KODANSHA Culture International Magazine is an open access, biannual, and peer-reviewed online magazine that aims to bundle cultural diversity. All values of cultures are shown in their varieties of art. Beyond the importance of the medium, form, and context in which art takes its characteristics, we also consider the significance of socio cultural and market influence. Thus, there are different forms of visual expression and perception through the media and environment The images relate to the cultural changes and their time-space significance the spirit of the time. Hence, it is not only about the image itself and its description but rather its effects on culture, in which reciprocity is involved. A variety of visual narratives-like movies, TV shows, videos, performances, media, digital arts, visual technologies and video game as part of the video's story, communications design, and also, drawing, painting, photography, dance, theater, literature, sculpture, architecture and design are discussed in their visual significance as well as in synchronization with music in daily interactions.
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Yokai images burst onto the popular scene thanks to woodblock print technology in the Edo period (1603—1867). Now, copies of a print could be created quickly and cheaply. Whereas the early scroll paintings had limited audiences, prints were accessible.
5,6 - STAGE PERFORMANCE
Like visual arts, performance is one of the cultural modes that popularized yokai stories and imagery. Stage theater was particularly popular during the Edo period (1603—1867) and numerous classical plays featured ghost, demon, and monster.
7,8 - FESTIVALS
Some demons are actually regional deities and are viewed differently than other kinds of demons. Special, seasonal rituals are performed at specific Shinto shrines to honor these demon like deities and garner blessings and good fortune for people.
9,10 - TOYS & GAMES
Produced in large quantities, omocha-e (“paper toys” or “toy pictures”) woodblock prints were inexpensive enough for children to buy. Examples like these, with different images in each square, were intended to be cut, and used as decorations.
B. STORRYTELLING
13,14 - TENGU
Tengu (天狗, “heavenly dog”) are mountain and forest goblins, a type of legendary creature found in Japanese folklore and are also considered a type of Shinto god (kami) or yōkai (supernatural beings).
15,16 - TANUKI
Tanuki (タヌキ, 狸) or Japanese Raccoon Dog is an animal native to Asia and a Yokai from Japanese Folklore. The complete name of the Yokai Tanuki is Bake Danuki (化け狸) which means literally transforming, or “Tanuki” in Japanese.
21,22 - KAPPA
The name “kappa” means “river child,” and it’s often called a “water sprite” in English explanations. Both of these give a much cuter impression than is good for your safety. The regional variations went by many different names in Japanese.
25,26 - NUE
The Nue is a yokai (supernatural creature from Japanese folklore) with the particularity of being a hybrid being, composed of animal parts from several different species. Its silhouette is generally black and its skin is covered.
29,30 - OIWA
Oiwa (雪女 ) is the tragic and terrifying onryō from Yotsuya kaidan ”the ghost story of Yotsuya.” Along with Okiku and Otsuyu, she is one of the Nihon san dai kaidan Japan’s Big Three Ghost Stories, 17th century Edo in Japan
17,18 - HELL
What is not a dream? Who will not end up as a skeleton? We appear as skeletons covered with skin male and female and lust after each other. When the breath expires, though, the skin ruptures, sex disappears.
19,20 - KITSUNE
The word ‘Kitsune’ means fox in Japanese, and refers to the use of foxes in Japanese folklore rather than the animal in general. Stories show the Kitsune to be intelligent beings, who possess magical abilities that increase with their age animal in general.
23,24 - NEKOMATA
Nekomata are a malevolent yokai from Japanese folklore belonging to the neko class of animal spirit: like all other neko, Nekomata are envisioned as a type of demonic feline but are distinguished from others due to its two tails.
27,28 - ROKUROKUBI
Rokurokubi (ろくろ首 ) originates from Japanese mythology during the reign of the last shogun dynasty, better known as the Edo period (1603-1867). By day, rokurokubi appear to be ordinary women traditional Japanese.
31,32 - YUKI ONNA
Yuki onna prey on travelers lost in the heavy snowstorms that blanket the Japanese Alps in winter. They have an otherworldly beauty, with long black hair and dark, piercing eyes. Their skin is ageless and as white as snow and cold as ice.
YOKAI HISTORY TO CULTURE
Yokai is a catchall Japanese word for ghosts, demons, monsters, shapeshifters, tricksters, and other kinds of supernatural beings and mysterious phenomena. Yokai interact with the human world and spark common notions of frightful things. Although sometimes scary, these frightening beings are often portrayed as playful, relatable, and even cute creatures, meaning the experience of fear can also be amusing and fun.
“The Earth Spider Generates Monsters at the Mansion of Lord Minamoto Yorimitsu” by Utagawa Kuniyoshi
VISUAL ART
HOW VISUAL ARTISTS MADE
YOKAI
POPULAR
A scene from the “Night Parade of a Hundred Demons” Japan 1805
YOKAI & PRINT TECHNOLOGY
Yokai images burst onto the popular scene thanks to woodblock print technology in the Edo period (1603—1867). Now, copies of a print could be created quickly and cheaply. Whereas the early scroll paintings had limited audiences, prints were accessible and affordable. As specific depictions of yokai began to circulate among the masses, the images became popular cultural references beautifulness.
Toriyama Sekien’s set of encyclopedias “The Illustrated Night Parade of a Hundred Demons” (Gazu hyakki yagyo) is based on the Hyakki yagyo scrolls. This series of books is considered the first mass-produced and illustrated yokai encyclopedia, with yokai ranging frvom the very popular to the lesser known, and includes some dreamed up by Sekien himself. Sekien standardized yokai images. His drawings of specific creatures served as an important visual resource for later artists, including Edo period printmakers, twentieth-century manga creators, and yokai artists today. Plus, scroll paintings were commonly kept in temples and shrines or in the storehouses of aristocratic families. Viewers needed access to such elite places.
EARLY YOKAI PAINTINGS
The repertoire of bizarre creatures in Japan was expanded by painters of the Muromachi period (1336—1573). These artists borrowed traditional characters found in serious religious images, such as horned and hideous demons (oni), and added to the assortment by illustrating oral tales of inexplicable phenomena and weird beings. These monster paintings transformed religious subjects into entertaining ones, creating funny monsters engaged in other human activities.
