AD3507: History & Theory Essay 4 - Baroque Mediation James Barker | k1237310
James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
In reference to at least two works of Baroque architecture and/or art, discuss the way in which experience of space is mediatory and a realm for the communication of ideas – social, religious, intellectual, political and aesthetic.
Baroque is the era responsible for some of the most lavish and sculptural works of architecture in existence. This decorative aspect to Baroque architecture is often dismissed as mere aesthetics and often is used as a way of criticising the style as lacking meaning, particularly as many of the famous architects of the time were multidisciplinary artists or sculptors too. However, this could not be further from the truth of the matter. Baroque architecture employs many spatial and architectural devices that are absent from any previous period, and are still used in the architecture of today. One of the key elements of the architecture is undoubtedly its focus on ornamentation, but this veils the true experiential design behind much of Baroque. Focus on experience of space and perspective for the user was one of the foremost developments which marked Baroque apart from previous iterations of classicism. The beginnings of the Baroque style, limited not just to architecture but all of the arts, are embedded in the Renaissance and Rome. After periods of wars and discontent throughout Europe, the Renaissance was a rediscovery of Classical ideals and notions as well as the discovery of completely fresh ones. Through discourse and an approach of openness towards society, as well as firmer concepts such as the ‘invention’ of perspective, certain aspects of classicism made their way to the forefront of popular thinking; and thus architectural thinking. The Renaissance was, however, more of a reinterpretation of classical ideas than a revival of them, intertwined with the open-minded, inquisitive philosophy of the time. A rapid development in the understanding of order and culture, driven by science, was what eventually transformed the Renaissance style into Baroque – as a break from tradition. New geometries, perhaps those previously believed imperfect and unrelated to divine form, found their way into the architectural vernacular. Ellipses became one of the key shapes utilised by Baroque architects, as well as 6 pointed stars, hexagons, and even more irregular forms like concave facades. Such forms, which we consider commonplace and unsurprising, now, were at the time a huge leap away from the previous rules which governed which forms were geometrically pure and acceptable for building. The rigorous upheaval of the austere volumes of renaissance space, into the more nuanced and dynamic Baroque, was down to the huge advances in understanding of order and culture, particularly science. Scientists such as Galileo and Newton championed hugely important scientific discoveries such as
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
heliocentricity (the concept of the earth circling the sun), whilst philosophers like Descartes first began to theorise the mind as being separate from the body, famously saying ‘cogito ergo sum’, or ‘I think, therefore I am’ in English. Such radical developments in the understanding of the world and life had a major effect on architectural style and meaning. In particular, the idea of the human soul as something beyond the body, which transcends the physical realm, planted the seed of anamorphic projection, one of the concepts key to the Baroque movement. Anamorphosis refers to an image which is distorted unless viewed from the correct angle or with a special instrument. In architectural terms, this meant that distortion of a building, ‘inevitable given that we experience the world from a place within the world and thus perspectivally’ 1, was accepted – and architects strove for projected geometries; or what could be called a divine perspective within the building. This would be a perfect point within the building where the layers and intentions of the design become clear. At that moment the building becomes a prism, crystallising the forms, geometries and metaphor into a meaningful composition. Nicholas Temple sums up the matter succinctly: ‘Baroque architecture was still firmly rooted in a transcendent understanding of the world… Key to this understanding is the manner in which the “inner” human soul and the “outer” cosmos were seen to correspond, a claim that was supported by the combined effects of scientific reason and religious rapture’2 These moments of understanding within buildings, where they become a vessel linking the aforementioned inner human soul to the outer cosmos, are key to the original question. It was precisely these prescribed points within the architecture which were used to communicate concepts. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was a masterful practitioner of mediatory communication within Baroque architecture. His buildings, sculptures and fountains are littered throughout Rome and are exemplars of the Baroque style. The Scala Regia – the retro-fitted staircase ascending to the pope’s chambers in the Vatican – is a perfect example of communicating ideas within architecture. Bernini described it as the most difficult commission he had ever undertaken, not just in terms of meaning but also structurally3, replacing a preexisting staircase in the bowels of much larger buildings. The staircase displays the appropriate grandeur
1
Nicholas Temple Disclosing Horizons: Architecture, perspective and redemptive space. Chapter 5, Unity in Multiplicity, Routledge, 2007, p165 2 Nicholas Temple Disclosing Horizons: Architecture, perspective and redemptive space. Chapter 5, Unity in Multiplicity, Routledge, 2007, p166 3 T. A. Marder, Bernini & the Art of Architecture, Abbeville Press, 1998, p169
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
for a staircase made for the pope, employing a number of devices for this effect, but it also conveys subtle religious themes and meanings through geometry and decoration. The foremost of these methods is the distortion of perspective moving up the main staircase. From the bottom, [Fig. 1] the stair appears to be a series of parallel columns supporting two long arched ceilings, separated by a small landing. The presence of a window at the top of this stairway represents an ascent to heaven, dramatically lighting the stairs in gradient from dark to light. However, there is much more to the stair than meets the eye from this perspective;
through
scaling
the
columns and arches gradually, the highest point of the stair gives the impression of being much further away
than
it
actually
is.
