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US Foreign Policy

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Biblical Authority ______

Joshua 17 (KJV) 1 This was the allotment for the tribe of Manasseh as Joseph's firstborn, that is, for Makir, Manasseh's firstborn. Makir was the ancestor of the Gileadites, who had received Gilead and Bashan because the Makirites were great soldiers. 2 So this allotment was for the rest of the people of Manasseh--the clans of Abiezer, Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Hepher and Shemida. These are the other male descendants of Manasseh son of Joseph by their clans. 3 Now Zelophehad son of Hepher, the son of Gilead, the son of Makir, the son of Manasseh, had no sons but only daughters, whose names were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah and Tirzah. 4 They went to Eleazar the priest, Joshua son of Nun, and the leaders and said, "The LORD commanded Moses to give us an inheritance among our brothers." So Joshua gave them an inheritance along with the brothers of their father, according to the LORD's command. 5 Manasseh's share consisted of ten tracts of land besides Gilead and Bashan east of the Jordan, 6 because the daughters of the tribe of Manasseh received an inheritance among the sons. The land of Gilead belonged to the rest of the descendants of Manasseh. 7 The territory of Manasseh extended from Asher to Micmethath east of Shechem. The boundary ran southward from there to include the people living at En Tappuah. 8 (Manasseh had the land of Tappuah, but Tappuah itself, on the boundary of Manasseh, belonged to the Ephraimites.) 9 Then the boundary continued south to the Kanah Ravine. There were towns belonging to Ephraim lying among the towns of Manasseh, but the boundary of Manasseh was the northern side of the ravine and ended at the sea. 10 On the south the land belonged to Ephraim, on the north to Manasseh. The territory of Manasseh reached the sea and bordered Asher on the north and Issachar on the east. 11 Within Issachar and Asher, Manasseh also had Beth Shan, Ibleam and the people of Dor, Endor, Taanach and Megiddo, together with their surrounding settlements (the third in the list is Naphoth ). 12 Yet the Manassites were not able to occupy these towns, for the Canaanites were determined to live in that region. 13 However, when the Israelites grew stronger, they subjected the Canaanites to forced labor but did not drive them out completely. 14 The people of Joseph said to Joshua, "Why have you given us only one allotment and one portion for an inheritance? We are a numerous people and the LORD has blessed us abundantly." 15 "If you are so numerous," Joshua answered, "and if the hill country of Ephraim is too small for you, go up into the forest and clear land for yourselves there in the land of the Perizzites and Rephaites." 16 The people of Joseph replied, "The hill country is not enough for us, and all the Canaanites who live in the plain have iron chariots, both those in Beth Shan and its settlements and those in the Valley of Jezreel." 17 But Joshua said to the house of Joseph--to Ephraim and Manasseh--"You are numerous and very powerful. You will have not only one allotment 18 but the forested hill country as well. Clear it, and its farthest limits will be yours; though the Canaanites have iron chariots and though they are strong, you can drive them out." Page 4 of 93

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Table of Contents US Foreign Policy

Biblical Authority I.

Introduction

II.

Presidential and Congressional Powers

III.

Treaty-Related Law

IV.

US Allies Around the World

The Role of Foreign Oil

VI.

Foreign Aid

VII. Military Aid VIII. Human Rights IX.

The War on Drugs

Criticism from the Left

XI.

Support for Certain Anti-Communist Dictatorships

Attachments A: List of US/ Foreign/ Domestic Treatises B: Missouri v. Holland

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Introduction The United States Constitution Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, includes the Treaty Clause, which empowers the President of the United States to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements, which must be confirmed by the Senate, between the United States and other countries, which become treaties between the United States and other countries after the advice and consent of a supermajority of the United States Senate. ______

The Foreign Policy of The United States is the way in which it interacts with foreign nations and sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations and individual citizens. The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the U.S. Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community." In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial intercourse with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad; international commodity agreements; international education; and protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation." U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism both domestically and abroad.

Historical Overview The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemony during and since World War II and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, US foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington's farewell address; these included among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular Page 8 of 93

nations, and passionate attachments for others", "steer[ing] clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", and advocating trade with all nations. These policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s. But the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. After the 1778 alliance with France, the U.S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by Presidential 'doctrines', named for them. Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have been made by most presidents. In general, the United States followed an isolationist foreign policy until attacks against U.S. shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801. Despite occasional entanglements with European Powers such as the War of 1812 and the 1898 Spanishâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;American War, U.S. foreign policy was marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade and scope during the 19th century, and it maintained its policy of avoiding wars with and between European powers. Concerning its domestic borders, the 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation's geographical area; Spain ceded the territory of Florida in 1819; annexation brought Texas in 1845; a war with Mexico in 1848 added California, Arizona and New Mexico. The U.S. bought Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Victory over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U.S. turned its attention to the Panama Canal and the stabilization of regions to its south, including Mexico.

Twentieth Century Developments

World War I The 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its international reputation. President Wilson's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism so as to end wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (really a surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the downside was that the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the entire world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s.

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World War II The United States adopted a non-interventionist foreign policy from 1932 to 1938, but then President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved toward strong support of the Allies in their wars against Germany and Japan. As a result of intense internal debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy, that is financing and equipping the Allied armies without sending American combat soldiers. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be enjoyed by people "everywhere in the world"; these included the freedom of speech and religion, as well as freedom from want and fear. Roosevelt helped establish terms for a postwar world among potential allies at the Atlantic Conference; specific points were included to correct earlier failures, which became a step toward the United Nations. American policy was to threaten Japan, to force it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the loans given to allies in World War I, the United States provided Lend-Lease grants of $50,000,000,000. Working closely with Winston Churchill of Britain, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Roosevelt sent his forces into the Pacific against Japan, then into North Africa against Italy and Germany, and finally into Europe starting with France and Italy in 1944 against the Germans. The American economy roared forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes, ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, the atomic bomb. Much of the American war effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany.

The Cold War After the war, the U.S. non-colonial economic much of the world, with the and the Truman Doctrine. Almost witnessed division into broad War; one side led

rose to become the dominant power with broad influence in key policies of the Marshall Plan immediately however, the world two camps during the Cold was

by the U.S., and the other by the Soviet Union, but this situation also led to the establishment of the NonAligned Movement. This period lasted until almost the end of the 20th century, and is thought to be both an ideological and power struggle between the two superpowers. A policy of containment was adopted to limit Soviet expansion, and a series of proxy wars were fought with mixed results. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into separate nations, and the Cold War Page 10 of 93

formally ended as the United States gave separate diplomatic recognition to the Russian Federation and other former Soviet states. With these changes to forty-five years of established diplomacy and military confrontation, new challenges confronted U.S. policymakers. American foreign policy is characterized by the protection of its national interests.

As The Twenty-First Century Begins In the 21st century, U.S. influence remains strong but, in relative terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to rising nations such as China, India, Russia, Brazil, and the newly consolidated European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of nuclear terrorism. Foreign policy analysts Hachigian and Sutphen in their book The Next American Century suggest all six powers have similar vested interests in stability and terrorism prevention and trade; if they can find common ground, then the next decades may be marked by peaceful growth and prosperity.

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Presidential and Congressional Powers

Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into force if ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces; however only Congress has authority to declare war, and the civilian and military budget is written by the Congress. The United States Secretary of State is the foreign minister of the United States and is the primary conductor of state-to-state diplomacy. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations. Page 13 of 93

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Treaty-Related Law Executive Agreements Congressional-Executive Agreements are made by the president and Congress. A majority of both houses makes it binding much like regular legislation after it is signed by the president. The constitution does not expressly state that these agreements are allowed, and constitutional scholars such as Laurence Tribe think they are unconstitutional. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld their validity.

Sole Executive Agreements are made by the president alone. Treaties are formal written agreements specified by the Treaty Clause of the Constitution. The president makes a treaty with foreign powers, but then the proposed treaty must be ratified by a two-thirds vote in the Senate. For example, President Wilson proposed the Treaty of Versailles after World War I after consulting with allied powers, but this treaty was rejected by the U.S. Senate; as a result, the U.S. subsequently made separate agreements with different nations. While most international law has a broader interpretation of the term treaty, the U.S. sense of the term is more restricted. In Missouri v. Holland, the Supreme Court ruled that the power to make treaties under the U.S. Constitution is a power separate from the other enumerated powers of the federal government, and hence the federal government can use treaties to legislate in areas which would otherwise fall within the exclusive authority of the states. International law in most nations considers all three of the above agreements as treaties. In most nations, treaty laws supersede domestic law. So if there is a conflict between a treaty obligation and a domestic law, then the treaty usually prevails. In contrast to most other nations, the United States considers the three types of agreements as distinct. Further, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties afterwards. It can overrule an agreed-upon treaty obligation even if this is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including the 1900 Supreme Court decision in Paquete Habana, a late 1950s decision in Reid v. Covert, and a lower court ruling in 1986 in Garcia-Mir v. Meese. Further, the Supreme Court has declared itself as having the power to rule a treaty as void by declaring it "unconstitutional", although as of 2011, it has never exercised this power. The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Generally when the U.S. signs a treaty, it is binding. However, because of the Reid v. Covert decision, the U.S. adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says, in effect, that the U.S. intends to abide by the treaty, but if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, then the U.S. legally can't abide by the treaty since the U.S. signature would be ultra vires.

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Alliances The United States is a founding member of NATO, the world's largest military alliance. The 28nation alliance consists of Canada and much of Europe, including the nation with NATO's second largest military, the United Kingdom. Under the NATO charter, the United States is compelled to defend any NATO state that is attacked by a foreign power. NATO is restricted to within the North American and European areas. In 1989, the United States also granted five nations the major non-NATO ally status (MNNA); this number was increased in the late 1990s and following the September 11 attacks; it currently includes 28 nations. Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances.

A map of allies of the United States NATO member states, including their colonies and overseas possessions Major non-NATO allies, plus Republic of China (Taiwan) Signatories of Partnership for Peace with NATO

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US Allies Around the World The United Kingdom United States foreign policy affirms its alliance with the United Kingdom as its most important bilateral relationship in the world, evidenced by aligned political affairs between the White House and 10 Downing Street, as well as joint military operations carried out between the two nations. While both the United States and the United Kingdom maintain close relationships with many other nations around the world, the level of cooperation in military planning, execution of military operations, nuclear weapons technology, and intelligence sharing with each other has been described as "unparalleled" among major powers throughout the 20th and early 21st century. The United States and Britain share the world's largest foreign direct investment partnership. American investment in the United Kingdom reached $255.4 billion in 2002, while British direct investment in the United States totaled $283.3 billion.

Canada The bilateral relationship between Canada and the United States is of notable importance to both countries. About 75â&#x20AC;&#x201C;85% of Canadian trade is with the United States, and Canada is the United States' largest trading partner and chief supplier of oil. While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the two countries share the "world's longest undefended border." The border was demilitarized after the War of 1812 and, apart from minor raids, has Page 18 of 93

remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War on both a bilateral basis and a multilateral relationship through NATO. A high volume of trade and migration between the United States and Canada since the 1850s has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being culturally overwhelmed by its neighbor, which is nine times larger in terms of population and eleven times larger in terms of economy. The two economies have increasingly merged since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994, which also includes Mexico.

Mexico The United States shares a unique and often complex relationship with Mexico. A history of armed conflict goes back to the Texas Revolution in the 1830s, the Mexicanâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;American War in the 1840s, and an American invasion in the 1910s. Important treaties include the Gadsden Purchase, and multilaterally with Canada, the North American Free Trade Agreement. The central issue in recent years has been illegal immigration, followed by illegal gun sales (from the U.S.), drug smuggling (to the U.S.) and escalating drug cartel violence just south of the U.S.Mexico border.

