An Era of Typographic Geniuses 1700's-1800's

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An Era of Typographic Geniuses Late 1700’s - 1800’s

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Table of Contents Zeitgeist.....................................................................4 The Enlightenment.....................................................5 Louis Simonneau........................................................7 Philippe Grandjean....................................................8 Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune...................................9 William Caslon..........................................................10 The Renaissance..........................................................11 John Pine...................................................................13 John Baskerville.........................................................15 Robert Clee................................................................16 Jean Joseph Barbou.....................................................17 Giambattista Bodoni..................................................19 Firmin Didot.............................................................21 Hermann Berthold.....................................................22 Geofroy Tory..............................................................23 George Bickham.........................................................25 Printing Technologies.................................................26 Bibliography...............................................................27

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Zeitgeist

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rom the 1700’s in to the 1800’s, three significant periods were met, The Enlightenment, the Rococo, and the Renaissance. The enlightenment period was known as the times of questioning where the enlightenment thinkers questioned traditional authority. Better known as the Age of Reason, caused for a big change, produced many books, essays, inventions, discoveries, laws, etc. The movement shifted away from authoritarian control. More information about The Enlightenment will be discussed on the following chapter.

Moving onto the Rococo period, which originated in Paris, adopting later into France and then into other countries (i.e.

Austria and Germany). The characteristics were shown from the lightness and elegance as well as curves and natural forms in ornamentation. Rococo derives from rocaille, the shell-covered rock work used in the decoration of artificial grottoes. This period formed the vast use of very elegant and prestine-like shapes, very curvy in nature, creating shapes similar to that of the letters, “C” and “S.”

Now the Renaissance, literally meaning, “Rebirth,” surged for the interest in Classical values. The Renaissance formed new discoveries with new continents, scientific findings, inventions, and more importantly pertaining to typography, innovations of paper and printing. The renaissance also gave form to that of humanist activity. It was mainly the art that defined the spirit of the Renaissance, forming into not only something to look at, but its own knowledge, art became much more valuable. It became based on observation of the world, finding the balance and harmony of its time.

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The Enlightenment 5

T

he Enllightenment was also known as the Age of Reason. It occured from the 1650s to the 1800s. During this time is when logic, analysis, and uniqueness started to be the main focus in place of conventional authority. The powerhouses that use to be in charge, such as the Catholic Church, began to be challenged. There were also changes happening within civilization, philosophy, and the government. Furthermore, new ideals of freedom and equality for all, were implemented. Throughout the Enlightenment, type design progressively changed from Old Style fonts to Modern Style fonts. Philosophers had a huge impact on the community because they wrote and published works that many people read. The Enlightenment was affiliated with French thinkers of the 18th century, also called “philosophes.”

One of the many philosophes was Denis Diderot. Diderot was a French writer and philosopher as previously stated. He was mainly fascinated by reading and literature.

However, his passion for literature was not enough for his father. By not following in his fathers footsteps into the law or medi-

cine fields, Diderot was seen as a disappointment.He started his career path with many self-employed writing jobs. By the 1740s, he started to translate English books. However, Diderot was most known for his contribution to the Encyclopedia, which was the most significant encyclopedia that was published in France. On the side, Diderot published tales and comedies. Before the Encyclopedia started, Diderot’s Essai sur la merite et la virtu (1745) and Pensees philosophique (1746) were his most popular works. During the 1750s, the Encyclopédie was published. It had such a powerful impact on France and Europe that more than 25,000 copies were sold by the year 1789. The Encyclopédie was the first encyclopedia that gave the mechanical arts some attention. It was known for representing the Enlightenment, and its main goal was to “change the way people think.” Its complete title is Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts).

The Encyclopédie uses Didot as its typeface.

Front page of the EncyclopĂŠdie with its full title. 1

Portrait of Denis Diderot, the famous French writer and philosopher. 2

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Louis Simonneau

L

ouis Simonneau was born in 1645 and died in 1728. He was an engraver in Paris at the Imprimerie Royale.

