BEYOND INDUSTRY A Systems-Based Approach to Collective Form
By Jesse Martyn
ABSTRACT
Globalization and capitalism are resulting in the emergence of more and more urbanized landscapes. As the world becomes increasingly globalized, ports become ideal places for investment and development. Because of its strategic coastal location, Prince Rupert has one of the fastest growing port terminals in North America and is the epicentre for the exploitation of natural resources in Northern British Columbia. As Prince Rupert evolves, peak oil is reached, and non-renewable resources decline, we can imagine a transition toward a renewable resource economy, an influx of renewable resource industries, and an influx of diverse groups of people. Fumihiko Maki’s 1964 Investigations in Collective Form is adapted to act as the guiding framework for this project. Maki’s writing suggests, “Our concern here is not, then, a “master plan,” but a “master program,” since the latter term includes a time dimension. As a physical correlate of the master program, there are “master forms” which differ from buildings in that they, too, respond to the dictates of time. Collective form represents groups of buildings and quasi-buildings—the segment of our cities. Collective form is, however, not a collection of unrelated, separate buildings, but of buildings that have reasons to be together.” 1 Maki’s three major approaches to collective form—compositional form, mega form, and group form—are used as the fundamental base layer for this project. Our relationship with natural resources, industry, the economy, and the environment are complex and constantly in a state of contradiction. This relationship is explored through an understanding of the city as a collective form. Positioning industry as a generator, a systems-based approach to collective form imagines an urbanism through the lens of a form, a strategy, and a program. This project forecasts the future generative potential of industries stimulating the Canadian resource economy, while allowing these industries to productively shape the built environment and the exchanges that occur within it.
1 Fumihiko Maki, Investigations in Collective Form, (Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964), 4-5.
CONTENTS
Abstract List of Figures Acknowledgements Dedication Prologue: A Micropedia Chapter 0: Thesis Statement Part 1 Chapter I: Heading North Chapter II: Prince Rupert [Vancouver Lite] Chapter III: Vestiges Part 2 Chapter I: [New] Artifacts Chapter II: BCC [Blind Carbon Copy] Chapter III: Infradustrial Landscapes Chapter IV: Metabolic Infrastructure Chapter V: Renewable Territories Part 3 Chapter I: Collective Form: A Systems-Based Approach Background Proposal A Form A Strategy A Program Urban Character Chronology Bibliography: A Catalogue of References
ď ś
ii iv viii ix 2 16 22 30 50 68 78 92 102 110 118 122 126 130 134 190 232 246 256
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Figure 1. Economy—Environment Scenario Planning Diagram. 14 Figure 2. Map of 2018 Annual Global Trade Volume. 20 Figure 3. Travel From Vancouver to Prince Rupert. 23 Figure 4. Pie Chart of 2018 Annual Trade Volume by City in Canada. 25 Figure 5. Map of 2018 Annual Trade Volume by City in Canada. 26 Figure 6. Global-to-Local Diagram. 27 Figure 7. Asia—Prince Rupert Trade Routes. 27 Figure 8. Prince Rupert Hays 2.0 Vision (Adapted from: http://www.princerupert.ca/ hays2). 28 Figure 9. Prince Rupert Mind Map. 29 Figure 10. Prince Rupert Zoning 2019. 31 Figure 11. Prince Rupert Timeline. 33 Figure 12. Prince Rupert Trade Diagram. 35 Figure 13. Trans-Pacific Partnership Map. 35 Figure 14. Vancouver Map. 37 Figure 15. Prince Rupert Map. 38 Figure 16. Prince Rupert Ownership Map. 39 Figure 17. 1908 Brett and Hall Town Plan (Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society, 2010, p. 26-27). 40 Figure 18. Early Infrastructure (Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society, 2010, p. 25). 41 Figure 19. Prince Rupert Aerial Photo (Retrieved from: https://www.linkedin.com/ company/school-district-no-52-prince-rupert-/?originalSubdomain=ca). 41 Figure 20. Prince Rupert Town Analysis. 42 Figure 21. Downtown 2nd Avenue West Analysis. 43 Figure 22. Derelict Downtown 1. 43 Figure 23. Derelict Downtown 2. 44 Figure 24. Ridley Island Petroleumscape. 45 Figure 25. Derelict Waterfront With Industry. 45 Figure 26. Post-War Housing Communities. 46 Figure 27. Nature Trails. 46 Figure 28. Waterfront View with Pellet Terminal From Ferry. 47 Figure 29. Waterfront Port Terminal. 47 Figure 30. Waterfront Rail Terminus + Shopping Mall. 48 Figure 31. Waterfront Rail Line. 48 Figure 32. Prince Rupert Vestiges. 49 Figure 33. Resource Connectivity Diagram. 51
Figure 34. Rail Terminus Study. 53 Figure 35. Northland Cruise Terminal Study. 54 Figure 36. Fairview Container Terminal Study. 55 Figure 37. Westview Pellet Terminal Study. 56 Figure 38. Ridley Coal Terminal Study. 57 Figure 39. Skeena Pulp Mill Study. 58 Figure 40. Prince Rupert Grain Terminal Study. 59 Figure 41. North Pacific Cannery Study. 60 Figure 42. Prince Rupert BC Ferry Terminal Study. 61 Figure 43. Prince Rupert Airport (YPR) Study. 62 Figure 44. Local Ratings. 63 Figure 45. Global Ratings. 63 Figure 46. Heritage Ratings. 64 Figure 47. Industry Ratings. 64 Figure 48. Prince Rupert Proposed Vestiges. 65 Figure 49. Map of Prince Rupert Vestiges. 66 Figure 50. BC Resource Networks Map. 69 Figure 51. Oil and Gas Distribution Diagram. 71 Figure 52. Northern BC Carbon Network. 71 Figure 53. Taxonomy of Old Coastal Tropes. 73 Figure 54. Taxonomy of New Coastal Tropes. 74 Figure 55. Industrial Revolutions Timeline. 74 Figure 56. Map of BC Networks and Exports. 75 Figure 57. Europe—Prince Rupert Trade Routes. 76 Figure 58. Prince Rupert Carbon + Boundary Proposals. 77 Figure 59. Canadian Petroleum Matrix. 79 Figure 60. Canada Carbon Timeline. 82 Figure 61. Coal Processing Collage. 83 Figure 62. Gas Processing Collage. 84 Figure 63. Coal Inhabitation Collage. 85 Figure 64. Wind Inhabitation Collage. 86 Figure 65. Coal Inlet Collage. 87 Figure 66. Wind Inlet Collage. 88 Figure 67. Coal Mill Observation Lab. 89 Figure 68. Converted Bioremediation Observation Lab. 90 Figure 69. Global—Local Flows Diagram. 90 Figure 70. A nature trail attached to the Central Electricity Board’s 400KV Pelham substation, situated on the boarders of Essex and Hertfordshire, England. Where industry contributes ecological, productive, or community benefits to the landscape it uses (Hough, 1990, p. 142). 91 Figure 71. Glaziers Wagons at the Crystal Palace (Bergdoll, 2000, p. 211). 93 Figure 72. Ford Motor Company, Press Shop, 1938, Dearborn, Michigan, Albert Kahn (Hyde, 1996, p. 18). 95 Figure 73. Ford Motor Company, Craneway in Six-Story Building, 1914, Highland Park, Michigan, Albert Kahn (Hyde, 1996, p. 13). 95
Figure 74. New Forms in Old Landscapes. Regional power grids and other urban technologies have radically altered former perceptions of what is urban and rural (Hough, 1990, p. 123). 97 Figure 75. Landscapes of Power. The technologies that support the city have spread into the larger landscape (Hough, 1990, p. 122). 97 Figure 76. Field Conditions, Stan Allen (Allen, 1999, p. 98). 99 Figure 77. Settlement Patterns. 100 Figure 78. Topology Patterns. 100 Figure 79. Approaches to Collective Form; Compositional Form, Megaform, Group Form (Maki, 1964, p. 6). 103 Figure 80. Two Types of Megaform; Hierarchical Structure, and Open-Ended Structure (Maki, 1964, p. 12). 103 Figure 81. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 1. To Mediate (Maki, 1964, p. 37). 105 Figure 83. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 3. To Repeat (Maki, 1964, p. 39). 105 Figure 85. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 5. To Select (Maki, 1964, p. 42). 105 Figure 82. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 2. To Define (Maki, 1964, p. 38). 105 Figure 84. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 4. To Make a Sequential Path (Maki, 1964, p. 41). 105 Figure 86. The Axes of Postmodern Urbanism (Ellin, 1999, p. 155). 107 Figure 87. Experimental Utopia Collage. 109 Figure 88. Port Ownership Diagram. 111 Figure 89. Industry Phasing Diagram. 113 Figure 90. Pipeline Phasing Diagram. 113 Figure 91. Coal Mill Phasing Diagram. 114 Figure 93. Waterfront Nodes. 114 Figure 92. Pellet Terminal Phasing Diagram. 114 Figure 94. Ridleyville Nature + Architecture Collage. 115 Figure 95. Agriculture + Transportation Collage. 115 Figure 96. Wood Manufacturing + Public Recreation Collage. 116 Figure 97. Biomass Theatre + Seawall Collage. 116 Figure 98. Project Map. 120 Figure 99. National Resource Networks. 121 Figure 100. Prince Rupert Networks Model. 123 Figure 101. Predicted Boom + Demographic Shift. 124 Figure 102. A Form Parti. 132 Figure 103. Existing City Networks. 138 Figure 104. New Transportation Networks. 140 Figure 105. New Program Networks. 142 Figure 106. Old Town. 143 Figure 107. New City. 144 Figure 108. Urban Phasing. 148 Figure 109. District + Superblock Development. 150 Figure 110. Industry as Activator. 151 Figure 111. Existing Industry Nodes 1. 155 Figure 112. Existing Industry Nodes 2. 156
Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157.
New Industry Nodes. Nodal Development. North End Zone. Industrial Spine - Rupert’s Landing. Central Zone. Industrial Spine - The Exchange. Merger Zone. Industrial Spine - Gantry Split. Hillside Zone. Industrial Spine - Timber Town. South End Zone. Industrial Spine - Ridleyville. South Point Zone. Resource Connectivity Matrix. Resource Flows Diagram. Resource-Based Districts. Coastal Industry Nodes. Exchange Diagram - Ridleyville. Ridleyville. Exchange Diagram - Cultivation Cove. Cultivation Cove. Exchange Diagram - Timber Town. Timber Town. Exchange Diagram - Lager’s Edge. Lager’s Edge. Exchange Diagram - Gantry Split. Gantry Split. Exchange Diagram - The Exchange. The Exchange. Exchange Diagram - Rupert’s Landing. Rupert’s Landing. Exchange Diagram - Marine Mile. Marine Mile. Exchange Diagram - The Runway. The Runway. New Prince Rupert Exchanges. Clustered Communities - Timber Town. Superblock Infill. Waterfront - The Exchange. Industrial Spine - Ridleyville Industrial Spine - Marine Mile. Mountain Perspective - Collective Form. Chronology. Project Thumbnails. Project Presentation.
157 160 161 163 165 167 169 171 174 175 178 179 182 185 187 188 191 193 195 197 199 201 203 205 207 209 211 213 215 217 219 221 223 225 227 230 233 235 237 239 241 243 247 251 254
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I’d like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members. My Chair, John Bass, for always pushing me to think more critically about each decision I make and its larger implications; for seeing my vision even when I could not. Alastair, for the optimism, breadth of ideas, and rigorous attention to detail. Roy, for the encyclopedia of knowledge + references, and for encouraging + emphasizing the importance of relational thinking. Tracey, for always being on the ball and knowing exactly where the gaps and opportunities lie in my project. Thanks to Julie for all the support and the consistently thoughtful sage advice. Thanks to all the friends, family, teachers, colleagues, and classmates who have been a part of this journey. Thanks to the Rupertites who welcomed me and graciously dedicated their time to candidly speak with me.
ď ¸
DEDICATION
For my mother, whose constant DIY home renovations gave me no choice but to pursue a career in architecture. This project was completed during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, I would like to dedicate this project to the essential service workers who kept our lives afloat during this time. In particular, the marine pilots, railroaders, seafarers, ship owners, terminal workers, and truck drivers who were putting their lives at risk on a daily basis to support global trade and the Canadian economy.
ď ¸ď Š

