Staff & Management

The e-Advocate Quarterly Magazine Mark 10:42-45

Staff & Management

“Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential”

Vol. V, Issue XIX – Q-3 July | August| September 2019

The Advocacy Foundation

Staff and Management “Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential

1735 Market Street, Suite 3750 Philadelphia, PA 19102

| 100 Edgewood Avenue, Suite 1690 Atlanta, GA 30303

John C Johnson III, Esq. Founder & CEO

(855) ADVOC8.0 (855) 238-6280 § (215) 486-2120 www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org

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Biblical Authority Mark 10:42-45 (ESV) And Jesus called them to him and said to them, ―You know that those who are considered rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over them.

But it shall not be so among you.

But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be slave of all.

For even the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.‖

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Table of Contents International Coalition for Drug-Free Communities

______

Biblical Authority I.

Introduction

II.

The Nature of Managerial Work

III.

Modern Management Theories

IV. Human Resources V.

Organizational Psychology

VI. Group Dynamics VII. Innovation VIII. Change Management Attachments A. Model for Effective Servant Leadership B. Leadership Styles and Organizational Effectiveness C. Conflicts Survey

Copyright Š 2014 The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Introduction Management in business and organizations is the function that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively.

Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization to accomplish the goal.

Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.

Management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organizations.

Staff management is the management of the subordinates in an organization. In large organizations, many of these functions are performed by a specialist department such as Personnel or Human Resources, but all line managers are still required to supervise and administer the activities and well-being of the staff that report to them.

Staff managers include people who lead revenue consuming departments (such as accounting, customer service, human resources) which serve the line managers of the organization in an advisory or support capacity by providing them with information and advice. Staff managers usually do not make operating decisions.

Staff management may involve moving a workforce around and that uses Human Resources. Within staff management there is also line management, which involves the

hierarchy system of the organization.

Human Resources and Line Management are often aligned as they both involve the employees of an organization.

Views on the definition and scope of management include: 





Management is defined as the organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives  Fredmund Malik defines as Management is the transformation of resources into utility.  Management included as one of the factors of production along with machines, materials and money Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of a management as twofold: marketing and innovation.

Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue). Peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge.

Andreas Kaplan specifically defines European Management as a crosscultural, societal management approach based on interdisciplinary principles.

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

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Directors and managers should have the authority and responsibility to make decisions to direct an enterprise when given the authority As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing a firm's resources to achieve a policy's objectives The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies.

In large firms, the board of directors formulates the policy that the chief executive officer implements.

Theoretical Scope Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and the manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise.

This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism), implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.

As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur in both a legal as well as illegal enterprise or environment.

Management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve one's life and relationships.

Management is there everywhere and it has a wider range of application. Based on this, management must have humans,

communication, and a positive enterprise endeavor.

Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, meeting goals. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of six functions: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Forecasting Planning Organizing Commanding Coordinating Controlling

Henri Fayol was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.

In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.

Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people,

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processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "business schools". Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management".

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a

corporation. Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.

But in the present era management's use is identified in the wide areas and its frontiers have been pushed to a broader range. Apart from profitable organizations even nonprofitable organizations (NGO) apply management concepts. The concept and its uses are not constrained. Management on the whole is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling.

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The Nature of Managerial Work In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

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Commanding: Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

Controlling: Checking progress against plans.

Basic Roles 

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Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information Decisional: roles that require decision-making

In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.

Basic Functions Managerial Skills Management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling. 

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Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating plans for action(deciding in advance).

Organizing: Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place Coordinating: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.

Political: used to build a power base and establish connections Conceptual: situations.

used

to

analyze

complex

Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate Diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate response to a situation

most

Leadership: ability to lead and provide guidance to a specific group

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

Technical: Expertise in one's particular functional area.

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Foprmulation of Business Policy  

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The mission of the business is the most obvious purpose—which may be, for example, to make soap.

The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination.

The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity that is the goal of a certain task.

The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees.

The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action it takes and resources it uses to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and use the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form.

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All all

Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.

Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.

The business requires team spirit and a good environment.

The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.

The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.

A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives. policies must be discussed with managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy. 

Organizational

Implementation of Policies and Strategies 



 

All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.

Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.

A plan of action must be devised for each department.

Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.

change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter:

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Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.

Policies and Strategies In The Planning Process 

 

They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.

A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.

Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.

Levels Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and toplevel managers. These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks.

In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.

Top-Level Management The top consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors and executive directors), president, vicepresident, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They set a tone at the top and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are accountable to the shareholders and general public.

The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives which owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization, although this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size and culture of the organization.

These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager (Chief Executive Officer or CEO) and the CEO typically hires other positions.

However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) has increased. In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO. The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the auditor.

Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include a broad understanding competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for executing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization.

Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including: instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules; appointment of middle level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments;

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media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.

Middle-Level Managers Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance.

First-level managers Consist of supervisors, section leaders, foremen, etc. They focus on controlling and directing.

They usually have the responsibility of assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on dayto-day activities, ensuring quality and quantity production, making recommendations, suggestions, and up channeling employee problems, etc. Firstlevel managers are role models for employees that provide:    

Basic supervision Motivation Career planning Performance feedback

Training Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out the middle management, or may be categorized as non-management operate, liable to the policy of the specific organization. Efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization, since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level staffs.

Their functions include: 

  

Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.

Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.

Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.

Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior. They also make decision and share ideas with top managers.

Universities around the world, offer bachelor's and advanced degrees, diplomas and certificates in management, generally within their colleges of business and business schools but also in other related departments. There is also an increase in online management education and training in the form of E-learning.

USA At the graduate level students may choose to specialize in major subareas of management such as entrepreneurship, human resources, international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management. accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management, investment management, Leaders in Sustainability and real estate.

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Modern Management Theories Some see management (by definition) as late-modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.

With the changing workplaces of industrial revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly-popular factories.

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized recordkeeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

Early writing While management (according to some definitions) has existed for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories.

Some ancient military texts have been cited for lessons that civilian managers can gather. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.

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Various ancient and medieval civilizations have produced "Mirrors for Princes" books, which aim to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Examples include the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c.

1515).

Further information: Mirrors for princes Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour. Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.

19th century Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, costaccounting, interchangeability of parts, and workplanning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy.

That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.

20th century By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college managementtextbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management

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and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886– 1961), Max Weber (1864–1920, who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat), Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (* 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research, initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision-problems, and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.

Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder.

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.

Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

financial management human resource management information technology management (responsible for management information systems) marketing management operations management or production management strategic management

21st century In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.

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Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.

Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from businessethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.

As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' selfmanagement) has become both more common and advocated to a greater extent, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management embraces to some degree a democratic principle—in that in the long term, the majority of workers must support management.

Otherwise, they leave to find other work or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace as de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control is evident in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses after laying off lower-level workers.

According to leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, a contemporary senior management team will almost inevitably have some personality disorders.

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Human Resources "Human resources" (HR) refers to any activity within a business or organization to deal with the management of its employees.

These tasks can include employment of staff, training, retention and other tasks to deal with employees inside an organization.

Organizations tend to see Human Resources as a fundamental area to consider when it comes to growth and improvement. A number of large-scale global or international organizations might also do internal job posting which can save finances and time. Organizations usually keep an HR system in place to monitor employees and tell them what is happening within the business.

The main goal of human resourcing is to plan to 'drive innovation, productivity and [prosperity of purpose] through mobilizing the workforce towards excellence'. This was recognized by David Ulrich, who is thought to be the pioneer of HR.(Human Resource Champions Book 1996) Human resources in general has great importance for almost every business or organization. Another name for Human Resources is Personnel.

Human resources is so valued that some organizations share HR systems with other organizations through outsourcing. This creates something similar to a partnership as they share the same systems or employees and transfer them.

The IT company Accenture is an example of a company that outsources their HR services. Many companies do this but this company is well known for outsourcing their services.

Human resource planning is needed for staffing, to consider the skills, knowledge and attributes needed when hiring new employees. HR will also look at the number of employees needed and who they believe are the most qualified.

Line Management Line management is a chain of command within the hierarchy system in the organization. The person of highest command in an organization is the CEO. It can be difficult to transfer information from the lowest people in an organization to the CEO. As the information flow to the CEO is very limited and only shares information amongst the stakeholders who are in a higher position in the company which are the directors, chairmen, system or product developers and other stakeholders who have authority. The people who are in a much lower level of command are the people who are the workers and they tend to have more of a relationship with the stakeholders for whom they are trying to direct the outcomes.

Another name for them is called the workforce and they are mainly the people who help with the sales or manufacturing of the organization.

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The work force consist of managers, sales assistants, manufactures and shop assistants.

Global organizations like Fujitsu, Apple, Samsung, Sony, Accenture, Tecos, Sainsburys and other corporations or businesses.

Responsibilities and Liabilities The organization is responsible for everyone in the HR department. They are responsible for their employees so if something goes wrong the employee or staff has the obligation to get compensation for the incident that happened. Very common cases are when organization have health incidents or when companies are making people work and they are not looking at the safety hazards of the work place. Such as: the Primark factory in Bangladesh collapsing in 2005 on 24 April. Although the amount of

people who died amounted to 1100 and they were forced to pay the victims ÂŁ12 million in total. This was considered a liability as it became a debt that the company was forced to pay. One thing you could say about Primark is that its HR system is spread out and very hard to monitor. That is why large corporations have a number issues when it comes to ethics. They are so large that one part of the business may be corrupt and the CEO or the main firm may not have the information about the firm or factory abroad.

If an organization owes money to an employee as compensation because of mistreatment then that is a liability for the business.

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Organizational Psychology

Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I–O psychology, occupational psychology, work psychology, WO psychology, IWO psychology and business psychology) is the scientific study of human behavior in the workplace and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations. I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist– practitioner model. I-O psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance, satisfaction, safety, health and well-being of its employees. An I–O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems. I–O psychologists also help organizations and their employees transition among periods of change and organization development.

I-O psychology is one of the 14 recognized specialties and proficiencies in professional psychology in the United States and is

represented by Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA), known formally as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). In the UK, industrial and organizational psychologists are referred to as occupational psychologists and one of 7 'protected titles' and specializations in psychology regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council.

In Australia, the title organizational psychologist is also protected by law and is regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA).

Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia. Graduate programs at both the Masters and Doctorate level are offered worldwide. In the UK graduate degrees are accredited by the British Psychological Society and required as part of the process to become an occupational psychologist. In Europe someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organizational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and an expert in the work psychology field with further advanced education and training.

