Evidence-Based Programming - Professional Development - Part I

The Advocacy Foundation Professional Development Series 1 Timothy 1:1-11

Evidence-Based Programming Continuing Professional Development Part I Individualized Training & Mentorship

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“Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential” Vol. IV

John C Johnson III, CEO

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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential

Professional Development Series

Professional Development Part I – Individualized Training & Mentorship

“Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential 1735 Market Street, Suite 3750 Philadelphia, PA 19102

| 100 Edgewood Avenue, Suite 1690 Atlanta, GA 30303

John C Johnson III Founder & CEO

(878) 222-0450 Voice | Fax | SMS www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org

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Biblical Authority ______ 1 Timothy 1:1-11 (NASB)

Misleadings in Doctrine and Living 1 Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus according to the commandment of God our Savior, and of Christ Jesus, who is our hope, 2 To Timothy, my true child in the faith: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

3 As I urged you upon my departure for Macedonia, remain on at Ephesus so that you may instruct certain men not to teach strange doctrines, 4 nor to pay attention to myths and endless genealogies, which give rise to mere speculation rather than furthering the administration of God which is by faith.

5 But the goal of our instruction is love from a pure heart and a good conscience and a sincere faith. 6 For some men, straying from these things, have turned aside to fruitless discussion, 7 wanting to be teachers of the Law, even though they do not understand either what they are saying or the matters about which they make confident assertions.

8 But we know that the Law is good, if one uses it lawfully, 9 realizing the fact that law is not made for a righteous person, but for those who are lawless and rebellious, for the ungodly and sinners, for the unholy and profane, for those who kill their fathers or mothers, for murderers 10 and immoral men and homosexuals and kidnappers and liars and perjurers, and whatever else is contrary to sound teaching, 11 according to the glorious gospel of the blessed God, with which I have been entrusted.

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Table of Contents Evidence-Based Programming Professional Development – Part I

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Biblical Authority I.

Introduction

II.

Who Should Participate

III.

Methods of Instruction

IV.

Core Competencies

V.

The Importance of Induction Training

VI.

The Importance of Mentorship

VII.

The Nature of Individualized Training

VIII. Continuing Professional Development IX.

References

Attachments A: Nine Components of Effective Professional Development B: The ABA Model Rule for Continuing Legal Education

Copyright Š 2015 The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Introduction Professional Development encompasses all types of facilitated learning opportunities including credentials such as academic degrees to formal coursework, conferences and informal learning opportunities situated in practice. It has been described as intensive and collaborative, ideally incorporating an evaluative stage. There are a variety of approaches to professional development, including consultation, coaching, communities of practice, lesson study, mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance.

The need for professional development came to the forefront in the 1960's".

Apprenticeship Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Apprenticeship also enable practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession.

Apprentices or protĂŠgĂŠs build their careers from apprenticeships. Most of their training is done while working for an employer who helps the apprentices learn their trade or profession, in exchange for their continued labor for an agreed period after they have achieved measurable competencies. Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 6 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman level of competence.

Although the formal boundaries and terminology of the apprentice/journeyman/master system often do not extend outside of guilds and trade unions, the concept of on-the-job training leading to competence over a period of years is found in any field of skilled labor.

In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common.

In the United States, education officials and nonprofit organizations who seek to emulate the apprenticeship system in other nations have created school to work education reforms. They seek to link academic education to careers. Some programs include job shadowing, watching a real worker for a short period of time, or actually spending significant time at a job at no or reduced pay that would otherwise be spent in academic classes or working at a local business. Some legislators raised the issue of child labor laws for unpaid labor or jobs with hazards.

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In the United States, school to work programs usually occur only in high school.

American high schools were introduced in the early 20th century to educate students of all ability and interests in one learning community rather than prepare a small number for college. Traditionally, American students are tracked within a wide choice of courses based on ability, with vocational courses (such as auto repair and carpentry) tending to be at the lower end of academic ability and trigonometry and pre-calculus at the upper end.

American education reformers have sought to end such tracking, which is seen as a barrier to opportunity.

By contrast, the system studied by the NCEE (National Center on Education and the Economy) actually relies much more heavily on tracking. Education officials in the U.S., based largely on school redesign proposals by NCEE and other organizations, have chosen to use criterion-referenced tests that define one high standard that must be achieved by all students to receive a uniform diploma.

American education policy under the "No Child Left Behind Act" has as an official goal the elimination of the achievement gap between populations. This has often led to the need for remedial classes in college.

Many U.S. states now require passing a high school graduation examination to ensure that students across all ethnic, gender and income groups possess the same skills. In states such as Washington, critics have questioned whether this ensures success for all or just creates massive failure (as only half of all 10th graders have demonstrated they can meet the standards).

The construction industry is perhaps the heaviest user of apprenticeship programs in the United States, with the US Department of Labor reporting 74,164 new apprentices accepted in 2007 at the height of the construction boom. Most of these apprentices participated in what are called "joint" apprenticeship programs, administered jointly by construction employers and construction labor unions. For example, the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades (IUPAT) has opened the Finishing Trades Institute (FTI). The FTI is working towards national accreditation so that it may offer associate and bachelor degrees that integrate academics with a more traditional apprentice programs.

The IUPAT has joined forces with the Professional Decorative Painters Association (PDPA) to build educational standards using a model of apprenticeship created by the PDPA.

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Example of a U.S. Apprenticeship Program Persons interested in learning to become electricians can join one of several apprenticeship programs offered jointly by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the National Electrical Contractors Association. No background in electrical work is required. A minimum age of 18 is required. There is no maximum age.

Men and women are equally invited to participate. The organization in charge of the program is called the National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee.

Apprentice electricians work 32 to 40+ hours per week at the trade under the supervision of a journeyman wireman and receive pay and benefits. They spend an additional 8 hours every other week in classroom training. At the conclusion of training (five years for inside wireman and outside lineman, less for telecommunications), apprentices reach the level of journeyman wireman. All of this is offered at no charge, except for the cost of books (which is approximately $200–600 per year), depending on grades. Persons completing this program are considered highly skilled by employers and command high pay and benefits. Other unions such as the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, United Association of Plumbers, Fitters, Welders and HVAC Service Techs, Operating Engineers, Ironworkers, Sheet Metal Workers, Plasterers, Bricklayers and others offer similar programs.

Trade associations such as the Independent Electrical Contractors and Associated Builders and Contractors also offer a variety of apprentice training programs. Registered programs also are offered by the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Committee (AJAC) to fill a shortage of aerospace and advanced manufacturing workers in Washington State.

Software development shops such as Obtiva, Thoughtbot and 8th Light offer apprenticeship programs for students to learn modern day web development. Dave Hoover, a former principle of Obtiva, wrote a book in 2009 to help aspiring "software craftsmen" in their journey as an apprentice in this new field.

Example of a Professional U.S. Apprenticeship A modified form of apprenticeship is required for before an engineer is licensed as a Professional Engineer in any of the states of the United States. In the United States, regulation of professional engineering licenses is the right and responsibility of the federated state. That is, each of the 50 states sets its own licensing requirements and issues (and, if needed, revokes) licenses to practice engineering in that state.

Although the requirements can vary slightly from state to state, in general to obtain a Professional Engineering License in a given state, one must graduate with Bachelor of Science in Engineering from an accredited college or university, pass the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam, which designates the title of Engineer in Training (EIT), work in that discipline for at least four years under a licensed Professional Engineer (PE), and then pass the Principles and Practice of Engineering Exam. One and two years of

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experience credit is given for those with qualifying master‘s and doctoral degrees, respectively.[37] In most cases the states have reciprocity agreements so that once an individual becomes licensed in one state can also become licensed in other states with relative ease.

Internships An internship is a job training for white-collar and professional careers. are similar in some ways to apprenticeships for traoversight leaves the term open to broad interpretation.

Interns may be college or university students, high school students, or postgraduate adults.

These positions may be paid or unpaid and are usually temporary.

Generally, an internship consists of an exchange of services for experience between the student and an organization. Students can also use an internship to determine if they have an interest in a particular career, create a network of contacts or gain school credit. Some interns find permanent, paid employment with the organizations for which they worked. This can be a significant benefit to the employer as experienced interns often need little or no training when they begin regular employment. Unlike a trainee program, employment at the completion of an internship is not guaranteed.

Types Internships exist in a wide variety of industries and settings. An internship may be paid, unpaid, or partially paid (in the form of a stipend). Stipends are typically a fixed amount of money that is paid out on a regular basis. Usually, interns that are paid through stipends are paid on a monthly basis. Paid internships are common in professional fields including medicine, architecture, science, engineering, law, business (especially accounting and finance), technology, and advertising. Non-profit charities and think tanks often have unpaid, volunteer positions. Internships may be part-time or full-time. A typical internship lasts between 1 and 4 months, but can be shorter or longer, depending on the organization involved. The act of job shadowing may also constitute interning.

The two primary types of internships that exist in the United States are: Page 11 of 59

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Work experience internship: Most often this will be in the second or third year of the school period. The placement can be from 2 months to one full school year.

During this period, the student is expected to use the things he/she has learned in school and put them into practice. This way the student gains work experience in their field of study. The gained experience will be helpful to finish the final year of study.

Research internship (graduation) or dissertation internship: This is mostly done by students who are in their final year. With this kind of internship a student does research for a particular company. The company can have something that they feel like they need to improve, or the student can choose a topic within the company themselves. The results of the research study will be put in a report and often will have to be presented.

European internships are mostly unpaid, although they are still popular among nonEuropeans in order to gain international exposure on one's résumé and for foreign language improvement.

Another type of internship growing in popularity is the virtual internship, in which the intern works remotely, and is not physically present at the job location. It provides the capacity to gain job experience without the conventional requirement of being physically present in an office. The internship is conducted via virtual means, such as phone, email, and web communication. Virtual interns generally have the opportunity to work at their own pace.

In The United States Many internships in the United States are career specific. Students often choose internships based on their major at the university/college level. It is not uncommon for former interns to acquire full-time employment at an organization once they have enough necessary experience. The challenging job market has made it essential for college students to gain real world experience prior to graduation. Yet, only 37% of unpaid interns have job offers awaiting them at graduation compared to 60% of paid interns and 36% of students with no internship experience. In the US, company internships are at the center of NIGMS funded biotechnology training programs for science PhD students. The Office of Personnel Management of the US Federal government operation operates a robust internship program for college students and recent graduates.

Not all internships are paid. Many internships that are unpaid involve receiving college credit, especially if an internship is correlated with a specific class. The U.S. Department of Labor's Wage and Hour Division allows an employer not to pay a trainee if all of the following are true: 1. The training, even though it includes actual operation of the facilities of the employer, is similar to what would be given in a vocational school or academic educational instruction; Page 12 of 59

2. The training is for the benefit of the trainees; 3. The trainees do not displace regular employees, but work under their close observation; 4. The employer that provides the training derives no immediate advantage from the activities of the trainees, and on occasion the employer‘s operations may actually be impeded; 5. The trainees are not necessarily entitled to a job at the conclusion of the training period; and 6. The employer and the trainees understand that the trainees are not entitled to wages for the time spent in training.

An exception is allowed for individuals who volunteer their time, freely and without anticipation of compensation for religious, charitable, civic, or humanitarian purposes to non-profit organizations. An exception is also allowed for work performed for a state or local government agency.

Some states have their own laws on the subject. Laws in the state of California, for example, require an employer to pay its interns working in California unless the intern receives college credit for the labor. 

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In April 2014, Condé Nast has settled Ballinger vs. Advance Magazine Publishers Inc. lawsuit over unpaid interns. "Former W Magazine intern Lauren Ballinger and former New Yorker intern Matthew Leib" filed the lawsuit in federal court in the Southern District of New York in June 2013. The interns' "claimed they were paid below minimum wage when working for the Condé Nast titles" and, as a result, "Condé Nast decided to discontinue its unpaid intern program."

In 2012, a former Harper‘s Bazaar intern sued Hearst Magazines because of a claim of violating minimum wage and overtime laws. The "judge dismissed that case, but the intern appealed the ruling."

In New York federal court, the Fox Searchlight Pictures litigation is a class-action suit claiming "that Fox violated federal and state minimum wage laws by not paying production interns working on its ―Black Swan‖ film." In June 2013, the judge ruled that the unpaid interns were employees, which "are entitled to wages under the Federal Labor Standards Act."

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Who Should Participate A wide variety of people, such as teachers, military officers and non-commissioned officers, health care professionals, lawyers, accountants and engineers engage in professional development. Individuals may participate in professional development because of an interest in lifelong learning, a sense of moral obligation, to maintain and improve professional competence, to enhance career progression, to keep abreast of new technology and practices, or to comply with professional regulatory organizations.

Indeed many are also forced to participate in so called professional development courses as part of a human resources exercise; the point and use of which is debatable.

Many American states have professional development requirements for school teachers. For example, Arkansas teachers must complete 60 hours of documented professional development activities annually. Professional development credits are named differently from state to state. For example, teachers: in Indiana are required to earn 90 Continuing Renewal Units (CRUs) per year; in Massachusetts, teachers need 150 Professional Development Points (PDPs); and in Georgia, must earn 10 Professional Learning Units (PLUs).

American and Canadian nurses, as well as those in the United Kingdom, have to participate in formal and informal professional development (earning Continuing education units, or CEUs) in order to maintain professional registration. Other groups such as engineering and geoscience regulatory bodies also have mandatory professional development requirements.

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Methods of Instruction In a broad sense, professional development may include formal types of vocational education, typically post-secondary or poly-technical training leading to qualification or credential required to obtain or retain employment. Professional development may also come in the form of pre-service or in-service professional development programs.

These programs may be formal, or informal, group or individualized. Individuals may pursue professional development independently, or programs may be offered by human resource departments. Professional development on the job may develop or enhance process skills, sometimes referred to as leadership skills, as well as task skills. Some examples for process skills are 'effectiveness skills', 'team functioning skills', and 'systems thinking skills'.

Professional development opportunities can range from a single workshop to a semester-long academic course, to services offered by a medley of different professional development providers and varying widely with respect to the philosophy, content, and format of the learning experiences. Some examples of approaches to professional development include: 

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Case Study Method - The case method is a teaching approach that consists in presenting the students with a case, putting them in the role of a decision maker facing a problem (Hammond 1976) - see also Case method.

Consultation - to assist an individual or group of individuals to clarify and address immediate concerns by following a systematic problem-solving process.

Coaching - to enhance a person‘s competencies in a specific skill area by providing a process of observation, reflection, and action.

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Communities of Practice - to improve professional practice by engaging in shared inquiry and learning with people who have a common goal Lesson Study - to solve practical dilemmas related to intervention or instruction through participation with other professionals in systematically examining practice Mentoring - to promote an individual‘s awareness and refinement of his or her own professional development by providing and recommending structured opportunities for reflection and observation Reflective Supervision - to support, develop, and ultimately evaluate the performance of employees through a process of inquiry that encourages their understanding and articulation of the rationale for their own practices Technical Assistance - to assist individuals and their organization to improve by offering resources and information, supporting networking and change efforts

Professional development is a broad term, encompassing a range of people, interests and approaches. Those who engage in professional development share a common purpose of enhancing their ability to do their work. At the heart of professional development is the individual's interest in lifelong learning and increasing their own skills and knowledge.

Online Professional Development The 21st century has seen a significant growth in online professional development.[14] Content providers incorporate collaborative platforms such as discussion boards and wikis, thereby encouraging and facilitating interaction, and optimizing training effectiveness.

In the education industry, the use of online sources of professional development represents a significant shift. Whereas many other industries have used online sources of continuing education and professional practices for many years, traditionally educators have turned solely to internal professional development departments, local education agencies (LEAs), and local colleges and universities to acquire the necessary education to meet the required hours/units for renewal of their state teaching-licenses.

However, the economic pressures facing school districts combined with a greater conviction that online professional development can be effective has led to increased interest in this option. Rather than replacing traditional sources of professional development, online sources and providers have served to augment existing options and can bring a widening access to topics and a broader scope to ―learning communities." As teacher performance comes under increased scrutiny, a study conducted by Boston College found that English and math teachers who took professional development courses online improved their instructional practices and boosted their subject knowledge scores, producing modest performance gains for their students.

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―A series of online professional development courses that focus on specific content and target student learning needs can have positive effects on teacher knowledge and instructional practices,‖ said Boston College Associate Professor of Education Laura O‘Dwyer. ―The studies also show that teacher participation in online professional development can translate into improvements in targeted student outcomes.‖ This type of research-based and outcomes-focused study has lent credibility to the idea that online professional development can and will serve an important role in supporting the educational goals of the United States Department of Education.

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Core Competencies What Are We Bringing to the Table A core competency is a concept in management theory introduced by, C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel. It can be defined as "a harmonized combination of multiple resources and skills that distinguish a firm in the marketplace".

Core competencies fulfill three criteria: 1. Provides potential access to a wide variety of markets.

2. Should make a significant contribution to the perceived customer benefits of the end product.

3. Difficult to imitate by competitors.

For example, a company's core competencies may include precision mechanics, fine optics, and micro-electronics. These help it build cameras, but may also be useful in making other products that require these competencies.

A core competency results from a specific set of skills or production techniques that deliver additional value to the [recipients]. These enable an organization to access a wide variety of markets.

In an article from 1990 titled "The Core Competence of the Corporation", Prahalad and Hamel illustrate that core competencies lead to the development of core products which Page 21 of 59

further can be used to build many products for end users. Core competencies are developed through the process of continuous improvements over the period of time rather than a single large change. To succeed in an emerging global market, it is more important and required to build core competencies rather than vertical integration. NEC utilized its portfolio of core competencies to dominate the semiconductor, telecommunications and consumer electronics market. It is important to identify core competencies because it is difficult to retain those competencies in a price war and cost-cutting environment. The author used the example of how to integrate core competences using strategic architecture in view of changing market requirements and evolving technologies. Management must realize that stakeholders to core competences are an asset which can be utilized to integrate and build the competencies Competence building is an outcome of strategic architecture which must be enforced by top management in order to exploit its full capacity.

Please note: according to Prahalad and Hamel's (1990) definition, core competencies are the "collective learning across the corporation". They can therefore not be applied to the SBU and represent resource combination steered from the corporate level. Because the term "core competence" is often confused with "something a company is particularly good at", some caution should be taken not to dilute the original meaning.

In Competing for the Future, the authors Prahalad and Hamel show how executives can develop the industry foresight necessary to adapt to industry changes and discover ways of controlling resources that will enable the company to attain goals despite any constraints. Executives should develop a point of view on which core competencies can be built for the future to revitalize the process of new business creation. Developing an independent point of view of tomorrow's opportunities and building capabilities that exploit them is the key to future industry leadership.

