1-espective i11sti. tL1tio11s.

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Co11te11ts Ack11owledgme11ts

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Glossary

I11troductio11

I L1\W AND Lt\ \i\lYERS AT INDEPEND.ENCE 3 Legal Educatio11 at I11de1Je11dence The Englisl1 Legal Profession Englisl1 Legal EdL1catio11 a11cl tl1e 1\frican Barrister Legal EdL1catio11 i.11 Fra11ce a11cl BelgiL1111 Legal Eclucatio11 for Africa11s f1�0111 Fra11cophonic Africa The Need for LaV11 yers Co111peti11g Needs a11d Ma11-power Surveys Meeting the Need for tl1e Law Trai11ed Recruit111ent fro111 Abroad Crash Progra111s

7 8 10 13 13 15 21 22

23 24

II Tf-IE ESTABLISl-IMENT OF Lf\W FACUL 1�IES IN AFRICA

What Ki11d of Lawyers for What Tasks

African Law FacLilties I11ternal Problems Lavv a11d Politics Natio11al or Regional La½' Scl1ools Faculty Compe11sation a11d Co111peti11g Induce111e11ts Africa11 Stude11t 1-\ttitt1cles Fi11a11ci11g Educario11

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Vll

33 33

47 49 53

Outsi.de T.11flue11ces ts c e ff E 11 i.s t i. r B l i.a c e p S o Tvv . t1es Fa cul La w an Afr i.c Fra11copl1oni.c t\ral)i.zati.on

55 56 61 65

III EXPf\Tl<.If\TE ASSISTANCE t\ND 1\i/JERICAN IN\tOLVEMENT

Coordi.11a.ti.011 or Cooperati.011 - 1l1e Begi.11ni.ngs of A1 11eri.ca11 Law Teacl1er I11vol ve111e11t

Quali.fi.catio11 and I{ecrui. t111e11t of Expatri.ate Teachers

Ter111s of E1 11J)loy111e11t

Prepa1�ati.011 for Lavv 1�eacl1i.1 1g 1\ssi.g 11n1e11ts i.n 1\fri.ca Tl1e Co11sci.e11ce of tl1e Expatri.ate Teacl1er

82 86

IV 1\FI{IC1\N LAW Fi\CULTY E\10LUTION AND Tl-IE Cf-11\NGING l�OLE OF EXP;\T l�lf\TE f\SSIS�L�ANC E 90

91 1\fri.cc111 Legal I{esea1�c11 Ce11ters

100

'l�eacl1i.ng a11cl l<-esearcl1 Outsi.de tl1e Classroo1n

107

lncli.ge110L1s La\v

113

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vii.i.

Fello\vships f\dministrative GL1ides Acacle1nic Year Offerings Fellowsl1ip Term a11d Co11ti11uity Specialized 1\ctiviti.es S1101-t Visits to tl1e U.S. by No11-f\caclernics

121 121 124 126 127 129

Law Lib1-aries in f\Â£1-ica

131

Legal DocL1111entatio11 La\v Re1Jo1-ts Lavv JoL1rnals a11d La\-\' Revie\vs Legal Doct11nentati.011 Ce11ters

135 136 1,:11 145

Bridges Betwee11 f\11glopho11ic and Fra11copl1011ic Africa Inter11atio11al Co11fere11ces The Visiti11g Scl1olar Fellowsl1ips fron1 Fra11copl1onic Af1-ica Worki11g Corlfere11ces Cafrad

150 152 153 156

157 158

Co11ferences 011 La,v a11cl Legal Educatio11 i11 1\frica 159 An Associati.011 of African La\-\1 Scl1ools or Law Teachers

16L1

V RESOURCES

168

VI CONCLUSION

172

Appenclix A:

Participants at the 1962 Co11ference on Legal Eclucatio11 i11 Africa

174

Appe11dix B:

Sailer ,...feacl1ers

178

A PlJe11clix C :

Africa11 Fellows

180

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VII .-

S UTION fI1 INS OF SUR \!EY "' A C I R F A N I N O I 1 A C U OF LEG/\.L ED .Afars a11d Issas 1\lge1·ia A11gola Bots\:vana BurLtndi Cameroon Ca1Je \Terde Isla11ds Ce11tral 1\fri.ca11 l�eJJLtblic Cl1acl Co111oro Isla11ds Co11go l<.eIJLtblic J)al10111ey Egyp t Equato1·ial Gui.11ea Etl1io1Jia GalJ011 Tl1 e Gan1bi.a Gl1a.11a Gui.11ea Gui11ea (BissaL1) Ivory Coast I<e11y·a Lesotl10 Libe1·ia Liby,:1 l\1alagas}' r,e1JL1blic l\1ala\:vi f\�ali l\A aL11·i tc111i.a '[\A aLlritiLI s l\1Io1·occo M oza.111lJiqL1e Ni.ge·r Ni.ge1·ia l<.eLt 111011 l�l1oclesia

185 185 187 188 188 189 197 197 198 199 199 201 201 209 210 220 221 221 227 228 229 236 244 247 249 251 256 259 259 260 260 264 265 266 284 285 X

R\\ianda St. IJ- ele11a Sao Ton1e and Principe Isla11ds Se11egal Seychelles Sierra Leo11e Somali.a SoL1tl1 Africa SoL1tl1 West Afri.ca SJJa11ish Sahara SL1dan S\vaziland Ta11za11i.a Togo TL111isia LJga11da UJJper Volta Zaire Za111bia

181 289 290 290 291 295 296 298 300 308 309 309 314 315 319 .,

?O 0-

325 330 331 336

I11trocluctioh In the late 11i11etee11 fi:fties and early si.xti.es 1\fri.ca sprang i11to i11clepe�de_11c�, fragr11e11tecl bL1t soverei.g11, u11prepared bL1t opt11111st1c. TI1ere l1ad 11ot 1)ee11 tt111e to perfect tl1e skills or fashi.011 tl1e tools of statecr . a.ft. BLit Afri.ca rose to tl1e challe11ge. Its fervor ,vas i.11fecti.oL1s. It beca1ne part of the Zei.tgei.st a11d e11tered tl1e co11sci.ous co11cern of tl1e An1eri.can la,v teacl1i. 11g co111111uni. ty. 171e1-e vvas a sense of opportL111i.ty a11cl 11eed, 11eed i.11 ;\fri.ca for the law-trai.11ed to gui.de tl1e 11e\\1 11ati.011s, a11cJ need i.n An1erica for a greate1- L111dersta11di.11g of Afri.ca., of devel op1nent a11d its swift progress i.n botl1 A111eri.ca a11d Afri.ca Tl1e n1ore the Ameri.ca11 scl1olar prol)ed tl1e complex i.ti.es and problems of legal i.11sti.tuti.011s i.11 A:fri.ca, tl1e more he was i.mpressed by thei.r si111i.la.ri.ti.es to proble111s faci.ng Ameri.ca11 i.nsti.tutio11s. f-Ie becan1e ge11ui.11ely i11terested in what hi.s 1-\fri.ca11 peers were doi.11g, 11ot i.11 the abstract but wi.tl1 tl1e precise proble1ns \\1 i.th wl1i.cl1 lie too was concerned, wi.tl1 the same develo1J111e11ts witl1 \¥hi.ch he tinkered. This i.s the story of tl1at i.11terest a11d i.ts recepti.vi.ty. Its focL1s i.s the peri.od fro1 11 1962 to 1972. It relates largely to Anglophoni.c 1-\fri.ca soutl1 of tl1e Sahara a11d 11orth of the Zambezi. River. Througl1out tl1is a1·ea English i.s the li.ngua franca an d la11gua�e. of �ns�ructio11 in all but the pri.niary scl1ools. 111e Br1 t1sl1 JL1r1sp�uclen tial legacy is the same, an d freedon1 a11d opportu111ty ancl respo11si.bi.li.ty com1ni11gle 111 ab L1nclance. S_outh of the Za1nbezi, JJarticula1-ly soutl1 of tl1e Li.1npopo l::Z1ver, tl1ere are tl1e special proble111s of ar)artheid. Yet eve11 tl1ere American teacl1ers l1ave bee11 able to give mai1y ma11 years to tl1e three i.11depe11dent Africa11 states vvitlii.ii or bordering Soutl1 Africa: Botswa11a, Lesotlio, aiid S\vazila11d. Ancl at least s01ne i11itial co11tacts liave beeii n1ade in Francopl1011ic Africa.

- 's 1 0 l1 t u 1e a 1 tl 11 o r f s 1 n te s It Tl1i.s i.s a 1Jerso11al report. 1g 1 f i. o l1 c a e d t 11 a y d tu s e l1 t 11 0 s t c je o r p o tw f o i.p l1 s r di.recto 1g i.1 t r a t a s i.c r f i\ o t s it s i. v di.c o i. r e JJ s i. l1 d 11 a a ic fr A 1 1 i. \ďż˝ la d 11 s a n io s lu c 11 o c d n a ts 11 1e 1n i.11 Ja11ua1-y 1962. Tl1e co11 1e tl , e s r u o c f o , e r a d 11 L1 fo e b y 1a 11 s r o r r e r e v te a l1 \:V a LI tl1or' s a lo11e.

Lt\ v\1 t\ND LA \NYE.l�S 1\T INDEPENOENCI� 171ere is debate as to \,vl1ether the1-e is sucl1 a tl1i11g as Africat1 Law, even whe11 li1nited to tl1e a1-ea sol1th of t11e Sahara a11d 11ortl1 of tl1e Li1npopo l�iver. TI1e term certai11ly n1eans 111ore tha11 otl1er geograJ:>l1ic desig11atio11s such as Sol1tl1 A1nerica11 la\\1 • A11d tl1ere are at least enough coin mon ele111e11ts witl1i11 eacl1 j u1-i sdi.cti.on to tolerate some generalizations a.bout such a vast regi.011. These are risked to provide a se11se of so111e of tl1e special problen1s \\1 hi.ch each t\fri.ca11 11atio11 faced at independence. To 111ost Afri.ca11s the la\\1 i.11 i.ts e11ti.1-ety was "customary la\\1'' or, i.11 Briti.sl1 parla11ce, ''11ati.ve lavv a11d custo111 ", or, perhaps 111ore correctly, i.11clige11ous law. 1. It still constitutes the la\� \\ 1 l1i.ch alo11e affects tl1e li. ves of the vast majority. I11dige11ous lavv l1as gover11ed la11cl tenure a11cl the perso11al a11d family relati.011sl1i.ps of n1ost Africans. It deter1ni11es tl1ei1- succession a11d i.nl1erita11ce, gL1arcli.anshi.p, marriage, a11d clivorce. .-TT1e bulk of litigation i11 Africa l1as bee11 carri.ecl 011 i.11 \\ l1at v\ ere once referred to as ''custon1ary'' or ''1\fri.ca11'' or "native'' courts and 'A'hat are now ge11erally ter111ed ''local" or tl1e i11dige110L1s "primary'' or magistrates courts. [ Iere 1

1. rfhe term ''indi.genoLIS lavV" is preferred by son1e scl1olars, as it may more appropriately embra�e Islamic Law ancl a voids tl1e JJej orati.ve co1111otat1011 of "native law''. The tern1 "ct1ston1ary law'' l1as bee11 considered i11adequate, as it may suggest so111ethi11g _ less tl1a11 lavv but all these ter1ns are still used 1 11 Africa. See 1\. Schiller, "Law", Tl1e 1.\f1-1ca11 World, ed. Lystad (Praeger 1965) p. 167.

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a vvy e r s l1as l y b 11 o ti ta 11 e s _ lavv do111i11ates, a 11cl repre 1 c�1a 11 g1 11g v o 11 is s . 1i �1 1 . cl e ib r c s o r p 11 e e ge11erally b 1 e tl o 1t 11 d e g r 1e 11 1g i1 e b raptcll>' a s tl1e se coL1rts a r e 1 is still of v la s L1 0 11 e g i. 1d i1 e cent1·al court syste111. But th · amoL111t 1rnporta11ce. par

B1·i.tisl1 colo11i.al rL1le 11ot 011ly recog11ized but su1Jported i.11dige11ous lav., 111 tl1e fields 11oted . 1-11 e r e \\1a s no r eal c1lter11at1 ve, if tl1ere v.1 as to be a rule of la \v a t all. Altl10L1gl1 tl1e poliC)' is so111eti111es ide11tified v.1itl1 tl1e "indi.rect 1·L1le" of Lord I_JL1gard, Go,,er11or Ge11eral of Nigeria fro111 19()7 to 1919, it \Va.s a co11comita nt to th e i11troductio11 of E11glish lavv ev erywl1ere 011 tl1e co11ti11ent. E 11gli.sl1 la\v \va s assL1111ecl to be 1Ja rt of tl1e baggag e tl1e ea.rly E11glisl1 settlers carriecl \Vitl1 tl1en1. Tl1e British coL1rts, wl1icl1 \ver e estal)lisl1ed to ad111iniste r that la\v, ,,.,,e1·e e11joi11ecl to e11force v.1l1ere a1JIJlicable "11a tive la\A.' a11d cL1sto111" sL1bject to \;vl1at is ge11e1�allJ' referred to as tl1e co 11cli. tio11 of repug11a 11C)'. T11e fol lo\, vi11g from tl1e CoL11·t of Lagos 1\ct l, is a. tyJJical n1a11da te; I Iigl1 'l-l1e f-Iigl1 CoL1rt sl1all ol)serve a11d e11fo1·ce tl1e observa11ce of e ,re1·y native la\v a11d CListom ¼1 l1icl1 is ap1Jlicable a 11d • 1 s 11ot re1JL1g11a11t to 11a tural justic e, equity, a�1d goo� co11scie11ce, 11or i11co111patible e1tl1er cl 1 1·ectly 01· by i1111Jlica.tio11 \\'itli a 11y �av., for tl1e ti111e b ei11g i11 fo1·c e , a11d _ 11ot �1111g 111 tl1is 1\ct 8 11a11 cteiJi·ive atlY JJe1 so11 of tl1e be11efi.t of a11\' sL1cl1 11ati \1e 1 a"" or CLtston1. Tl1e JJL IrJ)OSe \A,1 8.S 110t to illlj)OSe 13ritisl1 C o11ce1Jts of _ ,11orc1l 1 t�{' bL1t to i11valiclate 1. 11ct1· ge1 . 10L1s lavvs deern ed · t1_. \'e of. s0111e u111. ,,e v·l<..1l.,1 - 1·sc·:11. 1111. 111. 111a 1 sta11ctai·d. . po 1ygy110L1s i11a1__ I lc1ges vve1·e a. t l east- tolerated, }Jut ritual inu1·cle·r \Vas fo1·bidcle 11, a 11cI tl1e Rr itisl 1 cou1·ts a11d sLtJJervisoi·y col c),1131 offic ' ers l-�ef_L1sed to e11force suc\1 l.

l\. E . \�'. Pcar · k ' r["'l1e 0 vou1·ces o f N1" ge r1. a11 La.\;,.,1 1 S ( \� eet & Max\ve11 19< 63 ) ]). 149 ) 1\p1J. 111. 4

rL1les as that of Mali.ki. lavv (011e of tl1e foL11- ortl1oclox systen1s of Islami.c law a11d tl1e 011e follovvecl i.11 West Africa) that preclLtded tl1ose accusecl of I1i.gl1vvay robbei-y _ £1-0111 defe11d111g the111sel \res. l . 1\ g1-eat 11L1111ber of repug11a11cy cases i.11vol ved slavery a11cl tl1e di. stLtrba11ce of lo11g-co11ti.11L1ed possessi 011 of la11d. 2. In most of tl1e coL1nt1-ies of A11glopl1011ic 1\frica tl1e incligenot1s law has b1' statute bee11 111ade generally applicable ''i.11 causes a11d 111atters v.1 l1ere tl1e J;)arties tl1ereto a1-e nati. \res a11d also i11 causes a11d n1atters betwee11 11ati.ves a11d no11-11ati.ves, where it may ap1Jear to tl1e court tl1at sL1bsta11tial i11jL1sti.ce would be done to eithe1· partyr by a stri.ct adhere11ce to a11y 1-ules of law vvl1icl1 woL1ld other\\1 ise be applicable. "3 . Customary la\i\' has sometin1es bee11 referred to as tl1e "basic lav. of Nigeria", 4 . and, i.11 tl1e se11se tl1at i.t gover11s most relati.onshi.ps, i.t mi.gl1t be co11sidered tl1e basic 1.avv i.11 otl1er i\fri.ca11 cou11tri.es. 1

The recepti.011 of E11gli.sh lav.1 was acco111pli.sl1ed through a variety of statutory for111s, by Orders i.11 Cou11ci.l of the Bri.ti.sl1 Crown, by acts of the In1perial Parlian1ent, or by the Afri.ca11 legislatL11-e adopti.11g E11gli.sh law or seg111e11ts of it as its O\i\111. Son1etin1es local legi.slati.011 i.11corporated by refere11ce the Engli.sl1 law on an entire subject. But tl1ese various devices account for 011ly a s111all IJart of tl1e receivec1 law, \�l1icl1 was introduced largely throL1gh ge11eral recepti.011 statutes. The follovvi.11g, take11 fro111 tl1e Gold Coast I. Curi v. [-Iacleji.a Nati. ve Autl1ori.cy, 4 F. S. �- [ �elected Juclgmen ts of Federal Supren1e Court of N1 ger1al 44 [19591, 11oted i.11 Park, op. cit. supra, at p. 71. 2. W. B. [-Iarvey, La w and Social Cl1a11ge i11 Gl1a11a (Pri.nceton 1966) p. 244, referring to Matso11, "Internal Co11fli.cts of Laws i.11 tl1e Gold Coast , 16 Mocler11 Lav., Rev. 469, 1953). 3. I Iig - h Court of Lagos Act, ca1J. 80, sec. 27 [ 2J , QLlotecl at p. 149 App. III, of Park, op. �it. �upr� IJ. 4. , 4. P. 0. Proe l1l, Forei.gn Enterprise 111 N1ger1a (North Ca1-olina 1965) p . 45. 11

Courts Ordii1a11ce (cap. 4, of sL1cl1 statute:

sec. 83), is a co1nn1011 for111

"Subject to tl1e terms of this or a11y otl1er Ordi11ance, tl1e co1n1no11 la\v, tl1e doctri11es of equity, a11d tl1e statutes of ge11eral a1)1Jlicatio11 wl1icl1 \Vere i11 force i11 E11gla11d 011 tl1e 24t11 day o! J� ly ' 1�74, . sl1all be in force \vithi11 the JUr1sd1ct1on of tl1e Courts". l. The E11glish co1n1no11 law, tl1e doctri11es of equity, a11d tl1e statutes of ge11eral ap1Jlicatio11 tl1us co11stitL1ted the residLtal la\v. 2. 1l1ougl1 this is still true, tl1e importa11ce of tl1is la\1,,1 is di1ni11isl1i11g i11 tl1e rapid expa11si.011 of Africa11 legislatio11 a11d a developi11g co1n1no11 la\\' i11 1na11y 1\f1:i.ca11 jL1risdicti.011s. 1\frica11 case la\v is developi.11g 111ore slo\.vly, lJLlt its pace \vill quicke11 as tl1e la.\v of eacl1 Africa11 state gro\vs to 111eet tl1e cl1alle11ge of u11ique 11eeds. T11e relatio11sl1ip betwee11 the i11digenous a11d received la\1'.1 i11 Fra11copl1011ic Afri ca follo\ved tl1e same patter11 as i.11 1\11glopl1011ic Africa, des1Jite tl1e Fre11cl1 policy of JJolitical a11d cultLtral assin1ilation of its colonial peo1Jles. 3· Tl1e i11dige11ous law, particularly tl1at pertai11i11g to tl1e fa111ily, i11l1erita11ce, a11d la11d, \\ias recog11ized a11d. e11forced by the Fre11cl1 and Belgia11 ._ Tl1ere \Vas tl1us a clual syste111 of l aw quite a�tl1orities. _ s11111lar to tl1at already n1e11ti.011ed. f\11d tl1is double ��ste1� s� 11 co11ti nL1es t �1rougl1out "Af1-ique d 'ex1J1-essio11 fra11ca1se , to use tl1e 1:. re11cl1 ter111.

I. i\. ;\llott, Essays i11 1\frica11 Law, (BL1t ter\vortl1 1960) l). 6 . 2. Scl1iller, O\J. cit. suiJi·a lJ, 3 at . p ' 1 . 1...3 . 3, • J. • \�f • Scl 1 acuse, /\11 l11troductio11 To l�a\\ i1 1 1 �re11cl1 -Speaki11g J\frica, Vol. 1 ;\f1-ica Soutl1 o:..::f :-tl1e Sal1a1·a, (l\� ic11i. e 1969) p JJ . 4 4,- -4 �6.-::7 _____:.____:

T he i1 1clige 11 0L1 s la\v a 11d tl1e 1-ece1· ved 01- c 1 er1· vec l I aw . 1 n1 es, a separate , relio·i ancl son1et oL1 s l·:t\V 1· 11teract1· 11g a1'd 1 , , , b , , reacting 1n a s1 11gle JL1r1scl1ct1011, prese1 1recl a inLtl. t'11) 1.lC · lt ·.y of 1· 1 1te�11al co11 fl'1ct l)rob} e1 ns. Not 011ly was rl1e1-e o:fre1 1 a confli ct �etvvee1 1 tl1ese tl1ree syste 1 11s, bLlt tl,ei·e vvas als? tl1e u 111qL1e problen1 of deter1 11i11i 11 g tl1e aJJJJlicable i1 1d1ge11ous la\v fron1 con1peti1 1g S:)'Sten1s of diffe1-e11 r etl11 1ic groups \Vitl1 in tl1e i1 1dige110L1s svste111• ,..fhe i11dig e11 0LlS la\;y served tl1e Af1-ica 11 society \\'ell wl1e11 it fu11ctio11ed at a sL1bsiste11ce le\ rel , a11 cl E 11gl isl1 law n1 ac1e perha1Js its greatest co11tribL1 tio1 1 duri11g tl1e co lo11ial pe1-iocl i 11 tl1e mo11eyed sector a11d i11 a laissez-faire econon1:)'. 1\t i ndepe11 de1 1ce only tl1e propl1etic would gL1 ess tl1e accommodations v.1l1icl1 the receivecl a1 1cl inherited i11stitL1tio11 s \\ ould have to 111ake a11 d tl1e ne\v structures wl1icl1 vvould l1a\re to be built i1 1 tl1e evolutio1 1 of Africa11 sovereig1 1ties. C

Legal Educatio11 at I11depe11de11ce Tl1e l1eritages from colo 1 1ial coL111t1-ies a11 d f1-0111 etl11 1ic a11d religious commu 11ities 1nL1st fi1-st be aJJJJreciated to co111 prel1 e11d tl1e proble111s of legal edL1catio1 1 i11 1\frica. To this n1L1st be adclecl a11 u11dersta11di1 1g of tl1eir i1 1ter relatio11sl1ips a11 cl tl1eir effect 011 develop1 11e11t. Tl1e1 1 011e n1ay se11se tl1e cliversity a11d con11Jlexity of tl1e tasks of the expatriate lavv teacl1er, of a11y lav\1 teacl1er i11 Africa. So1ne ge11eral con1 n1e 11ts 011 E 1 1glisl1 a11cl Europea11 legal educatio11 a11d lavv practice are tl1erefore l1azarcled below. f\ltho ug h tl1 e prese11t te1 1se is occasio11 ally L 1 sed, v.1l1at is described is apposite at least to tl1 e decacle of the sixties a1 1cl may be curre11t. Nlost f\frica11s 11ovv 11 1 JJositio11s of res1Jonsibility i11 Africa1 1 legal edL1catio1 1 received tl1eir trai1 1i11g f�om British, Fre11 c11, or Belgia11 1 nodels. Tl1eir cL1 rr1cL 1 lL1ms a1 1d metl1 ocls v.,ere followecl i1 1 Africa as i11 EL1 ro1Je a11 cl tl,e U11itecl I<i11gdom. ,..fhe jotti11gs 1Jel?w i 11dicat�- �· or fuiida1ne11tal differe11ce betwee 11 1\1ner1ca1 1 a11cl B11t1s11 Eur opea11 co11cepts of law a 11cl tl1e legal }Jrofessioi,. �Lit they suggest at th e sa111e time a11 op1JortL1 11 ity foi-_ i\�r1_ca to select ancl reject a11cl i1111ovate a11d bL1ilcl its o,v11 JLirid1cal

needs of i.ts future a11d ent JJres . . tut1011s · tl1e 111eet to nst1 1 0,,.,,11 genu1s. ssi . 011 Profe Legal 11 Tile Englis

d n n 11 . la i io g s 11 s E fe o r p 1e tl f o lk u b Solicitors for1n tl1e t ia c o e s l1 s 11 s i.t a a w i.c r e 1n A l1 ic ,11 ,, k r o vv a11ct do most of t11e ll core of . 1a 11 a s e r a s r te is r r ba e 11 T "lavv)reri.11g". 1s 1e r tl r ly a 11 b r fo , y c a c v d a 1 i1 � ly ri. a n1 ri p ? specialists, . ts r u r o o In c n pe u s e th 1 11 e 11c e cli. u a f o 1t gl ter 11as tl1e ri rs 1 ve to i.1 ti ci li ac so 0 00 , 24 ly te 1a n xi ro 1Jp a . 1963 tl1ere \Vere 1een 25 00 a11d 3000 tV1 be 1d a1 es al ! \"!\ 1d 1Jracti.ce i.11 E11gla11c1 a1 1. s. on ti ic sd ri e ju os th i.n rs ye w la as barristers ,vorki.11g , es . li po 1o v11 o1 o, m i.ts s ha 1 01 si. es of pr e tl1 of 11 i.0 Eacl1 di. vis bL1t tl1ere is a co11si.de1·able comn1011 field of acct vi. ty i.n \vl1i.cl1 tl1ey are qL1i.te co111peti.tive. A lawye1· cannot be botl 1 a solicitor a11d barrister at tl1e sa1ne ti.me. 011e 's cl1oi.ce i.11 tl1e 1Jrofessio11 i.s LISLtally defi.11i.ti. ve, as a shift fro111 011 e ,bra11cl1 to tl1 e otl1er is possible but costly a11d di.ffiCLilt. 2. Tl1e JJ1·eli.111i.11ary qL1ali.ficatio11 for a solicitor i.s tl1e Ge11e1·al Certificate of Educati.011 ,,.,,i.th passes at tl1e � rdi11ar_J' Lev _ �l i11 at least fl ve sLt.bjects. The 1J1·ospec �1ve sol1 �1to1· 111 Lo11c1011 111L1st complete successfully tl1e year s p1·ogram of tl1e School of La,,, \\1l1ich is a�n�i11��tered ?Y. 171e Law Society, tl1e g�ver11i.11g body ?f E11gl1sl1 sol1c1tors. Tl1ose vvitl1 a uni. versity deo-ree 111 lavv are exe111pt fron1 SL1cl1 a }Jrogram, but all c�ndi dates 1 :1�St ser\re app1·e11ti. cesl1i1Js as "articled" clerks t? _ qL1al1f1ed practi.ci11g soli.ci.to1·s fo1· a JJeri.od of UIJ to f1 ve )'ears. Tl1ey 1llllS t a. ISO }Jass tl1e 111tern1ediate a11d f'1 11al exr ar11111at1011s offered by T· l 1e 1__,a\\' . . Soc1ety, ancl tl1ese are co11si.clered difficLtlt. 3_ •

•

l. Q. Jol111stone a11ct 1) r-I 011 , J: · , LaV11ye rs a11d � �� Tl1ei 1· VVorl< (BolJbs--t\iIerr ll 1 196;) JJ. 360 f11. 13. 2. Ibi.cl. 1J . 359_ 3 · J_,. C. B. GovveJ): r Ind e_1Jei1dei1t J\fr1ca - Tl1 e Cl1alle11ge f to tl 1e L e g a l O ---.:.£.::::....:�-I:..:::�e S�S�l�O�l1 ([-la r \Tard 1967) p. 105.

T11e process of qu�lificatio11 as a ba1·riste1· is sirnpler a11d less costly. As 111 tl1e case of solicitors, 110 Ltniversity eclL1catio11 is 1·eqL1irecl. ;\ Ge11e1·al Certificate of E?\1cat�on is usually suffici.e11t as a preli111i11ary qL1al1f1cat1011. 1l1e ca11cliclate is tl1e11 ad111itted as a stude11t to 011e of tl1e foL1r I1111s of CoL1rt. [ Iis - olJligatio11 there is a 1natter of ''keepi.11g te1·n1s" by di.11i11g i11 tl1e l1all of his In11 on a specified 11L1111ber of days eacl1 ter1n. Normally eve1-y stL1de11t mL1st keep twelve ter1ns over a three year period before l1e ca11 be callee] to tl1e bar. T11ere i.s a11 Inns of Cou1·t Scl1ool of La,,v uncler tl1e SLtpe1· vi.sion and directio11 of tl1e Cou11cil of Legal EdL1catio11, which is in cl1arge of tl1e educatio11al prog1·am fo1· all the 11111s. BL1t atte11dance is not obligatory. 171e lJar exami11atio11s, \Vl1ich a1·e divided i11to two JJa1·ts, ge11erally 1·eferred to as Part I a11d Part II, are co11sid e1·ed much easier tl1a11 tl1ose of tl1e solicito1· 's bra11ch. l. The entire process ca11 be telesco1Jed i11to a tvvo-year period. 1. Those witl1 a Liniversity degree 111 la,v are L1sually exempt from all or part of Pa1·t I. UJJ011 successful con1pletio11 of tl1e bar exa111i11atio11s tl1e stL1de11t is a full-fledged barrister-at-law. TI1ose ,vho inte11cl to practice in E11glancl, however, are ge11e1·ally requi.recl to ''read in cl1a111bers" for a year as pLI}Jil to a 1Jractici.11g junior barrister. Erwin N. Griswold, formerly Dea.11 of tl1e [ Iarvard Law Scl1ool a11d 1Jrese11t Solicitor Ge11eral of tl1e U11ited States, l1ad this to say aboL1t tl1e foregoi11g processes: "Some day I l1ope to understa11d E11glish legal educatio�1. I have worked l1ard at that for a 1011g time, bL1t so far 1t has often seemed to be rad1er i11aclequate i11 }Jla11 a11d execution, and to produce ge11erally very excellent results. "2. Perl1aps the a11swer i11 part is tl1at, u11der tl1e policy of elitist educatio11 in tl1e U11ited l(i11gdon:, most professioi1al n1en, wl1ether solicitors or barr1ste1·s, 1. Ibid. p. 106. 2. E. N. Griswolcl, ''GradL1ate Legal Study" 2 JoL1r11al of Legal Educatio11 [1950] p. 272, at }J. 276.

re i1 fo ek 1g be se y it rs ve 1i u1 a at s ee r g· de . ear11 0 11e or 11101-e . A 11 . s1 es of pr 1e tl of l1 1c 1 a ? br r qL1alificatio11 for eitl1e 11te11d to r 1 ve ne vv la ad re o d llo W se lo tl f great 1 1L1111ber o · 1 progran1 s a· t 111ost 1 \\ la c· 1e , d ee 1 11c I 1. 101 ss ofe pr tl1e e11ter . _ P 1_odu e to d � of tl1e British L1niversities 'A1ere 11ot des1g1,e 1 al l qu 11a r1 f e th l al et 111 ]10 1 \,\ e � os tl, of lJ' ai M . y � rs \v e la us lf tl1 a se 1s re he T e. t1c ac 1Jr i11 ge 1ga ei 1ot 1 do i,s io ficat ry e ve tl1 ly 01 11d , es ag st l ra ve se at s � es 8: oc selecct11g IJr able beco111e 1:,racticing la\;,,,1 yers. The1r sk1lls are s of nd l1a tl1e at ip sl1 ce 1ti 1 e 1Jr ap ir tl1e 1g ri.1 du ed lop ve cle . rr1sters. effective, vvell-educat ed solicitors a11d ba E11glisl1 J..., egal Eclucatio11 a11d tl1e 1\fri.ca11 13ar1·ister Prior to i. 11clep e11cle11ce 111en1lJersl1i1J in tl1e f\frica11 bar i.11 A11glo1Jl101 1i.c 1\frica \1vas ge11erally ope11 to tl1ose who l1acl bee11 'called to tl1e bar' as barristers or l1ad been ad111itted a.s solicitors i11 E 11gla11d, Scotla11d, 01· Irelanct.1· No app1·e11ticesl1i1J vvas rec1L 1 ired. Tl1e African \vho \¥ished to beco111e a lavvye1· tl1us \:Ve11t to E11gland for l1is qualifi catio11s. 1 11 l1is selectio11 of tl1 e bra 11cl1 of tl1e professio11 l1e al111ost invari.bly cl1ose to becon1 e a bar1·ister. This 1netl1od vvas easier a11d quicker a11d ch eape1-, a 11d it 'A'as ge11e1·al ly co11si.dered 111ore 1JrestigioL1s. /\ sn1all 11u111ber of tl1e elite \: V l10 we11t to tl1e United I<i11gdo111 for tl1eir legal quali.ficati.011 ear 11ed a recrula1· la\¥ 0 clegree at a L 111iversity. 1-=i'or tl1i.s, 011e l1ad to co111plete a tl1ree year, L111derg1·aclL 1 ate }Jrogram in \\1 l1 icl1, at l east at Oxforcl ��1d to .� lesser exte11t at Ca 111bri.dge, law vvas usL1ally reacl L111de1· tl1e tLttelage of cl si.11o·le teacl1e r. v :,�l,e sL 1 bj�c. �s \: ere li.111itecl to tl1ose dee 1 11e�l IJroperly acader111. c , sL1cl1 as juris1JrL 1 cle11ce a11d I{o ma1 1 law a11d tl1e L1sL1a� rL111 of co111111011-la\\l sLtlJjects. E xcluded \;,,,,er e c o ·1Jorat1011 l::1\1v, bL1si.11ess orga11i.zatio11, corporate _ � _ f111a11ce, co1111nerc1al la\.v, taxatio11 , civil ai,d ci·in,i.i,al �JroceclLtr_ �,' a1�cl ot\1e·r si. 111ilar SLtbj ects dee111ed " 11011acacle1111c . l, 110\\l leclge i.11 tl1ese ,,arioLts fields \>..1as left

I. Govve1·, O}J. cit. SUJJra IJ. 8, at p . 106_ 10

to tl1e _ scl1ools of tl1e In11s of Court or to practical exper1ence. Alth?Ligh a u11i.versi.ty clegree i.11 la"'' usL1ally p1·ovi.c1ec1 exemp�1011 from part of the bar exa111i11a.tio11, a L111i.versity educat1on adclecl 1nL1cl1 ti.me a11d cost to the ba1· qL1alifi.ca tion. Tl1 L1s most t\f1·ica11s li.111i.tecl tl1eir for111al i.nst1·uc tion in law to tl1at J)rovided by tl1e I 1111s of Cot1rt a11cl to pri.vate tL1tori.11g. t\s atte11dance at tl1e Scl1ool of tl1e I1111s vvas not requi.recl, a 11L1n1be1· of l\.frica11s relied 011 tL1tori11g scl1ools or p1·i. vate tL1tors to p1·e1)are tl1e111 for tl1e bar exan1i.nati.ons. Tl1ey ,;vere tl1e11 free to acceJ)t gai11fL1l e1n1)loy111e11t cluring the clayr to cover all of tl1eir expe11ses. This practice l1as co11ti11L1ed L111til rece11tly, 1011g after tl1e establisl1me11t of effective laVi, faculties i.11 1\f1·ica. Because of it man)' Af1·ica11s fou11d it less expe11si.ve to acqL1i.re tl1eir professi.011al qualificatio11s i11 E 11gla11cl tl1a11 at a university i11 their ho111e co L111try. BL1t tl1is pro cedure graclL1ally can1e to an e11d as 1\fri.ca11 states tigl1te11ed tl1eir ba1· acl111issio11 reqL1iren1e11ts. 011e further co111111e11t alJoL1t costs a11d JJe1·l1aps i11ferentially about the qL1ality of eclucatio11 so n1a11y Afrtca11 lawyers acquired i11 the U11ited l(i11gclo111. It ,vas and still is possible to obtai11 a u11i versity clegree i11 la,v by cor1·esponde11ce. SL1cl1 a11 "exter11al degree" Vi as sought eve11 by some of tl1ose wl10 111acle tl1e 1011g trel, to the U11ited I< i11gdom. Tl1e stL1de11t could then be gai.11fully employed during the day a11d studyr alo11e or vvitl1 tl1e aid of a tL1tor clLtring the eve11ing. Tl1e U11iversity of Lo11clo11 seemed a favored i11stitutio11 for tl1is p1·ogran1. Tl1e U11i.versity was 'A'ell k110Vv11 througl10L1t A11glopl1011ic f\frica, a11d Lonclo11 I1acl tl1e best job 111arkets i11 E11gla11d. 1

'"The foregoi11g suggests two serious d_efects i11_ tl1e legal educatio11 1nost Africa11s acquired 111 tl1e U111tecl_ I<ingdo1n. It te11ded to be little more tha11 �11 e_xerc1se_ in 1ne 1 norizart011 to pass compL1lsory exa1n111at1011s ,vl11cl1

y l g r 1) in r s i. u s " s a d e z i. r e t c a r a l1 c s a l1 r 'e \l\ o r G o s s Profe 1i. n _ r t_ e l1 t e g b i.s r r a b a r fo y d t s easJr''. 1. T11e progra111 of � . for tl1e la,�,yer 111tend111g 2 te ta L _ q e cl a ly e r a "b d coiisi.dere ven that t u , 11 0 i. s s � fe � o r 1J _ · acti.ce wi.tl1i.11 tl1e s1Jli.t to pr l1 a ,1 ,� J 11 l1 s e c t1 c � 11 e r IJ JJ a g 11 acleqLtacy assL1111ecl a 10 e d l1 c e a ll i r te k s a s a w , e c ti. c a r }J e d i. w 1 a ba1-ri.ster \\' 10 l1ad i nstruction 1e tl to e m ti le b a r le c i. a11d \\'illi.110- to devote cons y r ld r u u o l1 w o h w 11 a i.c fr A e l1 T . s r of tl1ose i.1� l1i.s cl1arrbe ve this l1a t o 11 cl i. cl , r" a o 1e tl to d l1ome after bei11g "calle f pe o ty e th to d te la re ct fe . cle 11d co se advantage. 3 The t . A re 1i qL d ac di. t n e L1d st 1 a1 c i. fr 1\ l i11for111atio11 the usua 1i e d U1 1 te th 1 i. ' cJ ca ,,o ad of 11g i 1d a1 st er 1cl L11 e 111 so best l1e had J(i11gdom. As 11otecl, al111ost e,,ery A frica11 ,v ho stL1died r. te is rr a e ba m co be to e os cl1 11 o1 1gd 1 . l(i l ec 1it U1 e tl1 la,� i.11 It l1as bee11 estin1ated tl1at 1Jefore 1964 tl1ere was 011ly 011e . 4 Eve11 as a r. 1 ito lic 1 so a as d fie ali Nigeria11 v, 10 qu barrister tl1e Africa11 di.ct 11ot I1ave the 11ecessary trai11i11g to serve as a tri.al lawyer. 111 tl1e United l(i11gdo111 litigati.011 is ge11erally l1a11clled solely by the solicitor i.11 tl1e lower coL1rts. In proceedi11gs before the superi.01· coL1rts i.t is a con1bi11ed 01Jeratio11. T11 e barrister settles pleadi11gs, aclvi.ses on e ,,tdence, a11d co11dL1cts tl1e case i11 coL1rt. Tl1e solicito1· does all the 1·est, i11terviev,1 i.11g wit11esses, de velopin o- tl1 e evi.de11ce IJre1Jari11g cl detailecl bri.ef. For tl1is tl1e Afri.ca11 ,,.,as 11�t JJreparecl, a11cl l1e wa� accorclin gly not adequately trai11ed eve11 as a11 aclvocate 111 a coL111try \vl1e1-e the bar i.s fLtsed _ �11d_ t�1e ennre burq_e11 of liti.gati.011 is boi-n e bJr tl,e 1.11d1 v1dual la\l\')'er. ;).

1. L. C. B. Go,ver' "E11gli.sl1 Legal Trai.11i11g" [ 1950] 13 M. L . [{ . 137' 150 qL1oted by P.A . Tl101nas "Le al Edu at1_ on .111 Af

rica: With Special Referenc� to zfmbia" � 2 2 N · I . J..., • Q · 1, JJ . 6 f11. 9, . 2. IlJicl. JJ. 6. ,.o., son1e sort of aJJJJre11t icesI11p · or cl1a111ber · i.11g" \l\'as · . reqLri.1·ed i.11 .Eas c t· A· f11ca ' bL1t it ra·relY J1ad 1nuc11 i11structioiial valLte. . 4. A· T\!Jil11e1· "Legac .l . E··dL1cat1. 011 11 1 Nige1-i.a" (1964) I .C . L Q. '(SL_1pp), 110 11oted 1�110111as lb1·cl f 1. 8 . . , at p. 6 ·1 5 . G O\Ver:, 011. c1.t s up·ra JJ 8 at p, 114, 11

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Legal Educati.011 i.n Fra11ce a11d Be lgi. L1111 Legal :dL1cati.oL1 a11d tl1e practice of la\i\' i.11 ELtrOJJe parallels 111 many respects the si.tL1ation i.t1 tl1e U11itecl l(i11gdo111 described abo\1e. Tl1e foL11--)rea1- la.\v clegree progra111 i.11 Fra11ce i.s e11ti.1-ely tl1eoretical, a11cl tl1e teacl1e1·s rarely l1a ve a11y cot1tact vvi.tl1 tl1e la\\' as it functions. l. ,..fl1e lectL1re sy ste111 is LI sed exclLtsive ly a11cl stLrdents either atte11d tl1e lectu1-es a11d recorcl tl1e111 \Vorel fo1- vvord or bLLJ' the tra11scri.1Jti.011s. Tl1ese are reaclily available. Tl1is sa111e ge11e1-al sitL1atio11 exists i.11 BelgiL1111. !\ friencl of the vvriter \vl10 is a professor of la\i\' 111 BrLrssels co1nme11ted 011 the ext1-aordi11a1)' i111practical nature of hi.s studies \Vhe11 a u11i\rersil)' stL1de11t. ITis particLrlar field of conce11tration \vas ba11l<:rLt}Jtcy, of \vl1ich he thought he was master. It was 011ly rece11tly, wl1en probi11g financial failures i11 tl1e business co111n1u11ity, that he realized hO\i\1 far removed his acade111i.c fare had bee11 from tl1at mili.eLt. It l1as bee11 esti1nated tl1at 011ly t,ve11ty 1Jerce11t of law gracluates in Fra11ce follo\i\1 vocatio11s directly relatecl to the law. Those wl10 decide to JJractice co1111Jlete a tvvo year appre11ticesl1ip. But tl1is is said to provide little illun1ination for tl1e stude11t a11d little 1Jrotectio11 fo1· tl1e public. 2· Legal Educatio11 for 1\frica11s From Fra11copho11ic Africa Fra11ce and, perhaps to a lesser exte11t, Belgium l1ave in rna11y ways considered tl1eir colo11ial possessio11s to be i11tegral parts of the cou11try as a \;vhole. Tl1e _i 11dige11ous peoples abroad l1a ve tl1us hacl, at least tl1eoret1call�,', all the rigl1ts of citiz . e11ship. Tl1ose ,vl10 coulcl c1ualify \Vere 1.

of tl1e Co11fere11ce 011 Legal Eclucati.011 in f\frica, held 111 Addis 1\baba, Etl1io1Jia Octob�r 21 - 24, 1968" .JacqLtes Va11derl i11cle11, ed., IJJJ. �6-57. 2. Ibtd. p . 57. "(5roceec1i.ngs

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. e u p in E o g r i 11 11 r a le f o ts _ a se _ to cl e tt 1i 11 d tl1L1s reaclily a ns fr A ca to ve g1 1 as \v , er ev v \. � 10 � , 1t e1 m Little e,1courage ty l. s1 ve 1 er le un e tl1 at s er re ca ic n1 : le contii1ue tlleir acac cl \v lo be r r1 be fo sc de at th as l1 1c sL , in ra og pr Atld 110 crasl1 e p ed th lo ed ve ne de to d te tu ti. 11s . i as w a, i.c Ai1glopi1011ic 1\fr Afri.ca11 sl<ills. l 111n1edi.ately 11rior to i.11clepe11de11ce law faculties, \,,J1i.cl1 \ve1-e usually con1bi11ed vvi.tl1 tl1e facLrlties of econon1i.cs (facultes de clroi.t et des sci.e11ces econom iques ), \ve·re establi.shecl i11 Se11egal ancl tl1e former Belgi.a11 Co11go, 11o'A1 Zai·re. All of the courses copied al111ost verbati.n1 tl1e la\v cL1rriculun1 autl1orized by' the I\/fi11ister of J:::ducation in tl1e metropolita11 cou11t1-y. No effort V11 as 111acle to 1-elate tl1e SLtbject 111atter to the Africa11 co11text, a11d tl1ose "''isl1ing to e11te1- tl1e teacl1ing IJrofession i11 a fo1-n1er Frencl1 possessio11 V11 ere under great 11ressure to o1Jtai11 tl1eir "agregation" i11 Fra11ce i11 co1111Jetiti.011 vvi.tl1 as11ira11ts fron1 Fra11ce itself a11d fro111 l1er va1-ious associated coL111tries. Tl1e importa11ce of tl1e ag1-egati.011 ca1111ot be u11deresti.111ated. It provides acl111i. ssi.011 i11to tl1e ci. \7il service of tl1e teacl1i11g pro fessi.011 a.t tl1e u11i. versi. ty level after co111pe.titive exa111i 11ati.011s. Tl1ese a1-e gi ve11 011ce a yea1- except i11 la\v, a11d perl1a11s 111edi.ci.11e, vvhe11 tl1ey are offered as ope11i.ngs occ�,.:· 1�l1e), are l1eld i.11 F>aris a11d are ope11 to all f1-om tl1e 1:.. re11cl1 co111111L111iti.es. �fl1e Gove1-11n1ent determir1es l1ovv 111a11y _ "1Jrofesseu1-s agreges" a1-e 11eeded, and tl1at 1�L11111Jer 1s s_ electecl fro111 tl1e top of tl1ose exa111i11ed. Tl1e 1:.. 1-� 11co1�l10111c 1\fric�11_ tl1us faces a11 aln1ost insuperable _ l1u1dle to_ tl1e acCJL11s 1t1.011 of l1i.s ag1-egatio11. I-le n1ust co111pete 111 a forei.g11 to11gL1e, i11 c111 cllie11 cultur a11d ,vi.tl1 e resJJe �t to subjects fc1r re111ovecl fro111 l1i.s prac ri'cal XJJer�e11ce a11cl co11ce1-11s. rfl1e teacl1ers i1 � 1 all of tl1e -f - Lllt1. �_ � es _l1a\re �l1us lJee11 largelJ' ex11ar1-iates, eitl1er F1_e11�_l1 or Belg1 11. B rt tl1is si.tuati o11 is gradually � � _ cl1c11��11g as 111 1e ;\fr1cc111s beco11 ? 1e acc1den1icallJ' qL1al1f1ed 1Jotl1 111 Afi-i.ca a11cl clbroa d.

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Tl1e Neecl fo·r J_, awyers DL1ri11g tl1e colo11ial periocl co111paratively fe'v\' 1\f·rica,1s were exposecl to tl1e legal edL1catio11 clesc·ribecl above vvitl1 tl1e possible exceptio11 of a 11L1111ber £1-0111 Gha11a 'a11d soutl1ern Nige1-ia. Tl1e1-e \Vas little opportL111it)' a11cl less inducement. I11 Fre11cl1-speaki11g 1\frica Europea11s co11trollecl the workings of tl1e eco11omy a11d tl1e law. 1�11e sig11ifica11t cases 'v\1 ere argL1ed i11 Paris or BrL1ssels. 111 f\11glophonic f\frica, Britisl1 ex1Jatriates clo111i11ated tl1e practicing bar a11d tl1e jL1diciary. 111 son1e territories this \Vas tantan1ou11t to tl1e total exclL1sio11 of tl1e 1\frica11. BL1t tl1e lack of Africa11s in tl1e 1)rofessio11 vvas of little co11cern to tl1e wo1-ki11gs of tl1e colo11ial arra11ge111e11t. Expatriate la\vyers, B1-iti sl1, Fre11ch, Belgia11, ca111e a11d vvent as tl1ey pleased a11d providecl tl1e 11ecessary tecl111ical services for tl1e successful 01Jeration of expatriate co111mercial e11terprises a11d the gover11a11ce of the expatriate con1111unity a11d its relatio11sl1iJJ to the indige11ous peo1Jles. Independe11ce created profoL111d cl1anges a11d revealecl a dra111atic 11eed for 1\frica11 la\;vyers, 1\frica11 se11ior civil serva11ts, and me11 ca1Jable of l1a11dli11g tl1e n1yriacl tasks i11creasingly associated vvitl1 tl1e la\r\1 yer as co11sulta11t, advisor, i11novator, iclea ma11, proble111 solver. It was tl1e skills of solicitors vvl1ich vve1-e i11 immediate demancl. BL1t, as 11oted, 011ly ex1Jatriates vvere qL1alifiecl as solicitors, and tl1ey i11sti11ctively tl10L1gl1t 111 ter111s of English contexts. Tl1e f\frica11s trai11ed i.11 the lav,, i.11 tl1e U11ited l(i11gdon1 were at best qualified to �u11ctio11 as . barristers witl1i11 tl1e 11arrow terms of a l11gl1ly tecl1111cal art appropriate primarily to the U11i. red I<ingdo111 a11d Without a11y real releva11ce to tl1e 11eeds of �\frica. Tl1e "Report of tl1e Co111111itree on Legal EclL1cat1011 For Stude11ts From 1\frica" prese11ted to Parlian1e11t by tl1e J...,orcl I-Iigl1 Cha11cellor of Great Britai11, Ja11L1ary 1961, vvas e1111)l1atic 011 both of these poi1.1ts: T11e traini11g affordecl by tl1e I1111s of CoL1rt ca11 l1elp to,varcls 1Jroficie11cy as a11 advocate bL1t it is 11ot clesig11ed

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to e11able a n1a11 to act as a solicitor. Yet tl1e solicitor's sicle is ofte11 a n1ost im1Jorta11t part of l1is work. _ ;\ progressive society . . .. reqL11res drafts1ne11 to pre1Jare co11ve)rances of la11d, co1nn1ercial co11tracts, 1nortgages, wills, a11d tl1e like. It needs lavvyers vvl10 ca11 keep accounts a11d be trusted V11itl1 clie11ts' mo11ey.... FL11-tl1ermore, tl1e legal edL1cation gi.ve11 b)' tl1e I1111s i.s clesig11ed for tl1e 11eeds of tl1e E11glish legal systen1. It tal<:es only sn1all accou11t of tl1e special 11eeds of tl1e Africa11 syste111. 1 · But even tl1is i.s too n1odest a descri1Jti.011 of tl1e kind of sl<:ills vvl1i.cl1 J\frica 11eecled a11d \Vhicl1 n1ost of tl1e develo1Ji.11g 11ati.011s sti. 11 reqL1i.re. As Professor Go\;ver poi.11tecl 0L1t: .... tl1e 11eV11 ly i.11de1Je11clent Af1-i.ca11 states l1ave a11 especial need for lawyers, a11cl for lav\1ye·rs vvl10 are s01netl1i11g 111ore tl1a11 j 0L1rneyme11 practi.ti.011e1-s. 171e prese11t state of tl1e law itself creates tl1i s 11eed .... tl1e legal syste111s of tl1ese cou11tri.es p1-ese11t pecL1li.ar con1pli.catio11s a11d are i11 urge11t 11eed of root-a11d-b1-a11cl1 refor1n if tl1ey are to be aclapted to local 11eeds. f-Ie11ce tl1e la\vyers of tl1ese coL111tri.es 111ust 11ot 0111)' be co1111Jete11t to ad111i.11i ster a11d OJJe1-ate avv as it 110\V i.s, but equipped and tl1e � _ \, v 1ll111g to 1-efor111 it .... I sub111it tl1at tl1e IJL1blic resJJOilsi.bi.lities of' 1. l l\�aj estyIs Statio11ery Offi.ce, Cn111d. 1255 of l ��r' lJ, ll, JJar- · 27 ai1d 28. TI1e l�igl1t [ Io11orable _ _ De1111111g was chair111a11 of tl1e Co111mittee. Lorcl

�he legal professi.011 are eve11 greater �11 tl1es� COL1ntries tl1a11 i.n n1ore 11i.gi1I.Jr 1 ndL1str1al states. �r11eJr 11eecl co1111ner�i.al, corporati.011, a11cl property 1.a\vyers 1f tl1ey are to acl1i.eve a11 eco110111i.c take off. T11ey 11eed bi.li.11gL1al i11ter11ati.onal, �01n1Jarati.ve, a11d co11sti.tuti.011al la\vyers 1£ tl1ey are to survi.ve as states a11d to e11ter tl1e large1· u11io11s 'Vl'hicl1 Pa11 - 1\frica11 senti.ment ar1d eco11omic develop111ent demand, . . . . Most of all, JJerhaps, they 11eed co11stitL1ti.011al la\vyers sopl1is ticated in other discipli11es if tl1ey are to find a vi.able substitute for tl1e V\1 estn1ini.ste;r model of 1Ja1·lian1e11tary democracy. 1 . T11e shortage of la\111 -trai11ed Africa11s at the tin1e of indepe11de11ce gre\v eve11 111ore acute witl1i.11 tl1e follo\vi11g few years. Quite understa11ciably 11ati.011alizatio11 or "localizati.011, " not si111ply 1\fri.ca11izatio11, beca111e state policy, a11d the expatriate was ofte11 asl<:ed to leave 1011g before his replace111e11t \Vas adequately trai.11ed. 1\t tl1e same time there was a dran1atic i11crease i.11 tl1e 11eed for professio11ally trai11ecl me11 i.11 all bra11ches of gover11n1e11t. Old offices l1ad to be ex1Ja11decl a11d 11ew offices establi.shecl in tl1e quick assL11npti.011 by eacl1 Africa11 state of tl1e burde11s and respo11si.bi.lities of full soverei.g11ty. t\ speci.al 11eed for those wi.tl1 JJrofessi.onal trai.ning was created wi.thi.n four or fi.ve years of i.11depe11de11ce i.11 tl1e transfer of 11ative or cus to111arJr coL1rts to tl1e central court strL1cture. Duri11g tl1e colo11i.al peri.ocl these inclige110L1s courts were presided over by i\frican elders, \Vho appliecl ge11erally custo111ary law a11d before who111 VirtL1ally all 1\frica11s came \1/i.tl1 their g1·ieva11ces. Tl1eir decisio11s were subject to scrL1ti11y by a Di.strict 1.

L. C. B. Gower, I11de1Je11cle11t Africa T11e Cl1alle11ge To Tl1e Legal Professio11 (f-Iarvard 1967) pp. 102-103. 17

Con1111issio11er or Provi11cial Con1111issio11er i11 A11glopl1 011ic Africa, a11d by a similar fo11�ti.011naire i11 Fra 11copl1011ic Africa. V•/itl1 tl1e tra11sfer 111to tl1e central syste111 tl1ere \1vas t1suallJ' a 111arked i11crease in the juri.sdi.ctio11 of tl1e for111er i11dige11ous courts, and tl1eJ' \iVere reqt1ired to ap1)lJr some statutory law. Advocates \\'ere ae11era111, J)er1nitted to a1Jpear before tl1em. l. The 11eec1 f°or those witl1 professio11al trai11i11g to serve as 111agistrates a11d to represe11t clie11ts before tl1ese inferior courts co11ti11ues to be a pressing a11d vexing proble1n and \vi.11 re111ai.11 so fo1· tl1e 11ext five or te11 years. 111 1960 i.11 nortl1e·r11 Nigeria (formerly the Nortl1er11 ·Regi. 011, 11 0\v tl1e six states of tl1e Nortl1 wi.tl1 more than l1alf tl1e po1Julati.011 of Ni.geri.a) tl1ere v\1as said to be less tl1a11 te11 Nortl1er11ers qualified to practice la\\', ei.tl1e1· as barristers or solicitors. 1\ncl, as 11oted abo,,e, as late as 1964: 011ly 011e Nigeri.a11 in tl1e e11ti.re cot111try l1ad. c1uali.fi.ecl a.s a soli.ci.tor. Tl1ere were, l1owever, tl1rougl1 Lord Den11i.11g's 0L1t the soutl1er11 ti.er 1na11y ba1·risters. ·reJJort refers to seve11 l1u11clrecl, lJtlt aln1ost all of tl1em l1ad accJtti.red tl1ei.r traini.11g at tl1e I1111s of Court without tl1e appre11ticesl1i1) for wl1i.cl1 tl1e E11glisl1 Ba1· exa1ni.11ati.011s a·re bL1t i.11troc1Ltctory. 'TI1e sitLtati.011 i.11 Gl1a11a \Vas sin1i lar to tl1at i.11 soutl1ern \ .a111 B. [ Ia1·,reJ', forn1erly Nigeria. 1\ccordi11g to Dea11 ?\filli 1J_1·ofesso� a11c1 dea11 of la\v i11 tl1e U11i.versi.t',r of Gl1a11a tl1e fi1·�t _1:fr1ca11 �1·0111 tl1e Gold Coast to be qualified as � sol1c1tor was 111 1951. UJ) to 1964 110 111ore tl1a11 te11 to t\velve aclcli.ti. 011al Gl1a11aia11s ear11ed tl1i.s qtiali.fi.cati.o11. 2. i\� la.te as 1963 tl1e1·e \\1ere 011ly tvvelve ba1·ri.ste1·s i.11 \"., est Can1eroo11 · Of tl1ese 011e \\1 as Gl1a11ai.a11 ei. al1t or i1111e \Vere Ni.ge1·i.a11s' a11cl o11l�)' o11e \Vas a Ca1�1erio11i.an.

1. rl� l1e y 1:1·re still }J:oscri.lJecl i.11 �f a11za11ia · \ , 2. B f la - rve1., ' '·1" 1le oevelop111e11t of Le

o11 Ed uc ga at l i ii1 c11a c n .c ·:t"• 1111n�eogra1)l1ecl report to tl ect ' P1 1e S ·o a j il e r d its a c . . 1111111st1·at1ve age11c,, tl1e I 11st1tute of [11te1·J 11atio11al EdLtcat·1 011' ai1d tl�1e Fo1·d Fot111dati.011, 1964. 1 ' •

•

�------------Tl1at sa111e J'ear tl1ere were eight Ca111eroo11ia11 stucle11ts i11 tl1: United I(i11gdo111 stL1dyi11g la\;\,1 bL1t 011ly tl1roL1gl1 tl1e offer111gs of tl1e I1111s of CoL1rt. In 1:111 aJJpare11t effo1-t to bridge tl1e di.ffere11ces bet\,vee11 \f\1 est a11d East Ca111eroo11, bet\vee11 tl1e t\\'O federated states 011e of \i\'11 ich was Lt11cler Sri.ti.sh i11flue11ce a11d tl1e otl1er L111cler Fre11cl1, five Cameroo11ia11s from tl1e \Jy est \:vere se11t to stL1dy la\;v at tl1e Federal U11iversitj' of tl1e Can1eroo11 i11 YaoL111de, tl1e capital of East Can1e1-0011 a11cl of the Federal Republic. Tl1is \vas a11 L111happy adve11tL1re, as 11011e of tl1e five coL1ld speak Fre11cl1, and this v\1 as tl1e la11gL1age of i11strL1ctio11. In Eastern t-\fri.ca tl1ere \:ve1-e eve11 fewer 1\f1-ica11 la\vyers. l\1ost of the practi.tioners were Europea11 o·r 1-\sia11, tl1e term ge11erally L1sed in Africa for East I11clians a11d Pakistanis. 1-\cco1-di11g to the De1111i11g Re1Jort, 1 . i11 1960 there \Ve1-e aboLtt 011e l1u11clred fifty lawyers i.11 Uga11da, of vvho111 only twe11ty \1..1 ere 1\.frica11; there vvas bLit a si11gle qualified 1\frica11 i.11 Ta11ga11yika out of 011e I 1unclred lawyers; and there \\1 ere less tl1a11 te11 1.-\frica11 lawyers i.11 I<enya out of tl1ree l1L111clred qualified practi tio11ers. Accordi.11g to a ma11-power stL1dy n1ade i11 I<e11ya foLtr years later, out of a total of foL1r l1u11d1-ed a11cl tl1irty six la\vy·ers, three 11 u11dred a11d eigl1 t \\1 ere Asians, 011e hundred a11d sixtee11 \Vere Europea11, a11d 011ly twelve \Vere f\frica11. 2. 111 1963 i11 S0L1tl1e1-11 Rl1odesia (110\\1 Rl1odesi.a or Zimbabwe) tl1ere \\/ere 110 black 1\frica11 lawyers, 011ly 011e or tvvo i.n Nyasala11d (110\i\1 I\!Jalawi.), a11cl only four in Nortl1er11 Rhoclesia (110w Zan1bia). By 1967 it was estimated there vvere about sixtee11 Zan1bi.an lawyers out of a total of seve11ty to ei.gl1t"}r 1Jracti.tio11ers. Of tl1e sixteen 011ly about four were i11 private practice. In Fra11copho11ic 1\frica tl1e 111a11po\ver problen1s . appeared to be quite cliffere11t. Tl1e felt 11eed for Af1-ica11s witl1 legal trai11i11g was modest, a11cl tl1ere was a 1. De1111ing, op. cit. sLIJJrc:1 IJ, 16, at JJ. 5. . . 2. Republic of I(e11ya, Mi11istry of Eco11on11c Pla111�111g - gl1 - Level Ma111Jow e;. I,ec1 Lt1 i-e and Develop111e11t, '' f Ii me11ts a11d ResoLtrces I11 I< e11ya 1964-1970 , (E. A. Insti.tLtte Press, Ltcl. 1965).

co11ti11ui11 g accepta11ce of tl1 e sul)stance a11d methodol�gy of Europea11 legal eclL1cation. 011ly a fe \N Fra11copl1 0111c ;\frica11 s were exJ)osed to a11>' otl1 er type of training. i\t a 111eeti11g of officials fro1n botl1 tl1 e Fre11cl1 spea1<ing and E11glisl1 s1Jeaki11g states of tl1e Ca1neroo11 soo11 after tl1e fede1·atio11, a11 official f1·01n \/\'est Can1eroo11 expressed the l1 01Je that tl1e la\\' ,vl1icl1 \\10Ltld evolve for tl1e united Ca1neroo11 people '"'ould not be Britisl1 , 11or Fre11cl1 but ,:vould be u11iquely Ca111eroo11ia11. 1\fter tl1e s1Jeech was tra11slated i11to Fre11cl1 , a se11ior official fron1 East " Ca11 1eroo11 \\,as reported to l1 a,,e saicl, What is good e11ougl1 for Fra11ce i.s good e110L1gl1 for tl1e Ca1neroon. " 171i.s re111ai11s tl1e ge11eral attitude ro,;vard the forn1e1· colo11 ial J)o,vers tl1rougl1 out Fra11copl1011ic ;\frica, with tl1e exce1)tio11 of GL1i11ea a11cl JJossi.bly Co11go (Brazzaville). A111011g tl1e Establish111ent tl1 ere see1ns to be general satisfactio11 vvitl1 Eu1·01)ea11-trained la,vyers, and little urge11cy for tl1 e clevelop111e11t of African i.11stitutio11s. Botl1 Fra11ce a11d Belgiu111 e11 coL1ragecl the conti11uance of close associati.011s wi.tl1 their for111er clepe11cle11ci.es. ,:.\nd tl1 e latter welco111ecl Fre11 cl1 a11cl Belgia11 bL1si11essn1e11 a11d a.dvisers, i11clucli11g tl1e lavv trai11ed. ']�l1e J)roble111 ,va.s l1 igl1 ligl1 tecl i11 Se11egal at indepen cle11ce. [ts capital, Dal<ar, l1ad bee11 tl1 e ca1Jitc1l of f'rench \�'est i\frica., vvl1ere n1ost la\\1ye1·s i11te1·ested i.n a11y a.ctivit)' i11 tl1at ,rast regio11 n1ai.11tai.ned offices. i\t. i.11 cle1Je?clence l)aka1· 's do111c1i11 sL1dde11ly sl11·a11k fron1 an exte11 s1 ,,e co111 111ercial e111JJi.re to a sii1gle coLintt·)r cle1)e11 de11 t 011 .F1·a11ce a11cl ,vitl1 dL1bi.ous eco110111ic · l)ros�Je�ts. 1�1 1ere ,:v e1·e tl1e11 too 111a11 >' la,v>rers to fill tl1 e l11n1ted 11eeds. Wi.tl1 Fra11ce L111 cle 1·,vriti.i1o · tt1e 1 l-=i'ra11ce v,,a8 as ct0111111;11t as e,,er. , 111etro1)olit::: 1 1 0L111t {� �\ ,11 cl l 1encl1 la \V)'e1·s ,vere readilJ' 011 ta1J. : et t�1ere \1,,1 as ::1 cri��cal need for tl 1e p1·ofessio11all,; . �:\ra111e_cl �11 tl1 e Co11 g<:: (l<. 111sl1asa' for11 1e 1·1J, Leo1Jold\ri. 11� ). ' se11101 111e 111be1· ot tl1e la · \.\' f·:.....1 CL1l· t'' -; of Lova 111um · u11:· . ve1·s1t)' ,v 11i�l1 is locatecl jLtst outsicle l(i11sl1 asa : est1111atecl 111 1960 tl1 at tl1e Co11go l1ad a11 . 11 1 11e ct· . ' 1at nee e d : � · i11 tl1 e })Llblic secto1· for six l1 u11dred "J LII1. ste ,, s , to use tl1e Fre11cl 1 ter111, a11d a co11ti.11ui11g need of so111e tl1 11·t\r

l l I

to forty lav,, g1-adLt�tes }Jer year. 1\s to p1-i vate i11dustry he repo1-red tl1at 111s la\1/ graclLtates could alwaJrs fii1d e1nploy111e11t there. As late as 1967 tl1ere �1e1:e reJJortecll)r 110 °:ore tl1a11 te11 <?011golese la�1 yers i11 I(insl1a.sa a11cl 011ly tvvo 111 LubLtn1basl11, forn1erly Eliza1Jet11ville a11cl tl1e second largest city of tl1e Co11go. Tl1e 11eed for tl1e la\i\' trained was extensive. lt \i\1 as becaLtse of tl1is tl1at tl1e Ecole Nacto11ale d '1\dn1inistratio11, co1nn1011ly referrecl to as "E11da ", 1vvas established. BL1t tl1is s1Jecial 111a11povver shortage ma)' l1ave bee11 caused 1Jy tl1e ci. vi l \iVa1- a11cl tl1e rebellions \vl1icl1 wracked tl1e cou11try fro111 1960 to 1965. Duri11g this period n1ost of tl1e Belgia11s a11d otl1er expatriate reside11ts i11 tl1e Congo retLtr11ed to Europe. In 1963 it was estimated that out of a Belgia11 co111111u11i�r of twe11ty to t\1/enty-fi ve tl1ousa11d people 011ly seve11 thousa11d remai11ed. I I- owever, a great 11umber of tl1e Belgian civi.l servants, i11clL1di.11g lawyers i11 private practice a11cl i11 service to tl1e go\rer11111e11t, l1ave as of this writi11g, late 1971, retur11ed to tl1e Co11go. Tl1is vvill Lt11doubtedly have a11 effect 011 tl1e 11eed fo1- 1\frica11 lawyers, at least i11 tl1e private sector. Competi11g Needs and Manpower Surveys

I-Iowever 011e might defi11e the role of tl1e lawyer,

the1-e see1ned a critical 11eed for 1\frica11s \iVitl1 lawyer skills to per·torn1 traditio11al lawyer tasks i11 111L1cl1 of Africa. BL1t there was also a great 11eecl for able African u11iversity graduates trai11ecl i11 al111ost a11j' disci.pli11e. 171e supply of such tale11t could 011ly 1neet a fractio11 of tl1e dema11d. Correct esti111ates of n1a11povver 11eeds thus becan1e essential to a11y 111a11povver plan11i11g. But a 11umber of the 1na11power studies wl1icl1 vvere u11cler taken duri11g tl1e early sixties were often based _on a11 appare11t misco11ceptio11 of tl1e skills developed 111 legal education or 011 an assumption that the activities of f\frica11s witl1 legal trai11i11g woL1lcl be con1pa� able to tl1e_ activities of their colleagues t11 tl1e U11i.tecl l(111gdom or 111 Europe. Projections of professio11al 11eecls ,i\,ere some _ times awry because of a lack of u11derstancl111g of tl1e function of lawyers as coL111sellors ancl problen1 solvers.

•

At tl1e Co11fere 11ce 011 Legal EclL1cat i.011 111 Africa l1e ld in Gl1ana 111 1962, a p1-eli111i11ary survey of 111a11po\ver 11eed s 111 Gl1a11a was discus sed. Its modest 1Jrojec tio11 of l awye r 11ee ds seemed to assL1me tl1at all la\v gracluates \\,ould beco111e la,vyer s a11d t l1at la\vye ·rs would follow Anotl1er strictlJr the Britisl1 1Jatter11 of activit>'· expat1-iate 111a11po\ver study done i11 tl1e early sixties i.n tl1e Suda11 co11clL1ded tl1at there was little 11e ed for l avvyer s in tl1e Sucla11, a11d tl1at le gal educati.011 sl1ould 11ot there fore l1a\re a l1i.gl1 JJrio1-ity. A 11u111ber of l\n1e 1-i.can leg al scl1olc:1rs after several years resi.de11ce i.11 tl1e Suda11, ca111e t o a co11trary co11clusio11, not ju st on the tl1e11 JJ1-ese11t 11eeds bLit 011 lJrojec ted re qui.ren1e11ts. It \\1as believed tl1ese V110L1ld beco111e obvious whe11 the lay 111agi.strates i.11 tl1e 011e tl1ousa11d local coL1rts \.\' ould be reqL1ired to applJ' tl1e statu tes of tl1e Republic, ratl1e r tl1a11 just tl1e i11dige110L1s la\.v as 11oti.ced by tl1e juc1ges 01re porte d by tl1e coL1rts asse ssors. Tl1e jL1dges of al l tl1e local coLtrts \ivould tl1e11 l1ave to be JJrofe ssio11ally qL1alifi.ed. 111 at least 011e i.11s ta11ce, a n1a11po'A1e r requi.re n1ent study failecl to take i11to co11si.de rati.011 the effe ct of a11 immigr ati.011 act \vl1i.cl1 \.voulcl at least l1aste 11 if 11ot pro,.roke tl1e departLtre of ex1Jatri.ate lawyers \\1 110 co11trollecl tl1e p1-actice i.11 botl1 tl1e private and public sector. 1\11cl lastly, tl1ere see med to be a ge 11eral failur e to app1-ec�ate tl1e 11eed fo1- lavvye r skills i.11 tl1e 1-apid ex1Ja11s1011 of govern111e11t acct vi.ti.e s , i.11 tl1e i.11crease i.n �tatutory a11cl para statal bocli.e s, i.11 tl1e expa11si.on of 111du t �y a11d co1:1n1e rce \Vi.tl1i.11 eacl1 of tl1e developi.11g � coL111tr1es a11d \\11th otl1er 11ati.011s 111 tl1e 111te1-11art011al . com111erc_1al con1111L111ity. But e\ren \,vi.tl1 a limited, rnode�t v1e\.v of tl1e fL111ctio11 of la\:vJ'er s the re \Vas a 1Jress111g 11eed for tl1ose qualified at tl1e bar ' lio,,ve ver tl1at c1ua.li.ficati.011 ,vas acl1i.e,,ecl. tvl eeti.ng tl1e N e ed for . tl1e La ,v FI'rai11ed . V ar1ou s clevi.ces \Vere Lt sed t a11 s \V1tl1 O P1� ovtcle Afr1c . la·,v t1·�a111111g · for- gove1-11111e11t J. obs a11d to re 1J] ace tl1e ex1Jatri.ates 11108 .1, J �1__1t_ 1s . l1 c:111cl ;\si.a11 i11 A11glopl1011i.c � ;\fri.ca ' \vl1� l1a c d on1111ate d tl1e profe ssion. J\tletl1ods 22

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l l

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cl1anged v\'i�l� tl1e cri ti.cal 11ature of tl1e 11eecl. E 111ergei1cy 1neasL1res graduallyr ga ve vvayr to lo11 g-ra11ge pla11 11iilg. Recrui tme11t f1-0111 t\broad Pe1�l1aps tl1e qL1ickest vv ay for a11 1\frica11 coL1i1try to meet its n1anpov\ e1- needs ,;voL1ld be to recrLtit f1-0m i .lar 11eecls Because of si11 1 neighboring cou11r1-ies. througl1 out Anglopl1011ic 1\f1-1ca tl1is coLtld 011ly be do11e 111 a very li1ni.ted v.,ay \\1 itl1 i11 tl1e co11ti11e11t. Nige1-ia a11 d Gha11a vvere the only ;\f1-ica11 coL111tries vvl1ich coL1lcl have provided perso11nel for tl1e judiciary i11 otl1er parts of f\11glophonic f\frica. c\11d Gl1a11aia11s a11d Nige1-ia11s qualified at the Englisl1 Bai- \vould ha\re felt at l1 on1e in the coL1rts origi11ally establisl1ed by tl1e Britisl1. 1\l though the1-e vvas an understandable relL1ctance on tl1e part of ne,v sovereig11 states to look abroad for tl1eir ovvn judges, tl1ere was nevertl1eless a 11 un1ber of a1Jpoi11t ments made across 1\frica11 11atio11al bou11daries. 1\ disti11guished Ghanaian judge resigi1ed fro1n tl1e SL1preme Court of Ghana to accept appoi11tn1e11t as Cl1ief Justice of the W este1-n Region of Nigeria a11d late1- as Presicle11t of the Court of A1Jpeal for Easter11 f\.frica. A Nigeria11 served as Cl1ief JL1stice of Uga11da for a 11 u111ber of years. t\nd there have bee11 a 11umber of otl1er ap1Joi.11tn1e11ts of 1\fricans ,vi.th little previous associatio11 witl1 the a1J poi11ti11 g state. These, l1owever, l1 ave all bee11 excep tional cases. 1

The British \t\fest Indies were i.11 a se11se co11sidered comparable to Anglopho11ic Africa, a11d black citize11s from B. W. I. were recruited i11 a lin1ited way. I11 1962 the the11 Attor11ey Ge11eral of West Cameroo11, wl1 0 had come origi.11ally fro111 ,..fri11iclad, 111ade a toL1r of tl1e West Inclie s vvith tl1e Deputy Minister of JL1stice 111 a11 effort to ftnd admi11istrators a11d magistrates a11d lav,,ye1-s for tl1 e Gover11me11t of Caineroon. Amo11g tl1ose recruitecl was a Jan1aican jL1dge wl1 0 became Chief Justice �f We�t Camero011. Ai1ct tl1.e Chief Justice of Ta11za111a L111 t1l July 1971, whe11 l1e retired ,,vas a 11ative of Tri11idad. A pre se11t judge of the I Iig - h Court ill J(e11ya came fro1n Britisl1 GL1iana. But sLtch aid fro m abroacl vvas isolc1ted a11d could 011ly n1eet special 11eeds.

Crasl1 Programs e ic t v n to de ie p ic s ff e d e r ee 1o 11 d r . a 2 ... 1cL l . A less l 1ap 1 v "d e e o th pr nd e a ed ne s d es oc Jr on ti ca I fi li a qu LIP tile bar ons \;vas ti ca fi li l ua q ga le l a n ri fo t as c le perso11nel vVl. th at te 1 d ec se o1 rs y pe rr ca 111el to ed 1 ·1 sio de ms O ra ·ooo · · fou 1 1d 1. 11 p r 11at1011 bef ore 11 n E xa -< r a B 1 l · s li 1 1g E 1e tI f O I . tI 1rougI1 Part 1as one s 'Vl l11 T of e . th II rt Pa r fo d 11 ·la 0no E to 11 . JJroceed-1 o o . . .1t.L1te o f i"' ' '!. d m1111stranon of st In e th of s in ·ra · 18 pi·oo var• 10L o . . .1a, Nor.ther 11 N'1ger1a c · , ar Z 01 1 11 y i\l1n1actLI Bello Ui1ivers1t 1 i, a11d of 1 aV al 1 1 M i1 o1 ti ra st ni ni 1 d 1\ 1 ic the 1 1 1stitute of PL bl ry 1a 1e ·in p1 17 os . rp da IJU an e Ug i11 ol l1o Sc Vi' La e bb 1te Ei tile of rl1ese trai 11i11g ce11ters was to qualify tl1e judiciary of tl1e 11ative or cL1sto111ary cou rts for eff ec ti,,e service in a rest1·L1 ctured s)rste111 ,�1l1ere the y ,1vould be reqL1ired to ap1Jly tl1e statL1tory law of tl1e ce11 tralized or L111ified courts. But eacl1 ce11ter l1ad i. 11 addition a bar qL1alifica tio11 coL1rse, si11ce tl1is vvas the Lisual requireme 11t for a1J1Joi 11t1ne11t as a first-class or se11 ior or cl1ief n1agis trate. At E 11tebbe a li111itecl 11u111ber of 111en, some six to te11, witl1 five "O" level a11d tvvo "A" level certificates avvarded by the University of Ca111bridge Local Exa111ina tio11s Syndicate, were acl111itted to a 01 1e-year course to con1plete Part I of tl1e E11glish bar. At the Institute of Public 1\d1ni11i.strati.on at MJJe1nba, betvvee11 Bla11tyre and Zo 111ba, Malawi, tVi1 0 twe11tJ'-\Veek courses vvere develop�cl to carry stude11ts tl1rougl1 at least four of tl1e _ f1\re sLtbJ ects of r)ar t I. T11is pr og ran1 was started about �962. '"Il1e first groL1p of four Vi'e11 t to tl1e In11s of Court 1 n Londo 11 i 11 Noven1ber, 1963 for a t\\10 -year sti11t to coinplete Pa1·t 11 a11d l)e ad 111i.tted to tl1e E11o·lisl1 ba1·. Tl1is pi·ogi·a111 \Vas conti11ued u1 1til a 1·e 1 as Vi n1 o·L JJ1 1la L ·o L 1· o·r � B a 0 0 . . 1\ sta1·ted at tl1e I 11st1· tute ll of tl1e pa rt ici.pa 11t s 111 tl1e . I11st1 tL1 te' 8 cr-as11 }JI-og-·a1 11 vve1-e u11de r scholarsl1 i.p ,vl1ich . . i e11ta1led a coinini t 1ne11t. of· t1· ve Jr ears se1·vice to tl1e g?veri,mei1t after acl1nis sio11 to tl1e E11glisl1 a 11d ·l\t·1alaw ia11 8 ars . 1\fter be· 11g ca·11 ed to tl1e Ba1· i11 E11 gla11d, tl1ey ,vere required ;0 1_etLir _ 11 1n1n1ediatelJr to Bl a11tyre \Vitl10Llt _ . _ . a11), clJJPre11t1 cesl111J \Vi.tl1 a 13riti.sl1 bar1·ister. a 11ct

J\t Zari.a tl1e first group of eleve11 stL1de11ts i11 a Part 1 course took 011ly eigl1t 1nontl1s to co111plete tl1at part of tl1e E11gli.sh Bar examination. It is believecl, l10\vever, tl1at sL1]Jseque11t g1·0L1ps spe11t a fL1l l cale11clar year 011 tl1e Pa1·t I courses. Even so, n1ost of the stude11ts di.cl 11ot n1eet the fo1·1nal JJ1·eli.minary edL1catio11al reqL1i.re1ne11ts for admi.ssi.011 to the E11glisl1 Bar. These \vere v\ aived, l1ov,1eve1·, 1Jy the Bencl1ers of tl1e 11111s of CoL1rt at tl1e reqL1est of tl1e "te1·ri.tori.al aL1tl1oriLies". 1. Co111pletio11 of Part II of tl1e Engli.sl1 Bar exa111i11ati.011 Ltsually tool<. about two )rea1·s. 1

TI1ere were 110 acleqL1ate alter11ati.ves to tl1ese crasl1 programs. QL1alificatio11 for Pa1·t I througl1 overseas corres1Jondence was lo11ger a11d n1ore tedioL1s, tl1ougl1 less expe11si. ve. f\.ltl1ougl1 tl1e crasl1 l)rograms providecl little if a11y real edL1catio11 a11d 011ly a 1nodi.cL1m of training, they at least l1el1Jed tra11sfer tl1e bato11s of aL1thority, the symbols of legitimacy \�.1l1icl1 assured orderly a11cl peaceful transitio11s. The sy111bols, tl1e govvns a11d wigs, tl1e formalities of ad111issio11, tl1e forms a11d courtesies are im1Jo1·ta11t. TI1ey suggest tl1e conti11u a11ce of professio11al traditio11s a11d of tl1e rL1le of law itself. But tl1ese crasl1 1Jrogra111s 111ay i11 so111e i11sta11ces l1ave tl1 warted the later develo1Jn1e11t of i1111ovative skills 11eeded i11 a develOIJing state. \Jvitl1 all tl1e e11titleme11ts of an a11cie11t a11cl respected professio11, tl1ose so quali fied at the English Bar someti111es overesti111ated tl1e cleptl1 of their trai11i11g a11d tl1e level of tl1eir professio11al skills .

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II LTIES U C A W F A L F O T N E M Tl-IE ESTABLISl-I IN 1\Fl�ICA

T]1e cr asl1 }Jrogran1s for Bar quali.ficatio11 \Vere recog11ized fron1 tl1e OLttset as te111pora1:Y expedie11ts, pei·haps as 111easures of son1e desperat1011, a11d tl1ey v1 ere s0011 di.sco11ti11t1ecl. New structu1·es vvere demanded. 1\11cl there w as pro1nise i11 tl1e air that i11stitutions could be bLrilt wl1icl1 vvere u11iqL1ely capable of responding to African ex1Jectatio11s i11 a11 1\frica11 context. Tl1ese took tl1e i11iti.al forn1 of u11iversity scl1ools and faculties, vi1l1i.cl1 qL1ickly developed comJJlete progra1ns for legal tr ai11i.11g at tl1e L111iversi.�r level. It \\,as pri.ma1iljr i.11 tl1ese i.11sti.tL1tions tl1at expatriate assi .sta11ce i11 lavv vvas co11ce11trated tl1rougl1out tl1e 1960s. 1

�l1e1·e \Vas a 11eed tl11·0L1gl1ot1t 1-\11glopl1011i.c 1\fri.ca for Afr1ca11s as JJracti.ti011e1·s, 111agi.strates, judges, prose cutors, judicial adn1i.11i.strato1·s, atto1·11e1rs ge11era l, a11d for l?r_ofessi.011a l 111e11 qL1alifi.ecl to perfor 111 i.11 Africa tl1e tracl�t�o11a l tasks of lavvyers. But \Vl1at preci.selj' tl1ese _ qualifica t1011s vvere, \Vl1at they sl1ot1ld be, V\1l1at additi.011al roles tl1ose edL1catecl i.11 la w could 01· sl1ould perfor111 in �\i1glo1Jl1o11ic �f1·ica, }Jrese11tecl 1Jroble111s 111ore vexi11g tl1 a11 tl1?se vvl11cl1 l1ave cli.vided faculties i.11 A111erica. Expatriate assi.sta11ce sl1a1·1Je11ed tl1e i11evi.table acade111i.c delJate. I11 son1e i11sta11ces i.t tJrovided a11 a\,,areness of some of tl1e is sues a11cl 111a y be ed pro vok sai d to ,,e l1a _ . , 1 e _ e a 1 11 1 ti. o11 of � �: � basic postL1lates. But tl1e questi.011s _ pers1st 11 1 tl1e fern1e11t o f cl1 a11ge.

\iVl1at I<i11d of Lavvyers for v\'l1at Tasks The cliffere11ces i11 legal eclucatio11 i11 1\me:rica, tl1e U11ited I<i11gclom, a11d EL11-ope reflect profou11clly cliffere11t ,1i.ev,1 s as to tl1e JJroper fu11ctio11 of la.,v a11cl lc1W�)'ers i11 a11y societ>', ,;vhetl1er developi11g 01- 11ot. �l�hese clissi111il.1:1r ities have affectecl tl1e 11ature a11cl cl1aracter of 1\frica11 la,v schools and faculties a11cl pe1-J1ar)s tl1e 1Jrofessio11 itself througl1out the co11ti11e11t. If la'"' is vie\\'ed as fixecl a11d in1n1utable, its n 1emorizatio11 111akes se11se. If it is not a11 object of vene1-ation, if it is ,,alL1e 11eL1tral, a device in defi11i11g, JJreser,1i11g, a11d cl1a11gi11g the social a11d eco1101nic order, it must be stL1di.ecl a11d re-exa1ni11ed ancl L1sed to i11sL1re its continL1i11g resJJonsive11ess to the 11eeds of tl1at order. Altl1ougl1 tl1ese viev, s n1ay be essentially pl1ilosopl1ic, eacl1 l1as its o,;i.i11 i1n111ediate practical conseque11ces. 1\ fe,,, exa1nples 1nay illu111i11ate the differe11t perspectives. 1

r'\.t tl1e Seco11d T11formal Co11fere11ce of Tea.cl1ers fro1n Britisl1 a11d Africa11 La,,, FacLtlties, l1eld i11 Lo11do11 111 JLtl>' 1966, a Nigerian 1nember of tl1e E11glisl1 Bar a11d a member of an 1-\frica11 law faculty, co111111e11ted 011 tl1e gradual cl1a11ge from con1mu11al to i11diviclLtal ow11e1-sl1ip of land. I-Ie said l1e tl1ought tl1at tl1e lack of security of title prese11ted one of tl1e greatest difficulties i11 custon1ary lavv, a11cl l1e Ltrgecl tl1at tl1e 1J1·oble111s of registrati 011 be stL1cliecl 111 all la11d la,v coL1rses. 1\11 expatriate scl1olar vvitl1 a 11u111ber of years of teacl1i11g a11d research in Africa, tl1ougl1t tl1at a course 011 la11d law should first co11sider the various state policies wl1icl1 could or sl1ould affect land. Is tl1e land to be used to i11crease agricultural oLttJJUt, is it to i11sure credit, what are the special problems o:f la11d i11 tl1e cou11try a11d society havi11g jurisdicti.011? Once tl1ese qL1estio11s v\1ere detern1i11ed, tl1e11 a11 appro1Jriate coL1rse 011 la11d law coL1ld be developed. The tech11icalities of co11veyanci.11g a11d the }JJ�oblems of statutory co11struction we1·e relati,rely n1i11or concer11s. f-Ie 11otecl finally that the coL1rse sl1ould differ 1naJ�keclly fron1 011e 011 the sa111e sLrbj ect i11 tl1e U11itecl l(i11gdo111 becaLrse tl1e problems affecti.11g la11cl we1-e e11ti re I>' differe11t. 27

e i1 1 �n arid }Jart dg ju 11 ca ri f . 1\ 11 a o g a i\bOLlt tei1 Jr ears 1 de an c e o t d d a l1 y tr 11 L1 o c t 11 e d n e 1J e _ of t1is 11 e\iV ly i11d ht b y r�s1de11ts o f g u o b s s a p s -e t1 � i111porta11t actio11 of l tt d e111e11. a 1c ca o n t 1s 11 ga a d 11 la n r1 fa D? r ece11tly settled s a l1 l1e l1ad c s l1 g n E 11 a f o 11 11 tL � ic d r te i l) o Re1Jrii1g on a11 rt o u 1n o f 11d C o o L s 11 n, ln e h t f o e 1 01 1g i1 d 11 e tt a e il 11oted vvl1 ss. This a p s r e fo tr le b a li 11 1e n le tt a c 1e tl 1d tl1e judge fou1 1 as , it o if _\\ s t Li b , 11 io is c de t c n1a)r l1ave bee11 a corre 1a s raised as to the circum \\ 1 01 ti. es qu o N . fo1-tui.toL1s as i11 a JJe1iod it w t no or er tl1 e l1 w , ss Ja sJ e tr e tl1 of es 1c sta1 er on tl1e farmland and at w as \V 1-e e tl1 er tl1 1e wl t, gl1 ou of dr \vl1etl1er tl1e s1Jri.11gs, if tl1e re \;vere a11y, l1ad bee11 used by r e. No 1n . ti of Vi'as tl1 11g le y a11 r fo 11 e 1 e11 ttl ca c di 111a 110 tl1e co11sicl erati.011 give11 as to cor1-elative respo11sibiliti. es. Tl1e agri.cL1ltL1ra.li.sts 111igl1t l1ave l1ad to fe11ce tl1e lan d. Perl1a1Js tl1e 1-igl1t to farn1 was i11 fact limited by govern111e 11tal decree or by tl1e te1-111s of tl1e rigl1t gra11ted so tl1at tl1ere \Vas 110 trespass at all.

1\ rece11tly retired p1-ofessor of la\v at Oxford casL1allJr refe rrecl to laVi1yers i11 the Englisl1 r1-adition as bei.11g serva11ts ratl1er tl1a11 1naste1-s, 1ne11 wl10 do 11ot geL1era.lly get i.11to poli.ti.cs 01- gove1-111ne11t. But tl1 e late I<arl Llevvelly11, a for1niclable scl1ola1- a11d first-class !Jo� t, l1ad tl1i.s to say of tl1e l e gal JJ1-ofessio11 as l1e vi.evved 1t 111 1\111eri.ca: . : .. : tl1e_ esse11ce of ou1· craftsn1a11sl1ip l1�s 11: sk1lls, a11d i11 wisdo111s; i11 practical, effe�t1 ve, }Je1-suasiv e, i11ve11tive sk ill s for ?ettlllg tl1111gs do11e, a.11y ki11d of tl1i11o·s 111 a11J1 _ fi.elcl; ill \Vi.sdo111 a11d judg111e 11f i11 select1.iig tlie tliii1gs to o·et clo11e : i11 skills f�1- i110\1i.11g 111�11 i.11to cle�i.1-ed a�tion; a11y k11:cl of 111a11, 111 a11�l fi e ld ; and tl1e11 i.11 sk�l l� fo� ·regL1la·rizi11g tl1e results, for l)L11 ld 11 1g 111to co11r1.-olled large-sca e 1. .· act1 �11 SL1cl1 doi11g of tl1i.11gs a 11d sucl1 lllOVl 11g· of 11leti. Qu1- ga111e is essentl.·_a l lJ, tl. 1e ga111e of }Jla1111i.11g a11d orga_ . 1112111g 111a11age111 e11t (11ot of ·ru1111ing it)'

•

except that we co11ce11trate 011 tl1e a1·eas of co11flict, te11sio11, frictio11, troL1ble, doubt - a11d 111 tl1ose areas \tve l1ave tl1e skills for \\1orki11g._ OLtt resL1lts. l . Differences in jurisp1·L1cle11tial outlook, 111 co11cepts of lavv ancl the functio11 of la\;vye1·s did 11ot bu1·de11 tl1ose 111 the va11guard v. 110 can1e from 1\111eri.ca a11d tl1e U11ited l(i.11gdom to l1elp bL1i.ld a nev, Africa. Tl1ere was e11ougl1 to do for everyo11e. FL1rtl1er, tl1e early arrivals te11ded to be venturesor11e, i.11novati.ve, flexible, a11d 11ot bou11d by the idiosyncrasies of tl1eir respective ex1)erie11ces. BL1t some di.ffere11ces did become quickly ap1)are11t, at first 111 tl1e actual teacl1i11g IJrocess. In 1963 tl1e writer atte11cled a class i .n \,Vest 1\frica co11ducted 1Jy a rece11t graduate of a prestigioL1s E11gli.sl1 L111i. versity \7'1 !10 l1ad achi.evecl higl1est honors 111 law. £-le lecturecl at dictation speed, at a pace whi.cl1 per1nitted eve11 tl1e stucle11ts u11sure of tl1eir E11gli.sl1 to co 1JY i11 tl1eir note]Jooks eacl1 word spoke11. It may l1ave lJee11 a11 extre111e example of the forn1al cli.dactic process, tl1ougl1 in at least 011e facL1lty i11 Eastern Africa tl1e "lectL1res" we1·e ge11erally exercises in tra11scri.bing verbatim tl1e teachers' pronu11ciame11toes. 1

Closely allied to this metl1od of expository teachi11g is tl1e vi.evv tl1at texts a11d teachi11g n1ateri.als sl10L1lcl reveal the law as it exists a11d as it shoL1lcl be lear11ed witl1out rec1uiri11g a11y i11tellectual i11pL1t fro111 the stucle11t. 1\s co11comita11ts to these attitudes a 11L11nber of E11glisl1 ancl Africa11 lavv facL1lties co11sicler the1nselves acaden1ic clepart1ne11ts with little if a11y respo11sibility beyo11d traclitional educatio11al patter11s. Tl1ey l1ave tl1us te11ded to co11ce11trate 011 improving tl1e qualit1 r of craftsn1a11ship at tl1e local bar. 111 Africa tl1is was coupled witl1 the cletermi11atio11 to make it un11ecessary for tl1e Africa11 stL1cle11ts to go to E11gland for a11y part of tl1eir legal 1. I<. Llewellyn, "rll1e Crafts of Law Re-Valuecl", 15 Rock·y Mt. L. Rev. l, 3 (1942) re1Jri11tecl i11 rv 1eo Tl 111 111 is al Re e: 11c de ru is ur N. I<. 1, ly1 el e\.v Ll · , p. � · a11cl e· racti ce (Cl1icago

t s a r t to 11 d o 1e e c tl k r 1a n 1 i.1 s i is l1 t · · qua·l.1f1c· atioi1. All of · . d n 1 1 ed 1 a m c Y 1 r 1 1p n e 1 1 a l1 c 1 h \v s goals and 1Jrioritie c u d d 11 o t e r p e h oulcl T w 1 t. e s ld u o \!\ r e h c a te i\iiiericaii la\!\' g d le w f o o , 11 le e k c1 t 11 u u b b e g r la a s s e s s o p . ,r . 1 · 110t 11ecessai-ilJ c a , p 1 ty a b 1 1 y, c x it e f 1 · e l1 t d n a s s e 11 e r a ' ' \1 a rattier a l)road cal judge11 ti ly a n ents a 1 l, a ic it r c e is c r e x e to i1 o aiic1 ii,clii,ati 1 t l1 e b �g e g m \!\ l1 11 d li 11 il A . s 11 0 ti. a u it s l e v o 11 iii coniplex a11d . g l o 1n s 1 v n le b o r p to ts u 1p i1 e v to t1azard innovati e to 111 e 11 ti. 111 o1 ti fr in ad l1e a to 1e 11 ca s ce en er ff di Tliese l na er f xt o "e n io ut it st in e th to 11g ti la re discussio11s r it a fo ed cr 1ic en ad ac ll fu of 11g 1ti a1 gr c1egrees," tl1e Sucl1 credit . ce en 11d po es rr co by ly re 1ti e1 11 ke ta 1 an JJ1-ogr \v la of y,. ar ud ye 1e st 01 r fo 1ly 01 t ]Ju a bi 111 Za i11 ed id i.s prov Full credit, l10\!\1ever, 111ay be offered at tl1e University of Bots\va11a, Lesotl10 a11c1 S\!\1azila11d and perl1a1Js else \vl1ere. As i.t 111ay sL1ggest tl1e crux of the debate, some furt11er con1n1e11t about exte1-11al degrees may be app1-01Jri.ate. lf tl1e la\vye1· is only' a tecl111icia11, 011e \vl10 carries V11i.tl1 l1i.111 a boc1y' of i11for111atio11 witl1 ready - recall and possesses a certai.11 an10L111t of sl<ill i.11 fi11ding tl1e rules, eclL1cati.011 b�l corres1Jo11de11ce 111igl1t be sufficie11t. But \vhere _n1ore is expected, 111ore 111ust be provided i11 tl1e educatl ve p1·ocess. 111 the U11i reel States considerably n 1ore l1as bee11 de111c111ded of tl1e la\!\1ye1-. A11d tl1ere is 1:a �dl� a law scl1ool of sta11di11g v\1l1ich gives any credit for stL1cly b)' correspo11de11ce. �n1e den 1a11ds of tl1e la,v,,er 111ay 1Je ex� 1Jla111e · d 111 · JJart. byr tl1e dy11a111ic l1i.story : , �11d c1evelopn1e11t i.11 tl1e U11ited States, pe1·J 1aps of. la\!\ s0111erl1111g aki,1 to \'' " llat ;'f .· -� 11cc1 1s 110w experiencing. a\,� l,a� lJee11 i11 fer111e11t i.11 tl1e U11ited States si.11ce \ � �i Bl-� c< � ie 8 Coiiiiiieiita·ri.es first \:Ve11t 011 a11 A111e1·ica11 c11cL11t 111 sadc1le 1J-a L c gs • · • a\\' aii ct 1 egal i11sti.tuti.ons and tl1e societ, > ailc1 eco110111J' 111 \�hicl1 tl1eyr l1a ve fu11ctio11ed liave I)ee11 tra11sfo1 -1 11 e c J tliese past t\VO �1u11dred years, a11d tl1e law tra.i.iled h·cl ve bee11 111ove1-s 111 tl1 e proces s. Tl1e ,vi 11ds of cl1a c ige are no\\' JJe 11etrati11g, a11d tl1ey aJ)JJroa cli gale for�ce. I...a\, , a11d la\\'''e a1 1d rs ac ti 11g J ' c reacr1.1· 1g, ar- e JJart of ti11. s revoluti.011ary process. 111 a

30 '

real se11se it is tl1e U11ited States mo1-e tl1a11 a11y otl1er 11 �ti. ?11 tl1at sl1ould be cl1aracterizecl as "develo1Ji11g". S1m1lar cl1a11ges are at \v: o1-k i11 1\frica, bL1t tl1ey are 1nore n1ocle �t a11cl te11�at \ve .. BL1t tl1e ;\frica11 JJeoples l1old l1igl1 pro1111se of ach1ev111g 111 tl1ei1- ow11 fasl1io11 L111iqL1ely developed societies. Expectatio11s are creating de111a11cls a11d dema11ds n1ore expectatio11s. ;\frica' s 11eeds for tl1e social e11gi11eer, fo1- tl1e i.magi11ative lawyer see.111 to be tl1e sa1ne as i11 ;-\111eri.ca. Tl1e develop111ent of sL1cl1 a lav, yer i.s a co111plex task. He shoL1ld, of course, l1ave a broad u11clersta11di.11g, 111ore tl1an just a fa111iliarity \\1 itl1 se\1eral discipli11es. Son1e Ltni versi.ty exposure other tl1an l1is legal educatio11 would seen, to make se11se. DL1ring his tl11-ee-Jrear sti11t tl1e la,v student will accumL1late n1L1cl1 inforn1ati.011 about tl1e lav,1, from at least a ge11eral u11dersta11ding of the legal inl1erita11ce fron1 Engla11d or Fra11ce or Spai11 to an appreciation of tl1e vast statutorJ' cl1a11ges \Vhicl1 l1ave been and are still bei11g made i.11 all of tl1e various legislatures. But tl1e A111eri.can law stude11t 's primary concer11 a11d tl1at of l1is faculty is i11 tl1e clevelopn1e11t of analytical skills, tl1e ability to syntl1esize, a11cl the aL1claci. ty to thi11k origi11al ly. A11d tl1ese are best acqL1i reel throL1gl1 the clash of ideas, tl1e chaste11i11g effect of strenuous argu1ne11t, a11d tl1roL1gl1 tl1e i11terplay of vigorous a11d able n1i11ds. Tl1is ca1111ot 1Je acl1ieved through correspo11de11ce. A sl1arp11ess of 111i11d i.s 11ot l1011ed i11 tl1e collection of lecture 11otes. It i.s tl1e active involven1ent of both teacl1er a11d stL1de11t vvl1ich is tl1e key; not wl1etl1er tl1e teacl1i11g n1aterials are collectio11s of cases or wl1ether tl1e teachi11g methodology is Socratic. NJ ost 1\n1eri.can teachers ha \re found, as a n1atter of fact, that the Socratic system in its pL1re forn1 is not appro priate for most African stL1de11ts, vvho are considerably yoL1nger than tl1e average American law stL1de11t a11cl have had n1L1cl1 less academic exposure. Wl1at is importa11t is direct participation by tl1e stude11t. \Vl1ere icleas a1-e tested in open debate, are exposed to sl1arp a11d critical analysis by botl1 teacher and stuc]e11t, tl1ey become part of the stL1cle11t 's own ideas, part of his ow11 L111derst�11di11g. 1

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te e 11 o th to c 1 xts i11 11 1 1e tl te a e r to le b . a e b n 1e r1 [-le sl1ould 11 e p ay th el l1 m e li d 11 f\ e. v ti a r Je 0 e b 1 c y • . • • \VI1l· CI1 ti1 ey nia es 1n h1s 111 ti 1u 11 m o c e th g 11 ti c e ff a 1s 11 le b o solve tl1e JJr }Jla c e a11d i11 11 is ti111e. TJ1e differences described above prese11t tl1e c? u11tries of Africa ,vitl1 u11ique op1 JortL111ities to develop tl1e1r o,vn professio11al syste111s. Yet, for tl1e d� velopme11t of 11ew _ institLltions clea11 slates are 11ot prov1ded. 1l1ere 1s a1 ,71,ays tl1e �ask of cortendi11g v\1 i tl1 olcl imprin_ts a11d te11de11cies to repeat patter11s clevelo1 Jed dL1r1ng one s I JLIJJilage or 11ovitiate. T11e resulting stresses l1a ,,e ebbeel a11d flov\1ed, but tl1ey l1a \1e al\i\1 ay s been present, a11d tl1e role wl1icl1 la,vyers will ultin1ately play in African societies is still u11certai11. Afri.ca11 Lavv FacLtlties 1 l1ere are 110V11, December 1 971, 43 so,rereig11 states i11 /\f1-ica. These are listed i11 tl1e Su1·vey of I11stitutions of Legal Ec1L1catio11 i11 Africa}· whicl1 also 11otes tl1e 43 la'"' schools or facLtlties vvl1icl1 l1ave bee11 establi.sl1ed in 24 of tl1e 43 cou11tries. 1\n1erica11 assi.sta11ce in one form or a11otl1er 11as bee11 jJrovided i11 14 of tl1e 43 scl1ools, as 11oted i11 tl1e a1J1Je11dix. Forn1al i11strL1ction i11 tl1e co111111011 la,v \:VclS }Jerl1aps first gi ve11 i11 1936 i11 tl1e Sudan. 171e 11eV11 est faculty of law was establisl1ed i11 tl1e U11iversity of Nc1i1·obi i.11 July 1970. .,

There are, of course, n1a11y simila1·iti.es i11 ori.o-in a11d acl111i11istratio11 a11cl pur1Jose, a11d tl1e vai'i.ous instit�tions ca11 be groL1pecl accorcli11g to tl1ei.r ju1·is1Jru dentia l bias: _ Ai·abic, Fre11cl1 -ci.vi1 lc1.\.V, 1\11glo-A111erica11 con1111on lavv · Yet eacl1 scl1o ol i.s qL1i. te cli.sti.11ctive. 1\ Iii.story of t�1e111 all \VOLtlcl be e11c)rclopedi.c and }Jerlia ps riot of _ _ _ gei �er �l 111te1·est. But so111e co11111101 1 JJ· roble111s i11 tl1e estalJl· 1sl1111e11t• o··f tl.,l e fa 1t·les \i\1 1.11 be 0L1tli11ed. f\1Iore c cLl. • t�1an a s1,etcl11 11g '"'OLtld l)e n1isle aad z i1 1g li . e1 1e I\1 ra os o t · b . t1011s te11d to be fatLIOLIS 01. l1 1aJ)})l.1c a b le i.11 cl1a11gi11g C

l. trif 1:a }) . 181 et seq

cot1texts, parti.cL1larly those affectecl by tl1e i.cli.osync1·asi.es of clo1nina11t ancl co11trolli.t1g 1Je:rso11ali.ti.es. Tl1e con1mo11 proble1ns are i1rese11ted i.11 t�,o 1Jarts, tl1ose affected by inter11al factors a11d tl1ose i.11flL1e11ced by forei.g11 i11stitL1ti.011s. T11e forn1e1· i11clL1cle (a\ "J_,a\,v a11cl Poli.tics", the conflict bet\veen gover11111e11tal aL1tl1ori.ty a11d stabi.li.ty 011 tl1e 011e l1and a11d acade1ni.c freedon1 011 tl1e otl1er, (b) "Nati.011al or Regi.011al La\v Scl1ools ", tl1e occasi. onall)r di. vi. si ve effect of etl1ni.c a11d 11ati.011al loyal ti.es on L111i.versit)r pla11ni.11g, (c) "Faculty Con1pe11sa.ti 011 a11d Con1peti11g IndL1cen1ents ", (d) "1\fri.ca11 StL1clet1t Attitudes", tl1e l1a1·mful effects of status a11d eli.tisn1, a11d (e) "Fi.11anci.ng Educati.011", tl1e problen1 of scl1olar shi.ps and s tLtde11t obli.ga tio11s. Tl1e }Jroble111 s i.nflL1enced b)' foreign i.nsti.tutions stem fron1 tl1e conflict betwee11 forn1er colonial i11flue11ces a11d tl1e desire to establi.s11 i.ndi.ge11 0L1s institutions a11cl faculties. Di.scL1ssed below are (a) "Two Special B1·i.ti.sl1 I11flL1e11ces", exte1·11al exa1ni.11ers and the professional scl1ool, a11d s0111e of the proble111s relating to (b) "F1·ancopl1oni.c Africa11 Law Faculties", and (c) "i\rabi.zati.011''. Inter11al Problems The ft ve internal i.11flue11ces on the de,;,relopn1ent of J\fri.can law faculties \Vl1i.cl1 are 11oted below 1na)r be founcl i.11 a11y cl1a11gi.11g society. Their i1nporta11ce woL1ld see1n to be cli.rectly proportio11ate to tl1e 11eed for cha11ge. La \71/ and Politics Law considered as a dy11an1ic facto1� i11 society has a kinsl1ip witl1 fine arts. There are similarities i11 tl1eir teachi.110- a11d vocatio11al }JUrSLli ts. Botl1 are exacti.11g discipli.�1es wh.icl1 rec1ui.re con1pete11ce a11d skills of a higl1 orde:r. Each 111ay ·forge i11 tl1e society it serves a 11ew a\vake11i.11g a11d co11t1-ibL1te vitally to tl1e spirit a11d esse11ce of its times. Both may dege11erate i.11to tl1e 1nu11da11e a11d hackneyred a11d become only clescri.pti.ve a11d repetitive. To eacl1 di.sci.pli11e come all sorts of me11, the gifted a11cl i.11ane, the sai11t a11d clevi.l. BLtt tl1e pro1ni.se of i.11tellec tual liberty, of creati.vi.ty, of service to co11ce1Jts vvhicl1

11t n1ind. e d 11 e p d e 11 i d 1 1 1 1a l a i g i r o e l1 t 'S \\ a r d 1nove 1nen h ey T e s. u l a v l a i c e p s e v a 1 l s \V tl1u a l d 11 a t r a f o s t r 11 e 1e r11 e d an d e C g \ ll a c ti a r c � f d e mo _ s 11 o ti a 11 e e · f1 y b d e iz r 1J e ar de 1 11s t 1tutes of f1 11e r a g t 11 a v a e l1 drea ded b y autocrats. T 1 1 0 11 g tl1 e first 1 a e r e ,v y 11 a 1 11 r e arts and arcl1itecture i n G e r , a11 d l it I-l y b d e k c a tt a e b acade1nic institutio11s to e e11 found b t o 11 e v a 1 l a ic fr A 1 i1 1depe nden t la\v facultie s i1 e h T e11ts . m n r e v o g 11 ia r a it r o th tole rabl e by 1\frica1 1 aL1 L1 1 1i versity co m n1ue th 11 i y lt u c fa w la relative IJO\<ver of a r 11me nt e v o g 1g i1 t c e ff a 1 s r e tt a 1 n 1 l it 11ity a11d its co11ce r11 v\ 1 o 1ce rn a11d c e ok ov pr ' l> ab d 1 1 ta rs e d un r e a11d tl1e pL11Jlic ord u ly e tr ar ul t r ic pa is s l1i T y. 11 i 1t rL sc al ci fi of al ofte11 SJJeci 1 l1icl1 l1ave \\ t s, n e 1 11 rn e v go y ar it il 1 itl1 dictatorsl1ips a11 c1 m 'A l e ve n army e \:\' no e ar e er 1 l T . e c 11 ta or gro,v 11 to sucl1 i1 11p 1 0 hundre d t\\ e th of f al 1 l e on it oL ab regi1 11e s co1 1trolli11g 1nilli.011 JJeople i.11 sL1b-Sal1ara11 1\fric a. 1. Tl1 e se can brook 110 qL1e stio11i11g of tl1 eir aL1tl1 01·ity 11 or i11 te rfe re11ce \vi.th Eve1 1 civilia11 gove 1·11 111ents i11 l\f1·ica do tl1e ir deci.sio11s. 11ot fee l abl e to 1Je r111it \\/ e ll orga11ized oppositio11. The co11dL1 ct of u11i.versitie s a11cl of tl1eir stude11 ts is tl1 us a 1natter of go\1er11 me11tal co11ce r11 i11 e acl1 Africa11 11atio11.

