Effect of texture on autistic children

`

Effect of Texture on Autistic Children Discovering the repercussions of touch

Aishwarya Jadhav

A research paper submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the University of Pune for the Degree of Architecture

April 2016 1

`

Acknowledgement I would truly like to thank my research guide Ar.C.S Kataria for suggesting me this topic, for his interest in my research and directing me during my research. I would also like to thank Ar Aditi Deshpande and Ar M Marathe for guiding me throughout the process of my research and helping with me with their advice at every stage.

Further I would like to thank all the staff of Prasanna school of autism , I visited as part of my field study for letting me interact with the autistic children and their therapists for providing me with the information.

I would also like to thank Sadhana Godbole, and therapists Ravi Anantharam , Ambika Nidhu and Jayashri Anantharaman for letting me interview them through emails.

I take this opportunity to thank all the faculty members of Allana College of Architecture for their help and encouragement.

2

`

Abstract The present study is about texture oriented application in architecture for autistic children. Research from the Indian council of medical research reported that 20% children between the ages of 4-16 suffer from psychiatric disorders, of which 2-5% is serious disorders like autism and schizophrenia. The rate of autistic children has risen from 1 in 100 to 10 in 100 in the past 10 years. 80 percent of our districts do not have even one school for such children. Also there are only 22 such schools in India one school in all of Pune. Kids with high- functioning autism are usually folded local public schools, but it’s not easy for these institutions to cope with many kids’ unique needs. Of, course, a school’s first responsibility is to educate an autistic kid, but its responsibility doesn’t end there. Kids with autism also need an equal place in the life of the school. Because they may have deficits in attention, fine and gross motor skills, sensory dysfunction and social skills, autistic kids might not fit into traditional activities. Use of texture in the form of architecture may help the children grow intellectually and physically.

Thus there is a critical need for autistic schools with thoughtful application of sensory elements in the country.

Keywords: texture, sensory integration, autistic child, space

3

`

Contents Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………….i Abstract……………………………………………………………………………ii List of figures……………………………………………………………………..iv 1

Introduction ................................................................................. 6

2

Child ........................................................................................... 8 2.1

Autism ................................................................................... 9

2.2

Autistic child .......................................................................... 9

3

Texture ...................................................................................... 10 3.1

Types of textures .................................................................. 10

3.2

Texture and its importance in architecture ........................... 11

3.3

Materials used to create textures .......................................... 11

3.4

Texture and color ................................................................. 12

3.5

Texture and light .................................................................. 12

4

Relation between texture and autism ......................................... 13

5

Effects of architectural elements on autistic humans ................. 14 5.1

Effect of texture on children with no disability ...................... 15

5.2

Survey on autistic children ................................................... 16

5.3

Effect of texture on autistic humans ..................................... 18

6

Therapies for autistic children .................................................... 19

7

Observation ............................................................................... 23

8

Inference .................................................................................... 23

9. Do's and don'ts ………………………………………………………………24 10

Application of textures in different areas: ................................ 26

10.1

Stratergies that can be used outdoors: .............................. 28

11

Conclusion.............................................................................. 29

12

Refernces .................................................................................. 30

4

`

List of figures Figure 1 relationship between texture and autism .............................. 6 Figure 2 Pie chart showing population of autistic kids in India ........... 8 Figure 3 Pie chart showing percentage of child population India......... 8 Figure 4 shows the rough texture of a tree trunk ............................. 10 Figure 5 shows the openings of Unite d habitat by Le Corbusier ...... 10 Figure 6 shows the effect titanium has on the building faรงade.......... 11 Figure 7 shows the different materials used. .................................... 11 Figure 8 the sand faced plaster gets enhanced due to its granular effect ............................................................................................... 12 Figure 9 the light falling on the glossy surface enhances the floor .... 12 Figure 10 showing the sensory issues of autistic children ................ 13

List of tables Table 1.0- effect of individual architectural elements on autistic humans Table 1.2- results on effects of texture on children without the disability 1.3Texture board used for survey Table 1.4- result of the survey carried out with autistic children

5

`

1 Introduction Texture is one visual element that has been mentioned frequently but never fully discussed. It however has unique aspects which are essential in certain design situations and should not be overlooked.

Children are extremely sensitive beings and should be given a texturally rich environment. .This can be very important for children.