For an organization to be competitive, it needs not only tangible resources but intangible resources like core competences that are difficult and challenging to achieve. It is critical to manage and enhance the competences in response to industry changes in the future. For example, Microsoft has expertise in many IT based innovations where, for a variety of reasons, it is difficult for competitors to replicate or compete with Microsoft's core competences.

In a race to achieve cost cutting, quality and productivity, most executives do not spend their time developing a corporate view of the future because this exercise demands high intellectual energy and commitment. The difficult questions may challenge their own ability to view the future opportunities but an attempt to find their answers will lead towards organizational benefits.

Core Competencies and Program Development Core competencies are related to a firm's [programming] portfolio via core [programs and projects]. Core products contribute "to the competitiveness of a wide range of end products. They are the physical embodiment of core competencies." Approaches for Page 22 of 59

identifying product portfolios with respect to core competencies and vice versa have been developed in recent years. One approach for identifying core compencies with respect to a product portfolio has been proposed by Danilovic & Leisner (2007). They use design structure matrices for mapping competencies to specific products in the product portfolio. Using their approach, clusters of competencies can be aggregated to core competencies. Bonjour & Micaelli (2010) introduced a similar method for assessing how far a company has achieved its development of core competencies. More recently Hein et al. link core competencies to Christensen's concept of capabilities, which is defined as resources, processes, and priorities. Furthermore, they present a method to evaluate different product architectures with respect to their contribution to the development of core competencies.

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The Importance of Induction Training In human resource development, induction training is a form of introduction for new starters in order to enable them to do their work in a new profession or job role within a business (or establishment) Training can be systematic or unsystematic training. Induction training is systematic training.

The systematic model supplements natural learning with a systematic intervention that relates to the organisations objectives. The features of induction training include: 

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Training is part of the organisations overall planning process and is in line with its goals The organisation has a training strategy which informs the approach to employee development Skills are planned for and addressed systematically through formal training There is a continuous cycle of training analysis, activity and evaluation

Induction training provides employees with a smooth entry into the organisation by providing them with the information they require to get started. The goals of induction training are in line with those of the wider induction process. These goals are to:      

Create a positive atmosphere Address any new job concerns Increase comfort level and feeling of belonging Increase knowledge of the organisation and its procedures and policies Share organisational values Share job specific information

In small organisations, the responsibility for carrying out the induction training usually rests with one person. In larger organisations, the responsibility is shared between managers, supervisors and human resources. In the case of both big and small organisations the employees and his/her, senior manager play a major role in inducting an employee. Their responsibility is to ensure that the induction program is followed and the desired induction goals are achieved. During the Induction, the human resources are responsible for preparing the induction checklist (updating periodically), the planning and administration of the formal program, assisting and advising employees The induction itself is usually conducted within the workplace by competent trainers and speakers in a presentation format. Induction training can also be in a written format,

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which can be sent to a new employee before they start, or handed to them when they start or delivered as a Computer based format.

The induction training should satisfy two objectives: 

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The new employee who wants to be integrated into the social group of the organisation will know about the particular task that they will do within the whole system of the organisation The trainer is able to get to the trainees trained up in order to successfully integrate them into the specific area of the organisation for which the individual is being trained for.

Considerations for Planning Effective Induction Training The induction is the first real opportunity the new starters get to experience their new employer. If for example the trainer is no good or the facilitation lacks, then the new starter may very quickly become bored and may even question their choice of employment. Induction training must be comprehensive, collaborative, systematic and coherent to be effective and make a positive impact with the trainee. According to TPItheory, training should include development of theoretical and practical skills, but also meet interaction needs that exist among the new employees. There are different ways in which different businesses conduct induction training in order to enable new staff and recruits to do their work. I.e. Starbucks, who ensure their induction is very practical to set the expectations of the job compared to the Exxonmobil Graduate schemes program Page 26 of 59

which spans the first year of employment, with the bulk of the induction training happening in the first two weeks to ensure they have built up the background knowledge before learning about job or role particular training. The right balance of training will not be too intensive an information-giving session as this will be ineffective as individuals will start to lose concentration and may end up missing crucial information.

Alternatives to Induction Training An alternative to Induction training is Coaching. Coaching is a partnership in which employees aim to achieve support and advice from a more senior colleague whilst on the job. Staff Retreats is another form of introduction for new starters to an organisation.

Businesses pause once or twice a year to analyse policies and procedures and also look through their systems and processes. The main objective is looking at ways to improve efficiency of their business. On the job training is also an alternative to induction training and is given to an employee at their workplace while they are doing the job. Group discussions are another possible alternative for induction training. Group discussions are informal gatherings of individuals in order to discuss ideas and information while suggesting how new recruits can cope with the new environment.

Benefits The induction process familiarises new employees with the business and the people.

Induction training enables a new recruit to become productive as quickly as possible.

The cost of not training is considered higher than the cost of training. The main advantage of induction training is that it can be brief and informative allowing businesses to save time and money on planning and conducting the training whilst supplying key information to new entrants. Induction training also helps to provide individuals with a professional impression of the company and its aims and objectives allowing new entrants to work towards these aims and exceed them.

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The Importance of Mentorship Mentorship is a personal developmental relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable person. The mentor may be older or younger, but have a certain area of expertise. It is a learning and development partnership between someone with vast experience and someone who wants to learn.

The person in receipt of mentorship may be referred to as a protégé (male), a protégée (female), an apprentice or, in recent years, a mentee.

"Mentoring" is a process that always involves communication and is relationship based, but its precise definition is elusive. One definition of the many that have been proposed, is

Mentoring is a process for the informal transmission of knowledge, social capital, and the psychosocial support perceived by the recipient as relevant to work, career, or professional development; mentoring entails informal communication, usually face-toface and during a sustained period of time, between a person who is perceived to have greater relevant knowledge, wisdom, or experience (the mentor) and a person who is perceived to have less (the protégé)".

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Mentoring in Europe has existed since at least Ancient Greek times. Since the 1970s it has spread in the United States of America mainly in training contexts, with important historical links to the movement advancing workplace equity for women and minorities, and it has been described as "an innovation in American management".

Historical Perspective The roots of the practice are lost in antiquity. The word itself was inspired by the character of Mentor in Homer's Odyssey. Though the actual Mentor in the story is a somewhat ineffective old man, the goddess Athena takes on his appearance in order to guide young Telemachus in his time of difficulty.

Historically significant systems of mentorship include the guru - disciple tradition practiced in Hinduism and Buddhism, Elders, the discipleship system practiced by Rabbinical Judaism and the Christian church, and apprenticing under the medieval guild system.

In the United States, advocates for workplace equity in the second half of the twentieth century popularized the term ―mentor‖ and concept of career mentorship as part of a larger social capital lexicon—which also includes terms such as glass ceiling, networking, role model, and gatekeeper—serving to identify and address the problems barring non-dominant groups from professional success. Mainstream business literature subsequently adopted the terms and concepts, promoting them as pathways to success for all career climbers. In 1970 these terms were not in the general American vocabulary; by the mid-1990s they had become part of everyday speech.

Mentoring Techniques The focus of mentoring is to develop the whole person and so the techniques are broad and require wisdom in order to be used appropriately.

A 1995 study of mentoring techniques most commonly used in business found that the five most commonly used techniques among mentors were: 1. Accompanying: making a commitment in a caring way, which involves taking part in the learning process side-by-side with the learner.

2. Sowing: mentors are often confronted with the difficulty of preparing the learner before he or she is ready to change. Sowing is necessary when you know that what you say may not be understood or even acceptable to learners at first but will make sense and have value to the mentee when the situation requires it.

3. Catalyzing: when change reaches a critical level of pressure, learning can escalate. Here the mentor chooses to plunge the learner right into change, provoking a different way of thinking, a change in identity or a re-ordering of values.

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4. Showing: this is making something understandable, or using your own example to demonstrate a skill or activity. You show what you are talking about, you show by your own behavior.

5. Harvesting: here the mentor focuses on "picking the ripe fruit": it is usually used to create awareness of what was learned by experience and to draw conclusions.

The key questions here are: "What have you learned?", "How useful is it?".

Different techniques may be used by mentors according to the situation and the mindset of the mentee, and the techniques used in modern organizations can be found in ancient education systems, from the Socratic technique of harvesting to the accompaniment method of learning used in the apprenticeship of itinerant cathedral builders during the Middle Ages. Leadership authors Jim Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner advise mentors to look for "teachable moments" in order to "expand or realize the potentialities of the people in the organizations they lead" and underline that personal credibility is as essential to quality mentoring as skill.

Multiple Mentors A new and upcoming trend is having multiple mentors. This can be helpful because we can all learn from each other. Having more than one mentor will widen the knowledge of the person being mentored. There are different mentors who may have different strengths.

Profession or Trade Mentor: This is someone who is currently in the trade/profession you are entering. They know the trends, important changes and new practices that you should know to stay at the top of your career. A mentor like this would be someone you can discuss ideas regarding the field, and also be introduced to key and important people that you should know.

Industry Mentor: This is someone who doesn't just focus on the profession. This mentor will be able to give insight on the industry as a whole. Whether it be research, development or key changes in the industry, you need to know.

Organization Mentor: Politics in the organizations are constantly changing. It is important to be knowledgeable about the values, strategies and products that are within your company, but also when these things are changing. An organization mentor can clarify missions and strategies, and give clarity when needed.

Work Process Mentor: This mentor can speed quickly over the bumps, and cut through the unnecessary work. This mentor can explain the 'ins and outs' of projects, day to day tasks, and eliminate unnecessary things that may be currently going on in your work day. This mentor can help to get things done quickly and efficiently.

Technology Mentor: This is an up-and-coming, incredibly important position.

Technology has been rapidly improving, and becoming more a part of day to day transactions within companies. In order to perform your best, you must know how to get things done on the newest technology. A technology mentor will help with technical breakdowns, advise on systems that may work better than what you're currently using,

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and coach you through new technology and how to best use it and implement it into your daily life.

These mentors are only examples. There can be many more different types of mentors.

Look around your workplace, your life, and see who is an expert that you can learn something from.

Typology There are two broad types of mentoring relationships: formal and informal. In addition to these broad types, there are also peer, situational and supervisory mentoring relationships. These tend to fall under the categories of formal and informal mentoring relationships. Informal relationships develop on their own between partners. Formal mentoring, on the other hand, refers to a structured process supported by the organization and addressed to target populations. Youth mentoring programs assist at-risk children or youth who lack role models and sponsors. In business, formal mentoring is part of talent management addressed to populations such as key employees, newly hired graduates, high potentials and future leaders. The matching of mentor and mentee is often done by a mentoring coordinator or by means of an (online) database registry.

There are formal mentoring programs that are values-oriented, while social mentoring and other types focus specifically on career development. Some mentorship programs provide both social and vocational support. In well-designed formal mentoring programs, there are program goals, schedules, training (for both mentors and protĂŠgĂŠs), and evaluation. In 2004 Metizo created the first mentoring certification for companies and business schools in order to guarantee the integrity and effectiveness of formal mentoring. Certification is attributed jointly by the organization and an external expert.

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There are many kinds of mentoring relationships from school or community-based relationships to e-mentoring relationships. These mentoring relationships vary and can be influenced by the type of mentoring relationship that is in effect. That is whether it has come about as a formal or informal relationship. Also there are several models have been used to describe and examine the sub-relationships that can emerge. For example, Buell describes how mentoring relationships can develop under a cloning model, nurturing model, friendship model and apprenticeship model. The cloning model is about the mentor trying to "produce a duplicate copy of him or herself." The nurturing model takes more of a "parent figure, creating a safe, open environment in which mentee can both learn and try things for him-or herself." The friendship model are more peers "rather than being involved in a hierarchical relationship." Lastly, the apprenticeship is about less "personal or social aspects... and the professional relationship is the sole focus".

In the sub-groups of formal and informal mentoring relationships: peer mentoring relationships are relationships where individuals are at the same skill training, similar positions and stages of career. However, one person may be more knowledgeable in a certain aspect or another, but they can help each other to progress in their work. A lot of time, peer relationships provide a lot of support, empathy and advice because the situations are quite similar.

Situational mentoring relationships are generally short term positions where a person mentors for a specific purpose. This could be a company bringing an expert in regarding social media, or internet safety. This expert can mentor employees to make them more knowledgeable about a specific topic or skill.

Supervisory mentoring relationships are 'go to' people, they are supervisors. These are people who have answers to many questions, and can advise to take the best plan of action. This can be a conflict of interest relationship because many supervisors do not feel comfortable also being a mentor.

Benefits Especially in the workplace, there are many benefits to developing a mentorship program for new, and current employees.

Career Development: Mentoring employees gives the opportunity to align organizational goals to personal career goals. It gives employees the ability to advance professionally.

This collaboration gives employees a feeling of engagement, which leads to better retention rates.

High Potential Mentoring: Top talent in the workplace tend to be difficult to retain. These employees have incredible potential to make great things happen for the company, and for themselves. With a mentor program, top talent employees can be guided into leadership positions, and give them new engagement for new roles that will attract them to stay longer.

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Diversity Mentoring: One of the top ways to innovate is by bringing in new ideas.

Mentors can empower diverse employees to share ideas, knowledge, experience to expand and innovate into the company. This also brings cultural awareness and a value of other cultures into the workplace.

Reverse Mentoring: This not so obvious benefit of mentoring is incredibly important. The younger generations can help the older generations to expand and grow towards current trends. Everyone has something to bring to the table, this creates a two way street within companies where younger employees can see the larger picture, and senior employees can see things from a different point of view.

Knowledge Transfer Mentoring: Employees must have a certain set of skills in order to accomplish the tasks at hand. Mentoring is a great approach to help employees get organized, and give them access to an expert that can give feedback, and help answer questions that they may not know where to find answers to.

Mentorship provides critical benefits to individuals as well as organizations. Although the importance of mentorship to an individual‘s career advancement is virtually universal, in the United States it historically has been most apparent in relation to the advancement of women and minorities in the workplace—because, until recent decades, American men in dominant ethnic groups had reaped the benefits of mentorship without consciously identifying it as an advancement strategy in the modern sense. American women and minorities, in contrast, more pointedly identified and pursued mentorship in the second half of the twentieth century as they sought to achieve the professional success they had long been denied.

In a 1958 study, Margaret Cussler showed that, for each female executive she interviewed who did not own her own company, ―something—or someone—gave her a push up the ladder while others halted on a lower rung.‖ Cussler concluded that the relationship between the ―sponsor and protégé‖ (the vocabulary of ―mentorship‖ was not yet in common use) was the ―magic formula‖ for success. By the late 1970s, numerous publications had established the centrality of mentorship to business success for everyone and particularly for women trying to break into the male-dominated business world. These publications noted the many specific benefits provided by mentorship, which included insider information, education, guidance, moral support, inspiration, sponsorship, an example to follow, protection, promotion, the ability to ―bypass the hierarchy,‖ the projection of the superior‘s ―reflected power,‖ access to otherwise invisible opportunities, and tutelage in corporate politics.

This literature also showed the value of these benefits. A Harvard Business Review survey of 1,250 top executives published in 1979, for example, showed that most had been mentored or sponsored and that those who received such assistance reported higher income, a better education, a quicker path to achievement, and more job satisfaction than those who did not. The literature particularly emphasized the necessity of mentoring for businesswomen‘s success. For example, although women made up less than one percent of the executives in the Harvard Business Review survey, all of

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these women reported being mentored. In subsequent decades, as mentoring became a widely valued phenomenon in the United States, women and minorities in particular continued to develop mentoring relationships consciously as they sought professional advancement.

Contemporary Research and Practice in the US Research in the 1970s, partly in response to a study by Daniel Levinson, led some women and African Americans to question whether the classic "white male" model was available or customary for people who are newcomers in traditionally white male organizations. In 1978 Edgar Schein described multiple roles for successful mentors.

Two of Schein's students, Davis and Garrison, undertook to study successful leaders of both genders and at least two races. Their research presented evidence for the roles of: cheerleader, coach, confidant, counsellor, developer of talent, "griot" (oral historian for the organization or profession), guardian, guru, inspiration, master, "opener of doors", patron, role model, pioneer, "seminal source", "successful leader", and teacher. They described multiple mentoring practices which have since been given the name of "mosaic mentoring" to distinguish this kind of mentoring from the single mentor approach.

Mosaic mentoring is based on the concept that almost everyone can perform one or another function well for someone else — and also can learn along one of these lines from someone else. The model is seen as useful for people who are "non-traditional" in a traditional setting, such as people of color and women in a traditionally white male organization. The idea has been well received in medical education literature. There are also mosaic mentoring programs in various faith-based organizations.

Corporate Mentorship Programs Corporate mentoring programs are used by mid to large organizations to further the development and retention of employees. Mentoring programs may be formal or informal and serve a variety of specific objectives including acclimation of new employees, skills development, employee retention and diversity enhancement.

Formal Mentoring Programs Formal mentoring programs offer employees the opportunity to participate in an organized mentoring program. Participants join as a mentor, protégé or both by completing a mentoring profile. Mentoring profiles are completed as written forms on paper or computer or filled out via an online form as part of an online mentoring system.

Protégés are matched with a mentor by a program administrator or a mentoring committee, or may self-select a mentor depending on the program format.

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Informal mentoring takes places in organizations that develop a culture of mentoring but do not have formal mentoring in place. These companies may provide some tools and resources and encourage managers to accept mentoring requests from more junior members of the organization.

New-Hire Mentorship New-hire mentoring programs are set up to help new employees acclimate more quickly into the organization. In new-hire mentoring programs, newcomers to the organization (protégés) are paired with more experienced people (mentors) in order to obtain information, good examples, and advice as they advance. It has been claimed that new employees who are paired with a mentor are twice as likely to remain in their job than those who do not receive mentorship.

These mentoring relationships provide substance for career growth, and benefit both the mentor and the protégé. For example, the mentor gets to show leadership by giving back and perhaps being refreshed about their own work. The organization receives an employee that is being gradually introduced and shaped by the organization's culture and operation because they have been under the mentorship of an experienced member. The person being mentored networks, becomes integrated easier in an organization, gets experience and advice along the way. It has been said that "joining a mentor's network and developing one's own is central to advancement" and this is possibly why those mentored tend to do well in their organizations.

In the organizational setting, mentoring usually "requires unequal knowledge", but the process of mentorship can differ. Bullis describes the mentoring process in the forms of phase models. Initially, the "mentee proves himself or herself worthy of the mentor's time and energy". Then cultivation occurs which includes the actual "coaching...a strong interpersonal bond between mentor and mentee develops". Next, under the phase of

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separation "the mentee experiences more autonomy". Ultimately, there is more of equality in the relationship, termed by Bullis as Redefinition.

High-potential mentorship High-potential mentoring programs are used to groom up-and-coming employees deemed to have the potential to move up into leadership roles. Here the employee (protĂŠgĂŠ) is paired with a senior level leader (or leaders) for a series of career-coaching interactions. These programs tend to be smaller than more general mentoring programs and mentees must be selected to participate.

