Biophilia - The way of life by Jessica Sweidan

Prof. Edward O. Wilson Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University

To summarise: a healthful environment, the warmth of kinship, right-sounding moral strictures, sure-bet economic gain, and a stirring of nostalgia and sentiment are the chief components of the surface ethic. Together they are enough to make a compelling case to most people most of the time for the preservation of organic diversity. But this is not nearly enough: every pause, every species allowed to go extinct, is a slide down the ratchet, an irreversible loss for all. It is time to invent moral reasoning of a new and more powerful kind, to look to the very roots of motivation and understand why, in what circumstances and on which occasions, we cherish and protect life.

â&#x20AC;&#x201C;D ouglas Tompkins, President of Conservation Land Trust and Founder of the Foundation for Deep Ecology

Foreword Adam Sweidan

Founding Trustee and Chair, Synchronicity Earth

In contrast, our political and economic system allows for the very few to pursue their self-interest with a total disregard for the consequences of the whole. As a result, we are facing an existential threat of great magnitude. If aliens were threatening us by clear-cutting our forests, damming our rivers, poisoning and changing the chemistry of our oceans and wiping out our fellow species, we would unite and respond. Instead, we seem unable even to confront our reality or understand why we should.

In nature, there are no rights and wrongs: only consequences. Most indigenous peoples recognise this to be true. Each culture’s folklore teaches respect for other beings. All religions, meanwhile, speak of the sanctity of life. Modern science demonstrates that these traditions reflect an important insight: if we destroy a thread in the web of life, we threaten the whole. Despite this hard-earned knowledge, our current political economy is founded on different values. Markets now rule the world, but if you were a technical- or fundamental-based trader, you would recognise that the environment surrounding ‘growth’ is deteriorating substantially. The rise in human populations has been accompanied by a collapse in others. Vertebrates are in a bear market, having declined by 25 per cent across terrestrial species; over 40 per cent of assessed invertebrates are considered threatened. A new tragic word has entered the scientific lexicon: defaunation – the loss or decline of species populations. Its rates are rocketing, causing an extinction contagion. The problem is not the absolute number of people, but a lack of consciousness: we are devaluing life. To put this into perspective, the biomass of ants is greater than that of humans, yet – unlike us – their productiveness nourishes plants, animals and soil. 4

Robin Moore

There are no conspiracy theories to explain our inaction: it seems this is what we want. Our values, embodied in our language, are setting the stage for the commodification of all life. Our living systems are seen as nothing other than ‘natural resources’ – fuel for the machine. Even in the world of nature conservation, few people want to talk about proper protection: instead the tactic is to focus efforts on the wildlife that can be shown to offer the 5

greatest number of ‘ecosystem services’ to humans. The need to tackle today’s slow-motion elephant extinction is couched in human terms: we seem willing to act only because ‘ivory is financing terrorism’ – not because elephants matter. The wondrous, priceless Great Barrier Reef is being sacrificed in the quest for coal – the dirtiest fossil fuel humans can manufacture. We have lost sight of our fundamental humanity, but it lives within us. If we turn off our distractions, we can reconnect with life. If we pause, we can experience the magic of watching a spider build a web; the sound of a bird can still stir something deep inside. What is needed is an evolution of the spirit. Many people find it odd that I care so deeply about amphibians, despite the fact that they are the most threatened of all groups, suggesting that there are many more pressing needs in education, poverty or health. My answer is: a society that cares for its frogs will also care for its people and will not tolerate suffering. If we start at the outer circle of compassion and work our way in, we will solve all the issues facing our species. Goodness doesn’t normally make headlines, but it exists. We need to find other ways of fulfilment besides consumption and rethink how we walk on this Earth. How much does one person really need? Why do we share so little? How can we use our talents to help others? How can we help the thousands of dedicated people who are focusing their energies and lives on protecting, restoring and regenerating species and ecosystems? Can we stop seeing nature as ours to dominate and leave wildlife to flourish? These are not complicated questions. The answers lie in all of us. Only by deciding to accept our place in – and responsibility for – the whole, can we heal.

