Fuse 燃
Contents 火
2 – 10
11 – 21
22 – 33
34 – 53
54 – 67
68 – 81
82 – 102
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Pyro ç Ť People immediately link the science of pyrotechnics with fireworks. However there are many other applications that are involved in day today activity. Pyrotechnics include not only the manufacture of fireworks but items from matches to explosive bolts. All year round fireworks illuminate the night sky with spectacular effects in displays taking place worldwide. The founding of pyrotechnics dates back to ancient China. Most of the effects seen in a typical display are the results of centuries of skilled craftsmanship and scientific development. However the fundamental construction and effect has stayed relatively the same. The common objective of fireworks is to create a visual
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display of beauty and wonder. However tied in with pyrotechnic devices that are similar to fireworks are special effects that are widely used in movie production. Devices are used to create the visuals of explosions without the minor destructive force. These devices heavily contrast the visual goals. The idea of bursting colour through the sky with different effects and style is like painting on an ultimate scale. The wonder and glory of the mechanics behind fireworks is something that has driven their popularity to modern day.
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Birth The discovery of fireworks is believed to have occurred by chance approximately 2,000 years ago in China. The base of all pyrotechnics was accidentally created by mixing together three common kitchen ingredients: KNO3, Sulphur and Charcoal. This mixture was dried over a fire and it was discovered when lit that the product would aggressively combust. This mixture produces the famously used composition that we all know of today as gunpowder. It is believed that Marco Polo on one of his many trips to China transported this invention to the Middle East where European Crusaders brought it to England. An English Scholar by the name of Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was one of the first Europeans to study gunpowder and write about it. He wrote “if you
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light it you will get thunder and lightening if you know the trick”. He realised that the potassium nitrate was the key ingredient behind the explosion. Realising that his findings had the dangerous potential of completely revolutionising warfare the notes were written in code. This code was not deciphered for hundreds of years. It was in 1560 that European Chemists managed to make gunpowder as explosive as possible by experimenting with the ratios of the ingredients.
Gunpowder
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 75% Charcoal (C) – 15% Sulphur (S) – 10%
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The Chinese named this black powder ‘huo yao’ which translates to ‘fire chemical’. The mixture was inserted into the hollow of a bamboo stick and when thrown into a fire, the gases produced by the ignited burning powder inside caused an immense build up of pressure and blasted the tube apart. The basic firecracker was born. These ‘firecrackers’ played an essential part in early Chinese festivities and religious rituals. They believed that the intense sound was to be powerful
enough to scare off evil spirits. The Chinese were well aware of the killing power these explosives. Within 100 years they had developed fire arrows (bamboo fire crackers attached to regular arrows and shot at the enemy). They also used the new creation to intimidate the enemy by using gunpowder to shoot rats from thick bamboo barrels which had a great psychological effect -scaring soldiers and causing horses to go wild. The Chinese realised that bamboo was too fragile to propel anything heavy.
火 ˇ Huoyào Fire Chemical
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They developed crude metal tubes to replace this thus the cannon was born. Medieval warfare was brought to an end with gun powder causing it to come to a close. Bullets could now puncture metal armor and once seemingly impenetrable walls of castles could be blown to bits by cannon balls.
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Weapons are fun Pyrotechnics revolutionised the way we kill animals including each other. It would initially seem that it is a dark science of evil. However there is a bright side which we all know about — fireworks. As technically in the same catagory as bullets and bombs it is incredible how the two contrast from a thing of destruction to a thing of beauty. It took a long time for the science of pyrotechnics to evolve to the same level as it is today.
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火 10
Evolve In the 1830s, the Italians made a big breakthrough in pyrotechnic chemistry. They began adding the compound potassium chlorate to the traditional black powder mixture. The compound helped oxidize the reaction, enabling it to burn hotter and brighter. The strongly exothermic reaction made additional reactions involving other compounds possible — reactions that would soon add dazzling colours and special effects to fireworks. It was they who were able to develop aerial shells that launched upward and exploded into a burst of colour; painting the night sky specifically for enjoyment of onlookers.
families. For nearly 2,000 years, the only colours fireworks could produce were yellows and oranges using steel and charcoal. It was only in the 19th Century that pyrotechnicians had the developed the chemistry and different resources to introduce reds, greens and blues to the night sky. Even to this modern day people generally do not understand the working mechanics behind fireworks. It begins with the following components:
These displays of science and wonder grew more and more elaborate over the years, gradually working their way into the back gardens of everyday
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Fuels
1.
Charcoal is the most common fuel used in fireworks. Normally, all fuels will contain an organic element such as this. The mechanism by which the fuel functions in the firework is relatively simple. The fuel loses electrons to atoms within the oxidiser (thereby reducing the oxidiser) and releasing atoms from the oxidiser. During this process bonds are formed between the fuel and oxygen atoms forming a product which is relatively stable. Only a minimal amount of energy is Aluminum – Al Antimony Trisulfide – Sb2S3 Charcoal – C Confectioners Sugar – C12H22O11 Copper Benzoate – Cu[C6H5COO]2 Gallic Acid – C7H6O5*H2O Lactose – C12H22O11*2H2O Magnalium – Mg/Al Magnesium – Mg Potassium Benzoate – C6H5KO2 Shellac – C16H26O4 Sodium Benzoate – NaC7O2H5 Sodium Salicylate – NaC7H5O3
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required to start the combustion of this fuel/oxidiser compound. When combustion does start the result is a massive release of energy as the solid mixture liquefies and vaporises into the flame of ignition. This maximises the probability of reaction of the oxidiser as it is brought into the close proximity of the flame causing a continually sustained burn until the components run out.
Oxidisers
2.
The function of the oxidising agent is to produce the oxygen needed in order for the mixture inside the firework to burn. These oxidisers are usually nitrates, chlorates or perchlorates. Fuels would normally burn in open atmosphere however pyrotechnics are self contained therefore oxidisers are the source of oxygen rather than the air.
reaction depending on how stable the compound is. Nitrates provide a burn that is much faster than the oxygen in the air but still relatively slow. Chlorates are better oxidising agents and so cause an even more spectacular reaction. This however does cause the reaction to potentially become extremely explosive.
Oxidisers also have the ability to determine the speed of a
Perchlorates are less likely to explode than chlorates due to their increase in stability.
