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CONTENTS 0 9 | P ut t i n g t he G eno c ide i n C onte x t 13 | H at e M e d i a i n R w a n d a 19 | K a n g u r a 21 | R ad io Br o adc a s t 27 | I nt er n at ion a l Res p on s e 32 | Ne v e r A g a i n
On April 6, 1994 an airplane carrying the President of Rwanda was shot down, killing everyone inside, and sparking a wave of extreme violence. The genocide in Rwanda was one of most brutal instances of mass slaughter in recent history. In 100 days, nearly a million people were killed with clubs and machetes. This genocide is not an isolated incident in our history. In fact, the world had vowed that such an atrocity should never be allowed to happen again after the horrors of the Holocaust, yet there was relatively little international response as the violence raged on. Faced with the deaths of nearly a million civilians, the global response to the Rwandan genocide has been widely criticized. Rwandan history has its share of colonial tension and civil violence. But to attribute the genocide to the build up tribal hatred is a gross misconception. As Linda Melvern states, “genocide does not take place in the context of anarchy.� The violence in Rwanda is the outcome to the desires of a small group of elite to stay in political power and was carefully planned. Ethnicity simply became the convenient crux around which the violence was instigated and perpetuated. In the aftermath of the genocide, we are confronted with two questions. How were thousands of Rwandans convinced to kill their own countrymen? And why was the Western world able to stand by and allow it to happen?
Look, you have to understand that there are two wars going on here. There’s a shooting war and a genocide war. The two are connected, but also distinct. In the shooting war, one of the aside, with help from civilians– is involved in mass killings. M A R K DOY L E
PUTTING THE GENOCIDE IN CONTE X T The colonial history of Rwanda played a major role in the resentment between Hutu and Tutsi. Originally, the Hutu and Tutsi were fluid class systems–Tutsi being those who owned cattle and Hutu denoting more common labourers. The distinction was fluid and Tutsi could become Hutu as easily as a Hutu could become Tutsi. With the arrival of Belgian colonialists, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi became an established hierarchy. Tutsi were put in positions of power by the Belgians, who decided the taller and lighter skinned Tutsi were superior, causing discontent among the Hutu. By the time the Belgians left Rwanda, almost half the Tutsi population lived outside Rwanda due to the hate and discrimination. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) is formed mostly of these Tutsi refugees. The Arusha Accords were intended to allow the return of Tutsi refugees along with social and political reforms. Unfortunately, the assasination of the President scuttled the peace talks and set off a massive wave of violence.
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H I S T O R Y O F R WA N D A 19 th century
1916-1950
Before European explorers arrived in Rwanda, the term Hutu and Tutsi were used to indentify the class and status of Rwandans. Tutsi were generally more cattle owners and wealthier than Hutu. But the designations were flexible and the hierarchy fluid.
When the Belgians take control of Rwanda, they create a rigid class system distinguishing the Hutu and Tutsi. The Tutsi were also placed in positions of politcal power which creating resentment among the Hutu.
German explorers are the first Europeans to visit Rwanda and it becomes a German protectorate.
Tension rises as the Belgians issue identification cards that solidify the segregation of the Hutu and Tutsi.
1950-1962 Resentment over the exclusion of Hutu from political power leads to the creation of PARMEHUTU (Party for the Emancipation of Hutu). There is a general wave of decolonization in the 1950’s. When the Belgians leave, they set up an election which is won by the Hutu party– removing the Tutsi from power and escalating tensions.
1994 Roadblocks set up by extremists. Tutsi and moderate Hutu are murdered.
President is killed when the airplane is shot down
Murambi Massacre
RTLM broadcast made to temporarily limit violence during UN visit.
Gikondo Massacre Kibuye Massacre
Nyarubuye Massacre
MAY
APRIL 10 Belgian peace keepers killed
RTLM: First incitement to genocide
Belgiums withdraw forces from UNAMIR.
UNAMIR troops reduced from 2500 to 275.
UN conducts mission to investigate human rights violations
UNAMIR II deployed. Expanded to 5000 troops.
1960’s-1990
1990-1993
1993
Conflict between the Hutu and Tutsi lead to widespread violence against the Tutsi, forcing many to flee to neighbouring countries. These Tutsi refugees form the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and attack Hutus in attempts to regain their former positions.
The RPF invades Rwanda from Uganda and attempt to overthrow the Hutu government. President Habyrimana is in charge.
The civil war is ended with the signing of the Arusha Accords–meant to end the domination of Hutu in politics and allow the return of Tutsi refugees. The UN establishes the UNAMIR to stabilize the transitional government.
RPF takes full control of Kigali.
RTLM: Second incitement to genocide.
RPF captures Gisenyi. End of genocide declared.