6 Kalyan Varma

Acknowledgements

This book is dedicated to nature and biodiversity, and to their enjoyment by future generations. We would like to thank all who have contributed to its creation, whether by providing quotations, photographs, essays or inspiration. Some are Synchronicity Earth project partners and advisors; others are friends and supporters. All are tireless ambassadors for nature, devoting themselves to protecting the world’s species, people and places. In addition, we would like to thank Synchronicity Earth staff for their contributions. Foremost, we are grateful to Gemma Goodman who produced the text for the book’s 50 ecosystems and their species. Gemma worked with Laura Miller to develop and edit the book and to guide its guest contributors. Katy Scholfield and Emily Miles drafted some of the ecosystem sections and provided research support. Victoria Steele sourced photographic images and offered ongoing assistance throughout and Michele Sanders and Katy Scholfield reviewed the text. Jessica and Adam Sweidan had the vision and determination to bolster the team’s endeavours. We would like to thank Rachel Roberts who assisted in provisioning materials and coordinating contributions, as well as the rest of the IUCN team for contributing their expertise, namely: Craig HiltonTaylor, Jemma Able, Kevin Smith, Mia Theresa Comeros, Mike Hoffmann, Neil Cox, Vera Hughes Salas and William Darwall. We would also like to thank Giuditta Andreaus for helping to secure quotes. We would like to give special thanks to Simon Stuart, Chair of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and the IUCN SSC Specialist Groups. We are also grateful to Wildscreen for their assistance. Heartfelt thanks go to Alice Shirley for her imagination and ability to portray nature in spectacular ways. We are grateful to Yuan Fung for his ongoing graphic inspiration and his development of the map. Final thanks go to Michael Knight and So It Goes for their design and production of this book.

8 Mattias Klum, National Geographic

Arctic

Amur Amur River River Basin Basin Black Sea Sierra Nevada Mountains

Mediterranean Basin

Mississippi River Basin Sargasso Sea Sea Sargasso

Sonoran Desert

Japan Japan

Sahara Sahara Desert Desert

Himalayas

Nile

Tibetan Tibetan Plateau Plateau

Sundarban Mangroves

Greater Antilles

Indo-Burma Indo Burma

Western Ghats

Mesoamerica Mesoamerica

Ethiopian Highlands

Cameroon Highlands and Gulf of Gulf Guinea Islands Cameroon Highlands and of Guinea Guinean GuineanForests ForestsofofWest WestAfrica Africa

Eastern Eastern Tropical Tropical Pacific Pacific Galรกpagos Galรกpagos Tropical Andes Andes Tropical

Amazon Basin Basin Amazon

Gulf of Guinea Islands

Philippines Philippines Indian Ocean Islands Coral Coral Triangle Triangle

Congo Congo Basin Basin

Borneo Borneo

Great Great Rift Rift Lakes Lakes Albertine Rift Albertine Rift

Sumatra Sumatra and and Java Java

Pantanal Pantanal

Atlantic Forest Forest Atlantic

Namib Desert

New New Guinea Guinea

Vanuatu and Solomon Islands

French FrenchPolynesia Polynesia

Eastern Eastern Arc Arc Mountains Mountains Cerrado Cerrado

Yangtze Yangtze River River

Madagascar Madagascar Coastal Forests of East Africa Coastal Forests of East Africa Okavango-Zambezi

Great Great Barrier Barrier Reef Reef

Cape Floristic Region Cape Floristic Region

Landscapes

New New Zealand Zealand

Forests

Patagonia Patagonia

Grasslands and Scrublands Mountains Deserts

Antarctica

Open Oceans Coastal Marine Inland Waters The Poles

CONTENTS 4. Foreword 8. Acknowledgements 10. Landscapes Map 15. Introduction 18. The IUCN Red List: A Barometer of Life

2 0 . U N D E R S TA N D I N G B I O P H I L I A 24. Connection with Nature 36. A Short History of Loss 46. Who Cares if a Vomiting Frog Becomes Extinct? 48. Coming Back from the Brink

5 8 . A G L I M P S E I N T O T H E N AT U R A L W O R L D 60. Overview 64. Forests

