HONG KONG A C I T Y S T U D Y
J A M E S F E N G -‐ -‐ -‐ 2 0 1 4 S E M E S T E R 1 ARCH9040 The East Asian City: PAST AND PRESENT FUTURES
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descendants of one of such magistrate Tang Fu-‐hip. The rise was most notable during the Yuan Dynasty (1271 – 1368 C.E.) when Chinese refugee entered the area, the earliest establishments were of the Tang, the Hau, the Pang, the Liu and the Man, despite the availability of land for agriculture p urposes, t he m ain i ncome w as f rom t rade w ith s alt, p earl a nd f isheries. The first walled village of Tsang Tai Uk 6 w as not completed until 1850 by a stonemason who worked the excellent local granite, with walls marking a territory as well as for protection from bandits. Further early construction traditions are further seen in the territory’s Tin Hau 7 T emples and ancestral Halls, a number of which still exist today. In the imperial Chinese Era the villagers were their own builders and it was not until European colonisation in January 1841 that building and infrastructure development was as rapid as the development of Hong Kong as an entrepôt but also i mmigration a s c aused b y p olitical d isturbances i n C hina. European C olonisation The early 16 th century marked Hong Kong’s first contact with the Western world. The first western visitor was a Portuguese mariner Jorge Alvaries in 1513. After Alvaries had settled in Hong Kong, Portugal b egan t o s etup t rade i n M acau i n 1 517 w ith a s trong i nterest i n k eeping t heir m onopoly o n the China trade, even by means of sabotage 8. The Maritime Prohibition came into effect to prevent further contact with foreigners while simultaneously preventing local sea activities; villagers were order to migrate fifty li inland under Qing emperor Kangxi’s order of the Great C learance in 1661 to sever contact from the Ming loyalists in Taiwan. Violent means of expulsion such as destruction of villages were used and famine ensued. Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and villages such as Kam Tin became wastelands until the lifting of the ban in 1669. China resumed maritime trade and ports were reopened. The Honourable East India Company ventured into China in 1699, and the contact with British merchants in Chinese ports of D inghai, A moy a nd S hanghai drastically increased. It was not until 1757 when China felt that the situation needed control and imposed a steep increase in custom duties, when that did not seem to deter westerners, emperor Qianlong issued an edict banning all foreign trade in ports other than Canton. The foreigners were highly restrained, and had t o a bide b y a ll i mposed C hinese r egulations s uch a s r esidential r estriction; r estriction i n a ccess to o nly t he f actory c ompound; a nd t he r estriction t o f emale f amily m embers c oming t o s hore. T rade flourished despite such conditions. However towards the end of the 18 th century there was a build-‐ up for an imbalance of trade as Europe’s demand for Chinese silk and tea far exceeded China’s appetite for European goods. What had come to tip the scale was a narcotic that had embedded itself i nto t he b eginning o f m odern C hinese h istory – o pium.
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曾大屋 or "Big House of the Tsangs", established and inhabited by a mainly Hakka ethnic group.