He was one of the central designers of the “Romain du Roi,” which Louis XIV commissioned. “Romain du Roi” translates to “Roman of the King,” meaning the Roman alphabet which was used for the first time in 1702. Simonneau created a new typeface that was moving away from Old Style typefaces. When he was creating his typeface, he was closely watched by the French Academy of Science. Therefore, his typeface was greatly influenced by math and science. He did not create his typeface completely on his own. Simmoneau worked alongside Philippe Grandjean, who punchcut the letters for him. Simmoneau’s typefaces are transitional.

French Academy of Science, where Louis Simmoneau created his typeface. 3

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Philippe Grandjean

P

hilippe Grandjean was born in 1666 and died in 1714. He helped Louis Simonneau in the creation of the “Romain du Roi,” which began in 1692.

“Romain du Roi” were italic and Roman types. It was designed at the request of King Louis XIV in 1692, who wanted to use the typeface for the Royal printer. Both Granjean and Simonneau were watched closely by various mathematicians and philosophers. “Romain du Roi” was a modern font with serifs that were flat and thin. In the end it was a set of 82 fonts, which were not finished until 1745. It took half a century to create the complete set of fonts.

Examples of the “Romain du Roi” typeface. 4, 5

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Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune 9

P

ierre Simon Fournier le Jeune was born in 1712 and died in 1768.

Fournier was a French typefounder and he was also a punch-cutter. He is the designer of the typefaces fournier and Narcissus. His typefaces are best known for the decorative elements that he added onto them. Fournier stated, regarding one of his fonts, “The petit ceil leaves more space between lines of type, which gives a lighter and more graceful air. But it is more fatiguing to persons of delicate eyesight.” (Updike 262) He also is known for his creation of a regulated measuring system. This particular measuring system would remodel the typography world permanently. Fournier started the creation of this measuring system in 1737. He began with a measurement called pouce, which is a French measurement. He then sectioned that into 12 lines. Fournier then continued to split the 12 lines into six points each. In order to regulate all his fonts, he related each font to the system. When Fournier was just 24-years-old, he opened his own type foundry. The Rococo period was attracted to his typefaces because of their unique elegance.

Examples of Fournier’s typefaces. 6

Examples of Fournier’s typefaces. 7

William Caslon

W

illiam Caslon lived from 1692-1776. He was an English type designer. In London during the year 1716, he began his own personal engraving shop.

While he was working in his shop, a printer named John Watts liked Caslon’s work so Watts had Caslon start working for him.

When Caslon was working under Watts, he cut type for London’s presses. In 1720, Caslon created an “English Arabic” typeface which was utilized in a New Testament.

Caslon then moved on and started working under William Bowyer, who was also a

printer. While working for Bowyer, Caslon cut a roman, italic typeface. This particular typeface was used for the first time in 1726.

It would later be named Caslon. Caslon’s typeface eventually became extremely popular. “Caslon” is an Old Style typeface. It was used all through the British Empire. At the beginning of the 18th century, between 1720 and 1726, he created another typeface.

When Caslon was creating this typeface, he based it from the “Old-Face” which was from Holland. During this time, several of the typefaces came from Holland. Caslon became known as “The Father of British Typography.”

Portrait of William Caslon 8

Example of the Caslon typeface 9

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Renaissance 11

D

uring the Renaissance, many elements were altered within graphic design by Italian scholars and printers. They altered type design, ornamentation, illustration, and page layout. The first change to occur, moving towards the new Renaissance designs, were the decorative borders in French books, and the roman alphabet original designs which were designed by Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheym.

Italy and Germany received the typographic text in the form of a manuscript styled book that was printed. The book included movable types. A few of the many prominent designers of typographic books in this period were Johannes de Spira, Erhard Ratdolt, and Aldus Manutius. During this time period,

the designers adored floral ornamentation, such as wildflowers and vines. The 18th century brought about massive alterations in graphic design. Mainly, type design, page layout, and typography were being changed.

When the “Romain du Roi� was first printed at the start of the 18th century, a conversion to transitional roman typographic design with an elevated contrast between the thick and thin strokes, a greater balance in the typographic letterforms, and sharpened horizontal serifs began.