Occupational Health and Wellbeing I/O psychologists and researchers are also concerned with occupational health and wellbeing. Researchers have examined the effect of physical exercise, and staying vigorous at work. Sonnentag and Niessen (2008) found that staying vigorous during working hours is important for workrelated behaviour, subjective well-being, and for effective functioning in the family domain. Individuals high on their general level of vigour at work, benefited most from recovery experienced over the course of several days. A 2010 study found positive relationships between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect,

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and the absence of negative affect and feelings of positive wellbeing. Other researchers have looked at the negative health impacts of mature-aged unemployment. Another recent study conducted by Potocnik & Sonnentag (2013) examined the impact of engaging in seven types of activities on depression and quality of life in older workers over a period of 2 years, using a sample from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe.

Results indicated that I/O psychologists should make attempts to reduce physical demands over older employees at work, to help improve their health and well-being.

Practitioners should also design intervention programs and preventive measures that focus on how to stimulate older employees' engagement in community activities. I/O research has also examined effects of job mobility and negative health effects, including burnout in workers.

Motivation in The Workplace Work motivation "is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration" Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to the study of I–O psychology. Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. To further this, an incentive is the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment.

While motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with ability and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance. Because of motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance, it is key for organizations to

understand and to structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage those that are unproductive.

There is general consensus that motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is what initiates action. It is fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from their lives at a given moment, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Finally, intensity is the vigor and amount of energy employees put into this goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity is based on the importance and difficulty of the goal.

These psychological processes result in four outcomes. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. It also serves to stimulate an employee to put forth effort. Next, motivation results in persistence, preventing one from deviating from the goal-seeking behavior. Finally, motivation results in task strategies, which as defined by Mitchell & Daniels, are "patterns of behavior produced to reach a particular goal."

Occupational Stress I/O psychologists are involved in the research and the practice of occupational stress and design of individual and organizational interventions to manage and reduce the stress levels and increase productivity, performance, health and wellbeing. Occupational stress is concerned with physical and psychosocial working conditions (termed stressors) that can elicit negative responses (termed strains) from employees. Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes.

For example, a job stressor such as conflict

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with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors. Job-related hindrance stressors are directly (and challenge stressors inversely) related to turnover and turnover intentions. I/O research has examined the relations among work stressors and workplace aggression, withdrawal, theft, and substance abuse, strategies that individuals use to cope with work stress and prevent occupational burnout, and the relation of work stress to depressive symptoms.

A number of models have been developed to explain the job stress process. Examples of models that have influenced research include the person-environment fit model and the demand-control model. Research has also examined the interaction among personality variables and stressors and their effects on employee strains. I/O psychology is also concerned with the physical health outcomes caused by occupational stress. For instance, researchers at the institute of work psychology (IWP) examined the mediating role of psychological strain in relation to musculoskeletal disorders.

Research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations. For example, there has been research on job stress in police, teachers, general practitioners, and dentists. Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life.

Other research has examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male- and female-dominated industries, burnout in the human services and other occupations, and unemployment-related distress.

I/O psychology is also concerned with the

relation of occupational stress to career advancement.

Organizational Culture Organizational culture can be described as a set of assumptions shared by the individuals in an organization that directs interpretation and action by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions.

Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Shared Values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service). Basic Beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture.

In addition to an overall culture, organizations also have subcultures.

Examples of subcultures include corporate culture, departmental culture, local culture, and issue-related culture. While there is no single "type" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.

Organizational culture has been shown to have an impact on important organizational outcomes such as performance, attraction, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being.

Also, organizations with an adaptive culture tend to perform better than organizations with an maladaptive culture.

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Five elements that are contributors to team effectiveness include: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Group Dynamics

team composition task design organizational resources team rewards team goals.

I/O research has looked at the negative impacts of workplace aggression on team performance and particularly team effectiveness as was evidenced in a recent study by Aube and Rousseau.

Team Composition Group behavior is the interaction between individuals of a collective and the processes such as opinions, attitudes, growth, feedback loops, and adaptations that occur and change as a result of this interaction. The interactions serve to fulfill some need satisfaction of an individual who is part of the collective and helps to provide a basis for his interaction with specific members of the group.

A specific area of research in group behavior is the dynamics of teams. Team effectiveness refers to the system of getting people in a company or institution to work together effectively. The idea behind team effectiveness is that a group of people working together can achieve much more than if the individuals of the team were working on their own.

Team Effectiveness Organizations support the use of teams, because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than can be accomplished by an individual contributor, and because the collective results of a group of contributors can produce higher quality deliverables.

The composition of teams is initially decided during the selection of individual contributors that are to be assigned to specific teams and has a direct bearing on the resulting effectiveness of those teams.

Aspects of team composition that should be considered during the team selection process include team member: knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs), personalities, and attitudes.

As previously stated, one of the reasons organizations support the use of teams is the expectation of the delivery of higher quality results. To achieve these types of results, highly skilled members are more effective than teams built around those with lesser skills, and teams that include a diversity of skills have improved team performance (Guzzo & Shea, 1992). Additionally, increased average cognitive ability of team members has been shown to consistently correlate to increased work group effectiveness (Sundstrom et al., 2000).

Therefore, organizations should seek to assign teams with team members that have a mix of KSAs. Teams that are composed of members that have the same KSAs may prove to be ineffective in meeting the team

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goals, no matter how talented the individual members are.

The personalities and attitudes of the individuals that are selected as team members are other aspects that should be taken into consideration when composing teams, since these individual traits have been found to be good indicators of team effectiveness. For example, a positive relationship between the team-level traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness and the team performance has been shown to exist (Van Vianen & De Dreu, 2001). Differing personalities of individual team members can affect the team climate in a negative way as members may clash and reduce team performance (Barrick, et al., 1998).

Interrelated to the design of various tasks is the implementation method for the tasks themselves. For example, certain team members may find it challenging to cross train with other team members that have subject matter expertise in areas in which they are not familiar. In utilizing this approach, greater motivation is likely to result for both parties as the expert becomes the mentor and trainer and the cross-training team member finds learning new tasks to be an interesting change of pace. Such expansions of team task assignments can make teams more effective and require teams to spend greater amounts of time discussing and planning strategies and approaches for completing assigned tasks (Hackman, et al., 1976).

Task Design

Organizational Resources

A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team. Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals, and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work. When a given task is appropriate for a team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness (Sundstrom, et al., 2000).

Organizational support systems impact the effectiveness of teams (Sundstrum, et al., 1990) and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment. In this case, the provided resources include various resource types that teams require to be effective. During the chartering of new teams, organizational enabling resources are first identified. Examples of enabling resources include facilities, equipment, information, training and leadership. Also identified during team chartering are teamspecific resources (e.g., budgetary resources, human resources). Team-specific human resources represent the individual contributors that are selected for each team as team members. Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task assignment) are sufficient for effective utilization of these teamspecific resources.

The Job Characteristics Theory of motivation identifies core job dimensions that provide motivation for individuals and include: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). These dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors that perform team tasks that are challenging, interesting, and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than those team members that are working on those tasks that do not have these characteristics.

Teams also function in multi-team environments that are dynamic in nature and require teams to respond to shifting organizational contingencies (Salas, et al.,

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2004). In regards to resources, such contingencies include the constraints imposed by organizational resources that are not specifically earmarked for the exclusive use of certain teams. These types of resources are scarce in nature and must be shared by multiple teams. Examples of these scarce resources include subject matter experts, simulation and testing facilities, and limited amounts of time for the completion of multi-team goals. For these types of shared resources inter-team management processes (e.g.: constraint resource scheduling) must be provided to enable effective multi-team utilization.

Team Rewards Organizational reward systems are a driver for strengthening and enhancing individual team member efforts that contribute towards reaching collective team goals (Luthans & Kreitner, 1985). In other words, rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team (Sundstrom, et al., 1990).

Several design elements of organizational reward systems are needed to meet this objective. The first element for reward systems design is the concept that for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members, the group's tasks must be highly interdependent. If this is not the case, individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment (Wageman & Baker, 1997). A second design element is the compatibility between individual-level reward systems and teamlevel reward systems (DeMatteo, Eby, & Sundstrom, 1998). For example, it would be an unfair situation to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did the great majority of the work. That team member would most likely view teams and team work in a negative fashion and not

want to participate in a team setting in the future. A final design element is the creation of an organizational culture that supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive mental attitude towards team-based rewards (Haines and Taggar, 2006).

Team Goals Goals for individual contributors have been shown to be motivating when they contain three elements: (1) difficulty, (2) acceptance, and (3) specificity (Lock & Latham, 1990). In the team setting, goal difficulty is related to group belief that the team can accomplish the tasks required to meet the assigned goal (Whitney, 1994).

This belief (collective efficacy) is somewhat counterintuitive, but rests on team member perception that they now view themselves as

more competent than others in the organization who were not chosen to complete such difficult goals. This in turn, can lead to higher levels of performance.

Goal acceptance and specificity is also applicable to the team setting. When team members individually and collectively commit to team goals, team effectiveness is increased and is a function of increased supportive team behaviors (Aube & Rousseau, 2005).

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As related to the team setting, it is also important to be aware of the interplay between the goals of individual contributors that participate on teams and the goals of the teams themselves. The selection of team goals must be done in coordination with the selection of goals for individuals. Individual goals must be in line with team goals (or not exist at all) to be effective (Mitchell & Silver, 1990). For example, a professional ball player that does well in his/her sport is rewarded individually for excellent performance. This individual performance generally contributes to improved team performance which can, in turn, lead to team recognition, such as a league championship.

Job Satisfaction and Commitment Job satisfaction reflects an employee's overall assessment of their job, particularly their emotions, behaviors, and attitudes about their work experience. It is one of the most heavily researched topics in industrial– organizational psychology with several thousand published studies. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field of psychology and has been linked to important job outcomes including attitudinal variables, absenteeism, employee turnover, and job performance. For instance, job satisfaction is strongly correlated with attitudinal variables such as job involvement, organizational commitment, job tensions, frustration, and feelings of anxiety. A 2010 meta-analyses found positive relationships between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect. Job satisfaction also has a weak correlation with employee's absentee behaviors and turnover from an organization with employees more likely to miss work or find other jobs if they are not satisfied.

Finally, research has found that although a positive relationship exists between job

satisfaction and performance, it is moderated by the use of rewards at an organization and the strength of employee's attitudes about their job.

Productive Behavior Productive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization.

When an employee begins a new job, there is a transition period during which he or she is not contributing positively to the organization. To successfully transition from being an outsider to a full-fledged member of an organization, an employee typically needs job-related training as well as more general information about the culture of the organization. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee.