PROLOGUE
A Micropedia

A
A crisis for an urban metropolis.
B
Brain Gain
Binge Economy A Phenomenon resulting from the influx of highly skilled workers. Often caused by an abundance of industrial revenue and an abundance of opportunities for highly skilled workers. A blessing for a developing urban metropolis.
Consumption embedded in daily rhythms of work, in the cultural construction of gender, and the economy. Emerging in extractive industries on the margins of the capitalist world. A way to build social order which allows workers to survive harsh work discipline, dangerous physical labour, and the socially corrosive nature of money. 1 Excessive consumption serving the interests of capital.
C Capitalism
Bioregionalism
An economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. The domination of labour by capital. A class of capitalist in command of work process, organizing that process for a profit. The labourer and labour power as a commodity that can be sold on the market. Accumulation as the means whereby the capitalist class reproduces both itself and its domination over labour. 3 A source of greed and wealth that drives the economy through accumulation and class struggle.
Activity restricted to distinct ecological and geographical regions. Political, cultural, and ecological perspectives on naturally defined bioregions. The human processes in a region as an extension of a place’s natural characteristics. Brain Drain
Climate Change
A Phenomenon resulting from the exodus of highly skilled workers. Often caused by a lack of industrial revenue and opportunities for highly skilled workers. 2
A real phenomenon impacting the future
1 Richard Wilk, “Poverty and Excess in Binge Economies”, 2014, 66. 2 Pier Vittorio Aureli, Labor and Architecture: Revisiting Cedric Price’s Potteries Thinkbelt, (New York: Anyone Corporation Publishing, 2011), 110.
3 David Harvey, “The Urban Process Under Capitalism: A Framework for Analysis”, 1981, 110111.
D
of our planet as a result of neglect and over-consumption of carbon. Resulting in global warming, coastal erosion, rising sea levels, and ultimately the destruction of earth.
Dystopia
Coastal
The land near a shore. Susceptible to erosion and rising sea levels. The meeting point of land and sea. Ideal for ports.
An (un)imagined state of society in which there is great suffering or injustice. Typically, one that is totalitarian or post-apocalyptic. The accepted future of today should we remain complacent about climate change and the exploitation of resources.
Commodity
E Economy
An economic good. Coal, pulp, wood, grain, energy, brains, people, resources.
The structure or conditions of economic life in a country, area, or period. A system especially of interaction and exchange. The driving influence of a prosperous global settlement.
Community Hub
A place in which a diverse group of people with the same characteristics in common can occupy. A social condenser with free-space for people and things.
Experimental Urbanism
Critical Regionalism
Settlements as experiments. Inherent complexity, fragility and instability at all levels make settlements susceptible to catastrophe and require diversity and experimentation to be robust over time. Unstable environments are primed for experimentation. 5 A necessary process to advance the field of architecture and urbanism in an ever-evolving world.
Mediates the impact of universal civilization with elements derived indirectly from the peculiarities of a place. 4 Designing of the built environment with an emphasis on regional specificity. 4 Kenneth Frampton, “Towards a Critical Regionalism”, 21.
5 Erick Villagomez, “Experimental Urbanism”, 2013, para 7, 10.
Extrastatecraft
Globalization
Designing action and interplay as well as designing objects. Infrastructure space. The often-undisclosed activities outside of, in addition to, and sometimes even in partnership with statecraft 6 (statecraft as the skillful management of state affairs). F
The worldwide diffusion of practices. Expansion of relations across continents, organization of social life on a global scale, and growth of a shared global consciousness. The central issue is the relationship between the highly interrelated topics of homogeneityheterogeneity and the global-local. 8
Futurism
Glocalization
Glorified modernity, technology, and ideas of the future. Origins in 1909 Italy. 7 An attempt to systematically explore predictions and possibilities about the future and how they can emerge from the present.
Emphasizes the integration of the global and the local and involves far more heterogeneity than homogeneity. Results in unique outcomes in different geographic areas. Individuals and groups as important creative agents. Subject to globalizing processes, these individuals and groups are not likely to be overwhelmed by them. Rather, they are likely to modify and adapt them to their own needs and interests. 9
G Geopolitics
Grobalization Politics and international relations relating to geography. The inherent value and opportunity of a physical place. International politics. See Pipeline and Trans-Pacific Partnership.
The imperialistic ambitions of nations, corporations, organizations, and their desire to impose themselves on various geographic areas. Interested in seeing power and profits grow throughout
6 Keller Easterling, Extrastatecraft: The Power of Infrastructure Space, (New York: Verso, 2016), 3. 7 Edward Denison, 30-Second Architecture: The 50 Most Significant Principles and Styles in Architecture, Each Explained in Half a Minute, (UK: The Ivy Press, 2013), 96.
8 George Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society: Revised New Century Edition, (London: Pine Forge Press, 2004), 162. 9 Ritzer, 163.