Ammonium Dichromate – [NH4]2Cr2O7
Potassium Sulfate – K2SO4
Ammonium Perchlorate – NH4ClO4
Sodium Chlorate – NaClO3
Barium Chlorate – BaClO3
Sodium Nitrate – NaNO3
Barium Nitrate – Ba[NO3]2
Strontium Nitrate – Sr[NO3]2
Barium Sulfate – BaSO4
Strontium Sulfate – SrSO4
Copper Chlorate – Cu[ClO3]2*6H2O Iron(II) Oxide – FeO*Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 Iron(III) Oxide – FeO*Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 Lead Dioxide – PbO2 Lead Tetraoxide – Pb3O4 Potassium Chlorate – KClO3 Potassium Nitrate – KNO3 Potassium Perchlorate – KClO4
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Chlorine Donors
3.
A Chlorine Donor is a chlorinerich compound when combined with a fuel within a pyrotechnic flame, certain colors can be produced where a reaction with oxygen would fail to achieve. Chlorine donor are normally used with conjunction with colour agents to produce the desired reaction however they can also be used to help bind the mixture together due to their usual sticky constistancey.
Barium Carbonate – BaCO3 Chlorowax (chlorinated paraffin resin) Dechlorane – C10Cl12 Hexachlorethane – C2Cl6 Parlon – C4H6Cl2 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Saran (chlorinated polymer)
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Binders
4.
Binders are used to hold what is essentially the mixture of the firework together in a paste like mixture. The most commonly used binder is known as dextrin, a type of starch which holds the composition together. Parlon can also be used in binding, however it is less common and only used in conjunction with red and green fireworks as it helps to enhance their colour. Binders are used in small quantities within a pyrotechnic composition because they do not always react with the other components. They are simply involved to make tactile Dextrin – C6H10O5 Gum Arabic Guar Gum Nitrocellulose Lacquer – C6H7N3O11 Parlon – C4H6Cl2 Red Gum (accaroid resin) Soluble Glutinous Rice Starch
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solids if desired like coloured stars. Binders would not be present within anything kept in powder form for example rocket propellant.
Colouring Agents It is obvious that the most complex part of the science behind fireworks lie within creating a variety of different coloured flames as a visual product of the reacting composition. The cause of these colours is due to two phenomenons. Incandescence and luminescence. The mastering of these has caused the evolution of pyrotechnics to occur most predominantly. Years of experimenting and research has lead to the science of pyrotechnics to involve a full spectrum of colours. Colour agents can fall within the fuel, oxidiser, clorine donor and sometimes the binder catagory.
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1.
Incandescence is the light produced from heat. Heat causes a substance to grow hot and glow. This results in the emission of infrared, then red, orange, yellow, and white light as the substance grows increasingly hotter. The power of this emission can be defined as:
M=sT4 Light emission
Stefan–Boltzmann constant x temperature x 4
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The calculated emission spectrum has the following shape: The graph illustrates that different temperatures produce a different wavelength with a different power of emission (brightness). Therefore producing a different colour of light.
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Light Intensity (W/m²)
5000 4000
2000 K
3000 2000
1750 K
1000 0 300
1250 K
2100 Wavelength (nm)
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3900
Subjective Colour
Temperature (K)
Temperature (C)
Dull red
750
480
Bright red
850
580
Red/Orange
1000
730
Bright Orange
1200
930
Yellow/Orange
1400
1100
Bright Yellow
1600
1300
White
>1700
>1400
This table gives a summary of the temperatures at which various colours will occur. Blues and greens require much higher temperatures (ones which are impractical for fireworks) and so cannot be formed using this method. Instead, they are created via the mechanism of Luminescence.
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2.
Luminescence is light produced using energy sources other than heat. This involves the absorption of energy by an electron of an atom or molecule thereby causing it to become excited but also unstable. As the electron drops back down to its ground state, energy is released and in this case, it is in the form of light as the energy is released in the form of a phonon. The energy of the phonon determines its wavelength and colour. Certain molecules emit light in the visible region and these are used to produce the colours seen in fireworks. Some of these however need to be combined with another element to stabilise them and make them fit for use within fireworks. For example, Barium must be combined with chlorinated rubber as it is unstable at room temperature. On the contrary, Copper Chloride is instable at high temperatures and it must be ensured that the firework does not get too hot. The following table illustrates the compounds required to produce specific coloured fireworks.
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Subjective Colour
Colour Agent
Wavelenght (nm)
Red
Strontium Salts & Lithium Salts
600-646nm
Li2CO3 SrCO3 Gold
591-603nm
Calcium Salts CaCl2 CaSO4.2H2O
Orange
Incandescence of Iron or Charcoal
590nm
Yellow
Sodium Compounds
589nm
NaNO3 Na3AlF6 White
564-576nm
White Hot Metal BaO
Green
Barium compounds with Chlorine
511-533nm
BaCl+
Blue
Copper Compounds and Chlorine
460-530nm
Cu3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2)2
Purple
Mixture of Strontium (red) and Copper
432-456nm
(blue) compounds
Silver
Burning aluminium, titanium or magnesium powder.
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412nm
Effects With modern chemistry advances there is a wide range of effects the can be applied within the science of pyrotechnics. With this in mind it is not only different colours that can be produced it is also the way those colours are released and how they appear within the atmosphere. There are now a variety of different fireworks available. Rockets, aerial shells, fountains ect. Some that break in the sky, some that stay on the ground, some that are pinned against a wall. A difficult task is giving a verbal description of what will happen when said firework is ignited. Within the world of manufactured consumer fireworks a lot of metaphorical jargon has been applied in an attempt to give the customer a
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imaginary picture of the effect within the box. This can lead to some confusion.
Aerial Effects
Ball These shells break in a round shape. This is the oldest style of shells yet is still the most commonly used and produces the iconic flower pattern in the sky that we all accociate fireworks with. Canister Canister shells break in a hard bowtie effect. The canister shells normally have a loud crack to them when they break. Multi-Break These shells are formed by placing two ball shells on top or within each other. This creates a series of bursts within the sky.
Ground Effects
Gerb These contain a compressed powder with a nozzle that sprays the ignited composion upwards as it burns creating a fountain of colour and/or sparks. Star Mine These shoot shars into the air in one single burst. Roman Candle These shoot singluar shars into the air in multiple bursts. Cake A series of single-shot starmines fused together creating an array of effects within seperated time.