The
geometric calculations required to
Fig. 1 –Scala Regia seen from the bottom of the main flight, 1663-66
perfectly scale the columns down in size, whilst maintaining the exact proportions of the frontal arch, are incredible. This warping of perspective through non-rectilinear architecture [Fig. 2] is a typical example of the deeper understanding which the Baroque age had brought on and here is used to simultaneously confer multiple meanings. The increased visual distance to the light at the top of the stairs represents the pope’s infallibility, his divine status as the closest human to God, and at the same time the long, hard path to heaven taught by Catholicism. At a much simpler level, use of perspective like in the Scala Regia to trick the human eye was also an aesthetic mediation – making a space look bigger and more grand than it actually was. However, the clever play of perspective is only one half of the architectural story; The decoration and sculpture embedded within the architecture are just as important for the design as the stairs themselves. To explain the importance of the sculptural side of Baroque architecture a brief history of the Catholic Church is necessary.
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AR3507: History and Theory
Fig. 2 –Scala Regia in elevation and plan, 1694
It should be noted that the scientific and theological developments at the time had the (almost) full backing of the Catholic Church. Scientific, theological, and philosophical concepts were all under the same umbrella, and were, quite genuinely, aimed at furthering understanding of the world in the context of Christianity, rather than attempting to undermine it. After centuries of dominance in Europe, the Catholic Church suddenly found itself under threat in the early 16th century with the reformation of the church and Martin Luther. A mass sense of disillusionment was something the Catholic Church had to avoid at all costs, for fear of losing faith, believers, and thus, money. The broad difference between the traditional Catholic Christianity and the reformed church is that the latter treats god as a personal affair of the soul, where one can gain access to heaven by being a good person and generally following the guidelines of the bible. This is very much divorced from the rituals, experiences and mediations at the centre of Catholicism; communal activities handed down through generations to reaffirm one’s faith. Reforming surely would have been an attractive proposition to many Catholics, especially those who felt the Catholic Church demanded a disproportionate amount of tax and donations to receive divine approval. The Catholic response to this, the counter-reformation, was at the heart of the Baroque architecture movement. It was a reaffirmation of traditional values; the glorification of God through the use of ritual and beautiful art and architecture. The church began an unprecedented spree of commissioning art and architecture throughout the Catholic empire in an attempt to stem the flow of property, prestige and power
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AR3507: History and Theory
being lost to the reformation. The resultant buildings came to embody Baroque architecture. Intended to strike awe and belief into worshippers, churches were designed with extravagance and lavishness, so that there could be no doubt of the power and righteousness of Catholicism. Sculptural elements were infused into the structure of buildings, as integral to spaces as the architecture itself. Imagery in churches would have been one of the few ways laymen could depict events in the bible, sculpted or painted. The increased skill of multidisciplinary virtuosos like Bernini or Michelangelo facilitated incredible emotion in sculptures and paintings coming into the 17th century. The masterly level of detail in sculptural building elements added to the level of realism in communicating especially religious ideas through architecture. Returning to the Scala Regia, sculpture is used throughout, especially at the foot of the stair. Referring back to Fig. 1, angels adorn the entrance to the stairway, either side of the Pope’s (of the time) family seal, further enhancing the staircase to appear almost as a gate to heaven. At the foot of the stair there is also a visceral statue of Emperor Constantine’s biblical vision of the cross [Fig. 3]. His face depicts wonder and shock at the illuminated cross in the vault window above. As the story goes, with the divine intervention of the cross, he was able to win a great battle and thus he announced Christianity as safe to practice throughout the Empire. Aside from the expected glorification of the cross, in
Fig. 3 – Vision of Constantine, 1654-70
positioning and lighting, the sculpture also has a deeper meaning not missed by T.A Marden: “The key episode, sometimes mistakenly called a conversion, was the appearance to Constantine of the heavenly sign. The sculpture representing this event was surely a reminder to visiting
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
princes and potentates entering the papal palace of the dominion exercised by spiritual authority over all worldly powers”4 This deliberate depiction of the churches’ power, whilst here intended for the eyes of visiting monarchs, was also a common theme with all of the art and architecture which resulted from the counter-reformation. The intention was often one of shock and awe, overloading the senses with elegance and grandeur to convey the strength of the Vatican, in this case the Pope in particular. Against the comparative neutrality and sombreness of reformed churches, the revitalised display of Catholic imagery and beliefs was a powerful tool. The Ecstasy of St Teresa, a sculpture and architectural arrangement by Bernini, is another example of communication of concepts through art and architecture. It occupies an entire inner façade in the Cornaro family chapel. Ecstasy has been the subject of much debate with regards to the depiction of St Teresa. In the story she describes religious ecstasy in an encounter with an angel: In his hands I saw a long golden spear and at the end of the iron tip I seemed to see a point of fire. With this he seemed to pierce my heart several times so that it penetrated to my entrails. When he drew it out, I thought he was drawing them out with it and he left me completely afire with a great love for God. The pain was so sharp that it made me utter several moans; and so excessive was the sweetness caused me by this intense pain that one can never wish to lose it, nor will one’s soul be content with anything less than God.”5
4 5
T. A. Marder, Bernini & the Art of Architecture, Abbeville Press, 1998, pp173-175 St Teresa,The Life of Saint Teresa of Avila, Chapter 29, Part 17. Translations vary in different versions of the text.