JUNE
JULY
Operation Turquoise begins.
1.5 million Rwandans flee the country to the Congo.
H AT E M E D I A I N R WA N DA Media was one of the major factors in the mass mobilization of the militia groups responsible for the violence. Both print and radio was used skillfully and deliberately by the organizers of the genocide to incite hatred and give directions to the genociders. The radio in particular, had tremendous impact during the Rwandan Genocide. According to Joseph Goebbels, the minister of propaganda during Nazi Germany, the radio is arguably the “most important instrument of mass influence that exists anywhere.�
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(Genocide in Rwanda: A Collective Memory. Edited by John A. Berryy and Carol Pott Berry. Howard University Press. Washington, DC. 1999)
E V ENEMENTS: Events; the killing of Tutsis was described simply as an event. GUKORR A: To work; perverted by the organizers of the genocide to mean “to kill�. INKOTANYI: Fierce fighters; the Rwandan Patriotic Army, formerly a battalion of the army of the king. INTER AHAMWE: Those who fight together; the most notorious of the militias responsible for implementing the genocide. INYENZI: Cockroach; a derogatory name for the Tutsis. INZIABWOBA: The fearless ones; the Rwandan Patriotic Army. SIMUSIGA: The final attack; a rumored plot by Tutsis to wipe out the Hutus; it was used as a justification for the genocide. UMUGANDA: Obligatory communal labor; perverted during the genocide to mean killing Tutsis. 15
THE HUTU TEN COMMANDMENTS The Hutu Ten Commandments were published in the Kangura and denigrated the Tutsi in particular the Tutsi women, and urged Hutu to disassociate themselves from the Tutsi.
ONE Every Muhutu should know that a Mutusi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her Tutsi ethnic group. As a result, we shall consider a traitor any Muhutu who: Marries a Tutsi woman. Befriends a Tutsi woman. Employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary or a concubine.
T WO
FOUR Every Muhutu should know that every Mututsi is dishonest in business. His only aim is the supremacy of his ethnic group. As a result, any Muhutu who does he following is a traitor: Makes a partnership with Batutsi in business
Every Muhutu should know what our Hutu daughters are more suitable and conscientious in their role as woman, wife and mother of the family. Are they not beautiful, good secretaries and more honest?
Invests his money or the government’s money in a Tutsi enterprise
THREE
FIVE
Bahutu women, be vigilant and try to bring your husbands, brothers and sons back to reason.
Gives favours to Batutsi in business (obtaining import licenses, bank loans, construction sites, public markets, etc.)
Lends or borrows money from a Mututsii
NINE The Bahutu should stop having mercy on the Batutsi.
SIX
The Bahutu, wherever they are, must have unity and solidarity and be concerned with the fate of their Hutu brothers.
All strategic positions, political, administrative, economic, military, and security should be entrusted only to Bahutu.
The Bahutu inside and outside Rwanda must constantly look for friends and allies for the Hutu cause, starting with their Bantu brothers. They must constantly counteract Tutsi propaganda.
SEVEN The education sector (school pupils, students, teachers) must be majority Hutu.
EIGHT The Rwandan Armed Forces should be exclusively Hutu. The experience of the October 1990 war has taught us a lesson. No member of the military shall marry a Tutsi.
The Bahutu must be firm and vigilant against their common Tutsi enemy.
TEN The Social Revolution of 1959, the Referendum of 1961, and the Hutu Ideology, must be taught to every Muhutu at every level. Every Hutu must spread this ideology widely. Any Muhutu who persecutes his brother Muhutu for having read, spread, and taught this ideology is a traitor.
What weapons shall we use to conquer the Inyenzi once and for all? The cover of Kangura poses this question beside a depiction of a machete. The term Inyenzi was understood to mean all Rwandans of Tutsi heritage–stereotyped as being liars, thieves and killers.
KANGURA “Kangura” meaning “wake others up” was a newspaper in Rwanda that instigated ethnic hatred in the build-up to the genocide. The “Hutu Ten Commandments” was first published in the sixth issue of Kangura, in December 1990. It specifically attacks Tutsi Women, describes association with Tutsis as treason, and calls on Hutus to “stop having mercy” on the Tutsis. The influence of this type of hate propaganda was seen during the genocide when Tutsi women were a particular target for rape, sexual slavery, brutal disfigurement, and murder. The newspaper was published and sold in the capital, but urban workers who often went home for weekends brought the newspapers with them. Although only about 66% of Rwandans are literate, those who knew how to read were accustomed to reading for others; furthermore, the articles were often accompanied by graphic cartoons that could not be misunderstood.