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In an attempt to make picking out consumer fireworks, manufactures began putting performance labels on all of their items. This is a great idea unless you are unfamiliar with the terms that are used to describe the aerial effects. This page list all of the different type of effects that you might encounter. Atomic Pattern – Three contiguous
Crackle – Audio sound. The effect is
Kamuro – Silver or gold, that falls a
circles representing the orbits of
produced by many sharp loud bangs that
distance from the center burst before,
electrons circling a nucleus.
also briefly flash as they explode.
changes color at the end of its path.
Battle in the Clouds – A shell that
Crossette - Splitting Comet.
Maroon – A firework which produces a single loud report.
produces a series of loud salutes after it breaks with colour mixed in.
Crown – The tips of the aerial shell after falling change colours.
similar to the firefly effect. See Firefly. Brocade – Long burning stars that
Palm – This effect might remind you of looking at a palm tree.
Bees – Are an aerial effect that is very Dahlia – Similar to a Peony except contains fewer, brighter stars. Brightly
Pattern Shell – Aerial shell that produces
colored stars that fall from the break.
a clear shape, for example a circle, Saturn with ring and moons, or even an atom.
produce a willow effect, however doesn’t Diadem – peony or chrysanthemum that
Stars that break into a shape such as a
has a center cluster of non-moving stars.
star, heart, etc.
way in which a cylindrical shell breaks. A
Dragon Eggs – groups of crackling
Peony – An effect with burning stars
cylindrical shell breaks at a point towards
sparks.
with no trails.
complicated pattern shell that is made to
Falling Flowers – Small colour flowers
Pistil – Is an effect in aerial shells when
look like a butterfly when it breaks.
that fall from a flower type shell.
the center of the burst is of different
Chrysanthemum Shell – Unlike the
Fish – Effect similar to the firefly
of the burst.
visible trail the chrysanthemum produce a
Firefly – This is an aerial effect which
Rain – Long lasting stars from an aerial
strong tail as the stars move out.
looks like a swarm of fireflies in the sky.
shell or rocket that fall all the way to the
Coconut Shell – A shell that contains
Glitter – Stars only flash once.
last as long as a Kamuro. Butterfly Break – This is related to the
the center of the shell. There is also a
color and/or effect from the outside part Peony in which the stars produce no
ground. Report – Loud Explosion.
a large comet that produces a coconut palm tree upon bursting. These shells are
Half & Half – A flower with half one color
normally complemented with a color tail.
and half another.
Comet – Bright tail with no break at the
Heavy report – The final very loud report
peak. Go up as long as their is fuel to
in a multiple break
Ring Shell – This effect produces an asymmetric ring of stars. A type of
burn.
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pattern.
Rising Effect – This usually talks about
Strobe – Stars flash multiple times.
a tail to an aerial shell, but can also be
Strobes on, off, on.
whistles, crackling, or small shells. Tail – With some aerial fireworks during Roundel Shell – Is an aerial shell that
the accent their is a effect that looks like
contains several reports that are timed to
it has a tail. Rising column of sparks on
burst in a ring pattern one after another.
aerial shells.
Salute – Loud Explosion. Louder than a
Tourbillion – Serpents to reports in a
report. No color just a single white flash.
ring pattern.
Saturn – A star shell with a ring around
Transformation – Glittering effect that
it.
changes in intensity and duration.
Serpent – A small tube that is filled
Trunk – A rising effect that is typical
with a colored composition and maybe a
seen on willow and palm tree aerial
report. These are fired from aerial shells
shells.
and fly in a random pattern. Whirlwind – Tube that spins in the air Shell of Shells – A large shell that
with sparks. This produces a tornado like
contains smaller bombette shells as
effect.
well as stars. When the first shell burst it releases the other smaller shells and
Whistle – a partly hollow tube, that
stars, within a few seconds the smaller
produces a high pitch whistling sound.
shells burst. Not to be confused with Multi-break shells.
Willow – This effect has failing trails of effect. Long burning made normally with
Shooters – Bright magnesium stars that
a high amount of charcoal. Looks like a
shoot across the sky.
gigantic willow tree.
Siateens – Small, loud reports specifically timed and patterned Spinner – Devices with wings that rotate very fast and rise into the sky.
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1. Aerial Shells Spherical Aeriel shells are the icon of what people imagine fireworks to be. They revolutionised the way in which we use pyrotechnic effects to paint the sky with colour. In most cases people do not understand how they raise to the sky and burst with the flower shaped break. They can either be shot up via rocket or mortar tube. In this case the shell demonstrated is constructed to be shot out of a mortar tube.
The ignition fuse is lit while the shell in the mortar tube. This then leads to the burst charge.
2.
The burst charge explodes launching the shell itself upwards out of the mortar tube and into the sky. The explosion also causes the time fuse to be lit.
3.
The time fuse burns while the shell travels upwards delaying the break of the shell.
4.
The burst charge explodes, breaking the shell appart. Igniting the surrounding stars and ejecting them across the sky.
5.
Stars burn with different colour and/or effects to create the concluding visual display.
1. Ignition Fuse
4. Bust Charge
5. Stars
3. Time Fuse
2. Lift Charge
Like all fireworks each one is operates differently in every way. However aerial shells have a variety of differently recognized styles depending on the amount of break charge and/or the type of stars within them.
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Peony
The most common type of firework, the peony shell type is a spherical break of colored stars that burn without a tail effect.
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Trail
The trail shell type (chrysanthemum) is a spherical break of stars that burn with a tail effect usually in silver or gold.
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Willow
The willow is similar to a chrysanthemum, but with long-burning silver or gold stars and a lesser break charge that produces a soft, dome-shaped weeping willow-like effect.
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Crossette
A shell containing several large stars that travel a short distance before breaking apart into smaller stars, leaving a crisscross effect.
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Palm
A shell containing a few large comet stars arranged to burst with large tendrils, producing a palm tree-like effect.
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Diadem
This shell is a type of peony or chrysanthemum that has a center cluster of non-moving stars. This is achieved by placing stars within the break charge.