The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons scroll (Hyakki yagyo emaki) is an early monster painting. The oldest known version comes from the Muromachi period. It was copied over and over again, as apprentice artists learned from the masters. Following the creation of the Hyakki yagyo and other early monster paintings, fantastic creatures were no longer limited to horned demons. They could materialize into a variety of different beings. Explore popular forms of yokai and yokai lore here. Although the variety of monster expanded, their audiences were still limited. Scroll paintings were often painted by master artists and then copied by their students; they required much time and great skill to produce. Due to their small size, the scrolls could only be viewed by a few people at a time.
Hyakki yagyo emaki ("Night Parade of One Hundred Demons scroll") Japan Probably Edo period (1603—1867)
STAGE PERFORMANCE
HOW STAGE PERFORMANCE MADE YOKAI POPULAR
Mr. Amari and Mr. Sato (director of the Tokushima Prefectural Puppet Theater and Museum) hand-carried the commissioned Kiyohime to Santa Fe in 2019 to work with museum staff and train them in proper handling and preservation methods. Pictured (from left to right): Amari Yoichiri, Maureen Russell (senior conservator) and Sato Kenji
AWA NINGYO JORURI (PUPPETRY)
Awa ningyo joruri is a regional style of puppet theater specific to Tokushima, where performances take place on an open-air, village stage. It takes three puppeteers to operate one puppet: one each for the head, hands, and feet. Puppetry is one of Japan’s oldest performance genres and some forms are inscribed on UNESCO’s list of Intangible World Cultural Heritage.
The puppet play Hidakagawa iriaizakura centers on the lovelorn Kiyohime and a monk named Anchin. Set at Dojoji Temple in Wakayama in the year 929, the play details the destructive nature of obsessive passion. Kiyohime falls in love with Anchin but he rejects her. Kiyohime’s rage, damaged pride, and emotional pain overtake her and she loses complete control of herself and her humanity. She transforms into a serpent-demon, swims across a river, and makes her way to Dojoji Temple, where Anchin hides from her under a large bronze bell. She finds him, coils herself around the bell, spitting flames until Anchin burns to ashes.
Like visual arts, performance is one of the cultural modes that popularized yokai stories and imagery. Stage theater was particularly popular during the Edo period (1603—1867) and numerous classical plays featured ghost, demon, and monster-like characters. These characters and their stories have enjoyed long-lasting appeal. Ghostly stage presentations from centuries ago inform today’s iconic image of vengeful female ghosts, with long disheveled hair, a white death kimono, and no feet. A number of contemporary Japanese horror films feature these images and they have also made their way into Hollywood blockbusters, such as The Ring (2002). Among the forms of traditional Japanese stage performance that portray demons and ghosts are puppetry, noh, and kabuki theater. Kabuki theatrical performance developed in the Edo period (1603–1867), a time of relative prosperity with new markets for leisure activities. PKabuki was especially popular for its stage tricks, special effects, and action. Ghost stories were very popular and often challenged social norms, especially those related to gender roles and economic status. Kabuki is inscribed on UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
Some demons are actually regional deities and are viewed differently than other kinds of demons. Special, seasonal rituals are performed at specific Shinto shrines to honor these demon like deities and garner blessings and good fortune for people, their families, and communities.
With an emphasis on visual and visceral experiences, these celebrations are a spectacle: they feature deities that are massive, intense, colorful, dramatic visions. As such, they have become popular tourist attractions. In the post-war era in Japan, some cities created large festivals featuring these demon-like deities specifically to increase tourism, their families, and communities. These grand festivals are considered secular community events, as opposed to the sacred rituals that take place in the shrines.
USHIONI MATSURI: THE COW FESTIVAL
Every year, from July 22—24, Uwajima (Ehime Prefecture) is taken over by the Ushioni MatsuriThis popular festival involves up to twentytwo, eighteen-foot-high, 650 to 1500 pound ushioni (cow demon) floats, each associated with different local shrines. They are carried by fifty shrine members to the center of town, where the ushioni dance and battle with one another as they parade towards Warei Jjinja (Uwajima’s main Shinto shrine).
Each festival day centers on different activities including a youth float parade (involving smaller ushioni floats), music and dance, bamboo pole climbing competitions, and fireworks. The floats are highly interactive. Attached to a long neck that extends from the float’s enormous body, the ushioni head swings across crowds of people creating delight among tens of thousands of spectators. The festival’s roots are in Warei Jinja’s four hundred-year-old rituals where smaller scale ushioni are purified by shrine priests to dispel negative spirits and bring blessings to the community. Once admitted, they chase family members, roar, and call out children for laziness or misbehavior. In 1965, the city of Uwajima developed the Ushioni Matsuri as a public festival to increase tourism and boost the local economy. More than that, the festival brings local communities together to compete, to collaborate, and to celebrate; it is a source of community enjoyment, identity, and pride. The festival’s roots are in Warei Jinja’s four hundred-year-old rituals.
NAMAHAGE MATSURI: A FESTIVAL OF MONSTROUS DEMON-DEITIES
On New Year’s Eve, Namahage trample through the snow of Oga (Akita Prefecture), demanding entrance to individual homes. Once admitted, they chase family members, roar, and call out children for laziness or misbehavior. Children provide offerings of food and sake to the Namahage, who then talk with family members, explaining their role as gods descended from the mountains to bless people with good fortune.
This ritual is distinct, but related to the festival Namahage Sedo Matsuri, created in 1963 to share Namahage with outsiders. As opposed to the private New Year’s ritual within the household, the public three-day festival occurs on the grounds of the Shinzan Jinja in mid-February. It is a large event that involves dancing, roaring demons that chase audiences around icy grounds, bonfires, food, sake, and taiko drumming. Fear is at the heart of the Namahage experience, and the Namahage are at the heart of regional identity and pride. In 2018, Namahage was added to UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
With an emphasis on visual and visceral experiences, these celebrations are a spectacle: they feature deities that are massive, intense, colorful, dramatic visions. As such, they have become popular tourist attractions. In the post-war era in Japan, some cities created large festivals featuring these demon-like deities specifically to increase tourism.