Industrial–organizational psychologists are typically more focused on productive behavior rather than simple job or task performance because of the ability to account for extra-role performance in addition to in-role performance. While inrole performance tells managers or researchers how well the employee performs the required technical aspects of the job, extra-role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required as part of the job but still contribute to organizational effectiveness. By taking both in-role and extra-role performance into account, industrial–organizational psychologists are able to assess employees' effectiveness (how well they do what they were hired to do), efficiency (their relative outputs to relative inputs), and their productivity (how much they help the organization reach its goals).

Jex & Britt outline three different forms of productive behavior that industrial– organizational psychologists frequently evaluate in organizations: job performance;

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organizational citizenship behavior; and innovation.

Job Performance Job performance represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals. These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities. In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving results (productivity), the results that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency), or the value an organization places on a given level of performance, effectiveness, productivity or efficiency (utility).

To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs.

Performance is commonly broken into two major categories: in-role (technical aspects of a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member). While this distinction in behavior has been challenged it is commonly made by both employees and management. A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in-role and extra-role categories. Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency and non-jobspecific task proficiency as in-role dimensions, while written and oral communication, demonstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and

administration are labeled as extra-role dimensions. Murphy's model of job performance also broke job performance into in-role and extra-role categories.

However, task-orientated behaviors composed the in-role category and the extrarole category included interpersonallyoriented behaviors, down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors.

However, it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skills tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on tests, highfidelity simulations, symbolic simulations, task ratings and global ratings. These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance. Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role categories.

Here, in-role performance was reflected through how well "employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees' job." Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra-role category.

To assess job performance, reliable and valid measures must be established. While there are many sources of error with performance ratings, error can be reduced through rater training and through the use of behaviorally-anchored rating scales. Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor, average, and superior performance. Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as

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changing performance criteria, the structure of the job itself and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, acceptance and the justification of poor performance and lack of importance of individual performance.

The determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants of Job Performance, job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflective of an employee's choices regarding whether to expend effort, the level of effort to expend, and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen). The

interplay between these factors show that an employee may, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation.

Regardless of the job, three determinants stand out as predictors of performance: (1) general mental ability (especially for jobs higher in complexity); (2) job experience (although there is a law of diminishing returns); and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness (people who are dependable and achievement-oriented, who plan well). These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well. Further, an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.

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Innovation Industrial and Organizational Psychologists consider innovation, more often than not, a variable of less importance and often a counter-productive one to include in conducting job performance appraisals when irrelevant to the major job functions for which a given job exists. Nonetheless, Industrial and Organizational Psychologists see the value of that variable where its consideration would, were its reliability and validity questioned, achieve a statistically significant probability that its results are not due to chance, and that it can be replicated reliably with a statistically significant ratio of reliability, and that were a court to raise a question on its reliability and validity testing, the Industrial and Organizational Psychologist behind its use would be able to defend it before a court of justice with the belief that it will stand before such a court as reliable, and valid.

With the above in mind, innovation is often considered a form of productive behavior that employees exhibit when they come up with novel ideas that further the goals of the organization. This section will discuss three topics of interest: research on innovation; characteristics of an individual that may predict innovation; and how organizations may be structured to promote innovation.

According to Jex & Britt, individual and organization research can be divided into four unique research focuses. 

Focus One: The examination of the process by which an employee develops innovations and the unique characteristics of an individuals which enables them to be highly innovative. This stream of thought focuses primarily on the employee or the individual contributor.







Focus Two: The macro perspective which focuses upon the process that innovation is diffused within a specific organization. In short, this is the process of communicating an innovation to members of an organization.

Focus Three: The process by which an organization adopts an innovation.

Focus Four: A shared perspective of the role of the individual and the organization's culture which contribute to innovation.

As indicated above, the first focus looks specifically to find certain attributes of an individual that may lead to

innovation, therefore, one must ask, "Are there quantifiable predictors that an individual will be innovative?" Research indicates if various skills, knowledge, and abilities are present then an individual will be more apt to innovation. These qualities are generally linked to creativity. A brief overview of these characteristics are listed below. 

Task-relevant skills (general mental ability and job specific knowledge).

Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained

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



through higher education; however, it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field.

Creativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time, to abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems). The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex & Britt as productive forgetting.

Creativity-relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points. One must be able to take on the perspective of various users. For example, an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation, and compliance officer.

Task motivation (internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment).

In addition to the role and characteristics of the individual, one must consider what it is that may be done on an organizational level to develop and reward innovation. A study

by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation within an organization. They are the following ones: 1. A population with high levels of technical knowledge 2. The organization's level of specialization 3. The level an organization communicates externally 4. Functional Differentiation.

processes, which could breed innovation in the workplace. Some of these items include providing creativity training, having leaders encourage and model innovation, allowing employees to question current procedures and rules, seeing that the implementation of innovations had real consequences, documenting innovations in a professional manner, allowing employees to have autonomy and freedom in their job roles, reducing the number of obstacles that may be in the way of innovation, and giving employees access to resources (whether these are monetary, informational, or access to key people inside or outside of the organization).

According to the American Productivity & Quality Center ("APQC") there are basic principles an organization can develop to encourage and reward innovation.  



 

 

The creation of a design team.

Acknowledging those who contribute time, effort, and ideas.

This recognition may come from senior leaders or through peer recognition.

Provide special recognition to innovators while keeping names associated with contributors.

Disseminate success stories concerning invention.

Make innovation self-rewarding, such as the perception of being a subject matter expert.

Linking innovation to the cultural values of the organization.

Creating a committee of business leaders from various lines of business and human resources focused on developing guidelines and suggestions to encourage innovation.

Additionally, organizations could use and institutionalize many participatory system-

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In discussing innovation for a Best-Practice report, APQC Knowledge Management expert, Kimberly Lopez, stated, "It requires a blending of creativity within business

processes to ensure good ideas become of value to the company ... Supporting a creative environment requires innovation to be recognized, nurtured, and rewarded."

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Change Management Strategic Corporate Culture Industrial-organizational psychologists have displayed a great deal of consideration for the problems of total organizational change and systematic ways to bring about planned change. This effort, called organizational development (OD), involves techniques such as:      

Sensitivity Training Role Playing Group Discussion Job Enrichment Survey Feedback Team Building

Within the survey feedback technique, surveys after being answered by employees periodically, are assessed for their emotions and attitudes which are then communicated to various members within the organization. The team building technique was created due to realization that most tasks within the organization are completed by small groups and/or teams. In order to further enhance a team's or group's morale and problemsolving skills, OD consultants (called change agents) help the groups to build their selfconfidence, group cohesiveness, and working effectiveness.

A change agent's impartiality, gives the managers within the organization a new outlook of the organization's structure, functions, and culture. A change agent's first task is diagnosis, where questionnaires and interviews are used to assess the problems and needs of the organization. Once analyzed, the strengths and weaknesses of the organization are presented and used to create strategies for solving problems and coping with future changes.

Flexibility and adaptability are some strengths of the OD process, as it possesses the ability to conform to the needs of the situation. Regardless of the specific techniques applied, the OD process helps to free the typical bureaucratic organization from its rigidity and formality, hereby allowing more responsiveness and open participation. Public and private organizations both have employed OD techniques, despite their varied results in research conducted. However, the use of the techniques are justified by the significant increases in productivity that was proven by various studies.

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References 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staff_management 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology 4. http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/jbpl/vol3no2/JBPL_Vol3No2_Irving_pp 118-128.pdf 5. http://www.aijcrnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_9_September_2012/23.pdf 6. http://www.afc-ispi.org/Repository/Conflict-Management%20survey.pdf

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Attachment A

Model for Effective Servant Leadership

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LEADERSHIP REFLECTION: A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE SERVANT LEADERSHIP PRACTICE: A BIBLICALLY-CONSISTENT AND RESEARCH-BASED APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP JUSTIN A. IRVING

As interest in leadership studies continues to grow, servant leadership is uniquely positioned to address the leadership challenges of our day. Not only is servant leadership a Biblically-consistent approach to leadership practice, it is also demonstrably effective. This reflection engages both Biblical perspectives on servant leadership—drawing from Matthew 20, Mark 10, and John 13—and goes on to presents a model for effective servant leadership practice based on regression analyses. The model highlights nine core servant leadership practices that focus around three conceptual clusters.

Servant leadership continues to draw attention from researchers and practitioners alike in our time. Arguing that the “servant-leader is servant first,” Greenleaf set the stage for this contemporary inquiry into an understanding of leadership that begins with a “natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first.”1 This commitment to serving the needs of followers and the surrounding community is the heart of servant leadership practice. Rather than a leadership model simply focused on the needs of leaders, this servant-first ethic that Greenleaf pointed toward is increasingly becoming the focus of leadership scholars.2 In this brief leadership reflection, some of the Biblical roots of servant leadership are discussed and special focus is given to unpacking nine servant leadership practices in light of these Biblical roots.

1

Robert K. Greenleaf, Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power & Greatness, 25th anniversary ed. (New York: Paulist Press, 1977), 27.

2 For example, Dirk van Dierendonck and Kathleen Patterson, Servant Leadership: Developments in Theory and Research (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

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I: SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVE Although Greenleaf brought the servant leadership discussion into contemporary focus, a similar call to servant-oriented behaviors can be traced back to Biblical roots in general and New Testament roots in particular. Several Biblical perspectives quickly come to mind. First, in both Matthew 20 and Mark 10, we find the account of Jesus declaring to His disciples that the Son of Man would be condemned to death by the chief priests and scribes, and then delivered over to be flogged and crucified by the Gentiles.3 Immediately following this account in Matthew’s Gospel, we find a mother bringing a request to Jesus that her sons, James and John, be allowed to sit at the right and left hand of Jesus in His coming kingdom. From the parallel account in Mark’s Gospel, we know that this mother’s request represented the request of her sons as well.

In these accounts, we see that the stark contrast between the focus of Jesus and the focus of His disciples is intended by Matthew and Mark. While Jesus was focused on the selfsacrificial act awaiting Him in Jerusalem, the disciples were more concerned about their status and position in the coming kingdom. This presented a teachable moment for the disciples, and Jesus pressed in with penetrating insight. After addressing the cup of suffering in which the disciples would share,4 Jesus contrasted the humble way of the slave and servant to the harsh and domineering rule of the Gentile authorities. In noting that the Son of Man had not come to be served but to serve, Jesus challenged His disciples to look to His model over and above the dictatorial rule of societal leaders.5 A second Biblical perspective is found in John 13:1-20, a passage that highlights Jesus’ famous act of washing His disciples’ feet. In this account, we find the narrative divided into three broad sections: (1) Jesus’ act of washing the disciples’ feet,6 (2) Jesus’ interaction with Peter,7 and (3) Jesus’ exhortation for the disciples to follow His example.8 Although there are subnarratives included in this passage—for example, the narrative threads referring to Judas Iscariot—this three-fold division provides a basic overview of the central themes presented in the passage.