A similar method of high-potential mentoring is to place the employee in a series of jobs in disparate areas of an organization, all for small periods of time, in anticipation of learning the organization's structure, culture, and methods. A mentor does not have to be a manager or supervisor to facilitate the process.

Matching Mentors and Mentees Matching by Committee Mentees are matched with mentors by a designated mentoring committee or mentoring administrator usually consisting of senior members of the Training, Learning and Development and Human Resources departments. The matching committee reviews the mentoring profiles and makes matches based on areas for development, mentor strengths, overall experience, skill set, location and objectives for the mentorship.

Matching through Self-Match Technology Mentoring technology can be used to facilitate matches allowing mentees to search and select a mentor based on their own development needs and interests. This menteedriven methodology increases the speed in which matches are created and reduces the

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amount of administrative time required to manage the program. The quality of matches increases as well with self-match programs because the greater the involvement of the mentee in the selection of their mentor, the better the outcome of the mentorship. There are a variety of online mentoring technology programs available that can be utilized to facilitate this mentee-driven matching process.

Speed Mentoring Speed mentoring closely follows the procedures of speed dating. Mentors and mentees are introduced to each other in short sessions, allowing each person to meet multiple potential matches in a very short timeframe. Speed mentoring occur as a one-time event in order for people "to meet potential mentors to see if there is a fit for a longer term engagement."

Mentorship In Education In many secondary and post-secondary schools, mentorship programs are offered to support students in program completion, confidence building and transitioning to further education or the workforce. There are also many peer mentoring programs designed specifically to bring under-represented populations into science and engineering. The Internet has brought university alumni closer to graduating students. Graduate university alumni are engaging with current students in career mentorship through interview questions and answers. The students with the best answers receive professional recommendations from industry experts build a more credible CV.

Blended Mentoring The blended mentoring is a mix of on-site and online events, projected to give to career counseling and development services the opportunity to adopt mentoring in their ordinary practice.

Reverse Mentoring In the reverse mentoring situation, the mentee has less overall experience (typically as a result of age) than the mentor (who is typically older), but the mentee has more knowledge in a particular area, and as such, reverses the typical constellation.

Examples are when young internet or mobile savvy Millennial Generation teens train executives in using their high end Smart Phones. They in turn sometimes offer insight in business processes.

Business Mentoring The concept of mentoring has entered the business domain as well. This is different from being an apprentice, a business mentor provides guidance to a business owner or

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an entrepreneur on the entrepreneur's business. An apprentice learns a trade by working on the job with the "employer".

A 2012 literature review by EPS-PEAKS investigated the practice of business mentoring, with a focus on the Middle-East and North Africa region. The review found strong evidence to suggest that business mentoring can have real benefits for entrepreneurs, but highlights some key factors that need to be taken into account when designing mentoring programmes for this to be the case, such as the need to balance a formal and informal approach and to appropriately match mentors and mentees.

e-Mentoring [e-Mentoring] is a means of providing a guided mentoring relationship using online software or email. It stemmed from mentoring programs with the invention of the internet, and began to gain popularity around 1993. First used for programs connecting schoolchildren with businesspeople, ementoring is now popular throughout the US, the UK, and some parts of Europe.

Early e-Mentoring Many early ementoring programs used email communication to link mentors and mentees. Telephone communication was also occaionally used, known as telementoring. One of the first ementoring programs was developed in Canada in 1990, where teachers from schools in British Columbia were given online support and training by experienced peers. The teachers and peers never met in a face-to-face context.

Web-based e-Mentoring Modern ementoring projects tend to rely on web-based solutions, particularly if children are involved. Online software allows both mentors and mentees to log into a secure online environment where they can converse under supervision of moderators and coordinators.

An example of an e-mentoring organization is in the US is MentorNet, a non-profit ementoring organization that focuses on women and underrepresented minorities in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) fields. MentorNet uses an

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algorithm to match over 27,000 mentor relationships since 1997. The organization is unique because it uses technology to guide relationships between mentors and protégés. MentorNet focuses on college-level protégés for the 8-month matching scheme. Another US provider is Chronus who provide eMentoring services across various sectors from enterprise to non-profit.

An example of an ementoring provider in the UK is Brightside, a non-profit e-mentoring organization that works with 60 businesses, charities and universities. Brightside has developed a secure online portal featuring interactive content and resources through which over 6,000 trained online mentors are connected with over 21,000 young people, providing them with information and guidance about education and employment. Newer entrants to the UK market include sfG MentorNet®, which was designed jointly with a youth-based mentoring charity but which is also now being used by an increasing number of Careers Departments within UK universities. Others include Aluminati with their Aluminate eMentoring platform targeted to alumni and students of higher educational institutions and Mentor Match Me.

e-Mentoring Mediums ementoring can retain the face to face interaction by utilizing video chat services, such as FaceTime, Google Hangouts, Skype, video chat through Facebook, etc.

Controversy and Debate Online mentoring is occasionally compared unfavourably with face to face mentoring.

The medium limits the ability to pick up on visual or social clues, makes immediate feedback difficult and can often be seen as impersonal.

However, e-Mentoring can make participants more willing to offer honest feedback. It is also being embraced more readily by those in business who want to become mentors, as e-Mentoring is less time-consuming than face-to-face mentoring.

Impact It has been suggested that the quality of the mentoring relationship is heavily influenced by the amount of common interests that the mentor and mentee have. As such, most charities and businesses that offer eMentoring programmes require some shared interest between the mentor and mentee. It is also generally accepted that any mentoring relationship is most effective during a transitional period in the mentee's life, such as applying to university or making decisions about future careers.

Ementoring programs also impact beneficially on the motivation of the youth pursuing post highschool studies. The impression, that is driven from the exchanges with an ementor working in the field of interests of the youth, of "how important the studies are" if he wants to get the job he dreams of is tangible Page 40 of 59

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The Nature of Individualized Training Training and Development is a function of human resource management concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including "human resource development", and "learning and development".

History The name of the discipline has been debated, with the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development in 2000 arguing that "human resource development" is too evocative of the master-slave relationship between employer and employee for those who refer to their employees as "partners" or "associates" to feel comfortable with. Eventually, the CIPD settled upon "learning and development", although that was itself not free from problems, "learning" being an over-general and ambiguous name, and most organizations referring to it as "training and development".

Practice Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and development.   

Training: This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently holds.

Education: This activity focuses upon the jobs that an individual may potentially hold in the future, and is evaluated against those jobs.

Development: This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to evaluate.

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes.

The sponsors of training and development are senior managers. The clients of training and development are business planners. Line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The participants are those who actually undergo the processes. The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff. And the providers Page 42 of 59

are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and motivations of the others.

The conflicts that are the best part of career consequences are those that take place between employees and their bosses. The number one reason people leave their jobs is conflict with their bosses. And yet, as author, workplace relationship authority, and executive coach, Dr. John Hoover points out, "Tempting as it is, nobody ever enhanced his or her career by making the boss look stupid." Training an employee to get along well with authority and with people who entertain diverse points of view is one of the best guarantees of long-term success. Talent, knowledge, and skill alone won't compensate for a sour relationship with a superior, peer, or customer.

Typical roles in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new-employee orientation, professional-skills training, technical/job training, customerservice training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Job titles may include vice-president of organizational effectiveness, training manager or director, management development specialist, blended-learning designer, training-needs analyst, chief learning officer, and individual career-development advisor.

Talent development is the process of changing an organization, its employees, its stakeholders, and groups of people within it, using planned and unplanned learning, in order to achieve and maintain a competitive advantage for the organization. Rothwell notes that the name may well be a term in search of a meaning, like so much in management, and suggests that it be thought of as selective attention paid to the top 10% of employees, either by potential or performance.

While talent development is reserved for the top management it is becoming increasingly clear that career development is necessary for the retention of any employee, no matter what their level in the company. Research has shown that some type of career path is necessary for job satisfaction and hence job retention. Perhaps organizations need to include this area in their overview of employee satisfaction.

The term talent development is becoming increasingly popular in several organizations, as companies are now moving from the traditional term training and development.

Talent development encompasses a variety of components such as training, career development, career management, and organizational development, and training and development. It is expected that during the 21st century more companies will begin to use more integrated terms such as talent development.

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Continuing Professional Development Continuing professional development (CPD) or continuing professional education (CPE) is the means by which people maintain their knowledge and skills related to their professional lives.

CPD obligations are common to most professions. Many professions define CPD as a structured approach to learning to help ensure competence to practice, taking in knowledge, skills and practical experience. CPD can involve any relevant learning activity, whether formal and structured or informal and self-directed.

For Different Professional Domains Medical Professionals CPD is defined as the education of physicians following completion of formal training.

CPD consists of any educational activity which helps to maintain, develop or increase knowledge, problem-solving, technical skills or professional performance standards all with the goal that physicians can provide better health care. CPD includes 'formal' activities, e.g. courses, conferences and workshops, as well as self-directed activities such as preceptorship and directed reading. The Federation of Medical Regulatory Authorities of Canada (FMRAC, the organization composed of the Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons or Medical Boards of all the provinces and territories), has stated that all licensed physicians in Canada must participate in a recognized revalidation process in which they demonstrate their commitment to continued competent performance in a framework that is fair, relevant, inclusive, transferable, and formative. In BC, the revalidation process came into effect January 1, 2010, and consists of mandatory compliance with CPD requirements of either the RCPSC or the CFPC.

Safety Practitioners In almost all European countries the vast majority of safety practitioners, safety officers, safety managers, safety specialists, safety consultants, or safety advisors are legally obliged and in some instances legally bound to partake in CPD with at least one of the following two institutes: The International Institute of Risk and Safety Management (IIRSM) which was established in 1975 as a professional body for health and safety practitioners. CPD is compulsory for Fellows or Specialist Fellows of IIRSM. The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) which is a UK organization for health and safety professionals. All IOSH Chartered Fellows, Chartered Members, Graduate and Technical Members have to carry out CPD to safeguard their professional membership status.

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Also in the UK the Safety Practitioners who offer the highest levels of service and/or advice should ideally appear on the Occupational Safety and Health Consultants Register unless in-house competence is proven. The Occupational Safety and Health Consultants Register is commonly referred to as 'OSHCR' (Phonetic 'osh-ker').

OSHCR was established in response to the UK Government‘s Common Sense, Common Safety report, which recommended that all Health and Safety consultants should be accredited to a professional body and a web-based directory be established.

The register aims to assist businesses to find advice on general health and safety management.

Lawyers and Advocates In many countries lawyers (advocates, attorneys, legal practitioners, legal executives, solicitors, or barristers) are encouraged or required to complete a certain number of hours of CPD or continuing legal education (CLE).

In England and Wales, all solicitors and legal executives who are in legal practice or employment, or who work 32 hours or more per week, are required to complete a minimum of 16 hours of CPD (= 16 CPD points) per year.

In Scotland, all solicitors who are in full-time employment and wish to retain their Practising Certificate are required to undertake a minimum of twenty hours of CPD per year.

In India, there is CPD through continuing legal education (CLE) platforms organized and conducted by the Bar Council of India through state bar councils, national law schools, universities, bar associations, tax bar associations and at other various professional levels to enhance professional knowledge, professional skill, professional acumen, analytical ability & accountability, legal ethics, professional management & business skill etc.

In Queensland, Australia, each legal practitioner is required to undertake ten hours of CPD each year to acquire ten CPD points. Within each year, the practitioner must include one point for each of three core areas:

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  

Professional skills, Practical legal ethics, and Practice management and business skills.

Many of the major legal publishers run seminars for the profession. A variety of providers ensures practitioners have adequate choice of content and style of delivery.

IT practitioners Since 2012 there has been an expectation for IT practitioners to hold a valid certification to prove their skills and experience in their field. IT official vendor courses such as the CompTIA, Microsoft or CISCO range are governed by ISO 17024, which states that a qualifying certification lasts for a limited period. For IT technical, this period is three years. For IT software development the period is two years. There is now an expectation for the individual to hold a relevant certification at interview and to retrain regularly throughout their career.

Opinions on this differ in different countries, fuelled by the subsidy the employer can claim to encourage them to upskill their workforce. This can be demand-driven (e.g. a when new software is adopted this results in a need for the relevant IT staff to be retrained). The training itself is a 'win-win' situation: The employer can recoup training costs, get tax breaks or other incentives to ensure that they keep their workforce current (in EU and the US). The employee sees the employer as a good and caring employer but both parties benefit from the training. The caveat is that the employee also has to hold the relevant certification after completing the training course. This can often be a tricky process as the courses are quite complex and will test the abilities of the individual.

For the US Military, there is a mandate (DoD 8570.1M - "Information Assurance Workforce Improvement Program") which requires officer-grade military personnel and also civilians operating on US bases to hold relevant certification in order to obtain credit to meet the DoD requirement. The individual has usually a period of 6 months to upskill and training is paid for.

Definitions and Scope Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (UK) define CPD as a commitment by members to continually update their skills and knowledge in order to remain professionally competent and achieve their true potential.

This approach emphasises: 

continuing, because learning never ceases, regardless of age or seniority;

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 

professional, because it is focused on professional competence in a professional role; and concerned with development, because the goal is to improve personal performance and enhance career progression, which arguably is much wider than just formal training courses.

Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) in the United Kingdom defines CPD as: The systematic maintenance and improvement of knowledge, skills and competence throughout a professional's working life. It is about maintaining and improving standards of competence and professionalism. The onus is on the learner to take responsibility for developing and directing their own career.

The Association of Personal Assistants APA (The Association of Personal Assistants) defines CPD as 'any process or activity that provides added value to the capability of the individual through an increase in professional knowledge, skills and personal qualities necessary for the appropriate execution of professional and technical duties, often termed ‗competence‘.

American Academy of Financial Management The American Academy of Financial Management requirements for continuing uses CPD and continuing education as part of its ongoing requirements for members.

Members must complete 15 hours of recognized professional each year to retain their qualification. The AAFM Board regulates certifications worldwide such as CWM Chartered Wealth Manager Certification.

Institute of Administrative Management The Institute of Administrative Management (IAM) requires candidates to complete the following: 

Self-SWOT analysis

This is intended to help the individual carry out some initial thinking about your strengths and weaknesses. In addition, you will need to think about possible directions for your career development and to highlight potential threats. 

Personal and professional development

Development of your PPDP is based upon the individuals SWOT analysis. Its purpose is to assist them to formulate a set of development activities covering a period of twelve months. Long-term career plans should cover development activities for the next twelve months in the light of their intentions over the next three years.

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

Implementation

Implementing of the individuals plan does not imply that they cannot or should not change it once implementation is underway. Situations and circumstances can and do change. 

Learning diary

It is vital that the individual records their efforts and assess the benefits of their planned activities. The activities that they undertake may not always generate the results that were intended. Time spent reflecting on how they have tackled each activity and in assessing the outcomes will enable the individual to adjust their PPDP for the following year. Moreover, by recording their activities they will be building a complete record of their professional/personal development that can form the basis for long-term career progression. 

Annual review/summary

At the end of the twelve-month period, having reviewed the individuals activities they are required to complete the Summary Sheet. The process is repeated for the second and subsequent years by reviewing and updating your SWOT analysis and then drawing up a new PPDP. Registration for CPD shows the individuals own commitment to learning and allows them to consider best practice within the workplace.

CPD for Sustainability Professionals The Institution of Sustainability Professionals requires all full Members (MISP) to undertake a minimum of 25 hours CPD per year as an essential component of professional life to ensure that they have the knowledge and experience to undertake their role as a sustainability professional in an effective manner.

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development According to the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), CPD should:     

be continuous - professionals should always be looking for ways to improve performance be the responsibility of the individual learner to own and manage be driven by the learning needs and development of the individual be evaluative rather than descriptive of what has taken place be an essential component of professional and personal life, never an optional extra

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European Federation of National Engineering Associations FEANI defines CPD as the acquisition of knowledge, experience and skills, as well as, the development of personal qualities. It contains both the acquisition of new skills, to broaden competence, and the enhancement of existing skills to keep abreast of evolving knowledge.

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References ______

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_development 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_competency 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_training 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentorship 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mentoring 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_and_development 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_professional_development 8. http://tiresearchlibrary.com/Lists/TI%20Education%20Technology%20%20Research%2 0Library/Attachments/119/9%20Components%20of%20effective%20PD%20%20T3PDLiteratureReview%20-%20AEL.pdf 9. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_197712_firth.pdf 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprenticeship#United_States 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internship 12. http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/2011_build/cle/mcle/aba_ model_rule_cle.authcheckdam.pdf

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Attachment A Nine Components of Effective Professional Development

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Review of the Research: Nine Components of Effective Professional Development

Prepared for Texas Instruments Educational and Productivity Solutions Division

by The Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education at AEL April 2004

Founded in 1966 as a not-for-profit corporation, AEL provides services to educators, education publishers, and policymakers. Services include rigorous research design and implementation, research reviews, intensive product and program evaluation, randomized field trials, technical assistance, and award-winning professional development programs. AEL operates several contracts funded by the U.S. Department of Education: a Regional Educational Laboratory, the Region IV Comprehensive Center, and an Eisenhower Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science Education. It also operates the Center for Education Services and the Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education.

Information about AEL research, produces, and services is available by writing P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325; calling 304-347-0400 or 800-624-9120; or visiting www.ael.org.

AEL is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer

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Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................. iv INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................1 Texas Instruments’ Educational & Productivity Solutions Division ......................1 Literature Review Purpose ......................................................................................2 Criteria for Selection of Studies...............................................................................2 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................2 FINDINGS ..........................................................................................................................3 Effective Professional Development Addresses Student-Learning Needs .............3 Effective Professional Development Incorporates Hands-On Technology Use ......................................................................................................4 Effective Professional Development Is Job-Embedded ..........................................5 Effective Professional Development Has Application to Specific Curricula .................................................................................................................5 Effective Professional Development Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs ...................................................................................................6 Effective Professional Development Occurs Over Time ........................................6 Effective Professional Development Occurs with Colleagues ...............................6 Effective Professional Development Provides Technical Assistance and Support to Teachers ..............................................................................................................7 Effective Professional Development Incorporates Evaluation ...............................7 Summary .................................................................................................................8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEXT STEPS ...................................................................9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................10 APPENDIX A Literature Checklists ............................................................................................12 APPENDIX B Description of Texas Instruments’ Educational and Productivity Solutions Division Approach to Professional Development Summary ..............................41

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Tables Table 1 — Breakout of Studies (N=14) Providing Evidence to Support Specific Components of Effective Professional Development.

Table 2 — Summary of the Quasi-experimental Studies Reporting the Effects of Professional Develop on Student Learning Needs.