Australia The United States' relationship with Australia is a very close one, with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stating that "America doesn't have a better friend in the world than Australia". The relationship is formalized by the ANZUS treaty and the Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;United States Free Trade Agreement. The two countries have a shared history, both have previously been British Colonies and many Americans flocked to the Australian goldfields in the 19th century. At a strategic level, the relationship really came to prominence in World War II, when the two nations worked extremely closely in the Pacific War against Japan, with General Douglas MacArthur undertaking his role as Supreme Allied Commander based in Australia, effectively having Australian troops and resources under his command. During this period, the cultural interaction between Australia and the U.S. were elevated to a higher level as over 1 million U.S. military personnel moved through Australia during the course of the war. The relationship continued to evolve throughout the second half of the 20th Century, and today now involves strong relationships at the executive and mid levels of government and the military, leading Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Kurt M. Campbell to declare that "in the last ten years, [Australia] has ascended to one of the closest one or two allies [of the U.S.] on the planet".

Middle East The United States has many important allies in the Greater Middle East region. These allies are Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Jordan, Afghanistan, Israel, Egypt, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Israel and Egypt are leading recipients of United States foreign aid, receiving $2.775 billion and 1.75 billion in 2010. Turkey is an ally of the United States through its membership in NATO, while all of the other countries except Saudi Arabia and Qatar are major non-NATO allies.

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The United States toppled the government of Saddam Hussein during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Turkey is host to approximately 90 B61 nuclear bombs at Incirlik Air Base. Other allies include Qatar, where 3,500 U.S. troops are based, and Bahrain, where the United States Navy maintains NSA Bahrain, home of NAVCENT and the Fifth Fleet.

Japan The relationship began in the 1850s as the U.S. was a major factor in forcing Japan to resume contacts with the outer world beyond a very restricted role. In the late 19th century the Japanese sent many delegations to Europe, and some to the U.S., to discover and copy the latest technology and thereby modernize Japan very rapidly and allow it to build its own empire. There was some friction over control of Hawaii and the Philippines, but Japan stood aside as the U.S. annexed those lands in 1898. Likewise the U.S. did not object when Japan took control of Korea. The two nations cooperated with the European powers in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, but the U.S. was increasingly troubled about Japan's denial of the Open Door Policy that would ensure that all nations could do business with China on an equal basis. President Theodore Roosevelt admired Japan's strength as it defeated a major European power, Russia. He brokered an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1905–6. Anti-Japanese sentiment (especially on the West Coast) soured relations in the 1907–24 era. In the 1930s the U.S. protested vehemently against Japan's seizure of Manchuria (1931), its war against China (1937–45), and its seizure of Indochina (Vietnam) 1940–41. American sympathies were with China and Japan rejected increasingly angry American demands that Japan pull out of China. Page 20 of 93

The two nations fought an all-out war 1941–45; the U.S. won a total victory, with heavy bombing (including two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that devastated Japan's 50 largest industrial cities. The American army under Douglas MacArthur occupied and ruled Japan, 1945–51, with the successful goal of sponsoring a peaceful, prosperous and democratic nation. In 1951, the U.S. and Japan signed Treaty of San Francisco and Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan, subsequently revised as Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan in 1960, relations since then have been excellent. The United States considers Japan to be one of its closest allies, and it is both a Major Non-NATO ally and NATO contact country. The United States has several military bases in Japan including Yokosuka, which harbors the U.S. 7th Fleet. The JSDF, or Japanese Self Defense Force, cross train with the U.S. Military, often providing auxiliary security and conducting war games. When the U.S.President Barack Obama met with Japanese Prime Minister Taro Aso in 2009, he said the relationship with Japan as the "cornerstone of security in East Asia". After the several years of critical moment during Japan's Democratic Party administration, President Obama and Prime Minister Shinzo Abe reconfirmed the importance of its alliance and currently the U.S. and Japan negotiating to participate Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.

South Korea South Korea–United States relations have been most extensive since 1945, when the United States helped establish capitalism in South Korea and led the UN-sponsored Korean War against North Korea and China (1950–1953). Stimulated by heavy American aid, South Korea's rapid economic growth, democratization and modernization greatly reduced its U.S. dependency. Large numbers of U.S. forces remain in Korea. At the 2009 G-20 London summit, U.S. President Barack Obama called South Korea "one of America's closest allies and greatest friends."

China American relations with the People's Republic of China are quite strong, yet complex. A great amount of trade between the two countries necessitates positive political relations, although occasional disagreements over tariffs, currency exchange rates and the Political status of Taiwan do occur. Nevertheless, the United States and China have an extremely extensive partnership. The U.S. criticizes China on human rights issues.

Taiwan Taiwan (officially the Republic of China), does not have official diplomatic relations with America and no longer receives diplomatic recognition from the State Department of the United States, but it conducts unofficial diplomatic relations through its de facto embassy, commonly known as the "American Institute in Taiwan (AIT)", and is considered to be a strong Asian ally and supporter of the United States.

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ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an important partner for United States in both economic and geostrategic aspects. ASEAN's geostrategic importance stems from many factors, including: the strategic location of member countries, the large shares of global trade that pass through regional waters, and the alliances and partnerships which the United States shares with ASEAN member states. In July 2009, the United States signed ASEAN's Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, which establishes guiding principles intended to build confidence among its signatories with the aim of maintaining regional peace and stability. Trade flows are robust and increasing between America and the ASEAN region. Since 2002 exports to the United States have gained 40% in value while U.S. exports to ASEAN increased 62%.

Indonesia As the largest ASEAN member, Indonesia has played an active and prominent role in developing the organization. For United States, Indonesia is important for dealing with certain issues; such as terrorism, democracy, and how United States project its relations with Islamic world, since Indonesia has the world's largest Islamic population, and one that honors and respects religious diversity. US eyes Indonesia as potential strategic allies in Southeast Asia. During his stately visit to Indonesia, U.S. President Barack Obama has held up Indonesia as an example of how a developing nation can embrace democracy and diversity.

Malaysia Despite increasingly strained relations under the Mahathir Mohamad government, ties have been thawed under Najib Razak's administration. Economic ties are particularly robust, with the United States being Malaysia's largest trading partner and Malaysia is the tenth-largest trading Page 22 of 93

partner of the U.S. Annual two-way trade amounts to $49 billion. The United States and Malaysia launched negotiations for a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) in June 2006. The United States and Malaysia enjoy strong security cooperation. Malaysia hosts the Southeast Asia Regional Center for Counterterrorism (SEARCCT), where over 2000 officials from various countries have received training. The United States is among the foreign countries that has collaborated with the center in conducting capacity building programmes. The U.S. and Malaysia share a strong military-to-military relationship with numerous exchanges, training, joint exercises, and visits.

Myanmar Bilateral ties have generally been strained but are slowly improving. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Burma because of the military crackdown in 1988 and the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. US and European government sanctions against the military government, alongside boycotts and other types direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. Ongoing reforms have improved relations between Burma and the United States.

Philippines The United States ruled the Philippines from 1898 to 1946. The Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanishâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;American War. The United States finally recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946 in the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until August 4, 1964 when, upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists, President Diosdado Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country's Independence Day. Since 2003 the U.S. has designated the Philippines as a Major Non-NATO Ally.

Thailand Thailand and the US are both former Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) members, being close partners throughout the Cold War, and are still close allies. Since 2003, the U.S. has designated Thailand as a Major Non-NATO Ally.

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Vietnam United States involved in Vietnam War in 1955 to 1975. In 1995, President Bill Clinton announced the formal normalization of diplomatic relations with Vietnam. Today US eyes Vietnam as a potential strategic ally in Southeast Asia.

Eastern Europe American relations with Eastern Europe are influenced by the legacy of the Cold War. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, former Communist-bloc states in Europe have gradually transitioned to democracy and capitalism. Many have also joined the European Union and NATO, strengthening economic ties with the broader Western world and gaining the military protection of the United States via the North Atlantic Treaty.

Kosovo The UN Security Council divided on the question of Kosovo's declaration of independence. Kosovo declared its independence on February 17, 2008, whilst Serbia objected that Kosovo is part of its territory. Of the five members with veto power in the UN Security Council, the USA, UK, and France recognized the declaration of independence, and China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it illegal. "In its declaration of independence, Kosovo committed itself to the highest standards of democracy, including freedom and tolerance and justice for citizens of all ethnic backgrounds", President George W Bush said on February 19, 2008.

Hub and Spoke vs Multilateral While America's relationships with Europe have tended to be in terms of multilateral frameworks, such as NATO, America's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke" model using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States and do not collaborate with each other. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri-La Dialogue Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. However in 2011 Gates said that the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation," for building multilateral cooperation. Page 24 of 93

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The Role of Foreign Oil As of 2014, the U.S. currently produces about 66% of the oil that it consumes. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC. Former U.S. President George W. Bush identified dependence on imported oil as an urgent "national security concern".

Two-thirds of the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf. Despite its distance, the Persian Gulf region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II. Petroleum is of central importance to modern armies, and the United States—as the world's leading oil producer at that time—supplied most of the oil for the Allied armies. Many U.S. strategists were concerned that the war would dangerously reduce the U.S. oil supply, and so they sought to establish good relations with Saudi Arabia, a kingdom with large oil reserves. The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War. Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines—the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the Nixon Doctrine—played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its "national interests" in the Persian Gulf region. Carter's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the "Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine", which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to Page 26 of 93

protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran窶的raq War. Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War.

Canada Almost all of Canada's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.

Africa In 2007 the U.S. was Sub-Saharan Africa's largest single export market accounting for 28.4% of exports (second in total to the EU at 31.4%). 81% of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products.

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Foreign Aid Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department's international affairs budget, which was $49 billion in all for 2014. Aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund).

In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor ($23 billion in 2014). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid. Although the United States is the largest donor in absolute dollar terms, it is actually ranked 19 out of 27 countries on the Commitment to Development Index. The CDI ranks the 27 richest donor countries on their policies that affect the developing world. In the aid component the United States is penalized for low net aid volume as a share of the economy, a large share of tied or partially tied aid, and a large share of aid given to less poor and relatively undemocratic governments.

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Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do.

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Military Aid The United States has fought wars and intervened militarily on many occasions. See, Timeline of United States military operations. The U.S. also operates a vast network of military bases around the world. See, List of United States military bases. In recent years, the U.S. has used its military superiority as sole superpower to lead a number of wars, including, most recently, the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 as part of its global "War on Terror."

Aid The U.S. provides military aid through many different channels. Counting the items that appear in the budget as 'Foreign Military Financing' and 'Plan Colombia', the U.S. spent approximately $4.5 billion in military aid in 2001, of which $2 billion went to Israel, $1.3 billion went to Egypt, and $1 billion went to Colombia. Since 9/11, Pakistan has received approximately $11.5 billion in direct military aid. As of 2004, according to Fox News, the U.S. had more than 700 military bases in 130 different countries. Estimated US foreign military financing and aid by recipient for 2010: Recipient Iraq

Military aid (USD Billions) 6.50

Afghanistan

5.60[67]

Israel

2.75[17]

Egypt

1.75[18]

Pakistan

1.60[68]

Colombia

.834[69]

Jordan

.300[70]

Palestinian Authority

.100[18]

Yemen

.070

Missile Defense The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack Page 32 of 93

by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars". The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today.

In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57% of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67% Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. Russia threatened to place short-range nuclear missiles on the Russia's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States. On August 14, 2008, The United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the Page 33 of 93

United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia", Dmitry Rogozin, Russia's NATO envoy, said.

Exporting Democracy In United States history, critics have charged that presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics have also charged that the U.S. helped local militaries overthrow democratically elected governments in Iran, Guatemala, and in other instances. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive." Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries.