Gl1a11a was tl1e first of th e 1 1e\\1 1\frica11 states i11 sub Sa�1ara1 1 1\frica to acl1ieve i11cleJJe 11de11ce . Tl,is \vas in 19::>7. Legal education be ga11 i11 late 1958 'A'itl1 tl1e 01Je1 1i11g of t �1e Gl1a11a La,: Scl1 ool, a 11011 -univer sity 111sti.tutioi1 cles1g11ed to prov1cle eve11i11g i11 structio1 1 0 oe ai·e d to Parts 1 · 11s. Tl1e Oe partn1e11t · at10 . 111 · of tl1 e E11 glis11 Bar· exam a11d II . . . . of La\:\' 111 tl1e �n1�e ·rs1ty Coll ege \Vas o1·ga11ize d i1 1 1959 a11d acc�pted lts f11·st stucle11ts for tl1e October 1959 JL111e 196() acadeini.c ye ac 1. · 13 Llt. t 1 1e gr e at \va,,e of opti.111is111 . e se 1. 11st1. tutio11s a11d \\'I. llC11 greet.ed tlie establ· 1· 8 1 1111e 11t. of tl1 . 11ce of Gl1a1 1a tlie en1erge _c 1. 11to . .111d e1Je11 de1 1t sove reig11t>' soo11 gave vvay to a1)J)·r·el1e11s1 o11. J,..7· , e l) 1·e .1 d e11t of tl1e Republ1c, � . . 1< \\1 a1n e Nki·u111a1i, aiicl al1 tlio e 111 l11s e11tot1r age b eg a11 to � _ view tl1e u1 11versi.tv 'A'"tl1 SL l)lClOll . Pa1·ticular criti.cisn1 � \ \Vas leve l eel at t11e ·1 i:l\>\� f c r r) .1Ja1·e11tly l)ecaL1se of its � i.11cle 1Je 11clet1ce a11cl lc1cl, ;� iL1�s'e i ''1 e11ce to gover11me11t a11d I.

[ -ToagTa11cl ' "Oga · 11c la c ,s·111ce tli e c Oltp: Sli.di1 1g To\va1·d Chaos" Tlie \�'asliitlg '-- toi1 p 0st' SLiiiday, Se 1Jte1 11ber 1 2, 1971 JJlJ. Bl, B4.

. The la\v faculcy was e11gagecl i.11 beco111i.11g pa1-cy poli.cies _ _ a11 effectt ve, 1nde1Je11dent i.11stitL1tion of l1i.gl1er lear11i11g vvitl1 ope11 i11q_L1i1-y a guicling pri11ci1Jle. 1� 11ere ,�as tl1us a steadJr deteri.oratio11 i.n govern1ne11t-L111i.versit1r relati.011sl1ips wl1 i.cl1 was accelerated bJ' political events a11cl by vvha t the l aw clea11 described as tl1e Preside11t 's cleepeni.11g sense of i.11securitJ'· 1 . Fi11ally, tl1e dea11 a11d a se11i.or lav..1 lectL1rer, both f\n1ericans, were su111n1a·ri.ly deJJortecl i.n February 1964. Tl1e otl1er 1\me1i ca11 teacl1ers co11ti.11 Liecl at tl1ei.r posts u11ti. l tl1e e11d of tl1e acaden1i.c year, as requested by tl1e dean befo1-e l1is departL1re a11d in defere11ce to tl1e 11eeds a11d wishes of tl1e stucle11ts. BL1t fL1rther teachi11g beca1ne di.ffi.cult i.f 11ot impossible. 1\ll of tl1e f\meri.can teachers wi.thd1-e,,1 by the su1111ner of 1964. It i.s di.fii.cult to si.ft the u11derlyi.11g causes of substance from the petcy jealousies a11d a111biti.011s wl1icl1 color a11y widening breach. Some disgru11tled teacl1ers had tl1e ear of the President and we1-e able to feed l1i.s suspi.cior1s a11cl fears. V\'11en a special court acquitted a ma11 accL1sed of plotting agai.nst tl1e President's life, it seen1ecl to Nkrun1ah that his 0,,1 11 jLtdi.ciary '"'as supporting treaso11able conduct. IIis - di.sn1i.ssal of tl1e Cl1ief JL1 sti.ce v..1 as publicly protested by tl1e Uni.ve1-si.�r stucle11ts a11d by the Vice Chancellor. Tl1is led to tl1e governn1e11t 's ope11 l1ostili.cy to tl1e University a11d all expatriate teacl1ers. 011e factor i.n tl1e deportatio11s mi.gl1t be termed the a11ti. -intellectual strai.n i11 the Presicle11t' s parcy, tl1en the 011ly effective political orga11izatio11 i.11 Gl1a11a, tl1e Co11ventio11 Peoples Parcy. Tl1i.s a11ti -i11tellectuali.sm is perl1aps inherent i11 a11y autocratic g1-ou1J� . In a11J' eve11t the CPP viewed the U11i.versi.cy \Vi.tl1 susp1c1011. It sougl1t to infiltrate a11cl co11trol tl1e stucle11t body a11d to use the U11i. versi.cy pri.mari.ly as a tool for parcy i.11doctri.natior1. Te11sions mounted \vi.th eacl1 atte1npted i11cursio11. Wl1e11 the deportati.011 orders ,vere a11nou11ced, tl1e situation became explosi.ve. Yet, 011 tl1e aclvi.ce of tl1e Vi.ce Cha11cellor a11d tl1e Ltrgings of most facLtlcy n1en1lJers, 1.

op. ci. t. supra p. 18, at J)p. 76 et seq. (Iarvey, -

1 ey n1 ai.11tai.ned T 1 . atio11s r no11st tl1e stucle11ts avoided der ed despite o v o r p e b o t � d e s u f e a11cl r 1 ln a c y a r 11 . i cl r o a tr a n ex tl 1e U111 versi.t y f o 11 io s a v 11 . i 11 a CPP use o f mob v io le11c e , e p l u a it r u v s u e l1 t d 11 a , g 11 . i k a e r b 1 v. o d 11 . i , . ,, 1e n o o·rou11ds s o rce, tl1 e f f o n o ti. s o JJ p o 1e tl t L1 o � ti.ve pl�cards. But with recl . a e p p a is cl 11 o o s mob v.1 as deflated a11d al d am age ic s y h e IJ l tt li d e r e ff L1 s 171ough tl1e U11iversity a rk e d ly cl1 an ged 1 n ty li a u q s it , b o m a t tl1e l1ands of tl1e l 1e t d 11 s a r e l1 a c te te ia r t a p x e e 1 tl v_,-i.tl1 tl1e departL1re of rdi.11g to th e De a11 o c c A . s e ic o v . t 11 de 11 pe e si.le11ci.11g of i 11d tl 1i.ng to do ,vi.tl1 11o ad l1 1s 01 ati. rt po cle 1 l1e of tl 1e lav. facL1lty t an1ental 11d fu e th to e or m d te la re , l1e T 1 race or color. titutions s in ic m de a ac of rt a 1e l l1e t at li.e JJri11ciples ,vl1i.cl1 t er of N krumal 1 s ou e th 1 tl i \N 11. ti.0 1a g1 . si e cl e tl1 ,vorthy of t l 1e U11i. versi ty l1as gra clually wor ked i ts ,vay b ack to tl 1e s on uti ti.t 11s t . i 1es fi.1 tl1e of e on s a cl ye 11jo e e c 011 i.t 1 io1 sit }Jo of l1i.gl1er lear11i.ng i11 Africa. Gha11a vi ev,1ed i ts U11iversi.ty 'A'itl1 botl1 p ri.de a11d a1Jprel1e11si.011. Tl1is w as 11o t par ti.cL1larl1r u11usL1al. Most d evelo1Ji.11g �oci.eti.es eqL1ate tl1e }JO\;ver of dissent, perl 1aps eve11 �l1e ex1ste11c e of a11 articulat e oppositi.011, as ,veak11ess 111 tl1e Establis l 1n1e11t. A11cl t l1 e rulino· b eli te vie,v t11e free� Io111 of i.11qL1i r)' a11cl clebate as i.11imic al to tlleii- auto �rat1c r�le. 1\ u11i versi tj' is tl1e refore of te11 dee111ed 111h er�11t1 �, da11g e rous, a11cl several clevic e s ar e used to _ l<eep l t \V1 tl1111 tolerable boL111ds if 11ot sL1bservie11t. '171e use of stLt de11t· 1· 11f 01-111ers is a tecl111ique 'A' l 1icl1 l1as be� 11 a ct ?JJtecl b1' several 1\frica11 go,,er11n1e11ts to assess if 11or co11 tr �l teacl1er }Jerfo1-111a11c e . Co ert 1·e1Jo rti.110· v _ 0 _ _ . 1t, of . carr1es ,v1 tl1 coLrrse' a ll 1 e e ':ls of c la11desti.11e O}J erati.011s. 1 11 a. Litii.v ei· 1. t_, s tt�-1� 11g 1:t 11 1a y ofte11 reflect _ � . ) � . e r e o t l1 1 a11 mosi t i es 811 rn eJu� ces of tl1 e re1Jor ter tl1an a11y JJossib l e tli re;:1.t to tlle ��curit� ' of tl1e l1as Tl1i . s s tat e . 1 . l1clJJ}J e11ecl 011 se,,eral Occas10 11s ,vl1 e11 tl1 e re1Jo1-te1- '"'as a . clisgrL111t led stL1de11� I 11 lle OLlllti-y a st uden t i.11former � � re1Jo1· tecl clirec tl v t� ti e l ellt o f l e COllTitrJ' that an � � � � ;� : e t e 1 11 11 a c \ ri t eac 1 r li a c llt 1 ta111ed cr1t1 f _ c al a11d l 1armfu l d1scL1s sio11s of 111· ...5 i-eg.11 · 11e . t\ l t l1oug.1 1 t he re1Jort l1ad 110 factual l)asis ' tli e p 1_ e._s1. de11t . reac te d IJ rec11J i tous11,. [-le

took to the ai.r, de110L111ced the lav,, facL1lty, tl1e f\fri.ca11 dea11, a11cl tl1e f\me1-i.ca11 law teacl1er, vvl10 vvas servecl ,vitl1 a tvventy-four l1our deportati.011 orcler. It was only tl1rough tl1e skill and persiste11ce of the f\n1eri.can An1bassado1- tl1at the order ,vas cancellecl. But tl1e }JOssi.bi.lity of SL1cl1 i.n1petL10L1s reactio11 to false reJJorti.11g prese11ts a co11ti.11ui.11g prol1len1 i.n some cou11tri.es. Most Afri.ca11 go,1ernn1e11ts, of coL1rse, are co11si.derably more so 1Jl1isti.cated in tl1e l1a11dling of stL1de11t re1Jorts and 111ore jucli.cious in thei.r reacti.011 to reports of critici.s111. U11iversi. ty stL1de11ts tl1en1selves l1ave l)ee11 objects of special concern of n1ost of tl1e 11e,v 11ati.011s of t\frica. They are qL1ickly roL1sed, and tl1eir self-rigl1teoL1s11ess ca11 sL1stai.11 their ange1-. If }Jrovoked by dictatorial n1etl1od.s whicl1 seen1 to refLrte all tl1ey are 1Jei11g taugl1t, tl1ey mi.gl1t topple tl1e state. BL1t tl1eir vigorous i11depe11de11ce is a necessary eleme11t i11 tl1eir 111aturatio11. t\s noted above, clL1ri11g tl1e latter pa1-r of Nl<rL1111ah 's 1-egime a special brancl1 of the Co11ve11tio11 Peoples Party \ÂĽas established in the U11ive1-sity to orga11i.ze tl1e stude11ts i11 support of tl1e Gover11n1ent. All co111111e11ts by stL1cle11ts or facL1lty 111e1nbers ,vl1ich were derogatory of tl1e Government or any of its me111be1-s \1i1ere dutifull1r 1-eported. Tl1e stude11ts we1-e i11 co11sta11t fear of losi11g their scholarsl1ips for any condL1ct ,;vhicl1 migl1t be deemed adverse to tl1e Governme11t. This deplorable sitL1ati.011 a11cl its adverse effect 011 tl1e Uni.versity 's academi.c integrity cli.sappeared 011ly after Nkru111al1 vvas deposed. Such exte11sive spyi11g a11d re1Jorti.ng i. s 11ot k110,,,11 to exist no,v in any part of f\frica, tl10L1gl1 stucle11t reporting on faculty 111e111bers u11doubtedly does co11ti.11ue 111 several cou11tries. Nati.011al or Regio11al Law Scl1ools Pride ancl poli.ti.cs play a co11side1-able part i.11 the establishme11t of lavv faculties and 111 i111plen1e11ti11g or negating regional programs. At tl1e Co11ference 011 Legal Educati.011 in f\ÂŁ1-ica, "''hi.cl1 was 11eld in Gl1a11a i11 1962, tl1e Nigerian delegates di.stributed a mimeograJJl1ecl clocume11t

e r e tu n u 'l f n F O � t r J O f) e :{ e 1 l T 1 11 o r F eiltitled "Extracts t � r o c e Jo e R r s 1 l1 J f ,-. " 11 io s s f� o r Tlie Nigeria11 Legal P t1 l a a c g Lt le d f n e o o 1 n te s )r s a 1g 11 c L1 cl o r 1t • • • c t , ii1 11 111en ded tlla e g d 11 a c t1 1c a 1s 1n x e 1e tl f o 11 e k ta e b e g ta 11 a 111 Nigeii a, adv d tl1 at a 11 11 a a d a Ib , e g e ll o C y it s r e 1v 11 f ac1·1. 1·n·es at the U ly s g a 11 ·,v o Tl r s t _ . 11 s . . e r e th d e h s li faculrv of 1a,v be estab A 1l c f 11 o u o n C 1a r e ig N 1e tl to 1 e is v d suppor ted by tl1e A re o 11 e a b m th ld u o h s re e th lt fe )' 11 a �.il Leo-al Educatio11. , 11 o 11e 1a tw 0 tl re 1o 11 t o n tt bL , ia r e ig N 1 11 y lt u 011; la\\' fac A to io11 g11it eco 1 l ia c e p s e iv g ld Lt o c l1 ic l1 111 tlie Nortl1 \iV d ch ul l1i co ,v an ad Ib 1 11 r l1e ot 1e tl 1d a1 ML1sli111 i11flue11ces 1 hicl1 \iVere \\ s, 1 1 io eg R 1 r1 he ut So e n1eet tl1e 11eeds of tl1 1ed out, r1 it tu As 1. cl oa 1Jr ap i11 w la 101 111 111 co lly ia 11t se es r ve l1 ic 11e ,vh ty si er iv Un 1 a1 ri ge Ni ' 11) 01 e tl1 s vva Ibada11 1 vvas an1011g tl1e first v, La . lty cu fa ,,, la a ed establisl1 faculties 111 tl1e otl1er four u11iversities, Al1maclu Bello, Ife, Lagos, a11cl tl1e U11i.versit>' of Nigeria at N suk ka.

In retros1Ject tl1e reco111me11dation of 110 more tha11 t\\'O 1.a,v faculties for Nigeria \\,as L111realisti.c for t�10 1Aeaso11s. First, it clid 11ot take i11to co11sideration regi.011al or tribal JJride a11 d loyalties vvl1 i.cl1 i.11sisted on tl1e develop1ne11t of local acacle111ic i.11stitutio11s wi.tl1 law 011e of tl1e mo1Ae importa11t of tl1 e faculties. 1\11d seco11dl>', tl1e teachi11g of la,v is 11ot to be equated vvitl1 son1e of tl1e otl1er disci pli.nes sucl1 as n1edi.ci11e or engi.neeri.11g. T 11e latter require costly i11frastrL1ctures. A la,,, library is by 110 111ea11s a co1np;;1·rable burde11. Furtl1e1·, it is 11ot L111rea so11a�le to sL1ggest that eacl1 regio11 l1 a,,e an adequate \VO':k111g lavv li.brarJ' for Ltse b)' stL1de11ts, tl1e practicing bar,. gover11111e11t a11d tl1e judi.ci.arJ'. Furtl1ern1ore, as lclvv 1.s a11 unclergradL1ate discipli11e i.11 n1o st of 1\frica not t� �ea�li_ la\\, i11 cl u�1iversi.t)' is to exclucle a fai.1·ly ba�i.c l)_a1 t of 1ts acacle1 n1 c 1:es1)011sibi.li.ti.es. It 111io·l1t be 0 l1ke11ed to tl1e el·111111 · 1at · 10 11 of a l1i.stor)' depart1ne11t from . a11 A11.1e1A1ca11 college ' 8 o·ffe1A1. 11gs. La be c;:11 stl 1 J' 111u cl1 d0;.1e 111 1110c�est '"'a J'· 111 1784 Tap pi110· l\'eeve establisl1ed · � a a 8 1001111. Li.tclifi.eld, Co1 111ecticuf a11d alo11e provided all t: c ' 1el1 11 � 1st1·L1ct1. 011. for· t·I1e t·11·st few years carried tl1e a11 d 11 011 \\'i.tll tlle a s1sta1 ce of o1 1ly o11e otl1er teacher. A11d i l tl1e TaJ) l) i.11g ve v scliool prodl1ced s01ne e111i11ent � ' 1\n1eri.ca11 8.· ·A:cIA Ol1 turr, ]01111 C. Call1ou11, [-Iorace I\1ann. A

Etl111ic cliffere11ces a11d tribal loyalties l1ave l1acl a marked effect 011 the cleveloJ)111e11t as vvell as establisl1111e11t of L111iversities a11d lavv faculties 111 Nigeria. ,.l-l1e>' seen1 to l1ave bee11 011e of tl1e 111aj or caL1ses of a co11t·ro versy v\1hi.cl1 a l111ost clestroyecl tl1e U11iversiLy of Lagos i11 1965. l. A sL11n111a1-y 1-eport n1igl1t be of ge11eral i11terest. 011e 111ust fi.1-st L111clersta11cl s0111etl1i11g of tl1e 01-ga11izatio11al strL1CtL1re of B1-i.ti.sl1 L111i versities, vvl1icl1 I1as been largelJ' foll0\\1 ecl i.11 tl1e u11i\rersities of A11glo pho11i.c 1\frica. Tl1e U11iversity CoL1ncil 01- tl1e U11i.versitv P1-ovisio11al CoL1nciI co11trols tl1e fi na11ce a11d property of tl1e universit\' a11d 111akes all of tl1e for111al decisi.011s as to appoi11t111e11ts. It is n1ade Lil) 111ostly of lay1ne11, ,, ho represe11t various i11terests sucl1 as local gover1111.1e11t, the alL1mni, tl1e busi11ess con1111u11ity, pLllJlic life. 1�!1e acade111ic staff of the universitJ' is also rep1-ese11tecl 011 the CoL111cil. It is, 110\vever, tl1e Se11ate v\ l1icl1 l1as "effective sovereig11tJr' over acade1nic affc:1irs. Tl1e Senate is co111posed a ln1ost exclL1si vely of 111e111be1:s of staff, mostly of professorial 1-a11l<. Si1- Eric 1.\sl1bJ' !1as pointed out tl1at, "·TI1e co11ve11tio11 of co11t:rol fo1- acade111ic affairs \\1orks by regulaLi11g tl1e directio11 of flovv of business. It \VOLild be little sl1ort of sca11dalous for tl1e CoL111cil to issLie a clirective to tl1e Se11ate or to elect a professor witl1out aclvice from 111en1bers of tl1e Se11ate .... 2. •

1. Opposi11g views of tl1e causes of tl1e crisis are containecl 111 two reports: Cl1a11ge i11 \1 ice 11 1 Chancellorsl1ip, 1\11 Official Publicati.011 1 tl1 a11 i11troductio11 by tl1e Cl1airma11 of tl1e Pro visio11al Cou11cil; a11d The Trutl1 AboL1t tl1e Cha11ge 111 Vice-Cl1a11cellorship by G. I<. Ber1-ie, C. Fielstra, T..F. Nicholso11, P. 0. NsL1gbe, B. 0. NvvabL1eze, 1\. N,;vaefu11a. 11

2. E. Asl1by, 1\frica11 U11iversities & Wester11 Traclitio11 (f-Iarvarcl 196��) J.). 6.

----l1 owever, pr 196 2, oAc t s · · ' La go of · Tl18 U111 vers1Ly l lor be appoi.11 ted b)' the e 1c a1 l1 C etc V vi.�ed t ;.t l1e f.1 � t ): (4) 6 011 (Se cti. � 1. c �1cl cl1at � ter s � 111, lv1l e Pr1111 l or sl 1al l 1ce l -C l1a 1 \li ce Tlle first ye ar s thr ee of ter 111 a for e l10l d offic or ell 11c ha -C ce . \li e11 t 1 L ec su bs y 1 1 a11c1 a1 . . t l 11 11ks ft t it as ter 111s sLi ch slia 11 for . a 1 C u11c1·1 11 o 10 s vt ro P 1e cl y b d e lt ii Jo pi lJe a l 1e f t o rt po re a of 11 o rt ra e i.d 11s co a r te af Seilate: provicled tl1at tl1 e person aJJlJoi11tecl as first Vice-Cha11_cellor sl1all be eligilJle fo r re-a1Jpo111tme11t . 1 11. i.0 ct se tlJ sL is tl1 Lt11 der

1 11 February 1965 tl1e Se11ate of tl1e U11i versi.ty of Lagos o,,e·rvvl1el111i11gly lJassed a resolution recomn1ending tl1e rea1JJJoi.11t111e11t of tl1e first Vice-Cl1 a11cellor, wl1ose first te1·rn of office \:Vas dLte to expire 011 May 31, 1965. 1�11e P1·ovi.si. 011al Cou11ci.l rejected this recommendation a11d aJJ}JOi.11ted i.11steacl tl1 e Pro-Vice Chancellor of tl1e U11i. versit)' of lfe. Tl1e for111e1· vvas Ibo, tl 1e later Y 01·uba. 171e si.g11i.fi.ca11ce of their etl111ic affiliati.011s l 1as bee11 di.s1JL1tecl. 1,11e Cou11ci.l's acti.011 \1-.1as, l 10""1e,,er, i.11ter1J1·eted by 111a11y as tribal - }Joliti.cal i 11te1·fere11ce \Vitl1 tl1e acade111i.c affairs of tl1e Uni.versi�'. \\lhen tl1e 11e\:v a1J}Joi.11tn1e11t \\1as a11 11 ou11 ced i.11 tl1e press, tl1e students ba.rri.cadecl tl1e U11ive1·sity a.11d refused to atte11d classes. rl,l1e clea11s of tl1e va·ri.0L1s facL1 l ties 1Jrotested to tl1e P1·ovi.si.011a l CoL111ci.l. rI'l1e assista11ce of tl1e Prin1e l\1li.11�ster vvas s0L1gl1t to reso l \re tl1e 111at ter. 011 JL111e 14 a c l1 1:1ax \\'els reacl1ed \vl1e11 tl 1e Pr ovisi.011 al CoL111cil _ c1 1s1111 ssecl five of tl1e cl e;:111 s of tl1e U11i v e r s i.cy. Forryr_ f1 \re 111ernlJe1·s o·f ti 1e- acac le1 · 11 1 c staff tl1e11 resi0·11ed or .rec1ue stecl ·reca.ll IJ)' t l1ei.1· s p o 11so rs . 111 e U11i�ersity' can1e to a· l1a c. lt • 171e d ea11 of tl1e la\\' facult)r vvas an1011g . . t11ose cl1s1111ssed b y tl1e } . . ) .t _ ov . 1 s1l)l1al Cou11ci.l ' and n1 ost of.. t_11e 111e 1T 1 l) e·rs of l11 ·s f aculty res1. gned i.11 protest. T.l1e 1. c:11a11ge i. 11 \ti.ce . C l1 a 11c e ll 1 or sl 11 J,, op.. cit. supra. . ·3 l) · , 9 , at lJ. ,3 .

stL1dent barricade \Vas eve11tually removed by the J)olice, a11d tl1e Cou11ci l fi11c1lly closecl the U11i ve1-sit)'. During 111ost of tl1is 1Je1-iod, f1-0111 tl1e first of Marcl1 u11til tl1e middle of Ju11e 1965, tl1e ex1Jat1-iate clea11s, tl1at is tl1e lavv dea11 a11cl t\vo or tl1ree otl1e1-s, vveÂˇre subjected to va1-ious tl1reats i11clL1cli11g tl1at of cleportatio11, a11cl tl1e law dea11 \Vas vilified i11 the press. Tl1e Ibo n1embers of the lav\' facLtlty resig11ed a11d were cruickly absorbed by tl1e la\\' facult)r of the U11i versity of Nigeria at Nsukka, a part of tl1e fo1-111e1- Easter11 Region. The crisis in tl1e University \\1as tl1e tocsi11 of 111ore serious troLtbles. In 1966 there \Vere tVi'O n1ilitary coups a11d on May 30, 1967 tl1e Easter11 Regio11 attem1Jted to secede, proclaiming itself tl1e lďż˝eI JU]Jlic of Biafra. Tl1is plLtnged Nigeria i11to a 1011g a11d devastati11g civil war. Peace a11d stability l1ave 110\v bee11 restored. Tl1e for111er regio11s, \vhicl1 see111ecl to reflect etl111ic or tribal groupi11gs, have been replaced by twelve states. The five u11iversities are 110w Vi1 ell establisl1ed, and tl1e economy of the countr.)' is n1al(i11g remarkable progress. Although it can be argL1ecl tl1at tl1e teacl1i11g of law as a11 Ltndergraduate disci1Jli11e is appropriate to every u11iversity i11 A11glopl1011ic Africa, a11d altl1ough five Nigerian Ltniversities would 11ot seen1 excessive for a popL1latio11 of about sixt_)r-tl1ree 111illio11, tl1ere \:VOLtld be a clissipatio11 of resoL1rces i11 creati11g graduate programs for every law facL1lty. TI1e Co11ference of Nigerian Lavv ., 1 eacl1ers held i11 Zari.a i11 Marcl1 1964 \:Vas critical of the proliferatio11 of u11clergraduate law schools. But tl1ese were recog11ized as facts of life a11d i11 11eed of botl1 SLtpport a11d e11courage111e11t. 1\ll of tl1e facL1lties, ho\Ve\rer, sL1p1Jorted tl1e JJroposal of a single i11stitL1te for postgracluate research a11d sL1pervision, presL1111ably to be located in Lagos. ,.fl1e i11stitute \VOLtlcl be tl1e j oi11t e11terJJrise of all tl1e u11iversi ties. Altl1ougl1 each faculty WoLtld gra11t its ow11 doctoral clegrees tl1e research WOLtlcl be done largely at tl1e si11gle i11stitute \Vl1e1-e ap1J1-opriate

wo uld be li . bra ry, nsi . ve ext e a11 . L11111ecessar�Y d u p11c .1 1· e 8, 111clucli.ng fac1·1·t · an·on 1d 0 \1 a ld u o vv s ce11tered . 1 · Tt1·1 u It l. o e l1 v s le d ld e c 11 a v d a e 1 tl t a s e c r u of library reso . But plans y 11 10 n r a l1 r e s lo c to 11 . i s i.e lt . • · g call four facu b1Ll1 \;ver e 111s t1tu te 11 a suc l1 of 11 11ta ti . 0 for tl1e i.1111Jlen1e 1 av e 110w bee11 11 y 1e T . r a w 1e tl f o sLispei1cted because nt has recently e m 11 r e v o g l a r e d fe 1e tl cl 11 a recoi,si.clered, b 1e t ta r lisl1s s fo e d 1n fL y r a � s s ce e 1 1 1e tl e i.d v ro agreecl to }J e h a l StL1d1es. T g e L d e c 11 a v d i\ f o e 1t tL 01e11r of a11 I11sti. 1 F ac ul ty i.n a V1 a L s o ag L 1e tl ar 111srttute i.s to be l10L1sed 11e is rd t o be 1te s i1 . i ci It . 73 19 by ed et pl 111 co be to g _ lJLli.ldi.i1 1 u1 ry re co . 1t1 e1 e As tl1 e rv se to cl 1 1 a � 1 cl a o J1ap 11 . i }Jli.i1ary 1 . a111r of tl1e N1ger1an 11 o1 fr rs a l l1o sc , ed os op pr ori.gi11ally acil ities in f cl1 ar se re ts e . i us to le ab be 11 \�'i. ies ult fac law ti ve Jec s1 re r ei. tl1 om fr s ee gr cle e 11c a v ad of i.t sL1 JL1r l faculties. tl1e 1964 Ni.geri.a11 Law Teacl1ers Co11ference two sL1ggestio11s \:Vere 111acle to 111ake more con1ple111entary the offeri.11gs of tl1e various law facL1lti.es. It \;vas recom n1e11clecl tl1at lav\1 stL1de11ts be allo�1 ed to ''take p arti.cula1years of tl1ei.r coLtrses at cli.ffere11t u11i.versiti.es a11d seco11dly, tl1 at 11ot all tl1e u11iversi.ti.es offer con11Jlete tl1 ·ree-year LL. B. progra111s but tl1at tl1e tl1i.rd and final 1rear be tal,e11 i.n a. si11gle L111i. versi.tv or i.11 011e of t'll'O 2 L111i.v�1-si.ti.es \:vl1i.cl1 alo11e offered a ·cl1ree-year progran1. · Notl1111 g ca1ne of tl1ese cli.scussi.011s otl1e1- tl1a11 tl1e a11ti. Ci.pated olJjecti.011s, that tl1i.s vvoL1ld i.11volve a11 i11terfere11ce \vi. tl1 tl1e aL1to11on1y of eac\1 u11i.versity, tl1at i.t would be _ clen1ea11111g for a u11i.ve1-si.tyr to offer less tl1an a full tl11·ee )rea1- JJrogra111, i.f it �1ere goi.11g to teacl1 la�, at all. 1\t

11,

. . e acro . l11sti.tuti.011s \vl11c · l1 serv ss 11at1011al boL111dar1es 11ave ;;1 SJJeci.al cattracr·1011, at 1east to tl1ose IJrovidi.ng • adv1ce c:111cl assi.sta . c: 11ce · fr· 0111 abroacl. i11sti.tuti.011s Su cl1 . • : . n1ay l1el1J 111111111,ize JJarocl1iali. s111s a11d e li 11 1i.11ate tl1e 1.

'Co11fere11ce of· N1g . e1�·1a11 Law Teacl 1ers ' I11sti.tL1te O f /\· cl1111. 111. st1.c: �a.rlO · tl, zari.a, Marcl1 27-30tl1, 19 64; l<.ecoi-cl of 8L1s111ess S' es si.oi1s " , M. . 1n1eograpl1, p. 4 -rr.;.;.5 • 2. llJi.cl. J). 4, it4.

mi.sL1nderstandi11gs vvl1i.cl1 are so ofte11 tI1e cause of �nter11ati.?11al �is�orcl. BL1t £01- those \,vl10 \ve·re c1i.rectly 1nvolved 111 bu1ld111g tl1e111 i.n Africa tl1e }Jrin1ary cli.In \,vas t� co�1serve resoLtrces. Tl1e LJ11ive1-si.ty of East 1\fri.ca, \,11th 1ts law facL1lty at Dai- es Salaa111, Ta11za11i.a., i . s perl1aps tl1e classic example. It see111ed to }Jron1ise 11ot 011ly tl1e co11servati.011 of scarce resoL11-ces in fL111cls a11d manpo\,ver but tl1e fosteri.11g of a r · egi.011al respect for lavv and legal develop1ne11t a11cl tl1e builcli.ng of mutual trust a11d u11derstandi.11g betv,1 ee11 tl1e tl1ree 11ati.011s, I< e11ya, Tanganyika (as i. t was tl1e11 ), a11d Uga11da. It was a11ti Ci.pated tl1at eacl1 cou11try vvould develo1J a post-g·radL1ate pre-admi.ssi.011 coL1rse of practical trai.11i.11g, tl1e so called ''professional'' scl1ool, wl1i.cl1 \iVOuld provide tl1e p1-acti.cal training Ltsually associated with tl1e ap1Jre11ti.ce shi.p system i.11 the United l(i11gdo1n. BL1t 110 sL1cl1 course was developed i.n ei.tl1er Ta11zani.a or Uga11da. I<et1ya law g1·aduates were therefore 11ot required to pursue a "professi.011al'' coL1rse for purposes of admissi.011 to the bar, a11d the l(e11ya Law School co11tinued to IJrovi.de, as an alter11ati. ve route to tl1e bar, tl1e l<i.11d of scl1ooli.11g associated \Vitl1 tl1e trai.11i.11g i.11 E11gla11d of tl1e I1111s of Court and the Lavv Society. vVitl1out any postgraduate scl1ooli11g, tl1e Dai- es Salaam graduates \-Vere criticized by so1ne of tl1ei.r first employers, Ltsually gover11n1e11t age11ci.es, tl1e attorney ge11eral 's office, or tl1e jLtdi.ci.ary, as 11ot bei11g sL1ffi ci.e11tly practical i11 their approacl1. The Dar law pro grain was also criticized in l(e11ya and Uga11da as l1aving a socialist bi.as. There l1ad bee11 tall< of a course 011 Tanzanian socialism, but it was 11ever adopted, at least not u11til after tl1e decisio11s 011 separate law facL1lties l1ad ap1Jarei1tly bee11 reacl1ed. T71ere was a _co�:se 011 . "Social a·nd Eco1101nic Problen1s of East Afr1ca , but tl11s was developed by t I1e Dar law facL1lty to pro,,id� e11teri.11g stude11ts with a broad exposL1re to tl1e East Afr1ca11 eco11omic and social structure. It was give11 by a 11Limber of teacl1ers of various political persuasio11s. . , Iowever, rby acade1nic 1969-70 tl1at coL1rse l1ad beco1ne DeveloJJ ment Stuclies '', a11d its clescriptio11 suggested a stroi1g socialist leani. ng. Yet tl1e criticism of so� iali.s111 inay have bee11 an afterthought, 11ot tl1e dete:r1111ng factoi-

Uga11da i . 11 a11d cL1lti.es a f lav-., of 1t 1111e1 bli.sl ta _ esl _ 111 . tl1e ater co st s i.n sendi .11g e gr f o lk a t so al s a w � e l 1 e 1 I( e 11y a. · g L1 tl l 1 10 m , o r s a D e to s 1e tr 11 u o c stL1cle11ts f.1 on1 tl1ose a ve a sserted · h a11 1a z 11 a T 11 . i s r . to a . adn11· 11;_str . s1ty � . U111ver d 1 e nc e co es tl1 s, e rn er . an \\ e er tl1 But ry a 1 · t co11 1 t1e quite 1 s, 1u n 1e \1vl s. TI re t su es 1e 1Jr a l c . ti . li n po i e pl there vver e a c e a a n1e a b 1c fr 1\ t s a E f o y i.t s r e v i l1 U 1 LI P of tl1e brea< a s starte? at t w 11 e tn1 r a e d vv a l a , � foregoi1e conclLtsi.on t a r d a 1J 11 e a r 8 p 1ons 6 1 19 11 e g e ll o C y i.t s r e v i 11 u i\tlakerere a rate l a w f aculty p e s a r fo r a e )r e 111 a s t 1a \;,,,,ere started tl a rtn1ent became the p de e th 70 19 1, ly Ju 111 N airobi.. Q11 d pa la an :1 e a1 th , I( ty rs ve . ni U � re re ke a M of y _ tlt cL fa lavv n 1 tl1 ts 1 \v ow d \\/ la l1e 1s bl ta es as \V bi. ro ai N of ty i. Ur,i. vers r of East Africa . i rs ty ve . 1i U1 e tl1 re fo be y da facLtlt')'. 111e l1ad co111e to a11 e11cl. A

\l\fl1e11 tl1e U11i.versity of East Af1-ica \\1 a s first tl1reate11ed vvi.tl1 fr a gn1e11tati.011, expatriate a ssi.sta11ce soLgl1t to sLtstai.11 a11c1 sL1p1Jort tl1e U11i. versity. T11i.s caused a1111oyance i.11 son1e quarters, but a11y other position 111i.gl1t l1ave lJeen co11strued a.s a11 i.11ducen1ent to b1·eacl1 tl1e u11dersta11cli.11g of tl1e tl1 1Aee cou11tri.es a11cl vvl1at was at least i.n1 1)li.ed i.11 tl1e for111al ag1·ee111e11t. A11d it migl1t l1ave lJee11 co11sidered a11 in1pro1Jer 111ecldling. \i\'he11, l10\\leve1·, tl1e establi.sl1n1e11t of sepa rate l a w faculties i.n l(e11ya a11d Uga11cla lJecan1e i.11evi.talJle, forei.g11 assistance i.11 tl1ei.r cle�el?}J11 1e11t see111ed a1Jt1roJJri.ate. lt was IJrovi.ded on tl1e }J1·111c1ple that a lavv scl1ool 011ce establi.sl1ed sl1ould be a cei1te1· of excelle11ce \Vl1atever tl1e rea so11 fo1· i.ts estab1 i. s 11 n1e11 t. �l,e Utliversi. ty College of l{l1 odesi.a a11d Nyasa la11d v1as cles1gi,ed to 111eet al l of tl1e L111i. versi.t educ atio11al require'l 111e11ts of tile t-111.. -ee ar --eas, No1-tl1er11 l{l1odesi.a, Soutl1ern P.\ l 10c.1es1;; . 1 ' a11d N,r ., casal·c111cj. 1 711s . scl1en1e too ca111e to an e11ct \�'1.tl1 tl1e cle\rel o1)111e11t of tl1e tl11-ee separate sover. 11 . e1g t1es Za1111 J ·. l<.l1o l ' cles1a . , 1\11 V a11d ai.11, tl1e r e 1\g � a l a i . . \ . seeineel 'ro 1)e a fa1lL11 · · · -e to · 111a ke a 1·ea l1st1c ap1Jra1sa 1 of l )Oli.ti.ca1 ..1ea 1.1t1es . ' pe rl1a1Js f . o s eve11 vvi . sl1e of tl1e a si.c b tl1e 1\f1-1·ca11 JJeo1)le 1 s · e · · 111v o 11 l \Nl \red . a lt w for a s o·ht tl1o u tl1 ac t tv,a 'r\JI 1 avv1· o . COL11d . l a w stude11 · se,, d lts at lt')' fa cu ts tl1 e to Da·r es ·-Sal c. aan1, . . bLtt tl11s · l)I- oved 11n1)r a cti.c al and cost ly . L .

111 botl1 Tanza11ia and Zambia , where rl1ere v.,as a11otI1er appare11tly sui tabl � � a\\1 scl1ool, tl1ere were exi)atri ate _ I\/J alaw1an com111L1111t1es v.1 l1icl1 we1·e largel J' a11ti-gover11me11t. Tl1e tl1ree Ma l avvi la,-\1 stL1de11ts se11t to Dar for tl1eir legal edL1catio11 became alie11atecl f 1- 0111 tliei.-r country. Not 011e retL11·11ecl, a11cl tl1e substa11ti. al invest1nent i11 ti me a11cl n1011ey \Vas tota1 ly lost to M ala\vi. including, of course, the tale11t i.tself. Furtl1er, 1�a11v i11 Mal awi fel � tl1 at t ?e com111L1n i ty in Dar \,vas too foreig11 _ f ro1n both a l111gL11st1c a11d etl111i.c sta11clpoi11t. /\11cl lastlJ', it was appare11tl y tl1e vi ew of Dr. l(an1 uzu Ba11da, tl1e Preside11t of Mala ,:vi., tl1at, sinee J)Oliti.cs cl1a110-e so rapidly i n 1-\f rica, one coL1ld 11ever be certain ci1c:1t the l a,v f ac ulty a t D ar would alv, ays be ava ilable to [\/J al a\-\ i students. f-Ience, i.t \\1 as importa11t to develop a11 aJ)pro pri .ate i11sti.t uti on in l\tl al awi for tl1e edL1catio11 of l\/l alawi lawyers. 1

·Toe onl)' regi.011al u11iversity 111 Africa \Vl1i cl1 sta11cls a ve1-y good cl1a11ce of survival, at least over tl1e 11ext severa l yea rs, i.s tl1e U11i versi.ty of Botswa11a, Lesotho and S,va ziland, for111e r ly tl1e U11iversi ty of BasL1tola11d, Bechua11aland Protectorate a11d S,;vazi la11cl. Tl1e tl1ree cou11tries wh ich tl1e U11i.ve rsity serves vvere 011ce Comn1 issio11 referred to collectivel}' as tl1e [ Iigl1 Te rritories. The seat of tl1e U11iversity is i11 l"{o1na, son1e twenty mile s outside of MaserL1, the capital of tl1e l(ingdom of Lesotho. Tl1ere wa.s at 011e ti n1e talk of tl1e establisl1ment of separate professional q uali.ficati.011 progra n1s in Bots\v a11a a11d Swaz ila11d, bLit tl1e l aw facL1lty i.n :Rom a 1net the imn1ediate co111pla i11ts tl1rougl1 exter11al progra111s a11d the provisio11 of some i11strL1cti.011 i.11 both Gaberonesand Mbabane, tl1e c ap itals of tl1e tvvo coL111tries. But it has bee11 tl1e l. i1ni . tat i o11 of reso urces, botl1 fL1nds and tale11t, whi ch ha ve 1)reve11ted tl1e br eal( up of tl1e rica11 lhiversity. 111 al l of tl1ese developments a fe,v An1e _ teachers played key roles 111 the law f aculLJ' a11d 111 a very direct way p rovi c1ed the initiati ve to 111eet _the . criticisms which m ight I1 ave resulted i.11 tl1e U? 1vers1tJ' s di.ssol uti.011. These con tributi ons ,,,ere esse11t1ally diplo1n ati.c a11d did 11ot i11vol ve tl1e tak i11g of any particular political posture.

Teacl1i11g at "UBLS", tl1e co111rno11 re�ere11c� to the U11ive1·sitJ', ofte11 e11tailed political �ons1. d erc1t1011s because of the 11ecessary relatio11sh1ps to tl1e Republ1c of S0L1 tl1 1\f1·ica. I...,esotl10 is a11 e11cla\1e i11 Soutl1 Africa. 011e is 1·equired to 1Jass througl1 Soutl1 African cl1eckpoi11ts to e11ter Lesotl10, even tl10L1 gl1 tl1e I< i11gdon1 110w l1as a srnal l ai1·field of its 0\\111. But desJJite tl1ese i.n1posi.ti.ons, tl1e i111porta 11ce of developi.11g \;vorki.11g relatio11s ,vi.tl1 South 1\frica \\'els obvioL1s to 111a11y of tl1e teachers at Rorna 1 011g before a11J' "dialogL1e" \.\1 as seriously' suggested l)y so111e of tl1e i11clepe11cle11t 1\frica11 cou11tries. lt l1as bee11 l101Jed tl1at UBLS could co11tribL1te to tl1e solLtti.011 of tl1e 1·acial JJrob 1e111 l)y setting a11 exan1ple of excelle11ce for S0L1tl1 1\frica11s of botl1 races to see. And i.t l1as lJeen l101)ed, a11cl 1J1·esu111ably sti 11 co11ten1p lated, that \vorki11g relatio11sl1ips coulcl l)e cleveloped bet\\1een UBLS a11d the so-called Ba11tL1sta11 u11iversities, sucl1 as tl1e Uni. versity Col lege of ZulL1 la11cl, a11cl pe1·l1aJJS \Vi. tl1 s0111e of the otl1er 111aj or u11i.\rersi.ties sucl1 as Cape To\v11, Durban, Stel le11boscl1, vVi.tv,1 atersra11cl. Duri. 11g tl1e past several srea1·s so111e consideration l1as lJee11 gi ve11 to tl1e establisl1111e11t of "links" bet,veen UBLS a11cl tl1e la\\1 faculty at tl1e Universiljr of l\1c:1la,,1 i.. 171is JJossibi.lity ,vas discL1ssecl ,vi.th faculty 111en1be1·s i.11 botl1 i11stitLiti. 011s, a11d s0111e co111p le n1e11ta1--)' procrran1s \Ve1·e co11sidered, JJarticLtlarly i.11 tl1e fi.elcl of l{o1�1a11-Dutcl1 La,v. But as of tl1e cur1:e11t \v1·i.ti11g 11otl1i.11g co11c1·ete l1as bee11 - v e:e1·, tl1e varioLts facto1·s ,vl1i.cl1 precl uded 1�1-oJJosed. I Io,, tl1e use by t\�ala,v1::111s of tl1e la\.\' faculties at Oa1- es Sala�11� or I.Jusc:1ka, Z::1 1 11bia are 11ot JJ1·ese11t. Co111ple111e11ta1y prog1·a111s are tl1l1s still {Jossible. 1�11e_ clea11 of tl1e l::1\\1 facLtl.l)' of tl1e Ui1i ,rei·si.tJ' of T\1al��v 1, l1ovveve1·' looks 11101·e to tl1e de ve loJ)n1e11t of _ ��stg_rad.uate . a11cl 1·esea1·cl1 fc1ci.liti.es to e11cou1·0-e tl1e b ro'"'tl1 of reg10 11a l ce11te1-s of lea1·111· 110c,· - .,�-\. so111ec,\\' h at · ·1 · . . s11111 .c1r c1]JJJ1·oacl1 lS be i11 0· ex ' pl or ·e d 1· 1 1 so ut l r1ca, 0 1e1·11 f\f · _. . . ·111. N . . 1 1ge11.a c1S 110ted, 111 Gl1c111a, a11cl 1·1 1 E� tl. 11 op1a and 111 JJer-1lea]JS o11e o·r t\.\'O otl1er cou11t1·i.es · Bll t . 1t 1. s o ' f col1rse . tl1e at c ·1 11s lJl�OlJ?s1_11g su�l1 ce11te1·s \.vl1i.cl1 se ek tl1ei.r �� . f est l lS 1111e11t \V1tl1111 tl1e11· respect1·,,e do 111a111s.

Faculty Co111pe1 1sa ti.011 a 11d C o1n1t"'1er-,lL l· n-.,· rn l ""tU -e·--. l I e 11 ( .S ;::--

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?11e of the i111pedi ments to tl1 e nati<.1il,1liz:1 r1011 of a11 Afr1can la\;v facLtlty l1as bee11 tl1e lack t)f inc 211 ct \;es aTid the �1ore tl1an_ competi.tive i11dL1cerr1ents l1f �l")\·e 1- 11111eiit ser,,1ce �r pr1_ vat� p1·actice. This l121s l1-ee11 ;1 �1:.1i·ticulai· prob le111 1n �1be1·1a. 0Ltring tl1e latte1· r�1 1·r ._,f tlie adn11_ n1_ st1·at1011 of Nlr. Tubman tl1e1·e \\' 1... s ,\-llJ. t :.:i 111oLillted to a ceiling, a maxin1um sala1·y of ab<)Ut si:\ tllC)Lisaiid dollars per )rear for governmer1t emiJlo�·rr1e11t. Tliis includ_ecl, of �ourse, appoi.1 1t11 1ents to tt1e L·11i ,•e 1·si.�r, cl . state 111st1tut1011. \Vitl1 sucl1 a ceiling n1l)St senioi· governme11t employees \;,.,1ere forced to loc,k f <.11· c1dditio1 1al co1npensatio11 i.n otl1e1· pL1rsLrits. Tl1 e cost l)f li \ri.11 g i.11 Mo1 1rovi.a eqL1als or exceeds tl1 at of Ne\v \. 01·k. 1\ ' Liberian coLrld not afford to devote all of l1i s e11e1·gies to an academic career, parti.cula1·ly i.f a 1·e111u11e1·ari.ve p1ivate practice we1·e his for tl1e asking. ·r11e1·e is tl1us no Libe1ia11 in fL1ll-ti.111e e111ploy111e 1 1t at tl1e Lc:1,v Scl1ool, altl1ougl1 there are a 1 1u111lJe1· of l1 i.gl1 l>r qt1ali.fied la\;,.,, graduates \Vitl1 botl1 skills arid i1 1terests in teacl1 i. 1 1g a11d research. f\ partial solL1ti.011 to tl1 e Liberi.a11 p1·ol1le1 1 1 ,:vas suggested several Jrears ago i1 1 tl1e de\relop1 11ent of a researcl1 i11stitute i11 whicl1 acacle1 nics f1-on1 \ra1·i.0L1s departments witl1i11 tl1e University, and laYv>rers fro111 gover11ment and the Be11cl1 a1 1d Bar coulcl pa1·t1cipate either 01 1 an ad hoc or co11t111ui.1 1g basis. Tl1e i1 1stitL1te would accept 011 contract from vartoL1s go\1e1·11mentc1l agencies outside the U11iversity s1Jecial p1-oblen1s \\1itl1 wl1icl1 the age11cies \:vere concer11ed but \Vl1icl1 tl1e�>' v\1ere either u1 1able or did not have tl1e ti1ne to 1-esolve. l1 1stead of farn1i11g out to private organizatio11s or expat1·i.ate firms probleins reqL1iri ng exte1 1si ve 1·esearcl1, tl1ese cou.ld be assig 11ed to t11e researcl1 insti tLtt� for cl�ter1ni1 1a tio11 by i.i1stitute participa11ts v\1itl1 a1Jprop1-1ate skills. - noraria or professio1 1al fe es to tl1e i1 1stitL1te 's [ fo _ gl1t be 1 111 rs la researcl1ers, largely macle LIP of scl1o � sufficient to retain witi1i11 acaden1ia tl1e b1·1gl1t a11d ab le and amlJitioLts. ,..fl,e institute would 1JresL1mal)ly accept only tl1ose problems wliicl1 woL1 lcl be of acade 1 nic sig11if ica nce. Tt1e ex.pertise a11d skills develo1Jecl by tl1e

u o l s e ca r . i p rce of the a. c a e 1t tL . ti s n o c lS lL tl · . acadern1c 1-esearch VlOLllcl · 1g. But n ta ct s 11 ts 1. . 1-s1r n 1e cl o11 e tr s d 11 0 a . . y \re Lln1 d you11g 11 a , n o d te c a 11 e e b . sugge r 0 11 s · · tl11s . . . sc·1 011 l·ia 1g acade1111c 11 d r a \v e r r · fo . s e p o l1 l1 i.g t1 . .1 at.e . . L1ber1ans v-., 1· tll c t1 c r v a p JJr e to 1n ft n d co ed u i1 ti. l1 Co · . . ca1-eers l1a Ve · t ts f o n o dev e d t1 s t r o l1 s r e ft a . e i.c v r · e s t 11 1e 11 a11d gove 1-11 1 1tl1 th e rece11t appo1nt111ent \i\ l. oo l1 Sc \1',ork to tile Law l tl1e o o l1 1e Sc tl of n a e D s a 11 i.a r e i.b L g 11 L1 of a11 able yo . ly d e k r 1a 11 e v o r · 1p n . i y 1a n 1 s.i tuati.01 at ps 1a er v rl 1i. 1d pe u1 a1 , na l1a G of y t . si er 1iv U1 e tl1 At si.ti.es tl1rougl1out 111ost of A11glopho11i.c Africa, the salary t en m oy as law pl 1e em ti.n ll1 f1. r fo te L1a eq ad 1 e11 se s ale sc teacl1 ers. Yet tl1e attracti.011s of pr i.vate practice indL1ce n1a11y to l1a \re a divi.elect allegia11ce. Tl1e professi.011al salary prefe1-e11ce gi.ven to teacl1ers of 111edici.11e is not 1Jrovi.clecl law teacl1ers \;vl10 are l1eld to tl1e san1e stand a.1-ds of con1pe11satio11 as tl1ose i11 tl1e otl1er disci.iJli.nes. Giftecl a11d able legal scholars l1ave thus sought to carry two jobs, a11cl wl1at tl1ey have bee11 able co do i.n original researcl1 l1as tl1erefore bee11 111i11i.mal. This l1as led to so111e co11t·roversy betwee11 the Vi.ce Cl1ancellor a11d tl1e T r lav-.1 faCLllt)'. T1e 1118 tter can1e to a l1ead l 11 tl1e SU11111lel Of 1967 wl1e11 tl1e \fi.ce Cl1a11cellor issued reo·ulati o11s 0 gover11i11g p1-ivate IJractice by me111be1-s of staff. Tl1e regulati.011s pr·ovi.cled tl1at \Vritte11 ap1Jroval \VOLlld l1ave to be obtai. 11ecl fro111 tl1e Vice CI1a11cel lor before a11)' private practice coL1lcl be L111dertake11 by a 111e111be1- of tl1e lavv facul t)r. 1�11e 11atL1re of tl1e J)ractice \:Vl1icl1 \�lOU ld be dee111ed suitable fo1- a11 acade111ic \\1as 11ot .i 11di.cated . It :vas �11o�e a c1L1estio11 of tl1e ti111e i.11volv ed . Tl1e 111atter 18 st1.ll 111 co11te11ti.011. Very fevv Gl1a11ai.a11 la\\' teacl1e1·s feel tl1ey ca11 aff orc1 to devote al l of tl1 ei.r tin1e to tl1eir �cacleniic PLtrsui.ts. BL1t tl1e1-e co11t inL1es to be i.nte1-est t11 tl1e la\\' fac .cLtlty c.-1 8 cLll .-. 111 . st1tL . 1t1. 011, a11d tl1e teacl1ers . · are slc1llecl • uSo111e O r1g1 . . . .· 11a . 1 scl1olarsl111) 1s be1110·0 . produced. �r�1� st�11�lard of a11 e x c lL1si.\ 7 ip' ar e d s e v s o c ti. h o 0 to h l 11 aj)pec11 s v1s ' l\f • · 1011ary � 111 f 1 r1c l a. io1 1t 1a co dy uld sfu be 11c t i.t exc1Ltc1 es tl1e scl1o lar ·� f 10 � 111 a11 L111clersta11di.11g of cl1e fL111cti.Otli.t g. o·f 1 eg al i.i13ri.tutio11s i.11 IJracti.ce. Perl1ap s � rl1e sea�1c 1 f or a go lcle11 111ea11 11eeds per spec ti.ve. 01111' C

recently l1as tl1ere bee11 a sizeable groL1p of f\ i nei-i.ca11 lav\' teachers wl10 s1)e11cl all tl1ei.r ti.n1e i.11 teachi.i1g a11c1 1-elated researcl1. 171e p1-ofessi.011al salary pi-efere11ce di.d not exte11d to la w or \;\,1 as i.11aclec1L1ate. Tl,e able teac her-la\vyer \:vas vi1-tL1ally reqL1i.·recl to carry 011 1nore than one job. Wl1en tl1e late Cl1ief Justice of tl1e U11itecl - rla11 Fiske Sto11e was Dea.11 of tl1e Lavv Scl1ool of States f Ia ColL1mbi.a Uni.versi. ty , 1910 to 19 23, l1e 111a11agecl to car1-y 011 si.multa11eously tl1ree jobs. I-le clepa1-tecl fron1 1118 ho1ne in Engle\7'/0od, Ne\\1 Jersey i11 tin1e to reacl1 tl1e Law School in New York Ci. ty by qua1-ter past ei.gl1.t. I-Ie the11 devoted hi.n1self to a fL1ll scl1eclule of classes as professor a11d to his administrative dL1ties as Dea11 u11ti.l lu11ch ti.n1e. By two o'clock l1e was at l1i.s Wal 1 Street lavv office, ,vl1ere l1e put i.11 a full day's work. 1. BL1t 11ot everyo11e can be effecti. ve i.11 tl1ree jobs. Perl1a1Js i. t \Vould be enough if Afri.ca11 law teacl1ers could 1Je i.ndL1ced to devote at least l1alf of tl1ei.r ti.1ne to tl1ei.r acacle1ni.c tasks, unless a 1-esearcl1 i . 11sti.tute, sucl1 as tl1at suggested above, might be devi.sed. Some of tl1e lavv faculties i.11 t\.11glopl1011ic Africa are begi.1111i.11g to tl1i.11k more and more i.n these ter111s. African StL1de11t Attitudes Af1ican students like stL1de11ts everywl1ere vary markedly in ambi.ti.011 and in i11tellige11ce a11d are affected as n1ucl1 by status and fa1ni.ly backgrou11cl as are students throughoL1t the world. Son1e di.sti11gui.sl1i.11g cl1aracter isti.cs ' however ' ar e di.scer11i.ble. Ma11y co111e fro.111 poor a11d illiterate families. Tl1eir l1on1e e11viro11111e11t 1s 11011l. i.ntellectual, thougl1 probably rarely anti -i.11tellectua _ The la11guage of tl1e family is usually 11ot tl1at o� 111s_truc tio11, a11d few if a 11y own books. For111al scl1ool111g 1s tl1us in a world alien to th at of tl1e stL1de11t s youth, and tl1ere is little fa1nily support for the stl:1de11t 's v�11ture, · · assoc1· an· o11 \Vl tl1 JJower other than occasional pride i11 111s Ma11y a stude11t n1igh t be tl1e only u11i.versity repi-esei11

aw I_J of ol l1o Sc 1e 17 . of y [or A st ; . l, Ii be . Jr 1:· J Goe . 217 · 1) ) 55 19 i.a _Colu1nbia U11i. versi.ry nb u1 ol (C •

49 h

•

. rfo attain ge la i.l e v g r la a f o or ' ft'J fi. of r l\ ; . i in .· fa · a f o ve t 1 ta 11ad. a1 �eact'Jr 1)ee11 l c 1 mu e11t d stu ity ver s _ ,. 1118 status a.s a 0111 . 1g 1 fl1ere was thus k1 ta e l1 t r . ve11 a11d niucl1 lay ahead fo . 11 w a s a 11 a bou t t han 1n g"I · a 10 h t \.V a t c u d e t a l1 vv 1 ii . t s e . r e 111 t . less U 1 s 1 r n e 1 v ty of 1fe 1e t 965 l r e b to c O 1 11 ·1 t could bi·ii1g. . 1g t1 e m at ric · · u 1 t1 n o f o the 11 k r a m � � y 11 10 n e r e c l _ _ 11eld a forina as lf fe w li se y it 1c 1 rs a1 ,,e 11i 1 L o 11t . i e 11c ra i1t E first class. acl1ieven1e11t. ;\n ii1teresti11g com1 Jari.s011 was 1nade of the studen ts 111 tlie faculty of la,;v of tl1e Uni.versi.t:J' of I(l1artoum. '"fl1e la.rge majori.ty carne fron1 the 11ortl1ern JJart of tl1e Sudan a11d were f\1usli111 a11d Arab i11 ori.e11tati.011 and background. Tl1ey e11j o�)'ecl co11siderable statL1s, and most \\1ere not i11terestecl i11 acl1ievi11g a1 1y 0L1 tstancli.11g academic success. Te11 perce11t of tl1e stude1 1t body ca1ne f ron1 tl1e souther11 lJart of tl1e SL1da11, from Niloti.c peoples, a11d were Cl1ristia11 or paga11 i.11 orientati.011. Tl1ey di.ct not enjoy any JJarticular status, at least 11ot i .11 the Govern1 11ent estab lisl1111e11t or i.11 tl1e soci.ecy of I<l1artou1n. Yet tl1ey ma11aged to acl1ieve l1igl1 class ranki.11gs. Various explan ati.011s l1ave bee11 gi.ve11. Tl1ei1- facili.ty i.n E11gli.sl1 ce11ded ·ou11ds ' to be bet te1· because of n1i.ssi.onary school backo-1 C, a11d tl1ey did 11o t suffer social or extracur1-i.cula1· distractio11s in l(l1artou111. T11ey ,ve1·e also a11xi.ous to ; sL1cceed as 1·e1Jrese11tatives �f tl1e soutl1er11 grouJJ, \vl1icl1 ,:v as alvvays a }Jressi.ng political proble111. 1�1 ?e11egal adn1i.ssi.011 to tl1e U11i.,,ersiry i.s also suff1c1e11t statLIS for 111a11y, a11d a11 acade111i.c deo-ree is often SLIIJe�-flL1ous. Tl1e 111a jori. l:J' of s tude11 ts co�1s titute . .111 a11 e l.1te 111111ori ty · 111 ti 1e soc1ety i. terac\'· at laro· . 0 e i.11 _ . . ety . 11111 Fr e11cl1 ra11ges f1-0 111 11111 · etJr to Tl1e t . per -se cen \ren · · .. _ att. .11t1011 1-· ac re ac t c11e u 111.,re · rs1ty t l1as i.s l1i.crl1 a t leas or · · -:, ' -· · . l)ee11 L111cle1· tl 1e JLI11sct1ct1011 of Fr e11ch teacl1ers ' al l of . \Iv 110111 acll1ere st·ric tl\r; t 0 a. })reclo1111. 11a11tly Fre11cl1 cL1rr1cLilu . ,11, as a.1read)' 11oted· 1...,· · · 1 1us e11te1"1ng onl-:>' a fra.c ti.011 of stLiclei1ts ever. I_ece1. ve clegrees. Tl1e stL . 1de11ts have a.tt1:il)Lttecl tllei.r f a·llur_es . _ t � a t of ra JJa c1 r al b1 tl1 as 01 e 1 ? tl1e ex}J,Lti-ia te te�acl1ers . fl1e la tt er assert tl1a t tl1e

stud e11ts lack _ _i.11centi.ve a11cl tl1at the fai.lLlres si. tTIJJ ly 1-eflect an 111s1stence 011 tl1e 111ai.11te11a11ce of acacle111 1c sta.11cla.rds as l1i.gh as tl1ey a·re i.11 Fra11ce. But v,,11are ve r rl1e reaso11, vvl1ereve1- tl1e ll11i. versi.ty affi.li.a.tio11 i.s ,,te,v, ecl only i11 terms o:f statl1s, tl1ere i.s little stl1cle11t ii1ceiitive a11d student dedi.catio11 to acade111i.c acl1i.everrlet1t te11cts t� be lacki11g. One expatri.ate teacl1er 1·eported, after a year's experience i.n another part of Africa, tl1at l1is stL1cle11ts viewed their Ltniversi.ty eXJ)OSltre a11cl tl1e ulti111ate i.ssL1ance of a clegree as state obli.gatio11s. 011lJ' tl1ose interested in academic or jL1dicial careers see111ed to l1ave had any ·regard for acaclemi.c vvork or acade111ic achieveme11t. The co11cept of status an1011g stL1cle11ts favo1�s eli.tis111 a11d a tende11cy toward isolatio11 fro111 tl1e p·roblen1s of rural develop111e11t a11d u1-ba11izatio11 a11cl tl1ose affecti11g the society in general. This see111s e11de111ic to L111i ver sity con1munities eve1-y,;vl1ere. T11e proble111 may, l1owever, be more pro110L111ced i.11 developi.ng 11ati.011s whe1-e the educated are the select a11d tl1e JJowerfL1l. Elitism so1neti.mes provokes a total di.se11gage111e11t by stL1dents with tl1e clay-to-clay proble111s of tl1ei.r l1on1e commL1niti.es. It fosters 1Jreoccu1Jati.011 ,vitl1 politics at the 11ati.onal a11d i.11ter11ati.011al levels a11cl a di.sassoci.ati.011 from purely academic pursL1i.ts. f\ number of devi.ces l1ave bee11 used to 1-edL1ce tl1i.s stude nt estrangeme11t. 111 1963 tl1e \fi.ce Cl1a11cellor of the Uni. versi ry of lfe, i.11 what was tl1e11 tl1e V./ester11 Region of Nigeria (now \,Vester11 State', re1Jorted that, under a ge11eral Uni.versi.ly' policy, stude11ts wer� asked to vary their reside11ce between U11i versi.ty ·11ous1ng ai7d lodging in nearby cominuni.ties so they v,1 oulcl 11o _ t _lose co11tact with their ow11 people. 1\ year s loclg11 _ 1g 1n a nearby town after a ye ar in U11iversity l1,� us1ng_ ,vas ,, co11siderecl a11 effective anti.dote for tl1e si1obb1s1111ess cont racted i11 Uni versi.ty resi.de11ce. 1

stl1de11ts i.11 tl1e a11 . 11i Ta11za tl1e 1966, er Octob ltl s 11 10 te 11 a e , tr d d m a a l a S . s e r a D t a e g le l o C y ·c vers1 111 U · d r 11 a a a e lf of a y a l1 r e cl 11 e r o t 11 0 ti. a oli. . . . aga111st a state ob o o f. th . s 11 1 f v tl r o e s s ce e pu. rpose · na1 ser·v1· ce · 011e . 11at1o e 111to tl1e t a u d a : g y t 1 s � e v i. 11 U e h t e t a r g e t . i1 . i e r to s a ,v e 1d t s n . e e r f P l1 l a n o . 1 t a 11 d 11 a y t 111atri.x of com111u11i. g 1� y s . i b r v m a to 1e h a tl tr �s r o 1 11 e d 1e tl to cl e Nyerere respot1d 1 u s m e e 111 �1 o 11 . m c o l� 1r 1e tl to � c a b d e Jp . i l1 expelled a11cl s 1 e r e r 1s e t y n e N 1d s e r P s a , r e h c a e "t "Mwali.nlLl", or d o e d to e r r a g p r a n te la , i.a 11 a z n a T 11 . i cl e ll a c resiJectfully y i.t . s i 1· 11 i.f e U 1e v tl to 11 r tu e r i.r 1e tl d n e n 11 11 o c e r tl1e1n a11cl 1e s nd r o� a a sh e y O / >i t\ r fo d ts 11 e r a p i.r 1e tl l1 i.t ,v cl re aJ tl1e�)' st tion rm i.s fi ac f-I 11. 0 . ti na 1e tl r fo lc or vv to ss 11e a vvi.lli.110-b e 110 er re w l1e . T ct fe ef ' rJ to lu sa a d l1a e seemed to l1 av 1t e1 11 ud l1e st vv 9, 1 96 l 1ti. L11 es nc lJa ur st . di 1t e1 ud st r fL1rtl1e . es at t1i pa t 11s ex ai. ag y l i. ar n1 . i pr ed ct re cli. re ,ve 0L1tbursts Tl1e stucle11t 111alai.se v\1l1i.cl1 shoolc tl1e ,vorld i.n 1968 affected 1\fri.can Ltni.versi.ti.es as well. One of tl1e a11110L111cecl causes of the stL1de11t strike in Addis Ababa ,vas Ol JIJOsiti.011 to 11atio11al service, ,vl1icl1 \�1 as devised for reaso11s si.n1i lar to tl1ose 111 Ta11zani.a. Yet tl1i.s ,vas }Jerl1aps 11ot tl1e c1·itical factor wl1i.ch provoked tl1e student outrages. It v,.,as n1ore a se11se of frust1·ati.011 v,.1 i.tl1 the slo�1 11e_ss of tl1e i.11sti.tuti.onal refor111s taki.11g place i.n Etl110JJ1a. Tl1e strike a11d de111011st1·ations becan1e vicious before tl1ei1· furJr vvas spent. Soo11 after· tl1e stL1de11t clistL11·ba11ces i.11 F1·a11ce i.n Mav of 1968, tl1ere \Vas \Vi.cle-s1Jre21d ci.vi.l di.sobedi.e11ce i.11 l)al,ar , ca1 · _ 1cl tl1e U 111· vers1ty \vas closed fo1· 1nost of tl1e cac le rri1_c yea·r of 1968-69. StL1cle11t u11rest also cau sed � ·rs1t1es t-11e c. 10s111. g of L11 1i. ve . · · (l(i.11sl1asa) . tl1e 111 Co11go . . _ [ Iei-e. 1t llclcl trag1c co11seqL1e11ces. 011 Ju11e 4 1969 sru . _ detlt · � 0111 vai-i.ous i.tJSri.tLtti.011s of l1i.gl1er ed�cati.011 � � . . s0L1g l1t to }Jrese 11t t0 t·I 1e t\11111strJr er 11un1b a Educatio11 of · of a- .1 e a 11c_ es, c!Ji.ef of \;vl1i.cl1 v,.,as tl1ei.r of c y i11a tl1e de qu a . � � scl�· ·1 c_11s1 11l)s tl1e. ec1. LI 1· \,alei,t· e1· . . of dolla si.xte rs e11 U S p . 1no11tl1. \,\1111-1'e f·or111111g a -� n111� · er · 1110 p r on ocess1 111 tl1e early tl 1eJ, \\/ere ,,i.oleiJtl), 1_eJJI _essed by tl1e ar111y. Acco·rd1ng · _ to tl1e gove I11111e11t tv,.,eJv e stude11ts were 1,i.lled, tl1e . · forei.gr1 pi·ess esti.Ill ated . t\\ie11ty-four a11cl L1sua11,, rel1 able J ' Co11golese sources e3r11 .· 11ate cl a l1L111d·red. So111e fi. ,,e

llLtndred stude11ts we_re co11ft11ed fo r periods of t�,0 to tl1ree 111011tl1s follo\v111g tl1e clasl1. --rlii.s Li1111al)J)Y i.ilci.delit deepened tl1e gover11ment s sL1spi.ci.011s of stLtclents. ;\s a preca�tiona1-y measL1re tl1� s�art of tl1e U111versi.ty acade 1111c year �,as dela�{ed 1 11 1970 u11ti.l afte1- tlie Presicle11tial electio11. 171is reflecteci, of coLii-se, tlie gover11n1e11t s resJJect of tl1e l)0\�1 er of stL1cle11t opJ)ositiort. Yet there l1as 11ot bee11 an)r co11ce1-ted effort to 1-eassociate the university graduate Yvitl1 tl1e co111111011 n1a11. TI1e elitis111 referred to above l1as 11ot yet beco111e a 111::1j o:r problen1 i11 the Co11go. It 111a.y, l10,veve1-, becon1e so wit!1 the rise i.11 the nL1n1be1- of uni. \1 ersi.t�{ graduates wi.tl10L1t a correspo11di.11g increase i.11 the e111ploy111e11t opJJortL111i.ties deemed appropriate for tl1ei. 1- sl(i 11s a11d statL1s. 1\ lag sl1ould, of course, be ex1Jected bet,vee11 i11dL1st1:i.al a11d economic develop111e11t a11d tl1e more rapid trai11i.ng of qL1alified personnel to SLtpport sucl1 develoJJ111e11t. 1

Students are, of course, tl1e futL11-e. Tl1ougl1 they ofte11 reflect tl1e foibles of their pare11ts, tl1ei.r flexibility insures cl1a11ge a11d their i11tellige11ce i1nproveme11t. Altl1ough affectecl by elitism n1ost of tl1e stude11ts i11 Engli.s11-speaking f\fri.ca are acl1ieven1e11t oriented. But 1vvl1atever their welta11scl1aL1L111g, tl1e)r a1-e a pri11cipal capital resource ancl are usually recog11izecl as sucl1 by the African states. Fi11a11cing Educatio11 U11iversities in Africa ar e supportecl a11d L1lti.n1ately controlled by go \rer11me11ts. Tl1ere is 11ot e11ougl1 �ri. vate wealtl1 within tl1e countries to establish private u111 ver sities ancl foreig11 fi11a11ci11g �,itl1 foreign control is deemed inimical to sovereignty. Tl1e go ver11n1e11ts e, op sc i11 l na tio 11a o lly ra 11e ge g lin r vic e t ar or e tl1 supp P altl1 ougl1 some u11iversi. tie s are L111cler tl1e _gove�11ance of state subclivisions. For example, tl.1e U111 vers� ty of Ife, o nce t111der the jurisdicti.011 of th e \i\Testern Reg1011 of Nigeria, is now sLtpported and co11trollecl by \�T estern State. The sa1ne is true of tl1e two othei- reg1�11al _ ui1iversiti.es in Nigeria, Al1111adu Bello U11i vers� l1' 111 tlle North a11d the University of N igeria at NsLikl(a 111 Ea.St

da � and tl1e Ib o versiLJ ' � � U11i Centr,al State. Tl 1e t1011s. 111st1tu l feclera are s Lago · of ty vers1 U111· 11 a fr s ic e u A v o io g r a n v r 1e tl y b cl e d i v o r _ p 1�11e sLipport e i t l s ie u r c a w a cl fa v l d 11 a ts 11 e d tu s v , _ nieiltS for tlieir la. r e d w e o 1a e p 11 11 11 s . t s 1 f o t p c 11 o c s t' 11 e m � _ _ \vitli rl1e gover11 s or at least 11 0 t1 a g l1 ]J o t 11 a 1t 1n o c 11 o c y Tl iere ,vere usuall d by the �overnme11t te r O JJ JJ u s ts 11 e d tu s t expecta tio11s tha e r ic e v ft r t a e 11 s e m 11 r e v o g to 1e 11 ti ,vould devote s0111e a s 011ly a single w re 1e tl e er l1 \V i, w la a o·braduation. 111 Nl de11ts were under1 tL s w la a ll , e c 11 e d 11 e p e lawyer at i11d s nd d e ]Je to ti iv s e c e r ey l1 T t. 11 1e 11 n r ve o G l 1e t ,vritte11 by 1a nce, a11d fu11ds to . ov a ll k oo b a , 1· d cover roon1 a11d boa n ded fa milies. te ex ir 1e tl to 1s o1 ti ga li ob r ei tl1 l1 it l1el1J w r e te at e af st tl1 e rv se to d e ir c1u re t 11o s a \A,1 Tl 1e stL1de11t d erstood l1e O'A'ed 1 u1 lly 1 ra 11e ge V1 as it t bu 11, tio a L1 ad gr d id i11 fact enter t os m d An y. tr u11 co s l1i to 11g l1i et s0111 gover11me11t ser,rice after gradua tio11. Prior to inde1Je11de11ce, wl 1e11 tl 1e coL111try was a member of tl 1e Federation 1( U tl1e in law 1g yi1 stu d se tl1o 1cl, la1 asa Ny a11d of R l 1odesia 011 scl1olarsl 1i.1J were obl iged to giv e five years service to tl1e protectorate after ad111ission.

In t l 1e soL1tl 1ern area of Nigeria, 'A'l1ere t11ere ,vere crlisl1 Bar a11d l1 e11ce rna11y Nigerians qL1a lified at tl 1e E11 b . vvere ad1111ttecl to p1·actice i11 Nigeria, cl1e1·e v\1e1·e ,rirtually 110 law scl 1olarsl 1ips. But i.11 tl1e Nortl1e1·11 l�egio11, ,;v l 1ere tl 1ere Wc1S a11 acute 11ee d to "11ortl 1er11ize" the l��fessio11, scl1olarsl 1i. 1Js vvere provi de d by tl1e l�egion for law stL1de11ts fro111 tl 1e l{egi.011. 171e reci1Jie11ts of sLicli scl 1olarsl 1ips ,ve·re u11cler a11 oblio0·atio11 to re11der · tl1 ree yea· c r - 8 of serV1ce to tl1e Nortl 1e·r11 11-eo·°i.011. In · . · .· Uga11da tl 1ere \Vas 1111t1a 11.")' a foL11·-")rear service reqL11rei nei1t. � for tl 1ose taki11g tl1e bar course ' \Vl1icl1 co11sisted of p, art 1 of tl 1e- E 11g1·1sl1 Bar ex;: 1 n1i.11 atio11 take11 a t E11tebb e . . · a11cl Part [T tal,e11 i11 tl1e U 11ited l(i11gdo111. 111 �ra11za11ia cl 1 e 1 a\�' stL1cle11ts \,vere all 011 scl 10Iar · . s l111Js ancl "''ere bo 11c1 ed · f01· f1 ve ")rea rs service to the Gover11111e11t u1Jo11 cr1·adL a .1011. . · l1 altl1oug t 111 a Et , 11opi 0 l \ri1·tLtally a ll· ?f t.1 1e_ la w st:ucl e11ts vvere i11dio·e t 11 0 .. a11c·l liad received sc l 10 1a1·s1. 11ps ' tl1eir stat c e . . Obl.1gat1011s did 110 t exte . 11cl l)eyo11d tl 1e si.110-le b

54:

y1 ea1� of 11atio11al service. Tl1is \.vas perfor111ed i1nn1e diatelyr followi11g tl1e tl1ree-year J_,L. B course. 111 1963_ ni11e 0L1t of ten stL1dents i.11 tl1e 17aculty of J__,aw of Lovan1L1m U11i. versi tyr in the Co11go recei.vecl Gover11n1e11t scholarships, bL1t tl1ere \:Vas 110 reqL1ire111e11t of state ser\rice. This cl1a11gecl in 1967 v\1 l1e11 all of tl1e Co11golese la,:v stL1de11ts at Lova.11i.un1 vvere on scl1olar shi.p a11d \Vere obliged to render t\\1 0 y'ears service to the Govern!nent after graduati.011. Stude11ts at l::11da. (formerly Ecole Natio11ale de Droi.t et d 'f\cl111i11i.strati.on and now Ecole Natio11ale d '1\d111i11istratio11) l1acl to remai.11 i.n the e111ploy of the state £01- six yrears following graduation. In Li.beri.a tl1e1-e \Vere 110 scl1olarsl1i.ps for law stL1clents at the Louis Arthur Grin1es School of La\v u11til 1965 wl1e11 President TL1bma11 111ade a gra11t of te11 thoL1sa11d dollars for scholarsl1i.p assistance. Tl1ere \Vas, l1owever, 110 correlati. ve duty 011 tl1e part of tl1e scl1olarsl1ip reci1 Jie11t. Nlost of tl1e Li.beri.a . n elite interested i11 lav\' we11t to the Uni.red States. Those studyi11g law i11 Libe1-i.a were able to study at night a11d be gai11fullJ' e111ployed tl1roughout tl1e day. When tl1e nigl1t progra111 was disco11ti.11L1ed i11 favor of a day program, tl1e problen1 of fi11a11ci11g legal educa tion i.n Liberia becan1e acute. Many l1ad to disco11ti11L1e tl1eir course because of conflict bet,vee11 scl1ool a11d full time en1ployn1ent. T11e moclest su1Jport of tl1e Preside11t 1vvas probably gi. ve11 to provide professio11al trai11i11g for the Liberia11s fron1 ''up-cou11try''. Tl1is was part of l1is policy to reduce tl1e divisi.on bet\\1ee11 the A111erico Liberian elite and tl1e i11digenous peo}Jles fron1 the bush or "up-cou11try", to Ltse cL1rre11t pl1raseology. 0 utsi.de Influe11ces •

T11e problems caused by outside i.nflue11ces wl1icl1 have affected Africa11 lavv faculty development migl1t be ge11er ally characterized as those of adaptatio11 to receivecl cultu1-es ancl sta11dards dL1ri11g the Africanizatio11 JJrocess. As wi.th the i.11ter11al factors noted a1Jove, tl1ey 111ay 1Je lJrese11t i11 any developi11g coL1ntry. 55

l to ta ' polity, tlie vi 1) 1d a1 a1 e c n ie c s l ia oc s a i.s As la\v ols law scl1o of are ce 11 i11L1a coi1t affected ai,cl 1 t meii 1s 1 " estaJl 1. .. · · . ·r 1c a Af n 1z a t1 011 was s. :7al ue 1ra l cul tL aiid al oli tic by lJ e11 ce wh e e11 tl1 11d pe cle 111 l tab at Es n er 11c co ish s iou er s a 11ot . . 1 1a 1 1n .on co 1 .1 11t Lc 1 OY st s wa ation. es . i tr L111 co t os in 1 1nen t l· 1 ·1 f·1e d ta1e11t 1 ua q as s, ar ye \"' fe . . But l·n a rel atively s L1 1e rt 1t J PJ seen1 ed to b jo e at . ri op 1Jr ap � � d ? an iiici-eased 11 t10 as za a 111 ca r1 Af cultural . cy . i ol J } e n1 ca be t . i , i,k . ri sl, d v,,,e the same tra11llo fo r te at m l 11e o11 rs pe 1 a a11 cl1 rat 1er si.ti.011. Foreig11 assista11ce i.11 tl1e establi.shme11t of la\v facL1lLies 111 1\nglopl1011ic Africa was viev,,,ed from its i11ceptio11 as a11 i11terin1 measure. All ex1Jatriate teachers kne\V tl1at tl1eir aJJpoi11tments v,,,ere li111i.ted, v,,7hatever tl1eir ter111s, a11cl aln1ost all soL1gl1t to facilitate tl1eir 0\>111 replace1 ne11t by qLtalifiecl Africa11s. Even tl1ougl1 their staJ, \Vas ten11 Jorary, tl1e expar1-iates left behind a 11umber of i11stitutions, some of wl1icl1 presented special prob� le111s. Tvvo i11 particL1lar, exter11al exami.11ers a11d pro fessio11al schools, are discL1ssed belo\:v. f\�ost of the colo11ial in1pri11ts from tl1e United l(i11gdom, l1owever, \vere effaced more qLti.ckly tha11 Europea11 cl1aracte1-istics i11 Fra11cophonic Africa. In tl1e latter tl1e eco1101nic, IJOli.Lical, a11d cL1ltL11-al associati.011s v,,1 ere 111ore dee11ly i11grai.11ed, a11d tl1e1-e was tl1L1s 1 ess concer11 \Vi.tl1 any for1n of Africa11i.zatio11. 1. vVl1e1-e tl1e received values "''ere a11cie11t a11d fLt l l y absorbed, as i.n t\!luslim count1ies, tl,e J} arochialis1n v,,,as 111ore an i11si.ste11ce 011 sucl1 values tl1a11 a11y 11atio11al or co11ti11e11tal co11cern. 2 . �['v,,,o Sl1ecial British Effec ts Exter11a l ex, a111i.ner·s are B . . . a 1-1r1s I . 1tut1 1 111st . 011 011e e11coL1nters tl11:0L1gl10L1t a l l of 1\11gloJJl1011i.c Af1-ica save I. See �L1? l1eadi11g "l.:;< ra11copl1011i.c f\ f1-i.ca11 Lav,,, Fac ult1es", i.11fra 11. 6 1 . 2. See subl1eadi.11g " 1\rabi.zatio11 "' i.11fra p. 65.

Libe1-ia a11d Etl1iopia. U11cler this s�/ste111 teacl1ers of sta11di11g i.11 va1-i.ous u11i versi.ties are askecl to revie\,, JJro posecl exan1i11atio11s i.11 tl1e fields of tl1ei.r ex1Je1-rise ::111cl tl1en to vi.sit the universitJ' \\1l1e1-e tl1e exa111i11atio11s a.re gi. ven, co11fer \Vi.th tl1e teacl1ers i 11vol vecl, a11cl JJa1-ti.ciJJate i.11 the grading of paJJe1-s. Tl1e clialogue ,vl1icl1 a11 exter11al exa1niner provokes a11d the perso11a.l co11ta.cts lie 111a]<es vvi.tl1 botl1 scl1olars a11cl stL1cle11ts ca11 be illL1mi11ati.11g a11cl 1Jrovocative. Occasi.011ally lie n1ay succeecl i.11 cl1a11gi11g the exa111i.11ati.011s fro1n a pa1-1-oting of 111ate·rial s to a sti111ulating intellectual exercise. ·T11e effect 011 tl1e course offe1-i.11g ca11 tl1e11 be profou11d. Service as a11 external exami11er l1as, of coL1rse, e11abled tl1e exr)cltriate to maintain i11valL1ab le contacts 'A ith Af1-ica a11cl tl1e varioLts i.nsti.tLiti.ons \\1 ith v. l1i.cl1 l1e v.1 as 011ce associated. 1

AlthoL1gl1 the syste111 \;,,,,as desi.g11ecl to i.11su1-e tl1e mainte11ance of acade1ni.c sta11da1-ds, i. t ofte11 i1111Jeded change a11d te11cled to perpetL1ate tl1e 11ar1-ow focLIS of B1itisl1 legal edL1cation. Tl1ose i11vited were usually Bri.ti.sh law teachers, for111er colleagues or doce11ts of the se11i.or teacl1ers i11 Africa11 law faculties. They con sidered it their respo11sibi.li.ty to i.11sure tl1at tl1e African exami11ati.011s i11 botl1 form a11cl co11te11t n1atcl1ed tl1ei.r ow11 in tl1e U11ited I< i11gdon1. Tl1i.s 11ot 011ly cliscoL1raged i.11110vation, bLit it tendecl to stultify academic i11c1ui.ry i11to the functio1i. of law i11 Africa. 1-\merican expar1-iate teacl1ers have ge11erally cl1afed u11der tl1e syste1n. Tl1ey have foL111d it often lovvers sta11dards, 1Jarticula1-1J, ,vl1e11 tl1e external exami11er seeks to cl1a11ge fai.lLtres into passes. But the standards provided by tl1e exter11al exami11ers \Vere important, particularly at tl1e outset. Occasio11ally, enligl1te11ed exa1ni11ers n1ade posi.tive co11t1-i.buti.011s. Tl1ey provoked a greate1- relevance of tl1e acade111i.c offeri11gs to the law i.11 practice or, n1ore broadly, to tl1e 11eed for legal services. \i\/hen the exan1i11er l1acl at least a11 L1t1de: rstandi.11g of African legal i.11stituti.011s a11d was 11ot wedded to tl1e idiosyncrasies of a11 ali.e11 law or n1etl1od ology, I1e could provide the teacl1er witl1 a 11ew

_ 1 1de1·standir1g of his u per dee a 11 eve s c l1ap pers1Ject1. ve per respo11sibili.ties.

h 1 is i1 i it ig Br or s a \7v n, " l oo l1 sc an d _ l 1a _ oi si es of Jr "} ·n,e .l t C011a· 11ues to survive i.11 Afr1ca.. . Tl1e De1111111g Report de 1a be g a 11 n 11 r 11 fo a tr al l n1 ca ti ac r J) t 1a tI d de en n1 ni co 1-e 1 the same cl u 111 th i. w r o ti ca d e ' s r 1: e y Vl' la � a _ part o f _ 1 It d at n ge uc ur ed l ca d1 t ? 11e tha 1 111 11 ve g1 : is i.t is as pl, em 1 be a prerequ1s1te, that the V1 la 11 . i ee gr de tJr . si er a ui,i.v at the trai.ni.i1g progra111 be of a yea·r 's duration, a11d tl1 1 i11g of av; e dr tl1 as gs i11 th l1 L1c "s l1t L1g ta laVI' o-raduate be plead i.11 gs, t1·ust a.ccoL1nts a11cl bookk�e1Ji11g, practi.�al co11veJra11cing, etiquette a11d profess1011al co11duct. 1. T11i.s was i.11 li11e witl1 tl1e cou1-se of practical traini.11g ii1sti.tuted by tl1e CoL111cil of Legal Educatio1 1 for students i.11 tl1e United l(i11gdom who l1acl passed thei1� bar finals. Tl1e pur1Jose V11 as, of coL1rse, to provide better and 1nore exte11sive })racti.cal trai11i11g tl1a11 could be obtained by the tracli.tio11al "readi11g i11 cl1a1 11bers ". Sucl1 appre11ticeship l1acl prove11 u11satisfactory in the U1 1ited l(ingdo1n, at least for 1nost of tl1ose seeki.11g quali.ficatio11 at the bar. lt woulcl l1ave bee11 eve11 less satisfactory in Africa wl1ere tl1e p1-ofessio11 was fused c111d v\1 l1ere tl1ere \Vere very fe\.v offices i.11 \Vl1icl1 a11 a1Jp1-e11ticesl1i.p \vould be adequate. Tl1is reco1 11111endatio11 of tl1e De1111i.11g Re1Jort ,vas acce1)ted, a11d several "professional scl1ools" were establisl1ed i11 botl1 East a11d \�'est Africa. Tl1ey I1ave ser,,e _ � l n1a11y usefL11 }Jurposes. Of critical imp;1: tance 1A1as tl1e11- 111st1·ucti.011 i11 tl1e va1-ioL1s skills associated wi.tl1 the solici.to1:'s l)ra11cl1 of tl1e p1·ofessi.011 111 tl1e U11i.ted l(i11gdom e� clbove, tl1e1·e \x.1ere fe\x.1 if anJ' 1\frican solicitors '.\s 11ot 111 l )_1_ act1_ �e. The·re vvas tl1L1s little qu esti.011 as to th e adv1s�l)lllt')' of developi11g for111a li.zed instructi.011 £01· the l)l-�Ctl� al d::l')' -to-clc1y 01Jeratio11s of a respo11sib e la\x.,yer's l · off1ce 111 Africa · Tl . · 1e 011l Y qL1est1011 \vas ,,vl1etl1er 1t sl1ou ld be a lJart of a L111ive1�s1t ·.y lJr og1·a1 11 01- p1·ese11ted i11 a11 .ll1Stl. t_ Llt.·l011· \x,111011,, J ou ts1·ct e a u111versi.t fra1 y 11ework. 1. De1111i11g,

OJ).

cit. supra p . l?, at }). 21.