172. Mountains

292. Deserts

68. Atlantic Forest

176. Albertine Rift

296. Namib Desert

72. Borneo

182. Cameroon Highlands and

302. Sahara Desert

76. Coastal Forests of East Africa

Gulf of Guinea Islands

306. Sonoran Desert

80. Congo Basin

186. Eastern Arc Mountains

84. Guinean Forests of West Africa

192. Ethiopian Highlands

90. Indo-Burma

196. Himalayas

312. The Poles

96. Madagascar

202. Japan

316. Antarctica

102. Mesoamerica

206. New Zealand

320. Arctic

106. New Guinea

210. Patagonia and The Falklands

112. Philippines

216. Sierra Nevada Mountains

116. Sumatra and Java

220. Tibetan Plateau

120. Tropical Andes

326. Grasslands and Scrublands 330. Cape Floristic Region

336. Cerrado

124. Western Ghats

226. Open Oceans

342. Mediterranean Basin

230. Black Sea

130. Inland Waters 134. Amazon Basin

236. Sargasso Sea

140. Amur River Basin 144. Great Rift Lakes

242. Coastal Marine

148. Mississippi River Basin

246. Coral Triangle

154. Nile

252. Eastern Tropical Pacific

158. Okavango-Zambezi

256. French Polynesia

164. Pantanal

260. Galรกpagos

168. Yangtze

264. Great Barrier Reef

270. Greater Antilles 276. Indian Ocean Islands 282. Sundarban Mangroves 288. Vanuatu and Solomon Islands

346. EPILOGUE 351. Reflection

Michel Roggo

354. Bibliography

356. Thanks

361. Index

Introduction Jessica Sweidan

Founding Trustee, Synchronicity Earth

Most of us can pinpoint the exact moment when we first felt a connection with nature – the sights, sounds, smells, thoughts and sensations that sparked a realisation that we are part of something bigger and perhaps more powerful than we could ever imagine. Such moments are humbling and exciting, terrifying and aweinspiring. They can be transformative. In our high-tech, warpspeed world, these experiences stand out as being among the most significant, yet we have few opportunities to relive or remember them. We see our lifestyles as normal, forgetting that they evolve and morph – always temporary becoming, finally, anomalous. Most of Earth’s inhabitants live as part of nature, constantly connected to it. They know that survival means adapting to its powerful ebbs and flows. Despite all that is positive about human civilisation and technological advancement, our withdrawal from nature is proving to be our undoing. It manifests in accelerating rates of extinction, habitat loss and destruction, conflict, food and water insecurity, extreme poverty, anxiety; the list goes on. There is only one solution. 14 Zana Briski

Biophilia, literally, means ‘love of life’ but this definition does not do justice to the concept. Nor does the word itself. Existing writings on Biophilia – whether by biologist E.O. Wilson, or earlier psychoanalytic theorists Jung and Fromm – propose that to address the profound disease described above we need to recognise that Earth is our home: that we are part of nature, rather than apart from it. So what would the world look like if we did so? And how can we make such approaches the norm? This book describes some of the most beautiful places on Earth and the cultural, geographical and biological variety that exists within them. It is neither a compendium of life nor representative of its totality. It is a call to treasure nature because of its intrinsic beauty and because it is part of us, and us of it. It is a testament to the importance of diversity, which makes life possible and resilient. Before providing a glimpse of nature’s riches, this book will take you on a journey through the history of mankind to explore how we arrived at our current disconnected ways of being. We hope you enjoy it.

George Grubb

The IUCN Red List: A Barometer of Life Julia Marton-Lefèvre Director General, IUCN

We all strive to be healthy. We visit doctors to check on the state of our health or when we are feeling unwell. We worry when the doctor tells us something is not as it should be. Almost everyone in this situation will want to know more about what is wrong and seek the best treatment available to make it right again. Now imagine our planet as a living person. Forests as the lungs, rivers as arteries that carry blood and nutrients, wetlands as kidneys filtering waste. To monitor and improve the state of our planet, just as in the medical world, it is critical to have the right information, the best doctors, the latest treatments. The IUCN* Red List of Threatened Species provides us with the latest scientific information about biodiversity – the intricate web of plants, animals, fungi and their habitats that make up the natural world. It tells us which species we are at risk of losing and what’s needed to bring them back to health. In many ways, it is a proxy for the health of our planet. We listen to our bodies; we know when something is wrong. The Red List offers an indispensable health check for the planet – allowing us to keep a caring finger on the pulse of the body that is nature, our context and life support; it deserves no less than what we would demand for ourselves. * = International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Understanding Biophilia

Douglas Tompkins President, Conservation Land Trust and Founder, Foundation for Deep Ecology

My motivation to get up in the morning and pour my energies into my work (my life!) is linked directly to my own deep sense of the overall health of the future. In short, I worry deeply about the future. I think in the end all activists are similarly driven to work on efforts that will make the future better. On the way to that goal, the deep belief, and it is really a religious belief, that we are bound ethically and morally to share the planet with other creatures is central to what can make for a better future. This then becomes one of the foremost and priority values in what undergirds our behaviour, decisions and actions. When you have that clear to yourself, you understand why biodiversity conservation and the activism towards reversing the extinction crisis – the mother of all crises – become paramount. Although the goals of other social movements are laudable and important, nothing takes precedence over the health of the planet, and as the saying goes, ‘There will be no social justice, no culture and art, no economy nor society on a dead planet.’

Connection with Nature Dr Jerome Lewis Lecturer in Social Anthropology, University College London