Table 3 — Summary of Evaluation Tools Used to Assess Student Achievement Changes as the Result of a Particular Program of Professional Development for Teachers.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Professional Development Services group of Texas Instruments’ (TI’s) Educational and Productivity Solutions (E & PS) Division offers a variety of professional development services to teachers and districts, including face-to-face institutes and online courses. Professional development supported by scientifically based research (SBR) is of particular interest to TI’s E & PS Division since state and local entities make decisions about which products and services to adopt or purchase based on the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation. The NCLB legislation emphasizes that effective professional development should (1) improve teachers’ knowledge in their content area; (2) be ongoing, hands-on, and of high quality; and (3) give teachers the knowledge and skills they need to improve their instructional practices such that student achievement will be impacted.

This review of the research literature is organized around nine components of professional development that were identified as a result of the document reviews and E & PS staff interviews. The review of literature concerning best practices for delivering professional development was conducted with particular attention to the three sources listed below: 1. Providing Professional Development for Effective Technology Use, a critical issue Web site produced by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) (http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te1000.htm).

On this site, NCREL identifies 14 essential components of professional development.

2. Eight principles of professional development—identified from research as well as literature and best practice—on the Knowledge Loom Web site (http://www.knowledgeloom.org/pd/).

3. The National Staff Development Council’s 12 standards for staff development, revised in 2001.

In addition, interviews with E & PS staff were conducted to identify characteristics of the professional development services offered by E & PS. The nine components are: (1) it addresses student-learning needs; (2) it incorporates hands-on technology use; (3) it is job-embedded; (4) it has application to specific curricula; (5) it addresses knowledge, skills, and beliefs; (6) it occurs over time; (7) it occurs with colleagues; (8) it provides technical assistance and support to teachers; and (9) it incorporates evaluation.

For this review, the best available evidence in each of the nine areas was identified and obtained. Each piece of evidence was evaluated in terms of the extent to which it aligned with the principles of SBR, as defined by Section 9101 of NCLB (2002) and by the National Research Council (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Initially, a total of 92 abstracts, issue reports, journal articles, policy briefs, project reports, research reports, technical reports, and textbooks were reviewed. Of these 92, 14 met minimal SBR

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standards: 2 could be deemed experimental studies and 12 were some type of quasiexperimental study (e.g., non-equivalent control group, time series).

In short, evidence supporting the effectiveness of the nine components of professional development was found, though there was more evidence supporting some of the components than of others. These findings are summarized in Table 1 below.

Table 1.

Breakout of Studies (N=14) Providing Evidence of Effectivness to Support Specific Components of Professional Development.

Professional Development Components * Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Experimental Studies with Supporting Evidence 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 1 2

Quasiexperimental Studies with Supporting Evidence 12 2 12 12 11 3 2 2 10

*Any one particular study may, and often does, address multiple professional development components.

Based on the review of the available research literature regarding the nine components of professional development, the following recommendations are made. TI’s E & PS Division should: •

Continue its efforts to address all nine components of professional development when delivering in-person and online professional development. Although the circumstances associated with a particular professional development activity may prevent one or more of the components from being present, the available evidence does not provide sufficient guidance as to which, if any, of the components is more or less important than another.

•

Make every effort to evaluate the effectiveness of its professional development services through a comprehensive evaluation of student learning outcomes, participants’ use of new knowledge, the degree and/or change (if any) in organizational support of the professional development, participants’ learning, and participants’ reactions. This evaluation should be focused on the four attributes of evaluation developed by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation: (1) utility, (2) feasibility, (3) propriety, and (4) accuracy. v

•

Consider conducting randomized controlled trials that randomly assign individuals to experimental and control groups in order to empirically ascertain the effectiveness the professional development program provides.

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INTRODUCTION Texas Instruments’ (TI’s) Educational and Productivity Solutions (E & PS) Division contracted with the Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL in February 2004 to review the research literature regarding best available evidence relative to components of professional development and their associated effectiveness.

This review of the research literature is organized around nine components that were previously identified by IARE staff (see Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education, 2003 in Appendix B) through document reviews and interviews with key staff from TI’s E & PS Division and synthesized from the following three main sources: 1.

Providing Professional Development for Effective Technology Use, a critical issue Web site produced by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) (http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te1000.htm).

On this site, NCREL identifies 14 essential components of professional development.

2.

Eight principles of professional development—identified from research as well as literature and best practice—on the Knowledge Loom Web site (http://www.knowledgeloom.org/pd/).

3.

The National Staff Development Council’s 12 standards for staff development, revised in 2001.

Accordingly, this literature review is based on the following nine professional development components: (1) it addresses student-learning needs; (2) it incorporates hands-on technology use; (3) it is job-embedded; (4) it has application to specific curricula; (5) it addresses knowledge, skills, and beliefs; (6) it occurs over time; (7) it occurs with colleagues; (8) it provides technical assistance and support to teachers; and (9) it incorporates evaluation.

Texas Instruments’ Educational and Productivity Solutions Division The Professional Development Services group of TI’s E & PS Division offers a variety of professional development services to teachers and districts, including face-toface institutes and online courses. All instructors of professional development offered by E & PS are current or former classroom teachers who have used TI products (e.g., TI-73, TI-83+, Navigator, Voyager 200, TI-89) with students in classrooms.

Professional development supported by scientifically based research (SBR) is of particular interest to TI’s E & PS Division since state and local entities make decisions about which products and services to adopt or purchase based on the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation. This places new demands on educators at all levels,

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especially staff development leaders. The accountability requirements under this federal program drastically reshape their roles. Notably, the legislation compels staff development leaders to refocus their perspectives and, in some cases, to revise completely their efforts in the educational improvement process (Guskey, 2003) in order to incorporate methodologies proven effective.

Literature Review Purpose NCLB strongly emphasizes ensuring that funds are used to support educational practices that are “based on scientific research.” As part of an educational technology company, TI’s E & PS Division would like evidence to support its claims that the professional development it offers is grounded in SBR. At the outset, it is important to note that research designs employed to assess the impacts of professional development on student learning typically have been qualitative or quasi-experimental in nature rather than experimental.

Criteria for Selection of Studies At the outset, it is important to note that research designs typically employed to assess the impact of professional development on student learning have been qualitative or quasi-experimental in nature rather than experimental. A total of 92 abstracts, issue reports, journal articles, policy briefs, project reports, research reports, technical reports, and textbooks were initially identified and reviewed. Of these items, selection criteria eliminated sources that did not apply rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational activities and programs.

Following the eliminations, 14 studies remained that met the above criteria. Two of these were experimental studies and the remaining 12 were quasi-experimental studies.

METHODOLOGY Using academic databases such as ERIC, FirstSearch, and EBSCO, IARE staff conducted key-word searches to locate research on the nine components of professional development that were being used by TI’s E & PS Division. NCLB’s definition of SBR draws particular attention to experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Both experimental and quasi-experimental designs employ experimental and comparison groups. The primary difference between experiments and quasi-experiments (Redfield, Sivin-Kachala, & Schneiderman, 2003) is that in experiments, study participants are randomly selected from the population to which results of the study are to be generalized (an external validity issue) and/or randomly assigned to experimental and comparison groups (an internal validity issue and one of the important keys to the determination of cause-effect). Random selection and/or assignment are not features of quasiexperimental designs.

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FINDINGS Results from the review of literature will be summarized in this section. In short, evidence supporting the nine components as characteristics of effective professional develop was found, though there was more evidence supporting some of the components than others (see Table 1). The Appendix contains more in-depth information on each study and related resources.

Effective Professional Development Addresses Student-Learning Needs All 14 studies selected for review provide evidence that effective professional development addresses student-learning needs. In each instance, the professional development program or experience being studied was targeted to particular desired learning outcomes. In the experimental study of the Student Team Literature program (Killion, 1999; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997) and the experimental study of Project Legal (Project Legal, 2004) pre-test/post-test knowledge and achievement performance gains were found. In one instance (Killion, 1999; Project Legal, 2004), the law-related knowledge, comprehension, and problem solving skills of students who received instruction from specially trained teachers were significantly better than those of students who received more traditional social studies instruction. The quasi-experimental studies all reported using pre-test/post-test measures of student achievement, usually with some type of comparison group employed to provide a context within which to judge gains (losses). Most of the quasi-experimental studies located for this review focused on professional development related to math and science instruction. Table 2 below summarizes the professional development program being evaluated and its associated content focus for each of the 12 quasi-experimental studies included in this review.

Table 2.

Summary of the Quasi-experimental Studies Reporting the Effects of Professional Develop on Student Learning Needs.

Content Focus

Professional Development Program

Math (2nd – 5th Grade)

Generalized professional development

Math (algebra)

Hawaii Algebra Learning Project (HALP)

Math (6th & 8th grade) (algebra) Math (middle school) Math (general)

Peoria Urban Mathematics Program (PUMP) for Algebra Middle Grade Mathematics Renaissance University of Illinois at Chicago All Learn Mathematics

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Reference(s) [Primary reference first; secondary, if any, second] Cohen & Hill (1998) Young, Dougherty, Lai, & Matsumoto (1998); Killion (1999) Swafford & Thornton (1998); Killion (1999) Acquarelli & Mumme (1996); Killion (1999) University of Illinois at Chicago (1997); Killion (1999)

Content Focus

Professional Development Program

Math (algebra)

Algebra Initiative

Math/Science

Generalized professional development

Science

Iowa Chautauqua

Science Science (4th & 6th grades) Reading Readiness General

Student Watershed Research Project Science Education Enhancing the Development of Skills (SEEDS) Early Literacy and Learning Model (ELLM) Project CRISS: Reading, Writing, & Studying Strategies for Literature and Content

Reference(s) [Primary reference first; secondary, if any, second] Schweingruber, Papakonstantiou, Herbert & Rohr (1998 & 1999); Killion (2002b) (USDE, 2000) Dass & Yager (1997); Killion (1999) Student Watershed Research Project (1997); Killion (1999) Killion (2002a) Wehry (2001); Killion (2002a) Santa (2004); Killion (1999)

In sum, professional development that is based on analysis of student learning helps teachers close the gap between actual student performance and goals for student learning (Cohen & Hill, 1998; Killion, 2002a; Killion, 2002b).

Effective Professional Development Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Only two of the studies selected for review addressed this professional development component; both were quasi-experimental studies (Killion 2002a; Student Watershed Project, 1997).

In the Student Watershed Research Project, teachers received intensive training in watershed research and were provided a model of authentic student performance assessment. Students demonstrated knowledge of data collection and analysis by having their test results compared to duplicate samples analyzed by professional laboratories rather than being required to demonstrate increased performance on a standardized assessment of science knowledge. Student Watershed Research Project staff combined professional laboratory results with the students’ data, provided feedback on the data to both the students and teachers, and audited student data. In addition, students wrote their group findings and presented them to a panel of their classroom peers. Annual summits allowed students to display their data on poster-board and give oral presentations.

Students also had opportunities to provide information to regulatory agencies regarding the watershed they monitored (Killion 2002a; Student Watershed Project, 1997).

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The second study that addressed hands-on technology use was the Science Education Enhancing the Development of Skills or SEEDS program (Killion, 2002a). In this program, teachers regularly used hands-on science activities in addition to cooperative learning groups, discussions, and open-ended questions. As a result of the SEEDS professional development, teachers reported increased pedagogical preparedness for using performance-based assessments, hands-on science, and informal assessments; for helping students take responsibility for their own learning; and for using students’ prior knowledge in planning lessons. Annual student performance on the state science proficiency assessment in grades 4 and 6 indicated steady growth and consistently higher performance than students of teachers who did not participate in the SEEDS program.

Thus, the two studies cited above would suggest that incorporating hands-on technology in the professional development process helps teachers develop confidence in their skills. When teachers develop confidence in their skills, they are able to improve their teaching practices, which, in turn, should impact student achievement.

Effective Professional Development is Job-Embedded All 14 of the experimental and quasi-experimental studies included in the review reported that the professional development program or process being examined was job embedded. The Student Team Literature program (Killion, 1999; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997) and the Project Legal program (Project Legal, 2004)—both experimental studies—provided the teachers with sustained, on-the-job professional development that included ongoing support from other teachers and/or staff development professionals.

The same was found to be true for the quasi-experimental studies though the nature of the job-embeddedness varied from situation to situation. For example, on-site “coaches” were used with ELLM (Killion, 2002a; Wehry, 2001). Another example would be an approach were teachers assume multiple roles (e.g., leader, trainer, curriculum developer) as was done in SEEDS (Killion, 2002a). It seems that the particular strategy is not as important as is the sustained involvement with the professional development focus. Jobembedded professional development appears to improve teacher practice by promoting practical learning. In addition, it takes less time away from the classroom and generally costs less than other professional development strategies (Acquearelli & Mumme, 1996; Cohen & Hill, 1998; Dass & Yager, 1997; Killion, 1999; Killion, 2002b; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997; Project Legal, 2004; Santa, 2004; Schweingruber et al., 1998 & 1999; Student Watershed Research Project, 1997; Swafford & Thornton, 1998; University of Illinois at Chicago, 1997; USDE, 2000; Wehry, 2001; Young et al., 1998).

Effective Professional Development Has Application to Specific Curricula All of the studies reviewed indicated that professional development that was grounded in teaching specific content helped teachers become more deeply immersed in subject matter and teaching methods (Acquearelli & Mumme, 1996; Cohen & Hill, 1998; Dass & Yager, 1997; Killion, 1999; Killion, 2002b; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997; Project Legal, 2004; Santa, 2004; Schweingruber et al., 1998 & 1999; Student Watershed Research Project, 1997; Swafford & Thornton, 1998; University of Illinois at Chicago,

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1997; USDE, 2000; Wehry, 2001; Young, Dougherty, Lai, & Matsumoto, 1998). Most of the studies reviewed had mathematics as their focus (Acquarelli & Mumme, 1996; University of Illinois at Chicago, 1997; Cohen & Hill, 1998; Killion, 1999; Swafford & Thornton, 1998; Schweingruber et al., 1999). A few of the studies focused on science (Dass & Yager, 1997; Killion, 1999; Killion, 2002b; Student Watershed Research Project, 1997) or both mathematics and science (USDE, 2000). Only one of the professional development programs reviewed did not have a specific content focus (Killion, 1999; Santa, 2004).

Effective Professional Development Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs All but one of the 14 studies reviewed supported the idea that professional development should provide opportunities to engage in creating a theoretical understanding of the knowledge and skills to be learned (Acquearelli & Mumme, 1996;; Dass & Yager, 1997; Killion, 1999; Killion, 2002b; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997; Project Legal, 2004; Santa, 2004; Schweingruber, Papakonstantiou, Herbert, & Rohr, 1998 & 1999; Student Watershed Research Project, 1997; Swafford & Thornton, 1998; University of Illinois at Chicago, 1997; USDE, 2000; Wehry, 2001; Young, Dougherty, Lai, & Matsumoto, 1998). The studies concurred that teacher thinking and classroom behavior are influenced by teacher knowledge and beliefs; therefore, an important component of their professional development needs to be the expansion of their professional knowledge base. As the various studies demonstrate, improving teacher knowledge and skills is related to increasing student performance and ensuring their success.

Effective Professional Development Occurs Over Time Three of the quasi-experimental studies reported evidence that high-quality professional development occurs over time and should be seen as an ongoing process (Cohen & Hill, 1998; Killion, 1999; Santa, 2004; USDE, 2000). By participating in ongoing professional development, teachers are made aware of changing expectations and new teaching methods. They are given opportunities to implement methods and procedures suggested by the professional development program and to receive feedback on those implementation efforts. By sustaining the professional development implementation effort over time, the potential to impact student achievement increases.

Effective Professional Development Occurs with Colleagues Two of the quasi-experimental studies reported data related to professional development occurring with colleagues. The evidence from these two studies clearly points to the notion that the most effective professional development sessions are those that give teachers time to collaborate with one another and to discuss their professional development experience (Cohen & Hill, 1998; USDE, 2000). These two studies indicate that when teachers collaborate with colleagues, there is a positive impact on instructional practices and, therefore, on student achievement.

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Effective Professional Development Provides Technical Assistance and Support to Teachers Three of the studies reviewed, one experimental and two quasi-experimental, reported findings that addressed the provision of technical assistance and support to teachers (Acquarelli & Mumme, 1996; Killion, 1999; Project Legal, 2004; USDE, 2000).

The evidence from these three studies indicates that, without continuous technical assistance and support, effective, long-lasting professional development will not result.

Teachers indicated being more successful in implementing new instructional strategies and techniques when they received ongoing technical assistance and support after receiving professional development.

Effective Professional Development Incorporates Evaluation NCLB requires schools to show that the professional development being provided to teachers is effective and produces positive results. The issue is not whether teachers are satisfied with a particular professional development experience—but rather what effect professional development has on student achievement (Guskey, 2000). Both of the experimental studies reviewed and 10 of the 12 quasi-experimental studies examined reported findings related to assessing student performance changes as a result of the teachers’ professional development that the students’ teacher had experienced (Acquearelli & Mumme, 1996; Dass & Yager, 1997; Killion, 1999; Killion, 2002b; MacIver, Plank, Balfanz, 1997; Project Legal, 2004; Santa, 2004; Schweingruber et al., 1998 & 1999; Student Watershed Research Project, 1997; Swafford & Thornton, 1998; University of Illinois at Chicago, 1997; Wehry, 2001; Young et al., 1998). In general, evidence of increases in student achievement was found in each instance. A summary of the evaluation tools used to assess student performance for each of the 12 studies reporting such information is provided in Table 3 below.

Table 3.

Summary of Evaluation Tools Used to Assess Student Achievement Changes as the Result of a Particular Program of Professional Development for Teachers.