If children do not feel comfortable they won’t be able to overcome mentally from the disease. It is important they feel relaxed and safe for them to truly get back to the normal way of living.

Intellectual disability is a psychological term for behavioral pattern that causes distress or disability and which is not developmentally or socially normal. Intellectual disabilities are generally defined as a combination of how a person feels, acts, thinks or perceives.

Designing and constructing environments in which people live and work, architects and planners are necessarily involved in influencing human behavior.

Practically, most architectural patterns for influencing behavior involve, in one way or the other, the physical arrangement of buildings- inside and outside- or change in material properties.

Impact of texture Texture

Autism Figure 1 relationship between texture and autism

6

`

1.1 Aim To study the relationship between texture and autistic children.

Its effect on child behavior for children with autism

1.2 Objectives To emphasize on the importance of texture in the healing of children and to encourage creation of autistic schools.

To

make

guidelines

for

creating

forms,

and

texturally

rich

environment which will contribute to the healing condition of autistic children.

1.3 Methodology   

Secondary data collection through books and journals.

Primary data collection through live study of autistic children in schools for autism Interviews with therapists and teachers.

QUALITATIVE  

AUTISM TEXTURE



SURVEY OF AUTISTIC CHILDREN SURVEY OF THERAPIES



STUDY

QUANTITATIVE SURVEY

7

`

2 Child Defining what age a person is or ceases to be is a constant debate in India. There census of India considers any person below the age of 14 as children. Biologically, childhood is the stage between infancy and puberty. The legal age is below 18 years. According to UNCRC any human being below 18 years is a child unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. Childhood the term childhood is non-specific and can imply a varying range of years in human development. Developmentally and biologically, it refers to the

period

between infancy and adulthood.

In

common

terms,

childhood is considered to start from birth. Some consider childhood as a concept of play and innocence which ends at adolescence. In the legal systems of many countries, there is an age of majority when childhood officially ends and a person legally becomes an adult. The age ranges anywhere from 15 to 21, with 18 being the most common.

Figure 2- Pie chart showing percentage of child population India

Figure 3- Pie chart showing population of autistic kids in India

Source: www.childlineindia.org

Source: data collection by Prassanna School of autism

8

`

2.1 Autism Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors, and sensory integration.

Autism can be associated with intellectual disability, difficulties in motor coordination and attention and physical health issues such as sleep and gastrointestinal disturbances. Every day, our brains interpret (understand) the things we see, smell, hear, taste, touch, and experience. But when someone's brain has trouble interpreting these things, it can make it hard to talk, listen, understand, play, and learn.

2.2 Autistic child Kids with autism often can't make connections that other kids make easily. Many kids who have autism spectrum disorders have trouble understanding what emotions look like and what another person is thinking. They might act in a way that seems unusual, and it can be hard to understand why they're doing it.

Some children who have autism will have trouble learning and functioning in everyday life. This child could be 10 years old, but might not talk or write as well as a typical 10 year old. He or she is usually slower to learn other skills, like how to get dressed or how to act around other people. Specific cognitive deficits often exist in such areas as memory, attention or language.

9

`

3 Texture Texture is one visual element that has been mentioned frequently but never fully discussed. It however has unique aspects which are essential in certain design situations and should not be overlooked.

The texture is a surface form of materials and it represents the characteristics of the material surface and reflects the organization of the material. In other words, the surface of any material has its own texture and its texture is the most direct medium for us to learn the material. The texture is the primary factor in the understanding of materials in the form of visual perception.

3.1 Types of textures  Tactile texture: we perceive it by touching an object. Every material has a different touch, so it has a different texture.

Figure 4- shows the rough texture of a tree trunk



Visual Texture: Visual texture is the illusion of having physical texture. Every material and every support surface has its own visual texture and needs to be taken into consideration before creating a composition.

Figure 5- shows the openings of Unite d habitat by Le Corbusier

10

`

3.2 Texture and its importance in architecture Texture has long been used by architects to breathe life into buildings as well as to create a unique experience for occupant’s senses. The real art stimulates the idea of touch perception which is the extension of the life of true architectural works. Expressing the true quality of materials, shaping an interior space or simply to articulate a pattern; texture is a fundamental tool existing to some extent in most all buildings – both good and bad.

