Professional Learning Manual for Teachers by Julie Boyd

EDUCATOR PROFESSIONAL LEARNING By

JULIE BOYD

1st Published 2000 Professional Learning and Reflective Practice: A Guide For Learning Facilitators 2nd Edition 2001 Professional Learning and Reflective Practice: A Guide For Learning Facilitators 3rd Edition 2008 School Based Professional Learning and Reflective Practice: A Guide For Learning Facilitators

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Educator Professional Learning

CONTENTS CONTENTS Introduction

Forces impacting Education

Adult Learning &Consultancy

Research

Lessons Learned about Effective Staff Development and Coaching

Consulting Skills

Running Programs

Facilitating Change in Groups Effective Meetings, Dialogues and Interactions

Conflict Resolution, Mediation and Decision Making

Individual Change

122

Organisational Change

139

Coaching: Bringing Out the Best in Others

156

INTRODUCTION The rapidly changing face of education and learning in recent years requires a corresponding shift in the way we look at learning for adults in our society. Teaching can be either the most challenging, or most procrastinating profession in the world. The term ‘lifelong learning’ while often in danger of becoming both overused and used in a flippant manner, is a crucial concept and must be a requirement of our teachers. As education moves increasingly into a digital era our methods of curriculum development, the teaching and learning strategies we use and delivery methods are all major issues. A recent emphasis on ‘innovation’ and ‘accountability’ by Australian governments means that yet more imposts will be made on teacher capacity in the future. The closer alignment of education with the needs of community, business and industry without loss of the integrity of a general education involving health, wellness, culture and the arts is a further challenge for us. Increasing complexities in the profession of teaching combined with a rapid growth in both our understanding of human learning, developmental appropriateness, and the advent of a much broader variety of learning environments, including community, workplace and digital environments, require that adult learning be given a much more prominent position in the thinking (and funding) of policy makers. Without due attention to a simultaneous understanding of these areas our children will not receive the quality of teaching and learning they require. To assist the professional learning and growth of others is no longer the responsibility of consultants and ‘trainers’. Each of us needs to take a role in both our personal professional growth as well as be ‘response-able’ for that of our peers. This requires us to have an understanding of how we may achieve this. Professional mentoring and ‘coaching’ is a field which requires specialised knowledge, attitudes and skills and which, if conducted well, pays enormous long term dividends in professional growth. An entire section of this manual is dedicated to an exploration and explanation of how to incorporate coaching into your school plan. This manual is designed, not as a step by step ‘how to run a program’ manual, but rather as a collection of information that may be adapted to the individual or group which may be wishing to assist professional improvement. It is not a book, and is not designed to be used sequentially, but rather as the appropriate section becomes relevant. It contains a range of different types of information including: Tips and Explanations Strategies for dealing with people types and situations Articles Assessment tools and inventories

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The manual contains a number of different sections including: Key Ideas about Adult Learning Consulting Skills: Ideas and Inventories Dealing with the challenge of different roles and personalities Some ideas for running programs Conflict resolution, mediation and decision making Facilitating Change in Groups Managing Meetings Encouraging reflective practice Mentoring Coaching While this is not designed as a comprehensive manual, it does contain information which will (or should!) be of interest to each adult in your school. It may be used in conjunction with other resources available on our website, which include downloads, free and purchaseable resources and blogs www.julieboyd.com.au.

In pursuing a shared goal of continuous education and improvement of our teaching profession, I wish you well in your personal goals, and the your contribution and influence on your peers, students and our society.

Julie Boyd CEO Lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s A Beach Consultancy (formerly Global Learning Communities) 1999 Telstra Tasmanian Entrepreneur of the Year 1999 Finalist: Ausindustry Innovations Award 2000 Businesswomenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hall of Fame Fellow: Centre for Leadership for Women

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FORCES IMPACTING EDUCATION 1.

Changing World

Changing Work

Resiliency/Prevention

Intelligence/Body and Brain-based/Constructivist and Developmental Learning

Results/Outcomes-Oriented Learning

Systems Thinking

Expanded Learning Environments and School-work-Higher Learning

Communication

Technology

10. Environmental Consciousness 11. Useful Assessments and Accountability 12. Increased urbanisation

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Adult Learning & Consultancy

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EFFECTIVE STAFF DEVELOPMENT HAPPENS WHEN: 1. District leadership is committed to the program. - believe that the program emphasised professional and personal growth and development rather than remediation, - are aware of the aims of the program, - participate in it, - budget money and time for it, - make logistical arrangements for the program, - get and provide special training (when necessary) to develop leadership skills, - protect those involved in the change from competing demands - assure teachers that they will have plenty of time to learn the new practices before they are expected to be using them during evaluation visits, - publicise and recognise the program enthusiastically. (Rand, Loucks)

2. The program is long-term, with the recognition that it will take a long time (3-5 years) to develop fully. The first year may be only for readiness and planning activities, the second year for training a pilot group and getting feedback, the third year for training of trainers, and so on. (Rand, Loucks)

3. The program is integrated by representative groups . (Rand, Wood) 4. A systematic change process is used, including: needs assessment, goal setting, integrated planning, energetic action, evaluation, modification and replanning. (Wood, NWREL) 5. The content is research-based and has been shown to be effective. (Sparks) 6. The content is relevant to the needs of the participants - personal needs, professional needs, and work-related needs. (Krupp, Stachowski)

7. The staff development includes both elementary and secondary teachers if possible. (Wade)

8. Participants are given special recognition for their involvement, are selected on a competitive basis, or are designated to participate. (Wade) 7 Educator Professional Learning

9. Trainers or program leaders assume responsibility for giving information or seeing that it is provided. (Wade)

10. Use of combination of observation of classroom practices, micro-teaching, audio and visual feedback, and practice - either individually or in some combination, but provision for independent study structure is also important especially for self -directed. (Wade)

11. New strategies are “user friendly”, practical, easy step-by-step progression, can be put into use immediately with positive results. (Loucks)

12. Generous amounts of time, assistance, and money (at least half of the budget) are used for follow-up activities after the initial training sessions. Provision of supervision, coaching, and support groups help teachers move from the mechanical, awkward stages of use to the more fluent and judicious use of the new practices. (Joyce & Showers, Loucks)

13. The goals of the program are consistent with those of the school and district. (Rand, Loucks)

14. Staff development programs outside the local school unit may prove more effective than teacher-initiated training programs. (Wade)

15. It is important to have accomplished something concrete and useful at the end of the first year, i.e., don’t spend all the energy on planning. (Rand, Loucks)

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LESSONS LEARNED ABOUT EFFECTIVE STAFF DEVELOPMENT and COACHING 1. High quality individual and organizational development are ESSENTIAL to LEARNING ORGANISATION AND SCHOOL CULTURE 2. Improved performance requires structural/systems change (Demming) - 85-90% of obstactles reside in organization structures (not individual performance) 3. Staff Development is NOT the answer to all performance problems (MOTIVATION/COMMITMENT) 4. Schools need SUPPORTIVE infrastructure (RESOURCES AND CRITICAL FRIENDS) 5. We must IMPROVE CONSISTENTLY (put aside a project mentality) so that students and teachers learn- the question is WHAT they learn and HOW. 6. We can’t give away what we don’t have. - teachers without self worth - teachers without high order thinking - teachers without their own power - teachers without life-long learning 7. MINDSET changes and PARADIGM SHIFTS need to occur. ‘Progress is impssible without change and those who can’t change their minds can’t change anything’- George Bernard Shaw ‘ No problem can be solved using the same mindset that created it.’ 8. It’s essential to be able to INTEGRATE Authentic and Standardised Assessment, Core and Interated Curriculum, inclusion and Individual Needs, National/State and School Based Operational Requirements and DIRECTIONS 9. Inservice sessions must include opportunities for teachers to practice their coaching skills. 10. There is great variation of skill and success from pair to pair. The following factors affect the success of the peer coaching pair: Teachers’ ability to abstract and ‘draw out’ learning Ability to take risks Each partner’s ability to work as a team player as a non-judgemental fashion Individual and collective level of commitment regarding both pedagogy and the coaching process Level of reciprocity Pairs across year levels and learning areas work very well. 11. It is very important that peer coaching is facilitated initially by a Mentor Coach who then serves as a ;coach of Coaches’. 9 Educator Professional Learning

12. There is a delicate balance between flexibility and fidelity to any coaching model. 13. The pre-conference component of the peer coaching process is consistently monitored. 14. Teacher attrition can have a negative impact on coaching. 15. There tends to be a developmental sequence in the focus of peer coaching sessions.

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EFFECTIVE STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS: Are continuous and on-going

Are based on state/school/professional/personal; goals and needs

Move from orientation to awareness to skill building to institutionalisation

Have job related application

Provide on site and follow up activities as an integral part of the program

Are valued and supported by leadership

Are valued and supported by teachers

Are contextualised in a broader societal (not political) context.

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THE CURRENT PARADIGM 1. Effective teaching means facilitating effective learning;

2. Performance management is professional development;

3. Professional development must be developmental, comprehensive, sustained and personalised

4. Performance management should be based on demonstrated performance of knowledge, skills and attitudes, not speed of apparent implementation.

5. Learning is career-long and evolutionary

6. Assessment is continuous and on-going (not to be conducted once every year or every three years);

7. There needs to be multiple forms of assessment, facilitated by many people for effective accountability

8. The goal of performance assessment is self-assessment and self-directed positive change;

9. Individual development plans need to work toward goals that benefit self, the students, the school and the profession;

10. Appraisal and Accountability systems need to assess mutually agreed upon, clearly defined goals, with set criteria and standards;

11. Assessments achieve personal as well as professional growth;

12. Assessment must reflect the characteristics of what we know about facilitating change and the criteria for successful professional development.

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Distinctions between Trainers and Facilitators In working with individuals elements of both may need to be employed. These can perhaps be best viewed as a continuum of perspectives rather than either/or

TRAINERS

FACILITATORS

Give information and skill

Provide nurturance

Direct learning

Guide interaction

Operate from specified outcomes

Operate from an overarching goal and a vision of possibilities

Have an established timeframe

Have an undetermined timeframe

Plan sequenced outcomes

Have a repertoire to draw on but no predetermined plan

Are cognitive

Are intuitive and cognitive

Move from the known to the unknown

Move from the unknown to the known

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How a Facilitator can Guide the Consensus Process A facilitator bears the responsibility to see that: - all are heard - that all appropriate ideas are incorporated - that the final decision is agreed upon by all assembled.

A facilitator can help this happen by: 1. Noticing whether some information is missing — for example, because a person is too shy to speak, a helpful idea needs better articulation, or the group needs to tap non-verbal information through silence. 2. Keeping the discussion from being dominated by a few and encouraging quiet members to speak. 3. Constantly stating and restating the position of the meeting. 4. Indicating the progress the group has made. 5. Lightening the discussion with appropriate humour. 6. When sensing a ‘stalemate’ or a poor compromise, help the group brainstorm dramatically new alternatives that encompass everyone’s views. 7. Alternate between small and large group discussion formats to increase involvement and move through ‘stuck’ phases. 8. Actively seek out differences, disagreements, (all) questions and irreverence to avoid ‘groupthink’. 9. Help the group decide what to do when all are in agreement except one or two. 10. Point out when the meeting has reached consensus and ask for confirmation.

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Some Useful Quotes * Most teachers learn their roles through experience. Their style is developed by their own struggle to deal with curriculum, students, and the expectations of their level of schooling (Breehen, 1970; Gibson, 1973; Grace, 1978; Lortie, 1975; McPherson, 1972; Waller, 1967.)

* Effective school improvement requires attention to all relevant parts of the school: the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s norms, the rewards for work, necessary continuous support, needed structures, and necessary human and material resources. (Baldridge and Deal, 1975; Fullan and Pomfret, 1982; Gross, Giacquinta, and Bernstein, 1971; Goodlad, 1975; Sieber, 1979)

* There appear to be stages of change in the improvement process. They include: initiation (engagement, awareness), implementation (managing or changing), and incorporation (institutionalisation). these stages, loosely defined, can aid in planning types of activities for improvement purposes. (Bertzen, 1974; Giacquinta, 1973; Hall and Loucks, 1979; Lewin, 1947; McLaughlin, 1979; Zaltman, 1979) * Although there is some evidence that change occurs in stages, movement from one stage to another is not automatic. Furthermore, motivations, needs conflicts, and rewards also change as stages change. What may be a reward at one stage may be seen as a punishment at another. (Bentzen, 1974; Charter, 1973; Lieberman and Shiman, 1973; Sieber, 1979; Smith and Keith, 1971; Sussman, 1977.)

* Because of the lack of a precise technical culture and because ideas often come to a school or system via a particular person, ideas, innovations, or school improvements are often seen as political, or they may become political during the process of change. They move out of the educational arena into a political arena often accompanied by power plays, coalitions, and conflict. (Barth, 1972; Gold and Miles. 1981â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Gross, Giacquinta, and Bernstein, 1971; Smith and Keith, 1971; Sussman, 1977; Wolcott, 1977.)

* Although there is some disagreement as to the appropriate time teachers need to participate in school improvement (as initiators, primary decision makers, collaborators), there can be no question that continuous participation is a critical component in school improvement. Local conditions most probably dictate how many participants, which ones, at what stage, for how long, for what purpose, and in what capacity. (Bentzen, 1974; Emrick and Peterson, 1978; Giacquinta, 1973; Goodlad, 1975; Havelock, 1971; Reutter, 1979.)

* The source of the idea for staff involvement does not matter; what matters most is how people are organised; whether the people who maintain leadership are sensitive to change and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; realities; and whether commitment, rewards, and support can be sustained long enough for teachers to integrate them or enhance their repertoire. (Dalt and Becker, Bentzen, Emrick, Loucks, and Peterson, 1983; Sieber, 1979.)

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The Circle of Consulting

1. PURPOSES What “business” Are we in? What are we trying to achieve? 1. RELATIONSHIPS How do we manage conflict and “coordinate” everyone?

3. STRUCTURE How do we divide up the work? Roles and responsibility of each. 6. LEADERSHIP Who keeps everything in balance and how?

1. HELPFUL MECHANISMS How do we ensure adequate coordination? What other resources are required?

5. REWARDS Is there an incentive for doing all that needs doing? What is it and how is it achieved?

OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENT “Everything else” What constraints and demands does it impose?

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What is An Effective Facilitator? Description

Examples

1. Interpersonal Ease. Relating to and directing others.

Very open person; nice manner, has always been able to deal with staff; knows when to stroke, when to hold back, when to assert; know “which buttons to push”, gives individuals time to vent feelings; lets them know her interest in them; can talk to anyone Has ability to get a group moving; stated with nothing and then made us come together as a united body; good group facilitator, lets discussion flow. Programs on how to develop plans; prepares a great deal and enjoys it; has the right chemistry and can impart knowledge at the peer level.

2. Group Functioning. Understand group dynamics, able to facilitate team work. 3. Training/Doing Programs. Directing instruction, teaching adults in systematic way.

4. Education General. (Master Teacher) Wide educational experience, able to impart skills to other.

Excellent teaching skills; taught all the grades, grade leader work, resource teacher, has done staff development with teachers; was always assisting, supporting, being resource person to teachers; a real master teacher, much teacher training work.

5. Educational Content. Knowledge of school subject matter.

Demonstrating expertise in a subject area; showed parents the value of play and trips in kindergarten; knows a great deal about teaching; what she doesn’t know she finds out.

6. Administrative/Organisational Defining and structuring work, activities, time.

Highly organised, has everything prepared in advance; could take an idea and turn it into a program; good at prioritising, scheduling; knows how to set things up.

7. Initiative-Taking. Starting or pushing activities, moving directly toward action.

Assertive, clear sense of what he wanted to do; ability to poke and prod where needed to get things done; that to assert myself so he didn’t step in

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8. Trust/Rapport-Building. Developing a sense of safety, openness, reduced threat on part of clients: good relationshipbuilding.

9. Support. Providing nurturing relationship, positive affective relationship.

In 2 weeks he had gained confidence of staff; had to become one of the gang, eat lunch with them, a skilled seducer (knows how to get people to ask for help); “I have not repeated what they said so trust was built”; did not threaten staff; was so open and understanding that I stopped feeling uneasy. Able to accept harsh things teachers say, “It’s okay, everyone has these feelings”; a certain compassion for others; always patient, never critical, very enthusiastic.

10. Confrontation. Direct expression of negative information without generating negative affect.

Can challenge in a positive way; will lay it on the line about what works and what won’t; is talkative and factual; can point out things and get away with being blunt; able to tell people they were wrong, and they accept it.

11. Conflict Mediation. Resolving or improving situations where multiple incompatible interests are in play.

Effected a compromise between upper and lower grade teachers on use of a checklist; spoke to the chair about his autocratic behaviour and things have been considerably better; able to mediate and get the principal to soften her attitude; can handle people who are terribly angry, unreasonable; keeps cool.

12. Collaboration. Creating relationships where influence is mutually shared.

Deals on same level we do, puts in his ideas; leads and directs us, but as peers; doesn’t judge us or put us down; has ideas of her own, but flexible enough to maintain the teachers’ way of doing things, too.

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13. Confidence-Building. Resolving or improving situations where multiple incompatible interests are in play.

14. Diagnosing Individuals. Forming a valid picture of the needs/problems of the school/organisation as a basis for action. 15. Diagnosing Organisations. Forming a valid picture of the needs/problems of the school/ organisation as a basis for action.

She makes all feel confident and competent; doesn’t patronise: “You can do it”; has a way of drawing out teachers’ ideas; injects a great deal but you feel powerful; makes people feel great about themselves; like a shot of adrenalin boosting your mind, ego, talents, and professional expertise. Realising that when a teacher says she has the worst class, she means “I need help”; has an ability to focus in on problems; picks up the real message; sensitive, looks at teacher priorities first; knows when an off-hand joke is a signal for help. Analyses situation, recognises problems, jumps ahead of where you are to where you want to go; anticipates problems schools face when they enter the program; helped us know where we should be going; helped them look at the data in the assessment package.

Prepared materials and coordinated our 16. Managing/Controlling. contact with administration and district; is a Orchestrating the improvement process: task master and keeps the process going; coordinating activities, time, and makes people do things rather than doing people: direct influence on others. them himself.

17. Resource-Bringing. Locating and providing information, materials, practices, equipment useful to clients.

18. Demonstration. Modelling new behaviour in classrooms or meetings.

He uses his network to get us supplies; brings ideas that he has seen work elsewhere; has the newest research, methods, articles, and ideas, and waters them down for our needs. Willing to go into classrooms and take risks; modelling; showed the chair by his own behaviour how to be more open.

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ADULT LEARNING Environment Twelve principles of provision for adult learning can be considered when organising and conducting Professional Development activities. 1.

HIGH PERSONAL MOTIVATION Was the advertising honest? If the audience has been coerced have efforts been made to interest them? Has an interest inventory/questionnaire been used to understand the motivation of participants?

RESPONSIBLE AUTONOMY How have I enabled participants to direct their own learning? Are there choices? Are there opportunities to direct part of the program?

RESPECT INDIVIDUAL WISHES FOR PACE AND LEVEL OF LEARNING Was there pre-course material which would enable inexperienced people to increase entry knowledge and skill? Was there opportunity for participants to catch up or be extended?

ALLOW FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL TYPES Does the furniture and other elements of the environment allow for selection high and low chairs opportunities to walk around opportunities to reflect fresh air? Does the program structure allow for sufficient breaks? Does the program style allow for different learning styles, e.g. the highly organised to spontaneous structure?

PROVIDE FOR PRACTICE AND REINFORCEMENT Is there time for Practice and Reinforcement? Is the P & R interesting and relevant? Are there opportunities for positive feedback?

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UTILISE GROUP LEARNING Have groups been used when appropriate? Are instructions for groups adequate? Does the time and space available allow for effective group work?

PROVIDE A SECURE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Have you avoided putting anyone on the spot? Are the participants clear about what could be asked of them in the course before they agreed to come? Do you use supportive language and non-verbal cues?

ENSURE MATERIAL IS RELEVANT AND MEANINGFUL Have the needs of participants been established? Have future needs been judged in the light of the most recent curriculum and management developments?

UTILISE PAST EXPERIENCE Has the past experience of participants been ascertained and used? Are there opportunities for participants to contribute from their past?

10.

INVOLVE LEARNERS IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT Have all or some of the participants been involved in contributing to the design of the course/activity? Are there parts of the course which the learners control completely? e.g. seating, exchanging views. Is there an opportunity for follow-up to be organised by the participants?

11.

ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT Do the participants have anything else to do beside sit and listen? Are the activities relevant or unreal? Do all participants have opportunities to put into practice what they are learning? Does the “course” allow for variation in the “pace” of involvement?

12.

FACILITATE SELF EVALUATION Is there time for reflection on past practices/behaviours/attitudes and appropriateness? Is there a structure or strategy to help participants see that they have progressed? Is there provision for discussing and following up what is needed next?

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What Helps People Acquire Knowledge

PEOPLE GENERALLY REMEMBER

LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION

10% of what they read 20% of what they hear

Read

Verbal/Audio receiving

Are talked at

See still picture 30% of what they see See moving picture

50% of what they hear and see

70% of what they hear and see

Visual/Sensory receiving

Watch demonstration

Give lecture Practice Multiple Sensory receiving Try in different modes Run mini workshops

90% of what they experience fully

Doing Full sensory learning experiences and multi modal

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Training Design TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS. The Degree of Proficiency Attained in Knowledge, Skill and Application is Determined by the Five Steps of the Training Design. TRAINING STEPS

KNOWLEDGE MASTERY

SKILL ACQUISITION

CLASSROOM APPLICATION

THEORY

MIDDLE-40% to HIGH-100%

LOW

VERY LOW-5%

theory plus DEMONSTRATION

HIGH above 80%

LOW 10% to MIDDLE 40%

VERY LOW

HIGH

VERY LOW

HIGH

LOW to MIDDLE

HIGH

theory, demonstration, plus PRACTICE FEEDBACK theory, demonstrations, practice, feedback, plus CURRICULUM ADAPTION theory, demonstrations, practice, feedback, curriculum adaptation, plus COACHING all of the above with PERIODIC REVIEW

NOTE: The degree of proficiency attained is indicated by LOW, MIDDLE and HIGH. Adapted from work by Dr Bruce Joyce

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Levels of Involvement PARTICIPATION

PARTICIPATION

OBSERVATION

AFFILIATION AWARENESS

LEVELS

C O N T R I B U T I O N S

TIME

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WAYS TO GET GOING Invite others to your room Share articles Do an activity at a faculty meeting Share with a close colleague Share with your department or grade level Establish â&#x20AC;&#x153;learning buddyâ&#x20AC;? relationship Establish coaching or mentoring relationship Establish peer support group within your school Establish a peer support group across schools Establish seminar or dialogue groups Establish journaling and writing groups Establish action research projects in school or district Conduct introductory course/awareness program (1-3 hours) Conduct initial class/program (1 day) Conduct beginning level training (3-5 days) Conduct programs with subject area focus, using CL (various lengths) Volunteer to be videotaped and discuss with others Present to other schools in district Present to your own school only Present outside of district to other schools Present outside of district at conferences Present to district administrators/school board Present to parents Write up lessons/units to share with others Write up your reactions to CL implementation and share with others Write up peer support group topics/process to share with others Write up and/or visualise action research projects to share with others Assist in the development of program materials Write up ideas for family integrated learning Write up ideas for staff collaboration Write grants for school site or district to get projects funded Concentrate on my own classroom at the present

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CONSULTING SKILLS Ideas and and Inventories

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FOUR ROLES FOR CONSULTANTS CATALYST A catalyst is needed to overcome the school/s complacency and to motivate the school to start to work on its problems. This role is often taken by students, concerned parents or school staff. They may not have the answers but feel dissatisfied with the way things are. By making known their dissatisfactions and upsetting the status quo, they got things started. A consultant can also be a catalyst in a school which is positively orientated to change but needs directions. SOLUTION GIVER Many people want the instant solution to a problem and don’t realise that bringing about change can be a slow process. It is essentially the role of the group to consider the widest possible range of solutions to a problem, at the appropriate stage in the change process, and select the best way of overcoming the problem. The difficulty for a consultant is to choose ‘if’ and ‘when’ it is appropriate to offer a solution or solutions. PROCESS HELPER The consultant can provide skills in the various stages of problem-solving, such as how to: * recognise and define goals/outcomes * diagnose and define goals/outcomes * acquire appropriate resources * select and create solutions * adapt and install solutions * evaluate solutions to determine if they are satisfying needs. The consultant can provide assistance with meeting structure, manage the group to work through a designated process or task and ensure that the task does not become overwhelming or lose direction or pace. RESOURCE LINKER Resources can include: * financial backing * knowledge of solutions * knowledge and skills in diagnosing problems * people with time, energy and motivation to help * publications and established programs * videos The consultant’s role as resource linker is to connect human and other resources and make the best possible use of them both, inside and outside the school.

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Questions to ask in working with a school group. WHO ARE YOU? What are the school’s demographics? What are your school’s needs? What areas of improvement and professional development have you recently been involved with? What is your school/community like? What issues have recently come up in your school/classroom? How have you dealt with these issues? How do you want me to deal with these issues? How can I help you? WHAT ARE YOU DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM? FOR MY SPECIFIC WORK WITH YOU? What specifically do you want to happen? What realistically can we accomplish in our time together? What will your involvement be? What will be the principals/others involvement? Discuss specifics of the program---room arrangement, equipment needs, material needs, time limits, breaks, etc. WHAT IS THE COMMITMENT OF THE SCHOOL TO FOLLOW THROUGH? TO IMPLEMENT AND SUPPORT TEACHERS THROUGH THE CHANGES? What provisions for teacher support will be made? How will this be integrated into the school improvement plan and process? What are the next steps? BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR PROGRAM PLANNING What do they all ready know about the topic? Why are they interested. What is the school’s culture? Degree of parent involvement? Collaboration with the staff? Collaboration with the community? What other programs are currently going on? Who besides yourself will be participating in the program? Is it voluntary or required? How does this fit into your school mission and vision? What will happen after the program finishes? What expectations do you have?