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天后誕，Two temples have a marine parade to celebrate the Tin Hau Festival. as is in the case of the English squadron led by Captain Wedell in 1637
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The well-‐known history of the Opium Wars will not be outlined here but its effect on Hong Kong will be examined. Charles Elliot’s Chuanbi Convention 9 o utlined terms the provided for the cession of Hong Kong to Britain, though the conditions reserved the Chinese government’s right to collect custom d uties a t H ong K ong. H owever b oth p arties l ater r epudiated t he c onvention. I t w as n ot u ntil the signing of the Treaty of Nanking on August 29 th 1842 that Hong Kong was ceded to Britain for an i ndefinite p eriod o f t ime. The rapid rate of building development, which many consider to be a recent phenomenon, in fact begun shortly after British occupation. Reviewed in the Hong Kong Gazette in January 1842, the early stages of construction was rather rudimentary, at the start all structures were constructed by palm leaves; called the Chinese kwai, windows and doors were introduced, and occasionally there would be one room in the structure made of bricks. The Government soon after initiated the building of the Magistracy and prison. References can also be found of imported wooden houses from S ingapore e rected u pon a l ower s tory o f s tone. The early days on the British colony was met with difficulty, construction-‐wise, an insufficient supply of coolies and craftsmen delayed processes of site clearance and building constructions necessary to the development of the settlements, conditions improved a month later with the arrival of more masons, carpenters, craftsmen and coolies. The first population census of the island did not exceed 5450 people, living in around 16 villages, hamlets and bazaar, with about 2000 fishermen living afloat. Frequent typhoons and the humid weather led to severe destruction of properties and the occurrence of diseases. The typhoon of July 1841 lashed Hong Kong, demolishing significant parts of new constructions, to be followed by a second hit a couple days later. Waterborne diseases, tetanus; venereal diseases all had to be addressed respectively by the installation o f b etter d rainage s ystems, b y v accinations a nd b y i mposing s trict h ealth regulations to prostitutes. From this the beginning of a regulated, functioning settlement was being to take form. By June 1842, the town was considerably more than 2 miles long, containing storehouses and shops10. By December 1842, the colony was becoming ‘thriving and populous’11 a nd by September 1843 the town had again nearly doubled in size 12. The controversy surrounding what was the first European style building in Hong Kong and the story of one likely case of the godown erected by Jardine, Matheson and Company reflects Hong Kong’s early entrepreneurial attitudes: the godown began its construction before a title to the lot was even acquired. From the beginning, those who are interested in real estate was frustrated at the leisurely speed at which the Government makes its decisions. Faced with delays and pressed for adequate storage space for goods, the firm undertook the financial gamble of building without land title, which paid off handsomely as they
The Convention of Chuenpee (also spelt Chuenpi or Chuanbi) signed in Guangdong, China, was one of the initial attempts to bring the First Opium War between the Qing dynasty and the United Kingdom to an end. It was drafted in 1841, but not formally ratified due to disagreements between the two parties. 10 Captain Arthur Cunyngheme wrote on arriving the colony in June 1842. 11 Lieutenant John Ouchterlony, of the Madras Engineers, wrote in December 1842. 12 Sir Harry Parks in an account written in September 1843. 9
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acquired it soon after, later they were able to arrange for its profitable transfer to the Government. During that time, there were few general contractors or architects and engineers in Hong Kong, most construction work was carried out by sub-‐contractors under the instructions of architects or engineers or by the client directly employing labour. Due to the shortage of available supervisory skills, Jardine had to import an architect from Calcutta to plan and supervise the erection of their three-‐storey warehouse at East Point. It was not long before general contracting firms began to emerge a s a n i mportant p art o f H ong K ong’s c ommercial a nd e conomic s tructure. Economically, despite the indemnity of twenty-‐one million silver dollars, the colony’s economy dipped into deficits of up to forty nine thousand pounds in 1845. The bad business of the opium trade in Hong Kong resulted from merchants bypassing Hong Kong for the newly opened ports further up the coast, having already secured Hong Kong. The colony’s importance in opium smuggling was therefore significantly reduced; it was now nothing more than a ‘frontier town harbouring opium