Children are extremely sensitive beings and should be given a texturally rich environment. Texture is useful in denoting changes in areas and functions of spaces and features using softening’s for examples can do a lot to create a welcoming atmosphere

3.3 Materials used to create textures Concrete has very much potential to create a tactile and optical texture, because it takes shape of the molding form to which it was poured into and it also takes the texture of the material of that molding form. In addition to that, between the successive pours of concrete, there appears joints appear that mark different pours of concrete. In Palazzo Medici in Florence, the architect has used three different materials with three different textures in the façade that goes from the roughest to the smoothest. By using these texture differences he has created a visual variation in the façade. `

Figure 7 -shows the different materials used.

Figure 6- shows the effect titanium has on the building façade.

11

`

3.4 Texture and color Color cannot be separated from its association with its texture, its inherent structure. The skin of an animal, the surface of a shell, the wing of a beetle, the veins in a leaf or a piece of bark reveal depth of structure.

The strength of the association between color and texture is reinterpreted by understanding the way it absorbs or reflects light giving it a specific character and creating a unique sense of space whether it is a living room, a boat’s cabin, a gallery, a restaurant or a shop.

Figure 8- the sand faced plaster gets enhanced due to its granular effect

3.5 Texture and light Elements are included in the texture to communicate with the light.

The complexity of texture and color offers many doorways to legibility and perception. Seen from a distance of ten centimeters, two meters or thirty meters the coatings look quite different. Seen in different types of light or in varying light intensities, different characteristics of the texture are revealed. Smooth Surface – Reflects more light and therefore is a more intense color. Rough Surface – Absorbs more light and therefore appears

Figure 9- the light falling on the glossy surface enhances the floor

12

`

4 Relation between texture and autism Sensory integration dysfunction One of the major problems in autistic children is sensory integration dysfunction. Sensory integration is a way in which the nervous system receives messages from the senses and turns them into appropriate motor and behavioral responses. It is a condition that exists when sensory signals don't get organized into appropriate responses.

Sensory Processing Disorder can affect people in only one sense–for example, just touch or just sight or just movement–or in multiple senses. In autistic children whose sensory processing of messages from the muscles and joints is impaired, posture and motor skills get affected.

Figure 10- showing the sensory issues of autistic children

13

`

5 Effects of architectural elements on autistic humans Architecture is an art above all that combines expression and technology. It has long been recognized that architecture influences behavioral, social, cultural and mental determinants of humans. A survey of architectural elements including texture was carried out on the 11th of January 2014 in a healing center that included autistic humans. The following table is a result of the survey carried out of 15 autistic humans.

FORM

COLOUR

Unstable,

form Clash

illogical complexities

of

intense

TEXTURE colors Hard

of

horizontal

extreme Whites and greys

vertical lines

Hidden unstable

jagged

Soft smooth

Relaxation

blues

spaces Monochrome forms dark blues

Tension

colors rough

(red)

Use

RESULT

Slippery sharp

elements of surprise

contorted

Fright

Free

Glittery

Gaiety

movement

flowing Orange and yellow

ponderous

rhythm

Table 1.0- effect of individual architectural elements on autistic humans Source survey carried out by thesis students, at ASAP Hyderabad

14

`

5.1 Effect of texture on children with no disability Every child, normal or with special needs has a reaction to touch or visuals. A survey was carried out by a group of architecture students of 10children in star kid’s kindergarten on the 30/12/2015 to study the effects of texture on children with no disability to study the effects in them.

Material

Feeling observed

Coal

unimportance

Pores

ascending

Sponge

confused

Cotton

Pleasant

Leather

Gross

Coir

Aggressive

Matt

Confusing

Glossy

Pleasant

Dry leaf

Playful

Table 1.2- results on effects of texture on children without the disability Source- survey carried out by architecture students.

15

`

5.2 Survey on autistic children A survey was carried out at Prasanna School of autism on 3/2/2016.

A total number of 10 children were studies among 25. A sensory board with 9 different textures was placed in front of each child and the observations were noted. Each child had a varied reaction to each texture. Thus an average of the reaction was taken to form a result.

The following sensory board was prepared by the author for the survey.