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CONSULTING SKILLS: QUESTIONS TO ASK Background Leading to Request: What prompted their interest in your services? Is this a result of a district initiative, principal and/or staff interest? What is the prior experience of the staff in this issue? Who has received training in the past? Whole staff or individuals? How does this topic link to their other staff development efforts? to their school mission/vision/school plans for change?

Logistics and Pragmatic Considerations: Who will attend? What is the Principalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in the program? (Who besides themselves will be there?) How many people? What are their roles? Will this program be mandatory or voluntary? What resistance do you anticipate from any participants? When? Time of day? Where? What type of room? Furniture, Equipment and Supplies other logistics: program agenda, schedule; refreshments, handouts? Who will be responsible for what?

Expectation: What are your specific goals or desired outcomes for the program? What is your specific philosophy or particular structures you want emphasised? What is your perception of the issues and concepts to be discussed? What outcomes do you want from the program? What is your commitment to follow up? Further programs, teacher support at site

Establishing your Credibility: Describe some practical application ideas and examples from your own extensive implementation; State your own philosophy of effective teaching and learning, in linking environment, curriculum, instruction and assessment; Describe how this fits with your perception of a learning community, to the bigger picture of how this fits into education and how we learn, to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in drawing out student learning, to fostering attitudes about learning and working with others; Discuss the advantages of having the same person work with staff over time.

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IS THERE SOMETHING WEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;VE FORGOTTEN?... A CHECKLIST The following is a checklist to help you through the various stages of implementing an in-service program, it is divided into those activities/tasks which need to be undertaken at the following stages in your planning/implementation schedule: - PRIOR TO THE PROGRAM - DURING THE PROGRAM - AFTER THE PROGRAM Whilst it is acknowledged, as the checklist highlights, that there are numerous administrative tasks involved in planning an in-service program it needs to be emphasised that the following areas require substantial discussion amongst the planning group with close reference back to the school community. A. B. C. D.

What needs are we meeting? How will our program best meet those needs? How do we identify the goals of the program? What are the desired outcomes of the program?

PRIOR TO THE PROGRAM Needs assessment 1. determine needs of school community â&#x20AC;&#x201D; who? how? 2. ensure program is designed to meet these needs 3. plan collaboratively with representatives of the target group 4. apply for funding to cover all costs Goals and outcomes 1. identify goals of program 2. identify desired outcomes of the activity Design of program 1. choice of content (relevance). 2. choice of strategies sequenced to promote learning, in a non-threatening way and appropriate to developmental learning stages. 3. timing (evening, weekend) and format (residential, series) to provide access and cater for content, strategies and reflection time. 4. a degree of flexibility and choice offered within the program. 5. comfortable conditions in which to work. e.g. heating 6. realistic time schedule. 7. catering arrangements to keep participants at the venue and relating to each other.

Evaluation 1. select appropriate evaluation strategies to check goals have been met. 30 Educator Professional Learning

Speakers and facilitators 1. check availability and suitability of lecturer/facilitator 2. ensure funding covers lecturers costs 3. check with lecturers on possible handouts 4. ensure which tasks will be completed by organiser and lecturer 5. provide lecturer with map and, if necessary, accommodation 6. ensure speaker is fully aware of total program 7. send confirmation letter 8. refreshments Resources 1. prereading notes 2. program/agenda prior to program. 3. book audio-visual equipment/ hire appropriate films - check working condition availability of power points, extension leads, batteries, spare globes. 4. textas/pens/paper/butchers paper/cellotape/blutak/overhead transparencies 5. name tags/folders Venue 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

book appropriate venue/request quote visit venue confirm venue give detailed list of requirements to venue manager/ess list services offered by venue on participation information list eg. Car parking organise catering, A/V arrangements, additional discussion rooms/areas.

Advertising (as appropriate) 1. notify parents club. 2. notify school council. 3. notify teacher association. 4. education publications. 5. school notice boards. 6. regional publications. Notices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

time, date venue (map if necessary) translations (if appropriate) clear statement of aim person to be contacted for further information include cost of registration reply slip/phone no. closing date for applications include any pre-conference reading materials.

Child care 1. advertise availability 2. get idea of approximate numbers 3. appropriate activities for different age groups 4. person to assume this position 5. be aware of legal responsibilities 31 Educator Professional Learning

DURING PROGRAM 1. on arrival the organiser checks seating arrangements, materials for distribution, catering arrangements and ensure accessibility/availability of tea, coffee, presence of A/V and other resources 2. as participants arrive - individual welcome, introductions, collection of name tags, handouts 3. welcome to group. Introduction and clarification of program. 4. warm up activity 5. collaborative identification of expectations, priorities and goals. Encouragement of sensitivity towards the resources within the group in terms of expertise and experience 6. modifications to design in light of this 7. Interactions. In formal and non-formal settings, in one-to-one and group situations, to encourage respect, valuing, trust, freedom within the constraints of collaboratively defined goals, format, etc. and to more sensitivity identify and meet continuing or emerging needs. Interaction outcomes may be 8. Modifications to design and resources. 9. Provision of option 10. Continuing Review. Ensure that personal space and time for reflection are not diminished. 11. Time. Finalise program as near as possible to the agreed time schedule. 12. Ensure a range of evaluation strategies are used to suit your requirements. 13. Facilitators and participants to sign appropriate forms for reimbursement if required. AFTER PROGRAM 1. contact - continued and appropriate contact e.g. network (human) program resume report, tangible product. 2. support systems - set up as appropriate, and may include letters, circulars re information on further meetings or follow-up activities, resource lists, references. 3. revision of materials for future activities 4. send thank-you letter to speakers, facilitators etc. 5. feed back summary of evaluations to all involved.

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Self Assessment Inventory Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes

Relevance

Level

Engaging in Open, Supportive Communication Behaving supportively Listening actively Clarifying Expectations Eliciting what colleagues expect Defining your role Outlining school responsibilities Building Shared Influence Giving weight to colleague input Responding fully to group needs Dealing with Resistance Acknowledging resistance Creating problem solving strategies Establishing Credibility and Legitimising the Facilitators Role Performing useful functions Demonstrating expertise Asking clarifying questions Building a Support Group Identifying positive people Encouraging, facilitating group. Understanding Schools as Organisations Organisational models of schools Knowing teacher, admin., student needs Conceptual Framework Understanding philosophy of innovation Articulates and models values, feelings Gathers useful information and resources Diagnosis of Needs Determines needs of grp/org. Develops ownership of needs Works to develop action plan Collaboration Models collaborative behaviour

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Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes

Relevance

Level

Confrontation Gives appropriate, clear feedback Identifies, labels problems Conflict Management Anticipates conflict Mediates conflict Teachers conflict mgmt. skills Problem-Solving, Decision Making Uses problem-solving practices Teaches problem-solving methods Resource Brokering Sees self as resource Uses talents of others Finds equipment, materials, etc. Networks resources Uses information systems Maximises school-base support Provides followup Promotes district and other programs Taking Initiative Builds a shared vision Manages time well Uncovers problems Uses processes for checking implementation, progress Facilitating Change Creates clarity about the change, the change process, and expectations for change Delegates and monitors change Helps others build facilitation skills, see their strengths Supports risk-taking Provides ongoing support

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CHECKLIST OF TRAINER SKILLS RATING SCALE: “1” - Very low skill, problem area “2” - Low skill area, needs some improvement “3” - Moderate skill area “4” - Fairly high skill area “5” - Very strong skill area

Introduction of Session 1. Explains rationale and purpose of session 2. Sets goals 3. Establishes time frame 4. Solicits group members’ expectations

Emotional Climate and Environment 5. Makes physically comfortable environment 6. Sets ground rules 7. Includes all group members 8. Establishes support systems within group 9. Gives feedback to group members 10. Portrays “try this on” attitude

Presentation of Content 11. Knows content 12. Adjusts content to fit group’s abilities 13. Clarifies content 14. Summarises

Methods and Interpersonal Skills 15. Uses physical space effectively 16. Models effective interpersonal skills 17. Uses effective group process skills 18. Gives evidence of planning and design 19. Displays sense of own responsibilities and role 20. Displays involvement and motivation

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FEEDBACK FORM Name (optional)______________________________ Date: ___________

Presenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Name:

Date:

Topic:

Your reactions on the specific areas the presenter wanted feedback on:

Your comments on the presenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s: Introduction to the Session:

Setting the Climate and Environment:

Presentation of Content:

Interpersonal and Facilitation Skills: Communication--Decision making--Conflict Resolution--Questioning---Asking and Responding

Processing/Closing of Session:

Additional Comments:

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General Categories and Descriptors for Checklist of Facilitators Skills A.

Introduction of Session

A1.

Explains rationale purpose and outcomes of the session

A2.

Sets goals

A3.

Establishes time frame and breaks

A4.

Seeks group membersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; expectations and renegotiates programs if necessary

Emotional Climate and Environment

B5.

Provides physically comfortable environment as possible

B6.

Establishes code of conduct

B7.

Establishes emotional climate and environment

B8.

Establishes support systems and feedback mechanisms within group

B9.

Models dealing with questions and disagreement.

Knows Content

C10.

Presents content in language understood by group, and an appropriate pace, is able to refer to sources, is able to include simple and complex details, (depending on group), models content.

C11.

Adjusts content to fit group members

C12.

Clarifies issues and responds to questions

C13.

Summarises concepts and ideas and moves to next topic

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Methods and Interpersonal Skills

D14. Uses physical space effectively, moves around room, allows group members time to move. D15.

Models effective listening skills. Attends to speakers within the group, paraphrases, uses “I” messages and owns own feelings, refrains from interrupting, monitors group members’ listening skills, gently supports use of effective listening skills.

D16. Uses effective group process skills Encourages participation, participates when appropriate, keeps group “on track,” deals with acting out behaviour on selective basis, uses silences for reflection and drawing-out, confronts when necessary. D17. Gives evidence of planning and design Progresses from big picture to simple to complex, presents content in orderly manner. D 18. Displays sense of own responsibilities and role Demonstrates desired skills and behaviours, arrives on time, concludes by preset time, provides leadership, demonstrates genuine warmth and caring. D19. Involvement and motivation Demonstrates interest, curiosity, sincerity, excitement; displays genuineness, self-discloses appropriately.

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FACILITATOR DEVELOPMENT SELF-ASSESSMENT Use this as the basis for where you see your strengths and weaknesses S

Can list five possible discussion directions to take on one given topic. (For example, topic of leadership what are five different aspects of that topic that could be discussed? Can list several ways a group leader can assist a participant. Can list several ways or things you might say to open a small group discussion. Can state a circumstance when it would be appropriate to deal with one member of a group as opposed to the whole group. Can describe a circumstance where a particular participants behaviour is dysfunctional and another circumstance where the same behaviour is functional to the flow of the group. Can describe several behaviours that could be dysfunctional to a group. Can describe several ways for dealing with someone who is monopolising a group discussion. Can recall two ways for dealing with a group member who jokes or makes light of another memberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comments.

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Can describe behaviours that may be functional to the â&#x20AC;&#x153;flowâ&#x20AC;? of the group Can describe ways of supporting another group member who is enhancing the functioning of the group Can demonstrate an ability to project voice level and tone so that it is appropriate to the size and type of group. Can demonstrate poise and confidence while leading a group. Can give directions so they are heard and understood by the group. Can formulate statements a leader could use to seek feedback from group members on their understanding of the content. Can refer during a program, to points made in a previous session, relevant current activities or research. Can develop a code of conduct with a group. Can accept directions and ideas from other group members.

Can demonstrate an acceptance for divergent opinions as they are expressed in a small group discussion

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Can share in a small group setting, oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own ideas and feelings in such a way as to encourage another group memberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sharing. Can ask questions, during the training sessions, relevant to the content and process of their own group. Can assist other group member to discuss their feelings about a topic when previously that group member was not stating her/his feelings on the subject Can respond to the majority of the questions asked, during a small group practicum experience, to the satisfaction of the group. Can accept, as demonstrated in a small group discussion practicum, another group member (other than the group leader) focusing or summarising if that seems to be appropriate to the functioning of the group. Can respond to the majority of the questions asked, during a small group practicum experience, to the satisfaction of the group. Can accept, as demonstrated in a small group discussion practicum, another group member (other than the group leader) focusing or summarising if that seems to be appropriate to the functioning of the group. Can summarise the general feelings and thoughts about one issue that is presented in a small group discussion before moving onto another issue or task

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Can list two examples when the group may have different expectations and needs than the trainer. Can respond to the group member who does not wish to share further ideas or feelings at that time with the rest of the group. Can respond, during a small group practicum, in a supporting way to one group member who is helping the group to function more smoothly. Can successfully bring a group or presentation to closure within five minutes either side of a time limit. Can, after a practicum experience, explain how you might change content or the program organizationally. Can describe how you dealt with a dysfunctional group member. Can seek constructive feedback about your group leadership from others.

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Self Evaluation Tools This tools are designed to stimulate your thinking about your relationships with others and your skills in group situations. It is intended to facilitate your setting your own goals for development. The steps in using it: 1. Read through the list of activities and decide which ones are doing the right amount of, which ones you should do more of, and which ones you should do less of. Make a check for each item in the appropriate place. 2. Some goals that are not listed may be more important to you than those listed. Write some goals on the blank lines. 3. Go back over the whole list and circle the numbers of the three or four activities at which you would like to improve most at this time.

Need to Do More

Need to Do Less

Communication Skills 1. Talking in the group ______ _______ _______ 2. Being brief and concise ______ _______ _______ 3. Being forceful ______ _______ _______ 4. Drawing other out ______ _______ _______ 5. Listening alertly ______ _______ _______ 6. Thinking before I talk ______ _______ _______ 7. Keeping my remarks on the topic ______ _______ _______ 8. _____________________________ ______ _______ _______ Observation Skills 9. Noting tension in the group 10. Noting who talks to whom 11. Noting interest level of the group 12. Sensing feelings of individuals 13. Noting who is being â&#x20AC;&#x153;left outâ&#x20AC;? 14. Noting reaction to my comments 15. Noting when the group avoids a topic 16. ___________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

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Problem-Solving Skills 17. Stating problems or goals 18. Asking for ideas, opinions 19. Giving ideas 20. Evaluating ideas critically 21. Summarising the discussion 22. Clarifying issues 23. _________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

Morale-Building Skills 24. Showing interest ______ 25. Working to keep people from being ignored ______ 26. Harmonising, helping people reach agreement ______ 27. Reducing tension ______ 28. Upholding rights of individuals in the face of group pressure ______ 29. Expressing praise or appreciation ______ 30. ____________________________ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

_______

_______ _______

_______ _______ _______

Emotional Expressiveness 31. Telling other what I feel 32. Hiding my emotions 33. Disagreeing openly 34. Expressing warm feelings 35. Expressing gratitude 36. Being sarcastic 37. _____________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ ______ _______

Facing and Accepting Emotional Situations 38. Facing conflict and anger 39. Facing closeness and affection 40. Withstanding silence 41. Facing disappointment 42. Withstanding tension 43. ______________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Social Relationships 44. Competing to outdo others 45. Acting dominant 46. Trusting others 47. Being helpful 48. Being protective 49. Calling attention to myself 50. Standing up for myself 51. ______________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

_______

General 52. Understanding why I do what I (insight)______

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53. Encouraging comments on my own behaviour (soliciting feedback) 54. Accepting help willingly 55. Making up my mind firmly 56. Criticising myself 57. Waiting patiently 58. Going off by myself to read and think 59. _____________________________ 60. _____________________________

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

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A. RESPONSIBLE PARTICIPATION was lacking. We served our own needs. We watched from outside the group. We were “grinding our own axes.”

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A. RESPONSIBLE PARTICIPATION was present. We were sensitive to the needs of our group. Everyone was “on the inside’ participating.

B. LEADERSHIP was dominated by one or more persons.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

B. LEADERSHIP was shared among the members according to their abilities and insights.

C. COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS was poor. We did not listen and did not understand. We did not understand. Ideas were ignored.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

C. COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS was good. We listened and understood one another’s ideas. Ideas were vigorously presented and acknowledged.

D. COMMUNICATION OF FEELINGS was poor. We did not listen and did not understand feelings. No one cared about feelings.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

D. COMMUNICATION OF FEELINGS was good. We listened and understood and recognised feelings. Feelings were share and accepted.

E. AUTHENTICITY was missing. We were wearing masks. We were being phony and acting parts. We were hiding our real selves.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

E. AUTHENTICITY was present. We were revealing our honest selves. We were engaged in authentic self-revelation.

F. ACCEPTANCE OF PERSONS was missing. Persons were rejected, ignored, or criticised.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

F. ACCEPTANCE OF PERSONS was an active part of our give and take. We received one anther recognising and respecting the uniqueness of each person.

G. FREEDOM OF PERSONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 was stifled. Conformity was explicitly or implicitly fostered. Persons were not free to express their individuality. They were manipulated.

G. FREEDOM OF PERSONS was enhanced and encouraged. The creativity and individuality of persons was respected.

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H. CLIMATE OF RELATIONSHIP was one of hostility or suspicion or politeness or anxiety or superficiality.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

H. CLIMATE OF RELATIONSHIP was one of mutual trust. Evidence of respect for one another was apparent. The atmosphere was friendly and relaxed.

I. GOALS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 were fuzzy, contradictory, or just plain missing. We werenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t sure of where we were going.

I. GOALS were clear to all. We had a definite sense of direction.

J. PRODUCTIVITY was low. We were proud, and happy, just coaching along. Our meeting was irrelevant; there was no apparent agreement.

J. PRODUCTIVITY was high. We were digging hard and were earnestly at work on a task. We created and achieve

1 2 3 4 5 6

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GROUP CONCERNS Primary Concern

Derivative Concern

Acceptance

Membership

Symptoms of Unresolved Concern Fear Distrust

Data-flow

Decision Polite facade Caution Strategy

Goal Formation

Productivity Apathy Competition

Control

Organisation Dependency Counterdependency

Symptoms of Resolved Concern Acceptance Trust Spontaneity Process Feedback Creative Work or Play Interdependence Role Distribution

48 Educator Professional Learning

Team Development Scale by William G. Dyer

1. To what extent do I feel a real part of the team? 2. How safe is it in this team to be at ease, relaxed, and myself? 3. To what extent do I feel “under wraps,” that is, have private thoughts, unspoken reservations, or unexpressed feelings an opinions that I have not felt comfortable bringing out into the open? 4. How effective are we, in out team, in getting out and using the ideas, opinions, and information of all team members in making decisions? 5. To what extent are the goals the team is working toward understood and to what extent do they have meaning to you? 6. How well does the team work at its tasks? 7. Our planning and the way we operate as a team is largely influenced by: 8. What level of responsibility for work in our team? 9. How are differences or conflicts handled in our team? 10. How do people relate to the team leader, chairman, or “boss”? 11. What suggestions do you have for improving our team functioning?

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PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION 1) Begin on time. 2) End on time. 3) Share the program goals and agenda in writing. Have a copy posted on the wall visible to the participants at all times or a printed agenda. 4) Announce the break times, lunch and wrap-up times early in the program, set ground rules. Create a smoking area in the program for those participants that must smoke. 5) Set objectives with the participants right away. 6) Set the climate right away. As a leader be supportive, understanding, flexible, committed and sensitive to the group. 7) Always be on the alert to make sure that you are modelling behaviours that you are advocating in your presentations. 8) Before initiating a new activity, clarify the purposes and process. Material should be used flexibly and adapted to the group. You may wish to move activities around, add some or take some away. 9) Remember all participants have possible contributions. Encourage participation as this facilitates learning from one another and develops a support system. 10) Allow for some closure after each activity. Stress what may have been learned. It is important participants have an understanding of the concepts and outcomes. 11) Remain flexible! There are individual differences in each program and you must adjust your style and the program structure as appropriate. Model flexibility. 12) Allow your self enough time to complete an evaluation and to discuss follow-up activities. Remember, one shot events, no matter how well planned, usually will not lead to very much school change. 50 Educator Professional Learning

RESPONDING TO QUESTIONS (Facilitator Role)

When responding to questions, the group facilitator wants to: 1. keep the focus on the speaker (if the facilitator answers the questions, it shifts the focus) 2. keep the responsibility for thinking and problem-solving with the speaker or group 3. help the speaker get at the true intent behind question.

TYPE

PURPOSE

EXAMPLE

OVERHEAD (direction to group)

1. To open discussion 2. To introduce new phase 3. To give everyone a chance to comment

“How shall we begin?” “What should we consider next?” “What else might be important?”

DIRECT (address to specific person)

1. To call on person for special information 2. To involve someone who has not been active

“Al, what would be your suggestion?” “Mary, what experience do you have with this?”

RELAY (referred to another person or group)

1. To help facilitator avoid giving own opinion 2. To get others involved in discussion 3. To call on someone who knows answer

“Would someone like to comment on Bill’s question?” “John, how would you answer Bill’s question?”

REVERSE (referred back to person who asked question)

1. To help facilitator avoid giving own opinion 2. To encourage questioner to think for him/herself.

“Well, Carole, how about giving us your opinion first?” “Bob, tell us first what has been your experience?”

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Asking Questions How to Ask Questions:

Things to consider:

* Open-ended Questions

WHY do you want to ask questions?

-Avoids putting helper on the spot by demanding lists...answers...reasons. -Allows for more viewpoints -Avoids shifting focus to you (sometimes the helper ends up like a computer - “Then why didn’t you give the money back?” (data in) “O.K., here’s what you do.” (answer out)). -Less judgmental * Start with: “I’m wondering if...” “Can you remember/predict/etc.” “Do you...” “Could you...” “Have you tried/considered/etc.”

* Surround questions with reflective statements:

-keep conversation going? -silences uncomfortable? -hidden agenda or solutions? -cornered? bored? confused? -clarification for you? -clarification for caller? WATCH OUT for hidden messages that say: -you can’t do this without me -look at me, I’ll show you -I’m together DIRECT QUESTION: “Why don’t you just talk to your parents?” OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: “Have you considered talking to your parents?” “You said you never laid a hand on your girlfriend” (paraphrase, summarise). “I’m wondering how that affects you?” (Question) “Blah, blah...” (Answer) “You sound pretty frustrated.” (Feedback).

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WHAT FOR: Clarification:

Why is this a problem? Who, what, when, where, why, how--the specifics Ideal World - wishes, wants, needs Payoffs & costs analysis Fears of changing 1st set--a concrete plan? A failsafe? To uncover new viewpoints -- ”What’s good about it?” Is there a wish in there?

SUMMARISING

How to Summarise... * Review content and affect: What did/said/felt. - Identify what happened. - Analyse relationships. (cause & effect) - Enumerate - List events, concerns, problems. - Isolate specific themes or main points

“So first you went over to the registration to get admission forms (Identify), but they were closed and you got frustrated (analyse). Then you wrote a letter to your lawyer (identify), but he never responded and you got even more frustrated (analyse).”

“I see three (3) things you want....”

“What I keep hearing is a fear of what other will think of you.”

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RESPONDING TO QUESTIONS EMPATHY Hear feelings behind question

How do you get people to open up and talk in meetings? “It sounds like you’ve had some frustrating experiences in past meetings.”

WISHES/IDEA Hear wishes behind question

You have a strong wish for group members to get more involved.

PURPOSE Check out why asking the question--feelings? specific situation? fishing for support?

Sounds like you are still confused about...what do you hope the answer is? Maybe you have a specific situation in mind...Please say a little more. I’m wondering if you are asking for other suggestions or whether I think you did the right thing?

OWNING Trust your feelings If cornered or confused, own it

I’m feeling pressured to give you a solution to your problem, and I’d feel better about helping you come up with your own solutions.

CONTRACTING Define your role in a personal way; help questioner to: clarify generate ideas reflect decide As facilitator, listen, probe, support

Instead of me telling you what I’d do in your situation, I’d rather explore things that you can do...let’s kick some ideas around to see if any appeal to you...

PARAPHRASE/SUMMARISE Restate all or part of person’s statement or basic idea

If I understand, you question is... Your decision is...and your reasons are... The key ideas (or questions) expressed to this point are...

Add up the ideas or feelings and restate SPECIFICITY If questioner, makes general, broad-sweeping statements, ask for examples PATTERNS/STORIES Help questioner to draw conclusions about patters, cause and effect ALTERNATIVES/PROBLEM-SOLVING Together explore alternative solutions; group brainstorm

Which students specifically were misbehaving today? what specific behaviour would you want to work towards improving? What time of day are these students most likely to misbehave? What is happening in the classroom at this time?

Let’s all brainstorm some alternatives to the question.

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EVALUATING GROUPWORK WAYS TO SEEK FEEDBACK 1.

Thought/Feeling cards

Pluses (+) and Wishes (-)

Evaluation questions (not “yes” and “no”; instead, open-ended)

I learned....... I wish..........

Ask someone in the group to paraphrase what was said in session

“I would like some feedback about - - - -

Hear group reports; turn in lists “What did this group discuss (do) . . .”

Using a ‘Whips’ structure

Self-Assessment Forms

10.

A. Use checklists or continuums Disagree B. Assess both content and process

agrees

Silence (be silent and let participants fill in pause)

TIPS ON SEEKING FEEDBACK Remember there is no one “right” way. Find a method and approaches that fill you. Know “why” you are doing what you are doing and your way fits what doing. Sometimes “process” out loud what you as a facilitator need and why. Avoid comparisons of one group or one person with another. See your own or a participant’s uncomfortableness at situation as a plus for getting the group back on track and as an interested participant.

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PROGRAM FEEDBACK FORM 1 1.

What was HELPFUL about today’s program?

2. What would you CHANGE about today’s program?

3. Please comment on the facilities, arrangements, etc.

4. What would you like to see as FOLLOWUP to this program?

5. (Optional) Please fill in this following open-ended phrases...

I THINK......

I FEEL......

I WISH.......

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Program Feedback Form 2

What I expected...