Examples of Renaissance letterforms and their fascination of floral ornamentation. 10, 11

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ohn Pine was born in 1690 and died May 4, 1756. He was an English engraver who published many notable illustrated books.

He lived in London and owned a print shop there which allowed him to publish books with his own engravings.

Although it is not certain where he learned his craft, however he might have studied under the Frenchman, Bernard Picart. One of his first and most notable works was a group of engravings of the ceremonies attending King George I’s establishment of the Order of the Bath (1725) Another highly revered work of Pines was a copy of the Magna Carta. Pines engraving of this piece of historic literature consisted of an engraved facsimile of the original text of the Magna Carta, surrounded by a series of 25 coats of hand-colored arms of

the Barons, panel at foot containing notes and a representation (hand-colored) of the remains of King John’s Great Seal, all panels surrounded by oak leaf and acorn borders Other producation include copies of the tapestries celebrating the defeat of the Spanish Armada and hanging in the House of Lords, and several maps of London.

In 1755 he and a number of other English artists formed a committee to found a royal academy, but he died 12 years before the plans became a reality. From 1743 until his death he was Blue Mantle Pursuivant. A Bluemantle Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary is a junior officer of arms of the College of Arms in London, in the Heralds’ College.

This is were he lived out the last years of his life. His two sons, Robert Edge Pine and Simon Pine, were both painters.

This page from Pine’s work shows the heralds in procession at the ceremony to install the first Knights and Esquires of the Bath.

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John Pine

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Magna Carta first edition in 1733

was engraved and printed on vellum as a facsimile of the original.

The Procession and Ceremonies Observed at the Time of the Installation of the

Knights Companions of the Most Honourable and Military Order of the Bath,

was produced by the engraver John Pine (later Bluemantle Pursuivant of Arms) in 1730, from original drawings by Joseph Highmore, depicting the processions and ceremonies at the time of the first installation of Knights and Esquires of the Bath in 1725.

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ohn Baskerville was born in Wolverly, England in 1706 and died in London in 1775. Baskerville is most well known for his namesake typeface, which he orignally designed in 1757. Baskerville’s type was unlike anything that had come before it. Considered by contemporary historians to be the quintessential example of a transitional face, it featured rounded characters, a perpendicular axis, strong contrasts between thicks and thins and very fine, sharp serifs, all of which clearly distinguished it from the old-style faces it followed and predated the high stroke contrasts od such later “Modern” typefaces such as Bodoni.

It took John Baskerville six years to complete the drawings for his type and another two to oversee its cutting. When finished, he discovered that conventional printing presses could not adequately capture its subtleties and redesigned his own. In place of wood, he used a machined brass bed and platen and a smooth vellum

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tympan (a sheet that was placed between the impression surface and the paper to be printed) packed with fine cloth to ensure that the two planes of the press met more evenly. Most paper used in the mid-18th century was made on crude wire mesh molds that left deep vertical ribbed impressions.

This too was unsuitable for capturing the delicacy of Baskerville’s type.

Setting up a mill on his own land in Birmingham, Baskerville manufactured what we today refer to as wove paper, made on very fine meshes that resulted in smooth, silky stock. To further polish its surface, he created a device consisting of two heated copper cylinders between which he pressed his paper after printing it.

During the period in which Baskerville lived, printers made their own inks, and their proprietary formulas were highly guarded trade secrets. Baskerville invented an ink that was both quick-drying, allowing him to print the reverse sides of his paper faster, and uncommonly rich, black and lustrous in appearance.

caption

John Baskerville

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The title page of his edition of

Paradise Lost by Milton, Printed By John Baskerville,

One of the surviving punches cut by

John Handy for John Baskerville in the eighteenth century.

Ironically for a confirmed atheist, his greatest work was a folio edition of

the Bible, which. represented a mon-

umental advance upon the standards and practices of the time.

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onto the plate with sufficient pressure to transfer the ink from the printing plate to the paper. This allowed book illustrations to be produced with finer lines and greater detail than woodblock printing. In order to make text more compatible with these fine-line engravings, designers increasingly made casting types and ornaments with finer details.