Almost 100,000 years ago in Blombos, a shoreline cave on the Cape of southern Africa, a small piece of ochre crayon was carved with geometric designs. Commonly interpreted as the first example of human art, this engraving provided evidence of an evolutionary leap. By making symbols to represent things in the real world, language, history and art as we know them today became possible. One hundred and fifty years ago Herbert Spencer described the non-verbal arts as culture’s efforts to articulate its highest ideals. Since those first carvings, we have used painting, sculpture, music, photography, masking and dancing to celebrate our relationship with, and cultivate our connection to, nature. Taking a look at the way different societies past and present have sought to articulate their values can help to remind us why our connection with nature, indeed our love of it, is at the heart of the human artistic and ‘religious’ tradition. As an anthropologist specialising in hunter-gatherer societies I have had the privilege of learning about some of these traditions first hand. While popular presentations of such societies in the West tend to portray them as ‘primitive’, from the perspective of people such as the Mbendjele Pygmies I work with in Central Africa, westerners behave as incomplete human beings – nonsharing creatures with voracious appetites and awesome power who have an infantile understanding of their essential humanity. Such views of our modern way of life offer refreshing critiques of our superiority complex and can help us to re-imagine our relationship to nature. This is especially important for the mass of humanity brought up in modern urban societies where nature is dominated, packaged and consumed with little care for or awareness of the consequences. This domineering approach to the environment is often argued to originate in the Abrahamic religious traditions – Judaism, 25

UN Photo by Marie Frechon

Christianity and Islam – that developed among early herding communities of the Levant. Here, human beings assumed a Godgiven right to dominate and rule over all other animals under the pretext of being His finest creation, made in His own image. These religious doctrines had profound normative consequences on European and Mediterranean cultures’ view of other animals, justifying and legitimating life-and-death domination of other animals by people. As a result, we have forgotten that we are an integral part of a complex multi-organism. We fail to recognise that we are participating in a web of interactions that make life possible, diverse and resilient. Species are atomised from their environments and inter-species dependencies are overlooked in our representation of them. Yet we now know that our bodies contain more bacteria than human cells and that these bacteria perform vital life services – such as digesting food – that sustain us. Are we a multi-organism or a single species? Do our dependencies on other plant and animal life forms make it meaningful to think of ourselves in isolation? The Mbendjele Pygmies of Congo-Brazzaville, with whom I have been working for 20 years, sum this up nicely in their saying: ‘A Pygmy loves the forest as she loves her own body!’ Despite understanding that a human body is not a single life form, many in our own culture persist in presenting humanity as the pinnacle of evolution – the most intelligent of all creatures. This way of representing ourselves serves to mask our interdependent nature and creates a myth of autonomy that may partially account for our inability to address species loss and environmental change appropriately. According to popular western views, it is through our intelligence, technological sophistication and inventiveness that we have come to dominate the planet. Yet this most sophisticated creature now threatens the very basis of its own existence due to its unwillingness to moderate its impact on other species and the 28

complex web of interactions on which we all depend. As we wrestle with the 21st-century problems of human-induced rapid climate change alongside species and habitat loss, it can be helpful to remind ourselves of some of the ways that non-western people have traditionally understood their place in nature. The anthropologist Philippe Descola has classified the major human orientations to the environment into five essential categories: naturalism (e.g. modern scientific view); analogism (e.g. Chinese astrology); monadism (e.g. Hindu tradition of Advaita Vedanta); totemism (e.g. Australian aborigines); and animism (e.g. Central African, Amazonian or Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers). Here I want to briefly outline two of these orientations that are common to hunter-gatherers – animism and totemism – since these are the human groups that most consciously understand their deep connection and interdependence with their environment. A better appreciation of how they articulate this interaction and relationship is inspiring. Animism is considered by many to be the default human religious orientation. In general, it is based on the assumption that since we have consciousness and personhood, other parts of nature do too. So other animals, trees, rocks or phenomena such as thunder may have intentions in the way that people do. Animists establish and maintain different kinds of relationships or ‘dialogues’ with these ‘persons’ inhabiting different natural forms. These relationships seek to ensure the constant flow of the universal energy of life between forms. Such dialogues take many guises. Chewong forest people in Peninsular Malaysia spend long nights singing beautifully to the flowering fruit trees they love so as to ensure they give abundant fruit. Amazonian shamans wear feather head-dresses or jaguar teeth necklaces so that they can enter trance and take on the surface appearance of animals to see the world from their perspective. Mbendjele Pygmies in Congo-Brazzaville seduce forest spirits into camp with beautiful singing and dancing so 29

that they bless the human group with abundance and joy. Inuit hunters spend their spare time making beautiful carvings of the animals they hunt in order to better contemplate them and to connect deeply with their spiritual interior so that when they meet prey, the prey offers itself to them. What westerners call art is, in these contexts, more like a loving dialogue with natural forms that are important to the people concerned. In the process of carving the walrus, dancing the forest spirit or singing to the flowers, people cultivate and express their deep attachment, love and respect for life around them.