Coal Pores Sponge Cotton Leather Coir Matt Glossy Dry leaf

1.3Texture board used for survey

16

`

Coal

Pores

Raj

Pranav

Amol

Shrojan

Parva

Arya

Sneha

Poorvi

Ke

Cried

scared

confusion

scared

scared

scared

Unatt

Unatt

sca

ended

ended

Conf

Unatt

Un

usion

ended

eas

Unattended

plesant

Unple

confusion

pleasent scared

asent Sponge

Playful

Playful

Playful

Playful

Playful

Playful Playful Playful Pla

Cotton

Stoped crying

motherly

motherly

motherly

Moth

Mo

Mot

Mot

Mo

erly

therly

herly

herly

he

playful

Unatt

scared

playful Pla

Leather

Playful

Unatte

playful

playful

nded

ended

Coir

Delighted

scared

disgust

confusion

scared

playful scared

scared

sca

Matt

Confusion

Confusion

Conf

Unatte

Conf

Conf

Unatt

Co

usion

nded

usion

usion

ended

nfu

Unatt

Unatte

Unatte

scared

Conf

Unatt

Co

ended

nded

nded

usion

ended

fus

Glossy

Confusion

Dry leaf

uninviting

Khadi cloth

motherly

Confusion

scared

uninviting motherly

motherly

Pla motherly

Mot

Moth

herly

erly

scared

17

Moth

Mo

erly

he

`

5.3 Effect of texture on autistic humans material

Feeling observed

Coal

Scared

Pores

Unpleasant

Sponge

Playful

Cotton

Motherly

Leather

Playful

Coir

Scared

Matt

Confused

Glossy

Unattended

Dry leaf

Playful

Table 1.4- result of the survey carried out by author with autistic children Source- survey by author

Observation

Most of the children preferred items that had a soft texture eg sponge, cotton. The other texture that the children preferred was that of the dry leaf that has a jagged touch. This is because the soft texture gives them a feeling of warmth and pleasance and that of the jagged ones triggers their sensation. Rough textures have too much of an effect on them which the sensitive children found unpleasant.

18

`

6 Therapies for autistic children Children with tactile defensiveness or hypersensitivity will avoid, become fearful of, or bothered by various, every-day touch experiences that typically would not cause alarm or issues for others. Their avoidance of tactile experiences and lack of engagement in tactile play ultimately limits their learning experiences and development of gross and fine motor skills many regular therapies are carried out that help in overcoming sensory dysfunction.

6.1.1 Free play This is an activity in which a child does his own thing. Children are provided with things like toys and beads, wherein they are supposed to pick up objects, count beads etc.

1. Helps a child to develop necessary self-help techniques 2. Helps in development of necessary development skills Toys – huge hence difficult to hold, no grip due to the slippery plastic material Counting beads- very small in size, difficult to hold

Picking up objects Each object given is medium in size and has a rubber grip Soft texture of rubber helps in holding the object firmly.

6.1.2 Motor therapies These are therapies in which a child is made to do minor physical activities like clapping or banging a drum.

1. A major therapy that helps in addressing sensory problems Sitting on a table- table being too slippery, they Banging a drum tend to show repetitive behavior and hurt Due to the vibrations of themselves the banged drum, helps trigger their sensation Clapping- not much reaction seen as the touch of skin .0.3 to FINE MOTO negligible 19

` 6.1.3 Fine motor A therapy in which a child is made to apply his intellect and physique using materials like clay, dough, puzzles.

2. Addresses brain development 3. Works on the muscles in the hand and hence help sensory needs

Puzzle

Clay

Difficulty in joining the jigsaw puzzle, thus they don’t prefer it

Sticky material, free flowing, thus they have fun Adaptive molding and smooth texture attracts the children

6.1.4 Gross motor activites This is a therapy in which the whole body of a child is concentrated upon. They are given exercises like the exercise ball, sliding etc.

1. Helps in addressing sensory issues 2. Helps in giving control over the body Exercise ball-

Sliding-

too huge, slippery and indefinite balance, tend to fall and hurt themselves.

Smooth flow of the body Balanced and constant movement leads to feeling of vibrations.

TYPES OF SLIDES

Matt slides No reaction as such Done when forced to do so.

Roller slides Triggers sensation due to maximum vibration of the rollers.

20

`

6.1.5 Combined activities A therapy in which a child’s creative side is made to use. Art activities like drawing and solving line puzzles are carried out.