Opinion that U.S. Intervention Does Not Export Democracy Professor Paul W. Drake argued that the U.S. first attempted to export democracy in Latin America through intervention from 1912 to 1932. Drake argued that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things." The study suggested that efforts to promote democracy failed because democracy needs to develop out of internal conditions, and can not be forcibly imposed. There was disagreement about what constituted democracy; Drake suggested American leaders sometimes defined democracy in a narrow sense of a nation having elections; Drake suggested a broader understanding was needed. Further, there was disagreement about what constituted a "rebellion"; Drake saw a pattern in which the U.S. State Department disapproved of any type of rebellion, even so-called "revolutions", and in some instances rebellions against dictatorships. Historian Walter LaFeber stated, "The world's leading revolutionary nation (the U.S.) in the eighteenth century became the leading protector of the status quo in the twentieth century." Mesquita and Downs evaluated 35 U.S. interventions from 1945 to 2004 and concluded that in only one case, Colombia, did a "full fledged, stable democracy" develop within ten years following the intervention. Samia Amin Pei argued that nation building in developed countries usually unravelled four to six years after American intervention ended. Pei, based on study of a database on worldwide democracies called Polity, agreed with Mesquita and Downs that U.S. intervention efforts usually don't produce real democracies, and that most cases result in greater authoritarianism after ten years. Professor Joshua Muravchik argued U.S. occupation was critical for Axis power democratization after World War II, but America's failure to encourage democracy in the third world "prove ... that U.S. military occupation is not a sufficient condition to make a country democratic." The success of democracy in former Axis countries such as Italy were seen as a result of high Page 34 of 93

national per-capita income, although U.S. protection was seen as a key to stabilization and important for encouraging the transition to democracy. Steven Krasner agreed that there was a link between wealth and democracy; when per-capita incomes of $6,000 were achieved in a democracy, there was little chance of that country ever reverting to an autocracy, according to an analysis of his research in the Los Angeles Times.

Opinion that U.S. Intervention Has Mixed Results Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country's democracy. In 69 instances the country became less democratic after the intervention. In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. However this does not take into account the direction the country would have gone with no US intervention.

Opinion that U.S. Intervention Effectively Exports Democracy Hermann and Kegley found that American military interventions designed to protect or promote democracy increased freedom in those countries. Peceny argued that the democracies created after military intervention are still closer to an autocracy than a democracy, quoting Przeworski "while some democracies are more democratic than others, unless offices are contested, no regime should be considered democratic." Therefore, Peceny concludes, it is difficult to know from the Hermann and Kegley study whether U.S. intervention has only produced less repressive autocratic governments or genuine democracies. Peceny stated that the United States attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 20th-century military interventions. Peceny argued that proliberal policies after military intervention had a positive impact on democracy.

Covert Actions United States foreign policy also includes covert actions to topple foreign governments that have been opposed to the United States. In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran's oil, threatening the interests of the AngloPersian Oil Company. A year later, in Operation PBSUCCESS, the United States government and the CIA toppled the democratically elected left-wing government of Jacobo Ă rbenz in Guatemala and installed the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Ă rbenz overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of 200,000 people. During the massacre of alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, the U.S. government provided assistance to the Indonesian military that, according to Bradley Simpson, Director of the Page 35 of 93

Indonesia/East Timor Documentation Project at the National Security Archive, helped facilitate the mass killings. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected PKI members, who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 1970, the CIA worked with coup-plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General RenĂŠ Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping.

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Human Rights The inclusion of Human Rights in U.S. foreign policy had a controversial start. For one thing, human rights driven foreign policy did not originate in the Executive branch but was instead enforced upon it by Congress, starting in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy," Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy: 1. Subsection (a) of the International Financial Assistance Act of 1977: ensured assistance through international financial institutions would be limited to countries "other than those whose governments engage in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights." 2. Section 116 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended in 1984: reads in part, "No assistance may be provided under this part to the government of any country which engages in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights." 3. Section 502B of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended in 1978: "No security assistance may be provided to any country the government of which engages in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights." These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U.S. foreign policy towards the inclusion of Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala and South Africa. The Executive (from Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing regional security in favor of US interests over any behavioral concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. Nevertheless, according to historian Daniel Goldhagen, during the last two decades of the Cold War, the number of American client states practicing mass murder outnumbered those of the Soviet Union. Page 38 of 93

On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia. In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'ĂŠtat.

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The War On Drugs United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. Those efforts date back to at least 1880, when the U.S. and China completed an agreement that prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries.

Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug-producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large-scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian-grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S. Page 41 of 93

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Criticism from the Left Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. It was also noted that the U.S. overthrew democratically elected governments in Iran, Guatemala, and in other instances. Noam Chomsky, a vociferous critic of U.S. foreign policy, argues that "in both cases the consequences reach to the present" and that Guatemala in particular "remains one of the world's worst horror chambers." Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.

Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Some scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive." Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries. A 2013 global poll in 68 countries with 66,000 respondents by Win/Gallup found that the U.S. is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace. Page 43 of 93

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Support for Certain Anti-Communist Dictatorships Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the 'realist' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories.

Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States. See NATO, ANZUS, Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders. Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding Page 45 of 93

reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media. Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all the human rights violations in nations they have supported. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US-backed regimes during the Cold War. However, the U.S. cannot credibly be blamed for all the 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. The U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.S. helped stop a coup in 1993, and that efforts were made to improve the conduct of the security services. Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health." According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other." In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States' relations with the world". The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools Examples of these tools are as follows: 

   

A published yearly report by the State Department entitled "Supporting Human Rights and Democracy: The U.S. Record" in compliance with a 2002 law (enacted and signed by President George W. Bush, which requires the Department to report on actions taken by the U.S. Government to encourage respect for human rights. A yearly published "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices." In 2006 (under President George W. Bush), the United States created a "Human Rights Defenders Fund" and "Freedom Awards." The "Human Rights and Democracy Achievement Award" recognizes the exceptional achievement of officers of foreign affairs agencies posted abroad. The "Ambassadorial Roundtable Series", created in 2006, are informal discussions between newly confirmed U.S. Ambassadors and human rights and democracy nongovernmental organizations. Page 46 of 93

ď&#x201A;ˇ

The National Endowment for Democracy, a private non-profit created by Congress in 1983 (and signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, which is mostly funded by the U.S. Government and gives cash grants to strengthen democratic institutions around the world

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Notes ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Page 49 of 93

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Attachment A List of US/Foreign/ Domestic Treatises

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List of US/ Foreign/ Domestic Treatises Pre-Revolutionary War treaties Although the United States as such is not a party to these, having not come into legal existence until 1776, these treaties have pre-existing force upon the United States entering into legal existence and are the basis of the framework setting up the United States legal framework regarding Treaties.            

1722 – Great Treaty of 1722 1726 – Deed in Trust from Three of the Five Nations of Indians to the King 1744 – Treaty of Lancaster 1752 – Treaty of Logstown 1754 – Treaty of Albany 1758 – Treaty of Easton 1760 – Treaty of Pittsburgh 1763 – Treaty of Paris 1768 – Treaty of Hard Labour 1768 – Treaty of Fort Stanwix 1770 – Treaty of Lochaber 1774 – Treaty of Camp Charlotte

U.S. international treaties These are treaties which the United States has made with other sovereign international states. This is mostly to distinguish them from the next category. Under the treaty clause of the United States Constitution, treaties come into effect upon final ratification by the President of the United States, provided that a two-thirds majority of the United States Senate concurs.

1776–1799             

1776 – Model Treaty passed by the Continental Congress becomes the template for its future international treaties 1778 – Treaty of Alliance – American Revolutionary War alliance with France 1778 – Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States – France) 1782 – Treaty of Amity and Commerce – with Dutch Republic 1783 – Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States – Sweden)[5] – with Sweden 1783 – Second Treaty of Paris Ended the American Revolutionary War 1785 – Treaty of Amity and Commerce (Prussia–United States) – with Prussia 1786 – Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship – Morocco — first Sovereign state to recognize the U.S; oldest unbroken U.S. treaty – trade treaty with Spain (not ratified) 1794 – Jay Treaty AKA Treaty of London – attempts to settle post-Revolution disputes with Great Britain 1795 – Treaty of Greenville – opened most of Ohio to white settlement 1795 – Treaty with Algeria 1795 – Pinckney's Treaty AKA Treaty of Madrid, Treaty of San Lorenzo – defines boundaries of U.S. with Spanish colonies Page 53 of 93

 

1796 – Treaty with Tripoli – tribute payments to Tripoli to protect Americans from seizure and ransom 1797 – Treaty with Tunis – increases tribute payments to Tripoli

1800–1849                   

1800 – Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine) – Ends the Quasi War between France and the U.S. 1805 – Treaty with Tripoli – Secure release of Americans being held and proclaim peace and amity. 1814 – Treaty of Ghent – Ends the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Great Britain 1815 – Commercial treaty with Great Britain – Established free trade between the United States, England, and much of the British Empire (Ireland was among the areas excluded) 1817 – Rush–Bagot Treaty – The United States and Great Britain agree to demilitarize the Great Lakes. 1818 – Treaty of 1818 – resolved boundary issues between U.S. and Great Britain 1819 – Adams–Onís Treaty – purchase of Florida from Spain 1824 – Russo-American Treaty – gave Russian claims on land off the Northwest Pacific coast of North America (north of the Oregon Country) 1824 – Anderson–Gual Treaty – between U.S. and Gran Colombia; first bilateral treaty with another American country 1828 – Treaty of Limits – between Mexico and the U.S.; confirms the boundary agreed to with Spain in the Adams– Onís Treaty. 1831 – Franco-American Treaty of 1831 (ratified in 1835 under Victor de Broglie's government – see July Monarchy) 1833 – Siamese-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce – commercial treaty between the Kingdom of Siam and the United States, first treaty with an East Asian nation 1842 – Webster–Ashburton Treaty – settles boundary disputes between the U.S. and Canada 1844 - Treaty of Wanghia - between China and the U.S.; established five U.S. treaty ports in China with extraterritoriality 1846 – Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty with the Republic of New Granada (Colombia) 1846 – Oregon Treaty – brought an end to the Oregon boundary dispute by settling competing American and British claims to the Oregon Country 1847 – Treaty of Cahuenga – ends the Mexican–American War in California 1848 – Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – fully ends the Mexican–American War 1849 – Hawaiian–American Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation – Treaty between the Hawaiian Kingdom and the United States

1850–1899                

1850 – Clayton–Bulwer Treaty – U.S. and United Kingdom agree not to colonize Central America 1854 – Convention of Kanagawa – forcibly opens Japan to American trade 1855 – Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty – with Canada on trade and tariffs 1857 – American treaty is kept with france- Treaty between American and Russia 1858 – Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan), also known as Harris Treaty – forces the opening of treaty ports on Japan 1858 - Treaty of Tientsin - with China; established peace, amity, and commerce 1864 – Geneva Convention governing the treatment of sick and wounded combatants – established rules for the treatment of battlefield casualties 1867 – Alaska Purchase – U.S. buys Alaska from Russia 1868 – Burlingame Treaty – with China; established improved relations 1868 – Naturalization Convention – with North German Confederation; first recognition by a European power of the legal right of its subjects to become American citizens 1868 – Naturalization Convention – with Belgium 1869 – Naturalization Convention – with Sweden and Norway. 1870 – Naturalization Convention – with United Kingdom 1871 – Treaty of Washington – settles grievances between the U.S. and Canada 1872 – Naturalization Convention – with Denmark 1883 – Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property – intellectual property systems, including patents, of any contracting state become accessible to the nationals of other states party to the Convention Page 54 of 93

  

1886 – Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (ratified by U.S. in 1989) 1898 – Sixth Treaty of Paris – ends the Spanish–American War 1899 – Hague Conventions – one of the first formal statements of the laws of war