Namahage mask and costume
Ishikawa Taiko Oga City, Akita Prefecture 2012
TOYS & GAMES MADE
YOKAI POPULAR TOYS & GAMES
Bakemono Zukushi ("All about Bakemono") woodblock print Japan Edo period (1603—1867)
Produced in large quantities, omocha-e (“paper toys” or “toy pictures”) woodblock prints were inexpensive enough for children to buy. Examples like these, with different images in each square, were intended to be cut. Children would then trade and collect the various images. Monsters, being a persistently popular theme, were a favorite. Putting images together created a catalog of yokai (like a Pokédex). They are like “Edo period Pokémon cards.”
Kawari-e obake andon ("Trick monster lantern") Japan Meiji period (1868–1912)
Some kinds of omocha-e woodblock prints were meant to be cut, pasted, and arranged into a threedimensional paper toy. This example is an andon (floor lantern) that transforms into an obake yashiki (monster house). Lifting paper flaps reveals various yokai, including a tanuki (raccoon-dog), O-Nyudo (a stretchy-necked monk-monster), tsukumogami (in the form of a tea kettle), skeleton musicians, and a buriburi (shaking ghost).
Japan 1970s
Menko involves throwing cards in attempt to flip those already laid out on the ground. Menko cards commonly depict images and characters that reflect popular culture of the time. Yokai were a long-time favorite, and other popular themes have included ninja, samurai, military images (prior to World War II), manga characters (such as GeGeGe no Kitaro), and baseball.
Toys and games are an important part of yokai culture and a fun way that children have learned about yokai through the ages. Similar to Pokémon cards, children were especially delighted by paper-based toys with yokai images that they collected and traded. Toys and games reflect the popular culture of their time and those played with centuries ago still bring joy and challenges to children today.
Unpunched, die-cut paper yokai toys Japan 1950s—1960s
These paper punch-out toys are a more contemporary, industrially produced version of omocha-e (paper toy) prints. The perforated body parts can be punched out by hand and inserted into flaps in the monster’s torso to create a monster figure.
Menko playing cards with yokai characters
STORYTELLING
“Takiyasha
Storytelling was one of the ways that yokai types expanded during the medieval period in Japan. Kaidan (stories of strange and mysterious things) from different regions of Japan circulated in the city of Edo (modern-day Tokyo). A popular pastime surrounding kaidan emerged sometime in the early Edo period (1603—1867), known as hyakumonogatari kaidankai (special gatherings for the telling of one hundred ghost stories). At these events, people told regional ghost stories they knew or they invented new ghost stories. Traditionally, the storytelling began with lighting one hundred candles and at the end of each story, a candle was extinguished. When the last flame went out and darkness descended, yokai were said to appear.
the Witch and the Skeleton Spectre” by Utagawa Kuniyoshi
TENGU 天 狗
Daitengu 大天狗
Tengu (天狗, “heavenly dog”) are mountain and forest goblins, a type of legendary creature found in Japanese folklore and are also considered a type of Shinto god (kami) or yōkai (supernatural beings). Although in literal translation their kanji derives their name from a Chinese dog-like demon (Tiangou), they were in no way shaped like one. As we will see later, tengu were originally meant to take the form of birds of prey, and they are traditionally depicted with both human and avian characteristics.
The first mythical creatures were depicted with beaks, but this feature was often humanized in the form of an abnormally long nose. Today, this appearance is widely regarded as the form of the tengu most prevalent in the popular imagination.Tibetan Buddhism has long considered tengu to be disruptive demons and harbingers of war. Their image, however, has gradually softened to that of protective, though still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. The tengu are associated with an austere lifestyle, the opposite of the epicureanism known as Shugendō. They are usually depicted in the distinctive garb of its followers, the yamabushi (who are mountain dwelling ascetics).
DAITENGU: HALF DEMON, HALF HUMAN
The Great Tengu or daitengu is a towering half human deity whose characteristics are his red complexion, long nose and large wings. In this day and age, when we mention “tengu”, this is who we are referring to. They live in the mountains and some of their powers, such as possession, are also the prerogative of other Yokai.
However, their singular skills are wind control, swordsmanship, and flight. The monstrous daitengu often kidnap humans to torment them, but sometimes they do so to teach them magic. Surprisingly, in some cases, it is the humans themselves who decide to seek out the daitengu to learn their secrets, but usually they regret it. Other than the red face, long nose, robes, and wings, the daitengu can be depicted holding a large fan that they use to raise storms. They are said to cause wars and natural disasters. Because of their prideful nature and penchant for chaos, it is ironic that several authors have drawn connections between the daitengu and human civilization.
KOTENGU: THE JAPANESE RAVEN DEMON
The other type is the first tengu that came before the daitengu. It is called kotengu 小天狗こてんぐ (small tengu) or karasutengu 烏天狗からすてんぐ. Karasu means raven, but these tengu can also take the form of raptors. They sometimes wear monk’s robes, but are mostly much more animalistic than the daitengu, both in appearance and behavior. While the latter plan to disrupt society and interfere with religion, the kotengu act on a smaller scale. But this modesty in actions does not suppress their savagery, and they can eat humans.
Nowadays, the kotengu are sometimes considered the servants of the daitengu, but this was not always the case. The kotengu is actually the original version of the tengu. In short, initially there was only one type of tengu and it looked like a bird. They later became more human with the beak turning into a long nose.There are other types of Tengu that are more like phenomena, such as the Tengu Taoshi, Tengubi or Tengu Tsubute.
ATanuki (タヌキ, 狸) or Japanese Raccoon Dog is an animal native to Asia and a Yokai from Japanese Folklore. The complete name of the Yokai Tanuki is Bake Danuki ( 化け狸) which means literally “transforming Tanuki”. Yokai Tanuki look like raccoons or badgers with a straw hat, a bottle of sake and huge balls. Bake Danuki are first known to be masters of disguise, able to change their shape at will, and to have many magical powers. They also are the mascot of the Shiga prefecture located in the Kansai region of Honshu.