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James Barker | k1237310
The
highly
emotionally
AR3507: History and Theory
visual, charged
description was evidently relished by Bernini. The statue is incredibly visceral and
realistic:
the
angel
smiles benevolently down at Teresa, who is lying back, smitten by the love of God [Fig. 4]. The debates surrounding the sculpture refer to the sexualisation of the saint. It cannot be denied that her face is frozen
at
the
point
of
ecstasy, and her posture also indicates a moment of physical climax. Whether Bernini’s noble
intentions or
were
profane
is
irrelevant: the expressions
Fig. 4 – Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1647-52
on the faces describe so well the sensuality of the encounter that it embodies the event itself and draws viewers into the scene. Such an effect would not require the viewer to be a great intellect; by physically manifesting the event so well, anyone could understand the theme of being touched by God. Once again, however, the sculptural elements of composition are only one part of the whole. The sculpture occupies a small (but grand) space in a much larger scene. The whole work was commissioned to replace an existing transept in an unremarkable chapel for the burial of a Cardinal. The sculpture itself is housed in a grand structure, protruding from the transept wall to physically occupy some of the interior space. This structure is flanked by what appear to be theatre boxes with sculptures of male members of the cardinal’s family. These figures seem at ease and in the process of
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
discussing the chapel itself, which firmly places them in the mortal realm with the ‘other’ viewers of the central piece. The extra effect of this is that by likening part of the sculptural arrangement to the viewer themselves, the viewer becomes part of the scene and thus in touch with mediatory realm. The main sculpture, on the other hand, is elaborately framed and lit from above by a hidden window, backed by gold rods depicting sunbeams shining down on the scene and the influence of God, clearly elevating it to the status of something beyond the mortal realm. The sculpture is elevated, and in conjunction with the theatre boxes, it appears as though the event is happening on a stage. This method of separating the divine from the saintly, and the saintly from the mortal, is one of the key mediatory roles which spatial design could play in the communication of ideas within Baroque.6 Elevation within a composition or scene is one of the simplest mediatory devices used by architects; one of the most obvious examples being the prominence of frescoes and sculptures on arches and ceiling elements. Always depicting heavenly scenes or characters, the simple aspect of being above mortal users of the building is enough to convey the sacred and reverential nature of the imagery. Bernini put this to good effect in the Cornaro chapel, both at a sculptural level and architectural [Fig. 5]. The metaphorical ‘tiers’ of sacredness implied in the sculpture extend from man (the level of the viewer), to saint, to angel, to God (the window of light illuminating the central sculpture). These tiers are repeated in the wider architecture of the building: The fresco of clouds and heaven, with the Holy Ghost as a dove, is high in the vault above the sculpture, along with marble angels hanging from the adjoining arch. The use of these spatial devices in the chapel helps to further bring its users into touch with the scenario and the mediatory realm.