In the first section, verses 1-5, the act of Jesus’ beginning to wash His disciples’ feet is described in detail. John writes, “Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hands, and that he had come from God and was going back to God, rose from supper. He laid aside his outer garments, and taking a towel, tied it around his waist. Then he poured water into a basin and began to wash the disciples’ feet and to wipe them with the towel that was wrapped around him.”9 In an act of heavenly humility, Jesus provided a powerful example for His followers. While this description of Jesus’ taking up the basin and the towel sounds very familiar and comfortable for most contemporary Christians, it is important to remember that this was shocking to the first-century followers of Jesus. Peter’s strong reaction in verse eight of the passage is perhaps the best contextual evidence of this reality. In this second section of the John 13 narrative, we read of Peter’s strong reaction when Jesus came to wash his feet— 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mt 20:17-19; Mk 10:32-34.

Mt 20:22-23; Mk 10:38-40.

Mt 20:24-28; Mk 10:41-45.

Jn 13:1-5.

Jn 13:6-11.

Jn 13:12-20.

Jn 13:3-5.

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“You shall never wash my feet.”10 After this refusal of Peter, Jesus reminds Peter that His washing Peter is a prerequisite for his sharing in the life of Jesus. This important dialogical interlude in the heart of Jesus’ act of washing the disciples’ feet reminds Peter that having his needs met by Jesus—needs for being cleansed—is the foundation for our serving others and meeting their needs. Based on this interaction, we may conclude that for Biblical servant leaders a commitment to serving others begins with a commitment to being served first by Jesus.

In the final section of this passage, John 13:12-20, Jesus takes what He has done for His disciples and uses His act of service as an opportunity to exhort His disciples to similar behaviors. In the heart of this teachable moment, Jesus declares, “If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I have given you an example, that you also should do just as I have done to you.”11 In this moment, Jesus brought together His embodied example and His didactic exhortation. In so doing, the disciples were left with a clear picture of what was expected and all who read John’s narrative are left with a powerful example of how to communicate with a congruence of words and actions.

Although there are many passages we could turn to in the Bible, the examples and instructions of Jesus in Matthew 20, Mark 10, and John 13 provide key Biblical perspectives on servant-oriented practices, all of which may serve as a foundation for our understanding and practice of servant leadership. It is in light of these Biblical principles that we turn our attention to a set of servant leadership practices that have been found to be associated with team effectiveness.

II: A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE SERVANT LEADERSHIP PRACTICE One of the benefits of social science research methods is their capacity to confirm the utility or effectiveness of constructs that are inherently valid philosophically or Biblically. For instance, we do not need social science research methods to inform us that humility is important for individuals and leaders; philosophically and Biblically, the validity and importance of humility may be argued apart from social science. However, social science can come alongside philosophical and Biblical arguments to confirm the utility or effectiveness of a construct like humility. This is what was found in Collins’ work surrounding level five leaders. 12 Not only is leader humility ethically good and Biblically consistent as a construct—an argument that may be made Biblically and philosophically—Collins added through social science methods that leader humility is also effective.

A similar argument may be made for understanding servant leadership in this light. The importance and validity of servant-oriented practices for leaders can be argued ethically, morally, philosophically, and Biblically apart from questions of its utility and effectiveness.

However, it is powerful when leadership practices that are ethically good and Biblically consistent are also found to be effective. While servant leadership is a Biblically consistent model of leadership practice—and this alone is enough for leaders to utilize servant leadership practices—it is also helpful to know that servant leadership is demonstrably 10

Jn 13:8.

Jn 13:14-15.

12 Jim Collins, “Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve,” Harvard Business Review (January 2001): 67-76.

11

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effective.

In the remainder of this leadership reflection, I will unpack nine servant leadership practices that were found to be associated with effective teams. These nine practices, which cluster around three primary themes, are based on the analyses of Irving and Longbotham.13 In short, Irving and Longbotham14 identified a ten-item regression model of effective servant leadership practices. Since two of these ten items were conceptually similar, nine practices are presented in this reflection. More detailed treatments of the regression analyses are found in the Irving and Longbotham articles. In this reflection, the focus is on providing some discussion and description around these servant leadership practices in light of the Biblical roots identified above. With this in mind, the following figure is provided as a means of presenting the key practices in light of the three macro clusters.

Cluster 1—Beginning with Authentic Leaders Practice 1: Modeling what Matters Practice 2: Engaging in Honest Self-Evaluation Practice 3: Fostering Collaboration

Cluster 2—Understanding the Priority of People Practice 4: Valuing and Appreciating Practice 5: Creating a Place for Individuality Practice 6: Understanding Relational Skills

Cluster 3—Helping Followers Navigate toward Effectiveness Practice 7: Communicating with Clarity Practice 8: Supporting and Resourcing Practice 9: Providing Accountability Fig. 1. A model for effective servant leadership practices.

In the following sections each of the leadership practices included in the above model are described in brief based on structured interviews with nine leadership practitioners and scholars. In addition to basic demographic questions, each of these nine individuals provided responses to eighteen structured questions—two questions for each of the nine servant leadership practices in the model.

13

Justin A. Irving and Gail J. Longbotham, “Team Effectiveness and Six Essential Servant Leadership Themes: A Regression Model Based on Items in the Organizational Leadership Assessment,” International Journal of Leadership Studies 2, no. 2 (2007): 98-113; Justin A. Irving and Gail J. Longbotham, “Leading Effective Teams through Servant Leadership: An Expanded Regression Model of Essential Servant Leadership Themes,” Proceedings of the American Society of Business and Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 1 (2007): 806-817.

14 Irving and Longbotham, “Leading Effective Teams.”

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III: CLUSTER 1—BEGINNING WITH AUTHENTIC LEADERS The first grouping of servant leadership practices presented in the model emphasizes the importance of beginning with authentic leaders who are able to foster collaboration. In this first cluster of servant leadership practices, leadership behaviors associated with effective teams include the following: (1) modeling what matters, (2) engaging in honest selfevaluation, and (3) fostering collaboration. Each of these practices is described in brief, but collectively emphasizes the importance of beginning with authentic leaders.

Practice 1: Modeling What Matters Similar to Bass and Avolio’s15 discussion of idealized influence in transformational leadership theory and Kouzes and Posner’s16 first practice of exemplary leadership—Model the Way—this practice identified in Irving and Longbotham’s17 expanded analysis is modeling what matters. Inauthentic leaders can demand of followers what they as leaders are unwilling to do. Authentic leaders, however, must model what matters and be willing to “practice what they preach” when it comes to expected organizational behavior. On this point, research participants noted that modeling what matters “is the primary and most effective way to communicate the organization’s mission, values, and ethos,” and that “actions communicate much more loudly than words” when it comes to organizational values. Reinforcing the importance of this leadership practice, De Pree18 argues that “clearly expressed and consistently demonstrated values” are often the most important factor in facilitating the important relationship between leaders and followers.

Practice 2: Engaging in Honest Self-Evaluation Serving as a foundation for authentic modeling of what matters, the next servant leadership practice in this model is engaging in honest self-evaluation. One of the unique features of this practice is its emphasis on self-evaluation sequentially prior to the leader’s evaluation of others. Similar to the Biblical admonition to “first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take the speck out of your brother’s eye,” 19 engaging in honest self-evaluation requires leader humility, a capacity for self-awareness, and a willingness to reflect on personal faults and shortcomings which shape the organizational environment and leader–follower relationships. Ferch argued that “one of the defining characteristics of human nature is the ability to discern one’s own faults, to be broken as the result of such faults, and in response to seek a meaningful change.”20 Leaders are not exempt from such important human characteristics.

Emphasizing the importance of this leadership practice, research participants noted 15

Bernard M. Bass and Bruce J. Avolio, Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994).

16 James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, The Leadership Challenge, 4th ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007).

17 Irving and Longbotham, “Leading Effective Teams.”

18 Max De Pree, Leadership Jazz (New York: Currency-Doubleday, 1992), 126.

19 Mt 7:5.

20 Shann Ferch, “Servant-Leadership, Forgiveness, and Social Justice,” International Journal of ServantLeadership 1, no. 1 (2005): 97-113.

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among other things the danger of leader blind spots and unquestioned assumptions. One participant noted, “Honest self-evaluation is utterly important for leaders,” and that, “the blind spots of leaders tend to be far more destructive than the blind spots of non-leaders [because leaders] . . . impact more people.” Participants further noted the dangers of unconscious selfexaltation and the drift toward arrogance and individualism, arguing that honest selfevaluation is best accomplished when trusted friends are invited to provide the leader with feedback on their growth edges. In addition to effecting the leader’s personal growth, the absence of honest self-evaluation on the part of leaders decreases the capacity of teams to change and attain goals in an effective manner.

Practice 3: Fostering Collaboration The next servant leadership practice in the model is fostering collaboration. In contrast to overly competitive leadership agendas, this leadership behavior highlights the importance of leaders encouraging followers to work together over competing against one another in the organizational environment. Similar to Laub’s21 and Spears’22 discussions of building community that highlight collaboration with others as a key to community building, this leadership behavior is driven by a belief that collaborative endeavors serve as a pathway to effective team performance. Noting the importance of fostering collaboration, one research participant argues that, “solutions to complex problems today often require a collaborative engagement with others, the collective of which will generate the best solution.” Another participant acknowledges that no one person can meet the demands placed on leadership, and thus “collaboration allows a leader to expand the leadership resources brought into the leadership process.”

Providing a key argument for viewing this practice in the first cluster of beginning with authentic leaders, one participant notes the danger of collaborative gestures coming across as token invitations for follower participation. When a leader “just wants to appear like he/she is collaborating, but doesn't really care about input from others,” such inauthentic collaborative gestures become toxic for leader–follower relationships and the broader organizational culture. However, when genuine respect for followers is blended with a listening posture, a suspension of leader predispositions, and a willingness to give credit to others and embrace solutions that come from others, there is great power in leaders working with followers on genuinely collaborative agendas.

IV: CLUSTER 2—UNDERSTANDING THE PRIORITY OF PEOPLE The second grouping of servant leadership practices in the model emphasizes the importance of valuing and relating with people as individuals. In this second cluster of servant leadership practices, leadership behaviors associated with effective teams include the following: (1) valuing and appreciating, (2) creating a place for individuality, and (3) understanding relational skills. Each of these practices is described in brief, but collectively emphasizes the importance of understanding the priority of people.

