5th Year | 2nd Semester | Spring 2020 Thesis Book

SPRING 2020

Figure 1.

Plastic Paradise

Reconstitution of Plastic Waste Through Design of a Module JANEL STITT - ARCHITECTURE THESIS BOOK

2019 - 2020

Plastic Paradise Reconstitution of Plastic Waste Through Design of a Module Request for Approval of Thesis Research Project Book Presented to: Zamila Karimi & M. Saleh Uddin and to the Faculty of the Department of Architecture College of Architecture and Construction Management by Janel Amanda Stitt In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Bachelor of Architecture Kennesaw State University Marietta, Georgia May 1, 2020

I would like to thank my thesis advisors, Professor Zamila Karimi and Professor M. Saleh Uddin for believing in me, making themselves readily available for any questions I had or advice I needed, and for pushing me to continuously explore the methodology and theory of architecture in regards to the material study of my thesis.

To my classmates (and in particular Nhan) who have been with me for these past five years, working through the late hours, but still stopping to give words of encouragement and feedback for my designs.

To my family who have been there to love and support me for my entire journey at Kennesaw State University. From beginning in the business program to pursuing my passion for architecture, you have been with me on this 8 1/2-year marathon. You have never given up hope nor doubted my abilities. Mom, Dad, Kelsey -- I love you all so much, and I can never thank you enough.

To Jen and Erica, who have been my best friends. I didn’t know that I could find such supportive friends who would constantly encourage me to do my best and to never give up.

To Jeremy, who has been my staunchest supporter. As someone who isn’t in the architecture field, you are my best sounding-board for how I deliver information to others. Your honest and thoughtful feedback has pushed me to be more intuitive, and I sincerely appreciate your help and advice, critiques, support, and most of all -- patience.

Design should be regenerative, and always consider what’s next.

- William McDonough

Figure 2.

Table of Contents 1.0 Thesis Proposal 1.1 Design Hypothesis

08

1.1.1 Relevance of the Design Hypothesis in the Global Context

09-18

1.1.2 Underlying Principles of the Design Hypothesis to Proposed Project Typology

19-23

1.2 Proposed Project Nature, Context, and Rationale

24-25

1.3 Precedent Analysis & Case Studies

26-33

2.0 Site

2.1 Site Selection and Its Significance

34-35

2.2 Existing Site Conditions

36

2.3 Topological Survey and Applicable Zoning

37

2.4 Geographical, Natural, and Historical Patterns 2.5 Pedestrian and Vehicular Patterns and Connections

3.0 Program

38-39 40

3.1 Spatial Adjacencies, Connections, & Constraints

41

3.1.1 Site Geometries

42

3.1.2 Spatial Arrangement & Enclosure

43

3.1.3 Spatial Explorations in 3D

44

3.1.4 Acoustics & Enclosure

45

3.2 Development of Module

46-51

3.3 Sustainable Strategies & Environmental Systems

52

3.3.1 Shipping and Assembly

53

3.3.2 Production Process

3.4 Systems Integration

54-57 58-59

3.4.1 Cladding Assembly Process

3.4.2 Cladding Response to Environment

61-65

3.4.3 Modules as Urban Intervention

66-69

4.0 Works Cited

60

THESIS PORTFOLIO

1.0 Thesis Proposal 1.1 Design Hypothesis As a material, plastic has many redeeming qualities, but as waste product, it is detrimental to our environment. This thesis aims to advance the encapsulation of plastic waste within a new building component: cladding material and/or modular design element. To see plastic as a one-time use material is short-sighted and doesn’t account for the potential which is inherent in this material composition. By examining any given city, you will find a surplus of plastic waste -- whether it is at a landfill, recycling center, or littered throughout the streets. This plastic waste has the ability to be something more. Buildings that are devastated by flooding could benefit from plastic timber foundations so as to prevent rot when exposed to water.

Plastic cladding on the sides of a building can filter light and withstand harsh natural elements. Through molding plastic into a new form or “module� to be used for an architectural cladding system, I plan to explore the potential of plastic for reuse in architecture. This study will unravel the potential of plastics materially, spatially and tectonically as a new raw material for architectural design.

What can recycled plastic do for architectural design?

How can plastic be used for more than a one-use object?

PAGE 06

In what way are people able to recognize new materials?

Figure 3.

1.1.1 Relevance of the Design Hypothesis and Global Context

If all this plastic waste really was made up of plastic bottles, think about your role in this, and how many plastic bottles you use weekly, yearly…we are all part of this plastic cycle whether it is through the food we buy, the clothes we wear, or the cars we drive. Plastic is a pervasive material in our everyday lives. What’s worrisome to me is that the average plastic bottle will take 450 years to decompose. Other plastics on average can take up to 1,000 years. Even then, it becomes microscopic – it doesn’t just “go away”. Why not use this long-lasting and versatile material for something more significant than a plastic bottle or other one-time use object?

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

The United States is responsible for about 20% of the global amount of plastic solid waste generated yearly. When the grand total of production of solid plastics is about 150 million tons, we can roughly estimate that the U.S. share of this is about 30 million tons (Garcia, para. 2). That’s a huge number, so let’s think about it in terms of a more manageable scale. The average plastic bottle is about 18 grams, so 30 million tons could be represented by about 2.75 trillion plastic bottles. That’s still hard to imagine. What if we lined up these 2.75 trillion plastic bottles, end to end, assuming an average length of 8 inches? We could circle the earth 13,961 times, or we could take a trip to the moon and back about 728 times. Let that sink in. That’s how much plastic the U.S. wastes every year.

Figure 4.

Plastic waste covering all surface area in a river through Indonesia.

One-time use plastic objects surround us, and are generally very convenient for our lives. What happens when we are finished using these plastic objects? My interest lies in how I can create awareness of this plastic waste through architecture. By creating a new use for plastic waste, and showcasing this to the public in some way, I intend to bring awareness of the issue of plastic waste in our culture of consumption.

Artist-activist Olafur Eliasson, creates interactive installations on how we perceive and interact with our surroundings - into complex geometry, motion patterns, and color theory. He explains “I do not want to use a fear-based narrative, but we are living in a climate emergency.” By leveraging an activist motive to bring awareness and contemplate on our collective carbon footprint, Eliasson creates a visceral dialog activating all our senses to provoke a widespread public response. As William McDonough, the leading environmental architect of our time, has stated, “design should be regenerative, and always consider what’s next.” By rethinking how plastic can be used, I intend to alert and educate others on the potential of plastic as a raw material, and how we can use this in architecture to create structures which are stronger, more visually appealing, and more durable than what we are currently building. Plastic is not a waste product. It is the future of architectural design.

Figure 5.

PAGE 07

China’s Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River, which flows past Shanghai, delivers almost 1.5 million tons of plastic waste into the Yellow Sea yearly.

Plastic waste generation, 2010

Total plastic waste generation by country, measured in tonnes per year. This measures total plastic waste generation prior to management and therefore does not represent the quantity of plastic at risk of polluting waterways, rivers and the ocean environment. High-income countries typically have well-managed waste streams and therefore low levels of plastic pollution to external environments.

Total Plastic Waste by Country

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Total plastic waste generation by country, measured in tonnes per year. This measures total plastic waste generation prior to management and therefore does not represent the quanity of plastic at risk of polluting waterways, rivers and the ocean environment. High-income countries typically have well-managed waste streams and therefore low levels of plastic pollution to external environments (Jambeck, 2015).

Plastic waste per person, 2010 0 tonnesgeneration 2.5 million tonnes

10 million tonnes >50 million tonnes Nowaste data generation 1 million tonnesmeasured in kilograms 5 million 25 million tonnes Daily plastic per person, pertonnes person per day. This measures the overall per capita plastic waste generation rate prior to waste management, recycling or incineration. It does not therefore directly indicate the risk of pollution to waterways or marine environments.

Source: OWID based on Jambeck et al. (2015) & World Bank

CC BY

Plastic Waste Per Person Daily plastic waste generation per person, measured in kg per person per day. This measures the overall per capita plastic waste generation rate prior to waste management, recycling or incineration. It does not therefore directly indicate the risk of pollution to waterways or marine environments (Jambeck, 2015).

Plastic waste0 kglittered, 2010

0.2 kg 0.4 kg data littered by coastal 0.1 kg 0.3 kg Annual plasticNo waste populations within 50 kilometres of a coastline.

This represents plastic waste with high risk of polluting surrounding rivers and the ocean.

>0.5 kg

Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)

CC BY

Global plastic waste littered, 2010

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Annual plastic waste littered by coastal populations within 50 km of a coastline. This represents plastic waste with high risk of polluting surrounding rivers and the ocean (Jambeck, 2015).

0 tonnes 40,000 tonnes No data 20,000 tonnes Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)

100,000 tonnes 80,000 tonnes

>200,000 tonnes

FiguresCC 6-8.

BY

Looking at plastic waste as a global issue broadens the spectrum for an examination as to which countries are the major and minor plastic polluters. Leading the top of the list for total waste generation per country are the U.S. and China. Several countries top the list in plastic waste produced per person of each country: Germany, the Netherlands, Ireland, Kuwait, and Guyana, though the U.S. is not far behind.

Most relavant to this project is the total amount of plastic waste littered annually per country when considering the coastal population in particular. Again, both U.S. and China top the list at over 100,000 tonnes each, though now Japan has also been added to this list of top polluters from coastal populations. This does not necessarily mean that coastal populations produce more plastic waste than other areas of the country, but it does show that they are not stopping the flow of plastic waste from their city (or more inland cities) of waste into the oceans. This is a large amount of responsibility as these coastal populations can act as the last line of defense for plastic waste.

Inadequately managed waste is also a large problem for countries that do not have investments in recycling or trash pickup programs, and these are generally countries around the African coast which border the Atlantic and Indian oceans as well as many countries in South Asia.

The top country with documented mismanaged waste is China, and from the image on the left, we can see that plastic waste is not fully contained in proper waste locations such as recycling centers and landfills. The projected future of this mismanaged waste is estimated to become worse if something is not done soon to correct this system.

With the large amounts of waste that are being emitted from individual countries, it is of paramount importance to educate as many people as possible of the detrimental effects our actions are having on the planet. The reasoning is not a simple one, as these effects also directly affect us.

As the trash from our cities and surrounding environments washes into our waterways, it spreads across the globe to form large patches of garbage such as the one being documented as “The Great Pacific Garbage Patch�. At twice the size of Texas, and with 80,000 metric tons of plastic trash, this massive pile of human plastic waste has created its own island, though no living thing has survive on it.

The items which end up in our waterways have not necessarily reached their final destination, since plastic is constantly being broken down into smaller and smaller pieces. It was continuously pass through a cycle of waste, while leaching toxic chemicals into our environment.

Share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed, 2010

Share of total plastic waste that is inadequately managed. Inadequately disposed waste is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained. Inadequately managed waste has high risk of polluting rivers and oceans. This does not include 'littered' plastic waste, which is approximately 2% of total waste (including high-income countries).

Mismanaged Plastic Waste Inadequately disposed waste is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained.

Inadequately managed waste has high risk of polluting rivers and oceans.

This does not include “littered” plastic waste, which is approximately 2% of total waste, including high-income countries (Jambeck, 2015).

Global share of mismanaged plastic waste derived from a given country. Mismanaged waste is the sum of littered No disposed data 0% waste.

10% 20% disposed waste 40% is not formally60% 80% disposal in 100% or inadequately Inadequately managed and includes dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained. Mismanaged waste could eventually enter the ocean via inland waterways, wastewater outflows, and transport by wind or tides.

Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Share of global mismanaged waste, 2010

CC BY

Global Total Mismanaged Plastic Waste Global share of mismanaged plastic waste derived from a given country.

Mismanaged waste is the sum of littered or inadequately disposed waste.

Inadequately disposed waste is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained.

Mismanaged waste could eventually enter the ocean via inland waterways, wastewater outflows, and transport by wind or tide (Jambeck, 2015).

Projected share of global mismanaged plastic waste in 2025

Projected share of global mismanaged waste produced in 2025. This is measured as the total mismanaged waste by populations within 50km of the coastline, and therefore defined as high risk of entering the oceans. Mismanaged plastic waste is defined as "plastic that is either littered or inadequately disposed. Inadequately disposed waste is data 0% 0.1% 0.5% 2.5% 5% 10% 20% 30% not formallyNo managed and includes disposal in dumps1% or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained.

Mismanaged waste could eventually enter the ocean via inland waterways, wastewater outflows, and transport by wind orJambeck tides." et al. (2015) Source:

Figure 12.

CC BY

Future Mismanaged Plastic (by 2025)

No data 0% Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)

0.1%

0.5%

1%

2.5%

5%

10%

>20%

Figures 9-11.

CC BY

PAGE 09

This projection is measured as the total mismanaged waste by populations within 50 km of the coastline, and therefore defined as high risk of entering the oceans. Mismanaged plastic waste is defined as “plastic that is either littered or inadequately disposed. Inadequately disposed waste is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained. Mismanaged waste could eventually enter the ocean via inland waterways, wastewater outflows, and transport by wind or tides” (Jambeck, 2015).

6-10,390

6-10,390

6-10,390

Nestle - USA

Nestle - Thailand

Nestle - Lebanon

Study Result: Microplastics Found in 93% of Bottled Water Lowest & highest number of plastic particles found per liter of bottled water: 259 bottles of water | 11 brands | 9 countries Plastics found: polypropylene, nylon, & polyethylene terephthalate

PAGE 10

Figure 13.

San Pelligrino - Italy 0-74

0-256

2-335 Dasani - Kenya

Evian - France

2-335

1-731 Wahaha - China

Dasani - USA

0-863

2-1,295 Aquafina - India

Minalba - Brazil

2-1,295 Aquafina - USA

Epura - Mexico

SAND FILTER 20 - 100 microns

Aqua - Monaco

CARTRIDGE FILTER 10 - 30 microns

Gerolsteiner - Germany

D.E. FILTER less than 5 microns

Bisleri - India

Particle Waste Removal Comparison Through Filters

0-2,267

Bottled water does not contain less microplastic or nanoplastic contaminants than what is found in tap water. A 2017 tap water study conducted by Orb Media shows that for microplastics around 100 microns, there were nearly twice the amount of particles in bottled water per liter (10.2) than in tap water (4.45). “If your tap water is of high quality, that’s always better,” said Scott Belcher, professor of toxicology at North Carolina State University. “If you have contaminated and unsafe drinking water, bottled water may be your only alternative.”

As a disclosure, the bottled water companies in the study by Orb Media refute the results of the levels of plastic found in their bottled water, stating that they are exagerated or inflated (Tyree, n.d.).

0-4,713

Research conducted in 2018 by Orb Media, a nonprofit journalism organization based in Washington, D.C., shows that tests on more than 250 bottles from 11 leading brands reveal widespread contamination with plastic debris including polypropylene, nylon, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

The level of plastics and the water bottle brands are shown in the chart (right).