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What makes us happy here at RTLM is that we broadcast your announcements quickly, very quickly...You bring a message any time and you say: ‘Ha! Put it now, and then we put it in very quickly so that your messages reach … whoever you want.’ Gaspard Gahigi, RTLM, 15 December 1993
R ADIO B RO A D C A S T Due to the large number of illiteracy of Rwandans at the time of the genocide, the radio was an important way for the Rwandan government to deliver messages to the public. Before the war, Rwanda had only one radio station, the national Radio Rwanda. It was a part of everyday life, and broadcasts would include announcements of changes in government posts, government meetings and candidates admitted to secondary schools. The radio also broadcast daily exhortations from the president for Rwandans to live clean, moral lives.
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Monologue Monologues often encouraged violence, telling perpetrators to “take you spears, clubs, guns, swords, stones, everything, sharpen them, hack them, those enemies, those cockroaches, those enemies of democracy, show that you can defend yourselves.”
Interview Most of the interviews were done with Kambanda, who was instated as president during the genocide, and other government officials.
Speech or statement After the death of President Habyarimana, RTLM gave a lengthy speech and accused the Tutsi of killing the president. “The graves are not yet quite full. Who is going to do the good work and help us fill them completely?”
F O R M AT O F B R O A D C A S T 23
RPA atrocities RPA wants power and control over Hutu
Political parties are supporting RPA Tutsis, RPA are social deviants, abnormal
Allegations
RPA killed Habyarimana
No Inflammatory Content
Tutsis killed the president
Tutsis in the region are helping those within
Invalids, women, old men armed, support RPA
Stigmatization of the Tutsis
Not all Tutsis are enemies
No inflammatory content
Attack or harm Belgians or UNAMIR personnel
Insults to Tutsis and RPA
Broadcast justifies massacres
Direct calls for extermination Tutsis plan to subjugate the Hutu
Tutsis are exterminating Hutus
Encourage to Violence
Congratulations to genociders
Description of how the past influences present events
Broadcast insults/ slurs against Hutus sympathizing with the RPA
Threats to Hutus sympathizing with RPA, fleeing war
Other
Insults to moderate Hutus
Content of RTLM broadcasts
I N T E R N AT I O N A L RESPONSE While the radio was used to perpetuate the hatred and violence within Rwanda, Western media had relatively little to say about it. Much of the news and media outlets in Europe and North America misrepresented the genocide as tribal violence and a continuation of the civil war. Few organizations recognized the genocide for what it truly was at the outset–fewer still acted on it.
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FOR WEST, RWANDA IS NOT WORTH THE POLITICAL CANDLE
The world has little choice but to stand aside and hope for the best. New York Times, April 15, 1994
The limited coverage by international media lead to lack of knowledge and understanding of what was happening in Rwanda. Some writers believe that not enough public pressure was put on the government due to the lack of awareness, and that it was the media’s responsibility to do so. It has been determined that the majority of the victims were killed in the first six weeks. Yet, the violence in Rwanda was not officially recognized as genocide and action taken when it could have made the most difference. Had the violence in Rwanda been termed as a “genocide�, the United Nations would have been legally bound to act on it, yet the word was avoided and the topic danced around for weeks after the violence broke out in Rwanda. There was much waffling on the part of UN members in coming to a decision about the state of Rwanda and the appropriate response.
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The situation in Rwanda was genuinely confusing, yet international media did not do anything to clarify the facts. They merely contributed to the “fog of misinformation [that] shrouded” what was really going on. There was a lack of international press coverage on the situation in Rwanda. In fact, the elections South Africa were covered by some 2500 media agencies while there were never more than 15 reporters covering Rwanda during the genocide.
UNAMIR II IS DEPLOYED
GENOCIDE BEGINS
S. AFRICAN ELECTIONS
HAITI
BOSNIA
APRIL
MAY
The world has few ways of responding effectively when violence within a nation leads to massacres and the breakdown of civil order. New York Times, April 23, 1994
RPF TAKES CONTROL GENOCIDE IS ENDED
OJ SIMPSON RWANDA
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
N E V E R AG A I N The numbers and statistics associated with the Rwandan genocide are staggering, An estimated one million people murdered. This comes to 6 people killed every minute of the day for the hundred days of violence. Through the genocide was officially ended on July 15, 1994, the violence and atrocities continued as millions of refugees fled Rwanda. Though there are many factors and contributors to the genocide, there is no question that media had a significant role in the events– both in Rwanda and on the global front. The power of the radio was leveraged to perpetuate violence during the genocide and the international media failed in its responsibility to call out the atrocities that were happening in Rwanda.
O N E MIL LIO N People murdered in one hundred days — 20% of the population
2 MILLION
75 THOUSAND
500 THOUSAND
People displaced by the violence.
Survivors orphaned by the genocide.
Women raped during the genocide. 67% were infected with HIV and AIDS.