21

Jim Laub, “Assessing the Servant Organization: Development of the Servant Organizational Leadership (SOLA) Instrument,” Dissertation Abstracts International 60, no. 2 (1999): 308.

22 Larry C. Spears, “The Understanding and Practice of Servant Leadership,” International Journal of Servant Leadership 1, no. 1 (2005): 29-46.

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Practice 4: Valuing and Appreciating Understanding the priority of people begins with a basic commitment to valuing and appreciating people. While this includes the communication of appreciation for follower contribution as a primary focus, it also emphasizes the value and trust of people at a more basic level. Laub’s model of servant leadership emphasizes the value of people as one of six key markers of organizational health. On this point, Laub writes: Healthy organizations have a different view of people. People are to be valued and developed, not used. . . . Leaders accept the fact that people have present value not just future potential. People seem to have an innate ability to know whether or not they are being valued . . . whether or not they are trusted. Effective leaders accept a person’s value up front. They give them the gift of trust without requiring that they earn it first. As leaders work with people in organizations they will serve them by displaying the qualities of Valuing People.23 Several research participants highlight similar observations, noting the importance of trust in valuing and appreciating followers when they are “given responsibility and released to accomplish the task without second guesses,” and when “verbally appreciate[ing] them as people first, then for their contribution to the team.” Another participant noted that a follower feels valued and appreciated “when a leader authentically and legitimately applauds the performance of a follower and acknowledges their unique contributions with concrete examples.” Such expressions must be connected with reality, though, and in the words of this participant must be “genuine, deserved, and observable” if such expressions are to be effective.

Practice 5: Creating a Place for Individuality Rather than followers being viewed as simple cogs in a larger organizational machine, servant leaders help in creating a place for individuality. While outcomes matter in organizations and holding followers accountable around key outcomes is consistent with servant leadership practice—a point raised below—outcomes are not necessarily achieved in uniform follower behaviors. In contrast, this leadership behavior emphasizes both allowing for individuality of style and expression in followers as well as accepting followers for who they are as individuals. In contrast to the overly mechanized systems encouraged in some twentieth-century managerial models, Irving and Longbotham’s24 analysis challenges twentyfirst century leaders to remember the individual and create space for individuality in work performance.

Research participants note the importance of simple expressions of individuality such as work styles, clothing, and office hours, and that flexibility for follower expressions of individuality are best supported through the avoidance of micromanaging leadership behaviors. One participant notes, “Set strategic goals, but allow individuals to engage in creative processes to get there.” On the theme of how follower individuality coincides with organizational unity, participants noted commonality at the level of mission, vision, goals, and 23

OLA Group, “Servant Leadership,” James A. Laub, http://www.olagroup.com/Display.asp?

Page=servant_leadership (accessed February 27, 2011).

24 Irving and Longbotham, “Leading Effective Teams.”

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values provides “the glue that holds the organization together,” and that “under this umbrella there is ample room for individuality.” Arguing that great leaders find ways to meld the needs of individuals with the needs of an organization, one participant argues that this “requires the leader to take an active interest in the capacity of those under their leadership,” and assigning responsibility and delegating authority “based on the giftedness of the follower in alignment with the project or task to be completed.” This requires an individualized consideration similar to what Bass and Avolio25 put forward in transformational leadership theory, and calls leaders to a higher level of investment in creating space for individuals to work uniquely toward common goals.

Practice 6: Understanding Relational Skills This second cluster, which is focused on understanding the priority of people, ends with the servant leadership practice of understanding relational skills. Knowing how to get along with people can feel like an overly simplistic leadership skill, but the analysis supporting the model in this reflection demonstrates that this is a key leadership behavior for team effectiveness. The intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences put forward by Gardner 26 formed the basis for Goleman’s27 treatment of emotional intelligence as a key for understanding what makes a leader. Arguably, Goleman’s emphasis on factors such as empathy and social skills, premised on self-awareness, provide a basis for effective relational skills. Self-awareness leading to an awareness of and responsiveness to the needs of others provides a platform on which effective leaders may appropriately humanize the leader– follower relational engagement.

These themes of self-awareness, empathy, and authentic listening were also highlighted by the research participants as they noted important characteristics of effective relational skills. One participant noted that empathetic communication, personal connection, selective vulnerability, and attention to what motivates followers are all critical relational skills.

Other participants emphasized the importance of authentic listening, the importance of a commitment to fairness and equality, the ability to tolerate and accept appropriate differences, the importance of knowing oneself well in order to relate authentically with others, and the embodiment of confidence blended with the ability to see future possibilities and communicate the most appropriate path to get there. Additional practices such as creating a sense of safety and support for followers, demonstrating care and kindness, reinforcing a commitment to the working relationship, and maintaining an open and approachable posture toward followers are also key relational skills that help foster positive leader–follower relationships.

V: CLUSTER 3—HELPING FOLLOWERS NAVIGATE TOWARD EFFECTIVENESS The third grouping of servant leadership practices in the model emphasizes clear communication and the supporting of individuals toward outcomes for which they are accountable. In this third cluster of servant leadership practices, leadership behaviors associated with effective teams include the following: (1) communicating with clarity, (2) supporting and resourcing, and (3) providing accountability. Each of these practices is 25

Bass and Avolio, Improving Organizational Effectiveness.

Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1985).

27 Daniel Goleman, “What Makes A Leader?” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 6 (1998): 92-102.

26

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described in brief, but collectively emphasizes the importance of helping followers navigate toward effectiveness.

Practice 7: Communicating with Clarity It is difficult to overestimate the importance of clear communication on the part of leaders. Although all effective communicators are not necessarily leaders, it is arguable that all effective leaders must be effective communicators. As we move into the third cluster focused on helping followers navigate toward effectiveness, the seventh effective servant leadership practice in the model is communicating with clarity. Most dominantly seen in the analyses as effectively communicating the plans and goals for the organization, research participants note several critical features of effective communication in the leadership role.

Several of the key communication features noted by research participants were honesty, transparency, authenticity, clarity, listening, timeliness, confidence without arrogance, conciseness, regularity and appropriately repetitious, congruence of verbal and nonverbal messages, use of a diverse set of communication media, use of word pictures, saying what you mean and meaning what you say, and not communicating with overly emotionally laden volatile overtones. Leaders who learn to communicate effectively in a variety of contexts and through a variety of communication pathways are helping followers and their organizations navigate toward effectiveness.

Practice 8: Supporting and Resourcing In addition to clear communication, followers also need their servant leaders to practice supporting and resourcing. This leadership behavior is centrally characterized by leaders providing followers with the support and resources they need to meet their goals. Rather than leaders viewing their primary role as driving followers toward production, a commitment to supporting and resourcing allows leaders to focus on serving followers toward their success and being responsive to their needs as they work toward organizational goals. This practice focused on supporting and resourcing captures some of what is included in Kouzes and Posner’s28 theme of enable others to act in their five practices of exemplary leadership.

Leaders take a positive position toward followers, working to remove barriers and build necessary bridges so that followers may thrive in their responsibilities.

On this theme, research participants emphasized the importance of removing barriers, and one participant noted the special importance of being active in the identification of needs, noting that the leader “should be the first to ask ‘what do we need to get the job done’ versus being passive, waiting for requests to come to him/her and then trying to put the requests off as long as possible.” Other participants add that because leaders are in the position to see the best allocation of resources and to draw out the gifting of human resources so that followers are fulfilled in their work, it is important that leaders share explanations with followers regarding how resources are apportioned and when resources are not available for certain needs. One participant’s response captures the essence of this servant leadership behavior noting that leaders carry out this function best when they release power and resources to members to accomplish critical and expected initiatives. If the mission of the community matters, then leaders have the responsibility of providing the support and 28

Kouzes and Posner, The Leadership Challenge.

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resources necessary for followers to work toward their goals in light of this mission.

Practice 9: Providing Accountability The final servant leadership practice included in this model is the leadership behavior of providing accountability. Rather than servant leadership being a weak form of leadership that is disinterested in results, this leadership behavior identified in Irving and Longbotham’s analyses affirms the vital role of holding people accountable for reaching their goals. Arguing the importance of mission accomplishment, Patterson29 argues that pursuing “a mission does not mean . . . that organizations with servant leaders are unsuccessful; quite the contrary is true.” Although servant leadership begins with a focus on followers, a commitment to providing accountability is consistent with a commitment to valuing and developing followers.

As with the leadership practice of communicating with clarity, several research participants reaffirmed the priority of clear communication in the providing of accountability for followers. In contrast to some of the negative examples provided by participants—examples where leaders failed to clearly communicate and then terminated or disciplined employees based on poor performance—there was a unified call to proactive and honest communication around expectations and follower performance. One participant noted, “I prefer honest performance evaluations—those which acknowledge both strengths and growth fronts and clearly set goals that can be reached quarterly and annually.” Another participant similarly noted that, “honest and open communication that is regular and consistent at setting and reaching goals is very effective in developing accountability and building trust.” Another participant notes that “leaders inspect what they expect,” and this is arguably consistent with the leader-love that characterizes a servant leaders commitment to serving the needs of the follower over the needs of the leader. Engaging in direct and honest conversation with followers around outcomes that are important to followers and the organization provides an opportunity for follower development, a tangible factor associated with valuing and developing people.

VI: CONCLUDING THOUGHTS In this reflection, Biblical roots for servant leadership were presented alongside nine core servant leadership practices associated with team effectiveness. The Biblical call to servant-oriented behaviors—a call most dominantly seen in the example and teaching of Jesus—is a call that is not only Biblical, but also is demonstrably effective. As leaders take up the call to walk the servant-oriented pathway of Christ, it is my hope that the model presented and described in this reflection provides practical insights for present and emerging leaders as they seek to implement servant leadership practices in their work with followers, teams, and organizations.

29

Kathleen Patterson, “Servant Leadership: A Theoretical Model,” Dissertation Abstracts International 64, no. 2 (2003): 4.

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About the Author Justin A. Irving, M.Div., Ph.D., serves as associate professor of ministry leadership and director of the Doctor of Ministry Program at Bethel Seminary, a school of Bethel University (St. Paul, Minnesota). His role at Bethel Seminary and with the Center for Transformational Leadership is focused on preparing people for effective leadership in a variety of ministry contexts. He has a special interest in servant and self-sacrificial leadership studies, team leadership, and the research and application of these disciplines in cross-cultural contexts.

More information is available at http://www.irvingresources.com.