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Public Fireworks have grown to become an essential part of modern festivities worldwide. If there is a big event or celebration there is most likely going to be some form of pyrotechnics to emphasis that general feeling accomplishment. It is evident that fireworks can be enjoyed by anyone no matter what background ethnicity. But what is it that makes fireworks so appealing to us? An interview of the general public said:
“I’d say the colour and when they put
“I just like the loud noises and the big
“I like lighting them personally, right?
it to the music and it’s like all one big
explosions. The louder the better and the
That’s one of my favorites. Like watching
show together, and then all the new stuff
brighter the better.”
stuff blow up.”
“It’s really fun and I love just seeing the
“I love the boom and I love the colors
“They’re loud. They’re cool, I like them.
big boom then the best part is hearing
and all the oos and aahhs. Doing it with
Fireworks rule.”
the crowd go, ...ohhh, awwww... and all
friends and family is the best.”
the fireworks that make the shapes and fireworks that can all explode at once,”
that goes with it. I absolutely love it.”
“I like the sound, I like walking down the
“I like that boom reverberating in my
street and just getting scared because
bones. It just takes me back to my
there is something loud behind me and
childhood and its great.”
I’m lookin’ around like...”
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Research has posited that we enjoy them because they offer the brain an ideal combination of pleasure and pain that excites us and leaves us wanting more, while comforting us with the knowledge that we are safe. In that way, they are similar to a roller coaster; the brain simultaneously feels fear while knowing that the experience is safe. This produces a state of euphoria known as “eustress.” Eustress has been defined as a “pleasant or curative stress.” Putting the brain in this state means that the fear element has the brain standing at attention, which amplifies the sights and sounds of the pleasurable experience. Eustress is felt when riding roller-coasters, competing in sports and gambling.
Destress
Performance
Eustress
Level of Stress
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Guy Fawkes Night
Guy Fawkes Night celebrates the foiling of an attempt to blow up the Houses of Parliament in London on the 5th of November 1605. The attack was planned by a group of Catholic conspirators, which included Guy Fawkes. The explosives would have been set off when King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) and many parliamentary members were in the building. The conspirators were later arrested, tortured and executed. Guy Fawkes was the leader of the group.
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Many people light bonfires and set off fireworks. As it is the end of autumn, it is the ideal opportunity to burn garden rubbish. In some towns and cities, the municipality organizes a bonfire and professional firework display in a park or field. These tend to be very popular. Due to its proximity to Halloween, many people organize a combined party for Guy Fawkes Night and Halloween. These parties often include elements from both festivals.
Guy Fawkes, a Catholic, was arrested, tortured and executed for his part in the plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament. Hence many Catholics are more restrained in their celebration of this day. In addition, many injuries and even deaths occur as a result of fireworks being used incorrectly.
Remember Remember Remember, remember the fifth of November Gunpowder, treason and plot. I see no reason why gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot. Guy Fawkes, Guy Fawkes 'Twas his intent To blow up the King and the Parliament Three score barrels of powder below
The 5th of November has a few different names. Firework night, bonfire night, Guy Fawkes night. Along with its own song “Remember, remember the 5th of November.”
Poor old England to overthrow By God's providence he was catched With a dark lantern and burning match. Holloa boys, holloa boys, Ring the bells ring Holloa boys, holloa boys, Goda save the King!
Fireworks are lit to celebrate the failure of Guy Fawkes’ plot. The significant link between gunpowder and fireworks holds the rationale behind this occasion.
Hip hip hooray Hip hip horray. A penny loaf to feed ol' Pope A farthing cheese to choke him A pint of beer to rinse it down
Make-shift dummies of Guy Fawkes and sometimes made to centre the bonfire around. This emulates his torture and national hatred for his attempt of betraying his country. This act has begun to died down over recent years due to its vulgarity against humanity.
A faggot of sticks to burn him. Burn him in a tub of tar Burn him like a blazing star Burn his body from his head Then we'll say old Pope is dead. Hip hip hooray Hip hip hooray
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4th of July
When the Fourth of July comes around, America’s parks, beaches and other spaces glow as showers of glitter exploding overhead. It’s all because of the curious catalogue of fireworks being fired from professional displays to back gardens
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Fireworks were a part of America’s very first birthday party on the 4th of July 1776. The day America gained independence from Britain. For this reason Americans across the country celebrate this occassion every year by lighting fireworks.
After the Continental Congress proclaimed the colonies’ independence from Great Britain, John Adams wrote: “The day will be the most memorable in the history of America… it will be celebrated by succeeding generations with… bonfires and illuminations from one end of the continent to the other, from this day forward forevermore.”
Displays can be seen taking place around the country in main cities in every state around the US. Particularly New York, Las Vegas and Washington DC. Famous monuments such as the statue of liberty can be seen draped in a coloured backdrop surrounding the city. Thousands gather to view the fireworks in public. The amount of fireworks sold to cities for public celebrations £25 million.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a ‘salute to the union’ is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base. This reckognises the military struggle Americans faced when taking on the British.
American’s use fireworks to celebrate to emulate the feeling of accomplishment after the struggle for interdependence. Fireworks give the impression of power and fascination. They make the given area seem special and outstanding. These characteristics and the stereotypical patriotism of Americans go hand in hand.
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Diwali Festival
Diwali, also called Divali or the "Festival of Lights", is an ancient Hindu festival celebrated in autumn every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil, and hope over despair.
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Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes. On Diwali night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfit, light up diyas (lamps and candles) inside and outside their home, participate in family puja typically to Lakshmi
- the goddess of wealth and prosperity. After puja (prayers), fireworks follow. Also acclaimed as the Festival of Lights, Diwali is associated with lights, sweets, and liveliness; especially lights. As, it is celebrated on the new-moon (Amavasya) night, lights and fireworks have a significant role to play in this festival. This is why, when we heard the name Diwali, the first impression that flashes through our minds is of multicolored and impressive fireworks, sprinkling various sorts of bright colored lights in the night sky. Although the tradition of fireworks on Diwali is not very old, still they have succeeded in becoming such a vital part of this festival that we can’t even imagine a wonderful Diwali without them. The majestic appeal of the Diwali festival is such that, it drifts everyone in a festive and relaxed mood even before its arrival. Temples and markets are decorated and lighted a few days before Diwali, as a sign of paying homage to and welcoming this great Hindu festival. The
Depawali or Diwali festival also marks the beginning of the new year according to the Hindu calendar, as the Ashwin month ends and the Kartik month begins on this day. Besides the contemporary led-lights, candles, and fireworks, people also use the conventional earthen-lamps (diyas) for embellishing their homes. Prayers are offered to goddess Laxmi and lord Ganesha on Diwali night. Diwali is really a fabulous festival and fireworks play a significant role in increasing its charm among all age-groups. Whether they are kids, youngsters, or older people, everybody enjoy the fireworks like twinkling Anars, furious Rockets, vibrant Sparklers, cyclonic Ground Discs (phirki), and so. However, there are some environmental issues associated with the use of firecrackers or fireworks on the Diwali festival, still there will be no exaggeration in saying that fireworks are an inherent part of Diwali celebrations.