The Rococo Style originated in Paris in the early 18th century but was soon adopted throughout France and later in other countries, principally Germany and Austria. It is characterized by lightness, elegance, and an exuberant use of curving, natural forms in ornamentation. The word Rococo is derived from the French word rocaille, which denoted the shell-covered rock work that was used to decorate artificial grottoes.

Robert Clee

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obert Clee was an accomplished English engraver in the 18th century, strongly influenced by the Rococo movement. He used the skill of copperplate engraving to achieve the curvilinear decoration and fine detail achieved in both text and image by designers during the Rococo Era. Robert Clee’s became known for engraved trading cards he used this copperplate technique to create for merchants to expand businesses and gain customers.

Because of the need of such detailed embellishment, this type of engraving became an important technique for book illustrations during this period.

Lines were etched into a smooth metal plate; ink was pressed into these carved lines; the extra ink was wiped clean from the surface. A sheet of paper was then placed

ean Joseph Bardou established himself as a bookseller in paris in 1746 and in 1750 he issued the series of Latin classics called by his name. He also printed in superior style the “New Testament” in latin and various other works. Since many artists specialized in book illustration in the seventeen and eighteenth centuries graphic design often involved a collaboration of specialists. In the work below, Joseph Gerard Barbou, the printer, used types and ornaments by Fournier, full-page engravings

by Eisen, and complex spot illustrations and tailpieces by Pierre-Phillippe Choffard.

This superb example of Rococo book design combined the ornamented types, decorative initials, elaborate frames and rules, and intricate illustrations typical of the genre.

Another artistic collaboration that created beautiful prints is Louis René Luce, the designer, and Jean Joseph Barbou, the printer. The print (right) ornaments page from Essai d’une Nouvelle Typographie, 1771. These meticulously constructed cornices and borders express the authority and absolutism of the French monarchy.

Essai d’une Nouvelle Typographie, 1771. Louis René Luce, the designer, and Jean Joseph Barbou, the printer.

Jean Joseph Barbou

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“Tales and Novels in Verse”

Two-page spread from Jean de

La Fontaine’s Contes et nouvelles en vers (1762), printed by Joseph

Gerard Barbou and illustrated by Charles Eisen.

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iambattista Bodoni was born in Saluzzo, Italy on February 16, 1740. He was born into a printing family. At the age of 18, Bodoni went to Rome and became a pupil of Abbate Ruffierei in the Vatican polyglot press of the Propaganda Fide. In 1768, Giambattista Bodoni was appointed to head of the ducal printers in Parma – the “Stamperia Reale”. His employer, Duke Ferdinand, had nothing less in mind than to accumulate the greatest wealth of Italy’s writings in his print shop.

During his work at the “Stamperia Reale”, Bodoni first studied the fonts of Pierre Fournier of Paris; This led to development of his own typefaces. Three years after beginning to work in Parma, Giambattista Bodoni produced his first font pattern book with the title “Saggio tipografivo di fregi e maiuscole”. In order to keep Giambattista Bodoni at his court, Duke Ferdinand allowed him to establish his own printing works in 1791 in his palace, In 1806, Bodoni printed the Lord’s Prayer in

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155 languages, in 1808 the “Iliad” by Homer.

Around 1800, Giambattista Bodoni developed a completely new kind of type which refrained from decorative padding and was conceived solely on the criteria of symmetry and proportionality. In this way, the classical font “Bodoni” emerged, a masterpiece of typography, which would be used untold times by other typesetters.

Bodoni was the first in the Modern or Didone class of typeface, characterized un bracketed serifs and highly contrasted stroke-widths.

Giambattista Bodoni, also known as the “prince of typographers” and “printer of kings”, died in 1813 in Parma. He achieved a purity of form with sparse pages, generous margins and line-spacing, and severe geometric types; this functional purity avoided any distractions from the act of reading. He drew inspiration from Baskerville as he evolved his preferences from Rococo-derived designs toward modern typefaces.

