Independent Island - Atelier Renewable Energy by Jeroen Castricum

INDEPENDENT ISLAND

A VISION FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF GOEREE-OVERFLAKKEE

MSC ATELIER LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING 2011 (LAR-60318) WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY/ISGO GROUP 4 SCENARIO REGIONAL AND CIVIL SOCIETY JESPER BORSJE, JEROEN CASTRICUM, KIM VAN GENT, MARIA GEORGIEVA, SANGWHAN LIM, ZIYI LIU, DIANA LUKJANSKA AND LISA VERBON

INDEPENDENT ISLAND A VISION FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF GOEREE-OVERFLAKKEE

Vision is the magnet for commitment, the key to unity, and the determinant of destiny (Kim and Oki, 2011)

WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY/ISGO AUGUST 2011. JESPER BORSJE, JEROEN CASTRICUM, KIM VAN GENT, MARIA GEORGIEVA, SANGWHAN LIM, ZIYI LIU, DIANA LUKJANSKA AND LISA VERBON

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5 2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Background................................................................................................................................................... 6 2.2 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 Scope ............................................................................................................................................................ 8 2.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 8 3. Scenario ............................................................................................................................................................................... 10

3.1 Regional and civic ....................................................................................................................................... 10 3.2 Economy ..................................................................................................................................................... 10 3.3 Education.................................................................................................................................................... 10 3.4 Agriculture .................................................................................................................................................. 10 3.5 Climate change ........................................................................................................................................... 10 3.6 Sustainability .............................................................................................................................................. 10 3.7 Nature ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 3.8 Local landscape (and tourism) .................................................................................................................... 11 3.9 Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................................. 11 3.10 Public services .......................................................................................................................................... 11 3.11 Demographics .......................................................................................................................................... 11 3.12 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 11 4. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12

4.1 Methological framework ............................................................................................................................ 12 4.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 16 5. Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................................................................ 17

5.1 Planning theories........................................................................................................................................ 17 5.2 Landscape Architecture theories ............................................................................................................... 18 5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 21 6. Local Research ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.1 Interviewing local residents ....................................................................................................................... 22 6.2 Interviewing representatives ..................................................................................................................... 24 6.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 26 7. Models ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27

7.1 Concept evaluation .................................................................................................................................... 27 7.2.1 Local concept model ............................................................................................................................... 28 7.2.2 Central Concept model............................................................................................................................ 28 7.2.3 Offshore Concept model ......................................................................................................................... 28 3

7.3.1 Basic local model ..................................................................................................................................... 29 7.3.2 Basic central model ................................................................................................................................. 30 7.3.3 Basic Offshore model .............................................................................................................................. 31 7.4.1 Developed local model ............................................................................................................................ 32 7.4.2 Developed central model ........................................................................................................................ 34 7.4.3 Developed offshore model ...................................................................................................................... 36 7.5 Outcome models ........................................................................................................................................ 38 7.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 39 8. Vision ................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

8.1 Vision outline.............................................................................................................................................. 40 8.2 Shifting land use sizes................................................................................................................................. 41 8.3 Vision map .................................................................................................................................................. 43 8.4 Energy assumptions ................................................................................................................................... 44 8.5 Energy production and consumption ......................................................................................................... 46 8.6 Inland zone ................................................................................................................................................. 49 8.7 Coastal area ................................................................................................................................................ 53 8.8 Landscape perception ................................................................................................................................ 55 8.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 64 9. Phasing ................................................................................................................................................................................. 65

9.1 Phase 0 2011-2015: Re-Visioning ............................................................................................................... 65 9.2 Phase 1 2015-2020: Setting up the grid ..................................................................................................... 66 9.3 Phase 2 2015-2030: Landscape transformation process............................................................................ 67 9.4 Phase 3 2030-2040: Working landscape .................................................................................................... 68 9.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 68 10. Final Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................. 69 11. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70

11.1 Process of developing the vision .............................................................................................................. 70 11.2 Process of participation ............................................................................................................................ 70 11.3 uncertainties ............................................................................................................................................ 70 12. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................................... 71 Appendix .................................................................................................................................................................................. 73

1. SUMMARY This study was to investigate the possibilities for Goeree-Overflakkee to become sustainable energy island within the context of Independent Island scenario. It was requested by ISGO and Wageningen University. It th was requested on 28 of April 2011. The investigation was done by master students of the Landscape Architecture and Planning program in the Atelier course. The main findings are that within the scenario a sustainable energy island is conceivable. Both energy, food and materials can be produced in a self-sufficient way. There are multiple ways of achieving this goal, one of them extensively discussed in this report. The main recommendation is that full participation of (local) stakeholders is necessary in order to reach the desired future.

2. INTRODUCTION

2.1 BACKGROUND This report is the result of the Master Atelier 2011 in which master students in Spatial Planning, Landscape Architecture and Social Spatial Analysis were to research, plan and design sustainable energy landscapes, with a focus on Goeree-Overflakkee in particular. The Atelier consists of three phases based on the ‘five-step approach’ (Stremke, 2010). The first phase consists of four groups, each analysing a specific landscape type of the island. In the second phase the students are redistributed among new groups, combining the knowledge about all the landscape types in order to elaborate on one of the four scenario’s. After this, each group composes an integrated vision on how the island could be turned into a sustainable energy landscape, given the conditions described in their scenario. The last phase, phase three, consists of an individual assignment in which the subject and requirements depend on the MLP specialization of the student. In the previous phase four landscape types were studied, namely the coastal, the agricultural, the recreation and the urban landscape. A summary of these four landscape types with their potential for renewable energy will be given as a starting point for this report, combined with the first impression about people’s perception towards renewable energy on the island. The coastal landscape of Goeree-Overflakkee has a diverse environmental, socio-economic and cultural character and typology:  the (semi) natural landscape;  human influence;  historical remains. During centuries the coastal landscape has been changed by natural forces, indirectly influencing how humans are perceiving nature, land and especially water on Goeree-Overflakkee. Most of wind and sun energy on the island is accumulated around the coast, thus having a high potential for wind energy, an as second option is solar energy (PV). In the coastal landscape of Goeree-Overflakkee, there is potential for the production of bio-energy. The biomass can be in the form of plant cuttings from nature areas or by using algae, which are abundant in the water because of the shallow depth and calm surface. However, in order to produce enough energy, the marine biomass covers a large amount of space. Another option is tidal energy, which can be realized in a dam in an area which is influenced by tidal changes. A potential forms the opening of the Brouwersdam. By making a pass in the Brouwersdam, a tidal station and a lock can be realized. The technical potential of tidal energy is considerable: about 70 MW. Also, it can create a win-win situation combining energy production and improving the water safety. In addition, tidal energy is an innovative technology, so it may work as a tourist attraction. The effects it has on water recreation should be further investigated (Build Desk, 2010). A fifth option is blue energy, which generates electricity by combining fresh and salt water. The technical potential for blue energy is considerable: about 1.7 MJ when 1 m3 fresh water mixed with 1 m3 seawater. But the technology is still in its infancy phase. Blue energy fits well in the wetland environment and will contribute to the image of Goeree-Overflakkee as a sustainable energy island (Veerman J. et al, 2010). The agricultural landscape has a big potential for producing renewable energy, because the sector consumes only 4% of the total energy while covering more than 80% of the land. Big scale developments, like wind turbines and biomass installations would especially fit in the large-scale production landscape of Flakkee. This part has a strong agricultural production sector mainly focusing on the production of high quality sugar beets, potatoes, grain and onions. More small scale energy developments, like solar panels and heat-cold installations, would be suitable for the small scale farming in the West of the island. Goedereede is mainly focused on tourism, but has some small scale farming focusing on flower seed. In the agricultural landscape, the structure of the reclamation is clearly visible in the spatial organization, as the dikes and the water system shape the current landscape. The water system plays an important role to counteract the salt seepage. If in the future the Haringvliet will be salinized, an improved fresh water system is needed to ensure the high quality production. Another option is to shift to salt tolerant crops.

The recreation landscape can be found mainly on the west of the island in the municipality of Goedereede. Most tourists come to enjoy the nature the island has to offer or practice recreation activities located at the coastal zones. On a yearly basis, the island accommodates an amount of tourists which is almost six times its own population. Most of them visit the island in summertime, leading to a higher energy demand during the summer months (an extra of 4,3 GWh per year). This makes solar energy a reasonable option as an energy source on the island. People visiting the island are commonly aged between 30-39 or 50-64, the length of their stay is 7,6 days on average and most of them are residing in personal properties. 8% of the total employees on the island work in the recreation sector. When it comes to the opinions of tourists about sustainability, it could be stated that this really depends on the personal background of the tourist. Education and culture for example are important variables which influence ideas about sustainable energy. In general, price and comfort still win from sustainable energy when it comes to choosing the destination of a holiday. The urban landscape consists of 19.000 households with a total of 48.000 people. Over the last years the population of Goeree-Overflakkee has been slightly ageing. The category of 45-64 year has relatively aged the most , but there are also a lot of young people on the island. Most of the people live in villages which know a traditional history in development with their own characteristic elements, contributing to the islands’ identity today. When renewable energy is introduced, it is important to do this in a way without losing the quality, characteristics and historical elements in these villages (De Ingenieur, 2011, p. 25). This suggests that several factors should be taken into account, namely the identity, visual coherence and scale. Also, awareness, education and participation are important because the island knows a closed community which does not like change. The urban environment can be made more sustainable on three levels: energy, materials and community. Possible renewable energy solutions are wind energy, solar energy, green roofs, greenhouse roofs, piezoelectric energy, living walls, waste as energy and sustainable transport. Materials could be produced locally and resources like water could be used better by for example using rainwater. A sustainable community can be created by improving liveability by creating specific living environments and by investing in commerce and industry. When making plans for a certain area, not only the physical characteristics of it are relevant but also a more mental dimension: the perception of residents. The research of phase one allows to get a first impression of this component. The idea of renewable energy is still new on the island and people tend to be sceptical towards it. They are not sure exactly how and to what degree it will be beneficial to them, and how it will help improve the environment. Generally however they do support a healthy environment and are not against renewable energy per se. It seems that resistance is mainly due to a lack of knowledge about the topic. However, another perception towards the topic is also identifiable, characterised by people who believe in the beneficial effects of using renewable energy source and the importance of becoming a self-sufficient island energy-wise. These people show their support by becoming a member of a local organization for wind energy, currently owning about 22 windmills. In order to overcome opposition based on negative perceptions, planners and developers should focus on clearly informing the public about the benefits of introducing RE technologies and include the locals in the planning process from the beginning. This gives them a change to understand the full consequences and benefits of accepting the innovative technologies in their community and enables them to have an active input in the developments on their island (knowledge + belief = willingness to pay).

2.2 OBJECTIVES The research question of this report is as follows: ‘’How can Goeree-Overflakkee develop towards a sustainable energy landscape while strengthening its local landscape qualities, within the context of a civil and regional scenario?’’ The aim of this report is to present a comprehensive vision that stretches the imagination of decision makers and provides them with new ideas of how the future of Goeree-Overflakkee could be shaped. This vision is based on a scenario which is framed within the context of a local/regional scale and the civil society. 7

To come to this goal, several objectives are identified:  Investigate and concretize existing scenario studies.  Extract ideas of local people.  A preliminary answer will be formulated to the research question: How do stakeholders perceive and value designs for energy-conscious interventions in Goeree-Overflakkee?  Compose an integrated vision on how the island could be turned into a sustainable energy landscape.

2.3 SCOPE This report examines the possibilities to transform Goeree-Overflakkee into a sustainable energy island. For this not only energy is taken into consideration, but also production of food, materials and transport. The scope of the vision is restricted to what is realistically considered possible on Goeree-Overflakkee itself. Geothermal energy production for instance is therefore not examined. In addition, basically only techniques that have previously proven to be operational are integrated in the vision. Based on the previous phase, this report starts with a map that shows the potential energy sources on the island (Fig 2.1). Subsequently the scenario is concretized for the location of Goeree-Overflakkee. The following methodology describes the planning and design approaches which are used to come to a variety of concepts/models. Together with both literature and local based research, these models form the foundation of the final vision. Chapter 7 then gives an extensive clarification about the vision, in which both technical aspects of the energy systems as well as aesthetic elements of landscape design are included. Before going further, the concept ‘Sustainability’ deserves additional examination. While there seems to be considerable consensus that a more sustainable society is in the best interest of everyone, opinions regarding what sustainability really means and how to achieve it are as diverse as the entities striving for it (Lindsey, 2010). According to the famous Brundtland commission (1987), sustainable development means that development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. To some this definition is rather inconsiderate, and they prefer an even older perception coming from the ‘70s, which describes sustainability as targeting equal prosperity for all people and equilibrium of economy and ecology (Van der Dobbelsteen A., 2011). Regardless which explanation is used, sustainable development usually purposes three main dimensions: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and socio-political sustainability. It shows the multifaceted aspects of sustainability, of which energy is just a part, however a very essential one.

2.4 CONCLUSION This report is written during the course ‘Master Atelier 2011’ in which master students in Spatial Planning, Landscape Architecture and Social Spatial Analysis were to research, plan and design sustainable energy landscapes, with a focus on Goeree-Overflakkee in particular. The Atelier exits of three phases based on the ‘five-step approach’ (Stremke, 2010). This report is the result of phase 2, following the previous phase in which four landscape types were studied. The objective is to develop Goeree-Overflakkee towards a sustainable energy landscape while strengthening its local landscape qualities, within the context of a civil and regional scenario. The aim of this report is to present a comprehensive vision that stretches the imagination of decision makers and provides them with new ideas of how the future of Goeree-Overflakkee could be shaped. For this not only energy is taken into consideration, but also production of food, materials and transport. The scope of the vision is restricted to what is realistically considered possible on Goeree-Overflakkee itself.

Figure 2.1: Map of potential development

3. SCENARIO

3.1 REGIONAL AND CIVIC The Netherlands is struggling with some important strategic challenges and uncertainties (CBP Memorandum, 2005). Different scenarios provide a variety of feasible solutions to cope with these uncertainties; they give a broad range of possible directions for future development. In this particular report, the selected scenario is framed within the context of a regional scale, concentrating on the civil society and private sectors (Fig 3.1). The regional scale means the whole island of GoereeOverflakkee, and for some large-scale services the scale of the Figure 3.1: Scenario selection province of Zeeland. Civil society consists of the local residents like farmers and people living in the villages. Private sectors are organizations like Deltawind, Roompot and Recron and local activist groups. Developments on Goeree-Overflakkee are driven by the local market in which individual responsibilities of citizens are centralized, leading to downscaling of services. The island is more or less independent of its context, decreasing the significance of close-by city Rotterdam.

3.2 ECONOMY In the “Independent Island” scenario, the emphasis is on a self-sufficient society and a strong local economy with inward orientation. This requires the use of local resources and the power of a strong community. Consequently, the private sector plays a very important role. There is a large freedom for strong local private companies and businesses to steer the market. A local market-lead small-scale economy leads to (increased) a more and diverse labor productivity and employment.

3.3 EDUCATION In order to become fully self-sufficient, there must be a high educated base to guide progress on the island. Therefore, attention must be paid to preserve intellect. Knowledge-based developments, for example by incorporating schools and research centers on the island, are a necessity.

3.4 AGRICULTURE Despite the tendency for the Netherlands to shift from agriculture and manufacturing to services and health care, in this scenario the aim is at keeping agriculture at a level where it provides sufficient supply for the island’s needs. This means a decline in production compared to contemporary statistics. However, to keep up with the demand from the citizens, a diversity of products is necessary and thus small scale production is required. Accordingly, secondary and tertiary sectors increase.

3.5 CLIMATE CHANGE Since the island is strongly inward oriented, (global) climate change has no priority. People are mainly concerned with developments which directly influence their own lives and care less about the rest of the world. Due to this way of thinking, there will be little global regulations about CO2 output/exhaust, which will cause the sea level to rise more than in other scenario’s. The rise of the sea-level will lead to more attention for coastal protection and the development of stronger dikes or other measures.