•

The Gl1ana Law School \\1 as establisl1ed in late 1958 to 1Jro\ride eveni11g i11st1·L1ctio11 fo1· Parts l anc1 11 of the Englisl1 Bar examinatio11s. Tl1is ,, c:1s one of the crasl1 progra111s cliscussed above, \:Vl1i.ch ,ve1·e desi.g11ed to develop qL1i.ckly a nun1ber of legall)' t1·ai.ned 1Je1·so11s to aicl both the public and p1·i. vate secto1:s i.n nati.011al devel01Jme11t. Tl1e School \\1 as also designed to JJ1·ovi.de a one year "practical coL11·se" fo1· tl1ose \\ !10 had already' con1pleted their formal acade111ic t1·ai11i.11g i.n lavv. But befo1·e it ever fL111ctio11ed as a p1·ofessi.011al scl1ool, i.t ,vas closecl by tl1e Ge11eral Legal CoL1nci.l of Gl1a11a upo11 tl1e stro11g reco111n1enclation of tl1e l\n1eri.ca11 la\v dean, \\'ho also 1Je1·suaded the autho1·ities to te1·mi.11ate tl1e c1·asl1 progra111. The University tl1e11 assumed responsil)i.li.tyr for tl1e e11ti. re i.nstructi on i.n la\V. Tl1i. s consi. sted of a tl1ree-yrear B. f\. i.n law, follo,vi.ng so111e,,1 !1at tl1e Sri.ti.sh format of undergraduate and relati. vely' ge11e1·ali.zecl teacl1i.ng. For those i.11te11ding to practi.ce tl1ere \:vas a11 addi. ti.011al c,vo years leacli.11g to an LL. B. degree vvi.tl1 rnore IJrofessi.011ally-oriented cou1·ses. Tl1i.s arra11gen1e11t, ho'A1 ever, di.d 11ot co11ti.11ue 1011g after tl1e dean's deportati.011 i.n 1964. The Ghana Lavv Scl1ool ,:v as reestabli.sl1ed fo1· a sl101·t whi. le to serve as a "professi.011al scl1ool", but tl1i.s agai.11 vvas discontinued. f\t tl1e prese11t ti.111e tl1e U11i.versity provides all law i.11structio11, wl1i.cl1 co11si.sts of three yea1·s for the LL. B. degree follo,:ved byr a t'A10-J1 ear practical trai.11i.11g course. The practical course i.s technically' u11der the jL1risdicti.011 of the Ge11eral Legal Cou11ci.l, but the 111aj ori.ty of the teacl1ers are 111e111bers of tl1e Law Faculty; a 11umber are ge11eral practi.ti.011e1·s. 1

Tl1e Ni.geria11 Lavv Scl1ool IJrovi.des 011e of the best a11d most co111plete progra111s for tl1e JJracti.cal i.11structio11 of the law gradLrate a11�{'A'l1ere i.11 1\fri.ca. It i.s L111der tl1e jL1ri.sdi.cti.011 of tl1e Ge11eral Legal Cou11ci.l of Ni.geri.a and i.s 11ot affiliated 'A'i.th any L111i.versi.ty. 171e Law Practice Insti.tLite of Zambia is quite similar i.n these respects to tl1e Ni.geri.a11 La\v School. It i.s 11ot u11der tl1e jL1ri.sdi.cti.011 of tl1e Uni.versi.ty of Za111bia, altl1ough u11ti.l early' 1972 the dea11 of the faculty of lavv wa s ex offi.ci.o tl1e Director of tl1e Law Practice I11stitL1te. Tl1i.s li.nk l1as bee11 elimi.11ated ' and the two i.nsti.tL1ti.011s are now entirely seJJarate. Tl1e Insti. cute provides i. ts stude11ts, all of

e d 11 L1 d o g r o r p ll m ve a \; r a l1 t i w s e t a • , Li . d . c w gra ·- la "'' 1 1on1 are h k e 1t r l1 t o w s ,v t 1 l1 g u o r l1 t e 11� e i r e p x e l a c i t c ·a i }J and 1cl. A ,egal I._ . of Directorate

e f l1 o c th a e t e r 1a th tl e d te c e p x e s a w it a 111 East ;\fric l a 11 i1 o i i.n s a s r 1g t fe o r IJ 11 w o s t i p lo e v e counti·ies vVOLild d i s r e e ty iv th n n U ? fr s te a L1 d a r g � w progran1 for tl1 eir la a y ,v 11 a e e L I( th h g u l1 o lt A 1. n a la a S Colleo-e at Dar e s y a in ,v 1e ig tl r y o in ll a s r e }r w la g n 1i i1 a tr s a ,v J l1 Sc11ool, v,. , 1 ic }r ld i.l u d o a c l, e o r o l1 c S ,v a L a 11 a h co11te111plated for tl 1e G d e r e y y ff 1l ll o 01 .a i ti in it 1, n a r g o r p l1 a c u s 11 ave provided l1 b a s ic law t1·ain it w e s 1o tl r fo , ts 11 u co c a 011e coL1rse, i11 d r re te fe e la of er w s se ur co l 1a o1 ti di ad o t,v ing. 011e or o11 si es p of a lo 1)r al ve de t no d di a i.k 11y ga an T 1\.s r. ba to tl1e s te ua ·ad g1 ar D vn o, s it ce ti ac IJr to d te 11 it 1 ad cou·rse bLit i.t 1n d to its ad ge li ob lt fe a 1y e1 l( g, 1 i1 ol l1o sc r l1e rt fL1 t ou l1 wit ed liz ia ec r sp l1e rt fL1 y a11 t l 1ou t ,vi r Da 11 o1 fr s te graclua i11structi.011. As a resL1lt of the rece11t reorganizati.011 of legal edL1catio11 i11 l(e11ya tl1 e I<e11 ya Law Scl1ool will, 11 0,vever, beco111e d1e professio11al scl1ool for the grad uates of tl 1e law faculty of tl1e U11iversity of Nairobi. A JJrofessio11al course is no,;1,1 bei1 1g developed at tl1e Lavv Develo1J111e11t Centre i11 l(an1pala, U ganda. It ,vill receive i.ts first g1·adL1ate law stude11ts i11 ]Lily 1972. "Professi. 011al" scl1ools present t,vo problen1s wl1i.cl1 11� .ve l)e:11 suggested above bLit vvhicl1 n1ay ,varra11t fL1rtl1er 1 . Tl1 e first relates to teacl1i ng metl1odology, 1ss101 l1sc � : r a11d tl1e seco11 d to coL rse cover 1 e forn1e 1· ao-e. tl to As 0 · . . ' 1 t 11e·re 1 � � te11cle11cy 1 11 Africa to equate tl 1e scl 1ools \'i 1tl1 tl1e tra111 111g tJrogra111s offerecl i11 t l 1e U11ited 1( ino-dom 1)y t�1e Sc l 1ool of La\:\' of tl1e Lav. Societ'Jr a11d tl1 e In1;s of CoLi�t Scl1 ool of Lav\' of t l1e CoL111ci.l of Leo·al Educatio11. 0 Tl 1e1r offe1·i11g·s are tl 1e1-ef·ore 11011-acaden1ic 10-0 trai.n i1 . 1118 desi.gi1ed to }Jro�.ra i11sL1re t l 1e possessio11 ofca _ 1.n1111�1u111 n1ass of i11forn1atio11 by those admitted to pracnce la,v rfl1e,r ·1c:Ie � coi1 cer1.1ed witl1 t l 1e imn1ediate "l,ov.,s" 11ot_·,. vv l1 ys�. ' a11cl tl1 eir i11 structo1-s are 0o-e11erallv· . clra\\111;.l·ro111 tl 1e j)ractic111 g ro f ·essl c: 11. Part-tin1e � � teacl1ers rnc:1.,1 be ad quate . for_ a 1 11e1e, \� 11. sta tlC pro fes sio l10\\1e,,e· 1-, ti 1ere 1. s 8�1g11l· f"lcai1t cl 1a11ge, wl1e1·e legal i11sr1. ·ract· · 11 tuti.011 8 ar-e c: be111g . le�· }' altered a11d 11ew 011es created tl1 e teacl 1i11g slloLild 1Je 11 1 t lle l 1a11ds o f 1Jrofessio11a.l

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teacl1ers ar1d scl1olars. Tl1ey sl10L1l.cl be se11sitive to tl1e 11eeds and Ltses of legal services in a cl1a11gi11g society. f\11cl tl1ey sl1oulcl be willi11g a11d able to acljL1st tl1eir offeri11gs accordingly. BL1t tl1e rec1L1ire111e11ts for adn1is sio11 to the 1Jrofessio11al scl1ools a11cl tl1eir cu1·riculL11ns are ge11erall)' deer111iJ.1ed. or gover11ecl by coL111cils 011 lega 1 edL1catio11, 'A1 hicl1 are 1Jrc1cti.ce orie11tecl. 1\11d tl1at practice is of the traditional variety. Tl1e problem of course coverage sten1s fI·on1 the B1·itisl1 CL1ston1 of sepa1·ating law subjects into those considered "acaclen1ic a11d those dee111ed "11011-aca demic ". T 11e former, jL1risprucle11ce, Ro111a11 la\:v, torts, co11tr::1cts, criminal law, a11d a few otl1ers are vie\:ved as app·ropriate for i11structio11 i11 a regular cleg:ree program of a university. The latter, i11clL1dt11g co1npany or cor porate lavv, taxatio11, e\ri.de11ce, co1n1ne·rcial law, a11d a 11umber of other subjects, are ge11e1·ally relegated to the professio11al scl1ools, \:vl1ere tl1e teacl1i11g is st1·ictly clidactic. These sL1bjects are tl1erefore 11ot subjectecl to scholarly i.nqL1i1-y. Accordi11gly, la\:v 111igl1t here fail to becon1e a dynarnic factor in tl1e develop1ne11t IJrocess. For a \Vl1ile tl1ere was some co11cer11 tl1at sL1cl1 a sitL1atio11 v.;0L1ld occur in Gha11a 'A l1e11 tl1e Gha11a Law Scl1ool was re establisl1ed as tl1e "1Jrofessio11al scl1ool ". Tl1e Scl1ool \Vas give11 virtually exclusi. ve jL1risdictio11 over tl1e teacl1i.11g of evicle11ce, civil proceclure, fa111ily la\:v and taxatio11. It was fea1·ecl this n1ea11t tl1e end of acade1nic i11qL1iry 11ot 011ly i11to tl1ose sL1bj ects but into the worki.11gs of the law of business organizations a11d i11to otl1er fields vitally affected by practice. Fortunately, as notecl above, the Scl1ool was disco11tinuecl. Its subjects can agai11 be scruti11ized by academics se11sitive to the 11eed for adjustments to a rapidly cl1a11gi11g 1\frican co11text. I I

Francopl1onic Africa11 Law FacLtlties 111 all her relatio11s witl1 l1er colonies France assL1111ed a sL1periority in l1er law a11d culture ancl civilizatio11 ge11erally. Witl1 aln1ost 1nissio11ary zeal sl1e soL1gl1t to 1nal,e tl1ese available to l1er colonial 1Jeo1Jles. Tl1ose qualified were broL1gl1t diJ�ectly i11to l1er educatio11al � 11d cultural li.fe. No adjust·me11t was macle for a11y spec1al

t h g v 1i. e a 11 l1 ls e e. "fhe e 11 o y 11 a r o 11 a i.c . ' fr A · 11 t11e 11eecI vv 1.11c · 1 _code, the tot a l 1 1 v c a y b \v s l u 11 e ig 1d i.1 � f o _ t ? 11 1e 11 e c la p re e r fe e h l1 c \V 11 lo11ge r F o 1t 11 n a 1c fr 1\ 1e tl ·· .L or1 of c t; · ·11a ass11n B elgiu111 d n a e c n a r F 1 tl o b l1 c i. l1 w . . • ra11ge IJoliCJ'-' goals . e 1fl uenc 1n Afric a. 11 f o s a e r a e v t1 c e p s e r follo\vecl ii1 tlieir a e h >' v tl e , ot d 11 e g n a l1 : c t o n e v a h ls a o . g AltlioLig11 tliese . l1 1s , 1n s d a e 1m l d e c 11 e lu 1f : i1 ir 1e tl d bee11 realized. 1\11 8 6 f o 19 s d n 11 a 10 69 ll e 19 b e . r t 11 e d tu s e th e 1c i.i s ly parti.cLilar t a a dj ty i. bi A rs i. n, 11 ve U e th r, ka a D f o >' it 1-s \re . ni U Tlie e h er , 11c \V 11 re o F ro 1e n a C 1e tl f o y i.t rs ve i n U tlie Federal d se ls by JJo ro im 11t co t gh ti. 1e tl to t ec bj su u11i. versi. ti.es, e ey n er th ru d � by an s, ri Pa i11 11 i.0 at 1c dL E of ' r> st . 11i tl1e Mi. e m rn h 1c ve e1 Go nt. Fr e tl1 by d te or JJp su rs so es of Fre11cl1 IJr 1 ed precisely \:\ llo fo es lti cu fa \:\' Al l of tl1e courses i.11 the la tl1e sa111e 1Jrog·ra111s offered in similar faculties in F1·ance. Eve11 after formal co11trol of tl1e uni.versiti.es l1ad bee11 tra11sferred to tl1e 1\fri.ca11 gover11ments, tl1e uni.versi.ties \Vere sti.1.1 guided e11ti.rely by Fre11cl1 standards, F1-encl1 cL1rri.culL1m, a11d Fre11cl1 exami11ati.011s. Perl1aps to a lesser exte11t the san1e ca11 be said of Lovani.un1 Uni. versi.cy (i.11 Co11go (l(i.nsl1asa) TIO\:\' Zaire) a11d its r· elati.011sl1i.p to tl1e Belgian Gove1-nme11t a11d Mini.st1-y 1

Tl1i.s )Joli.cy of assi111i.latio11 vvas effective at least a111011g n1ost of tl1e elite. /\ nu111ber of able Africa11s aclo}Jted l:.'re�1cl1 attitudes, F1·e11cl1 dress, carriage, acce11t a11cl l1fe style. Several expl anati.011s l1ave bee11 ofie�·ed. Tl1e Gallic co11cept of cultural a11d juris1J1·u cle11c1al SL1peri.ori.ty clid not exte11d to 1·ace ' at least 11ot · . overtly· "fota · 1 1nteg · rat1011 ·111to F1·e11cl1 culture ,vas l1eld OU t ':I. s ':I . goa1 ,v I 11c · l 1, at lease tl1eoretically ' was attai.11 c able by every 1\·- f11ca1 on -· 1 11ati f-l ere expla 111ay be a parti al . · · sI1 o..f tl1e. greater effect·1 ve11ess of tl1e 1-..""'re11cl1 over tl1e Br1t1 . _ 18 CLI tLt ��1�� . � i·al aclopti.011. It is sL1ggested by tl1e differ. 8 111 tl1e le ga l co11ce 1Jt of tl1e slave. 1�11e ci.v l la\ i. v vIe\ved t1 1e sl·1ve a 8 a pers °11, 11 la,,, ,; v l1ere as con1 1110 tl1e c co11si.dered 111_ 111 a cl1attel. 1. L

1. Go\ve1·, op ci.t . SLtp.1. a p . 8 f11 3' at IJ . 9 £11 8 referr111g to Gr·1. s,vol.d _,aw a 1 1d L . (I_,011do11, 19b4 , JJp_ ....,._,. awv�rs 111 tl1e U11i.ted States

62 •

111 vi.ev\' of tl1e foregoi.11g 011e woulcl l1ave tl1ougl1 t tl1at a nun1ber of scholars anc] eclucators f1·0111 F1·a11copl1011i.c f\frica woLtld l1ave bee11 qui.ckl�{ clevelopecl a11c] th;;1t tl1e i u11.versi.ti.es of tl1at are;;1 \VOLtlcl l1ave becon1e 11atio11alizecl ,vi.thin a fev\' years of tl1ei.r estal)li.sl1111e11t. BLtt, as 11otecl above, 1· tl1e t\fri.ca11 l1acl to cl i.nib p·reci.sely the s;;1111e academic ladde1· as tl1e Fre11cl1ma11, a11cl l1e l1acl to clo i.t 111 Fra11ce \Vitl1 1·espect to Fre11cl1 r11aterials a11d i11 co11peti.ti.on \Vi.th Frencl11ne11. [-Ii.s acqui.sitio11 of te11L1re i11 his f\frican L1nive1·si.t), \\1 as depe11de11t 011 l1i.s "agregati.011", his admissio11 to tl1e elect i.11 his fi.eld after con1peti.ti.ve exami11ati 011s wi. th tl1ose fro1n a.spiring scl1olars tl1roL1gl1 OLtt tl1e Fre11cl1 con1111L111i.�r. As late as 1970 tl1e1·e was only 011e Senegalese teacl1er i.11 tl1e faculty of lavv of tl1e Universi. ty of Dakar V11l10 l1ad beco111e "agrege ". Ancl the sa111e ge11e1·al com111ents ca11 be 111ade \vi.tl1 respect to academi.c p1·ogress at Lova11iu111 U11i.versity. A belief i.11 tl1e perfecti.011 of tl1e substance a11c] 1netl1ods of 011e 's teacl1ings i.11l1ibi.ts acaden1ic i.11qui.1·y 01· acaclemic freedom itself. It discourages co1n1Jarative researcl1. Ve1--y few expatriate scholars i.11 former Frencl1 Africa became interested i.11 customary law, save as a soci.ologic pl1eno111eno11. Belgia11 legal scl1olars u11dertook co11si.cl- . erable research in i.ndige11ous lav, bt1t selclo1n vvi. tl1 a view to its suitability or adaptabi.lity to the evolvi11g Africa11 society. Tl1ere was the1·efore ·relattvely li.ttle co11cer11 in Francopho11ic t\frica with 1-\frica11 legal i.11stituti.011s as such or i.11 tl1e co11trtbL1tio11s tl1e)r 1night 1nake to improve n1ent in the rule of law, tl1e stabili.ty of soci.ety', the sta11�arcl of Iivi.ng, or to developme11t ge11erally. T11i.s narrowness was sl1ared by at least so111e of tl1e few Af1icans who became assimi.lated a11cl acl1i.e\red SLtccess i.11 the EL1ropea11 u11i. versi.ti.es. Furtl1er, tl1e status c1 uo, tl1e co11ti11ua11ce of a colo11i.al relatio11sl1i.p was sup1jorted by the u11i.versity 's admi.11i.strati. ve st1·ucture. At the University of Dakar, for exan1ple, 110 coL1rse coulcl be offerecl or exami11atio11 give11 without 11atio11al legislatio11 regulating its conte11t a11d admi.nistrati.011. And tl1e 1

Supra, p. 14.

l1 s 11 p o i ti h la it e e r w s l e c th a cl 1e i1 a 1r � 11 1a 11 t gover11111e11 s. Par1 i11 tio11 Edt1ca Mi11ist ry of

a e 1n a c 1 e ,v s b r c 0 a in l ic e f s A r n a r � _ Yet tl1ere Vl'ere m 1 F 1 r e o1 11c fr 11 10 at an? tl1 e L1l eg 1 h i.t w � l ec 11r 11a i1c � se di _ 111gl)r ng African r1 of p1 tl1 as 1Ja 1e tl 1n ed ac pl . es ti. Ltl a1 1e11 diffic .1n pan· s 1n · 19 · 6 8 r1gge ts io r t 11 red e 1d 5 tL s e l1 T . s c ii. n e d a c a _ e d n g .)2 o a te IJ o 11 s a , a ic fr A 1 i.1 ls ve a sin1ilar L1pl1e e m rn e ve nt th go om was fr d ai. al . i 11c 11a fi. i.11 11s Reduccto n 1t 1te e1 o1 ud sc st di r t fo it1 e us ca l pa ci i.11 pr e r11 as d cite . er ep 11 de ra President 11s io ct fa tis sa dis tl1e t bLi Daka.r, Se11o·11or n1L1st l1ave se11sed tl1is, as he gradually bega11 to r� IJlace l1is l=i'1·e11cl1 facL1lty me111bers ,vitl1 qualified Se11egalese. U11cler an agree111ent reached in Octobe1· 1969 tl1e Gover11111ent of Se11egal acquired inde1Je11dence in decidi11g tl1e orga11izatio11 a11cl conte11t of the educational }Jrogra111 at tl1e U11iversity of Dakar. Dakar's degrees coL1lcl 110 lo11ger be considerecl icle11ti.cal to those of a F1·encl1 L111i versity, tl1ougl1 tl1ey Vlere to be dee111ed "ec1L1i. vale11t ". Tl1e Fre11cl1 1Jrese11ce 11evertl1eless con ti.11L1es to be stro11g, and Fre11cl1 i11flue11ce is predominant. S0111e cou1·ses, ho\vever, a1·e 110,v bei11g offered ,vl1ich are Af1·ica11 i.11 a1Jproacl1 and i11 co11te11t, a11d the U11ive1·si.t'jr see111s to be acqL1iri.11g a11 i11c1·easino- concern ,vitl1 the a1JIJropriate11ess of its curri.culL1m to the Af1· ican co11text a11d Af1·i.ca11 11eeds. I 11 tl1e sL1n1 n1e r of 1971 tl1e first Se11egalese laV11 dea11, wl1 0 ,va s a l so the first Se11egalese i.11 tl1e la, v scl1ool to become ao-1·eo-e 1·epiaced o o , � F -i re11cl11n e11 as Re ctor ( or lJresi.dent' of tl1e Uni. versity. . fl1� law clec111 V11 as sL1cceeded fo r a ,,,111.le by a Se11egalese , bLtt tl1e curre11t dea11 is Fre11cl1. 1, 11 e rac1Ltal cl1a11ges taki.11g JJlace at tl1e U11iversity of : � . Dakar_ are to so111e e x, te11t· · · · be111g 111atcl1ed i.11 f\b1dJa11 a11d y a.oLillde. But tl1e t111ive1·sit i.es i11 tl1e Ivory Coast a11d tlie Ca1i-1er· oo11 ca 1-e st1· 1 1 are pr ed . and o11 1111 ate . ly Eu ro . pe an ...,cl 1111111ste1·ec1 la·r·g·el b . c · ')' Y E '"'u1·01)ec111s. CL

f\rabizatio11 Closely allied to 1\fri.ca11i.zatio11 a11cI 11ationa1izatio11 is tl1e 1\rabizatio11 policy of sor11e of tl1e gover11me11ts ii1 1\frica don1i11atecl by Islan1. Tl1is l1::1s prese11tecl ratl1er acL1te problerns i11 tl1e SL1da11, vvhere tl1e co111n1011 la\;v Iias a deep impact 011 legal practice if 11ot jL1ris also 1nade _ prudent1al tl1eory. Ortl1odox f\11usli ms, at least those iii tl1e Suda11, believe that 1\1-abic is tl1e langLtage of pa1·adi.S2, a11d tl1ey consider Isla111ic law to be of Di.vi11e origi11 though mediated by Nlol1a1111ned. 171ey rnake 110 di.sti1.1c tio11 betwee11 lavv and religi.011. La\,v is thus fixed a11d im111utable a11d its n1en101·izatio11 is u11derstandable i.f 11ot int1insically meritorious. Tl1e la11gL1age of instructio11 tl1roL1gl10L1t tl1e Suda11, at least in tl1e pri111ary a11d second ary scl1ools, l1as becon1e progressively 1\rabi.c. 111 196,S this tra11sitio11 l1ad \vorked its ,vay tl1rougl1 tl1e 11i11tl1 grade, and the1-e \Vere tl1ose v,1!10 fea1�ed tl1at the colleges and u11iversities \Vould be required to follow SLii.t. This \\,as deplored by ma11y, si11ce i\rabic l1acl 11ot bee11 foL111c1 adaptable to the Lise of 1nodern legal a11c1 co111111ercial terms. Practici11g lawyers in l(l1artoL1111 l1a\1e fou11d it 1:1lrnost im1Jossible to observe tl1e Go\1er11me11t's decree that legal docu1ne11ts be \Vritte11 in Arabic. '"fl1e circL1m locutio11s reqL1ired to ex1Jress in 1\rabic a 111oder11 co1nmercial tern1 coL1ld take l10L1rs of i.1111ovati ve tl1ougl1t a11d still fail to commL111icate wl1at tl1e s'i11gle E11glisl1 \vord provi.d.ed. The Be11cl1 a11d leaders of tl1e Bar, for the most part graduates of tl1e U11iversity of l(l1artourn, vvere thus convincecl tl1at, for \1ery practical reaso11s, English vvould l1a ve to be co11tinued as tl1e la11gL1age of i.11strL1ctio11 i11 law faculties, i11deed as tl1e la11guage of modern commercial lavv. But tl1ere were cou11tervaili11g sig11s in tl1e wi11d. Up L1ntil the Israeli-Arab war of 1967 the U11iverst17. of Cairo (Khartoum bra11ch) trai.11ecl 111ost of tl1e pr�ct1c111g lawyers. ,..fl1is was an eve11i11g scl1ool, a11d may snll be so. It \.Vas housed in a builcli11g wl1icl1 served as a seco11dary school duri11g tl1e day. Su1Jported e11tirely _by tl1e United f\rab Republic, it taugl1t exclLtsively Egy1Jt1 a11 law, wl1icl1 is basecl 011 the Napoleo11ic cocle. At tl1 e ei1d of the regular course tl1ere vvas a sl1ort i11te11si ve study

•

11ts n1i.ght be t e d a tu th s o s w la on in m co 1e tl on . ·1Jrocrram 0 f tl1e Sudan. T!1e o 1s 01 r1 1a i.1 am ex r Ba e . able to IJass tl1 y ll ia nt e s a cra 111 ss a e \v 1 11 a gr o r 1J re ti · 1 ei , 8 . Un1. vers1· tY f rs e o tl1 be m e e m Bar 1 n tl1 f o t os n _ I 1 I1 ug 1o lt A . COUI se. l 11s s cho o 1.' . t l1e 1aw l?rog rarn t f o s te ua ad gr e er w l(hartoum 1 as co11s1de1·ed more 1 11 Vi u to r a l1 l( at tl1e Uni.versi.ty o f 1Jrestigi.oLts.

111 1964-65 On1clL1r111a11 Islan1i.c Uni.versi.ty opened its

doors. Tl1i.s 11e\v U11i.versi. ty recei.ved substanti.al support from Saudi. 1\rabi.a, a11d the Uni.,,ersi.ty of. Cai. ro i.n Cairo provided s0111e of its best teacl1ers. TI1e U11i.versi.ty �1as boi·n i.11 a wave of pro-Islan1i.c feeling, a11d i.t \Vas strongly sLtIJportecl by the Suda11ese Gover11111e11t. In 1966 the Vice Cl1a11cellor ad,ri.sed tl1at tl1e U11i.versi.t:yr \voul d teach both tl1e Sl1a1·i.a and tl1e ci.vil law and that the graduates \Vould be co111peti.ti ve witl1 tl1ose of tl1e U11iversiC)' of l(hartoum.l, 111 October 1971 tl1e Sudanese Governn1e11t ordered the cli.sco11ti.11ua11ce of tl1e commo11 law as a part of tl1e ju1is prL1de11ce of tl1e Suda11. Tl1e exte11si.011 of Arabic as tl1e la11guage of instructio11 tl1roughout tl1e educational system, 1Jerl1aps as the official la11guage of the e11tire cou11t1-y, u11dou1Jtedly l1as kept pace witl1 tl1e re11ewed importance of f\lTL1sli.n1 lavv. 1\ disturbi.11g facet of the Arabizati.011 policy is tl1e effect 011 Suda11ese atti.tLtdes to\;vards ed uc ation. Arab Islamic i.11stitutio11s of educari.011 are co11fi11ed to tl1e teacl1i11g of ::1 fixed body of kno,vledo-e. 171e stude11ts acqui.1·e. tl1i.s k110\vleclge by ro te lea;'11ing. T11e I(oran i.s 1ne111or1zecl verbati1n, a11d tl1is is a11 ac t of fai.tl1. Its IJrece1Jts clre rarely exa111i11ed. lecture Tl1e o1·,, osit exp J' methocj usec1 1· 11 t·he la \-v faculty, eve11 \\1i.tl1 tl1e Ltsual �L1P l)l e met1tary tL1tori.al sess io11s ' is 11 ot 111ucl1 of a11 1 111prove meiJt. I11 19 6 6 a se11i.o·r me111ber of tl1e l(l1art0Lin1 l aw f.acL1lr,,J coin · - 111e11ted tl1at tl1e 1\1n erican case n1ethod 1 . 'l l., 1e Sl1a1-i::1, o1- " \X ,1 ayi,, is tl1e le g a l system of l sl a n l 1e te1·n1 c 1· · T Cl · V1 ·1 l a\"' 1s used i11 co11tracli.sr·111ct1. 011 to relig ioL1s la\v.

in pure fo1Âˇ111 v,,as i11approp1Âˇiate as a teacl1i11g device for Sudanese stude11ts, si11ce tl1ey l1ad l1acl 011ly rote lear 11111g prior to e11trance to the lav,, faculty a11cl l1ad 11ever bee 11 caught to thi11k i ndepe11de11tly. f-Ie co11si.dered it too 1nucl1 to ask tl1e111 to for1nt1late legal J)receJ)ts f:rom tl1e lavv reports alo11e or to express 11e,v ideas ,vitl1 resJ)ect to a11 alie11 cultLtre a11d i.11 wl1at \v; as to them a seco11d or tl1ird laiiguage. T11e experience of tl1e t\111eri.ca11 tea.cl1ers i.11 the Sooan generall)r \vas that a n1odified case metl1ocl, emphasizing class pa1-rici.patio11 i.11 p1-oblem a11alJrsi.s, together wi. tl1 son1e ex1)ository J)rese11tati.011, p1-oved to be a11 effective tecl1nique.

III IC R N E A D M N A A E C N A T IS S S A EXP i\TRlf\TE INVOLVEMENT Europea 1 1 i11vol\re111e11t i�1 Africa_ i11 the �960s see�ed a coiitii1L 1atio11 of a 1Jolic>' of 111tegrat1on, of 1ncorporat1ng tlie colo 11ial de1Je 11de11cies i 11to tl1e European gover 1 1ments, cles1Ji.te tl1e i.1 1depe11cle 1 1ce moveme11t. ,_Il1e Bri_tisl1, on tl1e otl1er l1a11d, e 11coL 1 1-aged tl1at 1noven1e 1 1t. The1r sLtpport of i. 11cleJJe11cle 11ce 1 11igl1t be viewed as the flo\\1 ering and cli.n1ax of a colo11ia 1 traclitio 1 1, although the tin1e scl1edu les for i.11de1Je 1 1de11ce vvere ofte11 awry. America's i.11volven1e11t, 011 tl1e otl1er l1a1 1d, migl1t be like 1 1ed to an ori.gi.1 1al discovery mixed \\1 i th a curious se11se of ki11ship V1 itl1 tl1e discovered. For tl1e A1nerican legal scl1olar there vvas 111L 1ch to provoke l1is professio11al interest. 1\frica11 proble 111s of co 1 1stitutio11a 1 la\\, a11d i11ter11al co11flicts of lavv l1ad counter1Jarts in all jL1risdictio 11s of tl1e U 11i.tecl Sta.res. Exce1Jt i 11 011e or t\\'O cou11tries, the JJrofessi.011 i1 1 1\f1-ica \Vas as L111i.fied as i.1 1 An1eri.ca; tl1e1·e was 110 di.cl1oto111y bet\vee11 barristers a11d solicitors. f\ 11cl tl1ere see1 11ed to be a 11eecl i. 11 l\fi·i.ca ' as i.11 A111eric a, for· tl1e }Jrofessi.0 11al ca1Jable of c1·ossi 1 10· acade111i.c di.sci pli 11es, i .11 1 10,,;;1 ti.11g, effecti 1 1g leo·al f1-:111e\:v orks co1 11�atible \\'itl1 local or regio1 1al co 1 1�exts, and participating 111 tl1e eco 110111i.c a11d social tra11sfor 1 11ati.011 of soci.e{lr. 1

BecaLise of tl1e c·r. i. tical 1 1eed for Afri.ca11s i.n traditional l a\\i yer roles, ;;1 11d £01: 1:easo11s of IJresti.ge la\:v schools ' \v; ere an f 10 · o · 11g 1 e f�11-st ti · 1s 1 0 to l)e i.11stitL 1ti. c· r eated tl1e i11 . 11_tgl7er educatio11 ,vl1i.cl1 n1ost 11e\\' 1\fri.ca1 1 states establ1sl1ed as• first O_ 1·cters o·f b L1 s1. 1 1ess. BLit wi.tl1 tl1e acute . 8 1 1�1•tage of. i\fi·1ca11 lcl\\'>'e1-s i.11 1 11ost areas tl1e staf fing ... ' of tl1ese facL1lties 1)>' I-\f·r1ca11s . . l1ty .· ,vas 1111poss1b1 1 a 1 . . 1o e qL1al1f1. ecl to teacl1 la\\' Tl er n cro v i.11 \\le1-e 111ore i1eedecl � r11e11t, o1· tl1e judi.ciar>'· B r · i.ti.sl1 la\\' teachers ,,.,,,ereo

--gen� rally not �vailab�e. Britisl1 L111iversities v\rere t1avii1g ,. clifficulty starf1ng tl1e1r O\Vn la\,, facLtlties and \Vere tl1 ere fore disi.ncli.ned to send their tec:1cl1ers to Africa 01 1 "seco11dn:e11t�'; i.. e . , 011 leave v\1 itl10L1t loss of se111ority or _ interrupt1011 1n tl1e1r prog1-essi.011 in pay scc:1le. Furtl1er teacl1ing in Africa vv as \ri.ewed by B·ri. tisl1 Lt 11i.ve rsities as' not havi.11g eqLtivalence so far as J)ro111otio11 a11d career advanceme11t \;vere co11cerned. ,\111erican teacl1ers were less a.ffected by tl1ese consi.derati.011s. 1\ 1 11eri.ca11 L1 11i. ver sities seemed 0101-e flexil1le i 1 1 tl1e g1·a11ti. 11g of leave. Ancl t!1e A1nerican law graduate, ,vl1ateve1· l1is calli11g, l1acl tl1e prese11t or pote11tial secL1rity of pri,,ace IJractice. It tl1us fell to A1nerica11 laV11 teache1·s to 111ake a special co11tributton in tl1e establishn1e11t of Africa 11 la\:\' faculties. Such opportL111ities would have bee11 enougl1 to sti111ulate tl1e i11terest of A1nerican la,v teachers. Tl1ere "''as i.11 additi.011 a 1·eali.zatio11 tl1at mall)' of tl1e socio-eco1101nic legal problems in Africa had parallels i.11 tl1e United States, tl1at thei.1- study an)r\vhere 111igl1t lead to solutio11s applicable i.n any cha11gi11g society \vhetl1er "developi11g" or "developed". It was this b1·oad, professio11al i11terest i11 African problems a11d Africa11 solutio11s V11l1i.cl1 i11sured f\f1·ican acceptance. It was 111anifestly a11 i.11terest of peers, and it was understood a11d appreciated as such by the Africa11 lavvy·er and teacl1er. i.0 11 - Tl1e Begi1111i11�?.,rr� Coordination or Cooperat .., 1\merican Law J-l eacl1er I11vol ven1e11t .,

T,rT'

Amer ica11 lawyers a11d legal scl1olars started going to Africa \vhe11 indepe11de11ce V11 as i11 the offi11g. Tl1ey we11t in vari ous capacities, as advisors, teacl1ers, co11sL1lta11ts, By cor1ference participants, ancl fou11dation ex�lorers. _ 1960 and 1961 America11 acade111ic i11terest 111 African legal developmen t l1ad become widespread. ,..TT1is follo,vecl closely developn1e11ts i11 Africa itself. The year 1960 can be co11side·red a watershed between _e colo11ial and i.ndepende11t Africa. Before 1960 there ,ver o11ly 11ine i11de1Je11dent African states gover11ed by indige110L1s 1\frican 1Jeoples. .Dt.1ring 1960 seve11teen 69

y amo11g t!1e 11 , 1a 11 n ig e r e v o s e 11 a1 . . ec b 8 11 0 · add1t1011a 1 11ar1· . · 1 · . 11 u 0 p N t1 o a p d 11 a 1 r s e s 1g 1a 11 a d n la l il t n ra r e 11. st. iin 3 5 90 s a) ha s o 11 g (i. 11 (l o ; C 0 0 , 74 ,1 6 6 , 28 3 �� ' 66. 9 �q. ini., y as lag ); Ma 71 19 t. es 8, 22 . ov (G 000 0 00 7 63 ?l ' ' · ' 1· 111 sq. . sq 1. 581 . ' m 183 . 1 ' 0L ·0 e1 11 a1 C o· oo 0 75 , 6 , 1 1., 11 ' sq. . • 1\ 1. 0?2 000 . , 1 1. , 5, n nd t sq. ,· 0 ,00 ,�'1th 464 li Ma · OOO - 836 ms of a l�gal, le ob of JJr d ia yr m a e m ca e 11c de Ii J� ��is ii�del 1 s also a belief, wa re 1e · T . re tu 1a 1 c 11i 01 o11 ec c 1 ocr ol SOCl· o , · · · t I 1a . 1 , t aw rs n la 1 l1o sc r1 f 1\. se ca at least 011 tl1e par t of tl1e 1t e1 d pm lo an ve de its tl1at i11 or ct fa c 11i 1 11a dy a be d coul 1 ou ld or at least could play ,� 1g 1i1 1 ai tr v lav 1 tl \Vi t\frica11s ke�>' roles i11 tl1at process, i.11 adap\i11g _t\f 1·ica1? s?cieties, Afri.ca11 1 Joliti.es to 111ore democrat1c, 1ndustr1al1zed, i.11 terdepe11cle11t co 1 11111Ll 11ities. Profe ssi.011al i.11tere s t a11d tl1 e 11eed in 1\.fri.ca for law scl1ool s a11d law teacl1er s JJro111pted the establi.shn1e11t .i 11 1961 of an i11formal a s sociat i.011 of .t\n1eri.can la,v teacl1ers a11d la\v scl1ool s wi tl1 tl1e ratl1er u11wi.eldy na111e of "Progran1 fo 1· Cooperati.011 i.11 Africa11 Legal Educati.011 a11d J{esearch ". I11te11se i.nterest ove1·came 111any begi.1111 i 1 1g di.fficL1lties. For example, tl1e vvord "coor di.11atio11" l1ad i.11i.ti.ally bee11 used t o clescribe 011e of tl1e Prog·ram' s propo s ed acti.viti.es, but i t l1ad raised tl1e l1ackles of at least 011e senior la�, school ad111inistrator ,vl10 feared a }Jos s i.lJle lesse 11ing of l1is scl1ool 's auro110111y. �[l1e SL1bsti. tuti.011 of "cooperati.0 1 1" a11d a full explanati.0 11 of the Progra111 's l1a1·111 less natL1re bJ' a deleo-atio11 of b . e11t1u l s1asts }Jreve11ted a11 ec11·ly foL11 1deri.11g. It provided a Vc1luable les s o11 i11 JJerso11al se11sit iviti.es. \lie P1·og1·a111 was clesi.gt1ed to serve as clea1·i 1g l1ouse 1 a of 111f �111a_tio11 0�1 la\\' and legal de ,,elop111e11t a 11d legal °. eclu�at1011 111 Af 1·1c;1; a11d to facil itate tl1e 1·ecruit1ne11t bJ' Afr1cai1 law facL1lti.e s of qL 1a li. fi ed A 111 eri.ca11 teacl1ers . It \V as al s� to JJrovide i11fo·r 11 1ati.ot 1 01 1 tl1e f\frica11 acti. vi.ties �f i\n,ei'"lcai7, ELiro1Jea11, a11d B 1 ·i ti s l1 s cl1olar s a11d fou11dat1011s' to c·1voi.c1 dLl J1 1c . · a t 10 11s ar1d facilitate n1akit1g l

r- Tr ·--,�,or �-.ar- -A·· l1�---· . 1e 11a11ac a11d

on, E d i. B t i. o o k 2 of P a . 19 c ts 7 °' u � � �lsl7ecl for 1 11e News; popL1latio11 fi;ures are U11i ted atlot,s eSri.inates 1 970, L111les s otl1erv�ise 11oted.

co111plementary resear�l1 acti vi. ties co11re 111plated or 1 11 prog:ress. _ �1e !ormat1 �11 of tl1e Progra1n \\'as ai.clecl by _ several cl1st1 ngL11sl1ed B1--i t1 sl1 1 egal scl1ola1-s ancl reacJ1e1-s \vl10 vvere i.n the Uni. ted States i. n 1961 at tl1e ti. 111e of two of tl1e ea1-ly gatl1eri. 11gs of i.11te1-ested scl1olars, 011e i11 New York and tl1e otl1er i11 New f-Iave11. Tl1eir su1Jpo·rt also se1·ved to coL 1nterbala11ce tl1e affi 11ity of tl1e 1\frica 11 elite in forn1er Bri.tisl1 f\frica for the U 11ited J(ii1gdom. The catalyst, howeve1-, to exte11sive 1\n1e1-i.can involven1e11t i.11 African legal eclL1catio11 vvas tl1e Confer e11ce 011 Legal EdL1cati.011 i.n f\frica, \\1J1icl1 vvas l1eld. i.11 Accra and Lego11, Gl1ana, i 1 1 Ja 11uary, 1962. Al tl1ough it was under tl1e immediate auspices of tl1e Depa1-tme11t of Law of tl1e Universi.ty of Gl1ana a11cl tl1e Cou11cil of Legal Educatio11, each of whicl1 was l1eaded b)' Professor J. I-I. 1\. La11g, a Briti.sl1 solicitor, it could 11ot l1ave bee11 helcl witl1out the approval of Preside11t Nkru111ah. l . Des1 Jite the concurre 11ce of 01-. Lang and Dr. Nkru111al1 011 the co11ference, their pL1rposes were dia111etricall)r OJ.J lJosed. D1-. La11g thougl1t tl1e co 11fere11ce v,1ould cle1110 11strate general acceptance of the rule of lav'l, of tl1e concept of a law above 11atio11al loyalties. 01-. NkrL1mal1 ap1Jare11tly thougl1t it 1nigl1t aid l1is Pa11-African n1ove1 11e11t. I 11 a11y event, he thougl1t of la,v as subservie11t to tl1e state. These opposing views had i 11 a se11se joi11ed issue over the appoi11t111ent by the Preside11t i11 Oece111ber 1961 of a lecturer in tl1e law de1 Jart111e11t as Presi.de11tial Professor of La\v. The lecturer did 11ot l1ave tl1e ap1Jrop1-iate academic qualificatio11s, but l1e was pron1i11e11t i11 the gover11i11g party, tl1e Co11ve11tio11 Peo1Jles Party. As 11oted above, Dr. Nkrumah l1ad bee11 troubled b)r tl1e i1 1depen cle11ce of the U11iversi.ty stude11ts a11d tl1eir c1-i.ticism of the governme11t. As Preside11tial P1-ofessor tl1e lec� urer could n1ore effectively conti11L1e l1is efforts to organize the students and root 0L1t what l1e deemed pote11tial 1. Dr. Nkru1nah was officially referred to as "Osagyefo". This was a11 a11cie1.1 t tribLt te of tl1e 1\kan people to a11 outsta ndi11gly successful vvarrior, althoL1gl1 i.t was loosely and perha1Js incorrectly tra 11slatecl "Redee111er. " 71

g . n r d a e D L c l n a very J t 11 1e 11 1t i.1 � o 1J 1J a � ? s . i l1 f ,.. sul)versi. o ii. 1 l11c11 , em \\ st sy sl1 1t1 Br e as 1 tl r de LJn � i . Oll. cli.ffi.cLilt JJosi.t 1e professor 11 1 1 ly n o e b 11 a c e r e th � _ e11t , s act1011 also seemed observed i.il c11a11a, f 1d s to e r P 1e l ,.. t. 11 e tm r a iJ e eacll d o11. g e L t a 1n o d e e r f doo111 acacle111i.c

d g a n h y a ac1 ?. e r r D c 11 e r fe 1l 0 � 1 e tl � f · � � By r11e Liine o _ 1e end of the tl t a v tl c e ff e 11 0 t1 a 11 ig s e r � re11cterecl 11 is 1 as 111 the co11fere11ce air. J' Vi it ic tr c le E acacte1111c J,ear. om ro of th e ss ll a 1a cl sn a 1 i.1 ld e 1 l s a w 11 i.0 ss se TI1e fi.rst . t o ua or N eq }Jo re ad e e w cs ti 1s oL ac 1e tl re l1e \1v J' it rs ve u11;_ ngs di e g ee th in oc at pr sl an tr r fo e ad 1 11. 1 e1 be cl l1a . tJrovi.si.o11 1cl1-s1Jeak1ng delegates 1 re F e tl1 of 1J' a1 n1 1cl a1 into F1-e11cl1, L1 eq d bs a11 11d sL1 co se ent e Th . 1 l lis 1g E1 11d ta rs de L111 t 11o could sessi.011s were l1eld i.11 a la.rge hall, bu t tr a11slations into Fre11cl1 sti.11 prese11tecl a }Jroblem. Tl1ey c ould 011ly be do11e i.11 sL1n1mary fasl1io11 at tl1e co11clL1sions of presenta i .s i.1-ri.tated all of the Franco 1Jl1011ic Tl1 ti.011s i.11 E11gli.sl1. clelegates. 171e Presi.de11ti.al Professor tl1e11 took i.t upo11 l1i.1nself t o apologize for \Vl1at he called tl1e i.11efficiencies of tl1e co11ference a11d asserted that l1ad i.t bee11 govern111e11t spo11s orecl tl1ere \vould l1ave bee11 11011e of tl1e a1111oya11ces \Vl1icl1 tJr o1 Jerly botl1ered tl1e delegates. l�l1e11 tl1ere \vere suggesti.011s of adjournment, a11d sL1clde11ly tl1e co11fere11 ce \Vas ig11i.ted. Tvla.11y delegates jL1111ped t o tl1eir feet a11d sta1-red speaking si111ultaneously. Several Fre11cl1-s1Jeaki.11g co11ti11ge11ts tl11-eate11ed \:Vi.tl1 d·rawal. BL1t tl1e beclla1n did 11 ot last l ong. A 11 A111erican JJrofessor, s111all i.11 statu1-e a11cl V11i.nson1e of 111ie11 raised l1i.s l1a11cl for tl1e fl oo·r, tl1e first 1\111erica11 to n1ak� sucl1 r · ec1uest. /\s l1e \\1 as 11oti.ced tl1e 11oi.se a11d co11fusio11 �Libsidecl, a11cl tl1e delegates 1·esL1111ed tl1ei.r seats,"' ma11y 1 11 a11ger bLtt restrai.11ed a11d suclde111 r curi.0L1s. 1 11e 1 _ �,ner 1 ca�1 walkecl qLti.etly to tl1e 111i.cropl1011e and the11 fLt�secl \�ltl1 tl1e acljust111e11ts t o 111a ke i.t suitable fo·r l1is r l1e 1g l1t \N it l1 o·r l �e 1 , .., u1et t · o· oo d 1Ltn1or l1e fi11ally s1Joke, q . ·. : ci. o ) . t:, ln 1c110111atic l:,re11cl1 bL1t \\1i.tl1ol1t a tra. of a Fre11cl1 ce acce11·t ' ''f\� essleLirs, 111esda111es an1is" and I1e 1ne s �_1 1e11 recoL111ted l1i s pleasL11-e at b� i. 11g 'll'i.tl1 colieagues , clatte1- of se 1.11 t 1e -· IlOLts a11d fri.e11dly debate. \�'i tl1 an . affecttOll ate 8111i.le l1e sai.cl tl1 1 i 1d ed e re h co 111 fe 1 1 i.1 re ce 1 1 n of A · 111e1-1_ ca11 1.a\\, ·facL1lty n1eet111gs. f Ie - V11 as tl1erefore 72

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deli �l1ted to be �h �re a11d _ hopecl tl1e co11fere11ce would co11nnue. ProV1d1ng 111s O\iv11 tra11slati.011s, J1e 8t1iftecl l)clck a11d forth bet\Nee11 Fre11cl1 a11d .E11glisl1 e\rer1r fe\t\' se11tences. Fro\v11s gave \Vay to sn1iles a11cl tt1e11 "' Iaugl1te1- ancl applaL1se f1-om everyo11e. 1 11e 11 tI1 e coilfer e11ce mo\1ed tO\iVard a co11frate1-11i ty, a11cl tl1e Fre11ct1speaki11g delegates 1-e1nai11ed. f-Iere \:Vas cli})lo111ac)' at its best. . delegates spe11c B ?th tl1e Bri.ti.s11 l \n1erica11 anc1 _ t co11s1derable t1111e seek111g to adjust d'iffere11ces betvvee 11 the Preside11t and the la\t\1 depa1·t1ne11t to 1nake it l)Ossi.l)le for Dr. Lang to co11tir1ue as tl1e P1·ofessor o:f La\\,. Thougl1 tl1i.s did not succeed a11d Dr. La11g left GI1a11a for good i.11 Februar1,, tl1e co11fere11ce \t\'as a SLtccess. The Ghanaians vvere excelle11t I1osts. A11cl tl1e .Af1·i.ca11, British, and A1nertca11 law teachers a11d scl1ola1-s se11secl a professi.011al fello\�., ship a11d ca111e to ap1)reci.a.te tl1eir mutual interests 111 legal educatio11 in 1\fri.ca. The confere11ce co11firmed tl1e 11eed for expatriate teachers, at least in tl1e i11i. tial staffi11g of 1\frica11 la\i\l faculties, ancl i.11 view of the lack of available teacl1e1·s in Britain. Both the Afrtca11 a11d Britisl1 delegates tl1ougl1t America11 assista11ce n1ight do, a11d a 11L11nber of African delegates inquired directly of tl1e 1\111erica11s wl1etl1er staffi11g coulcl be obtai11ed fro111 scl1olars i.11 tl1e U11ited States. Upo11 their return l101ne tl1e 111e111bers of tl1e A111 erica11 delegatio11 1Jro1)osed a ne\t\' organizatio11 for tl1e recruit1ne11t of law teachers a11cl for tl1e ge11eral be11efit of legal educati.011 a11d research i11 Africa. ,..n1e 11ame of tl1e initial progran1, Pealer, wa s cl1anged to "Staffi11g o�, Afric�11 Institutio11s of Legal Educatio11 a11d Researcl1., a11� tl1e acro11ym Sailer ca n1 e into i11 11nediate use. F111anc1al assistance was sought from the Fo1·d FoL111 �latio11. Ge11erous support to tl1is applicati.011 was g1 \7e11 by a number of British scl1olars, i11clucling Pr of e� sor �- C. B. Gower , presently Vice Cha11cellor of the U111 vei·s1ty of I. See Ap1 Je11dlx A, infra p. 174. 73

111111

ip c e v ti r ti a c . p nt at a a 11 a 1e tl 11 e e b d a l1 lio w i1 to IJ ll I . la s tl rd 1e o tl F u1 o 62 F 19 1 t cl ar ar 1d M 1 01 In e. 1c e1 e; 11f co 1�_na _ e s r s th p u c l. is a d s o to p k r o Y w e N � i.n g i1 ti. e e 11ad a m i r e e f t? n o m a A c t s o 1n e r e w g 11 ti e 1e n Tl1ose at rl1e o s s fe , r o ce Pr e 11 ,AJ o re G fe 11 r, co a 11 a l1 G e th at s e re e rrt co a. ic 1 f1 i1 e A It 11c e ri as e ,1v xp e l1 it \v rs l1e ot l ra ve aild se 1s 1 11a with i1 o1 l1a si G us sc di e tl1 of 11 ru re a of t 1a v1 e, 111 50 ce an st te si ia as tr a11d its pa ex of re tL1 11a e tl1 1 01 s einp11asi. 1·ece1Jtivi.ty i11 1\frica.

t·

1 11 JL111e 1962 tl1e Ford F oL1ndation made tl1e first of a series of gra.11ts in sL11Jpo1·t of tl1e Sailer Project with the broad s1Jecification "for legal educati.011 in Africa. " The I11sti.tute of Inter11ational EdL1cati.011 ,vas asked to admini ster tl1e fL111ds witl1 tl1e guida11ce of a con1mittee n1ade up of tl1e eigl1t 1\merica11 parti.cipa11ts at the Ghana Co11fere11ce, a11d tl1e ,vriter was a1J1:>ointed di.rector of the project. By tl1e fall of 1962 two 1\merican teacl1ers ,vere i11 Liberia u11der tl1e 1Jroject, a11d a 11e\V 1·ei11vi.gorated faculty \Vas bei.11g establisl1ed i.n Gl1ana. The Saile1· Project ,vas L111derway. The ori.gi.11ators were no lo11ger obliged to dig i11to tl1eir o\vn pockets to fi.11a11ce tl1e begi1111i11gs of \vl1at presaged an e111·icl1i.11g experience in inter11atio11al L111dersta11di.11g a11d good\\ri. 11. QL1alificatio11 a11d RecrL1itme11t of Ex1 Jatriate 1�eacl1e1·s America11 i.11terest i11 aid of la\\1 at1d lea-al i.11sti.tutio11s 0 1 in \frica was 11e,,e1· colo11ialist. If there V1,as a11y p1·0s _ �ly �-i 11g, it related only to 111etl1odology a11d perl1aps tl1e 111s1ste11ce tl1at Africa11 a11swers be found for Af1·ica11 _ c1uest10 11s. Tl1ere V11as 11eve1· a11y i.11te11t 11or V1 as a11y effort ever 111ade to export An1erica subs 11 ta11tive la vv. 1· Foi· coi1ve11ie11ce of reference tl1e tern1 Sailer Vlill be used to 1·efer to tl1e l)roj ect fro111 its i11ce1Jtio11 to date. [i, 1967 i.t was, 110\vever, 111e 1·ged \Vitl1 the Inter _ 11at1011al Legal Ce11ter. See 1\ 1)pe11cli.x B for a SLIITIIllary of Sailer's recrL1 i.t111e11t efforts and its SLl)-)))Ol"t of ex r 1Jatr1ate teacl1ers i11 Africa, i11fra P· 178 · 1

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-----------1\lthough tl1e America11 scl1olar coulcl rely 011 I1is ge11e1-al k110\vledge of the la\v, vvl1at l1e wottld tea.cl1 111igl1t I1ave to be fou11d anew. The cl1alle11ge reqL1irecl tal e11ts of a l1igl1 order. Professor f\rthur E. SLttherland, BL1sse1, Professor of Law, En1eritus, of tl1e [-Iarva1-ct J__,a\�' Scl1ool, 0L1tli11ed in an info1-n1al paper th e qL1alities l1e thoLtgh t 11ecessa.ry "to sL1stai11 i11 actio11 a yoL111g America11 ciL11�i11g a t\-vo-yea1assignn1ent of LtsefLIl teacl1i ng of la\iV" i11 1\frica. [ I- is first reqL1ire1ne11t was a groundi11g 111 tl1e co111mo11 law system sL1cl1 as 011e vvould get i11 aL1y first-rate America11 university law sc h ool. I-Iis other tl1ree qL1alificatio11s served as gL1ideli11es 111 tl1e actual rec.rL1i.ti.11g process:

Seco11dly, tl1e n1a11 sl10L1ld have a quali.�r of tougl1ness. f I- e 111ust 11ot \.\1 ilt because he is criticized, or because tl1i.ngs are discouragi11g, because stude11ts see111 u11rewardi11g, becaLtse tl1e cli1nate i.s oppressive, or because l1e sees s0111e political oppressi.011 aroL111cl 111111. I_ wot1ld s·uggest tl1at a rna11 vvl10 l1as 11 vecl tl1rouo-h 0 a periocl of milita1-)r service vvould 11ave lear11ed a goocl 111a11y tl1i11gs of use to h im in tl1is co1111ection.

TI1irdly' h e must be a perso11 who can colleagL1es . s fa. culty . . I-Ii get on vv1. th people · of. n1 . . . , en 1s 01 1t1 11d co will be all sorts and · tl1e vveatl1er wi ll be t1resor ne·' th e worl< \.Vill be exacti11g a11d sometimes dis couraging. Des}Jite all tl1is lie must be able to suffer all sorts of _meil gladly a11cl be cheerful about it. I-le ls lc ei sp Ile le p eo p e th e k y t li ll L1s m rea his time with .

11g m a n you rab le ad11 1i _ Fi11ally' tl1is 11erg 1,. e f o k c to s 1t 1 a d 1 1 u b a must h a-Ve an 1 ble pos s test a gre rl1e of If 11e is to be to s ks ta. for g look in be . use 11e niLtst a111 ze, org to es cou rs for _ 1Je1·forn1, e f c o e P a tr x e n 1\ . e : it r \� to fo:r ]Jooks 1 m to l1 for lle1 1ge a cl1 a be work n1ust 1g for h i1 11 to 1 1i tl 1e 11 o s t 1 1o , ly d . la g accept escape if l1e ca11. 11g block. i bl 111 s tu a d ,e o, pr es rn ti. 1e 11 s0 e _ t\!li.l .i tary servic d a11y sugges ne a1 11t co e ta vi 1 111 lL cu ri rr cL s ' te la c i. 11d If a ca ed ct by je e n re th te of as w l1e , es ti du e 1c e1 i.g ll te 11 . i of 1 oi ti. l ta a ge11cy en 111 1·n ve go 1g 1 vi e\ vi re a or Ly . i rs ve i. 1 L11 11 ca . ri Af 11ce Agency ge lli te l11 a l r 11t Ce a of ar fe of e us l)eca con11ecti .011. ''

011e fu1:tl1er a.tt·ribL1te wl 1i.cl1 w a s added to tl1is idealized teac11er reflectecl Professor M ax Rl1ei.11stein' s vi.ew tl1at vvl1at Africa 11eeclecl 111ost \V a s tl1e l a, v; reformer, 011e able to 111ake radical a da1Jtatio11s to a 11ew v,1 orld witl1 sensitivi.ty to establi.sl1ed traditio11s. It ,vould be aln1ost i.111JJossi.ble to fi11d i.11 a si11gle perso11 tl1is 1·are ta le11t i.11 co111l)i.11atio11 \.\11 tl1 tl1e otl1er qu a lifi.cati.011s. Yet there Vi1as a co11se11sus tl1at 011ly tl1e best of the professio11 sl10L1ld ve11tL1re abroad to Africa. A11cl tl1e ideal \V a s the 1 a,vyer states1na11 a11d tl1e resoL1rceful, i.111 a gi.11actve, a rticulate a11d g'iftecl scl1olar-teacl1er. Tl1 ��e l1igl1 sta11cla·rcls i111 1 Josed l1eaY)' burde11s on tl1e recrL11t111g process. I _;et te·rs of i1 1qL1iry a11d for ad,rtce \.\'ere se11t to all la\V teacl1e1·s i11 tl1e U11 i.ted States. A11 1as 111ade to ffo rt 'A JJerso11ali.ze tl1en1 suffi.cie11tly so � � l1ey \V�L�lcl b� re� d. 1\rticles an d 11otices of op1Jortun i.ty 111 tl1 e l._0 · 1·e1 g11 Excl1a11ge Bu lleti.11" a11d tl1e Nev,,1slet ter �f tl1e i\ssoci.atio11 of 1\1 11eri.ca11 J_,a\\' Scl1ools \.\1 ere helpful bL1 t 1 1eve1· SLif:.i.r.·1 c1· e11t.. 1 )erso11al corres po1 1de1 1ce � · tele1)l1011e c ac l 1 s, a 1Jove all Je1·s01 . 1al vi.sits to 1\m er1. can 1 .l1st . 1avv scl100 1 s ·1c 11d la\V teac l1e1·s · \.\1 ere esse11tial to e11 .tl1e SL1p Jort ,1Jer1e11 · ced, 1 o f ti ie ex Tl1 e . a JJab tea c cl1e r le .c11111Llal n1e . . et1 11g of· tlie A· ssoc1. a tio11 of La\v An1e ri . can 'Sci 100i 8 ' tle lc l eacl1 year 011 Dece1 11ber 28, 29 and 30,

76 •

beca1ne tl1e pri11cipal are11a t ? e11tice tlie gifted. Maiiy of those who served so effect1 \rely in ;\frica liacl 11ever p1·evioL1sly thougl1t of sL1cl1 a ve11ture L111til tliey 11acl bee11 cli1·ectly approacl1ed. Periodic visits to so111e of tlie principal law schools a11d vvitl1 key la'A, scl1ool ac]111i11is trators a11d i11terested teacl1ers vvere able to stitllLilate sufficie11t i11terest a1no11g 1-ece11t lav,, g1·adL1ates to 111eet generally tl1e 11eeds for i11ex1Je1·ie11ced or junior teacl1ers. RecrL1itn1e11t procedL11·es, i11clL1di11g the i11vestigatio11 of applicants fo1· all f\frica11 teacl1i11g assig11me11ts, dicI not perl1aps differ fron1 tl1e process of perso1111el recrL1it me11t any\vhere. I l-o\vever, perso11al qL1alificatio11s of botl1 tl1e p1·ospective teacl1er a11d l1is wife were give11 particL1lar i111portance. f\s a11 expatriate wife in 1\frica can often determine a teacl1er 's sL1ccess, her curriculu111 vitae \Vas alvvays reqL1ested. Perso11al i11ter\1iews '-'''ith her as \l/ell as the ca11clidate beca111e part of tl1e Sailer P1·oject 's regL1lar procedu1·es. There was a ge11eral recruiting }Jroble1n i11 tin1i11g. African la\"\1 facL1lties foL111d it difficult to a11tici1Jate their teacl1ing 11eeds. Perl1aps i t would be n1ore accL1rate to say that advance 11otice was rarely gi ve11 of a11y reqL1est for American teacl1i11g assista11ce. B1·itisl1 exJJatriates, or Europea11 scholars in tl1e case of Fra11co1Jl1011ic 1\frica, were generally preferred over tl1e A111erica11 scl1olar, at least in the very early sixties v,1 I1e11 America11 lav., teacl1ers ½'ere u11known qua11tities. Efforts to recrL1it the for1ner had first to be tested. Wl1ere a facL1lty ,:vas able to forecast need it wa s u11able to give assLtrances of an ope11ing u11til a1;1Jropria te cleara11ces ,;vere _obtai11ed fro11 1 govern1ne11t officials, 1ni11ist1·ies of edL1cat1011 or bureaus of the budget. TI1is was necessarily a lo11g,_ time-co11sum ing pi·ocess. On the otl1er I1and, ex1Jer1�nced America11 law teacl1ers ge11erally wisl1ed to 111ake tl1e1r acade 1nic year co111mit111ents by Fel)rLtary or Marc_I1 �f the preceding year. t\i1ct An1erica11 deans L1sually 111�1sted that their teacl1er roster be co111pleted by tl1e saine tlnie, J ee to 1 e l< in ga a ite qu e m ua ca br be I ry or Marcl1. t thL1s Fe the America11 teacher a vatlaJJle Ltntil tl1e Africa11 facLilty cottld 1nake a firm offer. Cables an d occasio11al

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l a c u o s a r u e p e 1n a c e b dure . ls l a c e 11 0 l1 p e l e t transatlantic rs. BL1 t�1i.s key tl1e ,ere � sl1i.p na.11 � Caildor and salesr l d n u 1 x a e ic l ff p t m o c y Jl 11 � s o 1p : i.n e � process was 111ac1 r to e l d 1 e a t S s e u q r S e l " t l u c a f � vvl1en 50111e Afri.ca11 ers f1·oni l1 c w a la d te e c 11 e n e p x e f o r e recoinn1e11ct a 11un1b e l l1 c a T te 1. s 0 . r ti e c e l e s r i. e l1 : t � e l< 1a 11 ,;vhi.cll rI1ey coL1ld b d d a n 1l te a a 1t v a m le m o c 11 u 1 i.1 1a n e r to , e wei·e, of cours e a firm d 1a d n a h ty l u c fa n a ic fr A e th u11ti.l t11e dea11 of le hardship b a r e td s 11 o c to d le e v a l1 lcl u offer. This co d t te l1 c i.g le t e m o s 11 e s o h T t. 11 e m 1t a11ct some di.sa1Jpoi.1 11 a e i.c e fr i.n A S . d ye lo 1p 11 e 11 u s e v l e have foL111d tl1e111s a11 hi.ring i.c er th m i. A \V e as l1 p 1 i.1 y el ar r e er '"' ap 1Joi11t111ents 1 ould keep the111selves \1' l10 \v 1·s he ac te e th , 1J1·acti.ces t e as th le be l1t i.g m n o i. t . si po 1 a1 i.c fr f\ 1e tl r · available fo d en n1 to m co r, re ve we l1o e, ad 111 re we s rt ffo � l: d. qL1ali.fi.e n1ore tl1a11 011e teacl1er. Thi.s vvas us ua lly do11e \Vi.th a st n1o at or e, of 011 11 0 ti. cla e11 m n1 co re 11g 1·0 st y 1·1. ula c ti. 1Jar two of tl1e qL1ali.fi.ed ca11diclates, wl1ose availability could tl1e11 be n1oclerately assL1red. Tl1is occasi.011ally pro voked cl1arges of i.111perialis111 a11d neo-colo11i.alism by J'ou11g a11d frL1st·rated Africa11 faculty n1embers. CarefL1l perso11al expla11atio11s 011 eacl1 vi.sit to tl1e Afri.ca11 faculties l1opefL1lly a \roi.decl any pern1ane11t misunder sta11di.11g. 011e fi.11al recruitn1e11t difficulty sl10L1ld at least be n1e11ti.011ecl. I\t1any a Bri.tisl1 a11cl 111any an An1eri.ca11 la\1/ t�acl1er soL1gl1t to develop close ti.es betwee11 l1i.s u11i.ver s1t'.>: ' a11d tl1e 1\fri.ca11 L111iversi.ry l1e served. T11i.s \1'1 as usLially i.11i.ti.atecl by a te11tative c:1green1e11t for a yearly excl1a11ge of tea.cl1e1·s or, 111ore reali.stically for tl1e 8t1 JJJJ1)' of 0 1e or tvvo ex Jeri.e11ced ex Jatri.ate \Jrofesso·rs 1 � 1 for · the 1\fnca11 u111\.,· ers1· tJ'. B y i.111plicati.011 tl1e arra ncrec, u1 111e11t \Vas exclL 1s1· \re. s L1cl1 c:1gree111e11ts ,:ve1·e 11ot l1armf . at tl1 ,. e 0L1tset, bLtt tll ey. qu1c · kl y beca111e dysfunctio11a1 \:vl1e11 tl1e 011e Or t,vo 111terested teacl1ers fron1 tl1e " . te , s 11 . ex1Jc.1t_r1a . . 011...,e Lllllve1·s1t)r co111pletecl tl1ei. r "excha11ge . .teac111. 11g 111 1\fri.c a. 1,·· l 1e11 tl1e u11quali.fi.ed or u11i.11terested .rn1· g11t. 1)e sent t 0 1·\f 1_-1ca, ble, · availa or 110 be 011e n1i.gl1t . a11c1 tile i\fr . cai1 1118 tttutio11 vVOL1ld e11cl up \Vi.tl1out i.ts full � co1111 1 J e111e11t of se11i.or t eacl 1e e11ts s. . agreern These � _ . 1g ge11era ll)' diecl abo 11111 1 1thin 011e or two ,rears of or 'A J . tl1e1··•1- 1·1.,.., 11 1 )1eme11tat1_ 01 1· y- et tl1eJr co11ti.nue to be

�---------e11gi11 �er �d. The Britis� or 1\merica11 law scl1ool niay \\l �ll f111d 1t h_ �lpfL1l _to })0111t to a S})ecial relatio11sl1iJJ vv1tl1 a spec1f1c 1\fr1ca11 L111ive1·si�r. BL1t tl1e sa111e ca11110t perl1aps be said to be11efit tl1e 1\frica11 i11stitutio11. Tl1e informal orga11izatio11 of 1\111erica11 law scl1ools \vl1 icl1 developecl i�to tl1e Sailer P1·oj ect soL1g11t to }Jrovide tl1e b1·oadest poss1ble 1·ecru1t1ng base for Af1�ica11 law faculties, namelJr tl1e 124 111en1ber scl1ools of tl1e Associa ti.011 of A111erica11 Law Scl1ools. Tl1e project \Vas 11ot ide11tified witl1 any' si11gle 1\1nerica11 law scl1ool. Its 1·elatio11ship vvas to all of tl1em a11d to law facL1lties i11 the United Kingdom, i11 Ca11acla, a11d i11 Europe.

A sovereign 11atio11 a11cl a }Jroud peo1Jle are u11de1· standably se11si tive to tl1e receipt of a11y assista11ce fro1n foreign sources. \,Vl1e11 tl1e aid is i11 l1igl1 relief, foreig11 faces and vvhite ski11s agai11st a black backgrou11d, tl1e se11sitivity may verge i11to a1111oyance, 110\:\1ever great the 11eed or gracious tl1e gift. "Visiti11g" a11d "excha11ge" professorsl1i.ps have tl1us bee11 more palatable tha11 a direct hi.ring, eve11 thoL1gl1 tl1e "excl1a11ge" goes 011ly 011e \Vay. But whatever the forn1 of aid, it \Vill be a11d 11as bee11 mi.si nterpreted by 1na11y. The 1·elati.011sl1i.1J bet\vee11 tl1e American spo11sori.ng i.11stitutio11 and tl1e expatriate lavv teacl1er a11d between the latter a11d l1i.s African Ltni. versity are therefore of great i111porta11ce. The policies and relatio11ships descri.lJed below a1Jply to tl1ose associated wi.th tl1e Sai. J er Project. In defining the teaching opportu11ity every effort v,,as 1nade to i11sL1re that the expatriate teacl1er \:\10L1ld be servin g i11 respo11se to a percei.ved 11eed a11d witl1 �l1e wishes of at least 111ost of tl1e n1ernbers of the Afr1ca11 law faculty. It was I1oped I1e would be suffi.�ie11tly welco n1ed so his teacl1i11g and researcl1 ass1g11111e11ts woulcl be sig11ifica11t in the facu1 ty 's developn1e11t. . Tl1e 1-\frica11 u11i.versity was expectecl to give tl1e expatr1ate the salary a11d be11efi ts i.t regularly provicled teac _ !1ers vVi.tl1 comparable qL1alifi.carto11s. I11 tl1e early s1xties,

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te, there s u a c s w a r e l1 c a te cl i.e f . li a L1 q . ., . ,.,,,, l 1e11 t-11 e 11eecl for b s te to a r ta t s e Ja e 1 . sh 1g 1 . li ti 1 n x o Jp · ,-,,,1as 110 11esitai1c,r ;_11 a1 i. Cl1 �xpectatto11s. LI g 11 t1 e 1e 11 y b e r 1e tl � tn _ 111eilt posts" a11d m s r 11 y 0 fo 1. ll 1t a s o p f f ta s e r \le \i ts s o IJ Establi.sl1me11t d by the a1 governing aculty 11si.bl e respo : ! the apiJroved by s d 1e 1e n tl r a a la u a s s u l1 l 1c l1 ,;v r fo yr t i. s r e v 1 11 u body of t11e . d te e g d u b e r e w ts fi e 11 e b f ri.11cr0e •

r was based 011 a n la sa an ic fr 1\ 11 Tt1e 111si.ste11ce 011 a t at 1 th ha 01 ,v cti sts co ea r · r o 11 to Jr n1 su s . a 1 11 1a 1i1 ]1L 1 01 m co111 rs in "free sup1Jly" are e ch ea T . le tt li. tl1 or \�1 li. ttle i.s r \Vhich they s fo sk ta le i.b 1s o1 sp re e th 11 ,re gi t 11o lly a r ge11e of as e tl1 1·t of pa 1t gl ou t11 t 11o e ar y 1e T1 . d ie f li. a 1 a·re qL Establisl1n1e11t. 011 tl1e co11trary, they are co11si.dered little 111ore tl1an su1Jer11u111erar i.es. A senior American acl111i.11i.strat. o·r i.11 a11 Africa11 u11i. versity was asked \\,l1y l1i.s tvvo Peace Corps Volu11teer law teac11ers we1·e only co11dL1cti11g tutorials clespite tl1e need 111 l1is law faculty for lecturers. [ -le respo11ded bla11dly "\�fl1y, they'1-e 0111y Pe ace Corps", 11ot in derogatio11 of the Peace Corps but of tl1ei.r statL1s as f·ree sup1Jly.

T11e appoi.11tn1e11t to a11 approved faculty staff positio11 \>vi.tl1 sti1Je11c1 gave s01ne assura11ce of tl1e expat r iate's recepti.vi ty. It l1el1 Jecl 111ake 1Jate11t l1is respo11sibilil:)r i.11 a11cl to tl1e 1\f1ica11 i11stitL1ti.011, and perl1aps his sole allegia11ce to it. [ -le d id 11ot, of coL11·se, l1ave any obliga _ t1.011 to tl1e 1\n1erica11 spo11sor, a11d tl1e latter asserted 11011e. 1�l1e s1Jonsor served 011ly as a 11exus bet,vee11 talent cllld op1)01·tu11itJr. Its r econ1111e11dati.011 to tl1e African f�culty \\1 as 110 n1ore tl12111 tl1at. The expar1-iate teacher cl1d receive, l10,v; e,,e1·, a sl1pple111e11tal salary (con1111011ly · ') re, ferr ed · to · · as ''t 01)p111g ' fro1n tl1e 1\merica11 spo11sor. . . 111 . to 1118 \>vas lJa1d tl1e duce ex pa re tr ia te' to l1o ba s m 11k e . . ' Y cl1.. spa r1t . . . l f 110t e1 1· 1 1 11 te a11 1 vee 1 bet \: y s 1 111 1 V11 a rd 1g d sta 11 . �� ., � tlle ex, 1Jatr1cl te ancl 111_ s 1-\frica11 col leacrues T11e supp le . b • n1e11t \\'as calcul-ct-.te d to . equa l but 11ot exceed tl1e diffe r. e11ce lJet\\1ee11 tl1e- Afr1ca11 . a11d .· ts be11ef1 sa. l ary a11d fr1n;:re · ..:, · ,.,,_, liat. tl_ 1e 1\111e1·tcca11 teac1 1e r or scl1ola r ,voulcl have · . _ ·.. IeceL vecl 1. n tl1e U 11 S 11 . 1 tec , tates l.1a d l1e 11ot accepted tl1e . . Af _.lca ,1 _al)P01 11t111e11t, J\t t e tl1 e t st Sa ar o ile of t tl1 r e Pr j c . 111ax1.111u1n tl1e sala1�>' - 1.. 11 A · 11glo1Jl1011ic Africa for a11

�-----------acade1 :1ic vvas about tl1ree tl10L1sa11cl pou11cls, or $8400, a11d th1s vvas 011ly_ available to a cle1Jart111e11t 11e;;1 c1. t\ccordi11gly few 1\111eri.ca11 teacl1ers \,vitl10L1t i11cle1 Je11cle11t me �n � coL1ld afford to_ teacl1 i11 t\f1:ica h0\;\1ever stro11g the1r 1nterests or des1res to l1el 1J. J11 adclitio11 to the sala1·y sL1pplement eacl1 expatriate teacl1e1· I1acl available a book allowa11ce so that tl1e tools of l1is trade would lJe in11nediately available to l1i111 a11d to l1is stucle11ts. Tl1e books pL1rchased with such fL111cls, LISLtally b)' Sail.er 111 New Y 01·k, became tl1e property of tl1e 1\f1·ica11 law library. Tl1e f\merica11 teacl1er also I1acl avai.lable student bL1rsaries, 111odest sL1n1s to e11able 111111 to e1nploy stude11t assistants. T11is is discussed 1nore fully below at pages 91-92. Every expatriate teacl1er was L11·gecl to co11template a mi11imum assign111e11t of two yea1·s, eve11 tl1ougl1 tl1e initial commit111e11t migl1t 11ot be for 11101·e tl1a11 a si11gle year. It is the rare indi victual i11deed V11l10 ca11 111ake im1nediate co11tribL1tio11s i.11 an e11tirely differe11t cL1ltL1re a11d witl1 1·espect to laws, 1nores, a11d valL1es wi.tl1 wl1icl1 l1e is at the least u11fan1ili.ar. Tl1e IJrocess of accli.n1a tizati.011 seen1s to take about six mo11tl1s. T11e average American expatriate teacl1er stayecl for n1ore tl1a11 two years.

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As tl1e 1\frica11 law faculties develo1Jed a11d 111ore qualified Africa11s sought e11tra11ce to acade111ia, it became appare11t that mos t ex1Jatriate teacl1ers \VOLild have to be e11tirely fi11a11ced from abroad. Tl1e estab lishn1e11t posts had to be fillecl by Af1·ica11s witl1 perl1aps no 1nore tl1an formal qualificatio11s, eve11 tl10L1gl1 tl1e 11eecl for senior experie11ced law teachers a11d scl1olars ac�ually i11crea sed wi th Africa11izatio11 of tl1e faculty. Expatr1ate junior teacl1ers, mostly A111erica11s u11der various spo11sorsl1i1Js i11cludi11g tl1e Peace Corps, wl10 l1ad at least seve11 years of u11iversity study, v,,ere replaced 1 as re V1 su po ex ty si er iv un by you11ger 1\frica11s v\,}1os e limited to three or possibly four years. �ucl1 re1Jlace n1ent \,Vas qLlite L1ndersta11clable. I11deed, 1 t \,Vas wel _ co1necl. Yet most of tl1e African teacl1ers a1Jprec1ated tl1e i11crea sed in1portance of experie11cecl teachers a11d

t n1et ma11y of c e � r P r e il a S 1e : 1 ] . . m 1e actively soLtg11t tl eral sources v 111 e 0 fr s t r o 1J p u s g 11 11 11 ta b o tlleSe requests by e s v a _ , . o a v b id a l o c _ v te o _ d 11 e Jl " JI y' u s e e fr 1 " f Tl1e 1Jrol)le111 o , e g t1 s . , _ e d y r n t IJ 1_ a r 1o 11 e s � th l1 g u o 1r tl at least 111 JJart l . g r c 11 s la t1 o 1 � 1 v he d T e c 11 .e �7 e p x � e 1e tl f o ls il k siJecial s 1g 11 d s e u d d o n 1 h a v o r p s e 1n t1 1e n o s ry . i s r e f\frica11 ui1iv l1 i.g r e h lb t u T o F . r p s t . fi e 11 e b e 1g i.1 fr r 1e occasi.o11ally otl s r e h f c o r a e e nd t_ b a m u �1 a r fo s ie r la a s d gram furnishe Fulbr1gl1t fu11ds, . 11 0 t1 ta r o p s 11 a tr l a 11 0 . ti a 11 r sorne i.11te " ed be d to JJJ l1a oJ "t d an te Lta eq ad r ve 11e e 11o\�1ever, wer g and in pp ch to su 1 tl . i w t Bu ·. e1 l1 ac te cl i.e if al for tl1e qu t, ri. ec pe oj ex Pr er il Sa e th 11 o1 fr 11g . pi op st ge11era l back re i.11 1a to e le sl tl1 ab e er \V rs l1e ac te \v la 11 ca ri 1e An e11cecl structu1·i11g of African i.11sti.tutio11s of legal educatio11 and researcl1. Tl1i.s tale11t wa s made av ai lab le v.1he11 the 11e ed was 111ore cliffi.cLtlt to fill Jret 1n or e acute. Pre1Jarati.011 fo·r Lav.1 Teacl1i11g Assi.gnme11ts i11 f\f1·i.ca '"fl1e 11ature a11d exte11t of preparati.011 for a forei.g11 assi.g11111e11t clepe11ds, of coL1rse, 011 tl1e i.11telli.ge11ce, ma.tLtri.tj', and sopl1isti.cati.011 of tl1e i.ndi. victual. Aln1ost al1 of tl1e A111erica11s wl10 \ve11t to Africa to teacl1 la\\, v.,ere perso11able, 111atL11·e, and l1ad acl1i.e\red acaden1ic cli.sti11cti.011 cll1ri.11g thei.r seve11 yrea1·s o1· n1ore of collegiate 01· gradLtate study. All \Vere tl1e1·efo1·e pre su111ecl capal)le of self-i.11st1·uctio11, at least i.11 a o·e11eral \Vay. BLtt s01ne ori.e11tatio11 and o·L1ida11ce \Vas fou�d be11efi.ci.al 111 faci.11tati ng tl1ei.r aicli. 1nati.zati.011. . Tl1ose �,11 o we11t to 1\fri.ca u11der tl1e auspices of . .ler_ were g.1 ,,e,1 a \ra·ri.ety ·Sa1 of ori.e11tatio11 ai.ds · l::Zeacli110cr . . SL1ggest10118 111c · 1Lie1ed l)1b ory , hi.s t l1o g1· ap 1\f l1i.e ri . s ca 011 11 _ re c: . c1.1 .1 tu 1 11 d la .. ' . c w , \v· .1· ti 1 lJart1c1.11 ar 1·efere11ce to tl1e countr y 0f ass 1g11rr· 1e. 11t ·, 1-e1J01-ts . of expat1·1c:1tes \\1110 l1ad IJreceded ti 1er11,. a11d State l)e-rlart111e11t Post I{e Jo·r exte11t tl1e to ts ' 1 ti 1a t__t 11ese \Vere ·1v. . l.ab1 e. n1ade for · '" ell J\�ra11ge111e11ts \Vere c011sLtltati.o11 \ . ,1 11 tl1 se exp l1 it w ed 1c i.c 1 e1 fr a, 11 f\ 1·1 e ? r _ � _ sc l1ola1·s fa ,111 l.1a1 \v1tl1 tl1e legal l1e1-i.tage a11d legal proble111s of ti1e COLL11try of . · . se 1o t ] tl 1 · � d e11 1 \V1tl · 011, 11at1 a11d est1 \1'1 !10 11,c. 1 ct r·ece11t1 \r J retL1I-11ed f ron1 1-\fr1ca. J_,astl)r, tl1e

Saile1· Project ope11e? it s correspo11cle11ce a11d coLtlltry files . to �l1e. pros�ect1ve t�acl1ers. ,..This ofte11 pi·oviclecl speci al 1ns1gl1ts 1 nto tl1e 111s ti tu tio11s a11d i11cliviclL1als wt10117 they \vould se1·ve. several occasio11s Sailer teacl1ers were able to atte1 �d a spe�ial orie11tatton prog1·an1 of tl1e l?oreig 11 : Serv1ce Inst1tute of the Departn1e11t of State w11icl1 \Va.s developed for tl1e be11efit of FL1lb1·igl1t professors boL111ct for Africa. Tl1is prog1·an1 of a \Veek's inte11si.ve stLtdy of Africa, its geograpl1y a11cl tts peoJJles, tl1eir l1istory and customs \vas l1eld i11 \Vasl1i11gto11 i11 Ju11e a11cl v\'as \vortl1 every l1our of atte11dance. 011

I11 ]L111e 1969 a Special Africa11 Orie11tatio11 Progran1 was presented by the Directo1· of tl1e InstitLtte of Africa11 Studies of Columbia U11iversi ty and the Director of tl1e African Law Ce11ter of Colu111bia Ltncler the auspices of tl1e Sailer_ Project. All of tl1e stude11t participants were schedLtled to comme11ce la\v teacl1i11g i11 Africa or to tJro vicle legal skills for African gover11111e11ts co111111e11cing tl1at summer or i11 tl1e early fall. Tl1e progra111, vvhicl1 was approximately two \.veel(s i11 dL1ratio11, was ex1Jeri111e11tal in 11atL11·e. I t sought to develo1J at least a11 outline of a n1ore extensive orie11tatio11 course ,vl1icl1 ¼ ould cover the following: ge11eral survey of 1\f1�ica11 histo1·y; cultL1ral a11thropo.logy ancl sociology; co11ten1porary 1\frica11 politics; social problems, tl1e l1u111a11ities, a11d la\v a11d legal development i11 Africa. t\lthougl1 tl1ose who pa1·ticipated in tl1e progran1 see1ned to }Jrofit fro111 tl1e stud)', the readi11g lists, and readi11g materials, the program was not offered agai11 nor was a more ex� e11s1ve _ course developed because of lack of funds and t1n1111g difficulties. 1

During the summer of 1963 tl1e Peace Corps prese11ted at Yale University a special. i11doctrinatio11 _c�u1·se for Volunteers wh o were law gradL1ates a11d ant1_c1_pat�d teaching la\v or usii1g tl1eir professio11al tra111111g 1n Africa in one wa y or another. 171e }Jrogran1 was tl7re� Weeks in durati.011, a11d tl1e VolL1nteers l1ad all co�7ple�ecl tI1e Peace Corps' basic introducti-011 to tl1e cou11tr1es of

8.3

speci.al program ,. . n1e 1ts. g11me1 assi _ l cti.ve _ respe 1ei . r tl a l s y s te111s g e l t 1e f o s e 1 d u t s 11 0 e t a r · t 11 e c 11 o c 1s 1L tl could 1J 1 f u 11 o o 0 r s g A e ten. . e v 1· e s to g . w1 11· ell tl1eJ,r were goin • 'tate s l 11 c 1 e·re 1n tl1 e u 1t . 1 n s . \\ o w � , � s n a ic fr A cl e fi li a Li q legallJ' 1s progra1n was l1 . T d re a JJ 1 c t1 r a 1J o ls a _ 1 for a-radLiate study, te a t e o p , 11 e s d r a \\ ct t 11 1 a t L1 B . 1g i1 d r a w e r d . ' . sn. �ulatii1o-b an e . 1e c l p a t t e 1n c Je o r p s r e y \v la tlie idea of a seJJarate . cl e L1 n ti 11 o c s i d s 'a " s iJ r Co ' 1 a l programs of n r fo t 1a tl t s e g g L1 s t 111e foregoi11g rn ig h rt d o 11 if ff a 1e e e 11 tl1 ti 1e tl l1 rt o w e b t o 11 y 1a 11 11 i.ndoctrinatio l1 enoug l1 it s ,v te a u d a r g a \v l 1 re tL 1a 11 re a bei1eficiaries ir O\Vn 01·ien e 11 th o 1i 1 l a s f to e iv r d c n a e ii1terest, i11itiativ \1 olu11teers wl 10 ps or C ce a Pe 1e tl of 1e 1 0 . tatio11 progra111 11g re l1i fo ac te be m ra og pr l ia ec sp 63 19 e tl1 ed et l1 ad com JJl r 1 tte e1 be be ve l1a ld ou \V e tim e tl1 t 1a l t 1t l g i11 Libe1·ia tl1ou a ra ti.011 ca11, e1J pr e 111 s0 1t BL . ca ri Af i11 1e e1 sc 1e l t 1 or s1Je11t al bri.efi11g 1· 11e ge a y nl ai rt Ce . le ab lL1 va i11 be of coL1rse, abits, and 011 h d a11 1s o11 st cu l ca lo 011 e 11s se ke 111a uld \\1o 1 }Jarticula rly tl 1ose wl1icl 1 \\ ays of lif e a11c l attitL1des, n1i.gl1t 11ot be a11ticipated by tl 1e expatriate. Son1e l1ave reco111me11decl th a t p1·eparati.on i.11clude l a11guage i11strL1ctio11. BL1t tl 1e African u11iversity stude11t �ody r�pr�se11ts too 111c111y differe11t la11guages::;, for skill 111 011e 111cl1ge11ous to11gue to be 111ea11i ngfu 1. 1 u1·tl 1er, so111e of tl1e la11guages of large trilJcl l groups are quite co111plex. For exa1111Jle, Yoruba i.s tl11·ee to11al. It reqL1ires a ver�1 tJ·recise ear to catcl1 t l 1e i11to11ati.011s vv l1icl1 c�11 ra.�l ic ally cl1a11ge tl 1e 111ea11i11g. "Lo" with a s 111ea11 e11 111g J1t 1 to11e c l n1ea11s i.n "go", \Vitl1 1·ise a �e� � l � . _ __ gr111cl ancl vv1tl10L1t a 11�>' i11f lec ti.011 111ea11s \:vring out". Jlie l ai1guc1 ges of tl1e ll)o, anotl1er 011e of tl1e don1i11a nt _ etl1111c gr· OLI IJ 8· of ·N · · 1ge1 . . lcl, � · lS also t l 1ree to11al ' a11d tl1e . .to110-ue of tl · J e 1 I - a.usa· 1 s t\\1 0 to11al. 111 a11y eve11t ' eitl 1er -. b . . E11gl1s11 o·r 1---. re11c . l1110-L1 tl1e l1 1s tl1e r \1irtL1 a allJ f ra11ca i.11 0 · ·ea soLitl 1 of tI 1e e11t.·11. .e a1 sal1a1·<1. The Can1eroo11 -. e111braces }Jot li l ai1gL1age . s as tl1e Easte·r11 IJart \\1 as 011ce L111cler t lie cl·o1111· 11a11ce of 1�� 'ra 11ce a11 tl1e es Linder \".' t d . . . Br1 t1 s11 1·L1l e · 7�, 118 1 a11gL1age of betvvee11 co111111L111i.ca. t io11 ti1e t\. \lO grOLlj)S is f tei, }JLdg .. .1· 11. Tl11s \\ as tl1� l ng ua g� � � . � . L1secl by Jol iii N. gu _ F�riclia, tl1e f11·st Pr1n1e t\'11111ste r of tl 1e 1:j'ecl era1· State of \".'est Cameroo11 a11d Vice Presi de 11t 11

of tl1e Federal l�epublic of Carr1eroo11, i11 11is c011versa tio11s ,:vith tl1e Presicle11t, 1\l1111adou J\l1i.dj o. Svval1i.li \.vl1tcI1 i.s a firs � la11guage for 011ly a s111all g1·ou1) of JJeoJ)l� i11 East Af1"1ca, has bee11 officially adc)JJted as o11e of tl1e official la11guages of Ta11zani.a. Swal1i.li is also exte11sively Ltse l(e11ya, 11 . i as 0111)' l)Lit langL1age. seco11d a � _ The n1aJor1ty_ of_ Uga11cla11s clo 11ot s1)eal< it. 111 Uga11cla 011e of the pr111c11Jal languages i.s LL1ga11cla, bL1t i.t i.s spoke11 011ly i.n BL1ga11da, \Vl1icl1 inclucles I<a111JJa.la. Througl1out East 1-\f1·i.ca tl1e eclucatecl a1·e flue11t i11 English, and i. t is wi.del)r L1secl in L1rba11 areas. T11e problem of con1mu11i.catio11, l10V11ever, is one of tl1e c1·itical difficulties i.11 African L111ive1·sity edL1catio11. To 111ost Africa11s Englisl1 i.s at best a seco11d if 11ot a tl1i.rcl la11guage. Eve11 vvhere tl1e la11guage of i11structio11 i.s Engli.sl1, n1ost of tl1e 1\f1·ica11 stude11ts, at least i.11 secondary scl1ool, use tl1ei.r t1-tbal language after class 1 · a11cl always at hon1e. Ratl1er tl1a11 lear11 a11 i11dige110L1s language the expatriate teacl1er i11 so111e cou11tries 111igl1t profit more from lear11i11g so111ethi11g a1Jout tl1e tecl111iqL1es of teacl1ing Engli.sl1 as a foreig11 la11guage. Sucl1 i11strL1c ti.011 \vould have to be i11troducecl ratl1er subtly, bL1t tl1e 11eed i.s there though ofte11 can1ouflaged ratl1.er success fully. 111 preparing for tl1eir i\frican ve11tL1re expat1·iate teachers expect at least a ge11eral descriptio11 of tl1e sub stantive areas for wl1ich they ,vi.II l1a ve teacl1i11g respo11si.bility. But tl1i.s is not easy to obtai.11, at lea.st not well i.11 aclva11ce of the first lecture, i.n IJart because of tl1e cli.fficulty tl1e lavv dea11 I1as i.11 a11tici.1Jati11g tl1e co1111Jositio11 of his faculty. Furtl1er, tl1ere has bee11 a tende11cJr to assume that an acaden1i.c law)rer ca11 \Valk i.11to a11y class and lecture 011 any subject. T11is i.s perl1aps I. At tl1e u11iversity level tl1e patter11 ofte11 changes. Si.nee a group of stude11ts migl1t repre� e11t 111a11y tribal to11gues, as i.11 I(e11ya for exa1np� e,. stL�d_e11ts were likely to cl1at an1011g tl1e111sel ves 111 E11gl1sl1, at least before tl1e rece11t governn1e11t e11coL1ragement of tl1e social use of Swahtli..

i.11 Eu�ope · dom or ng i d I( nit e U tl1e u11der sta.11clable i11 texts stand� rcl1zed. But 1e t a11d d set tle � is vvhere t1 1e law dev oped 1 n novel el be1 11g are s utio 11 'A'llere 11ew ii1sti.t d seen1 esse11tial to l u ? w 11 0 ti. a r a p re lJ coiltexts, adva11ce 1 11 011e e11c ounte rs a a ag e r l1e t Bu 11g. effecti.ve teacl1i n e e ': t _ \v er be la m f A o an 1y ic pl so o l 1i pl 1 1 i e 11c e r e ff di basic r1 tlsl1 an d e B th y b l c e c 11 e lu 1f i1 e s 1o teacl1ers a11cl tl European S)rste111s.

bi si on ng sp l1i re ac te c lities, ifi ec sp s l1i 11g \;vi l k1 o lt \Vi.tl1oL ofit ab le time acquiri11g an pr a 11 d Je s d L1l co 1 e at ri Jat ex a11 1 h co111n1on la\v is gl En e tl1 as cs si ba 1 cl su f o g i11 d a11 u11clerst or tl1e Fre11cl1 civil law heritage i11 Africa, the system of i.11direct rL1le i11 Anglopho11ic 1-\frica, some of the si.rnilariti.es i.11 i11dige11ous la'A1 tl1roughout Africa, partic ularly tl1ose affecti11g land te11ure an d per so11al relati.on sl1ips, tl1e effect of tl1e recepti o11 statutes, inte1·nal co11flicts of lav,1 s problems bet,:vee11 the in digenous law, tl1e received law, a11d, in a 11umber of i11sta11ces, a religbus lavv, an d, where applicable, tl1e interacti.011 of lslan1ic law ancl E11glisl1 co111111011 law. Tl1ese matter s co11ti.11ue to form the basis f ron1 ,vhicl1 ne,\1 i11stituti.ons respo11si.ve to African needs will evolve. A11 u11de1· sta11di.11g of tl1ese n1atters before arrival i11 t\frica would make tl1e foreign experie11ce n1ucl1 more productive and ·re'A1ar di11g. · The Co11scie11ce o f tl1e Expatriate Teacl1er On Ja11_uarJ' 13, 1972 the 111ilitary i11 Gl1ana seized po,ver, cl1ssolved tl1e legislature a11 d ",vitl1d1·evv" tl1e co11sti.�uti.011. Opi)ositi.011 parties \ve1·e p rosc1·ibed, and tl,e '_'01ces of clisse11t ,,._,ere si. le11ce d . Tl1is seco11d i11ter vei1t1o11 by tl1e r111J' ,vas al l tl1e n1ore disaJJpoint 11g i � becaLise Gl 1a11a s peaceful ·retur11 to ci.vi .li.a11 1·ule in 1969 11eld �Licl1 pro111i.se a11d lJecaL1se Gl1a11a l1ad beco111e a wor·k1ng dei:10c�·acy · N o,,, Gl1a11a becornes tl1e t\velftl1 ;\ fi -lcai, 11atio11 11 1 sub-Sal1ara11 Africa u1 1de r 1nilitary rule. lihe ti·acli.tioi1 s of 0 1Jen i.11qui. ry an d eb lie at ,v l1i . cl at d e 1 tl1 1ear� o f tl1e L111i.vers it�,r a1·e ' of coL1•rse , i.i1imical to � autocratic gove1- 11111e11t.• �., Jl1 e u11i. ,,ersi.n . '-Jr teacl1er i11 r"f 'l.. r1ca tl1us often f·aces a cli.le111111a, a co11fli.ct bet�1 ee n I115 ·

p1·ofessio11al p1·i11ciples a11d hi s clesire to serve a ctevelopi ng nati011. It is a 111a tter of l )artiCLI la1� co,icei·n 111 sucl1 _sensitive areas as go,1ern111e11t, lJOlicital scie,1ce, eco1101111cs, an d lavv. \iVI1at are tl1e exJJatri.ate teacl1e 1·' s obligatio11s? Are tl1ey altered i11 a11Jr \v: ay by t1is acceJJ cance of employn1ent by a gove1·11111e11t-su1Jpo:rted i.11stitL1tion? All African Llnive1·sities a1·e state fi11a11cec1 a11d ultimately state co11trollecl. Tl1ese qL1estio11s must, of course, be a11svverecl by eacl1 teacl1er i11 tl1e ligl1t of l1is own understanding a11cl l1is 0\\1 11 stanclards. 1�o some i.t is enough if tl1ey are pe1·n1ittecl to teacl1 freely the sub jects for vvhicl1 theJr are directly respo11silJle. T11is \i\'OLild seem tl1e irredL1cible 111i.11i111L1n1 sta11dard of academic freedo111. It \i\1 ould 11ot, of coL1rse, JJer111it invidious compariso11s v\1itl1 tl1e 1\fri.ca11 11ost gover11n1e11t, 11or a11y cl1arge of unla \i\1 ful co11dL1ct, 11or active JJa1·tici. patio11 i11 political debate. But in discl1argi11g his teacl1i11g obligations l1e v.10L1ld insist on tl1e rigl1t to co11sid.e1· botl1 the lavv 011 the books anc1 tl1e la\\1 in IJractice. 1\11d tl1.e student would be free to d1·a\i\1 l1is ow11 co11clL1sio11s, to acquire his own i11sigl1ts. 111 the travail of university - stude11t readjustn1e11ts the teacher has additio11al respo11sibilities. StL1de11t unrest is necessarily a matter for l1is 1Jrofessio11al co11cern. Even whe11 the provocatio11s are J)olitical or governme11tal, the expatriate teacl1er ca1111ot be \vl1olly detached. f--Iis advice is often sougl1t directly bJr stude11ts, and his counsel should be readily available thougl1 it should alvvays be apolitical. '"fl1ere are always a few expatriate teachers, particu larly the visionary an d inexperie11ced, wl10 seek to recti fy tl1e world's i11justices vvhe11ever tl1ey tl1i11k tl1ey can, and u11d.er wl1atever circu111sta11ces. This l1as . sometimes proved disastrous 111 1\frica. It l1as ofte11 lecl to 111isunderstanding and to th e impairn1e11t of tl1e assistance proffered. But exJJatriates ge�1:rally �1ave sough t to avoicl lo ca l politics and a11y pos1t1011_ wl11cl1 rnig!1t be consiclerecl rnecldli11g i11 i11ternal affa11·s. I�1 son1e situatioi1s, I1owever, ab ste11tio11 ofte11 resLtlts _111: u11a11ticipatecl alignme11t. A11cl i11 so?1e debates pa�t1c1_ _ pat1011 cannot be a voi.cled, eve11 by s1le11ce. SLtcl1 v. as tl1e

si.tuatioi1 in GI1a11a wl1ic.l1 led to �l1e dep�:tatio11s i� i964 f tl1e An1eri.ca11 la\v dea11 a11d h1s se111or lecturer. �11d cl1is situatio11 \,vill recur i11 tl1e inevitable co11.fli.ct betV11ee11 free u11i\rersi.ties a11d autocratic govern1ne11ts. ab er 1ne ol co 11t . i be ay m le 111 11 ti.0 si po s r' l1e ac te A la"'' re y 1e 1 1tr wl u1 co co a 111 vv la l 11a io ut tit 11s :stitu co 11g teact11 ti.oi1al rigl1ts are 11ot observed. Mo st of tl1e co11st1tu tio11s of Africa co11tai11 li.beral bills of rigl1ts. l\�any i\frica11 JaV11yers a11d ci. vi.l serva11ts reared i11 tl1e Britisl1 tradition of IJc:1rliame11tary sL1pren1acy a11cl u11writte11 co11stitutio11s seen1 incli.11ed to view sucl1 provisio11s as statements of 1Jrinci.ple, goals wl1icl1 a JJrese11t society coL1ld 11ot manag e ]JLtt toV11ard vvhicl1 it sl10L1ld proceed i11 its long, co11tinuou s evoluti.011ary process. But f\1nerican teacl1ers regard co11sti.tL1tio11al 1-igl1ts as part of the sL1p1-eme law of tl1e land a11cl sLtJJerior to all otl1er seg111 ents of tl1e corpus juris. 171is di.ffe 1-e11ce in vieWJJoint rnay ex1Jlain part of tl1e 1Jroble1n of teacl1i11g co11sti.tutio11al law i11 .Af1-ica, particularly i11 f\11gloJJl1011ic Af1-i.ca. But the root pro blen1 still see111s to be tl1e dive·rge11ce bet\vee11 the ri.gl1ts as tl1ey are e11sl1rined i.11 tl1e law a11d as tl1ey are observed i.n practice. 111 one s111all count1·y a11 f\merican law teacher l1ad tl1e task of provicli11g special instructi.011 i.11 co11stitL1tio11al lavv to a g·roL1p of IJOlice officers. [-le revi.evvecl tl1e varioLts ·rigl1ts \:vl1icl1 tl1e citizens enjoyed Lt11de.r tl1e coL111t 1·y 's liberal co11stitL1tio11 and tl1e co11se c1L1e1:t 1·estrai.11ts 011 tl1e lJO\:vers of tl1e JJolice. f Ie - did 11ot 111clL1lge i.11 ::111:,r u11favorable co1111Jariso11s vvitl1 the lavv in }Jractice. N evertl1eless tl1e \/ ice Cl1a11cellor of tl1e U11i.ve1·si.ty \.vas acl,ri.sed by tl1e Cl11ef of Police tl1at tl1e �\111eri.ca11 \iVas teacl1i11g "re\iO lL1 tio11a1·y doctri11e ". I-lis 11 :strLlcti.011 of tl1e }Jolice \\1c1s ab1·LtJJtly,· te·r111i11ated a11d 111s v1sa SL1spe11ded. F()r tl1e rer11ai.11der of l1is tour at tl1e lJi1i. versity l1e ,vas ,,i_ 1·tL1ally "lockedi 11" for 011ce l1e l1ad de1Ja·rtecl f1·0111 tl1e cou11trJr l1e COLIld 11e v� 1- 1·etur11. Tl1e f�ilure of tl1e J)olice to u11d 11ature of er st _ tl a1 1e 1d C011Sll.tlltlO11ca} Cl· V1·1 -r1· g]·1ts \\1 clS caused il1 pc:1rt l1Jr tl1e . . fa1lure of tl1e citize11ry a11cl tl1e bar to assert or defe11d l. See page 35 SL1pra .

tl1o se rigl1ts. Tl1e se11io1- barristers, \1..,11etl1e1- f\frica11 or expatriate, V11ho 111ight l1ave l1ad tl1e incleJJe11de11ce a11cl courage to cl1allenge tl1e gove1-n111e11t 01- i.ts ::1ge11cies, have not vie\ved co11sti tL1tio11s as }Jro\ricli.11g e11fo·rceable rules. Fortu11ately tl1i.s rrlay 110\.v be cl1a11gi11g, as you11g 1\frica11 la\vyers come to n1aturi.ty \,vitl1 a deeper u11der sta11cli11g o:f citizen rigl1ts a11d co11sti.tL1tio11al law . In a11otl1er Africa11 coL1ntry, a si11gle-pa1-�r state where poli ct cal oppositi 011 i.s not tole1-ated, an l\ 111e1-ica11 law teacl1er 11as l1ad quite a differe11t ex1Jerie11ce. I -le taugl1t co11sti tutional law to fl rst year stL1de11ts wi.tl10L1t a11y interfe1-ence by governn1e11t. I-Iis ca11dor was academic a11d objective. For exan1ple, l1e cliscL1ssed racism i.11 the United States and i.11 l1is host 1-\.fri.ca11 coL1ntry wheJ:-e citize11sl1ip is in fact available 011lJr to tl1ose of African blood despite the broad la11guage of the co11sti.tution. \tVitl1 expe1ie11ce in botl1 cou11tri.es tl1is teacher l1as fou11d less political co11trol over tl1e u11iversity in Africa tha11 tl1ere was state co11trol ove1- ma11y state u11i versiti.es i.11 the United States. However, were his objective cliscus sioi1 of rigl1rs in his co11stitutio11al law coL1rse prese11ted by a teacl1er in another discipli11e, tl1e latter woL1ld be su1nn1arily expelled. Tl1e discussio11 of co11stituti.011al rights by sucl1 a teacl1er would 11ot be acacle111i.c: It ¼,ould 11ecessarily be political i11 11atL11-e, si11ce 1 t vvoulcl be outsicle the teacl1er 's professi.011al responsi.l)ilities and. l1is duties in tl1e f\frica11 coL111trJ'.