smugglers’. Following the burning of western factories in Canton, and the outbreak of the Second Opium War (1858), the Treaty of Tianjin was signed. The British continued to bombard China with its military expeditions such as the sacking of the Yuan ming yuan, forcing China to ratify the aforementioned treaty in the Convention of Peking, in 1860 handing Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island to Britain’s possession. It was not until 1864 that development began to commence in Kowloon due to a dispute between the government and the Army over its usage. The business centre on the island continued to develop. By 1865, the Central District was accommodating many prestigious buildings. A direct communication line with Europe was established through the laying of an underwater cable to Shanghai to link up with the Danish trans-‐ Siberia line in 1870. Major construction works and repairs were taken from 1871 for the Supreme Court, hospital, police, market and Government House, as well as the Pokfulam Reservoir, the sea wall at Bonham Strand and other public gardens. Significant repairs were also done to roads and drains. T his i s a ccompanied b y c hallenges t he i ndustry s truggled t o o vercome a t t he t ime. P roblems caused by lack of experience of the Chinese contractors in constructing Western-‐style buildings, due to eagerness to obtain contracts, leading to largely underestimating both cost of materials and labour involved. Land reclamation by Government also began in this period, with Bonham Strand being the first in 1851 and Victoria Waterfront from 1889, which reclaimed the harbour. Completed a year earlier in 1888 was the significant piece of civil engineering -‐ the Peak Tramway, opening u p t he P eak f or d evelopment w hich w as t hen l ined w ith m any f ine m ansions. The first series of buildings which later became iconic to Hong Kong was built in this era was the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters, completed in 1886 by stonemasons 13, throughout the
13 I t w as t he l argest c ommercial d evelopment t o h ave b een b uilt i n H ong K ong a nd n eeded c lose s upervision b y t he architects. A lthough t he b uilding w as o f b rick, t he f acade, c olumns a nd b asement f loor w ere c onstructed f rom l ocally quarried g ranite. A s e lectric l ight d id n ot b ecome a vailable u ntil 1 890 t he b uilding w as g as-‐lit t hroughout. I nside t he building i ncorporated t he m ost r ecent f acilities: e lectric b ells; a m echanical l ift; f ire-‐fighting e quipment.
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building the workmanship was of a standard never before seen in Hong Kong. By 1894, 63 public buildings were listed 14, ranging from Government House to hospitals, schools etc. They may not have been the most spectacular buildings but they were vital to the proper order of the society of Hong Kong. The rapid development in this decade led to the issue of civic sanitation being overlooked or ignored in new developments. Appropriate Ordinances had not been enacted and essentially no actions were taken to address this issue until the outbreak of the bubonic plague in 1894. In the beginning of the twentieth century, housing development was beginning to take shape, most notable was the rise of Sham Shui Po, in which the initiative and influence of contractors in providing the housing and needed cannot be undermined15. By 1918 the Government was offering advantageous terms to those who provide more housing to stimulate the market, eager to push forward plans for the development of the area. The Sham Shui Po Improvement Scheme was introduced around that time and vigorously undertaken. It called for the removal of old village structures and the building of a new type of housing. Another attempt of urban renewal o f the area in 1918 reflected the Government’s attitude towards improving types of housing for Chinese occupancy by loaning property owners money at low interest. In 1904 a business district was emerging in between Pedder and Ice House Street erecting buildings of between four to six storeys high. The grandeur and quality of these Renaissance style buildings set the tone for the Central District of today. Quickly following the completion of these buildings was a decline in the property market due to increased building cost, stricter enforcement of regulations and the typhoons of 1906 and 1908. Nevertheless, by 1913 a series of new buildings were constructed: Western Market (1906); The Hong Kong University Main Building (1910), The Supreme Court 16 ( 1912); the railway as well as the Taikoo Shing Dockyard, which later became a private residential development. Naturally, development diminished prior to and during WWI but following the war Hong Kong continued t o p rosper, t he p opulation t ripled t o 1 .6 m illion b y 1 941. Japanese O ccupation E ra Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from December 1941 to August 1945, this period, known as samnin b atyut, ‘ three y ears e ight m onths’ i s o ften r eferred t o a s t he d arkest m oment i n H ong K ong’s history. Both the Chinese and westerners lived in conditions of torture, physical, sexual abuse to semi-‐starvation. Hyper inflation and food rationing was a daily occurrence as the Hong Kong Dollar became outlawed and replaced by the Japanese military Yen, a currency without reserves. The unconditional surrender of Japan to the Allies in August 1945 marked the beginning of the Modern