the world. Social processes as largely unidirectional and deterministic. Forces flow from the global to the local, and little possibility of the local having any significant impact on the global. Grobalization overpowers the local and limits the ability of the local to act and react, let alone to act back on the grobal. 10
anything real. 11 Much of the postmodern landscape has been described as ‘hyperreal’. I Industry
H Heritage
A distinct group of productive or profitmaking enterprises. A disruption to the local, often as a result of the global. Economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials and manufacturing of goods.
Something possessed as a result of one’s natural situation or birth. Valorization of existing forms or ideals through perceived symbolic and embedded meaning.
Industrial Landscape
Hybrid The concentration of industrial processes in one place and their direct connections to urban areas. 12 The technologies that support the city spread into the larger landscape. Industrial expansion in the 19th century followed the railway lines and coalfields. Today, it runs along roads and power lines. Travel, electronic communications, industry, power generation and distribution, television towers, and other urban-based technologies have become part of rural landscapes. Electrical utility lines and gas + oil pipelines travel miles of terrain from their points of origin to their destination points of consumption in cities. 13
The combination of two or more things that produce a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. 1 + 1 = greater than 2. Hyperreal
Efforts at contextualism and preservation engaged in inventing a history or revalorizes it and idealizes selected earlier periods. Once the intervention of tradition goes beyond a certain point, it produces ‘hyperreal’ environments which must be fake in order to be better than
11 Nan Ellin, Postmodern Urbanism, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 162-163. 12 Michael Hough, Out of Place: Restoring Identity to the Regional Landscape, (New York: Yale University Press, 1990), 122. 13 Hough, 122-123.
10 Ritzer, 165.
Industrial Revolution
not distanced commentary or critique. A way of working at a large scale that escapes suspect notions of master planning and the heroic ego of the individual architect. A return to instrumentality and a move away from the representational imperative. 14 Architecture’s ability to deal with infrastructural problems such as territory, communication, and speed.
A transition to new manufacturing processes and technologies that has direct impacts on society and the economy. Four Industrial Revolutions have occurred to date: 1.0 - 1764: Mechanization, steam power, weaving loom. 2.0 - 1870: Mass production, assembly line, electrical energy. 3.0 - 1969: Automation, computers and electronics. 4.0 - Today: Cyber physical systems, internet of things, networks.
J K L Local
Infrastructure Of, relating to, or characteristic of a place. Not general or widespread. Uninfluenced by globalization. Relating to heritage. Often glamorized for its purity. The opposite of global.
The system of public works of a country, state, or region. The resources (such as personnel, buildings, or equipment) required for an activity. A medium for extrastatecraft. A network of visible or invisible systems that enable something larger. A system which links resources with people and the environment.
Locale
A place where something happens, is set, or that has events associated with it. A place or locality especially when viewed in relation to an event or characteristic. A (fictional) setting.
Infrastructural Urbanism
M
A model for practice and renewed sense of architecture’s potential to structure the future city. Architecture as material space—an activity that works in and among the world of things. An architecture dedicated to concrete proposals and realistic strategies of implementation and
14 Stan Allen, Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 52.
Material Practices
Metabolism
Organizes and transforms aggregates of labour, materials, energy, and resources. Material practices work through mediated procedures such as operations of drawing and projection, leaving their trace on the work. Material practices deploy an open catalog of techniques without preconceived formal ends. They do not control or predetermine meaning. They are not about expression, but rather condense, transform, and materialize concepts. 15
The fusing of megastructures with organic growth. The city as a process. 17 Distinction between the permanent and the transient. The city as a living organism consisting of elements with different metabolic cycles. An organic growth of networks and infrastructure that connect land with sky and water. N Networks
Megastructure Conduits for transportation, communication, or utilities. Associated with infrastructure. Organized through linear, multi-centred, radial, serial, or parallel topologies. A linear network connects successive points along a line. In a radial network, a single central point controls the flow of information. A parallel network is an open mesh. 18
A large frame in which all functions of a city or part of a city are housed. Ideal cities intended to house somebody else’s Utopias—the new Utopias of the Futurologists. 16 Any structural framework into which rooms, houses, or other small buildings can later be installed, uninstalled, and replaced. Capable of ‘unlimited’ extension. This type of framework allows a structure to adapt to individual wishes of its inhabitants, even as those wishes change.
Node
Switches. An interchange in a highway network. A dam in a hydrological network. A terminal in a transit network. An earth station in a satellite network. An internet service provider in a broadband network. 17 Zhongjie Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan, (London; New York: Routledge, 2010), 2. 18 Easterling, 77.
15 Allen, 53. 16 Reyner Banham, Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), 80.
Pipeline
“They establish potentials. They may suppress or redirect. The switch may generate effects some distance down the line. It is a remote control of sorts— activating a distant site to affect a local condition or vice versa. Exceeding the reach of a single object form, the switch modulates a flow of activities.” 19
A way to bring oil and liquefied natural gas from Alberta to Prince Rupert. A part of Canada’s carbon corridor from land to sea. The Northern Gateway pipeline was quashed by the Federal Government in 2014. A network to bring local resource extraction to the global economy.
Northern Passage
Port
Global trading systems having the ability to move north due to advancements in technology and receding ice, reducing shipping time and expense from Europe to Canada. More open and safe access to the Northwest Passage above Canada, and the Northern Sea Route above Russia are becoming a reality. Using these northern routes, Prince Rupert is estimated to be 9-12 days sailing time closer to Europe than existing trade routes.
A town or city with a harbor. A place that facilitates trade, commerce, and binge economies. A place often characterized by coastal tropes. A place ripe for investment and growth. A place influenced by the local and the global. Coastal in geographic location. A place of opportunity.
O
Pulp Mill
P Pacific Rim
A symbol of a once prosperous economy. An indicator of resources. More symbolic than literal. A manifestation of an idea. A place that contains people and labour.
A sea of connectivity between countries. A high volume of trade through the Pacific Ocean that far exceeds that of the Atlantic. The Pacific Age. See TransPacific Partnership
Prince Rupert
A melting pot of new and old (humans and resources). A dystopia and a utopia. A place of anguish and opportunity. A global city of the future.
19 Easterling, 75.
Q
for globalization. A natural way of living in a commodified world.
R
Trans-Pacific Partnership
Resource
Trade agreement between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and the United States signed on February 4, 2016. A vehicle for trade in a capitalist economy.
A natural source of wealth or revenue. Something to be exploited. See commodity. S T
Trope
Terminus
A final point in space or time. An end or extremity. Often associated with transportation infrastructure. An origin point for Prince Rupert. A symbol of hope while also a means to an end.
Historical-spatial configurations that have given rise to ways of seeing and knowing spaces. A stereotypical way of shaping our understanding of places and people that reside in these places. Clichés often associated with coastal communities.
Topology
U Utopia
Intuitive markers of disposition in an organization. They can be assemblies of multipliers and switches. Related to extrastatecraft.
A (real) place or state of things in which everything is perfect. Visionary or improbable. A fetishized vision of the future where all our problems no longer exist. See Prince Rupert.
Trade
The business of buying and selling or bartering commodities. An important process in a capitalist society. A vehicle
V
Y
Vancouverite
Z
A west coast human that thrives on urbanity while still indulging in the preciousness of nature. Someone seeking culture and entertainment. Typically residing in, but likely not from, Vancouver, BC. Vancouver Lite
‘Second-tier’ B.C. cities like Prince Rupert become ‘Vancouver Lite’ by highlighting features like universities and cultural events people in the Lower Mainland are hesitant to give up. 20 A migrant to Northern BC from urban centres like Vancouver. Vernacular
Of, relating to, or characteristic of a period, place, or group. Architecture without architects. Architecture that emerges naturally in response to climate, geology, and culture of a place. See critical regionalism. W X 20 Andrew Kurjata, “Advice for B.C. cities trying to entice Vancouverites northward: become ‘Vancouver-Lite’”, 2017, para 19.
Figure 1. Economy—Environment Scenario Planning Diagram.
CHAPTER 0
Thesis Statement
This project seeks to envision how the city can develop through a responsive urbanism shaped by the industries that stimulate the local and global economy. This will be explored through a Systems-Based Approach to Collective Form. Urban society is “a dynamic field of interrelated forces,” 1 and as such, this proposal positions the architect as a mediator. It proposes approaches not as fixed solutions, but as possibilities for how a place can evolve in response to shifting geopolitical and socioeconomic values. This project suggests ways in which an urbanism can develop and adapt to support these shifts, highlighting the need for the designer to consider cycles and transformations. Post-war carbon economies can transition towards renewable resource economies as a catalyst for diversification and the growth of Prince Rupert as a collective city. Our relationship with natural resources, industry, the economy, and the environment are complex and constantly in a state of contradiction. This relationship is explored through an understanding of the city as a collective form. This project forecasts the future generative potential of industries stimulating the Canadian resource economy, while allowing these industries to productively shape the built environment and the exchanges that occur within it
1 Fumihiko Maki, Investigations in Collective Form, (Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964), 3.
Figure 2. Map of 2018 Annual Global Trade Volume.
PART 1
CHAPTER I
Heading North
Figure 3. Travel From Vancouver to Prince Rupert.
“It was a bright day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”
- George Orwell
We are approaching a time when the pristine shoreline of Stanley Park and the beloved Vancouver Seawall could very well be reduced to a neglected landscape of coastal erosion and flooding due to sea level rise. Global warming and the immediate impacts of carbon economies, such as diluted bitumen spills, are nudging us toward a climactic state of emergency. We are on the precipice of a transitional period away from carbon economies and the exploitation of natural resources, and into a renewable future. We can imagine designers approaching these issues holistically and expanding their roles in search of opportunities to intervene in the complex networks and systems of extraction and consumption that exist today. These bounds can extend architecture’s reach outward to engage landscape, urbanism, infrastructure, ecology, and politics. In order to think holistically about the larger environmental issues facing us today the architect can readily accept this role as an agent looking for synergies between old and new systems, exploring how they can expose opportunities for overlap and cross-pollination between seemingly independent heterogeneous stakeholders. The old fishing town of Prince Rupert is in the process of being eroded by globalization through the rapid growth of its port and ease of access to the global market. In the early 1900s a visionary explorer named Charles Hays had a modern vision of Prince Rupert as a global port metropolis. Unfortunately, his vision was not realized as he tragically died on the RMS Titanic in 1912. Hays’s memory lives on for Rupertites through the
Saguenay (0.5%) Port Alberni (0.5%) Nanaimo (1%) Saint John (1%) .5%) Toronto (1 (1.5%) ivières Trois-R sor (2%) Wind %) e (2
n edu
(2%
)
( ay rB de
) 3%
nO
Bell
un lto
sh
lifa
hn’s
Th mi
Ha
Jo St.
Ha
aw a( 4%
)
x (6
%) Vancouver (39%)
Sept-Îles (7%)
Quebec (8%)
Montreal (12%)
Prince Rupert (12%)
Figure 4. Pie Chart of 2018 Annual Trade Volume by City in Canada.
newly adopted Hays 2.0 strategic plan. 1 This reincarnated plan, adapted from the 1912 vision, promotes economic resilience, protecting the natural environment, and working together to collectively enhance the quality of life. This plan is positioned as being predominantly driven by inclusivity and diversity. Foreign investment in trade and a ‘Hail Mary’ pass from Prince Rupert Port Authority CEO Don Krusel has instilled a sense of hope in Prince Rupertites. 2 He welcomed the global economy to the port through international trade, and Prince Rupert has become one of the fastest growing ports in North America. Trade in Prince Rupert has sky-rocketed since Asian investors learnt that shipping goods there could be up to three-days quicker than Vancouver shipping time. As a result, the port of Prince Rupert has been transformed into an intermodal trade hub with the epicentre located at the Fairview Container Terminal just south of the city-centre. In 2019 Prince Rupert was facing $352 million in deficits. This astronomical figure can be accounted for through mandatory and necessary improvements: 1 City of Prince Rupert, “Hays 2.0 Vision Statement”, 2018, para 1. 2 Andrew Kurjata, “‘A Hail Mary pass’: how the Port of Prince Rupert became a player in the world of global trade”, 2017, para 14.
Prince Rupert (12%)
St. John’s (2%) Saguenay (0.5%)
Port Alberni (0.5%) Nanaimo Vancouver (1%) (39%)
Belledune (2%)
Sept-Îles (7%)
Thunder Bay (3%)
Quebec City (8%) Trois-Rivières (1.5%) Montreal (12%)
Windsor (2%)
Saint John (1%)
Halifax (6%)
Toronto (1.5%) Hamilton (4%)
Figure 5. Map of 2018 Annual Trade Volume by City in Canada.
Mandatory:
-
Necessary:
-
RCMP loan: $30 million Landfill cell upgrades: $10 million Waste water treatment: $175 million Water supply: $25 million
A new fire hall: $15 million Wooden bridges: $18 million Airport ferry: $12 million Roads and sidewalks: $67 million 3
These infrastructure challenges require the digging-up of all roads in the municipality. This provides a perfect opportunity to rethink the infrastructure of Prince Rupert. With the city expected to grow and the infrastructure needing replacement, infrastructural urbanism can be viewed as a profitable venture that could help with the deficit long term 3 City of Prince Rupert, “Hays 2.0 Vision Statement”, 2018, para 7.
Figure 6. Global-to-Local Diagram.
Figure 7. Asia—Prince Rupert Trade Routes.
while allowing the city to undergo urban reform. This paves the way for infrastructural opportunism as a strategy for planned growth through a set of systematic interventions at the scale of the territory rather than at the scale of the building. The challenges that led to such poor conditions in Prince Rupert were a result of:
-
An over-reliance on resource industries Population decline Staff and services cuts due to a lack of capacity No major asset management plan Extensive and expensive infrastructure repairs 4
In the future, Vancouverites could flood into this community and bring with them a brain gain in Prince Rupert. This could lead to the emergence of Prince Rupert as the new Vancouver Lite, opening the door for reformed socioeconomic models that more holistically engage with industries driving the economy.
4 City of Prince Rupert, para 7.
Figure 8. Prince Rupert Hays 2.0 Vision (Adapted from: http://www.princerupert.ca/hays2).

Figure 9. Prince Rupert Mind Map.
CHAPTER II
Prince Rupert [Vancouver Lite]
Figure 10. Prince Rupert Zoning 2019.
“Buy the ticket, take the ride”
- Hunter S. Thompson
Campaigns in Northern British Columbia cities have enticed Vancouverites to move north to more affordable living. It is the lack of entertainment, culture, and amenities that are causing resistance amongst young people to move north. 1 Rising costs of living left young professionals wanting a future without debt no choice but to move elsewhere. With rising temperatures due to global warming, Northern BC is becoming more desirable. As a result, places like Prince Rupert are ripe for transformation into urban hubs that connects the global world with the local community. Mayor Bob Simpson of the city of Quesnel claims “People are struggling with the affordability issue [in Vancouver]. They’re struggling with an unbalanced lifestyle... We’ve got a story to tell where all of that is accessible.” 2 What grants Prince Rupert its potential over other Northern BC communities is its coastal location and accessibility to the global economy. The municipality of Prince Rupert is comparable to the geographic size of Vancouver, with much less density, making it highly capable of becoming Vancouver Lite. In 2019, for Vancouverites, moving to a different province or country was recorded as more desirable than moving to Northern BC. 3 Millennials are looking for the excitement of a vibrant city. Thus, radical interventions could be the answer to building 1 Andrew Kurjata, “Advice for B.C. cities trying to entice Vancouverites northward: become ‘VancouverLite’”, 2017, para 19. 2 Andrew Kurjata, para 12. 3 Andrew Kurjata, para 16.
Figure 11. Prince Rupert Timeline.
a desirable hub in Northern BC. “Now is the absolute opportune time for cities [like Prince Rupert] to say, ‘You know what? We’re actually a city too. We’re still in BC and we actually offer a lot of good value.’” 4 Prince Rupert is in Northern BC as part of the North Coast region. It’s a small coastal town that is home to about 13,000 residents and a municipal boundary of 103 km 2. This town was originally a settlement dependent on fishing, forestry, and its port; it became an important rail terminus for both leisure travel and trade. 5 Surrounded by a beautiful natural scenic landscape, this town is becoming an off-the-beaten path tourist destination and stopover on the way to Alaska. 4 Andrew Kurjata, para 24. 5 City of Prince Rupert, “About Prince Rupert”, 2018, para 8.
This fishing town was established in 1910. Soon after, the pulp mill and canneries opened, and it was declared the halibut capital of the world. In the 1940s the town saw many war supplies pass through as well as an influx of people, predominantly soldiers, increasing the population temporarily to 21,000. 6 In the 1960s the airport opened, as well as the Alaska to BC ferry terminals. By the 1990s industry declined and the population and economy dropped quite substantially. During this time the rail terminus was declared a national historic site. In 2005, there was an economic boost as the pulp mill reopened, a new cruise ship dock was completed, and construction began on the new container port. Unfortunately, the pulp mill 6 City of Prince Rupert, para 14.