9-5,160

While we think that bottled water is our safest route to drinking clean water, many people may be surprised to know that microplastics (and nanoplastics as seen under a microscope) are prevalent in the bottled water we assume is safe. Bottled water is marketed as the very essence of purity. It’s the fastestgrowing beverage market in the world, valued at $147 billion per year.

0-5,230

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Amount of Plastic Found in Bottled Water - Global Study

Figure 14.

WATER SUPPLY

01

02

The cation exchange softening process removes large amounts of calcium and magnesium.

CARBON FILTRATION

03

REVERSE OSMOSIS

POSTFILTRATION

05

STORAGE TANKS

consumption of microplastics by way of eating smaller organisms whose tissue or gut contains microplastics

Ultraviolet light and “polishing” filters remove any additional microscopic particles and destroy 99.99% of any microorganisms

06

Water is stored and treated additionally with Ozone to further sanitize before the bottling begins.

inhalation of microplastics through the air

Activated carbon filtration removes chlorine, taste, & odor from the water. A secondary filter catches any residual carbon particles.

04

Double pass reverse osmosis reduces wasted water and removes a vast majority of aesthetic an health-related contaminants.

injestion of microplastics by drinking water

WATER BOTTLING

07

The cleaned and sanitized bottles are filled with the treated water and distributed.

Household Dust 10 microns

Smoke 1 micron

40 microns

Levels of microplastic ingestion are currently unknown. Even less is known about how such particles interact in the body.

It may be the case that microplastics simply pass straight through the gastrointestinal tract without impact or interaction (Wang 2016).

Fishing gear, for example, has been shown to cause abrasion and damage to coral reef ecosystems upon collision. Ecosystem structures can also be impacted by plastics following interference of substrate with plastics (impacting on light penetration, organic matter availability and oxygen exchange).

Pet Hair/Dander 5 microns

Pollen 30 microns

It is possible for microplastics to be passed up to higher levels in the food chain. This can occur when a species consumes organisms of a lower level in the food chain which has microplastics in the gut or tissue (Galloway, 2015). The presence of microplastics at higher levels of the food chain in fish has been documented (Güven, 2017)(Jabeen 2017).

Interaction includes contact with plastic debris (with exception of entanglement) including collisions, obstructions, abrasions or use as substrate. There are multiple scenarios where this can have an impact on organisms.

Particle Unit (Microns) Reference Scale

Dust Mite Debris 9 microns

For human health, it is the smallest particles — micro- and nano-particles which are of greatest concern. Particles must be small enough to be ingested. There are several ways by which plastic particles can be ingested: orally through water, consumption of marine products which contain microplastics, through the skin via cosmetics (identified as highly unlikely but possible), or inhalation of particles in the air (Revel 2018).

Interaction From Humans

Figure 15.

Human Hair 80-100 microns

Effects of Plastic on Humans

Mold Spores 3 microns

INVISIBLE TO THE HUMAN EYE

0.3 microns

Figure 16.

Figure 17.

PAGE 11

WATER SOFTENING

A 5-micron filter removes sand silt, dirt, and other sediment from the water before heading to the sofening process.

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

PREFILTRATION

Effects of Plastic on Marine Wildlife Entanglement

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Entrapping, encircling or constricting of marine animals by plastic debris has been documented for at least 344 species to date, including all marine turtle species, more than two-thirds of seal species, one-third of whale species, and one-quarter of seabirds. Entanglement by 89 species of fish and 92 species of invertebrates has also been recorded (KĂźhn, 2015).

Entanglements most commonly involve plastic rope and netting (Gall, 2015) and abandoned fishing gear (KĂźhn, 2015). However, entanglement by other plastics such as packaging have also been recorded.

(From Top Left, Clockwise) Figures 18-22 are examples of animal interaction and entanglement with plastic, as well as ingestion of plastic.

Figure 23.

Ingestion

PAGE 12

Ingestion of plastic can occur unintentionally, intentionally, or indirectly through the ingestion of prey species containing plastic and it has now been documented for at least 233 marine species, including all marine turtle species, more than onethird of seal species, 59% of whale species, and 59% of seabirds (KĂźhn, 2015). Ingestion by 92 species of fish and 6 species of invertebrates has also been recorded.

Ingestion of plastics can have multiple impacts on organism health. Large volumes of plastic can greatly reduced stomach capacity, leading to poor appetite and false sense of satiation (Day, 1985). Plastic can also obstruct or perforate the gut, cause ulcerative lesions, or gastric rupture. This can ultimately lead to death.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

66% of seal species (of 18 total)

33% of whale species (of 35 known) 1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Species Which Have Been Found Entangled by Plastic in Oceans and Waterways

100% of sea turtle species (of 7 total)

25% of sea bird species (of at least 103)

89 species of fish

92 species of invertebrates

more than 33% of seal species (of 18 total)

59% of whale species (of 35 known)

59% of sea bird species (of at least 103)

89 species of fish

92 species of invertebrates

PAGE 13

Species Which Have Been Found to Have Ingested Plastic from Oceans and Waterways

100% of sea turtle species (of 7 total)

Process losses 4%

Mechanical polymer recycling 12%

THESIS PORTFOLIO

300

330

180

110

260 (100%)

Collected for Recyling 16%

Durable Incinerated 25%

Landfills 40% Non-Durable

Unmanaged dumps or leaks 19%

Plastic Production

Applications

Waste Creation

Figures 25-26.

PAGE 14

Polystyrene (PS) Cutlery, plates, cups

Polypropylene (PP) Potato chip bags, microwave dishes, bottle caps

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Bags, trays, containers, food packaging film

The majority of plastic waste in the U.S. currently goes to landfills and incineration. The chart above depicts global polymer flows in millions of metric tons per annum per 2016 data.

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Shampoo bottles, milk bottles, freezer bags, ice cream containers

How Plastic is Disposed of in the U.S.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Water bottles, dispensing containers

Figure 24.

Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Protective packaging, hot drink cups

Virgin Plastic

Figure 27.

With a focus of ordering new materials or specifying a custom-built piece for a project, Architects and Contractors don’t typically think of reuse or adapting recycled materials for use in a new project. The creation of new waste happens when we do not take advantage of the existing materials in our environment or utilize new materials to their full potential. A rough estimate shows that the building industry is responsible for about 20-30% of our plastic waste each year, though packaging is about 60% of the total. This seems to suggest that consumer packaging should be the more pressing issue to be addressed.

Figures 28-29.

Construction sites are more often recycling and re-using their waste in the last decade rather than sending it all to a landfill. Organizing by metal, plastic, wood, and general waste helps to cut down on future costs and can also be beneficial for the contractors when touting their environmental consciousness.

Plastic Waste in Consumer Consumption One-Time Use Products

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Plastic Waste in Architecture and Construction

Figures 31-37.

While many companies and brands still use plastic as a primary source for packaging and shipping their items for consumers, others are making the switch to paper-based and other biodegradable packaging.

Yum! Brands (parent company of Taco Bell, KFC, and Pizza Hut) aim to eliminate all styrofoam packaging by 2022. The company also wants to make all its packaging recyclable, compostable, or reusable by 2025.

14 %

NestlĂŠ is planning to invest roughly $2.06 billion to shift from virgin plastics to food-grade plastics (attempting to reduce virgin plastic use by 1/3 by year 2025).

Starbucks has 10-year sustainability targets focused on reducing its carbon emissions, water use, and waste.

Plastic Waste by Sector Legend

5%

5% 59 %

PACKAGING NON-PACKAGING HOUSEHOLD

8%

CONSTRUCTION & DEMOLITION ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS EQUIPMENT AUTOMOTIVE

5% 4%

AGRICULTURE OTHER PAGE 15

Figures 30.

Plastic Creation from Synthetic Substance/Material

World Event with Relevance

Plastic Creation from Synthetic Substance/Material

Development of Synthetic Plastics

THESIS PORTFOLIO

German chemist Eugen Baumann creates the first polyvinyl chloride (PVC) though he never filed a patent (Bellis, 2019).

Friedrich Klatte patents PVC when he invents a new method of polymerization of vinyl chloride using sunlight (Bellis, 2019).

Scientists at Badische Anilin & SodaFabrik (BASF) successfully develop polystyrene (Isowall Group, 2018).

A cheap oil supply post-WWI allows Dow Chemical to easily introduce polystyrene to the U.S (Isowall Group, 2018).

PAGE 16

1907 1913

1929

1935 1937

A group of British scientists apply Caruthers’ work and create the first commercial polyester, Terylene (Professor Plastics 2013/2018).

1945

DuPont purchases legal rights and creates another polymer, Dacron (Professor Plastics 2013/2018).

1948

Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), with a local venture firm, Marlborough Teeside Management, create the first bioplastics company, Marlborough Biopolymers.

Their bioplastics are made by bacteria and are called Biopol, which can be processed into strips, filaments, chips, panels, and powders (Barrett, 2018).

Polyethylene is previously discovered several times, though chemists didn’t know what to do with it. Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) see its uses and patent it (Deffree, 2019).

1933

1945

Dow Chemical introduces Styrofoam, a form of polystyrene foam insulation and the most recognizable form of foam polystyrene packaging (it is extruded polystyrene) (Isowall Group, 2018).

Belgian-born American Leo Baekland invents Bakelite, which was the first synthetic plastic (not derived from plants or animals, but rather fossil fuels). This is said to have been the start of the global plastics industry.

World War I

1914-1918

WWII begins. W.H. Caruthers discovers polyester in a DuPont lab, but set it aside while he worked on his new nylon (Professor Plastics 2013/2018).

Polyester is beginning to dominate the fabric (and in turn fashion) industry (Professor Plastics 2013/2018).

Figure 15.

1872

1939

Nylon is discovered by W.H. Caruthers in a DuPont lab.

Originally used for women’s hosiery, it was soon rationed for war manufacturing of parachutes and ropes (Knight, 2014).

WWII ends; U.S. and Russia enter into Cold War.

1941 WWII ends; U.S. and Russia enter into Cold War.

1946 Tupperware is mass produced for household use (Knight, 2014).

1954 1973-1974 1977 1979

2010

1983

Arab members of the Orgainization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) places an oil embargo on the U.S. This causes a shift in the thinking of plastics (made from fossil fuels) to looking at biobased plastics (Office of the Historian).

Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War causes expensive oil prices, huge debts, and deficits in Western democracies. This will lead to overproduction and oversupply of oil in the 1980’s, making it less urgent to find alternatives to oil-based plastics (Barrett, 2018).

Frenchman Remy Lucas established Algopack, the first bioplastics company that uses seaweed as biomass. Unlike other plants, seaweed doesn’t need fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, or land. The seaweed bioplastics biodegrade within 12 weeks in soil and only 5 hours in water (Barrett, 2018).

(From Top Right, Clockwise) Figures 38-49.

1.1.2 Underlying Principles of the Design Hypothesis to Proposed Project Typology 1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Particular characteristics of strength geometry, and stability need to be determined for the creation of this module piece, comprised entirely of previously-used plastic.

Many attempts have been made in the construction, scientific, and design fields to attempt to utilize this vast raw material -- which many people consider to be garbage.

Plastic has nearly unlimited potentials of use, though the forms which have been MacRebur generated by those attempting to recycle plastic are varied.

MacRebur Products Products

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Independent laboratory testingotherwise has demonstrated All products All products are made are made from 100% from 100% wastewaste plastics plastics that would that would otherwise otherwise go to go to landfill or incineration.

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Independent testing has demonstrated Macrebur products do notlaboratory leach plastic or generate toxic fumes. landfill landfill or incineration. or incineration.

Independent Independent laboratory laboratory testing testing has demonstrated has demonstrated All products are made from 100% waste plastics that would otherwise go to that Macrebur products do not leach plastic or generate toxic fumes. that Macrebur products do not leach plastic or generate toxic fumes. that Macrebur that Macrebur products products do notdo leach notdemonstrated plastic leach plastic or generate orbygenerate toxic fumes. toxic fumes. across landfill or incineration.

Independent laboratory testing has demonstrated Macrebur products have been various laboratories Macrebur products have been demonstrated by various laboratories across Macrebur products havedo been various that Macrebur products notdemonstrated leach plastic orbygenerate toxic fumes. across the world to significantly improve the stiffness andlaboratories deformation resistance Macrebur Macrebur products products have been havedemonstrated been demonstrated by various byand various laboratories laboratories across across the world to significantly improve the stiffness deformation resistance the world to significantly improve the stiffness and deformation of asphalt whilst avoiding the embrittlement of oxidisation,resistance evidenced by the world theasphalt world to significantly to significantly improve improve the stiffness the stiffness deformation deformation resistance resistance Macrebur products have been demonstrated byand various laboratories across of whilst avoiding the embrittlement ofand oxidisation, evidenced by of asphalt whilstfracture avoidingtoughness the embrittlement of life. oxidisation, evidenced by increased and fatigue of asphalt of asphalt whilst whilst avoiding avoiding the embrittlement the embrittlement ofand oxidisation, of oxidisation, evidenced evidenced by by the world to significantly improve the stiffness deformation resistance increased fracture toughness and fatigue life.

Three main blends (dubbed increased fracture toughness and fatigue life.MR6, MR8, and MR10) of plastic polymers are being “designed increased increased fracture fracture toughness toughness and fatigue and fatigue life. of life. of asphalt whilstextension avoiding theand embrittlement oxidisation, evidenced bybinder for asphalt used in road surfaces” for the enhancement of bituminous increased fracture toughness and fatigue life.

(MacRebur, n.d.). Below are charts which demonstrate each blend’s abilities:

A Selection of Industry-Applicable Plastic Reuse Products: The Image below demonstrates the process taken from the initial plastic entering the shredder, process of heating and then compacting the pastic which fuses the pieces, and lastly how these “blocks” can be used as a structural wall.

MacRebur Products “Plastic Roads”

Control Control Control MR6 ControlControlMR6 Control

Control

MR6

MR6

Figure 50.

A company titled ByFusion has created a new building module which “converts 100% of plastic waste into... [a building block], diverting it from landfills and the environment. The Blocker can process any type of plastic without needing to clean, sort, or process it first, using steam and compression to reshape it into a product that is the same size of a common cinder-block but does not crack or crumble” (Business Wire, 2019).

This addresses plastic waste to an extent where normally unrecyclable plastics can be useful once again.

Figure 51.

Control

Fracture Fracture Toughness Fracture Toughness Fracture Fracture Toughness Toughness Toughness Fracture Toughness

MR8

Stiffness Stiffness Modules Stiffness Modules Stiffness Stiffness Modules Modules Modules Stiffness Modules Control Control Control MR10 ControlControlMR10

Deformation Deformation Rut Depth Deformation Rut Depth Deformation Deformation Rut Depth Rut Depth Rut Depth Deformation Rut Depth MR10 MR10 MR10

MR10

Fracture Fracture Toughness Fracture Toughness Fracture Fracture Toughness Toughness Toughness Fracture Toughness

increase the stiffness andfor deformation (rutting) enhancement enhancement oftobituminous of bituminous binder binder for asphalt asphalt used in used road insurfaces. roadresistance surfaces.