IV N AND TI-IE IO T U L O V E Y T L U C 1\ F \'v ;\ L AFRICt\N N A T E IS T E S S IA C A R T 1\ P X E F O E L O R G IN G cr-I1\N 1 of o1 ti e ea th cr ed ss 11e i.t w s ie xt si e th of de ca de TI1e lly ed ra ev 11e hi ge ac as w od 1o el at St a. ic fr A 1t e1 11d pe de in al 11i lo e th co rs vve po om . fr 11 i.0 ·at e1 op co tl1 vvi. 1d a1 ly ul ef peac , ted ily op ad ad re re we 11s ti.0 tL1 i st i11 n ig re fo n o1 fr Moclels 11 ca ri tl1 . Af ,vi le tib pa n1 co t 11o e er 1 ,�, y a11 m l1 ug tho e11 ev tracli.ti.011s, tl1e Africa11 eco110111y, or vvi.th tl1e unique 11atL1re of Afri.ca11 develop111e11t. Tl1e i.11depende11ce plans for v,1orki.ng cle1nocracies with freelJ' co11tested electi.011s and broad electorates, \vhi.cl1 were particularly advocated bJ' tl1e British colo11i.al office, respo11ded to tl1e l1opes of tl1e educated elite of 1\fri.ca. But tl1ese plans a11d tl1e autocratic nature of the colo11ial gove1·nments \\lere pl1i.loso1Jl1ical ly poles apart. vVitl1 little if any experi ence V11 itl1 den1ocratic institutions it \\ 1 as unrealistic to expect tl1e 1\frican ter·ritories to becon1e sovereign den1ocraci.es ove1·11i.gl1t. 111 the same vein, one n1igl1t l1ave a11tici.1Jated tl1e 111ilita1·y talze-ove1·s as tl1r0\\ 1 backs to autl1ori.ta1·i.a11 rL1le. B \1t tl1e key ,,,orcls of tl1e sixties \Vere ''i11de1Jende11ce , 1 110\\ _ , a11cl a sense of dra111atic urge11cy seized tl1e co11t111e11t. Tt1e1:e \\1 as 110 ti111e to fi11d tl1e Africa11 a11swers to every qL1esti011. Tl1is l1ad to :::1 \\'ait a pe1·i.od of co11soliclatio11 a11d re flecti.011. ·T11e basic buildi11g �loc�s l1ad first to be fo ·r111ed. 1\11cl tl1ey vvere. During tl1e f11·st pa1:t of tl1e decade Africa11 u11i ve1·si.ties were estc1bli.sl1ecl \Vi.tl1 la \\1 a1110110· tl1eir first facLtlti.es and 0 �-e�al 1_ 11stituti.011s acqui.recl i.11cle1Je11de11ce a11d tl1�ir O\V11 111tegr1 r,, Du·r111g · tl1e latter part of the decade tl1ese • _ _J • 111st1tL1t1011s stac:r·ted r111 · s a11 d · ct 1ng · tl1e11 1niss · 1on 1\fr1 · ca11 • tl1e tecl1111q· ues a11 l sl,1- 1 1s a1) ro pri.ate to tl1eir caslc�. . : _ p _ Ex I Jat Ilate ass1stc111ce, 1Jart1c ularly tl1e Sai.ler ProJect,

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\vas privile ge cl to participate i.11 tl1i s deve lop111e 11r. It progressed fro111 tl1 e bL1i.lcli.11g o:f e clL1catio11al illStitLitiotls co the p1·ovi. sio11 of specializ ed 1nodaliti. es as 11eed s beca111e 111ore sopl1i sticate � ai �d 111o·re ct1alleiigi,ig. Co111n1e11ts 011 se v e 1·al co11t111L11ng co11tribL1tio118 are offerec1 becaL1se of tl1ei.r possib l e 1·el e va11c e to otii er areas of tl1e Thi.rel \N 01·Id. T eacl1i.ng Mate 1ials a11d l� esearc\1 1\meri.can t e achers \vho ,;v e11t to l\fri.ca tJ1·ima1·ily to ceacl1 soo11 fou11d tl1e111se 1 v es h elpi.11g to lay tl1e foL111clati.011s of educati.011al i.11stituti.011s. They' becam e i.11volvecl in bridging differe11t ct1ltL1res a11d soci eties, diff ere11t sys tems of la\\1 and educati. 011, a11d differ e11t co11c e1Jts of the fu11ctio11 of la,,, a11d la\\ ye rs. Tl1e texts tl1ey vvere ofte11. expeccecl to use may l1av e been suitable for tl1e instruc tion of barristers i.n E11gla11d or advocates i11 Europe, but tl1ey see111ed poor teacl1ing ,1el1icles for a dy11a111ic society involv ed in accelerati.11g cl1a11ge . Tl1e texts did cover the rich legal h eritage fron1 tl1e U. I<. 01· Europe, but tl1ey were descriIJti.ve a11d 1·etrospecti ve, 11ot the tools to equip able a11d flexible Africa11 111i11ds for tl1e challe11g es whicl1 lay ahead. 1\l1nost eve1�y A1neric,::1n teacl1e1· in Africa tl1us vie\\, e cl the compilati.011 of t eacl1ing materials as a require111e11t of tl1e fi.1·st n1ag11itucl e . 1 - thus set to vvork diggi.11g Llp 1\frica11 cases fro111 old f Ie :files, rescui11g i.n1porta11t 111ate rials £1·0111 destrL1crto11, a11d see ki11g to de termine 11ot 011ly vvl1at \\1 as said to b e tl1e la,v but l1ow it functi.011e d i11 tl1 e 1narl< e t lJlace, i.11 govern111e11.tal age11ci es, in tl1e i.11clige11ous co111n1u11i ties, anct before commu11al tribu11als. 1

The searcl1 for Afri.ca11 materials, for a tl1oroL1gl1 unde rsta11di.11g of the law as it operated, gave tl1e_ expatriate scl1olar a special aware11ess of tl1e u111que P 1:oblems of th e t-\fri ca11 economy and soci ety· 1t _lecl 11101 into close a11d frie11dly associ.ati.011 vvitl1 co lle agues ai1d 1· 'I11ere wer e seve·raI very abl e Bri.ti.sh scl1olars \iVl: 0 1 a1 11 . . l1 c a te r e i · 1 tl 1 0 1 1· 1 c se u d wer. e s1m 1larly co11cerne d an . · L\frica11 cases as i. llustrati. ve of tl1e law

stLlde11ts a11d gover11me11t perso1111el. I.11 th�se tasks stu derlt assista11ce vvas i11valuable. ,..fl1e work1ng relation sllilJ bet'll'ee11 teacl1er a11d s� ude11t exJJosed �l1e lat�er to iiltellectLial exercise of a l11gl1 order, and 1t 1Jrov1ded tl1e forei.o·11 scliolar wi.tl1 special i11si.gl1ts into the capacities ai1d a�tributes of able young Africans. Fro111 this there develoiJed 111L1tual respect a11d i11 n1a�1y cases lasrt11g fri.e11dships. 1\11cl it enabled tl1e Afr1ca11, because of his stL1dei1t bL1rsary, to devote all of his e11ergi.es to legal educati.011 a11d esca1Je fro111 gai.11ful but meani11gless e111ploy1ne11t duri.11g ter111 ti.111e or tl1e 1011g vacation. Teacl1i.11g 111ateri.als i.11e,ri.tably differ markedl�>' from coL111try to coL111try, ancl perl1aps f ro111 subject to subject, bLit the root 1Jurpose i.s, of course, the same. The end is to acl1i.eve a direct releva11ce of wl1at i.s taugl1t to the eco110111y a11d society i.11 wl1i.cl1 it \Vi 11 fu11cti.on and develop. 1l1ere i.s also a deeper }JL1rpose, to p1·ovi.de i.nsigl1ts into the solL1ti.011 of 1Jroble111s affecti.11g tl1e equilibrium of society a11d the develo1J111e11t of social and eco11on1i.c i.11sti.tuti. 011s. To describe all of the teacl1i11g n1aterials \vl1ich l1a,,e l)een 1Jre1Jared o,rer tl1e past te11 years by expatriates \voulcl be a11 aln1ost e11clless task, ]Jut a fe\\' specifics 111i.gl1t l)e i.llL1n1i.11ati.11g. 111 1966 a11d 1967 Cont1·acts I11strL1111e11ts _.for _$o�i.al Coo1Jerati.011 - East Af1·ical. ,vas COlll]Ji.led and \Vri.tte11 b�,r �11 -A�e-;ica;�-l-a\V -teacl�� \Vl1i.le servi.11g as a FL1lbrigl1t - Sailer vi.siti11g 1J1·ofessor i11 tl1e Faculty of J...,a,,, of tl1e U11i. versi.ty College at Oar es Salaa111. A to111e of 758 JJao·es it co11tai11s a l l of the si.g11iftca11t East 1\f1·i.ca11 ca°ses 011 co11tracts. 111 tl1e abse11ce of sL1cl1 cases to i.llL1strate a. role of co11tract 01· legal reinecl)' or tecl111i.que of co11tracti.110· or so111e otl1er f� cet of co1:t1�actual bel1a ,1 101·, Bri. ti.s11 aitl1ori.t)' ,vas used c es ,ve re jL1r �-r 8 JJ}Jro1Jr1ate cas i.sd se i lec ted oth f1· 011 er 1 tlot1s. /\s exJJlc11_ 11ed b�,r tl1e aL1tl1or i.11 l1i.s 1Jreface, "Si.11ce • · • • · · 811 ' StLidJ' of la ,v i11 a developi.11g cou11tr'' 111ust � . ; . 11ecessa'l-· 1 ly 1)e 111 , _ · a. ver Y stL )' rea l _ ve se1 co1 1se 111)a a 1·at 1 td . lt. fr . _ee to _ 1· fe Lise legal 111aterials fro111 otl1e1- cou11tri.e s, l.

Y : la11 R. I\1acnei.t-: -rrofesso1· of Law' Cor11ell La\V c I1001, l)Ltb. by l�otl1111a11 196 8.

whetl1er· or 11ot tl1 ey are clL1tl1oritative in East Africa. Some cases t:1erefore appear fro 1n tl1e U11i ted States, Ca11ada, clnd ALIS t·r:.: 1 lia a11cl otl1er tyJ)es of 111ateria l f ro1n Cl1i11a, Czecl1oslovakta, Gl1a 1 1a, Israel a 1 1d tl1e Soviet U11ion. " 1. The 11 1dia Co 1 1tract 1\ct \Vas covered 1-:iy East African cases deali11g ,vitl1 tl1at t\ct 01· \Vitl1 East 1\frican version s of it. l\s the boo]( is v\1 e l l i11clexecl it is L1sefL 1 l to anyone interested i.1 1 the law of co11t·racts in I�ast Africa, altl10L1gl1 i.t \,\'as desig11ecl J)ri. ma1-i ly fo1- tcac! LLng purposes. f\s i.11di.cated, i.t i.s 11ot orga 11i.ze�, by abstract doctri.11al co11cepts bL1t seeks to exa111i.ne 'A'l1at c.,�--::rracts do, ho\v tl1ey fL1 nction, \\1l1at re111edies a1·e ava.i.laute, vvhat kinds of behavior tl1ey affect, a11d all wi.tl1i11 tl1e contexts of East Africa. It i.s a JJrovocative 'A'Ork \vi.tl1 \Vl1i.ch tl1e Sailer Project was pri. vi.legecl to be associatecl. It l1as been"aclopted by a 11L1111ber of law facL1lties i. 11 A11glopl1011i.c Africa. In Etl1iopi.a, wl1ere tl1ere ,vas a co 11ce11tratio11 of America11 assistance, tl1e first la,v clea11, 2- wl1ose te 1 1L1re spanned the c1i ti.cal peri.ocl of tl1e FacL1lt)' 's establisl1111e11t, fro111 1963 to 1967, lin1i ted eacl1 Faculty n1ember 's teaching responsibilities to a si11gle course. Eacl1 teacher \\1as thus free to s1Je11d 111ost of l1is ti 1ne in tl1e developn1e11t of teacl1i11g mate1-ials. Most of the soL1rce materials, including jLtdicial decisio11s a11d legislative e11actments, were i.n Aml1ari.c. Records of so111e of tl1e lo,,1 er courts wer e i11 one of seve·ral otl1e1· i.11clige 11ous languages. Although E11glisl1 a11d 1\111hari.c are tl1e tvvo offici.al langL1ages of Etl1i.opia, to 1nost Etl1i.opi.a?s Arnl1aric is a f irs t or second la11guage a11d E11gl1sl1 a second 01· third. Most interested legal scl1olars ag·ree that curre11t 1\ml1aric termi.11ology i.s 11ot susce1Jti.ble to the. pr ecision requi.recl of 111oder11 legal terms. Tl1ere I. lbi.d. pp. ii - iii.. 2. ]. C. N. PaL1l, Academic Vice Presi.de11t of f-Iai.le Sellassi.e I Uni.versi.ty 1967-1969, a11d 11ovv Dea11 of Rutgers, tl1 e State University of New Jersey School of La\v, Newark. 93

. al adva ntage to on si es of pr ct an ve i at ic . un m 11 COl a · US tll as V1 s lat 1 i s f n d 1 o a . · tr c e ? o s -n on s 1� 1guage : 1 la 1 tl o b f o e s tl1e u har1c and three or m A om fr ls 1a er at m · ·. a11d ot l1 er relevant E 1 to 1a n p g . 1o n t h E is · � h o ad l1 s e g a u g 11 la r 1e tl o � four of tl1e ,aw students n�e. ass1sta a1� Etl1iopi to be done witli , and there m s 1a s u th n e h 1t · w d e e 11 s 1i · 11s bet 1 respo11 ded t0. rI · 10 n 'A at ee c1 so as udent st ng ki or w t en ll ce ex . ed develop e ns 1o em . 1s se d ec e d .h t to s, es oc pr e th 111 and faculty. ible and s en eh r p \v m la co e th f o y a w 1e tl d coine alive an . r e r a le c e k ta ld u o l1 s it n rI1e directio 1

But tl1e development of teaching materi.als in Ethiopia product end The of an g in um ns co e m ti 1d a1 ex pl m was co . casion to be expatriate' s first year's stint ha d on oc 1 ritten as added v re ely tir en t 11o if exte11sively revised soL1rce materials came to light and as un derstandi ng of rear's collec a ) le, mp exa For ed. pen dee law n Etl1ioJJia tion of consti.tuti.onal law mate1'ials had to be scrapped V1'l1 e11 tl1e expe1Aie11ces of Persia, Japan and Pakistan were found n1 ore relevant to constitutional la\V de\1elopn1 enrs· i11 Etl1iopia tl1a11 tl1ose of other countries. Pakistan's expe1Aience i11 local government \Vas also found particu larly relevant to tl1e development during tl1e n1id-sixties of a sin1ilar body of law in Ethiopia. T11e tools of the la\\' teacher's craft l1a\7 e thus been difficult to hone in E thiopia, but tl1 ey l1ave been essential co the fasl1ioning of a livi11g law \Vhich coL1ld be sustained by tl1e Ethiopi ans. 111 s�ve1Aal �frican coL111t1ies higl1ly in1aginative and �s�ful 111 8t�u_ct1011al pa1nphlets were \Vritten b'j' expatriates for tl� e tra111111g of lay magist1·ates. Tl1ese judges V11er e g_eneral ly res1Jectecl t·ribcll le ade1·s or elders V1 l10 l1 ad 11 tt le form� . l educatio11 but 111uch \\ isdom. Tl1 e>' sat on �or�1 e� 11_ar1ve or custon1a1>,· cou1Ats 'vl'it ve limited ry l1 J ur1_sc�1cuo11s. Duri11g tl1e colonia l perioli tl1e cou rts' d ec1s1011s \\'eiAe · t to SL:bJec . cld . 1111. 111s \v by a . tra re t1 v1e ve . · . ct·1 s tri. � t co1111111ss1011 e 1A a11d L1l in l nc ia t pr 1a te ov ly i b a y _ A o in m ls s io i, e i · \iVI1e11 botl1 o f tl1ese office1As \i ere � v r en1ovect at o1A s0011 afte1A i1 1d Je e 11de11ce and tl1e 1 A CL1s to11 1ary coui ts \,\,er e A l A tra 11s fer 1 ce ed i11to tl1e 11t1a ·c 1 syst e111 J·uctic1a · 1 perati ,,e to provide son1e ' it beea111e 111 1

fo·rmal trai11i11g fo·r the lower grade n1agist 1·ates. This vvas Ltsually �fleeted throL1gl1 i11stitutes of a.cln1i11tstrati.on \;vher<: f\1:1er1ca11 scl1olars \Vere able to 111ake 1111poi·tant contr1bL1t1ons. S0111e had tl1e aL1claci.ty a11cl wit to fas111011 teachi� 1g materials _ i11 large_ t)rpe a11d to intersperse the text \V1th cartoo11s 1llustrat111g \ranous court:roo111 pro cedures. The langL1age of tl1e text \Vas clirect anc1 L111con1plicated. Legalis111s a11d citatio11s, a11d most tecl111ical refere11ces were elin1inated. \i\ll1at vvas developed woL1ld 11ot vvi.n the interest of a co1nmercial publisl1er. It l1acl 110 1narket. BL1t it did tl1e job and was welcomed b�)' tl1e judges. One young A1nerican teacl1er in East /\frica was assigned by his Institute of f\dn1i11istration to the Ministry of Local Governme11t for a nu111be1· of n1011tl1s to learn everytl1i.ng he could about its 01Jeratio11s. I-le tl1en spe11t a half year or n1ore at tl1e I11stitute in researcl1 a11d teacl1ing, writing, compili11g, revisi11g l1is 1naterials. The testing of those materials i11 the classroom proved the key to tl1eir ultimate effective11ess. They have 110w been published by the gover111ne11t a11d have beco1ne the basic texts for tl1e i11structio11 of all local gover11n1e11t officials of that Africa11 cou11try. T11e 111aterials l1ave a special sig11ificance, because they are rooted i11 an intensive empirical 1·esea1·ch �1l1icl1 drew togetl1er tl1e \.Yritten law a11d its practice. 1\ special problem in the traini.11g of la), 1nag'istrates occurred in Liberia i11 tl1e mid sixties vvl1e11 f our counties \.Yere establisl1ed from tl1e ''l1i.nterla11d provi.11ces ", \Vhich had been previously gover11ed exclL1sively 1J)' the Execu tive. 1\ll of the justices of the peace a11d sti.pe11di.�ry magistrates i11 the foLtr counties were ne\;vly appo111ted, and n1ost of them ha d l1a d no previoL1s judicial experience a11d very limited if any formal scl1ooli.ng. 011ly 011e_half of the 011e l1undred fifty justices of tl1e IJeace were l1terate. 111e other half coulcl neitl1er ·read 11or write E11glisl1, and some could . 11ot understand it. Though n1any of tl1e jLis tices were respo11sible tribal chie fs, tl1ey had 11ever bee11 exposed to an Englisl1- la11guage educatio11.

us ti es 1e tl r j fo m a r g o r }J y 11 a g in }J � Before develo n1111e tl1e r te e d to 11 e k ta r e d n u s a \v k r O '-"' extensi.ve field u di ci.al S)'Sten1, tl1e j " y tr u n o c p "u 1e tl operatioii of . uclge , the l 1e J t f · o y 1t 1· i 1J a d n a d 11 L1 o r g � educati.oi1al bacl< l ia c e e d l1 p 11 s a 1, n 1e tl _ to d te 11 e s e r p � ryiJes of cases ed e _a ov cc pr su y ud , st ss d el fi l1e T s. ed 11e l 11a to cr u r st 111 sm 1a us l1 d r 1t e1 fo se es 1Jr ex d 1e e\\ vi er 1t i.1 es dg ju ai1d tl1e 10-week p�ogr t\:\ a e 1n ca be a1n, s l1i. T . tl1e projected coL1rse e s th at u1 s Lo ar ye l ra ve se r fo d 1te 1 e1 es pr s "'' 1i.cl1 "''a Artl1u r Gri.n1es Scl1ool of La\v of the U11iversity of o u rs' of s tw l1o se as Cl . 67 19 i11 g in 11c 11e 1111 co ia ov 11r Mo durati.011 were ofiered 111 tl1e morni11g a11d two hours i11 tl1e after110011. Tl1ere was 011ly a n1orni11g session on SatL1rda),, a11d no classes 011 Su11day. One of tl1e primar�{ functi.011s of tl1e progra1n was tl1e prese11tatio11 of a11 over all vi.e'-"' of tl1e law. Tl1i.s reqL1i.red some eleme11tary i.nstructio11 i.11 jL1ri.sprL1de11ce and legal metl1od. Pro fessi.011al etl1i.cs were also touched u1Jon. Tl1e 1Jartici. pa11ts were the11 gi.ve11 a rL1di.me11tary u11derstandi.ng of im1Jorta11t sL1bsta11ti. ve areas of the la\v. Tl1e n1ethod of i.11strL1cti.011 was a 111ixed lectL1re and }Jroblem-a11alysis approacl1. BL1t it vvas tl1e preparatio11 of con1plete and reliable trai11i.11g materials for tl1e judges Vi1 l1icl1 lay at tl1e l1eart of tl1e e11tire project a11d insured its success. Eacl1 j usti.ce ,vas }Jrovi.ded wi.tl1 a detailed a11d comp1·e he11si. ve outline of eacl1 lect u re. TI1i.s \\ias 1Jri11ted i11 large ty1Je '-"1i.tl1 e11o ugl1 bla11k spaces on tl1e left l1a11d si.de of the page fo1· the stu cle11t to add Vi1 l1ate,rer 11otes l1e \visl1ed. Legalese ancl co1nplex citations \Vere avoided. 1l1e 0L1tl:i11es \Vere co1n111u11i.cati ve a11d \Vere valL1ed. T11e jL1dges acc1ui.red a 11ew res1Ject for la\�/ a11d tl1ei.r O\Vl1 posi.tio11s a11cl a se11se tl1at la\ v \\ias to be 101101-ed wi.thOLlt �eg��d �o l)ri,,ilege or tl1e IJrestige of tl1e1 litiga11t . It s �s 8_�11d �l1e }J1:og·ra111 111arkedly i111proved tl1e qL1ality of J u_stic� 111 tl1e lo\\'er cou1·ts of tl1e foL1r 11e coL11 of s 1t \:v i . e 1 b er1a. ..,1

1\ Llt1iCJL1e co11t·r-1· b uc·1011 \\1 as 111acle ca11 ;\n1 er1 by a Jrou 11g . lecture1� 1�1 lavv a.t tl1e l<e11)ra l11stitute of f\dn1i11istratio11 \1,,, 1 10 co111p1 lee] ca 11 .I 11-ct ex, of E... as t Afri.ca11 Cases [\eferred tQ

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1. 1868-196 8. TI1e n1oclel was Sl1e1)ard 's Ci.tati.o11s. ,..r11e word ci.tati.on" \iVas i.11i.ti.ally J)roposecl for tl1e ti.tle, bLtt it coLtld not b_e L1sed because of tl1e di.ffere11ce 111 111ea11111g of that tern1 1 n the U.S. and U. l<. The i.clea fo·r tl1e I11dex sten1n1ed fron1 the aL1tl1or 's frL1strati.011s i.11 l1i. s research for a coL1rse i.n evi.cle11ce fo·r District i\!lagi.s - foLtnd l1e l1acl to "[ searcl1] tl1roL1gl1 over sixty t1·ates. [ Ie sepa1·ate volL1me i.11cli.ces for sL1bject-n1atter a11d ap1Jli. cable f\cts a11cl Ordi11a11ces, 011ly to cli. scover tl1at tl1ere vvas 110 p1·acti. cab le n1etl1od of follo\iVi11g a11y gi. ve11 case for\1/ard tl1roL1gh the yrears to see vvl1etl1er i.t l1ad bee11 referred to, applied, disti.11guisl1ed or eve11 overrL1led. "2. T11is volume makes relatively si111ple tl1e researcl1er 's task, a11d it removes "tl1e da11ge1· (a11d it is a very real danger) of cases bei11g decided 011 tl1e autl1ority of dectsio11s that a1·e no longer good law", 3. to quote fro111 tl1e forward of Justi.ce Jol111 F. Spry of tl1e Court of Appeal for East Africa. TI1e duplication of teacl1i.11g n1aterials i.11 1\frica is always a problem. It is difficL1lt to fi11d ski.lled LYIJi.sts a11d careful proofreaders, a11cl botl1 te11d to }Je qLtite costly. Cyclostyled or min1eograpl1ed 111aterials do 11ot last 1011g, as tl1e stencils become qL1icl<ly \iVor11 witl1 Ltse. Printing i.s Ltsually too expe11sive for tl1e Afri.ca11 L111iversi ty to u11dertake, a11cl there are 11ever e110L1gl1 stude11ts in a single i.11stituti.011 to 111ake tl1e publi.cati.011 con1n1er cially feasi.ble. 011e possible a11sV11 er, wl1icl1 is 110\v bei.ng testecl , was proposed by tl1ose associated witl1 tl1e Sai.ler Project and l1as bee11 war111lyr e11dorsed by Af1·i.ca11 teacl1.ers. It lies i11 the for111ulation of materials for use i.n a 11umber of law faculties, tl1ose wi.tl1i.11 a gi.ve11 regi.011 or possi.bly througl1out f\nglopl1011i.c 1\fri.ca. Tl1is requires exte11sive correspo11cle11ce bet\veen f\frica11 teacl1ers and \vorki110- confe·re 11ces of Africa11 peers fro111 cliffere11t COLtntri�s a11d differe11t eth11ic backgroL111ds but \¥itl1 1 e11t in Africa. similar dedicatio11s to law a11d its clevelo1J11 (distrib. by Legal 69 19 1d a1 L1r D , . -rf> p-: 1.73y Publications Ltcl. Nairobi)· 2. Ibicl. p. ii. 3. Ibicl. p. i.

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1 selves, n 1e tl ls ia r te 1a n 1g i1 l1 c a te 1e _ Tlle eild r>roclLlCt, tl l b e t�1e il e w y I1 T . ts l1 g i s 11 i l ia c e . _ 8 11oLtld provide sJJ f ls o 1l a 11 1m s 10 1· a s fe o r 1J n a ic fr � 1\ f o t c u collecti,,e procl ce to the n a v le e e u r iq n u a e v a l1 ld u o l1 s · · 1te. r-ests, a11cl rt1ey 11 �1a c 11 11 a a · 11 1 l1 1c r e A m t s e d : 1o 11 1e 11 o S Afri.ca11 co11text. e costs of th r e v o c to cl e id v o r 1J 1g i.1 e b assi.sta11ce is \v a d fe 11 a , s e e r fe 11 o c e th r fo l 111ter11atio11al trave s and in e c n e r fe n o c 1e tl in d te a ip c ti r a p e Arnericans t1av . ls ia r te 1a 11 e th f o n o ti c e ll o c tl1e ve aw ti L ra st 11i. 1i. dn 1\ 1 a1 ic fr "A 1 a1 71 19 I11 Ap1-i.l th l1e i \:vi ac ob te ir Na rs in lcl l1e s wa " ce en er 11f Co ls ia Mater a11d scl1olars fro111 faculties, departme11ts of la\,y, a11d s: ie tr ng u11 \vi. co llo fo e tl1 i11 11 io at tr 1is 1i1 l11 ac of s 1te i11stitL Botswa11a, Lesotl10, S\:vazila11cl, Gha11a, l(enya, �Aauritius, Nigeria, Sierra Leo11e, Ta11za11ia, Uganda, and Zambia. All of the }Jarticipa11ts l1ad respo11sibilities i11 tl1e teac hing of adrni11i.strati.ve law, a11d all we re looki11g for appro priate 111aterials. 1\1J1Jare11tly everyo11e had do11e l1is l1on1e\vork i11 adva11ce of tl1e co11fere11ce. Recon1mended readi11gs l1acl bee11 co1111Jleted a11d studies made beforel1and so tl1at tl1ere was a sl1ared experience at tl1e outset. Tl1e co11fere11ce c1L1i.ckly l)ecame a �1orkshop, a11d tl1e varioL1s sessi.011s \.\1ere i.11te11sive and JJrodL1cti,,e. \\ll1at \\1 as agreed upo11 111ay 110\v be publi.sl1ed comn1ercially b)r the Oxford U11iversity Press (Nairobi.) i.11 vie\\' of the assL1ra11ces of ado1Jtio11 by' n1ost if 11ot all of tl1e depart111e11ts a11d faculties represe11ted. 11iroL1gl1 tl1e i11i.ti.ati\7e of two expar1-iate la\\' teacl1er·s at Dar es Salaan1, a si.n1i.lar JJ1·ogran1 for tl1e cte,relop r1�e� t of cas:s c111d n1ateri.als 011 busi11ess orga11i.zati.on vvas st��ted c:l11d 1s 110\\' �ei.1 1 pursued u11der tl1e aegis of a11 Afr1ca1� scl1ol�r. 111e con11Ja11Jr la\v" wl1 icl1 n1a11y of tl1e J\iigloJJl10111c coL111r1-ies l1a,re acto1Jted f1·o1n the U11ited _ l,111?clo111 l1as 11ot 111et tl1e 11eeds of tl1e s1 11all Afri.ca11 bus111ess 111a 1 1. It is si 111ply too con1JJlex fo1- tl1e s111all· " scale e11te1-J)rise · 1·"-s , co111J)a11J' law" l1as l1eretofo·re 11ot . bee11 co11s1de1-ect capJJr 01J1-·1ate f· or . ' 1t . . scrut111J ' acade1111c · l 1as 11ot bee11 o:i_ . 1dJ' a.11d atte11tio11 it deserves. v e 11 tl 1e stt b . . 1\fr 1ca11 la\\, teacliers, 110\ve,re1· . are beo-i1111i.11a to real1ze t11� �. �111Jo1·ta11ce o f bL1si11ess or g;11izati.01;s as l�gal e11t1t1 es to l)otli ec 01101111c . a11d legal clevelo p111e11t. �

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Materi.als are 110w bei.11g co111pi.led bJr nie,nbei-s of tlie La :v Fa �Ltlti.es at t\tl�kerere U11i.versi.ty, l(a111pala, tlie U111vers1ty of Zambia, a 11c1 at tl1e U11i.versi.ty of Nai.rol)i., as well as at 0 11e or two Faculti.es i. 11 \i\'est f\fi-i.ca. !\ confere11ce ,vorkshop wi.1 1 be l1elcl i.11 l(a1111Jala tlie e11d of JL111e 1972 . Wl1en fi.11ally cle\relopecl tl1e 11--a te1-i.als s1 1ould benefit not 011ly law stt1de11ts bL1t practi.ti.011e1-s a11cl gove·r11ment perso1111el as v.1 ell. If tl1ey li. ve up to t11ei.r promi.se a11d provi.de i.11si.gl1ts i.f 11ot a11s,vers to some of the problems, tl1ey should also be of i.11terest to tl1e legislator. I n si111ilar 111a1111er, 111ateri.als are bei11g cleveloped in tl1e field of co11flict of la,v: s, botl1 i11te·r11al conflicts a11cl private i.nternati.011al la,�,. Prom1Jted by the contacts tl1at tl1ese vari.OLIS efforts l1a\re i.11i.tiatecl, tl1ere l1ave bee11 excl1anges by teacl1ers i.11 differe11t faculties wi.th respect to tl1e developn1e11t of teacl1i11g materials i.11 such a1-eas as evi.dence, com111ercial law, a11d fan1ily lavv. These excl1anges should eli111inate tl1e relative isolati.0 11 tl1at most Africa11 la,v faculties suffer. Tl1ey shoL1ld provoke a cross ferti.lizatio 11 of ideas . Closely alliecl to tl1e above scl1olarly a11d practical projects have been efforts to develop appropriate dictionaries. 011e such progra111, con11110 11ly referrecl to as "the Lexico11 Project", v.,as i11i tiatecl ]JJ' tl1e FacL1lty of Sellassie I U11i versi.ty for the co1111Jilatio11 of Law of [ laile a dicti.011ary of French, E 11glisl1 a11d Aml1a1-ic legal terms. Ethiopian law contai.11s ma11y in11Jorted legal co11ce 1Jts \Vhich are difficult to express i11 1\111l1aric, as 11oted above 011 page 93. Further, sucl1 expressio11 l1as 11ot bee 11 consistent. The cli.ctio 11ary seemed esse 11tial to eli111i11ate Starti11g ,�1 ith foreig11 the ambiguities and i11co11si.stencies. texts la,v stuclents, \Vi.tl1 :facL1lty gL1ida11ce, recorded 011 special fi1 i11g cards the A111l1aric eq Liival_e 11t � f every legal term. The cards ,vere tl1e11 orga111zed 1 11 three alphabetical categories, An1haric, E11glisl1 a11cl Fre11cl1. Tl1is work was started during the acade1nic year 19651 966. Stude11t assista11ce vvas }Jrovidecl i11 successive sum111ers, but tl1e project was at least te 1111Jo�aril� dis co11ti11ued in 1968. ---n1e pr1 11cipal caL1se was f111anc1al, _ though tl1ere was some co11cer11 witl1 tl1e comple� 1t� of the task ancl the quality of tl1e :results. The �tl110JJ1a11 project was modeled i 11 part on a simila1- p·roJeCt of the

l1 ic l1 , v \V ia 1-o 11 J) a z 11 d e a T 1 11 a la a S ' s e c r -< a · at O r.. 1 acL1 1ry ,Lfl VI ' v. d e 11 r e c 11 l1 o it c w s a \v ly r on e tt la 1e tl t Lt ·.. B · l fu • s · · · Qlllte SLICces c 3e o 1e t . Tl }J ts are . l1 1 . l1 a w S d 11 a h s li · g 11 E t\".'O lai1gLiages, . le b a r a JJ 1 11 o c te i Lt q t11erefore 11ot ic b a f r r o e A fo s Li 1e tl in s ie lt Lt c fi if d 1e tl Because of d t 1a te a s tl e w g g la u s s a \;v it , ts 11 1e 11 u tr s in l a _ 1110cter11 leg d e r a p e e b s r JJ m r te l1 s l1 g 11 E d 11 a cti.cti.oi1ary of f\rabi.c f o w of tl1e y a lt L cu 1:a 1e tl f o se ri. rp e 11t e 1t i.1 jo tl1rougl1 a y e lt y th d cu b 11 fa a 11 a 1d SL 1e tl 1 1 i. 1 11 u o rt a l1 I< f u111 versity o of .i\l1111adu 11 io at tr is i.n 11 cl1 1\ of te tu ti 1s I1 e tl1 of of la\".' nt ne e1 re ag . If ia er ig N 11 er tl1 or N i11 y i.t Bello U11ive1-s s ap rh , tl1 pe 11s 0 wi i. L1t tit 1s 1 i. o tw e es tl1 r bJ d l1e ac re be could i so111e JJart .ci1Jati.011 by scl1olars i11 u11iversiti.es i11 tl1e 1\'1.aghreb, the teacl1i11g a11cl practice of a moder11 law in 1\rabic n1igl1t be l)Ossible. Tl1e cL1r1-e11t dean of the faculty of L'lw of 1\l1111adu Bello University is Suda11ese y a11d \Vas for s0111e tin1e dea11 of tl1e Lav\' FacLtlt at I(l1artoL11n. '171e project sl1oulcl l1ave an i111111ediate rece1Jti vity, a11cl it 1nigl1t clo mucl1 to i.n1prove relati.on sl1ips bet\\1ee11 Is lan1 a11cl the West. The foregoi.11g comme11ts 011 teacl1i11g 111aterials mi.gl1t sL1ggest a reacl)' acceJ)ta11ce of the A111eri.can concept of "cases a11d 111ateri.als ". SL1cl1 has not bee11 tl1e case. 011 tl1e co11trary, tl1ere l1as bee11 co11si.de1-alJle resi.sta11ce to tl1e i11troclL1ctio11 of sL1cl1 111aterials, pa1-ri.cularly' b�)' those \\1 110 l1acl received clll of tl1ei1- leo-al edL1ca ti.011 tl1rouo·l1 tl1e 0 C> �1111s of CoL1rt i.11 tl1e U11i. ted l(i.11gdo111. 111 at leclst 011e 1nsta11ce a collecti.011 of 1\f1-ica11 cases a11d n1ateri.als, laborioLts ly gatl1erecl byr c:111 /\n1eri.ca11 scl1olar o\rer a t\vo· yeai- JJer· i.od, \"1 as 11ot JJer111itted to be i.11cluded i.11 tl1e law 1 facLi1ty s sy l1al)LlS becaL1se, c1cco1-di.110- to tl1e dea11, it did 0 _ 11ot co11st1tLite a boo,1�" . 13\.tt tl1e fu1-rl1e1- se11i.or /\.frica11 la\\i yer·s 111ove f:ro111 tl1ei.r co lo11i.al l1eri.tage a11d tl1e 111ore ' · alJ le ''J OLI 11g 1\f1· -1· ca· 11 s, test 111 d · de1Je11de11tl.J' tl1e JJroble111s a11 . . cl1alle11g'-es' of tl1e11 ·· - coL111trJr, tl1e 111ore s1o-11ifi.cant 1\fr1can . . o cases a11cl J\fr1c1:111 111ate1-i.;:1ls 1)eco 111e. 11

Afri.cai1 Legal l:Zesear c l1 Ce11ters

L I

1 1966 tl1e clea11 of tl1e Faculty sity ve r cf 11i La . \V u of th e _ C 01 1°ege at Dar es Scal . � . aa111 IeqL1ested An1er1ca11 ass1sta11ce 100

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a seiJarate �11 e�tabli.sl1i11g a legal research ce11tre as 111sntute , 1Jerl1a1Js L111der tl1e broad L1111b1Aella o:f tl,e _ A bL1t 11ot as ar 11teg1 al part of tl1e Lavv FacL1lty. rs1ty Uni.ve :� I l- e suggestecl as a poss1ble n1oclel tl1e I..,oui.siana State Law I11sti.tute, \vl1i.cl� he L111de1-stood l1c1cl b r· idgecl tl1e ga1J betwee11 tl1e acade1111c worlcl ancl gover11111e11t witl1out bei11g a part of eitl1er. Tl1e dean also thoL1gl1t tl1e researcl1 cer:it�e coL1ld do tl1e kind of \vork IJe1A formecl by the La\� Rev1s1on Co111n1ission of New York. 1�1e sug gested 1t sl1ould do n1ore tha11 draft legislati.011, that it 111igl1t codi.fy n1ucl1 of tl1e custon1a1A y law or faci.litate its merger i11to tl1e receivecl or com111011 lavv of Ta11za11ia. f-Ie fL1lly appreciated the fact tl1at the key to its success would not be si1111Jly rece1Jti vity i11 tl1e Gover11n1e11t to the idea. There would also have to be a se11se vvitl1in tl1e Attor11ey Ge11eral 's office that tl1e i11stitute \Vas 11eeded and sl1ould be establi sl1ecl a11cl Llsed b>' tl1e Gover11n1e11t. As to all of tl1ese require111ents l1e \Vas optin1i.stic. The dean's request for aid was coi11cide11t with a growing co11cer11 a111011g America11 ex1Jatriates tl1at Af1ican gover11me11ts or tl1eir age11cies \\1oulcl fail to use the i11tellectual resoL1rces of Africa11 law facL1lties. Specifically, tl1ere was ap1Jrel1ensio11 tl1at tl1e dicl1oto111y between academic a11cl practici11g lawyers i11 tl1e United Kingdom, and i11 Europe, \VOL1ld affect professio11al atti.tLtcles in Africa and li111it tl1e co11tribL1tio11s Africa11 scholars migl1t n1ake, 110,vever able a11d k110\vleclgeable they 111ight be. 1\ltl1ough tl1e disti11ctio11 i11 Britain 111i.ght well reflect a realistic appraisal of i.11terest and capa bilities, i.n Africa it would 011ly be dysfu11ctio11al. t\frican law curricula a11d Africa11 lavv teacl1ers were becoming i11creasingly oriented to f\frica11 legal 1Jro blen1s a11d the social ancl eco110111ic factors affecti11g tl1em. The 11eeds of the African gover11n1ents see1ned too great a11d the nu111ber of qualifiecl 1Jroblem solvers too fe\v for governmental age11cies not to take adva11tage of tl1e study and analysis which tl1e acacle111ic comn1L111ity COLtld IJro vicle. A quasi-ii,depe11dent research i11stitut� o11, i11 .. wl1ich gover11me11t la\\1yers a11cl acade111ics 1111gl1t part�c1 pate, coulcl briclge tl1ese two segments of tl1� �r? fess1011, or more properly the ii111eritec1 iclea of � 11� cl1v1s: 011 betwee11 tl1e acaclemi.c lawye·r a11cl tJract1c111g bar. /\i1d 1 t

101

-,..,

be tw ee n la s \vy er 011 s, sl1 ip re la ti. in g wo rk 1 · ge · .. 1t. f·or · . 1g 111 . . s, accoL111ra11ts, po 11t1ca l sc1e11r·1sts, social · eco11on11st 1 · e who · p ct· y c1 1s an in .1n d 11e ar le e tl1 ct , a11 c a11tl1ropo logl. sts . • " s. es er oc n 1 r'l.. pr ng v1 an ic ol -s m le ob }Jr e th 1 · ct 11 l . ml. g 1 t al· . . h t ta e f es r d bl ··o l1 e 1s 1d ov pr me nt e or ef er th s \va ce assistan . Althougt1 am la es Sa ar O a re 11t Ce ch ar se � Re of a Legal ed to be k em or se w 1 ts 1d a1 re 1t e1 C e tl1 of t ep tlle co11c _ d no immediat e l1a ly 11t re pa ap d a11 l ve 11o s v\ia it ed om lc we practical �alue. Outside fina11cing w as tl1us required . 1as formall)' proposed by e v.. 11tr Ce ch ar se Re gal Le Tl1e 1 as a :>provecl by \\ 8, 196 r obe Oct i.11 , a11d 1 tl1e law Faculty the Uni.versi.ty College f\cacle111i.c Board a11d fi11all)r by the Uni.,,ersi.ty College Cou11cil. It beca111e a reali.t)r i.n the spri11g of 1969 wi.tl1 tl1e a1Jpoi11tm ent of a lecturer in the faculty of lav. .1 as tl1e first cli.rector. TI1e purposes of tl1e Ce11tre i11cluclecl aid i.11 tl1e resea1-ch a11d drafting aspects of lav.., refor1n, i11 tl1e drafting of uni.form legislation for East Africa, a11d i11 supervising tl1e \\/Ork of postgraduate stude11ts registered for "research degrees". It was ho1Jed tl1at the Ce11tre woL1ld 11ot 011ly provide a co111mon meeting groL111d for academia and gover11me11t but also a valual)le service for i11stitL1tio11s tl1rougl1out East Africa and a place \Vl1ere scl1olars from tl1e tl1ree co11srttue11t coL111tries coL1ld 111eet a11d work effecti.vel)r togetl1er.

,_fl1e Ce11tre' s first IJroblem , l10\\1eve1-, \\1as to provoke active i11terest 011 tl1e part of tl1 e va1·ious Ta11zania11 i11stitL1tio11s whicl1 sl1ould be co11cer11ed. 1\ com111ittee \\1 as tl1us for1necl con11Josed of two 1neo1bers of the la\v facult);, tlie � l1i�f Justice of Ta11za11i.a, tl1e 1\ttor 11ey Ge11eral of Taiiza111 a , a11cl a re1J1·ese11tati. \re o f tl L 1e av,., Societ)'. Tl1e PL1r1)ose of tl1e co111111ittee \vas to e s ta s 01 b 1s li. s li. l1 ai. betvvee11 tl1e 1LP-,., vv Ra c cu lt y a11 . ct va · r1o d • . • us a11 · o·o 1 ve 1ta r11 n1e 1 ° JL1cl1c1a1· offices• 1·\ 1. eg.a 1 d1-afts1nc:111 f1-0111 the Attor11ey Ger11e1-cal' 8 0f fic . e \Nas eve11tL1ally assi.g11ed to ser,re as a . 1.1a1s011 bet,vee11 tl1e t\G 's o t ff ic e p a a 11 d 11 C tl . e 1e 11 c 1e 1 r because of 111a11y cl 1a1 . 1ges 111 tl1 e U11i. ,,ersi.t,r , tl1e re1Jlace111e11t of tl1e v le · e Cl1a11cello1- a11d 111ost of -;l1is se11i.or staff,

102

-ai1d tw� chan_g�s. i11 tl1e dea11sl1ip of the La,i\, Faculty, tl1e v1t1es " :ere SLlSJ)e11clecl after little nlore Ce11tre · s act1 , tha11 a year s operat1011. Despi.te its sl1ort existe11ce tile Centre ma11agecl to do s0111e L1seful d1·afti.11g a11d inade son1e cl1a11ges a11d additio11s to Ol1e 01- tvvo bi lls \:vl1i.cl1 were being prese11ted to tl1e Ta11za11ia11 Pa1-J1a111e11r. Tl1e \'lvest 1\frica11 Legal Researcl1 Ce11tre may provide Gl1ana and perl1aps vVest l\f1·ica ,vi. tl1 \,vl1at tl1e Ce11tre at Dar es Salaam pro111ised fo1· East 1\fri.ca. 1�l1e West Af1·i.ca11 Ce11tre \i\1 as proposed 1))' Justice 1\. N. E. 1\1ni.ssal1, professo1· of la\i\1 anli dean of tl1e Facult)' of Law of the U11i versity of Gha11a, vvl10 is 011 seco11cl111e11t fro111 the f Ii.gl1 Court. The recent 111i.li.tary takeover l1as apparently 11ot l1ad any adverse effect 011 tl1e l)la11s a11d prog1·a111s of tl1e University. It is 11ot likely to interfere ,:vith tl1e develop ment of tl1e Centre. Despite its pote11ti.al, 110\vever, tl1e Centre is still no more tl1a11 a pro1)osal. The Law Development Ce11tre at I<a1111Jala, Uga11cla, may also pro,;i.de a device for enli.sti.11g effecti.ve coo1Jera tive efforts between acade1nics a11cl gove·r11n1e11t lavvyers a11d the practici11g ba1-. TI1e Ce11tre at I( an1pala 110w has a11 Africa11 director a11d a small staff. Its most i.111me diate co11cern is the developme11t of a pre-e11rolln1e11t course for gi·aduates of tl1e la,i\1 faculty at Makerere Universi.ty, a ''professio11al '' trai.11i.11g progran1, vvl1i.cl1 is to commence duri.11g tl1e sL11n111er of 1972. It also }Jlans to develop a legal aid program. 1. T11e Ce11tre' s ot!1er activities ' whicl1 l1ave continued for son1e tin1e, i11clude the traini11g of lay magistrates, police officers, arn1y officers a11d other gover11me11t offi.cials, and tl1e stL1dy of selected govern111e11t problems. Sl1ort-ter111 law cou_rses fo 1- magistrates and police a11d military }Jerso1111el will be disconti11ued by the Ce11tre but will be offered ?Y tl1e I11stitL1te of Pl1blic Aclmi11istrati.on. The Ce11tre \i\llll co11tinue to offer la w courses for more senior professi.011als ancl public serva11ts. l. See di.scussio11 infra p. 111.

103

e ic s . I , Ju . e T tr n e C act 1e u tl F f � , o � r to c e r i. c1 t s r . fi Tl1e 1 at sl f ve drafting g1 o le a re a 1e tl i.n rk o w e bl ra e i.d di.cl coiis ed to e rn tl1 tu re w 1 .g! 110 I-Ii s l1a l1e t bu rm fo re w 8.}1 d la e th 1s sk · es ta of pr 7 a1 i.m on pr si 's al re nt Ce e tli 1d a1 t, ur Co e at th r tl1 1t s e1 pe C e l1o or ct re will di. \\l 11e e tl1 t Bu coLirse. l ta r en \re m go rese arcli e at ri op pr ap e ak rt ? de u11 1:>e able to i.0 or ab 111 ll ps co 1a at 1·! pe s, 11 si ba c l1o ad 1 a1 IJro1:>le111s 011 y ad e re ar rs al te at being n1 e n1 So y. lt cu fa \"' la vvitll tlie l. ra y 11e 11e Ge or tt A e tl1 by re 11t Ce e th to ed rr refe l

171e Centre of Islamic Legal Stuclies of Al1madu Bello U 111 versi.ty \\las establi.sl1ed i11 1967 in part to i.11tegrate tl1e diSJ)arate law s of tl1e 11ortl1er11 states of Nige1ia. A111011g its goals \\las tl1e preservati.011 of source material relati11g to tl1e developme11t of I\/Jaliki law (011e of the four 01·tl1odox scl1ools of Su1111i ( tracliti.011al) Islam) i11 11ortl1er11 Nigeria, a11d to n1ake available to the public at large so1ne of tl1e classic Arabic texts 011 Isla1nic la\v by tra11sla.ti11g tl1e111 i11to E11glish or f-Iausa. Expatriate assi.sta11ce to tl1e Ce11tre could only be modest because of its s1Jeci.ali.zed 11atu1·e. f\ lawye1· \i\1itl1 n1oder11 i.nter di.sci1)li.11ar)' researcl1 skills, lea1·11ed in Islamic la\i\1 and literate i.11 classical Arabic a11d tl1e vernacular, could l1ave 111ade a sig11ifica11t co11tribL1tio11. f\t least t\VO /-\111e1·ica11s witl1 sucl1 L111ic1ue qL1ali.ficati.011s vver·e fou11d, but tl1eJ' coL1ld 11ot be e11ti.cecl awa), fror11 tl1e \\i orlds of co111n1erce a11d fi11a11ce. To develop sucl1 an i11divi.dual vVOL1lcl l1ave bee11 \rery costly. T11e cr i.ti.cal perso1111el factor coulcl 11ot tl1erefore be supplied. But son1e l\111e� i.ca11 assista11ce, i11 tl1e for111 of librarJ' support, \}vas J)i�ov1cled. Despite its lack of adeqL1ate fu11d s tl1e Centre appears to l1ave co11t1·ibL1tecl mucl1 to 1\l1111c1du' Bello U1.7i.\'ersi.ty a11cl to cleve lopi 110 · la,,.,, i11 tlie nortl1e1·11 states b _ of N1geri.a. In tl7 e fall of 1968 a11 1\n1erica11 scl1olar l. u11der tl1e l.

J. '��-

SalacLise, for111erl�/ 1\ssociate Di.rect�r of tl1e A:rlcaii Law Cei1te1- o f Co lL1111bi.a U11iversity a11d !JIe 8<: 11tlJr Pi·oj ect S 1Jeciali st for tl a F ou 11d F 1e o rd cton 111 8e11-L1t, Leba11011. 104 •

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auspices of the_ Sailer Project, was ap Joi.i1ted for 1 a t\ vo d te a 11 r s -e n c 1 to1- of the C e 11tre for DocL1111e11ra year ti . o i1 and Resea1-cl1 of the Natio11al Scl1ool of f\ctr111111sri-atioi1 (k11 ?vv11 as �11da,_ � he ac1-011yn1 of its F1-e11cl1 11a 111 e, J�cole _ Na�1011ale d �clm1111stra�1011) i.11 l(i.11sl1asa, c 011g0 (novv Zaire). Dur111g tl1e per1ocl of l1i.s te11ure, Nove,11ber 1.968 to Febr L1ary 1971, tl1e Ce11tre \,v as establi.sl1ecl a11cl beca111e a respo11sib le resea1-cl1 i.11stitLI te. lt e11j O)'ed a quasi. aL1to11omoL1s statLis. Its cli1-ect:01:- repo·rted cli.rectly to tl1e head of Enda, 11ot tl1roL1 gh E 1 1da 's Director of St L1 clies ' 1 wl10 has al'A ays bee11 a Fre11cl1n1a11. The statL1te aL1tl10rizing the Centre speci.fi.es i . t 11ave tl1 ree di. vi.sio11s, Jega.l, economic, a11d admi11ist1-ative, eacl1 v\1 itl1 a "chef de travaux". 1l1is \vould see111 to t11l1i.1)it i11terdi.sci.pli.11ar)' researcl1. But the director l1ad tl1e ad111i11i.strati.ve savoire-faire to enlist tl1e help of tl1e a1Jpropriate clisci. p li.nes as tl1e researcl1 needs arose a11d resources l)e carne available. 1l1e ReVL1e Co11golese d 'Ad111i.11ist1-atio11 was here of some assista11ce. 111 July 1969 tl1e Ce 11tre assLtmecl respo11si.bility for tl1e Revue a11d qL1i.ckly 111ac1e of it a Co11golese journal, \¥itl1 all of the edi.ti11g a11d nearly all of the w1'iti11g done by Co11golese. Tl1e l<.ev L1e had previously been do111i11ated by Europea11 teacl1ers to tl1e virtL1al exclusion of Africa11s. One of tl1e Centre's first resea1-ch tasks \'-las a cletai.led survey, made i11 cooperatio11 \'Vitl1 tl1e f\1 fi11i.stry of Nati.011al Eco 1 1omy, of tl1e structure a11d operati.011 of pri.vate cor porati.011s i.n tl1e Co11go. f\t tl1e request of tl1e Mi11istry of Public f-Iealtl1 and i11 co11j u11cti011 \Vi.tl1 a \iVorld I I-ealtl1 Organiz ation team, i . t ma de a stL1dy of legi.slatio11 affect ing healtli. It brougI1t all tl1e pieces togetl1e1- \,vl1e11 110 011e k11ew \vhat tl1e legisl atio11 was. An1011g i.ts otl1er researcI1 activities for tl1e gover11me11t was a study of tl1e opera ti.011s of the Natio11al Savi11gs Ba11k of tl1e Co11g?, a state ins titutio11. It was fou11cl tl1a t 111ost of tl1ose w1tl1 bai1k accounts were low wage ear11ers. Loa11s, l10\ve:7er, \�'�11t Primarily to me1nbers of the elite or tl1e Establ1 sh 1nei1t. Sin1ilarly, tl1e fu11ds whi cl1 poureel i11to tl1e Coi1go f�on1 foreig11 sources appearecl to go to tl1e L1se o� benef1 t of less than one perce11t of the populatio11. TI11s sanie . sitLtat i.on appears to exist tl1rougl1out f\fri.ca_. Pa�t of tile cause seems to be the clifficulty of tl1e sma.11 bL1s 1ness1na11

105

i.i1 obtai.i1i.11g loa11s. T11is problen1 of credit fina11ci11g appears to be o11e of tl1e pri11�ipal l1urdles to economic done developine11t i.11 Africa. But l1ttle researcl1 l1as bee11 _ _ 011 chis 1Jroble111. 011e stud� r, 11? \ve�er_, �f the d�ff�culties of tl1e 81nall busiL1essn1a11 1n N1ger1a 111d1cates 1t 1 s more a 111atter of lacl, of i11vestn1e11t op1Jortu11ity than a lack of credit. 1. BLtt tl1is 1nay 11ot be tl1e case in otl1er parts of Af1-1ca. f-Io1JefL1llJ' tl1e Ce11tre will tackle tl1is ge11eral 1Jroble1n in tl1e 11ear future. Research centres, whetl1er co111111011 or civil law i11 orie11tatio11, n1ight develo1J a joi.11t progra111 011 tl1is subject to tl1eir mutual benefit. 011e of tl1e p1i11cipal co11tributions of tl1e Centre vvas its use of en11Jiri.cal a11d i11terdi.scipli11ary research. These i.t i11stitL1tio11alized a11cl to tl1em it gave respected. status. 1 11 all of its vvork tl1e Ce11tre looked to the problems of tl1e Congo wi.thoL1t 1Jreco11ce1Jtions of remedy. It sougl1t soluti.011s ap1J1-01Jriate to tl1e Co11golese co11text. And it recei.ved tl1e e11tl1usi.astic sL1pport of the Congolese, botl1 stL1de11ts a11d teacl1ers. U11l1appily, 11ot a European 111emlJer of tl1e _g11cla _ faculty participated i11 an); of its · acti.vi ties. Me11tio11 l1as al1-eadJ' bee11 111ade of tl1e I11stitute of 1\cl va11ced Legal Stuclies, wl1icl1 i. s being establisl1ed at tl1e U11iversi ty of Lagos, Nigeria. 2 - It \:Vas co11cei.\red as tJerfor111i11g a differe11t function fron1 tl1at indicated fo1the varioL1s ce11ters discLtssed alJove. It n1ay, 110\ve\rer, serve as c:1.11 i.11sti.tute for tl1e ki11d of i11-deJJtl1 stLldJ' a11d re�earc11 11ot a1J1Jro1J1-i.a te to a lJu SJ' attor11ey o·e11eral 's off1�e bL1t S\Iitab_le fo1- c:lcc1de111ic i.11quirJ'· 111� 11ew Chief ]L�� tl.ce of N1ger1a, for111e1-l y tl1e l\1i.11iste1- of Justice and st1ll ?ea11 of tl1e J_,agos La,N Faculty, plaJred a sio·11i.fica11t i-ole 111 tl1e I11stitL1te's develo1Jn1e11t. I-Ii.s contin�i110· i.nterO . · 1 . e •S t 111 c':\. \TJ fac1 1tate 1ts i.11volve111e11t i11 1-esearcl1 for tl1e gover11111e11t.

I. Scl1atz , Say c._ 1�e p. ed. Ollt11 of tl1e Sal1ara: DeveloJJn1e11t 111 f\fri.can Eco11on1ics (Te111ple 1971). 2. SLtpra. l)tJ. 41-42.

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N ot long � go tl1e Vlriter l1 a d tl1e })riv il ege of cl1attii1g vvit1 1 two se.n1or. teacl.1e1-s of tl1e Yale La\,v Sc11001 about. A 1 1 1n ra . fr1ca _ betvvee11 acade11,ic a1 1c1 o-ove n o se the pa r11_ 0 r 111 ent lavvy e1·s. Tvvo a11t1clotes \�'ere disCLlssecl . 17 1e . d e1Je1 1d ent researcl1 ce11ter, co11siderec first vvas tl1e 111 l above, and the second, related to tl1e first, vvas a scl1eme • c 1 epe1 1d e1 1t stuclies by le ga l for co or c1·,1nan· 11 � 111 sct1ol.ars ai1d state age11c1es. Uncler tl1is latter scl1e1rie special problems of governme1 1t co 11cer1 1 a11d academic 111terest \1/0Ulcl be stL1died, or at least c losely sct·L1ti11ized, by law teachers and stude11ts throL1gl1 \Vl1at might be ter111ed "parallel" or "coordi1 1ate" se 1rii. 1 1ars. Gover11me11t lavvyers or otl1er appropriate officials woL1ld be kept informed of the work of tl1 e se111i11ars, tl1e researcl1 undertake11, special problems discussed, or solutio11s indicated. ·Tuey i.n turn would aclvise participa 11ts 111 tl1e seminars of the gover11n1e11t' s efforts i 11 111eeti.ng the problems. Eacl1 group would work indepe1 1de11tly of tl1e other. Presumably tl1e gover11ment' s focus V1 ould te1 1d to be more immediate and practical a11cl that of tl1 e scl1olars more lo11g-ra1 1ge and i.n deptl1. TI1e se111i11ars coulcl, of course, be offered by or in co11ju11ctio11 witl1 a researcl1 center. But the work of eacl1 groL1p \;\,7 0uld be co111ple mentar}' to the otl1 er. f\.ncl effective ,vo1·ki.ng relati.011 ships should be quickly establisl1ed bet,.vee11 tl1en1. 1

Teac hing and Researcl1 Ou tside tl1e Classi-00111 1 as tl1e v\ n1 oo sr as cl e tl1 To most expatriate teachers . arena for 011ly a segme11t of tl1 ei r professi.011al res1Jons1 bilit y. To trigger the stucle11ts' scl1olarly i11terest a11� to aid their ow11 research ma11y projects witl1out academ1c credit \Vere launchecl by 1\.n1erica1 1s but actively pLirsued by African colleagues a11d stude11ts alike. Tl1 e _11un7 ber. e 1v ss re 1p 11 y and vari.ety of sLtch projects were parrtcularl : _ 111 vei-s1_ tY, U I n e si as ll e Se th e il Ia I Faculty of Lw of i \Vhe1·e there vvas a heavy co11ce1 1tratio11 of i\n1er1 c� 11 teachers. Du1·i 11g tl1e first year of tl1e la w faculty � cl1 existe11ce two lono--tern1 projects were begLtn ii1 wl1i _ O • s a \,v t s r £1 e 1 I T · d both stude11ts a11cl faculty becan1e 111v 1 ve o . a l ogram for collecti11g n1a teria l s 011 la11d teilLtre 1 1 1. )t o r l1 t n . 1\ d n a . y g coope o · l · rat1011 with tl1e Departme11t o·f soci· o d i1 co se e 1 11 . s e di Pology anct · . the Institute o f Ethiopia11 Stu

107

e l1 l1 t a is F th gl e 11 E o i.n g 11 ti. la 1s a1 cr 1· fo � ct e j o _ ¼'as a IJr , 11 t1 ec of w ll la co , s 1g i1 l( e th ? of � w � a J..., _ Negast, "The y ll 1a 11 t 1g s, r1 or ,v 1e ur 11 11t te ce 11y 1a n r fo ia op 1i. tI E 1 ;_1 e ill us y. l1 ur nt 11t e ce te ir th 1e tl f o lf ha t rs fi 111 Arabic in tl1e o11e of tl1e 1nost sig11i.fica11t co11tri.buti.011s of the Faculty 1,as bee11 its publicatio11 of the Co11soli.dated Laws of Etl1i.opia, a11 L111official collectio11 of a ll �he legislatio11 of _ _ Etl1i.01 Ji.a except tl1e 1najor codes. It 1s 111 E11gl1sh and An1l1ari.c a11d sl1ould be of great l1elp to the Ethiopian jL1diciary, gover11111ent lawye1·s, tl1e practicing bar, and ia,v stude11ts. The first portio11, 171e Co11soli.dated Legislatio11 of Addis f\baba, \i'.1 as JJublished the latter part of 1969. Tl1e la,vs l1ave previ.ouslJr bee11 publi.sl1ed cl1ro11ologically, as e11acted, in tl1e Negarit Gazeta, tl1e official gazette. T11e Co11soli.dated Laws, 011 the other ha11d, are ar1·a11ged by subject n1atter, indexed a11d anno tated ,:vi.tl1 notes sL11nmarizi.11g tl1e legi.slati. ve l1isto1·y, i11terp1·etative coL1rt decisio11s, and discrepa11cies between Aml1aric a11d E11glisl1 versio11s. 1. DL1ri11g acaden1ic 1965-66 tl1e Etl1iopia11 la,v students prese11ted a fo1-L11n 011 "T11e Co11stitutional Rigl1t to Cou11sel", a11d tl1ey 1-,roduced a series of television pro gran1s e11titled "Tl1e Verdict is Yours". Du1·i.11g tl1e sL1m111er of 1964 si.xty-fi.ve stL1dents e11gaged in a IJroject of collecti.11g and i11dexing jL1dg111e11ts of tl1e Supren1e Im1Jerial Court a11d tl1e [-ligh Cou1·t i.11 Addis Ababa a11d tl1e otl1e1- rnajo1· cities for use i11 tl1e Facu lty li.l1rary by stude11ts, lavvye1·s, c111cl judges. Tl1e follo\i'.'i11g year seven stLide 11ts \Vorlcecl IJa1·t-tir11e 011 tl1e "Lexi.co11 Project", _ 1�e�t1.011ed above, for tl1e clevelop1nent of a11 Etl1iopi.a11 lavv d1ct1011ar)' of 1\r11l1a1·i.c, E11glisl1 an d Fre11cl1 te1·n1s.

1 11 1?65 tl1e La.vv Faculty i11stitL1ted a IJre-lav\' class, _ 111 a se11se ,:vas additio11al to tl1e .Faculty's law v,.1l11cl1

_ teacl1111g 1-esJJ011si.bilities. 1�11e class co11sisted of the secotlcl )'ea1- L111i ve1-si.t)r stL1de11ts vvl10 exJJected to e11ter

W· l�vviiig, "Curre11t Status of Legal Resear 1 in cl Et111_ 0. 1J1_ a c ", . ]:Z ural Afr1ca11a, Spri11g 1970 (Afri.ca11 Stucl1es Ce11ter , lVI1c · 111· ga . n St , ate U111 ,,ersit\' ). •

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�he fi1-�t year p1-ogr�n : i11 tl1e �a,,, FacLilty after comJJlet1ng tl1e1r seco11d year 111 tl1e L1111versiry,. Tlie coLirses f· or. the special class, whicl1 \\1er e selected ]Jy tlie La\v Faculty', included i11t1-oductio11 to le ga l 111-etliod, a ,,v riting course, and Fre11cl1. Tl1e ci ,,i 1 code 111 Etlii opi.a is basecl 011 Fre11cl1 soL11·ces. Nlenti.on of a few otl1er extracL1r1·i.cL1lar acti \ri.ti.es in which expatriates becan1e i.11volved n1ay sL1ffice to i.iicli. cate the ra11ge of tl1ei.r co11t1·ibuti.011s, i.11. ma11y of ,vliicl1 stude11ts vve1·e asked to }Jla'y' a n1aj or part. I11 1964 i.11 Liberia a series of se111i.nars we1-e gi.ve11 fo1· 1nembers of tl1e Bar 011 p1·ovisio11s of tl1e new code of ci.vi.l procedLrre, \Vl1ich had tl1en rece11tlyr bee11 e11acted lJy tl1e Li.beri.a11 legislature. In 1965 and 1966 six se1ni11ars ,vere l1eld in Liberia on st1mn1ary jL1dge111e11ts, declaratory juclgen1e11ts, macl1ine1-y for assuri11g lancl titles, a11d cross-exan1ina ti.on. While servi11g as a FL1llJrigl1t Visittng Professor a11 f\1neri.can tax expert was a.ppoi11ted a 111en1ber of a West African Government's Tax Review Con1111issi.011. This Commission was chargecl witl1 reviewi.11g a11cl reco1111ne11d ing cl1a11ges 111 all aspects of tl1e cou11t1·y 's tax syste111. It prese11ted a special cl1alle11ge ::111d opJ)OrtL111i ty to tl1e teacher, the only 11011-ci.tize11 me111ber. U11l1ap1Ji ly tl1e Commissio11 ra11 i11to u11ex1Jected }Joliti.cal diffi.cL1lty, a.11d its work vvas suspe11ded. But tl1e expatriate visitor was able to i11t·roduce broad, i.11te1-cli.sci.pli.11ary' co11si.deratio11s of tax problems. Perhaps more i.n11Jorta11t l1e was able to bri11g to the atte11Lion of tl1e gove1·11n1e11t tl1e L1seful11ess of qualified legal scl1olars, even tl1ougl1 tl1ey 1ni.gl1t be considered academic. In l\pril 1969 a 11omi11ee of the Sailer Project wa� appoi11ted Researcl1 Fello"v i11 La\v for the l(afL1e Basin Research Project. I-le wa s i11 effect a 1A eprese11tativ<: of t�e University of Zambia, wh ic h l1acl establish_ecl a11 111ter d1sctpli.11ary committee to stu dy tl1e I(afL1e proJect, � 11Ydroelectri.c ntL1re wl1icl1 woL1ld i11 vo lve tlie f lood111g ve of a co11siderable area ' th e tra11spla11tati.011 of villages_ 1 11 s e g 1 1a1 c I n s a1J l rl1 1Je t , a c ow11s, the transfer of a11in1als the ecology, etc. As an economist a11cl lawyer he was i,ell receivecl bv all offices in Zambia. I I- ovve�e_r '. �fter a moi1tl1 's study l1e co11clt1decl tl1ere vvas 17 ot sutfLcle t L

109

,vork for t] 1e conti11ua11ce of tl1e Rese� rcl1 Fellowsl1ip on a full-tiiiie basis. Mucl1 of tl1e pl a 11n1ng had already been doi1e by ,,arioL1s gover11ment 1ni11i.st� i.es. The opportL1nity for feed-back to ai.d in the formulat1011 of g_o� er11111ent }Jolicy vvas mi.i1in1a l, si11ce n1ost of tl1e dec1s1011s a_t the . policJ' level l1 ad alrea cly bee11 m_ad� . Furtl1er, Un1 vers1ty resea1-cl1 fu11ds vvere severely l1m1ted, a11d the govern111e11t decided to 1:>ostpo11e a n1aj or 1:>art of tl1e project L111til 1975. I{esigni11g l1is Researcl1 Fellov,.,ship, he was tl1en en1ployed directly by the Zambia11 governme11t in the office of tl1e \!ice Preside11t (Finance Di vi.s·ion' as an eco110111ist but witl1 the official desig11a ti.on "Leg al/ Eco11on1ic Advisor". 111 tl1i.s capaci.ty he spent t\\1 0 use ful years \vorki.ng botl1 for tl1e gover11me11t a11d for the Uni.versity. [ Iere is the ki11d of flexibi.li.ty and i11itiative wl1i.cl1 is i11valuable i.11 a developi11g country. Tl1e extr acurri.cL1lar acti.\Ti.ties of expatriate l a,v teacl1ers ce11te1-ed primarily 011 1-esearcl1 and the collec ti.011 of teachi11g n1ateri.als and tl1e develo1:>ment of law j our11als a11d law reviews. 171e1-e \;vas inevi.tably co11cern al)OLlt legal aid, for pl1iloso1:>l1i.c reaso11s and 1,edagogical pL11-poses. But legal assist a nce to tl1e indigent accused i.11 1\fri.ca i. s just begi.11ni.11g to be c1cce1:>ted as a responsi bi.li ty of tl1e state or of tl1e 1:,1-ofessi.011. \Tery little con siderati.011 l1as been gi.ve11 to sin1i.lar 1-es1)011sibiliti.es in tl1e settle111e11t of ci.vil cli. spL1tes a11d J:>erl1aps none to tl1e provisi.011 of legal coL111seli.11g ser,rices. Tl1is \vould sug gest 111ore of a lack of concer11 \\1itl1 sucl1 111arters tl1an does exist. 111 tl1e lo,ver coL11-rs forn1erlv 11ati. ,,e or l� ca l cou1-ts, tl1e i.11qui.si.torial J)rocess l1as been used ,v1 tl1 tl1e j Lidge ]Jlayi11g a 0101-e active role tl1a11 ,vou ld ordi.11ar�ly be tl1e case i.11 a11 adve1-sa1-y s rsten1 V11i.tl1 1 })r�fess1011al represe11tati.011 of tl1e )arties li.tiga11t. l 1 Al � 1�Lig11 laVl'ye1�s a1-e 11ovv ge11era lly per111i.tted to appear . before SLtcl1 coL11-rs, tl1e L111re1Jrese11ted is to some exte1 1t J)i-o�ectecl 1J1' tl1e jL1dge. SL1cl1 l1el1J i.s of coL1rse 11ot ava1la1Jle i11 IJ1-e1)a1-ato1-y JJl1ases of tl1'e tr a l \l\'l1i.�l a1·e i 1 ofte11 cr· u ci.a 1 • SJJL1te settlen1e11t i.s effected and c ]·• BLit- Cl COLlllSel �11g is })1-ovicled b , elde1-s a11d various tribal 1 1e cl ia 111 s1 :1s, by_JJoli.ti.cal lJarties, (T a11u, for exan1ple, �� 1 Tai1za111a l1as 1t s 0\�1 11 S)'Ste111 fo r sett li.11g disputes of '

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ve1·11me11t ci Vil se1-v a11ts l a bers ), by go 111e n1 ' bor- u 11l· O11 s ' . lO . LIS rg a111. zatl. o11s. 1 rellg ? .' SL1cl1 assista11ce 11as 110t bee,1 vvholly s�t1�fa �tory, part1cul arly i11 viev\, of tile itlci:eas ii1g soph1stlcat1011 of tl1e proble111s 11eecli11g solutioi1 ancl tl1e extent of tl1e 11eed. The steps �ake11 by gover11111e11ts to provide legal aicl have bee11 l1es1tant a11cl sporadic. 2. Yet tl1ere 11 a 8 bee,1 conside1·able legislation 011 tl1e subject a11d some efforts to Lise la\v stL1de11ts for tl1e legislative purpose. t\!Jal a\vi. has an extensi \'e legal aid a ct wl1icl1 p1-ovides assi.sta11ce for tl1e i11digent in botl1 ci \ri. 1 and cri1ni.nal matters. During tl1ei1· 1011g vacations la \\1 stL1de11ts at tl1e U11iversi.ty of Mal awi have clerked for Lega l ;\id Cou11sel ( tl1e statL1tory title) at their t\VO offices, i11 Bla11tyre a11d Lilo11gwe. In Zambia legal aid is now a11 im1)orta11t 1)a1:t of the la \v stL1de11t ' s practica l trai11i11g year '-"'hicl1 l1e pursues in the La\v Practice I11stitute, a se1ni.-aL1tonornous school L111de1· the Cou11cil of Leg al EdL1c ation. Legal aid programs in which both stude11ts a11d f aculty n1ay parti.cipate have been considered at Addis Ababa a11d t1·iecl bt1t disconti11ued at Dar es Salaa1n. A leg al aicl p1·ogran1 is being organized at the L a\:v Developn1e11t Ce11tre i11 Uganda, primarily for the benefit of tl1e stt1de11ts i.11 the professional course vvl1icl1 will be 1)rese11ted for tl1e first time in July 1972. But tl1e be11efits of tl1at progra111 should have a broader effect. 011e or t\iVO legal aid offices are to be ope11ed in the depressed a1·eas of l(ampala. T11e)' are to be 111a1111ed by stude11ts 011 a �egu lar basis, a11d it is hoped vvord of their exi.ste11ce '-"'l_ll_ filter clolN11 to the centers of tl1e traditio11al com111u111ties. The Uga11da Council of Legal Educatio11 , '-"1� 1icl1 l1 ad to _ approve tl1e leg a l a id program, co11siders 1t essenn al for I. W. L. Twini11g, 'Social Justice a11cl tl1e Law'' ill East , rr ye w Sa . A . F . G . ed �frica11 L av\, an d Social CI1a11ge, - t1se, 1967), PP· 1 967 (Ea st f\fri.can Publishi11g l Io 259, 263. . e: Legcal 2. See Newman, "To Further A Syst_e111 of JL1st1c Aid i11 Africa'' ' African La w Stucl1es, No. 3, PP·

9 7-123.

ill

• i e r h e . T e ig s N r 1 u a1 . co l a 11 0 . i s s fe o r 1J e 1 tl f o 1 success ll r of a fo eria, ol ig o 1_ N cl s " al 11 io s s fe o Jr "J 1e tI , ol o ��vv Sc l1 1 1 en , s r o g a e a e v y \\ f1 e 1n 0 s 1 n a r g o r 1: startecl a legal ai.d p I�t w a s adm1nr .. pe o JJr s o ag L 1 i1 d te ca lo as ,;v the School 1 of lecture rs 01 1 s1 rv 1Je su 1e tl er 1d u1 1ts e1 ud st e 1 l t r b, d • • ls . tere J a t1c ac l pr e 1m n1 d ca a11 be 1 1 1 ra og 1Jr l 1e t t Bu . ol I1o Sc e til at ed ol ov l1o m to Sc 1e its tl n 1e l w ed 1u i1 nt co lis c e or ef er vvas ti1 no w is no e e� Th . nd la Is a ri to ic V 1 01 rs te ar qu , ,,., ne a. r1 ge . i N in d ai l ga le of em st sy ed iz orga.11 Relatively little legal aid l1as bee11 provided anywhere 1.11 1\frica '"1!1e11 111 easL1recl agai.11st need. The basic ques ti.011s as to t l 1e 11atL1re a11d exte11t of tl1e professio11al ser\ri.ces w l 1icl1 should be available and to wh om and u 1 1der ,,,hat ci·rcun1 sta11ces l1 a ve 11ot bee11 resolved. In tl1ei1: resolution stL1de 1 1ts a11c1 acade111ics may IJrovide the l(eys to tl1e state's e11la.rgi.11g social responsibiliti.es. Co11ti11L1 i.11g educati.011al prog1·c11ns, cou1-ses for graduate la,1vyers, so 111 ucl1 a IJart of a11 American la\vyer 's attitude to l 1is professio11, l1ave been SUJJ}JOrted by expatriate teac l 1ers. l n vi.ev\1 of t l 1 e 1nodest p1·ofes si.011al trai.11i.ng of n1 a1 1)' se11i.or 111eL11 bers of t l1 e Be1 1cl1 and Ba1· i.11 /\fri.ca and of t l1 e rapi.cl cl 1a11ges i.11 t l 1e la\71' 1Josrg1·actuate educati.011al progra111 s 1ni.gl1t have bee11 expectec l to l1a ve been in great cle111a11 d. \V l 1at fe\v l1ave bee11 JJresented, ho,vever, l 1ave l1 acl 111i.xed rece1Jti.011s. 171e tv,1 0-,veek sen1i.nars �r�se11ted u1 1der t l 1e cli.recti.011 of P1·ofessor \Volfgc111g 1� 1:1ecl111a1 11 1 of ColL1111lJic1 U1 1i .,,ersity 011 "Leo-al ,'\spects of I 11ter11 atio 11 al Eco110111ic l{elatio11s of Devel�JJi.11g Cou11t1i es" ,vere alYvays o,1e1--subsc1-i l )ec l . 7�\.\'0 se111i. 1 1ar s ,ve1·e p1·e se11tec l eac l 1 SL11n111 e·r 21t Da1· es Salaa111 fi·on1 1964 to 1966, a11cl tl1ey l)ecan1e i11c1·easi11gly JJOJJular as ne ws of their :vor · tl1 SJ?J:eacl. rf' l 1ese se111i11c1rs p1·ovi.c l ed p1·acti.cal 11 �t1·L�ct�o11 to gover1:11 1e11t office1·s co11cer11i11g fo1·eig11 : 1va�e �11vesc1 11e11t J)r (111cludi11g joi11 t ve11tu1·es), loa11 neg�r1at10 11 � a11cl i11 ter · 11 ati.011al t1:ade ag1-ee111e11 ts. 1\ 8� 11:111�r offerecl i11 I..,ibe·ria 011 tl1e 11e Li. \\' be1·ia11 Code of Civil I roceclure, c111cl a1 1otl1er 011 tr ial advocac)r Vi1ere 111 ?cl eratel�l ,;ve l l atte 11ded at tl1e outset, but atte11dance c1u1clcl,;, ta1Je1·· eL-I off · T1e l lecture proo-b·ran1 of tl1e Co11. . t111u111g E.., c l ucc, .,t·1011 o·f t·I1e Ba1· JJroject i.n Nigeria \\1 i:lS not

112

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pa rti;CLtlarly s _uccessfu_l; at least it di.ct 110t ei1list ai1y co11s1de rable 1nterest 111 tl1e professi.o11. I ii -service traini11g progran:s for· _the_ jLlc1iciar)r, 110\�'ever, sucl1 as tJ1os e prese11ted 111.Etl11o _ p1a, 11ortl1er11 Nigei·ia, f'./lalawi, and l(e11ya, n1ost of \\lh1cl1 l1ave liact clirect l)roinotiorial advantages, l1ave been very sL1ccessfLll. Expla11atio11s fo r _th� lack of e11tl1Ltsiasm for sucli JJ·ro gran1s are 11ot too d1ff1cLtlt to find. Most 1\frican la w gradua tes of a11y _experience ar e pe1·ha1)s too busy to u11dertake ec1ucat1onal progra1ns cf a11)' duratio11. 17ieJ:e is also the ver}' general attitude tl1at the aw ardi11g of a degree concludes 011e 's formal educatio11. This corre sponds witl1 tl1e view 111e11tio11ed al)ove tl1at an acaden1ic lawyer ca11 teach a11y subject i11 tl1e la�, CL11·ricL1lu1n at any tin1e. But tl1ere will probably be increasi11g i11terest in sl1ort intensi\re progr;:1n1s, on tl1e order of sen1inars, on matters of immediate practical valL1e, sucl1 as tl1e negotiation of co11cessio11 agree1ne11ts, stL1clies a11d interpretati.011s of 11e�, legislatio11, IJOssibl)r the co11sti.tu tion, perl1aps i11ternational commercial tra11sacti.011s. Indige110L1s Law Inte1·est in inc1ige11ous law soo11 after i11depe11de11ce was the same as tl1at i11terest i11 colo11ial tin1es. Its 11atu1·e vvas esse11tially anth ropological. Serious study of that law \¥as avoidecl by 1nost Africa11 legal scl1olars, perhaps because it seemed to be i11 another disci.pli11e 01· \Vas considered antic1uarian or 11ot releva11t or i11 s0111e v.;ay demea11i11g to tl1e Africa11 researcl·1er. 1ne youi7g a11d vigorous looked to tl1eir legislatures for �11� pa11aceas. But ways of life a1 1d the orcler of 11v111g do 11ot change quickly, and indigenoLrs la\\' still regulates tl7e lives of most Africans. It I1as co11ti11ued to gover11 tl1e Perso1 1al relaLionsl1 ips of th e Afri.ca11 peo1Jles, tl7e 1��' of marriage, divorce, ·sL1ccessio11, i11herita11:e, guai-�1ai7s11ips, a11d la11cl te11ure. l. It is tl1at la w wl11c�7 :011st1�Li te� all of the law £01� alm.ost all of Africa. A11cl 1t 18 tl7at _ la� · I 1 cc·:1.11 prov1cle w h.lch can pron1ote or i11hibi.t cl1ange, �'I11c 1· See also dtscussio11 sUJJra pp. 3-7 · ll3

,•

--------_"""'-'--......... ........

h r n o ic o . h ti \V a 11 11 a c 1e tl t L1 10 g u o 1r tl e ! c r fo g i1 a11 ii1tegrati s s a u l1 e th r n e e h e b T . a e s u s 11 11 l1 g u o 1r tl ty e . i c o s -e11d cl1e e 011 r s ti. a it d d 11 r o a w la s u o 11 e � i.g 1d i1 1 11 t s e r �-enewed ii1te s e 1e g tl d o Ju ly r la u c ti � r Ja , 11 o ti a c u l d ai1d ii1 judicial e d law a11d a e 1 v e c e r a s a ll e w s a w la t 1a tl actn11111steri11g burgeoni.11g statutory law. Development to be lasti11g 111ust be ac� ieved \Vi.thi11 the frainework of tl1e law itself, of a11 01Jeranve rule of laV11, and of a gove·r11a11ce \\,l1icl1 requires orderlyr }Jrocedures. l�api.d cl1a11ge a11d tl1e rL1sh of eve11ts in en1erging 11artons create widely' di.vergent clai.n1s and expectations, com IJeting de111anc1s a11d social n1aladjust111e11ts. These tl1reate11 tl1e law itself, \\1l1ich n1ust serve as a 111oder ati11g a11cl de111ocrati.zi11g force if tl1ere is to be la\\' a11d develo1J111e11t. Tl1ere l1as tl1us been a greater recognition of the i111porta11ce of i.11cligenoL1s la\v a11d of its co11ti11ui.11g service to tl1e co111n1011ality. At tl1e same ti111e there see111s to be c111 a\;vare11ess of tl1e need for stre11gthe11ing tl1e }Jredi.cti. ve c1uality of its procedL1res a11d of tl1e 11eed fo·r tl1e ec1uality of its appli.catio11 to all peo1Jles i.11 all statio11s. FL1rtl1er, a 1<110\\1 ledge of i.11digenous la\\' is esse11tial to }Jro111ote a t111ificatio11 of la\v a11d to i11su1-e tl1at legislatio11 compleme11ts ct1sto111, or at least tl1at it JJro\rides 110 L11111ecessary affro11ts to con1n1u11it)' n1ores and tr·adi.tio11s. ,..fl1e vit1:1lity of i11dige11ous la\\' is i11dicated i11 JJart b�{ tl :e st1rvi. :al of u11offi.ci.al 1\fri.ca11 di. s1Jute-settli11g n1ecl1a111sn1s \\1l11cl1 01_Je·rate OLltsi.de tl1e forn1a.l cot11-r structure. 111 n1ost of tl1e 1-\11gl.opl1011i.c cou11t1·i.es tl1e "11ati.ve" courts 01 custc)111ary coL11-ts, or s0111eti111e s "t\f1�ica11" cot1rts, vvere abolisl1ecl as se1)a·rate i11stitutio11s a11d \.ve1·e i11te gr;;�ted i11to a single judicial s�,rste111. 171e dual syrste111 _ �l1icl� l1acl ex1st�d 1Jrio1� to i.nde1Je11de11ce \\'as l a1·gelJ' gov er11ecl bJr rac1al co11sideratio11s a11d was foL111d i.11tol eral)le l)y tl1e 11e\\' states. But tl1e 111erged system took 011 n7 ore of tl1e as1Jects of for111er· l3riti.sl1 courts tl11:1n tl1os� vvliicl1 served tl1e 1-\.frica11 peo1Jle at tl1e loca o· l r 1 a.g1st1·ates lev el. Tl1e JJo 11ge str a pulat.i.011 at laro·e fou 11d :n 0 tl1e 1,· r· ·:1.c cti.ce-s a . 11d JJrocedLtres of tl1e l111ified courts. T 11ere 11as tllLts lJersi.sted a \rari.ety of extra-judicia l .r de \ 1ces for settl·111g- d-"tspLttes tl1roL1gl1 p1- o cesses \vl11cl1 _

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ai·e. essentially a�bitral 111 11ature. Local clliefs or theii tr or ib nt al s, el 1s de rs, or co11c la ve s of kitlsm ass ta e1 1 . l) O 1 t ay a very 1rnporta11t role i11 tl1 · ved are be·11e e s.... ettle _ . 1 d eter1ni11g matters rela.tiiig rnent of d.1spLttes a11c1 11 to sL1ccess _ l1aps tl1e Ltse of la11ct_ 1 . 171e fact tllat _ io11 and p er such 111fo�mal tr1bL111al� do 11ot possess a11J, goverilmental povver to impose sa11ct1011s l1as 1Je1·l1aps niade tl,eir jL1dgen1ents more conciliatory, a11d l1e11ce 1nore co11duci. ve to social l1ar111011y. BLtt very little seenis to be k11own aboL1t these ''unofficial courts". The arbitration of disputes b�>' t1·ibal elders or cl1iefs or head1nen i.s a tin1e-l1011orecl African insti.tuti.011. Tliis \Vas not distLtrbed by tl1e 1nergi11g of the coL1rts i11to a single system. TI1at syste111 \;vas, of coL1rse, give11 exclusive adjudicatory po\vers. But it is often c1ifficult to disti11guisl1 between arbi.tratio11 and adjudication wl1en a powerful chief presides. 1l1e l)Ossibility that tl1e matter migl1t be tra11sferred to a11 official cou1·t is reported to be a sufficie11t sa11ctio11 to com1Jel obedience to tl1e judgement or arbi.trati.011 award.

Indige11ous law is 11ot static. It responds to 11eeds a11d wa11ts and hence changes as the co1n111on law adjL1sts to new circumsta11ces a11d 11ew i11stituti.011s. But its tradi tions run dee1). The writer \Vas irrfor1ned that at least in 011e cou11try 111 East .Africa a11 i11digenoL1s co1nmo11 law \vas bei11g developed by magistrates i11 urban ce11ters. Litigants wo uld son1etirnes advise a lower court jLtdge that they had bee11 i11 effect detribalized but tl1at tl1ey would 11everth eless like their diSIJLtte settled 111 accor�. clance with the principles of ''Africa11" or "custoniai·y l1ave bee11 law. The reports of a nL1n1ber of sL1cl1 cases _ collected but publica.tion see1ns 1)roble1natlc at tl,e Prese11t time. Despite the 1nystiqL1e surroundi11g indige1�ous _lavv. expatriate scholars l1ave studied ancl raugl1t 1 t effectl vely and ha ve eno-aged i11 tl1e debates re1ar1· 11g- t O 1· ts preserva0 t.1011• There is little questio11 as to ti l e 11eed £01- so1ne

1· See discu ssio11 supra pp. 110-111115

1 prese11ts n1any proble111s. Y1 0 l1 1e tl recordatior1, bLlt s u s n e es s d 11 n o a c c1 e lt L1 s 11 o c e b s r e ld e l a ib Slioulcl tr 1 t l1 1 ly ig p it p m \\ a in 10 r o is \V la 1e tl t . a l1 \\1 to s a d reaclie rts of decided po re e tl1 d ul 1o Sl ? es 1c a1 st um rc ci varyirig rt fo d be an ef ul 1o e sl ad m r O n? Jo u ed li re 1 be 1e o1 cases al 11 p1 lo e ve th e11t of l1 de ug ro tl1 w la y ar om st cu e iz es tli 1y 81 to varioLIS custon1ary cocles?

Most of tl1ose \vho have worked in the area seen1 to agree tl1at tl1e codification of custon1ary law by itself can be quite 111isleading. On tl1e otl1er l1and, although collec tio11s of cases are Ltsually l1el1 JfL1l in predicti11g tl1e la\�.i, tl1ey ca11 be co11fusi11g. Further, in vie\v of the inade qL1acy of tl1e reports and tl1e 11arroY11 scope of the matters acljL1dicated, tl1ere EJ.re i11evitably n1a11y lacunae in the la\v in sucl1 collectio11s. T 11e Restate1ne11t of African Law Project of tl1e Scl1ool of Oriental a 11d Africa11 Studies of tl1e Uni.\1ersit y of Lo11clon u11der tl1e di1�ection of Professor A. N. Allott l1as sougl1t to avoicl tl1e clefici.e11cies of botl1 111etl1ods. Fron1 i11te11sive questi.011ing of indigenous leaders tl1e l�estate111e11t Project develOJJS statements of ge11e1-alizecl pri11ci1Jles or co11clL1sio11s of la\:v 011 an etl111ic c111cl subject-matter basis. It is hoped tl1ese restateme11ts wi.11 be L1sed by both courts a11d legislators to guide a11d refor111. /\ detailecl descriptio11 of tl1e 111etl1od of i11vestiga ti.011 is gi. \ren i.11 a "Report 011 Custo111a1-r. Cri.mi11al Offe11ses i.11 l(e11ya" by Euge11e Cotran. · · A11 i11teresti11g di. scL1ssi.011 of the Project c:111d of Cocran' s report as V11ell as a co1111Jariso11 of tl1e \.vo1-k of the late I Ians Cory, the Ger111a11 sociolo gi.st \vl10 LI 11dertool< tl1e u11ifi.catio11 of CL1ston1ar�)' l;;1Y11 i.11 Ta11ga11�,ri.ka, a11d the sLtl)seque11t efforts of tl1e Ta11ga11�,r i.l,a Gover11n1e11t at u11ifi.cati.011 are contai. � �d � 11 �}1 i.11te1-esti.11g arti. cl e b'.)' \r\f i1 1 ia n1 T\�'i11i.11g ei1titleLl l l1e l{estateme11t of 1\f1-i.ca11 Custon1a1-y La\:v: ;\ Co111 111e11 t ". 2· 11

1. Pri.11 ted by tl1e Gover11111e11t P1i11ter , 1< · e11ya (19 63 ),

G. P. I<. 6029-500-7/12. 2· l e Jou1-11at o: � r )cle1-11 t fric an StL1dies (1963) IJIJ, 221�� :� � -8 . See Professor R1 cl1a1-d L . Abel i11te sti.11°· 's re 0 _ art1cl e_ o11 "C,Ltsto111ary I-4aws of \l\7r - A11 I<e ny a o11 i11 gs Essa'.)' 111 [\esearcl1 Metl1od". 1 7 A 1 11 . J . Comp. La\v (1969) 1)1). 573-626

ll6

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\rVith a11y IJrogram of the n1ao-11i tLtde . 111 e11 of rt1e R. est.ate c, . . t Pr tl 1e o r Je 1s e c t b o L111d to b e cli.sa.g 1:ee111e11r of La'A' a s to es. A11d the1-e l1ave b ee11 80111e cr r its ·procec1u - 1· r1· c1· s111s as . , to t he ProJ eCt s methods. One B1-itisl1 scliolar wi. tli several y ears ex11eri.e11c.e i.11 Africa tl1oLto-t1t tI1at tlie P·roject' s broad Ll se of l1ypotl1 e ti.cal q Ltescto118 to clliefs or eld�rs_ or heacl111e11 to deter111i.ne cL1sto1na:ry lavv vvas unreal1st1c. I-le thoL1ght tl1 e tribal leaders \VOLtld fi.ilcl the form of i.11qui.r�/ stra11ge. Tl1 e ansvve·rs \VOLtlcl t11evi cably have to be coaxed OLit of tl1em b)' suggestio11, a11_ct tl1e responses \vould tl1us te11cl to 1-eflect tl1e d irectio11 or in1pli.cati.011 of the qL1estio11s. 1\ n1od ifi.cati.011 of tl1i.s 1netl1od, and a n1i.ddli.ng groL1nd b et\r\1ee11 codifi.cati.011 a11d recordation, \r\1 as vvorked out bJ' a former Researcl1 Officer for tl1e Resta tement of 1\fri.ca11 J_,avv Project i.11 recording tl1e indigenous la\-,,,, for the govern1ne11t of Zambia. This s cl1ola1· servecl £01- some yea·rs as secretary of tl1e Zambia11 Custornary La\r\1 Com111i.ssiot1. 1-\fter studying ca1·efL1lly all of th e wri. tt e11 1·eports of cases d ecided in a given di. strict witl1i11 tl1e 1Jrecedi.11g five years and the reports of tl1e Oi. stJ:ict a.11cl P·rovinci.al Co1nmissi.oners over tl1e sa1ne period and with res1Ject to the same district, l1e woL1lcl co11ve11e all s enior court officers and tribal lead ers for a cl i scussi.011 of tl1 e principal ele111e11ts of these cases. ,_TT1e co11fer et1ce \vould last betwee11 five a11d ten clays. It \r\1 0Ltld i11evi.tably involve t he posi11g of hy1)otl1etical qL1es ti.011s, bL1t tl1ey were all based on specific cases clecided v\1ithi11 tl1e recent past. The 11ypotheticals ,-,,,,er e li111it ed to 011e or t\.vo at a time. Wl1e11 there we re more tl1a11 tl1at tl1e · eason resp o11ses b eca me vague an d u11reliable. T11e r for a. five-year limitati.011 was tV11 ofold. \?vl1at took pla_ce \.Vi.thin fl ve years would be knovv11 JJerso11ally b�l tl1 e. t ribal leaders. Secondly decisioi1s reacl1ed n1ore tl1a11 f1ve Years ago might nd lo11ge·r reflec� tl1e �urr e� 1t ii:di�:�1;:•s es t 118 1 a1 tl1 e bl l1a re � � e or ug n1 1o ps ltl h perl1a law. f\ _ , 1 ) ab 1t ev i11 mei1t proj ect ' the methocl i11 Zan1bia woLrld . c ny scl1ola:rs lea ve COL111tless gaps 1n 1a 0 to t· B 1 Ll tl1e aw. . �· tl1ese sl1ould be fi lle cl by 1\frica11 court s rei1dering decisi.011s i11 actual cases broL1ght before tl1 em . of . stucly tl1e to Tl . es h . _oac . . 1e var1ous schola·rly a1Jp1 . .s assitlii. . . 1 ndige11o us w e it t ta li ci fa to e ad la a.11cl efforts 1n •

117

e. tr tL ra li. te r g 1e i.11 \r 1l o\ gr e a f o t ec . b] su e r11 e ar 1 ano · n · 1 e d. 11 at as 1c d e, b at e d o ab le , ab ve r de si 11 co e b to s L1e t11 i1c co w . ra e of ta us da e th 1d a1 But gy lo clo l1o et 01 1 cl ar . 011 I-ese 11 10 "f" at c 1 od 1c at l th ou 1s sh sL en d 11s co a be to ns ei se e ther i es 11c to l re al fe re e .s ur so ec pr ce by d te or Jp t sL be t as le l at en l em ra re 11e g a. ge t that be to s ar 1Je ap ·e e1 To . ls materia collectii1o-, preservi11g, a11d recordi11g tl1e basic n1ate s l rt ia po fic re of of s, 011 si. ci. de t ur co rwe lo ; rials th sLi pe;visory aLtthori.ties, etc. 11a,,e i.mport�nc� _at least _ fron1 an archi.val sta11dpoi11t, and 111ay be s1gn1fi- ca11t 111 the statutory developme11t of the la\\'. f\/Ja11y efforts by 1 ous la .gen \\ l1ave 11di . i of ld fie tl1e i.11 rs 1ola scl i.ate ex1Jatr bee11 cli.rected toward tl1ese e11ds. A few exan1ples, in additi.011 to tl1e projects already 111entio11ed, ma1, suffice for illustrative 1Jur1 Joses. Tl1e Suda11 Law Project was 011e of the n1ost exte11sive a11d a1nbitioL1s docL1111entatio11 progran1s Ltndertake11 in Africa du1·ing the si.xties. Initiated i.n 1961 \X.1 ith a grant from tl1e Ford Fou11dati.011 to tl1e U11i. versity of Khartoum, it sougl1t to cliscover a11d collect a11d tl1e11 select and record a11d orga11ize legal docL1me11ts of all sorts fro111 all parts of tl1e Sucla11. The Lav.1 Faculty l1ad t\\ 0 p1·i11cipal goa.ls. l:;'irst, it wished to collect and publish all i.111por ta11t Sucla11ese cases decidecl bet\\1een 1900 and 1956, \vl1en tl1e Sucla11 Law Jour11al a11d Repo1·ts started pub lisl1i11g curre11t cases. 1. Seco11clly, it pla1111ed to establisl1 a 11,:1tio11al arcl1i\re of 11on-case legal docun1e11ts for 1·esearcl1 JJurposes. Tl1ere \:s.. as �")a1·ticular interest i11 _ stL1dy111g the i11te1·relatio11sl1ip in tl1e Suda11 of "1\f1·ica11 Custo111ar)' La\:s..1 ", to use tl1e l(hartou111 la\x.1 dea11' s ter111, [s lan1ic Law, a11cl tl1e Co111n1011 La\\'. 1

T111·ougl1 tl1e u11tiri11g efforts over a 11un1ber of year s of tl1e l)roject perso1111el litera l ly tl1ousa11d docu111e11ts of s vvere collectecl a11cl at least te1111J orari.I,,1 sa,,ed fro111 des • trLICti.O 11. r].,l11. s e11t a1· led con1bi.11g tl1rougl1 large 1. See inf1·a }J.140.

ll8

inoui1ds of paper in \\1i11dowless \1aults ii1 J(lia·rtouin \Vitll the temperature soa r_i11� above lOQOp ancl 111 ti-eking s 1n 1nte11se heat to IJrovinci.al caiJi.ta acr oss desert area _ ls foi· docL1n1e11ts vvh1cl1 l1a d neve1- bee11 for\v arded to 1 be or d h e1 1 lo toL st 1m Kt1ar � : · BL1t tl1e ]L1dici. ary c.ooJJe·ratecl, a11d the collect1011 beca111e 11nn1e11se. The signi.fica11t docume11ts \Vere the11 selected ancl tra11sfo1-1necl into a useable resea r cl1 arc l1i. ve. 011e of tl1e IJroject' 8 1Jy prodL1cts was Tl1e SL1dan L a\v Repo:rts, as 11oted belo\"' p.140. For a nL1mbe r of year s tl1e Sailer Project 1Jroviclecl fu11ds for la\v students in the faculty of law of ;\h111adu Bello University to collect cL1sto1nary court reports for use in the law f acultj'. It see111ed esse11tial that tl1e faculty knovv vvl1at these courts were d oi11g in fan1ilJ' law, land la\v, suc cessio11 a11d i11l1e r ita11ce, and eve11 i11 tl1e co1nme rcial law field, if tl1ei1- varioL1s p rog ra1ns were to be meani11gful and realistic. 171i.s \\1as particularlJ' true i11 the t raining of tl1e 11 ative jLtcliciary a11cl in the diploma coL1rses. Perl1aps 11i11ety-five pe1-ce11t of all cases in tl1e Northe rn Region of Nige ria \Vere i11 the lovver courts an d \\'ere detern1i11ed by i11dige110L1s law, vvhi.ch in the North i11cludes Isla111ic la\:v. 111 sL1111, 011e could ha rclly be an effective lawyer o r gover11me11t adn1i11istrator v\'ithout son1e Ltnderstanding of \\1l1 at took place at the grass roots.