Professional Development Program Project CRISS: Reading, Writing, & Studying Strategies for Literature and Content Early Literacy and Learning Model (ELLM)

Student Performance Evaluation Tool (Area)

Reference [Primary reference first; secondary, if any, second]

Standardized Free-recall (General)

Santa (2004); Killion (1999)

Tera – 2 (Reading Readiness)

Wehry (2001); Killion (2002a)

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Professional Development Program Science Education Enhancing the Development of Skills (SEEDS) Student Team Literature Program

Student Performance Evaluation Tool (Area) Ohio state science proficiency tests (Science – 4th & 6th grades) Stanford 9 Achievement Test (Reading Comprehension)

Project Legal

Criterion-referenced tests

Algebra Initiative

Algebra I End-of-Course Exam (Math – algebra)

University of Illinois at Chicago All Learn Mathematics

Iowa Test of Basic Skills (Math – general)

Hawaii Algebra Learning Project (HALP) Iowa Chautauqua Peoria Urban Mathematics Program (PUMP) for Algebra Middle Grade Mathematics Renaissance Student Watershed Research Project

GOALS: A PerformanceBased Measure of Achievement (Math – algebra) Multiple-choice tests (Science) Illinois Goal Assessment Program (Math)

Reference

Killion (2002a) MacIver, Plank, Balfanz (1997); Killion (1999) Project Legal (2004); Killion (1999) Schweingruber, Papakonstantiou, Herbert, & Rohr (1998 & 1999); Killion (2002b) All Learn Mathematics Annual Report (1997); Killion (1999) Young, Dougherty, Lai, & Matsumoto (1998); Killion (1999) Dass & Yager (1997); Killion (1999) Swafford & Thornton (1998); Killion (1999)

New Standards Reference Acquarelli & Mumme (1996); Exam (Math – middle school) Killion (1999) Student data samples (Science)

Student Watershed Research Project (1997); Killion (1999)

Summary NCLB places a premium on professional development that (1) improves teachers’ knowledge of the subjects they teach; (2) is an integral part of schoolwide educational improvement plans; (3) gives teachers and other school personnel the knowledge and skills they need to help students meet challenging standards; (4) is high-quality, sustained, intensive, and classroom-focused to have a positive and lasting effect on classroom instruction and teachers’ performance in the classroom; and (5) advances teachers’ understandings of effective instructional strategies that are based on scientifically based research and align with and are directly related to academic content standards, academic achievement standards, and assessments. The best evidence available points to the fact that the Professional Development Services group TI’s E & PS

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Division will provide effective professional development if nine components are incorporated into their professional development activities. It has not been empirically established whether all nine components must be present or whether a particular subset is crucial. Only through continued rigorous research will this be established.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEXT STEPS The Professional Development Services group of TI’s E & PS Division offers a variety of professional development services to teachers and districts. NCLB emphasizes that effective professional development should (1) improve teachers’ knowledge in their content area; (2) be ongoing, hands-on, and of high quality; and (3) give teachers the knowledge and skills they need to improve their instructional practices such that student achievement will be impacted. To address these issues, TI’s E & PS Division should: •

Continue its efforts to address all nine components of professional development when delivering in-person and online professional development. Although the circumstances associated with a particular professional development activity may prevent one or more of the components from being present, the available evidence does not provide sufficient guidance as to which, if any, of the components is more or less important than another.

•

Make every effort to evaluate the effectiveness of its professional development services through a comprehensive evaluation of student learning outcomes, participants’ use of new knowledge, the degree and/or change (if any) in organizational support of the professional development, participants’ learning, and participants’ reactions. This evaluation should be focused on the four attributes of evaluation developed by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation: (1) utility, (2) feasibility, (3) propriety, and (4) accuracy.

•

Consider conducting randomized controlled trials that randomly assign individuals to experimental and control groups in order to empirically ascertain the effectiveness the professional development program provides.

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REFERENCES Acquarelli, K., & Mumme, J. A. (1996). Renaissance in mathematics education reform.

Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 478-484.

Cohen, D. K., & Hill, H. C. (1998). Instructional policy and classroom performance: The mathematics reform in California. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.

Dass, P., & Yager, R. (1997). Iowa Chautauqua Program final performance report.

Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa.

Guskey, T. R. (2000). Evaluating professional development. Thousand Oakes, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education. (2003). Description of Texas Instruments’ Educational and Productivity Solutions Division approach to professional development. Charleston, WV: AEL. Killion, J. (2002a). What works in the elementary school: Results-based staff development. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/connect/projects/elwhatworks.pdf Killion, J. (2002b). What works in the high school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/connect/projects/hswhatworks.pdf Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm MacIver, D.J., Plank, S.B, & Balfanz, R. (1997). Working together to become proficient readers: Early impact of the talent development middle school’s Student Team Literature Program. (Report No. 15). Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR), Johns Hopkins University.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110. (2002).

Project Legal. (2004). Law-related education: Goals for American leadership. Retrieved March 9, 2004 from http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/plegal/about.html Redfield, D. L., Sivin-Kachala, J., & Schneiderman, M. (2003). Scientifically based research: A guide for education publishers and developers. Washington, DC: The Software & Information Industry Association.

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Santa, C. M. (2004). Project CRISS: Evidence of Effectiveness. Kalispell, MT. Retrieved March 9, 2004 from http://www.projectcriss.com/projectcriss/pages/research/media/R-Evidence.pdf Schweingruber, H., Papakonstantiou, A., Herbert, E., & Rohr, M. (1998). High school algebra initiative: Year one report. Houston, TX: Rice University School Mathematics Project.

Schweingruber, H., Papakonstantiou, A., Herbert, E., & Rohr, M. (1999). High school algebra initiative: Year two report. Houston, TX: Rice University School Mathematics Project.

Shavelson, R. J., & Towne, L. (Eds.). (2002). Scientific research in education.

Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Student Watershed Research Project. (1997). Fifth Annual Student Watershed Summit: Summary Evaluation Comments. Author.

Swafford, J., & Thornton, C. (1998). The PUMP algebra project. Unpublished Paper.

Retrieved March 9, 2004 from http://www.nsdc.org/library/authors/NSDCPlan.cfm U.S. Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Service. (2000). Does professional development change teaching practice? Results from a three-year study. Washington, DC: Office of the Under Secretary.

University of Illinois at Chicago. (1997). All Learn Mathematics annual report 1996-97.

Chicago: Author.

Wehry, S. (2001). The early literacy and learning model (ELLM) initiative: Making a difference 1999/2000 & 2000/2001. Jacksonville, FL: Florida Institute of Education at the University of North Florida. Retrieved March 9, 2004 from http://www.unf.edu/dept/fie/downloads/ELLMreport.pdf Young, D. B., Dougherty, B., Lai, M. K., & Matsumoto, A. (1998). Addressing equity through curriculum development and program evaluation. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 4, 269-281.

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APPENDIX

12

A

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Santa, C. M.

Title:

Project CRISS: Evidence of effectiveness

Source:

Retrieved from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

Publication Date:

2004

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a non-equivalent control group design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected through a standardized free-recall approach using text appropriate to the reading level of the students.

Population:

The evaluation of Project CRISS was conducted in 1991-1992 with eight pre- and post-comparison groups at the development site and two replication sites (Montana, Florida, and Virginia). In subsequent studies in 1994-1995, similar results occurred in two other sites (Colorado and Washington).

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * * *

Findings Students who were taught Project CRISS strategies demonstrated significantly greater gains (p < .001) in the retention of subject-specific information than comparable students who did not participate in the program. The evaluation of Project CRISS was conducted in 1991-92 with eight pre- and post-comparison groups at the development site and two replication sites (Montana, Florida, and Virginia) using intact classroom groups of

13

students in grades 4, 6, 8, and 11. Teachers, rather than students, were randomly assigned to the treatment and comparison groups.

Information retention was assessed through a standardized free-recall approach using text appropriate to the reading level of the students. Both pre- and post-test data were collected using procedures that closely resembled actual classroom and learning situations. Measures to ensure reliability of the process were employed. Data were then analyzed using statistical processes to explore differing effects of the implementation of Project CRISS across both the pre- and post-tests. Students at all three sites outperformed the nontreatment group at significant levels even when accounting for naturally occurring gains of students. In subsequent studies in 1994-95, similar results were found in two other sites (Colorado and Washington).

Conclusions Students of teachers who participated in Project CRISS training, which was sustained and job-embedded, outperformed the nontreatment group at significant levels even when accounting for naturally occurring gains of students at all three evaluation sites. At the middle school level, students in the treatment group recalled more than twice as much content-area knowledge as their comparison groups. For teachers of all the content areas this program was deemed beneficial. When teacher interdisciplinary teams used similar learning strategies across content areas, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; application of the skills was reinforced and their learning increased.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

14

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Wehry, S.

Title:

The early literacy and learning model (ELLM) initiative: Making a difference 1999/2000 & 2000/2001

Source:

Florida Institute of Education at the University of North Florida

Publication Date:

2001

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a non-equivalent group design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected via reading readiness tests, program-developed tests, and teacher interviews.

Population:

The Early Literacy and Learning Model (ELLM) was used in five Northeast Florida Counties, including Jacksonville, with children from predominantly high-poverty, low-achieving urban schools and centers that served mostly African American students and their families. The program was implemented in 89 sites including faithbased child care; Head Start; subsidized pre-kindergarten early intervention; pre-kindergarten handicapped special education; and bilingual, kindergarten, and 1st-grade classrooms.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings ELLM contributed to the improvement of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reading readiness. Using nonrandom but equivalent group pre- and post-test design with a control setting, ELLM has enabled children to demonstrate significant gains in reading readiness when compared to

15

both national norms and the control site on the TERA - 2 and an alphabet recognition test. These results occurred for three cohort groups consisting of 4- and 5-year-olds in child care; 5- and 6-year-olds in kindergarten; and 6- and 7-year-olds in 1st grade.

Furthermore, the ELLM students represented high-needs urban students, and they performed in the national â&#x20AC;&#x153;averageâ&#x20AC;? category as defined by TERA - 2.

ELLM students in the 4- to 5-year-old and 5- to 6 - year-old cohorts demonstrated significant improvement in the alphabet recognition assessment, outperforming the national sample of kindergarteners tested as a part of Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Kindergarteners: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS). Of ECLS students, 66% demonstrated reading proficiency while 81% of the ELLM kindergarten students and 56% of the ELLM prekindergarten demonstrated proficiency.

Teachers seemed to view themselves as learners and reported increased confidence in their own reading skills, deeper understanding of reading instruction, more knowledge about reading resources, and greater appreciation for the strategies they were using.

Conclusions ELLM provides the foundation for successful readers. Addressing the specific needs of high-poverty, low-achieving students, this program offered teachers intensive, ongoing support to provide literacy instruction. The staff development model depended largely on literacy coaches who worked directly with teachers in their classrooms as they applied what they were learning and made adaptations to address the varied learning needs of their students.

Related Resource Killion, J. (2002). What works in the elementary school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/connect/projects/elwhatworks.pdf

16

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Killion, J.

Title:

Science education enhancing the development of skills

Source:

What works in elementary school: Results-based staff development, National Staff Development Council

Publication Date:

2002

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a non-equivalent control group design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the Ohio state science proficiency tests, program-specific teacher surveys, and classroom observations.

Population:

More than 1,000 teachers from rural, urban, and suburban communities in six towns and three private schools in Stark County, Ohio were involved in this project.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * *

*

Findings Annual student performance on the Ohio state science proficiency assessment in grades 4 and 6 indicated steady growth and consistently higher performance by Stark County students than other students across the state. The test required higher level thinking; more than factual recall of data; and assessed the strands of nature of science, physical science, earth and space science, and life science. From the beginning of the project in 1995, 4th-grade student achievement has rose from 44% of students passing the state assessment to 76% of the students passing in 2002. The 6th-grade passing rate went from

17

47% to 71%. In all cases, the state’s average scores were lower, and sometimes by as much as 10%.

In addition to improved student performance on state assessments, teacher classroom practices changed. Teachers more regularly used hands-on science activities, cooperative learning groups, discussion, and open-ended questions. Teachers reported increased pedagogical preparedness for using performance-based assessments, hands-on science, informal assessments, helping students take responsibility for their own learning, and using students’ prior knowledge in planning lessons.

Conclusions The combination of strong curriculum and hands-on professional development, as was evident in Science Education Enhancing the Development of Skills, improved students’ performance and teachers’ classroom practices. The opportunity for teachers to assume multiple roles as leaders, trainers, coaches, curriculum developers, and facilitators was a strength of the staff development design for this program. Teachers deepened their understanding of science, science pedagogy, and leadership through the project’s professional development.

18

Literature Checklist Author(s):

MacIver, D. J., Plank, S. B., & Balfanz, R.

Title:

Working together to become proficient readers: Early impact of the talent development middle schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Student Team Literature Program. (Report No. 15)

Source:

Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk

Publication Date:

1997

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Experimental (a matched control group, pre-test/post-test design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the Stanford 9 Achievement Test.

Population:

The project was implemented in 1995-1996 in 21 classrooms in sixth through eighth grades at Central East Middle School in Philadelphia. More than 85% of the students were from lowincome families and the student population at Central East Middle School included a large percentage of second language learners and minority students.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings Teachers involved in this staff development program received comprehensive, sustained professional development and worked in collaborative groups throughout the school year.

19

A matched control group, pre-test/post-test design was used to evaluate effects of Student Team Literature (STL) on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; end-of-the-year reading comprehension scale scores on the Stanford 9. Researchers used hierarchical linear models to estimate the differences between experimental classrooms (21) and control classrooms (25) in reading comprehension, while controlling for prior achievement and current grade level.

Additional measures were used to estimate the difference in the effectiveness of peer assistance in increasing reading comprehension in experimental and control classrooms.

While the results from the Student Team Literature were based on one schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use, earlier research on the Student Team Reading (the first version of the Student Team Literature) was extensive. It demonstrated significant improvement (p<.05) in the California Achievement Test Total Reading for 1,223 urban sixth-grade students in six middle schools when compared to control classrooms where traditional reading instruction was provided using basal and isolated skill instruction. In addition, a second study of the Student Team Reading Program paired with the Student Team Writing Program in sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade classrooms with 3,986 students in the Baltimore City Schools, resulted in significant improvements (at least p<.05) in reading comprehension, vocabulary, language mechanics, and language expression on the California Achievement Test when compared to match control schools. These results were obtained even when the control schools had significantly higher pre-test scores (p<.01) in Total Reading and Total Language.

Conclusions Students in the Student Team Literature (STL) classrooms displayed significantly better reading comprehension after the first year of implementation (effect size .51) than did students in the comparison group. The increase in reading comprehension occurred across all levels of prior ability; students with the strongest prior reading skills benefited the most. Peer assistance was found to be more productive and frequent in STL classrooms than in the control classrooms.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

20

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Project Legal

Title:

Law-related education: Goals for American leadership

Source:

Retrieved from http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/plegal/

Publication Date:

2004

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Experimental

Data Collected:

Data were collected through criterion-referenced tests of knowledge and comprehension of legal issues and problem-solving skills related to legal issues.

Population:

The original study in 1979 involved 1,718 students in the state of New York in diverse school settings whose teachers were randomly assigned to implement either Project Legal or traditional instructional approaches.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * * *

Findings Project Legalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first evaluation was conducted during the 1978-1979 school year, and subsequent evaluations have supported the initial findings. The original study used a preand post-test control and treatment group design. Students who participated in Project Legal classrooms performed significantly better than those who had more traditional social studies curriculum and instruction.

21

Criterion-referenced assessments of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; law-related knowledge and comprehension and problem-solving skills in law were designed by the program developers to measure the programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness. The original study involved 1,718 students in New York state in diverse school settings whose teachers were randomly assigned to implement either Project Legal or traditional instructional approaches. The random assignment of teachers and classrooms to treatment and control groups strengthens the findings of the program evaluation.

Conclusions The staff development component of this project immersed teachers in professional development where they had support from project staff and other teachers who were implementing the program. Students in Project Legal classrooms in grades 5, 8, and 11 significantly improved their knowledge and comprehension of law-related curriculum and their problem-solving skills related to functioning in the U.S. legal/judicial system when compared to students in traditional U.S. history classrooms.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

22

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Schweingruber, H., Papakonstantiou, A., Herbert, E., & Rohr, M.

Title:

High school algebra initiative: Year one report High school algebra initiative: Year two report

Source:

Rice University School Mathematics Project

Publication Date:

1998 and 1999

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a post-test only with nonequivalent group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from Algebra I End-of Course Exams, classroom observations, project-specific teacher surveys, and project-specific principal surveys.

Population:

Project was implemented in all high schools in Houston Independent School District, which served approximately 210,000 students from ethnically and economically diverse backgrounds

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings Over the three years of the Initiative, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; scores on the statewide Algebra I End-ofCourse Exam increased from 23% passing to 42% passing. Most encouragingly, after three years of the Initiative, passing rates for African American and Hispanic students in Houston Independent School District were higher than in the state as a whole. Likewise, passing rates for economically disadvantaged students were higher than statewide rates.

23

In addition to improved scores on state end-of-course tests, teachers and administrators reported positive responses to the Initiative. Other benefits of the Initiative included changes in instruction and corresponding impact on student motivation and attitude; increased collaboration among teachers and strengthened ability to work together; tighter alignment between curriculum and instruction; and more focused discussion of mathematics instruction and content.

Conclusions This professional development program for Algebra I teachers changed teacher practices, impacted student achievement, and increased alignment between curriculum and instruction.

Related Resource Killion, J. (2002). What works in the high school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/connect/projects/hswhatworks.pdf

24

Literature Checklist Author(s):

University of Illinois at Chicago

Title:

All Learn Mathematics annual report 1996-97

Source:

University of Illinois at Chicago

Publication Date:

1997

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a non-equivalent control group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, projectspecific teacher surveys, teacher interviews, and classroom observations.

Population:

600 teachers in more than 44 schools (selection process unknown)

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings For the schools participating in the both the first and second cadre, all improved their mathematics scores. The degree of improvement varied by school, with increases occurring at the lowest-performing as well as at the highest-performing schools.

Differences in the numbers of student performing at or above the national norm at 5 of the 6 schools in the first cadre were statistically significant when compared to the control group. In the second cadre, the differences in the numbers of students performing at or above the national norm at 7 of the 18 schools was statistically significant, when compared to the control group. Changes in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; practices were also attributed to All Learn Mathematics. Interview and survey results indicate that, as a result of participating in staff development programs, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes about mathematics improved;

25

classroom instructional practices shifted from lecture or teacher-centered to studentcentered and students working in cooperation with each other; and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; preparedness to teach mathematics, including their own understanding of mathematics concepts, improved. Teachers felt well-prepared to have students work in cooperative groups, practice computational skills, and engage students in inquiry-oriented activities. They also felt competent to use performance-based assessment and informal questioning, lead a class of students on investigative strategies, and manage students engaged in hands-on or project-based work.

Conclusions Not only did the University of Illinois at Chicagoâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;All Learn Mathematics (ALM) program increase student achievement in mathematics at all participating schools, it increased teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of mathematics and use of appropriate instructional strategies to create student-centered classrooms. As a result of ALM, significant changes in mathematics education were made, and a greater accountability for schools, students, teachers, and administrators was initiated.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

26

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Cohen, D. K., & Hill, H. C.

Title:

State policy and classroom performance: Mathematics reform in California

Source:

Consortium for Policy Research in Education

Publication Date:

January 1998 Volume:

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a time series design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the California Learning Assessment System state achievement tests, a one-time project-specific teacher survey, a review of state and district documents, school visits, and interviews of state and district administrators and reformers.

Population:

Survey participants included 1,000 teachers, sampled to represent the population of second- through fifth-grade elementary school teachers in California. School visits were conducted at elementary schools and classrooms in three California school districts. The same districts, schools, and classroom teachers were followed for four to five years.