What I got...

What I valued...

What I need...

Additional comments:

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Program Feedback Form 3 Presenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Name:

Date:

Topic:

Your reactions on the specific areas the presenter wanted feedback on:

Your comments on the presenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s: Introduction to the Session:

Setting the Climate and Environment:

Presentation of Content:

Interpersonal and Facilitation Skills: Communication---

Decision making---

Conflict Resolution---

Questioning---Asking and Responding

Processing/Closing of Session:

Additional Comments:

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END-OF-THE-DAY PROCESSING SHEET 1. What do you want to remember...? (a) from what a group member said/did: (b) from what the program facilitator said/did: (c) from what the handouts said:

2. What will you do...? (a) to develop an even more caring, collaborative classroom environment: (b) for some paired activities to get started: (c) to further enhance your math instruction:

3. Please comment on what you liked about todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s program.

4. Please comment on what you would change about todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s program,

5. Ideas/Topics/Questions/Suggestions for Next Time:

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Self-Evaluation Write down 2 statements or questions for each of the following content-related your own facilitating skills from one of your programs:

INITIATING:

1. 2.

SEEKING INFO. OR OPINIONS:

1. 2.

GIVING INFO. OR OPINIONS:

1. 2.

CLARIFYING OR ELABORATING:

1. 2.

SUMMARISING:

1. 2.

CONSENSUS TESTING:

1. 2.

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FACILITATING CHANGE IN GROUPS: The Challenge of Roles and Personalities

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THEORY ON INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS (Basic Concerns of Any Group) adapted from Bill Schutz One of the ways of looking at what happens when people gather in a group is a theory that says we tend to focus on concerns of: Inclusion:

Who else is here? Who can I be in relation to them? What will it cost to join? How much am I willing to pay? Can I trust my real self to them? Will they hold me up if I am falling?

Control:

Who is calling the shots here? How much can I push for what I want? What do they require of me? Can I say what I really think? Can I take it if they say what they really think?

Affection:

Am I willing to care? Can I show my caring? What will happen if I show I care for one person before I show caring for others? What if no one cares for me? What if they do? What if I don’t really care for someone in the group? Will the group be able to bear it?

Then confronted by the end of its life together, the process tends to reverse itself - ACI - We begin to pull back a little from affectional ties we know have no real future. - We begin to get embroiled again in a game of “Who’s boss here anyway?” - We start to wonder if we really want to put the time and effort to stay with the group. It is important to realise that these concerns overlap during the life cycle of a group, although one of the three concerns may be more dominant than the others at any given period of time.

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THEORY ON TRUST FORMATION (BASIC CONCERNS OF ANY GROUP) Adapted from JACK R. GIBB

Whenever persons gather in a group there are basic concerns which may be seen as stages in trust formation. Jack Gibb, a social scientist, has worked out a model which provides a way of looking at the basic concerns and locating the problem of any group from a T-Group to an ongoing organisation. This theoretical model is based on a systematic study of hundreds of training groups, therapy groups, and organisations. This model has been adapted by Julie Boyd to reflect and integrate further aspects of team development. This table provides a summary description of this model. Listed are the basic concerns present in any group: the concerns which derive from the primary concerns, the symptoms of a group in which the concern is relatively unresolved, are present in a relatively immature group: the symptoms of resolved concerns are present in a relatively mature group. It should be pointed out , however, that these are not absolute descriptions. Groups simply tend toward one or the other.

Basic Concerns of Any Group FORMING

Primary Concern STORMING

Acceptance

NORMING

Data-flow

PERFORMING

Goal Formation

RE-FORMING

Control

Derivative Derivative Concern Concern

Symptoms of Unresolved Concern

Symptoms of Resolved Concern

Membership Membership

Fear Distrust

Acceptance Trust

Decision Decision

Polite facade Caution Strategy

Spontaneity Process Feedback

Productivity Productivity

Apathy Competition

Creative Work or Play

Organisation Organisation

Dependency Counter-dependency

Interdependence Role Distribution

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The Stages of Concern (SoC) dimension of the C-BAM focuses on the concerns of individuals involved in change (Hall 1979). Research has identified seven kinds of concerns that users, or potential users, of an innovation may have. These concerns are organised in the model as Stages of Concern (Figure 1). While the seven Stages of Concern are distinctive, they are not mutually exclusive. An individual is likely to have some degree of concern at all stages at any given time, yet our studies have documented that the stage or stages where concerns are more (and less) intense will vary as the implementation of change progresses. these variations in intensity mark the developmental nature of individual concerns. The developmental nature of concerns id further reflected in the three dimensionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;self, task, and impactâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;into which the seven stages may be grouped (Figure 1).

Stages of Concern

I M P A C T T A S K S E L F

6 Refocusing 5 Collaboration

Expressions of Concern

I have some ideas about something that would work even better I am concerned about relating what I am doing with what other instructors are doing.

4 Consequence

How is my use affecting kids?

3 Management

I seem to be spending all my time getting material ready.

2 Personal 1 Informational 0 Awareness

How will using if affect me? I would like to know more about it. I am concerned about it (the innovation).

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Type

Behaviours/Effects

Possible Solutions

The Latecomer

- arrives late - makes big commotion - wants to be caught up - gives “reasons” why late

- don’t confront in front of group - ask why late after meeting - don’t lecture - start meeting on time - ask latecomer to be a facilitator or recorder for next meeting - focus meeting away from door (away from latecomer)

The Early Leaver

- leaves early - drains energy

- don’t confront in front of group - ask why later - shorten meetings if too long - check to see if everyone can stay until end - make meetings meaningful and productive

The Broken Record

- keeps bringing up same item over and over (redundant) - takes up valuable time

- use group memory to acknowledge point - ask “Is there something else you want to add?” - allow enough time for discussion - restate what they have said

The Doubting Thomas

- always aggressively negative - uses phrases “It will never work” or “I don’t like that idea” - considers others’ ideas wrong until proven right

- use “mental judo” - ask group to agree not to evaluate ideas for a set time period - correct anyone who violates process (“Wait a minute Jim. You and the rest jumped on his idea. Hold on. You’ll get a chance to evaluate ideas later.”)

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The Ending Phase

The Neutral Zone Phase

Letting go of old situation and the accompanying old identity 1. Disengagement 2. Disidentification 3. Disenchantment

Seen as being between the old reality and the new one 1. Disorientation 2. Disintegration 3. Discovery

The New Beginning 1. Can take root only after the old has died and been buried. 2. Even the best depicted vision doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t remove resistance. 3. Visions need plans to accompany them. 4. Visions need to be spelled out in both: * Cognitive/Rational - Thinking persons * Values - Feeling persons 5. To great of a change can overwhelm, therefore, consider the possibility of phased steps.

Compensation Activities for Loss and Endings For Loss of: 1. Meaning

Activity: Meaning based communication that deals with the problem the organisation is facing.

Future

Career and life planning activities.

Competence-based identity

Preserve confidence through both technical and social training in new competencies.

Control

Involvement in creating the future.

Loss itself

Recognise & acknowledge all losses

Turf

Interest based discussion with equitable redistribution essential.

Attachments

Rituals that allow those affected to say farewell.

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GROUP TASK ROLES 1. INITIATOR-CONTRIBUTOR: suggests or proposes to the group new ideas or a changed way of regarding the group problem or goal. 2.

INFORMATION SEEKER: asks for clarification of suggestions, for authoritative information and facts pertinent to the problem discussed.

3. OPINION SEEKER: asks not primarily of the facts of the case but for a clarification of the values pertinent to what the group is doing 4. INFORMATION GIVER: offers facts or generalisations which are the authoritative views or relates his own experience to the group problem. 5. OPINION GIVER: states his belief pertinently to a suggestion made. the emphasis is on his proposal of what should become the group’s views, not primarily upon relevant facts or information. 6. ELABORATOR: spells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed meanings, offers a rationale for suggestions and tries to deduce how an idea if adopted by the group would work out. 7. COORDINATOR: show or clarifies the relations among various ideas and suggestions, tries to pull ideas together or to coordinate various members of the sub-groups. 8. ORIENTER: defines the position of the group with respect to its goals by summarising what has occurred, raises questions about the direction which group discussion is taking. 9. EVALUATOR-CRITIC: subjects the accomplishment of the group to some standard of groupfunctioning in the context of group task. He may evaluate the “practicality”, “logic”, “facts”, or “procedure” of some unit of group discussion. 10. ENERGISER: prods the group to action or decision, attempts to stimulate the group to greater activity. 11. PROCEDURAL TECHNICIAN: expedite group movement by doing things for the group performing routine tasks, etc. 12. RECORDER: writes down suggestions, makes record of group decisions and products of discussion. The recorder role is the group “memory.”

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GENERAL HINTS FOR COPING WITH DIFFICULT INTERPERSONAL SCENES 1 1.

ANALYSE THE SITUATION BEFOREHAND - think about and clarify who (one or both) “owns” the problem. If conflict exists, decide whether it is based on different values or different perceptions about roles/procedures. If the other person’s behaviour is at the heart of the problem, clarify the tangible effect on you and how you feel about it.

KEEP YOUR COOL - remain overtly calm even if you feel upset. Let the party know about your feelings by disclosing them verbally rather than by non-verbal signals.

REMAIN POLITE - avoid insulting or derogatory language directed at the other party and don’t “psychologise” (guessing aloud about their motives).

USE POSITIVE BODY LANGUAGE - square off, lean forward, make eye contact, unfold arms and legs, nod, smile, get on the same level, make physical contact.

TUNE INTO THE OTHER PARTY - pay close attention to what they say, check out your understanding of their views and their feelings by listening actively and asking searching questions or para phrasing.

WIN YOURSELF A HEARING - admit your understanding of, part agreement with, the other’s perceptions. Then present your own position (views and feelings about the situation) non-dogmatically (“I feel...” “I believe...”).

BUILD TOWARDS A SOLUTION - invite the other party’s opinions and avoid immediate rejection of his/her suggestions. Offer your own ideas as possibilities (“Maybe...”). Consider all options before deciding.

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GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DEALING WITH DIFFICULT INTERPERSONAL SCENES 2 1.

Investigate reasons for any controversial statements - seek clarification.

Keep in control - think about how you will react.

Set a top and bottom line - how much you are prepared to admit or yield.

Draw positive benefit by encouraging lively discussion - include others.

Move away from specific to general.

Check for support or lack of it from other members.

Where possible, agree with or at least acknowledge aggressor e.g. admit it’s a problem.

Defer the debate till later where the issue is not crucial to the groups’ progress.

Ensure everyone has prerequisite knowledge - don’t assume they know – tell them.

10.

Establish the rule that the group won’t rehash and go over old ground.

11.

Seek suggestions from the group in relation to the point/s made.

12.

Be honest - admit uncertainty or incapability - don’t bluff.

13.

Look for WIN/WIN strategies - look for a solution that satisfies you and other(s).

14.

Ask the group whether to spend time on the issue or to move on.

15.

Follow up - chase up individuals and talk it out later.

16.

Distance the person from the statement made - don’t disagree just present a differing view.

17.

Address the issue as if it came from the whole group rather than the person.

18.

Give them an option or an out. Let them work it out for themselves.

19.

Allow non-participation - don’t force them back in and /or give them a job.

20.

Break group up into sub-groups.

21.

Exert your authority and make an autocratic decision (assume you have support).

22.

Stay calm.

23.

Stay out of an awkward environment - avoid rash statements/bad timing. 69

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Some Challenges For You DEALING WITH PROBLEMS 1.

You are in the middle of a meeting when the boss (or some other VIP) walks in and sits down in the rear. The group appears nervous and you notice that the discussion you had rolling a moment ago has now come to a grinding halt. What do you do?

Two of your participants at the far corner of the table have been talking to one another for the past minute or so. You notice at the start of the meeting that they were frequently exchanging brief comments, but now they seem to have formed their own meeting. What should you do?

One of your participants, Joe, is dominating the group....at least he seems to be doing most of the talking. As a result, others who were active in the beginning are now being less so. What do you do?

One of your participants, Sally, takes a long time to make a point. Her contributions are generally useful, but it takes a lot of time to get them out. What do you do?

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Type

Behaviours/Effects

Possible Solutions

The Headshaker

- nonverbally disagrees in dramatic manner - shakes head, rolls eyes, crosses/uncrosses arms and legs, slams books shut, madly scribbles notes - disrupts as effectively as using words

- ignore behaviours and focus attention on person speaking - confront if behaviour persists: “Jim, I see you’re shaking your head. Looks like you disagree with what has just been said. Do you want to share your reactions with the rest of the group?” - confront further if behaviour continues or becomes extremely disruptive. “Jim, every time you shake your head, you interrupt the meeting just as much as if you cut somebody off verbally. What’s bothering you?”

The Dropout

- sits at back of room - doesn’t say anything - reads book, corrects papers, doodles, etc. - disturbs the facilitator more than rest of group

- walk closer to the dropout - address questions or comments to dropout (get eye contact) - discuss the dropout’s behaviours privately if they persist

The Whisperer

- whispers constantly to neighbour - irritating to entire group - breaks concentration of group - fragments energy of group

- walk up close to whisperers - confront directly if whispering persists: “Let’s keep a single focus here” or “Do you two want to share what you’re talking about?” - talk to whisperers privately at break - “assign” seats/creatively group if possible

The Loudmouth

- talks too much and too loud - dominates the meeting - pulls attention away from focus of meeting

- mover closer and maintain eye contact - give them paper to jot down creative ideas - make them recorder - talk with them outside meeting - confront directly in meeting if behaviour persists

The Interpreter

- always speaks for other people: “What Judy is trying to say...” - limits independence and power of some members

- jump in quickly and say: “Hold on a minute. Let Judy speak for herself.” - Support group members so they can “tell” interpreters they don’t need help in speaking

The Attacker (or Sniper)

- launches personal attacks on members or facilitator

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- use group memory to focus on ideas, not people - get attacker to state criticism and have recorder write it down

GROUP BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE ROLES 1. ENCOURAGER: praises, agrees and accepts the contributions of others. He indicates warmth and solidarity toward group members.

2. HARMONISER: mediates the differences between other members, attempts to reconcile disagreements and relieve tension in conflicts.

3. COMPROMISER: operates from within a conflict in which his ideas or position is involved. He may offer compromise by yielding status, admitting his error, disciplining himself to maintain harmony.

4. GATE-KEEPING AND EXPEDITER: attempts to keep communications channels open by encouraging the participation of others.

5. STANDARD-SETTER: expresses standards of group to attempt to achieve in its functioning or applies standards in evaluation group process.

6. GROUP OBSERVER AND COMMENTATOR: keeps records of various aspects of the group process and feeds such data into the groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s evaluations of its own procedures.

7. FOLLOWER: goes along with the movement of the group, more or less passively accepting the ideas of others, acts as audience.

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INDIVIDUAL ROLES 1. AGGRESSOR: deflates the status of others, disapproves values, attacks the group problem, jokes aggressively.

2. BLOCKER: tends to be negative and stubbornly resistant, disagreeing and opposing beyond reason, attempts to bring back issue after group has rejected it.

3. RECOGNITION-SEEKER: works in various ways to call attention to himself by boasting, calling on personal achievement, struggling to prevent his being placed in an inferior position.

4. SELF-CONFESSOR: uses the audience opportunity which the group setting provides to express personal, non-group oriented “feeling”, “insight”, etc.

5. PLAYBOY/GIRL: makes a display of his lack of ability and involvement in the group processes. This may take the form of cynicism, nonchalance, horseplay and other “out of the field” behaviour.

6. DOMINATOR: tries to assert authority in manipulating the group or certain members. This may take the form of flattery, or asserting a superior right to attention, etc.

7. HELP-SEEKER: attempts to call forth sympathy response from the group.

8. SPECIAL INTEREST PLEADER: speaks for others, the grass roots community, labour, etc., cloaking his own prejudices or biases in the stereotype which best fits his personal need.

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Write down sample statements or questions for each of the following process-related facilitating skills:

HARMONISING:

1. 2.

GATE-KEEPING:

1. 2.

ENCOURAGING:

1. 2.

COMPROMISING: 1. 2.

STANDARD SETTING & TESTING:

1. 2.

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CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE MEETINGS, DIALOGUES and INTERACTIONS

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The Three Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of Meeting

AGENDA

ATTITUDE

AWARENESS

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GUIDELINES FOR COMMUNICATING IN MEETINGS 1. Share speaking time. Give everyone the opportunity to make a contribution in their way. 2. Make your needs known to the group. If you are preoccupied or you have a personal agenda, bring it to the attention of the group. 3. Speak to the point. State your main pint first, then offer background information, rather than building up to your main point. 4. Avoid side conversations and interruptions. They tend to be irritants to other members of the group. 5. If you arrive late, listen first before you speak. 6. Respect time and format guidelines. If you are the facilitator, start and end the meeting on time.

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AN EFFECTIVE MEETING • Desired Outcomes — The purpose is clear and agreed to. • Agenda — A clear process/content/time agenda is prepared. The group "owns" the agenda. • Appropriate Meeting Type — The type of meeting is known in advance and is clear. • Clear Roles — The participants know what is expected of them. • Preparation — The participants, leaders, and presenters are well prepared. • Supportive Environment — The room and seating arrangement support the meeting's purpose. • Decision-making Power — The power issues and decisionmaking procedures are explicit ahead of time. • Unbiased Leadership — The leader is perceived as fair and unbiased. • Total Involvement — The leader involves and fully utilises all participants. • Real Issues — The real issues are raised and dealt with honestly. Hidden agendas are legitimised and brought into the open. • Process Tools — The leader uses a wide repertoire of process tools to help the group achieve its ends. • Heterogeneity — The leader seeks out and respects different points of view. • Shared Responsibility — The participants take responsibility for the meeting's success. • Evaluation — The meeting ends with process analysis, and the meeting participants agree that the meeting was productive and a good use of their time. • Follow-up — The group assigns accountability (who/what/when) and clearly establishes action items.

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THE FACILITATOR The Facilitator in meetings using the Interaction Method:

• Is a neutral servant of the group. • Does not evaluate or contribute ideas. • Focuses energy of the group on a common task. • Suggests alternative methods and procedures. • Protects individuals and their ideas from attack. • Encourages everyone to participate. • Helps the group find win/win solutions. • Coordinates pre- and post-meetings logistics.

Specific Techniques for the Facilitator:

• Clearly define your role. • Get agreement on a common problem and process before beginning. • Boomerang questions back to group members. • Be positive — compliment the group. • Don't talk too much. • Support and keep the recorder in his/her role. • Help to educate the group. • Don't be afraid to make mistakes. • Don't be defensive.

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THE RECORDER The Recorder, in meetings, using the Interaction Method: • Captures basic ideas on large sheets of paper in full view of the group. • Does not edit or paraphrase. • Uses the words of the speaker. • Records enough of the speaker's ideas so they can be understood later. • Remains neutral. • Does not contribute his/her own ideas. • May lag behind, but that's ok. If the recorder gets lost or didn't hear, he/she may stop the group and ask people to repeat or slow down. Specific Techniques for the Recorder: • Listen for key words. • Try to capture basic ideas, the essence. • Don't write down every word. • Make corrections nondefensively. • Write legibly. Print/write an inch and a half high. • Write fast. • Don't be afraid to misspell. • Abbreviate words. • Vary colours; use colours to highlight, divide ideas, underline. • Vary size of writing/printing. • Use outline forms. • Use stars, arrows, numbers, dots, etc. • Number all sheets.

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THE GROUP MEMORY In the Interaction Method the Group Memory:

• Helps the group focus on a task. • Is an instant record of a meeting's content and process. • Guards against data overload, but holds on to all ideas. It frees participants from taking notes. • Depersonalises ideas. • Serves as a psychic release for participants. They don't have to hold on to and defend their ideas. • Prevents repetition and wheel spinning. • Encourages participation because it respects individuals' ideas. It reduces status differentials. • Enables each member to check to make sure his/her ideas are being recorded accurately. • Increases the group's sense of accomplishment. • Makes sophisticated problem solving methods possible by holding on to information developed in one phase for use in the next. • Makes it easy for latecomers to catch up without interrupting the meeting. • Makes accountability easier; decisions are written down in clear view of the group; who is going to do what, when. • Is low cost, easy to use, and available to any group.

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THE GROUP MEMBERS As a Group Member under the Interaction Method, you have the following roles and responsibilities:

• Keep the facilitator neutral and out of the content discussion. • Keep the recorder neutral and make sure your ideas are being recorded accurately. • Use the same facilitative behaviours, tools, and techniques that the facilitator uses. • Focus your energy on the content of the problem.

Specific techniques for Group Members

• Respect and listen to other individuals. • Try to keep an open mind. • Vary your seat — avoid cliques. • Don't be prematurely negative. • Don't overly defend your ideas. • Don't cut other people off or put words in their mouths.

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ROOM ARRANGEMENT F

X Face meeting away from doors. Focus on group memory. Look out for “energy holes.”

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MANAGING MEETINGS As a consultant you may expected to fulfil the following role/s at one time or another. 1.

Chairperson

Executive officer

Minutes secretary

Attend meetings.

Meetings can be very productive when they are short, follow a prepared agenda, decisions are reached and action is taken. Monitor closely the amount of time you allocate to meetings. Always ascertain what the meeting is for - what is on the agenda and if your presence is absolutely essential.

PLAN 1.

Establish the expected outcomes of the meeting and the consequences of not having it.

Can the meeting be conducted by teleconference?

If there is no longer a reason to have a meeting - cancel it!

INFORM 1.

Determine agenda items before the meeting. The agenda is a brief for all of the members to work from, it defines the direction and area of discussion and the end purpose.

Every one should be clear about * what is to be discussed * why it is to be discussed * what you hope to achieve.

Anticipate information and people you need to make sure you have them.

PREPARE 1.

Prioritise the Agenda. Urgent items first. Pencil in a time frame for each so that the important items get the most discussion. ‘Urgent’ does not always mean ‘important’. 84

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STRUCTURE AND CONTROL DISCUSSION 1. 2.

state proposition take evidence

3. 4. 5.

present arguments allow for interpretation reach a conclusion

ALLOW FOR THE â&#x20AC;&#x153;HUMANâ&#x20AC;? DYNAMIC 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Arrange the group in a circle to equalise status Remove physical barriers between group members When people wish to make a point strongly or to let off steam, hear them out till they are satisfied their point is clearly made Check that you understand a point made by paraphrased feedback (you mean....?) Control people who tend to hold the floor or squash the contributions of others Check around the group/bring in the others when you need further information or wish to defuse a disagreement Record suggestions publicly, and encourage group members to develop ideas offered by others.

SUMMARISE AND RECORD Summarise all decisions and record all action and time lines.

WHAT FOR: Clarify long rambling statements. Condense information - especially lots of it and / or when it is exchanged over a long period of time. To close a topic and move on... To stimulate exploration of further points (Yeah, not only that, but....) To slow things down. To emphasise certain points. To serve as a take-off point. To provide a perspective.

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DIALOGUE As we become a learning community, we are finding that dialogue is an essential tool in the discovery process. This paper is a beginning in the discovery of what dialogue is and how to use it. Derivations of words often help to suggest a deeper meaning. Dialogue comes from the Greek word dialogues. Logos means ‘the word’, or in our case we would think of the ‘meaning of the word’. And dia means ‘through’ - it doesn’t mean two. A dialogue can be among any number of people, not just two. Even one person can have a sense of dialogue within oneself. The picture or image that this derivation suggests is of a stream of meaning flowing among, through, and between us. This makes possible a flow of ideas in the whole group, out of which can emerge new understanding. It is something new, which may not have been present in the starting point at all. This shared meaning is the glue that holds people and societies together. Contrast ‘dialogue’ with ‘discussion’, which has the same root as percussion and concussion. Discussion means to break things up. It emphasises the ides a analysis, where there may be many points of view, and where everybody is presenting a different one. It will not get us very far beyond our various points of view. Discussion is almost like a ping-pong game, where people are batting ideas back and forth and the object of the game is to win or to get points for yourself. We might occasionally accept part of another person’s view in order to strengthen our own, but we fundamentally want our view to prevail. One purpose of a dialogue is to go beyond any one individual’s understanding. We are not trying to win in a dialogue. We all win if we are doing it right. In dialogue, individuals gain insights that could not be achieved individually. A new kind of thinking develops, based on common meaning. People are no longer primarily in opposition. They are participating in this pool of common meaning, which is capable of constant development and change. In dialogue, a group explores a topic from many points of view. Individuals suspend their assumptions. An any moment, the conversation may appear to be of limited relevance to the beginning topic. The result is a free exploration that brings to the surface the full depth of people’s experience and thought, and yet can move beyond their individual views.

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Bohm identifies three basic conditions that are necessary for dialogue: 1. All participants must suspend their assumptions. To suspend one’s assumptions means to hold them “hanging in front of you, constantly accessible to questioning and observation.” this does not mean throwing out our assumptions, suppressing them, or avoiding their expression. Nor, in any way, does it say that having opinions is “bad,” or that we should eliminate subjectivism. Rather, it means being aware of our assumptions and holding them up for examination. This cannot be done if we are unaware of our assumptions, or unaware that our views are based on assumptions, rather than incontrovertible fact. The opposite to suspending assumptions is when an individual “digs in his or her heels” and decides “this is the way it is” - then the flow of dialogue is blocked. In dialogue, it is this attitude that can be used as a tool to identify assumptions. To use this situation as a part of dialogue, look for the assumptions that brought it about. they can then be “suspended” for all to view. 2. All participants must regard one another as colleagues. Dialogue can occur only when a group of people see each other as colleagues in a mutual quest for deeper insight and clarity. The conscious act of thinking of each other as colleagues contributes toward interacting as colleagues. This may sound simple, but it can make a profound difference. There is a certain vulnerability to holding assumptions in suspension. Treating each other as colleagues acknowledges the mutual risk and establishes the sense of safety in facing the risk. Colleagueship does not mean that you need to agree or share the same view. On the contrary, the real power of seeing each other as colleagues comes into play when there are differences of view. It is easy to feel collegial when everyone agrees. When there are significant disagreements it is more difficult, but the payoff is also much greater. Choosing to view “adversaries” as “colleagues with different views” has the greatest benefits. Hierarchy is antithetical to dialogue. If one person is used to having her view prevail because she is the most senior person, then that privilege must be surrendered in dialogue. If one person is used to withholding his views because he is more junior, then that security of nondisclosure must also be surrendered. Dialogue is “playful”; it requires the willingness to play with new ideas, to examine them and test them. As soon as we become overly concerned with “who said what,” or “not saying something stupid”, the playfulness will evaporate.