Originally from China, the origins of Tanuki mythology began between the 4th and 7th century, mostly during the Nara period (593 to 628) as they appeared in the in the Nihon Shoki. This important book of Japan contains many historical records as well as the origins of Japan. But the Tanuki was also found in the Nihon Ryōiki during the Heian era, a collection of Japanese anecdotes, based on Buddhist folk tales. The legend says that a farmer reported
having seen a Tanuki singing using his belly as a drum and transformed into a human.
Represented as a raccoon with a bulging belly and big balls, the Yokai Tanuki called Bake Danuki (化け狸) is initially perceived as a creature that is anything but benevolent at first, a bit like the Tengu. Indeed, when it takes the appearance of a human, the Tanuki does not hesitate to lie, steal and even kill. However, Tanuki’s image has evolved over the centuries, making it more innocent but still as prankish. In the tale of Bunbuku Chagama, a woodcutter saves the life of a takuni and the latter, as a thank you, helps him to become rich. During the Edo period, the Tanuki figure became so popular that it was often depicted in prints, with a touch of humor, which strongly developed the comic image of Tanuki during the Kamakura era (1185-1333).
TANUKI
Other forms: The most intelligent and magically adept tanuki have been known to adopt human names and practices, such as gambling, drinking, even administration and religious activities. Many go through their whole lives living among humans without ever being detected. In human form, tanuki have proven to be as corruptible as the humans they emulate. Some tanuki have well-earned reputations as thieves, drunkards, liars, and cheats.
Additionally, many use their shape-shifting powers to transform into stones, trees, statues, and even ordinary household items in order to play tricks on people. Some even transform into giants and horrible monsters—either to terrorize humans for pleasure, or to scare them away from places they shouldn’t be. Other forms: The most intelligent and magically adept tanuki have been known to adopt human
names and practices, such as gambling, drinking, even administration and religious activities. Many go through their whole lives living among humans without ever being detected. In human form, tanuki have proven to be as corruptible as the humans they emulate. Some tanuki have well-earned reputations as thieves, drunkards, liars, and cheats.
Additionally, many use their shape-shifting powers to transform into stones, trees, statues, and even ordinary household items in order to play tricks on people. Some even transform into giants and horrible monsters—either to terrorize humans for pleasure, or to scare them away from places they shouldn’t be.
What is not a dream? Who will not end up as a skeleton? We appear as skeletons covered with skin — male and female — and lust after each other. When the breath expires, though, the skin ruptures, sex disappears, and there is no more high or low. Underneath the skin of the person we fondle and caress right now is nothing more than a set of bare bones. Think about it — high and low, young and old, male and female, all are the same.”
–Ikkyū (“Skeletons,” 1457) Translated by
John Stevens
The stories say that the woman who became known as the Hell Courtesan was named Otoboshi, the daughter of a samurai. Her father died in battle, and when the family fled after his death (I think Otoboshi was about four at the time), they ran into bandits, who murdered Otoboshi’s mother and sold Otoboshi and her older sister to a woman in the business of selling young girls to brothels. Otoboshi eventually became a renowned, high-ranking courtesan (dayū) in Sakai, a port town near Osaka. Convinced that the state of her life was punishment for deeds in a past life, Otoboshi changed her name to Hell (Jigoku) and had an image of Hell embroidered into her gown as penance, hoping to expiate her sins and eventually be reborn into paradise.
During the same period, there lived a famous, eccentric Zen monk and poet named Ikkyū. Ikkyū habitually frequented brothels, finding “virtue in the midst of vice” — along with sake and sex. He would ask those he met riddles and philosophical puzzlers, hoping to provoke people into enlightenment. As the story goes, Ikkyū hears about this famous Hell Courtesan, and decides to go see her. He finds the brothel where she was based and asks for her. The brothel servants, seeing only a poor, shabby monk, refuse. Ikkyū curses them; the servants throw him out, and are about to beat him, when Jigoku arrives.
In Japanese folklore, kitsune (狐,きつね) are foxes that possess paranormal abilities that increase as they get older and wiser. They are identical to wild foxes found elsewhere in the world apart from their incredible magical powers. Their cute faces and small size make them particularly loved by most people.
Foxes and humans lived close together in ancient Japan, this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto kami or spirit, and serve as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox’s supernatural significance. The more tails a kitsune has they may have as many as nine the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make sacrifices to them as to a deity.
The word ‘Kitsune’ means fox in Japanese, and refers to the use of foxes in Japanese folklore rather than the animal in general. Stories show the Kitsune to be intelligent beings, who possess magical abilities that increase with their age. One such ability is to shapeshift into a human image, which was often used malevolently.
In ancient Japan, foxes and humans lived together which caused a sharp rise in the legends relating to the Kitsune. There were two forms of Kitsune: the ‘Zenko’ and the ‘Yako’ or ‘Youkai’. The Zenko were benevolent and associated with the Inari, a Shinto spirit and would serve as its messengers which reinforced a supernatural influence in the creatures. As the ancient Japanese believed they held an influence, it was common to make offerings to them as you would a deity. However, from the Edo Period (c.1603 -1867), a suspicious nature fell over them which caused the introduction of the ‘Yako’ or ‘Youkai’. These were believed to be malevolent and were considered to be goblins rather than animals.
Kitsune were identifiable by their tails, as it was believed that the more tails that a Kitsune had meant that they were older, wiser and more powerful than the others. 1, 5, 7 and 9 tails were the most commonly seen in Japanese mythology. Legends show that a Kitsune were only able to grow additional tails after living for 100 years. When a Kitsune reached its 9th tail, its fur would become white and gold and it would acquire the power to see and hear anything that was happening anywhere in the world. These foxes, which were now 1000 years old, were referred to as ‘Tenko’, which was the most powerful form of a Kitsune. This is parallel with Chinese mythology, which told of a breed of fox spirit who could have up to 9 tails. Many of these legends were recorded in the Konjaku Monogatarish, which
is an 11th century collection of early Chinese, Indian and Japanese narratives. These were adopted into early Buddhist beliefs, which were then introduced to Japanese folklore.