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * *

Findings Two thirds of teachers responding to the survey reported participating in at least one of the five mathematics-related professional development sessions in the year prior to the survey. The breadth of these professional development opportunities, however, was not

27

matched in their depth. Most teachers reported spending only nominal amounts of time in professional development activities. Of the teachers who reported attending one of the workshops in the past year, roughly half indicated they spent one day or less than one day in the mathematics-related activity, and approximately 35% reported spending between two and six days. A smaller fraction of those who attended the workshops, and a very small fraction of the entire sample, attended workshops lasting one week or longer. Few California teachers found rich learning opportunities.

Survey results suggested that teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning opportunities need to go one level deeper than subject specificity. Providing teachers with concrete, topic-specific learning opportunities appears to help them change mathematics teaching practices, which impacts student learning.

Conclusions The 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers indicated to the researchers that professional development that was not grounded in academic content was less likely to have constructive effects. Professional development that was fragmented, that was not focused on curriculum for students, that did not afford teachers additional learning opportunities, and that did not involve collaborative activities had less of an impact on teachers.

28

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Young, D. B., Dougherty, B., Lai, M. K., & Matsumoto, A.

Title: Source:

Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Publication Date:

1998

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a post-test only with nonequivalent group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from GOALS: A Performance-Based Measure of Achievement and classroom observations.

Population:

The tests were administered in fall 1995 and spring 1996 to students at three sites. Two sites were in Mississippi and one was in Hawaii. The sites represented a wide diversity of socioeconomic and achievement levels.

Volume:

4

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings In 1995-1996, an evaluation using a pre-test, post-test, norm-referenced design was conducted of the Hawaii Algebra Learning Project. GOALS: A Performance-Based Measure of Achievement was used because the items cover topics beyond first-year algebra, including geometry, probability, and statistics. The testâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s open-ended format matched the format of the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classroom instruction. GOALS emphasizes justification and explanation of answers, so students can demonstrate their thinking and reasoning. Although not a true control group, the national norming group provided an acceptable comparison group for statistical analysis.

29

The tests were administered in fall 1995 and spring 1996 to students at three sites. Two sites were in Mississippi and one was in Hawaii. To compare the scores, the mean of the raw scores were converted to their corresponding scaled scores. These scaled scores each corresponded to a percentile whose value depended on whether the test was administered in the fall or spring. Students who participated in the project performed significantly better than the comparison group.

At all sites, large gains beyond expectations were found. All pre-post-percentile scores were statistically significant at the p<0.001 level. Even though there were large differences in pre-test means at the three sites, the gains shown at each site were very similar in magnitude, indicating a significant value-added component. Percentile gains ranged from 15 to 21 points.

All teachers involved were either directly observed or videotaped during the year to assure that the quality of instruction was aligned with the goals of the program, that teachers covered the expected amount of course material and concepts, and that they used a variety of instructional strategies consistent with the program and designed to meet student learning needs.

Conclusions The Hawaii Algebra Learning Project is a combined curriculum and staff development effort. The use of teacher resources, student texts, and assessments, coupled with a professional development program, led to significant improvements in student achievement in mathematics with students of diverse backgrounds.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

30

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Dass, P., & Yager, R.

Title:

Iowa Chautauqua Program final performance report

Source:

University of Iowa

Publication Date:

1997

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a non-equivalent control group design)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from project-specific multiple-choice tests and National Assessment of Educational Progress attitude survey.

Population:

The project has been implemented in five of Iowaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 15 Area Education Agencies and in 10 other states. Students in grades 4-9 were included in the assessment

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings Multiple measures of student performance and changes in teacher practice indicate that the Iowa Chautauqua Program has produced positive results for students. For example, researchers have used project-specific, multiple-choice tests to measure the concept, process, application, and creativity domains. The attitude domain was assessed using a Likert-type five-point scale with items from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, Third Assessment of Science. Pre- and post-tests were administered to all students of 15 lead teachers in 1989-1990. In total, 723 students were assessed. The 15 lead teachers were selected from a pool of 50 lead teachers for the formal assessment.

31

Lead teachers taught two or more sections, one serving as a control group with conventional instructional procedures and one serving as the experimental group with Science-Technology-Society approaches to instruction. Data were also collected from at least one section of the 250 new teachers in the program. No contrasting data were available for those classrooms. Researchers state that the sample of teachers and students were representative of the larger population of teachers and students.

Results indicate that students in the control and experimental groups had similar conceptual knowledge about science on the post-test (effect size â&#x20AC;&#x201C;0.03). Students participating in the Iowa Chautauqua Program had significantly higher gains in the process (effect size 2.20), application (effect size 3.21), creativity (effect size 2.12), and attitude (effect size 1.62) domains.

Conclusions The Iowa Chautauqua Program increases teacher confidence in teaching science and increases teacher understanding and use of basic features of science. Lead teachers involved in the program had students who mastered more scientific concepts, better understood the basic processes of science, applying concepts and processes to new situations, developed more creativity skills, and had more positive attitudes about science, their science teachers, the usefulness of science, and science careers when compared to students in other classrooms.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

32

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Planning and Evaluation Service

Title:

Does professional development change teaching practice? Results from a three-year study

Source:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary

Publication Date:

2000

Peer Reviewed?

No

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a time series design)

Data Collected:

Data from the National Profile, the Case Studies, and the Longitudinal Study of Teacher Change were examined in this study.

Population:

Using a purposefully selected sample of teachers in 30 schools, in 10 districts, in 5 states, the researchers examined the quality of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; professional development in Eisenhower and other professional development activities and its effects on changing teaching practice in mathematics and science from 1996-1999.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * * * *

Findings Data from this study suggest that discussing professional development experiences with colleagues and participating in follow-up activities made the experience more meaningful for participating teachers. Results from the study provide evidence of the link between focusing on specific teaching strategies in professional development and having teachers

33

use those specific strategies in the classroom. Specifically, professional development focused on specific, higher order teaching strategies increases teachers’ use of those strategies in the classroom. Professional development is also much more effective in changing teachers’ classroom practice when it has specific features of high quality, such as the collective participation of teachers from the same school or grade. Results suggest there is great variation in the quality of teachers’ professional development experiences.

Findings also indicate that the average teacher’s professional development experiences do not add up to a long-term, coherent, high-quality program. High-quality professional development that focuses on specific teaching strategies does affect teacher practice. In sum, the findings show that the most effective professional development is focused on specific, higher order teaching strategies and has features of high quality such as addressing student-learning needs, applying to specific curricula, occuring over time, and occuring with colleagues.

Conclusions The researchers concluded that six key features of professional development are effective in improving teaching practice: three structural features (characteristics of the structure of the activity)—reform type, duration, and collective participation—and three core features (characteristics of the substance of the activity)—active learning, coherence, and content focus.

34

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Swafford, J., & Thornton, C.

Title:

The PUMP algebra project

Source:

Retrieved from http://www.nsdc.org/library/authors/NSDCPlan.cfm

Publication Date:

1998

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (pre-post test with no control group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the Illinois Goal Assessment Program (state mathematics test), Mathematics Learning and Teaching Survey, algebra enrollment at middle and high school, and minority student enrollment in algebra.

Population:

Peoria Public Schools serves approximately 17,000 students and all middle school mathematics teachers participated in project.

Volume:

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * *

*

Findings Peoria Urban Mathematics Plan for Algebra has impacted student achievement, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; beliefs, and instructional practices. Pre-project scores and annual scores of student achievement on the Illinois Goal Assessment Program (IGAP) were collected in March of each year. The sixth-grade scores, while demonstrating an overall increase in the district of 10 points, increased in 7 of the 14 schools, decreased in 6, and remained the same in 1 after only two years of implementation. Differences in scores were statistically

35

significant. At the eighth grade, scores increased in 13 of the 14 middle schools. The mean increase of 13.2 points across all schools was significant (p<.05).

While the results at the sixth grade are not significant, possibly due to the brief implementation time and the low number of sixth-grade teachers in the project, the increase at half of the schools showed promise for continued improvement. The strong results at the eighth grade demonstrated the program has the potential to dramatically improve student achievement.

Overall algebra enrollments at the middle school increased slightly, primarily as a function of increased minority population participation. At the high school level, the proportion of minority students in enrolled in algebra increased from 42.5% to 54.3%.

Survey results indicate that teachers reflect more on their teaching and are more likely to incorporate new instructional strategies into their practice. Statistically significant differences were found in instructional beliefs and practices in five of the eight clusters of the Mathematics Learning and Teaching Survey.

Conclusions Peoria Urban Mathematics Plan for Algebra is a professional development program focused on improving teacher performance: teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; content knowledge, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; pedagogical and professional knowledge and support for the implementation of new knowledge into practice. This professional development program increased student achievement in algebra at the 8th grade, improved teacher practices, and increased minority-student participation and representation in high school algebra.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

36

Literature Checklist Author(s):

Acquarelli, K., & Mumme, J. A.

Title:

Renaissance in mathematics education reform

Source:

Phi Delta Kappan

Publication Date:

1996

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a post-test only with nonequivalent group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from the1994 New Standards Reference Exam and case studies.

Population:

During its five years as a component of Californiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s State Systemic Initiative, more than 500 schools, including 2,500 math teachers, participated. This represents nearly 50% of the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s middle schools. Thirty-eight percent of schools in the project were involved for three or more years. Statewide, 74% of the project districts had 100% of their middle schools participating.

Volume:

77

Issue #:

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * * *

Findings Mathematics Renaissance student performance was assessed in a subset of classrooms across the state of California. The 1994 New Standards Reference Exam was administered in the spring of 1995. Students in the Renaissance sample participated in two days of testing on a range of performance tasks of 5, 15, and 45 minutes in duration.

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The exam was scored by Renaissance staff and teachers using New Standards scoring rubrics during a summer professional development session.

Analyses of the scores were performed by New Standards staff. In the analyses, Mathematics Renaissance students consistently scored significantly higher than the multistate comparison group. Overall findings indicated a strong, statistically significant evidence that students in the Renaissance sample performed at higher levels on all aspects of the New Standards exam, including skills, concepts, and problem-solving.

The professional development resulted in significant changes in classroom practice, documented by case studies, school profiling, and survey data.

Conclusions Teachers in this project collaborated with one another and received in-class support.

Mathematics Renaissance has positively impacted student achievement in mathematics and teacher instructional behaviors, and influenced district policy regarding curriculum and instructional materials.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

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Literature Checklist Author(s):

Student Watershed Research Project

Title:

Fifth annual student watershed summit: Summary evaluation comments

Source: Publication Date:

1997

Volume:

Issue #:

Peer Reviewed?

Yes

Type of Study:

Quasi-experimental (a post-test only with nonequivalent group)

Data Collected:

Data were collected from student data samples, professional and peer review of student analysis reports, and student presentations and displays.

Population:

This project originally trained 91 teachers who directly impacted more 6,000 students in grades 8-12 from 18 public and private school districts in the Portland/Vancouver metropolitan areas.

Professional Development Component(s): Component Addresses Student-Learning Needs Incorporates Hands-on Technology Use Is Job-Embedded Has Application to Specific Curricula Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs Occurs Over Time Occurs with Colleagues Provides Technical Assistance & Support to Teachers Incorporates Evaluation

Addressed * * * * *

*

Findings The evidence of student success for the Student Watershed Research Project (SWRP) is atypical. Rather than demonstrating increased performance on a standardized assessment of science knowledge, students demonstrated knowledge of data collection and analysis by having their test results compared to duplicate samples analyzed by professional laboratories. SWRP staff combined professional laboratory results with the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

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data, provided feedback on the data for both the student and teachers, and audited student data. SWRP standards for reliability of student-collected data were very high. SWRP staff coordinated and supervised a rigorous quality assurance/quality control program.

The reliability of SWRP data enabled local agencies to use the data to make policy decisions. The SWRP model has been recognized locally and nationally for the quality of the data produced, which reflects the quality of student and teacher performance. Data produced by students were used in a publication by Oregon’s Department of Environmental Quality in establishing surface water quality standards for dissolved oxygen.

In addition, students wrote their group findings and then presented them to a panel of their classroom peers. Students became specialists in the particular parameters they measured, and each group presented both background and findings for their testing during the presentations. Annual summits allowed students to display their data on posterboard and give oral presentations, where the quality and content of presentations were judged by various watershed health professionals. Students also had opportunities to provide information to regulatory agencies regarding the watershed they monitored.

Conclusions The Student Watershed Research Project developed teachers’ understandings of watershed research and provided an excellent model of authentic performance assessment for students. SWRP contributed to students’ understanding, appreciation, and practice of science as a result of their teachers’ participation in professional development models hands-on, practical learning experiences.

Related Resource Killion, J. (1999). What works in the middle school: Results-based staff development.

Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved March 22, 2003 from http://www.nsdc.org/midbook/index.cfm

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APPENDIX B

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Description of Texas Instrumentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Educational and Productivity Solutions Division Approach to Professional Development

Prepared For Texas Instruments Educational and Productivity Solutions Division

by The Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education at AEL December, 2003

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Description of Texas Instruments’ Education and Policy Services Division Approach to Professional Development Introduction The Professional Development Services group of Texas Instruments’ (TI’s) Education and Policy Services (E&PS) Division offers a variety of professional development services, including face-to-face institutes as well as on-line courses. All instructors for professional development offered by E&PS are current or former classroom teachers, who have successfully used TI products (e.g. TI-73, TI-83+, Navigator, Voyager 200, TI-89) with students in classrooms. These instructors understand the needs of the teachers in their classes. They work with the organizer and sponsor prior to the training in order to adapt specific content to the needs of teachers at the local site.

The purpose of this document is to provide a cohesive and comprehensive description of E&PS’s professional development services to guide a review of the scientific research literature relative to E&PS’s approach to professional development. As defined by the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) thesaurus, professional development refers to “activities to enhance professional career growth.” In this paper, we take a broader look at professional development, which has been summarized in a quote found on the Web site of North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (www.ncrel.org, n.d.)—appropriate for TI’s focus on professional development related to technology in education: Professional development…goes beyond the term “training” with its implications of learning skills, and encompasses a definition that includes formal and informal means of helping teachers not only learn new skills but also develop new insights into pedagogy and their own practice, and explore new or advanced understandings of content and resources. [This] definition of professional development includes support for teachers as they encounter the challenges that come with putting into practice their evolving understandings about the use of technology to support inquiry-based learning…. Current technologies offer resources to meet these challenges and provide teachers with a cluster of supports that help them continue to grow in their professional skills, understandings, and interests.

In this document, we present information about the professional development offered by TI’s E&PS Division. The description is organized so that it relates to nine critical components of effective professional development, which were synthesized from the following three main sources: 1. Providing Professional Development for Effective Technology Use, a critical issue Web site produced by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te1000.htm). On this site, the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) identifies 14 essential components of effective professional development.

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2. Eight principles of effective professional development—identified from research as well as literature and best practice—on the Knowledge Loom Web site (http://www.knowledgeloom.org/pd/).

3. The National Staff Development Council’s (NSDC) 12 standards for staff development, revised in 2001. (http://www.nsdc.org/standards/index.cfm) Each of the nine components is described, with references to the source of the component. These descriptions are followed by further description of TI’s professional development services as they relate to each component.

Effective Professional Development Addresses Student-Learning Needs The first essential component of professional development that enables effective use of technology by teachers is that it be connected to student learning (NCREL). The NCREL authors elaborate by saying that professional development should enable teachers to implement teaching techniques that will help students (1) accomplish specific and required standards, (2) learn to think at higher levels, and (3) be engaged in the process of learning. Additionally, it is important that these technology-related teaching practices assist students who have different learning styles and preferences.

Closely related to NCREL’s position that effective professional development must be connected to student learning are principles and standards from other sources. As described in the Knowledge Loom (http://www.knowledgeloom.org/pd/), professional development “should be based on analyses of the differences between (1) actual student performance and (2) goals and standards for student learning.” One of the NSDC standards is even more specific, i.e., “Uses disaggregated student data to determine adult learning priorities, monitor progress, and help sustain continuous improvement.” As seen in these standards, effective professional development helps teachers close the gap between actual performance and goals or standards for learning.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development Clearly, the professional development offered by TI has as a focus helping teachers learn and implement new teaching strategies. As described to us, the math-related courses are designed for professional educators and assume a basic understanding, on the part of participants, of the mathematics to be taught to students. That is, for the most part, the mathrelated professional development is not about the content of mathematics, but is about effective pedagogical processes and strategies for teaching math using specific TI products. To say it another way, the focus of the professional development is on helping teachers learn what they can do in the classroom to further the mathematical competence of students. (Note: As more and more schools and districts find themselves with a shortage of qualified teachers of mathematics, TI is beginning to provide much more in the way of “math fundamentals” as part of its training).

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Reportedly, all of TI’s professional development services are designed to be aligned with national standards, where those are available, such as the standards promulgated by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). TI does not claim that its professional development services are aligned with state standards in all 50 states; this is perceived to be an impossible challenge made even more difficult because of district-specific standards and local school-adopted standards. TI has made specific connections to standards in certain large states and they work with local sites to make those connections. As instructors prepare they routinely adapt the training to the needs of the teachers at a given site.

TI’s professional development services could more closely meet the standard of connecting with student learning needs by working with the local site to determine specific student problems, for example, by looking at an item analysis on an end-of-course assessment to see where students had the lowest scores, and then tailoring the professional development to those specific areas. This would require pre-work by the instructors; sometimes it would be impossible to structure because these kinds of data are not always available to the sponsoring organization. Many states do not administer end-of-course exams; even when they do, individual item analyses may not be available or may be available only by school or district.

The training offered by TI—while it may not be tied to specific state, district, or local standards—is clearly related to helping students learn the content of specific courses. For example, the professional development for teachers in Algebra I (in both the face-to-face training and the on-line training) clearly links to the student learning requirements as outlined in the table of contents of most Algebra I texts. The on-line courses, which are asynchronous and self-paced by individual teachers, allow more total coverage of a given course content; the face-to-face training is limited by the time available (one to five days.)

As described by TI staff, the professional development helps teachers understand how to make better use of student time for learning by encouraging the use of the technology to do the routine and mundane tasks such as collecting data and loading it into a table. What the teacher can then concentrate on is helping the students manipulate the data, speculating on—and then seeing immediately—the results if different data are entered. Students are helped to “see” how the output would change as individual factors are changed. Through the graphical representation, students are able to visualize the changes.

When used properly, these teaching techniques would seem to encourage higher-order thinking by students—skills such as question-asking, hypothesis-generating, speculating, drawing conclusions. Given the real-world problems that are encouraged, these teaching strategies would seem more likely to engage more students. The visual representation in the graphs would likely help a more diverse group of learners be able to master the basics of abstract math courses such as Algebra and Calculus. A basic question that remains to be answered relates to the research base on the product itself: Do students learn math (or science or other courses) better when taught using a graphing calculator? That is, do students score higher on end-of-course tests after using a TI handheld graphing calculator? A definitive “yes” answer to this question would certainly tie the professional development more closely to student learning outcomes.