Email: j-irving@bethel.edu

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Leadership Styles and Organizational Effectiveness

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Management Styles and Organizational Effectiveness: An Appraisal of Private Enterprises in Eastern Nigeria Nwadukwe, Uche. C Department of Office Management & Technology Federal Polytechnic, Oko, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Court Ogele Timinepere Department of Business Studies, Bayelsa State College of Education, Okpoama, Yenagoa Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Abstract The study investigated Management styles and Organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State of Nigeria. A survey design was adopted in this study. The population of the study consisted of top, middle and lower levels of managers of private enterprises across the eight industrial sectors of Anambra State. A sample of one hundred and twenty nine (129) managers was drawn from the three levels of management of private enterprises from the eight industrial groups. Proportionate Stratified random sampling method was used in the selection of the respondents to ensure fair representation from the three levels of management. The main instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed in a 5-point Likert scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree and excellent to poor. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson product moment correlation statistic. The study found that participative and paternalistic management styles were the predominant management styles in practice, the effectiveness of private enterprises were well above average, there was a relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness. It was concluded that different management styles were adopted in the running of private enterprises depending on the characteristics inherent such firms. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that private enterprises should adopt management styles in tandem with the achievement of set goals, cultural values and organizational peculiarities as there was no one best management style.

Key Words: Management Styles, Organizational Effectiveness, Private Enterprises 1.0 Introduction Organization is an entity set up for a purpose. The raison d’ê​̂ tre for any going concern is to create utility. The satisfaction of customers is by way of creation of goods and delivery of quality service from any enterprise. For enterprises to remain economically viable and virile, they must attain organizational effectiveness particularly in today’s turbulent business environment. Small and medium scales enterprises are seen as an engine to facilitate economic growth of nations.

The Nigerian Government from 1977-1979 formulated an industrial policy to foster the establishment and growth of more small and medium scale enterprises to salvage her economy from recession (Unamka and Ewurum, 1995). Following the establishment of the industrial policy, a wide range of small scale industries sprang up in diverse parts of the country. Anambra State was not left out in the quest for industrialization. The state explored several investment opportunities and was involved virtually in all types of enterprises ranging from transportation, manufacturing and production, electrical and electronics, banking, communication, hotel and tourism, wholesale distribution and others. This really resulted in the creation of more employment opportunities, goods and services, economic growth and improved standard of living.

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The business environment is fraught with encumbrances arising from the fluidity and dynamics of the world economy and the global business environment. The threats and opportunities occasioned by the uncertainties and changes associated with the business environment stifled the growth of a good number of these enterprises while a few were able to weather the economic storms, exploited the opportunities and improved product quality, productivity and profitability in Anambra State. The decline in the performance and effectiveness of these private enterprises have been attributed to the direction and magnitude of the oil price in the international market, monetary and fiscal policy management, managerial skills, management and leadership styles, obsolete equipment employed, supervisor-subordinate relationship, lack of motivation of workers and the like.

Management style is one of the critical antecedents to organizational effectiveness. Management style is simply construed as a way to manage an organization. It is the general approach of a manager in dealing with people at work and exercising of authority over subordinates in an effort to reach organizational goals (Quang, 2002; Hartzell, 2006). In view of organizational effectiveness, Davidmann (1995) opines that the effectiveness of any organization is largely determined by the manner of work co-ordination, level of workers commitment to the entity and the extent to which workers co-operate with one another, management and the community.

There is an avalanche of research conducted with respect to the aforementioned factors responsible for organizational performance over the years. Specifically, such research was conducted in areas of monetary and fiscal policy management and enterprise performance, leadership styles and public enterprises, motivation of workers and organizational performance. However, little or no attention is directed at the management styles and organizational effectiveness of private enterprises. Consequently, this paper is aimed to fill this knowledge gap by providing empirical evidence. In specific terms, this paper seeks to identify the prevalent management styles in private enterprises, assess the organizational effectiveness of private enterprises and determine as to whether management styles adopted has any relationship with the effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State of Nigeria.

2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Management Styles Management style is a managerial parlance often used to describe the how of management. It is a function of behavior associated with personality (McGuire, 2005). Management style can be understood as a way to manage an organization. According to Schleh (1977), management style is “the adhesive that binds diverse operations and functions together”. It is the philosophy or set of principles by which the manager capitalizes on the abilities of the workforce. Management style is not a procedure on how to do but it is the management framework for doing.

A management style is a way of life operating throughout the enterprise and permits an executive to rely on the initiative of the personnel of an entity.

Effective management style is the extent to which a leader continually and progressively leads and directs followers to a predetermined destination agreed upon by the whole group. It is the manner of approach to issues of the managers towards achieving the goals of their organization by transforming various resources available to any organization into output through the functions of management (Field & Dubey, 2001). Khandwalla (1995b) considered management style as the distinctive way in which an organization makes decisions and discharges various functions of goal setting, formulation, implementation of strategy, corporate image building, dealing with key stakeholders and other basic management activities.

2.3 Types of Management Styles Several management styles have evolved hitherto as distinct managers utilized differing approaches in performing responsibilities in the course of their official work. Sequel to the emergence of styles of management, scholars have identified and described a variety of formal styles of management since the 1950’s. Likert (1967) classified four approaches of management that constitute a continuum of participative, paternalistic, exploitative and autocrative, and consultative management style while Burn and Stalker (1961) identified organic and mechanistic styles of management. Furthermore, Minzberg (1973) considered entrepreneurial and strategic planning as forms of management styles adopted by managers in organizational entities. In recent times, commonly exhibited styles of management includes authoritarian, coercive, authoritative, democratic, affiliative, permissive, indifferent, coaching, pacesetting, visionary, bureaucratic and defensive styles of management (Effere, 2005).

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McGuire (2005) explored basic management styles and different managers in the pharmaceutical industry and came up with charismatic, persuasive, consultative, transactional, transformational and delegating styles. A survey was conducted by Worrall (2004) in United Kingdom and found that most managers were bureaucratic and restrictive in their management styles which were not conducive to development of high performance cultures for creativity and innovation to flourish in most organizations. Blandchard (1994) reduced management styles to four basic types. They are directing, supporting, coaching and delegating while Khandwalla (1995b) articulated ten dimensions of management styles such as conservative, participative, bureaucratic, paternalistic, authoritarian, organic, entrepreneurial, visionary, professional and altruistic.

Pascale and Athos (1981) examined the Japanese style of management sequel to the economic success of Japan.

These scholars highlighted that the Japanese management style underscores paternalism, lifetime employment, seniority, lifelong learning, collective decision making, hard work, co-operation ethics, continuous adaptation and improvement. The management style of the American companies differed markedly from Japanese style and it pays attention to core values, high flexible structure, business unit autonomy, interactivity and innovation.

De gens (1997) advocates the adoption of management of tolerance for learning organizations and knowledgebased companies instead of action-oriented management style. Harbison and Myers (1969) classified management styles as autocratic, paternalistic, participative and Laissez-faire while another emerging management style is theory z proposed by William Oluchi.

There are several management styles identified and grouped by different management scholars. It is clearly evident that the classification of management styles is overlapping and homogenous with slight diversity. It is observed that the variation of management styles arises due to differences in the types of business organization, nature of staff of these organizations and settings. This demonstrates that nations have basic management styles with modifications largely due to the influence of cultural distinctions and peculiarities.

2.4 Management Styles and Organizational effectiveness.

Organizations are consciously created to accomplish specific objectives. In realizing set goals, organizations formulate strategies from which organization structures are designed and set targets are achieved. Organizations conduct periodic assessment to ascertain the level of objectives attained. The process of determining the extent of organization’s performance level is called organizational effectiveness (Onwuchekwa, 1999).

The concept of organizational effectiveness is otherwise called organizational success or organizational worth which associates with goal attainment. According to Onwuchekwa (1999), an examination into effectiveness is to evaluate how well an organization is doing in relation to some set standards. Georgopoulos and Tenneubaum (1957) posit that organizational effectiveness is the extent to which an organization as a social system with the resources and means at its disposal fulfils its objectives without incapacitating its means and resources and without placing undue strain upon its members. However, Quang (2002) proposes seven measurement criteria of organizational effectiveness. These measurement criteria are employee’s satisfaction, profitability, growth rate of sales or revenue, financial growth, competitiveness of the company’s products and services, public image and good will and leader in Technology. The measurement criteria postulated by this scholar is quite impressive and cuts across a wide range of issues. It is not restricted to financial performance of any organization as was the case in the past.

The relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness cannot be overemphasized.

Management styles are one of the important factors that affect organizational effectiveness. A good match between the style of management and operating realities of an organization will substantially influence its level of effectiveness. In each organization, management style influences the performance of individual employee and work groups, and thereby the whole organization’s performance.

Culpan and Kucukemirogula (1993) developed a model to study how managers practise the different management styles in work places. The model of these scholars consists of six managerial dimensions for comparing management practices which include leadership/supervisory style, decision-making, communication patterns, control mechanism, interdepartmental relations and paternalistic orientation. The author further attempted to establish a link between management style and organizational effectiveness by comparing United States and Japanese management systems.

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The study found that the American managers underscored supervisory style, decision making and control mechanism while the Japanese were concerned more with communication process, interdepartmental relationship, and a paternalistic approach.

Luthans (2008) articulates that employees perceive the behavior and actions of managers as actions of the organization itself. Employees develop positive attitude towards the organization where the actions of the managers clearly show that employees are part of the organization. Pathack (2005) further affirms that management styles affect the effectiveness and performance of organizations. This management scholar analyzed the impact of management styles on firm performance level and found a strong relationship between management styles and organizational performance.

Consequently, this paper seeks to provide answers to two research questions and test one hypothesis which are presented thus: What is the prevailing management style of private enterprises in Anambra State?

What is the level of performance/effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State?

Ho: There is no significant relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State.

3.3 Methodology The study adopted a survey design which sought to determine the management styles and organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State of Nigeria. The population of the study consisted of top, middle and lower level managers of private enterprises across the eight industrial sectors of Anambra State. A sample of one hundred and twenty nine (129) managers was drawn from the three levels of management of eight private enterprises from the eight (8) industrial groups. Proportionate stratified random sampling procedure was employed in the selection of the respondents to ensure fair representation from the three levels of management and industrial sectors.

The main instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed in a 5-point Likert scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree and excellent, above average, average, below average and poor. The instrument has 24-item subscale to measure the management styles and 7-item subscale to measure the effectiveness of the private enterprises. The measuring instrument was a modification of the model of Culpan, Kucukemuroglu and Quang (1993; 2002) management styles and measurement criteria of organizational effectiveness respectively.

Content validity was determined through the review of the instrument by management scholars and pilot test was conducted to ensure clarity and understandability of the questionnaire. The reliability of the instrument was determined through test-retest method by distributing 20 copies of the instrument to staff of private enterprises in Awka and a repeat administration was done to same staff within a period of one week. The two set of scores were correlated using Pearson product moment statistic yielding a co-efficient of .79, indicating high degree of consistency.