{

While wo r king under close faculty sL1pe rvi.sto11 duri11g vacations the stuclents of the la\\, Facu lty extracted tl1ese repo rts on a province by provi11ce basis. The cases have since bee11 l1ea d noted a11d classifiecl an d typed a11d bound for use by tl1e Law Facu lty, tl1e Ce11tre of Is� amic _ Legal Studies, and various departn1e11ts of tl1e Um vers1tJ', such as Sociology and Public Ac1111i11istratton. 1? e p-�o _ gram l1ad, of course, the st ro11g support of the J udiciary. -

l . S. J. T ruebloo d , "I11t r ocl uctio11" p. vtii, Tl1e Sucta11 Law ReJJor·ts, Vol I (Ocea11a 1969).

119

A si.Illilar JJ·roject was uncle� ta� e11 by tl1e f� culty of la,:v of tl1e University of Malawi \Vl tl1 111odest financial suJJIJort froin t11 e Sailer Pr� ject to e111pl?y student assi.s tai1ce dLirii1g tl1e 1011g vacat1011s. 1l1e stude11ts were housed 11ear a local court. Tl1eyr coulcl see at first-l1and the court t1roceecli.11gs, a11d tl1e)' h�d freqL1ent � ppo1·tuni ti.es to discuss \:vitl1 tl1e Court Cl1a1rman and I11s assessors tl1e Court decisio11s a11d tl1eir rati.onale.

In 1969 tl1e Law Scl1ool of Nortl1,1vestern University initiated a progra111 i11volvi.11g study abroad b�l selected tl1ird year stucle11ts. U11der the "Senior Researcl1 Pro grain" a few third year students and a 1nember of tl1e faCLI lty spe11d a ter111 i11 a foreig11 country doi11g field researcl1. 111e stude11ts the11 write a11 extensi. ve reJJort, vvl1i.cl1 if acceJJted, provides academic credit toward their LL. B degrees. In 1969 one professor a11d two Nortl1wester11 tl1ircl year stude11ts made a study of the Etl1i.oJJian Lower Courts v\1 ith the aid of a nu111ber of Etl1iopi.a11 stucle11ts i.11 tl1e Faculty of Ul\\1 of I-Iaile Sellassie I Uni. versi.tj'. f\ltl1ougl1 tl1ei1· ,:vorl( ,,,as li.n1ited to a ter111 's vi.sit, tl1ey acq11ired a surp1·isi.ng k11owledge of tl1e worki.11gs of the law at tl1e level of tl1e ge11eral popula tion. Their SLI1)seque11t repo1·ts and ·reco1111nendati.011s were largely res1Jo11sible for tl1e i11i ti.a tion of a legal aid progran1 wl1icl1 it is l1oped n1ay be i.11stitL1ti.011alized i11 Addi.s Ababa.

011e fL11·tl1er con1me11t about indigenous la\\' and its _ teacl1111g. \,VJ1e11 tl1e la\\1 facL1lties \Vere first establisl1ed i.11 i\.11gloJJl1011ic i\fri.cc:1 i.11di.ge11ous la,,, was eitl1er 11ot taugl1 � at all or \;vas offe1·ed 011ly as a11 opti.011al sL1bject. BLit witl1 a g1·0,,1 i11g a\,va1·e11ess 11ot 011l)r of its i.m1Jorta11ce bLit of its value, it is DO\i\1 receivi.110· i.11creasi11g acade mic 0 atte11tio11· f\1 · os t sc l1o lar s 110\v believe i11dige11ous lavv . _ 811� Lilcl l)e taugl1 t 11ot as a seJJarate su bject but as i11te g1·al l )a �ts of tl1e regular coL1rses i.11 tl1e LL. B. p1·ogra1n. Tl11s would foe Lis catte11t·101 1 . . 011 1ts 1 11terplay wi.tl1 the • received lav\, a11d 011 tl1e la w as i. t is ev�lvi.1100· i11 Africa.

120

Fellowships Fellowships fo r gradL1ate la vv stLtdy i11 tlie Uiiitecl t Stat es have r:nder�d the greates service and n1ay 11ave _ t11e n1ost last111g effect of all a1ds to 1\fi·ica11 legal educa tion a11d law develop111ent. Th e Saile1· Proi ect 's fellovv ship program \\1 i.ll be described because of tl.1e wri. ter' s fa1niliarity witl1 i. t and because of its co11ti.11ua11ce a11d Like most sucl1 1J1·ograms it was relativ e size. designed to speed tl1e f\fricani.zation of Africa11 law faculties. Tl1ough tl1e 11un1ber of grants and tl1e total dollar outlay each year have bee n 111odest, tl1e progra111 has grown in i111portance and i11 tl1e 11u111be:r of Africans served. Since its start in 1966 it l1as become a key to st1·ong, personal, a11d institutio11al ties betwee11 1\frican and American legal scholars and law facLllties. See Appe11dix C ,. p. 180 infra. The program's i.niti.al purpose l1as been largely met. Most of tl1e law faculties are 110w fullJr Africa11ized. Nevertheless, n1ore a11d 111ore Africa11s, parti.cL1larly tl1ose with experie11ce and well defi11ed career goals, wish to participate i.n 011e or n 1ore of the IJ1·og1·am 's phases. TI 1ese have cl1anged as 11eeds l1a ve cl1anged o:r been better understood or a11ticipated. 1\11d tl1ere l1as been a continuing adj ustn1e11t to tl1e specialized rec1uire ments of Africa11 teaching, scl1olarsl1ip, a11cl researcl1. Administrati.ve Gui.des Since the fellowship progra1n wa s clesigned to res1Jo11d to African needs as IJerceived by Africans, it l1as l1ad f few governing policies. ,..l1ere l1ave been tl1ree or f�ur administrative gL1icles. Fellowsl1ips l1ave been restr1cted to Africa11 la\v graduates. Were u11dergraduates. selected, tl1e program nlight have had a seriously depress111g effect 011 African law schools by si.pl1011i11g off tl1e ablest s�u dents. This was a real proble111 i11 Liberia but 110� 1n other parts of Anglo 1Jl1011ic J\frica. Tl1e usual _Africai� applica11t to a11 African law scl1ool had. no JJrev1ous uni versity traini11g, and \;vould 11ot tl1erefore ge11erally QLtalify for ad111issio11 to an America11 law scl1ool. ?cca sionally, however, an f\frican graduate of an Ainer1cai: college has wisl1ed to 1·emain in tl1e U11ited States for 1118 121

legal education. T11e Sailer Project has cli.scol1ra�ed tl1is A111erica.11izatio11 for � 11u11:ber of _ reaso\1s bes1des _ ·rs effect of deprivi11g 1\fr1can 1.11st1tut1011s of 11eeded stu �e11r ralei1r. ML1ch of tl1e rec1uired cours<: work for the . l1ttle has releva11ce LL. B. or J. o. degrees i11 tl1e U. S. to Africa11 JJracti.ce. Seco11dly, after � ucl1 a l_o11g abse11ce the f\frica11 woL1ld tend to lose touch '117 1th fam1l}1 , friends, and colleagues, a11d lie woL1ld n1iss tl1e �pp_ortuni� of n1akii1g tlie life- lo11g professio11al assoc1at1011� wh1cl1 are developed i11 laVI' scl1ool. f\11d lastl)r, tl1e Afr1ca11 country n1igl1t 11ot recog11ize tl1e A111er ica11 lega_l educat�o11 for _ bar ad111issio11 p Ltrposes or n11gl1t requ1re co11s1derable additi.011al trai11i.ng. 171e seco11cl adn1i11istrati ve gL1ide l1as been Sailer's relia.11ce 011 Africa11 i11sti.tL1tio11s in tl1e selectio11 of tl1e Africa11 1:;,ellov,.1s. Ca11didates l1ave first been recon1n1e11ded by tl1e various 1\frica11 educational institutions witl1 wl1i.cl1 Sailer was associated. 1l1ese were primarily laV11 facL1lties, a11d the dea11s usually took tl1e respo11si.bility for selecti11g a11d ra11ki11g tl1e candidates. This \vas esse11tial , as tl1ere were always 111ore applicants eacl1 year tha11 fellowsl1ip fu11cls could acco111n1odate. The relative 111erits of tl1e ca11didates \Xiere generally assessed b1r tl1e f\frican dea11s 011 tl1e basis of tl1eir aca de111ic records a11d tl1eir IJrospective co11t1·i.butions to tl1eir faculties. --r11e recon1n1e11dati.011s of tl1e 1\fri.can deans \Vere i11vari.ably follo\vecl b;{ Sailer, at least to tl1e exte11t that fu11ds JJe1-n1ittecl. Duri11g tl1e first t\vo }'ears of tl1e pro gra111 111ost of tl1e ca11di.dates, a11d l1e11ce n1ost of tl1ose awarded fe llowsl1i.ps, \Vere rece11t graduates. It \;vas _ soo11 olJv1ous, l1.ov\1 e\1 e1-, tl1at tl1e 11101-e 111ature tl1e Af1·ic an tlie niore l1e gai11ed fro111 l1is ex1Jerie11ce abroad. f-Ience ;l1e_ olde1-, 1nore ex1Jerie11ced cc111didate was prefer red. 1118 J ?rese11ted, l1owe,1e1-, a special IJ1�obl � en1 i11 s0111e -fa c Lilt1es. Tl1e L1.\\1 l�lCLll�, ::tt Oc11- es Salaa1 for 11 �xa111JJl�, a11d 011e or t,111 0 otl1e1-s, ,vished to ;n1plo1r onl)' tl1 ? 88 vVltl1 gi-a.c1l1ate la,111 deg1-e es. To i11sist 011 experience 1n1gl1t d·eJJ1-ive Af·r1· ca11 schola rsh1. p of a1 1 able recru1t. _ . . After a year's serv1·ce 111 e cnc · gov IJra er1 1111e 11t ,,at }Jri or e .-: . _ ..f11ca11 lavv 111 ost.A graduates \\1 o u ld fi11d it difficttlt to 122

re�un1e tl1eir scl1olarl')' pLtrsLtits at a fi11a11cial sacrifice. Sailer v·v�s tl1erefore u �ged by the Dar facLtlty to grai,t fello\vships to outsta11?i11g f\frica11 stucle11ts eve11 tllougJ1 cl1ey had_ l1ad no experie11ce and n1igl1t lack tl1e n,atLti-ity to profit fully from gradL1ate study' abroacl. ;\ pai-tial solution was found 111 their e111J)loyme11t by the Afi-ican la\v faculty as faculty assista11ts fo1- at least a year b efore they ve11tL1red 011 tl1eir fello\:vs11ips. 1 . f\s a third ad111i.11i st1-ati ve gLtide, it l1as bee11 Sailer's policy to defer to tl1e f\frican Fellow in the selectioi1 of l1is gradLiate school a11d academic J)rogram. But it has been difficult to provide tl1e docume11tatio11 to make tl1ese cl1oices fLtlly educated. Catalogues l1el1) but son1eti111es co11fuse. Tl1e climate of receptivity, the active i11terest of 011e or more teacl1ers are often n101-e significant tl1a11 coL1rse or seminar offeri11gs. Sailer atten1pted to tal,e all these considerarto11s into accou11t a11d recomme11d a matcl1ing of tl1e indi victual 1\frica11 scholar's i11terest witl1 the most appropriate lav\' scl1ool i11 tl1e U. S. or U. I<. Sucl1 advice has occasio11allJ' ru11 cou11ter to that i11fluenced by a special relatio11sl1ip betwee11 a11 f\1nerica11 and a11 African university. ,..f11is relatio11sl1ip, l1owever vvell inte11tio11ed, often does tl1e f\frica11 i11stitutio11 or African scl1olar a disservice by li111iti11g tl1e field of its assistance or his academic i11volve111ent. Sailer has sought to adl1ere to a si11gle c1-iterio11 i11 its reco111111e11da tions. It has bee11 concer11ed 011ly ,:vitl1 tl1e question of 1. t\ 11umber of Africans fresl1 from an f\frican law faculty foLrnd graduate leg al study 111 the U. S. a traumatic experie11ce. Without any facL1lty supervision or guidance they \Vere overvvhel1ned by the intense competitio11 a11d intellectL1a l dema11ds. Several, fortu11ately 011ly 011e i11 tl1e Sailer prograin, Witl1drew before the e11d of tl1e acadernic year ai1d retL1r11ed home wttl1 n1ixed feeli11gs. These youi1g lav.;yers l1ad l1ad 011ly th·ree years u11i versity tr�111111g before tl1eir A111erican experie11ce vvl1ereas tl1e1r colleagues in graduate scl1ool l1ad l1ad at l east seve11 years of u11iversi ty exposure. 123

::;;

r African la u c ti r a 1e p tl r fo 11 o ti tu ti 1s 11 · the best W l1at lS . . ts s e . r e l 1t 11 1a c Je s is l1 f o t 1 l1 g scl1olar i.11 tl1e li er's d il e a $ id u g s a 11 te la tu s o IJ ic s a b Lastly, a _ h c r r og ea IJr es d r n . a 11s a1 1c m e d a c a f o 1s oi ti. a ct recoinn1e11 Af a s to r 1c e r . s w s n a 1e , tl t 1a tl 11 o rt ic v 11 o c 1e tl Tllis is t, ex 11t 1 an co i1 ic e tl1 fr A e th 1 i1 1 u1 fo be t � us 1n s in le _ prob 1d , t a1 11y 11o o1 111 on ec 1cl a1 y et ci so 1 a1 i.c fr A e tl1 of 1t gl li. 1 a1 ic ts er ur m . of co A or l1 11c Be 1s e1 L1e Q of 1s 01 si. cl1e deci Sailer I1as tl1erefore stressecl tl1 e i.111porta11ce of knowing sometl1i.110- about e111piri.cal researcl1 a11cl i.ts tech11i.c1u es y to el ve s lik ha m ra og pr cl an s se ur co 11g cti. le se of d a11 son1e releva11ce to 1\frica11 problems. Acaden1i.c Yea1- Offeri11gs At tl1e program's i11ce1Jti.011, the fello\\1 shiIJ year \vas dee111ecl sL1ccessfL1l i.f i.t provided exposure to An1erica11 teachi.11g 111etl1odology, to tl1e acti\r e i.nvolve1nent of stu de11t a11d teacl1e1- i.11 a joi.11t e11terprise. But tl1e "case" a11d perl1a1Js "problem" 111etl1ods, a11d tl1e Socratic device we1-e all ably prese11ted in tl1e "Opal "l. 1J1-ogra1n during the su111mer prececli.11g the Fellow's academic 1,ear. FL1rtl1er, the Af1-ican scholar expected n1ore fron1 his vi.sit to tl1e United States tl1a11 an awareness of tecl111iques. f-Ie sougl1t son1etl1i.11g of di. rect, i111n1edia te, substa11tive value. A111eri.ca11 law scl1ools and their ,,arious offe1·ings 1. "Opal" is tl1e acro11y111 for Ori.entatio11 Proo-ra111 i.11 l\n1erica11 Lav\1 , \vl1i.cl1 v\ias fi.11a11ced by tl1� Ford l=i'ou11da.ti.011 a11c1 offered dL1ri110· tl1e sun1111e rs of 1965 to 1970 i11clL1sive by 1\1neri;an la\v teacl1ers fr�n1 di.ffer�11t la\\' faculties tl11·ougl1out tl1e U.S. Altl10L1gl1 IJr1111a r1_ 11, clesig11ed for tl1e be11efit of tl7 ose rea1-ecl i11 Sj'ste111s of jL1ris1JrL1de11ce otl1er tl7ar1 t�1e 1\.nglo-A111e1-i.ca11, it IJroved to be a11 effect1ve a11ct }JopLtlclr 111trodL1ctio11 to Arnerica11 gi-adLiat� la\�' IJrogra111s for scholars fro 111 clevelop111g cou11tries \Vi.tl1 comn1011 law traditions.

124

\vere_ tl1erefore exan1_i11e_c1 _by Sailer \,Vitl1 a11 eye to tile e 111 cl1 v1 c1L1al f\fricc:111 scl1olar. CoLil�ses spec1al ne�ds_ of tl1 _ ,,vith pro1111s1_11g t1tles �ft�11 tu:r11ecl OLt t to be too JJarocI1i .al, to o closely t1ed to th e 1cl1osy11crasies of A 111ei-ica11 statutory la,;v to be mea11i11g fu l to tl1e ;.\frica11. Sailer tl1us began to reco111me11d tl1e de,1 elo 1) 1 11e11t of 1\n1e:rica11 J aw school progra111s for specialized 11eecls, a11cl to work in close collaboration \Vitl1 1\n1erican facL1lty aclvisors 111 i.mplen1enting sL1ch progra111s. T11ougl1 tl1ey son1e ti.mes ca1-ried no acaden1ic c1-edit, tl1ey were ofte11 of tl1e greatest sig 1 1ificar1ce to tl1e Africa11 scl1olar. F 01example, a11 i11forn1al se 1 11i11a1- 011 Law and Related Disciplines \Vas offered at a11 A111erica11 law scl1ool vvi.tl1 some n1odest fina11cial assista11ce f1-om Sailer. Altl1ougl1 no academic credit ,,,as give11, tl1e1-e were assig11ed readings, a11d it was atte11ded by all tl1e African scholars at the scl1ool as well as by a nL1n1ber of otl1er forei.g11 ancl American students. Tl1e four meeti11gs clL1ri.11g tl1e first half year dealt sLtccessi. vely 'A'i. tl1 tl1e rele,,a11ce to law of history, anthropology, sociology, a 11d political scie11ce. During the second half year tl1e sen1i11ar co11sidered economics, psychiatrJ', pl1iloso1Jl1y, ancl foreign area studies. Se11ior professors fro111 tl1e various depart me11ts of tl1e Liniversity atte11cled as gLrest participa11ts vvhen their fields of study were u11der discL1ssio11. 1\ nL11 11ber of the Africa 11 scl1olars co 11sidered tl1e sen1inar the n1ost provocative offeri.11g tl1ey l1ad l1ad dL1ri11g tl1eir e11tire U.S. vi.sit. Th e con1ment is often he ar d i 11 tl1e JJeren11ial debates on la w curriculums tl1at law teacl1ers all teacl1 tl1e same thing. 1l1e disti11guisl1i11g elen1 e11ts of _ th e �est of sucl1 . teaching are it s diversity a11d origi11al1ty, 1ts freedon1 of clo�or' · i11 quiry a11d moder11i ty, a11d i. ts vigorous 1netl1 � _ Tl1ese co1nbine to provicle tl1e i11tellectL 1 al d1sc1pl111111g vvhich n1ark tl1e la\vyer a11d IJrocluce the probl� 1n-sol :-7e:r · To ma11y the vel1icle of tl1e teacl1ing, tl1e precise subJect matter maJ, be i11co11sec1uential. 1\n Africa11 lect\Irer vvitl1 a 11umber of years teachi11g i11 a _ law facLilt� 111 �"':st L\frica fou 1 1cl Columbia La,,v Scl1ool s 1ntroclucto:ry pr 0 1

12.5

1e s f o tl o m e t n n o ti s ts n e d 1u tu s w la 1g i1 r te i1 e r gi·anl fo y r 1d 1e fo tL tl s r c a o e d y o 7v t\ is l1 f o s e c i1 ie latiilg exper o n nc or ra fr F r la 1o l1o pl sc c ni 1g i1 11d ta 1ts oL 1 a1 nd . . A . . e . t tora · I s e o f tw 11 ·t· -y e o c 11 r a a c 1 1 ay 11 st 1g s 1e tl t 1a tI t 11 g u o th .· c a Af11 . ues" l ie "lega 1 tecI1n1q t to e r u s po x e is l1 s a w 1 in tlle u. s. cial so li ve l nf s co to s ct ed us " 1s sn i � am r11 dJ _ al eg "l 1d ai 1t er he of m T ch su , at a th d 1e i1 la xp e e [-l a. ic in An1er e a tl1 ic fr A \\/ n la e tl1 ci of so t en al 11t co e tl1 i11 t 11o is y stud at om h th fr of uc m the m s er ff di g i11 tt se ic 1n 1o a11c1 eco1 e, iv ct e pe th rs IJe e tl1 of s si ly 1a a1 e tl1 in t bu -USA s. m le ob " And he pr al ci so ,v 11e e ttl se to ed us approacl1 x,1i11g courses to appreciate this , llo fo e th d de e11 111 111 1·eco 11 "Legal Metl1od, Constitutional La\1/, "social c1yna111isn1 1\n1erica11 Legal Systems. " 1

Tl1ere l1ave rece11tly bee11 added to tl1e curriculums of 111a11y An1erica 1. 1 lavv scl1ools courses and programs wl1icl1 reflect son1e fu11dame11tal cl1a11ges in An1e1ican legal edL1catio11 a11cl i11 tl1e areas of tl1e la,�,' s co11cern. Tl1ese have p1·ovoked tl1e interest of tl1e visiti11g Africa11 legal scholar. It is in tl1ese cha11ges tl1at tl1e able i\frican wisl1es to sl1are. [-le wants also tl1e best A1nerica has to offer i11 tl1e particular field of l1is i11terest. T11us tl1e selecti.011 a11d developn1ent of }J1·og1·ams for the indivictual 1\frica11 have become l1igl1ly specialized, and tl1ey must ofte11 be tailor-made. Fello\:vsl1ip Tern1 a11cl Co11ti11L1ity \.Vitl1 lin1ited A111erica11 fL111ds a11d li111ited Africa11 tin1e, tlie term of eacl1 fellov\ sl1ip at tl1e beo-in11i110- of tl1e 0 �ellovvslliI J �rog1·a111 \\1as bL1t a si11gl e �rear. TI1is pr o\1ed 111adequate 111 a nL1111ber of cases. ManJ' Africa11 scl1ol ars _ �'1sI1ed to JJursue stL1dies i11 deJJth at tl1e doctoral level, a11d tl1e roce�s of accli1natizatio11 took tl1e l)etter part � .f a y�ar· \tv'1tl1 111ore 1\frica11s qualified fo1· appoi11t111ent � to 1\f1·1 ca11 l a\v facult1es, " t·1 1e Af·r1ca · 11 scl1olar �,as 1ess .lllC1.lS pensable · f-f e coul c] take n1ore ti11 l1is o\v11 1e fo· r · · . . stL1d1es. It tl1u 8 beca111e fea s1ble a11d 111ore sensible to inal(e a\vards of t',,"' o J'ea1·s or 11101·e to expe1·ie11ced .teacl1e . 1· s ,:v1 tl1 \\'ell def 111ed f\fr1can " i11 researcl1 i11terests p1•o1) 1en1s. 1

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1\m e1·1 can lclw schools a11? tl1ei :r Africa11 gra d Lt a te s tu _ r tl e a e 1e e cl l1a v . la tter s doctora l 1·eseclrcJ1 dei1ts � sh o u ld f\ c relate. to fr1 a11 p1·oble m s a11d be co11c1Ltcted J) 1-111cip a l 1 uc 1c l1 r es�a1�cl1 l1as �ee11 e11coLtragecl ii1 1\fr a. � b y Sc li .li r, so tl1 1t ou m gl et 1 11 1 1 11 es 1·eqL111·ecl a ·retL1i·t1 to tlle u. eve s. n al 1o se n tl: s afte1· con1i)leti.011 of ti1e fi.elcl vvor for ver l <: . The sLtpport prov1ded i.n 1\fri.ca l1as i11cl L1 cled books a11d re�ource 111ateri.als, don1es _ tic a11d i11ter11atio11al t1·a 1 18p01- tano11 to centers of lea1·111ng or clreas of research, mai.11tena11ce, a11d, occasio11ally, 1\f1·ica 1 1 researcl1 assista11ce. Eacl1 fielci stucly l1as, of coL1rse, l)ee11 of p1·ofessiona l i11terest to tl1e Africa11 stude11 t 's 1\.n1e1·ican doctoral comn1i.ttees if 11ot to the e11tire 1\merica11 law scl1ool facLIlt:')1 Tl1ese acade111ic exercises J1a ve tl1L 1 s foste1·ed American interest in 1\f1·ica11 legal edL1catio11. The)' sl1ould p1·ovide the basis for co 1 1ti11L1i 11g, 111utually be11eficial, relatio11sl1ips bet\:vee11 1\frica11 a 11d 1\n1erica 11 scl1olarshi.p. •

Specialized Acct vi.ties To enri.cl1 the America 11 ex1Jeri.e11ce of tl1e Africa11 Fellows Sailer l1as l1elped pro111ote a 11u111ber of special ized p1·ogran1s. The first v\ as offered dL1ri11g tl1e summers of 1968, 1969, and 1970 by tl1e 1\fri.ca11 Law Ce 11ter of Columbia Uni. versity. The participants ,vere Africa 11 lavv teachers wl10 had completed at least a year of graduate study in the United States a11d V11 ere 111:teres� ed in the development of teacl1i11g 111aterials fo use 111 tl1e1r � class 1·ooms in Africa. Duri11g a seve11 to e1ght '-'''eek sumn1er sessi.011 eacl1 1\frica1.1 v\ as associated V1 itl1 a11 f\merica11 professor Vl'l10 l1ad specialized i11 tl1e sLrbject for Whicl1 tl1e Af1·ica11 \;vould be respo11sible. BecaLise of the African resources of tl1e Colun1bi.a Law Scl1ool Library, tl1e Africa11 scl1olar was able at least to develoJJ mea11i11gful outli11es of coLrrse 111aterials. 1

TIITie·r Du1·i11g the sumn1er of 1971 Sa il er suppo�·ted a_ SLII r Institute in La\l\, an d Developme11t at tl1e Un1verslty _of Wis co11si11 Law School. rfhis vvas designed to }JrOVlde · an opi1ortu11ity for lawyers a 11d soc1a · .1 sc1e11t·18 ts a11cl e tl, 111 legal scl1olars 1t ei Jrn lo ve cle 1 1c] a1 i11terested i.11 la\.\' . . · · .. te11 1· o f ,r developi11g V11 orld to stL } e v 1 s i1 e t 1 n 1 t c e j b ld)r tl1e su 127

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ip c a ti p a.nts r 11 a ic e fr A er w 1e tl f o y it r o J· a n 1 · v., ee1<s. Tl1e g d 1n r t r e h u e S 1. ·1 a y i·e lJ p d te r o p JJ Ll S n e e b d a t11ose w110 11 u 1 ts tL 11 1e s e tl f fo o l a nd t s 1o ? ln A � . r a e y, ic m e d viou 8 aca le � 11trcx:luction b a lu a v 1n n a d 11 a e v ti a c o v o r IJ the offerii1o-s . a 1c to fr e e A h c n T a ic if 11 i.g s l· a ic it r c f o to a ne\.v fi�ld r e m o m 2 u 1e 7 s tl g 19 in r u d d � te a e p e r 11 e e b s a program 11 . ed a r to r 1c fe fr s A n a tr e b r te la y 1a 11 It 111 \�'i.sco11sin. To exte 11d tl1ei.r vi.si.011 of America beyo11d a uni.versity to,vn all of tl1e Afri.ca11 Fellows have been encouraged to vi.sit ce11te1·s of lear11i11g i.11 tl1e U11ited States wl1icl1 are associated ,,,itl1 tl1eir s1Jeci.a l interests. Tl1ese "field trips", to Ltse "CU's" parla11ce, have been financed by tl1e De1Jart1nent of State, but programmed by Sailer. 1�11ey provide, of coL1rse, an opportunity to see son1etl1ing of tl1e cou11try. A111erica 11 teacl1ers or practitioners, forn1erly n1e111bers of Africa11 law faculties, l1ave often servecl as l1osts. Altl1ougl1 011ly three or four ,,,eeks in duration, tl1ej' l1ave e11ablecl the African scholar to acquire a broader a11d deeper u 11derstanding of the U 11ited States a11d of i.ts dive1·sifi.ed scholarly activities. It is not Lt11L1sual for a foreig11 law stude11t to end his U. S. visi. t witl10 L1t ever l1avi.11g seen a cou1·t1·oom or \V _i.tnessed a t1·ial, l1eard a11 appellate argun1e11t or d1scL1ssed ,,,11at actually goes 0 11 i. 11 a la,vyer 's office, a 11eighborhood office, or a legal aid clinic. Sailer l1as used a variety of clevices to provide ex1Josure to tl1ese fa cets of tl1e p·rofessi.0 11 witl1out, of course, i 11terferi11g _ w1tl1 tl1e acaden1ic progra111 of its Fello,vs. \Tisi.ts to American la,v firn1s of a n1onth or 111ore l1a,,e bee11 ai·ra11ged for a fevv Af1�ica11s a.t tl1e e 11d of tl1eir acade 111ic years stay. 171eJ, l1ave l)ee 11 treated as full-fledge d . assoc1at�s. Tl1ey l1a ve tl1us acq Llireel L111.iq ue i11sigl1ts into tl1 e �v o1·k111g s of tl1e }Jrofessio11. \Ti.sits to legislative _ _ draft111g off1._ ces, prosecutor's offices J' L1 do-e's cham bers, ' 0 · . . federal a 11d state coL1rtroo111s, also l1ave give11 a11 expo� ur. e \l\'_l11cl1 111akes tl1e offe1·i.ngs of acad e111ia a11d the �y na1n1cs of tl1e la\;y n1ore u11de·rsta ndable. �oreigi1 8tLtde11ts ga.i11 co11siderable perspecti. ve froin c0 11 erences :1 tl1 their cou11tr ,;vitl1. jr ' n e 1e tl 11 1o vv o i s r tl 1 , . \� 110ITl tl1ey 11110. l1 t 11 · ave o a11 1"dentity. In part to facilitat e 128

these excl1 ange• s Saile r l1 as arra11gec1 at lecast 011e n1e e t1 11 g 1t l a for l s Fellovvs. Eacl1 c011fereiice a year 11a c.S a SUb. .7 stantL\ e pro·f· ess1011 a l focus. 111 Nove11111 er 1971 tile Fello\v s met � t !-larva rd to co11si.cler cl eve 1 O})I1lei1tal aspects of c1·11'.11nal la"';. In December 1970 a coi1fer ence was l1el? 1? Ne\v Y o ·rk vv l1i.cl1 \va.s c011cer11ed 111 part \vi.th tl1e pL1bl1c 111te1·est la\v fi.rn1. In all of tl 1ei. r acti.vi.ti es tl1e Fe l lO\\' s are asked t o share our problen1s, tl1ose besetti.11g tl1e })rofessi.o11 a11d society i.n An1eri.ca. [-101:>eful l)', tl1ey e11d tl1ei.r visits kno\vi.ng tl1ey l1ave bee11 our peers a11cl l1ave become oL1r colleagues. Sl1ort \Ti.si.ts to tl1e U. S. by Non-f\cademics The decisi.on 1nakers i.11 a1 1y fielcl are LISLtally too pre occupied with their i.mmediate tasks a11d i 1 1 too great demand to study abroad for a11y le11gtl1 of time. Yet in considering tl1e adopti on of 11ev.1 i11sti.tutio11s a11d 11e\:v technologies, tl1ey have often felt tl1e 11eed fo·r so111etl1i11g n1ore than re1Jorts from c o11sL 1 lta11 ts, l10\�1 ever \:vell documented. Short visits abroad to study co11ce1Jts a11d methods and devices c o1np arable to t l1ose LI11cler co11sic1er ation have provided di.ffere11t }Jerspectives if not illu111i inati o1 1. So 1neti.mes a fev,., a11s\;ve1·s l1ave been discoverecl unlJeknownst to tl1e foreign hos ts. Tl1ese vis its, usL1ally of l ess than two n1ontl1s duratio11, l1 ave been spo11sored by several publ i c a 1 1d private progran1s i11 tl1e U11ited Sta tes a11d United K i11gdom. \Ti.sits by 1\frica1 1s \:vl1 0 l1ave been co 11cerned w ith l egal educatio11 a1 1d la\v a11d i �s developn1ent l1ave n ot only influe11cecl l egal educano11 1n f\fric a but have f ostered cl ose r worki 11g 1·elatio11sl1ips betwee1 1 Afri.ca11 I aw facul ties, Africa 1 1 governn1e11ts, an d th.e bench and bar. 1..,he r ang e of i11terests of the visitors to the U.S. , at l east tl1 ose underwri tte11 by Sailer, have been wide aild varied. Tl1ey l1ave i .1 1clL1cled tio11 of 11 inno vart ve ni 1 a ex re e � th , gy lo ilo . i i.m stLidi.es 111 cr the basic te11ets of fan1ily a 1 1d cri mi.nal law, legal . . pe dagogy , tl1e fu11c tion of tl1e jucli.ciary a11d the a.drn1n1s� trati.011 of justice, the legal professi.011 i. 11 private _pract1 ce, as corporate counsel, a11d in g overnrne11t; legal ald,

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7 i. d n 1e n tl a l 1i o n l1 d c a s w � _ � � l e cati. IJLtbli.c 111terest law fi.rn1s, la o , u n 1a 1c d e th , 1 J ? 1t e m 1J 0 l. e v � e cl l 1c 1 a i strati.oil, law . g n 11 e n s r fa he y T 1r a d d 11 a , ls il k s 1g i.i d a e r teact1t11o- of 1d r ke a1 1a 1n n m a r e g tl1 o pr 1e tl � to s e 1g 1 le al t1 c t all pre:en _1ng. u1 1e 11 ns _ t1 d co 11 n y tl os c 11 0 t1 ra Ja � vi.si.ts a 11ct thei.r 1Jre1 e r d 1o to n te L1 1b tr 11 o c ly b a b 1 o r p e v a l1 y 1e t Ho\vever, . e ls e g n 1i. tl y 11 a 11 a th 1g i.1 11d ta s r u 11de Tl1e basic ele1ne1 1ts i.n tl1e success of any sucl1 vi.sit 11ave bee11 t\7''ofolcl: ft rst, a11cl most i.mporta11tly, i.s tl1e active i1 1terest of tl1e visi.tor a11d l1i.s detern1i.nati.011 to u11clersta11d wl1at lie is L1rgecl to see; tl1e second i.s the adeqL1 acy of tl1e 1Jrog·rammi11g for the \risi.t. There is al\7',ays tl1e clar1ger tl1at tl1e visitor \Vi.11 be led b�{ \Vell1 11ea11ing f\n1ericans to forget tl1e academic or substan ti. ve pur1Jose of l1is vi.sit. f-Ie l1in1self ma�{ becon1e too over\vl1elmed by tl1e 11evv si.gl1ts and sou11ds or too exl1aL1sted fron1 travel or e11tertai.111ne11t to deal witl1 the i11stitutio11s l1e can1e to observe. Careful programn1i.11g seems tl1e best c lefe11se against sucl1 distractio 11s. It sl1ould lJrovoke 011 tl1e part of tl1e visi.tor an acti.ve, partici1Jati11g i.11terest, 11ot jL1st tl1e superficial attention of the casual obse1-vor. Tl1i.s \Vas acl1ieved i.11 tl1e study of A111eri.ca11 law teacl1i.11g metl1ods by havi.11g tl1e vi.Si.tor }Jrepa·re for a11d atte11d three or foL11- successi.ve classes o-i ve11 law scl1ool. i. 11 eacl1 of tl1ree or four courses i11 a 0 111 tl1e class p1-eparatio11 tl1e vi.sitar \:Vas fL1r11isl1ed copies of reqL1i. red 1 nateri.als a11d of tl1e re1Jorts of cases to be di._sc L1ssed. r[hird yea1- la\v stL1de11ts p1-oved able a11d _ tL1tors a11cl faci li rated tl1e visitor's participation ,v1ll111g stops at a as a \;vorki1 1g n1e1111 Je·r of tl1e class. I Iurried few classes te11d to be valL 1eless i.f 1 1ot mi.sleadi11g. Si.n1i.lar t 11\1ol ve 1 11e11ts ca11 be acl1ieved i.11 otl1er areas by IJr�vi.di1 1g suffi.cie11t ti.111e for di.scussi.01 1 a11d by' _ select11 1g 111 te·rested, t Jerso11able a11d \\1illi11g l1osts a11d c? 11� Lilta1 1ts. �l�l1is is 11ot easy to do, fo1- tl1 able a11d e _ cI1st1 1 1gLilsl1�d are tl1e targets o f al 1 11os ev t ery vi.sito1·. But tl1ose \:'1tl1 wl10 111 tl1e 1\.frica11 visi.to rs l1ave cortferred u� ually ga111 co11siclera lJl y fro111 tl bot11 1e T ir l1e vi si y ts . g1ve a11cl rece1·ve 11e\v 1· dea.s a11d 11e\v J)erspecti.ves.

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Lav\' Lib1-ari.es 111 1\fri.ca The idea of bui.ldi11� a l �w li.bra1-y l1as its O\,v 11 etlc1 1 a11t n1ent. It co11notes a k111sl11p l)et\,v ee11 gi. ver ancl a ci.taclel of lear111_ 11g. It suggests a conti11ui. 11g, ti. 111eless 1-e lati . on sl1i.�. A �d �1l1e11 tl1e gi.�t. i. � to a l avv libra1-Jr in cle\reloiJiilg _ 1 1 1n _ tl1e l1eacly }Jro_cess of _ _ es pa1 t1c11Jat10 f\fr1ca � 1t s1g111f1 emanc1pat1_ on. In tl1e earlJ' sixties tl1e giving of a book \vas tl1e 011e ta11gi.ble tl1i.ng a11 i.ndi. vi.dL1 al coulcl clo for Africa, otl1er tl1an offer l1is perso11al ser\ri.ces. TllLIS little encourageme11t � as 11eeded to collect quantities of texts and ''cases and n1ate1ials" fro111 stL1dents at f\1ne1·i.ca11 lavv scl1ools. T11e laborious task of pacl<i. 11g and sl1i.pping vvas gladly L1ndertake11 by n1a11J' orga11i.za ti.011s. Surprisi.11gly enougl1, f e�1 of tl1e111 took adva11tage of the facili.ti.es of tl1e Sn1i.tl1 so11ia11 l11stituti.011, whicl1 l1as packed and shipped books a11d docu111e11ts abroad without cl1arge si11ce the middle of tl1e 11i11eteentl 1 ce11tL1ry. Nevertl1eless la\v b ooks �1 ere se 11t to 1\frica in quantity. 1

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Flurries of acti.vi ty for books for Africa were vvi.de spread. But much of tl1e ma t eri.al sl1ipped \;vas useless. Som.e shipme11ts ,vere jLtst troublesome, for datecl, out moded books present proble111s to se11 si.ti.ve do11ees anxious not to offe11d the giver. Tl1us, i.1 1 111a11y a library, collecti.011s s ucl1 as Cor1Jus Juris (1Jri.mus), the 1952 editio11 of tl1 e U.S. Code, and old edi.tio11s of state statutes occL1py valuable shelf s1Jace and needles�ly burde11 an overw 01·ked library staff. Furtl1er, d1scarclecl books have occasio1 1ally affro11ted tl1e Afri.ca11 stLtdent or teacher, often much n1ore k11ovvledgeable aboLtt la�, books a11d better IJrovided tl1an tl1e do11ors would suppose. Tl1ere was, l1owever, a great 11eed for expa� 1-i.ate . assista11ce 111 tl1e developme1 1t of la\\/ libraries 1n Afr1ca, particularly those associated vvi.th the ne\:\1 la�, facult1_ es. The needs were of two kinds. First, it was for pro fes si.011al advice by a law libraria11 able to di�g11ose special needs of eacl1 law library a11cl pres�r1be ail . orderly IJrogra1 n of acquisitio1 1. 1\ single . cl1eck-l1st of books for Africa11 law libraries JJroved 111adeq� ate and was ofte11 1nisu sed. Needs a11d wa11ts vary w1dely fro111 library to librar>' i11 Africa, a11d tl1e re was ofte11 a 11

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y ll de a e e s ne a d w a l w an d 11 e ve tv � be � y : 11c pa re sc di great s te d ta te S up 111 S U l a c1 f1 n of re 1e e To d. e st e qu re _ as _ \vl1at w ca r r1 an fo l Af 1a 11t n se ti es 11a 11 e1 se on l1t io111 s rt po l�e . t o . . Cour . 1 ut t1t en ns 1tt co wr , s on it g ti.n but en 111 le 1p ii1 tll \A/i coi1ceri1ed e l of th al ve ha 1 g1 si ht ig n1 ifi s rt po Re aw L 1 a1 ic er tlle Ain a d editorial s 11 ce re fe re e bl a lu a 1v i1 ? s _ u pl 1s oi si ci de ca11t , 11 10 1t of tl1e rs Ed ye aw L e tl1 1t, e1 ev 1y a1 In con1ment. ul o a11 ef us re Africa11 m r fa is � rts po l�e t ur Co � 1e Supre11 1-esearc11er because of its extens1 ve a11notat1011s. Perhaps e th d by he is U11iver sity bl pu l 11a L1r Jo s ce ur so Re al tL1r tl1e Na of New Mexico Scl1ool of Law would be co11siderably more important in Nigeria tl1a11 011e of the standard but perhaps n1ore prestigious American law reviews. And for the la\V student i11terested i.11 legi.slati. ve drafting tl1e latest l. s ual ,,e man ti isla leg te sta l era edi.ti.011 of 011e of sev \\'OL1ld IJrobably be ,,1 ortl1 111uch more tl1a11 many an erudite text. Tl1e 11eeded JJrofessi.onal advice was provided by co11sulta11ts from tl1e U. l(. a11d tl1e U.S., the latter largely fi.11a11ced by tl1e Ford FoL111dati.011 directly or tl1roL1gl1 tl1e Sailer Project. Tl1e consL1ltant l1ad to be fa111i.li.ar \\li.tl1 E11gli.sl1 law n1aterials, tl1e special legal problems a11cl concer11s of tl1e 1\frica11 country vi.sited, a11d at least co11versa11t witl1 tl1e legal literature tl1rougl1out the viorld whicl1 n1igl1t l1ave some rele,,a11ce to the present a11d }J1·ospective problen1s of l1is Af1·ica11 l1osts. Furtl1er111ore, the co11sulta11t l1ad to be ,villi.110· to spend a co11siderable an1ou11t of tim e i.11 tl1e Africa11°law lib1·ary n1ovi11g bo?ks alJout, u11packi.11g, ,vrestli11g with catalogs, _ and est�bl1sl1111g syste111s a11d JJracti.ces wl1icl1 respo11ded to spec1al 11eecls a11d i11stituti.011al idiosy11c racies. Tl1e one or t,vo QLlalified library' co11sL1lta11ts ,vl10 \¥ere fou11d �o11tri?uted greatly 11ot 011lyr to tl1e establisl1111ent of la\1/ librar1es bL1t to tl1e develop111e11t of tl1e law itself. l�l1e seco11d li.b1·ary' 11eecl \\1as for mater to suppor·t ia ls �he teacl1111g JJ1·ocess a11d for so111e of tl1e primary tools for effecti.ve stL1dy a11d i·esearc l1. M o s t An1erican 1.

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_ exa 1: 1 1Jle, tl1e Bill Drafti11g Ma11ual of the iVI011ta11a L eg1slat1 ve Cou11c 1 1-. --=-.:.:..:.:£_:..:..:.:::.:.:.:::::::.: l

fi·

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found· ations vi.ewec·l tl1e establi.sl1111e11t of complet e Lll11· _ 1 rar1:s as a respo11si.bili.ty o f the ui1i.v vers1ty 1aw_ l'b er si.Ly a11� the 1\fr1can n ano11. It see111ed a basic bLii.ldii1g block vvh1ch would b � 110_ m or� approp1-iate for out s ide fi.11a11ci11g than_ tl1e co11strucnon of a 1-o�f of a L111i. versi. L)' bLii.lc1i.i1g. 8L1t 1t vv as, of course, esse11L1 al tl1at tl1e expatriate teacl1er l1ave the tools l1e 11eecled a11 cl tl1 at l.1i.s stLtclei1ts l1ave the 111ateri.als se lected for tl1ei.r stucly. TI1e Sailer Project t�1us �stabli.sl1 ed a co11ti.11ui11g 1-el atio11sl1ip betivveen 1ts lib ra ry co11sL1lta11t a11cl all of the vari.oLt s e;(patri.ate t eache r s wi.tl1 whi.cl1 i.t wa.s associated. Tl1e tasks i.mpli.citly assu111ed by tl1at relati.011sl1i.p were 11ot easy, even wl1en tl1 e expatri.ate teacher was a11 America1.1 scholar of considerable experience. Tran s lati.11g felt \va11ts into preci.se titles requi. re s 11ot 011ly a11 extensive knowl edge but a conti11ui.11g stucly of tl1e develo1)me11t of law and legal 111ateri.als, and at leas t a fa111ilia1-i.ty vvitl1 dev elopn1 ents in relat ed fi.elds. The Sailer P1-oject also 1)erfor111ed a u sefL1l service i11 its coordi.11ati ve role respecti11 g gifts fro111 the U11ited States. It was able to avoid mL1cl1 dt1plic atio11 a11d to make more n1eaningful a11d sopl1isticated tl1e gifts of various associatio11s and la\i\/ schools 111 tl1 e U11ited States and tl1e United l(ingdom. In providing the library assist a11ce clescribecl abov e one or nvo i11ter esti11g problems vver e e11cou11tered. 011 a number of occasio11s books wer e reqL1ested by expa triate teachers vvhich had alr eady bee11 provi.cled tl1e African university library. Son1etimes tl1 ey \Vere located in storage ar eas 1 1 1 tl1ei.r origin al packi11g cases. Tl1ere \V ere simply not e11ougl1 library hand s to at�e11d to tl1e unpacking, catalogi11g a11c1 sl1elving. Somenmes tl1e books \Ver e discover ecl i11 tl1e office of tl1e professor 'A1 ho had request ed them an d wl10 l1a d assu111 ecl tl1at tl1ey were for his own perso11 al use. An d on s everal occasion� r equests for books w ere m ade to 1\rn erican private age11c1es Pri1narily b ecause of tl1 e spe ed witl1 wl1i.ch tl1ey usLially respo11d ed. Sp eed was n eeclecl becaL1se of tl1e lack of adequate administr ative pla11ni11g i.11 Africa, a11d a 11e� acaden1i.c t erm or year was at th e ti.me_ of � I1e rec1ue5t fast approaching. Th e Afri.ca11 i.nstitL1tto11 1n tl1 ese 133

r ve to ds co 11 1e tl fu · l1 ug 11o e 11 1a tl -e · 1 ---10 0 d 1,1 c 1 s 111sta11ce IJL1rcl1ases.

veral Anieri.ca11 expatriate teacl1ers i.11 Africa have expr:ssed a co11ce1·11 wi.tl1 perl;�ps tl1ei1- own fai�u�� to develop 111 rl1ei.r stude11ts tl1at . 111tellectual acq� 1s1t1 :e11ess" wl1i.cl1 leads to tl1e bui.ld111g of 1Jerso11al l1b1-ar1es. Si.nee t11e law stude11t l1acl l1ad no prior college experi.e11ce before 11i.s 1a,1v trai.ni.11g, outside reading was a pri11cipal source upo11 wl1i.cl1 tl1e faculty had to rely for liberalizing tl1e stucle11t 's edL1cati.011 i.11 tl1e arts, scie11ces, and l1uman i.ti.es. FL1rtl1e1·, without tl1e book l1abi.t, the yroung la\v graduate 111i.gl1t 11ot gro\;v intellectually beyrond l1i.s uni. versi.ty ex1Jeri.e11ce. Yet i.t n1igl1t 11ever 11ave occurred to l1i.111 to ow11 l1is ow11 books. Tl1ey were u11k11own in his l10111e, pe1·haps eve11 i11 his village, a11d tl1ey \Vere 11ever a part of l1is daily life before exposure to formal scl1ool i.ng. It was suggested tl1at stude11t i11terest in building a li1Jrary n1igl1t be sti.mL1latecl if boolcs ,vere gi. ven as JJri.zes and if tl1ey were ofiered stL1de11ts at subsidized IJrices. A law stL1de11t 's lendi11g-library project l1avi.ng a "borJ�ow or buy" program was proposed i.11 011e la\v faculty, bLtt wa1- a11cl rebellio11 11egated tl1e pla11s. Tl1e device, however, i.s still JJro111i.si.11g. Wi.tl1out acti.ve i11terest a11d qL1ali.fi.ed perso1111el, gifts a11d services pro\rided law lib1-ari.es s0011 dete1iorate i.11 Africa. The trai.11ing of f\fri.ca11 la,,, li.bra1·i.a11s sl1ould therefore be a11 esse11tial co11co111i.ta11t to a11y librarJ' suppo1·t. It see111s 11ot u11con1n1011 i.11 1\frica, and perha1 )s 11ot eve11 i11 tl1e U11i.ted l(i.11gdo1n 01- tl1e U11i.ted States, to a1 Jpoi11t as la,v libraria11s tl1ose 11ot co11siderecl qualified to teac�1. Tl1e libraria11 is tl10L1gl1t of as a tecl111i.ci.an, esse11t1all)' a catalogL1er witl1 a k11ov-lledo-e of curre11t stLtdi� s fro111 tl1e readi11g of ca.talogs. But sucl a crafts1 cll1 1s 110 lo11ger sufficie11t if tl1e lavv libr ary is to serve 1:1til1 e 11 �ecls of botl1 stL1de11t a11d teacl1er a11d scl1olar. Toe �a\\' � 1bi-ariai1 sl1_0L1ld IU\\' be qu al ified 11ot 011lyr to pro1note the full Lise of l11s li.b1-ary reso L1rces b ut also to serve as a catalJ'8t to scl1olarl'.)' resear cl1, a11d to 111ake l1is do111ain t�e. Cl'.)'11a1n i.c ce11te1- of tl1e la \1\1 life. s c l1 o o in ua l' te l s _ ll e c t 1· 1118 . i-eqLi�r· es talei1ts of a l1igl1 orde1- for \Vhi.cl1 the _ qual1f-icat1011s of a teacl1er a1-e 111i.11imal. 134

TI1e Sailer Proje _ ct thL1s sougl1t to li111it its l a\,v libraria n fel lo wsl11ps to those ,vi.tl1 higl1 acacleiiii.c q Lt a li . fi . ,v o u \v b lc e ho l c a on ll e d cati s · u p o 11 to c0111bi11e lac w te· ac1 . · 11 11 g · r a 1a l1 l n 11 b s p L1 la p \v o 11 tl1ei1- 1·etur11 to i\frica. and � _ �r t 1e L1 a ry b1 Se of 1·v1ce a11d tl1e Scl1 ool of J_,aw Scl1oo l of Columbi a U11ive1·sity, i.11 part at tl1e i.11stigatio11 of sac ·1 1.er, 1 devel oped a s1Jec1. a p1·ogra 111 £01· two qualified i\fi·ica1 1 1 1 la\vyers \.\ ho v\ ere expectecl to becon1e lavv libraria118. The Lib1·aryr Scl1ool offered tl1e tecl1nical i11for1natio11 as \Vell as a sense of tl1e r a1Jidly' develo1Ji11g l ite1·ature ii1 areas affecti11g the lavv. Tl1e La,\1 School providecl exposu1·e to tl1e actual use of ma11y disciJ)li.11es in co11sid e1ing legal problen1s. Seve1·a1 otl1er progran1s have bee11 developed i11 other i11stituti.011s fo1· prese11t or pros1)ecti ,,e t\f1ica11 la\v libraries. These l1ave all been tailor-1nade, and per l1aps there i s no alte1·native. Ex1)erie11ce, capacities, and 11eeds diffe1· too vvidely to develo1) a standardized program. Legal Docun1e11tatio11 African legal clocu1nentati.on, la\i\1 reports, law revie\VS, bills, statutes, decrees of Africa11 i11stitL1tio11s were im1Jortant but 11ot vital to tl1e la,:vyer i11 Africa at the ti1ne of indepe11dence. The profession, tl1e judictary, tl1e 1\frica11 legislatures coL1ld rely 011 tl1e worl( of tl1e for1ner colonial power. Tl1e 11orms a11d i11sti.tutio11s of tl1e mo11eyed sector were those of tl1e expatriates i11 co11trol, and the order of life was undisturbed, and the pace slo\v. Indepe11dence did not create im1nediate revolutio11ary changes. But as the 11ati.011s acquired full sovereigtlty a11d emerged from their formal depe11de11cies, tl1e p1·oce sses of cha11ge a11cl de ve lopme11t accelerated. As it becam e obvious tl1at f\frica11 i11stitL1tio11s ,voLild have to be develo1Jed to serve African 11eeds, African legal . · d ocume11tati.0 11 beca1ne increas1· 11gly 11111Jo rta11t · DL1r111g tile past ten years t here l1a.s t hus bee11 a incarked 1 ncrease · v 1 \, a d 11 a ·Inth e qu ls a 11 r u o · J aw 1 Afr1ca11 a .. 11tity ancl quality of . · te botl1 c -· l pa reviews. The interests of scl1olar s ofte11 ailtlC . t 11 e m p lo e v e d e h '"f Prof·ess1011al 8• and gover11me11tal 11eed . hed atc n1 0f 1 aw repo -efor e · 1 1e I t 11ot rts by gover11111e11ts l1as ever , f Iovv · 011 academ ic co11tributi.011s r· 1 ta i 1 e Lini cloc . to legal Cl. Vl· i·lea11 t]1e th ere leas t t a � 1s · 110w an i.ncreasi11g co11cern b Y

13,5

n \v d 0 11 11 a is k e w th la 1e tl t 1a tl e r L1 1s i1 to te ta 11eads of s . d te c e p s e r ts r u o c 1e tl f o s 11 decisio La\;v Reports , s re rt a · o of 1J w re la s 11 0 ti. ic sd ri ju VI' la 1 01 1 111 n co 111 , ut em ho tl1 it . W w la e tl1 f o e nc se es ry ve e course tl1 ly by fiat a11d on cl 11e ai nt ai 111 e ar r de or 1d a1 t en 1� r1 a-ove an st th ju e or m tjefine do ay m s rt 1Jo Re r. \ve JJO ;rbitrary 1t e1 i d 1m bl an sl ta es e tl1 to te bu ri. 11t co 11 ca y 1e 1l w. la tl1e s. ve el \iVl1ere 1s en tl1 1s 01 . i ut it st i11 l ga le of 11 io 1noder11izat e n ot ca ey om tl1 pr )', t1' u11 co e 011 an tl1 e or n1 r ve co s rt re1Jo i.11ternatio11al u11clersta11di11g and cooperati.011. Such gen erali.zatio11s do 11ot, how ever, apply to re1Jorts of clecisi.ons i.11 civi.l law coL111tries, vvl1ere tl1e doctrine of stare deci.si.s is 11ot ge11e1·allJ' accepted. S0111etl1i.ng aki.11 to tt i.s provided tll tl1e civil law's co11cept of "jurispru de11ce co11sta11t", vvl1i.cl1 fi11cls at least persL1asive con si.ste11t l1oldi11gs 011 a particular IJOint by a number of coL1rts over a 1011g period of ti.me. Tl1is concept, 110\v ever, i.s too lin1i.ted i11 a1Jpli.cati.on to be compared to a co111mo11 law developn1e11t, let alone to suggest a compa1·ati ve i.11terest i11 tl1e decisi.011al law of a con1mon la\7-.' cou11try. Duri11g tl1e colo11i.al period tl1e B1·i.tisl1 gover111nent spo11sored a nu111ber of different re1Jorts for its various 1\fri.ca11 depe11de11ci.es, a11cl a fe\\1 e11ter1Jri.si.11g i.ndivi.duals c,ollected cases V11 l1i.cl1 V11 ere con1mercially publi.sl1ed. 1.11ese re1Jorts a11d collecti.011s vve1·e quite u11even i.11 coverage a11d quality a11d n1a11y lasted bLit a fe\\' Jrea1·s. l�e1111er 's �ases i11 tl1e Cou1·ts of tl1e Gold Coast Colon;/ _ a11d N1ger1a, coveri11g tl1e 1Jeri.od fro111 1861 to 1 914, were al l co11tai.11ed i.11 tw o \rolu111es. Tl1e 1�anga11yi.ka LaVI' _ l�e1J _ orts (revised), for tl1e lJeri.od fro111 1921 to 1 957, co11s1st also of 0111-:>1 t\vo volL1111es. [-Io\vever tl1e Ni.o·eria La\v l�e1 Jorts, of clecisi.011s fro111 1880 to 1955,' are i.11 r\venty 011e volLin1es, and tl1e I(e11)ra La\\1 l{eports fo1· tl1e period 1� 19 to 1 956 co11sist of tvve11t)r-11i11e volurnes \\'l1en re . g1o17al coLtrts of a1J1)eal V11ere establi.sl1e in East \\7 est, d ' . ous a11cl Ce11trac. l- ;\fr�·1 ca, s e.lected JUdg . en1e11ts of tl1ese vari coL1rts V11ere publ.18l1ec1 0\7er a co11s1de1 . ·able JJeri.od of r1111e. For exa111lJle, t11e 1·e1Jorts of tl1e \\T est Africa11 Cou1·t of 136

i\ppeal \1/ere 1·egul�r ly i.ssL�ed from 1930 to 1960. A ll b u t tl o 1 E e f r a ts s t r A e fr p 1can Cou1·t of ;\ppeal 11a tile ? ve been t111ued . disco11 I

I t J

�\fter i.11depe11dence la\v r�JJ01·ti.11g i11 t\ 11gloJJlio1 11c J\fr1ca beca1ne more sporadic . 01 1 ly two series of reports, tl1e East Africa11 Lavv ReJJOrts a1 1ct tl1e Suc1a1 1 Lavv Journal and Re po1·ts, l1ave aJJpeare d co11siste11tly duri1 1g the last te11 y ears. Despite tl1e 1\rab - Isi·aeli war of 1967 a11d the sL1bseqL1ent cl1 a11ges of gover11 me 11t i.n tl1e Sudan, tl1e Suda11 La,v Jour11al a11d Re1Jorts see1118 to be co11tinL1i11g. In J\�arcl1 197 2 tl1e Colun1bi.a U11i.ve·rsi ty Law Li.brary r ecei. ved tl1 e volL1me coveri11g tl1e year 1969. Altl1ot1gl1 tl1e governing boa1·d of tl1e East Africa11 Lavv Reports l1as been v.1i.lli.ng to i11clude all decisio11s sub mitted by re sponsible me n1be1·s of tl1e judiciary in tl1e three East J\.frican cou11tries, tl1ere l1ave bee 11 co11ti11uot1s con1plaints as to coverage. Tl1ougl1 tl1is 111ay 110w be remedied, the1·e is still co11cer 11 i11 East Africa as to ,vhether all tl1 e significant decisio11s of both lower a11d upper courts of the thr ee cou11tries will be i11clucled. La,:v R eporting in vV est Africa l1as bee11 eve11 111ore discouragi.11g. 111 Nigeria all tl1e va1·iot 1 s regi.011s, and most of tl1e indivictual states, l1av e i11dicated a desire to isstte their own reports. Series l1ave bee11 lJravely startecl but ha ve soon come to a11 end. 111 son1e cot111tries law repo1Ling has b ee11 co11fi11ed to tl1e circulatio11 of cyclostyl ed decisions often improp e rly tyrped. It was agai11st th is ge11eral backgrou11d that tl1� Africa11 Law Reports ,vere launche d i11 1966 t111der tl1e aeg1s of Dr. Ala11 Milner formerly dea11 of tl1e Faculty of Lavv of Al11nadu Bello U ;i ver sit y in Zaria, Nigeria, .a11d 11ow Fello w of Trinity College, . Ox�ord. TI1e �frican La� Rep orts consist of two bas1c k111ds of ser1e s. . The fir st. is a collectio11 of all tl1e sig11ificant clecisi�118 1� 1 a specl fled field of law fron1 the seve 11t ee 11 cou11tries tl1 e J\!,-,� cove1 ·s (all tl1e seventee11 Africa11 cou11tries, excltict111� South Af1�ica ancl l�hodesia, wl1icl1 us e Englisl1 as oiie of the official languages). T l1e seco11d co11sists of. all tl1_e sign ifi.ca11t deci si o11s i1 1 all brancl1es of tl1e la,iV.111 a given . 1s · comine rc1al lavv. cou nt1-y. The fi.rst st1bject ser1es 4

137

1 be ve e1 l1 b s pu 1e 11 lu vo � 11 � ve le e 72 19 1, y As of Ja11uar lu 1 . c s e v 8 1n 6 19 e to Th 4 6 19 d io r e IJ e th _ 1g i1 1· e v o lisl1ed c

1 e ll rece1ved by th e 11 V1 e e b s a c0111111ercial LaVi' Series l1 ry ta e lu a v u a sa l1 fl in to s se 1i 11 o r p It . ry a ci j di Ll _ Afi·ica11 . In one of tl1e lf se 1t w la 1e tl f o 11t 11e 1J1 lo ve cle e11ce on tl1e ll ia 11t h se it )' w es e s th se ca VO t\ e er vv re 1e tl s 1e n first volu r 1e 1d tl l1e a a1 ot ic fr A t es W 1 i1 d de ci cle 1e same facts, 01 1s , o1 si ci he '"f de l. ea pp A of rt ou C 1 a1 i.c fr A st Ea by tl1e nt ce a re At 11. io it os JIJ OJ ct re di i11 re ho\:vever, \Ve f e 1ie e th Cl 11c re fe on C ' es i.c st Ju ef l1i. C lth ea 1w o1 Co111m Justice of the West 1\fri.ca11 coL1ntr)' i11 di. cated he co11sid le t ab er ur ef Co 11 , pr ca ri 1\f st Ea e tl1 of g i11 o11 as re ered tl1e a11d l1e l1oped to l1ave tl1e opportunity to modify hi.s ovvn decisi.011 accordi.11gl)'·

Tl1rougl1 tl1e work of tl1e corresponde11ts of tl1e African La\N ]:{eports a11d tl1e cooperatio11 of many African cou1·ts, copi.es of i1111Jortant decisi.011s fron1 all tl1e se\re11tee11 jLtrisdicti.011s are regularly sent to Oxford. The Bodlei.an Library l1as thus beco111e 011e of tl1e strongest reposi. to1·i.es of tl1e clecisio11al lav\' of Africa. This collectio11 l1as n1ade possible the development of vari.ous national series. 1\s of tl1e present v\1 riti.11g the 1\LR is con1}Jili.11g tl1e re1Jorts of Mala\vi a11cl Sierra Leone, a11d it l1as 1·ece11tly agreecl to publi.sl1 tl1e reports of Uga11da. Volu111es published as of January 1972 a11d tl1e coverage of the re1Jorts are as follows: I\tla.lawi Law Reports

Sierra Leo11e La\�' l�eports

Vol. \1 ol. \fol. Vol. \7 ol.

\1 o1.

1 - 1923-60 2 - 1961-63 3 - 1964-66 Ll - 1966-68 5 - 1968-70

V 0l . \1 ol . \1 ol.

1 - 1957-60 2 - 1964-66 3 - 1967-68 4 - 1968-69

I11 all tl1e series a liberal selecti.011 IJOli.cy l1as bee11 � . · · · fol lo\x.i

ecl 1he re1Jo·r·t of eacl1 ctec1s1011 1s self-co11ta 111e . · d _: . .· SL. at1011 1·el1e Le gl d U}J011 by tl1e court is adcled editorially . 111 tl1e l1eacl11ote if 11ot set. out 111 tl1e juclge111e1 i.tself. The 1t · l1eacl11otes of eac\1 case 111c1Ltde a bri.ef staten1e11t of the

138

w::

11, a su111n1ary of tl1e fa cts , a br1e· . . ti.0 caus e of. .ac f·. 111story . . er), propos1ti.o11 of lcl\i\' fo of tl1e l1nga t1011, and ev . Li 11d 1. n . . the case. The propos1 t1011s o f la\,v are gu i.ve11 caiJt ]J·.1oJ)1_.1ate . (jes t head111 · gs, a11d t1 1ese ar•e col lectecl 1·1 1c 0 ca sLI1) . ello Ject. mat te1� 111dex fo r eacl1_ vo�L1n1e. 1�1,e acctiracy C)f al l quo tat ions a11d ca se c1 ta t1011s l1a ,,e bee11 veri.fi.ed. '"fl,e f\frican Lavv Re�orts a t the OLttset sougl1 t to Lise pai·t time s tL1de11t ass1 sta11ts. Bt1t the p:rofessi. o11al sta11clards establisl1ecl by tl1e t\LR, tl1e 11eed fo1· a co11ti.iitri11a- con siste cy i.11 ki.11d a11d qt1ali.ty of edi ting , l1ead11otii1 � _ c. req t11red a s t aff of ski lled, ft111-ti.111e indexing, et emploJrees. Tl1e ALR l1as tl1us beco111e a n1odel of reporting.

The ALI� has a 11u111ber of by-prodttcts of co11s.i derable in1porta11ce. Perl1aps the mos t si.g11ificant are its lo\,v cost casebooks, Moclern Africa11 Co11tract Cases, Mod ern t\fri.ca11 Banki11g Cases (a seco11d \rolun1e \vill be produced soon), a11d Leacli.ng Cases i11 Sierra Leo11e. The i\LR l1as also developed over a co11siderable period of time detailed instructi. 011al 111at eri.als fo1· tl1e Ltse of its staff i.11 Oxford. These l1ave bee11 macle available to other la\1/ 1·eporters i11 a 11umber of Africa11 cou11tries. The collection of jt1dge111e11ts i.11 the Bodlei.a11 have begu11 to attract research scl1olars fro111 E11glancl a11d 1\frica11 countries. Lastly, the ALR offices i.11 Oxford have become a ce11 ter for i11s trt1cti.on i11 law reporti.11g. Spe i . vi. i.11d of cial programs l1ave been devi.secl for a 11t1mber duals, both expatriate and Afri.ca11, \i\ 110 v,1 ere alreacly or abo ut to become i.11volved i.11 Africa11 la\i\1 re1Jorti.11g. Tl1e programs consis ted pri.111ari l y of i11t e11si.ve a11d co11r111u ous par ticipatio11 in tl1e vvorki11gs of tl1e ALR over \;vh� t the direc tor of the f\.LR l1oped vvoulcl l)e 111i11i111un1 pe1·1ods of two or three mo11tl1s, depencli.11g, of cotirse, 011 tl1e exp erience of the repor ter. Unfortu11a tely, . sl1orter_ periods ofte11 l1 ad to be tolerat ed. 1\s such 111struc t10 11 11as necessarily bee11 a bL1rde11 011 i. t s opera t i.011s, t ile ,.\LR lly e r e ar 0 wl1 a _ as se l1o t so o ugh t to li.mi.t it s vi.si. t ors t ? int erested i.n the professional proble117s of repo·rtltlg._ · d ar�eat tl1e . f1·on1 y l c Thos e w1t h st1cl1 i. nterests have ga111 e o association. 1

139

T11e i.11strL1ctio11al progran1 of tl1e ALR, ,vl1icl1 l1as bee11 sup1Jorted by 1\1neri.ca11 fu11ds, is in part an ef!ort _ to Afri.canize la\\' reporti11g i.11 Africa. 011e- of the first steps i.s tl1e cle\re lop111e11t of qualified ge11eral editors, altl1ough the trai11ing of secretaries, a11d proofreade�s,_ a,1d type setters, a11d perl1aps the developme11t of �Jr1nt1ng _ JJlants all l1ave equal importa11ce. Govern111e11t pr111t1ng offices are L1sually overburdened. Further, the bench a11d bar i11 111ost Africa11 countries are 11ot interested e11ougl1 or are v,,ithout tl1e resources to purcl1ase reports 011 a scale sufficie11t to indLtce con1mercial publishers to enter tl1e fielcl except i11 a n1odest v-.1 a')r. Altl1ougl1 the printing a11d pLtlJlishi11g of tl1e ALR re1Jorts l1ave been do11e 011 a com111ercial basis, tl1e researcl1 and editorial \vork l1as bee11 u11clerwritte11 by Sailer from 1966 to 1972. Pro n1ise of future support for tl1e Con11nercial Law Series l1as bee11 obtai.11ed fron1 i.11ter11ati.011a.l busi11ess orga11iza ti.011s a11d tl1e Nuffield Fou11dati.011. The Overseas Devel op111e11t 1\dmi11i.stratio11 of tl1e Foreigi1 Office of the United 1(i.11gdo111 \,1i.ll L111derwrite fu1-rl1er volL1mes of the Sierra Leo11e Seri.es a11d IJrobably tl1e Malawi. series. It is l101Jed tl1at wi.tl1 .in tl1e 11ext few years ALR offices \Vi.11 be establisl1ed i.n l\fri.ca, a11d tl1at tl1e national reporting syste111s i.t assisted or inaugurated will be conti.11ued by the vari.0L1s gover11111e11ts co11cer11ed. It i.s also l1oped tl1at tl1e subject n1atter series \Vi.11 eve11tually be printed a11cl IJUbli.sl1ed i.11 1-\fri.ca. •

Me11tio11 sl1oulcl be 111ade of seve1·al otl1er natio11al reporti.11g scl1err1es wi.tl1 \Vhi.cl1 1\.n1erica11 expatriate assis ta11ce l1as bee11 associated. 111 tl1e spri11g of 1969 tl1e first ;v\/0 volu1nes of tl1e SL1cla11 Lav-.1 l�epo1-rs \Vere published. 171ese volL1111es cove·r tl1e si.g11ifica11t ci vi.l cases decided ii1 the Suda11 betvvee11 1900 a1;d 1940. 111e collectio11 of tl1e cases, tl1ei.r l1e;;1cl11oti11g a11d editi.110a11d tl1e de\relop111e11t 0 of tl1e i. 11clex vva.s clo11e b')' n1a11y per ;0118 over se\reral yea1·s� l)ut tl1e bL1ll<. of tl1e \\1 orl<. \Vas acco1111Jlisl1ed by An1er1cans attacl1ed to tl1e l¾culty of I.B.\\' most of \,,11on1 vvere SLlJJJJo·rted b1' Sa:iler. 1\ltl1ougl1 mo�t of the vvork l1 as bee11 co1:11Jleted 011 tl1e cases fron1 1940 to 1956, it 11ovv see1:1s l11gl1ly prolJlematic vvl1etl1er tl1ey \\iill eve1� be IJLibl�sl7ed. 1ne SL1da11 La,,, JoL11-11al a11d l�eports l�as bee11 pLibl1s11ed an1iLiall�>' bJr tl1e Judiciary i11 I<:l1artoun1 si11ce

140

Janua �y I, 1956 _,:vl1e � tl1e RepL1bli.c_ ,vas estalJ1i.s11ed. It _ _ th of e s al 1g l n1 1s f1 ca11t dec1si.0118 1_11 tl1e SLiclai ta 11 con 1 _ du r1 do 11 th g e yea1- 1-eportecl, tl,e latest 1,anded w. n be111g . · · . . . 1969 . f\s 1ts na111e 1mp 11es, tl11s l)er1ocl1cal co111bii,es _ rt 1n re law po � a11d tl1e scl1ola1-ly a11alysi.s of a l)rofessiot,al journal, as d1scL1ssed 111ore fLtlly belo,,,. The Zan1bi.a11 La\v I{eports \Vere startecl i11 1967 wit!, mucl1 of the i11iti.ati.ve being taker1 by an f\n1eri.ca11 expa triate vvl10 \:v as then also se1-vi11g c:1S se11ior lecturer i11 the FacLtlty of L1.,v. The first ge11eral ec1itor of the Zar11.bian Law Reports was a you11g Arnerica.11 law graclL1ate on the Overseas Fellovvsl1ip Program of tl1e I11ter nati.onal Legal Ce11ter. The Reports are 11ovv bei11g printed. Tl1e first volume will cover tl1e decisio11s of 1963-1964. 171ese will i11clude a great 11urnber of Nortl1ern Rhodesia cases a11d a few Za111bian cases. Because of differences i11 editors a11d co11seqt1e11t varia tions in format tl1is single volume ,�.,ill 11ot be fully i.11te grated into the Zambian La"'' Re1Jorts Seri.es, wl1icl1 will start with Volun1e I coveri11g tl1e cases decided i11 1965. f\n effort l1as been 111ade to i11tegrate tl1ese law re1Jorts with the revised editi.011 of tl1e laws so tl1at tl1e law reports ..;vill be up to date v,,11e11 the revised edi. ti.011 con1es out. This sl1ould be in early 1972. Law Jour11als a11d Law Reviews J\merican la,v teacl1ers Lts e law jour11als a11d law reviews not only as excelle11t teacl1i11g devices but as . l11P rs la 1o cI s l ga le of s nt ne p1 lo 1t e1 ve de l i.a e s i11 th elen1e11t e s _ st coi1and the lavv itself. T11ough these teachers are f1r _ ch are tl1e h1 w cerned with tl1e collecti.011 of case reports, _ evi. � 111 ey build i11g blocks of tl1e commo11 law syste1n, tl1 · 1 t0 the1r tably view the professional journal as esse11t1a secon d professi.011al respo11sibi.lity, researcl1, ve ha , rs la t,o sc te e Am rica11s ' as \Vell as other expatria . re l1 w s l a 11 r L1 J o · aw thus bee11 instrumental in p1-0 I g 1not1.11 · eVer they were teacl1ing. 171e S uc1 a11 Law JoL1r11a l a11 d was but holars sc Reports was startecl largely by Br1· t1s h · . _ ab r stroi1gly supported by 1-\merica11s before tl1e � _ .. ls· rae1·1 vv ar. ln adcliti.011 to .1ts reports of dec1s1011s, 1t 141

1cl a1 rs la he ac l1o te sc rs by s .111s 1 ear.1 a11ct le tic ar ed 1 · · I co11ta . . · 1n 1 avv rev1eVi's 1c f11 d ul wo 1e 01 as 1 cl su . 1· pa 1 ve.h1c Pract1t1011ers, · e for tl1e 1 c n 1 r p e h t 1e · n a c e b · a11. y\vl1er· e. It e p v o e 1 d 1 1g 1e i1 t 1aVi,. 11 0 11 o ti 1a 11 r o 1f ir f o 11 1 0 t· . . ry the SLJR has ct1ssen1111a also been a 1 c 1 d Ju e l1 t )' b cl e J1 s li b u p Tllougl1 . y lt u c te In a la F w 65 la 19 m u , to r a l1 l( 1e t1 l1 it 1 vi d e . fi rt idei1 _ nt ta ially, the bs ed d su a p ex n 1e tl by ad 11 y lt � cu fa as tliat r al 1e faculty fo tl rn u Jo at ar JJ se a 1g i1 1 av 1 of � y it il feasib , 1ed s do1 1 u wa abr 011 v st1 ho\ gge su is Tl1 . d e r e id s i1 o c s wa g in ty of a nd ul fi ic ff di pub e tl1 s, st co of e us ca be ever, _ 1 m e bl ha is bl of ate pu ly 1Jp su d ite 1 1 li1 er th ra e th r, lishe rials, a11d the adequacy of tl1 e SLJR as an outlet for articles reco111111e11ded by tl1e faculty. As a matter of fact, the joL11·11al seg111e11t of tl1e SLJR l1as been largely co111posed of articles written by n1en1be1·s of the Faculty of La\v. Tl1e Jour 11al of Ethiopia11 Law, wl1icl1 'A1 as started in 1964, is 1Jublisl1ed t'A1ice a1111ually at the Faculty of Lavv of r Iaile Sellassie I U11i versity in cooperation \Vith tl1e Mi11istry of JL 1stice. It i11cludes botl1 case reports fron1 tl1e f-Iigl1 a11d SL 1preme CoLirts and learned articles on tl1e law of Etl1iopia. The JoL1r11al is publisl1ed both in E 11glisl1 and A111haric. Its pL1rpose was to "produce basic text a11d teacl1ing n1aterials \i\'l1icl1 \Vould: (1) provide tl1e core of n1ate1·ials 11eeded for i11structio11al purposes i11 tl1e lavv school a11d (2) begi11 to pro,,ide a body; of avail clble ex.JJosito·ry 111aterial 0 11 n1ocler11 Etl1iopi.an law. "l. I� }Jrov1decl fo1· tl1e first time reaclilyr avai.lable i11for111a t1011 011 cur1·e11t a 11d sio-11i.ficant J· L1do·en1e11ts and articles O 0 wh"1cl1 vve1·e co 11ce1:11ed 1Jri.1nari.ly \:Vi tl1 IJractical problen1s of co11te1111)ora1·y lav, Tl1e JoL1rna has graduall)' l . acgu11·ed tl1e various di.sti11o·ui.sl1i.n o· 0 0 features of · 1\ . 111eri.ca11 revie\\'S, sucl1 as a sectio11 of 11otes 011 current sL��s of i 1n11,edi.ate co 11cer11, secti.011s re,ri.e\\1 ing books ��1 . . __Etl1iop1an legal deve lopn1e11t a11d a di. visio11 011 legis1at1ve 11otes · It Iia.s t.11us co111e 'to serve the e11t11·e pro .fess1011 . . · 111 its pLtbl'1c and p1·1. vate aspects as \i\'ell as tl1e 1•

1. Paul "Tl 11rd · A 11 11 Lt a l I{e1Jo1·t F1·0111 the Oea 11 · ' 196::>- 66 (195 8 E · C · ) " 3 J. Et11. L. 591, 59 2 . 14-2

I·I

ment. e1·11 crov t) Toe first dean of the Law FacL1 l ty at Oar es SaC l caa clTI, . ' 1 h an t\L1stra11a 11 V1 1 t . severa} yea1-s teacl1i11g i11 ca,1ada v,as i11st rL1mental 111 tl1e starting of tl1e "JoLii-nal of ti� Denning Law Society'' in 1964. This stL1de11t joL11-11a1 1: still bei.11g publi.sl1ed. The East Af1-ican Lavv Journal \Vas sta:rtecl in 1965 as a quarterl y publ ication for tl1e l ega l professi.011 in East ;-\frica. It \:v as l1oped a11d ex1Jected tl1at tl1is Jour11al 1,voul d a l so se1-ve as an approp1-i.ate outlet fo1- articles, notes and com1ne11ts by' facL1l tyr ancl students of tl1e Facul ty of Law of tl1e U11i versi. ty College at Oar es S alaam. Ho\.vever, as the rel ati.011sl1ip bet\;vee11 the tl1ree coL111tries of East t\£1-i.ca became s0111evvl1at strai.11ed, and the sharing of editorial responsi.bi.lil:jr ])et\,vee11 tl1e editorial board in Nairobi a11d the Law F acul ty 111embers of tl1at board at Dar es Salaa1n became cun1bersome, and as misunderstanding arose as to tl1e di. vi.si.011 of editoria l responsibility, the Law Faculty at D ar decided to estab lish its O\Vn periodica l u11der its ow11 exclusive co11trol. The first issue of its Eastern Africa La\;v Review was pu.bli.sl1ed by the Facul ty of Law i11 the s1Jri11g of 1968. It follo\.vs the usual format of A1neri.ca11 l aw scl1ool revievvs witl1 feature articles, \Vri.tte11 principally by 111en1bers of the Law Faculty, notes a11d comn1e11ts, book revievvs, a11d occasio11al bibliographies. I n view of the Review's scl1olarly emphasis, the Journal bega11 to focus 011 tl1e judiciary and profession. It l1ad alvvays been conten1plated that the Journal would digest i.11 eacl1 issue_ tl1� significant East 1\frica11 deci si.011s. The two per1od1cal s shoul d ·not therefore overl ap. Both seem to be well rec eived. Tl1e Journal wa s to be pul)l i.sl1ed quarterly ai1d the Rev ie\v tl1ree ti n1es per year. Thi. s sche? ul e l1as . 1 w been met. The most rece11t issue of tl1e Rev1e � April 1971, Vol un1e 4, NL1mber l , a11d tl1e Jour11al 18 June 1971, Volun1e VII, Number 2. · Th e Jour11al of Isla111ic and Com1Jarat1 ve Lcaw , sub-• " titlecl the ''Journ al of the Ce11tre of Isla111i.c L�g al st��.1es ' la, a Z of the Facul ty ity' vers . U11i _ � Bello adu of Law' Ah1n · N.Lge . . · IJl 1f-ied . slm na, vvas started i.11 1967 u11cler the 1nore 143

Ill

y r a n 1e i1 r tl p s a d e u 11 ti n o c s a h title "Jou 1A11al". Tl1is y lt u w c la fa 1e , r tl o f o in s r e 1b 11 e 1n 1g i1 l1 c a re 1e rI f o le ic veh l a u 11 r 11 n e a A p . lf d e o s it � y lt u c fa 1e tl e c 11 la r a p 11 . America m e d 1e a tl c 1g a 11 1c r u d cl te r ta s s a w " ty ie c So ical "Law r11 t es od m as b It w pu . al 11 ur jo � 1t e1 ud st a as 5 year 1964-6 1 1tl1 soft paper ) \\ ed Jl1 a gr eo i.m rn 1 licatio11, cyclostyled ( o r , d ts an en ey ud th st e th of t uc od Jr e th as ,:v it 1 covers, bL1t e elab e or m m ca be 1 o1 so it , er ev ow [-l . it of cl ou were pr o d as w pr an re , at rm fo d ze 11i er od 111 a d JJe lo ve de e, orat e d er an , tl1 ed 11t ou m 1 e1 th ts os C s. es pr er tt le duced by s se e su 111 lfco be d Ltl wo it at tl1 od 1o li.l ke . li tle lit ed seem tai.11i11g wi.tl1out a 111aj or pron1otio11al effort and the devel it. a,� y er "L m rl la l1o sc g i.11 11d ta ts ou of les tic ar of nt n1e op l.11 Society" tl1L1s lost its prin1ary pL1rpose. ·The Sailer Project provided a 1nodest subventi.011 of a fe,v hundred dolla1As to e11able tl1e stude11t journal to recapture its ori.gi11al vigor ancl pL1rpose. It ,vas tl1us reestablished as a moclest, u11dergraduate pL1blicati.011 for student articles. Tl1i.s was believed to l1a ve had a co11siderable i.1111Jact 011 stucle11t morale and i.11evi.tably on student scl1olarsl1i.p. lt sl10L1lcl soo11 becon1e self-sustaining. I\!}e11ti.011 sl1oulcl at least be 111ade of several of tl1e otl1er joL1r11als witl1 \\ hi.cl1 An1eri.ca11 teachers were associated a11d ,:vl1i.ch are still co11ti.11L1i.11g, sucl1 as tl1e "Zambia La,:v J0L1r11al ", whi.cl1 was started i11 1969, ''1l1e Li.beri.an Lavv Jour11al", 1965, a11d tl1e "U11iversi.ty of Gl1a.11a La'vl1 Journal", 196L1. 1

1\11y descri.pti.011 of periodicals about la\\, i.11 Africa would be incomplete witl1out refere11ce to tl1e Jour11al of _ 1\fr1ca11 La\\1 ,:vl1icl1 l1as bee11 pL1blisl1ed regularly by Butterworth & Co. si11ce i. ts i.11ceptio11 in 1957. 1l1i.s l1as bee11 esse11tially a Briti.s11 publicatio11, a11cl Professor A. N. Al_lott of tl�e U11i versi.ty of Lo11do11 l1as bee11 largely res1Jons1ble �or 1ts establisl1n1e11t a11d developn1e11t. 171e _ Jouri�al prA �v1ded a u111qL 1e and i11,,aluable foru1n for the co11s1 �erat1011 of la\\1 a11cl legal )roblen1s i11 Africa duri11g l _ a cr1.\_ 1c al IJerio� i11 tl1e co11ti.11e11t's l1istory. It is the __ _ off-1c1c1 l l�L1bl1_ ca.t1011 of tl1e l11ter11ati.011al 1\frica11 La\\' _ As�oc1at1.o11 ai1d \Vitl1 i.ts spri11g 1971 issue it I1as beco111e 1J1_ l111gual · Sac ile· r \Vas JJr1v1 · .1eged to aid 111 this ex1Jans1on. . . . . Tl1e Jour11al JJro1111·ses to D1c·1ll1ta · 111 ltS }11gl1 acadeITilC sta11darcls a11d to bric · 1ge t l1e gap betwee11 tl1e cou11t1·ies of ,

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the common la\v a11d ci.Vil law. Lega l DocL1111e11tati.011 Cente1-s

) I i I

I I

t I

To meet sudde�ly all the 1·esponsi.bi.li. ties of sover eig11ty \Vas a form1dable L111derta ki 11g for eacli t\frica11 nation. With limited person11el a11d li. n 1itecl fLlllds eacli state could conce11trate 011ly 011 tl1e prin1arJr tasks. TI1e·re were nei.tl1er th e person11el 11or fi11a11ci.al resoL1rces to establi.sl1 archival centers or eve11 to co llect a11cl J1ouse copies of i111porta11t legislative e11actme11ts a11cl executive decrees of nei.ghbori11g Afri.ca11 states, 110\vever i. n1por ta11t they might L1 lti.111ately be. Con1parati.ve a11alyses of p·roblems, i.11qt1i.r1r into \;\/l1at otl1er l\f1·ica11 coL111tries l1ave done with questi.011s faced by all Afri.ca11 states is 011ly now becon1ing an a cceptable elen1e11t i11 1·esearch. To help re1nedy this si tuati.011 Ford F ou11datio11 fu11c1s were used to establish two docun1e11tati.011 ce11ters i.11 Africa, one i·n Dakar and tl1e other i.11 Addis 1\baba, a11d a ce11ter in the United States, tl1e Afri.ca11 Lavv Ce11ter of ColL1111bia Universi.ty. Tl1e Centre for Africa11 Legal Oevelop111ent (Centre Pour Le Deve lo1Jpe111e11t Juri.dique Afri.cai.11, co1111no11ly referred to by the acronym Ca ld) vvas 01·ga11i.zed i.n 1966 in the Faculty of Law of I-Iaile Selia ssie I U11i.versity. One of its objectives was tl1e establi.sl1111e11t of a co111prel1e11sive collectio11 of African legis la tion, particularly tl1e official gazettes and jour11als (tl1e Frencl1 cou11te� 1Jart_ of the gazettes). T11ese are bei.i1g re1JroclL1ced 011 1111crofiche starting with 1947. Eacl1 microfiche contai11s thirty to sixty pages of IJri.nted n1ateri.al. It was �01 Jed that by 1973 the collection of legi.s lati. ve material would _ be_ c�n1 _ _ 15 r1c. 1 plete a11d Ltp to date, but tl1i.s novv see111s too opt1m l. On Marcl1 l 1972 tl1e di.rector of the }Jroject re1Jorted that "all or' 111ost of tl1e fol lowi 11g countries [l1acl] bee11 al covered fo r th e years 1947-1966: BLtru11c1.1, Ce11tr . . I asa l1 1s . 11 ( o g n o C 1 e, ·1 v1 a _ t-\fr1can Republic, Co11go-Brazz . . a ll a � rr So , a d n a vv R , v1 v i. a (Za re) Gabon I<e11ya Mal ' ar), Za11 z1b g ct· 111 1 LI Sudan, 'Ta11ganyi ' zan1. a ('111c ' ka - Tan Uganda, Zambia. ''

145

r 1d 1 ei a. es tl1 tt ze ga pp e su th of le 1ts ei nt co f o e 1 tab T11e 1 · te ac ·1 1ta f 1 e to Lis d un bo of 1d a1 t 1e cl te ca c 11. UJJ d are ne11ts . . • 1 l1as become tl1e proJeCt TI1e J0111t l ves · e· 1s n 1 1e t . s d r a c . of r11e Free U11i vers1ty of Brusse 1s a11d [-Iaile . enter1Jr1se . d e c n a 11 11 e y e b f1 b s 1e tl h d 11 a y, it s r ve 1 � 11 0 I ie s s a ll Se n e m 11 r t. e v 11 o g 1a 1:1e lg e B 1e tl d 11 a 11 o ti a d n u o Fo. rd F e tl1 at ls 1t st se I11 us Br ut i11 d de 1:>e lo ve cte e ar e l 1 t· ,,. 1c o r n 11c . . -uxe 1les. TI1e de Br e br Li te s1 er . 11v U1 e S OC·l O1 Oc,a-ie of tl1 . . gazettes and journals a1-e obta111ed f_r-om the .F· ore1gn . c l oc na tl1 1o \\' as t e11 1n s1 r11 as ve go a11 s lgi Be 1 e ; cl of Office , _ ta11ce fron1 the DeL1tscl1es I11stitut Fur Af r1ka- Forschung of f-Iamburg. Cald l1as 11ot con1piled a digest or an i11dex of n1ate rials. It relies 1Jri11cipally 011 tl1e i11dex - digest of tl1e 1\frica11 La\;v Digest of tl1e t\frican Law Center at Colu1nbia a11d 011 the index of tl1e Ce11tre de Recl1ercl1es, cl' f:tudes et de Docun1e11tation sL1r les I11stitutions et la Legislatio11 1\fricaines (com111011ly referred to as Creclila) at Dakar. Cald is also in the process of com lJili11g exte11si ve Africa11 law bibliograpl1ies. One coveri11g all bool<s a11d articles publisl1ed on Af1·ica11 law fron1 1947 to 1966 l1as 11ovv bee11 co11 1pleted. It sl1ould be available for sale i11 1972 fron1 Presses U11iversitaires de Bruxelles. l. Future su1Jplen1e11ts of tl1e bibliograpl1y will be i11cluded in the A1111ual SL1rvey of f\fri.can Law, pub lisl1ed by Frank Cass a11d Co. , Ltd., Londo11, a11d edited by N. N. Rubi11 a11d E. Cotra11. T11e first supplen1e11t , for tl1e yea1·s 1967 a11d 1968, l1as bee11 JJUblisl1ed 111 tl1e 1\. 1111�al SL1rvey for 1968. Cald is 1Jrepar i11g 1:1 seco11d , b1bl1og1·apl1y for tl1e IJeriod fro111 1897 to 1946, wl1icl1 sl1ould be co1111Jleted by 1974. It se eks to collect in tl1e lavv facLilty i11 Addis f\baba copi es of a ll of tl1e articl es a11c1 bool<s 1·efer1·ed to i11 tl1e bibliog1·apl1ies. Wl1e11 tl1e _ art1._cles tl1e111selves ca1111ot be obtai11ed, 111icroficl1e 1e ar� l:r cLi:recl. Calcl offe �� s r co s p s � r to t a o , t v id e · ox , _:111crof1 l1e, or Jh otoco 1Jies of a ll of tl1e gazettes � _ I . a��1 JO Ll t11als vvl11cl1 1t l1as coll . ected a11d of a ll of tl1e articles refer·red to i 11 1·ts b1·b 1 1o · grap111·es. l. AvenLie Paul [ I- eg er 42, 1050 Brussels, Belgiu 1 n .

146

ffi

C redi.la \Vas establi.sl1ed i.11 1959 at t11e u 11 i.versi.ty of Dakar, Dakar - Fa1 1 11, Se11egal. I t recei. ves regLilarly s f ro1 n tl1 e fiftee11 Fra 1 1copt1 0 111.c i\fi-ica1 1 journal tl1e of all coL1ntries witl1 \Vl1i.cl1 i. t is co1 1cer11ecl, tl1ose former ly 10 n Forme1· Belgia11 1\frica 11as 1 1yr . e g h e c h n e r F r Ltnde bee11 excluded. The \V riter v\1 as i1 1fo1-111ecl by the Creclila office in Dakar that it had 11ot bee 1 1 able to obtai 1 1 rl1e journals f rom Zaire, R\va11cla, 01· BL1 rL 1ndi.. But tlie collection of j 0L1rnal s f ron1 tl1e fiftee 11 cou11tries is coinplete from their respecti.ve dates of i.ndepe1 1de 1 1ce. Before indepe11de 1 1ce tl1e1-e \Vere no separate jour11als for tl1e varioL 1 s te r ri.to ri.es. Legislative e11actme11ts a11d other docume1 1t s appropriate for tl1 e j our11al s were included i.1 1 Frencl1 publicatio11s \Vl1i.cl1 are 1 1 0\:i..1 i.1 1 Pa ris and in arcl1 i.val center s i.n eacl1 of tl1 e fifteen countries. The dean of tl1e facL1lty of law of tl1e U11i.ve1· si.ty of Dakar advised the ,v ri.ter tl1at C redi.la was a })art of tl1e Faculte de Droi.t et des Sciences Econo1ni.ques, tl1at its budget vvas included i.n tl1 at of the faculty a11d was regularly approved by the U11i.versity. The dea1 1 see1necl to feel there would be no proble1n about tl1e co1 1ti. 1 1ui.ng su1)1 )o rt of C1·edila. Thi s oi:>timism 1nay, l1owever, be based in part 011 an assumption of furtl1er fi11a1 1cing by tl1e Ford Foundation. Credi.la's principal publicarto1 1s are a qL1 arte1·ly entitled "Documentation Legis lative et 1\dn1i.11i.strati.ve i\fricai. ne" a 11d an an11L1al, "Les 1\1 1nales Afri.cai.11es ", wl1ich i.s similar to an t\merica11 law revi.evv. '"TI1e former sets forth on a selective basi. s, 1 1otati.011s as to tl1e pri1 1cipal laws and decrees co11tai11ed i. 11 tl1e of�ci.al journals. 1\. simplified classifi.cati.011 syr ste1n 1s ��ed. Eacl1 notatio11 is pri 1 1ted i.n a small sqL 1 are to fac1l1tate cutti1 1g and pasti 1 1g 01 1 index cards. Tl1e Gern1a n Institute of 1\frica11 Stucli.es (OeLltsches Institut Fur Afrika- Forsch un g) was fou11ded in �Iai:1 b� rg in F ebruary, 1963 as a ce11ter of apJ)li.ed interd1 sc:pl�i1ary J\fri ca11 studies. Its st af f inclL1cles a legal scl1olar' geographer, ancl a scholar o f both l1i.story ai1 d eco1: 01111cs. It also has a lib raria11 and a suppo rti.11g staff. Beslde tl1ese per1nat1ent full-tin1 e employees tl1e In 5 rl tute ' · ern1)loys otl1er experts as tl1e need ar1se s. It v\,orks 111 147

-----------� 11 a o k . i ti fr ia c (A o s s A a ic fr A e th th c n. 011 c 1ose coo1Jera _ h u 11 d r e d Ge1•ma11 some four . \1 ere1· 11) , a c n association o f • • 1 ta 1n s a n te m tu t1 ha s w In t e l1 T . a ic fr A in d _ te s e r te in s firin n c e ll o te c n a d of to 1J u , te � le 1p n o c t � s 1o 11 e 1 r1 is perhaps w here 1n the y t an 1 ex t a th ls na ur jo 1d a1 � _ Africa11 gazettes . k s 11 ta he n W ta or 1J 1m t bu � us io r bo la a is world. Tl1is of a tt ce ze ga pn e e tl1 in se ea cr in l 1a o1 si ca oc 1 a1 t11ere is 1 ill often fail \� er nt ri J t en m I rn ve go or j our11al the African _ e nc yva pa ad us 1o ev pr s A s. er ib cr bs su s hi se to advi ip e th cr , bs 11t su ie ic ff su i11 e m co be en tl1 ve l1a l il \V ts en 1n the of s ice Afrika off d goo e TI1 d. de en sp su y 1Jl n1 tio11 is si e AssociaVerei11 are tl1e11 enlisted. ' Th e members of th . . ti 011, and tl1e Association s ow n representatlves 1n Senegal, Gl1a11a, I<e11ya, and Morocco often scurry about to find a 1nissi11g issue a11d tl1e cause for tl1e suspension. w 1·

Tl1e I11stitute publisl1es occasio11al treatises in the for111 of a co11ti11ui11g series of "I-Ian1burger Beitrage zur Afrika-1(u11cle" (Hamburg Co11tribL1tions to Africa11 Tl1eory). It also 1Jublishes a quarterly "Afrika Spectrum", \vl1icl1 co11tai11s short articles and co111men taries 011 la\v and politics and eco110111ics and ne,vs in general about 1-\frica. Each issue co11ce11trates on a si11gle subject. Publication is i11 tl1e origi.11al la11guage of tl1e article submitted, usually Ge1-ma11, occasio11ally Fre11cl1. Some articles i11 English may, be i11cluded in the future. AlthoL1gl1 the1-e are foL1r issues a year, the time of pLlblicatio11 depe11ds L1po11 tl1e receipt and JJreparation of tl1e 1na terial. Eacl1 issue co11tains refe1-e11ces to leo-b islatio11 wl1icl1 migl1t i11terest tl1e 111e111bers of tl1e Associatio11. Once a year tl1ese J:-eferences are collecte d a11d i11dexed. The i11dex system is n1odeled 011 tl1at used i11 ]L1ris Classe11r Ouc1-e-Mer. 011e of tl1e t\vo clivisions of tl1e I11stitute is a research departinei1t wl1i.cl1, a111011g otl1er tl1i11o·s, collec sorts, ts ai1d evaluates 111aterial 01 1 1\fri.ca. I� ad ditio11 t; all of tl1e gaz c ette 8 a11cI J· our11a 1s it review s a11d analyzes so111e • two l:�ndi-ecl �11d fifty }Jerioclicals a 11 11 d ev.1spapers 011 a11d fr0111 ;\fr1ca. It is tl1is depart me11t v.1l1icl1 publis l1es t 1 1e I - 1 an1burge 1- Be·1tra � ge an c 1 tl1e Afr1ka SpectrL11n. 148

Toe othe1- di. :i.si.011 of the l11sti.tL1te i.s the DocLtinenta t ion Ce11ter, wh1cl1 was establi.shed i.11 t11e su111111er of 1967 to handle "the explosi.011 of k110,vleclo-e a11cl tlle explosi.011 of }Jublicati.011s ". The Ce11ter �evi.evvs sonie seve11 thousand peri.odi.cals eacl1 of \vl1icl1 I1as }JUl)li.shecl at leas � one and a l1alf articles on 1\f1·i.ca dLtri.11g rl1e preced1ng year. �l1e Ce11t �1· also revi.e,vs 111011ograJJ!1s a11cl books a11d fugi tl \e rrater1al aboL1t ;\fri.ca. Besi.des its regL1la1· fL1ll-ti.me staff tl1e Cente1·, as of Noven1ber 1969, _ I1ad s0111e s1xteen reaclers, ter1ned "free collaborators", vvl10 were paid on the 111ate1-ial sL1b111i.tted. The Ce11te1· does 11ot receive tl1e gazettes 01· joL1r11als, as tl1is is co,1ered by tl1e 1·esea1·ch depa1·t1ne11t. But i.t 1nay i.11co1· p.orate tl1e gazettes a11d journals i11to tl1e "tl1esaurus" \Vhic h it is developing. This is to be the repository of the data wl1i.cl1 it is collecti11g 111 all fields of hu1na11 ancl 11atural sciences dealing ,vi. th tl1e Africa11 conti.11e11t a11cl its surroL1nding islands. T11e tl1esau1·us is in E11glisl1, Gern1an and Frencl1, a11d its orga11izati.011 is based 011 tl1e Dewey deci.mal system, or ratl1er a11 exte11sio11 of it. The base year i.s 1967. Peri.odi.cals, papers a11cl books a1·e di.vided i.nto several catalogs, one of authors, 011e of Afri.can countries and regi.011s, 011e of the different branches of all fields of k110,;vledge. For each ite111 tl1ere is a title, date, author plus fi.ve to ei.gl1t key' words wl1i.ch synthesize tl1e work. 111 Noven1ber 1969 tl1e tl1esaL1rL1s co11tainecl some eighty tl1ousa11d items. The Institute is, of course, West Ger111a11y's irlfo1·n1a tion ce11ter 011 Africa. It ,:velcon1es, l1owever, tl1e opp ort u11ity to develop working relatio11sl1ips ,vith _ ?tl1er researcl1 institutes a11d libraries. f\11d it l1as 1 11d1cated a \Vi.llin gness to provide copies of joL1rnals a11d gazettes at cost. The t\frican Law Digest is a quarterly pL1blicatio11 0� the Africa11 Law Center of Columbia U11iversity and untll Jai1uary 1, 1972 w as tl1e official organ of tl1e J�frica11 La,v 1\ssocia ti.on i.n America, Inc. It cligests a11d 1 11dexes all available African legislation except t_l1at of Egypt ar:cl d l1e ls bl Ju as w ue ss 11i pa t � � sl1-speakt11g Africa. T11e firs � � in Ja11uary 1966 a11d covered pri.mar1ly tl1e peilOCl of tlle tll ircl c1uarter,July - September 1965. Most of tile 149

---------n1aterial digested is obtai11ed fro1n tl1� official govern1nent crazettes a11d j our11als of tl1e Afr1can states. These are r:ceived by tl1e law libra.ry of Columbia Uni. versi.ty, ,vl1i.cl1 1nakes then1 available to tl1.e African La\\1 Ce11ter, located ii1 tl1e Scl1ool of Law a11d alongside of the library. 1"'l1e i11dexi.11g s)rste111 of the Digest was developed by tl1e fi1-st directo1- of the 1\frican Law Ce11ter, Professor A. Arthur Scl1iller, from l1is ow11 Foreign La,v Classifica tio11 syste1n \\1l1icl1 l1e had developecl for the Colun1bi.a Uni.versity Law Library. Eacl1 issue is i11dexed, and there is a cun1ulative i11clex i11 tl1e fi.nal issue eacl1 year. T11e fu11ctio11 of tl1e Digest as the official publicatio11 of tl1e Af1-ica11 Lavv Associatio11 i11 America, Inc. ,vas tra11sferred, as of Ja11uary l, 1972, to "African La,v Studies", a bia11L1L1al publisl1ed by tl1e Africa11 La,\1 Ce11ter to "1J1-ovide tools for researcl1 and infor1nation co11cer11i11g curre11t clevelopme11ts \1/l1icl1 are not ade quately 1Jrese11ted elsewl1ere. " Bridges Betwee11 A11glophonic and Francophonic Africa Tl1e clivisio11 betwee11 1\nglopl1011ic a11d Fra11cophonic Africa co11ti11ues to present perplexi11g and frustrating problen1 s. �tl1e 1\frica11 11ot acculturated to tl1e ,�, est l1as 11.ot found it difficult to move bet\vee11 differe11t etl111ic groups ancl over vast dista11ces witl1out regard to national bou11daries or tl1e former clon1ain of colo11ial rule1-s. But the n1embers of the Establisl1111e11t l1a \re te11ded to ide11tify \vi.tl1 eitl1e1- co11ti11e11tal EL1rope or tl1e U11ited tl1e1nselves _ l(_111_gdon1. A11d Africa tl1us conti11L1es to be stL1bbo1-11ly d1v1ded l)y the i11flue11ces of tl1ese t\\ 0 alie11 cultures. 1

T11e 1Jersiste11ce of co11tine11tal i11flue11ce in 1::;-ra11co IJl1onic 1\frica n1ay be ex1Jlai11ed i.11 part b)' tl1e co11ti.nu ai1ce ?f EL1ropean associatio11s. Tl1e forn1er European col?111al_ po\vers, particL1la1-ly Fra11ce, succeeded i11 n1.a111ta111111g n1ost of tl1eir bL1si.11ess, educatio11al a11d CLiltural co11tacts i11 tl1ei.r for111er depe11dencies. 'l. 1. See sL11Jra IJp. 19-20.