1900–1949                                   

1900 – Treaty between Spain and the United States for Cession of Outlying Islands of the Philippines. Concluded November 7, 1900; ratification advised by Senate January 22, 1901 .. ratified by the President January 30, 1901; ratifications exchanged March 23, 1901; proclaimed March 23, 1901. 1901 – Hay–Pauncefote Treaty – nullified Clayton–Bulwer Treaty in exchange for free access to build a canal across Central America 1901 – Boxer Protocol AKA Treaty of 1901, Peace Agreement between the Great Powers and China – one of the Unequal Treaties with China 1902 – Naturalization Convention – with Haiti 1903 – Hay–Herrán Treaty – the U.S. attempt to acquire a lease on Panama from Colombia (not ratified by Colombia) 1903 – Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty – establishes the Panama Canal Zone 1905 – Treaty of Portsmouth – ends Russo-Japanese War; negotiated by Theodore Roosevelt 1905 – Taft–Katsura Agreement – Japan and U.S. agree on spheres of influence in Asia 1906 – Geneva Convention governing the sick and wounded at sea – treatment of wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea 1906 – Inter-American Convention Establishing the Status of Naturalized Citizens Who Again Take Up Residence in the Country of Their Origin 1907 – Gentlemen's Agreement – limiting Japanese immigration to the U.S. 1907 – Naturalization Convention – with Peru 1908 – Naturalization Convention – with Portugal 1908 – Naturalization Convention – with El Salvador 1908 – Naturalization Convention – with Honduras 1908 – Naturalization Convention – with Nicaragua 1908 – Naturalization Convention – with Uruguay 1909 – Boundary Waters Treaty – regulates water quantity and water quality along the boundary between Canada and the United States. 1911 – Naturalization Convention – with Costa Rica 1911 – North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 – first international treaty for wildlife preservation 1912 – International Opium Convention – first international drug control treaty 1916 – Treaty of the Danish West Indies – U.S. purchase of the Danish West Indies, renaming them the United States Virgin Islands 1916 – Migratory Bird Treaty – Environment treaty with the United Kingdom representing Canada, to protect birds which migrate between Canada and the U.S.[11] 1917 – Lansing–Ishii Agreement – trade treaty between the U.S. and Japan 1918 – Migratory Bird Treaty – Environment treaty with the United Kingdom representing Canada, to protect birds which migrate between Canada and the U.S. 1919 – Treaty of Saint-Germain – ends World War I between Allies and Austria (not ratified by U.S.) 1919 – Treaty of Versailles – ends World War I between Allies and Germany (not ratified by U.S.) 1920 – Treaty of Trianon – regulates the borders of Hungary (not ratified by U.S.) 1921 – U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty (1921) – separate World War I peace agreement between United States and Austria[12] 1921 – Treaty of Berlin – separate World War I peace agreement between United States and Germany 1921 – U.S.–Hungarian Peace Treaty (1921) – separate World War I peace agreement between United States and Hungary[13] 1922 – Washington Naval Treaty – limits the naval armaments race, supplement to restrict submarine warfare and ban chemical warfare was rejected by France. 1923 – Treaty of Lausanne – sets the boundaries of modern Turkey 1925 – Anglo-American Convention – American acceptance of the provisions of the Mandate for Palestine and supervision of British performance as mandatory of the Mandate for Palestine. 1925 – Hay-Quesada Treaty – America accepts Cuban ownership of Isle of Pines. Page 55 of 93

                   

1928 – Kellogg–Briand Pact – calls "for the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy" 1929 – Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War – establishes rules for the treatment of prisoners of war 1930 – London Naval Treaty – regulates submarine warfare and shipbuilding 1930 – Convention Between the United States and Great Britain – Definitely delimits the boundary between North Borneo (then a British protectorate) and the Philippine archipelago (then a U.S. Territory) 1934 – Treaty of Relations – agreements between United States and Cuba [14] s:United States – Cuban Agreements and Treaty of 1934 1937 – Treaty Defining Liability for Military Service, etc. – with Lithuania 1941 – Atlantic Charter – World War II allied agreement (not clear if this is a treaty or, if so, whether ratified) 1943 - Treaty for Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China - relinquished previous U.S. rights to extraterritoriality in China 1944 – Bretton Woods Agreement – establishes the rules for commercial and financial relations among the major industrial states 1945 – Potsdam Agreement – World War II allied agreement (not clear if this is a treaty or, if so, whether ratified) 1945 – UN Charter – establishes the United Nations 1946 – Bermuda Agreement – bilateral treaty on Civil Aviation between U.S. and United Kingdom 1946 – Treaty of Manila (1946) – United States recognizes independence of the Republic of the Philippines 1947 – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – establishes rules for international trade 1947 – Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 – establishes peace in Europe after World War II 1947 – Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) – Western Hemisphere mutual defense 1947 – Convention on International Civil Aviation AKA Chicago Convention – establishes International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 1949 – North Atlantic Treaty (Treaty of Washington) – establishes NATO mutual defense organization 1949 – Fourth Geneva Convention – establishes rules for the protection of civilians during times of war 1949 – Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China – establishes amiable relations between the U.S. and China.

1950–1999                     

1951 – Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide – (with U.S. qualifications) 1951 – Treaty of San Francisco – a peace treaty between the Allied powers and Japan; ends the Pacific conflict of World War II 1951 – Mutual Defense Treaty – alliance between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America 1951 – Treaty of Security between the United States and Japan (updated 1960) 1952 – ANZUS Treaty – mutual defense alliance between Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. 1953 – Mutual Defense Treaty – Created an alliance with South Korea, and established the basis of South Korean adherence with U.S. Government consulations on North Korean policy 1954 – U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement 1954 – Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty – creates SEATO mutual defense organization 1954 – Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty 1955 – Central Treaty Organization AKA CENTO, the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO), Baghdad Pact – creates CENTO mutual defense organization 1955 – The Open Skies Treaty – allow access to other nations' military activities by means of aerial surveillance flights 1956 – Dutch-American Friendship Treaty 1957 – International Atomic Energy Treaty (US PL 85-177) 1958 – 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement – with United Kingdom 1960 – Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan – mutual defense treaty with Japan 1961 – Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (US PL 87-297) 1961 – Antarctic Treaty – governs international relations in Antarctica 1961 – Columbia River Treaty (ratified in 1964) – with Canada to manage water in the Columbia River valley 1961 – Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 – Alliance for Progress 1961 – Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs Page 56 of 93

                                              

1962 – Nassau Agreement – defense treaty with United Kingdom 1963 – Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 – Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage 1963 – Partial Test Ban Treaty 1966 – Treaty of Amity and Economic Relations (Thailand–United States) – commercial treaty with the Kingdom of Thailand 1966 - International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1967 – Outer Space Treaty 1968 – Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1969 – Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1970 – Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 1970 – Boundary Treaty of 1970 – settles U.S. – Mexico border on Rio Grande 1971 – Geneva Phonograms Convention 1971 – Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1972 – Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty AKA ABM Treaty (U.S. withdrew in 2002) 1972 – SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) 1972 – Biological Weapons Convention 1972 – Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) (implemented by U.S., but not signed) 1972 – Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement – regulates water quality along the U.S.-Canadian border 1973 – Paris Peace Accords – with North Vietnam ending the Vietnam War 1974 – Threshold Test Ban Treaty 1977 – Torrijos-Carter Treaties – transfer of Panama Canal to Panama 1978 – Camp David Accords – between Israel and Egypt; negotiated and signed in U.S. 1978 – Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1978) – regulates water quality along the U.S.-Canadian border 1979 – SALT II (not ratified by U.S.) 1985 – Plaza Accord – G-5 agreed to devalue the US dollar in relation to the Japanese yen and German Deutsche Mark by intervening in currency markets 1986 – Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or Between International Organizations 1988 – Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) – with U.S. and USSR 1988 – United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 1988 – United Nations Convention Against Torture 1989 – Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer 1990 – Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany – final World War II peace with Germany and Allies 1991 – Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe – Signed by all 16 NATO members and Warsaw Pact nations; ratified by all 16 NATO states, the eight successor states to the USSR that have territory in Europe, and the six former Warsaw Pact nations 1991 – START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) – with US and USSR 1992 – International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ratified with qualifications by U.S. Senate) 1992 – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1993 – Oslo Accords – between PLO and Israel; negotiated with U.S. involvement 1993 – Chemical Weapons Convention 1993 – START II (ratified by U.S. and Russia) 1994 – North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 1994 – Kremlin accords – US and USSR missile and nuclear weapons control 1994 – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea AKA Law of the Sea, LOS (not ratified by U.S.) 1994 – Colorado river dispute – with Mexico on water quality and quantity 1995 – Dayton Agreement – ends war and determines the future of Bosnia and Herzegovina; negotiated and signed in U.S. 1995 – General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 1996 – WIPO Copyright Treaty – protects computer programs and databases 1996 – WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty 1996 – Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (signed but not ratified by U.S.) Page 57 of 93

 

1997 – Worldwide Chemical Weapons Convention 1998 – Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court ("unsigned" by the U.S.)

2000–Current       

2000 – Patents Law Treaty (PLT) – (not ratified by U.S.) 2001 – Convention on Cybercrime – a highly controversial proposal (U.S. Senate ratified August 2006 [15]) 2002 – SORT (Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty) AKA Moscow Treaty – limits the nuclear arsenals of Russia and the U.S. 2004 – International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture AKA "International Seed Treaty" – to assure farmers' access to seeds of the world's food security crops (not ratified by U.S.) 2005 – Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement 2010 – New START (The New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) U.S./Russia Treaty – limits the nuclear arsenal capabilities of Russia and the U.S. while allowing for inspection. 2013 – UN Arms Treaty (U.S./U.N. Treaty) – regulates the international arms trade (not ratified by U.S.)

Pending    

Free Trade Area of the Americas Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT) WIPO Protection of Broadcasting Organizations Free trade agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Korea (KORUS FTA)

U.S.–Native American treaties These are treaties between the U.S. and Native American governments.

1776–1799 Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

September Treaty of Fort 17 Pitt

Treaty with the Delaware

7 Stat. 13

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

Treaty with the Six Nations

7 Stat. 15

Treaty of Fort McIntosh

Treaty with the Wyandot, etc.

7 Stat. 16

November 28

Treaty of Hopewell

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 18

1786 January 3

Treaty of Hopewell

Treaty with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 21

Choctaw

1786 January 10

Treaty of Hopewell

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 24

Chickasaw

Treaty with the

7 Stat. 26

Shawnee

Year

1778

1784

Date

October 22

1785 January 21

1785

1786 January 31 Treaty of Fort

Tribe(s)

Lenape

1, 2

Six Nations (Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Onondaga) Wyandot, Lenape, Ojibwe, Odawa

Cherokee

Page 58 of 93

Finney

Shawnee

September Ordinance of 3 Congress

Moravian Indian Grants

v34 p 485487

1789 January 9

Treaty of Fort Harmar

Treaty with the Wyandot, etc.

7 Stat. 28

Wyandot, Lenape, Council of Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi), Sauk

1789 January 9

Treaty of Fort Harmar

Treaty with the Six Nations

7 Stat. 33

Six Nations (Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Onondaga)

1790 August 7

Treaty of New Treaty with the Creek 7 Stat. 35 York

1788

1791 March 3

Act of Congress

1791

July 2

Treaty of Holston

1792

February 17

1792 April 23

1794

June 26

4, 5, 6

1 Stat. 221 Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 39

Additional article to the Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 42

Philadelphia Agreement

Agreement with the Five Nations of Indians

Treaty of Holston

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 43

Treaty with the Six Nations

7 Stat. 44

Christian Indians

Creek

Piankeshaw, Kaskaskia

Cherokee

Five Nations (Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Onondaga)

Cherokee

1794

November Treaty of 11 Canandaigua

1794

December 2

Treaty of Oneida

Treaty with the Oneida, etc.

7 Stat. 47

1795 August 3

Treaty of Greenville

Treaty with the Wyandot, etc.