3.6 SUSTAINABILITY The quantity of production of sustainable energy on the island will be as much as it is consumed, aiming at 100% neutrality. In this scenario, there is no need to produce more energy for export. Sustainable energy 10

implementation takes into account the use of local resources, such as the wind and the sun, on a small scale, based on private initiatives. Moreover heath-cold storage will receive a lot of attention. Since the declined role of the government, less subsidies will be available to install renewable energy devices, hence a strong focus on saving energy seems logical. Furthermore collaboration is needed between the private land owners, producing their own energy, and the general contractor linking it to the energy network. A local energy company is therefore desirable in the future.

3.7 NATURE Developments on the island are largely market led, which diminishes the importance of nature. Therefore, nature is developed as a multi-functional organism; it needs to be profitable and beneficial for the community. It is part of their quality of life. For instance, the water of the Haringvliet will remain fresh, to ensure high agricultural production. Due to the local focus of the scenario, there is no agreement regarding the tackling of cross-border environmental problems (CBP Memorandum, 2005).

3.8 LOCAL LANDSCAPE (AND TOURISM) The significance of the landscape quality is relatively low, since there is no public sector which takes care of it. It might even be perceived as a hindrance when it stands in the way of economic growth. Only landscape elements and cultural heritage which is valuable for the inhabitants and which they are willing to pay for will be preserved. One way in which it can be valuable is if it is profitable in the tourism sector. Given the inward orientation of the island, less tourists will be drawn to the island, but the ones who come have thus a special interest in this island. Because of this, local characteristics can become a selling point. In this way, it would be possible to preserve the identity and develop local tourism With the purpose of making the landscape profitable for tourism, some fundaments of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultural heritage are preserved. What helps to sell will stay. However, given the inward orientation of the island, the focus on (mass) tourism reduces and tourist flows decline.

3.9 INFRASTRUCTURE The inland infrastructure will develop by improving local connections. Particularly the infrastructure for private owned vehicles and bikes advances, such as main roads, bicycle paths and walking paths. Public transport receives less attention.

3.10 PUBLIC SERVICES Ideally, the island would be entirely sufficient in terms of services. However, the small role of the government makes it likely for public services to be sobered down. Specific public services, as hospitals and universities, require a bigger network than the island can provide. For that reason a connection with the main land will still be present.

3.11 DEMOGRAPHICS Because of the self-supporting state of the island, the local population is tempted to stay there. A group of people from the mainland are motivated to move to the island because of the employment possibilities and new reputation of the island. On the other hand the island still has to deal with an aging population. In total, this will result in a slight increase of the population on the island.

3.12 CONCLUSION The scenario for this report is very much inwards oriented. The focus goes out to strengthening the local economy and society. The island becomes independent, which influences its energy supply and production. The goal is to produce enough energy for the island itself, but not overproducing for export. As a result of the localization, downscaling of services is a trend that shapes the island in this scenario.

4. METHODOLOGY 4.1 METHOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Structuring the framework of the report considers the aim of the research. The upcoming chapter provides a clear outline of the methods which were used to achieve this goal. Accomplishing sustainable energy use on the island Goeree-Overflakkee requires answers to the questions of “Where are we at the present moment?” and “Where do we want to be in 30 years’ time?” (table 4.1). Table 4.1: Structure of the research

The methodological framework for landscape planning and design in this report is grounded in the five-step approach of Stremke (2010) (table. 4.2). Stremke (2010) based his model on the Steinitz model, as explained in his book. The same model of Steinitz is used a second time for the aim of developing a model for the aim of the current study and shall be explained in the upcoming paragraphs. The five-step approach of Stremke is useful for the final result as it starts with analyzing the present conditions in step 1 (“Present conditions”) and reaching a final studied vision for the development of GO in step 5 (“Spatial interventions”). (Please note that specific spatial interventions will be provided in Phase III of the Atelier). In the intermediate steps (step 2, 3 and 4) the process answers questions as “How will the region change in the near-future?” and “What kind of possible long term developments are expected?”

Table 4.2: Methodological framework of the five-step approach for integrated visions, as used by Stermke (2010)

The schematic outline specifically developed for this research is an elaborated and slightly extended version of this five-step approach (table. 4.3). This scheme shows the step â&#x20AC;&#x201C; process approach which is followed throughout the research and consists of two main parts: analysis and synthesis.

Table 4.3: Step-process approach, developed for the research

The first (analytical) part of this study investigates the general information of the island conducted in phase I and proceeds with putting together the different landscape types. This knowledge assists the progress of locating potential energy sources on the island. This analytical part is finished by the formation of a â&#x20AC;&#x153;base mapâ&#x20AC;?, which shows the collision of different types of renewable energy potential on the island (Fig. 4.1), and is explored further in the synthesis part of the research.

Figure 4.1: Collision map/base map

The second part of the study (the synthesis) focuses on further development of the island, bearing in mind the scenario set and the potentials for renewable energy that the island has. Different models are created to give an indication of possible future developments. Following the explanations given in the beginning of the current chapter, here is the second use of Steinitz model. For this task Stenitzâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s framework is used as a starting point (table. 4.4), which again is adapted to the needs of the specific case and the purpose of this study (table. 4.5).

Table 4.4: Groundwork of the methodological framework for landscape and design (after Steinitz 1990 and 2002)

Table 4.5: Methodological framework for model development as the study was conducted

Three models are designed based on a combination of on the one hand the base map and on the other hand the different systems of the island (figure 7.1). The process of both analysis and synthesis provide the final vision for the development of renewable energy on Goeree-Overflakkee. Throughout this report three different types of research, described by the European Council of Landscape Architecture Schools (Stremke, 2010), are incorporated: (a) Research for planning and design: research including ecology and other disciplines in order to apply knowledge to landscape planning and design; (b) Research of planning and design â&#x20AC;&#x201C; research aiming to improve landscape architecture theory and methods such as planning and design processes; (c) Research by planning and design â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The analysis of complex spatial strategies by, for example, producing, applying and evaluating scenarios. The study works with the three different types by: searching for knowledge (a), defining appropriate design methods (b) and elaborate a scenario (c) that implements a landscape design which integrates renewable energy sources in a positive manner (table 4.6).

Figure 4.6: Research approach, adapted from the research types presented by the European Council of Landscape Architecture Schools

The elaboration of the local research, processed by interviewing different stakeholders, deserves additional explanation since it concerns qualitative research and is a particular branch in the methodology of the study. For this report the hermeneutics method of structuring information out of interviews is used. This means the reasoning of stakeholders and their most important statements are chosen based on picking out all main headlines of the text/interview. By putting several headlines together, different subjects can be related. When combining those relations with the meaning of their words, ideas, solutions and deeper meaning of stakeholders can be discovered, even if they do not say it directly. Out of such a model a sharp text can be written which unveils opinions (Patterson et al, 1998). The final vision is studied thoroughly using all the methods described above.

4.2 CONCLUSION The methodological framework of this report is structured around the principles of Stremke's five-step approach (2010). Two main parts can be identified, namely the analysis and synthesis. The project basically starts with gaining knowledge about the research area and working out the scenario for which the vision is created. This information is used to design different future models, going from basic concepts to more developed versions. Discussing these models then leads to the development of one final vision.

5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This chapter provides insight in the planning and design theories that are used as a background for the models and vision. The planning theories discussed in this report are a mixture of liberalism, collaboration and pragmatism. Furthermore topics as ethics, aesthetics, responsibility, beauty and place identity are considered.

5.1 PLANNING THEORIES Spatial planning comprises a set of concepts, procedures, and tools that must be tailored carefully to the situation at hand if any meaningful results are to be generated (Bryson and Roering, 1996). In this context, Healey (2009) highlights that strategic spatial planners should strive to understand the complexities of the study area, be sensitive to the location, embrace synthetic thinking, and be imaginative (Stremke, 2010 – p.116). Composing integrated visions, as Friedmann noted, is "probing the future in order to make more intelligent and informed decisions in the present" (2004, p.56). (Stremke, 2010) Also, according to Stremke (2010) the framework that the study should follow should:           

Be flexible to be adjusted to the locality and resources (Jones and Gross, 1996). Facilitate development of context- and area specific solutions (Healey, 2009). Enable active participation of stakeholder in envisioning process (Healey, 1997). Be transparent and explicit about rational/normative steps {Aibrechts, 2004). Integrate change due to current, projected trends (Steinitz 1990). Integrate change due to critical uncertainties (Dammers et al, 2003). Help composing alternative proposals rather than a single masterplan. Allow making use of existing scenario studies (see e.g. Jager et al, 2007). Help to identify innovative & robust interventions (see e.g. Albrechts, 2006a). Enable evaluation of robustness of interventions (see e.g. Rosen head, 2001). Avoid closing off future options (Hyslop in Friedmann, 2004).

Having all the above requirements, the study generated planning and design theories that are to be followed during the research process. Table 5.1 represents the planning theories that are vital for the development of the plan for incorporating RE on Goeree-Overflakkee and their importance. All theories listed below are leading but not obligating. PLANNING THEORY

IMPORTANCE FOR THE SCENARIO

Liberalism

dominance of the market; individual freedom; limited role of the state; guides imperfections of the market; allows general modifications; zoning principles; flexibility and freedom; rules are guidelines

Collaboration

communication; stakeholders; importance of local wisdom; flexibility; multidisciplinarity

Pragmatism

Getting things done

Table 5.1: Planning theories

The three mentioned theories guide to the development suggested with regards to the applicable scenario (Table 5.1). What is most important is that the local inhabitants are considered valuable together with their land (according to the scenario). Theories hold this view as well. The participation of the inhabitants is assured by following the Liberalism and Collaboration theories, by assuring that the role of the state is limited and the people are active participants. As a consequence of that, and related to the active development of the island 17

as a self-sufficient unit, diverse stakeholder participation is desired (Collaboration) and active communication valuable for the development of the island. Moreover, the market is an active participant. The state is not disregarded however its role is limited. However, it shall guide the imperfections of the market, assure flexibility and multidisciplinary participation. The characteristics of the different planning theories and their reflection on the plan are of high importance for the development of the island. The models that are developed are based on those principles. General modifications (Liberalism) are possible and thus, model development is a way of developing the territory and assuring its sustainable development. Having developed different models and following the theoretical guidelines a vision is developed. It is mainly based on the multidisciplinary participation, the market orientation and the high involvement of the locals.

5.2 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE THEORIES ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE When developing a vision for Goeree-Overflakkee, both humans and their environment has to be dealt with. How this issue is treated depends on the ethical point of view. There are two different ways of viewing the surroundings; from an anthropocentric or from a non-anthropocentric point of view. These main streams can be divided in sub-categories, namely egocentric and homocentric varieties for anthropocentric theories, and biocentric or ecocentric varieties for non-anthropocentric theories (table 5.2) (Thompson, I.H., 1998). The categories must not be seen as hard-edged or mutually exclusive. They are used to create an overview and to put each theory in a bigger perspective. Several theories will be discussed which are relevant for the final vision.

Table 5.2: Categories within environmental ethics (Thompson, 1998)

First, the Homocentric view is interesting because by principle all designs are made by people and for people. The homocentric way of thinking is grounded in notions of welfare and social justice (Thompson, I.H., 1998). For example, this view implies that there is only stewardship of the natural world if this contributes to the greatest happiness of the majority of people. This view is integrated in our vision, because the majority of people has to benefit from the actions taken. For example, the nature areas are not solely for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, but instead serve the people by being an area for biomass production and recreation.

Nevertheless, the environmental consequences of the capitalist mode of production can also endanger the happiness of the majority of people. Therefore, a new worldview which recognises the dependence of humans on non-human nature is needed to solve environmental problems. By admitting other living things have an intrinsic value, although less than humans, a shift can be made to a more ecocentric view. “Ecocentric theories (...) locate moral value in the larger ecosystem rather than the individual life forms that comprise it. Ecosystems are to be valued for their complexity, interconnectedness and persistence.” Landscape architects could be placed in both the homocentric and the ecocentric category, like Thompson says: “Great stress is placed within the landscape architectural literature upon the need to harmonize human activities with natural processes” (Thompson, I.H., 1998). In the vision, the ecocentric theories are used by working with closed cycles, designing with flows and highlighting interconnections. To get more insight about how human activities and natural processes can be linked, the theory of Land ethic is discussed. LAND ETHIC The ethical approach in working with the landscape is based on philosophy of the land ethic. A. Leopold stated: “The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such" (Leopold, A., 1949). The ethical view focuses on the relationship between people and their environment; in our vision the people of Goeree-Overflakkee are reconnected to their land by establishing local production of water, food and energy. Furthermore, land ethic implies that the landscape reflects the morals of the community of social, political and economic issues. As a consequence, these morals have to be reflected in the aesthetics of the landscape (Daniels, S., 1982). In the vision this is done by highlighting food and energy production, instead of hiding them. AESTHETIC VALUES WITHIN AN HOMOCENTRIC AND ECO-CENTRIC CONTEXT As mentioned in the theory of Land Ethic, the aesthetics of the landscape are important to reflect the morals of the community. But how do we realise these aesthetics in the landscape? Is it a result of a good design process or does it have to be taken in account from the first moment? And how important is aesthetics in relation to sustainability? One point of view states that sustainable landscapes are designed for their aesthetics: “ (...) correct biological balance, in the widest sense, comprising the whole life-cycle, through soil, plants, animals and man, must be applied to the whole land, if it is to remain beautiful” (Colvin, 1970, p. 40). In this view, beauty is found more important than ecological balance and the ecological balance is valuable because it is instrumental in creating landscape beauty. Brian Hackett, who established a landscape design course at Newcastle University 1949 and taught there until 1976, has another view on ecological principles and aesthetics. He thinks the aesthetics of a landscape is a by-product of its health. Therefore, if landscape planning is undertaken along ecological lines, the visual aesthetics will, more or less, take care of themselves. Clearly Hackett is choosing ecological values above aesthetic values. Thompson goes even further in this, by questioning if it is possible to construct non-anthropocentric aesthetic theories: “In claiming that a complex ecosystem has intrinsic value, one comes very close to saying that it has an aesthetic value, whether or not there are human beings around to appreciate it.” But he also states that it’s “a problematic position and not one to which most aestheticians would ascribe” (Thompson, I.H., 1998). For the end product of this course, it is important to deliver an vision which is aesthetically pleasing. It can be stated that when talking about aesthetic values, humanistic values are actually meant. It is unlikely that these humanistic values about beauty will result from a non-anthropocentric ecological design. More likely is that the designer also has a homocentric view which will introduce these humanistic values in the design. Then the task of landscape architecture is to come down to one view which reconciles humanistic values with ecological values. This is also what is done in the vision, especially when it comes to the sustainable energy production. By optimally using the available resources and designing cycles, the ecological values are represented, and by shaping and positioning the solar panels and production fields, the humanistic aesthetic values are added. 19

RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN AN HOMOCENTRIC AND ECOCENTRIC CONTEXT Next is the topic of the responsibility of man towards the environment. Ian McHarg states: “If one can view the biosphere as a single super-organism, then the Naturalist considers that man is an enzyme capable of its regulation, and conscious of it. He is of the system and dependent upon it, but has responsibility for management, derived from his apperception.” (McHarg, 1969, p. 124) He stated that people are responsible for managing nature, because they are part of nature and need nature to survive. He meant this from an ecocentric perspective, but also from a homocentric one. In the chapter The Plight, McHarg writes: “Clearly the problem of man and nature is not one of providing a decorative back-cloth for the human play, or even of ameliorating the grim city: it is the necessity of sustaining nature as a source of life, milieu, teacher, sanctum, challenge and, most of all, of rediscovering nature's corollary of the unknown in the self, the source of meaning.” (McHarg, I., 1969, p. 19) The emphasis here would seem to be upon human spiritual development, and the contribution that nature can make towards this. To concretise this responsibility for managing the environmental sustainability, the Environmental Space Concept can be used. In the words of Opschoor and F. Weterings (1994 a, b), the concept "reflects that at any given point in time, there are limits to the amount of environmental pressure that the Earth's ecosystems can handle without irreversible damage to these systems or to the life support processes that they enable". Thus, this first responsibility implies that in the vision the environmental sources should be used in a proper way, to balance the cycles and not overuse or damage the environment. This implies for example less use of chemicals and nutrients in the agricultural sector and closing the nutrient and water cycles. Secondly, there is a general responsibility to provide basic needs for each human being such as food, water and shelter. The philosopher James Sterba (1994), who can be classified as a weak anthropocentrist, argued that when the anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric perspectives are given their most favourable interpretations they converge to the extent that they support the same principles of environmental justice. Sterba suggests that both anthropocentrists and non-anthropocentrists could agree that human beings have the right to take actions that are necessary for meeting their basic needs even when they require aggression against the basic needs of animals and plants. He also states that this is not the case for non-basic, or luxury, needs. They should be prohibited if they aggressed against the basic needs of animals and plants. This second responsibility implies that in our vision the community should be provided in their basic needs. Furthermore, the basic needs of plants and animals should not be harmed by providing luxury needs for the community. This implies that habits of people should be changed, for example eating and travelling habits. But also the use of materials will have to change, for example changing plastic wrappings to wooden or paper ones. If these two responsibilities are taken into account, landscape architecture needs to search for a way to reconcile its humanistic concerns with its ecological responsibilities. In the vision, this is done connecting the basic food and energy production to water and nutrient cycles and by linking recreation, nature, food and energy production and living. LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS AND COMMUNITIES The aesthetic experience is a result of the beauty experiences by the beholder. Therefore it is shaped by multiple personal and external factors, such as function, significance, culture and environment. To get more insight in a specific landscape aesthetic experience of a community, the interpersonal differences on landscape preference, including age, gender, education, expertise, familiarity and ethnicity, should be investigated. These differences make that people and communities experience their surroundings in a different way. Because of this, different place identities are formed, based on social understandings and their meanings (Jorgensen, 2011). The next paragraph will go deeper into this subject of place identity. The idea of designing for the aesthetics of a community incorporates designs with dynamic, holistic and integrative understandings of landscape aesthetics. The landscape aesthetic experience of community can be lighted in a view of the relationships between culture, religion and spirituality. In the design process, the designer should be open to include a wider range of context of a community to get full insight in the aesthetic experience of that community (Swaffield, 2002). To get some insights in the aesthetic experience of the community, interviews were conducted during the development of the vision. An important topic during the interviews was the experience of the windmills, which were experienced as objects with low aesthetic values.