Giambattista Bodoni

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The “Manuale Tipografico”, 1818

After the death of type designer and printer Giambattista Bodoni his widow and foreman published the Manuale tipographico, displaying specimens of the approximately three hundred type fonts, it also included a collection of flowering ornamentals and geometric patterns designed by Bodoni. The page (above) shows the dazzling contrasts and vigorous proportions found in found in Modern Style typefaces. Thick and thin oxford rules echo and complement the letters’ stroke weight.

In 1806, Bodoni printed the Lord’s Prayer in 155 languages

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Firmin Didot

F

irmin Didot, born in Paris France on April 14th, 1764, was a French painter, engraver, and type founder. His family were active designers for about 100 years in the 18th and 19th centuries. They were printers, publishers, typeface designers, and inventors. All founded by François Didot, the father of 11 whom also had their manufactory located in Essonnes. Didot was also known for inventing the word stereotype, which in printing refers to the metal printing plate.

In 1783, Firmin cut his first typefaces and rewroked his father’s roman alphabets. Later on in 1797 he was granted a patent for his developments and had his typeface used in his brother’s series mentioned below. In 1812 he was made the

director of the Imprimerie Imperiale type foundry.

Firmin usually cut the letters and his brother, Pierre, used them in printing.

One example of this is the “Editions du Loucre” series. Firmin was credited with establishing the use of “Modern” typefaces along with Giambattista Bodoni.

The typeface Didot was named after the Didot family, it’s considered a modern classification based on a collection of types developed from 1784 - 1811.

Firmin cut the letters and cast them in Paris.

The type was taken from inspiration from John Baskerville’s experimentation of stroke contrast and a more condensed armature.

Firmin then died on April 24th, 1836 in Mesnil-sur-l’Estee, France.

ABCDEFGHIJKL MNOPQRSTUVW XYZ abcdefghijklmnopq rstuvwxyz 1234567890 Didot Regular 20pt typeface (top) Firmin Didot portrait (left)

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Hermann Berthold

H

ermann Berthold was born on August 19th, 1831. He was the son of a calico-printer, an entrepreneur, printer, and German typefounder. He founded the Berlin Institute for Galvanotype which was dedicated to electroplating. He soon became dedicated to the type foundry. The type foundry generally wored from brass instead of lead or zinc which gave it more strength and precision. In 1878 Berthold was given responsibility for all German foundreis in order to set new standards for typography.

In 1833 Berthold built his own “Berthold House,” now known as the Oechsler Villa in Heringsdorf which showed examples of neoclassical architecture called Baderarchitecktur.

In 1858 Berthold established the H. Berthold AG type foundry, based in Berlin. The foundry is best known for the development of the type Akzidenz-Grotesk in 1896. This type formed the basis of most sans-serif fonts such as present day Helvetica. The foundry was taken from predecessors such as John Baskerville and Justus Erich Walbaum.

Akzidenz-Grotesk was believed to be derived from Walbaum or Didot, design wise and the contemporary versions descend from a late-1950s project directed by Jimmy Lazar. The sans-serif typeface was known as Standard in the United States. “Akzidenz” is German for “schrift” and “grotesk” meaning sans-serif. Later on in 1978, with the aid of Professor Foerster, made a basic unit measurement for type. Birthing the first system of typographic measurement.

The unit was that 1m was equal to 2,660 typographic points. Berthold ran his foundry until 1888 and then died in 1904 at his villa in Grunewald.

Hermann Berthold Portrait (top)

Akzidenz-Grotesk typeface (bottom)

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Geoffroy Tory 23

G

eoffroy Tory, born in Bourges around 1480, was a French humanist and engraver. Tory is known mainly for adding accents on letters in French such as the apostrophe, cedilla, and other simple punctuation marks. He heavily influenced French publishing. Early in his life he decided to attend a local university in Paris where he developed an interest in Latin literature.