Figure 12. Prince Rupert Trade Diagram.
Figure 13. Trans-Pacific Partnership Map.
closed for good in 2001, and the main source of economic stability was lost. In 2019 population began to rise as the container port expanded and provided more employment. The Jasper to Prince Rupert train line keeps the rail terminus history active. As the container port expanded and continued its success the economy has continued to improve. However, according to local accounts Prince Rupert is still a miserable place to live with a high unemployment rate. 7 The container port was a lastditch effort by the Port Authority to contact Asian investors to announce that this new intermodal hub would cut shipping time to and from Vancouver by three full days. A fast and efficient rail, road, and ship transportation hub made this possible. What brings visitors to Prince Rupert is the beautiful natural landscape that surrounds the city. There are hikes along Butze Rapids Park, a grizzly bear sanctuary at Khutzeymateen Provincial Park, and several whale-watching tours. One can even get a glimpse of Alaska in the distance. Visitors often move through Prince Rupert on their way to Alaska. While these are wonderful attractions, Prince Rupert is the wettest municipality in Canada with a marine climate that results in plenty of rain, and minimal snow. It also contains the lowest amount of annual sunshine in Canada. As the slogan in Prince Rupert goes, there is "100 days of sunshine". This is a glorified way of stating the municipality only receives a total of 1,230 annual hours of sunshine per year. The Skeena Pulp Mill was sold and recently demolished, and the site is being rebuilt as Watson Island Intermodal Trade and Logistics Park—a propane logistics facility. 8 This ‘Logistics Park’ is owned by Pembina, a pipeline developer, or more lavishly described as an ‘energy infrastructure company’. 9 This forecasts the future of carbon and its continued relationship with Prince Rupert and British Columbia. The Ridley Coal Mill was recently sold by the Federal Government to a private company for $350 million. 10 The Fairview Container Terminal has plans for larger expansion, projecting Prince Rupert’s growth as a global economy dependent on resource extraction and trade. The Federal government could very likely approve a pipeline from Alberta to Prince Rupert. As carbon remains an important driver of the local economy, the ‘Logistics Park’ on Watson Island could expand to scale-up the exporting of coal to Asian markets. The Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP) could be ratified, and we may usher in a new Pacific Age. This agreement would bring twelve countries into endless trade possibilities. The TPP is a trade agreement between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and the United States that was signed on February 4, 2016 but failed to be implemented. It would create an environment of rapid trade along the Pacific Rim. The TPP is a vehicle for trade in a capitalist economy serving as grounds for development in Prince Rupert.
7 Local Wanderer, “Prince Rupert Travel Guide: A Perfect Weekend in Northern BC”, 2018, para 23. 8 North Coast Review, “City’s latest Watson Island video provides city’s view of the timeline for Pembina LPG terminal work”, 2018, para 2. 9 Andrew Kurjata, “The City of Prince Rupert, B.C., was forced to own an island it didn’t want; now it’s starting to pay off ”, 2017, para 7. 10 The Canadian Press, “Feds sell majority stake in B.C.’s Ridley Terminals for $350 million”, 2019, para 1.
Vancouver Population: Vancouver Municipal Boundary:
675,218 137 km²
Figure 14. Vancouver Map.
Prince Rupert Population: Prince Rupert Municipal Boundary:
12,220 103 km²
Figure 15. Prince Rupert Map.
Figure 16. Prince Rupert Ownership Map.
What makes the economic scenario especially problematic in Prince Rupert is the port’s relationship to the local community. Most of Prince Rupert is municipally owned land, however, almost all the land along the coast is federally, provincially, or privately owned. This creates a scenario in which the main economic drivers of the community are in fact not investing back into the local economy. The Federal Government leases their land along the coast to the Port Authority, and the Port Authority rents the land to each industry as their tenants. Thus, the Port Authority is somewhat autonomous and need not follow the rules of the local municipality. The port and its industries are rapidly growing and requiring more workers, so in turn locals are flocking to these opportunities as they are typically higher paying wages than local jobs within the community. This has resulted in a derelict town in which most of the downtown storefronts are abandoned and decrepit with local businesses often failing. The city is quite run down and in need of major rejuvenation. The contradiction here is that there are not enough workers in Prince Rupert to fulfill all the positions that are available at the port, so workers come from out of town. Workers from out of town often do not stay because the city can’t maintain the quality of life they are looking for, especially for the younger generation. What we see here is a paradox in which the port is booming but the town is busting because there is negligible reinvestment in the community from the port industries. Thus, the city has seen industries come and go as opportunities arise and diminish. The economy has been quite unstable because of this, leaving gaps between the port and the community. The integration of the port with the local community could be a way to merge the two and look for potential synergies between the global and the local. There are opportunities for the global reach of these industries to become more homogenous with the local community.
Figure 17. 1908 Brett and Hall Town Plan (Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society, 2010, p. 26-27).
Figure 18. Early Infrastructure (Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society, 2010, p. 25).
Figure 19. Prince Rupert Aerial Photo (Retrieved from: https://www.linkedin.com/company/schooldistrict-no-52-prince-rupert-/?originalSubdomain=ca).

Figure 20. Prince Rupert Town Analysis.
Figure 21. Downtown 2nd Avenue West Analysis.
Figure 22. Derelict Downtown 1.
Figure 23. Derelict Downtown 2.
Figure 24. Ridley Island Petroleumscape.
Figure 25. Derelict Waterfront With Industry.
Figure 26. Post-War Housing Communities.
Figure 27. Nature Trails.

Figure 28. Waterfront View with Pellet Terminal From Ferry.
Figure 29. Waterfront Port Terminal.
Figure 30. Waterfront Rail Terminus + Shopping Mall.
Figure 31. Waterfront Rail Line.

Figure 32. Prince Rupert Vestiges.
CHAPTER III
Vestiges
Figure 33. Resource Connectivity Diagram.
“[K]ill your darlings, kill your darlings, even when it breaks your egocentric little scribbler’s heart, kill your darlings.”
- Stephen King
Relics, artifacts, and ruins line the coast of Prince Rupert’s industrial corridor and connect to the Pacific Ocean. Once important relics symbolize the original settlement of this town in 1910, while new artifacts can accompany and transform the old relics into the next phase of their lifecycle. The landscape and the architecture begins to transform and morph for future industrial possibilities and the latent potential of the industrial processes already taking place. Old and new artifacts will continue to line the coast of Prince Rupert as it moves toward the future and expands the city in efforts to catch up with the success of the port.
PRINCE RUPERT RAIL TERMINUS In 1910 the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Rail Terminus opened in Prince Rupert. This station marked the settlement of the community after auctioning off 2,400 homes in 1909. The first through train arrived in Prince Rupert from Winnipeg in March of 1914. CN Rail still operates trains in and out of Prince Rupert, however, this station has been abandoned for decades and deemed ‘an eyesore’ by the local community. Given this building’s historic nature and location on the waterfront, with ties to the settlement of Prince Rupert, this is a potential site to develop and invite a lively waterfront. The Kwinitsa Railway Museum was built in 1911—a stop between Prince Rupert and Terrace—BC. The Grand Trunk Pacific developed six basic station designs—Type A through Type F—of which only four remain. The Kwinitsa Railway Museum is a Type E design, the most common of the six, and was transported via tugboat to Prince Rupert in 1985 and now serves as a railway museum. Figure 34. Rail Terminus Study.
NORTHLAND CRUISE TERMINAL The Northland Cruise Ship Dock opened in 2004 welcoming a new era of tourism to Prince Rupert. As the city becomes more global, allowing for easier access, tourism becomes a major part of Prince Rupert’s economy. The access to nature in a less urbanized, remote environment, brings thousands of tourists there annually.
Figure 35. Northland Cruise Terminal Study.
FA I R V I E W C O N T A I N E R T E R M I N A L The Fairview Container Terminal is one of the North America’s fastest growing container terminals. Based on Prince Rupert’s northern location the terminal expansion serves as a direct intermodal connection for Asian imports. In 1972 Prince Rupert was designated a National port and the Fairview Container Port opened in 1977. The Prince Rupert Port Authority was established in 1997 and a new container port opened in 2007. This port is projected to be a major economic driver providing hundreds of new jobs. Like the Vancouver-Fraser Port Authority, the Prince Rupert Port Authority is part of the Container Capacity Improvement Program that will see the terminal size expanded as trade volume rapidly increases. Prince Rupert’s economy is now largely driven by facilitating the successful operation of the port terminal.
Figure 36. Fairview Container Terminal Study.
WEST VIEW WOOD PELLET TERMINAL The Westview Wood Pellet Terminal operates as a distributor of industrial wood pellets. This pellet terminal receives pellets from as far as Alberta. It highlights the reliance on resources and agriculture from the surrounding hinterlands.
Figure 37. Westview Pellet Terminal Study.

R I D L E Y C OA L T E R M I N A L In 1991, the Federal Government became sole owner of the Ridley Coal Terminal, opened in 1984, making Ridley Terminals Inc. a Federal Crown Corporation. The Ridley Project Cargo Facility is designed to accommodate the transfer of non-containerized goods from barge to rail. It is located south of Downtown Prince Rupert on Ridley Island. The terminal was sold by the federal government for $350 million to a company owned by Riverstone Holdings and AMCI Group. This facility transfers bulk coal and related resources such as petroleum coke. The Northern Gateway Pipeline is proposed to run from Edmonton through Kitimat, to Prince Rupert. Prince Rupert was expecting this to be a new economic driver with an influx of jobs for the community before the expansion was cancelled due to public outcry. As a result of selling the Ridley Coal Terminal, the Federal Government has $350 million it could invest into future infrastructure projects in Northern BC. Ridley Island supports coal mines and processing facilities throughout Northern BC. Figure 38. Ridley Coal Terminal Study.

SKEENA PULP MILL The Skeena Pup Mill opened in 1951 and was the major economic driver for Prince Rupert for most of its history. When the mill shut down in 2001 economic stability was lost, leaving the community to re-evaluate new sources of industry. Population began declining after the pulp mill closure. The pulp mill operated for fifty years on Watson Island, located at the southern portion of the Prince Rupert Municipal District, just east of Ridley Island. As demolition of the Skeena Pulp Mill begins, Watson Island becomes a symbol of prosperity and loss for the community. A propane terminal coined the ‘Watson Intermodal Trade and Logistics Park’ has been proposed for development on Watson Island. This project will support 200 jobs during its construction, followed by 20-30 permanent jobs upon completion.
Figure 39. Skeena Pulp Mill Study.
PRINCE RUPERT GRAIN TERMINAL The Prince Rupert Grain Terminal stores and ships wheat, barley, canola, and other grains. It is located on Ridley Island next to the Ridley Coal Terminal. Shipments come from Alberta along CN rail lines. The flow of grain volume to this terminal is directly impacted by Alberta farmers and the operation of CN Rail. Delays, worker strikes, and understaffing by CN Rail have major implications on the volume shipped internationally from Prince Rupert and in turn impacts global relations.
Figure 40. Prince Rupert Grain Terminal Study.

N O R T H PA C I F I C C A N N E R Y The North Pacific Cannery opened in 1889 and operated as a salmon cannery until the late 1970s. It then operated as a maintenance and reduction facility until 1981. In 1985 a group of locals lobbied to keep the historic structure intact and the facilities were converted into a museum that continues operation today. Staff housing was located on site and remains as part of the museum. Salmon fishing was crucial to early coastal life in Northern BC. The Skeena River was marked with dozens of salmon canneries that are almost entirely closed today. The cannery is located just south of Prince Rupert in Port Edward.
Figure 41. North Pacific Cannery Study.

PRINCE RUPERT BC FERRY TERMINAL The Prince Rupert BC Ferry Terminal transports people from Prince Rupert to the airport, and vice versa. The ferry occupies interstitial space between Kaien Island and Digby Island. It moves locals and tourists from land to sky transportation. It also move travellers, often tourists, along the Inside Passage scenic route to and from Vancouver. The ferry connects to Haida Gwaii, Vancouver, and Alaska. Ferries move in and out of Prince Rupert. They act not only as vehicles for people, but vessels of time.
Figure 42. Prince Rupert BC Ferry Terminal Study.

PRINCE RUPERT AIRPORT (YPR) The Prince Rupert Airport opened in 1970 and is located on Digby Island, nine kilometres west of Prince Rupert. To access the airport, one must board a ferry from Kaien Island to Digby Island. Prior to construction, the only access to Prince Rupert by air was though an amphibian aircraft from Seal Cove to Sandspit in the Queen Charlotte Islands. From Sandspit an aircraft would be boarded and travel to Vancouver. This airport fuels globalization and a greater connection to the rest of the world. The airport was renovated and expanded in 2016. There is a ton of surrounding land available for future development and expansion on Digby Island.
Figure 43. Prince Rupert Airport (YPR) Study.