MR6 is Selected a complex of polymers for the extension and of Selected toarrangement increase the stiffness anddesigned deformation (rutting) resistance of Selected to increase thewithout stiffness andfor deformation (rutting) resistance of asphalt mixtures compromising flexibility (crack resistance). enhancement of bituminous binder asphalt used in road surfaces. asphalt mixtures without compromising flexibility (crack resistance).

Selected Selected to increase to increase the stiffness the stiffness and deformation and deformation (rutting) (rutting) resistance resistance of of asphalt mixtures without compromising flexibility (crack resistance). tomixtures all asphalt typescompromising to bedeformation used in all layers ofresistance). road construction. asphaltSuited asphalt mixtures without compromising flexibility flexibility (crack (crack resistance).

Selected to increase thewithout stiffness (rutting) resistance of Suited to all asphalt types and to be used in all layers of road construction.

Suited tomixtures all asphalt typescompromising to be used in all layers of(crack road construction. asphalt without flexibility resistance). suited to surfacing intersections, roundabouts andconstruction. slow moving, heavy Suited Ideally Suited to all asphalt to all asphalt types totypes be used to beinused all layers in all of layers roadofconstruction. road Ideally suited to surfacing intersections, roundabouts and slow moving, heavy Ideally suited to surfacing roundabouts andconstruction. slow moving, heavy vehicle areas, whereintersections, deformation resistance is critical.

Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all layers of road vehicle areas, where deformation resistance is critical.

Ideally Ideally suited suited surfacing to surfacing intersections, intersections, roundabouts roundabouts and slow andmoving, slow moving, heavy heavy vehicle areas, to where deformation resistance is critical. to increase the stiffness of binder andisbase layers toheavy reduce the vehicle vehicle areas, to where areas, deformation where deformation resistance resistance is critical. critical.

Ideally Suited suited intersections, andcourse slow moving, Suited to surfacing increase the stiffness of roundabouts binder and base course layers to reduce the Suited to increase the stiffness of binder and base course layers to reduce the overall thickness of pavement required. vehicleoverall areas, where deformation resistance isbase critical. thickness ofthe pavement required.

Suited Suited to increase to increase the stiffness stiffness of binder of binder and and course base course layers to layers reduce to reduce the the overall thickness of pavement required. overalloverall thickness thickness ofthe pavement of pavement required. required.

Suited to increase stiffness of binder and base course layers to reduce the overallMR8 thickness of pavement required.

MR8MR8 is a blend of polymers designed for the extension of bituminous binder MR8MR8 MR8 MR8 is a blend of polymers designed for the extension of bituminous binder MR8 is for a blend of polymers designed for the extension of bituminous binder asphalt used in road surfaces. for asphalt usedofinpolymers road surfaces.

MR8 MR8 is MR8 a blend is aof blend designed designed for the for extension the extension of bituminous of bituminous binder binder for asphalt used inpolymers road surfaces.

The New Raw has also created designs from 3D-printed filament, made from recycled plastic. Their designs are focused on use within the public space to create long-lasting and high-value applications.

MR10 sustainability and economics are the primary drivers.

MR10 MR10 MR10 contains a block co-polymer designed for the extension and MR10 MR10 MR10 contains a block co-polymer designed for the extension and MR10 contains a blockofco-polymer the extension enhancement bituminousdesigned binder forforasphalt used in and road surfaces. enhancement of bituminous binderdesigned forforasphalt usedextension in and road surfaces.

MR10 MR10 contains MR10 contains a block aco-polymer block co-polymer designed the for extension and enhancement of bituminous binder for asphalt used inthe road surfaces.

Selected increase fracture cracking resistance compromising enhancement enhancement ofto bituminous ofco-polymer bituminous binderand binder for asphalt forforasphalt used inused roadwithout insurfaces. road surfaces.

MR10 contains block the extension and Selectedato increase fracturedesigned and cracking resistance without compromising Selected to increase fractureresistance and cracking resistance without compromising deformation (rutting) asphalt mixtures. enhancement oftobituminous binder forof asphalt used in roadwithout surfaces. deformation (rutting) resistance of asphalt mixtures.

Selected Selected to increase increase fracture fracture and and cracking resistance resistance without compromising compromising deformation (rutting) resistance ofcracking asphalt mixtures.

Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all layers of road construction. deformation deformation (rutting) (rutting) resistance resistance asphalt of asphalt mixtures. mixtures.

Selected to increase fracture andofto cracking resistance without compromising Suited to all asphalt types be used in all layers of road construction.

Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all layers of road construction. deformation (rutting) of mixtures.

Ideally suited toresistance surfacing general trunk roads where stiffness and crack Suited Suited to all asphalt to all asphalt types totypes be used toasphalt beinused all layers in all of layers road ofconstruction. road construction.

Ideally suited to surfacing general trunk roads where stiffness and crack Ideally resistance suited to surfacing general trunk roads where stiffness and crack is critical.

Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all layers of road construction. resistance is critical.

Ideally Ideally suited to suited surfacing to surfacing general general trunk roads trunk where roads stiffness where stiffness and crack and crack resistance is critical.

Ideal producing highly crack but very stiff course layers for resistance resistance isfor critical. is critical.general Ideally suited surfacing trunkresistant, roads where stiffness and crack Ideal fortoproducing highly crack resistant, but very stiff course layers for Ideal for producing highly crack resistant, but very stiff course layers for overall pavement thickness reduction, similar to EME and other high resistance isfor critical. overall pavement reduction, similar tocourse EME and other highfor Ideal for Ideal producing producing highlythickness crack highly resistant, crack resistant, but very stiff very course layers layers overall pavement thickness reduction, similar to but EME andstiff other highfor modulus asphalt mixtures. modulus asphalt mixtures. overall overall pavement pavement thickness thickness reduction, reduction, similar similar to EME to and EME other and high other Ideal for producing highly crack resistant, but very stiff course layers forhigh modulus asphalt mixtures. modulus asphaltasphalt mixtures. mixtures. overallmodulus pavement thickness reduction, similar to EME and other high

(From Top Right, Clockwise) Figures 52-57.

www.macrebur.com

(From Left) Figures 58-61.

extend unmodified bitumen, to maximise environmental for asphalt for asphalt usedofto inused roadinsurfaces. road surfaces.

MR8 is Selected a blend designed for the extension of bituminous binder and Selected topolymers extend unmodified bitumen, to maximise environmental and Selected toused extend unmodified bitumen, to maximise and economic without adversely impactingenvironmental asphalt performance. for asphalt inbenefits road surfaces. economic benefits without adversely impacting asphalt performance.

Selected Selected to extend to extend unmodified unmodified bitumen, bitumen, to maximise to maximise environmental environmental economic benefits without adversely impacting asphalt performance.and and Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all layers of road construction. economic economic benefits withoutwithout adversely adversely impacting impacting asphalt asphalt performance. performance.

Selected tobenefits extend bitumen, to maximise environmental and Suited to all unmodified asphalt types to be used in all layers of road construction.

Suited to all asphaltwithout types toadversely be used in all layersasphalt of roadperformance. construction. economic benefits impacting Ideally suited to surfacing car parks, driveways and local where Suited Suited to all asphalt to all asphalt types totypes be used to be in used all layers in allof layers road ofconstruction. road roads, construction.

Ideally suited to surfacing car parks, driveways and local roads, where Ideally suited to surfacing car parks, driveways and roads, where sustainability and economics are thelayers primary drivers.

Suited to all asphalt types to be used in all of local road construction. sustainability and economics are thedriveways primary drivers.

Ideally Ideally suited to suited surfacing to surfacing car parks, car driveways parks, and local and roads, local where roads, where sustainability and economics are the primary drivers. sustainability sustainability economics and economics are thedriveways are primary the primary drivers. drivers.

Ideally suited and to surfacing car parks, and local roads, where

Stiffness Deformation Fracture Stiffness Deformation Fracture Modules Deformation Rut Depth Toughness Stiffness Fracture Modules Deformation Rut Depth Toughness Stiffness Stiffness Deformation - Toughness Fracture Fracture Modules Rut Depth Modules Modules Rut Depth Rut Depth Toughness Toughness modulus asphalt mixtures.

The plastic pellets are- able toFracture replace bitumen material Stiffness Deformation Modules Rut Depth Toughness (made from oil) in asphalt, which comprises about MacRebur Ltd MacRebur 10% of Ltd the mixture.

Using plastic would increase the UnitLtd 3, Broomhouses Industrial Estate, MacRebur Unit 3, Broomhouses Industrial Estate, MacRebur MacRebur Ltd Ltd Lockerbie, DG11 2RZ Unit 3, Broomhouses Industrial Estate,and longevity of the roads. strength, durability, Lockerbie, DG11 2RZ Industrial Unit 3, Broomhouses UnitDG11 3, Broomhouses Estate, Telephone: +44Industrial (0)1576 204 318 Estate, Lockerbie, MacRebur Ltd 2RZ Telephone: +44 (0)1576 Lockerbie, Lockerbie, DG11 2RZ DG11 2RZ318204 318 Email: info@macrebur.com Telephone: +44 (0)1576 204 Unit 3, Broomhouses Industrial Estate, Email: info@macrebur.com Telephone: Telephone: +44 (0)1576 +44 (0)1576 204 318204 318 Email: info@macrebur.com Lockerbie, DG11 2RZ Email: info@macrebur.com Email: info@macrebur.com www.macrebur.com Telephone: +44 (0)1576 204 318 www.macrebur.com www.macrebur.com Email: info@macrebur.com

www.macrebur.com www.macrebur.com

Dirk Vander Kooij experiments with furniture design through his use of recycled plastic pieces. His earlier work was comprised of 3D-printed chairs from recylced refrigerators. His more recent work seems to emphasize color and form with a new technique of pressing and molding the plastic.

MR6 MR6MR6 MR6 is a complex arrangement of polymers designed for the extension and MR6MR6 MR6 is a complex arrangement of polymers designed for the extension and MR6 is enhancement a complex arrangement of polymers designed theinextension and of bituminous binder for asphaltfor used road surfaces. of bituminous binder for asphalt used road MR6 MR6 is enhancement MR6 a complex is aof complex arrangement arrangement of polymers polymers designed designed for thein for extension the surfaces. extension and and enhancement bituminous binder forofasphalt used in road surfaces.

MR6 MR6

Stiffness Deformation Stiffness Deformation Modules Deformation Rut Depth Stiffness Modules Deformation Rut Depth Stiffness Stiffness Deformation Modules Rut Depth Modules Modules Rut Depth Rut Depth Stiffness Deformation Modules Rut Depth Control MR8 Control MR8 Control MR8 ControlControlMR8 MR8

Plastic Furniture

® ® ®

® ® ®

(From Left) Figures 62-64.

PAGE 17

ByFusion “ByBlock”

APPLIED FORCE

TE

N

IO SS

NS

ION

APPLIED FORCE

RE MP CO

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Determining a Stable Form of Geometry

Most Stable Form

Unstable Form

Unstable Form

Force is applied to the following shapes: square, pentagon, and hexagon. As this force is applied, the joints rotate easily without bracing or an inherent balance within the geometry, and consequently, the shape deforms. These shapes must be stabilized cross-wise to maintain their original form when force is applied. When the shapes are braced, triangles are formed, reinforcing the known strength of this shape.

Deformation Occurs

Stable Form

APPLIED FORCE

Unstable Form PAGE 18

Stable Form

APPLIED FORCE

The shapes examined for this project are of the most basic: triangle, square, pentagon, and hexagon. Of these shapes, their structural integrity was recorded through reaction to compression and tension forces.

When force is applied to corners in a triangle, the triangle does not alter its shape easily. In a triangle, when a force is applied to one corner, the opposite side acts in compression, while the adjacent side acts in tension. This balancing of forces maintains the shape and results in the most stable structured form.

Deformation Occurs

Deformation Occurs

Stable Form

Stable Form

Figure 65.

From 2D to 3D Geometries 1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Geodesic Domes by Buckminster Fuller

Figure 66.

Figure 67.

In an effort to span a large area of space, while using few internal supports, dome structures are often utilized by architects and engineers. “The world’s first geodesic dome was a planetarium designed for the Carl Zeiss optical works in Jena, Germany, by Dr. Walter Bauersfeld in 1922— 30 years” (Rybczynski, 2008) though Buckminster Fuller brought the geodesic dome to popular use in the 1950s.

The strength of the geodesic dome is attributed to its “fixed sides [with] triangles that form the framework of a dome [which] transfer force more evenly through their sides than other shapes” (Fdomes, 2016).

Structural study and model construction of the geodesic dome by architecture student Merve Sanli.

Figure 69.

(From Left) Figures 70-80.

PAGE 19

Figure 68.

THESIS PORTFOLIO

From 2D to 3D Geometries Le Grand Louvre by I.M. Pei

The construction of pyramids date back to civilizations of the Mesopotamian, Mayan, and Egyptian. Built as early as 2630 B.C., these structures have stood (though some have fallen prey to natural disasters or plundering), towering triumphatly and exuding power.

In Paris, Pei’s addition to the world’s pyramids, is of the same size and scale of the Pyramid of Giza in Egypt.

“For Pei, the glass pyramid provided a symbolic entry that had historical and figural importance that reinforced the main entry” (Souza, 2010).

Figure 83.

Figure 81.

PAGE 20

Figure 87.

Figure 82.

Figure 84.

Figure 85.

Figure 86.

Figure 88.

30 St Mary Axe (“The Gherkin”) by Foster + Partners

The organically-influenced tower was at one point compared to an egg by project architect Robin Partington, while Norman Foster later referenced a pinecone. To add credibility to the design, the team “constructed a lineage for the Gherkin that stretched back to the work of Buckminster Fuller” (Massey, 2013). The building is encased by an exterior curtain wall of clear diamond-shaped double-glazed panels as well as an interior curtain wall of rectangular single-glazed panels. This is to allow the building to be cooled mechanically or through natural ventilation depending on the weather/temperature.

2.0 SITE

From 2D to 3D Geometries

With its diagrid structure and double-curving glazed skin, the Gherkin evoked the U.S. Pavilion’s five-eighths geodesic sphere stretched vertically (which, consequentially improved its aerodynamics). The building notably emphasizes a lucid geometry of circles and triangles.

Figure 93.

(From Top Left, Clockwise) Figures 94-97.

PAGE 21

(From Top Left, Clockwise) Figures 89-92.