One hundred and twenty nine copies of the data collection instrument were self-administered and all were retrieved from the respondents. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation for the research questions while Pearson product moment correlation was employed to test the hypothesis postulated in the study.

4.0. Results and Discussions Research Question one: What is the management style adopted by private enterprises in Anambra State?

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Table 4.1 Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of management styles adopted by private enterprises in Anambra State.

Management styles Participative Paternalistic Authoritarian Entrepreneural Conservative Bureaucratic Valid N (list wise)

N 129 129 129 129 129 129 129

Mean 4.7597 4.3217 3.9554 3.6415 3.5698 3.4826

Std. Deviation 0.87690 1.07946 0.83177 1.09947 1.14350 1.00107

Rank 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

Source: Researchers’ survey, 2012 Table 4.1 shows the summary statistics of mean, standard deviation, numbers of respondents and the mean ranking of six management styles of private enterprises in Anambra State. The participative management style had the highest mean value of 4.7597 while bureaucratic style of management had the lowest mean value of 3.4826. This implies that participative management style is the predominant style followed by paternalistic management (m= 4.3217), Authoritarian (m=3.9554), Entrepreneural (m=3.6415) and Conservative (m=3.5698).

The mean ranking of the management styles suggest the patriarchal influence on private enterprises in the traditional culture of the people of Eastern Nigeria. The result further demonstrated that members in these enterprises had close relationship as they were mostly relations and friends of the managers. Consequently, most managers run private enterprises on the platform of close and large family ties. However, authoritarian style of management also ranked high in association with entrepreneurial style of management. It implies that family ties notwithstanding, the managers institute some level of discipline among staff to sustain the organization and take risk where necessary to exploit investment opportunities that crop up in the business environment.

The close observation of the Standard deviations further indicated that there is no much variation in the data points except that of participative and authoritarian styles of management which differed from other styles of management. With no much variability in the values of the Standard deviation confirms that the respondents were homogenous in their responses.

Research Question Two: What is the level of organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State?

Table 4.2 Mean Rating and Standard Deviation of organizational Effectiveness of private Enterprises in Anambra State.

Variables/Indicators Employee Satisfaction Financial Strength Public image and goodwill Growth of sales/Revenue Profitability Competitive product/Service Leadership in Technology Overall Organizational Effectiveness

N 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129

Mean 4.2752 4.1356 4.0242 4.0041 4.0021 3.7451 3.4348 3.9458

Std. Deviation 1.2005 .9296 1.5345 1.1813 1.1511 1.3075 1.1156 1.0289

Rank 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Source: Researchers’ Survey, 2012 Table 4.2 demonstrates the summary statistics of mean, standard deviation, numbers of respondents and the ranking of the variables that constitute organizational effectiveness index of private enterprises in Anambra State.

The variables that constitute organizational effectiveness measurement criteria, employee satisfaction had the highest mean rating of 4.2752 while Leadership in Technology had the lowest mean value of 3.4348. This means that all the assessment factors to evaluate the effectiveness of private enterprises were rated above average as the mean scores were above 3 which is the average score in the 5-point continuum. Employee satisfaction had the highest mean value (4.2752), followed by financial strength (4.1356), public image and goodwill (4.0021).In all, the organizational performance of private enterprises in Anambre State had a grand mean of (3.9458) which was well above average. Since the cumulative average of all the measurement factors was 3.94, it is an indication that private enterprises in Anambra State are doing fairly well.

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Test of Hypothesis H0: H1:

There is no significant relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness.

There is a significant relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness.

Table 4.3 Correlation matrix between management styles and organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State.

Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Organizational Effectiveness Conservative management style Entrepreneurial management style Bureaucratic management style Authoritarian management style Participative management style Paternalistic management style

1 1.00

2 .287* 1.00

3 .356* .324 1.00

4 .278* -.266** -.305* 1.00

5 .362* .163 .259** .356** 1.00

6 .471* -.257 -.297 .290* .297* 1.00

7 .378* -211** -.406* -.259 -.237** -.295* 1.00

∗ P ≤ .05; **P ≤ .01 Source: Researchers’ survey, 2012 Table 4.3 displays the correlation matrix between management styles adopted by managers and organizational effectiveness of the various enterprises in Anambra State. A close observation of the correlation co-efficients of the six management styles and organizational effectiveness,there is a weak positive relationship between the management styles and organizational effectiveness. Specifically, participative management style had the highest positive correlation co-efficient (.471) while conservative management style had the least correlation co-efficient.

Although there is a weak and positive form of relationship between management styles and organizational effectiveness, the variables are all statistically significant. Thus, there is a positive significant relationship between conservative management style and organizational effectiveness (r =.287, P < .05); there is a positive significant relationship between entrepreneurial management style and organizational effectiveness (r=.356, P < .05); there is a significant relationship between bureaucratic management style and organizational effectiveness (r=.278, P <.05); there is a positive significant relationship between authoritarian management style and organizational effectiveness (r=.362, P < .05); there is a positive significant relationship between participative management style and organizational effectiveness (r=.471, P < .05) and there is a positive significant relationship between paternalistic management style and organizational effectiveness (r=.378, P < .05). Hence, the prevailing management style adopted reflects the performance level of private enterprises.

5.0 Discussion of Findings The study found that participative management style was predominantly adopted among managers of private enterprises in Eastern Nigeria. The finding suggests that employees of these private enterprises were involved in setting goals, making decisions, solving problems and making changes where necessary in the organizations.

Furthermore, the paternalistic style of management was also widely in practice. This finding had the implication of patriarchal influence on business in the Igbo traditional cultural perspective, particularly in small scale enterprises where a sizable number of relatives and friends to managers constitute the workforce. Consequently, managers and employees work with team spirit in a cordial atmosphere largely due to family ties subsisting in private enterprises. However, there was no singular and exclusive management style practised in all the enterprises. There were shades of management styles adopted alongside participative and paternalistic approaches of management of private enterprises in Anambra State. This finding lends credence to the assertion of Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973) that management styles vary due to firm characteristics such as organization type, size, business purpose, operating environment, corporate culture and heritage.

The study also found that organizational effectiveness dimensions of employee satisfaction, financial strength, public image and goodwill, growth of sales and revenue, profitability, competitive product and service, and leadership in technology were well above average in performance with respect to private enterprises. The overall mean rating was also above average in the organizational effectiveness of private enterprises in Anambra State.

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Vol. 2 No. 9; September 2012

This implies that the encumbrances in the business scenario notwithstanding, the existing private enterprises attain organizational effectiveness in Anambra State. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between conservative management style and organizational effectiveness, entrepreneurial management style and organizational effectiveness, bureaucratic management style and organizational effectiveness, authoritarian management style and organizational effectiveness, participative management style and organizational effectiveness and paternalistic management style and organizational effectiveness. The finding implies that there is an association between management styles adopted and organizational effectiveness of the private enterprises in Anambra State. The finding of the present study is consistent with the propositions of Ogilvie (2000) and Pathack (2005) that management styles adopted substantially influence the performance of individual employees, work groups and organizational effectiveness.

6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations The study concluded that different management styles were adopted in the running of private enterprises depending on the characteristics inherent in such enterprises in Anambra State. Nonetheless, participative and paternalistic management styles were the prevalent approaches and this was a reflection of traits of the people of Eastern Nigeria and close family ties among managers and employees. The study further concluded that management styles practised to a large extent are critical determinants to the level of organizational effectiveness.

Based on the findings of the study, we recommended that private enterprises should adopt management styles in tandem with the achievement of set goals, cultural values and organizational peculiarities of their firms as there is no one best management style. Private enterprises should employ management styles that are people oriented, goal-oriented and task-oriented in order to foster motivation of the workforce, esprit de corps, commitment of employees to goal attainment and increase the effectiveness of private enterprises.

References Blandchard, K. (1994). Leadership and the one minute manager. London: Harper Collins.

Burns, T. & Stalker, G.M (1961). The management of Innovation. London: Tavistock.

Culpan, R and Kucukemuroglu, O. (1993) ‘A Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Management Styles and Unit Effectiveness’, Management International Review, 33 (1).

Davidmann, M. (1995). Styles of Management and leadership, Accessed 8 June, 2009 from http://www.solbaram.org/articles/dm2.html.

De Gens, A. (1997). The Living Company: Habits for survival in Turbulent Environment. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business school press.

Effere P. (2005). Management styles. London: A paper written for Trans-Atlantic College.

Field, S. & Dubey, S. (2001). ‘Leadership styles and Job satisfaction among Human Services workers’. The Indian Journal of social works, 48 (1).

Georgeopoulos, B.S. & Tannenbaum, S. A. (1957). ‘A study of Organizational Efffectiveness’ American Sociological Review,6(8).

Harbison, F. & Myers C. A (1969) Management in the Industrial world: An International Analysis, in Ewurum U. JF (ed) Management and Organizational Performance in Igbo Cultural Perspective, Enugu: Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria Hartzell D. (2006). Dictionary of Management. New Delhi: Academic Publishers Khandwalla, P. (1995b). ‘Effectiveness Management Styles: An Indian Study’ Journal of Euro-Asian management, I (7).

Likert, R. (1967) The Human Organization. New York: McGraw – Hill Inc. Luthans, F, (2008). Organizational Behaviour, Boston: McGraw-Hill Inc. McGuire, R. (2005) ‘Which Management Style to Use’ London: The Pharmaceutical Journal 275 (9) Minzberg, H. (1973) ‘Strategies Making in Three Modes’, California Management Review,3 (16) Ogilvie, J. (2000). ‘The Role of Human Resources Management Practices in Predicting Organizational Commitment’, Group and Organizational Strides, 11.

Onwuchekwa C. I. (1999). Management Theory and Organizational Analysis: A Contegency theory Approach. Enugu: Obio (Nig) Enterprises.

Pascale T. R & Athos A.G. (1981). The Art of Japanese Management. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Pathack, S. H. (2005). ‘Management Style: Impact on subordinates’ Jos Satisfaction. Leadership Quarterly, 11 (2).

Quang, T. (2002) ‘Conflict Management in Joint Ventures’, Transitions, 38 (122) Schleh .E.C. (1977). ‘A Matter of Management Styles’, Management Review, 8.

Tannenbaum .R. & Schmidt. W.H. (1973). ‘How to Choose a Leadership Pattern’, Harvard Business Review Unamka & Ewurum, U.J.F (1995). Business Administration. Enugu: Precision Pointers & Publishers.

Worall, L. (2004). The Business Energy Survey. London: Chartered Management Institute.