While the ‘Zenko’ Kitsune were benevolent, all Kitsune were often represented as tricksters. Common stories show them playing pranks on the overly proud Samurai, with the malevolent ones abusing poor farming families or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims were usually male, as the Kitsune were believed to either be female, or generally possessed women. They often confused their victims with visions or seduction, and would commonly attack those in retaliation for a perceived slight. In many legends, a Kitsune would pose as a distressed female traveller or monk on a pilgrimage, and would convince a villager to take them in for the night. The next morning, they would find that their food and valuables had been stolen. Alternatively, the Kitsune would seduce its victim into going to a place where they would likely be killed.A Kitsune was believed to hold items known as ‘Kitsune Balls’ or ‘Star Balls’. However, should the Kitsune retrieve its ball then you would be subject to the severe repercussions as they did not like to be forcibly controlled.
A Kitsune was such a large part of Japanese culture, that the mental illness ‘Kitsunetsuki’ existed until the early 20th century. Until the 19th century, any physical illness that caused a fever was also believed to be Kitsunetsuki. The disease was believed to be in reference to the state of being possessed by a fox. Its sufferers were usually young women, who believed the fox had entered their bodies either underneath their fingernails or through their breasts. In some cases, it was reported that the victim’s facial expressions would resemble those of a fox. While a woman was suffering from Kitsunetsuki, it was believed that it could cause illiterate victims to gain the ability to read.
河 童
The name “kappa” means “river child,” and it’s often called a “water sprite” in English explanations. Both of these give a much cuter impression than is good for your safety. The regional variations went by many different names, including gawappa, kawatarō, suiko, kawappa, kawako, kawaso… There seems to have been a basic east-west difference at one time. The turtle-shellbearing kappa came from the east and the kawatarō in the west, which is more hairy and monkeylike. By the nineteenth century the reptilian eastern kappa seems to have edged out his western counterpart. Modern depictions of kappa are usually along those lines.
Today’s idea of a kappa only coalesced fairly recently, from the nineteenth to the twentieth century, and it is quite remote from former traditions. Even the names of the creatures
Kappa were also thought of as mammals like monkeys or otters until the eighteenth century, rather than reptiles or amphibians. The fifteenth-century dictionary Kagakushū (Collection of Low Studies) describes how when otters become older, they turn into kawarō, which is the oldest reference on record to kappa. The term kawarō for kappa is also found in the Japanese-Portuguese dictionary compiled by Jesuit missionaries in Nagasaki in 1603; it is defined as a monkeylike creature that lives in rivers.
In the nineteenth century, however, kappa with turtle shells became predominant. Just as with the word kappa, this was due to Edo influence. Buoyed by printed materials, and especially visual media like ukiyo-e prints, what was once a minor variant nationwide soon established a new standard. For example, Katsushika Hokusai followed Edo conventions in depicting kappa with pointed beaks, as well as shells and bodies like different kinds of turtle, in his Hokusai manga.Other artists would sometimes color kappa bodies green, perhaps due to an association with frogs. There is almost no evidence of previous traditions for green kappa or connections with the amphibians, but their webbed feet and similarity in outline to young children, suggest that some artists chose frogs as convenient models for the imaginary creatures.
themselves once varied by region. In the Edo period (1603–1868), they were known as kawatarō or gataro in the Kamigata area around Kyoto and Osaka. In Tōhoku, they were medochi, in Hokuriku mizushi, in Chūgoku and Shikoku. Until the eighteenth century Kamigata was Japan’s cultural center with kappa noted only as a regional variation. In the nineteenth century, however, the rise of woodblock printing gave Edo (now Tokyo) an unassailable lead in publishing, which brought with it a complete cultural shift. The Edo variant kappa now became mainstream, just as Tokyo dialect became standard Japanese in modern times.
Kappa can also be crass and dangerous. Lakes and rivers where they live are often marked with warning signs. Kappa particularly despise cows and horses, and will attack the animals for no reason at all. Mischievous by nature, they loudly pass gas in public and love to peek up women’s kimonos. Sometimes their mischief turns vviolent. Kappa have been known to kidnap or rape swimming women, and kill people.
A kappa’s preferred method of attack is to drown its victims, or bite them to death under water. Kappa also devour humans alive. Usually they go for the rear end to get at the shirikodama, a mythical ball of flesh located just inside the anus.
Nekomata (猫また, 猫又, 猫股, 猫胯) are a kind of cat yokai described in Japanese folklore, classical kaidan, essays, etc. There are two very different types: those that live in the mountains and domestic cats that have grown old and transformed into yokai. Nekomataare often confused with bakeneko. Nekomata appear in stories even earlier than in Japan.
In Japanese literature, the nekomata first appeared in the Meigetsuki by Fujiwara no Teika in the early Kamakura period: in the beginning of Tenpuku (1233), August 2, in Nanto (now Nara Prefecture), a nekomata was said to have killed and eaten several people in one night. The nekomata was described as a mountain beast: according to the Meigetsuki, "They have eyes like a cat, and have a large body like a dog." An essay in Yoshida Kenkō 's 1331 Tsurezuregusa asserts, "In the mountain recesses, there are those called nekomata, and people say that they eat humans.
猫
又
NEK O MATA
Nekomata are a malevolent yokai from Japanese folklore and mythology, belonging to the neko class of animal spirit - like all neko the Nekomata are envisioned as a type of demonic feline but are distinguished from other neko by the fact they always have two tails, they are also considered the most evil of all neko spirits and thus much like beldams in Western legend they are completely devoted to wicked-doing in all its forms and have no redeeming qualities whatsoever, a classic "fairy tale" demon that exists solely to cause cruelty and fear.Nekomata have a vast array of magical abilitues and often begin life as ordinary housecats who, upon reaching a great age, develop great intelligence and supernatural traits - if their tail splits in two they have become a Nekomata and will normally establish themselves via devouring their former owner and taking their form.