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Garden Fireworks
Garden fireworks can be bought indervidually. These usually only come as large scale devices such as rockets, cakes ect. To get a full variety selection boxes are sold that offer nearly every kind of fireworks available to the public. These small scale fireworks come in many different shapes and sizes however most of them follow identical system with slightly different compositions to give a different colour and series of effects.
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This box can be separated into the following categories:
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■
Gerbs
■
Roman Candles
■
Rockets
■
Cakes
Fountain
These contain a compressed powder with a nozzle that sprays the ignited composition upwards as it burns creating a fountain of colour and/or sparks. The casing is made into a cone shape to make the device look more bulkie and fountain like. The actual functioning element is simply a cylindrical heavy paper casing with clay stoppers at either end. The top stopper has a hole drilled through to allow the burning composition to eject out of the desired position. The fuse is loosely plugged into this hole.
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Suspected Composition
Process
Strontium nitrate (Sr[NO3]2) – 44%
1. Ignite fuse
Magnalium (Mg/Al) – 17%
2. Fuse leads to the composition igniting
Titanium (Ti) – 13%
it from the top of the device allowing it
Charcoal (C) – 10%
do burn down.
Red gum (accaroid resin) – 9% Parlon (C4H6Cl2) – 7%
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Star Mine
This single shot star mine is contained within a cylindrical heavy paper casing with a clay stopper located at the bottom of the device. Granulated gun powder is used as a lift charge to shoot the star upwards into the sky. Two small card barriers are loosely inserted sandwiching the star. These stop the device from leaking. One of the barriers has a hole in it so the star can be ignited by the lift charge.
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Suspected Composition (Lift)
Suspected Composition (Star)
Process
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 74%
Potassium Perchlorate (KClO4) – 63%
1. Ignite fuse
Charcoal (C) – 12%
Magnalium (Mg/Al) – 15%
2. Fuse ignites lift charge
Sulphur (S) – 9%
Red gum (accaroid resin) – 10%
3. Lift charge explodes shooting the star
Dextrin – (C6H10O5) – 5%
Parlon (C4H6Cl2) – 9%
into the sky while igniting the star
Copper (II) oxide – 3%
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Roman Candel
This 7 shot roman candle is contained within a cylindrical heavy paper casing with a very large clay stopper located at the bottom of the device. Granulated gun powder is used as a lift charge to shoot the star upwards into the sky. Sawdust is used to form a fire retardant barrier between the lift charges to ensure that there is a delay between shots. The stars appear to be the same composition as those used in the star mine except smaller.
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Suspected Composition (Lift)
Suspected Composition (Stars)
Process
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 74%
Potassium Perchlorate (KClO4) – 63%
1. Ignite fuse
Charcoal (C) – 12%
Magnalium (Mg/Al) – 15%
2. Fuse ignites lift charge
Sulphur (S) – 9%
Red gum (accaroid resin) – 10%
3. Lift charge explodes shooting the star
Dextrin (C6H10O5) – 5%
Parlon (C4H6Cl2) – 9%
into the sky while igniting the star
Copper (II) oxide – 3%
4. Fuse continues to burn to ignite the following lift charges 5. Repeat 7 times
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Rocket
The box provides a tube which is used to dig in the ground to launch the rocket from. The rocket is formed by two sections. The rocket engine and the canister shell. The rocket engine has a layer of card around it with but beneath this is a plastic container with a clay nozzle on. The other end of the engine is exposed so it is able to ignite the burst charge of the canister shell. The cannister shell is just simply a cylindrical heavy paper casing loaded with the break charge and stars with no separation between the two.
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Suspected Composition (Propellant)
Suspected Composition (Stars)
Process
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 69%
Potassium perchlorate (KClO4) – 70%
1. Ignite fuse
Charcoal (C) – 22%
PVC – 15%
2. Fuse ignites rocket engine
Sulphur (S) – 4%
Silicone (Si) –10%
3. Rocket engine propels the device into
Aluminum (Al) – 5%
Copper(II)oxide (CuO) – 10%
the sky 4. Rocket engine ignites break charge 5. Break charge ignites and propells stars
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Cake
This firework contains 24 shots of a variety of effects. The shots are loaded in a cylindrical heavy paper casing with a lift charge and card barrier between the shot. The shot itself is also within a casing with a clay plug with a small length of fuse appearing from the centre, The top of the shot has a heavily compacted composition that crackles. The shots are linked together by fusing each one together via the points of the lift charge.
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Suspected Composition (Lift)
Suspected Composition (Stars)
Process
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 69%
Bismuth Trioxide (Bi2O3) – 70%
1. Ignite fuse
Charcoal (C) – 22%
Magnalium (Mg/Al) – 15%
2. Fuse ignites lift charge
Sulphur (S) – 4%
Copper(II)oxide (CuO) – 10%
3. Lift charge shoots the shot into the sky
Aluminum (Al) – 5%
Nitrocellulose Lacquer (C6H7N3O11) – 5%
igniting the fuse. 4. Fuse ignites the shot making it explode and ignites the crackling composition 5. Repeats 24 times
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Law With danger comes restrictions. Fireworks originated as weapons and still remain dangerous as they burn at incredibly hot temperatures and can linger above our heads. There is no surprise that not everyone can buy them. In the United Kingdom fireworks cannot be sold to people under the age of 18. This was increased from 16 in 1997. The general public is not permitted to set off fireworks between 11 pm and 7 am with exceptions only for: ■
New Year – Valid until 1 am
■
Bonfire Night – Valid until midnight
■
The Chinese New Year – Valid until 1 am
■
Diwali – Valid until 1 am
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Fireworks in the UK are governed primarily by the Fireworks Regulations 2004 (under powers delegated from the Fireworks Act 2003), the Pyrotechnic Articles (Safety) Regulations 2010, and British Standards BS 7114 and BSEN 14035. Otherwise, all fireworks, since 1997, must comply with BS7114, Consumer fireworks must be marked accordingly and fall into one of the following three categories:
1. 2. 3. Indoor
fireworks are for use in extremely restricted areas.