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3. There must be a facilitator who holds the context of dialogue. In the absence of a facilitator, our habits of thought continually pull us toward discussion and away from dialogue. This is especially true in the early stages of developing dialogue as a team discipline. We believe in our own views and want them to prevail. We are worried about suspending our assumptions publicly. We may even be uncertain if it is psychologically safe to suspend all assumption. (After all, arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t there some assumptions that I must hold on to or lose my sense of identity?) The facilitator helps maintain an open, neutral, focused dialogue. As teams develop experience and skill in dialogue, the role of the facilitator becomes less crucial and he or she can gradually become just one of the participants. In societies where dialogue is an ongoing discipline, there usually are no appointed facilitators. Dialogue emerges from the leaderless group once the team members have developed their skill and understanding. The primary sources for this paper are The Fifth Discipline, by Peter M. Senge, and On Dialogue, by David Bohm.

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Some Technique Tips SAMPLE TRAINING TECHNIQUES 1) Use children’s names. 2) Set time limits. 3) Use silences—for reflection, to give others chance to speak. 4) Portray a ‘try this on’ attitude. Ask children ‘what do you think about . . .; let’s think about this . . .’ 5) Move around the room. 6) Establish a supportive, trusting climate. 7) Set goals and explain what the activity is designed to do (do not have a ‘hidden agenda’ by saying ‘we will talk about why you’re doing this after everyone is finished.’ 8) Give rationale and goal for what you are doing. 9) Give positive feedback. 10) Use selective action in dealing with ‘acting out’ behaviour. 11) Set ground rules with group (see above). 12) Get out group’s and individual’s expectations and/or understanding of what they are to do before they start the activity. 13) Model what you like children to do. 14) Build from small to large groups; children will more readily talk in smaller groups first. 15) Build from simple to complex concepts. 16) Trust the child’s potential and accept where s/he is. Answer their concerns and state clearly and concisely what you would like them to do. 17) Give specific feedback to children (rather than ‘that was a good job.’) 18) Teacher should participate, when appropriate. 19) May use contracts with small groups or individuals. 89

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20) Discuss the activity after it has been completed to draw out the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reactions and to link the activity to the goals of the activity. 21) Make a physically comfortable environment; move chairs, tables, desks so it is conducive to the activity you are using.

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Conflict Resolution Mediation

and Decision Making

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AN EFFECTIVE TEAM OPERATES WHERE THERE IS: 1. a integrated, supportive atmosphere where people feel open and free to offer their ideas and efforts. 2. everyone involved in the project in a meaningful way, making the best use of each personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s special abilities. 3. leadership shifting among the group members to whomever has the expertise on that particular point. Leadership can be more broadly defined to include anything that anyone does that helps the group complete the task or facilitates the group in terms of the interpersonal issues. 4. a democratic atmosphere where everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ideas are sought and utilised when possible. Group member productivity and satisfaction are related to the amount of participation allowed. 5. a clear system for problem solving which is understood by all. 6. decisions made by consensus. Everyone has had their input and listened to the ideas and reactions of others. All members of the group feel they can support the decision of the group even though they might do it somewhat differently if the decision were theirs alone. 7. healthy conflict which sparks the group to more creative thinking and solutions. 8. conflict confronted and worked through, not stifled or buried. 9. open lines of communication where members actively listen to each other, respond constructively, give feedback in a positive way. Only one person at a time is talking, so valuable information is not missed. 10. excited, energetic people, enjoy the project they are working on and are enthusiastic about working together.

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CONFLICT Conflict is:

Two or more persons or things trying to occupy the same space at the same time.

Conflict is not necessarily good or bad!

The “key” is learning to mange conflict.

SOURCES OF CONFLICT * Scarce or undistributable resources

* Unmet expectations

* Unclear or different goals or values

* Lack of information

* Different methods or styles

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WAYS OF DEALING WITH ORGANISATIONAL CONFLICT * Denial or Withdrawal

* Suppression or Smoothing Over

* Power or Dominance

* Compromise or Negotiation

* Integration or Collaboration

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CONFLICT OPINIONNAIRE 1 Instructions: Circle the appropriate letter indicating if you agree or disagree with the statement. If you cannot completely agree or disagree, choose the one that is more likely for you. There are no right or wrong answers. This opinionnaire is intended to explore your general tendencies regarding conflict. In situations where I find a conflict of my wishes and others: 1.

I try to find a compromise solution. A

I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. A

I would try to soothe the otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feelings and preserve our relationship. A

I avoid taking positions which would create controversy. A

I tell the person my ideas and ask for his/her ideas. A

I make an effort to get my way. A

I would rather let others take responsibility for solving the problem. A

Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things upon which we agree. A

I try to show the person the logic and benefit of my position. A

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10.

I will let the other person have some of his/her positions if she/he lets me have some of mine. A

11.

I attempt to get all concerns A

12.

I always share the problem with other the person so that we can work it out. A

20.

I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about. A

19.

I propose a middle ground. A

18.

I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over. A

17.

I consistently seek the otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s help in working out a solution. A

16.

I assert my wishes. A

15.

I give up some points in exchange for others. A

14.

I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of other persons. A

13.

If the other personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position seems very important to him/her, I would try to agree. A

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CONFLICT OPINIONNAIRE SCORING KEY Each statement on the opinionnaire reflects one of the following tendencies or styles in handling conflict situations: Compromise or Negotiate (CN) Power or Dominance (PD) Suppression or Smoothing (SS) Denial or Withdrawal (DW) Integration or Collaboration (IC)

Items 1, 10, 13, 17 Items 2, 5, 9, 14 Items 3, 8, 12, 20 Items 4, 7, 16, 18 Items 6, 11, 15, 19

To score your opinionnaire, first place the appropriate letters in front of the item numbers with which you agreed. Count the number of like responses (i.e., 4 CN or 3 DW) and record on the score sheet. Next place the appropriate letters in front of the item numbers with which you disagreed. Count the number of like responses (i.e., 4 SS or 1 PD) and record on the score sheet.

SCORE SHEET Agree

Disagree

CN______ PD______ SS______ DW______ IC_______

Your highest score in the AGREE column indicates your tendency toward that style in conflict situations. Your highest score in the DISAGREE column indicates your tendency away from that style in conflict situations.

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Example: Agree

Disagree

CN--3-PD--3-IC--4-DW--1--

SS--4-DW--3-CN--1-PD--1--

This person has a strong tendency toward a style of Integration and Collaboration with almost equal tendencies for Compromise and Negotiation or Power and Dominance. On the other side, this person would not likely to Suppress or Smooth over a conflict nor to Deny or Withdraw from a conflict. If your score does not reflect your belief about your style in conflict it may be based on your interpretation of the statements.

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CONFLICT STRATEGIES

Win/Win Strategies:

10 Synergy 9 Third 8 Consensus

7 Compromise 6 Vote 5 Arbitrate 4 Fight

Win/Lose Strategies:

Conflict Avoiding Strategies:

3 Co-existence 2 Procrastination 1 Avoidance

LOW QUALITY

HIGH QUALITY

100

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NEGOTIATING SKILLS 1. The ability to determine the nature of the conflict

2. Effectiveness in initiating confrontations

3. The ability to hear the otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s point of view

4. The utilisation of problem-solving process to bring about a consensus decision

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H I G H A C C E P T A N C E O R C O M M I T M E N T

VOTE/COMPROMISE High commitment, low quality

CONSENSUS High commitment, high quality

When the decision must please the majority and the outcome will not hinder the progress of the group. Example: Where the next meeting will be held.

when the decision must be supported by all members of the group an must be the best possible solution. Usually, the decision made by the group as a problem resolution are agreed to by consensus.

COIN FLIP Low commitment, low quality

TECHNICAL Low commitment, high quality

When neither the issue nor the outcome require much discussion. Example: Where to get supplies.

When the technical expertise exists to make a quality decision and the outcome is not an issue for the group members. Example: What type of computer systems should an office use.

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CONSENSUS DECISIONMAKING

Some of the decisions made by a group do not require a consensus process. Many times the majority opinion or even a flip of a coin could be appropriate. Some decisions are best left to an expert. Knowing that consensus is not always required and understanding when it is appropriate can be a great benefit to a groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s progress. The following matrix may be of help in determining the appropriate process.

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GROUP DECISION-MAKING SKILLS GROUP DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Every group, to achieve its goal, is constantly involved in making decisions: big decision, little decisions; easy decisions, hard decisions; right decisions, wrong decisions; but always decisions, decisions, decisions, decisions. Decision-making is thus a continuing pattern of relationships among members of a group; a pattern over which every individual member has significant influence. it is amazing the effect a bit of information here, a loud objection there, and expression of approval or hostility, envy or admiration, contempt or condescension can have on an impending decision. So there is little wonder that group after group has difficulty making decisions. Some become paralysed when confronted with a decision; some argue interminably over a minor point; others rush into a vote, only to reverse their decision later on or to fail in carrying it out; others appoint a committee or look for a saviour (the leader) to save them from having to decide.

Difficulties in Decision-Making Most of the difficulties encountered by a group in making decisions centre around one or another of the following factors: 1) Fear of Consequences In some groups the possible outcomes of an impending decision may bring divisions and disagreements. Frank acknowledgment of these fears often suggests how they can be dealt with effectively. 2) Conflicting Loyalties Multiple membership in a number of groups frequently leads to divided loyalties among group members. an atmosphere in which it is possible for these conflicts to be brought out into the open without threat to the individual is a great help in their resolution. 3) Interpersonal Conflict In groups of any size personal differences occur which provoke feelings of affection or of antipathy among members and which inhibit sound decision-making. Often another member who is not involved in the interpersonal conflict can bring the real problem into bolder relief. 4) Methodological Blundering A group may be so bound by rigid procedures that there is little chance for free expression of differences. Or a group may allow itself to substitute personal opinion for adequate data. Or a group may approach the decision-making process without testing for consensus. 5) Inadequate Leadership A designated leader falls short of his responsibilities when s/he restricts the expression of opinion or discussion of issues, when s/he fails to provide assistance in selecting appropriate 105

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methods for decision-making, and when s/he is insensitive to the factors causing difficulty— the motivations and standards of the group. As a group moves toward its goal, it seldom proceeds in a straight course from “A” to “B”: A

Rather its movement is more up and down and around, sometimes even ending up at “C” instead of its original goal of “B”: B

A C A number of problems must be solved along the way, each of which involves any number of decisions. Six basic problem areas in the movement of a group toward its goal can be identified. Of course no group moves directly through the six problem areas in a given order. There is constant movement back and forth among them; and they are always present in various ways at various times requiring various decisions. 1) Problem Area #1: The Data (What is our situation?) Who are we? Where are we? What is our common ground? What are the limits within which we must work? Who or what brought us together? Until a group recognised its actual present situation, by gathering the data about that situation, any attempt to suggest goals is premature. 2) Problem Area #2: The Purpose (What is our destination?) Where do we want to go? What choices are open to us? Until there is general agreement on the goal, the group will not move effectively. Members of a group who have not accepted the goal or who have had little voice in choosing it, tend to be self-oriented. The greater the share all members have in choosing the goal of a group, the greater will be their willingness to subordinate their immediate personal interposts to the common interests of the group. The settling of a goal is also necessarily tentative and must be reexamined from time to time in order to test its adequacy.

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3) Problem Area #3: The Plan (How do we get there?) What procedures are called for? What resources are needed? Members become more and more involved in the functions of initiating, clarifying, expediting, and testing for consensus as a group goes about determining the best ways and means, routes and methods, necessary to get under way. 4) Problem Area #4: The People (How free are we to move?) If a group is to be creative, individuals must be free to offer insights, to test ideas, to make contributions, to share the leadership without fear of inadequacy. Such functions as encouraging, harmonising, and supporting are needed to maintain an atmosphere of freedom. 5) Problem Area #5: The Progress (Where are we now?) Where are we in the process of settling all the other problems? Are we going in the right direction? How far have we gotten? Do we know where we are? Do we need to change our goal or procedures? Is everyone still on board? From time to time a groups must take a fix, make a progress report to itself. Many a group has failed to reach its goal because it assumed everyone knew where the group was when actually confusion reigned. 6) Problem Area #6: The Outcome (Where have we arrived?) Have we reached our goal? Where are we finally in terms of our achievement? it may not be the original goal, but is it satisfactory? A group sees its goal through the eyes of its members and their need to arrive at some goal.

Categories of Decisions Since most groups have an extended life and are called upon to make more than a single decision governing its life and work, each group decision that is made tends to set a precedent which affects the climate of subsequent attempts at problem solving. The prime measure of a group decision is the degree of commitment it s membership acts out on the basis of the decision made. Future decisions are affected by : (1) the number of group members actively participating in making decision; (2) what happens to individual members in the process of decision-making. the following categories illustrate types of group decisions: *

Self-Authorised Decisions: A decision made by one group member who assumes authority from the group to do so. The group may find it expedient to go along with such a decision rather than become involved in the process leading to a decision.

Group commitment to self-authorised decisions tends to be low, getting lower if this type of decision-making is repeated.

Handclasping: A decision made by two members of the group joining forces. Such a decision usually emerges so suddenly that it catches the group off-guard, and presents the group with the problem of responding to two people at once. Group commitment tends to be low, lower if repeated by the same two persons. 107

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Cliques: Decision made by segments of the group outside of regular group meeting and acted out at a subsequent meeting. They felt necessity for a few members to make decisions in this way indicates low trust in the total group and tends to further divide the group into competing factions.

Baiting: “Does anybody disagree that...?” or “We all agree that, don’t we?” When the climate of a group inhibits open conflict of idea and concern decisions made by the foregoing threats of conflict tend to be short-lived and divisive, carrying low group commitment.

Majority-Role: A decision made by some form of voting. Vote-taking tends to solidify opposing forces, lowering the losing factions’ commitment to the decision, influencing future decision by establishing competitive factions within the group.

Unanimity: A decision made by apparent 100% agreement of group membership. Pressure to conform may be strong enough to force overt consent but tends to bury opposition. If pressure to conform is not strong enough and the group feels that unanimous decisions are a must, group decisions become impossible to reach.

Consensus: A decision made after all aspects of the issue and possible solutions are heard and dealt with till all members feel that the group choice made is the most operable under the circumstances. Group decisions made by consensus tend to have higher group commitment, and longevity, than other types.

Two common indications of malfunction in group decision-making process are: 1. Plops: The offerings of a group member to which no one in the group responds, i.e., a group decision to ignore one member’s contributions. Plops which occur with some frequency are symptoms of malfunction in the group’s interrelationships. 2. Topic-Jumping: An action of one or more members of the group which interrupts the group’s decision-making process by introducing comments and concerns irrelevant to the immediate process of the group. Reoccurring topic jumping is symptomatic of mal-function.

Steps in Decision-Making Effective decision-making by a group on the basis of consensus is both realistic and possible. But it is not easy. there are five basic steps which a group can take in arriving at a decision with some assurance that it represents the mind of the group as a whole and that it will be acted upon. It is well also to be aware of what may help a particular step, of what may cause its omission. 1. Defining the Problem The process of defining the problem, sharpening the focus so that the issue is clear, internalising its various implications, clarifying it and elaborating on it. omission: a standing committee that is reappointed year after year but that never reviews its purpose. blocks: the assumption that the problem is clear; over-abstraction of the problem; the assumption that the problem is relevant. helps: a problem census; small groups; general discussion. 108

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2. Suggesting Alternative Solutions The process of getting ideas on the various alternative solutions to the problem from all members. omission: a leader who limits a group to working on the implications of a solution she has already decided upon. blocks: lack of data; lack of experience; group size; member threat; over-formality; inadequate maintenance functions; polarising on a particular solution. helps: brainstorming; additional data; subgroup work; a climate of freedom; periods of silence. 3. Testing the Alternatives The process of examining the alternatives in the light of all available data, previous experience, possible consequences, relevance to the problem, and membersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes. omission: the prestige of influence of the leader or some other members which prevents the group from putting his alternative under real scrutiny. blocks: lack of data; premature voting; overprotection of ideas by individual members; inadequate maintenance functions.

4. Choosing Among Alternatives The process of reaching a decision by choosing one of the alternatives or a combination of alternatives, that will provide a solution to the problem defined. omission: a committee that goes on and on and on---exploring the ifs, ands, and buts, ad infinitum---but never arrives at a decision. blocks: inadequate testing; lack of clarity regarding the problem; premature voting; no testing for consensus; identification of ideas with persons. helps: expression of feelings by all members; maintenance of an agenda for future reference; summarising of discussion; testing for consensus. 5. Planning for Action The process of making detailed plans for carrying out the decision by examining the implications of the choice and testing the relevance of proposed action. It should be noted that the planning step sometimes results in rethinking the decision and returning to one or another prior step in the decision-making process. omission: failure to assign responsibility for implementation of the decision once it has been made. blocks: failure to reach consensus; failure to explore adequately the implications of proposed action; assignment of total responsibility for implementation to one person. helps: feedback; observer reports; evaluation; post-meeting reaction reports; review of data; a climate of freedom.

Conditions Relevant To Group Decision-Making There are many instances where due to the pressure of time to type of decision, or the area of responsibility, an individual and not a group may most appropriately make a decision. There are, however, certain conditions that make decision-making by a group the most appropriate means of solving a particular problem: * when various points of view and opinions are needed. * when the group is directly affected by the decision. 109

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* when the group must carry out the decision. * when the group has learned to work effectively together. * when the leadership functions are shared. * when decision-making procedures appropriate to the problem are used.

Factors which Facilitate Group Decision-Making There are certain specific factors that affect any group situation and that serve especially to improve the decision-making process: *

a clear definition of the problem.

a clear understanding of who has what degree of responsibility for the decision.

effective means of producing and communicating ideas.

an appropriate size of the group for decision-making.

effective means of testing alternative solutions.

effective means of implementing the decision.

commitment of the designated leader to the group decision-making process.

agreement on the decision-making procedures prior to deliberation on the issue.

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GROUP DECISION-MAKING MODEL 1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM; (this is not easy; make sure all agree to what the problem is)

2. IDENTIFY THE NEEDS OF THE GROUP MEMBERS INVOLVED IN THE PROBLEM; (may need to redefine the problem after this)

3. DETERMINE CRITERIA FOR POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS; (all possible solutions will be judged according to the criteria; how will we know if this is a good possible solution?)

4. BRAINSTORM POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS (ALTERNATIVES); (this is usually done in small groups)

5. CHECK SOLUTIONS WITH CRITERIA;

6. CHOOSE A SOLUTION (may use a variety of group decision-making techniques here...)

7. IMPLEMENT SOLUTION ON A TRIAL BASIS. 8. MONITOR AND EVALUATE SOLUTION AND ORIGINAL PROBLEM SITUATION.

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WIN/WIN DECISION MAKING A Review of General Principles and Methods Principles 1. Present a win/win attitude 2. Legitimise all perceptions 3. Confront problems, misunderstandings, and bad feelings in the early phases 4. Establish ownership and responsibility for the problem 5. Get agreement on the problem before going on to solutions 6. Be explicit about each phase of problem solving 7. Look for little successes first, before tackling the â&#x20AC;&#x153;bigâ&#x20AC;? problem 8. Look for ways of breaking fixation and redefining the problem/solution space 9. Get agreement on criteria before evaluating the alternatives 10. Keep backing up to the phase and level of generality where a foundation of agreements can be developed 11. Avoid premature motions 12. Use formal voting as a last win/lose approach Methods 1. Both/and 2. Win/win (consensus) 3. Build-up/eliminate 4. Rank ordering 5. Straw voting 6. Negative voting 7. focus on agreements 8. Advantages/disadvantages 9. Criteria checkerboard 10. How does it feel? (reverse roles)

Purpose: 1. To select the final solution(s) 2. To commit to a cause of action 3. To finalise a decision

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Decision Making Methods Win/win (consensus) * a solution that everyone can live with * more than a compromise

Specific Things You Can Say or Do “OK, there seems to be some agreement here. Is there anyone in the group who couldn’t live with solution A? would anyone feel compromised in any fundamental way?...It’s OK if you can’t buy in yet. My role as facilitator is to defend all positions.” “Are there any objections to going that way?”

Both/and * avoiding an unnecessary conflict

“Let me take a minute to check something out here. Do you need to choose between these final two solutions? Could you try both?” “Does it have to be either/or? Do you want to force the group to make a decision at this point?”

Build up/eliminate * synthesising new solutions from the best parts of others

“Harry, you still have some strong concerns about this situation. Is there anything that could be added or taken away which would make it more acceptable? ... Reducing the number of hours to six? Let me check that out with the rest of the group. Would anyone object to reducing the hours to six? ... No? Looks like we have consensus.” “So is there any way you could combine what you like about each of those solutions?”

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Straw voting * getting “a sense” of the group * checking out

“OK, I’d just like to check out how the group feels about this. How many of you want to continue working on this issue today? Please raise you hands ... Well, looks like most of you want to continue. Any objections to working another half hour? ... No? OK, let’s get back to work.” “I'd like to get a sense of how you stand right now. How many of you could go with solution A? ... how may with solution B? ...etc.”

Negative voting * attempting to eliminate alternatives which violate the beliefs of a group member * has to be finalised by consensus

Focus on agreements * building on success * emphasising the positive * encouraging the group

“Are there any alternatives which would be unacceptable under any circumstances? ... Patricia says she could not live with alternative B. any objections to eliminating alternative B?” If there are no objections, you eliminate that alternative. If there are objections, particularly if the person who suggested that alternative feels strongly about it, then it’s a good idea to leave it and try some other method. Maybe there are parts of that alternative which can be used or maybe Patricia will change her mind in the course of the discussion. “You’re doing fine. Look at all the points of agreement you have reached already. Don’t give up now. Let’s hang in and see if wee can work this last issue through.” “OK, you are in agreement on the title, it’s just the subtitle you have to work on some more.”

Back Off * going back to earlier phases * doing some more problem solving * not forcing a win/lose decision

“It looks to me like there are still some major points of disagreement. I think it would be a good idea to go back and see if we could define what those issues are and work on them rather than trying to force a decision at this point.”

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ENCOURAGING INDIVIDUAL CHANGE

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A Personal Reflection A Process Read through each individual principal on pages 128 to 132 and assign yourself a number for that principle using the following code: 1 = I achieve this rarely 2 = I manage this sometimes 3 = I do this often 4 = I am happy with my ability to do this most of the time 5 = I am highly competent in achieving this

Using method 1 Map your score for each separate principle on the wheel. (There is a separate line to correspond to the number of principles in each section.). Join together each of your marks Work on self-growth

Empowerment in action Create a community of learners

Build relationships with others

Using this method your complete wheel will look something like this.

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Using method 2 At the end of each section TOTAL YOUR SCORE and determine an average for that section. Mark the averages on the wheel.

Work on self-growth Empowerment in action

Create a community of learners

Build relationships with others

Your completed wheel will look something like this.

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To empower growth in others My number between 1-5 for this â&#x20AC;&#x153;I statementâ&#x20AC;? is: 1. I provide real think-time 2. I promote engagement in authentic, purposeful learning 3. I offer open-ended learning opportunities 4. I work to make learning enjoyable 5. I build on form what learners know and can do 6. I explain purposes clearly 7. I make use of visual organisers 8. I encourage thinking metaphor 9. I take time to support individuals 10. I give feedback on observations 11. I help realistic goal-setting 12. I encourage learners to ask their own questions and seek their own answers 13. I am prepared to share my power to empower my students 14. I use a variety of teaching strategies 15. I foster learning with and from peers 16. I work to develop understandings of many ways of learning 17. I appreciate the importance of imagination in learning 18. I help learners to use the metacognitive cycle of plan-monitor-evaluate 19. I help learners to develop context appropriate strategies 20. I encourage risk-taking in learning I focus on learner self-evaluation I work to develop learner responsibility to self and others I reframe mistake-making I invite responsible choice-making I model using self-talk I include the use of multi-modal strategies I capitalise on opportunities presented by conflict I develop mutually high expectations I share leadership and responsibility I engage learners in on-going reflection I encourage personal connection-making I give meaningful praise I involve learners in their own assessment I foster learning transfer to other situations I model my own reflection and learning

TOTAL Ăˇ 35 average =

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To walk the leader’s walk

•

I acknowledge the complexity of my role

•

I clarify roles and expectations

•

I am clear about what I value

•

I am able to develop a shared vision for what learning and education can be

•

I introduce learners to role models

•

I believe in learners and help learners to believe in themselves

•

I make explicit the skills need for success

•

I am organised

•

I am able to think big and start small

•

I work on what I can influence

•

I think and act win-win

•

I choose to think, act and speak positively

•

I have a positive orientation toward change

•

I trust my intuition

•

I co-create knowledge with other learners

•

I understand the importance of humour

•

I use humour appropriately

•

I integrate rather than add concepts and ideas

•

I try to walk the walk rather than talk the talk

•

I follow through and keep commitments

•

I use the teachable and consistent

•

I am both flexible and consistent

•

I work to develop a global view

•

I am committed to a professional code of ethics

•

I display integrity and personal dignity

•

I am a leadership contribution beyond the classroom

•

I am aware of my leadership skills and am proud to be a teacher TOTAL ÷ 27 average =

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To build relationships with others

•

I aim to listen more and talk less

•

I talk with people rather that at them

•

I am conscious of noticing an acknowledging other’s feelings

•

I acknowledge many aspects of people’s lives

•

I remember to attend to the little things as well as the big things

•

I give congruent messages

•

I understand the power of non-verbal messages

•

I am prepared to share something of myself with others

•

I invite others’ ideas and act on them

•

I demonstrate trust

•

I understand and seek to accommodate people’s basic needs

•

I promote empathy for others’ viewpoints

•

I explicitly develop social skills

•

I am patient

•

I care enough to confront constructively

•

I am consistent in the way I treat people TOTAL ÷ 19 average =

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To create a community of learners

79. I build a class team 80. I ensure that each person has a part to play 81. I work to create a stimulating classroom environment 82. I have a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;circleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; philosophy 83. I make explicit what is value 84. I aim to build a common language 85. I spend time developing consistent procedures 86. I engage learners in evaluating aspects of classroom life 87. I invite shared decision-making 88. I provide for many modes of learning 89. I encourage the use of learners/ strengths 90. I include and challenge all learners 91. I show that I value differences 92. I balance individual and team learning 93. I balance the way learning teams are formed 94. I develop genuine partnerships with parents 95. I model inclusive language 96. I celebrate individual and class successes 97. I appreciate and utilise the rich learning resources of the community TOTAL Ăˇ 19 average =

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To work on self-growth

98.