PLACE IDENTITY Place identity is an important but very debated and complex concept within landscape architecture. Its meaning seems to be different for different people. It can refer to something which comes from the personal inside, as well as to something which is imposed by the social outside. Identity says something about standing out, being recognised, while at the same time it is concerned with belonging and being the same. It has personal, social, cultural and even physical dimensions. Moreover, place identity has to do with the identity of the person in the place and the identity of the place itself. It must be noted that the identity of an individual affects his/her perception of a place. Memories, experiences, emotions and the general development of a person determine besides the fact what he perceives also the interpretation of it. Thus, attention to and interpretations of the environment are clearly filtered through a perception based on identity of the observer (Jiven and Larkhman, 2003). Remarkably it is often assumed that a place can construct its own identity. In essence, this is not the case; (groups of) people determine the identity of a place. The development of space into place is a process of selective perception and reconstructing an image by communicating. A continuous gradient of this process eventually forms the identity of a place (Hague and Jenkins, 2005). Although places have a number of own characteristics, people experience a place often differently. As a result, the stories about a place may also differ, leading to disagreements about the identity of the place. In addition, identities of places are not static but evolving, the same as people and their environment are constantly changing. The identity of a place is also known as Genius Loci: Spirit of the place. Generally people find the Genius Loci very valuable. After all, people themselves have created this identity, through events and emotions, but especially through the transfer of stories about these events. These stories are usually deeply rooted in the local society and are seen as foundations of the local culture. Because people grow up with these stories they might understand them as principles of the place identity. Whether this identity actually exists or not is irrelevant, since they mean a lot to people either way. Moreover, people derive a piece of their own identity from the identity of their environment; the environment of a person can symbolize its â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Selfâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Thus the material environment not only supports a part of the self, but becomes part of a person (Proshansky et. al, 1983). This gives place a much deeper meaning than just a backdrop on which practices take place. When a certain place is being tinkered this could therefore indirectly be considered as an attack on the identities of the people who are connected to that place. This implies that landscape architects and planners should be aware of the Genius Loci when designing and presenting plans for a community. If this is not the case, the design wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be related to its context and less likely to succeed. A comment is in place to state that interpretations of the Genius Loci may vary among persons or groups. Therefore landscape architects and planners must always be aware of whose interpretation of the local identity they are working with. This is especially the case when developing the vision, because various stakeholders like villagers, farmers and tourists all have different interpretations about the same place or developments in that place.

5.3 CONCLUSION The chapter provided an insight in the planning and design theories that are used as a background for the development of the models and the chosen vision. The planning theories discussed in this report are a mixture of liberalism, collaboration and pragmatism. Planning theories are mostly involved about the consequence of the involvement of people in the planning process, the multidisciplinarity and the level of importance of the government for the territory being planned. Furthermore topics as ethics, aesthetics, responsibility, and beauty and place identity are considered, as part of the landscape architecture theories. An important theory is Land Ethic Land, which advocates a balanced relationship between people and their environment, in which respect and caring for natural and human communities is important. In the vision, the people of Goeree-Overflakkee are reconnected to their land by establishing local production of water, food and energy. Aesthetic values are considered as humanistic values, which have to be reconciled in the vision with ecological values. This is done by designing energy, food and water cycles and designing their appearance. 21

6. LOCAL RESEARCH As explained in the methodology it is vital for a good planning process to be aware of the different ideas and opinions among different stakeholders. Accordingly a collaborative dimension is required in the project. The upcoming chapter examines the local research that has been carried out in order to gain knowledge about the local attitude towards sustainability. The results of this research answers (to some extent) the questions: ‘’How do stakeholders perceive and value designs for energy-conscious interventions in Goeree-Overflakkee?’’ And ‘’Do different designs make a difference in perception and valuation?’’ Five face-to-face interviews as well as three interviews over the phone were conducted, each of them taking about 20 to 30 minutes. The face-to-face interviews explore opinions of local inhabitants, therefore looking at the personal aspect of sustainability on Goeree-Overflakkee. Issues as identity, aesthetics and community are at the core of these interviews. Three different basic models (chapter 7.3.1., 7.3.2. and 7.3.3) were presented to the interviewees on which they could point out their likes and dislikes. The telephone interviews give insight in the attitude towards sustainable energy from three major organizations on the island, representing three large sectors: Recron (Recreation), Natuur Landschap Goeree Overflakkee (Nature and Landscape association) and LTO (Agriculture and Greenhouses). The hermeneutic approach has been used to extract ideas from local people and organizations (Chapter 4). Very important to realise is that these interviews provide a first insight in some local opinions. An amount of 8 interviews is however too small to be able to generalise the outcome as if this were the general opinion of the local citizens on Goeree-Overflakkee. Yet the chapter is still relevant as it gives some different perspectives on the matter, thereby providing different themes, problems and solutions to think about when developing the vision. Especially the representatives of three main organizations on the island serve this goal. The results of the local research are thus not leading the vision, but they can be used to recognize different points of discussion related to sustainable developments on Goeree-Overflakkee.

6.1 INTERVIEWING LOCAL RESIDENTS

beautiful landscape, authentic and strong community

1) Seller at a fish shop GO is a beautiful, authentic island with a strong community. Sustainable means saving energy and is very important for the future. RE can disturb the landscape and authenticity, views from beach and authentic places are important, therefore concentration of production on tactical places. Producing RE is expensive, so make people aware of saving. By putting saving above producing also the landscape gets the least disturbance.

Sustainability is saving, important for future RE is expensive, saving is good make people aware

RE disturbs the landscape and authenticity saving above profitable producing

least impact on landscape

views from beach and authentic places are important

concentration

peaceful, rest, small scaled, strong community

2) Butcher According to the butcher the island is nice because it is peaceful, quiet, small scaled and everybody knows each other, besides that it has a strong community. Renewable energy for him means green power and using natural resources. He likes RE, but only if it does not influence the landscape and the characteristics of the island and if it is profitable. He sees windmills as very disturbing in the landscape and therefore prefers solar energy, as this is not that visible. He prefers to concentrate the energy production to only make one place ugly and safe the rest.

RE is good, unless it influences the landscape RE ruins the landscape

RE is expensive

subsidies

profitable

concentration

4) Seller at a wine store GO is a strong community and has beautiful nature. To me, RE means energy from sun, wind and biogas and is important for the future. RE can ruin the landscape, especially wind turbines are disturbing, however they are cheap. The solution is to concentrate them, so only some spots get ugly or focus on other sources of RE, like solar PV panels, but they are expensive.

make only 1 place ugly

outland

not notvisable visible

rural, conservative and strong community

3) Owner of a bookshop GO is a rural, conservative and strong community. Renewable energy means energy out of natural forces, it has potential but is not profitable yet. At this moment many sources of renewable energy ruin the landscape and therefore the community; it is often even bad for nature and ugly. Inhabitants should be made aware of sustainability, by learning them how to save energy and participation in how they can produce renewable energy (themselves or together). This is the only way to make the people accept those changes in living and in the landscape.

solar energy

RE has potential

RE is not profitable yet only when profitable

participation

RE ruins the landscape

make people make people outland aware aware

ugly

bad for nature

saving

strong community and beautiful nature

RE is important for the future

RE is expensive in some ways

RE ruins the landscape

solar energy

windturbines harm the landscape

other sources of RE

concentration

open, flat, farmland and characteristic old buildings

5) Manager of discotheque GO is an open, flat island with a lot of farm(land) and characteristic old buildings. RE is good and reachable and also important for the future. Especially the characteristic old buildings clash with RE, so the combination between them should be avoid. Not every source of RE is good for the island, he would only go for the cheapest option, which is wind turbines, but they are noisy and disturbing the landscape. Biomass is also not good as it is a tread for the food production. The best source is solar energy, it is not that visible and could be the best implemented in combination with the characteristics.

RE is good and important for the future

always go for the cheapest option

not every source of RE is good for the island

windturbines windturbines are are noisy and noisy and disturbing disturbing biomass is tread for food production

avoid RE in combination with characteristic old buildings

solarenergy is bestis solar option, not that the best visible

6.2 INTERVIEWING REPRESENTATIVES 1) RECRON (ARTHUR HELLING) The theme of sustainability really suits the recreation sector. Especially outdoor areas near national parks, for instance camping sites, are interested in managing nature in a sustainable way. Recron itself actively tries to stimulate sustainable activities among its members. It is believed that entrepreneurs are most inspired by successful colleges, which is why Recron highlights flourishing sustainable recreation businesses. Furthermore, Recron recently signed a covenant with other percussing organisations who want to alter to sustainable energy. This is not only within the recreation sector, but companies with technical know-how are also involved as well as installation firms. Considering the quality of the landscape, sustainable energy production does not necessarily have a bad influence. At present, there are many more options than just big windmills to choose from. Solar panels and green roofs for example have high potential. Looking for the most fitting solution per location is a challenge we should take and often means mixing of options. For now, especially owners of camping sites seem to have an open attitude towards sustainable energy production. The biggest problem concerning the implementation of sustainable energy sources is the bureaucratic hassle. Because of this executing RE takes up a lot of time, which most people do not have. The rules need to be simplified. Since RE is still quite expensive, many small entrepreneurs gain no profits from sustainable energy. It is very important for these smaller businesses to work together, in order to get sustainable energy in a more cheaper way. ‘’It is required to make volume’’. Tourists which are attracted to sustainable recreation facilities are usually people with a broader world perspective and with more financial flexibility. They are willing to pay about 10% extra for sustainable services/products. But overall price, comfort and location have more priority than just sustainability for tourists to choose their destination.

2) VERENIGING VOOR N ATUUR EN LANDSCHAP GOEREE-OVERFLAKKEE (DURK VI SSER) The association works on a voluntarily basis and takes care of managing and maintaining the islandsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; nature and landscape. There are two main landscapes that form the identity; on the one hand the flat and open landscape and on the other hand the coast with its dunes. Most tourists are attracted by coastal facilities. Overall, the association is in favour of sustainable energy, but not by placing windmills all over the place. If they have to be placed, than rather in the sea where they are not visible than on the land. And if new ones have to be added, place new windmills close to the ones that are already there instead of looking for new locations. In the old days the churches of each town framed the skyline of the island, now there are huge windmills. This is very undesirable. Solar energy instead of windmills would have my preference, but this is expensive. It is most fair to divide the energy sources equally over the island. Most potential regarding sustainable energy on Goeree-Overflakkee has bio-mass. These days, natural waste coming from management of natural areas is not used at all. For instance verge management or grass on dikes could be used easily. But for now, all different kinds of organizations (Waterboards, local government, regional government, volunteers) are taking care of different natural areas, making it difficult to come to central collection of natural waste. This could be improved a lot. Furthermore, people on the island are not aware of what is happening with their energy, and they seem to be excluded from future plans. They are not involved which leads to resistance of inhabitants. 3) LTO GOEREE -OVERFLAKKEE (SIMON BREURE) Within the agrarian sector, the overall attitude towards sustainable energy is somewhat passive: first see it working before believing it works and then maybe changing some things. Most important is that adjustments on the energy system may not be less profitable than previous forms. It should be more efficient, user friendly and cheap. The farmers for instance who already have windmills close to their companies are okay with them, since they contribute to their economic interest. Honestly, when sustainable energy would be more profitable on the short term, everyone would use it. The feeling about a more environmental friendly way of producing is positive. The existence and success of agriculture depends on the quality of the nature, and nature and environment cannot be without each other. At the moment, it is difficult for farmers to change things; conditions for everything just increase. There are partnerships of farms on Goeree-Overflakkee. Usually two or three but sometimes four or five agrarian companies work together. They buy their machinery together or jointly order huge amount of products in once. The island has known such co-operations forever, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nothing new. It does mean that if sustainable energy production would grow on the island, there are already existing partnerships to use. By now, about 70% of the total land on Goeree-Overflakkee is used for agriculture. If the island would be completely self-sustainable in terms of food production, meaning that it only produces what it consumes and there is no export, only 20% of the land that is now used for agriculture and greenhouses would be required. 90% of the current potato production would be superfluous, as well as about 80% of the sugar production. This means a lot of land could then be used for other purposes. In that case, it seems most logic that agriculture companies in the middle and east of the island will maintain as agriculture area since this has the best land quality for production. Waste that could be used well for energy production are leaves of sugar beets and straw. Actually all plant debris can be used, as well as manure from livestock.

6.3 CONCLUSION The first general impressions derived from the interviews show the overall positive opinion towards renewable energy and sustainability. However, renewable energy must become cheaper before they consider to use it. Furthermore, it is indicated that there is a need for one company which could implement renewable energy sources on personal property if desired. Some people state that making the inhabitants aware of sustainability, renewable energy and saving, is the best way to implement it on the island. Others state that people will only consider renewable energy only when the prices of fossil fuels will increase immensely. As far as the aesthetics of renewable energy, nobody of these interviewees likes windmills as they are now; they are disturbing the wide and open identity of the landscape and they are noisy. Almost everybody is positive about solar energy as PV panels are not that visible. However, most people are under the impression solar panels are too expensive. Disagreements exists about the question if renewable energy sources should be concentrated or spread out over the island. The main argument for concentrating the sources is that this is most efficient and they are least visible. The main argument for spreading is that it makes people aware of where their energy comes from which again will make them care more and eventually make them save more energy. And as a chief topic, all these people point out that the island has a strong, close and conservative community and that it is important to involve them in the plan in order to let them accept it. These interviews demonstrate the importance of economy and identity. These themes should be taken into consideration when creating the models and vision.