The Government Blue Book Entry for Crown property for 1984. As T he f irst b uildings i n t he n ew S ham S hui P o w ere e ight h ouses b uilt i n 1 909 b y a w ealthy H ong K ong c ontractor L i Ping u sing C rown L eases. 16 Now the Legco Building 14 15
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period for Hong Kong, though its condition at the time was unpleasant -‐ depopulated, deforested, depleted o f f ood. H ong K ong’s o riginal 1 .6-‐million-‐population p lummeted t o a round 6 00,000 d uring Japanese occupation then in the post war period there was a significant rise of emigration back to Hong Kong from mainland China, as a result of the communist revolution in China in 1949, population r eached 2 .4 m illion b y 1 950 a nd c ontinues t o r ise t o 3 m illion b y t he 6 0s. T his s teep r ise reflect on the incredible task Hong Kong had achieved to generate the means at a sufficiently fast pace t o s upport i ts e xploding r efugee p opulation. In the Annual Report of 1947, the situation is well described. Tenement-‐type housing for 160,000 people and European-‐type housing for 7000 people suffered destruction during Japanese occupation. Damage to European houses was mainly caused by looting; cause of damage to tenement-‐type houses were due largely to Allied aerial bombings. Despite discouraging factors of mentioned high material and labour costs, reconstruction, rehabilitation and repairs to properties continued.17 Modern H ong K ong u nder B ritish R ule Hong Kong enjoyed its transition as centre of trade entrepôt to a city of industry and manufacturing. Fleeing the People’s Liberation Army, masses of manufacturers, entrepreneurs determined not to lose everything to communism, emigrated from the mainland, especially from areas such as Shanghai, Wuxi, Suzhou, and Ningbo, to Hong Kong, bringing with them capital, equipment, and expertise, which when fused with the already available cheap refugee labour, fuelled Hong Kong’s unprecedented economic growth. The significance of textile was monumental to the revival of Hong Kong. Squatter camps were developed to accommodate for the rapidly increasing population, however the risks of fire and health hazards were extremely high due to the lack of planning and the speed of implementation. The Housing Authority was established after the disastrous fire in the squatter of Shek K ip M ei. 18 P ublic housing estates that were originally built to be seven-‐storeys high with notoriously constrained conditions with communal bathrooms and no kitchens were hastily built to accommodate the influx of refugees. After the Buildings Ordinance increased the height limit of residential buildings in 1955, the first ‘multi-‐storey building’ as a standard plan was introduced by governor Alexander Grantham to address the mentioned hazards. The city saw the birth of its famous modern-‐day high-‐rises. The Resettlement Department was responsible for the emergency accommodation and the new Housing Authority for Hong Kong’s first public housing, building its first estate at North Point in 1958, and continued to build flats for 244,000 people between 1954 and 1973. The 50s saw the beginning of the construction of new
N evertheless m any c onstructions t hat r equired u rgent a ttention w ere n ot r ebuilt a nd a s m any a s 6 0 b uilding c ollapses have b een r eported, k illing 2 8 a nd i njuring m any m ore. 18 I n 1 954 f ires w ere s poradic u ntil o ne i n t wenty o f t he u rban p opulation l ost t heir h omes. T he e vent w as k nown i n Chinese t o b e 石硤尾大火。 17
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towns 19. Public buildings including the redevelopment of Kai Tak Airport and the construction of bank buildings also took place in this decade, and by the mid-‐60s, private apartments including the densely p acked T ong L au h ad g rown t o o ver 2 0 s tories h igh. The late 60s period was characterised by political turmoil and violence, notably from the communist c ultural r evolution o f w hat w as t hen t he n ew P eople’s R epublic o f C hina20. A nti-‐violence and anti-‐leftist media personnel, notably the assassination of radio host Lam B un, were targeted by death squats while leftist newspapers condoned incidences of these murders. It was not until December 1967 when Premiere Zhou Enlai ordered a stop to the bombings that the Cultural Revolution h ad e nded i n H ong K ong. The following decade in Hong Kong saw drastic social reforms. Equal pay of man and women was established while government subsidised education also increased to nine years. Cultural shifts were concurrent, as big screen cinemas became more popular, overriding