Later on Tory left Bourges for Italy and studied in Rome at Sapenzia and later on in Bologna where he studied under Philip Beroaldus. After his studies he returned back to Paris in 1505 where he would work as a bookbinder, editor of texts, and corrector for the press. In 1508, Tory developed his first book, the Pomponius Mela. Upon developing this book, Tory started to gain a large reputation, later on becoming one of the youngest professors to teach at the College du Plessis a year later.

In 1514 he married the widow of his friend, in which later had a daughter whom he named Agnes. Tory decided to teach all of his life’s work to her. Unfortunately Agnes died at the age of 9 for reasons unknown. The death of his daughter put Tory into a period of depression, during which he wrote several pieces of poetry, also making his printers mark that of an urn, representing what his daughter’s ashes were in.

The poetry that he wrote generally consisted of talking about how lucky he was to have his daughter and the influence she brought upon him.

After his depression Tory discovered The Book of Hours. He made a copy of it in which is dedicated to him and still known as the most famous. This book consisted of 16 full page borders and 13 large woodcuts. There are 17 known copies of the

1531 version. Through this he gained specific privileges with King François I to publish his own works.

Later on in 1529, Tory published a very important and influential work of that time, the Champfleury. Champfleury translates to flowery fields, also a French idiom for paradise. The Champfleury was divided into 3 books. It was mainly about the proper use of French, ranged from the alphabet to the proper use of grammar. Subtitled “The Art and Science of the Proportion of the Attic or Ancient Roman Letters, According to the Human Body and Face” In the Champfleury, Tory used a square-shaped grid.

This book also set the standard to French publishing, which is still seen in the present.

In 1530 he became the official printer to King Francis I and two years later the librarian at the University of Paris. It’s unknown as to when Tory died, however it’s assumed before October 14th, 1533 because the lease claimed that his wife was widowed.

Some other facts about Tory was that he was greatly inspired by the human body, which was shown in the Champfleury. he believed that the proportions of letters reflected the human form, writing, “the crossstroke covers the man’s organ of generation, to signify that Modesty and Chastity are required, before all else, in those who seek acquaintance with well-shaped letters.”

2-page spread of Geoffroy Tory’s Champfleury (top)

2-page spread of Geoffroy Tory’s The Book of Hours (left) Page taken from Champfleury (bottom)

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George Bickham

G

eorge Bickham the Elder, born in 1684, was an English writing master and engraver. He is best known for his work in The Universal Penman, which helped popularize the English Round Hand script during his time.

In 1712 he wrote copy books and business texts, linking between writing and mathematics. In 1733, Bickham collected from 25 London writing masters to create and engrave samples of penmanship, forming the Universal Penman.

Later on Bickman published The British Monarchy, a collection of 188 plates of historical notes, 43 plates of the view of English and Welsh counties. It wasn’t really a map, but it had map-like qualities. George Bickham the Younger, his son, kept the engraving tradition alive.

George Bickham’s British Monarchy page (top) The Penman’s Advice (left)

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George Bickham the Elder, Engraver portrait

Printing Technologies

O

ne of the printing technologies of the era that was created during the 1700s and 1800s is the Stereotype. The Stereotype is also known as the cliche stereoplate or just stereo for short. The name is originally meant for a solid plate of type metal. Type metal is the metal alloys used for the typesetting, the composition consists of lead, tin, and antimony.

The Stereotype was invented

by William Ged in 1725. Ged used the plates for the Bible. The words “cliche” and “stereotype” were both originally printers’ words before other meanings came into play that are used now. The stereotype is used in letterpress, newspaper, and other high-speed press runs, the process is made by locking in type in place in form of a mat, the mat is then used as a mold to cast the stereotype.

Another piece of technology that was made during the 1800’s was the Rotary press, invented by Richard M. Hoe. The rotary press printed one sheet on a flat plate, however the difference was that the plate was continuously wrapped around a rotating cylinder, allowing for multiple copies to be made. This was innovative at the time because it sped up the process of printmaking.

In 1886 the Linotype was made, a very important invention, the first real advance in printing. The linotype was a machine where the operator could sit and type at a keyboard, whereas the machine would arrange the characters typed out in lines of type. The linotype was invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler.