I work on knowing myself

99.

I constantly seek to make links in learning

100. I am able to affirm myself 101. I constantly reflect on my own learning 102. I seek to integrate my personal and professional growth 103. I seek balance in my life 104. I am passionate about learning and teaching 105. I am assertive 106. I am prepared to acknowledge my mistakes 107. I give and accept peer support 108. I consciously set out to learn from others 109. I commit to working with colleagues 110. I understand key leadership skills 111. I constantly seek to improve my learning and teaching 112. I take risks in my own learning 113. I help colleagues to reflect and self-evaluate 114. I seek feedback 115. I use a metacognitive approach to my own learning 116. I understand and use the power of peer coaching 117. I demonstrate my leadership skills 118. I develop effective networks 119. I have the courage to question 120. I consciously recommit to teaching TOTAL รท 23 average =

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A self-contract I feel reassured that I do have the following strengths:

Something significant I have learned has been:

Specific challenges I plan to set as personal goals for myself are: For this term For this year Over three years

I will need the following resources and support to achieve my goals:

I will begin to gather this support by:

I plan to monitor my progress by:

I will have satisfied myself that I have achieved my goal(s) when:

I plan to celebrate by:

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A final thought A piece of philosophy which is integral to our beliefs about inspiring classroom leadership:

When you give away some of the light from a candle by lighting another person’s flame there isn’t any less light because you’ve given some away there’s more, When everybody grows, there isn’t less of anybody there’s more of and for — everybody.

Kaleel Jamison

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STAGES OF INDIVIDUAL CONCERN Uninterested Uncommitted Interested Very Interested Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s go

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STAGES OF CONCERN Awareness

I am not concerned about it

Informational

I would like to know more about it

Personal

How will using it affect me

Management

I seem to be spending all my time getting materials ready

Consequence

How is my use affecting learners? How can I refine it to have more impact?

Collaboration

How can I relate what Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;m doing to what others are doing?

Refocusing

I have some ideas about something that would work even better.

LEVELS OF USE OF THE INNOVATION Non use

The user has no interest and is taking no action

Orientation

The user is taking the initiative to learn more about the innovation

Preparation

The user has definite plans to begin using the innovation

Mechanical

The user is making changes to better organise use of the innovation

Routine

The user is making few or no changes and has an established pattern of use

Refinement

The user is making changes to increase outcomes

Integration

The user is making deliberate efforts to coordinate with others in using the innovation

Renewal

The user is seeking more effective alternatives to The established use of the innovation 126

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Doyle’s Stages of Change- adapted Agitation

blame, denial

Acceptance

we’ve got to do something

Initial failures

I’m lost, it didn’t work, this is hard work

Resistance 1

this too shall pass, seen it all before, passive resistance

Resistance 2 Initial successes

omg they’re serious, active resistance I think we’ll make it

Setbacks Rebuilding the infrastructure for new ways to work Longterm discomfort

I’ll do it b/c it works

Continuous Improvement

ongoing, permanent, resourced renewal

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EFFECTIVENESS

EFFORT

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Challenge

Support.

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Encouraging Organisation Change

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Managing Complex Change

Vision

Skills

Incentives

Resources

Action Plan = CHANGE

Skills

Incentives

Resources

Action Plan = CONFUSION

Incentives

Resources

Action Plan = ANXIETY

Resources

Action Plan = RESISTANCE

Vision

Skills

Vision

Skills

Incentives

Vision

Skills

Incentives

Action Plan = FRUSTRATION

Resources

=TREADMILL

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Stages of Team Development

Forming

Nice-ing

Polite, Impersonal, Watchful,Guarded

Storming

Infighting

Controlling conflicts, Opting out, Stuck,

Norming

Organisation

Getting organised, Developing skills, Feedback, Confronting issues, Establishing procedures

Performing

Mature closeness

Resourceful, Flexible, Open, Effective, Close,

Resolving

Grief

Supportive

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SYSTEM MATURITY LEVELS Beginner System

Competent System

Professionally Innovative System

FEATURES Broadbased Communication

Mixed messages

Strong networks and communication

No strategy

Content/process disjunct

Clearly defined, planned and flexible strategy

Unfocussed

Some components in place

Confused

Lack of interconnectedness

Organised, Inspires motivation Ready to implement a broadscale program

Not ready or functional

Not yet functional

Functional and organised

Understood but overwhelming Breaks in Interconnections Resource wastage

Simple, Clear, Understood by majority Clear and Understood Effective sharing of resources

No clear understanding

generic focus

No connection

Mixed/incomplete connections

Clear understanding of deep learning Clarity, Depth and Interconnectedness

No interconnectedness

Control and confusion

Reflexive and responsive

No alignment

Working at some levels

Efficient and economical

Confused

Breaks in interconnectedness

Can articulate and implement priorities

People feel devalued Role definition poor

Mixed messages re roles Unclear expectations Latch onto programs and projects

Clear about priorities

PRIORITIES Too many Confused Unmanageable

LEARNING FOCUS

PERSONNEL 135

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Confused

Clear about priorities

Can articulate and implement priorities

Overwhelmed Frustrated

Manageable workload Enthusiastic

Planned workload Inspired

Some knowledge

Knowledgeable

Innovative

ÂŠ Julie Boyd and Dr Maureen Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Rourke 2007

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Reflective Practice

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WHY REFLECTIVE PRACTICE?

REDUCES TEACHER ISOLATION (Goodlad, Little and Glickman)

INCREASES CONSCIOUSNESS OF CRAFT (Brophy)

INCREASES TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING TO CLASSROOM (Joyce and Showers)

BUILDING AUTONOMY (Garmston and Costa)

PROVIDES SUPPORT AND CHALLENGE WHILE MAKING CHANGE (Boyd, Fullan)

VALIDATES AND PROFESSIONALIZES THE LEARNING PROCESS (Boyd, Rickert, Kent)

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REFLECTIVE PRACTICE- Where to Begin Read more……. Read, Research, Respond Talk and Dialogue with Others Model for others Encourage More Professional Reading and Writing Develop Own Portfolio Establish Study Groups Do a small Action Research Project Have a more Open Door policy Team build at a grade level Establish Vertical Groups Find Mentors Journal and Self Contract Establish ‘What’ to coach Establish Professional Standards Ask for Specificity Focus on Professional Learning Gather Evidence and Establish Evidence Trails

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FINDING TIME FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE Use substitute/emergency teachers the same day each week Organize the coaching teams in triads, so one or two teachers can take a teacher's class Use other times during the week or day when there are larger than normal classroom groupings occurring, such as assemblies Use short visits rather than full class time Institute a shortened day, where minutes are added on to four days a week and a fifth day is shortened each week for meetings and for coaching Have an administrator or teacher on special assignment take the class Use (first) part of the staff meetings for the co-planning and de-briefing parts of the coaching cycle Use the time when the students are in computer lab, library, phys. ed Use student teachers, aids, business partners, others to take a class Use a "prep" period bank where each teacher gives up on prep time a month to the bank and teachers can draw on the banked time if they need it Videotape the class and do the co-planning and de-briefing as part of other meeting time Meet before or after school Meet at lunch times once a week

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Understanding the Variety of Collaborative Reflective and Assessment Methods Reflective practices include, but are not limited to the following:

1. Individual Assessment Methods • Self-Contracting • Portfolios • Journal-Writing • Case Study Writing • Professional Reading and Writing • Professional Study: Formal, Informal and Overseas

2. Partner Reflection and Assessment Methods • Learning Buddies • Mentoring • Reflection and Assessment Interviews • Collegial Coaching

3. Small Group Reflection and Assessment Practices • Action Research • Study Groups • Collegial ‘Labsite’ Groups • Learning walks • Peer Support Groups • Professional Dialogue Groups • Electronic Professional Development Networks

4. Large Group Reflection and Assessment Practices • Assessment Centres • Exhibitions and Panels • Presentations • Professional Development Schools • Teacher Centres • Educator Institutes • Partnerships

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These reflective practices can be used separately or in combination. We encourage the use of more than one type of reflective practice and support system in order to sustain professional development and learning. These practices vary on a scale of:

1. Formal to Informal: from informally questioning oneself about childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s literature and trying something new in the classroom to more formally, writing down some goals and strategies, to formally assessing the school reading program and using this as a basis for future planning; 2. Solitary to Interactive: from something quick and simple which shows immediate results, to something which takes many months or years to change. 3. Micro to Macro: from focusing on an area that only has results for oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own classroom, to working with others on something for your school or the profession.

Each of the reflective practices above is described detail in the book cited. Each is examined according to the assumptions, benefits, obstacles, guidelines for using the approach, and for most, an example or sample activity is supplied for the reader to better understand and personalise the approach. When reading this, bear in mind that there are many more approaches to assessment and review than the reflective practices examined here. It is our hope that eventually you will feel confident to create your own. What is important, however, is that as educators we begin to institute review practices that reflect what we know about change and how people learn, that we model holistic approaches to review and professional growth, and that we encourage discussion and examination of our craft, including the essential components of effective teaching and learning. The old model did not do that, where these interactive methods can.

From: Collaborative Approaches to Professional Learning and Reflection, J. Boyd & C Cooper, Global Learning Communities, 1994.

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REFLECTIVE PRACTICE, COACHING AND THE CHANGE PROCESS There are many powerful reasons to implement a reflective practice program as part of a change effort. Some of the most compelling include reducing the isolation of teachers, raising teachers’ consciousness about their craft, and increasing the likelihood that what is presented in professional development programs is internalised by teachers and incorporated into classroom practice. Reflective practice builds teachers’ sense of autonomy, provides support to teachers making change, and validates the learning process.

Reducing Teachers’ Isolation It has been well documented that teachers are often isolated from their colleagues. Carl Glickman (1984) describes the teacher closing the classroom door and entering a private world where there is little or no opportunity for discourse. Judith Little (1982) suggests that any discussions that do take place between teachers are rarely about teaching issues, classroom experimentation, or alternative ways to teach. With coaching, classroom doors open and teachers are no longer alone. The coaching relationship provides teachers with trusted colleagues with whom they can share experiences, frustrations, and discoveries on a regular basis. Teachers have the opportunity to discuss in detail specific student and teacher behaviours, to ascribe meaning to those behaviours, and to consider modifications in planning for future lessons. Coaches are companions for teachers in their professional lives. They understand the work and can help teachers validate their efforts and accomplishments.

Raising Teachers’ Consciousness about Their Craft A powerful case for coaching has been set forth by researchers Bruce Joyce and Beverly Showers (1983). Their studies focus on the factors affecting the effectiveness of professional development programs. They show that professional development that only involves presenting theory results in very low application of an innovation in the classroom. Even demonstration and practice with feedback made only a slight difference in results. The sole factor that resulted in a highly significant increase in teachers’ application of an innovation was coaching. This has been adapted by the author to include mentoring and/or counselling as options as coaching is not the answer to all issues affecting teacher professionalism and resilience.

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Effectiveness of Professional Development Programs Degree of Proficiency Attained Impact of In-Service Components

Knowledge Mastery

Skill Acquisition

Classroom Application

Theory alone

Middle-High 40%-100%

Low

Very Low 5%

Theory plus Demonstration

High Above 80%

Low-Middle 10%-40%

Very Low

High

Very Low

High

Theory, demonstrations, plus Practice with Feedback

Theory, demonstrations, practice, feedback, plus Coaching

Theory, demonstrations, practice, feedback, plus Coaching/Mentoring/ Counselling

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Building Autonomy Art Costa and Robert Garmston (1986) use the term autonomy to describe one of the goals of coaching. It refers to moving beyond acquiring technical skills to self-analysis. At this stage, teachers make a connection between their teaching practices and the effect those practices have on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning. Teachers feel more internally directed than externally directed and feel less at the mercy of outside circumstances, such as crowded classrooms and troubled students. With the help of a coach, teachers see the cause-and effect relationship between their behaviour and what happens in their classroom. The figure below shows the elements that Costa and Garmston consider the building blocks of autonomy. These elements are also some of the major goals of coaching.

Elements that Build Autonomy

Consciousness

* Bringing to consciousness what one does and the effect that has on others

Alternatives

* Generating many alternatives to handle a situation

Specificity

* Becoming more specific when defining a problem in order to make it more manageable

Efficacy

* Developing a sense of inner control and self-confidence; being proactive rather than reactive

Fig. 1.4 Adapted from Arthur Costa and Robert Garmston

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Providing Support to Teachers Making Change Naturally, it is easier for teachers to continue teaching in the same way they have always taught. When introduced to an innovation such as integrated learning, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; effectiveness initially declines and the effort involved in teaching increases. As shown in the following diagram, the trends eventually reverse themselves - effectiveness rises and effort declines. Unfortunately, in the middle of the process, when effort is highest and effectiveness is lowest, many teachers lose faith and fall back on old habits. At this critical juncture, coaching can provide essential support for continued implementation of the innovation. In addition, when a teacher becomes accustomed to the innovation, effort decreases and effectiveness rises to a level higher than that at the starting point. Effectiveness

As illustrated by the diagram below, any change involves a challenge â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a struggle with its incumbent discomfort; it is this disequilibrium that provides the motivation for change. Without support, an individual faced with too much challenge may not move forward. With too little challenge the individual may also not change, and may have a better impression of their professionalism Effort than they deserve. The counterbalance of the support provided by coaching is essential for successful change efforts in the classroom. Challenge

Continuous Improvement

Support Coaching itself involves an inherent duality. Coaches offer support at the same time they create a cognitive dissonance by asking questions, giving feedback, and encouraging teachers to explore the meaning of what is happening in their classrooms.

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Validating the Learning Process Many professions emphasise individual growth through on-the-job training and sharing ideas among professionals. Doctors continually consult with their colleagues about new techniques and procedures; part of their job involves asking for advice and help on difficult cases. Pilots are given time to practice new techniques on simulators. Lawyers confer with their partners. How does this kind of learning happen in the teaching profession? The truth is that most teachers have had limited opportunity to confer about their professional practices. When implementing an innovation, there is little room for teachers to â&#x20AC;&#x153;crawl before they walkâ&#x20AC;?. Practising, working with a partner, and sitting back to observe oneself seldom occurs. Fortunately, coaching can provide the missing link so that teaching, like other professions, can support the process of learning. The case for implementing coaching in the classroom is strong. Reducing teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; isolation, raising their consciousness and sense of autonomy, providing support for change and validation of the learning process, and increasing the transfer of learning to classroom practice are all important reasons to use coaching in the schools. Assisting teachers through any change process also requires an appreciation of the range of responses that are possible in any professional situation. The Concerns Based Adoption Model is helpful in determining the form of assistance best suited to individuals. Stages of Concern: Typical Expressions of Concern About the Innovation

6. Refining

5. Collaboration

I have some ideas about something that would work even better.

Levels of Use of the Innovation

7. Renewal 6. Integration

Re-evaluating the quality of use. Collaborating on use with colleagues.

I am concerned about relating what I am doing with what other teachers are doing.

5. Refinement

Varying use to increase impact.

4. Consequence

How is my use affecting kids?

4. Routine

Use of Innovation stabilized.

3. Management

I seem to be spending all my time getting material ready.

2. Personal

How will using it affect me?

1. Informational

I would like to know more about it.

0. Awareness

I am not concerned about it.

Adapted from G.E. Hall (1986). Original concept from G.E. Hall, R.C. Wallace, Jr, and W.A. Dossett. 1978 A developmental conceptualization of the adoption

3. Mechanical Use Step-by-step, mastery approach. 2. Preparation

Getting ready to use for the first time.

1. Orientation

Learning about the innovation.

0. Non-use

Little or no knowledge; no involvement.

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Professional Experience and Change Understanding the most appropriate format for assisting teachers at relevant stages in their professional experience is a necessary tool for teacher leaders. E.g. a novice teacher needs mentoring and support, not to be overly challenged. To provide too much challenge for a young teacher will risk their loss to the profession.

TEACHER LEVEL CURRICULUM FOCUS RELATIONSHIP

OUTCOME

New Beginner

Activities

Dependence

Efficacy

Adv Beginner

Content

Independence

Flexibility

Competent Beg.

Processes

Interdependence

Craftsmanship

Adv Professional

Mind States

Coach

Consciousnes s

Virtuoso/Sensai

Ideals

Expert Mentor

Orchestration

ÂŠ Julie Boyd

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COACHING: COACHING: Bringing Out the Best in Others

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COACHING STORIES Coaching Each Other: Planning Ahead. Judy Stevens and Joan Kreemers were planning a coaching session before school. Together, they taught Year 3 on a time-share basis, but on Wednesdays they cotaught, so this was the day they focused, usually taking turns, on improving their skills, through coaching each other. This may seen like a small thing, but I get really annoyed with myself for continually responding to the kids with ‘good boy’ or good girl’, especially when they’re coming up with good ideas, sighed Joan. So what would you like to be able to do? Asked Judy. Make my comments more meaningful! As it is now they’re meaningless- it’s become an automatic response, and the kids know this. What would make it more meaningful for you and them gently probed Judy. Well- I guess if my comments were more specific, it could give them feedback on the sorts of ideas they come up with, or the kind of thinking they’re doing. That might fit with the emphasis we’re trying to put onn effective thinking with our kids. So your goal is to respond to kids in more specific ways that will give them feedback about the thinking they’re actually doing, checked Judy. Joan nodded, and together they went on to plan a literature session that would provide opportunities for Joan to work on changing her language and which Judy could observe. What kinds of responses do you want me to watch for? Judy asked. Maybe comments that say something specific about thinking. Joan paused and thought for a moment. Like ‘imaginative thinking! Or ‘logical reasoning or even ‘you’re using your predicting skills there Barry. I’ll se what pops out but I definitely want to avoid saying ‘good’ , so you might note it down of I do. The first bell went, signalling 15 minutes before school began, and Joan and Judy set about preparing for their regular morning session.

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Coaching Each Other: Becoming Meta-Learners How did you feel the session went? Asked Judy. The kids certainly enjoyed The Truly True Story of the Three Little Pigs, commented Joan. It was 12.15pm. Joan had taken her literature session late morning, and the children were now busily eating their lunch in class. (Judy and Joan found this a good time-saving slot for de-briefing). Judy smiled and nodded. Joan continued. I was really pleased with the maturity of the discussion that came from the kids, and they seemed intrigued to hear back the sorts of thinking they were doing- I remember three or four specific comments at least that I made. What did you think about it?

You asked me to write some specific observations today, Judy responded. Would it be useful if we looked at them now? As they went through Judy’s jottings, Joan could see that she had, in fact, made a wide range of specific ‘thinking’ comments to learners. ‘Yuk’ Joan grimaced. I noticed I still used ‘good’ a couple more times than I thought I had. Having another pair of eyes and ears certainly picks things up things that, teaching by myself, I don’t notice.

I think all this is giving us more conscious control over what we do in the classroom, Judy volunteered, and making us more effective because of it. I think it also parallels what we’re trying to do with kids, added Joan. We’re trying to help them become more aware of their thinking and take more control over their learning as well. I reckon that’s what this ‘metacognition’ stuff is all about.

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GOALS OF COACHING 1. To impact teachers’ thinking, skills, and attitudes about effective teaching and learning strategies, their students and their own teaching and philosophy of education.

2. To increase teachers’ sense of “autonomy, belonging, and competence” - to increase their professional and self-esteem.

3. To increase teachers’ ability to recognise the effects of their specific actions and interactions in the classroom.

4. To provide opportunities for teachers to assess and communicate their needs as professional educators and develop goals and means to improve both their own teaching and strategy implementation.

5. To increase teachers’ capacity to use teaching and learning methods on a regular basis, which includes furthering their ability to: - integrate integrated strategies with thematic teaching. - focus on what children will learn rather than focus on what the teacher will teach. - value process as much as content. - provide meaningful experiences for students that help them develop real life skills.

6. To provide an effective process for teachers to reflect on their craft which is internalised to the point that teachers will continue to coach each other after the implementation period is over.

“To do themselves out of a job.”

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Overview and Rationale “My partner and I have a good working relationship. We learn from each other and from our students. We are never alone in our thinking. For instance, after staff development sessions, we always discuss, plan, and act on information we have gathered. When you think about it, we are a integrated pair, unlike teachers who have to go to an isolated classroom.” “One-on-one coaching has been very helpful. It has helped make implementation more personal and more suited to my students’ needs.” These comments were made by teachers describing their experiences with coaching. Coaching is a practice that helps teachers effectively implement and internalise an innovation by providing regular classroom support tailored to individual teachers’ needs.

AN EXPLANATION Coaching is a conversation, focused on teachers’ thinking about their instructional programs, that leads to refining classroom practice. It involves a coach providing support through companionship, feedback, and assistance in refining current teaching practices and/or learning new ones. The coaching process includes classroom observation, preceded by a discussion of intended outcomes for the lesson and followed by an opportunity to reflect and discuss the observation. Some controversy exists regarding the use of the term coaching because its common usage in athletics connotes skill-based learning and competition, although there are some differences between the athletic and educational models, enough similarity exists to justify using the term: * Both types of coaches: - Help the person being coached pre-think the “event” (anticipate problems, pre-plan strategies, brainstorm alternative); - Promote self-analysis and autonomy; - Help establish an “internalised process.” * Both athletes and teachers are most concerned about their technical skill level at first. The emphasis then shifts to a self-reflective understanding of their decisions and actions. *Coaching discussions in both cases are based on observing the athlete/teacher in action. Even educators do not always use coaching terms in the same way. The term coaching is also used slightly differently by ‘business workers’ and ‘life coaches’.

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ROLES OF A TEACHER PROFESSIONAL LEARNING FACILITATOR MENTOR

COUNSELLOR

CONSULTANT

ADVOCATE

EXPERT COACH

CRITICAL FRIEND

PEER COACH

TEAM COACH

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Mentoring Mentoring is a mutually beneficial relationship which involves a more experienced person helping a less experienced person to achieve their goals. Effective mentoring • Is a relationship that focuses on the needs of the mentee • Fosters caring and supportive relationships • Encourages all mentees to develop to their fullest potential • Is a strategy to develop active community partnerships

Expert Coaching Expert Coaching involves a combination of mentoring and coaching. For expert coaching, coaches with in-depth knowledge and expertise in implementing specific practices (e.g. integrated learning) in the classroom are paired with teachers just beginning to use those strategies. Through a cycle of pre-conferencing, observation, and post-conferencing, the teachers and coaches explore and discuss the implementation of changes in the teachers’ educational practice. Expert coaches ask openended questions that help teachers make discoveries about their teaching. The teachers set the pace and focus of the coaching experience. The emphasis is on learning together and tailoring the coaching to the particular needs of teachers and their classrooms.

Peer Coaching In peer coaching situations, teachers who have similar levels of experience work together in pairs observing each other, using open-ended questions to facilitate reflection on a lesson and its effects, giving non-evaluative feedback, and providing support and companionship. The same coaching cycle takes place as in expert coaching, with partners observing lessons they have developed either together or individually.

Team Coaching Team coaching involves a coach and two or more teachers. The coach and the teachers plan a lesson together. One teacher teaches the lesson, while the other two observe. They then debrief the lesson as a team. The cycle repeats, with the other teacher having the opportunity to teach the lesson. One benefit of team coaching is a richer post-conference as there are more pairs of eyes to provide data. Team coaching can be used as a precursor to peer coaching. The coach in the team coaching relationship models observation and conferencing skills.

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Peer Support Groups Peer support groups are regular meetings of teachers who are learning integrated learning. In these voluntarily attended meetings, teachers share successes, troubleshoot problems, or plan uses of the innovation in the classroom. Discussions usually focus on general implementation issues rather than individual concerns. Peer support groups can be across grade levels or at the same grade.

Peer Reflection Peer reflection is a broad term that encompasses many ways teachers reflect on their teaching, individually or in groups, in addition to peer coaching. These include reflective writing, viewing and discussing videotapes, and discussing case studies.

Student Assistant Coaches Students collect data for analysis by the teacher or in collaboration with the teacher.

Academic Coaches Coaches build confidence, motivation and self-reliance through individualizing the teaching and implementation of study strategies to each student's needs and style. Students then learn to work smarter, not harder.

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SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF COACHES SKILLS Listening Observing Questioning Feedback Documentation/ Evidence Communication Reflection Leadership Skills Consulting Skills KNOWLEDGE Role Clarification What coaching is What mentoring is What to coach for Coaching/Mentoring continuum Approaches to coaching Evidence of impact - on Teacher Practice - on student achievement

UNDERSTANDINGS Relationships Implementation Transferability Sustainability Permeability Building capacity- implication

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THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND COACHES? Understanding coaching requires a clear picture of the roles of both partners in the coaching relationship.