150

f\c cordi.ngly, there has not bee11 a11J' a1Jpareilt tleecl foi· tlle ctev� lop111ent of n 1a�y o f tl1e f\fri.ca11 111sti.tLiti.otls \\'lli.Cll 1ze f\nglO])hoi1ic f\fri.ca • increas1 11gly character Tl11.. S l.. S · parctcu 1 ar 1y ev1·ct e?t 1n the ext_raordi.n a·ry itlflLteilce sti.ll played by the fore1gn p�wer? 111 u11i.versity cleveloJJiiieiit and i11 tl1e legal profess1011. L. I

l I

For exa1nple, the Ecole Nati.011ale d '1\ct111111ist·r at1011 111 Zaire vvas n1ocleled on tl1e scl1ool of tl1e san1e 11a111e 111 Paris. The la\:v courses are ge11e1· ally co11cer11ect \vi.t11 Ettropean law and tl1ose \Vl10 teacl1 the111 are eit11er European or EL11·opean trained. La\1-. is classified i acco1·d .11g to pl1ilosophic co11cepts, a11d teachi.11g is tl1e impartin g of i.11form at ion. f\lthough 011e will hear a great deal about "travaL1x pratiques" as bei.11g a 111oder11, practical approach to the la\v, tl1e tl1eoretica l postL1re i.s n1aintai.ned. Tl1e practical tr a ini11g is 11otl1i.11g 1nore tl1a11 the study of a legal tl1eory by be11efi. t of s1)eci.fi.ecl cases chosen by tl1e teacl1er. 1-\ nd tl1e lear11i 11g of EL1ro1Jea11 la\V is continued despite its i.ncreasi.11g i.11a pplic abi.lity. Tl1e indigenoLts lavv in Zaire still gover11s 111ost perso11al relati.011sl1i.ps and the l1olcli11g a11d tr a 11sfer of la11d. Ne\rertl1eless, Europea11 pri \rate lavv i. s taugl1t i11 i.ts entirety 011 the ground tl1at stude11ts sl10L1ld l1ave a tl1eo retical appreciation of tl1e total strL1ctL1re of tl1e lavv eve11 though alien. T11e teacl1i.11g i.s didactic, a11d exan1i.11at .i 011s are tests of me1nory, fo1 lowi11g tl1e Euro1:>ea11 pattern. r\nd, as noted, the Eu1�ope a 11 teacl1ers l1ave show11 110 interest i11 tl1e work of the Rese a rcl1 Ce11tre. 1

171e same creneral comme11ts ca11 be 111ade about ui1iversiti.es i� other parts of Fra11co1Jho11i. c f\fri.ca. They are still clomi11ated by Europea11 -trai 11ecl teacl1ers \.vhose Primary profe ssio11al i11terest is to teach ELtro1Jean � a\v · . .111terest. 111 · or cor1cer11 \V1tl1 tl1e ,_fhey apparen tly l1ave l1t tle appropriate11e ss of Europea11 la'A' a11d cListon1 to tl1e Afi·ican co11text. 1· See cliscussi.011 pp. 61-64.

!l II .

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ce en i of lu 1f s o o ti fr a nu ti m conn co � � us ro go vi le _ \�'itll tl . [1tal E... L1 rorJe Africa11 inst1rut1011s 111 tl1e moclern tlt1e a c e 1 1ot -1 v f1 a l1 A 1c 1 1 0 l1 p o c n a r l:;f o r to c e s develOlJii1g w 1 1. Tl1e legal -o t g1 no e l1a 1d 1 a ecl ed 11e 1 e1 be � ' . apparetltly _ es n1 er lo co r1 ve fo ha 1e tl of con s 1r fa � af l ia rc ie n in co ai1d 1l1 ere th e \� er t th 1s . Je I e o ur E 1 i1 d 1 le 11d 11a be to ed i1u ti 1 1d, and it is perl1a ps u fo be to is " 1e c1L di ri ju er ll _ "coi1sei 1 to 1 1g tl1e p1-ofe s be er os cl es 111 co l10 vv se el l 11e above al 1 1s usually associate with ca . ri ne A1 111 l10 w 1� so vi ad l 1a sioi s e lte tl1 of cu fa ts de droit uc od pr 1e Tl ". rer vvJ "la r11e rerin et des scie11ces ec o1 1on1i.ques of tl1e .A..frica11 u11iversities n1ore closelJ' ap1Jroxi 1 nate the sta11dard ''avocat" and "avoL1e" of tl1e Fre 1 1cl1 a 1 1d Belgian Bars. Tl1ere was tl1u s 110 felt 11eed for tl1e developn1e1 1t of problem- solvers worki11g witl1i11 a11 Africa11 context. ,..The old associations co11ti11ued in Fra11copl1011ic Africa, and tl1e division betvvee 1 1 A11glopl10 1 1ic a 1 1cl Fra11 copl1011ic Africa remai11ed. C

•

Af·ricanizatio11 is, l1owever, begi11ning to make inroads i11to the i11flue11ces fro1n continental E11rope. There has bee11 so111e i11te·rest, at least in Zaire, in sending young scl1olars to U. S. lavv scl1ools. Africa11 scl1olars in F1-a11copl1011ic Africa generally see1n more recepti\7e to icleas a11d i11flue11ces fro1 11 A11glopho11i.c Africa than did tl1e Fre11cl1 a11d Belgi.a11s v\1l101n tl1ey l1ave replaced. 8Ltt it is 011ly the i11de1Je11de11 t a11d cou1-ageous \vho is ,villing to depart fro111 tl1e patter11s l1e l1as lear1 1ed. Efforts to develop n1ea11i1 1gful relatio11sl1i.1Js between tl1e civil a11d co111n1011 la\v, betv\ ee11 1-\ 11glopl10 1 1i.c a1 1d Fra11co1Jl1011ic ;\frica l1ave been 11un1erous and \iaried. So111e of tl1ese efforts a·re desc1-i.bed belov.,. TI1ey l1ave aln,ost all bee11 i.11itiated, l10\,vever, fro1n tl1e con1111011 la\v, i\i1glo1Jl1011i.c side. 1�11ey l1a\1e 11ot bee 1 1 co11ti.nuous . '{et so111e b1-i.dges are bei.110· lJL1 ilt, particula1-l\r as tl1e b J . F 1- c:·11. 1 C0�1 1on1. c I\ fr . a11 L1111\7e1·siti.es a1-e beco1ni.110- more : 1c i\fi-lcatllzed lJy tl1 ose \,vitl1 to ta l 1\ fri.can ide11ti.ti.e�. 1

111te1-11a tio11::1l Co11fere11ces . 'l�l1e i11te111 · . ni at 101 ·· 1a rtL i 1 . Af r1 op ca 1Jo 1 1 co11fere11ce offers · . . . t1es for tl1e · devel01J111e11t. of. co1 1tact be 1 1 tl1ose t\:v s ee affectecl b,rJ cl·1ffer- 1· 11g recei.ved cultures. But Ia11gua ge 152

difficulties ofte11 pre,,ent tl1e casL1al, L1nstructured collo qL1i.es wl1i.ch ofte11 n1ake sucl1 gatl1eri.11gs woi·tI1 t!1e effort. vVl1er � the co11ferences_ are 11ot adequately pla1111ed, tJ1ey can w1de11 furtl1er �l1e l111gL1isti.c, cL1ltL1ral gap. The 1962 Confere11ce 011 Afr1can Legal Educatio11 i.11 Gl1a11a al1nost came to a11 abrL1pt end befo1·e tl1e 1J1·eli.111i.11a1·ies were co11clucled because of the fai.lL1re to lJro,ride simL1lta11eous tra11slations i.11to Fre11cl1. But co11fere11ces at least de1no11strate con11no11 i11terests and tl1e 11101·e tl1a11 o11e rational approacl1 to comn1011 JJ1·oblen1s. T11ey see1n 11ot to have acl1ieved n1ucl1 else i11 an1elioratingT tl1e OJ.Jposi tio11s between tl1e jLiri sprude11tial ca111ps. rI1ese i11ter national co11ferences are, of cou1·se, to be disti11guished from the v111 orki11g co11ference or "worksl1op", wl1icl1 is described below. 1l1e Vi.siting Scl1olar A n1ore effective link betwee11 tl1e li11guisti.c di.vi.sio11s of 1-\frica is the visiting scholar, altl1ougl1 i.11 Fra11co pl1onic Africa l1e was occasi.011ally 1·ebuffed by tl1e European advisor or co11sL1lta11t. But a 11umber of L1sefL1l vi.sits were made by Americans to tl1e U11iversi.ty of Daka1· duri.11g the ad mi.ni.stratio11 of tl1e Fre11cl1 la\i\l dean, \Vho vvas a gracious l1ost. A 1Jrofessor of the Scl1ool of Law of Columbia University, served as a visiti11g 1J1·0fessor or scl1olar in residence over a six-weel< period in Dece111ber 1963 and Ja11uary 1964. In the follov111 ing year a similar vi.sit \\,as made by a11otl1er professor fro1n the sa1ne faculty. Botl1 of tl1ese scl1olars were flue11t i.11 Fre11cl1 a11cl were well received because of tl1eir creden tials, tl1eir obvious compete11ce, a11d tl1eir diplo1natic skills. Their special expertise i11 co111111erci.al law and i11 the legal aspects of various for111s of socialism re spo11ded to deep i11terests i11 tl1ese sL1bjects i11 ,Se11egal. A11d both were able, solely on tl1eir ov111 11 initiative, to make a 11un1ber of contacts witl1 African stL1de11ts. Duri11g the aca.den1i.c >'ear 1970-71 a you11? A111e1·ica_n law graduate wi.tll an unclergraduate deg1·ee 11} econo1:11cs served the Faculte de Droi.t et cles Scie11ces Eco11on11ques of the U11iversi.ty of Dakar as a Vi siti.11� Fulbrigl�,t . " Professor a11c1 Mai.tre-Assista11t, assoc1e. Tl1e a.ssoc1e 153

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is a desig11a.tio11 give11 t? all � l1ose 011 tl1e �aculty wh� are 11ot fro111 tl1e F·re11cl1 u111 vers1 ty sy sten1. TT1e Amer1ca11 visitor tauo-l1t fi11ancial a11alysis, problems of African eco110111ic develo1J111e11t, a11d co111111ercial E11glisl1. Tl1e stL1de11ts expected tl1e usual 11ote taki11g at l1is lectures _ \vi hicl1 were to 1-ecite tl1e la\:\' to be 111e111or1zed. \Vl1en the vi.si.ti11g A111eri.ca11 fired questio11s at tl1em tl1e fi� st da),, tl1e students were disturbed a11d a11noyed a11d advised the visitor of tl1e i111propri.ety of l1is ]Jehavi.or. BLtt i.11 a relatively short ti.me tl1e stL1de11ts started to attend his classes regularl)r, were }Jrepared, stayed awake, asked qL1esti.011s, a11cl co11fer1-ed \:\1 i.th hi.m after class. Duri.11g tl1e period 1964 to 1966 a11 f\n1eri.can professor taL1gl1t i11 tl1e R1culty of 1.a,v of Lova11i.um U11i. \rersity.1· His coL1rse ,rvas addressed to tl1e basic 1Jri11ciples of the com111011 law i11 11eigl1bori11g 1\11glopl1011ic Africa11 coun tries. I11 April 1967 tl1e assista11t dean of tl1e I.aw Faculty Sellassie I U11iversity visited the faculty at of f Iai.le J...,ova11iu111 as a special lecturer. f-Ie gave a series of six lectures to a. group of about tl1irty stude11ts and co11ferred at le11gtl1 with botl1 faculty a11d stude11ts on ge11eral legal and educatio11al problen1s. It ,vas hoped this visit 111igl1t sti.111L1late a regL1lar excl1a11ge between tl1e la\:\1 faculties in l(i11shasa a11d Addis Ababa, but tl1is l1as 11ot developed. 111 addi.tio11 to tl1e la11gL1age barrier tl1ere .i s tl1e proble111 of costs of i11ter11atio11al transporta tio11, wl1icl1 are co11siclerable even vvitl1in the co11ti.nent. 011e of tl1e 111ost pro111isi11g, a11d i11 n1a11y ,vays sL1c cessfL1l co11tacts bet,,vee11 tl1e co111mo11 law and civil la,v i11 Africa ,rvas tl1e a1Jpoi11t111e11t of an A111erica11 scl1ola1· as Directo1- of tl1e Ce11tre fo·r Researcl1 a11d Professor of La,,, of tl1e Natio11al Scl1ool of 1\dn1i11istrati.011 111 l(i.11sl1asa (ge11erally referred to as E11d::1 ), 111e11ti.011ed above. 2· Despite tl1eir Euro1Jea11 acc1de111i.c orie11tati.011 tl1e Co11go le se respo11cled entl1usiasticallJ' to tl1e researcl1 ch al lei,g�� of tl1e Ce11t1·e. BL1t E11cla itself i.s st i.11 do111i.11ated by a l�Ltro1Jea11 staff, a11d Belgia11 a11d Fre11cl1 i.11fluence l. Ori.gi.11ally U11iversi.te Lova11iL1n1 de LeoJ ldvil le o LeoJJolc�v1lle ,:vas cl1a11ged to l<i11sl1asa Uuly 19 lS6· l , J c ? 5 -· ee JJIJ, 104-105.

i.11 all of tl1e u11i.versiti.es seems aboLtt as stro11g a.s ever. Altl1ougl1 E11cla at one time dis1Jlayecl co11siderable i11depende11ce i11 i.ts orga11i.zati.011 a11d adn1i11istratio11, it appears compelled 11ovv to follov,, i.11 i.ts acade111ic of feri.ngs Lova11i u1n U11i versi ty ,vl1icl1 i11 tL1r11 follovv s tl1e Belgia11 n1odel. It recently aclcled a fi.ftl1 yea1· to i.ts pro g1·am after sL1ch additio11 was n1ade by Lovani.L1111. 1l1e1·e have rece11tly bee11 so1ne fL111clan1e11tal cha11ges i.n tl1e orga11izatio11 strL1ctu1·e of tl1e L111i. ve1·si.ties of Zaire. 1l1e vari.ous independe11t entities l1ave 11ovl bee111nerged i.nto a si11gle uni ,1e1·si�1 , 1l1e Nati.011al U11i versi.ty of Zaire (U11i versite Natio11ale du Zaire). 1l1e head of tl1e Uni. versi.ty wi.11 l1ave tl1e desi.g11atio11 Presi.de11t a11cl will reside 111 l(i.11sl1asa. Eacl1 of tl1e otl1er t,vo ca111puses will be gover11ed by a Vi.ce Preside11t. TI1e faculti.es l1ave been redi.st1·i.buted as follo'A1 s: l , I( i.nsl1asa

Law, Medi.ci.11e, Eco110111i.cs, Polytech11ics, Sci.e11ces (l\'1atl1e1nati.cs, Cl1e111i.stry, Pl1ysi.cs ), Roma11 Catholic TI1eology

1( isanga11i.:

Agro110111y, Education, Sci.e11ces (Botany, Biology, Zoology), Protesta11t 1�11eology

LL1bu1nbashi:

Social a11d Poli.tical Sci.e11ces, Sci.e11ces (111dust1·i.al Che111i.stry, Geology), La11guages

Althougl1 thi.s reorga11izatio11 see1ns e111i.11e11tly sound fro1n an admi11istrative sta11dpoi11t, i.t does 11ot suggest a11y freeing fro1n tl1e Belgi.a11 moclels. T11e clevelopn1e_11t of truly Co11golese i.11stitL1ti.011s, botl1 legal a�1d ot�1er'A1 1_ se, witl1out predon1i11a11t Belgia11 i11flue11ce a11d d11·ect1011 w1ll probably not occur for a very 1011g peri.od of tin1e. 1. Ope 11 letter ·from tl1e Vice Preside11t of tl1e U11iversity, Ca1npL1s de I( isangal'1i, dated 8 Se1Jtem1Jer 1971.

155

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Fellowsl1i1Js from Fra11copl1011ic Africa

•

Tt1 e fel lowsl1i}JS award e d able you11g Congolese law graduates for stL1dy in tl1e U1:itecl Stat�s may b e tl1e most significa11t co11tacts wl11c! 1 An1 e r1can scl1olarsl11p _ ca11 111ake 111 Fra11copho11ic Africa. Occas1011ally an Africa11 law graduate will al reacly l1ave suffered an impri11ti110- of tl1e limited, legalistic European approach to la.w a11d proble1n-solving wl1icl1 wil l negate th e be11efits of l1is ex1Josure to A1nerica11 n1etl1odology a11d tecl1niques. But n1ost of tl1ose who we1-e both very young and very able I1ave prove11 sufficie11tly flexible to acquire witl1 extra ordi11ary speed la11guag e skills a11d an appreciation of tl1e best of wl1at America11 law scl1ools have to offer. At le ast so1ne of tl1e1n l1av e found th e te chno logy and 111etl1odology tra11sferable to Africa. Further, tl1 ey are desirot1s of creating African a11s\v e rs to Africa11 prob le111s eve11 tl1ougl1 tl1 e lingua franca be F1-e11cl1 and th e jt1risprude11tial base tl1e civi l l aw. But tl1 e problem with tl1is bridg e 1J etwee11 tl1e civil and co1nmo11 law is one of fina11ce a11d nu1nb ers. Th e cos ts ar e l1ea vy for i11ter11ational travel , for int e11sive courses i11 Englisl1, for tuiti.011 a11d f ees, and mai11t e11ance tl1rougl1out tl1e aca den1ic yea1·. It also tak es ti111e and n1oney to develop a11 ad eqt1ate progran1 for tl1e forei.g11 bo1·11 reared i.n a syste m of j t1risprude11ce quite di.ffe 1-e11t fron1 tl1at of tl1 e co1nmo11 l avv. It is ft1ti le i.f not dysfunctio11al to tl1row a Franco1Jl1011ic Africa11, or perl1aps any Afri.ca11, i11t o a sta11da rd cur1-ict1lu111 of a 11 A111e rica11 la\\' school. Indivi.dual, professio11al gt1ida11ce is essential. Son1e tin1es semi11a1·s 01- courses l1ave to be tailor-1na.de. Tl1i.s 1·aises tl1e qL1 estio11 of 11un1bers. It takes a fairl y l a rge �u1nber of stude11ts to \Va1·ra 11t tl1e structu1·ing of � SIJ:c1a l . c ?�1·se. f\ lc:lv\1 class co111pose d e xclL1sively of fore1g11 v1s1t1 ng scl1ol ars \Vou ld defeat 011e of tl1 e pri 1nary JJur1Joses of sucl1 \risitors , tl1e exposu1·e to acct vist . tea.cl1 1 11g tecl111iques by 1\n1e rica ns in a11 1\ 1nerican _ �ett1ng. 1\11d lastly, as to JJrof essio11al guida11ce, it �al�es. a great 11u111be 1· of i11divi.dual scl1olars witl1 l1igh 1 �1 tell1 g:11ce a11d great dedicatio11 to demo1 1strate effec ti l different tl10L1gl1t patt er11s a11d a fundan1e 11tally � � _ � diffe re i,t ap1Jroa.cl1 to legal re aso11i11 g and tl1 e uses of tl1e 156

1aw .

Wo·rking c �11fere11ces, perl1a1Js "\x,1orl<:sl1ops" is tl1e more appropr1ate te1·n1, n1a)' provide tl1e key to real u11derstancli11g and cooperatio11 a.cross tl1e co lo11ia.lly inspired division. BL1t tl1e gatl1eri.11gs l1ave to be \,vork sl1ops _vvitl1 eacl1 �a1·ti.cipant acti ve1y co11trilJLtti11g to tl1e stL1cly 1f 11ot solt1tlo11 of 111atters of n1utual i11terest. I11 April 1969 the facL1lt�l of law of tl1e U11i versi.ty of Gl1ana l1osted an exploratory 111eeti11g of re1Jrese11tati.ves fro111 selected Francopl1oni.c. a11cl 1-\11glopl1011i.c law fact11ties 111 West Africa for tl1e possible selection of a si11gle 1·e search topic. Tl1e participa11ts included tl1ree re1J1�esen tati.ves from tl1e Ca111eroo11, two f1·om tl1e Co11go (I(i.11shasa), tvvo fron1 tl1e Cote d'Ivore, five fro111 Gl1a11a, three fron1 Nige1'ia, a11d two fro111 Se11egal. 1-11e 1\n1eri.ca11 dean of the faculty of lavv of IIaile Se llassie l University and two re1Jrese11tati ves of tl1e Sailer P1�oject also participated. Two sin1ulta11eous t1·a11slators \,vere provicled, and tl1ere \.vas thus a11 aln1ost i.nsta11ta11eoL1s give-and-take of ideas. At the outset there was a11 obvious fail.tire to co111n1L1nicate i11 meani.11gful terms about legal resea.rcl1 des1Jite the ge11eral fri.endli11ess of all of tl1e co11ferees. Occa sionally an Anglophonic parti.cipa11t \voulcl 1·eco111111end a subject, whereupo11 several scl1olars fron1 tl1e Fra11co pl1011ic si.de vvot1lcl assert tl1ey l1ad no ''co111pete11ce" eve11 to discuss the n 1atter, as i.t fell in tl1e fiel d of "droit prive" and tl1ey were lear11ed 011ly in tl1e "clroi.t pLtblic", or vice versa. There was little i11itial f lexibility. But by the tl1ird day there was a11 i11creasi11g i.nterest by eacl1 participant in tl1e positio11s taken by tl1e otl1e·rs a11cl in tl1e special researcl1 1Jroblems wl1ich tl1e variot1s pro1Josals prese11ted. Finally a co11fere11ce topic was selected: "The acquisition a11d us e of state lands: foundatio11s ancl prob lems". It is expectecl tl1at tl1 e progra 111 wi 11 be continued ' tl1at serious researcl1 w il l be conduc. ted, and tl1at tl1ere will be a number of prodLtcti ve V11 orJ<:1ng ses sions, all ur1der tl1e aegis of tl1e Ce11tre /\fricai11 De )oLtr Le s J ve i F· ormation et cle Recl1e1-ches 1\cl111i11istrat 157

---· Oe\relopJJe111e11t (co111monly referred � o- as Cafra·d, the _ Tra111111g a11d l�esearcl1 Frei1c11 acro11ym fo1- tl1e Afr1ca11 Ce11t1-e in f\d111i11i stratio11 for Developrne11t ). Cafrad Cafrad is u 11ique to Africa 011 m an y counts. It vvas . co oc 1 or on M It is fr e iv at iti i11 e tl1 tl1 wi ed ir sp in 11 Africa y 1 extremel skillfully a11d i111agi11ativel)r directed by a1 _ _ it le pr es ab de v1 e11 an d pe lo ve de s l1a 10 \Nl 11, ca ri Af able corps in a rapiclly expa11di11g professio11al staff. Some sixtee11 Africa11 11atio11s are participants. There is about equal re1Jrese11tatio11 fro111 f\nglopl1011ic and Fra11co1Jhoni.c Africa a11d a stro11g co11ti11ge11t from the Maghreb a11d that IJart of tl1e co11ti11ent vvl1ich is 1\rab in its orientatio11. Caf1-ad is sL1pported and gover11ed by the African member states with some fina11cial assista11ce from U11esco and the U11ited Nati.011s Developn1ent Program. At a 111eeti.11g i11 March, 1971 the Governing Board of Cafrad established a Legal Sruclies Programme and approved the Centre's associatio11 witl1 tl1e Sailer Project in its develo1Jme11t. ,..fl1ese deter111i11atio11s 1-eflect, of coL1rse, an app1-eci.ati.on of tl1e i.1nportance of lavv to development and of tl1e unique 01JportL111ity to offer specialized i11sr1-L1cti.011 (sen1i11ars, worksl1ops, etc. ) in lavv a11d law-1-elated matters whicl1 are 11ot generally available i11 law scl1ools a11d \vould not be 1Jrese11ted i11 institutes of admi11i.srratio11. Son1e of tl1ese matters n1ay i.11clude: tl1e co11ser\ratio11 a11d use of 11atural resources; tl1e 11egotiatio11 a11d form ulatio11 of co11cessio11 agree111e11ts; tl1e clevelopn1ent of tax policies, tax legislatio11 a11d tl1e admi ni strati 011 of tax la'vVS; tl1e 11ati.011alizatio11 of tJarticL1la1- bL1si11esses or industries; resettli11g 1-e�ugees; restructu1:i11g agricultural land te11u1-e 1-elat1011sl1i.ps i11 order to develo1J a11 opti1nu111 a1nou11t of la11d fo1- tJ1�odL1ction a11d for its effective use as a c�edi.t de\ri.ce; establi.sl 1i11g 11e\\1 arra11gen1e11ts for �-gricLiltL1ra1 111arketi.11g (111ark · eti11g boards a11d coopera tl ves, et�. ); tl1e develop111e11t of a 11e\v systen of land 1 _ �egtst�at1011. 111 additio11, Cafrad ex1Jressed a11 i11terest 111 tl1e researcl1 prog1-a111 11oted abov e 011 tl1e acqui.sitio11 ai1d use of state La11ds. It l1as agre co11ti11ue tl1i.s ed to · pro0crra111 wi.tl1 tl1e a ss1 sta11ce of tl1e l11ter11atio11al Le0�·a1 Ce11ter.

158

Co11fe1-e11ces 011 La\\' a11d Legal EdL1catio11 111 f\frica It has becon1e so111ewl1at fasl1io11able to clis111iss co11fer �nces as \\1 ast �s of ti111e a11c1 111011ey. 1\11d tl1ey can be JUSt that, pc1rt1cularly ,vhe11 held f or tl1eir o,v11 sakes or for the special benefits of tl1e co11ve11ors or promot ers. Yet ,vl1en tl1ose asse111bled conie from different areas but vvith sin1ilar i11terests a11d co1nparable exper tise, tl1e c onfere11ces ca11 be 1J1-odL1ctive, wl1atever their origins. T11i s is pa1-ticL1larly trL1e in 1\frica wl1ere tl1e difficLtlty and cost of ti-avel assu1-e i11terest and pLirJ) ose. The easy excl1a11ge of vievvs i11 a setti11g removed from 011e 's daily tasks l1as, of course, a special value, })artic ularly for those 01-di narily preoccupied wi.tl1 mi11isterial or admi11istrati ve fL1nctio11s. It is ofte11 tl1e u11anticipatecl and casL1al cross-fertilization of ideas V11hicl1 justifies tl1e co11fere11ce i.11vest111e11t. During tl1e past te11 years America11 legal scl1olars have bee11 privi.leged t o participate i11 a 11u111lJer of co11fere11ces i.11 Africa, f or so111e of ,vl1i.cl1 they l1ave sharecl responsibility. Con1111ent 011 a few of tl1ese co11fere11ces 111ay be of son1e general i11terest. Me11tio11 has already been 111ade of tl1e Co11fere11ce 011 Legal Eclucati.on in Africa V11l1i.cl1 was l1eld i.11 Legon Accra, Gl1ana i.11 Januar:i>' 1962. Botl1 tl1at Co11fere11ce a11d its follow-up, a "\A.Tor king Co1111nittee Meeting", ,vhich vvas held in Freetow11, Si.erre Leo11e, i.11 F ebruary 1963, set the stage for the develo1 )111e11t of \\1orki11g relati.011shi1)s between law teachers a11d legal scholars and n1e111bers of the be11cl1 a11d bar tl1rougl1out Africa, tl1e U11i.ted I< ingdon1, and the United States. 111 part becaL1se of the success of botl1 gatherings a11otl1er Confere11ce 011 Legal EdL1cati.011 i11 Africa was held in ;\cldi. s 1\baba fro111 October 20 to 24, 1968 at tl1e invitatio11 of the FacL1lty ofla,v of I Tai.le Sellassie I University. T11ere were twenty-one partici pants fron1 outsi.cle Ethiopia, includi11g represe11tati.ves from tl1e la,v faculties in tl1e Cameroo11, the Co11g o (l<insl1asa), Ghana, I< e11ya, Les otho (representi11g Botswana, J_,esotho a11d Swaziland), Liberia, Malaw1, Nigeria (botl1 Ife a11d Zaria), S01nalia, tl1e Sucla11, 159

Ta11za.i1ia, Uga11cla, a11d Za1nbia, a11d the U11ited Arab RepLibli.c. All sessions were -� n Fr:11cl1 and E11� lisl1, a11ct the co11ferees participated act1 vely 111 ea.cl1 session. The JJroceedi11gs of the Conference, a report of 011e hu11dred a11d forty-six pages \}:/ith appendices totalling about fifty pages, "''ere prepared in Frencl1 and English a11d distributed tl1rougl1out the a·cademic community i11 Africa. In a foreword to tl1ose proceedings, Dean Qui11tin Jol1.11stone 1. of tl1e host faculty summarized the Confer e11ce i.11 part as follo\v s: Tl1e conferees seemed i11 ge11eral agree n1e11t that Afri.ca11 legal education sl1ould co11ce11trate 011 African la\1\1 and its relation to tl1e 11eeds of 1\frica11 society. There also seemecl to be agreeme11t that to perfor1n this educatio11al fu11ctio11 properly rec1uires a vast i11crease in the amount and qL1ality of researcl1 a11d \Vri.ting 011 the actual and pote11tial impact of la"'' in 1\frica11 coL1ntries and the desirability of expa11sio11 a11d revision of African legal doctrine a11d legal i11stitL1tio11s. Surprisingly strong opi.11io11s \:Vere expressed by a nL11nber of co11ferees tl1at legal scl1olars Vi1 ere 11eeded able to do field resea1-cl1 011 tl1eir OV\1 n or i.11 cooperatio11 witl1 social scie11tists. Given tl1e n1ag11itude and difficL1lty of tl1e prol1le111 and tl1e fina11cial cost of good researcl1 a11d \Vri.ting, it is tl1c:1t filli11g tl1e kno\,,ledge void aJJpare11t 2 _ 011 f\fr1can la\\' will be a 1011g, slo\v process. · Dean Jol1nsto11e also noted tl1at tl1e Co11fere11ce disclosed a11 extensive _ i11terest i11 i11c1-easi11g cooperative co11tacts _ bet\.vee11 Af1-1ca11 la\,, scl1ool s. Tl1e sL1ggestio11s included 1.

J� stL18 S. llotcl1kiss

[Jrofessor of La\\1, Ya le U11iver �1ty, 011 seco�1dn1ent as dea11 to tl1e FaculD' of L a\v of rla1le Sellc1ss1e 1 U11i versi ty 1967-196 9. _ 2. Op. c 1t. sLt}Jra p. 13, at p. 5.

160 •

'Pl----teacl1er �11cl stude11t excha11ges, joi11t researct1 progranis, preparat1 011 of con1n1011 teacl1i11g n1ate1·ials, a11cJ regio11al a11d co11ti11e11tal meeti11gs of teacl1ers. Furtlie:r comineiit on this \Vi.11 be fou11d i.11 tl1e secti.011 011 the African Law School Associ.ati.011. 1. In Decen1ber 1968 a n1eeti.11g was held i.11 Nairobi. 011 law reporting i.11 East f\fri.ca. Tl1e parti.ci.pa11ts we1·e those directly concerned ,,vitl1 law re1Jorts i.11 I< e11ya, Uganda, and Ta11za11ia. Before tl1e 111eeti.11g there had been a lack of i.nfo1·111 ation i.n eacl1 cou11try as to vvl1at was goi11g on i.n tl1e field of law reporti.11g in the otl1er two coL1ntri.es. This professi.011al gatl1eri11g developecl close and 1·egular li11es of co111111u11icatio11s between Dar es Salaam, I<an1pala, and Nairobi. to i.11sLtre coorcli11atio11 of the various acti.viti.es i.11 law reporting a11d to avoid clup li.cati.ons wl1i.ch vvould waste scarce resources. A Conference 011 tl1e No11-Insti.tuti.onal l�reat111ent of Offe11ders was held in ALtgust 1970 in Lagos, Nigeria. Its primary pL1rpose was to focLIS atte11tio11 011 tl1e i.11uti.lity of some of tl1e very l1ea vy sa11ctio11s w hicl1 were bei11g decreed by the military gove1·11111e11t. Tl1ere l1as bee11 a te11dency by military gover11me11ts tl1rougl1out 1\frica to adopt the view tl1at tl1ef greater tl1e sa11ctio11 tl1e greater its deterre11t effect. ...l1e Co11fere11ce \.\1as Ltseful, primarily because i.t brought togetl1er priso11 officials, psychiatri.sts, a11d legal scl1olars. But tl1ere l1ad 11ot been ti.me 11or op1Jortu11i.ty to distribute 1Japers i11 adva11ce of the Confere11ce and thus eliminate the ti1·esome read i11g of learned articles. FL1rtl1er, the Co11fere11ce dis cussions appeared to }Je largely descri.ptive of practices and procedures. A follow-up co11fe1·ence 011 cri.n1i.nology, 011 the entire 1Jroble111 of sa11cti.011s a11d deterre11ce and tl1eir 1·elatio11sl1i.p to differe11t cL1ltures would be wel co111ed in view of the marked increase i.11 tl1e i.ncide11ce of crin1e now being experi.e11cecl in Africa, and i.ncleed throL1ghout the \:vorld. It seems son1ewl1at iro11ic _tl:at, a short \Vhile after tl1e t\ugust Co11fere11ce, tl1e m1l1ta1·y 1. l 11fra, p.164 et seq. 161

gover11111e11t decreed that robbery accon1.JJani.ed by ar1ned vi.olei1ce wi.tl1 a lethal weapon \vould receive a ma11datory . sei1te11ce of deatl1 by a fi.ri.11g sqL1ad. There 1s now no judi.ci.al di.screti.011 wl1atsoever in sucl1 matters. TI1e foreo· oi.11g discussi.011 relates to co11ferences com posed pri.11cipall)r of i.11di.vi.cluals vvl1? may off�� their ovv11 _ _ expertise u11fettered by a11y 1nst1tut1011a� pos1t1on. Tl1ougl1 so1ne i11di.vi.duals n1ight be cons1dered to 1·e1Jre se11t u11iversi.ties or even age11ci.es of gover11me11t because of their official status, their partici.pati.011 can be dee1nec1 e11ti rely perso11al. 1 t depe11ds, of course, 011 the terms of tl1eir i.11vitati.011 a11cl perl1aps the 1na1111er of tl1ei.r accep ta11ce. Corrfere11ces at a state level are i.11evi tably 1JL1rde11ed by state policies. These someti.rnes i.11hi.bi.t debate or dictate posi.tio11s, vvl1atever the views of tl1e i.11cli.vi.dL1al represe11tati.ves. But the presentati.011 of such 1Jositio11s 111 the special context of tl1e co11fere11ce i.s often l1el1Jful a11d 111ay lead to some reco11sideratio11 or modi.fi cati.011. Botl1 l<i11ds of co11fere11ces, witl1 their special attributes, V11ere co1nbi11ed at tl1e Co11fere11ce of African JL1ri.sts 011 1\frica11 Legal Process and tl1e l11di ,,tctual, l1eld i.11 1\ddi.s 1\baba i.11 1\pri.l 1971 unde1· tl1e s1Jo11sorsl1ip of tl1e Eco11omi.c Comrni.ssi.011 for 1\frica, \Vi.tl1 tl1e assis ta11ce of tl1e l11ter11ati.011al Legal Ce11ter. TI1 e1·e \\1ere official re1Jrese11tatives fron1 twe11t'jr-si.x n1en1ber states, a11cl sixtee11 judges, la\v·:{ers, a11d legal scl1olars ,,11 10 \Vere invited as i11di vi.duals a11d participated in tl1eir 0\¥11 rigl1t, eve11 tl10L1gl1 111a11y l1eld l1igl1 gover11111e11t posts i.11 tl1eir 1·especti.ve countries. 171e Co11fe1·e11ce crene1·ated co11si.derable i11terest, JJ1·ovoked an aV1,a1·e11ess of tl1e n1utuali. ty of 111a11y 1J·roblen1s, a11d pro\ri.ded i.11,,alL1able co11tacts. 1�11e Co11fe·re11ce co11ti.11ued tl1e 1non1e11tu111 of tl1e United Natio11s Se1ni.11a1· l1eld i.11 Cairo i.11 1969 i.11 tl1e establi.sh1ne11t i.11 1\frica of a regi.011al co11 1n1i.ssi.011 011 l1un1a11 ·rigl1ts. �J�l1e tl11·L1st of tl1e Co11fere11ce \\1 as an exa111inatio11 of l1u 1na11 ri.gl1ts ,,,i_ thi 11 tl1e i.11di. vidual 111e111ber states of ECA · O f tJa1-t1c ·· L1 l ar co 11cer11 \\ 1as tl1e di.stJarily ber,,,ee11 .tl1e l �� ? 11 tl1e lJooks c111d tl1e la\\' i.11 operati.011, betvvee11 co11s�ltLtt1011al procla111atio11s of ri.o·l 1ts and tl1ei.r lin1ita_ ° t1011 111 JJ1-actice · Bef ore t·1 1e co11fere \,,as 11ce beo·a b 11 tl1ere 162

��w �.,.._-_ ..___

apprehensio11 tl1at tl1e clel iberati 011s n1igl1 t be 111ai11tained at a �heo�etical level, 011 \Vl1at tl1e lavvs IJI�ovicled ,;1,1icl1out _ co11s1der1ng tl1e1r evasio11 or abLtse, a11d l1e11ce \Vitliout proposi11g any possible re111ed)'· So111e of tl1e docL1menta tio11 distributed in advance of tl1e Co11fere11ce helped to forestall this. For exampl e, tl1e n1aterial on tl1e lJro blems of preventive clete11tio11 i11clL1cleci so111e 1-e1Jorts of decisions i11 1\ng l opho11ic 1\f1-ica vvl1icl1 i.11cli.cated n1i.suse of tl1is device: the i ncarcerati. 011 of i.11di. vi.duals for poli t ical reasons unrelated to tl1e secLtri.ty of tl1e st;;1te; or tl1e resort to detention sin1pl)r becaL1se of tl1e difficu l ty 01impossibility of sustaining tl1e requi1-ecl proof in fo1-111al criminal proceedi11gs. Sin1ilar decisio11s fro111 F1-anco pho11ic jurisdictions could 11ot 1Je fou11d. f Iowever, despite tl1e tendency i11 so111e quarters to keep separate the law as written and tl1e l aw i11 1Jractice, tl1e1-e \\1e1-e candid excl1anges, a11d a 11un1be1- of reco1n111e11datio11s \vere made to limit tl1e abuse of preve11tive dete11tion. A conference 011 \\lhether 01- not tl1ere sl1ou ld be 1Jreventive dete11tion woL1ld l1ave bee11 111ea11i11g l ess. Many if not rnost of the African states fi11d tl1is a 11ecessary co11con1i tant to the effective exercise of go\rer11n1e11t, bL1t al111ost al l of the African 11ations v\1 ou ld agree i.t sl10L1lcl be severely limited, its n1isuse elin1i11ated, a11cl its use n1ade as reasonable a11d l1un1a11e as possible. The Office of tl1e Ombudsma11, tl1ougl1 we ll establisl1ed in Tanzania a11cl M auritius, ,;i.,as 11ovel to ma11y of tl1e con ferees ancl virtually u11know11 to tl1ose fro111 Fra 11copl1onic Africa . The la tte r see111ed to feel it was 11ot 11ecessary, at least 111 civil l aw jLtrisdictio11s. Nevertl1eless, tl1e of 11 tio -ea c1 e tl1 e at ri op pr re l1e "w d re e vo er e 1lf fa 11c Co the office of a 11 01nbL1dsma11 · as 011e of tl1e measures to be L1ndertake11

,�p

to overcome tl1e eco1101nic, social and hL1n1an factors whicl1 create a e f th o rt 1Jo \e "I a ic fr A r fo 1. Economic Co111missio11 al g e L 11 a ic fr A 11 0 ts is r · Ju n a _ Co11ference o f 1\fric l)' 19 ;l, Ju S 1, 52 / 14 . N C / E l ," a Process a n d the Inclivictu at p. 21.

163

gap bet\vee11 tl1e JJrinciple tl1at tl1e courts sl10L1ld be readily accessible to all a11d. tl1e actL1alities of prese11t-day juclicial facilities i11 1\frica. l. Tiie Co11fere11ce also recon1me11ded tl1at a11 African Com111issi.011 011 [-Iu111a11 Ri.gl1ts be establi.shecl. It i.11vited tl1e Orga11izati.011 of Afric a11 U11ity to � 1asten tl1e i.mple: me11tatio11 of a similar recon1n1enda t1on of the UN Ca1ro Sen1i.11ar. 1\nd finally, 011 the questi.011 of legal aid, the Co11fere11ce En11Jl1asizes that i.t is esse11tial to tl1e f air a11cl i1111Jartial admi.11istr ati.on of justice tl1at rich and poor alike should l1ave eqL1a.l access to tl1e coL1rts a 11d to tl1e assista11ce of tr ai11ed leg al 1Jerson11el a11cl tl1at tl1is co11sideratio11 imposes a11 obligati.011 011 gover11me11ts a11d 011 tl1e legal professi.011 to device adequate 111acl1i.11ery for ensuring tl1at tl1e ideal of ec1L1al jLIStice before tl1e law beco111es a livi11g reality tl1 at sup1Jorts tl1e develop r11e11t of a S}Jiri.t of justice i.n tl1e society. 2�[here is value i.n reaffirn1i11g tl1ese goals. \\'11ether tl1e Corlfere11ce wi.1.1 achieve any lasti11g success will de1Je11d, of coL1rse, 011 tl1e im1Jle111e11tati.011 of tl1e ideas excl1a11ged and ge11erated. An Associatio11 of Af1-ica11 La\\1 Scl1ools ,,,.. o·r La\"' 'l'eacl1ers rfl1e an11L1al 111eeti. 11gs of tl1e Nige1-i.a11 La \V Teacl1ers 1\ssoci.ati.011, to Vi1 l1icl1 \;ve1-e i11vitecl several teacl1e1·s �r�111 Afr_i.ca11 la\-\1 facL1lties outside of Nigeria, spa.rked an 1nterest 111 tl1e orga.11izati.011 of a11 associatio11 011 a co11tii1e11tal basis. 1�11e co11fe1-ees l1ave derived n1an�/

1. Ibid. l). 20.

2. Ibid. pp. 22-23. 164

-- _,

·--- ·---....:._.

benefits from tl1e gi_ \7e-a?cl-take of friendly excl1anges 011 �natters of profes �1o?al 1nterest. It vvas tl1ougl1t tl1at a11 1ndependent assoc1atton of la,v teacl1ers or scl1ools ,vi.tl1out government i.nvolve111e11t coL1ld play a usefu l a11cl important 1-ole in establishing professi.011al stanclards of admission both to la\v schools a11cl to practice. It ,vas tl1ere ore proposed at tl1e 1\ 1Jril, 1965 111eeti.i1g of tlie � _ N1ger1an La\v Teachers 1-\ssoci.ati.011, ,;vhi.cl1 was helcl i11 Ibadan, in the tl1en \;\,l estern Regi011, tl1at a11 associ.atio11 of law teachers througl10L1t f\frica be established, IJer haps in tvvo stages. Initially tl1e rnen1lJe1·sl1i.p vvoulcl be li1nited to Anglophonic f\frica. Vlhe11 its effectiveness was prO\ien, teacl1ers fron1 Fra11copl1onic /\fri.ca woL1ld be added. The dean of the facL1lty of law of the U11i. versi. ty of Kha1-toum assumed the responsibility for tl1e develop n1ent of a consti. tution and at least te11tati. ve plans for tl1e Association's orga11izati.on and ad1ni.11istratio11. And tl1e dea11 of the law faculty of the U11i. ve1-si.�r of Ife unde·rtook to develop an association 11e,�,1sletter. A co11sti.tuti.on V1 as drafted by tl1e sL1n1me1- of 1966 a11d circulated a111ong the various Anglophonic la\v faculties. Tl1i.s produced sur prisingly little respo11se. Nevertheless, IJla11s \Vere started for the holding of a co11fere11ce of the 11e\v Association in I(hartoum i11 December, 1967. 1nese plans came to 11aught for a 11un1ber of reaso11s, i.11clL1di11g the disruptions of the Arab - Israeli. wa1- a11d the tern1i.na tion of seve1-al expatriate appoi.11t111e11ts i11 the faculty of law. At the ti.me the co11fere11ce IJla11s V11 ere ca11celled the problem of financi.11g tl1e co11fere11ce had not yet been resolved. It seemed clear tl1at tl1e law faculties would not cover the inter11atio11al transportati.011 costs of their ly 011 er off uld co ct oje Pr r ile Sa e tl1 d An iv . tat es en repres limited suppo1-t for sucl1 travel. Tl1ere \Vas thus co11d l1a ve l1a d ul wo ce en er 11f co e th er th 1e r wl de si able do ub t enough participation to 1nake it wortl1while or vvl1etl1er it could have been held at all. '-

11 t io ca du E al eg J_, 1 01 e 1c e1 er 1f o1 C At the October 1968 _ in Africa held in Addis t\baba, there was furtl1er cl1s cussi on ;bout tl1e 11eed for a for1 n a l associatio11 of d or w re s fo l1i 111 s. ol l1o sc 'll' la Afiican la w teachers or to the "Proceedings of tl1e Co11.ference" Dean Jol1nstone

165

, •

sLtmniari.zed tl1i.s a s follows: Tl1e most 1Jro1ni.si.11g 1nediun1 f? r furthering cooperati.ve co11tact a1nong i\�r1can law scl1ools n1ay be a vvell-orga111zed and acti.ve Africa11 Law Scl1ool Association or the o-roupi.11g of law schools i11to vi.gorois regi.011al associ.ati.o�s. Broad . co11sensL1s favori.11g tl1e assoc1at1011 approacl1 existed an1011g �l1e con�ere_es. But i.11 a large co11tinent l1ke Afr1ca 1t 111ay be beyo11d the fi.11ancial resources of tl1e scl1ools co11cer11ed to establish and n1ai.ntai.11 associations of the ki.nd 11eeded. Supporting and fostering such associatio11s until tl1ey are able to go it alo11e could be wo1·tl1y subjects of assi.sta11ce from i.11ter11atio11al orga11izati.011s or fro1n the foundations a11d gove1·11n1ents of clevelo1Jed cou11tries. l. "'1

1 1e confe1·ees recog11ized tl1at the costs of tl1e confer e11ces i11clucli11g the inter11atio11al travel of tl1e conferees, \\iould !1ave to be fou11d i.n public 01· pri. vate sources out side of Africa. U11til tl1e wortl1 of tl1e Associati.011 was establisl1ecl 011e could not expect support fron1 tl1e African la\\' faculties. Tl1e Sailer Project (I11ter11ati.011al Legal Ce11ter) agreed to l1elp fi11ance a 1neeti11g of tl1e Associa tion tf i.t \111ere l1eld i.n co11jL111cti.011 \Vitl1 a co11ference 011 s0111e SLil)sta11tive legal n1atter of general interest a11d co11cer11 tl1rougl1out 1\f1·ica. 171e dea11 of tl1e La\V Faculty at the tl1e11 U11iversity College at Da1· es Salaarn ag1·eed to l1ost sL1ch a confere11ce \:vl1icl1 \\ ould consider tl1at nevv cli sci JJ1ine, "J_,a\\' ancl Develop111e11t ". Te11tative ar1·a11ge111e11ts for sL1cl1 a n1eeti.11g, 110\vever, vvere disru1Jted by tl1e 1969 coL1p i11 l(l1artoL1111, tl1e decisio11 of tl1e dea11 of tl1e lavv facLtltJ' 11ot to retur11 to tl1e Sucta11, a11d changes i.11 tl1e leaclersl1i.JJ ancl co1111Jositio11 of tl1e law facL1lty at Dar es Salaan1. 1

1. 01J. cit. supra JJ. 13, at p. 6. 166

Soine interest in an Asso cia tion, howe ver, sists, and there are some indica still perÂ faculties in Francophonic Afri tions that s cholars in would contribute to the Asso ca w ould particip ate and ciat and costs priorit ies will defe r ion's effectiveness. But its establishme long time. nt for a

I I

167 --

...

RESOURCES T11e story here recou11ted v..1 ould 11ot be complete wi.tl1out son1e 1ne11ti.011 of otl1er sources of tale11t and fu11ds for tl1e various acct vi.ti.es described abo,,e. Two organi. zati.011s i.11 particLtlar p1·ovi.ded u11usuall)r slci.lled person11el i.11 the early si.xti.es: tl1e Fellows i . n Africa Program of tl1e Scl1ool of I11c1ustri.al Ma11ageme11t of tl1e Massachusetts l11sti.tute of Tecl1nology, a11d tl1e Africa - Asi.a Public Service Fellowship ·rrogran1, of the t\tfax\vell Center for tl1e StL1dy of Overseas 01)erati.011s of Syracuse U11i.versi.ty. Botl1 of tl1ese 1Jrogra1ns, vvl1i.ch were largel)' financed by tl1e 1:;sorcl Fou11dati.011, have bee11 di.sco11tinued. f-Iowever, 111a11y of tl1eir s1)eci.al attributes l1a,,e bee11 i.ncorporated i11to tl1e Overseas Fellowship Program of the lnter11ati.011al Legal Ce11ter. 171at lJrogram is co11ti11ui11g althougl1 n1a11y of tl1e activities of the Sailer Project will be phasi.11g out cluri.11g the coining year. The lnte1·11ati.onal Legal Ce11ter is acquiring a c1ifferent e111pl1asis and a revised focus, pri.111a1·ily to,vard resea1·cl1. Broacl 1Jrofessi.011al i.11terest l1as characterized the Sai le1· J)1-oj ect a11d tl1e r,x. 0 progra111s n1e11ti.011ed above i.n all tl1eir 1\frica11 i11volve111e11ts. 1� 11e p1·ojects have tended to be self-effacing, a11d i.t has 11ot bee11 difficult to 111ake con1plen1e11tary various effo1·ts of assista11ce. Tl1ere \:vas ge11e1·a11:)' a11 alJse11ce of a11)' cl1auvi.11i.s111. Sailer, for exa1111J1e, JJrovi.cleci s0111e sup1Jort for fi. ve Briti.sl1, r,vo Ca11acli.a11, a11d ei.gl1 t EuroJ)ea11 la,,, teacl1ers i.11 Af1·i.ca. It assi.stecl a11 a.ble Bri.ti.sl1 la\\' professor so l1e coL1ld serve as clea11 of a lavv facL1l�r i.n \'vest Africa. Cordi.al , 11::1,,e tl1us bee11 de,,eloped by rofessi.011al relati.011sl1i.1Js � teachers a11d scl1olars f1·on1 a 11umber of di.ffere11t cou11t1·i.es a11cl i.11 several 1\fri.ca11 states. 1

168

444

. .. ·-�- !..·

To co11serve its o :v11 fL111d s a11d e11able it to coi1cei1 tr a te of ex er per1e11ce tl1e Sailer l)roJ· ect ei1cou ach s 011 te ·rage_c1 · · 11g tl1e ear1 Y s1· xt1e --e:-s tl1e deve lopn1erit of a Peace Cor dL1r1 iJs _ _ 1 Pr J...,av\ yers ogram. Largel:)' 011 tl1e P1-oject' s reco111111e11dation, Peace Corps Volul1teers l1a \Te Ltnclertake11 111ost of the teac l1i11g assig11111ents i11 011e la w scl1ool i,1 \'vest Africa, a11d t�1e y l1av� pro\1idecl SL1bsta11tial teact1t11g a11cI research ass1 stance 111 a 11L1n1be1- of otl1er facLilties 111 1\nglopl1011ic J\frica. In conjL1nction \Vitl1 tl1e Co11fere11ce Boarcl of tl1e Co111mittee on tl1e Inte1-11atio11al Excl1a11ge of Persons, the Sailer Project has recrLtited all FL1lbrigl1t Lavv Teacl1e rs in Africa. It has also provided substa11tial acldi.tional funds to overcome tl1e eco11omic sacrifice vvhicl1 eacl1 Fulb1-ight teacher ,voL1ld otl1er\vise face. The 1naxi.111L1111 salary of a Fulbrigl1t Visiti.11g Professor to a11 1\frica11 la\.v faculty is often less tha11 l1alf l1i.s 1-egL1lar 1\111erica11 salary. Without salary sup1Jle111e11ts, co111mo11ly refe1-1-ed to as "topping", the very able a11d con11Jete11t coL1lcl 11ot have been recruited at all. Furtl1er, travel fL111cls Lt11der the Fulbright Progra111 are avai lab le 011ly to tl1e i.11di vidL1al teacher. No funds are gra11ted tl1e wife or cl1i.ldre11 or otl1er dependents. By j oi11i11g forces, tl1e Sailer a11cl Fulbright Programs vvere able to recrL1it outsta11cli11g t\merican lavv teachers. Witl1out tl1at collaboratio11 tl1ere \.vould 11ot have bee11 a11:)' FL1lbrigl1t la\�' teacl1ers, or tl1ose sent might not l1ave been the best available. The Office of 1\frica11 Progra111s of the BureaL1 of Educational and Cultural Affairs of tl1e Depart111e11t of State contributed greatly to the sL1ccess of Sai_ler 's . fellowship program. It provicled n1ost of tl1e 111ter11at1onal travel costs for the Project's Africa11 Fellows �,ho I1_ad received gra11tsfor 011e or rvv O years graclL1ate. stL1dy 111 tl1e United States . It u11derwrote toL1rs of tl1e U111ted States by tl1e Fello\.VS after completi.011 of their first year of stud:)'' and it prov ided most of tl1e financing for th e sup1Jort of Afi-ica11s to attend tl1e specia1 sL1n1111er lJrograms dev�l opecl by the Sailer ProJ· e·ct and tl1 e African· Law Cei1ter of -,-.-d 11 a , � a L f o C0lun1b1· a Univ te tu 1 r ns I ersity a11d tl1e Sum1ner .. Dev elopme11t of Wisconsin U11i versity Scl1ool of La\v.

169

1e tl 1d a1 e il e 1t Sa tL ti. r 1s I1 11 Proj ect ca . i er m 1\ 1 a1 ic fr ;\ _ 11 1--.11e a 0 to p t1 x a e r d o n b a 1e ll tl o c i.r 1e tl l1 g u o ir tl le Vi,ere ab ' f r \\ o e la e 1b n ud u st 11 a s. e nt d lu c 11 . i to 1 11 ra g o Pr Afo-rad to le n ab en ra og pr c ri Af ed or an 1s o1 sp � s. u. a is f\f�raa n1s in t11e y ra 1t og rs pr ve 1i u1 s ou ri va 11d te at to gr�duares A fg�ad Fello\v is ch ea f o g i11 11c 11a fi 11e T . es at St Utlited 1s s: ho ce ur e so e re country th 11 o1 ? fr e 111 co � to ed supiJos y an e 1c iv er un e Am tl1 i s; rs st co el av tr t l na ti.o fo r 111ter11a ); d le ib an ss po the f . i 1· ve ai. w y (b es fe 1d a1 11 io for tui.t e om s tl1 fr nd fu th wi Agenc)' e ut tit s 111 11 ca ri ne A1 11 ca . ri i\f for I 11ter11ati.011al Oevelopn1e11t fo r the stude11t 's mai11te11a11ce. [-Iowever, 111ost of tl1e 111aj or la\V schools in the U11itecl States, at least tl1ose i.11 JJri.va te institutions, could 11ot vvai.ve tLti. ti.011 a11d fee s. Fellowsl1ip fu11ds l1ad to be fou11d s0111ewl1ere for tl1ose i11 need. Therefore, tl1e first Afgrad Fellows ,visl1i.11g to stud1 , la\v \\1 ere cli.rected to tl1ose u11i.versiti.es, mostly state institutions, \Vl1i.cl1 \vould eli111i11ate tui.ti.011 costs. This appare11tly \Vas 011e of tl1e basic criteria in the reco1nn1endation of a university. \Vi.th tl1e Sailer J)roject L1nder\\1 riti11g unive1· sity cl1arges, a11d i11 a fe\v i.11stances tl1e costs of inter11atio11al t1·a11spo1·tatio11, a 11t1111ber of tl1e Africa11 scl1olars 011 tl1e t\fgrad Progran1 Vi1 ere able to study la\\' 111 tl1e U11ited States i.11 scl1ools n1ost suitable to tl1eir talents a11d i11te1·ests a11d in co11jL111cti.011 \\1itl1 tl1e ablest scholars. l\1ost of tl1e fi11a11ci.11g for tl1e acti.vi.ties here 1�ecounted can1e from the Ford Fou11dati.011. Tl1i.s vital i11stitutio n gave \Vi.s�ly a11cl ge11erous1J, a11d i11novati\rel1r o\rer tl1e ten )'ear J)er1od of Sailer's pri111ar1r effecti\re11ess. Sailer as broadly co11cei. \1ed a11d flexibly admi.nister·ed. I t s0Ltgl1t to l:e l? \:Vl1erever it coLtld. Tl1is provoked son1e c 11ce 11 \\'ltl: 11 tl1e FoL1t1 ati.011 lest tl1e P1·oject's efforts � � � � �\ ,aJ)O: ate vv1tl1 a scatte1-111g of resources. But tl1e 011e, tVi O or tl1ree teacl1ers i11 eacl1 1\frica1 i11stitutio11 it 1 served were ofte11 tl1e 111axi111L1111 \:vl1i co cl1 uld or sl1ould _ lJe 1 nvolvecl i11 tl1e ligl1t of tl1e SJ Jecial 11eeds ' den1a11ds, a11cl resoL11·ces of tiie g1 . . .· \re11 1. . 11st1tut1011. Gl1a11a a11d I-:.:,t.111. op1a w e r· e except·1011s because of u11ique circu111. sta11ces \1' l1icl1 IJ· e1- in1· tte . d an . 2 d 6 ex . te1 19 1s1 111 ve su pp or t. 196 o0 t.l1er· e \1vac s a spec1a . . . n �·ca 11 · 1 1\rne � r to ecept1 v1ty 111 Gl1a11a I a\.v t.eacl1ers t\t tl1e anr1 san1e t1111e son1e . tl1ere was . · . Bri.tisl1' aiiti -colo111a l feeli.11g. l-=i'urtl1er, English la\1/ 1

\�

170

reacl1ers \Vere 11ot tl1e11 l)eing seconcled to I.av; facL1·1 ties 111 ;\frica so tl1at, to sorne exte11t, ;\111erica.n teacf1 e rs vve 1·e cl1ose11 faltte de n1iel1x. 111 Ethiopia, '-'-'i.tho1Jt a11y colonial lJO\.ver to exerc1 se an OJJposi 11g i.nf1 ue11ce ancl \Vitl1 a critical 11eed for :EchioJJia11s \vitl1 1a 1.r.1 t1�ai11i11g, extensive 1\n1e1·ica11 l1elp \.vas \velcomecl.

171

.J...-'-

VI CONCLUSION d w ne er 11c co is lt sa its h rt ,vo 1 01 �tl: the . ti tu . ti 11s . i 1y A1 value of i.ts efforts. But between donor and rec1p1e11t i11stitL1tio11s tl1ere is ofte11 a proble111 of ti.mi11g and tecl1nique of evaluatio11. Investments in 111e11 a11d ideas 1 hat successes are \i\ s. L1rn ret e i.at 1ed mn . i ld yie t 111o ca1 acl1 ievecl n1a y ofte11 be attributed to inputs V11 holly unre latecl to tl1e co11tributions assL1111ed to have been caus ative. Only tl1rougl1 SLtbstantial i.nvest111ents over 1011g periods of time ca11 011e deter111i.11e the relationsl1ip between teacl1ing a11d Llltimate conduct or a ,vay or view of life. Yet tl1ere l1as bee11 e11ough to suggest tl1at the i11vestme11ts i11 time a11cl 111011ey were more than ,:var ranted. Mutual respect a11d u11de1-sta11ding a11d close worki11g relatio11sl1i1Js between Africa11 and America11 i11stitL1tio11s, bet\;vee11 Africa11 a11d An1erican and B1itisl1 scl1olars a11d teachers a11d IJL1blic servants l1ave been rewardi11g. 1l1e more subtle and con11Jlex developments of the social e11gi11eer, of professional a,vareness of tl1e prol)len1s of law a11cl develop111e11t, of e11ligl1tened i11volve me11t i11 its processes by tl1e i11divictual African la\v graduate, of tl1e la\v as a IJOSitive fclctor 111 111oderniza tio11 a11d de1nocratizatio11 are all more difficult to aJJIJraise. Eve11 l1ere tl1e sig11s are IJOsiti ve. Tl1ere a.re a11 increasi11g 11uml)er of 1\frica11 scl1olars a11d African i11stitL1tio11s \,vl1icl1 are co11cer11ed ,vi.tl1 tl1e dyna111ic cl1aracteristi.cs of lcl'vv a11d legc1l developn1e11t. La,v is bei.11g 1 1 1Creasingly Vle\Ved a.s a11 i1 1strL1I11 e11t of social c�1a11ge. Tl1ere is a groV11i.11g aV11areness tl1at lavv 's ser v1ce to tl1e co1111no11alit:)' is 11101-e of a rio·I1t tha11 a J)rivile�e. 1l1ere is i.11creasi11g i11si.ste11�e that tl1e _ l)red1ct1ve quality of laV1 a11d its procedures 111ust be strengtl1�11ecl a11cl its appli.cati.011 111ade equal to al l }Jeoples 1n a ll stati.011s. 1

172

ttt et=

S915!S.., st1t1S'ii,,¥:, , �""Z'ef-S ta,r�

Before 1960 1\111er i.can k11owleclge of 1-\fri.ca a11cl i.ts peoples \Vas la1·gel>' co11:finecl to folklore a11cl tl1e great 111ytl1 s. An1erica 's k11ov\1 ledge of its o,v11 111ino1:iti.es \-vas si.1ni.la rlJ' li.n1ited. Its sense of ol)li.gati.011 u11cler tl1e great covena11ts, tl1e Declc:11·acio11 of l11clepe11cle11ce, the Bill of Ri.ghts, \\'as co111pro111i.secl l)y• lecre 11d a11cl ;;111 C, of tl1e 11evv i.11heri.ted myopia. BL1t Yvi.tl1 tl1e e111e'J:ge11ce ..... 11ations there l1as c,ome a 11evv a,\1 a1·eness 11ot 0111�{ of tl1e di.g11ity of n1a11 bL1t of tl1e \\1 ortl1 ancl cai)acity of eacl1 111a11 ever:,/\Vhere. \\1 ith tl1i.s 1·ealizc1ti.011 111L1st 11ovv co111e a cleepe:r kno\;vledge ancl respect a11d L111dersta11cli.11g. Natio11s are bL1i.lt, tl1e soci.al strL1ctL11·e e11gi.11eerecl a11d managed and n1anipulatecl b)1 tl1e i11dividLtal n1a11. [ Ie - is tl1e prin1c:1ry resource, a11cl on l1i.m 1:ests a nati.c)11 's intelligence and tl1e wo1·lcl's L111clersta11di.11g. 171i.s t1·uis111 is son1etin1es lost sight of i11 our collective society a11d i11 ou:r absorpti.011 \\1 itl1 tl1e n1ass, \\1 itl1 111ass educati.011, n1ass media, n1ass tra11sportatio11. Y'et it is tl1e i.11cli.vi. dual scl1olar-teacl1er, vv]10 l1as ve11tL1red al)road a11cl becon1e i11\rolved in tl1e educatio11al process a11d tl1e intellectual life of otl1er cL1ltL11·es, \Vho is a 11ati.011's capital resource. 1\11d it is l1e v\1110 \vil l pro\ride tl1e u11dersta11di.ng essential to a peacefL1l, inte1·de1Je11cle11t \vorld. The tale l1ere told relc:1tes to l1is clevelopmet1t in Africa and i11 tl1e U11ited States, itself a l1eacly p1·ocess mightily enj o>red.

173

AIJJJe11di.x A

(1-eferred to at page 73)

Co11fere11ce 011 Legal Education 111 l\fri.ca Gl1a11a 1962 Li.st of Parti.cipa11ts prepared by tl1e Co11fere11ce Secretariat; it is believed 11ot everyone listed attended the confere11ce Ga111bia Pl1illip Bridges Ghana I. Abba11 A. \lv. AcqL1aal1 N. Y. B. Adade E. Alcufo-Acldo Sa111pson Baidoo R. S. Blay B. J. da Rocha

E. Brite Gaisie Stella Gyandoh Brodie Mends E. N. Moore J. V. M. Nto\ďż˝ E. N. P. Sowal1 T . 1\. Totoe

l\rory Coast G. Tixier l(enya Ja111es Gicl1u1-L1 Sain 'v\1 arul1i L1 Liberia Poll1ma11 J. B1-acewell Ja111es A. 1\. Piei-re l\ocheforte 'vVeeks

174

Mali :KoL1ntoL1 Diarra Sy f-Ia1nady Syr '

New Zealand C. C. Aik1nan Nigeria - (Federation) Adetokurnbo f\.den1ola S. A. Eki.neh T. 0. Eli.as (Lagos) Clement de Lestang (Western) S. 0. I ghoda1-o Adedepo Omirade

S. 0. Quasl1i.e-lclu11 F. R. 1\.. \i\f i.11 i.a111 s

(Eastern) M. 0. Ajegbo G. M. Johnson Loui. s Mbanefo (Nortl1ern) I. M. Lewi.s M. Nasir Abdul Razag

Rauph 0. Gaji Abubakar Gummi Vl.M. I-Turley Nyasala11cl 0. E. C. Chi.rwa B. C. Roberts ! I

175 t'

Rl1odesi.a (Nortl1er11) Mai.nza Cl1011a (Soutl1ern) I-Ierbert Cl1i. tepo Josl1 ua t\!l. Nko1no Sierra Leo11e Berthan Macauley F. C. Tuboku-Metzger

S. Be11ka-Coker V. L. Gra11t Li. vesey J_,uke Son1ali. Yousuf Jama t-\li.

N. 1(. Lax1nan A. B. Westo11

Roland Bro\v11 Oscar l(a1nbo11a

J. D. Lalou01 Tu11isia ;\zi.z Be11a111or 1\li Cl1erif 1\1nara OL1ri1· U. A. 1�. /\. S. SafLtat Uga11cla J. 1�. l�len1i 11g M.A. Obote

176

·1

UNESCO •

1\shfaque f-Iusai11 United Kingdon1 A. N. t\llott Norman Anderson L.C. B. Gowe1· United States J. S. Bainbridge Jefferson B. Fordham A. H. Ga1·retson W. B. f-Iarvey

J.C. N. Paul Max Rl1einstein Cl1arles RL1nyon 1\rthur Sutherland

''I

177

(referred to at 1:>age 74) Fron1 its i11ceptio11 to A1Jril 1, 1972 tl1e Sailer Project 11as assistecl or recruited 116 law teachers or lawyers. The follovvi11g are tl1e institutio11s tl1ey l1ave served and tl1e nL1111ber of teacl1ers \Vl10 l1ave served them. Etl1iopia

[ -laile Sellassie I University

U11iversity of Gl1ana

University of Nairobi l(e11ya Institute of Administratio11

4 3

Lesotl10

U11iversity of Botswana, Lesotl10 a11d Sv\1 aziland

Liberia

U11ive1·si ty of Liberia

M.alavv i.

University of Mala\;vi

Cafrad

U11i.versity of Ife U11i. versity of Lagos 1\l1111aclL1 Bello UniversitJr, Zari.a

Se11egal

U11i.versi.ty of Daka1·

SL1da11

U11iversi. t1r of 1<:11artoL1111

�ra11za11i.a

U11i.versi.ty of Da1· es Salaan1 -1 a11za11ia I11vest111e11t Ba11k East 1\frica11 Con1111uni.ty

9 1 1

Uga11da

I\/Jakerere U11i. versity La\v Oe,,elo1:>111e11t Ce11tre

Nigeria

178

...----ďż˝ Zaire

Zan1bia

Ecole Natio11ale d f\cl111i11istratio11 Uni.versite Lova11iu1n Uni. versi.ty of Za111bi.a l\1Iinist1-y of Develo1J111e11t & Finance

2 1 6 2 131

The 11L1mber of assig11n1ents exceed bJ' 15 tl1e total number of teacl1ers assisted or recruited, si.11ce several teachers served in n1ore tl1a11 011e positio11 at cliffere11t ti.mes. Seven of tl1e teache1-s i11cluded i.n tl1e above statistics have bee11 cleans in tl1e faculties or scl1ools of law of the follo\ving universities: Faculty of Lavv, Hai.le Sellassi.e I U11iversity, Ethio1Jia Faculty of Lavv, U11i.ve1-si.ty of Gl1ana School of Lavv, University of Mala\:vi FacL1lty of Lavv, University of Ife, Nigeria School of Law, Uni. versity of Za1nbi.a

179

Appencli.x C

(referred to at page 121)

m �a i.n 1966 to og pr p l1i vs o, ll fe s i.t of t ar st p 1-0 n1 the id ll ed ov fu �r Jr s ha t e� oj Pr er il Sa e th � 72 /\pri.l l, 19 s 12 ie 1n tr ro un f co for ns ca ri Af 55 1fo ps hi. 'A,s llo fe 1 i part·a . ns.. .ing .i11st.itutio graduate 1a,;v study i.11 tl1e follow Colun1bia U11iversity Scl1ool of Law

I-Iarvard U11iversity Law Scl1ool

Yale La'A' School

U11iversity of Cali.for11ia Scl1ool of Law at Berkeley

U11iversity of Cali.fo1-nia Scl1ool of La,v at Los Angeles

U11i.versity of Cl1icago Law Scl1ool

U11iversityr of Micl1i.ga11 Law Scl1ool (previously enrolled at Yale)

Nevv Yorl( U11iversity School of La,v

Nortl1wester11 U11i. versity Scl1ool of Law

U11i versity of Pe1111syl va11i.c1 J__, avv Scl1ool

QL1ee11 's Uni. ve1-sity Belfast, N. I reland

Sta.nford U11ive1-sity La,v Scl1ool

U11iversi tyr of vVisco11si11 La\\' Scl1ool

The Project l1as also SLl lJported p1-ogra111s at Colu111bia, I-Ia1-vard a11d Mi.cl1ig;:111 fo·r four la vv libraria11s a11d e11abled a11 additional 15 1\fri.ca11s to atte11d sumn1er progra111s at tl1e Af1-i.ca11 La.w Ce11te1- at Colun1bia a11d tl1e Sun1111er I11sti.tL1te in Law a11d De,relo1Jme11t at \Visco11sin. Resea1-cl1 su1J1Jort or· assi.sta11ce i.11 obtai11i.11g trave1 gra11ts l1as been IJro,,ided a11 additi.011al 8 1\£1-i.cans.

180

SURVEY OFÂ· INSTITLlTIONS OF LEGt\L EDUCi-\TION IN l\FRICA

.' ' I

181

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f\F1\I{S AND ISSf\S (F1-encl1 Overseas Te1-ri to·ry) T11ere are 110 i11stitLl tio11s of l1igher eclL1catio11. StLI _ dents n1ust go abroad.

1\LGERIA Faculte cle, Droit et des Scie11ces E co11omiqL1es Universite d '1\ lger 2 Rue Didoucl1e Mourad f\lger

Dea11: M. Tl1en1111ar La11gL1age of I11struction: 1\rabic a11d Fre11cl1 [-Jistory

A preparatory scl1ool of medici11e a11d pl1ar111acy opened i11 Algiers i11 1859 as a mL111i.cipal institute. In 1880 three additi.011al schools offeri11g i11con11Jlete post secondary education i11 lavv, science a11d the arts vvere founded. These four i11stitL1tio11s formed tl1e 11ucleus of the U11iversite d'Alger. In 1909 a lavv formally estab lishi11g the university \Vas passed. Schools of law were started i.11 botl1 Ora11 a11d Co11sta11ti11e i11 1961 in order to make it easier for stu dents in tl1ose areas to take tl1e prelimi11ary coL1rses. These schools do not offer full-clegree courses and stLI dents must complete tl1eir stL1dies at tl1e U11iversite d'Alger. The scl1ools a1-e tl1e following: Ins ti tut d'Etucles Juri.diques Centre Universitaire de Co11stanti11e Rue be11 M'l1idi Co11s tantine 185

-I11sti.tut d 'E tL1des JL1ri.di.ques U11i. versi.te d 'Ora11 Rue dL1 Colo11el Lofti. Ora11 Adn1i.ssi.011 Rec1ui.reme11ts Fo r tl1e li.ce11ce a baccalaureat, or secondary scl1ool certi.ficate or i.ts 1-ecogni.zed equi. valent or an entrance exa111i.11ati.011. Courses The Faculte de Droi.t et des Sci.ences Eco11omi.ques offers a two-year coL1rse leadi.ng to the capaci.te en droit, a foL1r-year course leadi.ng ei.tl1er to the li.cence en droi.t or to tl1e li.ce11ce es sci.e11ces economi.ques, and postÂ graduate studies leading to the doctorate i.n P..ubli.c lavv, 1Jri. vate law, and eco110111i.cs. Tl1e Ins ti.tut d 'Etudes Poli.ti.ques attacl1ed to tl1e Facu111, of Law offers a threeÂ year course leadi.11g to a diplo111a i.11 }Joli.ti.cal science. The I11st i.tute d 'EtL1des Juri.di.ques i.11 Oran and Co11sta11ti.11e eacl1 offer a two-yea1- course leadi.11g to tl1e capaci.te e11 droi.t and also JJro\ri.de tl1e first two years' i.11strL1cti.on for tl1e licence en droi.t. I11 order to obtai.11 a lice11ce e11 droit, a stude11t has to co111plete four certificates, 011e each y'ear. After tl1e fi.rst two certificates tl1e ti.tle of bacheli.er e11 droi.t, also called baccalaureat en droit, is a,varded. T11e li.ce11ce en droi.t i.s a\\1 arded after the fourtl1 certifi.cate is co111pleted. Tl1e requireme11ts for tl1e first t\\1 0 years are tl1e same fo1- all regarclless of tl1e bra11ch of speci.alizati.011. 171e courses i11clL1de tl1e follo,vi.11g: Study of Ci. vi.l Lavv a11d }Lt di cial lnsti.tuti.011s I Ii.story of Social I11sti. tuti.011s Political Eco110111y Co11sti.tuti.onal La ,v a11cl Political I11sti.tuti.011s

111ter11ati 011al lnsti. cuti011s l:;-i.na11ci.al I11stitutio11s Adn1i11i .strati\re La\rv Labour Legi.slatio11 a11d Cri111i.11al Law

186

-----a.a

r l ou 1-111g the tl1i.rd ancl foL1rtl1 yea1-s tl1e stLide11rs ca11 speciali.z : i11 011e of th ï¿½ follo\vi. 11g tl11-ee areas: pi-i vate _ _ Javv, publ1c law or pol1tical sc1e11ce ancl eco11o111ics. Practical \1/0rk in selected SL1bjects is con1 l)Ltlsory. f\cade111ic Year Octobe1January April

Decen1ber f\p1-il Ju11e

Ecole Natio11ale d 'Adn1inistration Alger No infor1nation available. .'

ANGOLA Universidade de Luanda Caixas Postais 815 e 1350 Luanda

La11guage of InstrLtcti.011: PortL1guese

I Ii- .storyFounded i11 1963, 110 lavv i11structio11. Portugal. Academic Year October

July

187

Stude11ts go to

BOTSWANA See: Lesotl1o - u11iversity of Botswa11a, Lesotl10 a11d S\vazila11d.

BUl{UNDI Faculte de Droit U11iversite Officielle de Buj L11nbL1ra B. P. 1550 BL1j un1bL1ra

Dean: A. Van De Vyer La11guage of Instruction: Fre11cl1 I-Ii.story A

111 1960 tl1e UsL1n1bura Uni. versity Centre i.ncorpo1 ated tl1e I11sti.tut Agro11on1i.que dlI lďż˝uanda - Uru11di. (previously tl1e Faculty of Agri.cL1ltL1re of tl1e U11i. versi. te Offici.elle du Co11go Belge et du Ruanda - Uru11di. wl1icl1 \r.1as fou11ded i11 1956) a11d the Ce11tre U11i versi.tai.re Run1uri. Tl1e university acquired its present title i11 1964. It l1as a cultural agree111e11t for the excl1a11ge of acaden1ic staff a11d researcl1 vi1orkers wi.tl1 tl1e State University of Liege i11 Belgi.un1. 1\cl1ni.ssi.on Requi.re1ne11ts 1\ 1Aecog11izecl certificat d 'l1u1nanites or secondary scl1ool certificate or its equivale11t. Courses A ea1 Tl1e Faculte de D1 oi.t l1as begu11 to offer a fou1 -Jr progran1 for tl1e li.ce11ce e11 droi.t. A

188

1\caclen1ic Year October Febru ary

JanL1ary ]Line

CAMEROON .Faculte de,. Droi.t et des Sciences Economiques Uni.versite Federale du Cameroun

B. P. 337 Yaouncle

Dea11: Pierre V ergr1aud .

Language of I11strL1ctio11: Fre11ch and English f Iisto1-y -

The Uni. versite Feclerale du Can1eroun was set Ltp by a decree of July 26, 1962 grouping all tl1e public jnstitutio11s of higl1er education, with the exceptio11 of tl1e Ecole Nati.011ale d 'Ad111i11istration et de Magistratltre. T11e courses i11 tl1e Faculte de Droit et des Sciences , Econom iques are governed by two decrees dated 16 Jl111e 1962. Admission Reqlriren1e11ts Ca pacite en Droit These courses are open to stl1de11ts wl10 l1old tl1e bre vet d 'etude s du premier cycle or wl10 ca11 produce ďż˝ recogni zed equivalent qualificatto11 a11d who Slicceedecl in a special entra11ce examination but w110 do 11ot hold tl1e bac calaL11-eat.

189

s ue 1q n1 1o o1 Ec es nc ie Sc et t oi Dr 1 e1 e 11c ce Li �

Tl1ese courses are ope11 to holders of tl1e c a pacite who 11 ave obt ained a score of 12/20 or those wl10 _passed a special entrance exa1ninatio11 or t� those _who hold a secoi1da ry school baccal aureat or 1ts equ1 v a �e11t or a general certificate of educatio11 wi �h a pass 1 n four. . Jects J SUb ects at the ordin a ry level and 1n two other sub . . or at tl1e adva11ced level if t aken at tl1e san1e ex am1n_at10n . 111 tl1ree otl1er subjects if ta ke11 at different exam1nat1on sessio11s. Courses . Cap acite en Droit,

two-year program.

First Year Priv ate L aw Public Law Eco11omics

StL1dy of actual cases Practical trai11i11g Capacite courses are gi.ven i11 tl1e eveni11g fron1 5:00 p. m. to 7 :15 p. m. The first year course is i.nte11ded to i11troduce the stL1dents to the institL1ti.011al, legal, a11d economic life of tl1e C an1eroo11. It i.11cl udes botl1 lectures a11d tutori als a11d practical work. Tl1e stude11t mL1st pass the subjects in tl1e first year before proceedi.11g to tl1e second year. Tl1e second yea r is desi.g11ed to i.11troduce the stude11ts to tl1e vari.0L1s professi.011al activi.ti.es \vhi.ch corres1Jo11d to tl1e e:l asses of tl1e precedi.11g year. Tl1i.s in.eludes ex a111i.11ati.011 of files of 1�eal c ases a11d practical experience.

190

Licence e11 Droit et Scie11ces Eco11omi.qt1es, a four-year program.

•'

Con1pleti.011 of the first tvvo years e11titles tl1e student to the certificate of gene1·al stuclie s i.n la\\, or tl1e baccalau reat e11 droi.t. First Year Required Courses for all stude11ts. Introductio11 to Law Rights of the I11di. vi.dual a11d of Fan1i.lJr in East Cameroon Rights of the Individual and of Fan1i.ly i.n West Cameroon Co11stitL1ti.onal Law E conomics African Sociology l-Ii.story of Poli.ti.cal Ideas Introduction to Statistical A11alysi.s a11cl Matl1en1ati.cs l-Ii.sto1-y of Institutions i.11 tl1e Can1eroo11 Tutorials in Bi.lingual Studies Pri.vate Law Pt.1bli.c La\v Economics Second Year Required Courses for all stude11ts. French Law of Co11tracts a11d Ci.vi.l Obligation Admi.ni.strative Law Economics Fecleral Criminal Procedure International Economics Fi.11anci.al Insti.tuti.011s Equity Plus one of the following: Poli.ti.cal Sociology Statistics and Mathematics

191

I i i

As well as tutorials i.n: Bi.li.11gual StL1di.es Private Law Admi.11i.strati. ve Law Eco11omics Thi.rel Year Required courses for all stuclents: Con1mercial Law and Ele1nents of Company Law Inter11ational Orga11izatio11s Oevelop1nent Economics Labour Law and Social Legislation Courses i.n 011e of the following alter11ati ve sections: Private Law Secti.0L1: Ci. vi.l Rigl1ts Torts Bri.ti.sl1 Con1n1erci.al a11d Compa11y Laďż˝, Accou11ti11g Property La\\' a11d Land TenL1re Syrsten1 PL1bli.c La\\1 Section: Public I11ter11ati.onal Law Civil Rights Acl1ni11istrative La\\, Eco11omics Sectio11: 1\ccou11ti11g 1\gricultural Eco110111ics Mathe111atics Statistics a11cl Probabilities Office of tl1e Controller ... fL1tor i als i11 Bili11gual Studies

192

Fourth Year Students are divided into }Jrivare law, pLtblic la'"' or eco11on1ics sectio11. Private La\iV Sectio11 Required courses: '

Succession JL1risprude11ce a11cl Legal Tl1eo1Âˇy Eitl1er French Law: Civil and Crimi11al ProcedL1re in East Ca111eroon Civil and Crin1i11al Procedure i11 vVest Came1Âˇ0011 Commercial La,i\l Adn1inistrati ve Co11flicts or English Law: Civil and Criminal Procedure i11 East Can1eroo11 Civil and Cri1ninal Procedure in West Cameroon Courses in one of the follo"'1 i11g alternative sections: Electives for La"'1yers Cri1ninal Law Special Contracts Private I11ternational Law Legal Profession Legal Medicine i\..d1ninistrative Co11flicts Professio11 of Notary

193

Electives for Manageme11t Frencl1 a11d E11glisl1 Banki11g Law Taxation Fiscal Managen1e11t by Gover11me11t Adva11ced f\CCOLlllti11g

1\dministrative and Commercial Business Law Fiscal Ma11age111e11t I11vestigatio11s Co11veya11cing Electives for Teacl1ers

â&#x20AC;˘

Crimi11al Law Special Co11tracts Private I11ter11ational La,v Banking Practice Teaching Public Law Sectio11 Required Courses: Economic Law of the Cameroon Fiscal a11d Eco11on1ic Policy Inter11ational Relations African I11stituti.ons CoL1rses in one of tl1e following alternative sections: Electives for Admi11istrato1-s Public Services Ce11tral a11d Local Ad111inistratio11 Tl1e TreasL1ry, Taxatio11 and Budgeting Ad111i11istrati,,e Conflicts I11vest111e11ts a11d Land Use Pla1111ing

194

�·

Electives for Foreig11 Service Officers I11ternatio11al Lavv Inte�natio11al Eco110111ics \,vitl1 e 1niJI1asis on 1\fr1can Problen1s Contempo1-ary Political Proble111s Consular a11d Diplon1atic Service Invest1ne11ts a11cl La11d Use Pla1 1ning Electives for Teacl1ers Administrative Conflicts Political Scie11ce Internatio11al Law International Econo111i.cs Practice Teaching Econon1ics Sectio11 Required Courses: Economic Calculation Programn1ing Systems of Economics Economic Politics a11d Finance Courses in one of the followi11g alternative sections: General Eco11on1ics Advanced Economic Analaysis Econon1etrics a11d Statistics Conten1porary Eco11omic Tl1eories Planning International Econon1ics Busi11ess Eco11omics Accounting and Buclgeting Fiscal Manage1ne11t 1 e11t n e g a n a M l ia c r e m m Adn1inis trative ancl Co Investigation

195

Economics for 1 eacl1ers Ecoi,oinetrics a11cl Stati sties Economic A11alysis s 1c om 11 co of E s ie or l1e T ry ra po c011tem Practice Teachi11g t\cademic Year T\1.i.d-October to the begi11ning of June Vlith vacations of about fiftee11 days at Chri.st1nas a11d Easter.

Ecole Natio11ale d 'Adn1i11isÂ tration et c1e Magi.strature B. P. 1180 Yaou11de

Directeur: Francois Perret Language of Instruction: Fre11cl1

I-Ii. story Fou11ded i.n 1959 anc1 reorga11ized in 1962. Adn1issio11 Requiren1e11ts Stude11ts are selected l)y competi.ti.ve exan1inations fron1 tl1ose \:Vho l1old a baccalaureat or from tl1ose \:vl10 have 011ly tl1e brevet d 'etL1des du pren1ier c)rcle (tl1e first part of the secondary 1Jrogra111) bLit \vho l1ave l1eld public office at a certai11 level for at least fou1- Jrears. Courses CoLtrses last t\1'1 0 to tl1ree years depe11di11g 011 tl1e stucle11t' s qL1ali.ficati.011s. TI1e first year's 1Jrogra1n is co1nJ)LtlsorJ' for all stucle11ts. Tl1e seco11d )rear tl1e scuÂ de11ts are divided i11to oi1e of t\\1 0 sectio11s: general ad111i.11i.stratio11, eco11omy a11d fi11a11ce. Tl1ere are also la11gL1age })rogra1ns and a11 ei.gl1t-week trai11i11g prog1-an1 i.11 acl1ni11istrati.011 i11 a gove1-n111e11t cle1Jart1ne11t during the first t\1'1 0 years. 111 tl1e tl1ird year tl1e stude11ts take special 1Jrogra1 11s co1-res1)011di11g to the various bra11cl1es 196

of rI1e civil service. Tl1at sa111e yea1- the}' 11a ve a Ce11 tral Ad111i 11i strati ve Services ci·aini11g periocl i t1 tl1e 1 ed by a course 111 follo� 11, F1-a11ce at tlie meroo of Ca Ecole Natio11ale cl't\clmi11i.strati.011, tl1e I11sti.tLtt cles f-Jautes Etudes cl'Outre- t\1Ier or son1e otl1e1· SJJecia.li.zecl institLtti.on.

CAPE VERDE ISLANDS

Tl1ere are 110 i.nstituti.011s of l1i.gl1er lear11i.11g. Stt1dents 111ust go abroad.

CENTRAL 1\FRICAN REPUBLIC

Faculte de Droit et des Sciences Eco110111i.qL1es Jean Bedel Bokassa Uni versi.te Bangui

Language of I11st1·uctio11: Fre11cl1 [-Iistory

e I nst-i· tut d'Etucles Fou11dec l i.11 1970. Formerly tl1 � n1e11t . . 1t1es, a part of the Fo11dat1on de l 'E11se1gne Ju·r1dtc Su1Jeriet1r en Afrique Ce11trale (see Co11go Republ"lC (B:razzavi.lle) ). 197 •

•

Admission Requirements Secondary school certificate (baccalaureat) or equivalent. Courses . i.t en dr te ci pa ca e th to g in ad ďż˝ le se ur co ar A two-ye r c ea en -y l1c ur e fo ll fu e th r fe of ly al tu en ev to ed 1n It is plai en droit progran1. Academic Year October Ja11uary Apri.l

Dece111ber April Ju11e (JL1ly)

CI-IAD Ecole Nati.011ale d'Ad111i.11istratio11 B. P. 758 Fort-Lan1y

Di.recteur: B. La1111e Language of I11structio11: Fre11cl1

FoL111decl in 1963 to tr_,::1111 stude11ts as public se1-vancs; fo1-n1erly tl1e I11sti.tL1t d'Etudes ]L1ridiques de Fort-Lan1y establisl1ecl in 1959 vvl1icl1 become part of tl1e l=i'o ndation de l 'Enseig11en1e11t Su1Jeri.eur e11 f\frique Centrale. (See Co11go Republic (Bra.zzaville) ). Courses 1\ tV\ 0-year course leadi11g to tl1e ca1Jacite e11 droit. 1

198

......-

i ' '

_A�acle111ic Year October Ja11uar1' A1Jril

Decen1ber t\p1-il ]L111e (July)

> !' ,.•. I iI .. .

CONIORO ISLANDS There are 110 instituti.011s of l1igl1er learni11g. Stuc1e11ts must go abroad.

CONGO REPUBLIC (BRf\ZZ1\ \TILLE) Ecole de Droi t Centre d 'Enseig11e1ne11t Superieur de Brazzaville B. P. 69 Brazzavi11e

Di.rector: M. Pierre La11guage of I11strt1ction: Frencl1

I Ii - story

The Cent1-e was establisl1ecl in October 1959 a11d be

came a part of tl1e Fo ndation de l 'E11seig11e1ne11t Superieu r e11 .Afrique Ce11trale 011 Dece1nber 1961. Tl1is o·rga11izatio11 \vas fou11ded by the members of tl1e Co11ference of the f-Ieads of State of Ec1uato:rial 1\frica (Central 1-\fric an Republic, Co11go Brazzavi Ile, Gaboi1 ai1d Chacl). ,..The for'lnal document \Vas sig11ecl 011

199

Dece111ber 12, 1961 by tl1e four states and Fra11ce. 1l1e Ce11tre \Vi ill eve11tually beco1ne tl1e U11i versity of Brazzaville. 1\dmissio11 Requireme11ts Tl1e baccalaL11-eat or its eq ui vale11t. The Ecole de Droit ,1vill also adn1it stL1cle11ts to tl1e lice11ce program wl10 do 11ot l1old tl1e baccalaureat provided they l1a \re obtai11ed a11 average 1n1:1rk of 60 perce11t during the t\7'10year ca1Jacite e11 droit course. Courses .,

Tl1e Ecole de Droit offeÂˇrs a two-Jrear coL1rse leading to tl1e certificat cle ca1Jacite e11 droit a11d a four-year lice11ce e11 clroi. t cou1-se. 1\cademic Year October Ja11L1a,ry A1Jri.l

Dece111ber i\}Jri.l Ju11e (July)

Ce11tre d 'Etudes f\cln1i.11i.strati. ves et Tecl111i.ques SLtperi.eLtres Brazzavi. lle No i.11fo1-111ati.011 available.

200

D A fI- OMEY Unive rsite du Dahomey B. P. 133 Porto Novo

Di recteL1r: J. - L. I rnbact1

La11gL1age of I11structi.o11: Fre11cl1

Founded in 1970 i.ncor1Jo1-ati.11g clepa1-t111ents of tl1e former Insti tut d 'Ensei.g11en1e11t Superi.eLtr du Be11111 \-vhicl1 vvas establi. shed i11 1962. No la,,, p1-ogra111 as yet. Students mLtst go ab1-oad. Special arra11ge111ents for cooperation vvith Uni versi.ty of Gre11oble. t\dn1issi 011 Requi ren1e11ts Baccalaureat . Acade111ic Yea1November

Ju11e

EGYPT Faculty of Law 1\in

Sl1an1s Universi. ry Kas1·-el-Zaafran Abbasiyah, Cairo

Dea11: f·\t1 n1ed f\1ol1an11nad MoL1salen Lai1guage of I11structio11: t\rabic

History Tl1e University 011 Jul� 10, foL111decl was Shan1s of Ai.n 1950 un der the 11ame of Ib rahi.n1 Pasl1a tl1e Great 0111 v� r ty . n 11 1a111 the �l 1954 . I Si. \in wa 11gecl to 11ame s cha � � � �� vers1t . �[b _ e Faculty of Law adn1itted its fi rst stLIC et s y

201

.... i.11 1950. Its fi.1 st bachelor of la\\' degrees \ďż˝,1ere awarded i.11 1954. Tl1e postgraduate secti.011 of the .FacL1lty of Law \vas establi.sl1ed i.11 1960. A

Admissi.011 l"{equirements 1\ ge11eral certificate of secondary educati.011 or i.ts equi. vale11t. Acl111issi.on i.s governed by the decision of the Su1Jre1ne Cou11ci.l of the Uni. versities a11d tl1e recomme11dation of tl1e Cou11cils of tl1e Uni. versi.ti.es. 111 the case of a gover11me11t official or em1Jloyee, a candidate must sL1bmit a certificate provi.11g tl1at he l1as obtai11ed a study leave fron1 his gover11ment depart111ent. Courses Bacl1elor of Law, a foL1r-year progran1. First Year l11troclucti.011 to Legal Stucli.es Political Eco1101ny Poli.ti.cal I11sti.tL1ti.011s a11cl Co11stitutional La\v [-Ii.story of Law Isla111i.c La\\' 1\rab Comn1u11ity Public I11ter11atio11al Law Legal Ter111i11ology i.11 E11gli.sh a11d Frencl1 La11guage Seco11d Year Civil Law Crin1inal La\v Poli. ti cal Eco1101ny Islamic La,v Ad111i.11i.strati.ve J_,aw Tl1e 23rd of JulJr Revolutio11 Pe 1A so11al StatL1s of No11-r,.1losleins A Lega.l Course i.11 E11glish a11d 1:;-1 e11cl1 La11guages

202

Tl1ird Year Civil Lav., Civil ancl Co111n1erci.al ProcedLtre Co1nmerci.al Lavv Criminal Law 1-\clmi.ni.strati. ve La v. Public Fina11ce a11d l�axati.011 Islamic Lavv Labour Lavv a11d Social Securi�r 1-\dvanced Legal Cou14 se i.11 Engli.s11 a11d Fre11ch La11guages 1

Fourth Year Ci.vi.I La\v Agrarian Lavv Cri1ni.11al Procedure P14i.vate International La\;v Con1merci.al Lavv Lavv of Ci. vi.l and Co111merci.al Proceclures- Executio11 Principles of Islan1i.c ]L1ri.sprL1de11ce 1'1ari.ti.me Law Inter11ati.011al Orga11i.zati.011 a11d I11ter11ati.011al A14ab Relati.011s Advanced Legal Course i.11 Engli.s11 a11d Fre11cl1 Languages One of the following: Insura11ce Legi. slati.on and Ai. r La \;v Criminology and Special Pe11al Law . . . Public Admi.11i.strati.011 a11d Soci.al Ad1111111strano11 _f)iploma of f--li.gher Studies i.n pri. v a te law, ptib li c lav,,, 1 nternatio11al law or co mp ara tiv e law, a one-)rear pro grani 01)en to holders o:f LL. B. degrees· Pri. vare Law Civil Law Mercanti. le Lavv Isla111i.c ]L114i.sdicti.on

203

•

Se111i11ar 011e of the followi11g: Private I11ter11atio11al Lavv I Ii.story of Private La\v a11d l\0111a11 La\\' Pl1ilosopl1y of La\\' PL1blic Law Public Law (Co11stitutio11al a11d Admi11istrative La\\1) Cri111i11al Law Public Fi11a11ce a11cl Fina11cial Legislacto11 Se111i11ar One of tl1e following: Public I11ter11acto11al Law I-Iistory of Public Law Political 111stitutions I11ter11ational Law Public I11ter11atio11al J_,a\v Private Inter11atio11al Lavv Eco110111ic I11ter11atio11al l\elatio11s Semi11ar 011e of the follo\\1i11g: l11ter11ati onal 1\d111i11istrative a11cl Fi11ancial La\:v I11ter11atio11al I\�ariti111e a11d 1\ir Law li1ter11atio11al Pe11al La,v Co111parati ve La\,\1 I11trodL1ctio11 to tl1e StL1dy of Co111parative La\v Isla111ic JL1ris1Jrucle11ce Con1pared ,:i.,itl1 tl1e Positive Laws

204

Study of one of tl1e followi11g syste1118: Anglo-f\merica11 Syste111 Germanic Syste111 Soviet Systen1 Seminar One of tl1e follo\ving: Philosophy of Lavv Princi ples of Legal Insti.tL1tio11s i11 tl1e 1\rab Countries Con1parative study of 011e of tl1e following: Family Instituti.011 Property Co11tracts Judicial Insti.tL1tio11s Governn1ent a11cl Adn1i11istrati. ve Systems Doctorate of Law Deg1-ee, ope11 to l1olders of tvvo JJostÂ graduate diplomas. Ca11diclates 111ust subn1it a tl1esi.s. Courses i11 law at tl1e Police College. 1\caden1ic Year The academic year begins 011 the tl1ircl Saturday of September and lasts thirty-11ine vveelcs i11clL1ding t\VO \:veeks mid-year vacatio11 a11d tl1e ti.111e 11eeded for examinations. It may be dividecl i11to two ter111s, 011e of eighteen weeks followed by two weel<s' vacation; tl1e second from the seco11d Saturday of February lastii1g nineteen weeks.