Nekomata are probably the most malicious example of a Bakeneko, a cat which has transformed into a yokai upon reaching a certain age, this yokai developed in the 17th century when large numbers of feral cats were roaming edo. -Certain Stories of bakeneko likely date back to ancient China where they are instead known as "Senri." A cat with two tails was thought to be particuarly powerful. Nekomata are defined by their flaming forked tails split straight down the centre,
these tails act as a torch for magical necrotic flames. These cats are often said to raise the dead by dancing around coffins. in the case of the nekomata the cat has transformed out of a deep seeded hatred for humanity, it is pure evil and malicious. Its said that the older and more abused a cat was prior to its transformation, the more powerful the Nekomata would be, as such these cats where often cast out by their owners to live alone in the mountains.
Nekomata will then begin their immortal life as a servant of unfettered evil, devouring humans whenever they can, causing massive fires and raising the dead as "puppets" for their amusement - they also continually gain social status via treachery and murder so as to use their new status to blackmail or enslave others.Nekomata are believed to only form from very old and very large cats with exceptionally long tails, for this reason many cats were feared in ancient Japan (though some were revered and seen as good luck) and it was not uncommon for practices such as the cutting of cat tails to try and prevent the creation of such demons.
ORIGINS HISTORY OF NUE
The Nue first appeared in the writings of Heianera poet and author Ki no Tsurayuki, in his work “The Diary of Tosa”. This book tells a story of Nue, where the creature takes up residence on the roof of an imperial palace, causing illness and misfortune to the residents.Little is known about the nue’s natural habitate and lifestyle. While sightings throughout history have been rare, nue are are considered to be pretty evil monsters. The few times that humans and nue have crossed paths, the results have been disastrous. In Japanese mythology, the Nue is considered an evil animal, responsible for mysterious illnesses and deaths. It is often associated with natural disasters such as earthquakes, storms and fires. According to legend, the creature lives in forests and mountains, but emerges from its hiding place to wreak havoc on towns and villages.
One famous nue attack occured in the summer of 1153 in Kyoto. Emperor Konoe began to have nightmares every night, and grew very ill. Neither medicine nor prayers had any effect on his illness, and the source was attributed to some kind of evil spirit which was visiting the palace every night, early in the morning. These events climaxed some days later in a storm which appeared over the imperial palace around 2 AM. Lightning struck the roof, setting it on fire. The emperor summoned the legendary samurai Minamoto no Yorimasa, to deal with the evil spirit. Yorimasa brought his trusted companion, I no Hayata, and his legendary bow which he received from Minamoto no Yorimitsu, to hunt the best. During the night, a strange wind came over them, followed by a black cloud. Yorimasa fired his arrow into the clouds above the palace, and out from the sky came a horrible scream as a nue dropped to the earth. I no Hayata leaped upon the body, dealing it a finishing blow. The emperor immediately recovered from his illness, and rewarded the heroes with the legendary katana Shishiō for their service. This event has been immortalized in numerous paintings and ukiyoe prints.
The nue is one of the oldest yokai recorded, having its first appearance in the Kojiki (712 CE), an account of the early histories of Japan. It also appears in the Heian-period encyclopedia Wamyo Ruijusho (938 CE), and again in the Heike Monogatari (1371 CE), a record of one of Japan’s bloodiest civil wars and most tragic family clans. It has the head of a monkey, the body of a tanuki, the tail of a snake, and the limbs of a tiger. In ancient times it was thought to be a kind of nocturnal bird it’s call is supposed to sound like that of a White’s thrush and thus its name is written with a kanji that contains the meanings.
After the nue was slain, the inhabitants of Kyoto were afraid of a retaliatory curse for killing the beast, so they loaded its body in a ship and sent it down the Kamo river. The boat with the nue’s body eventually washed up on the shore near the village of Ashiya, in Hyogo prefecture. The good citizens of Ashiya removed the nue’s body, built it a burial mound, and gave it a proper funeral. You can still visit the mound, known as Nuezuka, today.
NUE SYMBOLISM
Nue has become an important symbol in Japanese culture, appearing in numerous works of art, such as prints, paintings and sculptures. It is also present in many mangas, video games and anime.In the video game “Final Fantasy”, the Nue is represented as a boss, where the player must fight him to progress in the story.
In the anime “Naruto”, the character Haku has a fighting technique called “The Ice Nue”, which summons an ice dragon resembling a Nue.The Nue is also an important symbol in Japanese popular culture, where it is often associated with luck and fortune. Some people wear amulets featuring this creature to protect themselves from illness and misfortune.
The Nue is a yokai (supernatural creature from Japanese folklore) with the particularity of being a hybrid being, composed of animal parts from several different species. Its silhouette is generally black and its skin is covered with shiny scales, while its claws are sharp and its eyes bright.
"Nue, a yokai that appears in Tale of Heike (epic account of the struggle between 2 clans in Japan, there are many ukiyo-e painting from it), which is described as having the head of monkey, the legs of a tiger the body of the dog and the front half of a snake for a tail. Nue are supposed to be bringers of misfortune and illness".
Rokurokubi (ろくろ首) originates from Japanese mythology during the reign of the last shogun dynasty, better known as the Edo period (1603-1867). By day, rokurokubi appear to be ordinary women. By night, however, their bodies sleep while their necks stretch to incredible lengths and roam around freely. Sometimes their heads attack small animals; sometime they lick up lamp oil with their long tongues; and sometimes they just cause mischief by scaring nearby people. Unlike most yōkai which are born as monsters, rokurokubi and their close relatives nukekubi are former humans—transformed by a curse resulting from some evil or misdeed. Perhaps they sinned against the gods or nature, or perhaps they were unfaithful to their husbands. In many cases, their husbands or fathers actually committed the sin.
Legends: A lord noticed that the oil in his lamps was vanishing at an alarming rate, and suspected one of his servant girls might be a rokurokubi. He decided to spy upon the girl. After she had fallen asleep, he crept into her room and watched over her. Soon he noticed vapors and ectoplasm forming around her chest and neck. A little while later, the servant girl rolled over in her sleep, however only her body moved! The head stayed in its place, and the neck lay stretched out between the two. The next day he fired her. She was fired from every place at which she subsequently worked. The poor girl never understood why she had such back luck with her employment, never found out that she was a rokurokubi.