The last piece to mention that made its process into the 1800’s is the technology advancement to photo engraving. This process allowed photographs to be printed on press. The process used screens to produce

half-tones, small dots, through the use of chemicals. The first example known was made by Joseph Niepce.

Stereotype plate mold (top)

Linotype machine (middle)

Rotary press machine (bottom)

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Bibliography

The Stanford Encyclopedia oThe European Graduate School: Graduate & Postgraduate Studies. “Denis Diderot-Biography.” Last modified April 02, 2015. http://www.egs.edu/library/denis-diderot/biography/.

I utilized The European Graduate School: Graduate & Postgraduate Studies to research who Denis Diderot was. I learned about his life, his interests, and how he got his start. I also learned about the history of the Encyclopédie and how Diderot contributed to its creation.

Wikipedia. “Age of Enlightenment.” Last modified March 30, 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment.

I used the Wikipedia page for The Age of Enlightenment to get a grasp on the overall events and changes that occurred during the Enlightenment. It also told me how important philosophers were, and introduced me to Denis Diderot. The Philosophy provided me with more general information on the Enlightenment.I also found more information on the Encyclopédie and how the Enlightenment was essentially based around its creation.

Carter, Rob, Ben Day, and Philip Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication.

Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, inc, 2012.

From reading this book, I learned how the type design changed from Old Style to Modern Style within the 18th century.

Wikipedia. “Encyclopédie.” Last modified April 02, 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die.

Wikipedia provided me with more information on how the Encyclopédie was created and what who was all involved in the process. It allowed me to get an overview of its creation before I went into further research.

California State University. “Typography & Graphic Design: Renaissance to Rococo Era.” http://www.csun.edu/~pjd77408/DrD/Art461/LecturesAll/Lectures/lecture03a.html.

The California State University “Typography & Graphic Design: Renaissance to Rococo Era” told me about the designers of the typographic book designs during the Renaissance. I also discovered that Italian printers influenced the design of this time period. The origin of the typographic book was also revealed and what designers loved during this time.

Dodd, Robin. From Gutenberg to Opentype: An Illustrated History of Type from the Earliest Letterforms to the Latest Digital Fonts. Lewes: Ilex, 2006. Print.

From Gutenberg to Opentype: An Illustrated History of Type from the Earliest Letterforms to the Digital Fonts told me about Louis Simonneau’s career as a designer of typefaces. I also learned about “Romain du Roi”, what went into its creation, and who created it.

Wikipedia. “Philippe Grandjean.” Last modified November 14, 2014. http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Philippe_Grandjean.

Wikipedia gave me a very brief explanation of who Grandjean was and what he did.

It also told me a little bit about “Romain du Roi.”

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Bartram, Alan. Typeforms: a History. London: British Library, 2007. Print.

I then came upon Typeforms: a History which told me a little more about “Romain du Roi” and how Grandjean was a part of its creation.

Wikipedia. “Pierre Simon Fournier.” Last modified March 16, 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_ Fournier.

Wikipedia provided a good amount of information on Fournier, but I only utilized the short overview of who he was and what he did so that I could research in a more reliable source.

Updike, Daniel Berkeley. Printing Types: Their History, Forms and Use. 4th ed. Expanded. Delaware: Oak Knoll Press. 2001. Print.

I then went to Printing Types: Their History, Forms and Use, when reading through this text I was able to find more detailed information on Fournier. I particularly liked what he said about his typeface, which I used in a quote in the presentation.

Carter, Rob, Ben Day, and Philip Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, inc, 2012.

I utilized the timeline in Typographic Design: Form and Communication to gather a short background on Caslon’s typeface.

Britannica. “William Caslon: English Printer.” Last Modified December 15,2014.http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98016/William-Caslon.

Then I went to Britannica to find more detailed information on Caslon’s life and how his career started.

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “John Pine”, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. accessed March 31, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1364832/John-Pine.

Portrait of John Pine and Information about life and works of John Pine, including death and birth dates, works, family and accomplaishments.

Philip B. Meggs. Art, Graphic Design. Alternate title: visual communications. Rococo Graphic Design. http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1032864/graphic-design/242763/Rococo-graphic-design.