11, 12, 13, 14, Wyandot, Lenape, Shawnee, Council of 15, 16, 17, 18, Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, 7 Stat. 49 19, 20, 21, 22, Potawatomi), Sauk, Miami, Eel River, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 Wea, Kickapoo, Piankeshaw, Kaskaskia

1796

May 31

1796

June 29

Treaty of New Treaty with the Seven 7 Stat. 55 York Nations of Canada

Treaty of Colerain

1797 March 29

Treaty of Albany

1797 September

Genesee

Treaty with the Creeks

9, 10

Five Nations (Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Onondaga)

7 Stat. 56

7 Stat. 601

Seven Nations of Canada (Akwesasne Mohawk, Kahnawake Mohawk, Anishinaabeg (Algonquin and Nipissing) and Mohawk of Oka, Odanak Abenaki, Becancour Abenaki, Jeune-Lorette Wyandot, Oswegatchie Onondaga) Creek

Relinquishment by the 7 Stat. 61 Mohawks Agreement with the

Six Nations (Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Onondaga)

Mohawk 29, 30, 31, 32,

Seneca Page 59 of 93

1798

Agreement

Seneca

June 1

Ratified Treaty Number 28

Convention Between the State of New York and the Oneida Indians

Treaty of Tellico

Treaty with the Cherokee

1798 October 2

33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41

Oneida

7 Stat. 62

Cherokee

1800â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1809

Year

Date

1801 October 24

Land Cession Statutes Reference (Royce Area)

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

Treaty of Chickasaw Bluffs

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 65

Tribe(s)

Chickasaw

1801

December 17

Treaty of Fort Adams

Treaty with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 66

Choctaw

1802

June 16

Treaty of Fort Wilkinson

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 68

Creek

1802

June 30

Treaty of Buffalo Creek

Indenture with the Senecas

7 Stat. 70

Seneca

1802

June 30

Treaty of Buffalo Creek

Treaty with the Seneca

7 Stat. 72

Treaty of Fort Confederation

Provisional Convention with the Choctaws

7 Stat. 73

1802 October 17

Seneca

Choctaw Lenape, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Miami, Eel River, Wea, Kickapoo, Piankeshaw, Kaskaskia

Treaty of Fort Wayne

Treaty with the Delawares, etc.

7 Stat. 74

1803 August 7

Treaty of Vincennes

Relinquishment of land to the United States by the Eel-Rivers, Wyandots, Piankeshaws, Kaskaskias, and Kickapoos, Treaty with the Eel River, etc.

7 Stat. 77

Eel River, Wyandot, Piankeshaw, Kaskaskia, Kickapoo

1803 August 13

Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty with the Kaskaskia

7 Stat. 78

Kaskaskia

1803 August 31

Treaty of Hoe Buckintoopa

Treaty with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 80

1803

June 7

Choctaw

Page 60 of 93

1804 August 18

Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty with the Delawares

7 Stat. 81

1804 August 27

Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty with the Piankeshaw

7 Stat. 83

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 228

Cherokee

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 84

50, 51

Sac and Fox

1804 October 24 Treaty of Tellico

Lenape

Piankeshaw

November 3

Treaty of St. Louis

1805

July 4

Treaty of Fort Industry

Treaty with the Wyandot, etc.

7 Stat. 87

53, 54

Wyandot, Odawa, Ojibwe, Munsee, Lenape, Shawnee, Potawatomi

1805

July 23

Treaty of Chickasaw County

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 89

Chickasaw

Treaty of Grouseland

Treaty with the Delawares, etc.

7 Stat. 91

Lenape, Potawatomi, Miami, Eel River, Wea

1804

1805 August 21

1805

September Pike's Purchase 23

Treaty with the Sioux

Sioux

1805 October 25 Treaty of Tellico

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 93

Cherokee

1805 October 27 Treaty of Tellico

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 95

58, 59

Cherokee

Convention with the Creeks

7 Stat. 96

Creek

Treaty with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 98

61, 62

Choctaw

Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty with the Piankashaw

7 Stat. 100

Piankeshaw

1806 January 7

Treaty of Washington

Convention with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 101

64, 65

Cherokee

1807 March 3

Act of Congress

7 Stat. 448

Treaty of Chickasaw Old Fields

Elucidation of the convention with the 7 Stat. 103 Cherokees of January 7, 1806

1805

November 14

Treaty of Washington

1805

November Treaty of Mount 16 Dexter

1805

December 30

1807

September 11

1807

November Treaty of Detroit 17

1808

November 10

Treaty of Fort Clark

Treaty with the Osage

1808

November 25

Treaty of Brownstown

Treaty with the Chippewa, etc.

Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.

7 Stat. 105

Lenape

Cherokee

7 Stat. 107 67, 68, 69

7 Stat. 112

Odawa, Ojibwe, Wyandot, Potawatomi Osage Council of Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi), Wyandot, Page 61 of 93

Shawnee 1809

February 28

Act of Congress

2 Stat. 527

Alabama

1809

February 28

Act of Congress

2 Stat. 527

Wyandot

1809

September 30

Treaty of Fort Wayne

September 30

Treaty of Fort Wayne, Addendum

1809

1809 October 26

1809

December 9

Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty with the Delawares, etc.

7 Stat. 113 71, 72, 73

Supplementary Treaty with the Miami, etc., Separate article with the Miamies 7 Stat. 115 and Eel-Rivers, forming part of the treaty of September 30, 1809 Convention with the Wea

Treaty with the Kickapoo

Miami, Eel River

7 Stat. 116

7 Stat. 117

Lenape, Potawatomi, Miami, Eel River

Wea

Kickapoo

1810â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1819 Alternative Treaty Name

Year

Date

Treaty Name

1814

July 22

Treaty of Greenville

Treaty with the Wyandot, 7 Stat. 118 etc.

Treaty of Fort Jackson

Treaty with the Creeks, Articles of agreement and 7 Stat. 120 capitualtion with the Creeks

1814 August 9

Statutes

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Tribe(s)

Wyandot, Lenape, Shawnee, Seneca, Miami

Creek

1815

July 18

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 123

Potawatomi

1815

July 18

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Piankashaw

7 Stat. 124

Piankeshaw

1815

July 19

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Teton

7 Stat. 125

Lakota

1815

July 19

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Sioux of 7 Stat. 126 the Lakes

Mdewakantonwan Dakota

1815

July 19

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Sioux of 7 Stat. 127 St. Peter's River

Wahpekute Dakota, Wahpetonwan Dakota

1815

July 19

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Yankton 7 Stat. 128 Sioux

Ihanktonwan Dakota

Page 62 of 93

1815

July 20

Treaty of Portage des Sioux

Treaty with the Omaha

7 Stat. 129

Omaha

September Treaty of Portage Treaty with the Kickapoo 7 Stat. 130 2 des Sioux

September 1815 8

Treaty of Springwells

Kickapoo Wyandot, Lenape, Seneca, Shawnee, Miami, Council of Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi)

Treaty with the Wyandot, 7 Stat. 131 etc.

1815

September Treaty of Portage 12 des Sioux

Treaty with the Osage

7 Stat. 133

Osage

1815

September Treaty of Portage 13 des Sioux

Treaty with the Sauk

7 Stat. 134

Sac

1815

September Treaty of Portage 14 des Sioux

Treaty with the Foxes

7 Stat. 135

Fox

1815

September Treaty of Portage 16 des Sioux

Treaty with the Iowa

7 Stat. 136

Iowa

Treaty with the Kansa

7 Stat. 137

Kaw

1815 October 28

Treaty of St. Louis

1816 March 22

Treaty of Washington]

1816 March 22

Treaty of Washington

Convention with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 139

Cherokee

1816

May 13

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Sauk

7 Stat. 141

Sac

1816

June 1

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Sioux

7 Stat. 143

Wahpekute Dakota, Wahpetonwan Dakota, Wazikute Nakota

1816

June 3

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Winnebago 7 Stat. 144

Winnebago

1816

June 4

Treaty of Fort Harrison

Treaty with the Wea and 7 Stat. 145 Kickapoo

Wea, Kickapoo

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.

1816 August 24

Treaty with the Cherokee 7 Stat. 138

7 Stat. 146

Cherokee

77, 78, 78a

Council of Three Fires (Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi)

1816

September 14

Treaty of Chickasaw Council House

Treaty with the Cherokee 7 Stat. 148

Cherokee

1816

September 20

Treaty of Chickasaw Council House

Treaty with the Chickasaw 7 Stat. 150

80, 81

Chickasaw

Page 63 of 93

Treaty of 1816 October 24 Choctaw Trading Treaty with the Choctaw 7 Stat. 152 House 1817 March 30

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Menominee

Choctaw

7 Stat. 153

Menominee

1817

June 24

Treaty with the Oto

7 Stat. 154

Otoe, Missouri

1817

June 25

Treaty with the Ponca

7 Stat. 155

Ponca

1817

July 8

Treaty of Cherokee Agency

Treaty with the Cherokee 7 Stat. 156

83, 84, 85, 86

Treaty with the Wyandot, etc., Treaty of the Foot of 87, 88, 89, 90, 7 Stat. 160 the Rapids, Treaty of 91 Miami Rapids

September 1817 29

Treaty of Fort Meigs

1818 January 3

Vincennes Contract

Agreement with the Piankeshaw

1818 January 22

Treaty of Creek Agency

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 171

Cherokee

Wyandot, Seneca, Lenape, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Odawa, Ojibwe

Piankeshaw

92, 93

Creek

1818

June 18

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Grand Pawnee

7 Stat. 172

Chaui Pawnee

1818

June 19

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Noisy Pawnee

7 Stat. 173

Pawnee

1818

June 20

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Pawnee Republic

7 Stat. 174

Kitkehahki Pawnee

1818

June 22

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Pawnee Marhar

7 Stat. 175

Pawnee

1818 August 24

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Quapaw 7 Stat. 176

1818

September 17

Treaty of St. Mary's

Treaty with the Wyandot, 7 Stat. 178 etc.

1818

September 20

Treaty of St. Mary's

Treaty with the Wyandot 7 Stat. 180

95, 96

Wyandot

1818

September 21

Treaty of Edwardsville

Treaty with the Peoria, etc. 7 Stat. 181

96a

Peoria, Kaskaskia, Michigamea, Cahokia, Tamaroa

1818

September 25

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Osage

7 Stat. 183

Osage

1818 October 2

Treaty of St.

Treaty with the

7 Stat. 185

Potawatomi

Quapaw Wyandot, Seneca, Shawnee, Odawa

Page 64 of 93

Mary's

Potawatomi

1818 October 2

Treaty of St. Mary's

Treaty with the Wea

1818 October 3

Treaty of St. Mary's

1818 October 6

Treaty of St. Mary's

1818 October 19

Treaty of Old Town

7 Stat. 186

Wea

Treaty with the Delawares 7 Stat. 188

Treaty with the Miami

Lenape

7 Stat. 189

Miami

Treaty with the Chickasaw 7 Stat. 192

100

Chickasaw

1819

February 27

Treaty of Washington

101, 102, 103, Treaty with the Cherokee 7 Stat. 195 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109

Cherokee

1819

July 30

Treaty of Edwardsville

Treaty with the Kickapoo 7 Stat. 200

110

Kickapoo

Treaty of Fort Harrison

Treaty with the Kickapoo 7 Stat. 202

110

Kickapoo

Treaty of Saginaw

Treaty with the Chippewa 7 Stat. 203

111

Ojibwe

1819 August 30

1819

September 24

1820â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1829

Year

Date

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

1820

June 16

Treaty of Sault Ste. Marie

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 206

112

Ojibwe

1820

July 6

Treaty of L'Arbor Croche and Michilimackinac

Treaty with the Ottawa and Chippewa 7 Stat. 207

113

Odawa, Ojibwe

1820

July 19

Treaty of St. Louis

1820 August 11 Treaty of Vincennes

1820

September Treaty of Vincennes 5

Treaty with the Kickapoo

7 Stat. 208

Treaty with the Wea

7 Stat. 209

Treaty with the Kickapoo of the Vermilion, Convention with the Kickapoo

7 Stat. 210

Tribe(s)

Kickapoo 114

Wea

Kickapoo

October 18

Treaty of Doak's Stand

Treaty with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 210

115

Choctaw

1821 January 8

Treaty of Indian

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 215

116

Creek

1820

Page 65 of 93

Springs Treaty with the Creeks, Articles of agreement with the Creeks

7 Stat. 217

1821 August 29 Treaty of Chicago

Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.