An old tale from Tōtōmi Province (Shizuoka Prefecture) tells of a monk who eloped with a young lady named Oyotsu. While traveling, Oyotsu became sick. Treating her would have used up all of their travel money, so the monk murdered Oyotsu and stole the remaining money. On his travels, he stayed at an inn owned by a man with a beautiful daughter. The wicked monk shared a bed with the innkeeper’s daughter, and during the night her neck stretched and her face changed into that of Oyotsu. She angrily accused him of murdering her. The next morning the monk, regretting his evil deeds, confessed the murder of Oyotsu to the innkeeper. The monk also told the innkeeper what he had seen the night before. The innkeeper confessed that he, too, had murdered his wife for her money. He used the money to build his inn, and as a punishment his own daughter was transformed into a rokurokubi. Afterwards, the monk rejoined his temple, built a grave for Oyotsu, and prayed for her soul every day. What happened to the innkeeper’s daughter is never mentioned. There are similar yokai from china known as Nukekubi who prefer to drink human blood as well.
In Japanese folklore, rokurokubi are yokai that appear as regular women but with the curious ability to extend their necks. There are actually two types of rokurokubi, one whose neck is able to stretch out to an extraordinary length and wander around while the body is sleeping. The other is known as nukekubi, and in this case the head can actually detach from the body and fly around freely. These strange extended and wandering heads have been known to lick the lamp oil at night, attack small animals and basically scare people senseless. It is believed that rokurokubi were once human but transformed into yokai as a result of some form of curse. In some cases it is even said that the rokurokubi results from the sins of a male family member, but the woman bears the punishment by receiving the curse. Considering the injustice of this, it's no wonder she wants to scare people. Afterwards, the monk rejoined his temple, built a grave for Oyotsu, and prayed for her soul every day. What happened to the innkeeper’s daughter is never mentioned.
Once a normal human, now a Yokai, living with something like a somnambulant curse: while she sleeps, her neck grows incredibly long, extending longer & longer extending down the hallway, out the window eating bugs, birds and licking up lamp oil, scaring people and getting into general mischief. Their heads take on a personality of their own, To make matters worse, the poor girl doesn't remember anything when she wakes up. (its almost like sleep walking.)
By some cruel twist of fate the men escape punishment and the women receive the curse instead. In any case, the rokurokubi curse only affects women. This type of curse can also be hereditary, passed down from mothers to their daughters, it can be brought on by a family members misdeeds, and as such most rokurokubi are completely unaware of their curse... Sometimes this "curse" is also considered a supernatural disease. Depending on the curse the rokurokubi may also be vampiric. There are similar yokai from china known as Nukekubi who prefer to drink human blood as well.It has been said that somewhere in the recesses of Mount Yoshino, there's an entire village made up of Rokurokubi & everyone wears scarves to hide their necks.
ROKUROKUBI
雪 女 OIWA
Oiwa (雪女 ) is the tragic and terrifying onryō from Yotsuya kaidan—”the ghost story of Yotsuya.” Along with Okiku and Otsuyu, she is one of the Nihon san dai kaidan—Japan’s Big Three Ghost Stories. Oiwa’s story is based on real people who lived in 17th century Edo. Their story was dramatized in the 1825 kabuki play Tōkaidō yotsuya kaidan, which became very popular and cemented Oiwa’s place as Japan’s most famous ghost. Countless variations and adaptations of her tale followed.
The real Oiwa died in 1636. It is rumored that her onryō still haunts the places she lived as well as those who perform her story. Mysterious disasters and deaths occurring around a number of productions (including theater, film, and television adaptations) have been blamed on the curse of Oiwa’s ghost. There have been numerous attempts to appease her angry spirit. A small shrine and a temple dedicated to Oiwa were erected on the ruins of her family’s house in Yotsuya. After a fire destroyed the shrine in 1879, Oiwa’s shrine was moved to another part of Tōkyo. Oiwa was married to samurai named Iemon. It was not a happy marriage, for Iemon was a wasteful man and a thief. One day, Oiwa decided to leave her husband and return to her family home. Iemon followed after her, but was stopped by Oiwa’s father, Yotsuya Samon. Samon knew of Iemon’s misdeeds— that he had stolen money from his employer—and he demanded that Iemon divorce Oiwa. Iemon drew his sword and murdered Samon. Iemon returned to Oiwa and lied that a stranger had killed her father on the road. He begged her to reconcile, and he promised to avenge her father’s murder.
Some time after that, Oiwa became pregnant and bore Iemon a son. Times were hard. They had
sickness. In reality, it was a poison which horribly disfigured her face. Iemon began pawning Oiwa’s possessions, her kimono, her clothes—even their son’s clothes—to have enough money to marry Oume. Because he needed a legitimate reason to divorce his wife, Iemon hired his friend Takuetsu to rape Oiwa so that he could accuse her of infidelity.
On a prearranged night, when Iemon was out of the house, Takuetsu entered and approached Oiwa. Upon seeing her face, he was so frightened that he abandoned his orders. Takuetsu explained Iemon’s plan to Oiwa, and then showed her a mirror. Oiwa had not known what the ointment had done to her face. When she saw her reflection, she was horrified. She tried to cover the disfigurement by brushing her hair over it, but when she touched her hair, it fell out in large, bloody clumps. Oiwa went mad. She grabbed a nearby sword and punctured her own throat. As Oiwa lay on the floor bleeding to death, she repeatedly cursed Iemon’s name until she could breathe no more.Oiwas’ body was discovered by Iemon’s servant Kohei. When Kohei delivered the news to Iemon, instead of become upset, Iemon was overjoyed. Kohei became suspicious of Iemon, but before he could do anything, Iemon murdered Kohei.