Information including works and life of Robert Clee.

“Rococo Style | Design.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 10 Apr. 2015. <http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/506448/Rococo-style>.

Information on the Rococo era.

Timperley, Charles Henry. A Dictionary of Printers and Printing, with the Progress of Literature; Ancient and Modern;. London: H. Johnson, 1839. Google Ebook.

Information on works and bookselling and engraving in Paris.

Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 10 Apr. 2015. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1032864/graphic-design/242763/Rococo-graphic-design>.

Barbou Tales and Novels in Verse Print: “Rococo Graphic Design.”

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“08-15.” 08-15. Web. 10 Apr. 2015. <http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/college/meggs/0471699020/html/Chapter08/slides/08-15.html>.

Image designed by Luce and Created by Barboua.

Carter, Rob. Typographic design: Form and communication. Pg. 304. Ben Day, Phillip Meggs, Sandra Maxa, Mark Sanders. Sixth Edition. 2015.

Information about Modern Typefaces and Manuale Tipografico.

“Beauty and Ugliness in Type Design — I Love Typography.” I Love Typography RSS. 25 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 Apr. 2015. <http://ilovetypography.com/2012/09/25/beauty-and-ugliness-in-type-font-design/>.

Information about Bodoni design style and Image of Mauale Tipographico.

Baines, Phil and Andrew Haslam. Type and Typography Second Edition. Pg. 47. Waston- Guptill Publications, New York. 2005.

Information about Modern Typefaces.

“Firmin Didot.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmin_ Didot>.

“Font Designer – Firmin Didot.” Firmin Didot. Linotype, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://www.linotype.com/370/ firmindidot.html>.

“Didot (typeface).” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didot_(typeface)>.

I used these sources to find the information about Firmin Didot, his family, and some information about the Didot typeface. Wikipedia helped start me off in finding information and gave me a good general idea. Linotype was a great place to go to as well.

“Hermann Berthold.” « MyFonts. MyFonts, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <https://www.myfonts.com/person/Hermann_ Berthold/>.

“Hermann Berthold.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Berthold>.

“Akzidenz-Grotesk.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Akzidenz-Grotesk>.

“Berthold Type Foundry.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Berthold_Type_Foundry>.

I used MyFonts and Wikipedia to find the information on Hermann Berthold. The information given told me about his life, the type foundry that he founded and some information about the famous typeface that they made, Akzidenz-Grotesk. The information was a bit hard to decipher since it was in French, however using my prior knowledge of French and checking the translated version allowed me to get what I needed.

“Geoffroy Tory | Biography - French Printer.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/600302/Geoffroy-Tory>.

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“Geoffroy Tory.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffroy_Tory>.

“A Brief History of Typefaces.” (n.d.): n. pag. Thinkingwithtype.com. Thinking With Type. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://www.thinkingwithtype.com/misc/type_lecture/Type_Lecture.pdf>.

I used these sources to figure out all that I needed about Geoffroy Tory and his life. It was interesting to read so much on his French influence and of his daughter. The Thinking With Type pdf was very useful in using examples of his work during the Humanist period.

“George Bickham the Elder.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/George_Bickham_the_Elder>.

There wasn’t too much about George Bickham, but what I could find mainly was on Wikipedia. This website told me about what he was mainly known for, The Universal Penman and the British Monarchy, and the fact that he was a master at engraving and English writing.

“Key Historical Developments in Printing Technology.” Key Historical Developments in Printing Technology (n.d.): n. pag. MTSU School of Journalism. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://mtsujournalism.org/vcom_materials/history/ print_timeline.pdf>.

“Stereotype | Printing.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565675/stereotype>.

“Stereotype (printing).” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Stereotype_(printing)>.

These sources helped me scour the Internet and find out what kind of printing technologies were made during the 1700’s and 1800’s. I found out that the Stereotype, Rotary Press, Engraved Photo technology, and Linotype was made. These are all important advances, much help from the MTSU School of Journalism for making it easy to understand.

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