7 Stat. 218

1822 August 31 Treaty of Fort Clark

Treaty with the Osage

7 Stat. 222

Great and Little Osage

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 223

Sac and Fox

Moravian Indian Grants

3 Stat. 749

1821 January 8

1822

Treaty of Mineral Spring

September Treaty of St. Louis 3

1823 March 3

Act of Congress

Creek

117

4, 5, 6

Council of Three Fires (Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi)

Christian Munsee

1823

September Moscow Agreement 3

Agreement with the Seneca

1823

September Treaty of Moultrie 18 Creek

Treaty with the Florida Tribes of Indians

7 Stat. 224

118, 119

Seminole

Act of Congress

Moravian Indian Grants

4 Stat. 57

4, 5, 6

Christian Munsee

1824 August 4

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 229

120

Sac and Fox

1824 August 4

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Iowa

7 Stat. 231

Treaty of Harrington's

Treaty with the Quapaw

7 Stat. 232

121

Quapaw

Treaty of Washington City

Convention with the Choctaw

7 Stat. 234

122

Choctaw

1824

May 26

November 15

1825 January 20

Seneca

Iowa

1825

February 12

Treaty of Indian Springs

Convention with the Creeks

7 Stat. 237

1825

June 2

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Osage

7 Stat. 240

123

Great and Little Osage

1825

June 3

Treaty of St. Louis

Treaty with the Kansa

7 Stat. 244

124

Kansa

1825

June 9

Treaty of White Paint Creek

Treaty with the Ponca

7 Stat. 247

Ponca

1825

June 22

Treaty of Fort Lookout

Treaty with the Teton, etc., Sioux

7 Stat. 250

Teton (Lakota), Yankton-Yanktonai (Nakota)

1825

June 29

Broken Arrow Agreement

Agreement with the Creeks, Appendix

1825

July 5

Treaty of Teton River

Treaty with the Sioune and Oglala Tribes

7 Stat. 252

Oglala Sioux

1825

July 6

Treaty of Teton

Treaty with the Cheyenne Tribe

7 Stat. 255

Cheyenne

Creek

Page 66 of 93

River Treaty with the Hunkpapa Band of the 7 Stat. 257 Sioux Tribe

1825

July 16

Treaty of Arikara

1825

July 18

Treaty of Arikara

Treaty with the Arikara Tribe

7 Stat. 259

Arikara

1825

July 30

Treaty of Mandan

Treaty with the Belantse-Etoa or Minitaree Tribe

7 Stat. 261

Hidatsa

1825

July 30

Treaty of Mandan

Treaty with the Mandan Tribe

7 Stat. 264

Mandan

1825 August 4

Treaty of Mandan

Treaty with the Crow Tribe

7 Stat. 266

Crow

1825 August 10

Treaty of Council Treaty with the Great and Little Osage 7 Stat. 268 Grove

1825 August 16

1825 August 19

Treaty of Sora Kansas Creek

Treaty with the Kansa

Hunkpapa

Great and Little Osage

7 Stat. 270

Kansa

Treaty of Prairie du Chien

Treaty with the Sioux, etc.

7 Stat. 272

Sioux, Ojibwe, Sac and Fox, Menomini, Ioway, Ho-chunk, and Council of Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi)

1825

September 26

Treaty of Fort Atkinson

Treaty with the Oto and Missouri Tribe

7 Stat. 277

Oto, Missouri

1825

September 30

Treaty of Fort Atkinson

Treaty with the Pawnee Tribe

7 Stat. 279

Pawnee

1825 October 6

Treaty of Fort Atkinson

Treaty with the Omaha Tribe

7 Stat. 282

Omaha

Convention with the Shawnee

7 Stat. 284

125, 126

Shawnee

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 286

127, 128, 129, 130, 131

Creek

1825

November Treaty of St. Louis 7

1826 January 24

Treaty of Washington

1826 March 31

Supplement to the Treaty of Washington

1826 August 5

Treaty of Fond du Lac

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 290

Supplementary article to the Treaty 7 Stat. 289 with the Creeks of January 24, 1826

1826

October 16

Treaty of Mississinwas

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 295

1826

October 23

Treaty of Mississinwas

Treaty with the Miami

7 Stat. 300

Treaty with the Chippewa, etc.

7 Stat. 303

1827 August 11 Treaty of Butte des

Creek

Ojibwe

132, 133

Potawatomi

Miami 134

Ojibwe, Menomini, HoPage 67 of 93

Morts 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140

Potawatomi

Articles of agreement with the Creeks 7 Stat. 307

141

Creek

Treaty of Wyandot

Treaty with the Eel River, Treaty with the Thorntown Party of the Miami 7 Stat. 309 Indians, Treaty with the Miami

142

Eel River

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Western Cherokee; Treaty with the Cherokees West of the 7 Stat. 311 Mississippi River; Convention with the Cherokees

143, 144

Cherokee

Treaty of Green Bay

Treaty with the Winnebago, etc.; Treaty with the Winnebago Tribe and the United Tribes of Pottawatomie, Chippewa and Ottawa; Articles of 7 Stat. 315 agreement with the Winnebagoes, Pottawatimies, Chippewas, and Ottawas

1827

September Treaty of St. Joseph 19

1827

November 15

Treaty of Creek Agency

1828

February 11

May 6

1828

1828 August 25

chunk

7 Stat. 305

Ho-Chunk, Council of Three Fires (Potawatomi, Ojibwe, Odawa)

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 317 7 Stat. 603

145, 146

Potawatomi

Treaty of Prairie du Chien

Treaty with the Chippewa, etc., Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien

7 Stat. 320 7 Stat. 604

147, 148

Council of Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi)

1829 August 1

Treaty of Prairie du Chien

Third Treaty of Prairie du Chien, Treaty with the Winnebago

7 Stat. 323

149

Ho-Chunk

1829 August 3

Treaty of Little Sandusky

Treaty with the Delawares; Articles of 7 Stat. 326 agreement with the Delawares

150

Lenape

September 1829 24

Treaty of James Fork

Supplementary article to the Treaty of St. Mary's; Supplementary articles of 7 Stat. 327 agreement with the Delawares of October 3, 1818

150a

Lenape

1828

1829

September Treaty of St. Joseph 20

Treaty with the Potawatomi

July 29

1830â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1839 This section requires expansion. (September 2009)

Year

Date

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Tribe(s)

Page 68 of 93

1830

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes, etc., Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chein

7 Stat. 328

September Treaty of Dancing Treaty with the Choctaw 27 Rabbit Creek

7 Stat. 333

July 15

Treaty of Prairie du Chien

1830 August 31 Treaty of Franklin Treaty with the Chickasaw

N/A

September Supplement to the Supplemental Treaty with 1 Treaty of Franklin the Chickasaw

N/A

1830

1831 February 8

151

Sac and Fox, the Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Wahpeton and Sisiton Sioux, Omaha, Ioway, Otoe and Missouria Choctaw

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Menominee

7 Stat. 342

Menomini

1831

February 17

Supplement to the Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Menominee

7 Stat. 346

Menomini

1831

February 28

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Seneca

7 Stat. 348

Seneca nation

1831

July 20

Treaty of Lewistown

Treaty with the Seneca, etc.

7 Stat. 351

Seneca nation, Shawnee

1831 August 8

Treaty of Wapakoneta

Treaty with the Shawnee

7 Stat. 355

Shawnee

1831 August 30

Treaty of Miami Bay

Treaty with the Ottawa

7 Stat. 359

Ottawa

Treaty with the Wyandot

7 Stat. 364

Wyandot

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 366

Creek

7 Stat. 368

Seminole

1832 January 19 1832 March 24 Treaty of Cusseta

Treaty of Payne's Treaty with the Seminole Landing

1832

May 9

1832

September 15

Treaty with the Winnebago

7 Stat. 370

1832

September 21

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 374

1832 October 11

Treaty with the Appalachicola Band

7 Stat. 377

1832 October 20

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 378

1832 October 20

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 381

1832 October 22

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 388

1832 October 24

Treaty with the Kickapoo

7 Stat. 391

Page 69 of 93

1832 October 26

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 394

1832 October 26

Treaty with the Shawnee, etc.

7 Stat. 397

1832 October 27

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 399

1832 October 27

Treaty with the Kaskaskia, etc.

7 Stat. 403

1832 October 27

Treaty with the Menominee

7 Stat. 405

1832 October 29

Treaty with the Piankashaw and Wea

7 Stat. 410

1832

December 29

Treaty with the Seneca and Shawnee

7 Stat. 411

1833

February 14

Treaty with the Western Cherokee

7 Stat. 414

1833

February 14

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 417

1833

February 18

Treaty with the Ottawa

7 Stat. 420

1833 March 28

Treaty with the Seminole

7 Stat. 423

1833

May 13

Treaty with the Quapaw

7 Stat. 424

1833

June 18

Treaty with the Appalachicola Band

7 Stat. 427

1833

September 21

Treaty with the Oto and Missouri

7 Stat. 429

1833

September Treaty with the Chippewa, Treaty of Chicago 26 etc.

1833 October 9 1834

May 24

1834 October 23

7 Stat. 431

Treaty with the Pawnee

7 Stat. 448

Treaty with the Chickasaw

7 Stat. 450

Treaty with the Miami

7 Stat. 458

1834

December 4

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 467

1834

December 10

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 467

1834

December 16

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 468

Ottawa, Ojibwe and Potawatomi

Page 70 of 93

1834

December 17

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 469

1835

July 1

Treaty with the Caddo

7 Stat. 470

Treaty with the Comanche, etc.

7 Stat. 474

Treaty of New Echota

Treaty with the Cherokee

7 Stat. 478

Treaty of Washington

Agreement with the Cherokee

N/A

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 490

Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.

7 Stat. 491

1836 March 29

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 498

1836 April 11

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 499

1836 April 22

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 500

1836 April 22

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 501

1836 April 23

Treaty with the Wyandot

7 Stat. 502

1836

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 503

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 505

1835 August 24

1835

December 29

1835 March 14

1836 March 26

1836 March 28

May 9

1836 August 5

Treaty of Washington

1836

September 3

Treaty with the Menominee

7 Stat. 506

1836

September 10

Treaty with the Sioux

7 Stat. 510

1836

September 17

Treaty with the Iowa, etc.

7 Stat. 511

1836

September 20

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 513

1836

September 22

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 514

1836

September 23

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 515

Cherokee

Ottawa and Ojibwe

Page 71 of 93

1836

September 27

Treaty with the Sauk and Fox Tribe

7 Stat. 516

1836

September 28

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 517

1836

September 28

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 520

1836 October 15

Treaty with the Oto, etc.

7 Stat. 524

Treaty with the Sioux

7 Stat. 527

1836

November 30

1837 January 14 Treaty of Detroit Treaty with the Chippewa 1837 January 17

Treaty of Doaksville

7 Stat. 528

Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw

11 Stat. 573

1837

February 11

Treaty with the Potawatomi

7 Stat. 532

1837

May 26

Treaty with the Kiowa, etc.

7 Stat. 533

1837

July 29

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 536

1837

September 29

Treaty with the Sioux

7 Stat. 538

1837 October 21

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 540

1837 October 21

Treaty with the Yankton Sioux

7 Stat. 542

1837 October 21

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 543

1837

November 1

Treaty with the Winnebago

7 Stat. 544

1837

November 23

Treaty with the Iowa

7 Stat. 547

1837

December 20

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 547

1838 January 15

Treaty of Buffalo Treaty with the New York Creek Indians

7 Stat. 550

1838 January 23 Treaty of Saginaw Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 565

1838 February 3

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Oneida

7 Stat. 566

1838 October 19

Treaty of Great

Treaty with the Iowa

7 Stat. 568

Seneca, Mohwak, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Tuscarora

Page 72 of 93

Nemowhaw 1838

November Treaty of Wabash 6 Forks

Treaty with the Miami

7 Stat. 569

1838

November 23

Treaty of Fort Gibson

Treaty with the Creeks

7 Stat. 574

1839 January 11

Treaty of Fort Gibson

Treaty with the Osage

7 Stat. 576

1839 February 7

1839

September 3

Supplement to the Treaty with the Chippewa Treaty of Detroit Treaty of Stockbridge

Treaty with the Stockbridge and Munsee

7 Stat. 578 7 Stat. 580 11 Stat. 577

1840â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1849

Year

Date

1840

November 28

Treaty Name

1842 1842

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

Treaty with the Miami

7 Stat. 582

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Tribe(s)

Treaty with the Wyandot May 20

1842 October 4

Treaty of Buffalo Creek

Treaty with the Seneca

7 Stat. 586

Seneca

Treaty of La Pointe

Treaty with the Chippewa

7 Stat. 591

Ojibwe

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

7 Stat. 596

1842 October 11 1843

Agreement with the Delawares and Wyandot

1845

Treaty with the Creeks and Seminole

1846

Treaty with the Kansa Tribe

1846

Treaty with the Comanche, Aionai, Anadarko, Caddo, etc.