Yuki onna prey on travelers lost in the heavy snowstorms that blanket the Japanese Alps in winter. They have an otherworldly beauty, with long black hair and dark, piercing eyes. Their skin is ageless and as white as snow, but their bodies are as cold as ice. A mere touch is enough to give a human a deep, unshakable chill. They feed on life force, sucking it from human’s mouths with an icy breath that freezes their victims solid. Yuki onna spend their lives hunting humans in the snow. They stay near mountain roads and prey on the travelers coming and going, or break into homes and flashfreeze the inhabitants during the night. While they are killers, Yuki onna are not entirely cold blooded. Legends say they can fall in love with their intended prey and let them go free. Some go so far as to marry humans and live happily together. As supernatural spirits never age, however, their husbands inevitably discover their true identities. This revelation usually ends these happy marriages.
Legends: In Yamagata Prefecture, an elderly man operated an inn on a mountain trail with his wife. One snowy night, the inn was visited by a young lady traveling alone. She warmed herself by the fire and ate with the innkeeper and his wife. She was sweet and charming and extremely beautiful. So it was even more of a surprise when, in the middle of the night during a fierce blizzard, she stood up and made to leave the inn. The innkeeper begged her not to go outside, and took her hand to hold her back. It was as cold as ice. Merely touching it sucked all the warmth from the innkeeper’s body. As he tried to keep the girl in the house, her entire body turned into a fine icy mist, and shot up the chimney and out into the night.
A man from Niigata Prefecture claimed that he had been married to a yuki onna. His wife was beautiful, with piercing eyes and skin as white as a marble statue. While he loved to take long hot baths every night, his wife always refused to bathe. This puzzled him greatly. One particularly cold and snowy night, he insisted that his wife take a bath. Otherwise she would freeze to death in the cold, he said. She protested, but there was no reasoning with the man. Finally she acquiesced. When he went in to check on her a few minutes later, all he found in the tub were half-melted icicles.Her movements leave no snow tracks as she is seen in some versions as a floating spirit who arrives, like smoke or fog, and is gone. She is commonly seen in a thin, white and summer-like kimono (known as yukata) that may expose her pale white skin or more like a ghost.
Japan’s version of a ‘fatal attraction,’ she is often depicted with piercing eyes that transfix and, at times, terrorize the gaze of those she preys upon. Her skin is as white and pale as blinding snow and her body freezing cold to the touch. Her behavior manifests differently, according to prefecture. In Niigata prefecture, she is said to act like a bogey woman who seeks out children who wander into her domain, the snowy forest land. Stories about Yuki Onna in Japan are as diverse as every falling snowflake. In Tottori prefecture, she may appear as a beggar during a light snowstorm who asks for water, hot or cold. She grows larger from cold water but melts when offered warm water.
In Ibaraki, Fukushima, Akita and Fukui prefectures, she manifests as the Talking Snow Woman. If she first engages the person in conversation, then she may use that as a point of attack. If she is ignored altogether, then the penalty may be worse, with her first grabbing and then throwing the victim down a ravine. Her victims are never sure of her intentions, which makes her an exciting yokai, but one to be feared and respected for her cunning ways. Yuki Onna is relatively well-known among folkore enthusiasts around the world since her legend extends from poetry in Japan’s Muromachi period (1336 to 1573) to films like Tokuzo Tanaka’s The Snow Woman (Kaidan Yukijorou) released in1968 or Kiki Sugino’s 2016 version. With her popularity expanding well outside Japan, she may be taken for granted in her native spirit country.
A century ago, British naturalist and explorer Richard Gordon Smith spent nine years in Japan compiling illustrated diaries that resulted in two core texts, Ancient Tales and Folklore of Japan and Travel in the Land of the Gods: The Japan Diaries of Richard Gordon Smith. In both works, readers are introduced to Yuki Onna in her Snow Ghost/Spirit iteration. In areas of Japan like Tohoku and Sapporo where winter snow can accumulate to six meters, humans can become victims to the elements. Smith describes how Yuki Onna manifests regionally: “Mysterious disappearances naturally give rise to fancies in a fanciful people, and from time immemorial the Snow Ghost has been one with the people of the North; while those of the South say that those of the North take so much saké that they see snow-covered trees as women.”
女 雪 YUKIONNA
Image References
Tanuki Image: “Tanuki Statue in Shigaraki,” photograph by David Stribbling, licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.
Tengu Image: “Tengu Statue at Mount Takao,” photograph by Kimon Berlin, licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.
Kitsune Image: “Kitsune Statue at Fushimi Inari Shrine,” photograph by Karl Baron, licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.
Kappa Image: “Kappa Illustration,” from The Illustrated Book of Yōkai by Shigeru Mizuki, used with permission from Kodansha Comics Japan Group.
Nekomata Image: “Nekomata Artwork,” by Matthew Meyer, from The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, used with permission.
Yuki Onna Image: “Yuki Onna,” artwork by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, public japanese domain .
Rokurokubi Image: “Rokurokubi Illustration,” from The Book of Yokai by Kazuhiko Komatsu, used with permission from University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press.
Oiwa Image: “Oiwa,” artwork by Katsushika Hokusai.
Nue Image: “Nue,” artwork by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, public domain.
Hell Courtesan Image: “Hell Courtesan,” from Yokai Attack! by Hiroko Yoda, used with permission from Tuttle Publishing. Shigeru Mizuki. The History of Yokai. Kodansha Comics, 2013.
Text References
Foster, Michael Dylan.
University of California Press, 2009.
Meyer, Matthew. The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons: A Field Guide to Japanese Yokai. Independently published, 2012.
Reider, Noriko T. Japanese Demon Lore: Oni from Ancient Times to the Present. Utah State University Press, 2010.
Yoda, Hiroko, and Matt Alt. Yokai Attack: The Japanese Monster Survival Guide. Tuttle Publishing, 2008.
Takahashi, Masami. Yōkai: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Japanese Monsters. Kodansha International, 2000.
Komatsu, Kazuhiko. The Book of Yokai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore. University of California Press, 2015.
Foster, Michael Dylan, and Shinonome Kijin. The Book of Yōkai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore. University of California Press, 2015.