7. MODELS The following chapter shows the route taken to develop three detailed models, which are based on the concertized scenario (chapter 3). Different sections show in a chronological order the progress of the three models. First of all, abstract concepts were created to recognize systems that influence the organization of energy on the island. Secondly, these concepts were used for inspiration to develop three concept models. Subsequently, these concept models were transformed into basic models. Eventually these basic models were worked out to acquire the specified and developed models.

7.1 CONCEPT EVALUATION Several examples of simple concepts are offered to make GO a sustainable energy island (Fig. 7.1). These form as a starting point; the first step in the development to the concept models. The concepts focus on for instance: concentrating the sustainable development towards the biggest sink (city focussed development), concentrating development around different sinks (Polycentric development), using the tourism potentials as driving force (Local tourism escalation), to approach the inland as a core for sustainable development (Inland focussed development), using the existing landscapes for sustainable development (Landscape focussed), using important economic driving forces for sustainable development (Economically viable), heat and energy flows are optimized and ‘form’ the landscape (Cascading), focussing on solar potentials of the island (Solar island), locating the energy producers in the coastal part like a ‘ring’ (Energy rings), and make a closed system on the island for energy, food, material and community (Island based closed system). These simple ideas serve as inspiration for the concept models, which are discussed in the following section.

Figure 7.1: Basic concepts for inspiration of the models

7.2.1 LOCAL CONCEPT MODEL In this model the focus is on the sinks, which are the villages. The production of heat, electricity and food is directed to the sinks. These sources are as close as possible to the sink to diminish transport losses. Sources with the highest losses on bigger distances are closest to the sinks.

7.2.2 CENTRAL CONCEPT MODEL In this model the island consists of an inland production area and an coastal sink area. All the production of energy, heat and food will be transported towards the coastal area. The inland is fully optimized for the production.

7.2.3 OFFSHORE CONCEPT MODEL In this model all of the energy is produced offshore. In this way the high energy potentials in the surrounding waters are used (tidal and blue energy). The island itself can now be used for production of food and materials to be fully self-sustaining. By developing the tidal and blue energy potentials the island can be an interesting place for knowledge accumulation and education.

Energy production is very closely connected to energy sinks; every urban centre has its own energy production in the surrounding landscape. Local building is important for cascading and heat transport. Heat is produced the most closely to the urban centres, to prevent heat losses. The main heat energy source comes from biomass produced further away from the villages. The heat itself is produced by biomass plants close to the cities. Food processing plants are also close to villages for using the generated heat, and to diminish the transport costs. So activities where heat can be used are the closest to the urban centres. Electrical power is produced by PV panels on large buildings. The inputs (biomass, food) are produced in the outer ring. Nature is in areas that are not used for food and energy production.

7.3.1 BASIC LOCAL MODEL

The central model creates two main zones on Goeree-Overflakkee – an inner island zone for electric energy and heat production and an outer zone embracing all other functions on the island – dwellings, recreation, water activities, etc. This due to the reason that the coastal line is more attractive for living and tourism than the inland. The model develops the idea of people living with water and not against it. The inhabitants of the island would profit from the water in this model. At the same time, the inland parts are used for the production for all of the island’s needs, and thus also for energy production. As it can be seen in the figure above all the production from the inland part is spread to the coastal zones, covering the needs for the inhabitants of Goeree-Overflakke

7.3.2 BASIC CENTRAL MODEL

The offshore energy model focuses on renewable energy production off-shore; thus in the waters surrounding the island. The island itself is the energy sink, the surrounding waters, which have a high potential for energy production, the energy sources. The model is based on energy production outside of the island in water area, leaving the land for food and material production for keeping the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s independency. The island will get its energy from offshore wind parks, and tidal - and blue energy plants. This makes the island also an interesting area for knowledge accumulation.

7.3.3 BASIC OFFSHORE MODEL

7.4.1 DEVELOPED LOCAL MODEL

In this model the processing and production plants are private enterprises or ownership by a small community, for instance a small village or a neighbourhood. As stated before, the spatial distribution depends on the economic viability. So, transport costs and heat losses are important. This means that biomass plants, food processing are close to the urban centres. Also greenhouses, material and food processing, are interesting for this area, because these also produce heat. The green houses are used for producing a variety of different crops for local consumption. The new industrial buildings can be well combined with PV panels and heat-cold storage. Further away from the sinks is the biomass production and food production. Because food and energy crops will be competing for space, some electric energy may be necessary for heating. Wind turbines are only used when not enough energy can be provided by the PV panels. Although wind turbines have a stronger connection with the villages, and are privately owned, inhabitants do not really like them, so big numbers should be avoided. Wave energy is interesting in coastal villages with a lot of tourism, and where wind turbines should be avoided. Waste from the burned biomass can be returned to the agricultural production land for nutrient recycling. Solid waste from villages is collected and recycled as much as possible. This recycling happens at a local scale as much as possible. Storage facilities are very local; heat and cold storage for new buildings, hydrogen production or pumping up water (to use gravity for energy production), for wind turbines and PV panels. In the following example energy amounts for the village of Middelharnis are used to get an idea of the size of the different land uses. URBAN CENTRES (SINK) In the urban centres the focus is on saving energy. In new housing projects there are possibilities for, passive building, implementing PV panels, solar collectors and heat-cold storage. The electricity demand for the village of Middelharnis is 0,53 J, the heat demand is 0,60 J. FIRST RING (SOURCE) This area is used for biomass fermentation and burning plants (combination with solar collectors). There are also green houses for intensive food production, and food processing plants. The last ones mentioned could be combined with solar collectors (heat) and large scale PV panels (electricity) on the roofs. So, most buildings in this area can produce heat for dwellings. Also these new buildings can be equipped with heat-cold storage for energy saving. For the total electric energy demand of Middelharnis 120,7 ha of PV panels is needed. Since this cannot be realised on the roof area, a maximum of 40 extra wind turbines is placed in the second ring, but that depends on how many energy can be produced out of the PV panels. For other villages wave energy can be an option, when tourism is an important factor. SECOND RING (SOURCE) In this area there is food and biomass production, which is the input for first ring. Biomass is produced close to fermentation/burning plants and food production close to food processing plants to diminish transport costs. Since 0,60 J of heat is needed from the biomass burners, 1569,4 ha of biomass production land is needed. Although some of the biomass will come from food production fields, this will be probably in conflict with the local food supply. Some parts of the nature areas close to the biomass burners will have a second function as biomass producers, because of that. It is estimated that 他 of the production land should focus on local food production, from which half can be also used as biomass for heat production. This means that 1569,4 ha of nature should get a second function as biomass producing land. Wind turbines are placed in this second ring because of safety measures. No heat is produced directly in the second ring. NATURE (EXTRA SOURCE ) These are areas that are most far away from the energy sinks. They are only partly needed for producing biomass for the heat production plants. The nature with a second function as biomass producing land, is the nature located more closely to the heat production plants, to diminish transportation costs. In the design process there is a trade-off in what extend the rings should be formed to preserve important existing nature areas. Part of these nature areas close to urban centres can be designed in such a way that they are both nature and biomass producers. 33

7.4.2 DEVELOPED CENTRAL MODEL

The developed model looks further at the suggested zoning of the island – inner production zone and outer zone, incorporating dwellings, recreation and leisure activities. Following the suggested scenario for the development of GO, the inner production zone is developed based on the idea of satisfying the needs for the population of GO and the tourists. ISLAND CENTRE (SOURCE) In the central area of the island one can find the main heat energy, electric energy and food sources. The model implements innovative (intensive) food production technologies (greenhouses). The central zone suggests no new housing developments. In this area there will be biomass production for biomass burners. The electrical energy is produced by wind parks located in the windy areas and solar parks in the sunny areas, within the central zone. Heat is produced in biomass plants, green houses and from processing the local products in processing plants (like potatoes into fries), within the central zone, more close to the villages. The biomass plants are assisted by solar collectors, for generating more heat. The central zone is used by farmers, who work on the land and in the vicinity. However, this area gives new possibilities for the development of Renewable Energy tourism, as the energy production is concentrated in this zone. Since the electric energy demand is 1,8 PJ about 5320 ha of PV panels is needed or 134 wind turbines. For storing energy, hydrogen production and pumping up water are options. COASTAL AREA (SINK) The outer zone of the island, is meant for dwellings, recreation, and nature development. However, the functionality of this zone is different from the central zone– it is meant for other economic activities and not for production. The coastal line of GO is not very useful for agriculture (See phase I, agricultural report). The further development of tourism, along the coast, is profitable (hiking, biking, swimming, sailing, diving, surfing etc.). This model suggest developing and intensive and attractive environment for the islanders. For diminishing the energy demand, saving is important in this coastal region. Heat-cold storage, passive building and isolation are important. Although the energy sources are in the centre and the sinks in the coastal zone, some functions can be combined. As demonstrated, the central part gives opportunities for Renewable Energy tourism. In addition to that, the nature areas in the coastal zone can still be an input of biomass for biomass plants (in the centre) to generate heat. In that way two functions are covered in this outer circle – developing nature and using its biomass for energy production. Those nature areas could also be double-used for cleaning the agriculture waste water before it goes to the lakes around, by doing this, the water keeps clean and nutrient-poor, which will solve the algae problem (as algae lakes are not attractive). The clean lakes then can be used for recreation, fishing, diving, sailing etc. Also these nutrients will increase the biomass production in the nature areas. TRANSPORT AND INFRAS TRUCTURE So the be short, generally it can be said that the island is separated in two zones – for production and for consumption. Figure … shows that due to the suggested heart development of the central zone the distance between the production and the consumption is always short. This model suggest following basic but sufficient infrastructure, covering the needs of the population.

7.4.3 DEVELOPED OFFSHORE MODEL

In this model the energy plants are private enterprises or ownership by the island community. All of the energy is produced by the offshore wind-turbine park, tidal plant and blue energy plant. The generated electric power is also used for generating most of the heat for the villages. This can be directly or via the production of hydrogen (storage). This hydrogen can be used for heating and as a fuel for transportation. Because of the importance of tourism in the windy areas, an attempt was made to diminish the amount of windmills. Although, wind turbines have proven to be reliable and there are a lot of uncertainties about the energy production of blue energy plants. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why offshore wind turbines will be placed.

OFFSHORE PRODUCTION (SOURCE) For the tidal plant it is important to focus on storage, since the energy wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be generated all day long. Here there are options in generating hydrogen, which can be used as fuel for cars and heating. The tidal plant will produce 0,68 PJ of energy. The blue energy plant has a constant and even adjustable electric energy production level. Important is that the exact production is a bit uncertain, because this technique is still in a developing phase. Although this is a risky investment, it can generate a lot of valuable knowledge on the island. Since in this model local knowledge is important, in this model a small blue energy plant will be realised by the community. Due to implementation of the blue energy in the Volkerak lake ecosystem will be retreated, opening opportunity for recreation and tourism activities. The offshore wind park has also to deal with uncertainties in energy production, because the wind is not always blowing. Also here, storage is important. This can be hydrogen production. The total production of energy is somewhat higher than the total demand (both heat and electricity), to deal with energy losses that occur when converting the energy into hydrogen and the uncertainties for mainly wind energy. To get the island to100% energy-neutral there should be placed 23 offshore wind turbines and one tidal plant.

ISLAND CONSUMPTION (SINK) The entire island itself is organized for effective and sustainable use of the local resources for self-sustaining system in all aspects: food production, building materials, textile, recycling and technology. Most of the inhabitants of the island are working for themselves or a company on the island. Agriculture is focused on food and material production for local consumption. Forestry is extended along the island for producing local building material. For saving passive housing is interesting. For storage is local heat-cold storage interesting. In this model several research centres along the island are focused towards energy, material and community. In this way knowledge is accumulated on the island. According the outland model diverse companies and businesses are working for supplying needs of the islands inhabitants. Local companies are oriented towards producing primary goods: food, clothing and building materials for local consumption. Thus maintaining sustainable and independent community.

7.5 OUTCOME MODELS Careful analysis of the models independently (table 7.5.1) shows that on their own, the models are likely to solve as well as create problems. To come to the vision, the decision was made to merge the models by selecting strong reinforcing characteristics of each one (table 7.5.2). MODEL

POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS close distances (production, linked to cannot solve all problems locally other functions) there is no connection between the attachment of people to their towns different cities (no trading) multifunctional energy landscapes small scale diverse landscapes

Local

more local initiatives heat production food processing greenhouses local water filtration organic agriculture economically most feasable

landscape qualities (only production landscape)

opportunity to exchange opportunity to chose optimal place for production multifunctional energy landscape Central

larger food production (still small scale and diverse) higher efficiency coastal recreation water filtration in combination with nature, recreation and biomass exchange between cities

Offshore

least landscape disturbance

disturbe sea life

need less turbines (more power)

windmills VS tourism people are disconnected from the energy production

tidal energy Table 7.5.1: Analysis of models independently

MODEL

TO BE IMPLEMENTED ON THE LEVEL OF THE VISION heat production food processing

Local greenhouses cascading food production

Central

recycling nutrients in nature areas combines with the production of biomass tourism areas along the coast photovoltaic panels by private companies (Deltawind) tidal energy

Offshore

blue energy (far-future) knowledge centers for new technologies

Table 7.5.2: Reinforcing characteristics used for the vision

7.6 CONCLUSION This chapter describes the development of the three (detailed) models, which are based on the scenario (chapter 3). The process of development is shown step-by-step. First a lot of ideas about how the island could function are shown, which were concretized in general concepts. Out of those concepts three basic models are made; the local, central and offshore model. Those three models were after that further developed and support with calculations and research. The final models are tested and compared to figure out the good and useful points in order to use the best ideas in the final compared model; the vision. This vision is further explained in the next chapter.

8. VISION The word vision derives from the Latin Videre meaning â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;to see, to discern and to focusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Embracing a shared vision of a sustainable world enables us to go beyond pursuing individual success to achieving purposes and visions of communal significance. The key to sustainability lies not in optimizing isolated components to be more productive or in maintaining the status quo, but in enhancing the resilience of whole systems through visioneering (Kim and Oki, 2011). This chapter will go in to detail about the vision which is produced for the island, based on the scenario, the models and preceding research. The developed vision is not a final or master plan; it does not have the purpose of telling exactly how things should be. Instead the aim of this vision is to stretch the imagination of decision makers and to provide them with new ideas of how the future of Goeree-Overflakkee could be shaped.

8.1 VISION OUTLINE According to Lindsey (2010), reducing wastefulness through more efficient utilization of natural capital has to be at the core of any sustainable initiative. The vision optimizes resource utilization across all system components for the entire life cycle of systems (Lindsey, 2010). For this vision, a closed loop operation, or cascading system, is developed where waste from one process is used as an input for something else. Linkages have been sought in the chains of food and energy production which includes raw materials, water usage, processing, by-products and heat. An integrated production approach reduces marketing costs while ensuring energy supply for more commercially viable products (Mangoyana & Smith, 2011). For the vision, three core zones are developed; the inland area, the coastal zone and the sea (Fig. 8.1). Each of the zones has its own qualities and specific functions. The inland area primarily serves to produce heat, gas and materials such as fertilizers, food and nonfood products. This is also the area where elements for further energy production, as municipal solid waste and manure are created. Smaller areas around the towns, greenhouse production takes place. The processing consists of fermentation plants and food and material processing factories. These processing elements are located near the towns, decreasing transport distances of their products. Particularly interesting for this area is also its potential for solar. The coastal area is mainly for purposes of dwelling and recreation. The vital functions of Figure 8.1: Structure of the vision that area are considered to be desired dwelling areas, recreation, nature and extensive cattle farms. Important features of the coastal area are also the knowledge centers, which are implemented with the main purpose to gain and attract knowledge on the island. Biomass is produced in nature areas which filtrate the nutrients from the water. The biomass can be transported to the inland are for further exploitation. The sea zone then is the principal area for energy production. This area provides tidal energy and possibilities for blue energy, which are to be further explored. Another significant role of this zone lies in its facilities for water recreation. 40

8.2 SHIFTING LAND USE SIZES In order to clearly indicate the change of land use that the vision requires, two abstract visualizations (Fig. 8.2) are created. Calculations are made for area sizes of specific landuses types (annex 1). Main parts of these calculations will also be explained in the following sections. The upper image shows the current area sizes per land use type, whereas the lower figure illustrates the future land use proportions. The whole of the square represents the island, without its waters. The picture does not reflect the spatial distribution of the land uses, only the area size of the land use. cattle breeding, and partly for reed filtering, tourism, nature, and knowledge centres for sustainable energy and food production. These abstract visualizations are transformed into final vision (figure 8.3). This vision is explained in precise detail in the forthcoming sections.