Coaching Roles

Teachers’ Responsibilities 1. Be willing to take risks

Coaches Responsibilities 1. Provide a safe environment for risking

Try new approached Question how things are working

Be non judgmental Maintain confidentiality

Trust the coaches’ intentions

Intend to support self-analysis of Practices

2. Initiate the focus for observation Decide on areas to learn more about

3. Teach the lesson discussed Take mental notes

2. Clarify the focus Request specificity Paraphrase 3. Collect the data Observe carefully Record thoroughly

4. Interpret the data Reflect on what these data show and what this information teaches

5. Use the data Plan what to continue doing; what to change, modify, or abandon; when to use a particular strategy; how to use this learning experience in planning 6. Provide feedback on the process to the coach

4. Provide the data Report data without judgment Ask questions to guide teacher’s reflection 5. Guide the planning Ask questions that clarify and extend thinking Summarise 6. Request feedback on the process

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Teachers have responsibility for their own learning in a coaching relationship. therefore, teachers’ willingness to take risks is vital. Risk-taking involves not only trying innovative approaches, but also taking the emotional risk of trusting the coaches’ intentions. Coaches support the teachers by being non judgmental, encouraging self-analysis of practices, and maintaining strict confidentiality. This even includes asking teachers’ permission to share very successful lessons with others. The needs of the teachers drive the coaching process. The teacher decides on the focus for each classroom observation and the focus of the subsequent discussion. By asking questions and paraphrasing, the coach clarifies the teacher’s focus - specifically, the part of the lesson to be observed and whether the observation will focus on student thinking and behaviour, the design of the lesson, or teacher thinking and behaviour, the design of the lesson, or teacher thinking and behaviour. This process allows the teacher and the coach to check their understanding of their agreement, thus building trust by ensuring that the coach only collects data that the teacher has requested. During the lesson, the teacher is responsible for teaching and for taking mental notes about what is happening, while the coach collects data on the making audiotapes or videotapes. It is important that the notes be non judgmental, that the coach record only what is seen and heard. In the discussion after the lesson, the coach shares the data collected without making judgments. The responsibility for drawing conclusions about what the data mean and what can be learned is the teacher’s. The coach helps the teacher interpret the data by asking open-ended questions. With the help of the coach’s questioning to clarify and extend thinking, the teacher decides what aspects of the lesson to maintain, change, modify, and abandon in future lessons. The coach then summarises the teacher’s intentions for future lessons. At the end of the coaching session, to continue to keep communication open and to build trust, the coach asks the teacher for feedback on the coaching process. This enables the coach to better meet the teacher’s needs. It is important to note that throughout the coaching process, coaches are not in an advisory role. Coaches do not tell what they would do in a particular situation. Rather, coaches ask thoughtprovoking, open-ended questions to help teachers create their own learning. For example, a coach might ask questions to help a teacher assess the progress made in one particular aspect of integrated learning, such as introducing the lesson. The coach might then encourage the teacher to focus on a more challenging aspect, such as intervening and processing a integrated learning lesson. Additionally, both an expert and peer coach know what technical information has been introduced through the in-service program. Thus, the coach can ask pertinent questions in coaching conferences about the teacher’s application in the classroom.

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COACHING AND TEACHER EVALUATION The only experience teachers normally have with another adult in their classrooms is for the purpose of evaluation. The coaching process is quite different. Principalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of the difference is crucial to the success of the coaching process ( see fig. 1.2).

Some Distinction between Coaching and Evaluation

Coaching

Evaluation

Responsibility

Colleague/peer

Administrator

Timing

Throughout the year

By deadline set

Purpose

Build trust, learn more about teaching and learning, develop teacher autonomy Teacher

Judge effective performance Board policy Administration

Source of criteria

Teacher

School leaders or external

Use of data collected

Returned to teacher

Placed in personnel file as documentation of performance

What is assessed

Classroom interaction: instruction, student learning, individual student behaviours, teacher behaviours, etc

Total professional performance, including participation on school committees, attendance at school events, extacurricula activities, and punctuality

Source of value judgments

Teacher

School leader

Role of observer

Directed by teacher

Determined by principal

Adapted from Arthur Costa and Robert Garmston

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One area of difference between coaching and evaluation is who takes responsibility for the process. The relationship between teachers and coaches is collegial, both partners sharing responsibility. In contrast, the school leaders is responsible for initiating the teacher evaluation process and judging the effectiveness of a teacher’s performance. The timing of interactions between teachers and coaches provides built-in regularity. A continuous cycle of pre-conferencing, observing, and post-conferencing enables teachers to build skills and understanding. A leader who is responsible for teacher evaluations usually evaluates teachers at most once a year, in compliance with deadlines set by the district. The purpose of coaching is to provide a safe environment that encourages teachers to discover more about teaching and learning. By establishing a trusting relationship with another person who comes into the classroom, teachers are able to develop a keen sense of autonomy and self-direction. The purpose of teacher evaluation is to assess teachers’ performance. In the coaching relationship, teachers decide the criteria for determining the effectiveness of lessons or strategies. Teachers and coaches clarify and describe specifically what they hope to see and hear in the classroom as indicators of success. In the case of teacher evaluation, the criteria by which teachers are judged are often checklists of specific behaviours predetermined by district policy. The use of the data collected for coaching and for evaluation purposes is also different. Coaching data - any notes or videotapes - become the property of the teachers. No one else sees them unless the teachers agree. Notes taken for evaluation become part of teachers’ permanent personnel files. Coaches take direction from teachers in regard to the topics about which data will be gathered in the classroom for later feedback and discussion. The focus of the data is student and teacher behaviour and learning. Although classroom interaction may be part of the data collected for evaluation, other factors are also recorded. These may include teacher participation on committees, attendance at school events, professional conduct, and punctuality. Any value judgments in the coaching relationship are ultimately made by teachers. Coaches provide data on teacher-stated criteria and help teachers draw conclusions, but coaches do not interpret the data. Administrators make the value judgments when evaluating teachers. The teacher determines the coach’s role as observer: where the coach sits, whether the coach moves around, and whether the coach is to intervene in groups. Administrators usually dictate all aspects of their role as observers for teacher evaluations.

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Introduction to Coaching A coaching program needs goals for both for schools and teachers. Schoolwide goals need to encourage and support collegial interaction in bringing about school change. The goal for teachers is to achieve continuous professional improvement.

Relationship of Staff Development to Coaching Staff development and reflective practice which includes coaching must go hand-in-hand.

Long-Term, On-Site Coaching Coaching can be provided by external or internal consultants and need to become part of the school culture and is supported through new roles adopted by teacher leaders.

Integration of Technical and Cognitive Coaching There is a developmental coaching sequence as teachers learn the technical skills and internalise the philosophical aspects of the innovation. In the initial stages, teachers are concerned about acquiring the basic technical skills. As the coaching and teachers’ experience with the innovation progresses, the emphasis shifts from the “what” of integrated learning to the “why”. Throughout the process, the emphasis is on teacher reflection and self-analysis rather than evaluative feedback from the coach, positive or negative.

Expert Coaching before Peer Coaching The use of expert coaching to begin with is another important. Preceding peer coaching with expert coaching is indispensable for several reasons: 1. The expert coach knows the innovation and helps teachers develop essential skills; 2. The expert coach can model open-ended questioning that can be internalised by teachers, helping to build their understanding of what they are doing and why; 3. Learning the innovation (process) and the skills (content) of peer coaching at the same time can be overwhelming as with any new skill.

Coaching of Peer Coaching To help teachers become effective peer coaches, the in-service program introduces coaching skills. As teachers begin to peer coach, the expert coach assumes the role of coach-of-coaches, participating in observations and conferences between partners. Attention is given to the technical aspects of integrated learning and coaching, as well as to linking specific integrated learning strategies to learning goals for students or with colleagues

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A WHOLE SCHOOL COACHING PROGRAMME A total program includes a comprehensive staff development program with several support mechanisms to ensure the successful integration of improvements practice. The figure below shows how coaching evolves and is integrated in the total program.

Integrated Coaching Year 1 Introducing

Year 2 Implementing

Year 3 Institutionalising

Year 4 and Beyond Maintaining

Get to know the school

Provide in-service *Climate setting *Integrated learning

Provide in-service *Extend integrated learning *Learn peer coaching skills

Introduce the Coaching Concept

Provide expert Coaching

Provide Expert Coaching *New teachers

Expert Coaching continues

Assist Schools

Organise Peer support groups Facilitate grade-level meetings

Create Peer Coaching

Peer Coaching continues

Develop school leaders Support school planning for maintenance of coaching program

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Year One: Introducing The planning year is a time for the consultant/’expert’ coach and the school staff to learn about each other. In meetings with the principal, teachers, and parents, the consultant gather information about the school’s mission, values, culture, and needs. Likewise, the school learns more about integrated learning and the coaching program. The discussions during this year also focus on the services the school can expect from the consultant, such as staff development, coaching, assistance with long-range planning, and development of administrative and teacher leadership for the program. Ongoing discussions take place about the purposes of coaching and the role of the staff in assisting the administrative and teaching staff. Throughout the year, establishing credibility, trust, and rapport with the administrators and teachers is a major goal.

Year Two: Implementing During the implementation year teachers are in a coaching relationship with an expert coach. Each teacher participates in coaching once every two weeks. In addition, time is devoted to in-service programs and planning during the year. Establishing trust and rapport is vital at this stage. Building a relationship with the principal is also important. The principal provides leadership for the total program; the staff developers/coaches coordinate the implementation. Emphasis is placed on the coaches and principal working toward the same goal - improving professional practice - although the roles they play are different. The content of the coaching conferences is confidential and is not shared with the principal. confidentiality is critical to the coaching relationship; it gives teachers the freedom to take risks as they learn the innovation. By the second term, coaches initiate meetings in which teachers of the same year level get together to share successes, troubleshoot, discuss concerns, and plan lessons. These meetings serve as a precursor to peer coaching as they encourage teachers to talk with their colleagues.

Year Three: Institutionalising A major purpose of the this program is to introduce teachers to peer coaching. It is helpful to review prior accomplishments, emphasising the collegial nature of the professional relationships, both with the coaches and with other teachers on staff. This sets the tone for pairing teachers for peer coaching. The following points about the implementation of peer coaching need to be stressed. 1. Teachers can expect increased collegiality and further reduction of isolation as they develop observation skills. 2. The observation and feedback skills needed to be an effective integrated learning teacher can be directly applied when observing and coaching a fellow teacher. At this point the ‘experts’ withdraw and mentor teachers take over.

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Expert Coaching During the implementation revival, teachers are supported through an ongoing relationship with an expert coach who is on-site throughout the year. Teachers and coaches are involved in a coaching cycle that consists of planning lessons, observing, and providing feedback about the lessons. They meet biweekly to debrief previous lessons and to plan lessons. The lessons are taught in between these coaching sessions. The expert coach brings to the relationship experience implementing effective learning, knowledge of the field, and the ability to help teachers analyse various aspects of the implementation. Teachers bring teaching expertise and knowledge of their classrooms and individual students. Throughout the relationship, the emphasis is on the coach and teacher learning together toward the goal of selfdirected instructional refinement. Expert coaching is resource-intensive but leads to lasting change. The use of expert coaching leads to the desired outcomes for coaching: reducing the teachers’ isolation, raising teachers’ consciousness about their craft, increasing transfer of learning to classroom practice, building autonomy, providing support to teachers making change, and validating the learning process. Expert coaching achieves these goals because it:

Provides Expert Support Expert coaches are selected for their experience with the innovation. Therefore, coaches have a deeper understanding of the innovation than those who are just learning it. Teachers’ resulting confidence and trust in the coaches make it easier to achieve the goals of the coaching relationship.

Promotes Overall Vision The expert coach understands and has a view of the whole program of school improvement - both the beginning stages of implementation and the long-term goals. As a result, the expert coach can readily recognise where teachers are developmentally.

Link In-Service with Coaching The experts coach’s role as a staff developer links the in-service and coaching programs into a comprehensive school development plan. Having led some initiated in-service, the coach is in an excellent position to know what teachers will be focusing on initially and to anticipate where teachers may wish to go from there. Conversely, the coach may see a pattern developing among the teachers being coached; that is, many teachers demonstrate a need to focus on a particular area. The coach can then suggest that as an issue of the next in-service.

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Promotes Thinking and Models Questioning The expert coach can help teachers understand not only what they are doing in the classroom but also why they are doing it. The expert coach asks open-ended questions to develop teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of the reasoning behind their classroom practices. As coaches ask these open-ended questions, they are modelling questioning techniques that teachers can use in the classroom with integrated learning and other instructional strategies. The expert coaches are also modelling the questioning skills teachers will use in their peer coaching relationships the following year.

Allows Singular Focus on Implementation When participating in expert coaching, teachers can concentrate solely on implementing integrated learning. This maximises teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; success as all their energy can go toward learning integrated learning rather than learning the innovation and how to peer coach simultaneously.

Encourages Regularity of Practice With regular coaching conferences every two weeks, teachers develop an expectation that a regular routine will take place. In the long term, it is important that frequent, regular practice - leading to an increased sense of competence - be in place when the transition is made to peer coaching. Coaching is designed to make lasting changes in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; practices and thinking. Expert coaching is a vital component of the model.

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PROCESS OF COACHING The coaching process includes building a relationship and regularly participating in the coaching cycle of pre-conferencing, observing, and post-conferencing.

The Coaching Relationship It is essential that the coaching relationship be a higher priority to the partners than the coaching content. Throughout the partnership, the coach and teacher need to constantly develop their relationship. Building trust, including discussing each partner’s feelings about coaching, is important in establishing and maintaining the partnership.

Building Trust Before coaching conferences begin, teachers need to understand the coaching process, feel safe, and have a sense of control over the process. Teachers also need to believe that the coaching experience will be beneficial and that the coach has knowledge and expertise that will make the effort worthwhile. The fact that coaching involves classroom observation may be threatening to teachers; therefore, establishing and building trust are essential in the beginning and throughout coaches’ and teachers’ work together. Teachers’ sense of support, trust, and safety in the relationship can be further established through developing a personal relationship between teachers and coaches. It helps if teachers feel that they know their coach on a personal level and that the coach knows them as well. The growth of this intimate part of the relationship enables both people to feel free to share more openly with each other.

Discussions about Coaching Mutual respect and trust constitute one aspect of the coaching relationship. Another part of the relationship that needs to be addressed is how the partners work together. Discussion about this topic can begin in the initial coaching session and continue throughout the partnership. Proformas are sometimes helpful in guiding the coaching process. The initial coaching form can help teachers and coaches start thinking about how the relationship will work and focus their discussion on issues such as the teacher’s sense of what coaching is and is not, expectations about coaching, and the teacher’s feelings about the possible rewards and difficulties of coaching. The issue of confidentiality is an important topic to be discussed. The coach needs to reassure the teacher that no information will be shared with the principal or other teachers without the teachers’ express permission. Confidentiality extends to sharing exciting or innovative ideas the teacher might be using. Throughout the coaching process, it is helpful to review each partner’s feelings about coaching. The barriers to and benefits of coaching, what has been learned about the process of coaching, and what changes have been made as a result of coaching are topics that help keep the relationship growing and strong.

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WHAT TO COACH FOR…… Pedagogy - is it… Rigorous Relevant Resourceful Responsive Relational Reflective Teacher language Content Context Strategies Timing Questioning Student engagement Lesson introduction Learning strategies/structures Classroom environment

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WHAT TO COACH FORâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;Ś Some IDEAS-1

Learning Environment Social/Emotional Intellectual Physical

Learning Strategies Activities Content Processes Dispositions

Curriculum Information acquisition Knowledge demonstration Application of learning Concepts, Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes, Usage

Assessment Rigour, Clarity, Relevance, Developmental Appropriateness Time worthiness Outcome achievement Evidence

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WHAT TO COACH FOR…… Some IDEAS-2 Elements of Learning Learning Strategies/Structures Student Learning- both Social and Academic Teacher’s Role Lesson Design Aspects of Curriculum Assessment Strategies Teacher Language Teacher/Student Interaction

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Teaching and Learning Strategies Lecture Jigsaw Visuals Listening Diagramming Graphic Organizers Think-Pair-Share Overheads 4 Corners Round Robin Brainstorming Turn to a Partner Learning Stations Field Trips Learning Contracts Concept Maps Films Guest Speakers Slides/Photos/Books/Recordings Computers/Technology Sustained Silent Reading Games Story Telling Experimentation Music/Sound Literature Circles Book Talks Oral Presentations Research Outlining Highlighting Graphing Simulations Assemblies Retelling Classifying Interest Groups Choral Reading

Venn Diagrams Workshop Conferencing Interview Drama Dance Questioning Written Responses Summarize Shared Reading Singing/Raps/Poetry Learning Buddies Retell Cloze Activities Manipulatives Hands On Projects Science Fairs Re-enactment Wait-time Web Shared experience Journal Video Reading for Meaning Peer Coaching Sequencing Role Play Reader's Theatre Linkage Word Sorts (Picture) Illustrating/Drawing

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Literacy Strategies Literacy Strategies Activating prior knowledge Think turn and talk Making connections Predicting Visualising Summarising Connecting Practicing Self questioning Inferring Evaluating Judging Reflecting Self correcting Think aloud Retell Identifying key info Id evidence Cause and effect Problem solving Hypothesizing Reciprocal teaching Paraphrasing Modelling Interactive, shared, guided, Independent Graphic organisers Book clubs Lit circles 4 Resources model Before, during, after Skimming and scanning

Conferencing Editing Brainstorming Text knowledge Word splash Recount Progression points

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Maths Strategies Problem solving Games Simulations Guess and check Look for patterns Make a chart Look at the back of the book Draw a picture Work backwards Immersion Physical movt Journals Reflection Toolbox Scaffolding Share time BAselines Relevance, Attention getting, Irrestible challenge Assessment as learning Multimedia Data gatherer, proof of social issues Disaggregation Role play 10 second clock Role learning Wait time

Explicit focus Questioning Compare and contrast Conversations Open ended tasks Interactive activities Maths pass (ticket out the door) Big books Literature Brain gym Tables Multi platforms Whole-part-whole Drill Building and appreciating Explaining Open ended taske Area analysis Think board/ bored Cooperative activities Real life tasks Counton Count upto Count back Doubles Strategy cards Card games Technology/data probes

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Initial Coaching Discussion

Date__________________Teacher_______________________Coach_______________

1. How do we define coaching and the coaching process? 2. What do you anticipate is going to happen? 3. What do we mean by confidentiality in the coaching setting? 4. Coaching options: Provide materials/resources

•

Take class while teacher observes another integrated lesson

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Teach a demonstration lesson

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Co-teach a lesson

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Co-plan a lesson with an observation and provide feedback

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Co-plan a lesson without an observation and discuss afterwards

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Videotape a lesson for teacher’s viewing

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Videotape a lesson for viewing and discussing afterwards

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Observe for something specific in class

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Assistance with planning lessons/units

•

Other

For Whole lesson… Part of time…

In the initial coaching discussion and through all stages of the coaching relationship, teachers need to be the ones making choices about the relationship. The coach needs to make it clear that it is up to each teacher to decide how to use the coach, what the coaching focus will be, and how to interpret data from observations. To promote this understanding in the initial coaching discussion, the coach offers and describes the menu of possible services. Teachers are free to choose those options with which they are most comfortable. Teachers may choose different options as the coaching relationship progresses. 175

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Cycle of Coaching The coaching cycle includes three major components: pre-conference, observation, and postconference.

Pre-Conference A pre-conference is the first step in the coaching cycle. At this time, the teacher and coach discuss a plan for what they wish to focus on, relevant background, the objectives, the area of focus (what feedback the teacher wants from the coach), and role of the coach. Fig. 3.2 is a pre-conference form that can be helpful in focusing this discussion.

Pre-Conference Form Date_____________Teacher_____________________Coach____________________ Focus: Background information: Objectives: Destined outcomes: Observation area of focus: Observer’s role in the classroom:

Time of observation:

Begin_________End___________

Note that in the beginning, the coach and teacher may spend quite a bit of time during the preconferencing planning together. This, along with the initial lack of routine, can make preconferences somewhat lengthy in the early stages. As teachers feel more confident, pre-conferences may centre around lessons teachers have already designed. The first element to be discussed in the pre-conference is background information. The coach or the teacher takes notes on the discussion using the pre-conference form. The discussion revolves around the teacher’s description of what led up to this session, the academic, social, thinking and other skills that have been the focus of previous lessons, and where the lesson fits into a conceptual sequence and into the curriculum. Any concerns the teacher has also need to be addressed. Teachers may express concerns about their ability to teach certain things, students’ possible 176

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reactions, successful or unsuccessful experiences with similar material, or individual students who might need attention. The next topic for discussion is objectives and desired outcomes. Again, notes are taken as the teacher briefly describes what they want to achieve. (A lesson plan can be attached to the preconference form.) The coach can ask questions such as: What are you planning to do? What academic, social, cognitive, other outcomes do you expect? What are your criteria for success? These questions can help teachers clarify lesson plans. Initially, teachers may want to walk through all the details of the lesson with the coach. The area of focus for the observation is another point for discussion. Teachers decide specifically what they want feedback about from the coach. The teacher might select an area of focus for the observation student behaviour and learning, lesson design and effectiveness, or teacher behaviour and learning. Teachers often start by requesting feedback about their students. When teachers feel safer, they will usually ask for feedback about their lessons. Eventually, teachers may ask for feedback about their own teaching. As teachers are more comfortable their area of focus might shift from questions like, “Are the students on task?” or “Did I check for understanding at the beginning of the lesson?” to questions and requests like, “What problem-solving strategies are the students using while doing the activity?” and “Write down all my questions and the students’ responses, and let’s analyse them to determine if the questions are open-ended and whether they stimulate student thinking.” Usually the discussion about the area of focus for the observation takes place toward the end of the pre-conference. However, it can occur at any point, and as the conference progresses the teacher may want to add a second area of focus or decide on a different one. One of the last items on the pre-conference form relates to the coach and is labelled “Observer’s Role.” The teacher needs to make several decisions regarding the coach’s role in the classroom during the observation: 1. When and for how long will the coach be in the classroom? 2. Where should the coach sit? 3. Should the coach get up and move around? 4. Should the coach interact with groups? 5. If the coach sees inappropriate student behaviour, would the coach simply make a note, let the teacher know, or do something specific? Throughout the pre-conference, it is important that the coach be skilled at questioning, probing, asking for specificity, and summarising the teacher’s responses. Fig. 3.3 contains sample questions. Through open-ended questioning, the coach clarifies the teacher’s expectations for the lesson, what the teacher wants to find out from the feedback, how to determine the success of the lesson or 177

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strategy, and by what evidence the teacher will determine if their objectives were met. This process of clarification is also essential at the end of the pre-conference, when it is the coachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility to summarise what has been said. Finally, if at all possible, it is important that the coach begin and end the conference with a personal exchange with the teacher. This is a key element of the trust-building process.

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Questioning Strategies Pre-Conference 1. What do you hope students will be learning in this lesson? 2. So you’re saying that your objectives are.....? 3. What kind of evidence will you use to know that students are.....? 4. Part of the evidence is......? 5. We’ll be hearing/seeing such things as......? 6. So then I’m hearing that......? 7. So your goal is that......? 8. Evidence for this is.....? 9. Your strategies are......? 10. What kind of responses/behaviours would you like me to look for? 11. How would you like me to collect that information for you? 12. What specifically would you like me to watch?

Post-Conference 1.

Were you able to do what you wanted to do with this lesson?

So you’re seeing that......and inferring that........?

So you’re thinking that.......?

Do you have any hunches about what might be contributing to that?

I’m curious about how you interpret that.

So what do you make of this data?

If you would have..........what might have been the result?

Can you give me some feedback? Adapted from Arthur Costa and Robert Garmston

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Observation Rather than using a checklist, the coach usually writes a narrative description of what is said and done in the particular area of focus. Since the notes are specifically about what was said or done, the description is NOT evaluative (see fig. 3.4). Interpreting the data comes later in the postconference and is done by the teacher.

Sample Observation Notes

Notes on Actual Behaviour and Dialogue

Evaluative Notes

Jason got up and left.

Jason left because he was angry.

Joel said “You don’t even care about my ideas”

Joel was angry because no one was listening to him

An observation form such as the sample below may be useful to the coach. As part of the trustbuilding process, it is vital that the coach only writes about the area of focus and nothing else.

Observation Proformas

Date____________Teacher_____________________Coach______________________ Lesson______________________________________________ Focus for Feedback: Teacher: Student: Lesson: Time: Notes:

When the observation is complete, the coach should try to say a few words to the teacher, or at least make eye contact and acknowledge the teacher in some way before leaving the classroom.

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Post-Conference The post-conference should be scheduled as soon as possible after the observation, optimally within two days. Fig. 3.6 is a post-conference form that can guide the discussion.

Post Conference Form

Date____________Teacher_____________________Coach______________________

General Impressions: (about the lesson from the teacher who presented the lesson)

Area of Focus: What Happened? (data)

What does this tell us?

Next Steps: What student skills need attention? Follow-up lesson? Changes? Revision? Extensions?

Fig. 3.6 The post-conference begins with the teacher sharing overall impressions of the lesson. The teacher may need to express some emotion about the lesson. The coachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role is to listen and empathise with the teacher. If the teacher is not happy with the lesson, the coach needs to ask clarifying questions rather than to try to make the teacher feel better. The coach might ask: 1. What didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t you like? 2. What disappointed you? 3. What would you do differently next time?

Next the coach might refer to the area of focus and ask questions to encourage the teacher to describe what happened: 3. You wanted to look at....... 4. What did you observe in this regard? As the teacher reflects on what happened, the coach asks clarifying questions to help the teacher rebuild the picture. The coach can then share the data that were collected during the lesson: 5. You asked me to collect data about...... 6. Would you like to look at what I wrote? 181

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The invitation to look over the data underscores the fact that the teacher is in control of the conference. Generally, the teacher will want to review the data with the coach, but the coach needs to respect a teacher’s request not to review them together. The next stage is one of interpretation. The coach might ask, 7. What do you think the data means? The teacher does the interpreting. During this exchange the coach can refer to the data to ask questions to verify the teacher’s interpretations and to help establish how particular actions affected individual and group work. After this discussion, the teacher might identify changes, revisions, successes, follow-ups, and extensions to the lesson. This may lead to planning the next lesson.