the traditional Cantonese opera. T ourism b egan to formalise as cultures consolidated. Hong K ong w as at its all time high with its socioeconomic measures such as life expectancy; GDP per capita; as well as literacy rate. A growing economy facilitated for the first private housing estates and Taikoo Shing became the location of new property development for middle-‐class estate in 1972, with its highly efficient functionality; its design was regarded as the new standard for private estates at the time. During this period there was also a renewed interest in private building development, as well as a continuation of public sector projects that had begun in the late 60s. It was from this momentous period t hat t he m odern d ay H ong K ong b egan t o t ake i ts s hape. The early 70s marked the beginning of a changing relationship with the West; China was suddenly re-‐admitted into the community of nations as the vital counter weight to the power of the Soviet Union. In 1971 the United States lifted the trade sanctions on China and in ’72 President Nixon of the United States went on his historical visit to China. Britain quickly followed suit and suddenly became friends with China despite the bombing of the British embassy in Beijing roughly five years before. Hong Kong seemed to be the price for the resumption of cordial relations between Britain and China. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s signing of the Sino-‐British Joint Declaration in 1984 handed Hong Kong back to the sovereignty of the People’s Republic of China effective from the 1 st of July 1997. Thatcher also signed Chairman of the PRC Deng X iaoping’s proposal of the One Country, Two Systems. Its principle agreed on the term that the socialist system of the PRC will not be imposed on what would be the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) and that the region will possess a high degree of autonomy. This proposal will stand for fifty years 21. The
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T he f irst b eing T suen W an, 荃 灣. U ltimately s even n ew t owns h ave b een d eveloped a nd w ork c ontinues.
T he R ed G uards c arried o ut p urges a nd p ro-‐communist m ovements s pread t o a nd e ffectively p lacing t he P ortuguese colony o f M acau u nder d e f acto c ontrol o f t he P RC. T he m ovement t hen p ermeated w est t o H ong K ong i n D ecember 1 966. The l eftist r iots o f 1 967 f illed t he s treets w ith b ombings t o t he b rink o f g uerrilla w arfare. 21 ‘fifty years was not casually or impetuously fixed on; it was defined in the light of China’s developmental needs. -‐Deng Xiaoping December 19,1984 in the presence of Margarat Thatcher p94 20
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warnings of the 1997 handover alarmed the many who feared communism and emigration reached historical heights as people moved overseas to countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. In 1990, the Hong Kong Basic Law was accepted to be the constitution for the Special Administrative Region after the hand over, however the mini-‐ constitution s eemed t o f avour m ore t he P RC s ide r ather t han t he d emocratic s ide.22 The 2 1 st C entury V erticality The new millennium opened up Hong Kong to a series of events; many who have opposed the handover found themselves continuing to live there, carried by the dynamism of the city. As many as 75000 people marched the streets opposing the controversial Article 23 of the Basic Law, which outlines Hong Kong’s obligation in persecuting any citizen who violated the laws of PRC, especially that of political intent. The SARS outbreak in 2003 as well as the continual reoccurrence of the bird flu (H5N1 virus) placed Hong Kong on a global stage, while its economy struggled at the impact of the h ealth c risis a nd t ried t o a djust v iscally. Before the late 90s, primary demand for contemporary architecture centred on Central, which line up to synthesise the famous skyline along the coast of Victoria Harbour. Strict height restrictions were enforced in the Kowloon area so that aeroplanes could land without obstruction at the Kai Tak Airport, however when the airport was closed in 1998, such restriction were lifted and many skyscrapers b egan t o p rotrude f rom t he g rounds o f K owloon, i ncluding t he I nternational C ommerce Centre 23 c ompleted in 2010. The past two decades in Hong Kong witnessed the construction of the tallest, grandest commercial and residential towers in the world: the residential Highcliff, the Arch, the Harbourside, with more towers constantly under construction. The skyline of Hong Kong at present is the worlds largest, placing it even ahead of New York City. Its most iconic, yet most controversial I. M. Pei’s Bank of China was completed in a short five years and serves as monument to the city. The public constructions such as Hong Kong’s International Airport near Lan tau, the huge l and r eclamation p rojects f eaturing t hree m ajor b ridges. P roviding m ore d irect c onnections t o areas that are already well-‐connected by Hong Kong’s diverse yet efficient public transport system. Since the mid-‐2000, vertical malls were developed to be directly accessible from MTR (subway) stations, other projects such as Langham Place (2005), Megabox (2007), the Urban Renewal Authority’s K11 (2009), iSQUARE (2009) and Hysan Place (2012) reorganised the multipurpose spaces vertically and have supposedly reduced urban footprint to better integrate with the existing urban fabric, while this degree of ‘successful integration’ of these mega developments can be argued, they can be interpreted as deviating from the unoriginality of shopping malls that have