Garden
fireworks must be safely viewable from 5 metres away, and must scatter no debris beyond a 3 metre range.
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Display
fireworks must be safely viewable from 5 metres away, and must scatter no debris beyond a 3 metre range.
A firework usually gets its category as a result of its gunpowder content, weight, size and how far it ejects debris. All fireworks on sale to the public have to be extensively tested and classified as either Category 1, 2 or 3. These classifications also impose a noise limit and ensure the firework has a safety fuse and clear instructions on the label. In coming years you will start to see fireworks which carry the CE marking. This is because new legislation came into force in 2010 for all new fireworks imported after that date. However, fireworks imported already are exempt from the new laws and can be sold until 2017.
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1.
Category 1 devices which are known as indoor fireworks for use in small areas. Therefore they are required to have very little to no debris. This catagory generally includes sparklers and small gerbs.
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2.
Category 2 devices which are known as garden fireworks must be safely viewable from 5 m (16 ft) and must not scatter debris beyond 3 m (9.8 ft).if the firework is classified to British Standards. However you may see an increasing number of fireworks in the coming years which are classified to new EU/EN standards and the safety distance in that case is 8 metres.
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3.
Category 3 devices which are known as display fireworks require the greatest distance which is 25 metres for fireworks classified to British Standards. Again, it is likely in coming years you will see a number of fireworks classified to the new EU/EN standards and although the firework will still be Category 3 it may have a different safety distance on the label, for example 15 metres.
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Professional Fireworks
4.
Category 4 devices which are known as professional fireworks are for sale only to fireworks professionals. They have no restrictions, and this is the default category for any firework which has not been tested to confirm that it should be in one of the lower categories. Members of the public are not allowed to possess Category 4 fireworks. The law considers a firework professional to be someone employed in a business that fires fireworks, such as a firework display outlet, or a stagehand. There is no legal requirement for training courses or display experience, and completely inexperienced staff can legally fire dangerous Category 4 fireworks. In practice, most stores that sell Category 4 fireworks do ask for proof of training; most category
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4 professionals are trained under the British Pyrotechnics Association Professional Firers Training Scheme, although other training schemes are provided by some commercial organisations. Company directors are liable under the Health and Safety at Work Act for the safety of their employees, and prosecutions have occurred.
Firework Classifications For the purposes of transport and packaging, all fireworks are given a UN classification number, depending on their potential hazard. For consumer fireworks this will be 1.3G or 1.4G and that will be shown on the side of the firework’s original box as an orange diamond with the UN number inside. UN hazard division classification is assigned to explosives as they are packaged for transport. The nature of packaging (or lack of it) and the quantity and arrangement in storage can
have a significant effect on the hazard presented in nontransport situations. Therefore, the hazards presented by explosives must be assessed throughout the course of their manufacture, storage and handling to ensure that the correct hazard type is used under all conditions. This assessment tests and trials to be carried out to determine how an explosive behaves in particular circumstances.
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Hazard Type
Definition (regulation 2 MSER)
Explanation
Hazard Type 1
An explosive which, as a result of, or as
a mass explosion is one in which the
a result of any effect of, the conditions of
entire body of explosives explodes as one
its storage or process of manufacture has a mass explosion hazard
Hazard Type 2
An explosive which, as a result of, or as a result of any effect of, the conditions of its storage or process of manufacture has a serious projectile hazard but does not have a mass explosion hazard
Hazard Type 3
An explosive which, as a result of, or as a
ie those explosives which give rise to
result of any effect of, the conditions of its
considerable radiant heat or which burn to
storage or process of manufacture has a
produce a minor blast or projection hazard
fire hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection hazard, or both, but does not have a mass explosion hazard
Hazard Type 4
An explosive which, as a result of, or as
ie those explosives which present only
a result of any effect of, the conditions of
a low hazard in the event of ignition or
its storage or process of manufacture has
initiation, where no significant blast or
a fire or slight explosion hazard, or both,
projection of fragments of appreciable
with only local effect
size or range is expected
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Industry The pyrotechnic industry branches out within a few different areas. The main industry is the firework display industry. Professional firework displays are used for many special occasions such as weddings, festivals and corporate events ect. Firework display companies offer a far more comprehensive service than what the general public can produce themselves. With access to category 4 devices and specialised equiptment display companies have a sure selling point when it comes to putting finesse into a display. Modern technology plays a big role within the industry nowadays. Companies have to Safely and accurately preform and organised pyrotechnic visual
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and of course computers play a big role to help keep things moving efficiently.
Skyburst is one of the one of the largest and most comprehensive suppliers of firework displays in the UK with a history of providing professional shows and products. Founded in 1982 by Alan Christie Skyburst is a family business. Skyburst now incorporates a retail shop, an online supply business and a professional display service. Based near Bristol, but operating throughout the UK, Skyburst performs displays and celebrations, large and small specifically designed for indervidual clients.. Skyburst is wholeheartly committed to raising the standards of the UK fireworks Industry. As a team they possess 100s of years of collective knowledge, firing thousands of local, national and interenational displays. They create bespoke displays to match budgets, tastes and needs. They have kindly agreed to be part of this publication
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Equiptment
Skyburst’s busiest periods lie within the months of October – January. When they are not overly booked with displays the team used the quieter periods to make the bespoke equipment needed to keep ahead of the game. Generally this equipment is not available to buy because of how niche and specialist it is. Skyburst have a workshop based in the depths of Bristol where they construct and store all of their equipment.
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The equipment they make is generally made from strips of metal welded together. Their warehouse contains a complete workshop which allows Skyburst. To make all of their equiptment without having to outsource any external companies to help them.