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Attachment C

Conflicts Survey

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Conflict-Management Style In this section you will have the opportunity to examine your own conflict-management style and techniques you tend to use in conflict situations, particularly under stress. The exercises that follow will enable you to gain insight in to strategies you might choose to incorporate into your behavior in handling disputes and differences.

Conflict-Management Style Survey* This Conflict-Management Style Survey has been designed to help you become more aware of your characteristic approach, or style, in managing conflict. In completing this survey, you are invited to respond by making choices that correspond with you typical behavior or attitudes in conflict situations.

Section 1: Survey This survey identifies twelve situations that you are likely to encounter in your personal and professional lives. Please study each situation and the five possible behavioral responses or attitudes carefully and then allocate ten points between them to indicate your typical behavior, with the highest number of points indicating you strongest choice. Any response can be answered with from zero to ten points, as long as all five responses for a given situation add up to ten points, as shown in the following example: EXAMPLE SITUATION: In responding to a request from another for help with a problem, you would: 4 A. Clearly instruct him or her how to proceed.

2 B. Enjoy the strategizing and the challenge.

C. Help him or her take responsibility for the problem.

3 1 D. Find it unnerving but agree to help.

0 E. Avoid the invitation at all costs.

10 TOTAL Please choose a single frame of reference (e.g., work-related conflicts, family conflicts, social conflicts) and keep that frame of reference in mind when responding to all the situations.

And remember, as you complete this survey, that it is not a test. There are no right or wrong responses. They survey will be helpful to you only to the extent that your responses accurately represent your characteristic behavior or attitudes.

SITUATION 1: Upon experiencing strong feelings in a conflict situation, you would: _____ A. Enjoy the emotional release and sense of exhilaration and accomplishment. _____ B. Enjoy the strategizing involved and the challenge of the conflict. _____ C. Become serious about how others are feeling and thinking. _____ D. Find it frightening because you do not accept that differences can be discussed without someone’s getting hurt. _____ E. Become convinced that there is nothing you can do to resolve the issue.

TOTAL *Based on Jay Hall’s Conflict Management Survey: A Survey of One’s Characteristic Reaction to and Handling of Conflict Between Himself and Others (The Woodlands, Texas: Telemetrics International 1969)>

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SITUATION 2: Consider the following statements and rate them in terms of how characteristic they are of your personal beliefs: _____ A. Life is conquered by those who believe in winning. _____ B. Winning is rarely possible in conflict. _____ C. No one has the final answer to anything, but each has a piece to contribute. _____ D. In the last analysis, it is wise to turn the other cheek. _____ E. It is useless to attempt to change a person who seems locked into an opposing view.

TOTAL SITUATION 3: What is the best result that you expect from conflict? _____ A. Conflict helps people face the fact that one answer is better than others. _____ B. Conflict results in canceling out extremes of thinking so that a strong middle ground can be reached. _____ C. Conflict clears the air and enhances commitment and results. _____ D. Conflict demonstrates the absurdity of self-centeredness and draws people closer together in their commitment to each other. _____ E. Conflict lessens complacency and assigns blame where it belongs.

TOTAL STIUATION 4: When you are the person with the greater authority in a conflict situation, you would: _____ A. Put it straight, letting the other know your view. _____ B. Try to negotiate the best settlement you can get. _____ C. Ask to hear the otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feelings and suggest that a position be found that both might be willing to try. _____ D. Go long with the other, providing support where you can. _____ E. Keep the encounter impersonal, citing rules if they apply.

TOTAL SITUATION 5: When someone you care for takes an unreasonable position, you would: _____ A. Lay it on the line, telling him or her that you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t like it. _____ B. Let him or her know in casual, subtle ways that you are not pleased; possibly distract with humor; and avoid a direct confrontation. _____ C. Call attention to the conflict and explore a mutually acceptable solution. _____ D. Try to keep your misgivings to yourself. _____ E. Let you actions speak for you by indicating depression or lack of interest.

TOTAL SITUATION 6: When you become angry at a friend or colleague, you would: _____ A. Just explode without giving it much thought. _____ B. Try to smooth things over with a good story. _____ C. Express your anger and invite him or her to respond. _____ D. Try to compensate for your anger by acting the opposite of what you are feeling. _____ E. Remove yourself from the situation.

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SITUATION 7: When you find yourself disagreeing with other members of a group on an important issue, you would: _____ A. Stand by your convictions and defend your position. _____ B. Appeal to the logic of the group in the hope of convincing at least a majority that you are right. _____ C. Explore points of agreement and disagreement and the feelings of the group’s member, and then search for alternatives that take everyone’s views into account. _____ D. Go along with the rest of the group. _____ E. Not participate in the discussion and not feel bound by any decision reached.

TOTAL SITUATION 8: When a single group member takes a position in opposition to the rest of the group, you would: _____ A. Point out publicly that the dissenting member is blocking the group and suggest that the group move on without him or her if necessary. _____ B. Make sure the dissenting member has a chance to communicate his or her objections so that a compromise can be reached. _____ C. Try to uncover why the dissenting member views the issue differently, so that the group’s members can reevaluate their own positions. _____ D. Encourage the group’s members to set the conflict aside and go on to more agreeable items on the agenda. _____ E. Remain silent, because it is best to avoid becoming involved.

TOTAL SITUATION 9: When you see conflict emerging in a group, you would: _____ A. Push for a quick decision to ensure that the task is completed. _____ B. Avoid outright confrontation by moving the discussion toward a middle ground. _____ C. Share with the group your impression of what is going on, so that the nature of the impending conflict can be discussed. _____ D. Forestall or divert the conflict before it emerges by relieving the tension with humor. _____ E. Stay out of the conflict as long as it is of no concern to you.

TOTAL SITUATION 10: In handling conflict between your group and another, you would: _____ A. Anticipate areas of resistance and prepare responses to objections prior to open conflict. _____ B. Encourage your group’s members to be prepared by identifying in advance areas of possible compromise. _____ C. Recognize that conflict is healthy and press for the identification of shared concerns and/or goals. _____ D. Promote harmony on the grounds that the only real result of conflict is the destruction of friendly relations. _____ E. Have your group submit the issue to an impartial arbitrator.

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SITUATION 11: In selecting a member of your group to represent you in negotiating with another group, you would choose a person who: _____ A. Knows the rationale of your group’s position and would press vigorously for your group’s point of view. _____ B. Would see that most of your group’s judgments were incorporated into the final negotiated decision without alienating too many members of either group. _____ C. Would best represent the ideas of your group, evaluate these in view of judgments of the other group, and then emphasize problem-solving approaches to the conflict. _____ D. Is most skillful in interpersonal relations and would be openly cooperative and tentative in his or her approach. _____ E. Would present your group’s case accurately, while not making commitments that might result in obligating your group to a significantly changed position.

TOTAL SITUATION 12: In your view, what might be the reason for the failure of one group to collaborate with another? _____ A. Lack of a clearly stated position, or failure to back up the group’s position. _____ B. Tendency of groups to force their leadership or representatives to abide by the group’s decision, as opposed to promoting flexibility, which would facilitate compromise. _____ C. Tendency of groups to enter negotiations with a win/lose perspective. _____ D. Lack of motivation on the part of the group’s membership to live peacefully with the other group. _____ E. Irresponsible behavior on the part of the group’s leadership, resulting in the leaders’ placing emphasis on maintaining their own power positions rather than addressing the issues involved.

TOTAL Section 2: Scoring Step 1 When you have completed all items in Section 1, write the number of points you assigned for each of the five responses for the twelve situations in the appropriate columns on the scoring form (figure 26). Add the total number of points for each column, then check that the totals for each column add up to 120.

Step 2 Transfer your column total scores onto the form showing the ideal order (figure 27).

Step 3 Transfer the style names, in order of the highest score first, on the figure 28, which shows your order, and then enter the scores in the adjacent blank spaces.

Step 4 Record your scores in the appropriate blanks on the Conflict-Management Styles Scoring Graph (figure 29). (You may wish to refresh your memory by reviewing the material describing the five conflict styles presented earlier in the subsection entitled A Two-Dimensional Model of Conflict.)

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Situation

Response

Response

Response

Response

Response

A

B

C

D

E

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

TOTAL:

120 Figure 26. Scoring form.

STYLE 1. Collaborator 2. Compromiser 3. Accommodator 4. Controller 5. Avoider TOTAL:

Score

(Column C) (Column B) (Column D) (Column A) (Column E)

Figure 27. Ideal order.

Choice 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th TOTAL:

Style

Score

Figure 28. Your order.

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Competing/Controlling is assertive and uncooperative – an individual pursues his or her own concerns at the other person’s expense. This is a power-oriented mode, in which one uses whatever power seems appropriate to win one’s own position – one’s ability to argue, one’s rank, economic sanctions. Competing might mean “standing up for your rights,” defending a position which you believe is correct, or simply trying to win.

Accommodating is unassertive and cooperative – the opposite of competing. When accommodating, an individual neglects his or her own concerns to satisfy the concerns of the other person; there is an element of self-sacrifice in this mode.

Accommodating might take the form of selfless generosity or charity, obeying another person’s order when one would prefer not to, or yielding to another’s point of view.

Avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative – the individual does not immediately pursue his own concerns or those of the other person. He or she does not address the conflict. Avoiding might take the form of diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a threatening situation.

Collaborating is both assertive and cooperative – the opposite of avoiding.

Collaborating involves an attempt to work with the other person to find some solution which fully satisfies the concerns of both persons. It means digging into an issue to identify the underlying concerns of the two individuals and to find an alternative which meets both sets of concerns. Collaborating between two persons might take the form of exploring a disagreement to learn from each other’s insights, concluding to resolve some condition which would otherwise have them competing for resources, or confronting and trying to find a creative solution to an interpersonal problem.

Compromising is intermediate in both assertiveness and cooperativeness. The object is to find some expedient, mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties. It falls on a middle ground between competing an accommodating. Compromising gives up more than competing but less than accommodating. Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding, but doesn’t explore it in as much depth as collaborating. Compromising might mean splitting the difference, exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground position.

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10 9 8 7

• •

Accommodator – 3 (Yield-lose/win) *Score:____________

Concern 5 • •

relationships 4 3 2

• •

• •

Low goal orientation High relationships orientation

6

for

Collaborator – 1 (Win/win) *Score:____________ High goal orientation High relationships orientation

Compromiser – 2 (Mini-win/mini-lose) *Score:____________ Negotiated goal orientation Negotiated relationships orientation

Avoider – 5 (Leave-lose/win) *Score:___________

Controller – 4 (Win/lose) *Score:____________

• •

Low goal orientation Low relationships orientation

High goal orientation Low relationships orientation

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Concern for personal goals

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