BIOPHILIA

Even killing, from many of these peoples’ perspectives, is not destructive when conducted respectfully. It acts to stimulate the circulation of the universal energy upon which all life depends, and by doing so is as much a creative act as a destructive one. Doing so with respect concerns how the hunt is prepared – often the role of women – as well as how it is completed. Mbendjele Pygmy women, for instance, sing to the forest to ‘open’ it to the hunters. They may also enter trance and fly over the forest looking for game to ‘tie up’ for the men to find later. When men kill, they must carefully butcher the meat and treat the carcass considerately. Certain portions must be given to specific people and sometimes spirits in order to maintain good hunting. Once returned to camp, the meat must be shared equally among all present in order to guarantee the continued abundance of food. The Mbendjele theory for managing the forest is based on the principle that Komba, the creator, made enough for all creatures so long as whatever is taken from the forest is shared fairly among all present. As Georg Simmel observed, our market-based valuation of goods (their price) is based on the difficulty we have in obtaining them – on their relative scarcity. Here, by contrast, the hunter-gatherers are valuing nature and its gifts because of their abundance. So the focus of their economic activity is not on increasing production but on ensuring equitable sharing of produce so that the forest remains abundant. If sharing is not done properly people will not find food.

30 Nicolas Lewis

Totemism, as explained by the first Australians, understands our embeddedness in nature in an essentialist way. Aboriginal Australians often divide their society into clans, each with its own totem such as crow, kangaroo or wallaby. But when an Australian says he is ‘kangaroo’ what does he mean? He, along with other people claiming affiliation to the kangaroo actually partake in the same essence as their kangaroo ancestor. This connects them back to places in the landscape that contain the creative power of the kangaroo ancestor. It was the creative wanderings of the kangaroo ancestor and other ‘Dreamtime’ beings that caused the landscape and the resources for life found upon it to emerge. As his tail swished across the sand mountains formed, where he urinated a lake now exists, and so on. In these places he made available the essential vitality to maintain creation. These are the sacred sites where ritual, song and dance, painting and sculpture are used to connect to this essential vitality and ensure its flow continues and maintains the landscape and all that emerges from it.

We don’t own the land, the land owns us. The land is my mother, my mother is the land. Land is the starting point to where it all began. It’s like picking up a piece of dirt and saying this is where I started and this is where I’ll go. The land is our food, our culture, our spirit and identity. S. Knight Aboriginal elder Human beings and other creatures come and go. They materialise on the land, live out their time growing and thriving from what they find on the land and are reincorporated into it when they die. But the land is always there and will continue to produce new life so long as those living upon it look after it in the proper way and ensure that its powers do not dissipate. 32

Andrew Trousdell

When Martin Rees, the Astronomer Royal, was asked in a BBC interview why we should bother with astronomy he reminded the interviewer and listeners that everything that exists in the universe emerged from stardust. Thus to understand the stars is to understand our own essential nature. All of life and existence is, in the grand scheme of the universe, but a temporary form emerging from stardust, and dependent on other emergent forms to exist. We, like all other creatures, are stardust transformed. Understanding this reminds us that we are all temporary guests of life. As guests we should behave in such a way that we do not misuse or abuse the generosity of our host. We should try to leave things as beautiful as we found them. The late anthropologist Roy Rappaport wrote in concluding his life’s work on Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity that, ‘Humanity is not only a species among species. It is that part of the world through which the world as a whole can think about itself.’ This is as much a responsibility as a boon. How we address this is up to each one of us to determine. Clearly, we need to challenge our arrogant master-of-nature narrative and be humble enough to learn from others to understand ourselves as a different but equal part of nature. Common to the indigenous traditions mentioned here is the use of speech, song, music, dance, painting and sculpture to celebrate life, to communicate our care and love for other species and the natural world. Synchronicity Earth’s promotion of Biophilia seeks to remind us of and revitalise this ancient human tradition. It is indeed an honour to be part of it.

34 Nicolas Lewis

A Short History Of Loss Paul Kingsnorth Writer, former Deputy Editor of The Ecologist and Co-founder of The Dark Mountain Project

In October 2006, a beekeeper from Pennsylvania in the United States (US) dropped off 400 colonies of bees in Florida to overwinter in the much warmer state. A month later, when he returned to check on his hives, he was bewildered to find that most of the bees were missing. The queens were still there, and some of the young, but all of the older bees – the honey bees, who go out foraging for nectar and bring it back to feed the hive – had completely disappeared. The collapse had been rapid and almost total: only nine of his 400 colonies remained intact. Beekeepers regularly experience the loss of some colonies and bees are often killed by parasites, cold winters and other natural phenomena. But this was different. Over the next six months, nearly a quarter of all the beekeepers across the US experienced similar disappearances, losing nearly half of all their hives. Every year since then, the problem has escalated: by 2013, around half of all the honey-bee hives in the US were victims of this new and mysterious plague. Soon the problem spread further and ‘colony collapse disorder’, as the phenomenon became known, was experienced across Europe too. Between 2008 and 2013, the honey-bee population was reported to have dropped by 30 per cent in Britain, 40 per cent in Italy and Germany and 50 per cent in Switzerland. If the collapse continues, the bee problem could become a human problem: many of our crops rely on bees and other insects to pollinate them. In May 2014, a report by Harvard University biologists claimed to have identified the cause of the bee collapse: a relatively new kind of pesticide known as a neonicotinoid. When colonies were deliberately treated with these pesticides, the honey-bees within would abandon their hives and not return. The scientists suggested that the pesticides might be impairing the bees’ memory or brain function, making them unable to perform simple or instinctive tasks like remembering their way home. In another department of Harvard University, a different team 37