THESIS PORTFOLIO

1.2 Proposed Project Nature, Context, and Rationale This project built form is comprised of recycled plastic which is shredded, melted then cooled into a reconstituted sheet of plastic. From this plastic sheet, modular geometric pieces are cut. These pieces are then heated over a spherical device or “gig” which creates the curvature of the form. These modular pieces will be assembled, creating a structure to be erected in a public space (typically outdoors). The structure will be large enough to accommodate multiple people moving through the assemblage in various directions.

By using the measurements of the human body, along with a study of various commonly-found plastics, an ideal plastic to be used for this project will be determined. This exploration intends to outline the characteristics, capability for re-use, strength, resistance to natural forces, and safety for people assembling and inhabiting the space, among other aspects to focus on a particular plastic to be used for this intervention.

Fire Resistance The chemical structure of the plastic determines varying levels of fire resistance. Cellulose acetate for example are burnt slowly. PVC plastic does not catch fire easily. More fireproof materials are made from phenol formaldehyde.

Weather Resistance Most plastics are not capable of withstanding large amounts of sunlight as this leads to the plastic becoming brittle. Adding pigment or fillers helps to absorb or reflect UV rays on the surface.

Maintenance By not needing surface finishing, coats of paint, etc., most plastics require relatively low maintenance.

Humidity Depending on the chemical structure of the plastic, there are varying levels of humidity resistance per each type.

PVC is pipes offer great resistance to moisure, whereas cellulosic materials are largely affected by moisture.

12:00 p.m.

March 21st

Weight

9:30 a.m.

March 21st

The low specific gravity of plastic at around 1.3 - 1.4 allows for its ability to be easily transported.

Fixing

Sound Absorption

To fix a plastic material’s position, many techniques can be used -- gluing, bolting, drilling, etc. are all effective solutions.

Acoustical benefits can be achieved by utilizing the refractive and reflective nature of different kinds of plastic.

Appearance & Finishing

Electric Insulation

Color, gloss, and texture are important elements relating to the appearance of a particular plastic to be used in a project. Many finishing types can be given to plastics. With technical control, mass production allows for a uniform finish on plastic.

Plastic is generally overall a good electric insulator. When used as lining for electric cables and for electric tools, the material allows protection against electric shock.

Optical Property Transparency of plastics can vary on many levels. Fully Transparent to Opaque allows for many different uses of plastic materials.

Appearance & Finishing

Optical Property

Melting Point

PAGE 22

Tampa, FL is at a Latitude of 28° N.

(From Left) Figures 98-100.

Durability

Ductility

Depending on the surface hardness of the plastic, they are like to withstand insects, bacteria, and other destructive forces.

The ductility nature of plastic is low. Tensile stresses acting on plastic may cause it to fail if the plastic is too thin.

Mass-produced

High-density polyethylene 5.5 billion kg 10.3%

0.9 billion kg 0.0%

PVC Low-density polyethylene 7.4 billion kg

5.3%

LDPE Polypropylene 7.2 billion kg

0.6%

PP

Figure 101.

PS

0.9%

STRESS VS. STRAIN

can be recycled at least 10 times

shatterproof: will not break or fracture

fibers and fabrics bottles, jars, and packaging

highly transparent variety of colors lightweight protection against gases and liquids highly resistant to acids, oils, and alcohols

plastic bottles corrosion-resistant piping geomembranes plastic lumber

doesn’t contain BPA, phthalates, heavy metals or allergens doesn’t give off harmful fumes it can leach estrogenic chemicals

often replaces heavier metals seen as “lightweight and strong”

very stiff variety of colors good temperature resistance can be recycled at least 10 times high strength-to-density ratio very good water vapor barrier

requires high strain to break shows necking and crazing when stretched soft and tough

piping, polyvinyl flooring, and siding medical devices cable coatings plumbing and automotive parts

contains dangerous chemical additives including phthalates, lead, cadmium, and/ or organotines toxins can leach out or evaporate into the air

replacement for metal pipes/tubes due to resistant to corrosion/ degradation

relatively low cost lightweight resistant to environmental, chemical, and alkaline degradation high hardness abrasion resistance

difficult to recycle incineration releases chlorine which produces the poison dioxin

high tensile strength in the case of rigid PVC

plastic bags and wraps trays, containers, bottles, and snapon lids six-pack rings playground slides

doesn’t contain BPA, and is considered a low-toxin plastic it can leach estrogenic chemicals

replacement for glass containers traditonally for similar uses; natural fibers

generally thinner and more flexible than other plastics has good chemical resistance, high impact strength, and strong wear absorption

difficult to recycle as many facilities less tensile strength, but greater do not have the ductility means to process materials this thin

doesn’t contain BPA can leach toxins into food

replacement for industrial steel components; cotton in sanitary products

stiffer than most plastics resistant to heat, many organic solvents, acids, and alkalines lightweight tough flexible

has good tensile low recycling rate strength not as economically products made viable to recycle with PP are about PP as it is for other 3x stronger than plastics those made with steel

rigid plastic or paper containers

rigid relatively hard has excellent gamma radiation redistance good electrical properties poor chemical and UV resistance

expanded PS is considered waste and cannot be recycled other PS products are often not recyclable

used for hot food containers thermal vests car parts disposable diapers and sanitary pad liners

Polystyrene 2.2 billion kg

ABILITY FOR RE-USE

replacement for doesn’t contain BPA glass containers extremely stable, inert, traditonally for tough, and essentially similar uses; safe for normal natural fibers handling

HDPE Poly(vinyl chloride)

PROPERTIES / CHARACTERISTICS

take-out foam packaging egg cartons bike helmets

due to heat or oils, PS can leach styrene (a brain and nervous system toxicant), affecting genes, lungs, liver, and immune system

brittle; has poor impact strength) has a medium-high tensile strength

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

4.5 billion kg 19.5%

USE AS MATERIAL SUBSTITUTE

PAGE 23

Percentage recycled

Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

ENVIRONMENTAL & SAFETY IMPACT

PET

KEY:

Comparison of Select Plastics

USED FOR PRODUCING

1.3 Precedent Analysis & Case Studies The sequence is a monumental public sculpture designed by Belgian artist and

THESIS PORTFOLIO

designer Arne Quinze. The artistic intervention located in the heart of Brussels is made from wood and concrete, connecting the Flemish Parliament to the House of Representatives physically and symbolically. Acting as a bridge bween the public and the government neighbors, it promotes urban interaction and communication (Gestalten, 2009).

ARTIST ARNE QUINZE TITLE THE SEQUENCE PROJECT DATE NOVEMBER 2008 PROJECT LOCATION BRUSSELS, BELGIUM

(From Top, Clockwise) Figures 102-104.

PAGE 24

TAKEAWAYS: UTILIZE/ENGAGE EMPTY SPACE • COLOR VARIETY • MATERIAL REUSE

Opaque

Day vs. Night

Light Quality

(From Far Left, Clockwise) Figures 106-111.

Senses_Visual

Path Direction Vs. Canopy

Senses_Spatial

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Pattern

Movement

(From Left) Figures 112-114.

PAGE 25

Figure 105.

THESIS PORTFOLIO

ARTIST ARUP ASSOCIATES TITLE TEMPORARY PERMANENCE PROJECT DATE 2016 PROJECT LOCATION SHANGHAI, CHINA

(From Top, Clockwise) Figures 115-117.

The Urbanism & Architecture Biennale brief called for an urban intervention concerned with Re-Use and Re-Thinking; a gathering space in which the local community of Shanghai’s Siping District could congregate within, play amongst, and manipulate. The structure is a simple repetitive cruciform module; utilsing recycled off-cuts of commercial polycarbonate sheeting and laser cutting into shape. These were lightweight yet robust enough to be taken apart and reformed in other configurations. The modules slot-connect to one another requiring no fixings, meaning that time and the ability to alter provides a simple means for community participation through all age groups and user types. This allows the groups to reconfigure the structure, creating various forms, inverted displays, partition, etc. The combination of the bright opaque modules and the structural openings provide a sense of lightness, contrast and focus against the local context of the trees and traditional brick, render and stone streetscape (ArchDaily, 2016).

PAGE 26

TAKEAWAYS: MODULAR, INDIVIDUAL PIECES • UTILIZE WOULD-BE SCRAP MATERIAL • INTERLOCKING • UTILIZE EMPTY SPACE • INTERACTION

Translucence

Repetition

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 119-122.

Senses_Visual

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Pattern

Human Scale

Senses_Spatial

(From Left) Figures 123-124.

Joinery

Smooth

Figure 118.

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 125-127.

PAGE 27

Senses_Touch

A splash of colors for Santiago centre Huellas Artes interprets the human footprint as an artistic trail in Santiago city. It is

THESIS PORTFOLIO

a cultural engine fueled by the passing flow of citizens and visitors from around the Bellas Artes metro station, a highly cultural area of downtown Santiago. It is an architectural intervention that proposes a new use scene in a fully unclosed outdoor space. The project was developed over a metro station, which currently operates as a non-functional plaza. The idea is to revitalize this site as a catalyst of activities related to the constant flow of people that the station attracts. The ephemeral nature of the work enhances the excitement of having lived a particular experience, which encourages greater attention to spaces that are used daily and on which people rarely stop. It is an invitation to discover the places where we usually believe there is nothing else (100Architects, n.d.).

ARCHITECT 100 ARCHITECTS TITLE HUELLAS ARTES PROJECT DATE MAY 2014, 3-DAY EXHIBIT

(From Top, Clockwise)

PROJECT LOCATION SANTIAGO, CHILI

PAGE 28

TAKEAWAYS: UTILIZE/ENGAGE EMPTY SPACE • RELAY OF INFORMATION/INTERACTION • COLOR VARIETY

Figures 128-130.

Opaque

Focal Moments

Senses_Visual

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Shine

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 132-135.

Path Direction

Movement

Senses_Spatial

Open Space

(From Left) Figures 136-139.

Interaction

Smooth

Performance

Figure 131.

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 140-143.

PAGE 29

Senses_Touch

THESIS PORTFOLIO

ARTIST BUREAU SLA, & OVERTREDERS W TITLE PEOPLE’S PAVILION PROJECT DATE 2017 PROJECT LOCATION KETELHUISPLEIN, EINDHOEN, NETHERLANDS

(From Top, Clockwise) Figures 144-146.

Designed to promote the value of a closed-loop, or “circular”, construction system, the People’s Pavilion involves thinking beyond the life of the building so that little or no waste is produced as a result. In creating this pavilion, Bureau SLA and Overtreders W used only borrowed or recycled materials, so it has almost no ecological footprint. The colorful facade shingles are made from recycled plastic, exploring how recycled plastic can be used in construction. The plastic for the shingles was sorted by color, and by doing so, the designers were able to produce a range of different tiles, from pastel shades of pink and blue, to a vibrant yellow hue. The recycled plastic is from households. One designer notes “I love the fact that you should be able to recognize your own shampoo bottle.” Joined with manufacturer Govaplast, who plans to put these tiles into production for mainstream use to encourage more architects and designers to work with recycled plastic (Frearson, 2017).

PAGE 30

TAKEAWAYS: MODULAR, INDIVIDUAL PIECES • RECYCLED MATERIALS • HOUSEHOLD WASTE PRODUCTS • COLOR VARIETY • CLADDING

Opaque

Figure 147.

Day vs. Night

Light Quality

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 148-153.

Senses_Visual

1.0 THESIS PROPOSAL

Pattern

Human Scale

Senses_Spatial

(From Left) Figures 154-155.

Modularity

Smooth

Texture

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 156-159.

PAGE 31

Senses_Touch

YBOR CHANNEL

H E SIT OUG R O ER SB RIV

PAGE 32

N DO L SEDANNE CH

(From Top, Clockwise) Figures 160-163.

YBOR TURNING BASIN

OLD TAMPA BAY

SPA CH RKMA AN NEL N

THESIS PORTFOLIO

LL HI

N RISO GARANNEL CH

HILLSBOROUGH BAY

GULF OF MEXICO

TAMPA BAY

HILLSBOROUGH BAY

FLORIDA, U.S.A

2.0 Site

TAMPA, FL

2.1 Site Selection and Its Significance Building upon the notion of using temporary structures to exhibit new architectural ideas, I plan to utilize plastic waste as a new raw material. I will mold it into a new form or “module” to be used in the assembly of a series of interactive structures in an effort to create awareness of the issue of plastic waste in our culture of consumption.

These temporary structures can be assembled in one space, disassembled and reassembled in a new form with new experiences for another space, without creating additional waste. This will subtly unravel the potential of plastics materially, spatially and tectonically as an architectural intervention. By creating these pop-up interactive structures for my thesis, I intend to bring awareness to this plastic waste issue while simultaneously developing a new raw material for architectural design.

Figure 164.

2.0 SITE

Choosing a location in Tampa, FL is attributed largely in part to the city’s direct access to water which empties on the edge of the ocean. Nearly surrounded by water, this city could likely be one of the major contributors to plastic waste entering the Gulf of Mexico by way of Tampa Bay. A large river flows through the downtown district. Hillsborough River, as it is named, leads to the Seddon Channel, Garrison Channel, Hillsborough Bay, and consequently into the Gulf of Mexico and the contiguous oceans on the planet.

Along Hillsborough River are many tourist, business, recreation, and residential locales. Any one of these can be a leading contributor to improperly-disposed waste. Hotels, restaurants, museums, and other tourist locations frequently provide single-use plastics for visitors. Many offices and businesses have employees who are often ordering delivery food or other types of packages in disposable containers. Recreation activites that incorporate plastic items that are cheaply made or can easily break are sometimes abandoned in the parks. Residents who live along the water generally appreciate the beauty of the natural resources, though may not know or understand the proper way to be less wasteful or dispose of their waste properly.

For a city that is almost surrounded by water, there is a great threat to plastic waste mismanagement leading to runoff or disposal into the ocean. Luckily, there have been great strides taken by the citizens of Tampa in regards to plastic usage and waste. Many citizens are pressing for more to be done to curb the use of plastic in their city. These motions signal that the city is a prime location to install an urban installation within the public space in order to continue this positive momentum.

The more people are aware of the issue, the sooner detrimental actions of plastic usage will lessen.

PAGE 33

Figure 165.

2.2 Existing Site Conditions The programming currently existing on the site contains: Tampa Museum of Art, Glazer

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Children’s Museum, Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park, Four Green Fields (restaurant), Rivergate Tower Parking Garage, and William F. Poe Parking Garage. With art/tourist

12:00 p.m.

December 21st

attractions as well as a large outdoor public park, this site is an attraction that many people frequent in downtown Tampa. Coupled with having a large amount of parking, this area acts as a destination spot.

12:00 p.m.

June 21st

The site is well-maintained, with interactive public fountains which act as splash parks (one located Adjacent to N. Ashley Drive, and the other alongside the Hillsborough River, on the Tampa Riverwalk path.

Secondary Vehicular Routes

12:00 p.m.