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Category 3 Mortar Tubes
Skyburst have hundreds of 3 and 4 inch mortar tubes that are used to fire category 3 aerial shells. Because of licencing and insurance fees Skyburst are quite reluctant to use category 4 fireworks, The larger fireworks in their displays are 3 – 4 inch shells that still do create a great effect because they are rarely stocked in public shops the public can still reckognised the specialism.
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The tubes are made from a high density plastic with a concrete plug at the bottom making the tube heavy and stable. These mortar tubes can be stacked together in racks so Skyburst can create a large cake of aerial shells. The mortar racks are simply made out of wood and loosely hold five mortars together.
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Category 4 Mortar Tubes
They also have a lot of mortar tubes capable of firing category 4 aerial shells. These have become less used because of recent law changes. However if the client demands it they supply it however it will cost extra. These tubes stretch from 5 – 16 inches. Category 4 tubes are made out of the same high density plastic as the category 3 mortar tubes with a concrete plug at the end.
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The excessive size of the shell allows some mind blowing effects to be produced (like the diadem shell above). Skyburst’s fireworks are custom made in China and are ordered by demand to avoid extra insurance costs.
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Arrays
These set up devices are custom made by Skyburst, The can be used to attach ground based devices to each spike such as roman candles, gerbs and star mines. Each device is attached to the spikes using cable ties. Columns of spikes can be added and removed as pleased to make the set up neat and bespoke.
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The effect given is the ability to shoot ground based devices at different angles. This portrays the specialty provided by specialised companies such as Skyburst.
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Technology
Skyburst rely on technology to keep their displays organised and precise. Their devices do not use traditional fuse. Instead the devices are ignited using an electronic match or ‘e-match’. Along side with this they use a digital firing system made by a company called Fire One. The display can be timed and programed using specialist computer software what allows for the display to be planned and drawn out before reaching the display area.
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From this the fireworks can be set up in the same fashion and connected to the computer. The software is able to conduct the whole planned out display just by the press of the button. This means the main job of the team is to set up each firework in the correct position and wire it up to the Fire One equipment.
Firing Panels
Firing panels link up to the computer and contain the brains to send the set ignition charges to the pyrotechnic devices. For Skyburst the software on the computer controls pre-designed sequence. This allows for precision display firing. they can also be used manually without a computer link by pressing the set buttons on the panel.
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Rails
The control panel links to the rails which are attached to the e-matches of the devices. These act as splitters keeping the wires leading to the firing panel minimal. Skyburst have keep two different types of rails. This one is a wired compact version used for smaller displays. It has 32 e-match ques. Each of these ques can be triggered indervidually from the firing panel and software.
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This version is the state-of-the-art wireless or wired operation featuring microprocessor that allows controlled capacitive discharge electronics with a charger. It also has 32 e-match cues. Each of these cues can be triggered individually from the firing panel and software.
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Craze There are a small amount of people that create pyrotechnic devices as a hobby. Although the laws on manufacturing self made pyrotechnics is shady people still do it. Creating your own pyrotechnics does requite a few pieces of bespoke equipment. Majority of this can be sourced and shipped from America. Alternatively it is possible to create your own using materials regularly found but this does require some engineering. Sourcing chemicals can be difficult, however many pyrotechnic chemicals have secondary uses for example, potassium nitrate can be used as a plant fertiliser as can sulfur. Creating your own pyrotechnics is an incredible thing. However
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people should who do should have a functioning knowledge of chemistry before playing with the potentially dangerous chemicals used within production.
A good amount of effects can be atchieved using 4 main ingredients that are fairly easy to souce:
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) Potassium nitrate can easily sourced as a plant fertiliser. However the purity of this grade is usually questionable. Generally potassium nitrate is easy to buy from chemical suppliers without a license within the UK. It can also be bought from auction websites such as eBay. Sometimes searching for the name salt petre (which is a more sober name for the chemical) can link you to a supplier.
Charcoal (C) Charcoal needs to be in powder form to be used in pyrotechnics. Charcoal powders main use is within pyrotechnics so it is fairly hard to find. It can be bought from auction websites such as eBay. Charcoal powder usually is not tabooed because it is in essence just charcoal. Alternatively barbaque charcoal can just be ground up using a ball mill of a coffee grinder. However, charcoal for in pyrotechnics generally needs to be made from a softwood for example lumpwood, willow or balsa. Sulphur (S) Sulphur is a chemical that is commonly used all round there should be no trouble getting it. Like potassium nitrate it is also used in gardening. Sulphur usually comes in a fine powder which is always good when it comes to pyrotechnics with the exception of some compositions.
Dextrin (C6H10O5) Dextrin is a very easy substance to make. You can make dextrin simply by placing a tray of corn flour in the oven until it turns golden brown. Corn flour can be bought from nearly any supermarket. Dextrin can also be sourced online with no trouble.
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Simple Compositions Gun Powder (Meal)
Gun Powder (Granulated)
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 75%
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 74%
Charcoal (C) – 15%
Charcoal (C) – 12%
Sulphur (S) – 10%
Sulphur (S) – 9% Dextrin (C6H10O5) – 5%
Rocket Propellant Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 72% Charcoal (C) – 24% Sulphur (S) – 4%
Gerb Mixture Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 70% Charcoal (C) – 21% Sulphur (S) – 9%
Firefly Star Mixture Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 44% Charcoal (C) – 44% Sulphur (S) – 6% Dextrin (C6H10O5) – 6%
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Ball Mill A ball mill is a vital piece of equipment when it comes to making your own pyrotechnics. It is a is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or mixing) chemicals. Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the grinding medium. Different materials are used as media, including ceramic balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel balls. An internal cascading effect reduces the material to a fine powder. A rock tumbler functions on the same principle and are widely available to buy. It is not impossible to make a ball mill at home. Many people salvage motors from washing machines and drills to construct a ball mill. Ball mills are used in pyrotechnics to meld the
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compositions into each other and overall refining the chemicals used. This is essential to create a composition that burns effectively and consistently. Not all compositions can be mixed in a ball mill. Any metallic substances should be left out of the ball mill because of the friction they generate could potentially ignite the composition. Metallic substances should be screened in seperately after the other elements have been through the process.
This bench top ball mill is the only commercial ball mill designed for hobbyist pyrotechnicians. It is sold in America. The motor is weak and the drive belts provided break often. It is far more viable to create your own ball mill with a motor that is designed for running for long periods of time.