of scientists was working on a project that might render honeybees ultimately replaceable. The ‘Robobees’ project, run by the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, is dedicated, as the name suggests, to building robotic bees. In 2009, in response to the news about colony collapse disorder, one of the team explained that they ‘began to seriously consider what it would take to create a robotic bee colony. We wondered if mechanical bees could replicate not just an individual’s behaviour but the unique behaviour that emerges out of interactions among thousands of bees.’ So far, the Robobees team has succeeded in creating bee-sized robots and making them fly. The next step is to make them cooperate like a real hive. After that, the robotic insects may be trained to pollinate plants or even to work as part of searchand-rescue operations in disaster zones. The Robobees scientists are keen to stress that they don’t want their creations to replace real bees, but many of their supporters are not so shy about the ultimate point of the project. The Robobees project ‘might seem unsettling and a violation of our aesthetic sensibilities,’ explained one futurist web magazine, ‘but we’d essentially be replacing biological “robots” with synthetic ones.’ How did we get to the point where we regard a living creature as a robot, and an inefficient one at that, ripe for replacement with better models once we have worked out how to make them? What errors have led us to this way of seeing? Are they the same errors that got us to the point where we were both willing and able to spray landscapes with toxic pesticides that wipe out vast swathes of insect life? Are they the same errors that could change the climate of an entire planet, trigger a sixth mass extinction event, acidify oceans, break up ice caps and shred the last great wild forests and their inhabitants in the cause of toilet paper and soya mince? We live in what is easily the most destructive culture in human history. But how did we get here? Have humans always 38

been hardwired for ecocide (the destruction of the natural environment) or did things go wrong somewhere along the journey? Was there an event, or series of events, in our history that led us to the point where we regarded ourselves as separate from something external called nature which we could choose either to idealise for pleasure or ravage for profit? The notion that humankind has experienced a Fall – a point at which we were ejected from a prelapsarian garden – runs like a golden thread through western culture. In his novel Ishmael, Daniel Quinn suggests that the biblical story of the Fall is a dim historical memory – a retelling through myth of the human development of agriculture. The Garden of Eden represents the prehistoric world of the hunter-gatherer tribes who were displaced by agriculturalists. The development of agriculture far from being a leap forward was, in this reading, a disaster. People were forced to leave a world in which wild creatures were abundant, hunting was relatively easy and edible food was widespread, for backbreaking toil in the fields, a shorter and less healthy life, and a constant battle to subdue nature with ploughs and walls and fences and locks. Perhaps, then, the development of agriculture, which is the basis for all modern civilisations, was the point at which we began to look at the non-human world as a collection of potential resources to be utilised, rather than as a community to which we belonged. Certainly it was the development of agriculture, and the settled communities, towns and eventually cities that resulted which allowed us to create the hierarchical, technologydependent global civilisation which today is denuding the planet of its riches. Perhaps, on the other hand, the problem is not agriculture alone but also industry. Until the industrial revolution really got off the ground in the 18th century, the Earth’s human population was small and therefore relatively limited in the damage it could do. Then we discovered and began to extract and burn coal, gas 39

Mario Micklisch

and oil and the party really began. It could be that the climate change which this most recent of technological leaps has already set in motion will knock the human experiment with civilisation on the head altogether. It is too early to say. Then again, perhaps the problem goes much further back than this. Perhaps the taming of fire by human beings was the point at which we separated ourselves from other creatures. Perhaps it was the making of tools, which allowed us to hunt and kill way beyond what might be considered a natural level. The novelist William Golding believed that the development of language itself represented a symbolic break in human evolution: language, according to him, allowed us to overlay abstractions onto reality and begin to shift away from that reality into our self-created internal universe. In reality, there was probably no single moment before which we lived in harmony with nature and after which a covenant was broken. Instead, there is a historical arc that can be traced from the development of human language to the development of synthetic bees. If there is, in the words of Thor Heyerdahl, nothing for modern man to return to, the question is what we can move on to and how we can do it in a way that brings us back in tune with what the philosopher Thomas Berry called ‘the great conversation’ between humans and the rest of the natural world. Certainly that conversation is almost non-existent in the modern west today. The 21st century is shaping up to be the age in which post-Enlightenment humanity finally realises a long-cherished ambition: to rebuild the planet in its own image. Some would say we have been doing this since we planted the first seeds and bred the first livestock, but we have the power now to take things to a whole new level: to modify the genes of plants and animals to build robotic alternatives to living creatures and to use the techniques of synthetic biology to create new living creatures from scratch, which can be sent out into the world with the sole purpose of achieving a human end. For centuries we have 42