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Effective Professional Development Incorporates Hands-On Technology Use This NCREL-identified component of effective professional development is based on research that confirms good common sense: when teachers receive training in technology, they are more apt to feel comfortable integrating it into their lessons. Additionally, when teachers are confident in using technology, they are more likely to think about ways to use it with students.

Closely related is one of the NSDC standards, “Uses learning strategies appropriate to the intended goal.”

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development All of the professional development offered by TI is activity-based. Teachers actually use the hand-held instruments to solve real-life problems. As reported to us, all of these activities can be immediately used with students in the classroom. Motivation is high because the activities are perceived by teachers as relevant to their needs and those of their students.

Effective Professional Development Is Job-Embedded The Knowledge Loom presents this component of effective professional development in the following words: “Professional Development should be primarily school-based and built into the day-to-day work of teaching.” One of the NCREL components similarly explains the necessity of using a variety of different learning experiences, including workshops, classroom observations, mentoring, and hands-on practice in the classroom with feedback. Adults require relevant learning with appropriate support and follow-up.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development Face-to-face training for one to three days, conducted by expert trainers from outside the school or district, does not easily allow for professional development to be long-term or jobembedded. When TI provides this type of professional development, it is responding to specific requests by schools, districts, or other organizations. These agencies may not be interested in job-embedded and long-term professional development.

The opportunity for job-embedded professional development is heightened when the sponsoring agency hires TI to conduct a training-for-trainers session. During this long-term process (five days of training with four days of follow-up) teachers are trained thoroughly and then expected to train members of their own staffs in the use of the hand-held devices. When training is done at the school level by local, school-based trainers, there is increased opportunity for long-term professional development, i.e., more than workshops—to include observations, problem solving, and feedback. To ensure that this happens, TI could develop agendas designed to encourage job-embedded training (in addition to workshops) and establish the expectation that teacher-trainers, upon return to their local site, would facilitate opportunities for mentoring,

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observations, and group discussions—as well as the more traditional training experiences of workshops.

The on-line courses, which are self-paced, allow flexibility. One could imagine a group of teachers completing the on-line course as a “study group,” for example, and meeting regularly to talk together about the successes and challenges of using the technology with students.

Although this is not the design of the TI materials, they would be usable in this kind of setting.

One wonders what the professional development services group might do to encourage this kind of job-embedded use of their training materials.

Effective Professional Development Has Application to Specific Curricula It is probably the case that much professional development has been delivered about the use of technology in education—in general—without tying it to specific curricula that teachers teach. NCREL found evidence that the use of technology is related to improved student achievement only when teachers can see a direct link between the technology and the curriculum that they teach. Their recommendation is that professional development for technology provides specific examples and demonstrations of the use of technology in teachers’ specific curriculum areas.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development All of the training that is provided by TI appears to meet this competency. The TI institutes and on-line courses are each tied to a specific curriculum area, such as Algebra I, preAlgebra, Calculus, etc. Teachers not only learn how to use the technology to teach specific course content, but they also learn how to link the learning to real-world problems. As described

by TI staff, the learning activities that teachers participate in during the training can be immediately used in the classroom with students so there is immediate applicability of the learning. The on-line discussion groups, to which teachers can belong, also focus on specific curriculum areas.

Effective Professional Development Addresses Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs This NCREL standard asserts that effective professional development in the area of technology helps teachers develop new roles for teaching. That is, effective professional development is about more than providing basic skills in the use of technology, but also engages teachers in thinking about the role of “teacher” transforming to the role of coach or facilitator, while students work collaboratively on real-world problems that are meaningful to them.

A related principle, from the Knowledge Loom, states, “Professional Development should provide opportunities to gain an understanding of the theory underlying the knowledge and skills being learned.” Two of the NSDC standards also seem to relate to the idea of going beyond basic skills and knowledge: (1) “Deepens educators’ knowledge, provides them with research-

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based instructional strategies to assist students in meeting rigorous academic standards, and prepares them to appropriately use various types of classroom assessments” and (2) “Prepares educators to apply research to decision-making.”

This cluster of competencies and standards support the idea that true learning must be deep and that because beliefs guide behavior, professional development must address teachers’ beliefs and life experiences. Teachers need to understand why using a certain technology is important for learning; they need to understand it well enough to know when to use it and when it is not appropriate. With a solid understanding of the theory behind the knowledge and technology, teachers can make decisions and meaningfully adapt strategies to best serve their students’ learning needs.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development It appears that most of the TI training is specific to knowledge and skills, i.e., how to use the hand-held technology and how to incorporate it into the classroom. Much of the “deeper” learning and thinking about the use of the technology would require more time than the typical face-to-face institute provides. Teachers who take advantage of the “success stories” that are featured on the TI Website would begin to understand the power of the tool in transforming a classroom. But it appears that the focus of the training is on the knowledge and skills of using the technology. Lack of time is the major reason that more attention is not given to the theory and deeper understanding of what this technology can do to help learning.

According to TI staff, when teachers learn to use the equipment meaningfully in their classrooms, their roles do indeed change to facilitator/coach, rather than direct instructor. Using the technology allows teachers more time to “think” with their students, as opposed to doing more rote activities such as entering data into tables and calculating the results. In classrooms where the TI technology is effectively used, TI staff claim that students learn how to question data; their role as learner is to question and speculate. Students assume a more active role and have increased power in the learning process.

It would appear that time is required for this transformation to occur—time to become comfortable and more expert in the use of the technology. In most groups, a small number of teachers will “go with new ideas” and—through trial and error—learn how to use this technology and concurrently transform the culture of their classrooms. The question remains: How can you increase those numbers without also increasing the time required for training? Teachers who participate in on-line courses have more time; participants typically have four months to complete a course. Although they have the requisite time, they probably take the course in isolation; so they lack the valuable learning that comes from discussion with colleagues in faceto-face sessions. It would be interesting to see if the “level of use” of TI technology is different between the teachers who participate in face-to-face training versus those who participate in online courses.

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Effective Professional Development Occurs Over Time A series of principles and standards in the literature relate to the need for professional development to be more than a “one-shot” training experience. From the sources noted above, we find that effective professional development: • • •

should be continuous and on-going, involving follow-up and support for further learning, including support from sources external to the school that can provide necessary resources and new perspectives (Knowledge Loom) is an on-going process (NCREL) requires sufficient time and follow-up support (NCREL)

For teachers to master new content and strategies to the point where they can routinely integrate them into their classrooms requires time and follow-up support. Research confirms that meaningful change requires three to five years, with special attention given to the provision of support during the first two years of implementation.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development The face-to-face institutes are traditional one- to three-day training experiences; however, TI encourages teachers to participate in its on-line courses as a follow-up to the training. The online courses extend over a four-month period of time and provide an opportunity for forum discussion groups on-line so that the learning can be extended beyond the initial training period.

These courses are recommended as either (1) pre-workshop courses or (2) follow-up to a face-toface training. In both cases, the professional development and support continues well beyond the training period.

Another opportunity for professional development to be extended over time is the utilization of the train-the-trainer program. A core group of teachers receives the initial five-day training and participates in up to four days of follow-up, with opportunities to share learning successes as well as problems with colleagues. This cadre of trainers, then, is expected to train other teachers in their building. With the trainer being on site, the professional development can easily extend over time.

Effective Professional Development Occurs With Colleagues Two of the NSDC standards address the collegial aspect of professional development.

The first stipulates that profession development “provides educators with the knowledge and skills to collaborate.” The second suggests that effective professional development “organizes adults into learning communities whose goals are aligned with those of the district and school.”

The Knowledge Loom advocates that professional development “be organized around collaborative problem-solving.”

Collaboration appears to be necessary for any school-wide change to occur. Without it, isolated teachers may change their practice, but the numbers will be smaller than if there is a

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school-wide effort. Examples of collaborative learning include study groups, action research, peer observations and problem-solving, shared lesson plans with systematic feedback. Learning a new teaching strategy is but the first step; using it, refining it, and making it work for individual teachers requires time, support, and feedback.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development To achieve the collegiality aspect of effective professional development requires that a school or department transform its culture into one of collaboration for continuous improvement.

This does not occur without strong leadership and an intentional effort to accomplish this change. TI, as an outside provider of training services, sees the creation of a school-wide learning community as outside of its purview. However, the possibility for the establishment of a collaborative learning culture exists through the train-the-trainers model. It is not clear to what extent the materials for the trainer encourage such collaboration.

Effective Professional Development Provides Technical Assistance and Support to Teachers NCREL found that when teachers are trying to use technology as part of their teaching, when they have difficulties, they need immediate help—or “just in time” support. An on-site provider of technical assistance is ideal and most likely to be accessed without difficulty. The harder it is to reach the support, the less likely the teacher will persevere to find an answer to the problem and the more likely he or she will return to more traditional teaching methods.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development Teachers who take the on-line courses can always post a problem and have an instructor respond quickly. TI provides free technical assistance through its 1-800-TI CARES phone number, where any teacher can call to receive help. Another service that TI provides involves a fee—on-line coaching provides access to a qualified instructor. On-line coaching was established to try to prevent the teachers’ frustration of not being able to figure out a specific instructional problem immediately.

Effective Professional Development Incorporates Evaluation All three of the major sources related to professional development address the importance of evaluation. The Knowledge Loom phrases it as follows: “Professional Development should incorporate evaluation of multiple sources of information on (1) outcomes for students and (2) the instruction and other processes that are involved in implementing the lessons learned.” The NSDC standard is very similar, “uses multiple sources of information to guide the improvement and demonstrate its impact.”

Evaluation provides information about how professional development can be improved and refined. Traditional “reaction” evaluation forms, gathered at the conclusion of a training or

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an on-line course, yield important information; however, anecdotes gathered from teachers, teacher portfolios that demonstrate the use of the learned strategies, observations of teachers, peer evaluations, and ultimately, student performance all provide richer sources of data for assessing the value of specific professional development experiences. Knowing the extent to which professional development has contributed to improved student achievement gives confidence in the design of the training and can motivates teachers to use what they have learned.

Texas Instruments’ Professional Development TI conducts a simple evaluation at the conclusion of the face-to-face institutes and the online courses. An additional measure of potential usefulness of the training comes in a module during each on-line course, which requires that the persons taking the course inform TI how they intend to incorporate the technology into their classrooms. This reflective assignment encourages teachers to think about the application potential of their learning as they ask, “What have I learned here? How will I use this?”

TI has not gathered evaluation data to indicate (1) whether or not teachers are using the technology after the training—whether it is one-day training or five-day training; (2) for how long they use the technology after the initial attempts; (3) teachers’ perceptions of improved student learning; and (4) actual student achievement gains, based on teacher-constructed assessments or state-wide tests. TI is beginning to work on a feedback process that would provide information about teacher use, but acknowledge that such data are difficult to gather.

Other Important Components of Professional Development These final components seem less related to the professional development provided by an external source, such as TI, than they do to the internal supports at the home school or district that buys the training. To be effective, professional development must • • •

be adequately supported by school leaders have adequate access to resources and funding be connected to a comprehensive change process focused on improving student learning.

When teachers learn new skills, they need to have the support and opportunities to use these new strategies; they need the encouragement of administration to use them, including the expectation and accountability; and they need time to meet with colleagues. The school and district has control over establishing time to work collaboratively with other teachers, adequate funding, technical assistance, and access to the technology and support services to learn the use of the technology well. All of this is to say that the professional development needs to be part of a larger change process if it is to be effective.

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Attachment B The ABA Model Rule for Continuing Legal Education

Page 58 of 59

ABA Model Rule for Continuing Legal Education with Comments INTRODUCTION The Model Rule for Minimum Continuing Legal Education (MCLE) was developed by the American Bar Association Standing Committee on Continuing Legal Education. It was prepared in response to Report 117A, which was presented to the ABA House of Delegates by the ABA Young Lawyers Division and passed by the House of Delegates during the 1986 ABA Annual Meeting. The Colorado Bar Association, the State Bar of Georgia, the Mississippi State Bar and the State Bar of Wisconsin also supported the submission of Report 117A. The resolutions, as amended, recommended by the report were adopted by the ABA House of Delegates on August 13, 1986 as follows: BE IT RESOLVED That the ABA supports the concept of mandatory continuing legal education for all active lawyers.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED That the ABA urges the various states that have not yet adopted such a program to seriously consider its adoption.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED That the Standing Committee on Continuing Education of the Bar develop materials and guidelines and otherwise assist the states in developing mandatory continuing education programs.

This rule is presented as a measure for comparison and for consideration by jurisdictions that have adopted or will adopt a minimum continuing legal education requirement. In the opinion of the Standing Committee, use of the term "minimum" rather than "mandatory" continuing legal education more accurately reflects the spirit of the rule's intent, and has been utilized throughout.

The Final Statement from the November 13-16, 1987 National Conference on the Continuing Education of the Bar, known as Arden House III, urges the adoption by MCLE states of uniform standards and means of accreditation of CLE programs and providers. This rule is proposed as a model for these purposes; adjustments may be made to accommodate particular situations in the states.

This model rule consists of Sections, which present the substance of the rule, and Comments, which may assist in understanding the rule by explaining the practices of some MCLE jurisdictions and by providing suggestions and background information.

This model rule was amended in August 1996 in order to afford MCLE credit for technology-based CLE. Sections 2(b), 6(a) and (b), 7(a) through (i) with Comments, and the Comments of Section 9 were rewritten at that time. This model rule was last amended in February 2004 to recommend a requirement for the completion of programs related to racial and ethnic diversity and the elimination of bias in the profession. The Comments to Section 2 were revised to include that additional language. This edition of the Model Rule for Minimum Continuing Legal Education includes all amendments.

SECTION 1: COMMITTEE ON CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION (CLE) (a) THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF SHALL APPOINT A CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION COMMITTEE (CLEC) COMPOSED OF NINE (9) MEMBERS. AT LEAST ONE (1) MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE SHALL BE A LAY PERSON. THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE STATE BAR MAY BE AN EX-OFFICIO MEMBER OF THE CLEC. THE CLEC SHALL ELECT FROM AMONG THEMSELVES BY MAJORITY VOTE AN EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE COMPOSED OF A CHAIRPERSON AND A VICE-CHAIRPERSON. THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MAY ACT ON BEHALF OF THE CLEC TO CONDUCT ALL NECESSARY BUSINESS OF

THE CLEC BETWEEN MEETINGS. THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE SHALL HAVE THE POWER TO EMPLOY PERSONS AS NECESSARY FOR THE EFFICIENT ADMINISTRATION OF THIS RULE. (b) THE CLEC SHALL HAVE THE FOLLOWING DUTIES: (1) ADMINISTER THIS RULE; (2) ADOPT REGULATIONS CONSISTENT WITH THIS RULE; AND, (3) REPORT AT LEAST ANNUALLY TO THE STATE BAR AND THE SUPREME COURT. COMMENT: The primary purpose of this section is the creation of an administrative body (committee or commission) which will have authority to adopt additional regulations and which will provide a structure for the efficient administration of the MCLE program. The duties listed in subsection (b) are duties common to most CLEC's.

This model rule assumes that the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of the State, but it recognizes that some states, such as New York, use a different title for its highest court. The rule also assumes that the Supreme Court of the State has exclusive authority to regulate the practice of law within the state.

In states with a unified bar, the Supreme Court of the State may delegate to the State Bar Association the authority to appoint the members of the CLEC. Also, it may be desirable to permit the Executive Director of the State Bar to appoint a designee as his or her representative to the CLEC.

SECTION 2: CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION REQUIREMENT (a) EVERY ACTIVE LAWYER IN THE STATE OF SHALL COMPLETE FIFTEEN (15) HOURS OF CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION ANNUALLY. (b) THE MCLE REQUIREMENT MAY BE MET EITHER BY ATTENDING APPROVED COURSES OR COMPLETING ANY OTHER CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY APPROVED FOR CREDIT

BY THE CLEC. SELF-STUDY, TEACHING, WRITING FOR CLE PUBLICATIONS, PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED RESOURCES, AND INOFFICE LAW FIRM CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION EFFORTS MAY BE CONSIDERED FOR CREDIT WHEN THEY MEET THE CONDITIONS SET FORTH IN THIS RULE. COMMENT: "Active lawyer" is defined in Section 5. The rule is designed to make it relatively easy for lawyers to meet the requirements while keeping it practical to monitor and administer. Nearly one-half of the states with an MCLE program have an annual requirement of fifteen (15) credit hours, many states have an annual requirement of twelve (12) credit hours.

States that require fifteen (15) credit hours often recognize a variety of continuing legal education activities by which a lawyer can fulfill the credit requirements, including self-study, writing for CLE publications, and in-office CLE activities. "Self-study" is defined in Section 9. Many states give credit for CLE teaching.

The majority of states require annual reporting of CLE activities, but some states have a two or three-year reporting period. Certain states permit continual reporting, which encourages lawyers to update their CLE records as they fulfill their CLE obligations. The argument for longer reporting periods is to provide flexibility in meeting the credit requirements; however, annual reporting minimizes procrastination. More importantly, annual reporting encourages regular updating of a lawyer's professional knowledge.

To encourage lawyers to participate in continuing education efforts which are of value to them, credit should be given for educational activities wherever offered and on whatever subject, provided the standards described above are met.

Regulatory systems should require that lawyers, as part of their mandatory continuing legal education either through a separate credit or through existing ethics and professionalism credits, complete programs related to the promotion of racial and ethnic diversity in the legal profession, the promotion of full and equal participation in the profession of women and persons with disabilities, and the elimination of all forms of bias in the profession. Lawyers who practice in states and territories that do not require mandatory continuing legal education are encouraged to complete such programs as part of their continuing legal education.

The practice of law has seen dramatic changes over the past decade, creating different opportunities for lawyers to continue their educations. An increasingly diverse bar calls for increasing diverse educational options.

Technology offers significant opportunities to enhance traditional learning models and increases access to educational opportunities for all lawyers, particularly physically challenged lawyers, solo/small firm practitioners, and those in part-time or other nontraditional practice settings, young lawyers and those in areas remote from locations traditionally available for CLE. Regulatory systems should consider, and when appropriate, approve educational activities that encourage the attainment and maintenance of professional competence through a variety of educational formats.