March 21st

Secondary Vehicular Routes

Primary Vehicular Route along North Ashley Drive (N-S) Hillsborough River

PAGE 34

Figure 166.

2.3 Topological Survey and Applicable Zoning The zoning map clearly shows that most of the area surrounding the site is zoned 2.0 SITE

for the Central Business District (CBD-1 and CBD-2). Across the Hillsborough River are multiple zoning districts, including: Commercial General (CG), Residential MultiFamily (RM-24), Planned Development (PD) and Planned Development Alternative (PD-A), and Office Professional (OP-1).

SIT E

Legend CG (COMMERCIAL GENERAL) CBD-1 (CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT) CBD-2 (CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT) OP-1 (OFFICE PROFESSIONAL) PD (PLANNED DEVELOPMENT) PD-A (PLANNED DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVE) RM-24 (RESIDENTIAL MULTI-FAMILY)

PAGE 35

Figure 167.

Park Legend (From Top Left, Clockwise)

E SIT

Amphitheater

Dog Park

Improved Trails

Playground

Restrooms Available

Splashpad

Figures 169-174.

The parks closest to the site are listed below with the amenities each provides.

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park Kiley Gardens Lykes Gaslight Square Park

(No Listed Amenities)

MacDill Park on the Riverwalk Plant Park Herman Massey Park

(No Listed Amenities)

Figure 168.

HILLSBOROUGH RIVER

2.4 Geographical, Natural, and Historical Patterns

TAMPA BYPASS CANAL

Located midway down Florida’s west coast, about 25 miles east of the Gulf of Mexico, Tampa is bordered on the south and west by the Hillsborough and Old Tampa bays. Downtown is divided by the winding Hillsborough River, which originates northeast of the city and empties into Hillsborough Bay. The city’s year-round semitropical climate is free from many of the extremes found elsewhere. Its most remarkable feature is the summer thunderstorm season. On an average of ninety days from June through September, late afternoon thundershowers sweep across the area, making Tampa one of the stormiest cities in the

OLD TAMPA BAY

TAMPA, FL HILLSBOROUGH BAY

PAGE 36

United States (City-Data).

Figure 175.

(From Top) Figures 176-179.

City of Tampa Land Area: 112.1 Sq. Mi.

2.0 SITE

Elevation: Sea Level to about 48’-0” above sea level

Average Annual Precipitation: 44.8 inches

1936

1895

1903

1915

1921

1947

1956

1969

1976

(From Top Left, Clockwise) Figures 180-188.

PAGE 37

Temperatures: January, 61.3° F August, 82.7° F Annual Average, 73.1° F

THESIS PORTFOLIO

2.5 Pedestrian and Vehicular Patterns and Connections Tampa has 335,749 residents. Tampa is somewhat walkable,

In an open plaza space next to the Glazer Children’s Museum at the corner of E.

meaning that some errands can be accomplished on foot.

Cass St. and N. Ashley Dr., many locals, tourists, working adults, as well as parents

Tampa has some public transportation and is somewhat

with children will be frequenting this location. Coupled with the events along the

bikeable. Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park is the first spot in town

Riverwalk, the foot traffic should be consistent. Those who appreciate art will be

to have a Bike Share Station.

drawn to the installation as the Tampa Museum of Art is close by as well.

Clearwater

Tampa

St. Petersburg

Figure 191.

PAGE 38

[image by author]

[image by author]

Chris Hickson Waterfront Park, Tampa, FL Plaza is adjacent to the Glazer Children’s Museum and is populated by landscaping, a sprawling tiled area, and water fountains. The plaza allows for free movement through space for locals and tourists alike.

(From Left, Clockwise) Figures 189-190.

Figure 192.

3.0 Program

3.1 Spatial Adjacencies, Connections, & Constraints Utilizing on the size being located next to the Tampa Museum of Art and the Glazer Children’s Museum, programming will 3.0 PROGRAM

incorporate an artistic aspect of performance and eye-catching design. Acting as an extension of the museums, the site will host an interactive urban intervention which will serve as a first-glance or focal point for people frequenting the area.

Artists

Figure 194.

Office Workers

Figure 195.

Though the site is large enough for an urban intervention which is roughly at most 50’ x 325’. Constraints which prevent the site from being much larger are: adjacent road (N. Ashley Drive), landscaping (palm trees and planters), signage for Curtis Hixon

Teachers and Students

Waterfront Park, and the interactive public fountain on the plaza.

SITE

Suburban Residents 50’

’ 325

Visitors Cultural Groups

Figure 193.

Figure 196.

PAGE 39

Downtown Residents

3.1.1 Site Geometries Polygonal shapes are derived when evaluating the distances to other buildings along the edge of the site. The largest space created is the center (blue) polygon, which represents the area THESIS PORTFOLIO

immediately next to the proposed site area. As one moves further from the site, the buildings nearby are visibly closer to one another as shown by the smaller polygons created.

Creation of Space Through Pattern

Figure 197.

Looking at the adjacent buildings, and tracing the spaces between them, a new shape is created, comprised of three parts.

This shape can become a pattern or module to be replicated in the future design.

The spatial patterns within the site are similar to those in its overall city context., though these are more closer in size. When examining buildings on a larger scale, more flexibility is given as to how the connections are created.

Possibly, if a larger area was examined, the polygons would likely

PAGE 40

be even closer in size.

Context Relation To Pattern

Figure 198.

While determining the spacing of the buildings further from the site, the polygons created are somewhat similar in size. This result varies from the closer-up view of the site.

3.1.2 Spatial Arrangement & Enclosure Without a dedicated or definitive entrance and exit, programming must be duplicated or spread out through the urban intervention. Using found plastic waste from the lines can be artfully intertwined with the built modules.

The urban intervention is likely to create a meandering path so as not to completely obstruct the participant’s movement. Gentle guiding through the space will cause a momentum slowdown, but will also direct the participant’s attention to the

3.0 PROGRAM

community as moments of “shock and awe”. Items such as fisherman netting and

informative spaces.

Populate the Site

Figure 199.

Create an urban canvas that can facilitate multiple users and programs. Starburst points act as moments where programming can be inserted/determinded.

Translucent Wall Wall of Art and Interaction

Reclaimed/ Found Plastic Waste Objects

Exterior Display Panels

Figure 200.

Having multiple entrances, exits, and paths of travel will increase the number of interactions that people will have with one another. The intervention will act as an interrupter for the daily routine.

PAGE 41

Movement

THESIS PORTFOLIO

(From Left) View of intervention from street or inside Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park (East-West); View of intervention from pedestrian plaza (North-South). View of intervention from buildings across the street from the plaza/park. The images above are of a digital model experimenting with the possible organization of entries/exits, views, and space for movement thoroughout the urban intervention.

3.1.3 Spatial Explorations in 3D Conceptually, the designed urban intervention would have a few of the following

that community. The local plastic waste informs the residents of their own

spatial characteristics: a meandering path, moments of obstructed and unobstructed

destructive behavior, and the harm it is doing to the environment. By using these

views, multiple moments of entry and exit in all cardinal directions, varying widths

locally-found pieces as design elements, along with the recycled plastic modules

of pathways, and areas of collection and solitude. The intervention would likely also

made from consumer waste, a narrative will be constucted. This narrative will inform

incorporate locally-sourced plastic waste items in order to bring more awareness

the pedestrians moving through and around the space of the waste that is being

to the damage being done to the community in which this intervention would be

generated locally -- a problem that they can individually solve -- rather than a global

erected. The idea of bringing in the plastic waste from the specific community in

issue that may appear too big to address.

which the structure would be assembled, speaks to the actions of the people living in

PAGE 42

(From Left) View of intervention from street or inside Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park (East-West); View of intervention from inside Children’s Museum. (North-South). The images to the right are of a physical model experimenting with the use of found objects from the site. As the focus site is Tampa, FL, the found objects to be incorporated in this case are fishing nets from the waterways, such as Hissborough Bay, bordering the downtown area.

3.1.4 Acoustics & Enclosure

Sound covers 344 meters or 1128.61 feet per second. In a person’s brain, sound persists for a length of time up to 0.1 second. If 1128.61 ft x 0.1 = 112.861 ft, then 112.861 is the lenth of distance a sound would need to cause an echo. For a person standing in one spot to hear an echo, the sound must travel a more than the distance of 56.4305 feet away and 56.4305 feet back to the source.

3.0 PROGRAM

Calculation of an Echo

Reflection, Reverberation, and Absorption Multiple reflections of sound waves are called reverberations. When the material the sound reaches is absorbent, the sound is lessened and dulled. Diffusion of sound is a solution to receive some reverberation of sound, without a cacophony of garbled noise. Finding a balance of reverberation and absorption is ideal.

PAGE 43

The images on the right look at the reflection of sound within various spaces which have smooth surfaces.

3.2 Development of Module

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Studies of geometric shapes, arrangement, and joinery led to a variety of explorations with various materials (wood, plastic, 3D-printed material). From these explorations, a basic geometric shape was decided upon to move forward with further studies, given the below outcomes.

The triangular pieces with knotches along their edges, interlocked with one another, appeared to resemble an angular or “sharp� wave from the ocean. As this thesis is based in Tampa, FL along the oceanfront, this seemed to symbolically dictate the intention this thesis is attempting to illustrate.

PAGE 44

Six-Sided Modules

Five-Sided Modules

Four-Sided Modules

Three-Sided Modules

Five-Sided Modules

Four-Sided Modules

Three-Sided Modules

3.0 PROGRAM PAGE 45

Further digital design led to creating interlocking pieces for a 3D-printed arrangement. The connections for these pieces, similar to the wooden pieces previously, are grooves along the edges. These connections, however, are finger joints, rather than groove joints. Also, the hollowed-out center allows for a pin or dowel to be placed through the finger joints so as to bind the connection.

x

THESIS PORTFOLIO

x

x

Earth - sphere

Digital Sphere

Figure 201.

Digital Sphere sliced along x, y, and z axis

Digital Sphere triangle isolated

Digital Sphere triangle isolated

Sphere exploded triangles

Sphere isolated triangle

Equilateral Triangle curve of sides are equidistant from inscribed triangle

Relationship of triangle side length to distance corners curve inward 1’0” = 3 1/2” curve

Many shapes can be inscribed inside another, though to take a look at plastic waste on a global scale, we can examine a sphere - our Earth - as a symbolic shape in which a triangle can be inscribed inside a sphere’s curved surface.

As the process to the right depicts, we begin with the spherical Earth, model this digitally, then divide the sphere in half in the x-axis, in the y-axis, and lastly in the z-axis. This division forms eight equal parts or “hemispheres”. By isolating a single of these parts, we have the isolated “triangle”. The corners of this triangle are all at equal lengths from the center, creating an equilateral triangle once the corners are connected. Each side of the triangle has equal lengths at this moment, and when we view the isolated “triangle” from a perspective, we see the curve of its edges. If pieced back together with seven identical parts, it can again become a sphere.

PAGE 46

For demonstration purposes, the isolated “triangle” has been given dimensions that do not exceed 1’-0” along each edge and 3 1/2” in depth.

Sphere as modeled digitally

Sphere sliced along x,y, and z axis

x

x

x Isolated Triangle

x

x x

Equilateral Triangle is inscribed, though the corners have been curved inward

PAGE 47

3.0 PROGRAM

The isolated “triangle� module is explored further as to how the pieces can become connected. Interlocking into one another can create a stacked formation with achieves the desired affect of creating the imagery of an ocean wave, similar to how the wooden interlocking triangles behaved.

THESIS PORTFOLIO PAGE 48

This model was created with one standard-sized triangle module, which was duplicated many times, then laser cut from a sheet of acrylic. The model was created at 1/8” scale, and each triangle at full scale would have sides measuring 1’-0”. The triangles were individually heated with a handheld heat gun over a glass sphere with a diameter of two inches. Once each piece was heated and curved over the sphere, they were let to cool. Once cooled, the triangles were hand painted with watercolor Prisma markers to create an intentional blur of colors and transparencies on each triangle. The variety of color represents the variety of plastic that can be combined to create modules such as these at a larger scale. After each triangle is painted, they are lashed together with a mildly-elastic plastic cable. On a large scale, these could be adhered to one another with plastic cable ties. The resulting shape shows the various forms that can organically be created from repetition of the same modular form.

As one of the primary intentions of this thesis is to bring awareness to the plastic waste crisis, the renderings of the plastic form indicate that the final modules will show some indication of what the pieces of plastic were before they were melted down into this form. The brand names and colors will blend, but overall, the brand should still be legible if possible.

Many labels are made of paper, but for those that are printed directly onto the plastic, these will remain as a reminder on the modules of our destructive habits as consumers.

[image by author]

3.0 PROGRAM

All of the below items have been incorporated into the image to the left.

(From Top Left to Right, By Row) Figures 202-209.

All of the below items have been incorporated into the image to the right.

(From Top Left to Right, By Row) Figures 210-217.

PAGE 49

[image by author]

3.3 Sustainable Strategies & Environmental Systems MOISTURE BARRIER

OXYGEN BARRIER

DISTORTION TEMPERATURE

RIGIDITY

clear

good

good

155° F

high

high

high

high

The conditions of the plastic to be used fo this project is dependent on the properties the plastic intrinsically -- is it safe to be around? Will it melt in the summer sun? Does it withstand normal forces of nature? How strong is it? What color, transparency, and/or finish does it have?

hazy translucent

excellent

poor

160° F

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

These and others are all important questions to consider when choosing the type of plastic material to be used.

clear

good

good

150° F

high

high

high

high

translucent

very good

poor

110° F

low

low

low

low

translucent

excellent

poor

200° F

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

clear

poor

poor

170° F

high

high

high

high

Comparison of Select Plastics: Refining Conditions

THESIS PORTFOLIO

CLARITY

STRESS CRACK COLD IMPACT RESISTANCE RESISTANCE RESISTANCE

PET

HDPE

PVC

LDPE

PP

PS

PAGE 50

Figure 218.

3.3.1 Shipping and Assembly

3.0 PROGRAM

Modules can be created at any size depending on the project, so shipping can be calculated and arranged according to the size box available, typically 12� X 12� being the smallest that most projects will be using. For demonstration purposes, this is the size chosen for the study modules (seen below).

Since the modules have the same thickness spread throughout its form as well as an even curve, stacking is an efficient way to pack the items for shipping. The modules are also durable enough to not need packing paper or peanuts, thereby further reducing plastic waste. The plastic does not dent, scratch, or crack easily.

Figures 221-222.

Figure 219.

PAGE 51

Figure 220.

3.3.2 Production Process

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Project Parameters - Small Scale Working from a small-scale, rather than large-scale production, the limits to create plastic mold sizes for demonstration purposes depend on a variety of factors, beginning with the size module that is able to be created with the equipment available. The oven used for creating modules for small-scale demonstration purposes is a 5.4 cu. ft. Frigidaire brand with dimensions listed to the right under image one.