Figure 8.2: Landscape changes

An interesting question is how to change the land-use from current agriculture to reedfields, and rangelands. This change is interesting for farmers because Phragmites is a strong plant species, which needs less care than for instance potatoes. This means that these farmers can also focus on other activities like recreation and tourism, by creating facilities like hostels. Rangelands are interesting because farmers donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have to think about getting rid of the manure, and food is supplied by the area itself. So, the costs are lower and the farmers also have the possibility to invest in recreation and tourism facilities. In both cases livestock and biomass are very valuable on the island, so in an economic perspective this change is also very interesting. At some grounds in the inland area, some more intensive forms of cattle-breeding will be used to meet the meat and milk product demands of the island. This looks more interesting in the first place, but food for the livestock still has to be bought from other farmers. On the other hand these farms will produce a lot of manure which can be sold to the fermentation plants.

8.3 VISION MAP

Figure 8.3 Vision map

8.4 ENERGY ASSUMPTIONS Before continuing with the details of the vision, it is first necessary to have some basic idea about energy numbers for Goeree-Overflakkee. These numbers are at the core of energy estimations in the entire vision. In 2011 the average energy use per capita in the Netherlands was 210GJ (World Resources Institute, 2003), so if in 2040 50.000 people will live on the island, there will be a total use 10,5PJ. Although, times are changing and energy prices keep rising. This will result in an increased interest for methods of saving energy in their own house and transport, but also in the public buildings, industry and offices. Furthermore, the new energy sources (solar, wind, biomass, etc.) are likely to become much more efficient. In general around 50% of the energy in 2040 could be saved (Braber et al, 2010). When calculating and estimating how much exactly could be saved, it is important to have a look at the current energy use per sector. There are two big users, namely housing (46%, 4,83PJ) and transport (35%, 3,68PJ), in which saving probably has the biggest impact. On housing only 15% of the energy is used for electricity (Allacker, 2006), which is 0,72PJ. The rest is used for heating and hot water, which is 4,11PJ. Saving on electricity is complex and cannot be much improved; up to 20% can be saved, which equals an energy use of 0,58PJ in 2040. Saving in heating is easier, by isolating and using central heating instead of boilers it is possible to save up to 50%, which result in an energy use of 2,05PJ for heating. Transport is the other big user on the island now. Presently, 3,68PJ is used for transport. This energy comes mainly from fuel and diesel, which are not efficient energy sources (20% efficiency). Electrical cars however are highly efficient (90% efficiency), which means they use 4,5 times less energy for the same distance, only using 0,82PJ (MacKay, 2009). In addition to this, distances will decrease a lot in the local context of the vision. Up to 70% of all distances can be saved, due to almost no commuter traffic and short transport distances of food and materials. Combining those savings will lead to an energy demand of 0,25PJ in 2040. Industry (0,53PJ) can save up to 50%. In addition to this, the sector will grow in the scenario, which makes it 0,30PJ in 2040. Agriculture (0,42PJ) can save some energy in the future, but less easy than other sectors. The greenhouses will be energy neutral or even producing heat in the future, so some improvement can be made here. As a result the agriculture will have an energy demand of 0,30PJ. Trade (0,42PJ) will decrease strongly in the light of the scenario; the main trade stays on the island. This means that it will only need 0,10PJ in 2040. Offices (0,32PJ) can also save up to 50%, so the energy demand will end up to 0,16PJ. Health (0,21PJ) can also save up to 50% and will decrease a bit in the scenario, resulting in an energy need of 0,11PJ in 2040. Education (0,11PJ) can also save up to 50%, which equals an energy demand of 0,06PJ. (Braber et al, 2010). Sector Housing (electricity) Housing (heat) Transport Industry Agriculture Trade Offices Health Education Total

Energy use 2010 (PJ) 0,72 4,11 3,68 0,53 0,42 0,42 0,32 0,21 0,11 10,5

Energy use 2040 (PJ) 0,58 2,05 0,25 0,30 0,30 0,10 0,16 0,11 0,06 3,91

Table 8.4.1 Energy demand of Goeree-Overflakkee in 2010 and 2040

BIOMASS ASSUMPTIONS In the table for energy demand one can see that the heat demand, which equals roughly to the heat demand of the housing, will be 2,05 PJ in 2040. As stated in the vision, heat energy is produced for a large part by fermentation of biomass. In this vision the biomass yield per hectare is based on numbers from the ‘renewable energy island’ Samsø. This is one of the largest projects, showing that an energy transition is possible in only a few years. For heat energy the numbers of Samsø will be adopted to get an idea about the necessary space for biomass material. Although, it is important to notice that in case of Samsø, direct combustion of biomass is used. Large-scale solutions for the production of biogas for housing are not operational yet, while studies of anaerobic digestion give different results. Due to these uncertainties, the calculations for Goeree-Overflakkee will be based on the ‘solid and proven’ numbers of Samsø using direct combustion, although fermentation is used in the vision, which in theory has the potential of being more efficient (UCSUSA, 2010). In the table below one could see the biomass consumption for Samsø. Consumption ton/year (1) Samsø

Households served in 2011 (1) Households served in 2040 (2) Tons of biomass/y/household 2040 (2) 1200

232

464

2,59

1 Samsø Energi Akademi, 2011 2 Assuming 50% saving in 2040

Table 8.4.2 Biomass consumption Samsø

When the biomass consumption per household is known, the biomass source can be considered. At GoereeOverflakkee a large part will come from the agricultural area in the inland zone. Another part will come from the coastal zone. The coastal zone will consist of nature, production reedlands, and rangelands for extensive cattle breeding. All nature (forest and landscape elements) will be cut regularly for biomass, in correspondence with the vision, stating that the islands’ surface will be used as efficient as possible. Biomass yield numbers are calculated from data of Spijker et al. (2007) and the Centre of Energy Biosciences (2009) to determine the area sizes. The yield for production reedland is based on both underground and above ground growth, since also underground material will be used for fermentation. The different landscape fractions for land uses in the coastal zones have been chosen in a way to create a heterogeneous landscape which is interesting for recreation and nature, but is still a productive landscape for 21000 households.

1 Centre of Energy Biosciences, 2009 2 In this calculation urban waste is not considered as an extra biomass input, (although it will be), due to small amounts and the uncertainties about its energy content. 3 Spijker et al.,2007. Nature and road cuttings for generating heat energy. Yield can be reac hed at an elevated harvesting level of 80%. 4 Spijker et al.,2007. Part of this area can still be used to produce materials, for example for reed roofs. 5 Spijker et al.,2007. The yield has been adjusted (50%) because not all biomass can be u sed, because of extensive cattle breeding in this area. 6 Part of nature without cuttings for generating heat energy; e.g. Protected nature.

Table 8.4.3 Vision biomass sources Goeree-Overflakkee

MAIN CONCLUSIONS OF ENERGY ASSUMPTIONS The reduction of 63 % of the total energy demand for 2040 is slightly stronger than the generally adopted 50%, because of the strong reductions in the transport sector. This strong reduction is mainly caused by the scenario assumptions. When the vision is applied in other scenarios and this reduction in the transport sector is not realizable, more solar panels will have to be placed to compensate for the increased energy demand. The energy numbers and area sizes for different land uses from this chapter will be used in the next chapters to work out the vision in more detail. There has been accounted for the uncertainties in biomass production by basing the area sizes on the amounts of biomass needed for combustion. Since fermentation, or anaerobic digestion, is a more efficient energy conversion, not all forest and landscape elements, and grasslands areas are expected to be necessary for biomass production.

8.5 ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION A large part of the electric energy comes from the tidal plant in the Brouwersdam (37,4%). Also a Reverse Electro Dialysis blue energy plant in the Grevelingendam is part of the vision. The dam needed for the blue energy plant is already there, and creates three waters: the Volkerak-Zoommeer (fresh water), Oosterschelde (salt water) and the Grevelingen (salt water). In the vision the fresh water from the Volkerak lake is combined with the salt water from the Oosterschelde. The brackish water is going into the Grevelingen lake to create a brackish-salt lake which is very interesting for nature, fisheries, and tourism. This technology has many uncertainties for the energy production. This is why the blue energy plant has no part in the energy production calculations yet. The remaining energy demand can be produced by 256,3 ha of PV panels. 22,8 ha of roof area of farm buildings is suitable for PV panels (Duurzame Energie Scan, 2004), which means that 233,5 ha should be placed on greenhouses and processing and fermentation plants. This can be easily achieved, because the greenhouse area suitable for PV panels is estimated at 312,5 ha. During the summer months, the total number of people on the island is multiplied by six because of the tourists. The vision could cope with this increase in energy demand by placing more PV panels on greenhouses. The energy production of PV panels is higher in summer, which fits the population growth in summer. The extra total energy use for tourism is 0,14 PJ that is 7.6 % increase of the total demand (Group 3, Phase I). This is based on the assumption that because of saving, the actual demand of tourism can be reduced by only 25% because of the high transport part. This is equal to 31 ha of extra PV panels which could be placed on greenhouses. HEAT AND BIOGAS PROD UCTION For the heat and gas production second-generation biomass fermentation plants are used. Municipal solid waste and cattle manure are used in the fermentation plants to produce biogas which is then transformed into compressed natural gas (CNG) (J.L. Rapport et al, 2011). Phragmites australis is grown in the coastal area. These plants have a function as nutrient filter for the intensive agriculture where some fertilizers are used. These plants thus store a lot of nutrients and have thus a content of nitrogen. This higher amount of nitrogen in the C:N ratio is very interesting for fermentation because a higher N is favorable for growth of biogas producing bacteria. The filtering fields are cut for producing biogas in the fermentation plants. The biogas can be put in the existing gas grid for heating and cooking. However, there is not much experience of using the Phragmites (Common Reed) for biogas generation. In the experiments carried out by the Technical University of Tallin, biogas has been produced from green reed mass (methane content 55-60 percent) with the ratio of 0.4-0.5 m3/kg. The test were small scale and more research is needed. There is more research information available on the biogas use of the Reed Canary Grass, which is similar to the Common Reed as an energy plant (Lehtomaki, 2006). The Reed Canary Grass can deliver 2900-5400 m3 biogas per hectare, the equivalent of 28-53 MWh/ha. When using this information an area of 3703.7 ha is needed for Phragmites production area. To deal with the uncertainties in the gas production amount, the

addition of municipal solid waste and livestock manure from the intensive livestock farms can assure that this amount will be reached. Many of the reed biomass production areas multifunctional, because recreation, nature, nutrient filtering and biomass go well together. Also heat from greenhouses and processing plants can be transported to the houses. These constructions are interesting because all of these heat sources are near villages. CASCADING The current production system exists of: input - production - processing - products and by-products (waste). This is an industrial system with a linear ‘throughput’ of material and energy flows that relies on imported nonrenewables, on virgin renewables and produces wastes and emissions dumped to nature. The cascading system tries to close the circle to re-use all the materials, so there is no waste, see table ‘Cascading water materials - energy’ for more information. To make the cascading possible, a key function, or anchor activity, is needed to close the circle (Niutanen, V. and J. Korhonen, 2003). According to the vision, the cascading system has two key functions, one for water, which is nature, and one for organic material, which are the fermentation plants.

Figure 8.4: Model with the cascading of material and water and the production of energy and food

The first key activity, nature, closes the water cycle. The nature strips along the waterways filtrate the nutrient rich water from the agricultural area and captures the nutrients in vegetation like reed. In this way, the water which exists has a high quality and is suitable for recreation. At the same time, a lot of biomass is produced and the nature cuttings with their high C:N ratio form a perfect input for the fermentation plant. The second key activity is the fermentation plant, which forms the missing link between the organic byproducts and the demand of fermentation and heat. In the fermentation plant, the organic material will be transformed by the process of composting to fertiliser, heat and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). As mentioned before, the carbon and nutrients existing in the organic waste determine how suitable the material is for fermentation: “The composting process depends upon the action of microorganisms, which requires a source of carbon to provide energy and a supply of nitrogen for cell proteins” (Ahmad et al., 2007). By-products most suitable for fermentation according to C:N ratio of ≤20:1 are: chicken and cattle manure, sewage sludge, alfalfa residues, food waste and farm yard manure. Moderately suitable (C:N≤27:1) are: fruit and vegetable wastes, grass cuttings and waste from food processing units. Less suitable (C:N≤208:1) are: sawdust, coir waste, corn stover, wheat straw etc. including all crop residues (Ahmad et al., 2007). Fermentation is chosen as key activity for several reasons. First, burning was excluded because: “Formation and emissions of particulate matter from biomass burning have drawn considerable attention because of the concerns that they may contain toxic elements or species of relatively high concentrations” (Lighty et al., 2000). Secondly, bio-ethanol production is not a good option because this fuel is not used as energy source in the scenario’s; the cars will be on driving on hydrogen, from the solar cells, and electricity. Last, hydrogen production of biomass is not an option, because the technology is not yet developed enough. The efficiency of hydrogen from biomass is too low, compared to fermentation: “Since in theory 12H 2 can be extracted from a hexose such as glucose this represents a maximum conversion efficiency of 33%, too low to be practical considering that this means that the majority of the COD of waste streams remains untreated and that other processes, such as anaerobic digestion, would be more effective” (Hallenbeck, 2009). Within fermentation, there are several options, namely pure electricity, pure CNG (compressed natural gas), CNG+heat and CNG+heat+electricity. In one research, the types with electricity production were found to be most financially viable because of high prices for electricity, but CNG with heat production was also found financial viable. (J.L. Rapport et al, 2011) In the developed vision the energy is mainly needed for heating the houses and the CNG mainly for purposes like cooking. Heating is a low quality form of energy; it is low in exergy (Fratzscher and Stephan, 2003). If a type with electricity would be chosen, it would mean that first the exergy is increased; the low quality energy is transformed into a high quality energy, namely electricity. If energy increases in exergy, energy is lost. Next, the electricity is used to heat water, a low exergy purpose. In this way, the increase in exergy is wasted and there is a great loss of energy. Therefore it is wise to choose the type CNG+heat and not convert the CNG to electricity. STORAGE The tidal plant and PV panels will not be producing a steady amount of energy during the day. This results in the need of storing a part of the energy. For the tidal plant the tide rises twice a day, so twice a day the double amount of the needed energy is produced. In the vision there has been accounted for this surplus in energy by placing a CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage) system. This system stores energy by compressing air, and produces energy by driving a generator with the compressed air when the tidal plant is not producing energy. In this way, the electric energy can be put from the generator to the grid just like the energy from the tidal plant. The air will be stored in tanks, which can be lowered in the ground. In this way they are less visible. In the compressing process, heat will be generated, which can be used for other purposes. The CAES is a cheaper and saver option than hydrogen production. The PV panels will be generating hydrogen when solar radiation is high. This hydrogen can be used to generate electric energy when the solar radiation is lower, and as a fuel for cars. This means that the hydrogen storage is near the greenhouses, at the agricultural side and thus not the village side, for safety reasons. The PV panels on farm buildings will also generate hydrogen at high radiation. This hydrogen is only used for electricity

production for the grid when radiation is low. Hydrogen for fuel is not implemented at farms because they are not along main transportation routes. A new development in storage solutions is Reversible RED (Reverse Electro Dialysis) storage. This is a technique based on the RED blue energy plant. The general idea is that energy can be stored by transforming brackish water into a salt and a fresh when energy is produced. When energy is needed the salt and fresh waters are combined again for production. All of these processes take place in a tank with three compartments, which can change in size. These tanks can be placed under for instance the green houses and near the tidal plant. This technique is not yet well developed for large-scale use (Hamelers, 2010). SAVING The first step towards saving and storing energy is the implementation of a better design. Everything involved in a building’s design and use directly affects its energy consumption (Bry Sarté, 2010). Next to that there are three different methods to raise the awareness of people in Goeree-Overflakkee of their energy use (Group 4, phase I). Which are: Education and community engagement program; the Urban Energy Controller; and public art. The vision deals with the education element by creating knowledge centers. Also a Solar Art Park is propose which can be both education and public art. There are several strategies which communities can use to improve the efficiency of their energy systems. First, there is the combined heat and power system, which is a form of heat cascading. In this system, “waste” heat produced during electricity generation or industrial processes can be used to heat water and to make steam. The steam can be distributed through pipes and used to heat buildings or whole communities. In 1984, Copenhagen built a system that supplies hot water to 97% of the city by harvesting the heat from local cleanburning biomass plants. In this vision the heat from biomass plants, greenhouses and processing plants is used in this way to save energy. Only the buildings most closely located to these plants and greenhouses can profit from this production, because the heat is quickly lost in transport pipes. The buildings in the centre of the villages will use biogas for heating (Bry Sarté, S., 2010). The second option is heat-cold storage which is actually a combined saving-storage option. It will be used in the greenhouses and large (facility) buildings. In this way the biogas demand for heating will be lower. But most important for saving energy is people’s individual willingness to do so.