LOCAL
GLOBAL
LOCAL
RAIL TERMINUS LOCAL
GLOBAL RAIL TERMINUS LOCAL
NORTH GLOBAL LOCAL PACIFIC CANNERY
NORTH HERITAGE LOCAL PACIFIC CANNERY GLOBAL
SKEENA HERITAGE LOCAL PULP MILL GLOBAL
SKEENA INDUSTRY GLOBAL PULP MILL HERITAGE LOCAL
INDUSTRY GLOBAL CONTAINER TERMINAL FAIRVIEW HERITAGE LOCAL
HERITAGE FAIRVIEW CONTAINER TERMINAL INDUSTRY GLOBAL LOCAL
HERITAGE INDUSTRY GLOBAL RIDLEY LOCAL COAL TERMINAL
INDUSTRY RIDLEY LOCAL COAL TERMINAL HERITAGE GLOBAL
INDUSTRY LOCAL HERITAGE GLOBAL WESTVIEW PELLET TERMINAL
GLOBAL INDUSTRY WESTVIEW PELLET TERMINAL HERITAGE LOCAL
GLOBAL INDUSTRY HERITAGE PRINCE LOCAL RUPERT GRAIN TERMINAL
HERITAGE INDUSTRY PRINCE GLOBALRUPERT GRAIN TERMINAL LOCAL
HERITAGE INDUSTRY GLOBAL NORTHLAND CRUISE SHIP TERMINAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE NORTHLAND CRUISE SHIP TERMINAL GLOBAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL RUPERT BC FERRY DOCK PRINCE
INDUSTRY GLOBALRUPERT BC FERRY DOCK HERITAGE PRINCE LOCAL
INDUSTRY GLOBALRUPERT AIRPORT (YPR) HERITAGE PRINCE LOCAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE PRINCE RUPERT AIRPORT (YPR) GLOBAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE GLOBAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE
INDUSTRY HERITAGE
Figure 44. Local Ratings.
INDUSTRY
INDUSTRY
Figure 45. Global Ratings.
LOCAL
GLOBAL LOCAL
LOCAL
H E R I TAG E
GLOBAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY
HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL
HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL RAIL TERMINUS
INDUSTRY RAIL TERMINUS HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY NORTH GLOBALPACIFIC CANNERY HERITAGE LOCAL
NORTH PACIFIC CANNERY INDUSTRY HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE SKEENA GLOBAL LOCAL PULP MILL
SKEENA INDUSTRY LOCAL PULP MILL HERITAGE GLOBAL
INDUSTRY FAIRVIEW CONTAINER TERMINAL LOCAL HERITAGE GLOBAL
FAIRVIEW CONTAINER TERMINAL GLOBAL INDUSTRY HERITAGE LOCAL
GLOBAL INDUSTRY HERITAGE RIDLEY LOCAL COAL TERMINAL
RIDLEY HERITAGE INDUSTRY GLOBALCOAL TERMINAL LOCAL
HERITAGE INDUSTRY GLOBAL PELLET TERMINAL WESTVIEW LOCAL
INDUSTRY WESTVIEW PELLET TERMINAL HERITAGE GLOBAL LOCAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE PRINCE GLOBAL LOCAL RUPERT GRAIN TERMINAL
PRINCE INDUSTRY GLOBALRUPERT GRAIN TERMINAL HERITAGE LOCAL
INDUSTRY GLOBAL NORTHLAND CRUISE SHIP TERMINAL HERITAGE LOCAL
NORTHLAND INDUSTRY HERITAGE CRUISE SHIP TERMINAL GLOBAL
INDUSTRY HERITAGE PRINCE RUPERT BC FERRY DOCK GLOBAL
INDUSTRY PRINCE RUPERT BC FERRY DOCK HERITAGE
INDUSTRY PRINCE RUPERT AIRPORT (YPR) HERITAGE
PRINCE RUPERT AIRPORT (YPR) INDUSTRY
INDUSTRY
Figure 46. Heritage Ratings.
Figure 47. Industry Ratings.
Figure 48. Prince Rupert Proposed Vestiges.
Figure 49. Map of Prince Rupert Vestiges.
PART 2
CHAPTER I
[New] Artifacts
Figure 50. BC Resource Networks Map.
“It is not possible to live in this age if you don’t have a sense of many contradictory forces.”
- Rem Koolhaas
Capitalism comes with flaws of inequality, excess materialism, and boom bust cycles. It does, however, offer opportunity, growth, and hope. Through reevaluating coastal settlements in Northern BC, we can begin to reframe them as forward-thinking places with space to test new ideas and reinvent the local urbanism. The existing coastal tropes of fishing, trade, tourism, lumberjack, beer drinking criminals can transition into new coastal tropes associated with renewable forms of industry, futurism, experimental urbanism, and the hyperreal. As people look to move north, these tropes can redefine what it means to be a coastal settlement in Northern British Columbia. Prince Rupert could become a diversified culture with ‘community hubs’ centred around emerging industry. These hubs can be held together through an infrastructure of connective tissue along the coastline, acting as social condensers that embrace and foster resources and diversification. These are places where old and new industry, people, and the economy can converge. They can become places where industry and tourism meet at the intersection of local and global relations. In 2018, the federal government stepped in to buy the Trans Mountain pipeline between Alberta and the British Columbia coast from Kinder Morgan Canada for $4.5 billion. The company and its investors got cold feet about proceeding as political opposition to the pipeline threatened unending delays. A study found that 60% of Canadians support
Figure 51. Oil and Gas Distribution Diagram.
Figure 52. Northern BC Carbon Network.

pipeline construction. 1 Thus, the carbon corridor and carbon economy in Northern BC is alive and well. It is still thriving as the Federal Government disregards environmental concerns pushing ahead with the Trans Mountain pipeline production. The pipeline is an artifact of the carbon economy, and we can think about new forms of renewable resource production overtaking these remaining, but soon to be extinct, carbon relics. As peak oil is nearing, there is an inevitable decline in carbon availability and in turn consumption that will take place, and we will be forced to develop new innovative sources of energy and production. Global warming has caused receding ice in the Northern Passage which could open opportunities for easier trade with European countries. This could create trade routes that reduce travel by 9-12 days. Moreover, Vancouver exports the most coal out of any North American port terminal. 2 British Columbia has yet to confront its intimate relationship with carbon, and as the inevitable pipeline proposals proceed, Vancouver becomes a place of contradiction. So too does Prince Rupert in its role as a prominent actor in the global supply chain. Varying forms of carbon are still ever-present in the resource economy of BC. Crude oil is the largest export in the province, while liquefied petroleum gases are in the top five exports. 3 These resources will continue to play a role for Canada on the global stage. In accepting this, we can move forward and look to foster new forms of renewable resources. These conflicting forces can be reconciled in Prince Rupert as the epicentre for trade and resource exploitation. This can play out through new settlement patterns from the predicted influx of people and residents. New migrants and resources that arrive can create new artifacts. Complex systems of extraction to consumption contribute to the resources that fuel this place and can shape the human experience immensely. As such, a new network of infrastructure and urbanism can act as activators for shaping the future of Prince Rupert.
1 Cillian O’Brien, “Three in five Canadians support construction of new pipelines: Nanos survey”, 2019, para 2. 2 Tristin Hopper, “Yes, anti-pipeline Vancouver really is North America’s largest exporter of coal”, 2018, para 5. 3 Hopper, para 11.
Figure 53. Taxonomy of Old Coastal Tropes.
Figure 54. Taxonomy of New Coastal Tropes.
Figure 55. Industrial Revolutions Timeline.
Figure 56. Map of BC Networks and Exports.
Figure 57. Europe—Prince Rupert Trade Routes.
Figure 58. Prince Rupert Carbon + Boundary Proposals.
CHAPTER II
BCC [Blind Carbon Copy]
Figure 59. Canadian Petroleum Matrix.
“Port cities are the quintessential petroleumscapes, where the physical presence of oil infrastructure— storage tanks, pipelines, shipping facilities—overlaps with oil-related administrative and cultural functions.”
- Carolina Hein
Glossary of terms: Fossil Fuels: Naturally occurring fuels such as coal, oil and gas formed beneath Earth’s surface. Over millions of years, plants and animals have decomposed into organic chemical compounds, called hydrocarbons, that make up these fuels. Crude Oil (or Petroleum): Unrefined hydrocarbon oil that is extracted from the earth to process for various human uses. Bitumen: Thick, dark mixtures of hydrocarbons sourced in the earth or in the process of refining petroleum. Diluted Bitumen (“dilbit”): Bitumen that has been diluted with lighter types of petroleum so that it will flow through pipelines. Natural Gas: Gas sourced beneath Earth’s surface, composed of mixtures of hydrocarbons such as methane. It is called liquefied natural gas when it has been converted to liquid for transportation or storage. Greenhouse Gases: Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. There are several different types of greenhouse gases, but two in particular are responsible for climate change: carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).
Figure 60. Canada Carbon Timeline.
Figure 61. Coal Processing Collage.
Figure 62. Gas Processing Collage.
Figure 63. Coal Inhabitation Collage.
Figure 64. Wind Inhabitation Collage.
Figure 65. Coal Inlet Collage.
Figure 66. Wind Inlet Collage.
Figure 67. Coal Mill Observation Lab.
Canada has a rich history as a carbon economy. The need for carbon has shaped migration patterns through territories of resource extraction, infrastructural networks of roads and highways, and human life through the carbon emission inherently embedded in manufacturing processes. These processes have become part of everyday life and have been the norm for many years. There is opportunity now for us to think about reframing these norms. Resource extraction and environmentalism are often seen in complete contradiction, and at opposite ends of the spectrum. However, as peak oil is reached and non-renewable resources decline, we can imagine a transition toward a renewable resource economy, and an increase of renewable resource industries. Each Industry can aid in global export and local consumption.

Figure 68. Converted Bioremediation Observation Lab.
Figure 69. Global—Local Flows Diagram.
Figure 70. A nature trail attached to the Central Electricity Board’s 400KV Pelham substation, situated on the boarders of Essex and Hertfordshire, England. Where industry contributes ecological, productive, or community benefits to the landscape it uses (Hough, 1990, p. 142).
CHAPTER III
Infradustrial Landscapes
Figure 71. Glaziers Wagons at the Crystal Palace (Bergdoll, 2000, p. 211).

“The time has come to approach architecture urbanistically and urbanism architecturally.”
- Alison Smithson
This project seeks to create new normals by connecting elements of the rural with the urban, and the industrial. “Traditional agriculture and forestry are no longer sustainable rural occupations contributing to the countryside’s health and beauty. They have, like cities themselves, become high-production technologies that are reshaping the landscape. The need for safety and for large quantities of water for cooling has determined the location of nuclear power stations far from urban centers and in the proximity of lakes, rivers, or oceans. Visual perceptions of the countryside are now totally altered. It is almost inconceivable to think of travelling along a road that is not lined with telephone poles and lines. They form the dominant and, for some, comforting acknowledgement of man’s presence.” 1 Roadside symbols act as markers on the landscape or as infrastructural monuments. The coast of Prince Rupert could be lined with an infrastructure of renewable energy resources, rather than a landscape of carbon. The landscape can become a symbol of the past and the future potential of this place. “Nonetheless, images of the past persist, in spite of the transformation of the landscape. Engineering structures—the visible expressions of our urban way of life—are something we spend enormous amounts of time and ingenuity trying to conceal on the basis that they mar the beauty of the landscape. Power lines and relay stations are important cultural symbols to a country trying to 1 Michael Hough, Out of Place: Restoring Identity to the Regional Landscape, (New York: Yale University Press, 1990), 123.
Figure 72. Ford Motor Company, Press Shop, 1938, Dearborn, Michigan, Albert Kahn (Hyde, 1996, p. 18).
Figure 73. Ford Motor Company, Craneway in Six-Story Building, 1914, Highland Park, Michigan, Albert Kahn (Hyde, 1996, p. 13).
modernize. It is clear that we have not come to terms with the new landscapes that are being created.” 2 An infrastructure of carbon is still an important part of the economy. As coal continues to burn, we can look to uncover new ways to use this resource. How can carbon contribute to new productive ways of living? Can it be hybridized with renewable energy for an infrastructure of present and future energy resources? This landscape can shape the new industrial, emphasizing connectivity and the spaces in-between resource nodes. “Industrial forms that have been superimposed on the landscape appear foreign on the traditional cultural patterns and environmental character to which we have become accustomed. Most industrial objects are technological extensions of the city, not the outgrowth of rural imperatives. By contrast, where technologies have developed specifically in response to rural needs, the resulting forms have a greater likelihood of belonging, of being part of the landscape. For instance, few people object to the prefabricated windmills that used to be associated with every farmhouse for drawing water, or for the waterwheels that at one time provided power for the local sawmill, or the contemporary industrial silos that store the grain. They are accepted as part of the rural scene because their functional relationship to the necessities of farming gives them a clear sense of belonging to the agricultural landscape. Technology has created objects whose construction and materials are derived from the discipline of that technology and its manufacturing process.” 3 New landscapes for Prince Rupert can emerge through new forms of infrastructure. These are landscapes that build off the past and explore the future potential of the land as it intertwines with technology. Technology and resources can become icons in the landscape as symbols of a renewable future rather than of exploitation. These landscapes can be shaped by working through Stan Allen’s seven points on infrastructural urbanism: 1. Infrastructure works not so much to propose specific buildings on given sites, but to construct the site itself. 2. Infrastructures are flexible and anticipatory. They work with time and are open to change. 3. Infrastructural work recognizes the collective nature of the city and allows for the participation of multiple authors. 4. Infrastructures accommodate local contingency while maintaining overall continuity. 5. Although static in and of themselves, infrastructures organize and manage complex systems of flow, movement, and exchange. 6. Infrastructural systems work like artificial ecologies. They manage the flows of energy and resources on a site, and they direct the density and distribution of a habitat. 2 Hough, 123-124. 3 Ibid., 139-140.
Figure 74. New Forms in Old Landscapes. Regional power grids and other urban technologies have radically altered former perceptions of what is urban and rural (Hough, 1990, p. 123).
Figure 75. Landscapes of Power. The technologies that support the city have spread into the larger landscape (Hough, 1990, p. 122).