Debriefing the Coaching Relationship The last part of the post-conferences an opportunity to switch roles. The coach asks the teacher for feedback on the coaching: What was helpful? What would you like included next time? What was not helpful? Confusing? It is important that the teacher lets the coach know about the usefulness of the coaching process as it sets a tone of working and learning together. It reinforces that the role of the coach is to be helpful. The teacher’s feedback can assist the coach to effectively perform that role.

EXPERT COACHING TO PEER COACHING The expert coaching year gives teachers an excellent foundation for peer coaching in the program’s following year. The expert coach helps teachers learn how to talk about their teaching in a skilled way; that is, teachers learn to reflect, analyse, and interpret their teaching practices. These skills lay the groundwork for the next stage of coaching, in which teachers coach each other in peer coaching relationships.

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Peer Coaching Peer coaching is most easily defined by comparing it to expert coaching. One important difference is that in peer coaching, the coach and teacher are both classroom teachers who are involved in a reciprocal process of observing and providing feedback to one another. Peer coaching partners assume the role of coach and teacher in alternate cycles. Another major difference is that the peer coaching relationship is truly collegial; that is, the teachers are similar in terms of their expertise regarding integrated learning. Thus, one of the primary goals of the experience is mutual learning. Many important similarities also exist between the two models. Not only do expert and peer coaching have the same goals, they also have many structural and philosophical similarities. For example, the basic cycle of pre-conferencing, observation, and post-conferencing is the same in each. They also share a common process of questioning on the part of the coach and reflection on the part of the teacher. In both models, the process in non-evaluative. It is also teacher-controlled; that is, the teacher determines the pace of the process as well as the focus of data collected and interpretation. In most programs that recognise a need for coaching, the expert coaching stage is not included and teachers start in peer coaching relationships. We believes it is important to start with expert coaching before peer coaching. After a year of exploring integrated learning with an expert coach, teachers are ready to coach with a peer. The reasons for peer coaching are numerous and substantive. Key among them is the to institutionalise the integrated learning program. In conjunction with this overall goal, peer coaching also:

Continues Technical Growth Peer coaching promotes growth in implementing any innovation. By regularly observing each other and discussing their lessons, teachers continue to develop and improve such technical skills as observing, intervening, and processing.

Continues Reflection about Practice A peer coaching relationship helps teachers refine their thinking through continued practice planning, implementing, and analysing specific lessons or situations. Peer coaching also helps teachers reflect on their own actions, the effect of those actions on students, and the relationship of their classroom practices to their ultimate educational goals.

Extends Curriculum Development Peer coaching extends and enriches teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to adapt and develop curriculum. By working together, teachers have more materials available to them and can benefit from each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ideas when planning.

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The peer coaching relationship enables teachers to view one another as valuable classroom resources. A partner can serve as a second pair of eyes to help a teacher analyse classroom behaviours and learning.

Creates a Common Language Inherent in establishing a peer coaching partnership is creating a common language among teachers. Teachers learn to talk about what they experience, see, and hear in the classroom in ways that are not evaluative.

Increases Teacher Experimentation and Risk-Taking The support provided by a partner and the accepting atmosphere of learning together provide a safe setting for experimentation. Both teachers get the sense that they are in piloting, experimenting roles in which risk-taking is a given.

Creates Collegial Norms The isolation typical to most schools is reduced through the supportive companionship of the peer coach. Colleagues who are partners become familiar with the dynamics of each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classrooms and can lend an informed ear to discussions about issues and concerns that arise throughout the year. Teachers feel validated; they know that someone else understands what they are doing in the classroom.

Promotes Accountability The built-in regularity in the peer coaching cycle brings with it accountability. In addition, peer coaching partners feel that they owe it to each other to make the coaching experience meaningful; partners develop a sense of responsibility for helping each other.

Increases Confidence Peer coaching is appropriately conducted in a manner that results in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feeling empowered rather than threatened by the process. Teachers are able to gain perspective on the complexities of teaching and an appreciation of their ability to handle the job. This perspective is not always provided by an evaluative process. The benefits of peer coaching have an impact on the culture of a school in many significant ways. Peer coaching is a critical step in institutionalising change.

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PROCESS OF PEER COACHING The process of peer coaching is the same as that of expert coaching in terms of its cyclical nature (see section 3). Peer coaching partners engage in pre-conferencing, classroom observation, and post-conferencing on a regular, bimonthly basis. The distinguishing feature of peer coaching is that the partners alternate the roles of teacher and coach. Two dimensions of peer coaching need particular attention: 1. The process of establishing and building the partners’ relationship; 2. Organisational issues related to establishing and maintaining the program.

Establishing the Peer Coaching Relationship Several elements need to be considered when establishing peer coaching relationships.

Forming Peer Coaching Partnerships Based on (sometimes painful) experience pairing teachers, we recommend that teachers have input into the selection of their peer coaching partners. The partnerships need to be built on trust and mutual respect. Teachers will be most successful in relationships they consider mutually beneficial. It is also important that the expert coach be involved in forming peer coaching pairs. The expert coach has insight into the teachers’ strengths and skills that is useful when selecting coaching partners. To integrate input from both teachers and the expert coach suggests the use of a modified sociogram may be useful. All teachers might list three teachers with whom they would be willing to enter into a peer coaching relationship. The expert coach then makes the final pairing. Several issues may surface in this process. First, on occasion a teacher who needs a partner is not listed on anyone’s sociogram. In such a case, some negotiation may need to occur on a confidential, individual basis in order to facilitate an appropriate pairing. Second, a need for triads may occur in instances when there is an uneven number of teachers or when teachers at the same grade level all want to work together. We encourage coaching teams of two teachers whenever possible, due mainly to issues of manageability. One of the major disadvantages of a triad is that the opportunities to observe and be observed are less frequent. Third, questions may arise about forming coaching partners from the same or different year levels. Although it is not absolutely necessary for teachers to choose partners from similar year levels, a major benefit is that teachers can more readily share ideas for lessons and will often have a deeper understanding of the students’ developmental level. Occasionally, a teacher will choose a partner form a different grade level because it is less threatening. Teachers who teach special classes (e.g., bilingual or special education) may find it necessary to request a partner from a different year level.

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When introducing the sociogram, the coach may want to address some of the issues discussed above in order to help teachers make informed choices. In addition, the coach may want to recommend that the key criterion for selecting a partner be the potential for professional reciprocity rather than friendship.

Building Trust It is essential to provide the time and structure to promote the trust-building process between peer coaching partners. It may be assumed that trust already exists because the teachers know each other and work together, but this is often an erroneous assumption. Coaching partners need to learn about each other as people as well as about each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s educational goals and teaching styles.

Discussion about Coaching Another method for establishing the peer coaching relationship is through the structured initial discussion between the partners about the coaching process and how peer coaching might be helpful in promoting teacher learning. Possible topics to be discussed about coaching and coaching options are shown on Fig. 3.1 in section 3.

Visits vs. Observations Visits to each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classrooms before formal observations begin help establish the peer coaching relationship. It is vital that both partners understand the difference between a visit and an observation. A visit does not include identifying an area of focus, gathering data, or giving feedback. Its purpose is to give the teacher and the students experience having another adult in the classroom and to introduce coaching partners to each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s class.

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Maintaining the Peer Coaching Relationship Maintaining the peer relationship needs to be the first priority, even before any content issues that might arise regarding the implementation of integrated learning. Time needs to be set aside to reflect on the development of the relationship. Regular debriefing sessions between partners with regard to changes and adaptations in the peer coaching partnership is also key, as is the role of the mentor coach as a coach of peer coaches.

Debriefing During a coaching conference, partners review the coaching discussion to determine what the coach did or said that was helpful toward furthering the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning and understanding. The partners also discuss any elements that might be included in future conferences to enhance the process. Another forum for debriefing can be periodic meetings of all the teachers in a school involved in peer coaching or during staff meetings. Teachers can pool ideas and identify common strengths and weaknesses within the peer coaching program.

Flexibility It is important that the coaching relationship works for the teachers involved; therefore, a flexible approach is helpful to personalise and individualise each partnership. Partners may decide on adaptations that will make the process mutually beneficial. In team teaching situations, both teachers might decide to co-plan and teach the same lesson. Other adaptations might be made in response to a particular student population or a special timetabling need.

Coaching of Coaches The mentor coach can be instrumental in helping the partners establish their relationship by drawing out and labelling the benefits of the partnership throughout the process, such as improved skills, deepened understanding, expanding resources, and increased companionship. In addition, the mentor coach helps maintain the predictability of the coaching process by asking questions that help peer coaches adhere to agreed procedures.

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Establishing the Peer Coaching Program Several key activities need to occur on an organisational level in order to establish the peer coaching program.

Principalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Role The principal plays a key role in establishing an effective peer coaching program. The principal must understand the difference between coaching and evaluation, how coaching improves the instructional program, and the inherent benefits of coaching for the total school community. The principal needs to support the peer coaching program by communicating the expectation that teachers will be involved. The principal can also: Promote discussion about possible changes in scheduling the instructional day to provide time for pre- and post-conferencing; Identify funding sources to pay for substitutes needed to release teachers to observe one another; Communicate the process and benefits of peer coaching to parents; Ensure that peer coaching becomes part of the school plan for staff development.

Timetabling Professional Development Planning needs to occur to determine how to accommodate peer coaching in the school timetable. Peer coaching requires additional time on the part of teachers - time for pre- and post-conferencing and released time from their class to observe their partners. Coordinating a staff of twenty to twenty-five people needing this extra time is a major task. A regular, consistent schedule makes it more manageable. In schools coaching may be accomplished by hiring a full-day substitute once a week to provide necessary release time. There are several ways for teachers to gain release time during the week. Some schools have shortened one school day and added instructional minutes to the four remaining days. This provides teachers with a shortened day every week for professional development. Other schools have restructured recess periods around larger instructional blocks of time and started the school day earlier. this results in a school day with the same number of instructional minutes but with an earlier dismissal for students. Thus, teachers gain a daily period for professional growth activities, including coaching conferences (see fig. 4.1).

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Creating Time for Coaching and Professional Development For a school: 1. 2. 3.

Teachers remain 30 minutes after dismissal Staggerer starting and ending times for primary and upper elementary grades Have two 10-minute recesses

Twenty minutes can be added to the 30-minutes required at the end of the day by: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Starting school 15 minutes earlier for primary grades Starting school 10 minutes earlier for upper primary grades Combining two 10-minute recesses into one 15-minute recess for primary grades Eliminating one 10-minute recess for upper primary grades

The resulting 50-minute period each day can be used for: Coaching Grade level meetings Individual planning Whole school meetings

Another aspect of scheduling to consider is the timing of pre-conferences, observations, and postconferences. Fig. 4.2 shows two options that have been used successfully.

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Peer Coaching Schedule Option 1

Partner A = coach; B = teacher Week 1

A facilitates pre-conference; B plans, describes lesson

Week 2*

A observes B; A facilitates post-conference

Partner B = coach; A = teacher Week 3

B facilitates pre-conference; A plans, describes lesson

Week 4*

B observes A; B facilitates post-conference

Option 2 Partner A = coach; B = teacher Week 1

A and B co-plan lesson, A facilitates pre-conference

Week 2*

A observes B, a facilitates post-conference, A & B modify lesson

Partner B = coach; A = teacher Week 3

B facilitates pre-conference

Week 4*

B observes A teach modified lesson; B conducts post-conference

*Guest teacher or substitute needed to release the coach to observe

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Resources The school will need someone to take responsibility for coordinating and monitoring the professional development program. This coordinator needs to have been involved in peer coaching in order to have a clear understanding of the process. The coordinator provides expert coaching for new teachers and new peer coaching pairs as well as monitor the experienced peer coaches. Although the job does not require a full-time person, it should not be undertaken by the principal. A mentor teacher might fill this position. Financial resources are another important issue for program maintenance. Hiring relief teachers each week is expensive. Some schools have devoted their own funds to hiring relief teachers for the peer coaching program. If the program is districtwide, the district may be able to support ongoing coaching by allocating funds to the schools, or the schools and district might apply for grant money to support the program. Time is another resource that needs to be considered. Establishing the peer coaching schedule needs to be a planning priority for the following year.

Changing Coaching Partners At the end of the first year of peer coaching, several changes might occur in the partnerships. Teachers who have just completed a year of expert coaching will need peer coaching partners, as will teachers who have lost their partners through attrition. In addition, some teachers may want to change partners.

Coaching of Coaches One element of the program that significantly contributes to developing and continuing the program is providing a coach for the peer coaches, at least during the first year of peer coaching for all new coaching pairs. This aspect of the program is explained later in this chapter.

Other Options for Peer Coaching Teachers may wish to explore other ways to reflect on their craft in addition to peer coaching. These may include group conferences, professional seminars, sharing journal writing, action research, and peer support groups.

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Coaching the Coaches During the third year, the mentor coach plays an important part in maintaining the program by coaching the peer coaches. Several reasons make this role necessary. Peer coaching skills are new to teachers, and internalising the skills needed for the coaching conferences requires support. The presence of a coach of coaches also helps institutionalise the peer coordinating process by increasing teachers’ sense of accountability. Finally, the coach of coaches can help deepen teachers’ thinking about the practice of coaching and encourage experimentation and risk-taking. The process of coaching the coaches is the same as in other coaching situations. Basically, the peer coaches control the area of focus as well as data collection and interpretation. A teacher may ask the mentor coach to collect data on the area of focus, but the teacher’s partner conducts the postconference. The coach of coaches promotes partners’ analysis of the coaching process by using questioning strategies.

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An EXAMPLE: Coaching for Effective Interactive Learning and Cooperation When coaching effective interactive learning, coaches and teachers must address both technical and philosophical issues. Discussions of strategies and attitudes - the “what” and the “why” of effective learning. - go hand-in-hand in coaching conferences. Just as it is important to learn how to use learning strategies effectively, it is vital for teachers to wrestle with such issues as the reason to use this approach, their attitude and beliefs about teaching and learning, and the impact of effective learning strategies on students. This chapter describes some specific aspects of integrated learning that teachers and coaches should consider as areas of focus for coaching conferences. Many of these will be recurring coaching topics:

Elements of integrated learning; Integrated learning structures; Lesson planning and design; Student’s roles and learning; Teacher’s roles and learning. The chapter also discusses two important factors that have an impact on the content and pace of coaching, namely, the predictable levels of teacher concern regarding integrated learning and the belief systems that teachers bring to a coaching relationship. At the end of the chapter is a timeline of typical coaching interventions that can be expected during a two-year period of in-service and coaching for integrated learning. The forms included in this chapter are meant to serve as examples only. We do not recommend the use of these or any other coaching forms as checklists. Instead, they can be used at first to help coaches formulate open-ended questions to guide teachers’ thinking. As trust builds and teachers experience some success with integrated learning, teachers and coaches can use the forms to gain more specific ideas about how teachers might want to refine their implementation of the innovation.

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Why Integrated Learning? An Overview Distinguishing Features of Integrated Learning * Value-based philosophy * Emphasis on a integrated environment * Variety of strategies focusing: academic skills of thinking and problem solving, social skills of interdependence and reciprocal * Teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in: planning introducing observing intervening processing

The philosophy of the Julie Boyd model is value-based; that is, integrated learning is used as a vehicle for developing the following values: - Love/joy of learning - Curiosity/challenge of learning - Balancing of respect for self and others - Responsibility for oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own learning and behaviour? - Acceptance and honouring of differences - Perseverance and self-discipline These underlying values are stressed throughout the program as life-long skills needed by both teachers and students. Teachers learn how to foster these values in themselves, their colleagues, and their students. A supportive and challenging environment and collaborative learning community is also important in the classroom and the school. Students need to feel that they are part of a safe, caring community in which people help each other learn. Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of integrated structures and strategies that involve the academic skills, eg. thinking and problem solving and the social skills, eg. interdependence and reciprocity. Teachers are encouraged to be thoughtful about which strategies they select for particular activities and why. Integrated learning is most effectively used when the activity requires a range of perspectives or a number of steps, in other words, a situation in which group members 194

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can benefit from each other’s thought processes. In contrast, activities such as answering factual questions or memorising spelling words may become tutoring situations and might be better done individually. Integrated learning places special emphasis on the teacher’s role. The teacher is responsible for promoting the values, creating the environment, and structuring the effective implementation of integrated strategies in each of the following stages of a lesson: planning, introducing, observing, intervening, and processing.

Implications for the Classroom and School When integrated learning is implemented, including all the distinguishing features, there are certain results that can be expected both in the classroom and the school.

Classroom Change The implications for the classroom are as follows:

Environment/Culture 1. Feelings of emotional safety leading to increased risk-taking by students 2. students caring for each other and helping each other learn 3. sense of the classroom being “our classroom” 4. increase in personal investment and input into the operation of the classroom 5. increased emphasis on the environment and relationships within the classroom 6. more evidence of collaborative values in language and interaction. 7. less punitive and more participatory consequences

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Organisation 8. clustered seating vs. rows 9. group work on display 10. class norms and goals on display 11. daily schedule changes to allow for longer blocks of instructional time

Content: Curriculum 12. more emphasis on thinking and problem solving 13. more emphasis on conceptual understanding and application of concepts rather than skill mastery 14. more inquiry type lessons 15. more frequent inclusion of values as they relate to subject areas 16. more integrated interdisciplinary lessons/units 17. more personalised, relevant curriculum 18. increase in use of textbook as reference only rather than as â&#x20AC;&#x153;the curriculumâ&#x20AC;?

Process: Instruction 19. increase in student to student interaction 20. active engagement of all students 21. more appropriate selection of instructional methods for desired outcomes 22. more variety in instructional materials 23. use of a variety of teaching strategies

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Roles Teacher: 1. less directive, more facilitative role 2. shift of responsibility for learning and behaviour to students 3. focus of planning on academic and social outcomes 4. observation of students in process of learning 5. use of â&#x20AC;&#x153;wait timeâ&#x20AC;? before intervening 6. use of open-ended questions, requiring multiple responses 7. processing of academic and social learning 8. more realistic expectation of students 9. increase in inquiry about craft 10. constant refinement of own teaching

Students: 1. personal responsibility for own learning 2. more student to student interaction 3. students helping each other learn 4. increased ability to work with a variety of people 5. increase in number of students serving a larger variety of functional roles 6. self-assessment of learning and behaviour

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Schoolwide Change The implications for the schoolwide change are listed below

Culture 1. increase in collaboration and collegiality 2. increased risk-taking 3. increased emphasis on environment and relationships in the school 4. increased dialog about teaching and learning 5. sense of community: â&#x20AC;&#x153;our schoolâ&#x20AC;?/"our studentâ&#x20AC;? 6. increase in personal investment and input into the operation of the school 7. creation of common goals/vision/language 8. more evidence of collaborative values in language and interactions 9. surfacing and recognition of individual strengths 10. increased utilisation of opportunities for professional growth

Organisation 1. more responsibility for schoolwide decisions 2. more involvement in committee work and policy goal setting 3. increased collaboration in meetings 4. use of existing meetings to problem solve, rather than complain 5. more involvement in problem solving from a broader range of people 6. increased teacher involvement in school leadership roles 7. change in weekly schedule to accommodate professional development and planning

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Content: School Improvement Planning 1. development of plan of school mission/values 2. modelling of effective and interactive teaching in staff development 3. reflection of specific needs/concerns of staff in staff development 4. increase in grade-level and cross-grade articulation 5. use of meetings for getting input and making decisions, not just reporting information 6. perception of problems as complex challenges with multiple solutions

Process: School Improvement Practices 1. Increase in both formal and informal communication Methods: memos, bulletins, minutes, newsletters, reports, demonstrations Structures: faculty lounge discussions, coaching, grade level meetings, committee meetings, faculty meetings, â&#x20AC;&#x153;buddyâ&#x20AC;? classes (cross-grade projects) 2.

shared decision-making in collaborative meetings

3. constant reference to school mission/values 4. on-going staff development that links integrated learning to a school curricular focus

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Roles Principal: 1. less directive, more facilitative role 2. shift in responsibility for planning to teachers 3. openness to multiple solutions 4. view for teachers as learners, in the process of learning integrated learning, coaching, and curriculum 5. definition of effective teaching in terms of learning processes 6. seeking collegial support

Teachers: 1.

more interaction with each other

increase in helping of other professionals in their learning

3. more recognition of each other as resources; more team-teaching, co-planning of lessons 4. view of self as learner 5. increase in reflection and analysis of teaching 6. willingness to be observed in classroom by others within and outside the school 7. more responsibility taken beyond the classroom (setting schoolwide policy, etc) 8. active refinement of schoolwide policies to reflect school mission(i.e. discipline, report cards, etc.)

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Conclusions Coaching is the instrument, both in the classroom and in the school, for: 1.

reducing isolation

raising consciousness about craft

internalising new behaviours and practices

increasing personal responsibility and empowerment

providing support to people handling change

validating the learning process

Coaching has far-reaching implications beyond integrated learning. It has the potential of being used a s a tool for supporting the implementation of any innovation for the continuous improvement of schools.

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ELEMENTS OF INTEGRATED LEARNING Several essential elements distinguish integrated learning from other types of group work in the classroom. Teachers often request coaching assistance to incorporate these elements into integrated lessons.

Positive Interdependence A lesson that includes a high degree of positive interdependence requires the involvement of everyone in the group in order to complete the task. Positive interdependence might be structured in the following ways:

♣ Goal interdependence - all students work toward a common goal or purpose. ♣ Role interdependence - each student plays a role that contributes to the functioning of the group. ♣ Resource interdependence - members of a group share resources. ♣ Product interdependence - there is one product as a result of the group’s work. ♣ Dialogue independence – everyone contributes a different viewpoint to a shared result

Heterogeneous Grouping To obtain the benefit of a variety of points of view and to help students learn to value diversity, integrated groups are formed to include students with different ethnic backgrounds and levels of academic and social development. Note it is not necessary and often undesirable to put students of vastly disparate abilities or interests together for long periods.

Individual Accountability Individual accountability means students take responsibility for their own behaviour and learning and help other students do the same. Accountability can be structured so both teachers and students have a visible record of each student’s work. For example, each student might use a different coloured pencil for a mind map or take individual tests. Teachers often need to monitor their own language and behaviour to ensure they are genuinely supporting students to achieve this, and not thwarting them/.

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Processing Social, Cognitive and Academic Skills Integrated lessons have stated intelligences and modes of learning skill and concept goals. During a lesson, teachers engage students in discussions about how they are achieving these goals and why these goals are important to their learning. There is also time in each lesson for students to reflect on their own thinking and behaviour and to share their strategies and results with their teammates and/or classmates.

Face-to-Face Interaction Face-to-face interaction is an essential element of integrated learning. Students need opportunities to engage each other in dialogue about their work, not just to sit near one another while doing individual work. It is this social interaction that promotes academic and social growth.

Reciprocity There is a give-and-take among all members of the group. Integrated learning is not peer tutoring. All members of the group contribute to discussions or developing the product and all benefit from the contributions of others. A coach can ask questions to promote the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; thinking about these elements: why they were important, how they were included in the lesson, and what impact each had on student learning. The discussion may lead to revisions or modifications for future lessons.

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LEARNING STRUCTURES Teachers might also request their coach’s help with the use of integrated learning structures. Some structures are simple; others are referred to as complex structures because they require more planning and preparation and/or involve a more complex form of interaction among students. Simple structures include: Turn to Your Neighbour, Think-Pair-Share, modified Round Robin, modified Round Table, Brainstorming, Heads Together, and Mind Mapping. (See Active Learning by Global Learning Communities for a detailed…) A range of issues regarding integrated structures provide possible discussion topics during coaching. These could include a technical discussion of what a particular structure is and when its use might be appropriate. In the pre-conference, coaching might focus on which structures are appropriate to meet the needs of the lesson and how to incorporate them. During the observation, the coach could collect data about the use of the structure - for example, how it was introduced and the amount of interaction it encouraged. When the teacher and coach process the lesson in the post-conference, they might discuss how well a structure worked to meet the teacher’s goal for its use and what other structures might be useful for that type of activity.

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TEACHER’S ROLES IN STUDENT LEARNING When teaching a lesson, teachers have five important roles:

•

Planning;

•

Introducing;

•

Observing;

•

Intervening;

•

Processing.

The coach can help teachers explore these roles by helping them understand the technical skills involved, assisting them in implementing a lesson (co-teaching), and/or collecting the data and giving feedback after the lesson has been taught. The roles of planning and introducing the lesson are the most familiar to teachers. Since the last three roles are not as familiar, teachers may ask the coach for assistance in observing, intervening, and processing lessons.

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Planning a Lesson or Unit In the pre-conference, one of the coachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roles is to help teachers design their lessons or units. Planning together can make all the difference in the effectiveness of the lessons or units and the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; confidence. Using lesson planning proformas that include all the components of effective learning, such as fig. 5.1 and fig. 5.2, can be helpful when teachers are first beginning to plan lessons.

Sample Lesson Planning Form

Developing Lessons: A Planning Guide

Summary of the Lesson: For use with students in introduction: Group Size Task: Academic Goals:

Social Goals

How to Form Groups Time: (a) Introduction (b) Group work (c) Processing

Academic Skills: Social Skills: Cognitive Skills: Roles: Time:

What materials are needed for the teacher/groups/individual students?

For use by teachers in planning group work: Forming of Groups: Room Arrangement:

How is positive interdependence structured? How will individual students be held accountable for group contribution, for individual learning of academic/social skills What are some possible questions/areas to address in processing?