205

Faculty of Law U11i.versi.ry of Alexa11dri.a 22 Al-Guei.sl1 Ave11ue Sl1atby, Alexa11dri.a

Dea11: A . S. -e1 - D. a1- Waki l La11guage of Instructi.011: Arabic

I Ii.story -----·-- Establi.s l1ed i.11 1942 as a state u11i. versi. ty, i.ncorpora ti.11g forn1er bra11cl1es of tl1e faculties of arts, law an d e11gi.11eeri.11g of Fouad I University. It \Vas known as Farouk U11i. versi.ty u11ti.l 1953. Acl1ni.ssi.011 Require1nents Seco11dary scl1ool certificate or equi. valent. CoL1rses Si111i.lar to Ai.11 Sl1a1ns Acaclen1i.c Year Septe111ber

- ---·-- --- ,._ --� ·---.-

Ju11e

·--- -· ·�·-

Faculty of La\.v U11i. versi.ty of Cairo Orn1a11 Giza, Cai.1-0

Dea11: Abdel Mo11eim el Badra\vy La11guage of I11structto11: J\rabi.c

orJr -f-li.- st -·---

. FoL111decl i.11 1908 as · a 11at1011al u111 \rersity a11d beca1ne . a stat.e L1111 ve1-si.ty 111 19 · -?S L111cle1- tl1e 11an1e of Egypti.an . U11t. vers1ty af · te r ab sor b"111g tl1e various u11i.ts of t11e . . t·1110· '· 111 1940 ex18 · -s1tJ ·te L111lVer 0 p r 1 va ed r · e11a 111 \Vas it . ts • • FoLiacl 1 u111. vers1. t"·;' Li111--. 1 LL1 19 5 ..., 0:1 \re11 1 0 \7'' 1 1e11 1 t \71 as o PI-ese11 t 11a111 e.

206

·Toe ·U1· 1i\1 e1-si· t)' has faculties of arts ' la\vV· , eCOJ101111CS and pol1nca. 1 sc1ences, comn1erce , sci.ei1ce, 111ec1c 1 ..1ne d1c.111e, pharmacolog y, e11g111ee1-1· 1 1g , agr1cu ' dent al me · 0 1 ,_e11 _ . nar.y n1ect1c1 · . 11e, a11d 1\rabic stuclies. veL ture , i\d1ni.ssion ReqL1i.reme11ts Secondary scl1ool certificate or eciui. valent. Courses Simila1- to 1\i.n Sl1a1ns, 1-\cade111i.c Yea1I

October

Ju11e

Faculty of Islarni.c Juri.s prude11ce Al-f\zhar U11i versity Cai.1·0

Dea11:

1\.

[ I.- Abdelkader

La11guage of I11structio11: Arabic

I-fi storJ' The university \Vas founded as a traditi.011al religious educat ional organization in 972. I11 1965 it became a modern university. Aclmissio11 Require1nents Seco11dary scl1ool certificate a11d e11tra11ce exan,ina tio11. CoL1rses

ic in la 1s in e e r g e d r's lo e e h h c T a b F y a s lt r u e c ff a o .JUr i.spruclence.

207

A caclemi.c y· ear October

111srttLite of PL1bli.c 1\cln1i.11i.sr1-ati.011 14 Sl1ari.a Ramses P. 0. Box 1143 Ca.i.ro

Cl1ai.r111a11: M. A. l(ha1nis La11guage of Instruction: f\rabi.c and Engli.sh

[-Iistor:)'

Fou11ded i.n 1954 as a11 i.11clepende11t establishment to p1-ovi.de gover11me11t officials \Vi.tl1 trai.ni.ng 111 tl1e pri.11ci µes of pL1bli.c adn1i.nistrati.011. Ad111i.ssio11 ReqL1i.reme11ts A u11i versity degree a11cl at least fl ve years' e11ce i.11 gover11111e11t. Courses Tl1e trai.11i.11g course exte11ds o\rer ten rno11tl1s a11d i.11cl Ltdes lectures, se111i.11ars a11d practical \\101-k. At tl1e e11cl of tl1e course tl1e I11sti.tute sL1b111its a repo1-t to the 111i.11i.stri.es 01- clepa1-r111e11ts at \vl1icl1 tl1e trai.1i.ees \vork. Tl1e1-e i.s 111ore tl1a11 011e level of r1-ai.11i.110· for officials b fron1 tl1e di.ffere11t ra11ks i.11 tl1e ad111i.11istrati.ve l1ierarcl1y, a11cl tl1e teacl1ing staff i.11cludes a group of forei.g11 experts. · Acaden1ic Year SeJJten1ber

July

208

Ecole Fra11caise de Droit f\1ouni.ra, Cairo

FoL111cled i.n 1893.

No otl1er i.11formati. 011 available.

EQUATORIAL GUINE1\. (Fer11a11do Poo, R i.o 't\!lu11i., 1\.1111obo11 Is lancls) There are no i11stitL1ti.011s of 11i.gl1er ec1L1catio11. Students must go abroad.

209

ETf-IIOPIA Faculty of Law I-Iai.le Sellassie I U11iversity P. 0. Box 1176 Addis Abal)a

Oea11: Cliff Thompso11 Language of Instruction: E11glish and some special programs i11 Amharic

I Ii- story Law teacl1i11g i11 Etl1iopia \ve11t tl1rough 1:\111 0 disti11ctive phases. The first pl1ase was tl1e University College pe _ riod of legal edL1catio11 i11 Ethiopia (1952-1961). The U111versity College of Addis Ababa \vas founded in Marcl1 1950. In 1961 tl1e Uni.versity College of Addis Ababa be came part of I-Iaile Sellassie I University. Tl1e second pl1ase was tl1e creation of the Law Faculty and its esta blisl11ne11t witl1in tl1e I-Iaile Sellassie I Universi.ty (1963 ). Tl1e University College a11d otl1er colleges \Vere brougl1t togetl1er i11 Fel)ruary' 1961 to forn1 I Iaile Sellassie I University. Duri11g the U11i.versity College period, law was taugl1t at first i11 a separate law scl1ool and later as a "fri11ge" course i11 the Faculty of Arts. After the promulgation of tl1e Codes a11d the creation of the Hai.le Sellas si.e I University, legal educatio11 became tl1e unique concern of tl1e Faculty of La\v. 171e faculty v.1 as dedicated i11 1963, a11d tl1e first class was enrolled in September of tl1at year. The first LL. B. graduates con11Jleted tl1eir aca demic progra1ns i11 1966. 1\.dn1issi<2!} ReqL1iren1e11ts

1\11 E\hio1)ia11 Scl1ool Leavi11g Certificate or its equi \7ale11t w1tl1 a C ave·rage, inclucli11g 1Jasses i11 the followi ng subjects: A111l1c1ric, E11glisl1, 111atl1en1atics a11d nvo addi tio11al coLrrses in tl1e l1Lt111a11ities a11d/or scie11ce. (a11d) One year of u11iversity study or its equivale11t at a level of acade111ic acl1ieven1e11t judged b�,r tl1e Faculcy to be ade quate for lav,.,, study. 210

acl1 yea1A 110w 111a11y The Law Faculty decides e _ aiJpli fL1ll-tlme LL. B. IJrogra cants to accept for_ the in. AiJpli _ cations excee� the f1nal 11L1 111ber o:f adini.ttecl stLrdetlts. Qualified applicants _ 11umbe1- approxi111ate ly seve 11 cy. Se _ lection 1s 011 tl1e ba�ls o� tl1e exan1i11atio11 ·res Lilts after the first year of unlverslty stLrclyr or its eqLiivaleilt ai1d 00 the basis of personal interviews. Part-Time LL. B. Progran1 (eveni.11g) The mi1 1in1um reqL1ireme 1 1t for adn1issio11 is 011e yea1of successful Ltnive1-si.ty study' but stude11ts 11or111ally have a B. A. degree or the equivalent. Diploma graduates \iVitl1 a 111inimun1 GPA of 2. 5 i11 tl1e diploma program ca11 be aclmittecl after a11 E11glisl1 pro ficiency test and personal i11terview. The Law Faculty decides 110�1 many' stL1dents vvi.11 be admitted to the eveni11g part-time LL. B. progra111. Tl1e nun1ber of applicants is co1 1siderably l1igl1er tl1a11 tl1e number of admitted stude11ts. Selectio11 is 1 11acle on tl1e following basis: university graduates, acaden1ic recorcl; equivalent of Llniversityr experie11ce, years a11d 1 1atL11-e of experience; diploma graduates, gracle }Joint average at the end of the diploma program (mi11imu111 of 2. 5 GP1\). P ersonal i11tervie�, s of mo st ca1 1di.dates are l1eld. Diploma Program Ca ndidates must have successfully co111pletecl twelve years of school or its equivale11t in acaden1ic or }Jrofes sional experience. As a n alter11ative, stude1 1ts \¥�10 h�ve coinpleted the La�, Faculty certificate progran1 w1th 111gl1 gra des may also be admittecl. Ca11diclates muSt pass a_ �est_ in legal t\ 111 l1aric fo r th e A 1 11haric sectio11- Select1011 18 in acco1-da 1 1ce wi.th the test results. �E�_!i�te Program

·-·---·

e11tly · . . pres P tlor sons . per 1ty for adn1ission 1s g 1 ven to · eml)loyed 1n . legal positio11s sucl1 as JLI · Clges , aclvocates

211

ar li ament, pro f p o s r e b 1n e 1 11 , te ) a v _ _ s con11ected w1t (gover1101e11t a11cl 1Jri _ l1 1e ad tl b Jo g n l1 lc o l1 s r 1e tl o secutors ai1d te a s id d t n s a u C . m ia 1J o 1i tl E in e c ti s ju f o ininisti·atio11 o ti c n le is e S t. s in te n io s n e l1 e r 1J 1n o c ic r a 1 1l take an An . s lt u s e r t s te 1e tl l1 it w e c accorda11

Courses ----.� ,._

T11e course requirements set below are those required 11ormally. I -low ever, political strikes, usu all)' followed by make-up progr ams, require from time to time that the Faculty make special additional course arrangen1ents. Tl1us, tl1e followi11g course requiren1ents often do not gi.ve tl1e full picture of courses actually being give11. Full-Ti.me I..JL, B. Progr -- amA full-time LL. B. degree program wl1ich includes one year of i.11troductory law subjects a nd relevant liberal arts subjects a11d tl1ree years of i11tensive la\v courses. 011e year of u11i.versi.ty study in anotl1er faculty is prere quisite for e11try into the Law Faculty. La\v I Introducti.011 to Public Law l11troducti.011 to Private Law Fre11cl1 Eco11omi.cs Eth11ograpl1y of Ethiopia Revoluti.011s a11cl Co11stituti.011al Cl1a11ge E11gli.sl1 SL11111ner Readi11g LE!:_,v II -· Obli.gatio11s I Pe11al La\.v Ci. vil ProcedL1re Co11stituti.011al J_,a,v Sun1mer Reac...(i1g Legal Fre11ch 212

La\\1 III

'â&#x20AC;˘

Obligatio11s II* Busi11ess Orga11izatio11s * Criminal Proceclure Private Internatio11al La,i\l * Evide11ce t\dn1inistrative La,,v La\v of Employment Relatio11s:i' Brief \tVriting Sun1111e1- Reading Taxatio11* Property Govern111ent Contracts* Lavv IV Tra11snatio11al Tra11sactio11s* Con1m.ercial Law* Family Law ,;, Successions* Inten1ational Organizatio11s :1, Public Inter11ational Law'r: Public Law III Urban Problems and Local Gover11111e11t* Summer Readi11g Senior Research t\frican Legal Systems =i< Legal Profession in Etl1iopia 1 1\gricultural La11d Reform " Natural Resources* Legal A11alysis * Islamic Law*

*Elective

213

___________

Part-Ti111e LL. B. Progra1n

___::�--

rog ram wl1icl1 p ee gr cle B. . L L ng 1i e1 ev e tm -c rt f\ 1Ja to uc e cxl tr th in es ry ud cl in la\v 1cl a1 s ar ye ve ft r e ov s extend re l1ave been 11e T . ts ec bj su ts ar l ra be li 110 t bu s se cour three sucl1 programs: on e i11 1963, a11other in 1967, and the most recent 011e begi1111ing in 1969.

First Year First Sen1ester -I11troducrton to Public Law I11troductio11 t o Private Law Penal Law Sec o11d Se1nester

' •

I11troducrton to Public Law I11troductio11 to Private Law Pe11al Law Seco11d Year First Se1nester Constitutio11al Law Introductio11 to Fre11c11 Civil Pro cedure Seco11d Se1nester Constitutio11al La\:i.., I11trocluctio11 to l=i'reilCll Ci \ri.l Procedu·re Tl1ircl Year

Obligatio11s I Cri1ni11al Procedure Adn1i.ni.strati.ve Law 214

Seco11d Se1nester --Obligatio11s I Evidence Elective (i11 Public Law) SL1n1n1er: Senior Resea1�c11 Fourth Year First Se1nester Obligations II Business Organizati.011s Property Electi. ve Second Semester Brief W1�ti.ng Property Elective Elective Summer: Senior Research Fifth Year First Se111ester Public Law III Com1nercial Lav,., Electi. ve Elective Second Semester

,,� .

Legal Professio11 Elective Electi. ve Elective

215

w ie by ev r a us uo 11 ti on F ac c er 1d u1 is 111 lu cu 111e cLirri l s o od tr in op pr a uce , ly nt ce � re � t � os M . ee itt 111 Lllty co111 ng on topi cs z1 l1 1a ec sp , 11t 1e l11 ol 1r e1 ed it 111 li l1 it ,v s ar se111i11 ty ul a ac F em m in l1 it w n er nc co 1d a1 st re te i11 l ia ec of sp bers' general a1·ea, ha s be�n a ?�roved.. �1e �ommitte e g tn at 1n 1m el of French y l1t b1 ra s1 de e tl1 g in er id ns is 110w co A ts en t ud os st a1 m e re 1e \vl fro111 the eve11ing curriculun1, 111ucl1 older tl1a11 i11 tl1e day }Jrogram. All U11iversity teacl1ing for tl1e LL. B. is in English. Aml1aric is tl1e official la11guage of Ethiopia but laws are also publisl1ed i11 E11glisl1. E11glisl1 is the la11guage of drafts of ProcedL1ral Cocles a11cl the Co11stitutio11. French is tl1e la11guage of drafts of Civil, Con1mercial and Penal Codes, and for this reason the Faculty has stressed abi lity i11 Frencl1 so tl1at stude11ts may make use of the volun1i11ous backgrou11d materials available only in ]:=;'re11ch i11 tl1ose areas. There is at least one exa.n1inatio11 for each course. 'T'l1e exa1ninations are graded ano11ymously and conducted i11 co11for111ity witl1 a11 l1011or systen1. The1·e are no ex te1·nal examiners but exten1al evalL1ations are used. A cumulative grade average belovv 2. 0 places a student on v.1 arning (1st sen1ester), probation (211d se111ester), or results i11 dis1nissal (3rd semester). r, one year of stud'j la\v of yea1·s foLtr tl1e to a I11 tioI ddi _ _ : E tl11op1an U111 versity Se1·,rice is reqL1ired fron1 all stipe11_ d1ary st �de11ts. Stude11ts ca11 go 011 EUS after co111pletio11 of tl1e tl11rcl yea1· a11d co111e back to fi11isl1 tl1ei1· cou1·se worlc. f\lternatively, tl1ey ca11 cl1oose to 0o·o at tl1e e11d of tl1e fourth )r ear a11cl retL1r11 for graduatio11.

_9-_i_l?l_ o1na - Pr- og -- n1 ,.__ ra First Yea.r Pe11al Law (two se111esters) Obligatio11s (t\vo sen1 estei·s) Le?al_ S'jr ste111 of Etl1iopia Cr1111111al Procedure

216

Property (two semesters ) Civil ProcedL1re a11d E\ri.clence ( t\v o se1nesters) Cons ti tLttional La\v Obligatio11s II TI1ird Year Persons and Family BL1siness Organizations 1\dministrative Law Succession Co111mercial Lavv Law and Developme11t Certificate P1ďż˝ogram First Semester Penal Law Civil Procedure Second Se111ester Constitutional Law Civil Law I f\dvanced Pe11al Lavv (or) Advanced Civil Procedure .Thi rel Semester Constitutio11al Lavv Civil Law I Crimi.11al Procedure (or) Advanced Ci vi.I Procedure anc1 Evidence _Fourth Semester Civil Law II Admi11istrative Lavv Proper ty 217

Fiftl1 Semester . Co1n1nercial Law Family Law and Successio11 BL1si11es s Orga11izatio11s Evaluation of Sub-Degree £.�.<:?��1�� s Proj e�-�-In the last quarter of 1969 a IJroject was carried out to evaluate tl1e effective11ess of the sub-degree programs. The p1-oject i11cluded i11terviews \Vith past graduates and · n1e1nbers of the legal profession and government legal offices. This report v,1 as ge11erally favorable to the diploma program, but raised a 11un1ber of questions about the certificate prog1-am. 1-\.s a result of tl1is evaluation, tl1e La,v Faculty a11d tl1e Mi11istry of Justice have recently set up a joint con1n1ittee to (1) evaluate ma11power needs of tl1e f'..JJi11isr1-y of Justice i11 co1ni11g years; (2) consider wl1icl1 substa11tive areas lower court judges in particular a11d l\1Ii.nistr)' 1Jerson11el i11 general most frequently deal wi.tl1; (3) reco11sider curriculu111 £01- the certificate pro gran1 i11 light of the above, with a vie\\' to 11arro,,1ing a11d particL1larizing tl1e education attempted; (4) co11sider tl1e proJJrie�, for specially tailored prog-ran1s, sucl1 as tl1ose offered parliame11taria11s a11d otl1er legal pe1-s01111el. 1�11ose would be sl1ort programs, \\'ith a very practical _ _ or1e11tat1011. -1\cade111ic -�------Year

Se1Jtember FebrL1ary

Feb1-ua1-y }Ltly

218

Faculty of La'A1 Unive1·sitas S tL1dio1-um ;-\sma1·e11s1 s P. o. Box 1220 1-\smara

Dea11: Filon1ena Di Nello LangL1age of I11strLtctio11: 1\111l1aric, Englisl1, Italia11

FoLtnded 111 1959 as Istituto L111ive1-sitario b)' the 'Pie Madri della Nigrizia' Co11gregatio11; it becan1e a university in 1959. Recognized by f-Ioly See a11d tl1e Italian government i11 1960. SL1bseque11tly recognized under Ethiopian la,:v in 1964 and for111all)' inaL1guratecl by [-I. M. Haile Sellassie I as its cl1a11cellor 111 1967. Adn1ission Requireme11ts Secondary scl1ool certificate or diplon1a of associate, or equivalent. CoL1rses Bacl1elor of La,v, a tl1ree-year progra111; LL. M. , a further tl1ree to four years. Acaden1ic Yea1· September February

Februa1-y July

219

GABON s e icl tL 'E d is a 11 o b a G t tu ti 1s I1 Juridiques Libreville

La11guage of Instructio 11: Frencl1

I-Iistory Forms 1Ja1�r of tl1e Fo 11dation de l 'Enseigneme nt Superieur e11 Afrique Ce11trale, founded i n 1960. (See Co11go RepLtblic (Brazzaville)) Adn1issio11 Rec1uireme11ts Seco 11dar)' scl1ool certificate (baccalaureat or equivale11t) CoL1rses Two-year course leadi11g to tl1e capacite e11 droit. Acaden1ic Year October Ja11uary April

Dece1nber April J LI 11e ( JLl 1 y )

Ecole Gabo11aise ct' /\.ctn1ii1isr1�aciot1 Libreville

220

Gi\ I\1I BI f\ ( Tl1 e) There clre 110 facilities £01- l1 iob·l1 e:r edLtcat 1· 0l1. StLIdents n1L1st go abroad. C

•

Gl-J1\N1\

Faculty of Lavv University of Ghana P. 0. Box 25 Legon

Dea11: 1\usti11 N. E. A111i.ssal1 La11guage of I11strL1cti.011: E11gli.s11

The Uni. versity College of the Gold Coast vvas foL111ded in 1948 and e11tered a special relati.011sl1i. 1J wi.tl1 tl1e University of Lonclo11. 171e stude11ts \,vere JJrepa1·ed for Lonclo11 degrees. It attai.11ed full u11i versity statLts 011 October l, 1961. Tl1e La\V De1Jart111e11t of tl1e U11i.ve1·si.ty of GI1ana was establisl1ed i.11 1959 a11d adn1i.tted its fi.1·st students in October 1959. Tl1e FacL1lty of Lc1w l1as bee11 1·esponsi.ble for all la\v courses \, i.tl1i.11 tl1e Uni \rersity since Octobe1· 1963. 1

f\dmi ssi.011 Requi re111e11 ts I11 ge11eral a ca11diclate fo·r adn1issi.011 111L1st I1ave obtc.ined passes 111 at least :five subjects i11clL1ding E11glisl1 language in tl1 e University of Lo11c1011 Ge11eral Certificate of EctL1cation \Vi.th at least tl1ree sL1cl1 JJasses bei11 g at tl1e actva11cecl level. 1\ "c1·ec1it" obtai11ed i11 a. sL1l,ject ii1 tl1e C_ ainbrtclge/Oxford/\N est Africa Scl1ool Ce·rtificate or sin7ilar exa111i.11atio11 is regarded a.s tl1e eqLti valeiit of ai7 �·rctina1·y level pass i11 tl1e ge11eral certificate of edLica tioi1 exa111i11atio11 , ancl a pri11ci.1Ja.l Jevel pass at tl1e 221

Ca1nbridge/Oxford I-Iigher Scl1ool Certificate is regarded as a11 adva11ced level pass. To be admitted to tl1e LL . M. I)rogram, a candidate n1ust l1ave obtained a first or seco11d class degree in la\v at the University of Gl1ana or some other approved u11iversity. Courses An LL. B. degree pro rain which 11ormally extends ove1Âˇ t1ree academic years. First Year (First University Examination in Laďż˝,) African Studies (witl1 Africa11 Customary La\\1 ) Tl1e Gha11a Legal System Co11stitL1tional Law Lavv of Co11tract 011e of the followi11g: Economics Political Scie11ce Pl1ilosopl1y Sociology Seco11d Year (Part I) Im111ovable Property Crimi11al La\v La\v of To1-t 011e of the followi11g: Con1merci.al La\;,,,, Moder11 1\.frica11 Legal 111s ti.tutioi1s f\dmi11istrati ve La\;i,,1

222

t Jt1risprudence Eqttity a11d St1ccession T\vo of the follovvi 11g: Conflict of Laws Public International Lav,, Commercial Law Niodern African Legal Institutions Administrative La,:v Extended Essay A candidate at the First U11i ve1·si ty Examinatio11 or Pa1·ts I and II Examinations in Law ,,,ho fails to reach the minimum standards i11 a11)' one su.bject may be pe1·111itted to pre_sent himself for 1·eexamination in tl1at subject. The Fi1·st University Exa 111ination i11 LaV11 and tl1e LL. B. exami11ations shall commence 011 or about the first V1 eek of June. 1

Each course meets for two lectures a11d 011e tutorial per week. The1·e are about ten stude11ts to a tt1torial g1·oup. Postgraduate Professional Course First Year Evide11ce Family Lavv Company Law Three of the following: Co11flict of Laws Comn1ercial Law (sJJecial empl1asis on Insu1·ance) La\v of Taxatio11 lndL1strial Law

223

Seco11d Year Ci.vi.I Procedure Crimi.11al Procedure Co11veya11ci.11g a11d Drafti11g Lega.l Etl1i.cs Advocacy I11terpretati.011 of Statutes and Documents A11 LL. M. deg ree program will begi11 in 1972. 1l1is will be a two-year progra111. Eacl1 ca11didate sl1all take tl1e follov,,i.ng sL1bjects, each of wl1ich sl1all be of four terms' cluratio11: Problems of Law i11 Africa (com1Julsory course) and Two sL1bj ects i.11 specialized fi.elcls. Tl1ese t,vo sL1bj ects shall be cl1osen by tl1e ca11di.clate wi.tl1 the ap1Jroval of tl1e Board of StL1dies fro111 tl1e follO'A'i.no0 1.1st: Co11sti. tutio11al Law Admi.11istrati.ve Law I11ter11ati.011al Lav\' Co1n1nercial Law Taxatio11 Property Law Fa1ni.ly Law Cri.mi.11al Law Contract Tort I11dustrial Law a11y other a1J1Jroved subject. A di. ssertati.011 is to be subn1i.tted at tl1e e11d of tl1e seco11d year.

224

I 1\cacler11ic Y e a 1earl)' October - n1id-Decembe1· early JanL1ary - mid-1\!f arch 111id-1\priI - ear IJ' JulJ'

Scl1ool of t\d1ninist1·atior1 Institute of U11i versi.ty of Ghana P. 0. Box 78 Legon

(t\ Iicl1ael111as ']�er111) ., (Le11t '1 e1·n1) "' (1 1·i11itj' Te1·111) 1

Di 1·ecto1·: I( ..E. 1\clj ei LangLrage of I11struction: Engli.s11 f Ii - s tOl"}'

The School of Ad111i11i.st1·atio11 ca111e i.11to bei.11g 011 October 1, 1962. It replaced tl1e College of /\cl1T1i11istra tion \Vhich had been establi.sl1ed i.11 Ja11L1ary 1960. Tl1e College p1·ovi.ded traini.ng for professi.011al a ccoL111tants and local governn1ent officers a11d courses i.11 sec1·etary ship a11d ad1ninistratio11.

Candidates without tl1e requi1·en1e11ts necessa·r}' £01· university admission n1ust take a preli111i.11ary coL1rse a11d pass a qualifying examinati.011. Courses The School gives a tl1ree-year bacl1elo1· of scie11ce deg1·ee in admini strati.0 11 \vi.th tl1ree 01Jtio11al fielcls of concentration: accounting, bL1si11ess 1na11ag�me11t ��d public adrnir,istra rion. 171e courses in pL1bl1c _ acl1111n1 stra ti.on are as follows:

225

Fi.rst Year Econo111i.cs I Social StrL1cture Ma11agen1ent I Law I Poli.ti.cal Sci.e11ce Eiigli.sl1 La11gL1age Seco11d Year Economi.cs II 1\ccounti11g I Ad111i.11i.strati. ve Law Statistics [ I- i.story of Modern Politi.cal Thought Public Fina11ce Tl1i.rd Year Appli.ed Eco11on1ics a11d Eco11omic Pla11ning Public Ad111i11i stratio11 Political & Social Tl1eory Manage111e11t II 011e of tl1e follovvi11g: 1\ccoL1nting II Public Fi11ance Con1parative Gover11111e11t I11temati.onal Relatio11s It also gives a tl1ree-yea1- degree in 110s}Jital ad111inistra tion a11d gi.ves tl1ree levels of courses i11 governn1ent: I..... ocal Gover11111e11t Certi.ficate Course Ce11tral Govern111e11t Social Gover11111e11t E11gli.sl1 La11gL1age Economics Bookl<eeJJi.11g

226

•

(

f Ii- gher Local Governrnent Certificate Course --·--· · ---· Ce11tral Govern111e11t Local Go ver11ment General Sec1·eta rial Practice English La11guage Elen1ents of Gl1ana Lav\' Diplon1a Course in Public 1\dn1i11istratio11 Central Go\rern111ent Local Go\1 e1·nme11t l-Iistory of i\1loder11 Political Tl1ougl1t Adn1inistrative La\\ 1

One of the follo\:ving: Statistics Public Finance Political and Social Theory Comparative Government

GUINEA

Ecole Superieure cl' 1\dmi11is tration La11guage of Instrucnon: French Conakry I-fistory Began offering courses in the 1962_-1_963 �c�cle1nic year. Trains l1igl1e·r grades of tl1e c1 v1l service.

227

Aclmissio11 Requireme11ts Students are required to l1ave t11e baccalaureat or are recruited by co1111Jetitive exa1ni11ation fro111 the civil service. Courses Tl1ree-year course. Acaden1ic Year October

July

GUINEA (BISSAU) Portuguese GL1i11ea Tl1ere are 110 i11stitutions of higl1er educati.o11. Stude11ts 111ust go abroad.

228 â&#x20AC;˘

IVORY CO.A.s·1� facL1lte de Droit et des Sciences EconomiqL1es Universite d'Abidja11 B. P. 1880 Abidjan

•

La11guage of I11st1-L1ctio11: Fre11cl1 I IistorJ' -

The Centre d 'E11seigne111e11t SLtJJerieL1r d' 1\biclia11 \Vas establisl1ecl in Jul�)' 1959 ancl began O}Jeratio11s i11 1960 after tl1e Ivory Coast declared its inclepe11cle11ce. ,_n1e Universite cl' Abidjan \\1 as estalJlisl1ed i 11 Ja11uary 1964 \vitl1 four ecoles sL1perieL1res of scie11ce, la\i\', letters and n1edicine. 171e law scl1ool becan1e tl1e Faculty of La\V in 196 9. Aclmissio11 Require111e11ts Candiclates for the lice11ce n1ust l1ave co111pletecl both parts of tl1e baccalaureat 01- its equivale11t. Otl1er candidates may be e111-olled after passi11g a s1Jecial entrance exami11ation. TI1ose \i\1l10 l1ave co111pletecl tl1e capacite en droit \Vitl1 a gracle of at least 12/20 are eligible for admissio11 to the lice11ce }Jrogran1. For admissio11 to the capacite progra111 candidates 111L1st l)e at least 17 years old a11d pass a11 exa111i11atio11. CoL1rses Capacite en Droit First Year Private Law Public Law - includi11g Co11sti tutio11al La\\' Ad111inistrative Law Fiscal La\v

229

s LC

Seco11d Year Ci.vi.I Procedure a11d Legal Process Cri.n1i.nal Law and Procedure Poli.ti.cal Econon1i.cs 1\d1ni.ni.strati.ve Law Licence en Droi.t First Year

I11troducti.011 to Law and to Ci. vil Lavi Co11 sti.tuti.011al La\?\, and Poli.ti.cal Institutions Poli.ti.cal Eco11on1i.cs I-Ii.story of Publi.c a11d Social Organi.zati.011s prior to tl1e Revoluti.011 I11troducti.011 to Poli.ti.cal Sociology I11ter11ati.011al Organizations Second Year Ci.vi.l Law Adn1i.ni.strati.ve Law Poli.ti.cal Eco11omi.cs Cri.1ni.11al La\.v a11d Procedure Public Fi.11a11ce Poli.ti.cal and Social Institutions of A11ti.qui.tyr After successfully completi.11g tl1e seco11d year, tl1e student recei. ,res a di.plome d 'etudes juri.di.ques generales. Tl1i.rd Year Con1merci.al La\\' Labour La\,v a11d Social Security I-Iuma11 l{igl1ts [ IistorJ' of Pri. vate La,,, I Ii- .sto1Âˇy of Pt.1bli.c I11stituti.011s si.rice the F re 11cl1 Revoluti.011

230

Electives (five of the followi11g): Pt.tblic I11ter11atio11al La\v Civil La'A1 1\cl1ninistrati ve Law Social Scie11ce N1etl1ocls Private ]l1risprl1dence Crimi11ology and Penolog}' f-Iistory of Private Institutio11s Fot1rtl1 Year Private La\v Sectio11 Civil La\:v Co1nmercial La\\' a11d Fiscal La\v Private Internatio11al La\,, History of Private Law (or) Co1nparati ve P1-ivate La'A 1

Public La\v Secti.011 Public Service and Nati.011al ]�11ter1Jrises Histo1-y of Poli ti.cal Ideas 1Jrio1- to tl1e l 9tl1 Centtir>' f-Iistory of Poli. tical ldec1s si11ce tl1e l 9tl1 Ce11tLrry European Organizatio11s (or) Conten1porary Political Proble111s There are also 1a'A1 courses i11 tl1e foL1r->rear lice11ce es . ,,,. sciences economiques p1-ogra111. The Faculte offers a 011e-year progra1n leadi.11g to a certifi.cat d 'eco110111ie politique et soci.ale for students in tl1e Ecole des Lettres et des Scie11ces f -It1111ai.11es. The Faculte also offers coL1rses to the lice11cies e11 droit a11d to those iii t!1e fourth year of tl1e lice11ce pro gram whicl1 \vill 11elp prepare tl1e stuclent f�1- tl1e, p1·acti.ce at oc av cl 11 10 ss fe ro p la a a 1e ic tt i. pt 'a at d ic ?f l vv. A certif 1s awarded.

2.31

Acaden1ic Year October January Easter

Oece111ber Easter Ju11e

--�----'" - -< • . . - .. ,._...., ______

Ecole Natio11ale d'Ad111i11is tratio11 3 Ave11ue Crosso11-0L1p lessis B. P. 2551 · Abidjan

Oirecteur: Micl1ael Ber11ard Language of Instruction: Fre11cl1

IIi - story

Fou11ded in 1960 to p1-e1Jare stude11ts for senior acl1ni11istrative posts to 1-eplace Fre11cl1 administrato1·s. Tl1e decree of Se1Jtember 9, 1969 for111ally established tl1e Scl1ool. T11ere are two divisio11s to tl1e Sc11ool: tl1e Ce11tre cle Pre1Jaration Aclmi.11i.strati.ve a11d. the Ecole Pratic1t1e de la Fo11ctio11 Publique. 1\dmi.ssio11 l�equiren1ents Ce11tre de Pre1Jaration Adn1i11i.strative Tl1e Ce11tre is subdiviclecl i11to Cycle SL1perieur 111ust l1a ve a li.ce11ce d 'e11seib Ca11c1iclates o-11eme11t ,,. . su1Jer1eur or a diplon1e d 'i.nstitut d 'etudes 1Joli.tic1ues, lJe 35 years old and l1ave bee11 e111plo1rec1 as civil serva11ts Grade 1\ for at least foL1r years. (a11cl)

Ca11di.dates 111L1st l1ave two certificats de licence, be at least 35 years old a11d l1ave bee11 employecl as ci vi.l ser\ra11ts Grade B for at lea.st four years. 232

Ecole Pratique de la Fo11ctio11 Publiqtie Con1petitive exa111inatio11 OJJe11 to tl1os e I1olding a .__, de l 'E au 11s 1·e ei at g11e111 e11t clu seco11d cleg 1-e 01- its baccal equi valer1t or Yvl10 have \\101·kecl £01· at least fot1 r \'ear.s as civil servants Grade C. Cot11·ses

Ce11tre de Preparatio11 1\dn1inistrative C�{cle Supe1·iet1r - Fo1·n1 e1·l:/ a three-);ea1: prograr11 befng changed to a t\\1 0-yea1· 1J1·og1·a111. Program is intencled to t1·ain the p1·i11cipc1l aclmi11istrators.

l\dministrati \ie Prob lems of ;\_frican States Administrative La\\1 Political Econon1ics Development Eco11omics Planning La\v and Developn1ent Public Nlarkets Political Institutio11s Introcluctio11 to Ma11agen1ent Tecl1niques Second Year

I ',

Role of Commercial Ba11ks in Development The Third \Vorlcl Political and Judicial I11stitutions in the Ivory· Coast Organizatio11s and Metl1ocls Financi11g I11vestment Public Accounti11g Developn1ent Economics Cooperation between France a11d the Ivon., · CoasL_ Commercial Accounting La\\' and Development Social Problen1 s of Developn1e11t Introduction to l\t1anageme17 t Teclirilqttes Public J\!Iarkets 233 •

.......

Cycle Moye11 S�perieu:r : A two-year �rogram ,. ii1te11d.ecl to trai11 tl1e attaches 01: sous-prefets. The seconcl "j'ear is spe11t i11 Fra11ce attacheel to a departrne11t s1Jecia lizi11g i11 tl1 e area of particular interest. Courses for a l l stuclents 1\d111i11istrative Law Pla1111ing Politi.cal Eco11omics Africa11 Sociology Orga11iz atio 1 1 a11d Methods Budgets Eco11on1ics of the Ivory Coast Rura l 1\d1ni11istratio11 Socia l Proble1ns IIistory of Politic a l Ideas Ma11agen1e11t Tech11ic1ues Political I11stitutions General Administrative Section Public I-Iealtl1 The State Eco1101nic and Fisc a l Sectio1 1 AccoL111ti11g t\1onet ary Problems "

Ecole ·rrati.que de la Fo11ction Publi.que, a two-Jrea11Jrogra111 di videcl i.11to five sectio11s: Courses for all stL1de11ts Li11gui.stics ancl Style in tl1e Frencl1 L a11 o·uao-e b b 1\fri.ca11 Geog1-apt1y I 1 1sti tuti.011s of tl1e I vorJ' Coast Public La\v 1\dn1i11i.strati ve Organizati.011 a11d Metl1ods Ma11age1nent Tecl111i.ques

234

Specialized courses Ge11eral 1\dmi11istrati ve Section Public Service Ad1ninistrati ve Lav\' Person11el 1-\dminist1-ation I-Iu1nan Relati. 011s Economic & Fiscal Sectio11 Political Economics and Planning Con11nercial Accounti11g The Treasury Taxes, etc. Social Section Private Lav,, Labour La\\, Social Relations Judicial Section Criminal Lavv Private Law Commercial Law Fiscal Operatio11s Diplomatic Section Consular Matters Economic Geograpl1y English Spanisl1 Private Law Public Inter11ational Law Those successfully completi11g tl1e progra1n receive tl1e ?revet de l 'ecole pratic1ue vvl1ich e11ables theni to \vork 1 n va1Âˇious govern111ent ministrie s.

235

Acaden1ic Year Noven1ber February

February July

l(ENYA

'• ,

Faculty of Lav\' U11i. versi.tJ' of Nairobi P. 0. Box 30197 Nai.1-obi.

Dea11: G. G. S. l\1u11oru La11guage of I11struction: E11glish E-Iistor1,

Ope11ed 011 1\pril 23, 1956 as tl1e Royal Technical College. As a 1-esult of reco111111e11clati.011s incorporated i11 tl1e 1958 Report of tl1e Worki11g Party on f-Iigl1er Educa ti.011 i.11 East Africa in Ja11uary 1961, tl1e Royal Tecl1nical Co llege, 110w k11ow11 as the Royal College, Nairobi, l)eco111e tl1e seco11d interte1-ritorial university college in East /\fri.ca. It e11tered i.nto a special relation witl1 tl1e U11i.versi.ty of Lo11don i11 October 1961 and bega11 to offer courses leacli.11g to Lo11do11 U11i. versity arts, sci.e11ce and engineeri.11g clegrees. 111 1963 the Royal College became 011e of tl1e co11sti. tuent colleges of the U11i. versity of East 1\fri.ca. It beca111e a11 i11clepe11de11t i11stituti. 011 i.11 July. 1970. 111e Fa.cL1lty of Law \.\'as establisl1ed at U11iversi.ty College Nairobi. 011 Ju11, 1, 1970. 1l1e 11e,,, FacL1lty is 1-espo11sible for the acaden1i.c educatio11 of lawyers for p1-ofessio11al }Jractice, comr11erce a11d industry, go\rern n1e11t a11d local gover11n1e11t services a11d tl1e East African Co1111nu11i.ty. For tl1e traini11g of tl1ose seeki11g to enter tl1e legal professi.011 as advocates at tl1e I(enya Bar, tl1e Faculty collaborates wi.tl1 tl1e l(e11ya Scl1ool of Law, tl1e 236

-----Cou11ci1 �f Leg al. Eclucatio11 and tl1e La\v Soci.et.)' of I<e,iya. pla1111ecl so that a stL1clent niay, at rt1 e r11e curr1culL1mye1sar, select a prog1-a1n ,vt1 i. c1 1 ,vi 11 for111 end of his first a sL1itable basis for a career i11 a 11y of tl1 ose foLtr areclS 1nentio n e d above. The F aculty of La ,v con11)rises tl1 e co11 stitL1e11t Depa·rt ments of La'A1 ancl Juri.sp1-L1de11ce a11d PL1blic a11 d Co1n1)ara ti ve Law and the De1J art1nent of Co1nn1 e1-cial La"". I r1 1971-1972, tl1e Departn 1 e11t of Public a11c1 Com1)arati.ve I....a,v, \Vl1ich vvas administe1-ed vvitl1i11 tl1e Depart1ne11 t of La\?\' a11cl Jurisprudence, beca me a se1Jarate co11stitue11t de1Jart ment. Admi. ssio11 ReqL1iren1 e11ts No person sl1all be registe1-ecl a s a ca11diclate for tl1 e degree of bacl1elor of laws L111less !1e satisfies tl1 e t)re scribed 111i11imum e11t1-a11ce requireme11ts of t\VO p1-i11cipal level passes i.11 tl1e higl1 er school certificate. Ca11cli.dates may be 1-equi1-ed to appear for a11 i11 tervie'A1• Courses--------· LL. B. degree progra1n \\1 l1icl1 nor111 ally extenc1s over three academic ye ars. Fi1·st Ye ar Criminal Law La\v of Contract La,v of Tort Legal Syste111s a11d Legal Metl1 od _Second Year La11d Law : lg ii w o ll fo 1e tl 1 11 o fr and fou1- subjects chose11 ,v a L t n 1e 11 11 r e v o G Ad111inistrative a11d L o c a l Commercial Law Customa 1-y Law Equity 237

e s s i o 11 c c u S d 11 a w a L y il Fan1 Law atid Agriculture ec t j b u s e c 11 e i c S l ia c J\ So e 11t (1 / 2 subJ ect) 1 11 n r e v o G d n a \v a Coiistitutiotlal L e ct) j b u s 2 / (1 >' g lo o 11 1i. in Cr t) c J b u s 2 / (1 v v a L l a 11 � o ti a 11 r e Public I11t e ( 1g a1 h o C al 1/2 Je c1 lb So SL ): d 11 a w a L f o s m le ob Pr ed Sel ect

Tl1i.rd Year Dissertatio11 i i.11g: ov ll fo e tl1 om fr 11 e s 1o cl s ct a11d foL1r sL1bje Acl1ni11i.strative and Local Govern111 e 11t Law ;i, 8L1si11ess 1\ssoci.atio11s Custon1ary Law* EqL1i. ty*

Labour Law a11cl R elatio11s La ,v a11d AgricultL1re ,:, Reve11ue Law /\ Social Scie11ce subj ect* Ba11ki11g Law (1/2 subj ect) Co11stitL1ti.011al Lavv a11d Gover11n1e11t* (1/2 subject) Cri.mi11ology* (1/2 subject) Evide11ce (1/2 subject) l11sura11ce La vv (1/2 subject) I11ter11atio11al Eco1101nic LaVi1 (1/2 subj e ct) Jurisprucle11ce (1/2 subject) Private I11ter11ati.011al La"'' (1/2 sL11Jject) Sel ected Problen1s of Law a11cl Social Cl1a11ge* (1/2 sL1bject) Every stL1de11t sl1all be r equired to se lect at least 011e of tl1e follo,,1 i11g courses fo1· eitl1 er l1is s eco11d year or l1is tl1i1·d year: CL1stomary Law A Social Scie11ce subject C1·i111i.11ologyr (1/2 subject) Selected P·roble1ns of Lavv a11d Social Cl1a11ge 0./2 sL1gect) _ ]L1r1sJJrL1cle 11ce (1/2 SLtbj ect) *lf 11ot take11 i.11 the Secoild Year .

238

The Fac�l�r tea�l1es East Africa11 law u11less tt1e sLibj ect is of an 111ternat1onal or a con1JJarative natLire atld at all cinies the sLtbject is taL1gl1 t \Vitl1i11 tl1e co11text of t1 1 e local socioeconomic conclitio11s.

I l

LL. NI. degree progran1 . 1\ ca11diclate fo·r tl1 e clegree sl1 all undertake advanced stL1cly 01· researcl1 01· both, unde:r tl1e guidance of a supervi.so1· appoi.11tecl by tl1e 1\caclen1 ic Board and approved by tl1e Senate. Tl1e exa111i11ation for the deg1·ee sl1all co11sist of a dissertatio11, or of two or more \vritten pape1·s as tl1e 1-\caden1ic Boa1·cl 111 ay recomn1 end and tl1e Senate n1ay approve. Acade111 ic Year First and Seconcl Years late July late September early January early 1\pril

early Septen1be1A early Dece1nber late Marcl1 late June

(first tern1) (seco11d term) (tl1ircl tern1) (fourtl1 tern1)

Third Year First, second and third tern1s as for first and seco11cl years. early April

late April

l(enya Institute of I\dn1i11is t1A ation P. 0. Box 23030 Lo\ver l(abete

(fourtl1 term)

Pri11cipal: C. G. Maina Language o f Instruction: E11glish

I-Iistory . 1s . trat·1 on \vas founded in The I<e11ya I11stitute of 1\dn1 1n , 8 JJI_ g ..ani t 0 � � July 1961 as a part o f the I< enya gove·r11me11t l e c 1 v o r 1 · o t 1 d n a e · c 1 v roVl r P ·cte for an efficient c1. v1· 1 se . y ti·atning facilitie s fo·r local gover11rr1ent, comniunit

239

he Institute T . rs ce fi of e iv at er op Co 1d . al t n . deve101Jn1e _ o ti ra pa n of re fo 6 6 19 ry 1a 11L Ja � 1 � i.1 n ai r · og pr bega11 a e y th te rl ta ea l1 c1 fa to r de or 1 i1 s e at tr · · t n 1ag1·s d.1str1c . d es Af · an at an tr 1c ·r 1s ag 111 of s em st sy 1e t1 of iiltegract011 courts. Acl111issio11 Require111ents i\ mii1imL11 11 of one year's experi ence as a district ma!2:istrate or direct e11try after a co n1prel1ensive series of :xan 1i11atio11s i11cludi11g English and Swahili comprel1e11sion. Selectio11 is 111ade by tl1e Commissio11er after initial reco111me11datio11s of tl1e l(enya Institute of Administration staff. Courses

,. ,

Tl1e l(e11ya I11stitute of Ad111i11istration is divided into tl1e followi.11g de1Jart111e11ts: Depart111e11t Depart111e11t Depart111e11t Depart111ent De1Jartme11t Departn1e11t

of of of of of of

Public Aclmi11i.stratio11 Executive T1-ai.11i.11g Local Governme11t Social Develop111ent Cooperative Trai11i11g La11guage

171e Departme11t of Public 1\d111i.11istrati.011 offers the course for clistrict 1nagi.strates. T11ese coL1rses are 11orrnally of tvvelve n1011tl1s' durati.011, \\ii.th lectu1-es bJ' la \Vyers at tl1e Institute of 1\.d111 i11ist1·atio11. Ouri11g vacati.011s JJa1-ricipa11ts are attacl1ed to reside11t magis trates' cou1-ts. CoL1rses of tl1ree a11d foL1r 111011tl1s' dL1ratio11 for di.strict n1agi.strates l1ave been given in tl1e past. La,\1 courses are offered i.11 all de1Jart111ents except tl1e De1Ja1-rme11t of La11guage. Tl1ose ,v110 recei.ve instruc tion i.11 law are as follo\v s:

240

Ivf agi.st1·ates ProlJati.011 Office1·s Soci.cll \A/orkers Co1111nu11i. ty Oe\ 'elo1)111e11t Of.fi.ce�r s Police Offi.cers I111rni.gratio11 Offi.cers Finance Clerks Ce·rti.fi.ed PLilJlic l\ccot.111ta11ts I, II & Ill ;\d111i.11i.st1·ati.ve Cle1·ks Certified Fublic Sec1·eta1·i.es I, 11 & 111 Di.strict Office.rs La\v course 1·equi.re111e11ts fo1: \1 c11·i.ot.1s JJ1·og1·a111s are as follO\¥S: Evicle11ce Cri.n1i.nal P1·oceclure Ci. vil Prt)ceciu1·e Court t\!fanagen1e11t Co11t·racts Torts Real Pror>er·ty l111n1i.gratio11 La\v Crimi. 11al Lav\1 Ct.1ston1ary La\\' l-\dn1i.ni.strati. ve J_,a\\1 Introduction to La\\1 Land La,v Labour L a\;\/ Local Gove1·nme11t La\\' Legal Syste111 ancl Metl1ods Constituti.011al La,-v Co1nrre rcial l_..,a\v Tnclt.1stri.al La,v Planni.11g J_,a\v Ma11agement La,v Cooper21ti. ve Law s r e ic ff O ii o ti. a lJ ·o P 1 cl n a La,v fo r Social \A/or1<ers Tax Law Co1T1pa11)r La \V

241

Pri.11cipal: Tudor Jackso11 La11gt1age of I11structio n: E11glish

l(e11ya Scl1ool o f Law

P . O . B o x 30369

Nairobi.

f-Iistory Foui1ded 111 1963 to prepare students for admission to the bar. Prior to tl1is time students had to seek tl1e 11ecessary facilities i.11 tl1e U11ited l(i11gdon1. Ad111issio11 Requiren1e11ts Overseas Ca111bri.dge Scl1ool Certificate at credit sta11dard i.11 five subjects, 011e of whicl1 must be English la11guage or its eqL1i.valent; or tl1ose vi1ho have served as advocates' clerks for a 1Jeriod of not less tha11 seven years. E11t11r is 011 a co111petitive basis. Courses P1·ior to 1970 tl1e Scl1ool of Law offered tl1e first and fifth year acaden1ic legal i11struction divided by tl1ree Jrea1·s of articles to a practici11g advocate a11d 11igl1t stud)'· t\t tl1e e11d of tl1e first year tl1e stude11t sat Part Oi1e of the exa.., 111i11atio11. Tl1e stude11t sat for Part T\vo at tl1e end of l1is fiftl1 year. Tl1i.s progra111 could be reduced by 011e year v-. l1e11 the e11teri11g stude11t l1ad t\\'O subjects at tl1e pri.11ci pal or 1\ level. 1

Tl1e last grou1J L111der tl1is proo-ram e11te1·ed i11 1968 and vvi 11 l1ave con1pleted tl1ei. 1· p1·ogra111s b"j' 1973. Tl1e g1·ouJJ e11teri11g i11 1969 tra11sferred to tl1e Faculty of La\v in 1970 a11cl co1111Jleted tl1eir LL. B. clegrees from tl1e U11i.versitJ' �f Nai�obi i11 1972. Tl1ose \\ 1 10 wisl1 to qL1ali.fy for prac tice will _be articled to a practi.ci11g advocate for a 011e year }Jeriod. 171eJr \\ i l l tl1e11 take a te11-111011tl1 coL1rse at tl1e l(e11ya Scl1ool of La\"'. 1

242

The courses \,vl1ich l1ad bee11 offered \\1e1·e tl1e follo'A,ing: Part I 1\ccou11ts Constitutional La\v Legal System of l(e11)ra Co11tract Crin1inal Law Crin1i11al Procedure Fa111ily La\v Succession Tort Part II Civil Procedure Commercial Law Con1pany La\v Partnerships Equity Eviclence Contructio11 of Docu111e11ts La11cl Law and Co11veyanci11g P1·ofessio11al Etl1ics a11d Practice The courses offered to tl1e l1olclers of tl1e LL. B. degree of tl1e U11iversity of Nairobi a1·e as follows: Accou11ts Civil and Cri111i11al Procedure Company Obligatio11s and Precedents Conveya11ci.ng Professional Ethics Acaclemic Year late AJJril micl-Septe111ber mid-Janua ry

early July 111id - December early AJJril

243

LESOTI-IO Oepart111e11t of J__,aw Utli.versi.ty of Botswa11a, J__,esotl1o a11d Swazi.la11d P. 0. Ron1a Lesotl10, Soutl1er11 Africa

Dea11: J. I-I. Pai.11 Language of Instructi.011: E11glisl1

f-Ii.story

T11e U11i.versi.ty, \Vl1i.cl1 was co11stituted by royal cl1ar ter 011 Ja11L1a1-y 1, 1964, 'A1 as successor to Pi.us X.II U11i.ver sity College, a center for l1i.gl1er lear11i.11g founded in 1950 by tl1e Co11gregati.011 of Mi.ssio11ary Oblates of Mary In1maculate. f\t Pi.Lis XII College, stude11ts had been pre l )ared for degrees a11cl di.1 Jlon1as of tl1e Unive1-sity of Soutl1 Africa. Tl1e LL. B. a11d diploma programs of UBLS were i11itiated i.11 1965, a few students e11tering tl1e LL. B. course 'il'i.tl1 adva11ced sta11di11g on tl1e basis of work do11e i.11 a 1Jrevious B, A. (law) curri.cL1lu111. The U11iversi.ty's · first degrees ancl diplomas \-Vere co11ferred 111 1967. 1\dmissi.011 Require111ents LL. B. Program A Camb·ridge Overseas Scl1ool Certi.fica.te 111 tl1e First or Seco11d Division witl1 a credit i.11 E11gli.sl1 la11guage or a ge11eral certificate of edL1catio11 \�'i.tl1 passed exa111i.natio11s at tl1e orclinary level i.11 at least four subjects i.11cludi.11g E11gl i.s11 la11gL1age. Diplo111a Progran1 UsLtally tl1e 11or111al U11i. versi.ty requi.1-e111e11ts apply but tl1ere �re 8 IJeci.al IJ·ro\ri.si.011s for ci. \ri 1. serva11ts spo11sorecl by tl1e1r gove1-11111e11t.

244

Certificate Prog1·a111 Tl1e ju11ior ce rtificate or its eqL1i valeiit. CoL1rses ;\n LL. B. degree p1·ogra1n \vl1icl1 11orr11ally extet1cls over foL11· and one-half )rears. Ye21rs tl1 ree a11cl :foL11· a1·e taken at tl1 e U11ive rsity of E di11bL1rgl1. '-

Y ea1· I (Part I) Lavv ;-\ - Introcluccto11 to La\,1 , Ge11e ral Pri.11ciples of Contracts, Delict Lavv C - Criminal La\, English I Governn1ent a11d 1\dn1i11istratio11 I (or) Economics T Gene1·al Studies (half coL11·se) 1

Year II (Part I) La\v B -Customary Law J_,a\\1 D - Persons a11cl SL1cces si.011 Law F - Co11stitL1tio11al a11d i\.d111i11ist rative La½ Economics IT (o r) Gover11ment II (or) Ad1ni11istration II Social A11thr opology /Sociology (l1alf course)

Year V (Part III) I !

La\v Ea - Civil an d Crir11i11al Procedure (half course) Law Eb - Ev iclence (half coL1rse) Law I-I - Property (l1alf course) 1 a11a, Lesotl10 \� ts o B 1 i1 1s n le 1J Law J - Curre11t Legal Pro ancl Swazila11d (l1alf coL1rse)

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245

y il , p ar aw im L 1 r i1 fo a om pl lay Di l 1a ďż˝ r1 te in r ea -y 1e A 01 , ts en 1d t es t ur pr ur co co y ar om st cu , rs ce fi of al ci judi clerks, etc. Law A - Introduction to Law, Ge11eral Principles of Contracts, Delict (full course) La\v D - Perso11s and Succession (full course) Law C - Cri1ni11al Law (full course) Law Ea - Procedure (half course) Law Eb - Evide11ce (l1alf course) Law F - Constitutio11al Law (half course) Law B - Custtomary Lavv (half course) 1\ corresponde11ce course Certificate in LaV11 'A1l1ich n1ust be completed over a period of three years. Âˇ This is desi.g11ed for gover11me11t officers having need of some legal k11owledge. There are some lectures given under tl1is progra1n i11 Botswa11a a11d Svvaziland. Law l( - Elen1e11ts of Private Law Law C - Cri.111inal Law Law G - Merca11tile Law Law F - Co11stitutional Law (l1alf course) Law Ea - Procedure (l1alf course) La'A1 Eb - Evide11ce (l1alf course Law B - CL1stomary Law (l1alf course) 1\caden1ic Year late JulJr - late September early October - earlJ' Dece111ber late Ja11L1ary - late t\pri.l

246

LIBERI1\ Toe Louis 1\rtl1ur Grin1es Scl1ool of Law University of Liberia t-,4011rovia

LangL1age of lnst1·uctio11: English

Founded as Liberia College in 1862. '""fl1e U11iversity of Liberia \Vas established by an 1\ct of LegislatL1re of the RepLlblic of Liberia, F ebrL1ary 15, 1951. The School of La\v vvas established in 1954 and began as a11 eveni11g program. The full-time clay p1·ogran1 bega11 i11 1965. 1970 \Vas the first yr ear i11 \\1 l1icl1 onl:)r day coLrrses were offered, the evening progran1 having bee11 g1·acluall:)' pl1ased out. Adn1ission Requiren1e11ts 1\ccredited l1igh school 01· IJ1·e1Jaratory scl1ool cliplo1na and two years of successful college trai11ing or its equivalent; a La\v 1\ptitude Exa1ni11atio11 acl1ni11isterec1 bj' the Liberian Educatio11 Testing Ce11te1· for the Law Scl1ool. Courses Three-year LL. B. day program First Year Civil Procedure (fLtll-year cou1·se) Contracts (full-year course) To1·ts (full-year course) Property (full-year course) Legal lVIetl1od (o ne semester coL1rse plus tvvo \\'eeks introductory cou1·se) Crim inal La\v (fLtll-year course) Legal Writing (one-semester course)

247

Seco11cl Year Co1n1Jarative Law (011e-semester course) Co11sti.tutio11al Law (011eďż˝ semester course) Ad1nini.strati.ve Law (one-semester coL1rse) I11ternati.011al Law (full-year coL1rse) Evidence (full-year course) Accounti.11g (011e-semester course) Busi11ess Orga11i.zati.011 (fL1ll-year course) Negotiable l11struments (one-se1nester course) Sales (011e-se111ester course) T11 i.rd Year

'' .

Trusts a11d Estates (ft.111-year course) Taxation (011e-se111ester course) Domestic Relatio11s (011e-sen1ester course) Labor Law (one-semester course) Legal Etl1ics (011e-se1nester coL1rse) Cri.mi11al Procedure (one -semester course) Moot CoL1rt (full-year course) African Law (011e-se1nester course) Se1ni11ar (011e-semester course -- topic cl1osen by tl1e facult>r) Acade111ic Year March ]Ltly

July Dece111ber

248

LIBY t\ Âˇ. Facull:)' of La\v TI1 e Libyan U11i versi.ty P. O. Box 1308 Be11ghazi

LangL1age of I11stn1ction: Arabic, E11glisl1 as a seco11cl official la11gL1age f-I i. story

The Uni. ve1-si.tjr vvas formally estab lisl1ed by a royal decree on Dece1nber 15, 1955 \Vi.th a FacL1lty of J\rts and Education. In 1957 the Faculties of Com111erce a11d Economics and Sci.ence were establisl1ed. The FacL1lty of Lavv follo\ved in 1962. Adn1issio11 Requireme11ts f\ general secondary school certi.fi.cate witl1 a total of marks in tl1e fi.11al scl1ool exam of 150 or more. Courses FoL1r-year cou1-se leading to tl1e LL. B. First Year Introduction to the Study of Lav;, Political Institutions a11d Constituti.011al Law Politi.cal Economy Sharia Ro111an Law I-Ii.story of Law 1\rab Society French Second Year Civil Law Proce dure and Cri1ni11al Law Public lnternati.011al Law Poli.tical Eco110111ics SI1arta 249

Law e v ati. 1istr . Ad1ni1 v es ) erat1 (Coop lation Social Legis Fre11cl1 TI1 ird Year C i v i l Law Jurisprude11ce Merca11tile La\,.., Criminal Law Administrative Law Public Finance and Taxation Social Legislation (Labour La\v) Sl1a1-ia Frencl1 Termi11ology Fourth Year Civil Law Criminal Procedure Pri. vate I11ternati.onal La\\1 I\/Jercanti.le Law Ci \ri.l Procedure I\1oslem Sl1aria I\1ari.ti.me LaV11 Legal Terminology in a Foreign Language Electi. \res C1i mi. nologyr A Special Study in C1ir11i.nal La\\' I nternati.011al Organi. zati.011s International l{elati.ons Ci\7 i.l Avi.atio11 La\.v I11sL11-a11ce Public 1\dn1i.11i.strati.011 Local Ad111i.11.i sc1·ati.011 1-\cr1de111i.c Y ea1· Septen1l)er

Jtitle

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IvlALAGASY REPUBJ...,IC (MA01\.G1\SCAR ) f<'aculte de Droit et des Dea11: Cl1arles Cadoux Sciences Eco11on1iques Fondatio11 Charles-DeGaLtlle Universite de L\1adagascar Ca 1npus Uni versitai1·e ;-\mbohitsaina B. P. 566 La11guage of Instructio11: Tana11arive Frencl1 a11d Malagasy I IistorJ' f\ La'vv Examinati.011 Ce11tre, attached to tl1e FacL1l�, of La\v of the Uni versicy of Aix-Marseille, \Vas established at Ta11anarive in 1948. Tl1e Institut des I-Iautes Etucles vvas established bJ' the decree of Deceml)er 15, 1955 a11d incorporated the Law Exami11ati.011 Centre with tl1e School of �1edicine, whi.cl1 was fou11ded i11 1896. Otl1er de1:iart1ne11ts were added to the InsLitut i11 1959. TI1ese esta blishments acquired uni. versicy status L111de1· tl1e decree of July 14, 1961. Admissi.011 Requiren1e11ts The lice11ce ca11didate 1nL1st l1old a seco11dary scl1ool certificate, a baccalaureat or eqL1i vale11t a11d 1nust pass an entra11ce exami11atio11 ( exame11 special d 'e11t1·ee ). Those who have completed the capacite e11 droit \Vitl1 a �ark of at least 12/20 are eligible for ad111issio�1 :o the l1cence program. ,..fI1e candidates for tl1e capac1te must be at least 17 years old and hav e con1pletecl tl1e brevet.

251

Courses n te i e it c o a r p . d a c e l1 t o t g n i d a le e s r u T\vo-year co First Year ) . tc e , ty r e p o r P , ly 1i Private Law (Fan ve ti d -a n t1 a is in m d ea r'\ i.s F l, l) a n o ti tu ti s 11 o (C w a L ic Publ Seco11d Year Ci. vil Procedure Cri1ninal Law a11d P1-ocedure Politi.cal Econo111ics Ad111i11istrative Law LaboLtr Law Mocler11 Private Law Private La\v of Madagascar

Four-year course leading to the licence en droit (p1ivate law, JJublic law and political science, political economy).

First Year I11trodL1ction to the StL1dy of La\v a11d Civil Law Constitutional Law a11d Political Institutions Basic Econo1nics I-Ii.story of Institutio11s Adn1i11istrative Institutions International Organizatio11s Statistics Matl1en1atics Seco11cl Year Ci\ri� �av\, (Obligatio11s a11d Co11tracts) Ad1n1111strative La\\1 Fiseal Eco110111ics Cri1:1i11al Law a11d Procedure Publ1c Fi11a11ce I11t1·octL1cti011 to c011 . te1 . nporary Jur1s1Jrudence

252

.. z:z_q :a !?E _ a: ;s

f\ stude11t receives a _di. plome cl' etl1cles j ltridiC(Ltes afteJ: sL1ccessfully co111plet111g tl1e seco11cl )'ea.:r. TI1i.rcl Year Con1merci.al La\\' LaboL1r La\v Cooperati.ves i. n DeveloJ)i.11g CoL111r1-ies t\gri.cultural La\v i.11 Developi.11g Cou11tri.es Developme11t a11cl G1-o,, tl1 Public Inte1-national LaYv Civi.I La\v ;\dn1ini.strc.1tive La\\1 Social Sci.e11ce I\1l etl1ods Civi.I P1-ocedL11-e f-Ii.story of I\1alagasy Private La,\ [-Ii.story of Econo111i.c Tl1ol1gl1 t 011 Develo1)111e11t AccoL1nti.ng Rural Develop111e11t 1

FoL1rth Year

Civil La\\' Commercial Law Private I nter11ational La \\1 History of Malagasy JJri. vate La,\1 Formatio11 of Enterprises Eco11omic Law Public J_,avv a11d Political Sc.ie11ce I-Ti.story of Political Ideas Afro- r\sian Insti tltti.011s lďż˝ights [ Iuman PLrblic .Finc1nce Conten1pora-ry Political JJroble1:1 s Public Service ancl 1\c1111inistrc1t1011

253

11:

13 G

1 ii

rly ula pa ti.c se tho s, se ur co in 11g � the i ed ec JJr tl1e of me So e 1 th 11 ogram for s 1t pr e1 ud s to d re fe of � e ar first year, . s e u 1q m o 11 o c e s e c 11 e . i c lice11ce e11 s at or ct a at do et d' rs fe of o c s hi w al h it ro D de te ul ac F T11e e 's on ar t ye as le t di at ad 1d a1 ional 1 01 . ti ta er ss . di a requires eu ri s pe de s su tu re 'e d de e om }Jl di 1e tl r 1e tl ei r fo stL1dy re eu ri s s pe de su de tu 'e d 11e droit o1 pl di e tl1 or ve i pr t oi dr public. Each JJrogram totals 25 credit ho urs. ,

of tl1e Faculte de Droit es air ici Jud es The I11sti.tut d 'EtL1d ,. et des Scie11ces Eco11on1iques offers a certificat d'etudes judicial.res a11d a di.1Jlo1ne de l 'i.nstitut d 'etudes judi ci.ai.res to tl1ose i.11te11di.11g to go i.11to the magistrature.

I r ' .'

•

T11e certi.ficat progra111 is two years long and open to tl1ose wl10 l1ave completed the first two years of the lice11ce e11 droi.t. First Yea1Va1-ious Elen1e11ts of JL1di.ci.al Procedure

Seco11d Year Criminal Law Voies d 'execL1tio11 Accou11ti11g Commercial Co11tracts Tl1e di.plo111e {Jrogr-ac 111 1· s ope11 to those v,,110 are li.cenc.1es • en clro1t a11d l1a c ve t a·k e11 courses 111 tl1e I11sti tut. 01·der In . · to quali · fy for tl1e e•xan1111a · 1 tl1e stude11t 1nust l1ave a t101 . 011e- 111011tl1 aJJJJi-e11t·icesh.1P 111 a court. Courses are as follo,,,s: l?r"i vate Law Cr"im"i11al La,v Ci vi.I. ProcedL11-e C1-i. ini. 11al Procedure MalagasJ, PL1bli.c Law

254

Academic Y e a r October - }Line

Ecole Nationale d 'Admi11istration de Malagasy Campus-Universitaire, r\mboihitsa ina B. P. 217 Tananarive

Director: f\. T{a1na11gl1arivo11y LangL1age of lnstructio11: Malagasy a11d Fre11cl1

I-Ii story Founded in 1960. Trains senior ci.vil servants of tl1e Republic. Cooperates \vith tl1e follovvi.11g i.11sti.tL1tions: , Ecole Nationale d 'Admi ni.strati.on, Pa1Âˇi.s; l11sti. tLit des , , Etudes d 'Outre-Mer, Paris; I11sti.tut des I-Iautes Etudes ,, lnternationales, Geneva; Ecole Nartonale de la Sante Publique, Brussels. 1\dmissio11 Requireme11ts Cornpetiti.ve examination open to those wl10 l1ave 1JasÂ sed the baccalaureat e11 droit (tl1e first t\vo year s of the licence) a11d to civil servants with five years' service. For the former, the courses last three y,ears a11d for the latter, two. 1\cademic Year October January April

December March Ju11e

255

MAL1\ V\11 Dean: Ver11 G. Davi .dson

Scl1ool of Law University of M a la w i Institute of Public Ad111i.11istrati.on La11guage of I11structi.011: P. 0. Box 600 English Bla11tyre I-Ii.story

T11e I11stitute of Pt1blic Administration began as a gover11n1e11t trai.11i11g institL1te at Mpen1ba, near Blantyre, i11 1962. It IJrovidecl a variety of courses inte11ded to trai.11 serving or JJrospective ci Vil servants as acln1i11is trative ancl execL1tive officers, n1agi.strates, etc. Over tl1e years tl1ese courses were upgraded. On January 1, 1967 tl1e I11stitL1te was divi.cled into t\:VO parts: one por tio11 called tl1e InstitL1te of Public Ad111inistration, beca111e a college of the U11iversity of Malawi, whicl1 vvas fou11ded in 1964; tl1e other, tl1e Staff Training College, beca111e a depart111e11t of tl1e Office of the Preside11t. In September 1968 tl1e Institute' s School of La\v, wl1i.ch l1acl been establi. sl1ed tl1e previous year, began to offer a complete legal education leadi11g to quali.ficatio11s for practice as a legal practi.tio11er in Malawi. Tl1e Staff Trai11ino· 110w offers tl1e b b Colleo·e courses for local coLrrts' per son11el. Ad111issio11 Requi.1·e111ents A Seconcl Di vision Camb1·ido·e School Certificate or fi. ve JJasses i11 tl1e ge11eral ce1·ti :ficate of educatio11 at tl1e ordi11ary level IJlus t\\1 0 yea1·s' u11iversity studies. _ E11gl1sl1 111L1st l1ave bee11 a111011g tl1e subjects read.

256 •

C ourses J\n LL. B. degree p1·ogran1 vvl1ich extends over tJ1ree ·academic year·s. rfhe SLtbjects for tl1e LL. B. pi·ogra111 are as follows �fter _con1pleti.011 of t\\ 0 years of ge11eral study at the Un1 vers1ty of I\�alav,,i.: 1

First Year Contract Legal Nlethod and Syrste111 C1·i.minal Lavv Non-Legal Option* Second Year Nlercanti.le La,v Real Prope1·ty EqLtity Trusts and Wills Legal Procedure Moot Court Evidence Non-Legal Optio11 * Conflicts of Law Roman Dutch Law Jurisprudence Customary Law of Mala1vvi Family Law Public Inter11ati.onal Lavv Tl1ird Year Business Orga11ization (Com1Ja11y Law, Part11erships, Corporations, etc. ) Constitutional Law J\dmi11istrati.ve Law Conveyancing Practice Court No11-Legal Opti.on* 'r-

il a t c l e s to d e ir u q e r e Eacl1 year the students will b � · aw l O ea ar ct ri st 01Jtio nal course from outside tl1e

257

Tl1e followi11g coLtrses will }Jrobably be available: Econon1ics of Develop111e11t i11 Tropical Africa 1\ccou11ti.11g Eco1101nics E11glisl1 Fre11ch Geography I-Iistory Poli.ti.cal Theory Statistics Public Ad111i.11istrati.011 P1i11ci1Jles of Accou11ts Eacl1 course meets fron1 011e to five hours per ,veek.

! â&#x20AC;˘

The La\\1 Faculty also teaches the law sections for the tl11-ee-year diplon1a i.11 publi.c ad1ni.11i.strati.on. Academic Year late September early Ja11uary mid-April

mid -December early AJ)ril late July

258

I\/JALI Ecole Nationale ct' f\cl1ni11is t1·ation B. P. 276 Language of I11structio11: French Bamako Courses Provides two courses of stuc1y: one at seco11clary level for holders of tl1e diplome d'etudes fo11clan1entales or the old brevet ele1nentaire du premier cycle, ancl tl1e second for l1olders of the baccalaL1reat. Tl1e higher course covers general ad1ninistration, judicial and legal services, social services, econo1nics a11d fi11ance, and training for tl1e fo1·eig11 service a11d leacls in three years to a diploma. Academic Year October

July

MAURITf\NIA There are no institutions of l1igher educatio11 in i\1auritania other than the In st it ut Nat io11al des I-Iau�es Etude s Islamiqu es. Students who wisl1 to pursue hlgher studies must go overseas.

259

MAURITIUS School of Admi.ni.strati.011 Uni.versi.ty of Mauri.ti.us Redui.t

I -lead: W. F. Coo1)er Language of Instruction: E11glisl1

I-Ii.story Founded i.n 1965. Programs i.11 Economics ďż˝ nd Public Adini.ni.sri-ati.on, Engineering Tecl1n? logy, Agriculture a.nd Natural Resources, a11d EducatLon. Academic Year May

March

MOROCCO Facl1lte de Droi.t et des Sci.eL1ces Econo111iql1es Universite f\tlol1a111111ed V Avenue Moulay Cl1erif lďż˝abat

Dea11 : A. Belkeziz Language of Instructi.011: 1\rabic a11d F1-e11cl1 I Tis - tor'.)'

The Uni versi.te v.1 as foltnded i11 1957 i11corporati.11g tl1e former insti.tL1tions of letters (fou11ded 111 1912), law (fol111ded in 1920), a11cl scie11ce (fou11ded i.11 1940). Tl1ese institutions l1ad bee11 establi.sl1ed u11der tl1e Protectorate and v.1 ere attacl1ed to L111i.versi.ties abroad. Tl1e la,v of 21 Jl1ly 1959 forn1ali.zed the structL1re of tl1e U11i.versi.ty .

260 t:

Aclmissio11 ReqL1i 1-e111ents Baccalaureat or equivale11t for ad111ission to tJ1e li . ceii 11ecessary 11ot is fo1· TI1is aclrr1iss1011 to the oit. d·r en ce capa cite progran1. _CoL1rses T11e FacL1l ty of La\\' a11d Poli ti cal Eco1101ny offers (1) a r,vo-year cou1-se leading to the ca1Jacite e11 clroi.t, (2) a tl1ree-year coL1rse leading to the lice11ce en clroit, ancl (3) postgraduate stL1dies lasti.11g at least two )'ears after the licence leading to tl1e diplo111e d 'etudes su1Jeriel1res. Students may also obtain the docto1-al deg1-ee. There are several institutes and ce11tres attacl1ed to the Faculty of Law: one, tl1e Institltte of Poli.ti.cal Stl1dies in Rabat wl1icl1 offe1-s a tl1ree-year coL1rse leadi.11g to a licence en d1-oi.t (political science); t,:vo, the Trai.11i.11g Centre fo1· Business Management; a11d tl1ree, tl1e Research Centre for Econon1i.c a11d Social Develop1nent ,vhich provides courses leadi.11g to s1Jecial avvarcls. The Faculty of La\v also gi. ves courses to those in the licence in economics progra111. TI1eoreti.cal i.11strL1cti.ons cover the following subjects in tl1e l ice11ce e11 d1-oit pro

gram:

First Year Co11sti.tuti.onal Law and Political I11stitl1ti.ons Introduction to the Study of Law Technology Economic Geography Mathematics of Economics General Political Economy Economic Sociology _Seco11d Year CiVil a11d Con11nercial La\v is s ly a 11 A ic m o n co E a St tistics, Accountancy and Gen eral Political Economy lnte r11ational Econon1ic Relations

261

De111ogra1Jl1y . . Eco1101nic Plan11i11g n o t1 la i.s g e l L ia c So d 11 a r u o b a f L o s Econo111ic Tl1ird Year Structural Problen1s of Econon1ic Development I-Iistory of Eco110111ic Oevelo_pn1ent and Thougl1t Economic and Fina11cial Pol1c)r Busi11ess Managen1e11t and Accountancy Adn1inistrative a11d Eco11on1ic Law Rural Eco11omy North African Eco11omy Plus one a11d o11e-l1alf (1-1/2) hours each \Veek practi cal work in the following subjects: •

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First Year Ge11eral Political Economics Mathematics of Eco11omics Statistics Accou11tancy a11d Economic Analysis Economic Plan11i11g Second Year Ge11eral Political Econo111ics Inter11ational Econon1ic Relatio11s Eco11omic and Financial Policy Tl1i rel Year Busi11ess Manage1ne11t a11d t\ccou11ta11cy The practical t1·ai11ir1g bea1·s mai11ly on tl1e I\1orocca11 eco11omy a11d is give11 cluri11g 011e se1nester in the seco11d year a11d i11 botl1 se111esters 111 tl1e first a11d tl1i1·d years. Stude11ts are also reqL1ired to atte11d lectu1·es in a foreign langL1age.

262

Acade111i.c Y ea·r ni id - Octobe1· January f\pril

Decen1be1· M arcl1 late Ju11e

FacL1lte Oussul Addi.ne de Tetouan Universite Qarawi.yi11e Fez

Dea11: Mol1an1n1ecl Jawacl Sekalli. LangL1age of InstrL1cti.011: Aral)ic

I-Ii.story_ Founded in 859, reorga11izecl in 1788-1789 by Moha111mad III. Became a T\101·occan state i.nstitution in 1947. Teaches Nluslim la\v and tl1eology at Fez tl10L1gl1 n1ai11 campus is at Rabat, 27 Rue Sai11t- Pierre et MiqL1e1011. Admission Requiren1e11ts Baccalaureat or equi.valent. Acade111ic Year Noven1ber January April

December I\!Iarch June

Ecole i\1arocaine d '1\dministration R abat

Di.rector: Ben 1\bdi L�nguage of I11strL1c_ tion: Frei1ch and Arab1c

Ad111ission Requiremei7 ts C ompet1ti . ve exa1nination OJJe11 to Cl· vi· 1 serva11ts \Vitl1 . . 8 11 11 n 1 1 a.c three years' e tl of l1 ; ervi.ce 111 tl1e 1nain branc s trati.on a11d to at. ure ala cc ba the 11g lcli ho 11s perso

263

Courses TI1e school provides a tl1ree-year course covering all bra11cl1es of ad1ni11istrati.011 and leading to a diploma \}vl1icl1 gives access to l1igh- level ad1ni11istrative posts.

MOZt\MBIQUE

U11i\rersidade de Lourenc;o MarqL1es CP 257 Loure11c;o Marques

Language of Instruction: PortL1guese

I-Ii.story Fou11ded i.11 1962 as Estudo gerais u11i ve1-sitarios. Becan1e university in 1968. No law instruction. Students go to Portugal. 1\cademic Year Octobe1Ja11uary Marcl1

Dece111ber l\1arch JL1ly

264

NIGER Ecole Nactonale d 't\dmi.nÂ istracton clu Niger B. P. 542 Nian1ey

D i rector: GL1y Dever11ois La11gL1age of I11s trL1c ti011: Fre11cl1

[ Ii.story Founded i.n 1\ugL1st 1963 to r1-ai11 civil serva11ts a11cl other offi.cials; 1-eorga11i.zed i.11 1966. Cour-ses The Ecole is di vi.ded into tl1e folloďż˝ i.11g sectio11s: 1

Administration Ge11erale Services Fi.11anciers et Con1ptables Judiciaire (two-year JJrogra111) Douanes et Regies Postes et Telecommu11i.cati.011s

265

NIGERIA Faculty of Law Uni.versi.ty of Nigeria E11ugu Can1pus East Central State

Acting Dean: C. Ogwurike La11guage of Instruction: English I-Iistory

Founded in October 1960. The Law Faculty was for111ally establisl1ed i11 Septenmer 1964. TI1e university did 11ot fu11ctio11 for tl1ree years, 1967-1970, during the ci.vil vvar. It i.s 110w i11 the process of reorganization. LaVi, was first taught in tl1e Sapara-Williams College of Law of tl1e Faculty of Social Studies in 1961. A four-year LL. B. progra1n was started at tl1at time. .!..

Admissio11 Requirements Passes i11 two relevant subjects at principal standard in tl1e l1igl1er school certificate of education provided the ca11didate has in addition three other subjects at subsiÂ diary sta11dard or ordinary level or a West African Scl1ool Certificate witl1 passes at credit level in at least five subjects. Courses The followi11g are LL. B.- courses offered at the FacÂ ulty of Law before 1967: First Year I-I u111a11i. ti. es I11trodLtcti.011 to Nigeria11 La\v Co11sti.tLttio11al l...a\\' La\\' of Co11tract Cri111i11al La\\'

266

-Second Year

Social Scie11ce or NatL1ral Science i\1erca11tile La\.v Nige1·ian Land La,,, Law of Evide11ce a11d P1·oceclL1re La,v of Tort Company La\v

Jurisprudence Equity Conflict of La,, s Public International La\\' Comparative Law 1

Acaclemi.c Year late September early January early f\.pril

Faculty of Law University of Ife Ile-Ife

mid- Decen1]Jer n1id - rv1arcl1 late May

Dea11: 0. I. Odu111osL1 La11guage of Instructio11: E11gli sl1 I-Iistory

The Universit y of Ife was establisl1ecl i11 1961. The Law Faculty bega11 in 1962. The first gradL1ates received their degrees i11 1965. The ma in ca1npus of tl1e univer sity as vvell as the Law Faculty is sitL1atecl at Ile-Ife, about fifty miles from 11Jadan.

267

Acl111issio11 l�equire1nents Direct E11try A general certificate of educati_on or its equivalent wl1ich sl1ows 11ot less tl1a11 two subJ ect-passes at ad va11ced level and at least three otl1er passes at ordinar)' level. For tl1is pL1rpose, a pass at credit level in the West 1\frica11 School Certificate exami11ation or a pass at subsidiary level i.11 the hi.gl1er school certificate exami narto11 is regarded as equivalent to ordinary level of the ge11eral ,certificate of eclucatio11. (or) 1) Degrees of other u11i.versities as may fron1 ti.n1e to time be recog11ized by the Senate. 2) 1\ny certificate obtained i.11 an exa1ni.11atio11 otl1er tl1a11 those specifically na1ned in these regulati.011s. 3) Any otl1er qualification which· the Senate 1na)r l1old to be equivale11t or n1ay cleem to be sufficient. ..

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I11 addition all ca11didates are required to have attained a mi11i.1num sta11clard i11 Englisl1. This requirement is satisfied with a pass i11 Englisl1 language at ordinarJ' level in tl1e exan1i.11atio11 for the general certificate of education, or its equi vale11t. Ca11didates wl10 do not satisfy requireme11ts me11tioned above may 11evertheless be admitted by tl1e Senate 011 such co11ditio11s as i.t may in1pose. Preli1ninary E11try qualifications are i11adequate for Ca11diclates wl1ose . d11-ect e11try n1ay be co11side1-ecl for ad111ission to a one y�ar prelimi11ary course. Sucl1 ca11didates sl1all be con s1clered for ad111issio11 011 tl1e basis of a university en trance exa111i.11atio11. J\t tl1e e11d of tl1e }Jreli111i11arJ' year, a student must pas� at tl1� same exa111inatio11 i11 any tl1ree of tl1e fol low111 �: 111s�ory, l=i're11cl1, l1istory of tl1ougl1t, i11trocl ucti.0 11 to soc1al sc1e11ces, E11glish. f\ student sl1all not be al lowed to p�oceed to tl1e degree course u11til l1e has passed _ tl1e prel1111111ary year exanlitlatiOil.

268

f\n LL. 8. degree }Jrog1·an1 \vl1i cl 1 no1�111 a l ly extei1 c1 8 over tl1ree acaclen1 i.c yea1·s £01· cl fL1ll-t'i 111 e stuclei1 t ai1d four acaclemi � yea1·s for 21 IJart-tin1e stL1cler1t. ;\·rra,1 ge rnents are bel11g made for coL11·ses leacli.11 g to tl1e a,vai·cl of tl1e degrees of f\11. Pl1 il. a11cl Pl1 . D. In tl1e belief tl1 at tl1 e1·e c11·e 111a11 �>' fJeople of 111 atL1.re age already qLtalifiecl for entr)' \vl10 l1 a\re l1itl1 erto 11 ot l1acl tl1e opportu nity of reading la\v at a Lt11 ive:rsit)r i.11 Nige1·ia, coL1ld not afforcl to go a b.road to clo so, a11cl are no\v i11 full-time en1ploy'n1 e11t \\1 l1i.cl1 tl1 ey ca11not forsake, tl1 e university has insti.tLited pa1·t-tin1e eve11i11g cou·rses in la\v leading to the degree of LL. B. �fl1e Sy 11a}Ji., ad111i s sion requireme11ts, a11 c1 exa111 i11 ati.ons a·re the sa111.e fo·r both day and eveni11g stude11ts but tl1e clLtrati.011 of tl1e evening course i.s nor111all)r four years. The subjects of the LL. B. progra111 are JJrescri.becl b:1>' Senate o n the recommendatio11 of tl1 e FacL1lt")' Boa·rc1 ancl they are as follows: Part I TI1e Nigerian Legal Systen1 Nigerian Constitutio11al La\\' The Lav.1 of Contract Lavv of �rorts One of the following: Philosopl1y - Greek Philosopl1y F1·encl1 Pl1 i.losopl1y - Logic Part II 1ne Principles of Equity The La'-\' of Torts Nigeria11 Cri.n1 inal l .., aw Nigeria11 Lancl La\V One of the following:

269

Sociology Econon1ics Fre11c11 01· Ger111a11 Part III Jurisprude11ce a11d Legal 111eory Law of Evide11ce Three of the following: Adn1inistrative La\:v Law of Busi11ess Association: Partnership & Compan}' Law Co1nn1ercial Law: 1\gency, Sale of Goods & I-lire- Pu·rcl1ase Co11flict of Laws Law of Copyright, Trade Marks and Patents Law of InsL1ra11ce, Banking & Negotiable Instrument Labour La.w La\v of l�estitution Public I11ter11ational Law Law of Taxatio11 There is a three-l10L1r paper in each subject of the degree examinations. The degree is awarded to day stu de11ts in tl1e Faculty of Law wl10 l1a ve attended prescribed courses i11 tl1e Lt11iversity 11orn1ally exte11ding over a pe riod of at least three sessions, l1ave complied witl1 tl1e ge11eral regulatio11s a11d l1ave passed tl1e requisite exa1ni11ations. 171e exa1ni11ations are taken at tl1e e11d of the first, seco11d ancl tl1ird sessio11s. 111 tl1e case of eve11ing students, tl1e course for tl1e deg1A ee 11or1nally extends o,rer four sessions, tl1e exami11atio11s bei11g tal,en at tl1e e11d of tl1e first, tl1ird a11d fou1·tl1 sessio11s. I11 a11 exceptio11al case, 110\:vever, a ca11di.date 1nay 011 tl1e reco111me11datio11 of the Faculty Board be IJer111i.ttecl b�>' tl1e Se11ate to co111plete tl1e degree in tl11·ee sessi.011s. 171e l10110L1rs degree i.s awarcled i11 tl1e first, seco11d and tl1i.rd class divi.si.011s accordi11g to the sta11dard reacl1ed by tl1e ca11cliclates i11 Parts II a11d III exan1i11a-

270

tio ns. A ca11didate \.\ 110 does 11ot 1·each tl1 e sta11c1arc1 re quir ed for an honours degree 111ay be given a pass clecrree. 0 1

Courses leading to the deg1·ee of tvlaste1- of. P111·1oso p 1 y 1 . • 1 . r Fl 1·1 . . ) are ava1lable as fr o111 1970-71 se in Law (M ssion. First Year Every candidate sl1all be expected to pursue a cou·rse r�sear ch a11d at the e11d of the fi1·st year, of stucly and _ _ pass exam1nat1ons 1n four of the follovving subjects pro vided that no ca11didate sl1all be allowed to offer n1ore tl1an t,vo subjects in the field of i11ter11atio11al la,"': La1vv of Ca1·riage by La11d, Air a11cl Sea Land Law and Land Develop111e11t Law of Corpo1·ate Ma11agen1ent and Fi11a11ce Public La,v Law of International Insritutio11s International Economic Law Law of the Sea Air Law Second Year A ca11didate who has successfully con1pleted tl1e exa minations for the firs t yea r sha ll be eligible to proceed to the second year. I-le will be required duri11g tl1e sec ond year to pursue research and produce a dissertation on a subject approved by the Graduate Studies Con1_ mittee, on the recomme11dation of the Faculty. Every candidate fo r a11 M . Pl1il. degree sl1all l,av� a supervisor appoi11ted by tl1e GradL1ate Studie� Comr111ttee, e J e 0 � the reco til 11g r1 Du . lty cu J_ Fa e tl1 tio mmenda 11 of rioct of his study, tl1e candidate maJ' be a?vised by 11 18 r he supe rvis or to 0t y an 1n s se as cl or attend lectures SUbj�ct Which he may' co ns id er beneficial to tile stLtden�� a ex an l m ss pa v1 to cl c1 re ui ed re at th be l he t al no sh Pr 1 a v o r na8oLl onct 1n • JJ p a e 1 tl t u ·· O • h any of such other sLibJ. ects "''1t of the Grad uate Studies Co111m1ttee. 271

,A..cademic Year early Septe1nlJer ea1-ly Ja11uary late f\Jfarcl1

Faculty of LaVI' U11i.ve1-si.tyr of Lagos I. ..,agos

111id - December mid-Marcl1 early July

Oea11: T. 0. Elias Language of Instruction: E11glish [ Ii- .story

The Federal Gover11me11t of Nigeria requested Unesco to set up a11 advisory con1111issio11 to make recommenda tio11s 011 tl1e orga11i.zation, aclministratio11 and fi11anci11g of tl1e U11iversity of Lagos and to formulate a plan for i.ts developme11t. Tl1e Asl1bJr Co111mission submitted its re IJOrt i11 Se]Jte111be1- 1961. Tl1e first acaden1ic year of tl1e U11iversity of Lagos con1n1e11ced i11 October 1962 in tem porary 1J1-emises i11 Suru-Lere ,:1,1i.cl1 day cou1-ses i11 tl1e Faculty of Busi11ess ancl Social Studies, the Faculty of La,,v a11d the tvlecli.ca1 Scl1ool. 111 January 1963 eve11i11g courses i11 tl1e Faculty of La,,v con1menced. Tl1ere were 56 students i11 tl1e Faculty of La,v tl1at year. In 1966, 133 stucle11ts were enrolled in tl1e Faculty: 71 in tl1e day }J1-og1-a111 a11d 62 i.11 tl1e eve11ing prog1-a111. 1�11e i.nstallati.011 of the first cl1a11cellor of tl1e L111i.ve1-sity took place 011 Ja11L1ary 18, 1968. •

1\d 111issi.011 t{equi. 1-e111e11ts GraclL1ates of L111i. ,,ersiti.es rec.og11izecl by tl1e Se11ate for tl1i.s pu1-1Jose. Ge11eral certi.fica.te of edL1c.c1ti.011 i.11cludi11o· fi,re subjects 0 of ,vl1i.cl1 11ot less tl1a.11 t,x.1 0 l1a.,,e bee11 pa.ssed at ad,ra11ced le,,el or i11clL1di.11g four subjects of ,:vl1icl1 11ot less tl1a11 tl1ree l: ave bee11 }Jassed at ·adva11ced le,rel pro,ri.ded tl1at 110 SLibJ ect 1naJ' be coL111tecl at botl1 ordi.11a1-y a11d adva11ced le,,els a11cl the su1Jj ects passed i11clude E11glisl1 language. 272.

Credits gained i.11· the fi.rst school certi.ficate cai1d passes · sL1bs1·ct1a ry SLl b.Jec ts .111 l1i.g11e·1· scllool 1n ed aai n cert1·r·1cate . o vvill be accepted as tl1e eqL11valent of }J asses cat 0.rc1.1 11ary . • _a ce1•t1. • f1 • ca ne g r the te of educatio11, }Jasses ii1 1n � � level prin cip al subJects 1? the h1_ gl1er school certificate wi.l l lJe acce pted as tl1e equ1vale11t of passes at acl,,a11cecl leve·1 l 11 the gene1· a1 certt. f.1cate o·f edL1catio11. Other persons \Vhose exami11ati.011 qL1ali.fi.catio11s tl1e Senate may deen1 suffi.cient. f\ selection comn1i.ttee of tl1e Faculty of J_,aw co11si.ders all applic atio11s forwarded to tl1e FacL1lty by tl1e acade111ic sec1·e tary of the Ltni.versity. Tl1is com1nittee uses a points syste1n accordi11g to tl1e 11L1111ber a11d quality of marks or gradings received by candidates eitl1er at tl1e higher scl1ool certificate exami.11atio11s or at tl1e ge11eral cer tificate of education (advanced level). Tl1e candidates 1,vi th the l1igl1es t scores a re selected i11 orcler of n1erit until the speci.fi.ed number for admissio11 i11 a11y yea ·r is reached. ·

The results of the exercise are tl1e11 sL1b111itted to tl1e dean of the Faculty for cons i.derati.011 a11d a1 J1Jroval, after \vhich they are forwarded to tl1e Uni.versi.ty Entra11ce Board which considers, for approval, all sin1ilar recom mendati. 011s from the other faculties i.11 tl1e L111i.versity. The purpose i.s to e11sure, as fa r as possi.ble, a measure of uni.fo rmity i.11 admi.ssi.011 standards a11d practi.�es _ tl1roughout the Llni. versity, a11d also to base adn11ss1on s trictly 011 meri.t. ai1cellor, h -c ce vi l1e t , n i.o ss a Tow rds the end o f eacl1 se advised by a com111i.ttee of provosts a11d deans , lays dow11 1 cl ea o t ed t t . i lin ac the qt1ota of tl1e be 11umber of stude11ts to fa culty for the follovvi11g sessi.on. This l1 as regarcl to the ava ilable accommoclation for resident students ai1d also for e11surin g a fai.rly I1igl1 sta11dard for tl1e new etlt�ants . ates l 1c i1d a c d o o g y Occ asio nally if there a r e exceptionall _ ce Vl e th n, \V dO wl1o cannot c;me with i . n tl1e qu i.d a l a .111c1·ease. · ot cl1anee11or may be persuaded to a 11 ow a· 81 · 11all is m d a of r e b m L1 11 In the Faculty o f Law, the Ltsual •

273

s e s r u i.s o t c n e ir d th tu s ty 1g i1 11 e v e d 11 a y a d 1e tl s1011s 111to i.011. In s e s 11 e 0 s y 11 a r fo ty ix s f o l ta to a eacl1, making 11t e 1e s e tl r p e 1g i1 on d lu 1c i1 , it , s 11 io s s e s e iv s s e c c u tl1ree s r e fo r y t1 a g d . fi 1e tu tl s e s a e r 1c i1 to y r a s s I1as been 11ece g in d t 11 a ta th s r e e th d n u 1e tl 11 0 t u b , y rt fo ut o b a to dents . e m o l1 m o fr e m o c to e v a l1 ts n stude Courses Tl1e LL. B. degr.ee, a ft1ll-time day program extendi11g . 11orn1ally over three academic years, or for evening stu de11ts, 11ot less tl1a11 ft ve acaden1ic years. First Year (Part I)

·t

Nigeria11 Legal S)rstem Co11sti.tutio11al Law Cri111i.nal La,v General Af1-ica11 Stuclies Seco11d Year (Part II)

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l11trodt1ction to Science and Tech11ology 0 Nigeria11 La11d Lav., La\l\1 of Contract Law of To1-t Ec1uity a11d Trusts 1�11ird Year (Part III) Jurisprudence a11d Legal Tl1eo1-J' Tl1ree of tl1e follo,;v111g: Fa1ni�y La,\, a11d Successio11 Co11fl1ct of La,vs Public Inter11ati.onal Lav., Con11Ja11y I..,av., Merca11ti le La,:v I11dt1strial La,:v Law o f Evi.cle11ce

274

Examinatio11s �re norn1ally gi ve11 i11 i\llay at the encl of eact1 year. Eve�111g stL1cle11ts take (l1e Part J exai11inatioi1 at the encl of the1r second year, tl1e Pa·rt II exa1111natioi1 at rJ1e end of their fourth year a11cl tl1e Pa 1�r III exarni.na. _ tion at tl1e e11cl of tl1eir fiftl1 year. U11sL1ccessfu l ca11ctt _ dates 111ay repeat a course a11d 1�esit a11 exa111111atio11 if per1nitted by tl1e Senate 011 tl1e reco111me11datio11 of the Boa1·d of StL1clies. Effective Octobe1· 1966 tl1e FacL1lr;, of La\\, offe1�ed coL1rses of instruction a11d supervision leading to tl1e degrees of LL. NI. , a t\vo-year program, and Pl1. D. LL. rvt. Degree ,I\ ca11didate for the LL. M. degree by exan1inati.011 011ly must pass a11 exan1inati.011 i.11 any foL1r of tl1e follovvi.11g subjects: Jurisp1�uctence and Legal T11eory La\:v of International Institutio11s International Eco11omic Lav\' Comparati. ve Law Constitutional La\.vs of the Comn1011\.vealtl1 i11 Af1�ica Ad111ini.strati. ve La\.v ;\frica11 Law Family Law Conflict of Lavvs Commercial Lavv Comparative Crimi11al Law · onl,1r If he cl1ooses ' the cancliclate rnay be ex·a1111· ne d 111 t\Vo of tl1e above subjects at the encl of t11e .f"1rs t year. cancl t. ec b1 su cl ve ro Jp aJ 1 a1 1 01 bm su it a dissertatio 11 in E11glisl1 Ph. D. Degree s e s r Li o c 1 l c Lt d ii e tt a to � The ca11cli.clate will be ·req; uired 0f 1nst . ructio11 as his sL1perv1sor rna>' pr·escribe. I-fe n1ust sub mit a thesis.

275

e s an ur g e co w b la in in e at c fi ti r e c l 1c a1 a n1 lo ip d A l fu ss ce e 1c ud sL of st p ou s gr nt t rs fi e tl1 1d a1 68 19 er ob Oct p is ou w gr no 11d co se enrol 11e T . 69 19 11e Ju in completed e e er on ad ov ac 11d te ex mic y ll 1a rn 11o s se L1r co led. Tl1e as om pl e di iv ce re l il y if al qu �nd cer l10 w se 1o � year. Tl 1o et 1Jl ul m sf n of t11e co es cc su r e1 tl1 of e 1c e1 id ev in tificates e 11 th at io ct i11 diploma st di l ec ev hi ac 10 wl e os Th . course , re si so ey de th to if d, te 1it rn }Je be ay m 11 tio 11a 11i a1 ex enter for tl1e LL. B. degree cou rse, no exemption being given in a11y of tl1e subjects already passed i.n the diplon1a exa111i11ation.