1846

Treaty with the Potawatomi Nation

1846

Treaty with the Cherokee

1846

Treaty with the Winnebago

1846 November Bear Spring Treaty

Treaty with the Navajo

Navajo people Page 73 of 93

21 1847

Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi and Lake Superior

1847

Treaty with the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians

1848

August 6

Treaty of Fort Childs

1848 October 18 1848

November 24

1849 1849

Treaty with the Pawnee – Grand, Loups, 9 Stat. 949 Republicans, etc.

Pawnee

Treaty with the Menominee

9 Stat. 952

Menominee

Treaty with the Stockbridge Tribe

9 Stat. 955

Stockbridge Indians (Mahican)

9 Stat. 974

Ute

Treaty with the Navaho December 30

Treaty of Albuquerque

Treaty with the Utah

1850–1859

Year

Date

Treaty Name

1850 1851

Tribe(s)

Treaty with the Wyandot July 23

Treaty of Traverse Treaty with the Siouxdes Sioux Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands

1851 August 5 Treaty of Mendota

1851

Alternative Treaty Name

Land Cession Statutes Reference (Royce Area)

September 17

Treaty of Fort Laramie

Sioux

Treaty with the SiouxMdewakanton and Wahpakoota Bands

Sioux

Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, etc.

Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Crow, Shoshone, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara

1852

Treaty with the Chickasaw

1852

Treaty with the Apache

1853

Treaty with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Apache

1853

Agreement with the Rogue River (not ratified)

1853

Treaty with the Rogue River, 1853

Page 74 of 93

1853

Treaty with the Umpquaâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cow Creek Band

1854

Treaty with the Oto and Missouri

1854

Treaty with the Omaha

1854

Treaty with the Delawares

1854

Treaty with the Shawnee

1854

Treaty with the Menominee

1854

Treaty with the Iowa

1854

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes of Missouri

1854

Treaty with the Kickapoo

1854

Treaty with the Kaskaskia, Peoria, etc.

1854

Treaty with the Miami

1854

Treaty with the Creeks

1854

September 30

Treaty of La Pointe (1854)

Treaty with the Chippewa

1854

Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw

1854

Treaty with the Rogue River, 1854

1854

Treaty with the Chasta, etc.

1854

Treaty of Calapooia Creek

1855

1855 January 22

1855

Treaty with the Umpqua and Kalapuya Treaty with the Confederated Oto and Missouri

1854

Ojibwe

Treaty of Medicine Creek

Treaty with the Nisqualli, Puyallup, etc.

Nisqually, Puyallup and Squaxin Island

Willamette Valley Treaty of 1855 Treaty with the Kalapuya, etc. Treaty of Dayton Treaty of Point Elliott

Treaty with the Dwamish, Suquamish, etc., Point Elliott Treaty

Duwamish, Suquamish, Snoqualmie, Snohomish, Lummi, Skagit, Swinomish

Treaty with the S'klallam Page 75 of 93

1855 January 31

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Wyandot

Wyandot

1855 January 31

Treaty of Neah Bay

Treaty with the Makah

Makah

1855

February 22

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Chippewa

Ojibwe (Mississippi and Pillager)

1855

February 27

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Winnebago

Ho-chunk

Treaties of Walla Walla

Treaty with the Wallawalla, Cayuse, etc.

Cayuse, Nez Perce, Umatilla, Walla Walla and Yakama

1855 1855

Treaty with the Yakima

1855

Treaty with the Nez Perces

1855

June 22

Treaty of Washington

Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw

1855

Treaty with the Tribes of Middle Oregon

1855

Treaty with the Quinaielt, etc.

1855

July 16

Treaty of Hellgate Treaty with the Flatheads, etc.

1855

Treaty with the Ottawa and Chippewa

1855

Treaty with the Chippewa of Sault Ste. Marie

1855

Treaty with the Chippewa of Saginaw, etc.

1855

Treaty with the Blackfeet

1855

Treaty with the Molala

1856

Treaty with the Stockbridge and Munsee

1856

Treaty with the Menominee

1856

Treaty with the Creeks, etc.

1857

Treaty with the Pawnee

1857

Treaty with the Seneca, Tonawanda Band

1858

Treaty with the Ponca

Choctaw and Chickasaw

Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai and Pend d'Oreilles

Page 76 of 93

1858

Treaty with the Yankton Sioux

1858

Treaty with the Sioux

1858

Treaty with the Sioux

1859

Treaty with the Winnebago

1859

Treaty with the Chippewa, etc.

1859

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

1859

Treaty with the Kansa Tribe

1860â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1869

Year

Date

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

1860

Treaty with the Delawares

1861

Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne

1861

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes, etc.

1861

Treaty with the Delawares

1861

Treaty with the Potawatomi

1862

Treaty with the Kansa Indians

1862

Treaty with the Ottawa of Blanchard's Fork and Roche de Boeuf

1862

Treaty with the Kickapoo

1863

Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi and the Pillager and Lake Winnibigoshish Bands

1863 June 9

Treaty with the Nez Perce

1863

Treaty with the Eastern Shoshoni

1863

Treaty with the Shoshoni-Northwestern Bands

1863

Treaty with the Western Shoshoni

1863

Treaty with the Chippewa-Red Lake and Pembina Bands

Statutes

14 Stat. 647

Land Cession Reference Tribe(s) (Royce Area)

Nez Perce

Page 77 of 93

1863

Treaty with the Utah-Tabeguache Band

1863

Treaty with the Shoshoni-Goship

1864

Treaty with the Chippewa—Red Lake and Pembina Bands

1864

Treaty with the Chippewa, Mississippi, and Pillager and Lake Winnibigoshish Bands

1864

Treaty with the Klamath, etc.

1864

Treaty with the Chippewa of Saginaw, Swan Creek, and Black River

1865

Treaty with the Omaha

1865

Treaty with the Winnebago

1865

Treaty with the Ponca

1865

Treaty with the Snake

1865

Treaty with the Osage

1865

Treaty with the Sioux—Miniconjou Band

1865

Treaty with the Sioux—Lower Brule Band

1865

Agreement with the Cherokee and Other Tribes in the Indian Territory

1865

Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho

1865

Treaty with the Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho

1865

Treaty with the Comanche and Kiowa

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Two-Kettle Band

1865

Treaty with the Blackfeet Sioux

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Sans Arc Band

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Hunkpapa Band

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Yanktonai Band

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Upper Yanktonai Band

1865

Treaty with the Sioux-Oglala Band

1865

Treaty with the Middle Oregon Tribes

1866

Treaty with the Seminole

1866

Treaty with the Potawatomi

1866

Treaty with the Chippewa—Bois Fort Band

Page 78 of 93

1866

Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw

1866

Treaty with the Creeks

1866

Treaty with the Delawares

1866

Agreement at Fort Berthold, Appendix

1866

Treaty with the Cherokee

1867

Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes

1867

Treaty with the Sioux—Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands

1867

Treaty with the Seneca, Mixed Seneca and Shawnee, Quapaw, etc.

1867

Treaty with the Potawatomi

1867

Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi

1867

October Medicine 21 Lodge Treaty

Treaty with the Kiowa and Comanche

1867

Treaty with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache

1867

Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho

1868

Treaty with the Ute

1868

Treaty with the Cherokee

1868 April 29

Treaty with the Sioux—Brule, Oglala, Miniconjou, Treaty of Fort Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans 15 Stat. 635 Laramie Arcs, and Santee—and Arapaho

1868

Treaty with the Crows

1868

Treaty with the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho

1868 June 1

Treaty of Fort Sumner

1868 1868

15 Stat. 581

Treaty with the Navaho; Navajo Treaty of 1868; Treaty of 1868; Treaty of Hwéeldi

15 Stat. 667

Navajo

15 Stat. 693

Nez Perce

Treaty with the Eastern Band Shoshoni and Bannock August 13

Treaty of Lapwai

Treaty with the Nez Perce

1870–1879 Treaty-making between various Native American governments and the United States officially concluded on March 3, 1871 with the passing of the United States Code Title 25, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Section 71 (25 U.S.C. § 71). Pre-existing treaties were grandfathered, and further agreements were made under domestic law.

Page 79 of 93

Year

Date

Treaty Name

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Tribe(s)

527, 528

San Pasqual and Pala Valley Mission Indians

1870 January 31

Executive Order

N/A

1870 March 30

Executive Order

N/A

1870 April 12

Executive Order

N/A

620, 621

Arikara, Gros Ventre, and Mandan

1870 April 12

Executive Order

N/A

529

Arikara, Gros Ventre, and Mandan

1870

July 15

Act of Congress

16 Stat. 359

650

Kickapoo of Texas and Mexico

1870

July 15

Act of Congress

16 Stat. 362

534

Great and Little Osage

1870

July 15

Act of Congress

16 Stat. 362

530

Great and Little Osage

1871 February 6

Act of Congress

16 Stat. 404

403

Stockbridge and Munsee

1871 March 3

Act of Congress

1871 March 3

Act of Congress

16 Stat. 569

650

Kickapoo of Texas and Mexico

1871 March 14

Executive Order

N/A

537

Paiute, Snake, Shoshoni

1871 March 27

Executive Order

N/A

534

Osage

1871

November 9

Executive Order

N/A

531

Southern Apache

1871

November 9

Executive Order

N/A

573, 603

Apache

1871

November 9

Executive Order

N/A

541

Apache

1871

November 9

Executive Order

N/A

582

Apache

United States Code Title 25, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Section 71

Round Valley Indian Reservation

16 Stat. 566

Page 80 of 93

1871 December Memorandum

Methow, Okanagan, Kootenay, Pend d'Oreille, Colville, North Spokane, San Poeil et al.

N/A

April 9

Executive Order

N/A

533

Methow, Okanagan, et al.

1872 April 23

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 55

566

Ute

1872

May 8

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 85

1872

May 23

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 159

1872

May 29

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 190

Lake Superior Chippewa

1872

May 29

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 190

Cheyenne and Arapaho

1872

June 1

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 213

256

Miami (Meshin-go-mesia's band)

1872

June 5

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 228

534

Great and Little Osage

1872

June 5

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 228

535

Kaw

1872

June 5

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 266

Flathead

1872

June 7

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 281

Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux

1872

June 10

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 381

Ottawa and Chippewa

1872

June 10

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 388

Ottawa of Blanchards Fork and Roche de Boeuf

1872

June 10

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 391

Omaha, Pawnee, Oto, Missouri, and Sac and Fox of the Missouri

1872

July 2

Executive Order

N/A

533, 536

Methow, Okanaga, et al.

1872

September 12

Executive Order

N/A

537, 638, 646

Paiute, Snake, and Shoshoni

1872

September 20

Agreement

538

Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands of Sioux

1872

Agreement with the Sisseton and Wahpeton Rev. Stat 1050 Bands of Sioux Indians

Kaw

506

Potawatomi and Absentee Shawnee

Page 81 of 93

September 26

Agreement

18 Stat. 291

539, 540

Shoshoni

1872 October 19

Agreement

N/A

540A

Wichita and affiliated bands

1872 October 26

Executive Order

N/A

1872

December 14

Executive Order

N/A

1872

December 14

Executive Order

N/A

Apache

1873 January 2

Executive Order

N/A

Makah

1873 January 9

Executive Order

N/A

607

Tule River, King's River, Owen's River, et al.

1873

February 14

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 456

538

Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux

1873

February 19

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 466

249

New York Indians

1873 March 1

Executive Order

N/A

337

Lac Courte Oreille Band of Chippewa

1873 March 3

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 539

542

Pembina Chippewa

1873 March 3

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 631

330

Miami

1873 March 3

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 633

543

Creek and Seminole

1873 March 3

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 626

544, 583

Round Valley Indian Reservation

1873 March 3

Act of Congress

17 Stat. 626

1873

April 8

Executive Order

N/A

576

Paiute, et al.