7. Infrastructures allow detailed design of typical elements or repetitive structures, facilitating an architectural approach to urbanism. 4 Infrastructural urbanism focusses on the forms between things, not the forms themselves. 5 An infrastructure of connective tissue between old and new resources can be designed in which the space between nodes is just as important as the nodes themselves. The infrastructure becomes the vehicle for architectural development. Parts form ensembles, which in turn form larger wholes. 6 This project will look to intervene in larger systems to explore the potential of infrastructural opportunism. “As each generation of machines becomes more complicated, we withdraw into dreams of obsolete machines and see ourselves among windmills, clipper ships, even trolley cars. The smaller our machines become, the more the older larger ones evoke nostalgia and become part of a common folklore. While postmodern urbanism has largely overlooked changes set in motion by the factory systems, it has at the same time ascribed new meanings to the industrial era by displacing historic artifacts from their original context.” 7 Prince Rupert’s infrastructure space can accept the old use of the land predominantly defined by port industries, while not shying away from large industrial processes as required for the evolution of the industrial landscape. This can allow for emergent forms that are informed by the nostalgia of industrial relics but shaped by a renewable resource economy. “We are familiar with the potentials and capacities of networks that have, for example, linear, multi-centered, radial, serial, or parallel topologies. A linear network connects successive points along a line, as in the case of a bus, a train, or an elevator that connects sequential floors. In a radial, or hub and spoke, network, like mass media television or radio, a single central point controls the flow of information. Mainframe computing was a serial network that passed information sequentially, while a parallel network might be modeled as a more open mesh with information flowing simultaneously from many points.” 8 Infrastructure can become architectural space. The processes of the resources themselves can be embedded in the infrastructure that shapes the city. The nodes in this project are demarcated by the vestiges of the old Prince Rupert and the new artifacts that emerge. Those vestiges become markers for a new resource economy. New artifacts can emerge at the points of old indicators of prosperity—the rail terminus, the pellet terminal, the coal terminal, the container terminal—as ‘community hubs’, while creating new artifacts along the larger network. This can create a logic that is used for the architect to think about infrastructure through the lens of metabolic megastructures. It can understand architecture at the scale of the territory through the implementation of relational thinking as a generative exercise.
4 Stan Allen, Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 54-57. 5 Allen, 92. 6 Ibid., 93. 7 Nan Ellin, Postmodern Urbanism, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 162. 8 Keller Easterling, Extrastatecraft: The Power of Infrastructure Space, (New York: Verso, 2016), 77.
Figure 76. Field Conditions, Stan Allen (Allen, 1999, p. 98).
Figure 77. Settlement Patterns.
Figure 78. Topology Patterns.
CHAPTER IV
Metabolic Infrastructure
Figure 79. Approaches to Collective Form; Compositional Form, Megaform, Group Form (Maki, 1964, p. 6).
Figure 80. Two Types of Megaform; Hierarchical Structure, and Open-Ended Structure (Maki, 1964, p. 12).
“No one owns life, but anyone who can pick up a frying pan owns death.”
- William S. Burroughs
In 1964, Fumihiko Maki first used the word ‘megastructure’ in print. Maki defined subsidiary categories of megastructures as ‘hierarchical’ and ‘open-ended’. He proposed that large basic works for megastructures should be changed to public accounts, while smaller and more transient structures could be left to private investment. 1 ‘Collective form’ is a response to the notion that architecture exists as singular buildings; that we have been accustomed to a spatial language in which buildings are self-sufficient or self-referential. ‘Collective form’ represents groups of buildings and quasi-buildings. 2 These buildings are not unrelated but have reason to be together. This framework will be used to think about infrastructure networks in the geography of an industrial landscape. The proposed infrastructure will facilitate a ‘collective form’ of resources that create a unified whole. Maki presents ‘collective form’ through three paradigms: 1. Compositional Form (compositional approach): Groups of buildings composed according to traditional Modern Movement precepts. These are individual tailored buildings that are separately determined and result in a ‘collective form’. This is the most common paradigm in which there is a larger idea, but the buildings are designed independent of one-another. This is the most common approach to ‘collective form’.
1 Reyner Banham, Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), 72. 2 Fumihiko Maki, Investigations in Collective Form, (Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964), 5.
Figure 81. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 1. To Mediate (Maki, 1964, p. 37).
Figure 82. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 2. To Define (Maki, 1964, p. 38).
Figure 83. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 3. To Repeat (Maki, 1964, p. 39).
Figure 84. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 4. To Make a Sequential Path (Maki, 1964, p. 41).
Figure 85. City as a Pattern; Linking Acts: 5. To Select (Maki, 1964, p. 42).
2. Mega-Structure (structural approach): A large frame containing all the functions of a city, mostly housed in transient short-term containers. This is a way to order massive grouped functions. Ideally, the megastructure allows the city to move into new states rather than the city being at the mercy of the megastructure. This ‘collective form’ is made of systems that can expand and contract with minimal disturbance; it is made of multiple smaller systems that form a larger system. There are two types: hierarchical structure, and openended structure. Each system has generative properties embedded within it, while an open-ended system allows for more expansion. 3. Group Form (sequential approach): Accumulation of identical spatial or structural elements into larger complexes. Each form has its own built-in link, either obvious or hidden. It is a systematic linkage. The element and the growth pattern is reciprocal. Elements demand growth, which requires the growth of the system of elements altogether. There is a constant feedback loop. Group form requires a skeleton that guides the elemental growth. There is an essence of collectivity, a unifying force functionally, socially, and spatially. These often grow from the people of the society, not the leadership in power. 3 In applying ‘collective form’ at the city scale a pattern of events is suggested. These patterns are defined by five linking acts either physically, or by implication: 1. To mediate: Connect with intermediate elements or imply connection that demonstrates cohesion. 2. To define: Surround a site with a wall or physical barrier. 3. To repeat: Link by introducing one common factor in each dispersed part of the design. 4. To make functional path: Arrange a building or parts of buildings in a sequence of activity. 5. To select: Establish unity in advance of the design process by choice of site. 4 Though cities naturally evolve into a ‘collective form’, Prince Rupert’s projected growth presents an opportunity to implement pre-planned ideas about ‘collective form’. This project seeks to straddle the line between infrastructure space as mega form and subsidiary space as compositional form and group form. It seeks to set the groundwork for guiding future city growth and develop a resilient infrastructure that results in a resilient architecture, that results in a resilient community. This infrastructure will use Maki’s ‘collective form’ principles to formalize the arrangement of a network of interconnected ‘community hubs’. This will create an infrastructure defined by the resource economy that shapes a new regional urbanism for Prince Rupert. This will continue to shape the vernacular and the regional through a collective scale of infrastructure and urbanism. An ‘open regionalism’ that accepts societal and environmental change as a part of its evolution will be fostered, re-evaluating the regional in this locale. 3 Maki, 19. 4 Maki, 35-42.
Figure 86. The Axes of Postmodern Urbanism (Ellin, 1999, p. 155).
Prince Rupert has an opportunity to look back to the Japanese Metabolist that regarded human society as a vital process; a continuous development from atom to nebula, and to see design and technology as a reflection of human vitality. The Japanese Metabolists were promoting the metabolic growth of their society through design proposals. They saw human society as part of a natural entity that includes animals and plants; that technology acts as an extension of humanity.5 Thus, architecture is part of a metabolic cycle that can be regenerative. There is a continuity between buildings and nature, whether that be man-made or natural. These principles can be used to develop a metabolic mega-infrastructure. This is an infrastructure that allows for growth and development. One that is connective and all-encompassing, like a megastructure. It can contain visible and invisible connections. It can grow and regenerate as need be. The mobility of people, goods, and information is increasing at a drastic pace and the pattern of living structures is becoming volatile.6 Metabolism rationalizes this kind of rapid metamorphosis, and in doing so, metabolic megastructures can be combined with infrastructural urbanism. Resource beacons act as nodes within the infrastructure network. Artifacts become monuments through their cultural, social, and political significance, rather than size. 7 Infrastructural space is one of the remaining spaces of the collective. The infrastructural monument is defined by its ability to accommodate the plurality of the city. 8 Robert Levit goes so far as to describe infrastructure as leviathan. He postulates that because of infrastructure’s identification with support for life, it more easily gains political support. 9 Infrastructure supports our daily needs and can be monumental in scale. Infrastructure becomes a vehicle for shaping space and culture. The axes of postmodern urbanism will guide the role of the architect in developing this infrastructure. The theoretical and non-theoretical axes will help navigate how to implement change. This project will present resource-based infrastructure as a vehicle to incorporate ‘community hubs’ as nodes of culture, entertainment, and integration into active resource processes. The seven points on infrastructural urbanism will work in tandem with the notion of ‘collective form’ to develop a metabolic framework for the growth of Prince Rupert. This project will straddle the realms of mass culture, regionalism and physical contextualization. It seeks to subvert the notion of local regionalism and develop a new understanding of what it means to be a coastal settlement.
5 Kisho Kurokawa, Metabolism in Architecture, (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977), 27. 6 Kurokawa, 43. 7 MIT Centre for Advanced Urbanism, Infrastructural Monument, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2016), 25. 8 MIT Center for Advanced Urbanism, 29. 9 MIT Center for Advanced Urbanism, 76.
Figure 87. Experimental Utopia Collage.
CHAPTER V
Renewable Territories
Figure 88. Port Ownership Diagram.
“Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men’s blood and probably themselves will not be realized.”
- Daniel Burnham
Prince Rupert is currently a carbon territory. The infrastructure is car-centric and engaged in the exporting of carbon-based goods (among others). Sooner than later we will reach peak oil, these industries will recede, and so too will their revenue. To act against this, a transition towards phasing out the carbon reliance can begin the transformation of this town. This will not happen overnight, and perhaps, unfortunately, will begin with the scaling up of carbon-based non-renewable resource extraction. With liquefied natural gas being better for the environment than coal, the transition may begin by focussing on scaling up LNG facilities and pipeline proposals. The Eagle Spirit pipeline, among many others, has been proposed to terminate in Prince Rupert. It’s only a matter of time before one of these pipelines will be approved. This can still be a positive transition as the country moves away from coal. This carbon infrastructure can eventually be phased out to make way for a renewable resource economy. Scaling up the pellet terminal could lead to more renewable supplies that can be exported to support a global renewable resource economy. This can then be coupled with a local energy distribution that would supply for the local community. None of these changes will happen quickly, however, so understanding a three-phase approach is a way to think about a transitional economy, and the cycles and transformation Prince Rupert may undergo. In allowing the port industries to substantially contribute to the local economy a more holistic system can be set in motion where the local and the global are both benefactors.
Figure 89. Industry Phasing Diagram.
Figure 90. Pipeline Phasing Diagram.
Figure 91. Coal Mill Phasing Diagram.
Figure 92. Pellet Terminal Phasing Diagram.
Figure 93. Waterfront Nodes.
Figure 94. Ridleyville Nature + Architecture Collage.
Figure 95. Agriculture + Transportation Collage.
Figure 96. Wood Manufacturing + Public Recreation Collage.
Figure 97. Biomass Theatre + Seawall Collage.
PART 3
CHAPTER I
Collective Form: A Systems-Based Approach
This project is investigating the relationship between industry, resources, the economy, and the environment. Globalization and capitalism are resulting in the emergence of more and more urbanized landscapes. As the world becomes increasingly globalized, ports become ideal places for investment and development. Vancouver is the largest port terminal in Canada, followed by Prince Rupert, which is one of the fastest growing port terminals in North America. This rapid growth is because Prince Rupert is three days quicker than Vancouver shipping time, to and from Asia. Canada is a resource rich landscape with an economy that relies on the exploitation and export of lumber, pulp and paper, grain, coal, oil, and gas. Vancouver exports more coal than any other North American port terminal, and Prince Rupert has a thriving coal mill that regularly exports to China. We may be banning plastic straws locally, but we are exporting global warming at an astronomical rate. There is a clear contradiction between our values of environmental stewardship and the importance of resource extraction for the prosperity of the Canadian economy. Many of the resources from BC and Alberta pass through Prince Rupert on route to the global market. Prince Rupert is home to Canada’s first propane export facility and there have been several LNG facilities and pipeline proposals put forth that would terminate there. Because of this exploitation of natural resources, rising temperatures due to global warming, and rising housing prices in Vancouver, Northern BC and places like Prince Rupert are primed for future development.
Figure 98. Project Map.
Figure 99. National Resource Networks.
Background Global • National • Regional • Local
Prince Rupert is framed by Mount Hays to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The coast is lined with industry as points of convergence between the local and the global, the rural and the urban. As a port city, industry will continue to grow along the coastline and shape the built environment and local economy. Prince Rupert has experienced a boom bust cycle as a result of industries coming and going. Because of projected incoming industries, we could see a massive boom with an influx of both new industries and, as a result, new residents. There is potential for a population increase of hundreds of thousands of people, shifting this place’s identity from an inward facing local community to an outward facing global economy.
Figure 100. Prince Rupert Networks Model.
Figure 101. Predicted Boom + Demographic Shift.
This project seeks to envision how the city can develop through a responsive urbanism shaped by the industries that stimulate the local and global economy. This will be explored through a Systems-Based Approach to Collective Form.
Proposal Collective Form: A Systems-Based Approach
Fumihiko Maki’s 1964 Investigations in Collective Form is adapted to act as the guiding framework for this project. Maki’s writing suggests, “Our concern here is not, then, a “master plan,” but a “master program,” since the latter term includes a time dimension. As a physical correlate of the master program, there are “master forms” which differ from buildings in that they, too, respond to the dictates of time. Collective form represents groups of buildings and quasi-buildings—the segment of our cities. Collective form is, however, not a collection of unrelated, separate buildings, but of buildings that have reasons to be together.”1 Maki’s three major approaches to collective form—compositional form, mega form, and group form—are used as the fundamental base layer for this project. A form, a strategy, and a program will be used as a framework to guide this proposal.
1 Fumihiko Maki, Investigations in Collective Form, (Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964), 4.
COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
Form
1. Compositional Form
2. Mega Form
3. Group Form
Strategy
1. Industry as Activator
2. Industry as Node
3. Industry as Generator
Program
1. Coupling
2. Anchoring
3. Hybridizing
Compositional forms are elements that are preconceived and predetermined separately, with functional, visual, and spatial relationships.1 This proposal applies compositional form as urban superblock infills. Mega forms are large frames housing all the functions of a city.2 Mega forms will be applied as Industrial spines. Group forms are forms which evolve from a system of generative elements in space.3 Group form will be deployed as rural clustered communities. Each of these forms have their own built in link, whether expressed or latent, so they may grow in a system.4
1 Fumihiko Maki, Investigations in Collective Form, (Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964), 6. 2 Maki, 8. 3 Maki, 14. 4 Maki, 19.

COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Compositional Form (Urban Superblock Infill)
2. Mega Form (Industrial Spines)
3. Group Form (Rural Clustered Communities)
Resource Row, a rail corridor along the coast, and the Carbon Connector, a pipeline rail corridor along the mountain base, create new boundaries and edge conditions for the city. The port terminal, Gantry Split, becomes the pivot point as a threshold between the urban and the rural. Coastal industries produce magaform spines for new city districts to develop off. Urban districts, such as the Exchange, are infilled with compositional forms, and rural districts, such as Lager’s Edge, are developed using group forms.
Figure 102. A Form Parti.
A Strategy views industry as an activator, industry as a node, and industry as a generator.
COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Industry as Activator (Urban Reform)
2. Industry as Node (Points of Convergence)
3. Industry as Generator (Localized Relationships)
Industry as activator allows the city to undergo urban reform. The original plan for Prince Rupert was done by Brett and Hall in 1908 with major streets running parallel to the waterfront. In the new plan, the cut and fill required for a pipeline makes way for a network of light rail transit along the mountain base. Industrial anchors along the waterfront ripple through the city along linear paths, linking the boundaries of the city, and extended by funiculars, connect to the mountain beyond. A new system of light rail transit is laid across the city making use of the existing grid. Streets that are not along the city grid are converted to greenways with bike and pedestrian paths. This creates a network of transportation infrastructure where rail transit and pedestrian trails converge at transit nodes. New parking is located along the opposite side of the mountain, with access to trails, allowing this to become a carless city as all local roads are removed. Old post-war housing that’s not along the grid is demolished to make way for new community superblocks that contain local greenscapes and mixed-use housing developments, acting as micro-communities. Industrial megaforms emerge from coastal industry anchors and become the central axes for new city districts. Along the rail and pipeline boundaries are a series of linear parks that span between industry. Each industrial spine contributes to global trade while generating resources for the local community. The result is a transformation from an old town, to a new city.
COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Industry as Activator (Urban Reform)
2. Industry as Node (Points of Convergence)
3. Industry as Generator (Localized Relationships)
Figure 103. Existing City Networks.
Figure 104. New Transportation Networks.
Figure 105. New Program Networks.
Figure 106. Old Town.
Figure 107. New City.
This phased development can be accomplished by extending the existing rail corridor, creating a boundary condition along the coastline, followed by a new transportation corridor, creating the second boundary along the mountain base. The existing industry divides these boundaries into districts, followed by new industry further dividing the boundaries. These boundaries are then sub-divided into superblocks, the remaining streets are converted to greenways, and the city is infilled. New urban districts are defined by transit and industry boundaries. As compositional form, superblocks are infilled as a kit of parts combining various scales and arrangements of buildings with greenspace. Industry as activator creates zones and districts for the new city’s development.
A Time-Based Approach Extend • Develop • Divide • Sub-Divide • Convert
Figure 108. Urban Phasing.
Figure 109. District + Superblock Development.
Figure 110. Industry as Activator.
Industry as Node specifies Industrial anchors as points of convergence.
COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Industry as Activator (Urban Reform)
2. Industry as Node (Points of Convergence)
3. Industry as Generator (Localized Relationships)
Figure 111. Existing Industry Nodes 1.
Figure 112. Existing Industry Nodes 2.
Figure 113. New Industry Nodes.
Existing industry and old industrial relics are accompanied by new waves of industry. The industrial processes taking place along the coastline become the drivers of each industrial spine.

Figure 114. Nodal Development.
The Runway
Figure 115. North End Zone.
Cloud Corridor
Marine Mile
As a point of coastal recreation, a regatta defines Rupert’s Landing. A bridge structure of transportation infrastructure coupled with hotels, shopping, and recreation, physically connects industry with the mountain beyond.
Figure 116. Industrial Spine - Rupert’s Landing.
Marine Mile
Figure 117. Central Zone.
Central Souk
Rupert’s Landing
The Exchange
The Exchange stems from an expanded pellet terminal that supports global pellet trade and a local biomass district heating plant that serves mixed-use office buildings, defining the central business district.
Figure 118. Industrial Spine - The Exchange.

The Link
Figure 119. Merger Zone.
Gantry Split
LVL
Figure 120. Industrial Spine - Gantry Split.
The container terminal anchors Gantry Split, where there is a viewing platform and outdoor event space. A recreational wall becomes the literal division between the urban and the rural, with urban housing superblocks to the north, and rural housing clusters to the south.
Lager’s Edge
Timber Town
Figure 121. Hillside Zone.
Figure 122. Industrial Spine - Timber Town.
Timber Town integrates a wood manufacturing facility into the public waterfront. The manufactured wood is used to construct buildings for the adjacent community.
Cultivation Cove
Ridleyville
Figure 123. South End Zone.
Figure 124. Industrial Spine - Ridleyville.
The old Ridley Coal Mill is phased out and converted into a bioremediation facility that can be used as a testing ground for biofuel and local agriculture.
Ridleyville
Nature’s Point
Figure 125. South Point Zone.
Industry as generator fosters unique localized relationships.
COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Industry as Activator (Urban Reform)
2. Industry as Node (Points of Convergence)
3. Industry as Generator (Localized Relationships)
Figure 126. Resource Connectivity Matrix.
Resources expand from the local to the global and become generators for both industry and the public realm. Using resources to bridge the gap between industry and the public can foster interesting human experiences.
Figure 127. Resource Flows Diagram.
Local agriculture and bioremediation facilities generate food production and transit fuel. Water is collected and distributed to supply people and industry. Locally harvested trees are processed to construct buildings with the resulting wood pellets used for a biomass district heating system. Resources from out of town pass through as exports or as surplus local supplies. This results in the defining of resource-based districts.
Ridleyville
Cultivation Cove
Timber Town
Lager’s Edge
Gantry Split
The Exchange
Rupert’s Landing
Marine Mile
The Runway
Figure 128. Resource-Based Districts.
The districts are developed through a program. This program consists of coupling industry with infrastructure and architecture, anchoring nodes with tethered development, and hybridizing sites using a multivalent design approach.