dreamt of usurping the gods. Many would like to believe that it is about to happen. Biophilia seems to me to be simply a modern, sciencesanctioned way of describing a very ancient kind of love: a love for the natural world of which we are part. Nature is not something external to us. It is something we are part of and something that is within us: what are we if not natural? Biophilia, then – love of life – is as natural as love of your wife or husband or children or parents. Your relationship with nature may sometimes be as difficult and stormy as your relationship with any of them, but none of these relationships can ever go away, and they all affect you. We are all bound up together. Watch any child play in a field or wood – they know this. Then they – we – grow up and learn to convince themselves that objective reality is somehow different from lived experience. We learn to convince ourselves that the world is a machine, not an animal, that it is unconscious and meaningless and that the only questions to be asked are questions of how and not questions of why or whether. However we got here, we have managed to create a culture that has alienated us from the rest of life. We struggle to persuade ourselves that this alienation is the same thing as freedom. Increasingly, though, for those penned into cities with no view of the stars and no taste of clean air and nothing but grass between the cracks in the pavement to nourish their sense of the wild, this is no freedom at all. We have made ourselves caged animals, and all the gadgets in the world cannot compensate for what we have lost. Humans are animals – undomesticated animals – and there is something in us that still yearns for that great conversation. We need it, as we need water and air and food. Often this sense of a need to connect with wild nature is mocked or belittled in contemporary culture: dismissed as romantic, backward-looking, naive, irrelevant to the serious business of living in the modern world. In reality, it is the modern world which is out of tune with 43

what sings in the human body. Biophilia is as natural and inherent as any other form of human love, and it is not going away. All the Robobees and artificial forests on Earth cannot make up for our strange, strong sense that living without wild nature is like living without one of our senses or one of our limbs. As the Christians have their story of a Fall from a prehistoric Eden, the Hindus have a belief that the world travels through four different ages, or yugas. The age we are currently living in is the kali yuga: a dark age characterised by degeneration and greed. Avarice and a general disrespect for life define the kali yuga. It is the age when humans have been telling themselves they are equal to the gods for so long that they begin to believe it and act upon it, with catastrophic consequences. Only when this era is over, Hindu mythology tells us, will sanity begin to prevail again. However, in the decline of one age and one way of seeing there is always contained the seed of another. If an unexamined yearning to reconnect with the wild world remains within us, then we will never quite allow ourselves to be tamed. It could be that the Robobees will never swarm after all.

Who Cares if a Vomiting Frog Becomes Extinct? Prof. William Sutherland Conservation Biology, Zoology Department, University of Cambridge

Exactly 100 years ago a frog was discovered in north-eastern Australia; it looked unusual but hardly remarkable. Sixty years later biologists studied its breeding behaviour and were amazed to discover that the females swallow fertilised eggs, brood tadpoles in their stomach and then appear to ‘give birth’ to froglets through their mouths, their propulsion assisted by vomiting. Biologists wondered how on Earth this was achieved. It turns out that secretions produced by the tadpoles shut off the digestive processes. They then realised that understanding how the secretions worked would provide the key to treating human stomach ulcers or speeding up the healing of people after stomach surgery. But by 2002 the species was extinct. The exact cause of the decline is unknown. The effects of commercial logging within the frogs’ range were never investigated, but it is thought that extinction was most likely due to the infectious chytrid fungus, which has caused the decline of many amphibian species worldwide. Had these threats to the species and suitable conservation actions been identified in time, it is possible that the frog could have been saved. We now bring scientists together to identify emerging threats to biodiversity. This ‘horizon scanning’ for threats, along with collation of scientific evidence for the effectiveness of management actions in mitigating the threats, is vital if we are to prevent further extinctions. We are too late to save the gastric-brooding frog from extinction. The only option left is for Australian scientists to attempt to resurrect this unique species from frozen tissue. Breaking down the barrier between science and actions on the ground so that, where relevant, science can routinely inform decisions is critical to ensure that conservation actions are more effective so that we do not lose other key species.