1873

April 8

Executive Order

N/A

583

Round Valley Indian Reservation

1873

May 2

Agreement

1873

May 29

Executive Order

1872

Amended Agreement with Certain Sioux Indians

Makah

541, 600

Crow

17 Stat. 456; 18 Stat. 167

N/A

Apache

Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands of Sioux

643, 644

Mescalero Apache

Page 82 of 93

1873

June 16

Executive Order

N/A

545

Nez Perce

1873

July 5

Executive Order

N/A

565, 574

Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, et al.

1873 August 5

Executive Order

N/A

546

Apache

1873 August 16

Agreement

N/A

557

Crow

1873

September 6

Executive Order

N/A

405

Niskwali, et al.

1873

September 9

Executive Order

N/A

349

Dwamish, et al.

1873

September 13

Agreement

N/A

566

Ute

1873 October 3

Executive Order

N/A

547, 607

Tule river, King's river, Owen's river, et al.

1873 October 21

Executive Order

N/A

548

Makah

1873

November 4

Executive Order

N/A

549

Mississippi Chippewa

1873

November 4

Executive Order

N/A

550

Mississippi Chippewa

1873

November 4

Executive Order

N/A

372, 551

Quinaielt, Quillehute, et al.

1873

November 8

Executive Order

N/A

552, 553

Coeur d'Alene, et al.

1873

November 22

Executive Order

N/A

554

Colorado River Indian Reservation

1873

November 22

Executive Order

N/A

555

Dwamish, et al.

1873

December 10

Executive Order

N/A

563

Jicarilla Apache

1873

December 23

Executive Order

N/A

351

Dwamish, et al.

1873

December 31

Executive Order

N/A

1874 January 31

Executive Order

N/A

Santee Sioux

557

Crow

Page 83 of 93

1874 February 2

Executive Order

N/A

643

Mescalero Apache

558, 576

Paiute, et al.

1874

February 12

Executive Order

N/A

1874

February 14

Executive Order

N/A

1874

February 25

Executive Order

N/A

559

Skokomish (S'klallam)

1874 March 19

Executive Order

N/A

560

Paiute

1874 March 23

Executive Order

N/A

561, 562

Paiute

1874 March 25

Executive Order

N/A

563

Apache (Jicarilla bands)

1874

April 9

Executive Order

N/A

564

Muckleshoot Indian Reservation

1874

April 9

Executive Order

N/A

588

Apache

1874 April 15

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 28

565

Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, River Crow

1874 April 29

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 36

566

Ute

1874

May 26

Executive Order

N/A

567, 568

Pillager Chippewa

1874

June 22

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 140

569

L'Anse and Lac Vieux Desert Ojibwe

1874

June 22

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 166

539

Shoshoni

1874

June 22

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 167

538

Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux

1874

June 22

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 170

570

Omaha

1874

June 22

Act of Congress

N/A

1874

June 23

Agreement

N/A

1874

June 23

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 272

Odawa and Ojibwe in Michigan

Kickapoo of Texas and Mexico 571

Eastern Shawnee Kaw

Page 84 of 93

1874

June 23

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 273

1874

June 23

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 273

1874

July 21

Executive Order

N/A

573

Apache

1874 August 19

Executive Order

N/A

574

Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, River Crow

1874

November 16

Executive Order

N/A

466, 554, 593

1874

November 24

Executive Order

N/A

531

Southern Apache

1874

December 15

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 291

539

Shoshoni

1875 January 11

Executive Order

N/A

614

Sioux

February 12

Executive Order

N/A

575

Shoshone, Bannock, Sheepeater

1875 March 3

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 445

576, 577

Paiute

1875 March 3

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 446

578, 579

Alsea Indian Reservation, Siletz Indian Reservation

1875 March 3

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 447

580

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians

1875 March 3

Act of Congress

18 Stat. 447

571

Modoc

1875 March 16

Executive Order

N/A

581

Sioux

1875 March 25

Executive Order

N/A

557

Crow (Judith Basin Indian Reservation)

1875 April 13

Executive Order

N/A

622, 623

Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, River Crow

1875 April 23

Executive Order

N/A

582

Apache

1875

May 15

Executive Order

N/A

589, 646

Paiute and Shoshoni

1875

May 18

Executive Order

N/A

583

Round Valley Indian Reservation

1875

572

Papago

New York Indians

Page 85 of 93

1875

May 20

Executive Order

N/A

614

Sioux

1875

June 10

Executive Order

N/A

545

Nez Perce

1875

June 23

Executive Order

N/A

584

Sioux

1875

July 3

Executive Order

N/A

577

Paiute

1875 October 20

Executive Order

N/A

1875 October 20

Executive Order

N/A

585

Crow

1875

November 22

Executive Order

N/A

586

Ute

1875

December 21

Executive Order

N/A

587, 588

Southern Apache

December 1875 27

Executive Order

Mescalero Apache

Missin Indians (Portrero [Rincon, Gapich, LaJolla], Cahuila, Capitan Grande, Santa Ysabel [Mesa Grande], Pala, Agua Caliente, Sycuan, Inaja, Cosmit)

N/A

1880â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Present

Alternative Treaty Name

Statutes

Land Cession Reference (Royce Area)

Tribe(s)

N/A

615

Navajo

Year

Date

Treaty Name

1880

January 6

Executive Order

1880 January 17

Executive Order

N/A

1880

March 6

Agreement

21 Stat. 199

616, 617

Ute

1880

March 6

Executive Order

N/A

618

Nez Perce (Moses' Band)

1880

March 16

Act of Congress

21 Stat. 68

Kaw

1880

May 14

Agreement

N/A

Crow

Mission Indians (Agua Caliente Indian Reservation, Santa Ysabel Indian Reservation)

Page 86 of 93

1880

May 14

Agreement

N/A

Shoshoni, Bannock, and Sheep-eater

1880

June 8

Executive Order

N/A

Havasupai

1880

June 12

Agreement

1880

June 15

Act of Congress

N/A

1880

July 13

Executive Order

N/A

620, 621

Arikara, Gros Ventre, and Mandan

1880

July 13

Executive Order

N/A

622, 623

Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, and River Crow

1880

July 13

Executive Order

N/A

613

Sioux (Drifting Goose's Band)

1880

July 23

Executive Order

N/A

1880

September 11

Agreement

N/A

616, 617

Ute

1880

September 21

Executive Order

N/A

624

Jicarilla Apache

1880

November 23

Executive Order

N/A

Havasupai

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 712

Mission Indians

Sac and Fox

Agreement with the Crows

1882â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 83

Agreement with the Sioux of Various Tribes

1883

Agreement with the Columbia and Colville

1891 January 12

N/A

619

Crow Ute

Malheur Indian Reservation

1891

February 13

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 749

1891

March 3

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1016

506

Citizen Band of Potawatomi

1891

March 3

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1022

525

Cheyenne and Arapaho

1891

March 3

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1027

553

Coeur d'Alene

1891

March 3

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1032

712, 713

Gros Ventre and Mandan

Page 87 of 93

1891

March 3

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1035

496

Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux

1891

March 13

Act of Congress

26 Stat. 1016

506

Absentee Shawnee

1891 October 16

Executive Order

N/A

400, 461

Hupa et al.

1892

June 17

Executive Order

N/A

716

Fort Berthold Indian Reservation

1892

June 17

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 52

400

Klamath River Indian Reservation

1892

July 1

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 62

717, 718

Colville Indian Reservation

1892

July 13

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 124

552

Coeur d'Alene

1892

July 13

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 139

625

Spokane

Agreement Between the Turtle Mountain Indians and the Commission

1892 October 22

McCumber Agreement

1892

November 21

Executive Order

N/A

655

Navajo

1892

November 21

Executive Order

N/A

719

Red Lake Band of Chippewa

1892

November 28

Executive Order

N/A

1893

February 20

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 469

720

White Mountain Apache

1893

March 3

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 557

650

Kickapoo

1893

March 3

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 640

289

Cherokee

1893

March 3

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 643

606

Tonkawa

1893

March 3

Act of Congress

27 Stat. 644

591

Pawnee

1893

April 12

Executive Order

N/A

Osette Indians

Executive

N/A

Hoh River Indians

1893 September

52nd-2ndEx.Doc.229

Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa

Yakima

Page 88 of 93

Order

June 6

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 86

370

Warm Springs

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 314

411

Yankton Sioux

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 320

400

Yakima

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 332

552

Coeur d'Alene

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 320

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 323

479

Alsea et al.

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 326

442

Nez Perce

1894 August 15

Act of Congress

28 Stat. 332

652

Yuma

1894

1902

1904

March 10

McLaughlin Agreement

Agreement Between the Red Lake Indians and the Commission

33 Stat. 46

April 21

Act of Congress

Turtle Mountain Chippewa Treaty; 10-cent Treaty; Agreement with the Turtle Mountain Band, amended and ratified

33 Stat. 194

Yakima

Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians

Page 89 of 93

Attachment B Missouri v. Holland 252 U.S. 416 (1920)

Page 90 of 93

Missouri v. Holland 252 U.S. 416 (1920) In Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416 (1920), the United States Supreme Court held that protection of a State's quasi-sovereign right to regulate the taking of game is a sufficient jurisdictional basis, apart from any pecuniary interest, for a bill by a State to enjoin enforcement of federal regulations over the subject alleged to be unconstitutional, and that the federal government's ability to make treaties is supreme over any state concerns about such treaties having abrogated any states' rights arising under the Tenth Amendment. The case revolved around the constitutionality of implementing the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. It is also notable for Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes' reference to the idea of a living constitution.

Facts Previously, Congress had passed laws regulating the hunting of migratory waterfowl on the basis that such birds naturally migrated across state and international borders freely, and hence the regulation of the harvest of such birds could not realistically be considered to be province solely of individual states or groups of states. However, several states objected to this theory and successfully sued to have the law declared unconstitutional, on the premise that the United States Constitution gave Congress no enumerated power to regulate migratory bird hunting, and hence the regulation of such hunting, if there was to be any, was the province of the states according to the Tenth Amendment. Congress, disgruntled with this ruling, then empowered the State Department to negotiate with the United Kingdom, which at the time still largely handled the foreign relations of Canada, a treaty pertaining to this issue. The treaty was subsequently ratified and came into force, and required the Federal Government to enact laws regulating the capturing, killing, or selling of protected migratory birds, an obligation that it fulfilled in the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. The state of Missouri then sued on the basis that the federal government had no authority to negotiate a treaty on this topic.

Judgment In an opinion by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., the Supreme Court held that protection of a State's quasi-sovereign right to regulate the taking of game is a sufficient jurisdictional basis, apart from any pecuniary interest, for a bill by that State to enjoin enforcement of federal regulations over the subject alleged to be unconstitutional. However, the Supreme Court held that the law at issue was in fact constitutional, noting that the treaties clause of the Constitution (Article VI, clause 2), sometimes known as the "supremacy clause", makes treaties the "supreme law of the land", a finding that trumps any state-level concerns with regard to the provisions of any treaty, and further implying that treaty provisions were not subject to questioning by the states under the process of judicial review. In the course of his judgment, Holmes made this remark on the nature of the constitution: Page 91 of 93

With regard to that we may add that when we are dealing with words that also are a constituent act, like the Constitution of the United States, we must realize that they have called into life a being the development of which could not have been foreseen completely by the most gifted of its begetters. It was enough for them to realize or to hope that they had created an organism; it has taken a century and has cost their successors much sweat and blood to prove that they created a nation. The case before us must be considered in the light of our whole experience and not merely in that of what was said a hundred years ago. The treaty in question does not contravene any prohibitory words to be found in the Constitution. The only question is whether [252 U.S. 416, 434] it is forbidden by some invisible radiation from the general terms of the Tenth Amendment. We must consider what this country has become in deciding what that amendment has reserved.

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