The full process I followed for this demonstration is shown on the opposite page.

Figure 223.

Typical Household Oven Dimensions

Space Available for Wooden Mold

Creation of Wooden Mold for Plastic Formation

[Useable Oven Interior Space]

[Allowing for Buffer Space, and for

[Width and Length of wooden mold will fit easily in oven if plastic cools too

1’-7 3/4”H x 1’-7 1/4”W x 2’-0 1/4”L

placement on oven rack]

quickly, since the plastic must be hot to be maleable enough to be formed].

1’-5 1/4”H x 1’-6 1/4”W x 1’-10 1/4”L

Each triangle void has 11”-long sides.

PAGE 52

Photos of the process from mold making to final form:

Wood is glued and stacked together in four layers.

Wood is clamped to strengthen bond.

Eight pieces are glued in stacks of four. Two CNC files are created for the forms.

The CNC files create the cut forms to be used for molding the plastic modules.

The finished CNC forms are cleaned to be used for molding the plastic modules.

The wooden mold is lined with parchment paper so that the melted plastic won’t stick.

Strips of plastic are melted at 350° and formed into rough triangle shapes.

Once maleable enough, plastic is added to wooden mold to be clamped to final form.

The top of the mold is added to the bottom to press the plastic into the curved module.

Clamps are tightened every 15-30 minutes until plastic is fully cooled (about 2 hours).

Process of Removing Labels, Lids/Caps/Spouts, and Cleaning Figure 224.

Removal of labels involves: peeling, scraping, and soaking in liquid or applying a gentle heat to loosen sticker residue For small-scale projects, cutting the plastic into small pieces with scissors or box cutter is sufficient

Process of Breaking Down Plastic

Figure 227.

Process of Melting Plastic in a Conventional Oven

Process of Shaping Plastic in Designated Form with a Mold

Figure 225.

Removal of caps, lids, spouts involves: twisting, prying, or pulling with bare hands or ordinary pliers to sever connection

The thinly-sliced HDPE plastic will be sorted by complementary colors for the purpose of this design project.

For largescale projects, shredders can be implemented Figure 228.

Using a baking sheet with a piece of parchment paper prevents plastic from sticking

Figure 226.

Cleaning involves: washing with soap and water, lightly scrubbing; some containers may require soaking.

Plastic must be dry before proceeding to the next step.

3.0 PROGRAM

Original Plastic Container Shapes and Colors Vary

Figure 229.

HDPE begins to soften at 350°

After mixing the melted plastic, it willl be added to the mold. If it begins to harden, then the mold can be placed in the oven to reheat the plastic.

The softened/melted plastic can now be shaped, twisted, and added to the mold.

Clamping the cooling plastic in the mold will create a smooth surface. With the plastic cooling, the expectation is it will contract, so the clamps will need to be tightened.

PAGE 53

Process of Preparing HDPE Plastic to Become Modules

A variety of colors is selected for this project in order to better demonstrate what materials in the typical household are comprised of HDPE plastic. In this way, awareness to the amount of plastic we consume is illustrated.

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Project Parameters - Large Scale Looking at the project in terms of feasibility on a large-scale, the manufacturing process could consist of industrial-sized ovens to heat the plastic for the mold press.

Industial Ovens such as the one pictured above with a

Industial Press Machines such as the one pictured above

conveyor belt, can be utilized to efficiently and evenly heat

with working pressure of 125 tons, can create modules at

plastic to create modules of any size needed.

any thickness desired.

[Useable Oven Interior Space] 2’-0”H x 4’-0”W x 15’-0”L

350°

The process of module formation can be similar to the previous module-shaping gig process that was conducted for the small-scale modules. These steps can be done by

PAGE 54

machines in an automated assembly for increased efficiency.

Figure 230.

[Useable Press Interior Space] 1’-3.9”H x 10’-5.9”W x 10”L Figure 231.

Final Form for Module Thickness Variation

3.0 PROGRAM

Depending on the amount of melted plastic and the amount of pressure applied to the mold, the thickness of the modules will vary. In order to have a consistent thickness, the weight of the plastic will need to be measured before melting, and a mechanized system will need to provide the pressure for the mold.

Brand Recognition

PAGE 55

By showing the brand name on the modules, individuals who happen to see the company name are more likely to reflect on the idea that this plastic is post-consumer product.

This thesis aims to bring awareness to the issue of plastic waste. By understanding that people are causing this problem, individuals may be more likely to curb wasteful habits.

3.4 Systems Integration

THESIS PORTFOLIO

Structural Connections (Non-Integral)

A variety of connection options can be utilized to connect the modules. Three options are demonstrated on the opposite page: corner, center, or edge connection locations.

From these connections, additional attachments can be made to a structural system or framework.

Corner Connection By attaching the corners with a single connector, an array of triangle panels can easily be createded in groups of three.

This connector type allows for three panels to be joined at one corner, minimizing the number of connectors needed to create a large massing of panels.

Perspective

Top View

Edge Connection Connecting the panels along their edges requires multiple prongs in order to create stability, otherwise the panels can shift laterally. Two panels are able to be joined with this type of connection.

Perspective

Top View

Center Connection

PAGE 56

With a connector in the center of the panel, more light is able to permeate the panels since the connector is less of an obstruction. This piece can connect four panels together with the least amount of material.

An example of how an array of these panels could be utilized is shown above. The parking deck located next to the proposed site, adjacent to the two museums, situated in the downtown Tampa area could give a glimpse of what these panels could look like on a large scale.

Perspective

Top View

3.0 PROGRAM

Corner Connection

Array of panels with corner connection - top view

Array of panels with center connection - perspective view

Array of panels with center connection - top view

Array of panels with edge connection - perspective view

Array of panels with edge connection - top view

PAGE 57

Edge Connection

Center Connection

Array of panels with corner connection - perspective view

3.4.1 Cladding System Assembly

THESIS PORTFOLIO

The cladding system is comprised of multiple layers: a framework to hold the panels in place, connectors to affix to the plastic panels, and the plastic panels themselves.

The framework is then bolted or in other ways adhered to the building to create a beautiful pattern of colors.

Assembly of triangle panels

Attachment fixings to connect panels to frame

Exploded assembly of triangle panels with attachment fixings and metal frame.

PAGE 58

Metal frame

d

un

so

sunlight

3.4.2 Cladding

Responses to the Environment

sound

wind updraft

3.0 PROGRAM

For the triangle panels to successfully function as a building cladding element, their role in filtering light, sound, and other external forces is critical.

Environmental forces can affect the way that interactions within a space occur, at what moments of the day, and the frequency of these interactions.

Light filtering in through the recycled plastic panel is faint, but is able to show a bit of the color from the triangle panel.

Light filtering in through the recycled plastic panel is faint, but is able to show a bit of the color from the triangle panel.

Light filtering in through the recycled plastic panel is faint, but is able to show a bit of the color from the triangle panel.

summer equinox fall/spring equinox

Sound

Wind

Sunlight

Acoustics within a space is important to be able to control. If noise from traffic is heard within a building, this can disrupt daily activities within an office space. If a space is unaffected by sound, this can benefit the quality of a theatrical or musical performance. Sometimes buildings adopt to exterior sounds, though this is not necessarily an intention upon initial design.

The risk of the cladding being dislodged by an updraft of wind can be a danger posed to other buildings, objects below, though especially people. The fittings for the triangles to attach to the frame needs to be strong enough to resist any wind current.

Often buildings are designed without much thought given to how sunlight will affect the interior space. Ideally, all buildings would account for geographic location in relation to the solar path above the given site. Since this is not always the case, cladding can help to mitigate over exposure to sunlight, allowing light to be filtered more gently into the interior spaces.

PAGE 59

winter equinox

Panel Response to Environment | WIND

THESIS PORTFOLIO

The triangle panel is tested against a water vapor air diffuser. This test is to determine the path that a wind current would take when confronted with the panel as a cladding system in a real-world setting.

For the wind testing setup, tools used were: glue, accelerator, an eyedropper, fishing line, a water vapor source, a black backdrop, a tripod, and a video camera.

The water vapor source is not able to be angled horizontally due to it not being “watertight”, so the study required a vertical setup, rather than a horizontal setup. In this vertical study, it was determined that the panel would be suspended above the water vapor source to “impede” the path that the water vapor would take when encountering the panel.

Assembly for the setup included cutting equal lengths of fishing line which were glued to the corners of the triangle panel. This allowed the panel to hang levelly from an overhead point.

A glue accelerator was then applied to the glue, providing a stronger bond for the glue to the panel. The fishing line was tied in a knot at the ends and hung a determined length away from the water vapor source. The panel was then suspended from a stationary point to keep the panel in place. The water vapor source (oil air diffuser) was placed beneath the panel in order for the water vapor, acting as the wind source, to be “blown” towards the panel.

The above image (shown as the triangle panel in a concave position) is a compilation of multiple pictures of water vapor, blown from a perpendicular angle to the panel, over a time period of 1 minute.

PAGE 60

Test (in top right image) shows that the “wind” is blocked entirely if it is being blown perpendicular to the panel. Test (in bottom right image) shows that the “wind” is partially blocked by the panel though when “wind” is from a slight angle, it may slip past the panel. Test (in far right image) shows the panel in a concave postion; the “wind” in this scenario is blocked by the panel, then billows out horizontally.

The above image (shown as the triangle panel in a concave position) is a compilation of multiple pictures of water vapor, blown from an approximate 45 degree angle to the panel, over a time period of 1 minute.

3.0 PROGRAM PAGE 61

The above image (shown as the triangle panel in a concave position) is a compilation of multiple pictures of water vapor, blown from a perpendicular angle to the panel, over a time period of 1 minute.

Panel Response to Environment | SUNLIGHT

THESIS PORTFOLIO

The triangle panels are arrayed as a cladding system on the wall of a parking deck as indicated in the rendering on page 58. The renderings with sunlight specific to time of day and location indicate how the panels would affect the interior of a space throughout the day. The shadows and colors cast on the floor and walls of the parking deck are shown in the following renderings.

(Left) The image indicates the light and color being filtered in through the open sides of the parking deck. At 9:30 am, the sun is able to permeate the side of the parking deck, and through the strip of light, a flood of color is shown on the floor of the deck.

PAGE 62

(Right) With a look at multiple levels of the parking deck, it is clear that with the height of the sun, some floors receive more light than others. The colors on the floor create a sort of mosaic with all the blends of plastic from the panels being used as cladding.

PAGE 63

3.0 PROGRAM

PAGE 64 THESIS PORTFOLIO

Modules as Urban Intervention

The assembly to the left is an array of plastic triangle panels, fastened together by corner connections attached to a metal framework. The panels can be connected in a variety of ways, though the corner connections do not block natural sunlight from entering between the panels. The metal framework can be lessened to fewer connections depending on the strength of the framework.

3.0 PROGRAM

The triangle panels are arrayed as a cladding system on the wall of a parking deck as indicated in the rendering on page 58.

The renderings with sunlight specific to time of day and location indicate how the panels would affect the interior of a space throughout the day. The shadows and colors cast on the floor and walls of the parking deck are shown in the following renderings.

The exploded axon below demonstrates the order in which the array of panels would be assembled. metal connections to corners of panels horizontal metal bars for framework

(Left) Aerial view of one possible configuration of the triangle panels to create an urban intervention

vertical metal bars for framework PAGE 65

Plastic Triangle Panels

PAGE 66 THESIS PORTFOLIO

Entry/Exit Plastic Donation/ Collection/Recycle Bin

East Elevation

West Elevation

North Elevation

South Elevation

3.0 PROGRAM

With any number of possible configurations for these panels, an example is shown below, demonstrating what possible spaces can be created and how this intervention would interact with the site.

Top View

(Page Opposite) View of urban intervention as approaching from the north (direction of Tampa Children’s Museum and parking deck) (Above) View inside urban intervention with light affects and interaction with panels as well as collection of plastic.

PAGE 67

Just on the inside entries of the structure are bins for plastic collection so that more panels can be created for future urban interventions or cladding in other areas of the city.

4.0 Works Cited Figure 1.

Figure 2.

[in chronological order]

McPherson, Steve. (2017). Absent Histories - Combination Piece (Blue No5) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www. stevemcpherson.co.uk/artwork/absent-histories-blue-no5/

Health Promotion Agency. (2018). Short-term effects of drinking alcohol [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.alcohol.org.nz/alcohol-its-effects/ body-effects/main-body-effects

Garcia, Jeannette M.; Robertson, Megan L. (2017, November 17). The Future of Plastics Recycling. Science Magazine.

Available at: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/358/6365/870.full

Revel, M., Châtel, A., & Mouneyrac, C. (2018). Micro(nano) plastics: A threat to human health? Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 1, 17-23.

Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468584417300235.

Collage of fourteen images. Combo Chain All Parts (Retrieved from https://orbmedia.org/stories/plus-plastic/text); Concept Design (Retrieved from https://www.artstation.com/artwork/Ka3oGB); Geometric Lines on a White Background (Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/geometric-lines-white-background_922657.htm); Geometric Modern Glass Facade (Retrieved from https://altphotos.com/photo/geometric-modern-glass-facade-1754/); Iwako Hexagon Puzle Novelty Eraser - Image 2 and 5 (Retrieved from https://www.jetpens.com/Iwako-Hexagon-PuzzleNovelty-Eraser-36-Piece-Set/pd/22938); People’s Pavillion - Image 4 (Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/915977/ peoples-pavilion-bureau-sla-plus-overtreders-w); Selgascano (Retrieved from http://www.grahamfoundation.org/ grantees/5355-serpentine-pavilion-2015-by-selgascano); Studio Sejima Vienna (Retrieved from http://studio-sejimavienna.com/?tag=1553); Beachside Recycling Program (Retrieved from http://www.anglersforconservation.org/beachsiderecycling-program/); White Abstract Geometric Artwork by Silvio Kundt (Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/s/photos/ architecture-pattern).

Galloway T.S. (2015) Micro- and Nano-plastics and Human Health. In: Bergmann M., Gutow L., Klages M. (eds) Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_13.

Figure 3.

UN Environment (n.d.) Header Bottle [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beatplastic-pollution/

Figure 4.

[Plastic Waste River]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.waste360.com/plastics/addressing-globalplastic-waste-crisis

Figure 5.

[Untitled image of Yangtze River]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beatplastic-pollution/

Figures 6-11.

Our World in Data (2015). Plastic waste generation; Plastic waste per person; Plastic waste littered; Share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed; Share of global mismanaged waste; Projected share of global mismanaged plastic waste in 2025 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., ... & Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science Magazine, 347(6223), 768-771.

Figure 12.

Figure 17.

Güven, O., Gökdağ, K., Jovanović, B., & Kıdeyş, A. E. (2017). Microplastic litter composition of the Turkish territorial waters of the Mediterranean Sea, and its occurrence in the gastrointestinal tract of fish. Environmental Pollution, 223, 286-294. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0269749116323910.