Individual Accountability: Interdependence: (i.e. materials, roles, etc) Extension Activities: Processing: (What open-ended questions will you ask?) * Academic goals * Social goals * Cognitive goals * Group functioning

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Some questions that can be posed in conjunction with using the form are included below. Initially, the coach might guide the process by asking these questions or by giving teachers the list to consider as they plan. Eventually, teachers internalise the questions and ask them of themselves. When the teacher is ready, the coach can move the emphasis of planning discussions from ideas about what to include in the lesson to more cognitive considerations such as what students will be learning and how that relates to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s instructional goals.

Developing Integrated Learning Lessons: Questions to Guide Planning 1. what academic skill and concepts will be included? 2. what social skills will be included? (One inherent in lesson design, another to meet the needs of the students.) 3. how will groups be formed ? How many students per group? 4. what room arrangement will be best for the lesson? 5. what roles will group members play? Will they be assigned? 6. what materials will be needed for the lesson? 7. how will interdependence be structured? (Goal, resource material and information, task, role, etc.) 8. how will accountability be structured? 9. how much time will be allocated for: * Introduction/Orientation: * Group Work: * Processing? Wrap-up: 10. what will the observation process be during group work? (Who will be observed? What will be observed?) 11. is the lesson interesting and challenging for all students? 12. what extension activities will be used? 13. in addition to questions generated by observation, what open-ended questions will be asked during group work and/or processing (to cover both academic and social skill)?

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Throughout the year, the coach needs to be aware that teachers may go through a developmental sequence when planning lessons or units:

•

Planning isolated integrated learning lessons not necessarily related to the current curriculum;

•

Adapting traditional lessons to integrated learning structures;

•

Planning a sequence of integrated learning lessons;

•

Planning units in a particular curricular area using multiple instructional methods such as direct instruction or inquiry, and integrating integrated learning appropriately with the other instructional methods;

•

Planning thematic units that integrate curricular areas and multiple instructional methods.

•

Planning fully integrated curriculum units

In the post-conference, the teacher might initiate a discussion about the effectiveness of the lesson design. The questions below can be used as guidelines for the coach to facilitate this discussion.

Lesson Design A.

How integrated is this lesson for learning?

Did you achieve what you wanted to?

C. How appropriate was the timing? D. How did students build on their prior experiences? E. What other prior experiences might have been important for students to have had? F.

How did the materials help or hinder the lesson?

G. How did group size and membership affect the lesson? H. How did room arrangement affect this lessaon? I.

How did this lesson tie into the unit or curriculum area?

How did the academic outcomes of the lesson match your goals?

K. How did the lessons provide opportunities for student decision-making and problem-solving? L. How appropriate was the social-skills focus to the lesson and to the class? M. How could parts of the lesson be restructured? N. What experiences do the students need next to extend their thinking?

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Introducing the Lesson Although introducing lessons is a role with which teachers are familiar, integrated learning includes considerations such as social goals and group formation that are different to other lesson designs. Therefore, teachers may request assistance from the coach with regard to introducing lessons. In the pre conference, on strategy the coach can use to address teachers’ concerns about introducing a lesson is tse a lesson planning form to help structure the lesson During the post-conference, the list of substantive questions about lesson introduction in fig. 5.5 can be used as guidelines for the coach to facilitate this discussion.

Introducing the Lesson • How appropriate was the content of the introduction? • How appropriate was the length of the introduction? • To what extent were general directions available for students to refer to during the lesson? • How did the introduction help students define the task, academic goals, social goals, interdependence, individual accountability, roles, time limit?

Observing Team Work When observing, the teacher gathers and records information about the students as they work in groups. There are many important reasons for observing during the lesson. The information can be used in a number of ways:

• To intervene during the lesson; that is, to extend thinking and learning or to refocus a group; • To help determine which academic and social issues to discuss during the processing of the lesson; • To assess individuals and/or the class in regard to the academic and social skills; • To plan future lessons.

Teachers can use the coach in many ways to help develop, reflect on, and refine observation skills. In the pre-conference, the coach can assist by providing basic information regarding observation of group work. Some of the topics they could discuss are: 209

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• Number of groups to observe; • Length of time to observe; • How to collect data; • What type of data to collect; • How to use the data during the lesson or in subsequent lessons. During the observation, teachers might ask the coach to focus on their observation skills. In other cases, teachers might ask for help observing groups. The coach could observe some of the groups while the teacher observed others. Both the teacher and the coach could then provide questions for processing. In that instance, the coach would not be able to give feedback to the teacher regarding the teachers’ observation skills. In the post-conference, the coach and teacher could review the coach’s notes about the teacher’s observation skills. Some questions that the teacher might have as an area of focus or ask during post-conference discussions, are included below

Observing the Group Work 1. What length of time did I observe each group? 2. How many groups did I observe? 3. What did I notice about students? - Interdependence? - Individual accountability? - Ability to accomplish the task? - Quality of learning, academically and socially? - Behaviour? - Enjoyment? 4. To what extent did I hover over groups? 5. Did I ‘interfere’ rather than ‘inference’ at all? 6. How useful were the data I collected?

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Intervening During Group Work Effectively intervening in group work is a key function of teachers during integrated learning lessons. As we often tent to ‘interrupt’ learning or ‘interfere’ with learning — albeit with the best of intentions the coach can help teachers refine their intervention skills in several ways. In the pre-conference, teachers might want to discuss and get feedback from the coach regarding how to intervene. Some techniques for intervention are as follows: (a) Intervene only after observing the group for at least a minute or two. (b) Intervene as a member of the group; enter the discussion at an appropriate time to extend group work, not to interrupt it. (c) Intervene with questions, not statements. (d) Be at eye level when intervening in a group. (e) Intervene to ask questions and then leave; do not stay to solve the problem. During the observation, the teacher might ask the coach to model intervention techniques by helping with the intervention process. At this time, the teacher might observe the coach and take notes on questioning techniques. In the post-conference, questions such as those in fig. 5.7 may be used for self-reflection on the intervention process.

Intervening During Group Work 1. How clear was I about what was happening in the group before I intervened? 2. To what extent did I interrupt group work and what was the effect? 3. How did I use data from observations to intervene or in processing? 4. What were my intervention strategies? 5. How did my intervention encourage students to solve problems on their own?

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Processing the Lesson Time for students to reflect on the lesson is often missing from traditional teaching structures. Coaching can help teachers in many ways to strengthen this aspect of integrated lessons. Some helpful information is described below: 1. Processing involves asking open-ended questions to promote students’ thinking and verbalisation of learning. Students’ thinking about the experience needs to be explored before teachers give their feedback. 2. Processing needs to address both academic and social learning. 3. Part of the teacher’s role in processing is linking the experience of one group to another, rather than having each group report independently, as if the groups’ experiences and results were unrelated. 4. Students may need to be given time to think and reflect on their learning experiences before they respond during processing. 5. Processing questions should help students extend their learning beyond the integrated learning task. 6. It is always necessary to leave time for processing, even if it means the group work will continue the next day. During the observation, teachers might ask the coach to help with processing or they might use the coach’s observation notes to help them formulate processing questions. The questions in fig. 5.8 might be useful for a coaching discussion about processing.

Processing the Lesson 1. How did I relate processing questions to identified goals? 2. To what extent did I request specific examples? 3. When did I offer my feedback? 4. To what extent did the questions require thoughtful reflection? 5. How effective was my use of wait time? 6. How did I honour all student responses? 7. How did I link the experience of one group to another? 8. How did I link this lesson to prior lessons?

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STUDENTS’ ROLES IN INTEGRATED LEARNING In an interactive, learning classroom, students are asked to be responsible for their learning, to take an active role in the learning process, and to assess growth. Thus, students shift from a traditionally passive role to an active role in which they are engaged in using materials and ideas to enhance their learning. This shift in role is easier for some students than others; in particular, self-assessment of learning can be difficult. Some students may find the change threatening, and teachers can expect some resistance and some acting-out behaviours. Coaching discussions can focus on the teacher’s role in facilitating the change in students’ roles and expanding students’ opportunities for learning. In the beginning stages of implementation, teachers’ main concerns about student learning are often reflected in questions such as, “Were the students on task or off task during the lesson?” As the implementation of integrated learning progresses, teachers may be concerned whether students are practising the social and academic skills of the lesson. The coach can help teachers think about the deeper levels of learning beyond the academic and social skills in the lesson. Academically, the role of the coach is to help teachers develop students’ higher-order thinking, problem-solving skills, and conceptual understanding of the material. Socially, the coach and teacher can find ways to move students beyond the use of social skills to a deeper understanding of why these skills are important and how these skills relate to the basic human values that underlie them. At this stage, coaches can help teachers learn to interpret what is going on during group work. Through observation, coaches can gather data about what students are saying to each other, the types of planning and problemsolving strategies they are using, and the depth of their thinking. Teachers and coaches can also work together to shift teachers’ concerns away from teaching performance to student learning. Rather than asking, “How did I do in this lesson?” a teacher will ask, “How are my students benefiting? What are they learning?” Teachers become more concerned about what processes students are using and what attitudes about learning and interacting with others are being promoted in the classroom. One way that coach can help teachers make this shift is to encourage them to become more conscious of the language they are using. In order to help students take responsibility for their learning, teachers can change their language from teacher-focused. Fig. 5.9 contains some examples.

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Teacher Focus vs. Learning Focus Teacher-Focused

Learning-Focused

I would like you to discover....

When youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re doing this lesson, you may discover....

Who can tell me....?

What did you discover?

Listening is a social skill I would like you to use during this task.

What social skills will be important when doing this task?

Fig. 5.9

As teachers move from teacher-focused to learning-focused questioning, students gain more autonomy and take more responsibility for their own learning. For example, the roles students assume in integrated learning groups can be viewed in terms of a developmental approach to learning. The ultimate goal is to have students spontaneously take different roles - as facilitator, recorder, encourage - as the need arises. At first, however, teachers might assign roles. At the next stage, students are asked to decide who will play roles identified by the teacher; and finally, determine the roles that are needed and assume those roles as appropriate. Teachers will be more skilful and confident helping students move through these stages and handling any conflicts that arise if the coach has helped them understand this developmental progression. The coach can also help teachers identify studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of prosocial development and acquisition of prosocial skills.

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COACHING FOR CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT Successfully coaching continuous improvement involves understanding and helping teachers identify their concerns and belief systems.

Developmental Levels of Teacher Concern and Use Teachers implementing an innovation such as integrated learning will naturally have personal concerns about the innovation itself. It is important that the coach recognise and respect these concerns and address them during coaching. Whether or not these issues are faced can have as direct an effect on a teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to implement the innovation as the acquisition of the technical skills involved. Hall and his colleagues have developed a model that delineates the stages of concern teachers often experience when implementing an innovation (see fig. 5.10). These stages may help the coach understand teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; concerns. Stages of Concern: Typical Expressions of Concern about the Innovation Stage of Concern

Expression of Concern

6 Refining I have some ideas about something that would work even better. 5 Collaboration

I am concerned about relating what I am doing with what other instructors are doing.

4 Consequence

How is my use affecting kids?

3 Management material ready.

I seem to be spending all my time getting

2 Personal

How will using it affect me?

1 Informational

I would like to know more about it.

0 Awareness

I am not concerned about it (the Innovation)

Adapted from G. E. Hall (1966) concept form G. E. Hall; R. C. Wallace Jr.; and W. A. Dossett, A Developmental conceptualisation of the adoption process within educational institutions. Austin Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, the University of Texas, 1973

Fig. 5.10

By keeping these stages in mind, the coach can shift the coaching focus according to the individual needs of the teachers. Most teachers tend to move back and forth among the stages of concern as they try different aspects of an innovation. For example, attempting to design an integrated unit for the first time may cause a teacher to refocus on personal and management concerns. Coaching needs to reflect the level of concern the teacher exhibits. Throughout the coaching relationship, the coach must remember that the implementation of the innovation will not occur any faster by ignoring the developmental level of concern of the teacher. Rather, teachers will learn and grow if these concerns are addressed with respect and caring. 215

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As the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; personal concerns about the innovation change, their levels of use of the innovation will expand. Fig. 5.11 explains the developmental sequence.

Levels of Use of the Innovation

Renewal

Reevaluating the quality of use

Integration

Collaborating on use with colleagues

4B Refinement

Varying use to increase impact

4A Routine

Use of innovation stabilised

Mechanical Use

Step-by-step, mastery approach

Preparation

Getting ready to use for first time

1 Orientation

Learning about the innovation

Little or no knowledge; no involvement

Non-use

Adapted from G. E. Hall (1966), which was excerpted from Levels of use chart: operational definitions of levels of use of the innovation. Austin: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, The University of Texas, 1975

Fig. 5.11

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Teachers’ Belief System It is helpful for coaches to remember that coaching is not about “fixing” teachers; it is about helping teachers increase their own level of learning about the art and craft of teaching and view their practices in terms of overall goals. From this perspective, coaches need to consider teachers’ attitudes and beliefs and their effect on the classroom climate. For example, teachers’ belief systems regarding control and discipline might appear to be in direct contrast to the assumptions underlying integrated learning structures. Coaches and teachers would need to address this seeming discrepancy in depth. In other cases, teachers’ beliefs might correlate well with the philosophy of integrated learning, but teachers’ practices in the classroom do not reflect those beliefs. This can be addressed in a one-to-one coaching relationship. As coaching progresses, teachers generally become less concerned about whether they are implementing the innovation correctly. (“Am I doing it the right way?”) Rather, their focus is increasingly on whether their classroom practices match their overall goals and beliefs about education. (“Am I doing the right things for my students?”) Ultimately, the process of coaching acknowledges, refines, and / or changes teachers’ belief systems and their long-range goals for education.

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Practical Considerations for Implementing a Coaching Programme Establishing a coaching program requires attention to methods for implementation, maintenance, and evaluation.

Issues Related to Expert Coaching Expert coaching may lead to the following situations that the principal and coach need to take into account when developing a coaching program:

Dependence on the Coach The coach must avoid promoting dependency. Instead, the coach needs to support teachers and encourage risk-taking. This can be done in small increments. Initially, teachers may ask the coach to present demonstration lessons. Subsequently, the coach may need to be somewhat directive in suggesting that teachers begin taking more responsibility for implementing lessons. Coaches and teachers may decide to co-teach lessons. Then, as teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; confidence increases, they can take full responsibility for teaching the lessons. It is vital that this transference of responsibility take place in order to effect lasting change in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; thinking and classroom practice.

Low Commitment to Innovation A variety of reasons may cause teachers to have a low commitment to the innovation. These include an unwillingness to make the necessary effort, a fear of failing, a general resistance to change, and personal problems such as poor health. When teachers exhibit low commitment, coaches may wish to concentrate their efforts in two areas. First, coaches can help teachers identify and alleviate that which is threatening. Second, coaches can make sure teachers view the coaching program as a valuable use of their time. To accomplish this, coaches work to establish a safe environment and help teachers articulate how the program is benefiting their classroom practices.

Integration It may take teachers some time to integrate coaching into their definition of teaching and professional development and to view it as part of their regular work week. In the beginning teachers may miss scheduled appointments. The expert coach needs to guard against assuming too much responsibility for the appointments. If coaches regularly remind teachers of coaching appointment, an unhealthy dependency might develop that keeps teachers from taking responsibility for their own development.

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Issues Related to Peer Coaching The coach and principal must take several issues related to peer coaching into account when developing a coaching program:

Partner Mismatch In peer coaching, one of the most difficult situations is a mismatch of partners. This may occur in terms of their levels of commitment to the innovation or in their levels of trust, that is a partnership in which one partner does not feel safe. In either situation, direct intervention on the part of the coach of coaches is needed. If the problem cannot be resolved, new partners may need to be assigned. In a case in which an appropriate new match cannot be made, reinstating expert coaching is an option.

Use of Time Since conferences between peer coaches occur within an adjusted time period in the school schedule, there is potential for teachers to use the time for purposes other than coaching. Therefore, the staff developer/coach and principal need to monitor the use of the time allotted to coaching. Regardless of the fact that teachers have had experience incorporating the expert coaching cycle into their weeks, they may still need time to get used to the peer coaching schedule. Teachers will need to become accustomed to the fact that some of the time that they might have previously used for meetings or for their own planning is now to be devoted to coaching.

Attrition/Partner Organisation The program needs the flexibility to handle attrition. During the year, teachers may take leave or have extended periods of absence. One partner of a team may leave the district by retiring or moving. Another issue concerning teacher pairing is how long to leave partners in the same coaching teams. It is important that partners stay together long enough to establish and maintain productive relationships. We recommend that this be no less than one school year and that partners be given the option of staying together longer.

Adherence to the Coaching Model A significant problem may occur if insufficient time is designated for effective conferences. Often, pre-conferences are shortchanged. By not allotting sufficient time to pre-conferences, teachers may not adequately mentally rehearse a lesson in order to anticipate and avoid problems, the objectives of the lesson may be unclear, and/or the coach may not be sure about the focus of the observation. Another potential problem is the use of inappropriate feedback on the part of peer coaches. It is important for the coach of coaches to encourage the careful use of feedback and questioning.

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Insufficient Staff Development In-service for peer coaching is particularly important. Teachers can garner some skills by observing the expert coach. The beginning skills of peer coaching are addressed in the summer institute before the institutionalising year, and further skills are learned in the process of peer coaching. However, teachers need additional in-service to practice, refine, and extend peer coaching skills.

Some Final Thoughts This manual has focused on coaching, a vital component for classroom and schoolwide change efforts. For teachers, coaching focuses on classroom changes. Principals are provided with similar support to develop collaborative schools. Coaching is the instrument for: 1. Reducing isolation; 2. Raising consciousness about teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; craft; 3. Internalising new behaviours and practices; 4. Increasing personal responsibility and empowerment; 5. Providing support to people handling change; 6. Validating the learning process. Not only is coaching essential, it also has far-reaching. It has the potential to be used as a tool for supporting the implementation of any innovation for the continuous improvement of schools.

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Lessons Learned About Coaching 1. The effectiveness of expert coaching is dependent on several important prerequisite experiences and skills of the mentor coach: A. B. C. D. E. F.

Extensive classroom experience, optimally at a variety of grade levels. Broad based curricular expertise. Knowledge of teaching and learning. Ability to effectively demonstrate the use of integrated learning in the classroom. Ability to support a teacher’s learning process in a non-threatening way. Ability to promote integrated learning in the classroom independent of the coach.

2. It is important to structure the coaching sessions so that the teacher has control of his or her own learning. The initial coaching discussion clarifies the working relationship of the teacher and coach. The non-judgemental role of the coach is emphasised. Providing a “menu” of services allows the teacher to begin where he or she is most comfortable.

3. There is a developmental sequence in the focus of the coaching sessions: A. Initially, the coach focuses on establishing rapport with the teacher, which includes developing both credibility and trust. The coach must be viewed as knowledgeable, with something to offer the teacher, while simultaneously being seen as someone who will not pass judgment on the teacher’s professional worth. B. Next, the coach focuses on helping teachers assimilate the technical aspects of integrated learning. Lesson planning models and guiding questions are used to structure the process. C. Gradually, the coach shifts the focus to facilitating the teacher’s understanding of the impact of strategies on student learning and the relationship of this method to the teacher’s goals for education. The coach continually guides the teacher to be more selfreflective, self-analytical, and self-correcting. The use of pre and post conference forms and questioning strategies structure self-reflection about: * instructional goals and purposes * anticipated outcomes * observed student responses * cause and effect relationships of teacher actions

5. The coaching focus parallels typical patterns of teacher development Changes occur in planning and implementing the classroom program that reflect the teacher’s internalisation of technical skills and their conceptual understanding. Additionally, the process of coaching promotes changes in norms for working relationships that impact the whole school. 221

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For example, talking about teaching transfers from the coaching relationship to conversations with other teachers. Hence the norms of “do not talk about your success or failure shifts to more open discussion of classroom life among teachers.

6. Both mentor coach and the principal need ongoing communication. It works best when dialogue is initiated by both the coach and the principal as they see needed. Topics must include but are not limited to: A. The confidentiality of the coaching relationship. Principals need to agree and understand prior to implementation that information about individual teachers learned by coaches will not be shared. B. General information about the progress of implementation. C. How the program fits with the total school program. In fact, an additional planning year has been added to the model to ensure that this is an integrated part of the school’s longrange plan and that the roles of principal and coach are clarified and agreed upon. D. How the coach can support the principal in their role as leader of the program. The coach can serve in a capacity to support the principal. For instance, by coaching the principal, modelling decision-making processes with faculty, and helping to change school norms for working relationships among teachers and principal.

6. There are several experiences which help teachers prepare for peer coaching: A. Expert coaching - provides an experiential base for professional interaction and an entry point to look at one’s classroom as a laboratory: to observe and make sense of gathered data and adjust one’s teaching strategy accordingly. B. Year level or team meetings - provide the opportunity to discuss their problems and successes, which can reduce teachers’ isolation and create a new norm for professional dialogue and discourse. C. Teacher visitations to other teacher’s classrooms. (sometimes called ‘Learning Walks’) It is important that initially, the coach accompanies the teacher and helps to define the informal and nonjudgemental nature of the visit. The primary purpose of the initial visits is two-fold: to acclimate the teachers to being in another teacher’s classroom while instruction is in progress, and to provide an experiential base to later discuss the elements of coaching.

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7. Selection of peer coaching pairs reflect both teacher choice and the assessment of the expert coaches. What has worked best is to have each teacher write the names of 3-4 teachers with whom s/he is willing to peer coach. Expert coaches then determine the final match based on the following combination of factors: A. Common skill level B. Potential for reciprocity C. Teacher preference Although pairing is optimal, triads can also work well if there is a problem matching partners.

8. It is essential that both partners attend In Service Programs. If this does not occur, the disparity in skill, language, and understanding amongst the pair can lead to an unsuccessful match.

9. Inservice sessions must include opportunities for teachers to practice their coaching skills. 10. There is great variation of skill and success from pair to pair. The following factors affect the success of the peer coaching match: A. Teachers’ ability to abstract and “draw out’ learning. B. Ability to take risks. C. Each partner’s ability to work as a team player in a non-judgemental fashion. D. Individual and collective level of commitment regarding both integrated learning and coaching process. E. Level of reciprocity - that is, both coaches need to feel that they are able to give and receive valuable services to each other. F. Pairs across year levels and learning areas work very well.

11. It is very important that peer coaching is facilitated initially by a Mentor Coach who then serves as “the coach of coaches.”

12. There is a delicate balance between flexibility and fidelity to the peer coaching model. The model must allow for individual differences and paces; feeling “squeezed” into the model can breed resistance or lead some teachers to feel incompetent.

13. The pre-conference component of the peer coaching process is consistently limited or omitted.

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The purpose of the pre-conference session is threefold: to determine what the coach will observe (and take notes about) during the lesson, to discuss the teacher’s criteria for success, and to clarify their roles, what is happening instead is that coaches might pass in the hallways and mention a few aspects without time to probe further. This deviation from the model may hinder the pairs’ ability to deepen their cognitive exploration. This is possibly due to (A) the lack of time set aside for peer coaching, and (B) the value of this component is not understood among teachers.

14. Teacher attrition can have a negative impact on peer coaching. For example, several teachers in each school have left mid-year, so that some coaches no longer had partners and were forced to regroup in triads. This is an ongoing obstacle.

15. There tends to be a developmental sequence in the focus of peer coaching sessions. A. Most teachers’ first concern is who their partner will be and how peer coaching will be arranged. B. After their first In Service, they strive to do peer coaching “correctly.” Experienced teachers tend to want to tell less experienced teachers how to correct classroom problems and need to be prompted to stick to the non-evaluative format. Some teachers initially believe that the structure is rigid and the interaction feels “unauthentic” and “phony” since they are not used to dealing with each other in the fashion. C. As time progresses, some pairs divert from the step-by-step guidelines and the discussion becomes less sequential and contains more spontaneous inquiry - it is these pairs who seem to develop deeper levels of cognitive coaching than those who continue to work “mechanically” and strictly abide by the technical format for coaching. D. Additionally, the content of discussion shifts from focus on student behaviour, to the components of the lesson, and finally, to more high-risk conversation about the teacher’s strengths and areas for improvement. It is only if and when teachers feel a high level of trust with their peer coach that they will divulge information about themselves; many pairs do not reach this third stage during the first year of peer coaching. By the end of the first year, teachers seem to be more comfortable with the peer coaching process.

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JULIE BOYD PUBLICATIONS (soon to be available in Multimedia) Coaching and Reflective Practises Manual The How, What, When, Where and Why of a range of Reflective Practices, including Coaching Collaborative Approaches to Professional Learning This book provides a menu of methods designed to assist individuals, groups, whole schools and districts to implement collaborative reflective practices to enhance teacher professional image and professionalism Active Cooperation and Learning A Compendium of Generic Teaching and Learning Strategies and activities activities designed to assist Primary and Secondary teachers in the creation of collaborative learning environments for students for students of all ages. Effective Middle Schooling Middle Schooling is a concept designed to address the issues of students at this particular stage in their development. This manual raises issues and addresses concerns about education for young people at this time of their lives. I Teach: A Gem of a book full of highly practical anecdotes and ideas for all classroom teachers in the art and craft of teaching and learning. Mindful Learning To be serious about developing learner thinking and mindful practice we need to: create supportive challenging learning environments, using constructivist curriculum, making explicit processes and skills used, improving questioning skills, and reflecting on learning Learner Centred Assessment This book provides a comprehensive guide to the guiding principles and practices of classroom based assessment. It includes chapters on performance based assessment, observation and interviewing, portfolio development, student roles, and others. Creating Resilient Youth By Julie Boyd This practical manual is a resource for teachers to use with students. Creating Resilient Educators by Julie Boyd Creating resilient young people requires â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;wellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teachers. A practical manual for individual/groups of teachers to understand and address the issues involved with personal, professional and organisational wellness. Learning Together: An Introductory Guide to Integrated Learning This manual is designed to introduce teachers to the philosophy and practical strategies used in building collaborative classrooms which engage students in integrated and fully interactive learning. Integral Curriculum for Effective and Relevant Learning Designed to assist teachers to understand how to prepare curriculum for the convergence and alignment of learning environments, curriculum, pedagogy and assessment.

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