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Media
There are many types of grinding media suitable for use in a ball mill, each material having its own specific properties and advantages. Key properties of grinding media are size, density, hardness, and composition. Size The smaller the media particles, the smaller the particle size of the final product. At the same time, the grinding media particles should be substantially larger than the largest pieces of material to be ground. Generally for bench top ball mills standard 10mm ball bearings are the media most commonly used Density The media should be denser than the material being ground. It becomes a problem if the grinding media floats on top of the material to be ground. For mixing general compositions density is not usually a factor to worry about. When grinding down your own metallic powder this factor should be taken into account. Hardness The grinding media needs to be durable enough to grind the material, but where possible should not be so tough that it also wears down the tumbler at a fast pace. Composition For pyrotechnics it is important to have media that will not produce any static or spark while in the mill. The three most common compositions of media are usually the ones to go for. They are ceramic, lead and chrome plated steel.
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Lead media is the most popular choice among pyrotechnics. Lead is reliably the only really spark-free media and is considered to be the standard for milling comps like gunpowder. Lead is softer than the other media and will wear down over time. This causes some slight danger if some lead there is some lead in the composition being burned there will be some lead in the smoke produced. This presents a danger of lead poisoning.
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Mesh Screen Mesh screens have two purposes. They can be used to help mix compositions that are too sensitive to go through the ball mill process. They are also used when creating a powder to filter out any larger particles after milling. Mesh is used as a unit of measurement when referring to powders within pyrotechnics. The unit relates to the amount of openings there are within an inch of a mesh screen. For example is there are 200 openings within an of a screen that screen would be 200 mesh. An array of mesh screens is important to anyone making spark effect stars as the ability to know the size of the metallic particles used is vital when aiming for an array of effects.
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The smaller the mesh size the larger the particles of the powder. Larger particles would burn as a larger spark, long lived spark.
A variety of mesh screens are hard to come by in the UK. Generally UK hobbyist will have to source screens from America. Screens usually come just as a sheet so a form of surround will have to be made. The best way to do this is to get a full metal kitchen sieve, carefully deconstruct it and replace the mesh. For general purposes like mixing a standard kitchen sieve can be used.
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Star Cutting Star can be cut in cut in three different ways each uses difference equipment:
Pumped stars are stars that have been pumped using a star pump. A dampened composition is put in the star pump and is pressed against a flat surface and ejected again, creating cylinder shaped stars.
Cut stars is a dampened composition spread out to an even layer on a flat surface. The stars are then cut into cubes.
Rolled stars are small cores of a hard material (often lead shot or an organic material such as mustard seeds or even cut stars) which are coated in a rotating mixer similar to a concrete mixer. First some water is sprayed on cores. Then an amount of a pyrotechnic composition is dropped into the mixer. These two steps are repeated, and the stars will grow bigger and bigger into a spherical shape.
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Cut stars is by far the easiest method when producing stars. The only equipment needed is a rolling pin and a knife. However cubic shape of them makes then hard to arrange within devices cause a lot of dead space. A star pump can be made by cutting the end off a syringe. The cylinder shape is more practical however they take longer to produce compared with cutting. Rolled stars require a lot of time and extra resources but spheres are the most practical within pyrotechnics.
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Scales Scales are one of the most vital pieces of equipment to have when making pyrotechnics compositions. Compositions are given in ratios and are converted into weight using the ratio add up to create the amount of composition needed. For example:
500g of granulated gun powder would convert to the following: Gun Powder (Granulated)
Gun Powder (Granulated)
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 74%
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) – 370g
Charcoal (C) – 12%
Charcoal (C) – 60g
Sulphur (S) – 9%
Sulphur (S) – 45g
Dextrin (C6H10O5) – 5%
Dextrin (C6H10O5) – 25g
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It is important to have an accurate set of scales. Fundamentally digital that give at least a point decimal of a gram reading. These are available everywhere due to the fact that they are widely used for other circumstances.
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Other Materials Casings Casings for devices are fundamental for creating pyrotechnics devices. It is very important that they are made from a material that will not create shrapnel like glass and metal. Casings for spherical aerials shells are hard to come by in the UK but they are avalible in America. Alternatively they can be made by layering and gluing paper over a spherical object such a tennis ball however this takes a lot of time and generally has a poor outcome. Specialist cylindrical casings are are again, hard to come by. However they can easily be replaced by using PVC piping or creating them out of paper.
Dowel A variety of different sized dowels are great to have in a hobbyists collection of tools. They are primarily used for compressing compositions in casings for devices like rockets and gerbs. This is done by adding small amounts of the composition into the casing and using a mallet to compress it down and then repeating until the casing is full. The same compression process can be used for making plugs using dry bentonite clay. They can also be used as a guide for making cylindrical casings by wrapping paper and glue around them.
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Chinese Time Fuse Chinese time fuse is vital when marking aerial shell to mask the exterior compositions away from the burning fuse. It is hard to replace this material however there are a few companies within the UK that supply Chinese time fuse.
Visco Fuse Visco is a good all round fuse to uses where Chinese time fuse is not necessary. It is water resistant and burns are a even pace. Visco can be replaced by using ‘black match’ which is gun powder coated string. Adding around 5% dextrin to the standard gun powder composition helps the gun powder bind to the string. Visco is also available with a few companies within the UK.
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Injury Fireworks are a modern beauty and wonder. It is hard to believe that theyare linked to weaponry sometimes. They deserve as much treatment and respect as any other life endangering object. Some fireworks can burn as hot as 1600°C. This is hot enough to cause third-degree burns /severe skin burns or ignite clothing. It is no surprise that fireworks are the cause of thousands of injuries worldwide each year. Most of these injuries occur in private areas where people are using consumer fireworks for their own private display. It is always important to follow the correct instructions to maintain the proper precaution when handling highly dangerous pyrotechnic devices.
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Great Britain 2005 Four-week period during October-November Place of Accident
Number of injuries
Family or private party
475
Semi-public party
38
Large public display
121
Street or other public place
247
Indoors
25
Other
5
Not specified
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Type of Firework
Number of injuries
Rocket
216
Aerial Device
111
Sparkler
104
Ground Based
102
Self made or Tampering
15
Not Known
443
100
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