Jabeen, K., Su, L., Li, J., Yang, D., Tong, C., Mu, J., & Shi, H. (2017). Microplastics and mesoplastics in fish from coastal and fresh waters of China.

Environmental Pollution, 221, 141-149. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749116311666.

Wang, J., Tan, Z., Peng, J., Qiu, Q., & Li, M. (2016). The behaviors of microplastics in the marine environment. Marine Environmental Research, 113, 7-17.

Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113615300659.

Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., ... & Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science Magazine, 347(6223), 768-771.

Figure 18.

Crofts, S. (n.d.) Penguin calf stuck in a fishing net [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.sas.org.uk/news/plastic-free-falklands/

Figure 19.

Cancalosi, John. (2013). Stork in a bag [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.nature-photography.us/stork-in-a-bag/

Figure 20.

Gratwicke, Brian. (n.d.) Dead seabird with a stomach full of plastic [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://olharoceanografico.com/plastico-nosoceanos/

Figure 21.

Di Oliviera, Paulo. (n.d.) Ocean pollution reimagined [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://in.news.yahoo.com/disturbing-composite-photos-reimagineocean-slideshow-wp-184651080/photo-p-young-northern-fur-seal-photo-184651823.html

Figure 22.

Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d.) Peanut the Red Eared Slider [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://mdc.mo.gov/newsroom/famous-figure8-turtle-and-no-more-trash-mascot-celebrates-29th-birthday-today

Atkinson, Pete. (n.d.) Plastic bag drifting over coral reef [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.gettyimages.com/ detail/photo/plastic-bag-drifting-over-coral-reef-royalty-free-image/867988372

Kühn, S., Rebolledo, E. L. B., & van Franeker, J. A. (2015). Deleterious effects of litter on marine life. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter (pp. 75-116). Springer, Cham. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4.

Tyree, Chris; Morrison, Dan. (n.d.) Plus Plastic: Microplastics Found in Global Bottled Water. Orb Media. https://orbmedia. org/stories/plus-plastic/data Figure 13.

Helpful Pool Tips. (2019). Particle Filtration Comparison [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.bognerpools.com/ blog/pool-filter-basics

Figure 14.

Free Vector Maps (n.d.) Map of the World - Single Color [Digital Image]. Retrieved from https://freevectormaps.com/ world-maps/WRLD-EPS-01-0003

Figure 15.

Gordon Water Systems. (n.d.) Bottled Water Process [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.gordonwater.com/ok-sowhat-does-reverse-osmosis-actually-mean/bottled-water-process-4/

Figure 16.

Help Advisors (n.d.) Air Particle Sizes for Dust, Pollen, Mold and Smoke [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www. helpadvisors.org/best-air-purifier/

Gall, S. C., & Thompson, R. C. (2015). The impact of debris on marine life. Marine pollution bulletin, 92(1-2), 170-179. Available at: https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X14008571.

Kühn, S., Rebolledo, E. L. B., & van Franeker, J. A. (2015). Deleterious effects of litter on marine life. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter (pp. 75-116). Springer, \ Cham. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4.

Figure 23.

PNG Key (2013). Aqua Teal Marine Fishing - Transparent Fish Net [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.pngkey.com/maxpic/u2r5e6y3q8r5e6r5/ Kühn, S., Rebolledo, E. L. B., & van Franeker, J. A. (2015). Deleterious effects of litter on marine life. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter (pp. 75-116). Springer, Cham. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4.

Day RH, Wehle DHS, Coleman FC. 1985. Ingestion of plastic pollutants by marine birds. In Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27–29 November 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii, ed. RS Shomura, HO Yoshida, pp. 344–86.

Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-54. Washington, DC: Natl. Ocean. Atmos. Adm. Figure 24.

Figures 25-26.

No Time to Waste: What Plastics Recycling Could Offer (2013). Global Polymer Flows [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/no-time-to-waste-what-plastics-recycling-could-offer

Figure 42.

Share Icon. (n.d.) Tools and Utensils, petroleum, gasoline, oil, gas, petrol icon [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.shareicon.net/tools-andutensils-petroleum-gasoline-oil-gas-petrol-785183

Figure 43.

[Untitled image of sprout clipart]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://www.sfx-school.org/academics/early-childhood/seedlings/ Office of the Historian. (n.d.) Milestones: 1969-1976. Department of State - United States of America. Available at: https://history.state.gov/ milestones/1969-1976/oil-embargo

[Untitled images of Plastic Waste]. (n.d.) [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/ beat-plastic-pollution/

Barrett, Axel. (2018, July 5). The History and Most Important Innovations of Bioplastics. Bioplastics News. Available at: https://bioplasticsnews. com/2018/07/05/history-of-bioplastics/

Figure 27.

American Chemical Society (2020). Chemical & Engineering News [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://cen.acs.org/ environment/pollution/Chemistry-solutions-plastic-trash-problem/96/i25

Figure 28.

[Untitled image of Construction Waste]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.peryerconstruction.co.nz/ environment/

Figure 29.

[Untitled image of Construction Waste]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://skill-builder.uk/can-pas-402-helpreduce-waste-building-project

Figure 45.

Science Kits & Toys. (n.d.) Genpak Quality To Go Snap It 3 Compartment Foam Take Out Medium Food Container Vented White, 8.25” Length x 8” Width x 3” Depth | 200/Case [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Genpak-Quality-Compartment-Medium-Container/dp/B07CT7B79N

Figure 30.

RecycLA. (n.d.) Construction Debris [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://nasarecycla.com/zero-waste/what-goes-in/

Figure 46.

Foam Sales. (n.d.) Dacron Sheet & Roll [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.foamsales.com.au/products/dacron-per-meter

Figure 31.

Deaux, Joe. (2019). Hasbro’s current packaging includes plastic polybags, window sheets and blister packs [Digital image].

Retrieved From https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-08-20/hasbro-will-phase-out-plastics-frompackages-but-not-yet-toys

Figure 32.

Chant, Justin. (2018). New USI Label Requirement for Hazardous Substances [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www. monarchchemicals.co.uk/Information/News-Events/602-/New-Label-Requirement-for-Hazardous-Substances

Figure 33.

Terracycle (n.d.) Thumbnail for Mailing, Shipping & Packaging Supplies [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www. terracycle.com/en-GB/zero_waste_boxes/mailing-shipping-packaging-supplies-en-gb

Figure 34.

[Untitled image of Chick-fil-a coffee] (2014). [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.charlotteonthecheap.com/ event/free-coffee-at-chick-fil-a/

Figure 35.

[Untitled image of to-go food packaged in plastic] (2015). [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www. chiefpackagingofficer.com/eco-friendly-food-packaging-anchor-packaging/

Figure 36.

Marko (n.d.) Combo Pack Meal Kit Utensils [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.markoinc.com/combo-pack-mealkit-utensils-fork-knife-spoon-napkin-salt-and-pepper-.html

Figure 37.

[Untitled image of packaged toilet paper]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.ethicalsuperstore.com/ reviews/traidcraft/traidcraft-recycled-toilet-tissue-(4-rolls)/ Bellis, Mary. (2019, February 20). History of Vinyl. Thought Co. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/history-ofvinyl-1992458.

Smith, Scott S. (2017, November 20). Leo Baekeland’s Plastic Reshaped The Modern World. Investor’s Business Daily.

Available at: https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/leo-baekelands-plastic-reshapedthe-modern-world/

Figure 38.

World Famous Great Scientist and Inventors. (n.d.) Leo Hendrik Baekeland coloring pages [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://bestcoloringpages.com/leo-hendrik-baekeland-coloring-pages_1d4025.html Deffree, Suzanne. (2019, March 27). Polyethylene Synthesis is Discovered by Accident (Again), March 27, 1933. EDN. Available at: https://www.edn.com/polyethylene-synthesis-is-discovered-by-accident-again-march-27-1933/

Figure 39.

Global Industrial. (n.d.) Qorpak PLC-03400 4oz Natural HDPE Cylinder Bottle with 24-410 White PE Flip Top Cap, Case of 48 [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.globalindustrial.com/p/medical-lab/lab-glassware-plasticware/labbottles-jars/plc-03400-4oz-natural-hdpe-cylinder-bottle-with-24-410-white-pe-flip-top-cap-case-of-48 Knight, Laurence. (2014, May 17). A Brief History of Plastics, Natural and Synthetic. BBC News. Available at: https://www. bbc.com/news/magazine-27442625

Figure 40.

[Untitled image of toothbrush head]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://www.dentobac.mx/page/cepillos_de_ dientes.html

Figure 41.

[Untitled image of plastic containers]. (n.d.) [Digital image].Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/arechemicals-really-costing-us-billions_b_58093066e4b0f8715789f7de

Figure 44.

Invest in Bretagne. (2015). Algopack, plastics made from algae [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.invest-in-bretagne.org/algopack-plasticsmade-algae/ Isowall Group. (2018, April 26) A Brief History of Polystyrene. Isowall Group. Available at: https://www.isowall.co.za/a-brief-history-of-polystyrene/

Professor Plastics. (2013, Spetember 9; Updated 2018, October 24). Polyester: Not Just Your Father’s Leisure Suit. Plastics Make It Possible. Available at: https://www.plasticsmakeitpossible.com/whats-new-cool/fashion/types-of-fabric/polyester-not-just-your-fathers-leisure-suit/ Figure 47.

[Untitled image of care instructions tag]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.greenality.de/blog/recyceltes-polyester-das-nachhaltigeplastik/ Isowall Group. (2018, April 26) A Brief History of Polystyrene. Isowall Group. Available at: https://www.isowall.co.za/a-brief-history-of-polystyrene/

Figure 48.

[Untitled image of stacked polystyrene sheets]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://polystyrenecentre.co.za/

Figure 49.

Global Polymer. (2019). PVC Pipes and Fittings [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://golpapolymer.com/%d9%84%db%8c%d8%b3%d8%aa%d9%82%db%8c%d9%85%d8%aa-%d9%84%d9%88%d9%84%d9%87-%d9%88-%d8%a7%d8%aa%d8%b5%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%aa-pvc-%d8% a7%d8%b7%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%b9%d8%a7%d8%aa-%d8%ac%d8%a7%d9%85%d8%b9/

Figure 50.

Recycling Today. (2019). ByFusion recycles plastic scrap into building material [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.recyclingtoday.com/article/ byfusion-recycles-plastic-scrap-byblock/ Business Wire. (2019, June 4) ByFusion Recycles 100 Percent of Plastic Waste into Building Material, Creating Structures in LA and Kauai for World Oceans Day. Business Wire. Available at: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20190604005824/en/ByFusion-Recycles-100-Percent-Plastic-WasteBuilding

Figure 51.

Figures 52-56.

Eco Frenzy (n.d.) The process system to make recycled plastic bricks [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://ecofrenzy.com/building-the-future-withrecycled-plastic-bricks/ Still from BBC News, Can Plastic Roads Help Save the Planet? (1:39), (2:11), (2:35), (2:39), (3:26).

Figure 57.

MacRebur. (n.d.) MR6, MR8, MR10 Product Sheet [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.macrebur.com/pdfs/product/MacReburProductSheet_v1.pdf

Figure 58.

Moet Kunsten. (2013). Endless Chair - Dirk Van der Kooij [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://moetkunsten.nl/portfolio/endless-chair-dirk-van-derkooy/

Figure 59.

Sight Unseen. (n.d.) Dirk Vander Kooij [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.sightunseen.com/2018/04/the-best-of-milan-design-week-2018-partiv/

Figure 60.

Vander Kooij, Dirk. (2020). Multicolor Side Table [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.dirkvanderkooij.com/products/meltingpot-sidetable

Figure 61.

3D Print. (n.d.) RvR Chair - Dirk Van der Kooij [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://3dprint.com/101500/dutch-design-award-rvr-chair/

Figure 62.

Tsakiris, Stefanos. (n.d.) The New Raw - Print Your City Street Furniture [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.architonic.com/en/project/the-newraw-print-your-city-thessaloniki/20021023

Figure 63.

Print Your City. (n.d.) Site Plastic Waste [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://printyour.city/about

Figure 64.

The New Raw. (2019). 100 Benches - Provincie Holland Zuid (NL) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://thenewraw.org/100-Benches

Figure 65.

Fuller, Richard Buckminster. (1952). Geodesic Dome [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.moma.org/collection/works/82397

Figures 66-67.

Fuller, Richard Buckminster. (1961). Geodesic Dome, Sheet 8; Geodesic Dome, Sheet 7 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://www.drawingmatter.org/ index/buckminster-fuller-patent-926-229-p16-dm-2246/

Figure 68.

Georges, Alexandre. (1959-1960). Installation view of the exhibition, “Three Structures by Buckminster Fuller” [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/3360/installation_images/27502

Figure 100.

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Rybczynski, Witold. (2008, July 2). Buckminster Fuller: Inventor, tireless proselytizer, inspirtational cult figure, something of a filmflammer. Slate. Available at: https://slate.com/culture/2008/07/searching-for-the-true-legacy-ofbuckminster-fuller.html

Figure 101.

American Chemical Society (2020). Chemical & Engineering News [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://cen.acs.org/ environment/pollution/Chemistry-solutions-plastic-trash-problem/96/i25

FDomes. (2016, July 11) What Are Geodesic Domes? Super Structures Really. FDomes. Available at: https://fdomes.com/ what-are-geodesic-domes/ Figure 69.

Figures 70-80.

Figure 81.

Figures 82, 84-88.

Rose, George. (2015). The Biosphere Environment Museum featuring a geodesic dome designed by Richard Buckminster Fuller [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/buckminster-fuller-architecture

Gestalten. (2009). The Sequence: About This Book. Arne Quinze: Art & Exhibitions. Available at: https://www.arnequinze. com/art-and-exhibitions/book-the-sequence Figures 102, 104, 109, 111.

Etherington, Rose. (2008). Construction The Sequence by Arne Quinze 02; The Sequence by Arne Quinze 21; The Sequence

by Arne Quinze 11; The Sequence by Arne Quinze 04 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://www.dezeen. com/2008/12/09/the-sequence-by-arne-quinze/

Sanli, Merve. (2017). ARCH241 Assignment 4 - Structure and Architecture [PowerPoint slides 7-10]. Retrieved from https:// mervesanli.wordpress.com/2017/01/11/geodesic-dome/

Figures 103, 109.

The Funambulist. (n.d.) The Sequence-2; The Sequence-5 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://thefunambulist.net/ architectural-projects/instant-architectures-the-sequence-by-arne-quinze

Souza, Eduardo. (2010, November 18). AD Classics: Le Grand Louvre / I.M. Pei. ArchDaily. Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/88705/ad-classics-le-grande-louvre-i-m-pei

Figures 105-106.