8.6 INLAND ZONE SELF-SUSTAINING FOOD AND MATERIAL PRODUCTION The vision adopts the The Environmental Space Concept. In the words of Opschoor and F. Weterings (1994), the concept "reflects that at any given point in time, there are limits to the amount of environmental pressure that the Earth's ecosystems can handle without irreversible damage to these systems or to the life support processes that they enable". This concept is also adopted in the FOE Action Plan: "Sustainable Netherlands" (Friends of the Earth/Milieudefensie, 1993). The Action Plan quantifies the consequences of sustainability based on the concept of environmental space. Based on the premise that every world citizen has a right to an equitable portion of the Earth's available environmental space, FOE calculated that in 2010, the share of environmental space for a Dutch person would be 0.25 hectares. In this case the world population was expected to reach 7 billion. Upcoming are some of the results from the FOE Action Plan that were used in the final vision: The cropland use per person will have to be reduced from 0.45 hectares to 0.25 hectares, 0.19 of which is needed for a basic food package. This will leave 0.06 hectares for non-food production, such as cotton, and luxury products such as coffee, beer, and wine. World per capita rangeland use for production of meat and dairy products will be reduced from 0.61 hectares to 0.44 hectares due to overgrazing. The remaining lands might provide a sustainable meat supply of about 60

grams per person per day, compared to the current average of 190 grams. So to provide food by means of a complete sustainable cropland and cattle breeding 0,69 ha per person is needed. In the vision, 0,25 ha per person is used for crop and non-food production. However, it is not possible to provide the 0,69 ha per person, including the sustainable meat production. When using rangeland as the FOE Action Plan proposes for producing meat and dairy products, 22000 hectares of rangeland to feed all the inhabitants is needed, this is 84% of the total land area. For Goeree-Overflakkee this seems somewhat unrealistic, that is why an area of 5661 ha for sustainable meat production is chosen instead. This area with rangelands can also function as a nature area, and is located in the coastal area. Because the area for sustainable meat and dairy production is only 5661 ha, or 0,11 ha per inhabitant, there should also be more intensive forms of cattle breeding as an addition to the rangelands, to provide enough meat according to current consumption. This decision is made, because changing to a diet with less meat can be problematic due to the fact that this would mean changing lifestyles. There are a lot of uncertainties about the amount of land needed for being self-sufficient in food production. For the complete sustainable cropland and cattle breeding 0,69 ha is needed according to the FOE study. In an American research is stated that at least 0,49 ha per person is required in order to maintain current American dietary standards (Pimentel & Giampietro, 1994). A member of the board of the agricultural union (TLO) of Goeree Overflakkee even stated that only 0,082 ha is needed, which is 20% of the current agricultural area (chapter 6.2). In the vision there is space for 0,36 ha per person for sustainable food production. This is the result of taking 0.25 ha for the basic food package (excluding meat), plus 0,11 ha of rangelands (coastal area) for extensive cattle-breeding. To alter the meat and dairy production this is combined with more intensive forms of cattle breeding (Inland area). Since the island has to be self-sufficient in food production (and because of electric energy and heat potentials) greenhouses are interesting. Many different crops have to be produced, and in the greenhouses the climate can be adjusted easily to the crops needs. Also the greenhouses can increase productivity of the arable land. It is estimated that about 5 % of all food and material production comes from greenhouses (625 ha). SUSTAINABLE INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE Intensification seeks to stimulate the productivity on given (or fixed) area of land by progressively increasing inputs, including capital and labour (Beranger, ?). In the context of Goeree-Overflakkee intensive agriculture is needed for independent (on island produced) food supply for all 50,000 inhabitants. In the tourist season extra food will be imported for the mainland as close as possible. The vision states that there is enough space and energy for producing crops, vegetables and dairy products on local scale. Local farming ensures more jobs, minimal transportation costs and minimal loss due to spoilage (Ecosociodynamics, 2011). Even when high production demand is needed there are several possibilities to produce food intensively by almost not harming nature and human e.g. by applying biointensive farming methods and recycling locally produced bioproducts. Biointensive farming is a highly intensive and sustainable method. It can require as little as 10% of the external energy (per unit of output) that is required for large commercial farms; it can use 6080% less water; it minimizes and often eliminates the need for external fertilizers, chemicals, pesticides and seed purchases . The use of composting and compost farming - dual-purpose crops that provide both calories for humans and an abundance of material for building compost piles. These crops include many grains, corn, fava beans and sunflowers. Intensive planting - this creates an umbrella - a "micro-climate" over the bed which reduces water evaporation, retards the growth of weeds, retains the carbon dioxide that the plants need for growth and protects the micro biota living in the soil. Companion planting - many plants complement one another and grow more abundantly together - say bush beans and strawberries. Calorie farming- Here the emphasis is on growing the most efficient calorie-producers(potatoes, parsnips) for human consumption. Open pollinated seeds - adaptability to a broad range of growing environments without compromising yields and whole system approach (Synergyfarm, 2011)

The earlier paradigm of science being developed at the international or perhaps national level and then disseminated to farmers should be replaced by an active exchange of information among scientists and farmers towards more sustainable local farming methods (Tilman, 2002). Intensive livestock production is connected with a number of environmental effects. Manure treatment processes that result in products that compete with and replace the use of chemical fertilizers can (partly) close the nutrient cycle again. The state-of-the-art of techniques application of air treatment may also reduce environmental emissions of odor and particulate matter (dust) (Melse &Timmerman, 2008). The manure from cattle is collected and used in the fermentation plant. Greenhouses are located scattered around the perimeter of the urban centres. The products are as close as possible to consumer. In this way reducing transportation distance. Located within 1 to 2 km from consumer to greenhouses, the greenhouses are producing fruits and vegetables that are introduced in the Netherlands such as exotic fruits. As well as completing the food demand for year around production for islanders and tourists (Fig 8.6). Fibre production can be a sustainable factor for communal independence and local production and consumption enhancement. For these purposes hemp, cotton, flax and beech could grow on the island for textile production within island. In this case providing local enterprise and small scale businesses such as design shops, local clothing brands could be established close by production fields as to minimize the transportation. These fibre landscapes may also hold aesthetical qualities (Fig. 8.5).

Figure 8.5: Field of flax with beautiful blue flowers

Figure 8.6: Sustainable greenhouse landscape

INTENSIVE MULTIFUNCTIONAL AGRICULTURE The multifunctionality of agriculture has also been described as a ‘‘unifying principle to bring the productive and non-productive functions into harmony’’ (Van Huylenbroeck et al., 2007). In the context of Goeree-Overflakkee, agricultural areas will also aid education and recreation and will represent places where community meets by placing mixed used buildings, e.g., a farm, a school, a residential care home for elderly people, a shop and information center could be mixed into one building unit. As Feagan (2007) Figure 8.7: A greenhouse combined with restaurant (Restaurant de Kas, 2011) writes, bringing consumers closer to the origins of their food, in many cases involves a more direct contact between farmers and the end-users of their product (Fig.8.7) (Renting et al., 2003). Moreover, ‘fixing products to place ’ through such place-labelling helps to broaden the marketness of transaction. Local scale produced food and products give inhabitants a quality label of the place. Also this might have a positive influence on tourist’s impressions of GoereeOverflakkee. Barham (2003) contends that a label of origin connects it with a specific place and indicates action and therewith life in that place.

8.7 COASTAL AREA MULTIFUNCTIONAL NATU RE/AGRICULTURE AREAS In the coastal area several functions are present, that are: villages, nature areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and extensive agriculture. The nature areas are to a large extent multifunctional. The reed lands are partly in nature areas, and partly in the coastal area on former agricultural lands. By adding this vegetation to the landscape new habitats arise. The reed lands can give shelter to many bird species. The repeated cuttings for biomass prevent the plants from overrunning the ecosystem in the nature areas. The water flow from the agricultural to the Grevelingen lake is treated in these reed wetlands. This water flow is polluted with many nutrients from agricultural activities, which decrease the water quality of the Grevelingen and Volkerak lake. Nutrients are taken up by the plants and the biomass is used in fermentation plants. The residues from the fermentation plant are used as fertilizer. The reed lands are located along the visible water that flow from the central part towards the South. Since the water flows from north to south through the island, the reed field in the south and east of the island are constructed in such a way that they also can treat as much water as possible, by optimizing the water flow through the fields. The reed in the northern parts is mainly for biomass production, because here the water is entering the island. This water is not yet very polluted by nutrients. The reed can have more functions than biomass production and nutrient filtering. They can also function as recreation area by adding elevated paths. In the former agricultural area there is more intensive reed production (reed fields). In the former single-function nature now patches of reed is produced (nature-reed lands). Also rangelands are created for extensive livestock farming. These rangelands will be located on the somewhat higher grounds between the different water flows, while the reed lands are along the water flows. In this way a varied landscape of range lands with different kinds of livestock, reed fields, nature-reed lands and a nature areas near the Grevelingen and Volkerak lake arises, which can be very interesting for tourism and recreation like cycling, walking and bird watching (Fig. 8.8). Close to this varied landscape are also the villages, which are located along the edge of central zone and coastal zone. In this way, inhabitants can live very close to the recreation and nature areas (Fig. 8.9). Extensification can be defined as the process( or trend) of developing a more extensive production system, i.e., one which utilizes large areas of land but with minimum inputs and expenditures of capital labour (Beranger, n.d.). Integrated crop or livestock systems can ensure high levels of production per hectare from the reduction use of agriculture inputs, thereby, protecting the environment and remaining by utilizing the available land surface area. In extensive systems, rather than seeking homogeneity at all costs, the diversity of land and animals is managed by combining them in the best possible manner (Beranger, n.d.). The South coast along the island present agriculture land is transformed into rangelands and grazed by miniature cattle sheep, goats, horses and Highland cattle or kyloe.

Figure 8.8: the multi-functional nature in the coastal area: extensive cattle, nature, filtration and recreation

Figure 8.9: Urban close to nature area and biomass production

MIXED USED BUILDINGS Combined use of residential properties, offices, services, library and shops is desired in the vision, with closed building system where living and working is located in short distances or compiled in one building. In this order daily commuting from the island to the closest cities could be decreased. As mixed used buildings are compact system of multiple facilities it provides sustainable flows of resources and waste recycling in the local scale. It gives a sound and flexible environment for local businesses and enterprises to be creative and so they can deliver unique products. Mixed use building units (also accommodate hotel facilities. For example hotels are combined with concert halls where GO inhabitants could attend performances as well as meet people from other places and vice versa. Some farms and greenhouses could be adapted for educative and health retreatment facilities for elderly people being close to nature. Previous studies show a high potential value of nearby nature for elderly adults. The results indicate that elderly adults consider access to nature near their homes to be very important. Satisfaction levels were significantly higher among residents whose apartments overlooked natural settings, and among those who lived closer to certain kinds of outdoor settings (Kaplan & Talbot, 1991). This justifies the locating dwellings in the coastal area in the vision.

Figure 8.10: Mixed use: The Greenhouse nightclub, New York City, 2011

EDUCATION CENTERS In this coastal zone three knowledge centers are foreseen, for keeping knowledge within the island and accumulating sustainable independent island vision where energy and resources are produced for island and consumed locally. These academies are focused on tree main research and development questions: energy, agriculture and community. According to that, in Goedereede is established the GO Energy Academy focused on innovative energy production, social awareness and energy saving. In the east of Goedereede, connected to this knowledge centre, a Solar Art park is created for creating knowledge, but also for recreation, and creating awareness by local people. In Oude-Tonge the GO Sustainable Agriculture Academy will be focussing on organic and healthy food and the fibre production, and in Ouddorp a GO Culture Academy is focused on creating sustainable communities.

8.8 LANDSCAPE PERCEPTION

COMMUNITY THINKING Sustainability cannot be considered in isolation from either its social or its environmental context. Any attempt to make changes, by new local environmental initiatives, should therefore be placed in this context. The effectiveness of these initiatives is largest when they are built on existing and accepted community and social mechanisms, traditions and practices instead of new institutional structures. For this reason, the vision supports further development of local sustainable enterprises such as Deltawind and camping the Klepperstee. As explained by LTO, there are already existing partnerships in the agricultural sector. Suggested in this vision is to use these networks for sustainable energy supply in the future. The interviews provided information about the existing local value systems on the island. Especially in Goedereede, people are more attached to their town than to the island as a whole. This is one of the reasons 55

why decentralization of town-bound functions form the local model is included in the vision. Functions like food production in greenhouses, processing of material and food and fermentation plants are placed in a zone around the town. In this way, people are directly connected with the sustainable system of heat and food production. The extent to which people believe that others are willing to help solve environmental problems is an important influence on their own willingness to change (Uzzell et al, 2002). This philosophy is also adopted by Recron, one of the largest recreation companies in Goeree-Overflakkee. Recron highlights sustainable enterprises and also helps them in becoming sustainable. It is important to have a few leading people to visibly show their contribution to sustainable energy production, in order to get the rest of the residents on board. Another way of changing the way people think is by letting them experience something different. Learning can be achieved through experience (Franklin et al., 2011). Because of this, the Solar Art Parc can educated people, and especially tourists, about sustainable energy. IDENTITY Deciding what is the identity of a place is very complicated (chapter 5.2). The identity is formed by the physical characteristics of a place as well as the psychological dimension of people who experience the place. Identification refers to the attributes of the place that give it a distinctive identity in the minds of residents (Uzzel et. Al, 2002). For this reason one could argue the only way of knowing the identity of GoereeOverflakkee is by asking the inhabitants and tourists. By interviewing the inhabitants, it was clear that two key features are at the core of the identity of the landscape of the island: Wide and Open. Energy-conscious interventions may therefore not jeopardize these features. The voices of inhabitants on Goeree-Overflakkee state that windmills destroy the wide and open landscape (chapter 6.1). The developed vision in this report therefore refrains from placing windmills. By showing an alternative, people will become more aware of the effects on the landscape if indeed no windmills are used but other sources of sustainable energy production. This vision thus enables people to make better judgements about the desired future. For the tourists, there are two different landscapes which form the bases of the identity of GoereeOverflakkee, these are the coastal landscape with dunes and the flat and open landscape land inwards. (Chapter 6.2). Tourists are especially attracted by the recreation facilities in the coastal landscape. Therefore, if sustainable energy is introduced in this area, special attention must be given to the aesthetics, to make it more attractive for tourists, or at least not to destroy it (Fig. 8.11). Places with a strong identity help to enhance community awareness and bonding. In this sense, places with strong identity make social cohesion easier. At the same time, social cohesion contributes to place identity. It is presumed that the presence of strong sense of identity and consequently a strong cohesion will lead to environmentally altruistic behaviour (Uzzel et. Al, 2002).