22 T he n ewly a ppointed l ast G overnor o f H ong K ong, C hris P attern, p laced c onsiderable s train o n H ong K ong’s r elationship with t he P RC b y s uggesting d emocratic r eforms w hich w ould b oost t he n umber o f e lected m embers i n t he l egislative Council. A fter t he h andover, t he P rovisional L egislative C ouncil w hose m embers w ere a ppointed b y t he P RC s wiftly replaced t he l egislative c ouncil. T he f irst C hief E xecutive o f H ong K ong, T ung C he-‐hwa, w as e lected b y a s election committed w hose m embers w ere a lso a ppointed b y t he P RC. 23 484m tall, located at Union Square.
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contributed to the decline of downtown retail, an area Hong Kong is keen to further develop. The MTR Corporation (MTRC)’s subsequent development of large commercial properties on and around its stations also raises question whether such developments are beneficial to society, as the public raises concern to the environmental issues of obstructing surrounding ventilation and the enormous pricing of rent reaching US$6000 per month for 90 square-‐meter apartments, targeting only t he e xtremely r ich.
Future T rend As s een i s t he a bility f or H ong K ong t o a djust i n s pite o f p olitical a nd s ocial u psets, i t s eems t hat t he only two factors that can halt Hong Kong’s development would be from economic downturns or from viral biological disasters concurrent many cities in the region. Political changes will be expected to occur near the end of the fiftieth year One C ountry, T wo S ystems policy at 2047 but it is unlikely that Hong Kong’s urban fabric would be disrupted to a large degree by political change. On the off chance, the system would quickly counteract the changes and establishes a new equilibrium as it would always be, in the foreseeable future, in PRC’s interest to allow its portal to the Western world to thrive and prosper. Possible issues of hygiene, social disparity is on the rise and in the next few decades it is expected that older tenement-‐type buildings that still exist would be rebuilt or refurbished, countering both the commercial and the residential mega-‐developments that are constantly taking place. The issue of urban density can always be address by building residential building with increased verticality or by building on more and more extensive land reclamations 24, which Hong Kong already has had an immense amount of experience. It would be interesting to see also the optimisation of the transport network 25 t o allow for more efficiency and clarity for its citizens. Hong Kong’s dynamism, combining the rapidity of Chinese construction techniques and Western d esigns a nd m anagement, i s w hat c onstitutes i t a s b eing a g lobal m etropolis, f rom t his f eat of developing a small island colony into a megacity with a population of more than seven million in less than two hundred years is nothing short of impressive. It is quite melancholic to note that the buildings, the skyline that represents the city-‐state now (while continuing to grow in verticality) will no doubt one day be replaced with buildings that satisfy the social needs of its era. Its existence r emains w ith t he m inds o f t he o ld t hat a re t oo, f ading a way w hile t he y oung t akes c harge. As is with many other East-‐Asian cities, what would remain unchanged would perhaps be the small notches in the cultural fabric, the few remaining Tin Hau Temples, the Lei Cheung Uk Tomb, public parks, historical heritage sites and the greeneries. While everything around these minute spots change to loom above, these places will no doubt define Hong Kong, and will serve as reminders to the r ough j ourney i t h ad u ndergone t o r each t he h eights o f i ts c urrent-‐day s plendour.
also known as land fill, is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, or lake. By means of Haussmannization, which is not simple considering the population density of the city, or by less intrusive methods of reorganizing of current transport routes 24 25
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V i s u a l R e f e r e n c e s
(above) A simplified map of Hong Kong (below) Juxtaposition between the Hong Kong 1920 vs. 2000 from Victoria Harbour
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S o u r c e s : 1)
Keat G in O oi (2004). S outheast A sia: A H istorical E ncyclopedia. A BC-‐CLIO, 9 32.