6
The above discussion is derived from the work of Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, at smarthistory.khanacademy.org/Bernini-ecstasy-of-st-theresa.html
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AR3507: History and Theory
Fig. 5 – Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Cornaro Chapel, 1647-52
Another important element of Baroque architecture was the increased use of more complex geometries
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
throughout buildings, especially in their plans. Opinion is divided on how specific shapes came to be more commonly used. The oval/ellipse in particular is a defining shape of the Baroque period. F. Hallyn states that the use of the Ellipse, rather than being a realisation of a better form, was a concession to the imperfection of reality, which was being gradually uncovered by scientists of the early 17th century7. Johannes Kepler was a mathematician and astronomer of the period who studied planet’s orbits, and a prominent intellect of the time. ‘Increase or decrease the proportions: this is what Kepler was forced to do to circular perfection in order to account for the reality of the planetary orbits. “The orbit of a planet is not a circle”, he wrote, “but it curves in little by little and then moves back toward the fullness of the circle”8 With this realisation, ellipses became more prominent geometries used in art and architecture. Another recurring theme in Baroque architecture is the use of domes. Whilst previously present in Renaissance architecture, they took on a new meaning in the Baroque period, as believed by Athanasius Kircher, another mathematician of the same time. Through his geological and sonic investigations, he believed domes were a physical representation of the origins and harmony of the earth.9 By beginning to use more complex geometries, many ideas beyond the Renaissance understanding of architecture could be explored. Renaissance buildings usually focused on concatenated spaces of perfect geometrical proportion, circular or rectangular, relying on the notion of perfection within geometry to justify spatial arrangements. The understanding that the cosmos was not the perfect model of circles within circles meant that architects could deviate from the absolutes idealised by Renaissance and bring something more to their architecture. Further to this was the realisation that mathematics could be used to describe not just ideal shapes, but also any empirical form.10 Geometry within buildings became a tool to convey meaning beyond the idealist symbolism of classical proportions. “In this deviation from absolutes, the Baroque curve (and its metaphoric articulations in the fold) embody the idea of the ‘distended’ soul seeking union with God; the hidden dimensions of the soul correspond to the latent- imperfect – mechanical processes of the universe.”11
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8 9
F. Hallyn, The Poetic Structure of the World: Copernicus and Kepler, New York: Zone Books, 1993, p215
Ibid. 9
Nicholas Temple, Disclosing Horizons: Architecture, perspective and redemptive space. Chapter 5, Unity in Multiplicity, Routledge, 2007, p178 10 Dalibor Vesely, Architecture and the Conflict of Representation, in AA files 8, 1985, p22 11 Nicholas Temple, Disclosing Horizons: Architecture, perspective and redemptive space. Chapter 5, Unity in Multiplicity, Routledge, 2007, p164
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
In this sense the use of more complex geometry is a communication of intellectual ideas in itself; many preconceptions about perfection within form were overridden by the
philosophical
importance
of
new
geometric discoveries and lines of thought. This is not to say that Baroque was an unshackling of architecture into complete freedom of form, but that it was a transitional period where architecture began to move away from rigidly classical notions to a more dynamic understanding of geometry. The shape of a six pointed star, created by overlapping two equilateral triangles, was astounding in that it also created a hexagon [Fig. 6]. This ‘procreation’ of geometry was
Fig. 6 – Six-pointed star plan, S. Ivo della Sapienza, 1643-48
another concept investigated by Kepler, and is an example of the geometric questions architects were asking in their buildings, thus communicating to the viewers of the building. Although form was still very much related to the mathematical understanding of cosmology, that understanding was being broadened by science and lead, in the future, to the increasing influence of technology over aesthetic perfection within architecture.12 To conclude, mediation of space to communicate ideas was one of the defining features of Baroque architecture. The principal ideas conveyed were those of religion and science. On the one hand, the Catholic Church was funding a huge outpouring of religious art and architecture, intended to reaffirm the possibly waning faith of their subjects. On the other, the intellectual populace wished to express new scientific revelations through the form of buildings. Architects were able to achieve this by using vividly detailed sculptural elements, to depict moments or ideas, whilst manipulating form, light and perspective with new geometries, to dramatize those ideas. These concepts were employed extensively, in order to bombard the senses and go deeper to the recently conceived idea of the everlasting human soul. The multi-disciplinary nature of many architects at the time, often being primarily sculptors or painters, is
12
Dalibor Vesely, Architecture and the Conflict of Representation, in AA files 8, 1985, p22
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James Barker | k1237310
AR3507: History and Theory
perhaps what made the architecture so effective. The profession was intrinsically linked to science, art and philosophy, and the experiential devices which architects used at the time are what facilitated the advances in those fields being so successfully manifested in architecture.
Bibliography Hallyn, F. - The Poetic Structure of the World: Copernicus and Kepler, New York: Zone Books, 1993, p215 Marder, T. A. - Bernini & the Art of Architecture, Abbeville Press, 1998, pp173-175 Temple, Nicholas - Disclosing Horizons: Architecture, perspective and redemptive space. Chapter 5, Unity in Multiplicity, Routledge, 2007, pp160-198 Teresa of Avila - The Life of Saint Teresa of Avila Chapter 29, Part 17. Translations vary in different versions of the text. This particular version can be found at: http://ahooz.com/isom/Resources%20English/Christian%20Ebooks/St%20Teresa%20of%20Avila %20The%20Life%20of%20Teresa%20of%20Avila.pdf Vesely, Dalibor - Architecture and the Conflict of Representation, in AA files 8, 1985, pp18-37 Zucker, Steven and Harris, Beth – Discussion of the Ecstasy of St. Teresa at smarthistory.khanacademy.org/Bernini-ecstasy-of-st-theresa.html
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