Helps in using both side of the brain Helps to develop tactile and visual sense Puzzles

Drawing

Making puzzles was difficult for the children

Drawing lines and circles was flexible.

Pushed away the puzzle

Grip of the pencil made it comfortable for use

6.1.6 Number rumblings An activity in which a child is made to experience different surfaces through texture of paper while drawing.

1. Works on small muscles in the hand 2. Improve hand and eye co-ordination

Drawing

Coloring

Cannot hold a pencil properly.

Use of crayons interests the kids

Repetition of the form in drawing e.g. circles leads to repetitive behavior

Wax of the crayons sticks to the hand Smooth movement of the crayon

21

`

6.1.7 Other regular activities Activities like drawing coloring art and craft are also done periodically

Drawing

Craft activities

Drawing is also preferred but comparatively craft is most handy to the kids

Prefer to do craft activities as it involves the use of fevicol which is sticky and smooth

6.1.8 Flooring types Different materials are used for seating like mats, plane flooring or timber flooring Prefer sitting on a mat as its texture is jagged and a sensation is felt.

Table and floor is too slippery and also gets cold.

6.1.9 Sensory board activities a readymade sensory board is provided that has textures of different types. The child is made to use these textures to overcome sensory intergration.

Clay is preferred the most as it has its smooth and sticky qualities. Followed by sponge .Daals are not very liked

Note : The above pie charts show the activities children prefer the most.

Source: observation by he author with a sample of 10 children. An average was taken out to the above statistics.

22

`

7 Observation The above therapies are specially designed to help children overcome their sensory problems. Hence such a varied used of materials and textures have been used. Some of the harsh textures like wooden puzzle makers and materials like stone and daals in sensory boards are used to make the children less sensitive towards the sense of touch. Such textures are used only occasionally.

Hence these activities show that all types of textures are extremely necessary for autistic children. Most of the textures that children are in favor with could be used as a part of architectural elements.

8 Inference Autistic Children intend to experience their surroundings to learn, through their senses. Since their brain is not well developed, they take more time to reach to certain points. Amongst all the textures, the textures that the children most preffered are the ones that are soft or jaggered. 99%children responded positively to cotton, clay or sponge in the therapies as also the sensory board activity. This leads to infering that surface materials that are on the softer side like leather finishes, soft plasters etc.

Keeping texture in mind while designing all small elements like flooring, seating, wall finishes etc. can also help in triggering their senses and help recover sensory integration , also unknowing through their day to day activities to a larger extent. can help gain attentaion of the children and influence them to doing the right things. The use of textures can be done in various areas like 

Wayfinding



Giving a sense of emotional security



Restricting areas



Encouraging areas



Wall surfaces ,flooring furniture etc.

23

`

24

`

25

`

26

`

Application of textures in different areas: 1 corridors: use of textures that is mmost prefferable to the children can be used in the walls or floors of corridors to find their own ways e.g. the railing of a staircase or the railing of a parapet walls around the staircase can have a cover of leather (coming under the category of soft) which they can follow to get to their desired destination.

2 exercise rooms: most of the children do not prefer to do exercises though its very essential for them.

The exercise rooms should be

designed in such a way that it becomes inviting and takes their attention of the pain and focuses on the atmosphere of the room. Also the room creates a sense of fear in them. So materials that look soft like polyster beber carpets can be used for the floring. These materials can create a motherly feeling and remove the sense of fear.

3 toilets: these children do not have the tendency to recognize a particulet space. E.g. toilet. Thus

a texture along with a suiltable

colour can help them memorize the room and the entrance to the toilet. Instead of a covering a timber door with regular paint or distemper, it can be covered with a matt surfaced laminate or a jaggerd veneer sheet of bright colours. This will help them memorize the toilet areas eventually.

4 Wall surfaces: children tend rub themselves on wall surfaces that have dado. To make the classroom interesting and adding character to the room, the dado can be replaced with a gypsum based plaster that is smooth yet maintains the character of the space.

5 Furniture: these children prefer to sit on mats rather than floors or chaors. The use of timber is one such reason they avoid the use of chair. Timber is extremely rigid and after a while gets incomfortable.

Thus the use of other flooring materials can be done. Materials like cork which is fire resistant and smooth can be used as flooring.

Chairs can be covered with sponge and leather/ khadi cloths to make them feel comfortable.