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The b uilding of H ong K ong: constructing H ong K ong through the a ges / A nthony W alker a nd S tephen M . R owlinson.
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Caroline C ourtauld a nd M ay H oldsworth, T he H ong K ong story, w ith a dditional text b y S imon V ickers.
4)
G.B. E ndacott., A h istory o f H ong K ong
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A H ong K ong : somewhere b etween h eaven a nd earth / a n a nthology selected a nd edited b y B arbara-‐Sue W hite.
6)
T erminating A rchitecture: M ega-‐Development in H ong K ong, S hiqiao, L i, T heory, C ulture & S ociety, 1 2/2013, V olume 3 0, Issue 7 -‐8, p p. 2 77 – 2 89
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BUILDING O N D ISAPPEARANCE -‐ H ONG-‐KONG A RCHITECTURE A ND T HE C ITY, A BBAS, A P UBLIC C ULTURE, 1 994, V olume 6 , Issue 3 , p p. 4 41 -‐ 4 59
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Architecture: N ew H orizons for H ong K ong's S kyline, M ichael D uckworth, A sian W all S treet Journal, 0 8/14/1992, p . P AGE.7
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2013 B i-‐City B iennale o f U rbanism / A rchitecture H ong K ong G rand O pening for D ecember 1 1 A sia B usiness N ewsweekly, ISSN 1 938-‐1816, 1 1/2013, p . 1 38
10) Burnout a mong H ong K ong C hinese a rchitecture students: the p aradoxical effect o f C onfucian c onformity v alues, Jia, Y unyan Andrea; R owlinson, S teve; K van, T homas; L ingard, H elen C lare; Y ip, B renda, V olume 2 7, Issue 3 , p p. 2 87 – 2 98 11) Architecture a nd/in T heatre from the B auhaus to H ong K ong: M athias W oo's L ooking for M ies, F errari, R NEW T HEATRE QUARTERLY, ISSN 0 266-‐464X, 0 2/2012, V olume 2 8, Issue 1 , p p. 3 – 1 9 12) Building, D welling, D rifting: M igrancy a nd the L imits o f A rchitecture. B uilding H ong K ong: F rom M igrancy to Disappearance, A bbas, A ckbar, ISSN 1 368-‐8790, 0 7/1998, V olume 1 , Issue 2 , p p. 1 85 – 1 99 13) Architecture 2 000: H ong K ong-‐-‐Asia's N ew S kyline/Paris-‐-‐A M etropolitan, K aren H arris, T he B ooklist, 0 4/2000, V olume 96, Issue 1 6, p . 1 557 14) http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2005/en/21_02.htm, a cessed 2 0 th o f M ay 2 014 15) Hendrick T ieben, H ong K ong’s T ransformation 2 005-‐2012: A R eview a nd O utlook http://www.futurarc.com/index.cfm/projects-‐2013/2013-‐hong-‐kong-‐city-‐profile/, a ccess 5 th o f June 2 014 16) Ian B rownlee, U rban P lanning M ust R eflect H ong K ong’s G reat N eed for C ommunity a nd O pen S pace http://www.scmp.com/comment/article/1528423/urban-‐planning-‐must-‐reflect-‐hong-‐kongs-‐great-‐need-‐community-‐and-‐ open-‐space, a ccessed 5 th o f June 2 014. 17) Hong Kong Refugee Shek Kip Mei fire in 1953 石硤尾大火, ( Documentary ) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dt8USmzvKbo, accessed 4th of June 2014.
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