Figure 8.11: Respected and strengthened landscape of Goeree-Overflakkee for tourism

AESTHETICS Some say that when aesthetic values are mentioned, actually humanistic values are meant (chapter 5.2). Therefore it is important to know the these values of the inhabitants and tourists of Goeree-Overflakkee. Already some values are mentioned, like openness and flatness in the inland and the elements of the coastal landscape, especially the dunes. The energy-conscious interventions must not harm these landscape qualities. Therefore, wind mills are not used because they harm the openness of the landscape when placed on land and disturb the view of the coastal landscape when place on sea. The energy interventions from the vision which have most impact on the landscape qualities are the land use change for the production of biomass and the implementation of solar energy. Therefore, these two topics will be discussed more elaborately to see if they can improve existing qualities by paying attention to the aesthetics. In this way, energy transition is actually a chance for improving landscape quality. AESTHETICS OF BIOMAS S PRODUCTION It is unlikely that humanistic values about beauty will result from a non-anthropocentric ecological design (Thompson, I.H., 1998). More likely is that the designer also has a homocentric view which will introduce these humanistic values in the design. Then the task of landscape architecture is to come down to one view which reconciles humanistic values with ecological values. This is exactly the task of landscape architects for the design of the biomass production area. This area consists of nature strips along waterways and nature areas near the coastal zone, which will be used for filtrating the nutrient rich water and consequently producing biomass for the fermentation plant. This area will also be used for recreation, both by inhabitants from the villages nearby and by tourists visiting the area. The landscape architect has the opportunity to design this area as an attractive landscape by creating experiences which can educate people about water, nature and energy and food production.

To do this, the landscape architect has several design tools to influence the aesthetics of the biomass production area. First, there is the selection of plants. For the parts which have to filtrate the nutrient rich water, reed, which is also salt-tolerant, is the main species. Next to this, more plants can be considered to increase the visual diversity, as well as to ensure enough biodiversity. Combination of floating plants, submerged plants and emerged plants is the basic idea in choosing aquatic vegetation. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms.), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) and dwarf red stemmed parrot feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum [Vell.] Verdc.) are three floating plants that have considerable nitrogen and phosphorus remediation performance (Polomski et al, 2009). As for submerged plants, western waterweed (Elodea nuttallii) is a good choice, which is “tolerant of disturbance, oil pollution and salinity up to 14 parts per thousand (approximately half seawater)” (CEH, 2004). Flagleaf (Acorus calamus Linn) and yellow iris (Iris pseudacorus L.) will join reed to compose the community of emerged plants. On the other hand, miscanthus (MISCANTHUS SPP.) and switchgrass are onshore plants that are two major sources of biomass. The former has an average yield ranging between 10-13 tons per hectare annually from the third year onwards and can reach 20 tons per hectare in the UK (Defra, 2001, cited in TSEC-Biosys, 2006); the latter can produce roughly 100 gallons of ethanol per each ton of feedstock, or make 2,842 gallons per hectare annually (Rinehart, 2006). Secondly, the aesthetics of the biomass production area can be influenced by designing for the experience of the landscape. This can be done by guiding the people through the area along pathways, which consist of certain material and shape, to let them experience the area by all their senses. Finally, the aesthetics of the biomass production area can be influenced by adding other elements or functions, like art, information centres or small scale production farms, to enrich the environment and educate the people about their surroundings (Fig. 8.12).

Figure 8.12: Aesthetical experience of biomass

AESTHETICS OF SOLAR ENERGY Since solar energy is such an important component of the vision, its potential has been extensively scrutinized. A broad range of opportunities came into sight to use solar panels in creative and innovative ways. The first opportunity is to explore how it is possible to “hide” solar panels. Although many of the interviewers prefer solar panels because they think they are not that visible, there are still a lot of opponents who consider solar panels to disturb the landscape. In the vision, the demand of power generated by solar panels is quite large; it’s inevitable to place these systems on buildings, either on the roofs or on the walls. Thus the primary

solution is to find the how it is possible to minimize the visual impact of solar panels on buildings, especially traditional style ones. The Dow Powerhouse Solar Shingle product provides a very notable example to this solution. It achieves a breakthrough in both the appearance and the installation of roof solar cells. As a Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) product, Solar Shingles are not big panels anymore, but really roof shingles that are small, thin yet tough, much closer to ordinary roof tiles. Their flexibility also makes the installation much easier compared to normal solar panels; just a regular roof contractor will be able to install them to a house, which reduces the cost too (Dow Solar, 2011). According to the company, “the shingles will be more than 10% efficient, but cost around 15% less on a per-watt basis” (DVICE, 2009).

Figure 8.13 Dow Powerhouse Solar Shingles

For the solar cells attached to the building walls, another interesting potential has been developed. Solar Ivy, the inspiration of which is derived from ivy growing on the wall, is an attractive “disguised” solar energy delivery device. Its materials are all recycled and reclaimed. It can be applied in various programs and building types, such as houses, commercial buildings, and advertising displays (Solar Ivy, 2011).

Figure 8.14 Example of residential application of Solar Ivy

Figure 8.15 details of two types of Solar Ivy

Combining infrastructure and solar energy transition system is another way to minimize both the visual disturbance in landscape and the extra space large amount of solar panels take. This potential is turning into reality gradually. In the U.S. the prototype of Solar Roadway panels has been completed; “If installed on a real thoroughfare the Solar Roadway would carry vehicles, generate electricity for messages to drivers, self-heat to melt snow and ice, and deliver high speed phone and internet cables to the front steps of every home”. It’s estimated that one-mile Solar Roadway can produce enough power for 500 homes. Other than paved on roads, this kind of solar panels can be used in parking lots as well (Inhabitat, 2010). In the Netherlands a solar-panel cycle path – SolarRoad – is also being constructed, believed to be able to generate 50 kWh per square meter annually (road.cc, 2011).

Figure 8.16 Solar Roadway

Figure 8.17 SolaRoad

Apart from “hiding” solar panels wisely, showing the beauty of this green energy is also a primary aim. By displaying architecture, structures, artworks and other objects that utilize solar energy in an artistic way in specific area – especially the Solar Art Park in the neck of Goeree-Overflakkee, can provide people better knowledge about solar energy, and guide them to experience and discover a fascinating part of solar panels, through a lively and interesting approach. Even better, the smart and creative use of solar energy can become a new characteristic of the island. The Canadian studio Sarah Hall Studio specializes in combining architecture with solar installation and has completed many gorgeous projects. The main concept is Solar Façades– PV cells are embedded in art glass, so that the architecture surface has an elegant texture. Power generated from the façades can be used either for lighting system, or to offset the energy consumption of the buildings. Besides Solar Façades, the studio is also exploring the possibility of applying beautiful solar installation to other objects, such as exhibition arches and illumination structures (Sarah Hall Studio, 2011).

Figure 8.18 and 8.19 Regent College Tower and the details of glass

Figure 8.20 Solar Arch and Solar Spires

Speaking of illumination structure, Solar SunFlower is another example that has a different style of appearance. The 15-meter-high structure provides shade in daytime and illuminates the path by LED lights powered by its PV panels (Solar panels – green power, 2011).

Figure 8.21 Solar SunFlower

Sculptures and solar energy can integrate, too. Joan Webster Price and Herbert Price’s Solar Altar is such an example. “The top part of the sculpture collected the energy of the sun and the bottom recycled the water.” This couple is also working on “sculpting” solar energy collectors. For instance, they made a model that arranged the solar panels in a Stonehenge-like circle, collecting sunlight from all directions the sun passes by each day (SOLAR THEMES AESTHETIC RESOURCES, 2000).

Figure 8.22 Solar Altar and Solar Arc

Unlike wind turbines, we rarely talk about “offshore” solar panels, basically because it’s hard to relate them to water. However, recently the possibility of the connection has been unveiled. Project AQUASUN of floating solar panels will launch its first implementation and begin the test period this year. If it succeeds, much land will be saved from placing solar panels on it (Eureka, 2011). If people can really walk on the floating panels as the provided picture shows, such a water pathway must be a popular attraction.

Figure 8.23 Floating solar panels

Figure 8.24 Solar Art park, a lot of different art solutions to produce solar energy

8.9 CONCLUSION This chapter is about how the three models are developed into a consistent vision for the development of GO. In chapter 8.1 the chosen vision most importantly develops around a cascading concept, where waste from one process, for example, is used for something else afterwards. Overall, the vision is based on uniting the different models as they suit best together. In Chapter 8.2 a detailed analysis is made further on the changes in the landscape and the different land structures â&#x20AC;&#x201C; changes in agriculture or urban areas. In chapter 8.4 energy assumptions about the current and future needs are made so that the vision can be detailed further. The energy production and consumption cycles are also described in Chapter 8.5, dividing them into different systems: electricity production; heat and biogas production; cascading; storage; and saving. Chapters 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8 are developing the three different zones of the island, namely the inland, the coastal and offshore zones, within the chosen vision. Chapter 8.8 is analysing the landscape perception, the identity of the island within the chosen vision and its aesthetics qualities, as those are important for the future development in the chosen vision, with regards to the scenario that prescribes regional self-strength and strong civil society.

9. PHASING Implementation of the vision into practice is sequenced in 4 gradual phases: re-visioning, setting up the grid, landscape transformation process, and working landscape. The chosen time limits are determined by the duration of each process that takes place. As the scenario works in the civil society scenario each local initiative will take part to complete the whole structure. According to this, also this implementation model (see figure 9.1-9.3) has a flexible structure to be able to involve multiple actors in the process. The phasing mainly gives implementory guidelines on how the landscape could transform to an energy and food production landscape.

9.1 PHASE 0 2011-2015: RE-VISIONING As the vision is designed in the civil society scenario to realize the main idea of the independent sustainable energy island, each actor plays an important role to achieve the goal. As a first action organized public debates have to be organized. Also there will be events and door-to-door visits to local inhabitants about sustainable energy and how they envision the island in close and far future. Next is setting out the scene among different actors. In this way, possible local investors and associations willing to have business in the sustainable energy sector, get to know each other. By establishing a think tank â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a body of experts and local citizens providing advices and ideas on better implementation of the vision into practice working in the fields of design, energy and agriculture â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the image and idea the of the energy driven landscape is strengthened to increase local support. By working in the civil society scenario with polycentric governance, the implementation and phasing is designed in such a way that each urban centre starts to implement design from its own starting point. In this way, the transformation expands to reach the complete vision ( Figure 9.1 ).

Figure 9.1 Phase 0_Re-visioning

9.2 PHASE 1 2015-2020: SETTING UP THE GRID To transform agriculture land into a diverse landscape habitat for cultivating a wider range of agricultural crops, a landscape framework is designed to set out where and how each process could take place. This phase is characterized by preserving the old dike network all around the island, which serves as an edge between rangeland in the coastal zone and the inlandsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; agriculture fields. Physical borders with community gardens or nature wedges between urban areas and intensive production zone are realized. Between the intensive production zone and agriculture area agro forestry practice is introduced by planting forest edges. As first activity towards a sustainable energy grid, new businesses in solar system installations, storage and energy distribution arise. Solar panels on farm buildings and greenhouses, and hydrogen storage are installed. Close to the main road on the urban fringe, hydrogen fuel stations are installed. For completing the vision of a self-sustaining island, education and research on the island is an important initiative towards this goal. The first research lab for providing information and keeping knowledge on the island, is built in this phase. It will be the knowledge accumulator for the island. As practice shows at SamsĂ¸, the energy academy is a strong driving force towards sustainable energy implementation. (Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2 Phase 1_Setting up the grid

9.3 PHASE 2 2015-2030: LANDSCAPE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS When the borders are defined, the first land transformation actions could take place. In the coastal zone the land transformation - with a complete landscape rejuvenation from agriculture to rangelands, reedlands and nature area - will be taken in several steps (Figure 9.3). This is due to the fact that the transformation process is time consuming and requires negotiation between farmers. First, agriculture is discontinued next to creeks (on land between creeks agriculture is still maintained. This land will be transformed in the next phase) for reed plantations and rangeland implementation. By the landscape management processing method - going inwards from one creek to the other, next phase nature regeneration could take place faster, because plant species from both sides will invade earlier agriculture land. Approximately five years will be used in order to develop the area close to the creeks into reedlands and rangelands more away from the creeks. The exact time depends on the colonization speed of plant species on rangelands. When the rangelands are formed, grazing animals are placed on fields. In the next step, in the agricultural area further way from the creeks, farming is discontinued to let the last step of nature regeneration process take place. After 10 years all former agriculture land in the coastal zone is transformed into a multifunctional area with reedlands, rangelands and nature. Since in the first step reedlands are implemented for nutrient filtration (and of course biomass production), intensive agriculture can take place in the inland zone. New cascading design with new build greenhouses and second-generation biomass plants could be realized around the edge of urban centres. After this point the down scaling in the agriculture area starts. Smaller plots with a more diverse production, and more bio-intensive agriculture practices are introduced. As an additional contribution for keeping knowledge on the island, a new research centre focussing on agriculture is opened. The design project of the solar art park is realised as steering mechanism for local tourism, education and as a branding tool â&#x20AC;&#x201C; embodying a new identity of realised solar projects on the island. This is also the time in which the tidal plant is realized, for taking a big step in approaching the goal of being self-sufficient in energy production.

Figure 9.3 Phase 2_Landscape transformation process

9.4 PHASE 3 2030-2040: WORKING LANDSCAPE During this phase rangelands, reedlands and nature areas in the coastal zone are fully supplying secondgeneration biomass plants. New housing projects are developed along the coastline in this interesting new landscape. In the coastal zone, cycling paths with a connection to recreation nodes are implemented as an attraction for local inhabitants and tourists. In the inland area new directions in agriculture like hemp/cotton fibre production is implemented to complete vision goal. Small-scale enterprises on farms are developed for clothing and fibre production and thereby reducing outside-consumption. As the vision leaves the possibility for a blue energy implementation on the island, this could be implemented when research on blue energy is completed.

9.5 CONCLUSION By working in the long term perspective, it is impossible to draw a fixed future. This means that uncertainties have to be taken in account. For this vision, phasing gives a flexible landscape framework where possible sociocultural actions could take place, and in which sustainable energy could be implemented during four phases starting with constructing social awareness followed up by a physical implementation in a 30 year long perspective.

10. FINAL CONCLUSION The research question of this report was formulated as follows: ‘’How can Goeree-Overflakkee develop towards a sustainable energy landscape while strengthening its local landscape qualities, within the context of a civil and regional scenario?’’ The report demonstrates that it is possible for Goeree-Overflakkee to develop to an independent sustainable energy island and thereby strengthening its landscape qualities. This report shows how it is possible to come to a vision. By developing models, possible future developments are explored. The models show how renewable energy can be introduced in the landscape in three different ways, in which the difference lies in the spatial organisation. The vision is developed by combining reinforcing characteristics of each model. At the same time, input from local research, literature studies and case studies guided and inspired the development of the vision. The vision shows that the transition towards an independent energy island can be done by saving and producing renewable energy. Saving is done by isolating buildings, using heat-cold storage in buildings and greenhouses and heat cascading. The production of renewable energy should be focused on tidal energy, solar energy and energy from fermentation plants. These are the options that are preferred by the inhabitants of Goeree-Overflakkee and provide solutions to reach a 100% energy sufficiency. Cascading is an important tool to link the processes of food production, processing and energy production. It includes the use of organic waste flows to produce energy in the form of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and heat in fermentation plants. Also, water en nutrient cascading is part of the transition to a sustainable island. By using vegetation for filtering the nutrients from the water, clean water and biomass is produced. In the vision, the island is divided into three main zones, each with its own qualities and potentials. In this way, it is possible to strengthen the landscape qualities in while introducing renewable energy. To improve the landscape qualities, one has to consider the aesthetics and the identity of the place. The aesthetics values are humanistic and therefore dependent on the beholder of the beauty. When designing, it is important to pay attention to the aesthetics, in this case especially the ones that concern biomass production areas and solar panels. Aesthetic values in the landscape are for tourists mainly the dunes of the coastal landscape, and for the inhabitants the open and flat character of the island. (Place) Identity is a personal matter and therefore difficult to generalize. It is related to the aesthetic elements of the landscape and to feelings of belonging of a person. Furthermore the interviews demonstrated that there is a strong social cohesion on the island, especially in the towns. This could benefit attempts to become a sustainable energy island. To reach the goal of becoming a sustainable energy island, it is important to stimulate local actors like Deltawind, farmers organizations and recreation enterprises to participate. If one important actor shows that implementing renewable energy can be successful, others will follow.