COLLECTIVE FORM: A Systems-Based Approach A Form A Strategy A Program
1. Coupling (Industry, Infrastructure, Architecture)
2. Anchoring (Tethered Development)
3. Hybridizing (Multivalent Design)
The Runway Cloud Corridor Marine Mile Rupert’s Landing Central Souk The Exchange The Link Gantry Split LVL Lager’s Edge Timber Town Cultivation Cove Ridleyville
Figure 129. Coastal Industry Nodes.
The Districts Ridleyville • Cultivation Cove • Timber Town • Lager’s Edge • Gantry Split The Exchange • Rupert’s Landing • Marine Mile • The Runway
Figure 130. Exchange Diagram - Ridleyville.
Ridleyville Biofuel • Research Lab • University Campus • Public Park
A former coal mill and propane export facility is now a bioremediation lab, research centre, and university campus. Research and development are used to convert this carbon export facility to a productive landscape. The old industrial landscape is now a leisure playground that takes advantage of the potential of the old machinery.
Figure 131. Ridleyville.
Figure 132. Exchange Diagram - Cultivation Cove.
Cultivation Cove Agriculture • Farmer’s Market • Dining • Respite
Agricultural land becomes a place of leisure and respite from the city. Locals and visitors can purchase crops or indulge in the restaurants, farmer’s markets, and community dining halls.
Figure 133. Cultivation Cove.
Figure 134. Exchange Diagram - Timber Town.
Timber Town Wood Processing • Boardwalk Community • Nature Trails • Construction
Connecting to rail lines, a waterfront wood processing facility receives logs from out of town and processes the wood for exporting. It uses selective locally harvested tress for constructing buildings in their place A hillside wood boardwalk community is developed up the mountain connecting to recreation trails and leisure along the waterfront.
Figure 135. Timber Town.
Figure 136. Exchange Diagram - Lager’s Edge.
Lager’s Edge Wood Manufacturing • Waterfront Leisure • Breweries • Saunas
Lumber is manufactured to promote the development and use of innovative wood building materials. Workers reside in a hillside community above while locals and visitors enjoy the waterfront brewery crawl and public saunas that branch off the wood manufacturing facility.
Figure 137. Lager’s Edge.
Figure 138. Exchange Diagram - Gantry Split.
Gantry Split Container Terminal • Community Gathering • Festivals • Recreation
The port is a place for gathering. It’s an outdoor event and recreation hub with the thriving port industry as a backdrop. Urban, rural, local, and global, all meet at this point, as it becomes a mixing hub for both people and resources.
Figure 139. Gantry Split.
Figure 140. Exchange Diagram - The Exchange.
The Exchange Pellet Terminal • Biomass District Heating • Theatre • Business District
Waterfront pellet exporting is paired with a biomass theatre and performing arts centre. This ties into the central business district and becomes a hub for exchanges between people, wood pellets, transit, and entertainment.
Figure 141. The Exchange.
Figure 142. Exchange Diagram - Rupert’s Landing.
Rupert’s Landing Rail Terminus • Waterfront Recreation • Shopping • Hotels
Rupert’s landing is the site of the revived Prince Rupert Rail terminus constructed in 1910. There is a large public space, waterfront recreation, museums, and a bridge with shopping and leisure.
Figure 143. Rupert’s Landing.
Figure 144. Exchange Diagram - Marine Mile.
Marine Mile Water Treatment Facilities • Bath Houses • Fishing • Cruise Ships
As the wettest municipality in Canada, water collection and distribution capitalize on the community’s intimate connection with water. A water treatment facility, aquafarming, and series of bath houses brings water into the community, connecting resources with leisure.
Figure 145. Marine Mile.
Figure 146. Exchange Diagram - The Runway.
The Runway Seaplane Terminal • Textiles • Fashion District • Entertainment
Non-resource-based industries, such as the sea plane terminal, are combined with local manufacturing. This shapes the fashion and entertainment district, paired with the local textile industry, and paves the way for development of diverse urban life.
Figure 147. The Runway.
The Runway Cloud Corridor Marine Mile Rupert’s Landing Central Souk The Exchange
Ridleyville
The Link Gantry Split LVL Lager’s Edge
Lager’s Edge
Timber Town
Cultivation Cove
Ridleyville
Rupert’s Landing
Cultivation Cove
Timber Town
Gantry Split
The Exchange
Marine Mile
The Runway Figure 148. New Prince Rupert Exchanges.
Each industry connects to the global market and the local community. The industrial drivers of this economy are in turn driving the form of the built environment and the human interactions that take place. A systems-based approach to Collective Form gives way to industry’s role in the development of the city through a form, a strategy, and a program. This framework investigates the architect’s ability to design systems and strategies as tools that can extend from the human scale to the territory. It considers form not simply as a physical manifestation, but as a collection of approaches that engage with multiple vehicles and actors, resulting in a whole that’s greater than the sum of its parts. As Maki suggests, “the human quality which determines form has to do with the way of life, movement, and relation to persons in society.”1
1 Maki, 21.
Urban Character Resources • Industry • Economy • Environment
Figure 149. Clustered Communities - Timber Town.
People can interact with industry, architecture, and the landscape. This urbanism seeks to blend the city with the environment, and the processes taking place.
Figure 150. Superblock Infill.
Urban life integrates mixed-use housing typologies at a variety of scales. It prioritizes green space and perimeter blocks, creating microcommunities that tether to the industrial spines that are adjacent.

Figure 151. Waterfront - The Exchange.
The waterfront is a mixture of leisure and port activity. Diverse groups of people and resources all converge at these points.
Figure 152. Industrial Spine - Ridleyville
Decommissioned industrial zones are adapted to make way for renewable resource economies, productive landscapes, and public occupation.
Figure 153. Industrial Spine - Marine Mile.
Local resources are at the forefront of the urban fabric, are integrated into everyday life, and at the core of leisure activities.
Figure 154. Mountain Perspective - Collective Form.
This is a vision in which industry, resources, the economy, and the environment could all be synergized into one collective form.
Urban society is “a dynamic field of interrelated forces,”1 and as such, this proposal positions the architect as a mediator. It proposes approaches not as fixed solutions, but as possibilities for how a place can evolve in response to shifting geopolitical and socio-economic values. This project suggests ways in which an urbanism can develop and adapt to support these shifts, highlighting the need for the designer to consider cycles and transformations. Post-war carbon economies can transition towards renewable resource economies as a catalyst for diversification and the growth of Prince Rupert as a collective city.
1
Maki, 3.
A Chronology 2020 - 2050
Figure 155. Chronology.
Our relationship with natural resources, industry, the economy, and the environment are complex and constantly in a state of contradiction. This relationship is explored through an understanding of the city as a collective form. This project forecasts the future generative potential of industries stimulating the Canadian resource economy, while allowing these industries to productively shape the built environment and the exchanges that occur within it.

Figure 156. Project Thumbnails.
The final presentation for this project was completed from home through a digital platform known as Zoom. This was due to the mandatory quarantine that resulted from the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Closures of universities and most all places of business and leisure was implemented across the country. Storefronts were boarded up with plywood and parks + playgrounds were roped off with caution tape. Signs were littered throughout the city reminding people to keep a safe distance of six feet apart. At times the city felt like a ghost town in which fresh air became a luxury and human contact rendered forbidden. As such, the latter phase of this project was completed in my three hundred fifty square foot apartment and contact with the outside world was maintained only through my computer screen. This screen sat twenty inches in front of me and became my solace during this time.
Figure 157. Project Presentation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Catalogue of References
Alexander, Christopher, Sara Ishikawa, and Murray Silverstein. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. Allen, Stan. Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. Aureli, Pier Vittorio. Labor and Architecture: Revisiting Cedric Price’s Potteries Thinkbelt. New York: Anyone Corporation Publishing, 2011. Aureli, Pier Vittorio. The City as a Project. Berlin: Ruby Press, 2013. Aureli, Pier Vittorio. Dogma: 11 Projects. London: Architectural Association Publications, 2013. Banham, Reyner. Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976. Bergdoll, Barry. European Architecture: 1750-1890. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Bhatia, Neeraj. New Investigations in Collective Form: The Open Workshop. New York: Actar, 2019. Bhatia, Neeraj, and Mary Casper. Petropolis of Tomorrow. New York: Actar, 2013. Bunster-Ossa, Ignacio F. Reconsidering Ian McHarg: The Future of Urban Ecology. Chicago: APA, American Planning Association, Planners Press, 2014. City of Prince Rupert. “About Prince Rupert”. 2018. City of Prince Rupert. Retrieved from: http://www.princerupert.ca/community/about. City of Prince Rupert. “HAYS 2.0 Vision Statement.” 2018. City of Prince Rupert. Retrieved from: http://www.princerupert.ca/hays2. Denison, Edward. 30-Second Architecture: The 50 Most Significant Principles and Styles in Architecture, Each Explained in Half a Minute. UK: The Ivy Press, 2013. Easterling, Keller. Extrastatecraft: The Power of Infrastructure Space. New York: Verso, 2016. Ellin, Nan. Integral Urbanism. New York: Routledge, 2006. Ellin, Nan. Postmodern Urbanism. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. Frampton, Kenneth. Labour, Work, and Architecture. London: Phaidon Press, 2002.
Frampton, Kenneth. "Towards a Critical Regionalism". The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. New York: New Press, 1998. Gehl, Jan. Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space. Translated by JoKoch. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2011. Giedion, Sigfried. Mechanization Takes Command: A Contribution to Anonymous History. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 1948. Harvey, David. “The Urban Process Under Capitalism: A Framework for Analysis”. Urbanization and Urban Planning in Capitalist Society. London: Routledge, 1981. Hopper, Tristin. “Yes, anti-pipeline Vancouver really is North America’s largest exporter of coal”. April 12, 2018. National Post. Retrieved from https://nationalpost. com/news/politics/yes-anti-pipeline-vancouver-really-is-north-americas largest-exporter-of-coal. Hough, Michael. Out of Place: Restoring Identity to the Regional Landscape. New York: Yale University Press, 1990. Hyde, Charles K. “Assembly-Line Architecture: Albert Kahn and the Evolution of the US Auto Factory,” The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology, Vol. 22 (2) (1996): 5-24. Infranet Lab / Lateral Office. Pamphlet Architecture 30: Coupling: Strategies for Infrastructural Opportunism. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vantage, 1961. Kurjata, Andrew. “‘A Hail Mary pass’: how the Port of Prince Rupert became a player in the world of global trade”. August 29, 2017. CBC News. Retrieved from:https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/prince-rupert-port ten-years-1.4267502. Kurjata, Andrew. “The City of Prince Rupert, B.C., was forced to own an island it didn’t want; now it’s starting to pay off ”. November 30, 2017. CBC News. Retrieved from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/prince rupert-propane-terminal-watson-island-pembina-1.4426916. Kurjata, Andrew. “Advice for B.C. cities trying to entice Vancouverites northward: become ‘Vancouver-Lite’”. January 18, 2017. CBC News. Retrieved from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/advice-for-b-c-cities trying-to-entice-vancouverites-northward-become-vancouver-lite-1.3940357.
Kurokawa, Kisho. Metabolism in Architecture. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977. Lin, Zhongjie. Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. London; New York: Routledge, 2010. Local Wanderer. “Prince Rupert Travel Guide: A Perfect Weekend in Northern BC. 2018”. Local Wanderer. Retrieved from: http://www.localwanderer.com/new blog/2018/9/5/prince-rupert. Lynch, Kevin. Image of the City. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960. MacKay-Lyons, Brian. Local Architecture: Building Place, Craft, and Community. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2013. Maki, Fumihiko. Investigations in Collective Form. Washington: School of Architecture, Washington University, 1964. Markey, Sean, Don Manson, and Greg Halseth. Investing in Place: Economic Renewal in Northern British Columbia. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2012. Marx, Karl. Wage-Labour and Capital. London: Twentieth Century Press, Ltd, 1893. Misrach, Richard, and Kate Orff. Petrochemical America. New York: Aperture, 2014. MIT Center for Advanced Urbanism. Infrastructural Monument. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2016. Montgomery, Charles. Happy City: Transforming Our Lives through Urban Design. Canada: Anchor Canada, 2014. Nairn, Ian. The American Landscape: A Critical View. New York: Random House, 1965. North Coast Review. “City’s latest Watson Island video provides city’s view of the timeline for Pembina LPG terminal work”. July 24, 2018. North Coast Review. Retrieved from: https://northcoastreview.blogspot.com/2018/07/citys-latest watson-island-video.html. O’Brien, Cillian. “Three in five Canadians support construction of new pipelines: Nanos survey”. December 6, 2019. CTV News. Retrieved from: https://www. ctvnews.ca/canada/three-in-five-canadians-support-construction-of-new pipelines-nanos-survey-1.4719584. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. New Jersey: Wiley, 2012.
Pressman, Norman. "Resource Towns as New Towns." Urban History Review 78, no. 1: 78-95, 1978. Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society. Prince Rupert: An Illustrated History. Prince Rupert: Prince Rupert City & Regional Archives Society, 2010. Randall, James E., and R. Geoff Ironside. "Communities on the Edge: An Economic Geography of Resource-Dependent Communities in Canada." The Canadian Geographer 40, no. 1: 17-35, 1996. Rifkin, Jeremy. The Third Industrial Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society: Revised New Century Edition. London: Pine Forge Press, 2004. Robinson, Ira M. New Industrial Towns on Canada's Resource Frontier. Chicago: Dept. of Geography, University of Chicago, 1964. The Canadian Press. “Feds sell majority stake in B.C.’s Ridley Terminals for $350 million”. July 12, 2019. The Star. Retrieved from: https://www.thestar.com/ business/2019/07/12/federal-government-sells-stake-in-ridley-terminals-inc for-350-million.html. Villagomez, Erick. “Experimental Urbanism”. Spacing Vancouver. September 16, 2013. Retrieved from: http://spacing.ca/vancouver/2013/09/16/experimental urbanism/. Wilk, Richard. “Poverty and Excess in Binge Economies.” Economic Anthropology: Society for Economic Anthropology. 1, no. 1, 66-79, 2014.