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Courses are provided leading to the certificate in law in single subjects or the diplon1a in law in a combination of tl1ree subjects: (1) I11dustrial Lav., for those in indus try i11cludi11g trade unionists; the courses are industrial la\v, co1111Jany law, and contract and tort. (2) Public Inter11ational Law for new recruits and Exter11al Affairs Ministry staff 111embers; the courses are public inter11atio11al law of international i11stitutions, and diplomatic and co11sular law. (3) Busi11ess Law for tl1ose in com111ercial houses, i11su1·ance agencies and in va1·ious 111er cantile activities; tl1e coL1rses are business la,v, co1npany law, and reve11L1e law. In addition all students will be required to go tl1roL1gl1 a course of lectures in Ele111ents of Law (i.e. , Nigerian legal system). The Faculty of La\v also JJrovides the faculties of so cial studies a11d of e11gi11eering \Vi.th courses i11 Busi11ess Law a11cl Ele111ents of La\�' esse11tial to tl1e particular p1·0gra111n1es i11 tl1ose faculties. 1\cade111ic Year late Septen1ber early Ja11L1ary mid-AJ)ril

mid-Decen1ber 111icl-l\!larcl1 late Ju11e

276

Nigeria11 Law .school ozumba ivibad1\Ve Street Victoria Islancl

P. I\1. B. 12610 Lagos

Di 1·ecto1·: J. 01 8 Oroj 0 Lar1gLtage of I11st1·L1ctio11: Englisl1

In 1959 tl1e Gove1·nme11t of Nige1·ia aJJIJoi.11tecl a co111mitte e consisting of al l tl1e I<.egio1 1a l 1\tto1·11ey Ge11e1·als and practitioners under tl1e cl1ai.1·111a11sl1iJJ of tl1e tl.1e11 Federal 1-\.ttorney General E. T. C. U11s\\ ortl1 Q. C. to consider and make reco111111e11clati.011s for tl1e :futLtre of tl1e legal profession in Nige1·ia \, itl1 IJarticLtlar rega1·cl to legal education and admissio11 to p1·actice. 1\fter tl1e com111ittee' s report tl1e Nigeria11 Bai- sLt1)n1itted to tl1e Federal Gove171n1ent certai11 draft }JrOJJosals for a J_,egal P1·ofession Bill. In 1961 a lJoard co11sisti11g of tl1e Cl1i.ef Justice of Nigeria, tl1e f\.ttor11ey Ge11eral of tl1e Federa tion, the Attorney Ge11eral a11d tl1e Mi11ister of Justice of Northern Nigeria, tl1e Attor11ey Ge11eral of tl1e \iVest ern Region, the Attorney Ge11eral of tl1e Easter11 J�egio11 and the Chairn1an of tl1e Nigeria11 Ba1· Associati.011 n1ade plans for tl1e organizatio11 of tl1e Nigerian Lav,, Scl1ool. It \vas formally opened on f\JJ1·il 19, 1963 bJ' tl1e late Alhaji Abu]Jakar Tafawa Balewa, Prin1e Mi11ister of Nigeria. Tl1e School moved to tl1e p1·esent site 011 Octo ber 17, 1969. 1

r'\dmission Require111e11ts A student must have obtai11ed a lavv degree of a11 ap proved u11iversity i11side or outside Nige·ria 01· passed tl1e bar exami11ation providec1 that l1e vvas not ac1mitted as a student of his In11 of Court between JL111e 1, 1965 ai1d . f\Ligust 31, 1967 inclusive or passed the Solicitor's Examination of Great Britai11 or Irela11d.

277

Courses . r a e y c i 1 11 e d a c a _e 11 o f o e Full Cours Part I Nigerian Legal Sy stem Nigeria11 Criminal Law Nigeria11 Constitutio11al L a w Nigeria11 La11d Law Final

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Civil Procedure Eviclence Crimi11al Procedure Legal Drafting a11d Co11veyancing Co111n1ercial Law Con1pa11y Law Law of Office l\tlanageme11t Bookkeeping and AccoL1nts I11co111e Tax Professional Ethics 1\.ll students are required to take all these subjects but graduates of Nigerian u11i versities are exempted fro1n taki.11g ex aminati.011s i11 Part I. Instructions are gi \re11 by 111eans of lectures, tutorials, a11d practical exercises. Some of tl1ese are given by jud ges, court m agistrates, represe11tatives of the Lagos Stoel< Excl1a11ge a11d legal practitio11ers. Visits are ar rangecl to tl1e various courts, the Registries of La11d, Co111pa11y, Busi.11ess Nan1es a11d Trade ivlarks. The stu de11ts s1Je11d a fe\\' da)'S i11 tl1e cl1an1bers a11d of-fices of legal 1Jractitio11ers. Stucle11ts are attacl1ed to law offices, botl of priv ate 1 le g al pr actitioners a11d of Mi11ist ries of Justice in dif fere11t parts of tl1e cou11try for a period of four \\leek s. 111ere was fo1�merly a tl1reeNige 11 10 fo c 11 o th r u r s e ria11 citize11s \iVl10 l1ad lJasse d the Bar o r Solicitor's Exa-

278

minacton i11 G1·eat Britain. or Irelanc1 or obca· c 1nec1 a 8 r.. 1t 1s l1 . 1s vv Th as d1scon ti.11ued on Decenll)e }a\V degree. r 31 . 1965 after n1ne sucl1 courses l1ad been held. /\.cademic Year early October early January early ;\pril

111i.cl - Dece111l)er ea1· ly I\�arcl1 encl June

Faculty of La\v Dea11: Zaki I\�usta.fa Ahn1adu Bello Uni. ve1·sity Institute of Adn1ini. strati on P. M. B. 1013 Language of Instruction: Zaria E11glish f Iistory The Faculty of L a\v of Ah111adL1 Bello LJ11i versity was establis hed as one of the constitue11t facL1lties of tl1e u11i veJ;sity when it opened in 1962. It developed out of tl1e former Legal Department of the Institute of Adn1i11istra tio11 \Vhich had bee11 started as tl1e first la\7' scl1ool in West Africa in 19S9. 1

Admission Requiren1e11ts LL. B. Program Pass es i11 at least five subjects 111 the general certifi cate of education or its equivalent of whicl1 at leaSt two mus t b e at a11 advanced le ve l or its equivale11t or passes in four subje ct s of which at least tl1ree are at adva11ced 1:vel. English 111ust be one of tl1e subjects of�ered. Can didates inust also pass a Law Facult.)' adn1iss1on test. _Diploma Program Candidates must Scl1001 1\frican West a l1old normally Certificat e or have obtainecl passes 111 tl1e 0rd1nary level

279

1g i1 ci a u l n p ass in c o ti i11 a c u d e f o te a c fi ti r e c of rl1e ge11eral e consid ered o b ls a l il w s 11 o ti a c li JJ p A Ei1glisl1 la11gL1age. e f g e o d th w le w la o n k te a u q e d a n a e v a 11 fro1n tl1ose wl10 ts f r o e u o th e c v ti a. 11 e th 1 i1 le b a c li p p a a11d p1·ocedure ie c fi t n o e in r r p a o h vv d 11 a ia r e ig N f o 11ortl1ern states English. CoL1rses . m a r g o r p y a d r a e -y e e 1r tl B. A11 LL. First Year (Part I) Theory and I11stitL1tio11s of Nigerian La w Theory of Gover11111ent a11d Constitutional Law Crimi11al Law Co11tract Ge 11eral Principles of Islan1ic Law I

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Seco11d Year ( Part II)

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Ci vi 1 Procedure Torts Land Law Fa1nily Lavv a11d Successioi1 Co111n1ercial La\v I Thi rd Year ( Part III) Adva11ced ]L1risiJrudeilce Co11flict of La\,, I11ter11atio11al Lavv Ec1Ltity a11d Re111eclies Se111i11ar Pape 1Evide11ce Co1111Ja.11y Law . D i1J lo 111 a six co . ur se fo tl� e M111_ · 1. str1es of Justice of tl1e . 1101·tl1er11 stat es of Ni�e la des g11ed to produce better � � ; qualified IJer801111el f t cour 11e tl1e 11at1ve courts a11d �; inspectorate ill tlle nor t 1er11 states. The course is of tvvo years' dLrrau· 011. 280

Firs t Year Sources of Ni.geria11 Lavv Theory of Governn1e11t and Constitutional Lav\, 4 i.11ci.ples of Islan1ic Law P1 l Ge11era. Crimi.11al La\v Adclitional E11gli.sl1 Second Year Family Lavv Criminal ProcedL1re Contract and To14 ts Evidence and Ci. vil P14 ocedL1re T11eory and Practice of 1-\cl111i11ist14 ation Judicial training courses of tl1ree 111011tl1s' dL1ration for personnel of the native court sJrstem of 11ortl1e1411 Nige14ia. Tl1e coL1rses give a basic i11troclL1ction to tl1e codi.fiecl sysÂ tem of cri.111i.nal law a11d p14oceclL114e i.11trodL1cecl i.11 1960. Six courses are offered eacl1 year; so111e i.11 E11glisl1, others in Hausa. A one-year c ourse i.11 Islan1i.c la.\V l1as bee11 i.11trodL1ced in October 1969. T11i.s a11cl tl1e cli.plo111a of la\v vvill be tl1e qualific ation for future appointment as All(ali.. The Faculty also has a Ce11tre of Isla111ic Legal Stu dies. 1\cade111i.c Cale11clar ,

October January f\pril

December Marcl1 July

281

• A. Director: Adedeji Institute of 1\clministratio11 Uni ve1-sit)' of Ife of Instructio11: La11guage P. M. B. 5246 E11glisl1 Ibadan f Iistory Founded i11 1963; quasi-auto11omous institution within the u11iversitJ'· Admissio11 Requirements

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For postgradL1ate diploma ca11didates must hold a uni versity clegree. 111 exceptional cases administrative of ficers spo11sored by governn1e11ts a11d corporations \Vho clo 11ot l1old a u11iversity degree 1nay be accepted if they pass a writte11 exami11ation. For 1naster's degree in public adn1inistration, candi dates must l1ave an a1Jpropriate LL. B. degree with at least a second class (upper di visio11 ). Courses

An i11te11si ve te11-mo11th postgraduate diplo111a in public adn1i.11istration; a tv.1 0-year master's degree program in JJubli.c adn1i11istratio11. Compulsory Courses

f\fri.can Political a11d Ad111i11i. strati ve I11stituti.ons Esse11tials of Public t\.d1ni.11ist1-atio11 Pr ?bl �111s of Eco110111i.c Oevelopme11t Pr111c1ples of Fi.seal PolicJr a11d 1�axati.o11 Elective CoL1rses (a11�r tv.,0) Statistics Orga11i.zatio11 anc1 Metllod s AccoL111ti.11g Ad111i11i.strati.\re La\v

282 )

T}Je master's _candi_date 111L1 _st also do i11depe11clei1t re searcI1 a11cl subm1t a d1ssertat1on. Sl1orter coLti·se s of var)ring duratio11 fron1 a �evv days_ to six mo11r118 for ad prof ess1 011al ancl e off1 cers i11 tl1e public ser trati v iinis n vices, offici als of statutory capacity, top local gover11 _ rnenr- staff and 1na11agers in private ii1clL1str�l- The cer tificate courses in local gover11n1ent aclmi11istration 111clucles the follovving courses: Local Governn1e11t in Nigeria Principles and P1·acctce of 1-\dministratio11 Con1parati ve Local Governn1ent a11d Acln1i11istration Local Taxation and Fi11ancial 1\cln1i11istration Problems of Economic Developme11t Communicatio11 A Local Govern1nent Worksl101J Academic Year (For Master's and Diploma Progran1 in Public Admi11istration) mid September

end Ju11e

283

REUNION ,.

I11stitut cl 'Etucles Juridiques, Directeur: Pierre Maurice Eco1101niques et Politiques de la l�elll1l011 12 Ave. de la Victoire Language of I11struction: B. P. 847 Fre11cl1 Sai11t-Denis I-Iistory Founded i11 1926 as school; acquired its present status i11 1950. Tl1e I11stitute is attached to the Faculty of La\.\1, U11iversity of Aix-Ma1·seille. f\dn1ission Requireme11ts •. ! I ,) •

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Seco11da1-y scl1ool certificate (baccalaureat) or equiva le11t . Courses

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Two-)r ear course leading to tl1e capacite e11 droit, four-year course leading to tl1e lice11ce en d1·oit. Acaclen1ic Year 1nid-October

end Ju11e

284

RI-IODESlf\ f-Iea cl: R· · I-I . C l1risti Departn1ent of La\\' e Social of StL1di e s ' facult) The University of l�l1od e sia P. 0. Box M. P. 167 �1oL1nt Pleasant LaiigLiage of I11s tructio11: Salisb u17 E11glisl1 I-Iistory .. ..

TI1ere ,;vas no forn1al le gal i11strL1ctio11 given i11 Rho desia before 1965. InstrL1ction ,vas ofte11 given volL111tar ily b y practising advocate s to ne,:v n1e111bers of tl1e bar i11 the form of a11 Lrnofficial tL1telage. I11for111al i11structio11 i,vas--and still is--given b)' civil ser\1 a11ts to cc111didates for the civi.l service la,v exa111inatio11s. Practical a11cl informal instruction is al so give11 b y tl1e attor11ey })ri11cipal to his articl ed clerk. The University College of Rl1od esia a11cl Nyasala11cl opened in 1957 i11 special relatio11sl1i1J ,vitl1 tl1e U11i versity of London. The Coll ege began its Depart1ne11t of Lavv i.11 1965 withi11 the Faculty of Social Studies. Tl1e first LL. B . graduates completecl th eir cours e of study at tl1e e11d of 1967 and received tl1eir degr ee s i11 1968. T11e postgrac1uate diploma in law \vas first offered a11cl a\varded i11 1968. 1\dmission ReqL1ire n1ents -----..= ..f---

f\dmissi.011 to the Departme nt of Law follows tl1e san1e criteria as admissi.011 to tl1e otl1er clepart111e11ts of tl7e University College; a candiclate n1L1st possess tl1e 111i11i �urn e11trance qualificatio11s ( specifi ecl belovv ). 1\ �cou11t 18 also taken of his fitness for L111i versity stucly, 111s pre vious academic record (inclL1di11g th e breacltl1 of 1118 geil �ral eclucati.011 a11d th e releva11ce of sL1bj ect s I1e I1 as t�keil in 1118 school e e \VlSll11 se ur co ee gr de e tl1 xa111inations to es to pursue ) a11cl · · r cte ra 1 c 1 cl cl an ty ili ab e videnc e of tar eJ) D . e tl1 111e 11umber of plac by ed in rm te c es is c1 e rnei1t of Law • c BOcard i ein acl f\c tl1e of \.Vith the approval

285

A college coinmittee i11 co11sultatio11. wi�h the head of t11e Dep artn1ent of Law decides tl1e adm1ss1011 of stude nts to tlle LL. B. course a11d to the postgraduate diploma i n law. The adn1ission of can didates to tl1e degree of Ph. D. is deter1ni11ed by tl1e U11iversity of Lo ndon.

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The requireme11ts are as follows: Passes in five dif fere11t a11d approved subje cts obtai11ed at one ?f �he fol lowing examinatio11s at the stan dard or level 111d1 cated, of \Vhich at least two must have been at the A level: (1) O ordinary - - (a) ordi nary level of the Lo ndon Ge11eral Certificate of Edu catio11 (or the approved equivalent), (b) credit sta11dard of tl1e Cambridge Overseas S chool Certificate, (c) subsidiary standard of the Cambridge Overseas f-Iigher Scl1ool Certificate, (d) not less tha n 40 percent in certain approved subjects recorded on the Matriculatio11 Certificate of the South African Joi11t Ma triculatio11 Board (or the approved equivalent); and (2) A Advanced - - adva11ced level of the Londo11 Ge neral Certificate of Edu cation (or the approved equivale nt), (b) pri11cipal stlbject sta11dard of the Can1bridge Over seas Higl1er S chool Certificate. A ca11did ate ma y also be admitted if l1e obtains passes i11 four subje cts at 011e or n1ore of tl1e abo\re exan1inatio11s of \'-Vhi ch at least th1·ee 1nust l1ave bee11 at tl1e A level. A g1· aduate of tl1e U11i versity of Lo n do11, or a11other approved u niversity,, 111ay apply tl11·ougl1 t l1e authorities of tl1e College for permissio11 to register as an advanced studei1t an d to p1·oceed to a first deo·ree of the Uni versityr of Lo11do11 witl1 e�emptio11 fron1 tl1e �vl1ole, or from pa1·t of the e11t1·y reqt11ren1e11ts of the degree coui·se . . Miili�uin entra11 ce requiren1ents for tl1e postgraduate diploma 111 law: A ca11didate 111ust l1ave obtained an over �-eas laVI' clegree or a Sotitl1 1\f 1·ica11 law degree as de fllled by t�1e Advocates Act, 1969 or l1ave been ad111it ted as a bai·r1ster- at- la\\1 i11 E11gla11d' o r Ireland or as an ad cate tl1e Court of Sessio11 i11 Scotla11d or as an adv o�� c e of t 1e SLlIJrem e Cou1·t of the Republic of South Af1·ica � . �n be er�tlt� ed to IJractice a s sucl1 i11 tl1e country 111 wl1i cl1 le was a ffiltted; ai1d a candida te must l1 ave passed or be

�f

286

'' 'I I ;

lo tl1 cal exan1 inatio11 i11 Roinane fr om ed m pt exe Dutcl1 es at oc e dv 1\ th Act. r de 1 01 la\V

rvlii1i111un1 entrance requiren1e11ts for the P11 . D. : ,\ candi date mL1st possess a clegree of a11 approved staiidarcl r or otl1e1· l!ni ver sity ond on a1)p1·ovecl univei·sity, L from and be a full -t1me member of the College teaching o·r research staff. Courses A three-year first deg1·ee course leading to the LL. B. deg1·e� First Year (Intern1 ediate Examination i. n Lavv) Constitutional f-Iisto1-y Legal System Contract Roman Law Second Year (Part I) Constitutio11al and Admin i.strative La\V Delict and Tort Commercial Lavv Rhodesian Criminal Law Third Year (Part II) Jurisprudence . . Corporations, Companies a nd Assoc1at1ons Conflict of Laws Rhodesian Property Law Rhodesian Fa m ily and Successio11 Law

n a � e d � a b e r a Teaching inethods fo r a ll courses c 8 mall 1n s l a r1 to tu . course of lectures a11d regular weekly groups of six students, w it h a large volume of \vr1tten Wo1·k.

ek; a �r s v v _ y a s s e o tw \V e it r n ts r ir e e d tu t s s a r e fi y ' 1 th · a e y · c em1 d 1• · e11 aca ., eleven in each subject dur111g tl1e

287

ek, a \iVe and tl ay 1i.rd ess 1 a1 te . i \iVr 1ts 1 e d tu . s r a . S e c o n d ye h . t, e. , 1. 1e 01 g p n1 rt fo er y er ev e 1 01 e ·r 1 r w ts 1 1 e d tu s year subject eacl1 ter1n. rs 11e 1 ni a1 on fr ex tl1e by ed ct ctu 1 1 co e ar · . . 1s 01 t1 Exam111a . n o d n o L f o y it s r e iv n U e th d 1 1 College a s First Class Tl1e deg-ree 1· 8 cawarded i11 tl1 e categorie · Di · ) s 1 101 A v1s , er 1'.Jp (U s ur ecord 11o I-Io s as Cl nd Co e S , I-Ionou1 s . . . D ss Pa d an )' 011 s1 i v1 er ow (L s L1r 110 I-Io Class h 1ic leads to adwl law in na lo1 dip ate du ra stg po n1e 111issio11 to the bar.

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Civil Practice and Procedure Criminal Procedure Evide11ce I11surance ancl I11con1e Tax Statutes Bookl<eepi11g a11d r'\ccou11ts

Teacl1i11 g 111ethods are based 011 a course of lectu1A es of a lJracti cal 11 atL1re gi.ve11 at advoca tes' cl1an1bers \\1 ith at least three n1011 tl1 s' rea ding i11 cl1ambers. Exa1ni11atio11s a1A e co11ducted by 1A ep1Aesentati.ves from tl1 e La\7'' DeJJa1Atment, tl1e Be11cl1, tl1 e Atton1 e)r General's Office a11d by tl1e lecturers e11gaged in teacl1ing fo1A tl1e cliJJloma. To 1)e ad111ittecl to tl1e exan1i11atio11, a ca11didate must l1ave pursued tl1e a1JJJroved course of study for 11ot less tha11 011 e acade111ic yea1A, eitl1e1A full-ti111 e or part-ti.111e, a11cl l1ave co111 pl eted tl1 e IJ1Aactica l pa rt of tl1 e coLtrse to the Scltisfac ti.011 of tl1e exa111i11ers . Tl 1 . � exa1Y1i11atio11 is l1eld i1 1 t\l\10 IJarts, a ""'ritten exa m 111ation a11d a }J:ractical exa1ni. 11atio11, a11d exami11e1As �11a), test ca. 11didates orally. 171 e l'.Jractical exa111i11acton �nc�ucles at least 011e argL1ment pre1Jared a11d presented .1 1 11 tlle JJrese11ce of tl1e e xa111i11ers a11d tl1e exan1 iners '''11 a ls o tal<:e i11 to accou11t re ports 011' a 11cl assessm ents of _ lJractl" ca l work througl1out tl1 e yea r.

288

of tl1e u111versity of The ost r�duate cle ree of Pl1. Lon on: and1dates 1:1ust pL1.rsL1e e1tl1er a coLtrse of 110t less cI1an two academ1c J'ea1·s of fL1ll-ti111e tra 111111g 111 res ear cl1 n1etl1ods, 01· a part-time coLt:rse and cl1 ear res of rra i11ing in 1·esearcl1 and 1·esea1·cl1 111etl1ocl 8 of 110r less tha n c11ree acade1nic yea1·s. 1\t tl1e enc l of tl1at tin1e tile candidate is required to SLlbmi t a tl1esis \,\1]1icI1 constitutes a contribution to learning. f\caden1ic Year mid-March mid-March late June late September micl-November early December

late I\!Jay late 1\ugust late Octobe1·

regi strati.011 date first te1·111 second ter111 tl1ird ter111 exa111i.natio11s begi1111ing of 1011g vacation

RWAN01\ Universite Natio11ale du Rwanda B. P. 117 Butare

: n o . i t c u r t 1s I1 f o e g a u Lar1g Fre11cl1 I--Iistory

. 111. ca 1 0 ·der of Canada. � Established in 1963 by tl1e Don1� law 110 but �es n ie [ -las Faculty of Social a11d Econom1c Sc fac ulty . s t n e m e r i u q e R 1 1 o s i 1i s Adn Sec onclary school certificate.

289

• Courses Offers a degree at tl1e end of three years. Academic Year October Ja11uary March

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December March May

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ST. f-IELENA (with 1\sce11sio11 and Tristan da Cunha) There are no i11stitutions of higher lear11ing. Students must go abroad.

SAO TOf\!TE 1\ND PRINCIPE ISL ANDS �fl1ere are 110 i11stitutio11s o f l1 i g h e1� lear11i11g. Students 1nust go abroacl.

290

SENEGt\.L factilte de pi-oit et des Sciences Eco11omiques Universite cle Dakar D a k a r - Fa n n

Dea11: Alai11 Bockel Language of Instrl1ctio11 : Frencl 1 I-Ii story

TI1e Unive1-site de Dakar \\1 as found eel in 1950 as The Dakar Insti tllt des I-Iautes Etudes. It co11si sted of a scl1ool of law, a prepa1-atory scl1ool of n1edici11e a11d pharmacy, a science scl1ool and an arts school. 111 February 1957, the Institut attained unive rsity status and the school of law became tl1e Faculty of Law. With the attainment of indepe11dence by Senegal i11 19S9, the university becan1e the University of Dakar but retained French management in accorda11ce with tl1e decrees of cooperation signed between France a 11d Senegal. Tl1e re are four faculties: the Faculte de Droi.t et des Scie11 ces , Economi.ques, the Faculte de Sciences, the Faculte de Nledic.i ne et de Pharn1aci.e a11d tl1e Faculte des Lettres et Sciences Humaines. Admission Reql1i.re111e11ts 1\ll student s who have passed the baccalaureat o·r its equivalent or those having con1pleted tl1e 1J1-ogra1n de capaci.te en droit with a grade of 12/20 n1ay e11roll for ce courses leading to the licence e11 droi.t. An entra11 _ examination may also admit ca11di.dates for tl1e l1ce�1ce 1 ho \Vlsh to \\ ose Tl1 who do not have these quali.ficatio11s. 8tudy for a doctorate m us t already l1o ld a licence . For entrance to the capaci.te e11 droit candi.d�tes. 1110st be 17 Years of age and pass an e11tra11ce exa1111nat1011· Courses Certificat de capacite en clroit, a rwo-year course. _First Year Private La w al) Fi . se and e . ic Law (Co11stitl1tio11al, .Adm1· 11i.strariv publ 291

Seco11d Year e r u d e c o r P cl 11 a , ,� a L l Criinii1a Civil Procedure Political Eco1101nics Acl1ni11istrative L a w Labour Law Fiscal Law Con11nercial La\v Lice11ce en clroit, a four-)rea1· course. After tVi10 years, tl1e first cycle is completed, and the bachelier en droit diploma is awarded. The second cycle ends with tl1e examination for tl1e licence. Fi1·st Year

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I11troclL1ction to the Stud)' of Law and the General Tl1eory of Obligations Co11stituti.onal Law and Political I11stitutions Ge11eral Political Eco110111y Comparative 1-Iistory of Political Institutio11s and Social Co11seque11ces Prior to the Revolution Internati.011al Insti. tutio11s Introducti.011 to Social Politics Judicial I11stitutio11s Seco11d Year

Civil La�, Aclmi11i. strative La�' Co111mercial La,v Public Fi11a11ce Ge11eral C1-i.111i11al La�, �olitical Eco110111y 1 wo of follo,vi.11g fot11· o1Jtio11al course s: l)oli.ti.cal Scie11ce ProJJerty La�, C1-iminal P1·ocedure II- iStory of Afri.ca11 I11stitL1ti. 011s Si11ce the 19tl1 Ce11turJr

292

Thirc1 Year Com1nercial Law LaboL1r La\v and Social SecL1rity Public Liberti.es f-Iistory of Private La\\' (Contracts) f-Iistory of Insti.t L1ti.ons Si.11ce tl1e J?re11ct1 f{e\rolLitioii Optional CoL1rses Public I11ter11ati.onal Lavv Civi.I Rig 11 ts Adn1i.nistrati ve La\v Social Science t\1ethods 1-\dj udi.cation i.11 Private La\v Cri.n1i.nology and Pe11al Science History of Frivate I11stitutio11s and ProJJe1·ty Economy of DeveloJJ111ent Fourtl1 Year Civil Rights Commercial Lavv and Fi.seal 1\ffatrs P1·ivate Inter11ational Law ry of Frivate La\,, (Fa111i.ly La\:\,, Succession) I Ii.sto Private Comparative Law Public Services ancl Nati.011al E11terJJrises History of Politi.cal Tl1ougl1t to tl1e e11d of tl1e l8tl1 Ce11tury History of Political Thougl1t fron1 tl1e 19t11 Century European and 1\fri.ca11 Organi.zatio11s La\.v of Cooperatio n (Forei.g11 Assista11ce La\:\,) Co11temporary Poli.ti.cal Problems 01Jtional Courses f-Iis tory of Africa11 Politi.cal a11cl Social StrLtctLtre Mari.ti111e Law Private I11stituti.011s of African Nations f\fri can Law Co11 stitutio11al Systen1s of Africa

293

Tl1e Faculte de Droit also awards the diplome I d etudes su1Jerieures i11 Roman law a11d tl1e history of law a11a social l1istory, IJri vate law, criminology, political eco11om)r, public law, economics and political science. Ca11didates for the diploma must already hold either a lice11ce en droit or an equivalent degree. 1 Candidates for tl1e doctorat d etat must have the

diplon1e d 'etudes superieures in one of the above fields. The doctorate is conferred 011 those candidates who have satisfactorily defended their thesis. Tl1e Faculte also offers courses leading to a Certificat de Droi.t et Economi.e des Pays d 'Afrique, a special u11dergraduate certificate in African studies.

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Tl1e Faculty of, Law also has attached to it the "Ce11tre I de Recl1e1-ches d Etudes et de Docun1entation su1- les I11sti.tuti.011s et la Legislation Africa i.nes" (Credila) and 11 "l 1Institut Fondamental d 't\fri.que Noire.

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Acade111i.c Year early Novembe1early January 111i.d- 1\pri.l

mid-December early April e11d I\1a)r

Ecole Nati.011al d' 1\dn1i.11is tratio11 dL1 Se11egal FacL1lte de D1-oi.t et des Scie11ces Eco11o111iques U11i.versite de Dakar Dal(ar - Fa11n

Di.1·ecteur: I I A. N De11e N Oi.a)re La11guage of I11struction: Fre11cl1

I I- is to1-y . . . . FoL111cled in 1960 t 0 JI_ ov1de 1ve add1 adn1i . 11istrat t1011al l r1-a111111g f _ Ulll. ersl. ty g r du ate _s a11d ci.vi l serva11ts \Vho � _ _ � wi.sll to 11 1:1 se1:1or ad1111n1s trat1ve posts or enter the . · . d1p 1 0111at1c service.

294

1\.dn1ission ReCJl1i:re111e11ts mea11s of a competitive exa111i_11atioi1 by , 1·uits rec It a licence i 11 la\v, a:rts o:r an equi. val' eiit holding n d d ates a i c diplo ina, as well as selected civil serva.11ts.

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TI1e trainingl is given in a se1·ies of �11·actical coLrrses and lectures. r71e scl1ool inclltdes sectio11s of gener::11 adn1inist1·ati.on, eco11on1ic 1:111d fina11cial ad111i11i.stratio11, social adn1i11istrati.011 and external affairs. Tl1e cliJJlo mas vvl1ich take tl11·ee )rea1·s e11ti.tle l1olclers to adn1i11is n·ative posts in the civil service, tl1e diplomatic corps or to appoi11tments as labour or l1ealtl1 i11s1Jectors. f\caclemic Year

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NovemlJer Nla1·cl1

Februar}' July

SEY Cf-I ELL ES s t n e d u t S . g in i, r a le There are no i11stitutio11s of I1igl1er must go abroacl.

295

SIERRA LEONE f-Iead: Depart1ne11t of La�, F. C. 1'uboku-Metzger Faculty of Eco11omic and Social Studies Fou1-al1 Bay College U11iversi.ty of Sierra Leone La11guage of Instruction: P. 0. Box 87 E11gli.sl1 Freeto\vn [-Ii.story

,. 1,

FoL1ral1 Bay College was founded by tl1e Churcl1 Mi.s si.011ary Society i.11 1827. It has a 1011g hi.storj' of service to l1i.aher education i11 West Africa. I11 1960 it \Vas reconstituted by royal cl1a1-ter as ''Fou1-ah Bay College-The U11i.versi.ty College of Si.er1-a Leone. '' The College was again reconstituted with effect from 1 Septembe1- 1966, as a co11sti.tL1e11t college of the Fecleral University of Sierra Leo11e by a11 act of the Sierra Leone Parliament. Tl1e style a11d title of the College was cl1anged agai.11 to "Foural1 Bay College" by tl1i.s act. Tl1e af filiati.011 of the College of tl1e U11i.versi.ty of Durl1am \Vl1ich dates from 1876 was abrogated 011 22 February 1967. '1"11e College offers courses i11 arts, education, theol ogy, eco11omi.c a11d social studies, pure a11d applied sci.e11ce. Tl1e1-e are, in addi.tio11, a Depart111e11t of Extra Mui-al Studies a11d a11 Institute of 1\frican Studies. T11e De1Jartn1e11t of Lav\' is 011e of tl1e fi.ve depa1-t1nents V11i.thi.11 tl1e FacL1lt}' of Eco11omic a11cl Social Studies. La\;1,1 courses are also 110w avai.lal)le to stucle11ts i.11 tl1e Faculty of Arts. 1\d1nissi.011 l{equi.re111e11ts 1\.d111i.ssi.011 to tl1e 1-=i'acult}' of E co11on1i.c a11d Social Stu dies folloV11 s tl1e sa111e cri.te1-i.a as ad111i.ssi.011 to tl1e other fa.culties of _rl �e Lini.versi.ty. Ca11di.dates sl1ould satisfy tl1e _ 1 follo\� 111g 1�11111111L11n requi.re111e11ts i11 order to qL1alify for n1atr1cL1lat1.011: 296

-·

ral certificate of edLicatt· on (1) Passes at the gene . 01 -

equ1 t 1e va 1 1 01( ent) i11 five SLll)j ect 8 1. 11 1 Cl . 1 leve ry dina g 1 � �e ln Eno-0lisl1 language, cl1osen £1·0111 a11 alJI)roved 1 1. 8 t'·,· t 1es . not n101·e tl1an t\\'o sittiiigs. · ed 1n passes b e111g o b ta1n .

(2) Candidates 111a:I'_ also be c:1110,vecl to 111atricLilate i.f 1 app1·opr"l �te qua if cati.011s a,,, arel eel by otlier � they po�sess _ _ univ ers1t1 es or edL1cat1onal 111st1tL1ti.ons wlii.c li are aJ) pro ved b y Senat: and p1·ese11t sL1ffici.e11t evi.cl ence of l)ro ficiency 1n E n g l1 s h . (3) In addirion to the n1ini.1num reqL1ire111e11ts pre r as stated uncle1· (1) above, unive1·sity the by ca11scribed

didates for admission to tl1e Faculty of Eco110111ic a11cl Social Studies shall ha\;e passed in n1atl1en1atics at tl1e general certificate of educati.on ordi11a1·y Ie,rel (or its equivalent).

(4) Candi.dates possessing a mi.ni111u111 of t\\'O l)asses

at the general certi.ficate of educati.011 adva11ced level i.11 addition to the mini.mum qu alifi.cati.011s J)rescri.becl by tl1e university and the sp ec ia l quali.fi.cati.ons prescri.becl bJ' tl1e Faculry, ma)' be exempted fr on 1 tl1e prelin1i.11ary yea·r l1e t of 11 i.0 at i 1d e1 111 111 co 1·e e tl1 1 01 te na se Se cour of studv. b\Board of the Faculty. Courses 1i.ce clepartn1e11t to , r e s The Department of La\v is a l c e i· e ff o e b 11 a c ,v la other departments i n the Faculty, and . c S . B e th f o e s r u o c as an option a t a ll le v e ls of th e (Econ. ) degree:

Preli mi.nary Year Elements of Law Jntermedi.ate Year - Law I Lav; of Contract Consti.tuti.onal Law Sale of Goods

297

. II w a L r a e Y g in fy li a u -Q Negotiable I11stru1ne11ts 1\ge11cy Arbi.trati.011 Final year - La,v IIICompany Law Academi.c Year earl1r October mid-Ja11uary 1nid-A1Jril

•

- mid- December Michaelmas Term Epiphan'j' Term - 1ni.d-March Easter Term - n1i.d-June

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SOMALIA Faculty of Law Dea11: Guiseppe Scalo11e U11iversita. Nazionale de lla Somali.a P. 0. Box 15 Language of Instruction: Mogadisl1u Italian, E11glisl1 a11d Arabic I-Iistory Fou11ded i.11 1954 vvi.tl1 t\\10 faculties, tl1e Faculty of v Lav and Econo111ics a11d the 1"'eacl1er T1�ai11i F 11g aculty. 1l1e Faculty of Law ancl Eco110111ics \�1as re cently split. 1l1e I11stituto acqL1irecl L111i ve1�sityr sta tus 111 1957.

298

1\dmi.ssi.011 Rec1ui.reme11ts ng the i . matltri.ta hol 11ts sci.e11ti.fica, t11e sec ? stude f\11 _ cert1f1cate, are eli.gi.ble fo1· aclinissio11_ ol scl1o ry onda t �acher tr ai.11i. 11g scl1ool a1·e also eligible fron1 ates adu _ 11 Gr _ 111at10 . l a1n 1a ex ec sp a ing s pas on Courses The Faculty of La,,, and Econo111ics offer s two- and ng a ·ee. . i e11ts to deg1 lead Stud both , rses coL1 year three crraduati.ng from the two -ye ar course are acln1ittecl to tl1e third year of study i.11 tl1e faculti.es of political scie11ce, econon1ics, commerce or law i.n any Italia11 uni versi�r and students vvho complete tl1e three-yea1· course may enter these faculti.es at the fourth year level. First Year Private Lavv Public Law Shari.a Law Politi.cal Economy Statistics History· of Political Theory : 1g 11 ,v o ll fo 1e tl 1n ro f 11 T'A1 0 modern la11guages cl1ose Ara.bic English French Italian Russia11 _Second Year Ad1ninistrative Law International Law Penal La\v Jur1sprude11ce Finance Two modem la11guages

299

Tl1ird Year Labour Law Son1ali Co11stitutio11al Law Politics Economics Fi11a11ce Ad111i11istrative Law Eco11omic Geograpl1y Co11tempo1-ary I-Iistory Sociology Acacle1nic Year August

July

r,. ,,,1

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SOUT[-I t\FRICA

FacL1lty of Law U11i.versity of Cape Tow11 P. 0. Box 594 Cape Tov.1 n

Dean: J. T. R. Gibson Language of I11struction: E11glisl1 [-Ii story

Fou11ded as SoL1tl1 1\frica11 College i11 1829; establisl1ed as a u11i.versi.Ly i11 1918. Adn1issio11 I{equi.re111e11ts Matri.cL1lati.011 ce1-ri.ficate plus successful completi.011 of three years' B. A. progra111. 1\cade1nic Year March

December (two ter111s) 300 '

Fac ulty of Law Unive1·sity of Fort I-Iare Piivate Bag 314 l\lice, Cape Province

Dea 11: J · B. Tl1on1 LailgLiage of I1 1strL1ctio11: E11gl isl1

Founded in 1916, si11ce 1959 fo1· Xl1osa stL1der1ts a11ct Bantus fr �1n Tranksei; affiliated witl1 tl1e U111versity of S0L1tl1 Af1--ica. Program set by tl1e U11i.versityr of SoLltI1 1\frica. f\dmissi.on Requireme11ts Matriculation certificate plus successful comJJletion of three years' B. A. p1·ogram. CoL1rses Six- or seven-year prog1·a111 v\1l1icl1 i11clucles tl1ree years in B. 1\. degree progra1 11 vvl1ere certai.11 law courses can be taken i11 order to reduce tl1e periocl of studj'. 1wo yea1·s of stucly a1·e necessary after tl1is 111 orcler to qL1ali fy as an attorney. During the three-year B. f\. program, tl1e follovvi11g law subjects may be take11 as we ll as tl1ree courses i11 Roman-Dutcl1 law: First Year

I ,,

'. ','

I-Iistorical and Jurisprudential I11troductio1 1 The Law of Persons The Law of tl1e Family 111e R igl1ts of AL1thori ty _Seconcl Year

: II

I I. I

The Law of Property 1 on s s e c c u S te ta s The Law of Testate a n d I11te

301

Third Year The Law of Obligations Contract E11ricl1ment a11d De li.ct Two courses i11 Roma11 La\v The remaining tl1ree years of the LL. B. degree are devoted to (1) two additional courses in Roman-Dutch pri vate law or special subjects taken from the la\v of pro perty and the law of obligations; (2) tv10 courses in mer cantil e law (ag ency, co111pany la\v, partnership, insol ve11cy, bills of excha11ge); (3) two courses in criminal la\v (general pri11ciples and specific crin1es) and in con stitutional law (of the Republic of South Africa); and (4) a com1Jarativ e study of the constitutions of the Western cou11tries. 111e following courses are also required in tl1e l..,L. B. program:

L 'I

• I•

�

Administrative Law Bantu Law SoL1th Africa11 Native Lavv Evid e11ce Civil Procedure Crimi11al Procedure

·-

Academic Year

l:;-ebruary - Novembe1- (four terms) .. ..".•..

l:j'acL1lty of Law U11i versi.ty of Natal King G eorg e V Av enue JJi.et er111aritzburg l l)urba11

Dean: t\. S. l\tlatl1ews .'•..

·,.,

Lai1gl1age of I11sr1-ucti.on: Englisl1 I-Iistor)r

J?oL111clecl i.11 1909. FormerlY ca . constttuent e of re colleg Ll 11 iv ei-sity of Soutl 1 A fri. ca,. assu111ed i.11 s u1 st 1i at ve u rs ry i l9tl-9.

302

f\.dmissio11 Requiremei1ts Matriculatio, 11 certificate plus successful con1p1et1on A f\.. B. years p1 ogra111. of three Courses I-las LL. B. deg1Aee program of at least tl11Aee )'ears LL. M. program an d certificate progran1 fo 1A 11011grad�ate student s 1·equired for ad1nission to practice as attoi·neys or for holding senior posts i11 tl1e gover11me11t. Basic la\v taught is Ro111an - Dutcl1 and some 11ative African customary law in collaboratio11 with tl1e Depart ment of Bantu Studies.

University of the Orange Free State P. 0. Box 339 Bloemfontein, 0. F. S.

Oea11: J. N. I{. Van Rhyn La11guage of Inst1A L1ctio11: 1\frikaans

I-Iistory Founded in 1855. Formerly a constituent colle?e of the University of So utl 1 Africa, Pretoria. Gai11ed 111cle pendent status in 1949; became University of the Orange Free State in 1950. Admission Require1ne11ts Matr iculation certificate plus successful con1pletio11 of three years' B. A. program. 1\cademic Year Febr uary - November (two ternis l

303

Faculty of Law Potcl1efstroo111 U11iversity for Cl1ristia11 I--Iigl1er Education Potcl1efstroon1 Tra11svaal

Dea11:

J. D.

van der Vyver

La11guage of Instruction: Afrikaans

£--Iistory Founded i11 1869; i11corporated in U11iversity of Soutl1 Africa as co11srttuent college i.11 1921; assumed full univer sity status as Potcl1efstroom University for CI1ristian f -Iigl1er Education i11 Marcl1 1951. Ad1nissio11 Requireme11ts MatricL1latio11 certificate plus successful con1pletion of three years' B. A. program. Courses '' .

I, -

Offers law courses i11 B. A. program, LL. B. courses a11d a 011e-year course i11 nati\re lavv. TI1e course i11cludes (1) a11 i11troductory part on tl1e etl1nic classificati.011 of the IJri11cipal BantLl groups vvitl1 tl1e mai.11 p1�i11ciples of Ba11tu la'-11, pertai11i11g to cases or historic re\7i.ev,, of tl1e 1�ecog11itio11 of 11ati ve law as a valid legal syste111 i11 Soutl1 Africa a11cl (2) a stL1dy of native pri\rate law i11cluding la\:v of persons, fa111ily law, la,v of tl1ings, law of co11tracts, law of deli.ct, law of i11l1erita.11ce.

FacL1lty of LaV1 University of Pretoria Pretoria f -Iillcrest 1

Dea11: P. va11 \Varmelo La11gL1age of I11struction: Afrikaa11s [-Iistory

Fou11cled as Tra11sva.al Uni\7ersity Colleo-e i11 1908. Gra11tecl cl1arter as U11ive1�sity of Pretoria i11 1930.

304

Ma Âˇ tricLtlation certificate plL1s su ccessfLtl co1111)1eu011 . A . . B pr , ogra111. of thr ee years f\cademic Yea1February - Decembe1- (tv.1 0 se111esters)

Faculty of Law

Rand Afrikaans U11iversity P. 0. Box 524

Dean: J.C. V. D. \Valt Language of l11strucrto11: Afrikaa11s

JohannesbLtrg

I-Iistory Founded in 1966; the first stL1de11ts vvere e11rolled 111 1968. Admissio11 Require111e11ts r-.1atriculation certificate IJlus successful co111pletion of three years' B. A. program. f\.cademic Year January - November

Faculty of Law

Dean : R. C. Beuthin

P. 0. Box 94 Grahamstown

n: L1crto lnstr of La11guage Englisl1

Rhodes U11i versi ty

I-Iistory Fou nded i11 1904.

305

Adini.ssioi1 ReqL1i.reme11ts Matriculation certificate plus successful completio11 of tl1ree years' B. A. program. Academic Year Marcl1 - Nove1nber (four ter111s)

Faculty of Law U11iversity of South Africa P. 0. Box 392 Pretoria

Dea11: W. J. I-Iosten Language of Instruction: Afrikaans and English

I-Iistory

() I j

I .J 'E

!, -

i ..

Founded in 1873, royal cl1arter in 1877. Since 1951 tl1e u11iversity has bee11 a cor1-espo11de11ce a11d examining inÂ stitutio11, acce1Jting only external students; it is a multiÂ racial i11stitution. 1-\..dmissi.011 Requireme11ts Matriculati.011 certificate IJlus successful co111pletio11 of three years' B. A. progra111. Acaden1ic Year

February - Noven1ber (four terms)

FacLtlty of La\"i' Dea11: J. C. de\i\Tet U11iversi ty of Stellenboscl1 La11guage of I11structio11: Stelle11boscl1, Ca1Je Provi11ce Afrikaans I-Ii.story I11corporated i.11 1918. 306

Ad111issio11 l\equire rnei1ts r,.,,Jatriculation certificate plus SLtccessfu1 co1n1Jletion of three yr ear s' B. 1-\. 1Jrog1·an1. f\cade111ic year February - December (foLtr te1-111 s)

Faculty of Law University of the Witwatersrand 2 Jan Smuts J\venue, :t\1ilner Park Johann esburg, T1·a11svaal

Dea11: E. l(al111

Language of I11st ruction: Englisl1

History Founded in 1922; Law Faculty f0Lt11ded at same time. Admissio11 Requi1·e1ne11ts Mat riculation certificate plus sLiccessful co1111Jl etio11 of three years' B. A . prog r an1. Courses LL. B. prog ram takes five to six y ears if la,v courses are take n while in B. A. o r B. Com. deg ree progran1. There are 18 LL. B. co ur ses (Crin1inal la,v a11d procedur e, constitutio11al law, public i11ter11atio11al l aw, juris1Jru n r y of Sourb o st hi e w, la d an R an 1n e o w, op la e co iv at r ?e � r\fr1 ca law as well as some pr ivate law cours es). Di P1 oma in la w program a three-year Coul- se witl1 l 1 of saine no require1ne11t Lic m s r e ov C _ for fi r st de�r ee. 11d e I11t as LL B b . tes . sta tu f o eel for • · ut 111cludes interpretat:1011 ca11di.date atto r 11eys. i rt lJa s, nt va r se er � ti.fi cate in la w program fo r civil

307

cularly those ill Departn1.e� 1t o_f Justice, similar to diplo 111a lJrogram without co11st1.tut1011al law.

Faculty of Law U11iversity College of Zulula11d Private Bag l(W A- D La11gez't.,a Via Empa11ge11i, Natal

Professor of Law: P. D. Oelofsen La11guage of I11struction: Englisl1 f-Iistory

Fou11ded i11 1960 for ZL1lu and Swazi stude11ts. Ad111issio11 Require1ne11ts 1',, ' '

Matriculatio11 certificate plus successful completion of tl1ree years' B. A. program.

•( I

t•

SOUTI--I \VEST AFRICA (Nt\MIBit\)

171ere are }Jrese11tlJr 110 i11sti tutio11s of hi o-}1er lear11ing tl1ougl1 trai.11i11g ce11tres are l)ei11g bL1ilt at \i\l 11ctI1oek a11d Ova111bola11d.

308

SPr'\NIS[I- S/\f-l1\RA TI1 ere are no i.nsti.tllti.0 1 1s of l1i.gl1e1- eelltcat1. 0 1 1 · St u . d a o o g abr dents n1ust

SUDAN Faculty of Law Universi.ty of l(hartoun1 P. 0. Box 321 Khartoum

Dean : r'\l1 1 11ed El Mal1di. L an guage of lnst·ructi.on: Arabi.c a 1 1d Engli.s11 Hi.story

The Sudan has on e of th e o ld est la\v f acltlti.es i. 1 1 a1 1glo phonic f\frica. Islamic law Vl'as taL1gl1t i.11 Gorclo1 1 M e1 110rial Coll ege wl1ich ope 1 1ed in 1902. A Scl1ool of LaV11 was begun in 1936 u nder the supervisio11 of the Legal Secre tary. In 1945 th e School of La\�l Vl'as absorb ed into Gor don Me1norial College. Fron1194 7 to1958 stude1 1ts of tl1e School of Law wer e aw ard eel clegrees fro 111 tl1e U1 1i. \rersity of Lon d on. 1 1 11951 tl1e U11iversity of l(l1artoun1 V11 as eSta b lished by the fusio 11 of Gordo 1 1 Men1orial Co lleg e anc1 the Kitchene r School of Medi.cine. It acquired L1 11iversity status i.111956. Si nce 1958 tl1e LL. B. degrees l1ave bee11 awarded by the U11i versity of I(hartou n1. t\dn1ission ReqL1i1-e1ne1 1ts �i Vil Law LL ..8. Eirher a Sudan School C ertificate or a Cain _bridg e �Verseas Cer ficate ith credits i1 1 at lea 5t f1ve subti w · Jeers or a ge11er al rtificate of edL1cat1on of tl1e Sucla 11 ce es 1 01. of Wa , l lanc Ei1g the scl1ools exa111ining bodies of 309

a r y level in five n i d r o 1e tl t a d Scotlai1ct witll l f o ti o r h e c S C t y a r ic a d n e o c e n a ti p y � g E 11 a r o ::bjects ate a n d not les s g e r g g a 1e tl 1 11 t 11 e V'l'itll at lea.st 60 IJerc a k r e o e ts e r j G b u s m y G ix s f o h c a � e 1 i1 t 11 e c r e tha11 so p s t s o a n 1 le th 11 t n n seve11 ce r e IJ 70 l1 it V'l' te a ic if rt e C 11asium d to e s ir as p qu 1 re a1 be l il w s te a d di 11 ca ll A _ subjects. a nguage. ( and) l l1 s l1 g n E e th 1 11 11 o ti a e11trance exan1i11 s e or rt th A of y Fac lt cu a F e th in y L1d st ' rs Two yea 11 io et pl d n1 an of co s ie ud St l a ci So nd a ic 111 10 o1 ulty of Ec tl1e inter1nediate exa1nination.

1J asses

Sl1aria La \v LL. B.

,, ,.

I•

A Sudan or Cambridge Scl1ool Certific ate or general certificate of educatio11 credit in five subjects including Arabic a11d religiot1s knowledge or an Egyptian Secondary Scl1ool Certificate with at least 60 perce11t in the aggre gate a11d 11ot less tl1 a11 50 percent in ea cl1 of six subjects i11cludi11g tl1e E11glish l a 11guage. CoL1rses �L.B. Civil La\v, a three-year program, after co111plet1011 of t\i\1 0 years' study in tl1e F a culty of Arts or the Faculty of Eco11omic and Social Studies. Intern1ediate Year Eleme11ts of Ro111a11 Private L a½' Sl1aria I Cri.n1inal La½, a.nd Procedure Ele1ne11ts of Law of Coiltr a ct Seco11cl ·yea1� Sl1aria Part II La\v of Torts Merca11tile Law I Co11stitutio11al La"''' Lav,1 of Evide11ce a11d

c1· v1- 1 310

procedure

Third Year Jurisprt1de11ce Lavv of Property Co11flict o f Laws One of the follovvi.11g: f\1Ierca11ti.le Lav,, II I11ternati.011al Lavv Equity LL. B. Sharia Law, a fot1r-yea1· progra1n. Preliminary Year Fiqh - lbadat and Hudud Tafsir - lbadat a11d f-Iudud �Iadith el f\hkam Mustalah Criminal Law a11d Procedure Intermedi.ate Year Fiqh - Nluamalat Tafsir - tvr uamalat Hadith - Muan1alat Tarikh al Tasl1ri. Usul al Fiqh Contract and Ci. vi.I Procedure Thi.rd Year. (fi.11al Part I) Fiqh - f\hwal Sl1akhsi.a Tafsi.r - 1\l1wal S hakhsia f-ladith - f\hwal Shakhsi.a Usul al Fiqh Siyas sa Shari.a a11cl Tari.kl1 al Gacia

3ll

Fourtl1 Year (fi11al Pa.rt II) l\�urafaat Ahwal Sl1akl1si.a Miratl1 a11d Wakf Tavvthiqat and Layha Tafsi.r S1Jecial di.plon1a i.11 Commercial La\v. Fi.rst Year Introduction to Ge11eral Principles of La\v Eleme11ts of Co11tract Special Con1n1ercial Tra11sacti.011s Law of I11surance Seco11d Year

,, J

Business Relations Tvvo of tl1e followi. 11g:

I' _'

La\1,, of Ba11ki 11g Carri.age of Goods Law of Taxati.011 Accou11ta11cy Employ111e11t Contracts and f{elatio11s 1

rfl1e Faculty regL1latio11s also provide for tl1e award of degrees of l\!laster of La\\' s, Doctor of Pl1i.losopl1y a11d Doctor of Laws. 1\cade111i.c Year July Septe111ber Ja11uary

Septe111ber Dece111ber .l�ebruary

312

Faculty of La\V Universi ty of Ca1ro Khartoum Branch P. o. Box 1055 KhartoL1m

Language of I11struc tion: Aral)ic I-Iistor)r

Founded in 1955 by a clecree, be ca m e indepenclei1 t i.i1 1959. Toe i11stitutio11 is fi11anced by Cairo U niversity, Egypt. Admission Require1ne11ts Eďż˝rptian, Sudanese, or Ca111bridge Scl1ool Certificate or equivalent. Courses See University of Cairo. i\in Shams University.

Col1rses si1nilar to t l1ose at

Acade111ic Year August December

Nove111ber Marcl1

Faculty of Modern and Islamic Law Jam 'i.at Omdurman Al-Islan1i.ya (Islamic Uni. versi. ty o f Orndurman) P. 0. Box 328 Omdurman

ggaz el-II a M. M . ea11: D

n: uctio Instr of Language Arabic I-Iistory

ired Acqu . Elmi El.. , El Fou nded i11 1912 as El .Ma al1ad . , cofor ts ne11 University status in 196 nge1 arra f:-Ias 5. 313

01Jeratio11 witl1 U11iversity of Cairo, Ain Sl1ams Univer sitJ', U11iversity of Alexandria, Al-Agl1ar University, Dan1ascL1s U11iversity a11cl U11iversity of Edi11burgl1. Acln1issio11s Requireme11ts Seco11clary scl1ool certificate. CoL1rses Five-year Bacl1elor of Laws. Academic Year August Ja11L1ary

Novenlber AJJril

1�, I 1

(

I'' ;-·!) •J

SWAZILAND See Lesotl10: Ui1i versity of Bots\,1 a11a, Lesotl10 and Swaziland

314

T1-\.NZ1\.Nlf\

Dea11: p· L· u . Cros Faculty of Lav,, s 1· Da es of 11 sity aa1 Sal r e Univ P. o. Box 35093 La11gua ge of I11stru ctio 11: Sala a111 es E11gl isl1 oar Tl 1e University College, Dar es Sal aa111, \:Vas fo uncied in 1961 as part of the University of East 1\frica. Prior to 1964 the �aw Faculty vva� tl1e only facu ltJ' of tl1e College and ,,vas 1nte11ded to provi.de legal edL1catio11 for all of East f\frica. In its fi1·st fou1· Jrears (1961-1965) it ,vas affiliated \Vith the Un iver si.ty of Lo11do11, al thoL1gh the la,v progran1 differec1 fron1 tl 1e Bri.tisl1 p1·ogram. The first LL. B. gr aduates recei.ved tl1eir degrees in 1964. 171e Law Faculty is now a 1)a1·t of tl1e U11i.versit)' of Dar es Salaam established in July 1970. Admissio11 I\equire111e11ts Ad111issio11 to the Faculty of Lavv follows tl1e same cri teria as admission to tl1e other facul ties of the Univer sity. Direct E11try

l l

A scl1ool certificate or ge11eral certificate �f educa_ tion with passes in ft ve approvecl subjects obta1ned prior to the sitti11g of the higl1 scl1ool certificate of aclvanced level of the ge11eral certificate of ed ucati.011 aiid 011e of tile following: (1) nvo pri.11cipal level passes at· l11� · l 1er. scl1ool certificate take11 at the sa me ti.me; (2) 011e priiicipal level pass plus tl1ree subsidiary passes take11 at t�1e_ sanle · . sitttng (the ge11eral paper bei11g cou11ted acs ac subs1d1ary 0'"'ub · ·Jeer ) ; (3) 011e principal leve 1 IJ ass at D g racle or 1 1 � �g�er, plus two su bs id ia ry passes takeii y :1 � ar :u�� 1 t� 11 g � :� l (the general JJaper bei.ng excludec at the ei1 1 a _ ot c 11 e r < su b3 c t);· · (4) two pri ncipal level JJasses or c (j racle c sa�n1 e s1t1ng f o /:) both , .JJrovicled tl1at tl1ey a r e h1gher.

315

A1Jplica11ts mL1st 11a ve sat tl1e ge11eral paper in the higl1er scl1ool ce1-tificate and \vill l1ave to produce a ce 1- tificate fron1 tl1eir scl1ool stati11g tl1at they have followed a course of ge11eral studies in preparation for tl1is paper. Mature Age E11try

J.,' riJ

Applicant must be over 25, must have left scl1ool more than five years previously, and must supply un qualified recon1me11datio11 for a clegree course from so1neone who is acceptable as to the applicant's intellec tual activities a11d performance in the period since he left scl1ool. If l1e can satisfy these conditio11s, he will be asked to take a written e11trance examinatio11 and may be asked to attend a11 interview. r'\pplication forms for ma ture age entry can be obtai11ecl from the Registrar of the University of Dar es Salaam, P. 0. Box 35091, Dar es Salaa111, Tanzania.

1 1 1 I

Courses

f. I

1\n LL. B. degree program whicl1 11ormally exte11ds over th1-ee academic years. First Year Examinatio11s in the follov\1i11g fi. ve subjects: Co!1s1:itutions and Legal Systems of East Af1-ica Cr1m1nal La\v a11d Crin1i11al Procedure Law of Co11tract Develo1J1nent Studies Legal Metl1od

· Exa111i11ations 1·11 rl1e follo,v111g fLrrtl1er J su one ects b. and . -d ... 111 _ e 11 . _on1 tl1 sub.J ect fr Year list (except Civil Proceclu re): Law of Torts La11d Law Ad1ni11istrative Law

Evidence Development Studies ( l<.esearcl1 Paper 011ly) 316

.. ...

. -,..

Third Year Exa minations i.n Ci. \·i l Pr·ocedui·e . fl-om chos rhe en f ol lO\\'i. 11.._-=-"'- l i. -�t jects Dean of the F aculty:

a 11d t11ree oth er b su 1 \\ 1 L_11 ap1Ji· o,,a1 of the

International La\\' Fami.l)r La\.1/ Comn1erci.al La\\. Succession and Trusts Pt.tblic Enterprises and C-o-ope1-ati.,res Conflict of La\Vs Jurisprudence Constitutional La\v Islamic La\.v Criminology and Penoloqi.· -Labour La\v Ci. vi.I Lavv Svstems Legal i\spects of International Trade & Invest111e11t Tax Law LL . .NI. and Ph. 0. degrees, ,-.·hi.ch are researcl1 de grees. Candi.dates for r_he LL. �1. degree must pursue an approved course of srud); i.n\10l\7ing full-ti.me atten dance for a mini.mum of one academic )r ear. A disser tation must also be submitted. Onl)i a dissertation is ordinarily required for the Pi-1. D. degree. 1\ special postgraduate diploma course co11si.sti1�g. of three graduate level courses is also offered. Pa1·t1c1pants are usually those ,.�:i.th bachelor's degrees in other subje cts who desire training in la\ll. '-'

1 ear pa rt -t im e certi -) 10 t'.1 he a s lt cu er ff y· also o . T Fa ed lat re vla\ i.n ate ts an rv c se l ,,li co L1rse i.n law for i fic jobs. 171 e course meets three evenings a week for t\:vo hours. The follo\ving courses are offered:

First Year Public La\v (and either) Crimi11al J..,aw and Public Order (or) i a ner e al Ge Principles of Pri rat L v

[

�17

. Seco11d Year Two of tl1e following: La11d La\¥ and La11d ·use Control I11ter11atio11al Law ai1d Trade Labour Law . . Co-01Jeratives a11cl Assoc1at1011s Commercial Law Crimii1ology and Pe11ology Evidei1ce a.11d Proceclure Family Law . . Legal Co11trol of I1n1n1� 1-at1011 Crin1i11al Law a11d Publ1c Order Acaclen1ic Year

() 1l

II I 1

early July early October early Ja11uary

mid-September early Decembe1late Marcl1

!' I

,t � I•

I11stitute of Public Ad1ninistratio11 P. 0. Box 616 Oar es Salaa111

Language of Instrl1ction: E11glisl1 f-Iistory

•

Tl1e InstitL1te is a11 i11tegra.l part of tl1e U11i versity. It bega11 its 01Jeratio11 i11 Octobe1- 1962 \x,1itl1 a reside11tial col1rse for clist1-ict n1agistrates. Ad 111issi011 11eqLti re111e11ts Ca11cltclates 111L1st be c iv il se r v a 11ts \v; l10 are recorn111e11clecl by tl1e gover11me11t for tl1e progran1.

318

CoL1rses Courses are ar ra11gecl as 1·equirecl for specific grouJ)s su ts cl� as ar ea secreta1·ies (t111-ee-m se rv a lic � pu b of o1itl1 courses), distr1ct magi.st1·ates, local gover11111e11r offi cials (1 1ine-1no1 1tl1 courses), a.11d acl111i11istrative officials. The Inst itute has give11 a t\vo- 111ontl1 i11te11sive coLii·se ill Diploinac)r for stL1dents vvl10 we re J)lan11i11g o1· 11acl begL111 careers as diplon1ats. Courses l1ave also bee11 l1elcl for senior prison office rs, senior agricL1ltural officers, supervisory employees of tl1e n1u11icipalit�>' ancl se11ior civil servants. The two 1nai11 coL1rses last 011e )1 ea1· a11d are tl1e coL1rse in Pt.1blic Admi11istratio11 a11cl tl1e course for Di.s trict J\�agistrates. Me111be1·s of the La\\' FacL1lty teach in these programs.

Ecole de Droit et des Sciences Econo1niqL1es Universite du Benin B. P. 1515 Lom e

TOGO 1ctio11: L r t s 11 I f o e g La1 1aua l1 s . i l 1g 1 E d 1 1 a 1 l 1c 1 Fr�

History

' E..,i1sel. c:,a11eme11t Superieur. Founded i11 1962 as Ce11tre d . y me o Dah 111 . c s a 1 tl i vv . � !\�:� tlle Ui1i.versi.ty In 19?5 it became a n insti tut Special arrangen1ents for coo1Je�at., 1 ? of G renoble. Became a univers1 te 111 1970

319

Ad1nissio11 li.equireme11ts (baccalaureat) or equival . Seco11dary scl1001 ce�r·ficate le11t a11d entra11ce exam1nat1on. Academic Year November January April

December March Ju11e

Ecole Togolaise d 'Adn1inistratio11 Ave. de la Liberatio11 Lome No iiiforn1atio11 available. i

TUNISI1\. Faculte de Droit et d e s Sciences Poli.tiqLtes et Economi.ques

Dea11: Cl1adli Ayari

U11i. ve1�site de TLtnis

94 Boule va1�ct dLt 9 A JJril 1938 Language of InstrL1ction: 1�u11is f\.rabic and Fre11cl1 f-Ii.story Fou11cl ed i.11 1960, i.11corporatin g Ez-zito U11iversity a11cl tl1e una Isla1nic I11sti. tut des f-Iautes EtL1des \l\1l1ich had ? een established in 1945 and had pro 111 law, scie11ce vided some courses a11d tl1e arts leadi11cr 0 to a limited nu111ber 320

of certiftcats for th e lice�ce �wa.rded l)y the u11i.versity of Paris as well as otl1er 111st1tL1t1011s o f I1ig11er educati.on.

·' '•

Admi.ssio11 Require111e11ts

Baccalaureat or an equivalent qualificati.011 i.s 11eces sary for admi.ssio11 to the lice11ce. C andi.dates for the capac i.te e11 droi.t n1ust be at least 17 yea1-s olcl. Capaci.te en Drott

Cou1-ses

First Year Civil Law Public Law Politi.cal Economics Criminal Law and Procedure Commerci.al 1\ccou11ctng Second Year Ci.vi.I Law Commercial Law Civil and Commercial Procedure Legal Process Administrative Disputes Fiscal Institutio11s Licence en Droit

re. are nts stude ars In tl1e first, seco11d and th1rd at e ndai1c 'atte l Y�. quired to take seve11 subjects e �1ta :J � er � p io ns se ss r thirteen lectures and two lJracti.ca 111ey . alize speci \Veek. In the fourth year, the studei1ts al cti c Jr a tw o d I take from 18 to 19 hours of lectures an \Vork sessions per week.

1,.

'. . 'I

:; l

• . -. ', ' •

...

... j

/•

. I

321

.... Fi.rst Year Civil Law - sto1-y of Isla1nic I11stituti.011s I Ii Co11sti tL1tio11al Law Political Eco11omics Source of Isla1nic Law Indiviclual a11d Isla1nic Law I11ter11atio11al Orga11izatio11s Seco11d Year

!I !

I -

Civil La,v Adn1i11istrati ve Law Political Eco11omics Crin1i11al Law a11d Cri1ni11ology I Ii - story of Orga11izatio11s i11 the Mediterranean \t\forld Isla111ic Law of Obligatio11s Fiscal I11stitutio11s Tl1ird Year Civil La,;v Co1nn1ercial Law Crin1i11al La,v i11 cleptl1 a11cl Penal Law Civil a11cl Co1nn1ercial Procedure Property Law Labour La\i\' Fiscal O}Jeratio11s Fourth Year Â·Pri,,ate I11te171atio11al La\i\' C?1:1111ercial La\i\', 1\ccou11ti11g a11cl Fiscal 01Jerati s on C1 V11 Law ProceclL1re Legal P1-ocess Acl1ni11i st1-ativ e D i SJJlltes

322

Private Lavv Secti.011 General Princi.1)les of Civi.I J_, avv Criminal Law iVIaritime La\\1 Insurance Pt.t1)lic Law Sectio11 Pt.ililic Se1-vi.ce [-IL1n1an Rigl1ts Political Science Metl1ods f-Ii.story of Politi.cal Tl1ougl1t Public Internati.011al La,1'1 i.11 deptl1 Admi. 11istrati ve Secti.011 Public Service Pt.ililic Accounting Public Admi.ni.stratio11 Fiscal Eco11omics Public Internati.011al La\\1 The Law Faculty also gives courses of preparati.011 fo1the examinatio11 for aclmissi.011 to tl1e bar. Acacle1nic Y ea1· October February

Ja11L1ary ]LlI1e

-z-----------

Ecole Nati.011ale d '1\dmi.11i.s- Director: t\.bdessele1n I(na11i. tr ation 1: L1ctio1 Instr of age 24 Ave11L1 e Docteur Caln1ette Langu 1 Fre11c l and c Arabi Mutuellevi.lle, Tu11i.s I-Ii.story re p d e r ii cJL ac ; 6 5 Fou11decl i.n 1949, reorganized i11 19 sei1t status i11 1964.

323

ts re m en Re qu i ss io 11 Ad.111i al au re at ). (b ac c ic at e ce rt if 1 l 10 0 sc Seco11dary Courses s ie of ud st s ar de ye e · re Th • d de ar c aw 1s on 1a . A d1p 1 • d d · · a aan tr 1s ve 1n 1 m ut ec ex l ve le · 1gl 11i e ar pre 1J s1g11ed to . e 1c v r e s c li b pu 1e tl r fo rs ce fi tive of Acaden1ic Year October

()' ,1

� 1

Ju11e

Ecole Su1Jerieure de Droit Boulevard du 9 f\vril 193 8 Tu11is

Director: Mol1amed i\1alki Language of Instruction: Arabic and French

I-Iistory

lj ::

FoL111ded i11 1960. Ad111ission Require111e11ts Stude11ts are selected 011 tl1e basis of co111petiti ve exa mi.11ati.ons an1011g l1olders of the baccalaureat or seco11dary scl1ool certificate. Courses An i11stitute of tl1e Faculte de Droi.t offers a tl1ree year coL1rse leadi.11g to a state di.plon1a, ,:vl1i.ch gives access to careers i11 vari.0L1s b1·a11cl1es of law. Acacle111i.c Year Octol)er Februa1·y

l�ebrL1ary }lll1e

324

UGAND1\ Faculty of Law t\1akerere Uni.versi.ty, I(ampala P. 0. Box 7062 Kampala

Deai1: Vi.ctor Macl( 11111011 Language of Instructio11: E11gli.sl1 I I- i.story

I\1lakerere Coll ege 'A1 as founded i.11 1922. From 1949 to 1963 it had a special 1·elationsl1ip \Vitl1 the U11i versity of Lo11don. Thereaft er it became a college of tl1e U11i ver sity of East Africa. 1\ departme11t of la\:v u11der the Fac ulty of Social Scie11ce s was establisl1ed i11 Ju11e 1968 to prepare stud e11ts for the LL. B. d egree of the University of East Africa. On July 1, 1970, M akerere University College became M akerere U11iversity, l(ampala, a11d the depa1·tment of law bec a111e a faculty. P1·ior to 1968 tl1e only legal training offered i11 Uga11da was througl1 the Entebbe Law School vvhich pre1Jared stL1de11ts for Part I of the English Bar a11d trained magistrates a11d police officers. Admission Requir ements Direct Entra11 ce ReqL1ire1ne11ts A school certificate or ge11eral certificate of ed Ltca-_ . ed prior tion with passes in ft ve approved subjects, obta1n to the sitting of the higher school certifi.� ate or actvai1ced level of the general certificate of ed ucat10110ne of the following coml)inatio11s of passes in t_he school certificate exami11ati.011 (or, \:vhere ap1Jropria _ t�-' advanced level of th e ge11eral certificate of � d� c:�10(2). (l) two }Jr· i11ci.pal level pa sses at tl 1e san1 e sittlne, one prin cipal level pass plu s three sub si· ct·1ary passes at th e sa1:1e sitting (the ge11era l pa er b 1· g counted as a � f : _ _ b su s1cl1ary subJ" ect); (3) two J)r1nclJJ, 1 evel passes not at the same sitting providec1 they are both of grade C or . h1gl1 er.

325

,,..

Mature Age E11tra11ce

() •

111 order to give a11 opportunity to exce1Jtio11ally well qualified canclidates who wish to study �o: a ?egree ?f the U11ive1-sity a11d wl10 do 11ot possess qual1ficat1ons wl11cl1 satisfy tl1e Unive1-sity 's ge11eral e11trance require1ne11ts, tl1e University offers an alternative method of e11try by the mature age scl1eme for persons who satisfy the fol lo,ving co11ditio11s: (1) ca11didates must be 25 years of age, or older, on 1 July of tl1e year in wl1ich e11try is desired; (2) candidates must l1ave completed their fo1-mal school edL1catio11 at least flve years before the date of a.pplication; (3) candidates should be able to show (a) that tl1ey have atte11ded extra-mural classes or reside11tial coL1rses i11 which case a recomme11dation fro111 the extra-mural class tutors or reside11t tutor will be 11ecessary, (b) tl1at tl1ey l1ave attended a reside11ti.al course at a11 aclult education college i11 which case a recom1ne11dation fro111 tl1e p1-incipal of tl1e college at te11ded will be 11ecessary, (c) tl1at tl1ey can obtain from a J)erso11 acceptable to the U11iversity a recon1mendati.on tl1a � tl1ey are qL1alified to profit fron1 a u11i versity edu cat1011. Courses /\ri LL. B. degree }Jrog1-a111 extending over tl1ree con _ secut1 ,,e yea1-s. First Year Int1-odL1ctio11 to La,v ii1 East l\f i-ica Co11s titutio11al La\\' Cri111i11al La.,v Law of Co11t·ract Seconcl Year La11cl La.,"' La'"' of 1--orts Ad1ni.11istra tive La�, Co111111 ercial Law 1

326

�

Tl1ird Year Exa1ni11atio11s i11 foL1r, or tl1e ec1L1i vac lei1t · of fOLrr, of the • • • follo\v1ng subJects, all select1011s to be macle wicl1 tl1e approval of the Dean of tl1e FacLtlt)': La\v of Domestic Relations Law of BL1siness Associatio11s Criminal and Civil ProcedLtres a11cl Evide11ce Commercial Law 11 Public International Law a11d l11ter11a.tio11al Transactio11s Successio11 a11d 1�rusts Juris1JrL1de11ce Conflict of Laws Comparative ConstitL1tio11al Law Comparative Law Criminology a11d Pe11ology (half sLtbject) LaboL1r Law (half subject) Law of Co-ope1-ati ve Societies (l1alf sL1bject) Legal Aspects of I11ter11atio11al 1�rade a11d Invest111e11t (half SLtbject) Legal Co11trol of Natural Resources (l1alf SLtbj ect) Tax Law (half subject) Regulatio11s for the deg1-ee of LL. f\�. l1ave bee11 a1J proved, but tl1e degree is 11ot yet bei11g offered. Acaden1ic Yea1: early July early October mid-January

111id-Septe111be1-

n1icl - Decen1ber late �/Jarcl1

327

,...

Uga11da La'A' Develo1J111e11t Ce11tre P. 0. Box 5831 l(a1npala

Director: F. M. Ssekandi La11guage of Instruction: E11glisl1 I-Iistory

().�

-�

T11e Ce11tre was for1nally 01Je11ed by the Preside11t of Uga11da 011 February 28, 1969 tl1ougl1 it had begun to func tio11 i11 July 1968 i11 an office le11t by the Attor11ey-General. Tl1e Ce11tre absorbecl tl1e fL111ctio11s of the Law School at E11tebbe whicl1 l1ad origi11ally bee11 established in 1961 for tl1e lJLtrpose of traini11g selected custon1ary courts judges and magistrates in order to i11tegrate the customary courts a11d the ce11tral judiciary. The Law School at Entebbe bega11 to hold courses for stude11ts reading for Part I of tl1e English Bar exami11atio11s in 1913. These \1/ere programs of 011e year to 18 montl1s of intensive stL1dy a11d were give11 simultaneously with the magis trates' coL1rses.

Courses The Ce11tre will eve11tually provide a one-year course of practical trai11i11g afte1� completion of tl1e LL. B. de gree }Jrogram. Tl1is will be follov,,ed b)r six 1no11tl1s' pL1pillage witl1 a 1Jracticing attor11ey. 1l1e Ce11tre 110w offers tl1e magistrates a diplo111a course wl1ich lasts 011e academic year a11d i11cludes tl1e follo\�'i 11g:

'·

Part I Ad111 �11istraio11 of Criiiiiiial Justice Tl1e Macl1ine1y of Justice i11 Uga11da Legal M etl1ocl Part II ,_171e L\dn1i11isr1�atio11 of Civil L a � , l7ie Law of Evicle11ce PL1blic La\�' (Coiist·1 tutio11al a 11 d 1\d111i.11istra.tive)

328

T11 e Ce11tre also offers le ct Lrres Ltp . coLii1t .· · ry to 111ag1s trates Grade II anc1 111. 011 r e�e11t legi.slatioi1 ancl i-efresher courses.. Pol1ce off1cers. also attei1d tl1ese lec tures. ...n1e Ce11t1e �lso e11gages 111 varioLis :rese,l·rcl1 prog�an1s, l1as publ1shed_ a l1a11cll)ool( 011 le g i.slative clraft1ng ancl 011e for 1:1ag1st1·ates a11d l1as coi1dLicted courses for arn1)' off1cer s ;;111cl labour office"J�s.

TI1e lnsti.tute of Publi.c ;\dministrati.011 P. 0. Box 20131 Lugogo, Kan1pala

P1·i11cipal: f\�i.cl1a.el Davi.es La11guage of I11st1·L1cti.011: l�nglisl1 I-Ii.story

Officially ope11ed b)' the Presi.de11t of Uga11cla 011 October 7, 1969 to trai.11 all gove1·n1ne11t acl1ni.11i.strati. ve officers of the l1i.gl1er cad1·es i11 1J·ri11ci.ples of pul1li.c administration. Courses The Institute i.s divicled i11to four scl1ools: tl1e 1\d111i.n istrati.ve Scl1ool the Executive Scl1ool, t11e Loca.l 1\ui tl10riti.es Scl1ool and tl1e Correspo11cle11ce Course Trai.11 .11g of ol l1o sc tl1 fi.f a l1 lis l b o ta. es to ol. ecl os It o1J is pr Sc 1 business admini.stratio11.

329

u·PPER VOLTA Bobo-DioL1lasso Ce11tre for Social Stuclies B. P. 305 Bobo- Dioulas so

La11guagA of I11struction: Fre11ch f-Iistory

Fou11decl i11 1960. Courses No law 1)rogran1. Ni11e-1no11tl1 courses in sociology, political eco11omy, 1\frica11 hi story, journalism, social 1Jsyrcl1ology, social legislation, philosophy and population stati sties. Acade1nic Year ,,

October Ja11uary April

Dece111ber 1\pril June

Ce11tre cles Etucles U11iversitai.res OugadoL1goL1 Courses Cour� es i11 E 11g lisl1, l1istory, geog1-apl1y, 111oder11 . _ arts, J)l11 loso1)l1y a11cl sociologJr. No la\\' 1)rogra111.

330

Z;\IRE Faculte de Droit Campus de l(insl1asa Universite Natio11ale cll1 Zaire B. P. 824 I(inshasa XI

La11guage of l11structio11: Fre11cl1 [ Ii - story

' ,,

I I

The Universite was fou11ded i11 1925 011 the i11itiative of the Catholic Uni ve 1�sity of LoL1vai11 as Ce11tre universi taire. Tl1e Universite \\1 as 1·ecog11izecl by a ro)ral decree in 1949; the new pre111ises ope11ed 011 October 1954 V1 itl1 tl1ree-year courses in 1Jl1ar111acy, eco110111ics, social science, tropical agro110111y and zootecl1nics. Law teacl1ing began 111 1956. TI1e Faculte is 110w res1Jonsible for all Liniversity law instrL1ctio11 i11 Zaire. 1

f\dmissio11 Require111e11ts Secondary scl1ool certificate or eqL1ivale11t a11cl a11 entra11ce examination plus co111pletio11 of tl1e first u11iver sity year i11 tl1e Faculty of P11ilosopl1y a11cl J__,etters. CoL1rses Lice11ce en droit, a tl1ree-year prog1·an1 L111til 19·70; now a four-yea·r progra111. First Year Introductio11 to tl1e StL1dy of La\\' FL1ndame11tal P1·inciples of Private Lavv Customary Law (first part) . gat1. 011s) Civil J_,a\v (persoi1s, property, obl1 Public Law a11d Political I11stitutio11s Pe11al Law a11d Cri n1i11ology . rst IJart.) Juclicial Procedure a11d InstitL1ti.011s (f 1 Law a11d I11sti.tL1ti.011s of Fi11a11ce Elerne11ts of Accou11ti.11g

331

Seco11d Year atio11s) g li b o , ty r e p o r p , s 11 o s Civil Law (iJer s 11 o ti tu ti s n I d 11 a w a L e v ti a tr s Adi11i11i Tax Law a11d Fiscal Tecl111iques art) d n p o c ( e s s 11 io t tu i t s In d n a e r u Judicial Proced _ _ s n o t1 tu t1 1s I1 1d a1 w a L l 1a o1 ti 1a I11ter1 Custo111ary Law (seco11d part) Law of Labour a11cl Social Security I11troductio11 to Pri11cipal Co11temporary Judicial Systen1s La,v a11d Institutions of Fi11ance Eleme11ts of Accounting Logic

Tl1ird Year i') ,J -� 'f

'I"1

'" .,1

I� .

Religious Scie11ces or Moral Pl1ilosopl1y (cl1oice) I-Iistory of Law a11d of Judicial Institutions Civil Law (matrin1011ial regime, gifts, succession, co11tracts) Judicial Procedure a11d Institutions (third part) Comn1ercial La\v Tax Law a11d Fiscal Tecl111iques Private I11ter11atio11al Law Co11ten1po1-ary Legal Problems Cl1urcl1 and State Deo11tology A fourtl1 year's progran1 \\ias added 111 1970. Postgraduate Progra111s A rrog·ra �1 for a diJJlorna of s1Jecial studies of 011e , . year s dLtrat1011 followi11g tl1e licence l1as bee11 established. Tl1ere are also pla11s to establisl1 a doctorate i11 law. f\cade1nic Year late October earlJr Marcl1

late F ebruar)' early JulJ'

332

Ecole Natio11ale d 'Administratio11 Depeche Speciale B. P. 4743 Bi.nza-l(i.nshasa

Rector: f\. \Vembi. La11guage of Inst1·ucti.011: Fre11cl1 IIi.story -

Fou11ded at Leo1Joldvi.lle i.11 1960 by a presi.de11tial dec·ree a:nd started teacl1i.ng i.n 1961 v.1 itl1 tl1e object of offeri.11g trai.ni.ng i.11 lav.1 and publi.c ad111i.11i.stratio11. 1\d111issio11 Requi1·ements Candi.dates are selectecl by con1peti.ti.ve exami11ati.011 fron1 tl1ose wl10 l1ave satisfactorily completed a seco11da1--y scl1ool program. Courses The programs were of four years' duration and in cluded practical training as well as classes. Duri11g the first two years all students took the sa111e courses. As of 1970 the prog1·am was extended to ft ve years. First Year £-Ii.story of Modern Africa Questio11s of Modern f-Iistory Nati.011s of I-Iistorical Criticism General Sociology fvlethocls of Social Sciences Eco11on1ic and f-Iuman Geograpl1y of Africa Introducti.011 to Private Law Philosopl1y Logic Etl1ics Psychology Fre11cl1 Co11golese Languages

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Second Year 11s o ti tu ti s In l a .c ti li o P 1d 1 a I -Iistory of Law A11tl1ropology s a d e n a Id ts c a F l ia c o S cl 11 a l a c ti li o Eco11on1ics, P Political Eco1101nics I s 11 .0 ti tu ti 1s I1 d 11 a s e r tu c u tr Traditio11al S Civic Duties s 11 o ti ti tu s In l a c ti li Po 1d 1 a w a L l 1a Co11stitutio1 Descri1Jtive Statistics Civil Law (perso11s, property \ Fu11da111e11tal P1-i11ciples of Law Co11golese La11guages

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111 tl1e third a11cl fourtl1 years tl1e stL1 dents are divided i11to three sectio11s: law, admi11ist1-atio11 (b1-oke11 dow11 i11to four sL1bsections ), and eco11omics. The courses for tl1e law stude11ts are as :follows:

Third Year

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Politi.cal Eco11omics II De111ograpl1y Co111111ercial 1\ccou11ti11g Fi11a11cial Law a11d Fina11cial Insti.tutio11s Court Orga11izatio11 Civil Law (obligati011s, pracrtce) Ge 11eral Pe11al Law Pe11al Proceclure Elen1e11ts of 1\d 111i11ist1-ative La\v I11ter11atio11al Law a11d l11te1-11atio11al Institutio11s Co11golese La11gL1ages Fourtl1 Year PL1blic 01-cler A�ln1i11ist·ra.ti ,,e La.,v a11d l 11stitL1tio11s _ C1 v1l La,,, (sLti-eties) Civil La.\,, (sL1 ccessio11s, g1."f..ts a11d n1atri111011ial regi ine) CL1stoma 1-y J_,a\v II Civil ProcedL1re Special Pe11al J_,a\v

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l)e11ology C1·i.mi.11010.ITT' Co1111nerci.al La1vv L::1b0Lt1· L::1\v Legal \V ri. Li11g f{ive:r a11cl ·l'/laritin,e La\vs ;\i.r J ...,aw Pub 1 i.c r-;, i.11a11ces P·ress a11d I11fo1·111atio11 Fi.ftl1 Year

1-\d1ni.11i.st1-ati.ve Di. Sl)Lttes ;\dmi.11i.strati.ve Co11t1·acts \Vri.ti.11g of StatLttes a11d RegL1l.atio11s Ci. \Ti 1 I..., a1v,1 I II Ci.vi.l La1vv IV I11su1·a11ce Lavv Li.te1·a1·y a11d 1\1·ti.sti.c Pro1)ert)' Transport La\v: r{i ver a11d Niari ti111e La\\' Tra11sport Lav.1 : 1\i.r Lavv Co11te111pora1-y Legal Syste111s Corlfli.cts of Lavv Internati.011al Lavv and I11ter11atio11al l{elati.011s Co11tempora1y Legal Proble111 s Court IJracti.ce Deo11tology of tl1e L\lfagistrate I-Ii.story of Social and Eco1101,1ic Ideas l\J)pliecl Fiscal I..,egislatio11 Legal Meclici11e Social Security I\�i.litary Justice Special 1\.cl n1i 11i. strati ve JJroceclLtres Stude11ts at first received a cli1Jlo111e after success fully completi11g the progra111. �ll1ey' as well as lice1 1ci.es of the Faculte de Droit coL1ld take a 011e-:'..,rear l)rograni called le cycle cl'appli.catio11 vvl1icl1 i11clL1decl coLr:rse vvork ancl ap 1Jre11ticesl1i.p. At the e11cl of tl1i.s J)rogra111 they be came AuditeLrrs de l 'Ecole N::1tio11ale d '/\.c1111i11ist 1:atioii. 111 1967 a JJresicle11tial o·rdtnance cleclared that l�ria_ \vas at a LI11iversity level anc l cou l d gra11t a ltce11ce. f- lo lcle·rs of sucl1 a degree l1ad tl1e ri.gl1t to enroll i. 11 tlie cloctoral J)rog·ram of Zat1-e 's L111i verstties.

ZAMBIA Dean: Benjami.11 0. Nwabueze Language of Instruction: English

School of Law a Zambi of y versi.t Toe U11i P. 0. Box 2379 Lt1saka - story I Ii

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t s s r . It fi 5 6 in 19 n i d e h s li b ta s e s a w n1e u111versity in 1966. TI1e programme of legal take of students was it s r e v 1e 's tl ni y f o U g in 11 in g e b e th t a d e c 11 e educati.oi1 comm 1 ith a class of 32 v. 7 6 19 h c r a seco11d academic year in M ls o o of h e c s th f o e n o s a 11 io it n g o c e r studei1ts. Forn1al n w o a L f l o o o h c S e th to d e d r o c c a tl1e Uni.versity was e r f th ba o rt I Pa to g in ad le s se ur co Jt1ly 1, 1967. Law om ol fr ho Sc aw L e th at d re fe of en be d exami11ati.011 l1a is ag a m d re fe of so al ol l1o Sc aw L 1e 'TI 1963 to 1967. trates' trai.11i11g course. Admissi.011 Requirements Fi.ve acceptable ordinary level passes or fl ve accept able credits at Cambridge Scl1ool Certificate 01· flve acceptable subject passes at a11 approved standard in a11otl1er exami.11ati.011 dee111ed by the Se11ate to be tl1e equi. vale11t thereof. Englisl1 language should be an1011g the five ordi11ary level passes offered. (a11d) 011e year of sL1cces sfu l \Vork i.11 tl1e Scl1ool of I-Iun1a11i�ies a11c� Social Sci.e11ces or L111i. versi.ty exen1ptio11 from th1s reqL11re111e11ts a11d approval for adn1issio11 by tl1e Board of StL1clies of tl1e Scl1ool of La,;,.,,. Holders of t\\lO � level JJasses 111aJ, be exen11)ted from all or part of tl1e flrst year of \;i.,101-k i11 tl1e Scl1 ool of I Iun - 1a11ities a11d Social Scie11ces.

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C o L1rses LL. B.. program \vl1icl1 norn1ally exte11cls ove1 . ti11ee acade n11c years. First Year Full Courses IntrodL1ctio11 to Law and Legal I11stitutio118 The Lavv of Co11tract The Law of Torts Penal Lavv Legal Method Pa1路t I One three-hour pape1路 is 1路eqLtired i11 the first four coL1rses. Second Year Full Courses Constituti.011al Law La11d Law Co1nmercial Law l路\.dmi.ni.strati.ve Law Legal i\tiethod Part II Thi.rd Year J urisprudence Obligatory Researcl1 Essay (half course) (ancl a choice of eitl1er) Business Associ.atio11s Any approved course i11 a11otl1er scl1ool (or any of the followi11g half courses so tl1at there is a total of four fL1ll courses:) lnter11ational Law Conflict of Laws Successio11 Trusts Family Law Sociology of Law 337

Cri111i11al Law a11d Pe11ology l11dL1strial Law Legal Co11trol of Natural Resources 1 sla1nic Law :Ro1na11 Dutcl1 Law Civil Law Syste111s e m st & e ve l11 ad Tr nt l 11a tio 1a r1 te l11 of s ct pe As l Lega L eg al Accou11ti11g and Reve11ue Law Mi11eral Law ' Co1n1Jarative Lav\' l11ter11atio11al Orga11izatio11 Evide11ce Legal Method Part III (a11 ap1Jroved l1alf-course in any' other scl1ool)

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111 additio11 eacl1 student will have to satisfy a writte11 lJaper requiren1e11t tl1at will cou11t towards the degree. Tl1i.s i.s to be on an approved to1Ji.c from any of tl1e courses offered i.11 the LL. B. course a11cl \¥ritten unde1· tl1e supervi.si.011 of a staff me111ber.

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B. A. - LL. B. progran1 wl1i.ch e11ables a student to co1n plete l1is LL. B. progra1n i.11 two years after ea1-ning a 11011law degree. A stL1dent ca11 also complete 11is LL. B. degree 111 011e year i.f l1e i11cludes four approved la\\' cou1·ses 111 his B. 1\. program. Eve11i.11g LL. B. JJrogram for part-tin1e stude11ts re sident i11 the LL1saka 11eigl1borl1ood co exte11d over five years.

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LL. M. Program Juris1JrL1de11ce Pro1Jlen1s of La'v\1 i.11 f\frica Dissertati.011 011 a topic a1Jpro\red by tl1 e Se11a te J\caden1ic Y ea1ear . ly ]L1ne l\ugust

August 111id-Ja11L1ary

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Lavv Practice InstitL1te of 171e Cou11cil of Legal Educatio11 P. 0. Box R. W. i:113 Lusaka

Di1·ector: Geoffrey cle Iv1. DaVie 8 Lai1gua ge of l11strL1ctio11: E11gli s11

I Iisto 1·y T11e Law P1·actice I_nstitL1te_ \7' as establisl1ecl 011 Jul}' .5, 1962 bJ' tl1e Law P1·act1ce Inst1tute (Establisl1ed) Orc1er 1968 (S. I. 269 /68 ). 1

f\d1nission Require111e11ts A la\:v degree f1·om the U11i versity of Za111bia or its recognized equivalent or tl1ree years' expe1·i.e11ce as a qualified lavvyer \Vith a rigl1t of aL1clie11ce before tl1e cou1·ts of a self-governi11g co1nmo11\1' ealtl1 01· ex-con1mon\vealtl1 cou11ty. 1

Courses One-year program requiri11g full-time atte11da11ce. Professio11al Concluct a11d Etl1ics Bookkeepi11g and f\..ccou11ts, \"1itl1 Office Metl1ocl Conveyancing ancl Legal Drafti11g Probate and SL1ccession, vvitl1 Ba11krLI}Jtcy Comn1ercial Tra11sactions, witl1 I11con1e Tax Con1pany Law a11d ProcedL1re Civil Procedure (double course) D01nestic Relations Crimi11al La\v a11d Procedure ate of Legal f\�d. Student s also work with tl1e Director . h 1c l1 \v ts 11 ta s i s Th ey are appointed l1011ora.ry Lega1 A .. f\ 8 d ·1 gives them right of au dience lJefore tl1e suborcl111ate _ t u co e , tl1 r of u e av le ts t11 wi 11 1d al a1 in im s cr se c 1 ca r . ' co . th e c in ciVil cases as we ll 0 StLtclents ar e rec1u1r ecl to }Jass Leg al Practitio11ers Qua.lifyi11g Exan1i11atio11 before t1 1ey are ente red 011 the Roll.

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Academi.c Year_ late Ja11uary early May early Septe1nber

mid-April late f).ugt1sr mid-December

National l11srttute of Public Principal: P. L.. "Ta)'lor Admi.ni.strati.on Language of Instruction: P. 0. Box 1990 English Lusaka I-li.storv

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Bega11 as tl1e Staff Training College in 1963. �fers pre-service a11d i11-service courses as \Veil as rerresher courses a11d specialist seminars. Admission Requirements

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Officers are recomme11ded by the I\11i.nisrri.e s as a result of their performa11ce in con1pertti."le examinations. Courses The I11sti.tute i.s di.vi.ded into four departn1ents: The Adn1i11istrartve Traini.11g Department \\1 hich offers t11e followi11g prog1-ani: Senior Adn1i11istrati ve Cou1-ses serving upper-level officers of a11y Mi11ist1·y of Gover11n1ent or pa1·astatal bocly. Eacl1 coL1rse lasts eigl1t \veeks a11d is especially co11cer11ed witl1 cliscussio11 a11d a11alysis of tl1e p1·oblen1s in l1igl1er level admi11istration \Vl1icl1 directly affect Za111bia. It deals \.vitl1 botl1 the tl1eo1·eti.cal and p1·actical aspects of sucl1 sL1bj ects as developme11t planning, ad va11ced 1na11age111e11t tecl1niques, data processing and ]Jroject evaluatio11 \Vi.tl1 lJarticular empl1asis on tl1e prac tical co11sideratio11s.

340

Cou1-ses servi11g officers of als ' cip Pr in :----': p1111c .· 1 1Jal Of-. . ese are Job or1ented COLirses ficer ra11k. Th . vVitl1 a on la s1 w s , develo1J1ne11t ec01101..,••..,1· strong empha cs , n1a111 s a11d gover11n1e11t ad1ni1iisti·ative tecl ageme11t sk·11 1co niqLi es. TI1e urses last aboLit tl1ree 111011r118. Postg1·aduate Course. i. 1� Deve�opn1e11t r'\cI111111tsti·atioi 1 for ne\vc omers to t �e C1v1 l Se1-v1ce. It co111n1e11ces \Vi.tll a 011e-montl1 Inclu ct1�11 Course \:Vi.tl1 e1111Jl1asis 011 tile JJJ�o cedures a11d conve11tto11s of tl1e Civil Service. 1liere is the11 an eigl1t-mo11tl1 trai11i11g program i11 a11 operatioi1al capacity in the Provi11ces \Vorki11g u11de1· tl1e pe1·sonal supe1·visio11 of se11io1· a11d expe1-i.e11ced acl111i11ist1·ators. There is pa1·ticular st1·ess 011 prolJlems of rural clevelo1J n1e11t. Tl1ere is tl1e11 a t\Vo-mo11tl1 coL11-se a.t Nipa in aclministrative skills a11d procedure. Fo1·eign Se1·vice T1·ai.11i11g Course for Di1Jlo111ats from Deputy [ -lead of Nlissio11 to Seco11d Secretary level. A 14-\veek course vvl1icl1 inclLides tl1eo1·y of i11ter11atio11al relations, African affairs, i11te1·11atio11al orga11izati.011s, diplomatic practice, 01-ga11izatio11 of the Mi11istry of Foreign Affairs a11d the Zambia11 backgrou11d. ·Toe Executi.ve Trai.11i11g De1Jartn1e11t wl1icl1 offers tl1e follovving programs: General Executive Courses, 12-week i11-se1·\rice cours es for experie11ced officers i11 tl1e Clerical G1·ade. Successful completio11 of courses \Vill lead to rec.on1rne11dati.011 for promotio11 to Executi. ve Grade. . The syl labus includes gover11me11t p1·oceclL1re ancl off�ce ad111111istration, ge11eral a11d stores accoL111ts, Engl1st�, eco no mics, committee work, law a11d l1L1ma11 relat1ons. ·e pi m co ek ve -v 12 s, se 1r Exe-cu tiv� e ...:::.::::....:..: 1-\ccou11ts CoL---:-::-::Level --=--� =-=::.::.::... :::.!.... .;..:::.::��=--=� . s e r u d h e11s1ve trai11i110e c o 1 P 11g · 1r1 oL11 in Gover11me11t acc Sylla bus includ:s fi11a11cial policy, tl1e esriniates, tyi-_es of exp enditures ' co11trol of JJUblic funds, role of PLI� _Le · co11st1tu A ccounts Commi ttee auditor ge11eral a11d I118 · ' ti. 011al povvers computer a11cl its use a11d effects LIIJOTI as ay , c l 111 L F c ac ounting pr;ceclures National ·rrovi.de11t k1 You-ear11 tax deci111al 'cL1rre11cy, co111n1ei·cia b00 keep ing a11d �ccou11ts.

Fi.eld Ma11ageme11t Course, si.x-week course for Fi.eld Offi.cers at tl1e Tecl111i.cal Assi.stant level. Instruc ti.o11 111 offi.ce aclmi.11i.strati.011 a11d accou11ti.11g procedures as well as E11gli.sl1 a11d l1uma11 relati.011s. I111n1i.grati.011 Officers Course, tl1re: -mo11tl1 course for forn1al trai.11i11g of I mmi.grati.011 Officers.

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Local Gover11me11t Trai11i11g Depart111ent: Trains Zambia11 officers for tl1e 1Jrofessio11al examinations of the I11sti.tute of Local Go\rer11ment Admi11istrators of Zan1bia (Ilgaz) a11d tl1e I11stitute of Mu11icipal Treasurers a11d Accou11ta11ts (I111ta ). A ca11didate passi11g tl1e Ilgaz exa111i11atio11 is eligible for a1 Jpoi11tme11t as To\vn Clerk. Courses are 110w offe1-ed for Part I of the fi11al exa111i11a tio11 of tl1e I111ta. TI1e syllabL1s includes auditing a11d fi11a11cial co11trol, pulJlic fi11a11ce, eco11omics and a11a lytical tecl111iques. J_,egal ,_frai11i11g Departn1ent: Functio11ed as Law Scl1ool a11d taught four subjects of the Part I Bar Exami11ati.011 fro111 1964-1966. Now co11ce11trates on trai11ing of non professio11al magistrates a11d pLtblic prosecutors. I\1a istrates' Adva11ced Trai11i11 Course, 12-n1ontl1 coL1rse i11c udi11g tl1e fol· owing subjects fo1- six n1ontl1s: crimi11al la\,V, c·ri111i11al procedure a11d e\ride11ce i11 cri111i11al cases, co11tract a11d tort, local a11d applied la\:v; tl1ree mo11tl1s' 1Jr;:1ctical \;vo1-k ;;111d tl1ree 111011tl1s' attach n1e11t to a 111agistrate 's court. 171e Depa1·t111e11t l1as also JJ1-o\7ided 1-efresl1e1- coL1rses for ju11ior 111agistrates \\1110 l1ad recei ,,ed tl1eir basic trai11i11g at tl1e Insti.tute. Prosecuto1·s' rf1-ai.11i11g CoL1rse. First course 11eld i11 1968. Course co11sisted of i11st1·ucti.011 ii1 tl1e 111ai.n areas of _la\�' JJe1·tai11i.11g_ to _ tl1e Vi orl< of a l)Ublic lJrosecLitor: cr1n1111al la,;\.,, c1·11111 11al JJrocedL1re, evicte11ce local a11d a})J)li.ecl laws, E11g�i. s11 l �11guage, t)rpewri. tii1g,' JJolice J)1-oceclL1res, clraft111g of cl1c11-ges a11d advocacy: 1

1\cade111ic Yea.r Tl1ree ter111s of tl1i.1·tee11 weelcs eacI1.

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