SECTION 3: REPORTING MCLE CREDIT (a) THE CLEC SHALL SET AND PUBLISH AN ANNUAL DATE FOR REPORTING CLE CREDITS. (b) ALL ACCREDITED SPONSORS OF CLE ACTIVITIES SHALL ENROLL ALL ATTENDEES ON ENROLLMENT FORMS APPROVED BY THE CLEC. UPON COMPLETION OF AN APPROVED COURSE THE SPONSOR SHALL FORWARD THE LIST OF ATTENDEES TO THE CLEC OR TO A REPOSITORY OF ATTENDANCE RECORDS DESIGNATED BY THE CLEC. (c) A LAWYER MAY REPORT APPROVED ACTIVITIES USING AN AFFIDAVIT IN A FORM APPROVED BY THE CLEC. (d) AT LEAST THIRTY (30) DAYS PRIOR TO THE ANNUAL REPORTING DATE, THE CLEC SHALL FORWARD A TRANSCRIPT OF COMPLETED CREDITS TO EACH ACTIVE LAWYER. TO AVOID DELINQUENCY, LAWYERS MUST REPORT ADDITIONAL CREDITS, CORRECTIONS OR OTHER CHANGES TO THE TRANSCRIPT TO THE CLEC PRIOR TO THE ANNUAL REPORTING DATE. (e) A LAWYER WHOSE TRANSCRIPT INDICATES COMPLIANCE WITH THE MCLE REQUIREMENT MAY ASSUME THAT HE OR SHE IS IN COMPLIANCE. COMMENT: The Rule provides for transcript reporting. Transcript reporting usually requires the CLE activity provider to maintain a record of course attendees and the credits earned for the CLE activity. At the conclusion of the CLE activity this record is sent by the CLE activity provider to the CLEC. Attendance and credit records are compiled by the CLEC and an individual transcript of CLE activities and completed credit hours is prepared for each active lawyer in the jurisdiction. This transcript is sent to each lawyer for verification at the end of each reporting period.

Currently five states utilize transcript reporting. Transcript reporting is recommended as the most efficient and accurate means of reporting credits. The transcript of a lawyer's CLE credits eliminates the need of individual lawyers to keep their own MCLE records. It also eliminates some of the verification problems that may arise with the affidavit system of reporting. The complexity of transcript reporting suggests the use of computers for this task.

A number of states provide for the use of affidavits as an alternative method of reporting. Reporting by affidavit requires the individual lawyer to maintain his or her own record of CLE credits on an affidavit submitted at the end of each reporting period.

Existing MCLE states currently use one of three annual reporting dates for reporting CLE credits: the end of the calendar year, the end of the state bar fiscal year, and the lawyer's birth date. Use of the lawyer's birth date is believed to cause the greatest number of administrative problems.

SECTION 4: SANCTIONS AND APPEAL (a) DELINQUENCY. WITHIN THIRTY (30) DAYS AFTER THE ANNUAL REPORTING DATE THE CLEC SHALL SEND EACH LAWYER NOT IN COMPLIANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THIS RULE A NOTICE OF DELINQUENCY. WITHIN NINETY (90) DAYS FOLLOWING THE ANNUAL REPORTING DATE, THE LAWYER SHALL TAKE STEPS NECESSARY TO MEET THE ANNUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE RULE FOR THE PRIOR REPORTING PERIOD OR, WHERE THE CLEC TRANSCRIPT IS ALLEGED TO BE IN ERROR OR INCOMPLETE, SUBMIT AN AFFIDAVIT OF COMPLIANCE. AFTER THIS NINETY (90) DAY PERIOD, IF THE LAWYER FAILS TO REPORT CLE CREDITS SUFFICIENT TO PERMIT RETROACTIVE COMPLIANCE WITH THE RULE, OR FAILS TO SUBMIT AN AFFIDAVIT OF COMPLIANCE, THE CLEC SHALL FILE A NOTICE OF NONCOMPLIANCE WITH THE SUPREME COURT. THE SUPREME COURT SHALL THEN SUSPEND THE LAWYER'S LICENSE TO PRACTICE LAW. (b) REINSTATEMENT. UPON CORRECTION OF THE DELINQUENCY AND PAYMENT OF THE REINSTATEMENT FEE, THE SUSPENDED LAWYER MAY REQUEST THE CLEC TO MOVE FOR REINSTATEMENT TO THE PRACTICE OF LAW. WITHIN THIRTY (30) DAYS OF A REQUEST FOR REINSTATEMENT BY A LAWYER, THE CLEC SHALL SUBMIT A MOTION TO THE SUPREME COURT FOR REINSTATEMENT. COMMENT: There is no common sanction and appeal procedure. It is evident, however, that states are generous in allowing lawyers grace periods and appeal mechanisms for complying with the rule. The time for compliance after a notice of delinquency is sent to an lawyer ranges from ten (10) days to six (6) months; sixty (60) days is most common. Some states provide for the filing of a make-up plan by lawyers after they receive a notice of noncompliance, while others merely set a new deadline (grace period) for compliance after the first notice of delinquency. Some states provide for a direct appeal to the State Supreme Court or the state's lawyer discipline board, though most allow their administrative bodies (CLEC) to hear appeals. States which provide for an initial appeal to their CLEC also allow for a second appeal to their Supreme Court or State Bar authority.

Consideration should be given to whether the ninety (90) day period in which retroactive compliance with the annual requirement or the submission of an affidavit of compliance is permitted should be extendable in exigent circumstances. If extensions are to be granted, the length of the extension should be at the discretion of the CLEC. While consideration should also be given to the possible failure of a lawyer to receive a notice of delinquency, the MCLE program would be well served by a general rule placing final responsibility for compliance with the individual lawyer.

Most but not all states require a reinstatement fee as a penalty. This fee ranges from $15.00 to $500.00.

SECTION 5: LAWYERS COVERED BY THE RULE (a) ACTIVE LAWYERS

ALL ACTIVE LAWYERS MUST MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2(a). WHERE STATE COURT RULES DO NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDE, AN ACTIVE LAWYER IS DEFINED AS A PERSON REGULARLY ENGAGED IN THE PRACTICE OF LAW IN THE STATE OF . A LAWYER ACTIVE FOR ANY PART OF THE YEAR MUST COMPLY WITH THIS RULE. (b) INACTIVE LAWYERS LAWYERS NOT REGULARLY ENGAGED IN THE PRACTICE OF LAW ARE CONSIDERED TO BE INACTIVE AND ARE NOT SUBJECT TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF THIS RULE. INACTIVE LAWYERS MAY CONFIRM THEIR STATUS BY PETITION TO THE STATE BAR OR SUPREME COURT, WITH NOTICE OF THE CONFIRMATION SENT TO THE CLEC. COMMENT: The definition of an active lawyer is intended to include all lawyers engaged in the practice of law for the purpose of representing clients, including in-house or government lawyers whose client may be the business entity, partnership, state, municipality, governmental body or service employing them.

The definition of an inactive lawyer is intended to be narrowly construed and limited to those lawyers who have retired from active practice in the state or who hold positions for which a law degree is necessary but which do not require the representation of a client or the preparation of legal opinions.

Exemptions are inconsistent with the purpose of MCLE and are not recommended. Many states exempt only inactive lawyers from MCLE while others exempt active lawyers due to hardship or when they reach the age of 65, 70 or 75. Other exemptions include first-year admittees to the bar (although some of these states mandate that new members of the bar participate in a bridge-the-gap program), members of Congress or the United States Armed Forces, federal and state judges, and persons otherwise prohibited from practicing law. Because exemptions are usually the creature of political compromise at some stage of the approval process, they are not recommended for inclusion in a draft proposal of a MCLE rule. Many public officials and judges automatically fall under the definition of "inactive" in many states or they can request inactive status under existing rules.

SECTION 6: SPONSOR APPROVAL (a) AN INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATION OR OTHER ENTITY MAY APPLY TO THE CLEC FOR DESIGNATION AS AN APPROVED OR ACCREDITED SPONSOR OF MCLE COURSES OR ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED RESOURCES. COURSES OR ACTIVITIES OFFERED BY AN APPROVED OR ACCREDITED SPONSOR WILL BE APPROVED AUTOMATICALLY FOR MCLE CREDIT PROVIDED THE SPONSOR STATES THAT THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MEET THE STANDARDS SET OUT IN SECTION 7 FOR INDIVIDUAL COURSE OR ACTIVITY APPROVAL. (b) COURSES OR ACTIVITIES OFFERED BY A PROVIDER ACCREDITED OR APPROVED BY ANOTHER CLEC OR A NATIONAL MCLE ACCREDITING BODY WILL BE APPROVED AUTOMATICALLY FOR CREDIT PROVIDED THE SPONSOR STATES THAT THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MEET THE STANDARDS SET OUT IN SECTION 7 FOR INDIVIDUAL COURSE OR ACTIVITY APPROVAL. COMMENT: An approved sponsor may be an ABA-accredited law school or an organization engaged in continuing legal education which, during the three (3) years immediately preceding its application, has sponsored at least six (6) separate courses or activities which comply with the requirements for individual course or activity approval under the Comment portion of Section 7. Status as an approved sponsor should be subject to annual or other periodic review.

The following standards for approval of a sponsor by the CLEC are believed to be desirable: An approved sponsor must:

1. Develop and implement methods to evaluate its course offerings or activities to determine their effectiveness and the extent to which they meet the needs of lawyers, and, upon request from the CLEC, provide course evaluations by attendees; 2. Submit information concerning the course or activity within thirty (30) days of the presentation of the course or activity , including the registration list in an approved format, the brochure describing the course or activity, a description of the method or manner of presentation of course or activity materials, and, if specifically requested by the CLEC, provide in a timely manner a set of the course or activity materials; 3. Provide courses or activities consistent with the standards for individual course or activity approval in Section 7; 4. Make the course or activity available to lawyers throughout the state who are thought to be interested in the subject matter, except for in-office courses described in Section 8, and except, as permitted under paragraph (g) of Section 7, for a) courses or activities offered by professional organizations primarily or exclusively for the education of their members, and b) courses or activities offered primarily or exclusively for government lawyers.

5. Agree to pay the administrative or sponsor fees and appropriate attendee fee, if any, established by the CLEC, or advise CLE registrants that it does not pay the sponsor fee for individual courses or activities and that it is the responsibility of each registrant to pay any applicable attendee fee; and, 6. Submit to all reasonable requests and abide by all regulations hereafter promulgated by the CLEC. The CLEC has the authority to audit and review programs. The CLEC may revoke the approval of a sponsor which fails to comply with its regulations, requirements or course standards, and the CLEC shall have the authority to impose reasonable fees upon course or activity sponsors for the support of its operations.

These standards for the approval of a sponsor are utilized by most MCLE states.

SECTION 7: INDIVIDUAL COURSE OR ACTIVITY APPROVAL TO BE APPROVED FOR CREDIT, CONTINUING LEGAL EDUCATION COURSES OR ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED RESOURCES, OFFERED BY NON-APPROVED SPONSORS MUST MEET THE FOLLOWING STANDARDS. A CLEC MAY GRANT CREDIT FOR SUCH COURSES UPON WRITTEN APPLICATION OF A NON-APPROVED SPONSOR OR AN ATTENDEE. (a) THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MUST BE OF INTELLECTUAL OR PRACTICAL CONTENT AND, WHERE POSSIBLE, INCLUDE A PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY COMPONENT; (b) THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MUST CONTRIBUTE DIRECTLY TO LAWYERS' PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE OR SKILLS, OR TO THEIR EDUCATION WITH RESPECT TO THEIR PROFESSIONAL OR ETHICAL OBLIGATIONS; (c) COURSE OR ACTIVITY LEADERS OR LECTURERS MUST HAVE THE NECESSARY PRACTICAL OR ACADEMIC SKILLS TO CONDUCT OR FACILITATE THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY EFFECTIVELY; (d) BEFORE, AT, OR DURING THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY, EACH ATTENDEE MUST BE PROVIDED WITH COURSE OR ACTIVITY MATERIALS, EITHER PRINT OR ELECTRONIC, OF A QUALITY AND QUANTITY WHICH INDICATE THAT ADEQUATE TIME HAS BEEN DEVOTED TO THEIR PREPARATION AND THAT THEY WILL BE OF VALUE TO THE REGISTRANTS IN THEIR PRACTICES;

(e) WHEN THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY IS TO BE CONDUCTED IN A CLASS OR SEMINAR IT MUST BE PRESENTED IN A SUITABLE SETTING, ONE CONDUCIVE TO A GOOD EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE, WHICH PROVIDES REGISTRANTS WITH ADEQUATE WRITING SURFACES. WHEN THE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY INVOLVES THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED RESOURCES IT MUST BE PRESENTED IN A SUITABLE SETTING, ONE CONDUCIVE TO A GOOD EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE; (f) DURING COURSES OR ACTIVITIES PRESENTED BY MEANS OF VIDEOTAPE, MOTION PICTURE, AUDIO TAPE, SIMULTANEOUS BROADCAST, TELECONFERENCE, COMPUTER NETWORK, OR OTHER SUCH SYSTEMS OR DEVICES, THERE MUST BE AN OPPORTUNITY TO ASK QUESTIONS OF THE COURSE FACULTY. IF THE FACULTY ARE NOT AVAILABLE IN PERSON, VIA TELEPHONE OR ON-LINE, THEN A QUALIFIED COMMENTATOR SHOULD BE AVAILABLE TO OFFER COMMENT AND ANSWER QUESTIONS DIRECTLY, ELECTRONICALLY, OR IN WRITING; (g) SUBJECT TO SECTION 8, AND EXCEPT FOR COURSES OR ACTIVITIES OFFERED BY PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS PRIMARILY OR EXCLUSIVELY FOR THE EDUCATION OF THEIR MEMBERS AND COURSES OR ACTIVITIES OFFERED PRIMARILY OR EXCLUSIVELY FOR GOVERNMENT LAWYERS, THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MUST BE OPEN TO ANY LAWYER THOUGHT TO BE INTERESTED IN THE SUBJECT MATTER; (h) THE SPONSOR MUST ENCOURAGE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION BY LAWYERS AS PLANNERS, COORDINATORS, AUTHORS, PANELISTS, FACILITATORS, OR LECTURERS; AND, (i) WITHIN THIRTY (30) DAYS OF A REQUEST FROM THE CLEC, THE SPONSOR MUST SUBMIT INFORMATION CONCERNING THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY. THE INFORMATION SHALL INCLUDE A REGISTRATION LIST IN AN APPROVED FORMAT, THE BROCHURE OR OTHER COMMUNICATION DESCRIBING THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY, A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD OR MANNER OF PRESENTATION OF COURSE OR ACTIVITY MATERIALS, AND, IF SPECIFICALLY REQUESTED BY THE CLEC, A SET OF THE COURSE OR ACTIVITY MATERIALS AND EVALUATIONS. COMMENT: To encourage lawyers to attend courses or activities of value to them, credit is given for courses or activities wherever offered and on whatever subject, provided the course or activity standards are met.

These course or activity approval standards are consistent with standards used by the majority of MCLE states. Some states require an ethics component in every offering, many suggest it be included.

A non-approved sponsor or provider of a course or activity may request approval of individual courses or activities. This obviates multiple, separate applications by individual lawyers for credit for the same course or activity. Individual lawyers may request credit for activities for which a sponsor or provider has not applied for approval.

The suitable setting referred to in Section 7(e) requires the sponsor to give reasonable consideration to the needs of handicapped lawyers when selecting course or activity sites.

SECTION 8: IN-OFFICE CLE COURSES OFFERED BY LAW FIRMS, EITHER INDIVIDUALLY OR WITH OTHER LAW FIRMS, CORPORATE LEGAL DEPARTMENTS, OR SIMILAR ENTITIES PRIMARILY FOR THE EDUCATION OF THEIR MEMBERS MAY BE APPROVED FOR CREDIT. COMMENT: The standards set forth in Section 7, except 7(g), are applicable to the approval of individual in-office courses. In addition, following are suggested additional standards to be met by organizations seeking approval of in-office courses:

1. Information describing the individual course and a request for approval shall be filed with the CLEC on or before the date on which the course is held. A submission received by the CLEC or postmarked within two (2) working days following the date of the conclusion of the course shall be considered to have been timely filed. The CLEC, at its discretion, may grant retroactive approval and may also request course materials from the course sponsor; 2. Experienced lawyers must contribute to the development or teaching of the course; 3. The courses must be attended by five (5) or more lawyers, including the instructor; 4. The course must be scheduled at a time and location so as to be free of interruption from telephone calls and other office matters, and should be made available to other lawyers to the extent feasible and consistent with client confidentiality; and, 5. Not more than one-half (1/2) of the approved credits for any reporting period may be earned through inoffice activities.

In-office continuing legal education courses are an integral part of some legal service organizations' total CLE effort. The rule seeks to encourage participation in continuing legal education, and attendance at inoffice programs should be recognized as part of that effort. Existing in-office courses may be improved by compliance with the standards of the rule and programs may evolve to meet new continuing legal education requirements.

SECTION 9: SELF-STUDY IN ADDITION TO FORMAL COURSES CONDUCTED IN A CLASS OR SEMINAR SETTING, THE CLEC SHALL ACCREDIT SELF-STUDY COURSES INVOLVING THE USE OF AUDIO OR VIDEO TAPES, COMPUTERS, OR CORRESPONDENCE COURSES. COMMENT: It is suggested that self-study continuing legal education activities shall be subject to the following standards: Self-study CLE activities must: 1. be part of a structured course of study; 2. be organized by an accredited sponsor; 3. include the use of thorough, high-quality written or electronically transmitted materials which are available to the registrant upon completion of the course.

4. not be used to satisfy more than one-third (1/3) of the total CLE requirement; and, 5. not be used to satisfy more than one-half (1/2) of the total CLE requirement when combined with approved in-office CLE courses; These additional standards should also be considered: A. In order to have its individualized educational programs approved, the sponsor shall agree to maintain and supply the CLEC with a record of lawyers obtaining such programs from it.

B. In awarding credit for individualized educational activities, the CLEC shall consider the following factors: i. the nature of the structured, individualized activities comprising the course of study; ii. the time normally required to complete those activities; and, iii. the extent to which the lawyer's educational effort in this course or activity is evaluated by the sponsor.

C. If the educational activity consists of listening to or watching the electronic replay of a lecture, the CLEC shall award credit just as it does for attendance at a live lecture. In order to claim credit for individualized educational activity, a lawyer shall engage in such activity in a physical setting conducive to intellectual concentration and effective study.

SECTION 10: FINANCING MCLE THE ADMINISTRATIVE COST OF MCLE MAY BE COVERED BY AN ANNUAL FEE ESTABLISHED BY THE CLEC AND PAID BY ALL ACTIVE LAWYERS. THE FEE SHALL BE PAID ON THE ANNUAL REPORTING DATE. COMMENT: Most states finance their MCLE programs by an annual fee ranging from $5.00 to $15.00.

The fee is usually due on the reporting date. Some states finance MCLE through sponsor fees and attendee fees. A sponsor fee is a fee remitted by the sponsor to the governing body of MCLE. The fee is computed on a per-credit per-lawyer basis. An attendee fee is paid by an individual lawyer seeking credit computed on the same basis as a sponsor fee.

June 1989 Revised August 1996; February 2004

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