Quinze, Arne. (2008). Image 5 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://www.arnequinze.com/art-and-exhibitions/thesequence

[Untitled Image of Louvre Museum]. (n.d.) [Digital Image]. Retrieved from https://www.whatshot.in/mumbai/virtualtours-museums-world-c-20878 [Untitled Image of Inner transparency]; [Untitled Image of the scheme of the steel structure]; [Untitled Image of Mero structure]; [Untitled Image of Inverted pyramid]; [Untitled Image of Inverted pyramid: more structural diagrams]; [Untitled Image of Inverted pyramid: section and structural diagram]. (n.d.) [Digital images]. Retrieved from http:// facadesconfidential.blogspot.com/2011/10/louvre-pyramids-revisited.html

Figure 83.

Robin, Joel. (1988). Construction site of the Louvre Pyramid by Chinese-American architect I.M. Pei [Digital image].

Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/style/article/im-pei-dead-at-102/index.html

Figure 89.

[Untitled Aerial Image of The Gherkin]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ picturegalleries/howaboutthat/10160884/Aerial-photographs-of-London-Tweeted-images-from-the-Mets-policehelicopter.html?frame=2609109

Figure 90.

m.yandex.com.tr. (n.d.) Mary Ex Tower [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://architime.ru/specarch/foster_and_ partners/30_st_mary_axe.htm#1.jpg

Figure 91.

Ask Ideas. (2016). Top View of the Gherkin [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.askideas.com/50-most-beautifulthe-gherkin-pictures-and-photos/

Figure 92.

Hatchman, Jon. (2020). Helix at the Gherkin [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.thelondoneconomic.com/fooddrink/restaurant-review-helix-gherkin/15/01/

Figure 93.

[Untitled Image of The Gherkin Sketch by Norman Foster]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/ arch2o-the-gherkin-buildin-norman-foster-07/ Massey, Jonathan. (2013, November 12). The Gherkin: How London’s Famous Tower Leveraged Risk and Became an Icon (Part 2). ArchDaily. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/447205/the-gherkin-how-london-s-famous-towerleveraged-risk-and-became-an-icon-part-2

Figure 94.

Justin. (2013). 30 St Mary Axe Modern Architecture London [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.urbansplatter. com/2013/12/30-st-mary-axe-modern-architecture-london/

Figure 95.

Foster + Partners. (n.d.) Building 30 St Mary Ax [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.co/co/933612/ edificio-30-st-mary-axe-foster-plus-partners/5dcac3b13312fd0ac9000034-30-st-mary-axe-tower-foster-pluspartners-sketch

Figure 96.

Keyvan, Lalin; Wong, Christopher. (n.d.) Data Informed Structures - Group 9 [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://www. iaacblog.com/programs/geometry-and-grid-fosters-and-partners-30st-mary-axe/

Figure 97.

[Untitled Image of The Gherkin Sketch by Norman Foster]. (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/ arch2o-the-gherkin-buildin-norman-foster-20/

Figure 98.

Escobar, Décio. (n.d.) [Digital Image]. Retrieved From http://bioplasticnews.blogspot.com/2017/01/instituto-alemaoconstroi-novo-pavilhao.html

Figure 99.

[Untitled Image of transparent Ikea Tobias chair] (n.d.) [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.blogarredamento.it/ sedie-ikea

Figure 107.

Figures 108, 110.

Figures 112-113.

Figure 114.

Quinze, Arne. (2012). Image 5 [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://aasarchitecture.com/2012/07/the-sequence-by-arnequinze.html/ Moisy, Anais. (2004). Arne Quinze The Sequence 01; Art Installations By Arne Quinze The Sequence 02 [Digital images].

Retrieved from https://anaismoisy.com/tag/quinze/#jp-carousel-1472 Quinze, Arne. (2012). Arne Profile; The Sequence-11 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://aasarchitecture.com/2012/07/ the-sequence-by-arne-quinze.html/ Quinze, Arne; Mattan, Pieterjan. (2009). Gallery 3 [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.arnequinze.com/art-andexhibitions/book-the-sequence ArchDaily. (2016, May 3). Temporary Permanence Installation / Arup Associates. ArchDaily. Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/786564/urban-public-spatial-installation-arup-associates/

Figures 115-123, 125-127.

Figure 124.

Zhang, Lingxiao. (2016). Permanence Installation Arup Associates 13; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 07; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 10; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 11; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 03; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 02; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 18; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 06; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 15; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 12; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 23; Permanence Installation Arup Associates 22 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/temporary-permanence-installation-arup-associates/ Zhang, Lingxiao; Arup Associates. (2016). Image 21 [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/786564/ urban-public-spatial-installation-arup-associates 100Architects. (n.d.) Huellas Artes. Archello. Available at: https://archello.com/project/huellas-artes

Figures 128-131; 133-139, 142-143.

Figure 132.

Figures 140-141.

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Subtilography. (2015). 100A-2923; 100A-2923226 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://100architects.com/project/selfiewall/ Frearson, Amy. (2017, October 27). People’s Pavilion “has almost no ecological footprint” says designers. DeZeen. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2017/10/27/peoples-pavilion-dutch-design-week-low-ecological-footprint-bureau-slaovertreders-w/

Figures 144, 147, 149, 158-159.

Kolnaar, Tom. (2017). Photos/Videos-8; Photos/Videos-1; Photos/Videos-4; Photos/Videos-1; Photos/Videos-8 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://archello.com/project/peoples-pavilion-by-bureau-sla-overtreders-w

Figures 145-146, 148, 150-157.

Dujardin, Filip. (2017). Photos/Videos-5; Photos/Videos-1; Photos/Videos-2; Photos/Videos-2; Photos/Videos-7; Photos/ Videos-6; Photos/Videos-17; Photos/Videos-13; Photos/Videos-19; Photos/Videos-19 [Digital images]. Retrieved from https://archello.com/project/peoples-pavilion-by-bureau-sla-overtreders-w

Figure 160-162.

Figure 163.

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Free Vector Maps (n.d.) Map of Florida - Single Color [Digital Image]. Retrieved from https://freevectormaps.com/unitedstates/florida/US-FL-EPS-01-0001

Figure 164.

Tampas Downtown. (n.d.) Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park Signage. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www. tampasdowntown.com/events/bounce-cody-liner/

Figure 203.

Target. (n.d.) TRESemme Keratin Smooth Pro Collection Shampoo - 22 fl oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www. target.com/p/tresemme-keratin-smooth-pro-collection-shampoo-22-fl-oz/-/A-52506473

Figure 165.

Hyde Park Hotel Tampa. (n.d.) Curtis Hixon Waterfront Park. [Digital image]. Retrieved From http://www. hydeparkhoteltampa.com/location/

Figure 204.

Walmart. (n.d.) Folgers House Blend Ground Coffee, Medium Roast, 24.2-Ounce. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https:// www.walmart.com/ip/Folgers-House-Blend-Ground-Coffee-Medium-Roast-24-2-Ounce/45796275

Figure 166.

Aerial Photography-Astro Aerial Photography. (2019, August 4) Aerial view Downtown Tampa Florida. [Digital image].

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Figure 205.

Walmart. (n.d.) Xtra Liquid Laundry Detergent, Calypso Fresh, 255oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.walmart. com/ip/Xtra-Liquid-Laundry-Detergent-Calypso-Fresh-255oz/102199317

Figure 167.

Google Maps. (2019). Map of Downtown Tampa, FL with adjacent Hillsborough River.

Figure 206.

Search Wellness. (n.d.) Garnier Hair Care Whole Blends Honey Treasures Repairing Shamppo. [Digital Image].

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Figure 207.

Dollar General. (n.d.) Tide Simply Clean & Fresh Refreshing Breeze Scent Liquid Laundry Detergent 64 Load 100 Fl. Oz. Bottle. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.dollargeneral.com/tide-simply-clean-fresh-refreshing-breezescent-liquid-laundry-detergent-64-load-100-fl-oz-bottle.html

Figure 208.

BJs. (n.d.) Cafe Bustelo Espresso Coffee, 4 pk./100 oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.bjs.com/product/cafebustelo-espresso-coffee-4-pk100-oz/3000000000000139549

Figure 209.

Target. (n.d.) Arm & Hammer Plus OxiClean Fresh Scent Liquid Detergent - 185.5 fl oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.target.com/p/arm-38-hammer-plus-oxiclean-fresh-scent-liquid-laundry-detergent-185-5-fl-oz//A-47054194

Figure 168-174.

Tampa ARC GIS. (n.d.) Map Showing Location of Parks in Tampa, FL. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://tampa.maps. arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=a581818ea9ff47b4a73c80eead8f01da City-Data. (2020). “Tampa: Geography and Climate”. City-Data. Available at: http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/TheSouth/Tampa-Geography-and-Climate.html

Figure 175.

Menhhard, Ingo; Alamy Stock Vector. (2018, July 11). Modern City Map - Tampa Florida city of the USA with neighborhoods and titles outline map - Image ID: P8EGA3 [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.alamy.com/modern-city-maptampa-florida-city-of-the-usa-with-neighborhoods-and-titles-outline-map-image211761819.html

Figure 176.

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Figure 177.

Soens, Jolan; The Noun Project. (n.d.) Elevation. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://thenounproject.com/term/ elevation/525997/

Figure 210.

Figure 178.

McDonald, Joshua; The Noun Project. (n.d.) Thunderstorms. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://thenounproject.com/ term/thunderstorms/343820/

Walmart. (n.d.) OxiClean Liquid Laundry Detergent, Sparking Fresh Scent, 100.5 oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https:// www.walmart.com/ip/OxiClean-Liquid-Laundry-Detergent-Sparkling-Fresh-Scent-100-5-oz/43977401

Figure 211.

Figure 179.

[Untitled Image of Thermal Property]. (n.d.) [Digital Image]. https://www.eddiebauer.com/view/p/womens-jackets/

Walmart. (n.d.) Downy April Fresh, 150 Loads Liquid Fabric Softener, 129 fl oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www. walmart.com/ip/Downy-April-Fresh-150-Loads-Liquid-Fabric-Softener-129-fl-oz/21905148

Figure 212.

Target (n.d.) All Ultra Stain Lifter HE Liquid Laundry Detergent - 150oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.target. com/p/all-ultra-stain-lifter-he-liquid-laundry-detergent-150oz/-/A-48638781

Figure 213.

Amazon. (n.d.) Head and Shoulders Conditioner, Moisture Renewal, Anti Dandruff Treatment and Scalp Care, Royal Oils Collection with Coconut Oil, for Natural and Curly Hair, 13.5 fl oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.amazon. com/Head-Shoulders-Conditioner-Dandruff-Collection/dp/B07F3MT716

Figure 214.

Smallflower Modern Apothecary. (n.d.) Nivea Hair Milk Conditioner. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www. smallflower.com/nivea/hair-milk-conditioner-200ml-conditioner-10078522

Figure 215.

Amazon. (n.d.) Maxwell House Original Roast Ground Coffee (30.6 oz Canister). [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https:// www.amazon.com/Maxwell-Original-Medium-Ground-Canister/dp/B00I8GC9E8

Figure 216.

BJs. (n.d.) Herbal Essences Hello Hydration Moisturizing Conditioner, 40 oz. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www. bjs.com/product/herbal-essences-hello-hydration-moisturizing-conditioner-40-oz/285800

Figures 180-182, 188.

Figures 183-187.

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Figure 189.

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Figure 190.

Walk Score. (n.d.) Living in Tampa. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.walkscore.com/FL/Tampa

Figure 191.

Google Maps. (2019). Map of Downtown Tampa, FL.

Figure 217.

CAD Mapper. (n.d.) Free City Files: North America - Tampa. [Digital DXF file]. Retrieved From https://cadmapper. com/#metro

Dove. (n.d.) Volume and Fullness Shampoo. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.dove.com/us/en/hair-care/ shampoo/volume-and-fullness-shampoo.html

Figure 218.

Figure 194.

Manor Riverwalk. (2019, March 14) The Downtown Tampa Scoop: Spring 2019. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https:// manorriverwalk.com/the-downtown-tampa-scoop-spring-2019/

American Chemical Society. (2020). Chemical & Engineering News [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://cen.acs.org/ environment/pollution/Chemistry-solutions-plastic-trash-problem/96/i25

Figure 219.

Figure 195.

City of Tampa. (2018, June 1) Curtis Hixon Park. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://manorriverwalk.com/thedowntown-tampa-scoop-spring-2019/

Razorback Moving & Storage. (2018, April 17). Packing Peanuts Vs. Bubble Wrap [Digital image]. Retrieved From https:// www.razorbackmoving.com/packing-peanuts-vs-bubble-wrap/

Figure 220.

Figure 196.

Arch Daily. (2010, March 10) Tampa Museum of Art / Stanley Saitowitz | Natoma Architects. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.archdaily.com/52247/tampa-museum-of-art-stanley-saitowitz-natoma-architects?ad_medium=gallery

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Figure 221.

Prints-Mart. (n.d.) Nominal Length: 20ft Delivery Box Truck (4 Sizes). [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.printsmart.com/store/p962/Vehicle-Graphics/Box-Truck-Graphics/20ft-Box-Truck-3-Sided-Wraps.html

Figure 223.

Frigidaire. (n.d.) FFEF3054TS Frigidaire 30” Electric Range. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.frigidaire.com/ Kitchen-Appliances/Ranges/Electric-Range/FFEF3054TS/

Figure 224.

Home Depot. (n.d.) Wagner Furno 500 Heat Gun. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.homedepot.com/p/WagnerFurno-500-Heat-Gun-0503063/206723949

Figure 225.

Von Slatt, Jake; The Steampunk Workshop. (n.d.) Upcycling: Re-filling a Swiffer Wetjet Bottle. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://steampunkworkshop.com/upcycling-re-filling-swiffer-wetjet-bottle/

Figures 192-193.

Figures 197-200.

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Figure 201.

Colourbox, #1183. (n.d.) Earth Globe, high resolution, stock image. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.colourbox. com/image/earth-globe-high-resolution-image-image-1496575

Figure 202.

Martha Stewart at Ulta. (n.d.) Redken Color Extend Shampoo. [Digital Image]. Retrieved From https://www.marthastewart. com/shop/redken-redken-color-extend-shampoo-pae889eb30244c293619982ff38516513.html

Figure 226.

Hargis, Toni; BBC America. (2011) The Cultural Divide on Washing Dishes: Brits vs. Americans. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2012/10/the-cultural-divide-on-washing-dishes-brits-vs-americans

Figure 227.

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Figure 228.

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Figure 229.

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Figure 230.

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Figure 231.

Sierra Victor Industries. (n.d.) U.S. INDUSTRIAL Hydraulic Press Brake with Front Operated Power Backguage and Power Ram Adjust USHB250-13HM. [Digital image]. Retrieved From https://sierravictor.com/metalworking-machinery/pressbrakes/ushb250-13hm/