11. DISCUSSION 11.1 PROCESS OF DEVELOPING THE VISION In process of developing the vision certain decisions were made that could be subjective. During the process of developing the models and the vision a lot of brainstorm sessions were held. The input of those sessions were represented by eight individuals from the field of landscape architecture and spatial planning. The ideas are subjective, based on professional and personal experience. Next, choices were made, which were argued from an academic background, but still holding a subjective element. During the decision making process, choices are made from these professional perspectives and just a few other perspectives were considered (local research). It can be questioned if more perspectives should be included by using participation or doing more local research. Furthermore, the design process itself is subjective process. The design choices about experiences, aesthetics and preferences are to be made, which cannot be objective. By making the process very clear, insight in the decision making is provided. There are also points to discuss about the content of the vision. First of all, pretending there is only one perfect solution to the research question would do no justice to the plurality of options. The vision in this report is just one of them, nevertheless of course considered a very fine one . Furthermore it can be questioned whether or not it is realistic to produce everything on the island. The production of food is for most products possible on the island, on the land or in green houses. The production of basic building materials like wood and reed can also be done, but is it also possible to produce cloths, plastic, iron etc? Or should the way of living and using products be adapted to what is available?

11.2 PROCESS OF PARTICIPATION In the location based research, interviews were carried out to get insight in the opinions and ideas of the inhabitants. However, the a limited input of interviewees could influence the results. The amount of involved stakeholders is actually too small to be able to make general statements. Furthermore it would have been helpful to think about some variables of the interviewees, such as age and gender, to make the research more representative. Also no specific methods towards public participation were determined beforehand. For the interpretation, methods were picked afterwards, which is not the most ideal situation. Also, there are areas, like nature, that require further public discussion and participatory approach if these areas are to be transformed towards a multiple or other uses. Finally, whether or not the vision works, depends of willingness of stakeholders. If there are rejections in changing for example the nature areas, an adaption of the vision might be necessary.

11.3 UNCERTAINTIES There are several uncertainties for the future. First, is it uncertain how technology for the production and storage of renewable energy will develop. If the technology of hydrogen production, PV panels or electric cars develops further, it may become more feasible and will be preferred above other technologies. Also, it is not possible to predict which new inventions will be made, so the vision is open to change and adjustments. An example of a potential renewable energy source in the vision is blue energy. The blue energy plant is integrated in the vision because it fits the desire of creating a knowledge based image of the island. Also this plant enables to gain technical sustainable knowledge and is thus useful for research objectives. However, the amount of energy the plant might provide is not included in the vision due a present lack of technological certainties. Yet it is assumed that in the future this type of energy will become more reliable. The following aspects are about the safety. The vision can have negative side effects like nature burning (risk) or plant diseases which (uncertainty) are hard to predicted beforehand. Thirdly, it is uncertain which changes in the political environment will come. If for example oil security is low, because of political disturbance, the energy prices can go up which can make renewable energy more feasible. Last, it is not clear whether or not the current trend of the green lifestyle and the hype of sustainability will persevere. It might become even more important or, although less expected, people in the future will care less about their environment (ignorance). For this, it is important that the vision contains fundamental processes and functions which are resilient to possible changes. 70

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allacker, K (2006), Bespaar energie in het huishouden (presentation), KU LeuvenArt & science collaborations, Inc. (2011) SOLAR THEMES AESTHETIC RESOURCES Available at: <http://www.asciorg/members/price/price.html> [Accessed 23 March 2011] Ahmad, R et al. (2007) Bio-conversion of organic wastes for their recycling in agriculture: an overview of perspectives and prospects. Annals of Microbiology. 57 (4):471-479 Beranger, C.(n.d.), Sustainable Agriculture: Extensive Systems and Extensification. [PDF]. Available at: <http://www.infrc.or.jp/english/KNF_Data_Base_Web/PDF%20KNF%20Conf%20Data/C4-3-117.pdf > [Accessed 22 April 2011] Braber, K., Fens, J., and M. Langeveld (2010), Report on energy vision: Goeree-Overflakkee, een bron van (duurzame) energy, Delft: Provincie Zuid Holland CEH, (2004) Centre for Aquatic Plant Management, Elodea nuttallii, Nuttall’s pondweed [PDF] Available at: <http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sci_programmes/documents/NuttallsPondweed.pdf>[Accessed 21 March 2011] Centraal Planbureau, Milieu- en Natuurplanbureau en Ruimtelijk Planbureau (2006) Welvaart en Leefomgeving:een scenariostudie voor Nederland in 2040. Centre of Energy Biosciences, 2009, Biotechnology for next generation biofuels/bioenergy, ICS-UNIDO Seminar, Trieste Colvin, B. (1970) Land and Landscape, Evolution, Design and Control, London, John Murray. Daniels, S. (1982) Humphry Repton and the morality of landscape. In J. Gold and J. Burgess, eds, Valued environments. London: Allen and Unwin, 124-44. De Ingenieur. (2011) Oud pand in balans. De ingenierur 123 (5), p. 25. DVICE. (2009) Dow Powerhouse solar panels look like ordinary rooftop shingles. Available at: <http://dvice.com/archives/2009/10/dow-powerhouse.php> [Accessed 21 March 2011] Ecosociodynamics (2011), http://www.ecosociodynamics.com/SusComm.html/ [April 28,2011]) Elliott, E.B. (2002) Beautiful day: Awakening to responsibility. Law and Critique, 13, 2: 173–195 Eureka. (2011)Floating solar panels. Available at: <http://www.eurekanetw.ork.org/showsusto ry?p_r_p_564233524_articleId=784220&p_r_p_564233524_groupId=10137>[Accessed 21 March 2011] Franklin, A., Newton, J. and T. Mardsen, (2011) Reconnecting skills for sustainable communities with everyday life. Environment and Planning A 43 (2), pp. 347-263. Fratzscher, W. and K. Stephan. (2003) Waste energy usage and entropy economy. Energy. 28: 1281-1302. Hague, C. and P. Jenkins (2005), Place identity, planning and participation, London ; New York : Routledge. Hallenbeck, P.C.(2009) Biogenic hydrogen and methane production from reed canary grass. International journal of hydrogen energy. 34: 7379-7389. Huizinga, F., and B. Smid (2005) CPB Memorandum: Four futures of the Netherlands; Production, labour and sectoral structure in four scenarios until 2040. In context.(1996) Our Fair Share :Getting specific about "environmental space" Available at: <http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC35/FOENL.htm> [Accessed 23 March 2011] Inhabitat. (2010) Energy Generating, Self-Heating Solar Roadway Unveiled. Available at: <http://inhabitat.com/energy-generating-self-heating-solar-roadway-unveiled/solarroadway-messages/ > [Accessed 21 March 2011] Jiven, G. and P. Larkham (2003), Sense of place: authenticity and character. Journal of urban design. 8(1):67-81. Jorgensen, A. (2011) Beyond the view: Future directions in landscape aesthetics research, Landscape and Urban Planning, 100, p.353–355 Kim, J. and Oki, T. (2011) Visioneering: an essential framework in sustainability science. Sustainability Science, Article in Press, pp. 1-5. Leopold, A. (1949) A Sand County Almanac, Oxford University Press, New York. Lighty, J.S et al.(2000) Combustion Aerosols: Factors Governing Their Size and Composition and Implications to Human Health. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 50:1565-1618. Lindsey, T.C. (2011) Sustainable principles: Common values for achieving sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production 19 (5), pp. 561-565. Mangoyana, R.B. and T.F., Smith, (2011) Decentralised bioenergy systems: A review of opportunities and threats. Energy Policy 39 (3), pp. 1286-1295. McHarg, I. (1969) Design with Nature. Garden City, NY, The Natural History Press. 71

Niutanen, V. and J. Korhonen,(2003) Industrial ecology flows of agriculture and food industry in Finland: utilizing by-products and wastes. International Journal of Sustainable Development World Ecology. 10: 133-147. Pimentel, D. and M. Giampietro. (1994) Food, Land, Population, and the U.S. Economy. Carrying Capacity Network, Washington, D.C. Polomski, R. et al. (2009) Nitrogen and Phosphorus Remediation by Three Floating Aquatic Macrophytes in Greenhouse-Based Laboratory-Scale Subsurface Constructed Wetlands. Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution. 197 (1) 223-232. Proshansky, H.M., Fabian, A.K. and Kaminoff, R. (1983), 'Place-identity: Physical world socialization of the self'. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 3(1):57-83. Rapport, J.L.vet al.(2011) Modeling the performance of the anaerobic phased solid digester system for biogas energy production. Biomass and bioenergy. 35: 1263-1272. Rinehart, L. (2006) Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop. the National Center for Appropriate Technology [PDF] Available at: <http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/switchgrass.pdf.> [Accessed 24 March 2011] Road.cc.(2011) Solar-panel cycle path coming to Netherlands town. Available at: <http://road.cc/content /news/30460-solar-panel-cycle-path-coming-netherlands-town> [Accessed 20 March 2011] Samsø Energi Akademi, 2011, Biomass consumption Samsø. Available at <http://www.energiakademiet.dk /front_uk.asp?id=73> [July 11, 2011] Sarah Hall Studio.(2011) Solar Facades. Available at: <http://www.sarahhallstudio.com/artgeneratesamps.com /portfolio/concepts.html> Solar Ivy. (2011) Solar Ivy. Available at:http://solarivy.com/ [Accessed 27 March 2011] Solar panels – green power.(2010)Solar Sunflowers: Public Art Generates More than Attention. Available at: <http://solarpanelspower.net/solar-panels/solar-sunflowers-public-art-generates-more-than-attention> [Accessed 24 March 2011] Sterba, J.P. (1994) Reconciling anthropocentric and nonanthropocentric environmental ethics, Environmental Values, 3, pp. 229-244. Stremke, S. (2010) Designing Sustainable Energy Landscapes. Concepts, principles and procedures. Wageningen: Wageningen University. Swaffield, S. (2002) Conclusion: the theoretical terrain of landscape architecture. In: Swaffield, S. (Ed.), Theory in Landscape Architecture. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 227–230. Synergyfarm, (2011), http://www.synergyfarm.com/Biointensive.asp/<http://www.ecosociodynamics.com/SusComm.html/> [April 28,2011]) The Dow Chemical Company. (2011) About the DOW™ POWERHOUSE™ Solar Shingle Product . Available at: <http://www.dowsolar.com/products/> [Accessed 22 March 2011] The European Environment Agency (1997) The Environmental Space Concept [PDF] Available at: <http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-9167-078-2/page003.html> [Accessed 21 March 2011] TSEC-Biosys.(2006) Plant Crops Bioenergy Research UK: Miscanthus Available at: <http://www.tsecbiosys.ac.uk/index.php?p=8&t=1&ss=4> [Accessed 25 March 2011] Union of concerned scientists (UCSUSA). (2010) Biogas potentials. Available at: <www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/technology_and_impacts/energy_technologies/how-biomass-energyworks.htm> [Accessed July 11, 2011 Uzzell, D., Pol, E., and D. Badenas, (2002) Place identification, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Environment and Behavior 34 (1), pp. 26-53. Veerman J. et al. (2010) Electrical power from sea and river water by reverser electrodialysis: a first step from the laboratory to a real power plant. Environmental Science & Technology. 44, p.9207.

APPENDIX APPENDIX 1. CALCUATIONS

General information Inhabitants GO Total land area nature area arable land urban area

50000 1

26125 ha

0,18 0,78 0,04

4702,5 ha 20377,5 ha 1045 ha

coast area Households 2030 (Structuurvisie GO)

13625 ha 21000

Electric energy Total demand now Total demand 2040

6,39 PJ 1,86 PJ 516.666.667 kWh

Tidal plant (0,684 PJ) 36,77419355 % of total Produce all energy with windturbines (TC2, 2.5MW, 100 diameter, 85m) 0,01336 PJ per year for 1,86 PJ per year

1 turbine 139,2215569 turbines

Produce all energy with pv panels (A 25- module system (=31m2) in germany generates 3850 kWh per year) 134199,1342 # of panels needed (Total kWh/3850) 416,017316 Ha of pv panels (# of panels * 31m2 / 10000) Roof area farm buildings suitable roof area E per m2

456.300 228150 22,815 124,1935484 1241935,484 0,004470968 0,102005129

Produce all energy out of tidal and solar 1,176 0,684 263,030303 240,215303

m2 m2 ha kWh/m2 kWh/ha PJ/ha PJ by all roofs

(Duurzame Energie Scan, 2004) (50% orientated to south or east)

PJ by pv panels PJ by tidal plant ha of pv panels ha of pv panels on green houses, and plants

Tourists energy use Tourist energy use

51,8 51800000 0,18648 0,13986

(incl transport)

Tourist energy use

GWh kWh PJ PJ

(incl transport) in 2040

107,5193548 % extra PV panels for tourism

31,28181818 ha

Heat energy Total demand now Total demand 2040

4,1055 PJ 2,05275 PJ 0,00009775 PJ p hh 2040

Produce all heat energy with second generation biomass (fermentation) At Samsø the biomass burners produce with 1200 ton/year biomass enough heat for 232 households. In 2040 the use of heat will be reduced by 50%, so in fact this will mean that 1200 ton biomass can provide 464 households of heat. By assuming this, 2.59 tons of biomass a re needed per year per household. This number we will use in the calculations for Goeree Overflakke e. The yields of biomass are based on studies performed by the Centre of Energy Biosciences (2009), and Spijke r et al. (2007). The different lancape fractions for landuses in the coastal zones have been choosen in a way to create an heterogenous landscape, that is interesting for recreation and na ture, but that is still a productive landscape. Consumption ton/year (1) Samsø

Households served in 2011 (1) Households served in 2040 (2) Tons of biomass/y/household 2040 (2) 1200

232

464

2,59

1 Samsø Energi Akademi, 2011 2 Assuming 50% saving in 2040

Biomass source Inland zone

Coastal zone

Total

Yield (ton/y/ha)

Fraction of island area (%)

Area (ha)

Agricultural waste (1)

12500

Urban waste (2)

1045

Forest and landscape elements (3)

0,95

2516

Production reedlands (4)

8,70

4403

Grasslands/rangelands (5)

0,83

5661

100

26125

Biomass source Inland zone

Coastal zone

Weigthed yield (ton/y/ha)

Total yield (ton/y)

Households served

Agricultural waste (1)

0,48

Urban waste (2)

0,00

Forest and landscape elements (3)

0,09

2387

923

Production reedlands (4)

1,47

38306

14812

Grasslands/rangelands (5)

0,18

4710

Total

12500

4833,33

1821

2,22

22389

Food material production inhabitants Land area

50000 # 261,25 km2 26125 Ha FOE Action Plan (By Netherlands Council for the Environ ment 1994; Milieu 1994) 0,06 ha materials and luxery goods pp 0,19 ha food prodution pp 3000 ha for the island

Arable land per person Arable land needed % of land area needed Rangeland per person Rangeland needed % of land area needed for rangelands There is place for Food land pp in vision (in total) Food land pp (agricultural union GO) Food land pp for american way of life Food land pp FOE

0,25 0,486 12500 47,84688995 0,44 22000 84,21052632 5445 0,1089 0,3589 0,08151 0,486 0,69

Assuming that 5 % of food comes from greenhouses percentage greenhouses of total land area Assuming that 50 % of greenhouses area is not suitable

9500 ha for the island Ha Ha Ha % Ha Ha % Ha Ha pp Ha Ha Ha ha

(for american way of life)

(Pimentel ,1994)

625 Ha 2,392344498 % 312,5 Ha

Number of hectares needed for energy production (PV) inhabitants 240,215303 Ha extra PV panels for tourism 31,28181818 Ha 271,4971212