27

` 6 External surfaces: children have the tendency to cry when to arrive at school. The use of different types of claddings can be used to derive their attention from their parents to the school. Hence jaggered materilas like exposed stone of brick can be used. Also seried of frames of any other such form can be used to give an optical texture and gain their attention.

8.1 Stratergies that can be used outdoors: 1 Provide smooth, wide pathways and surfaces- to eliminate the feeling of crowding. In addition, smooth non-glare paving provides a proper surface for children with mobility issues and is important for children with ASDs, many of whom are sensitive to textures and bright light.

2 Provide a clear edge along pathways that is texturally rich made of materials like stone ao brick- so that visually-impaired persons are aware of the edge of the path surface and it also becomes a method of way finding.

3 Include some elements of consistency- such as a hedge, stone wall, or an element that creates a comforting, predictable pattern.

4 Beyond play structures-consider adding a walk challenge path or exercise loop. Gardening activities help to increase fine and gross motor skills, body awareness, and motion in addition to providing a calming connection to nature.

5 Provide soothing areas-for the user to escape and re-center when overwhelmed, or to watch activities from a distance until comfortable enough to participatea bamboo tunnel, a low growing tree to hide beneath, or a fence panel with viewing holes.

6 Provide hammocks or hammock swings- for a sense of comfort by being held tightly by something and to be soothed by the swinging motion.

28

`

9 Conclusion Creating thoughtful, engaging spaces and learning environments that incorporate these design guidelines gives consideration to the less apparent challenges of a growing population of children on the autism spectrum. By connecting children with each other, nature, and the broader world, we give them an opportunity to have fun, and we provide some relief from rigid classroom and structured therapies in a safe and accepting environment that is engaging for all. As designers, it is vital for us to evolve learn and play spaces beyond accessibility and actively integrate these additional concepts and ideas into our designs. With design based on research and existing evidence, we can create spaces that foster inclusive, texture-based, fun places for all children to enjoy. This can ultimately help children learn that, despite their different abilities, they have more in common with each other than they may have realized.

29

`

10 Refernces Research Journal of Recent Sciences . (2014, may 4). Retrieved september 2015, from Environmental Psychology in Architecture and Urban Design : http:// www.isca.in prassana autism annual function. (2016, feruary 18). tilak smarak mandir, pune, maharshtra, india. anantharaman, g. (2016, february 25). (a. jadhav, Interviewer) barua, m. (2016, february 15). (a. jadhav, Interviewer) BONNEFILLE, P. (2010, may). Colour and Light in Architecture. Retrieved feb 2015, from pierrebonnefille.com: http://www.pierrebonnefille.com Bonnet, S. (2014, december). International Committee of the Red Cross . Retrieved september 2015, from shop@icrc.org : http:// www.icrc.org G. Beaton, A. K. (2011, may). Beyond Normality. Retrieved from The Predictive Value and Efficiency of Medical Diagnosis. godbole, s. (2016, february 19). world autism day. (a. jadhav, Interviewer) jayashri. (2016, march 1). (a. jadhav, Interviewer) Jones, G. (2009, march 23). autism.west. Retrieved january 15, 16, from qxp:Aylott.qxd: http://. www.european-science.com Landy, M. S. (2002). Visual Perception of Texture . new york.

Maxwell, L. E. (2004). Designing Child Care Setting. new york: Department of Design and Environmental Analysis.

Mostafa, M. (2007). AN ARCHITECTURE FOR AUTISM: CONCEPTS OF DESIGN INTERVENTION FOR THE AUTISTIC USER. 23.

Ogren, T. L. (2010). google. Retrieved july 2015, from Ten Speed Press: http://www.allergyfree- gardening.com Price, R. (2001). google. Retrieved march 2016, from sensory trust: http://www.sensorytrust.org.uk Rothert, G. (2007). The Enabling Garden – creating barrier-free gardens . Retrieved february 2016, from www.bartimeus.nl: http://www.countryside.gov.uk Sachs, N. (2010, may). www.informedesign.org. Retrieved october 2015, from InformeDesign. : http://playschool.kaboom.org/ series.php?id=1111 Satena, F. (2013, may 10). wikipedia. Retrieved august 2015, from wikipedia.in: http://www.wikipedia.org 30

`

31