Coming Back from the Brink Dr Simon Stuart Species Survival Commission Chair, IUCN

Headline figures from ‘state of the planet’ reviews show that extinction risks are growing. According to the Red List Index, some species are in sharp decline (corals, cycads, amphibians); others are faring somewhat better though still deteriorating (e.g. birds). There are also regional variations: mammal declines are worst in Southeast Asia; amphibians in Central and South America are most at risk. These overarching trends might be taken to suggest that conservation is not working, but the opposite is, in fact, true. When the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) was near-extinct in 1987, the remaining wild birds were brought into captivity; now the population is increasing, with over 100 adult birds in the wild. There are many similar examples. Scientists at BirdLife International have shown that 16 bird species would probably have become extinct between 1994 and 2004 had it not been for well-conceived conservation action. The Chatham Island black robin (Petroica traversi), which had declined to just five individuals in 1980, saw a rise in numbers to over 230 adult birds by 2011 due to careful management. There were only four Asian crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) adults in 1981: populations recovered to over 500 birds by 2006 due to a focused conservation programme in China. Other success stories include the short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus), Bermuda petrel (Pterodroma cahow), whooping crane (Grus americana), Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus), pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri) and Rodrigues warbler (Acrocephalus rodericanus). So conservation works, and not just for birds. The greater onehorned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) was heading for extinction in 1900 with fewer than 200 animals remaining, but under strict conservation populations increased: well over 3,000 can be found in the wild today in India and Nepal, despite combined pressures of habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade. The story of the southern white rhino (Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum) is 49

even more spectacular. From possibly fewer than 50 animals in 1900 in South Africa the number has risen to over 20,000 today, even despite recent poaching pressure. There are success stories from South America as well. In the Andes, the once common vicuña (Vicugna vicugna), thought to be the wild ancestor of the alpaca (Vicugna pacos), decreased to a few tens of thousands of animals by the mid-1960s, but subsequently increased to almost 350,000 by 2008 due to successful conservation efforts.

treefrog (Liuixalus romeri) in Hong Kong, Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni) in France, Longmen County magnolia (Magnolia longipedunculata) in China, grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) in Pakistan, loop-root mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) in the United Arab Emirates and the Corunna daisy (Brachyscome muelleri) in Australia. So, conservation works. Despite depressing headline figures we can point to many examples of successes on the ground and in

Another spectacular recovery has been that of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), a highly specialised desert-dwelling antelope, which became extinct in the wild in 1972 when the last known individual was shot. As a result of captive breeding and reintroductions, there are over 1,000 animals in the wild today in the Arabian Peninsula. There are also marine examples, one of the most spectacular being the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), hugely reduced by commercial whaling until the 1960s, but subsequently recovering rapidly to over 60,000 animals by 2008. Species as diverse as Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), several species of crocodile, fish, invertebrates and plants are all making strong recoveries due to well-managed conservation initiatives. A study in 2010 by IUCN and its partners showed that, at a global level, at least 68 species of birds, mammals and amphibians are on the road to recovery as a result of conservation activity. Recent studies by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Reintroduction Specialist Group have shown that many well-designed projects to return species to the wild to places from which they had been lost are often successful. Recent successes have included the large blue (Phengaris arion) butterfly in the United Kingdom (UK), the slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus) freshwater fish in the US, European mudminnow (Umbra krameri) in Hungary, Romer’s 50

the water. But is the story just one of a few isolated peaks among a general backdrop of doom and gloom? Well even that might be a little too pessimistic. 51

A lot of conservation efforts have not yet caused species to recover (or even get back from the brink), but they do stop things from getting worse. So although species on average are becoming more threatened, what would happen to them if current conservation efforts were stopped? Surprisingly enough, no one had really considered this question until recently when a group of scientists in the IUCN Species Survival Commission looked at 235 species of ungulate (a diverse group of mammals including deer, antelopes, rhinos and horses) to determine what would have happened to them if conservation had stopped in 1996. The results were dramatic and showed that at least 152 of these species (that is 65 per cent of those considered) would have deteriorated seriously in the absence of ongoing conservation efforts. One of these species, the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) would almost certainly have become extinct and four others might have been lost in just a 12-year period. Hereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s another way to look at it. In reality the Red List Index for ungulates declined by 0.2 per cent per year between 1996 and 2008. However, if there had been no conservation measures for ungulates after 1996, the Red List Index for these species would have declined by 21 per cent per year. In other words, conservation is making a massive difference to these species by slowing down their annual rates of decline by two orders of magnitude. To put these declines in perspective, they equate to 151 ungulate species deteriorating by one IUCN Red List category between 1996 and 2008 compared with 21 species that actually did. This shows that conservation can have a positive impact even when not bringing species back from the brink. It is increasingly common to hear questions raised about whether conservation investments are worth the money given their lack of success. However, the findings of recent studies indicate the opposite: that conservation is remarkably successful. The main problem with conservation is not that it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t work; rather it is that we simply donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t do anything like enough of it, and efforts are seldom 52

based on intrinsic value, but to achieve our targets do we feel free to use utilitarian approaches at least in part? This is an important discussion, but if we look at how seriously the world treats nature, we have to question whether society at large, or governments, in the current neoliberal economic paradigm, take either the intrinsic or utilitarian values of nature seriously. The total global spending on nature conservation is probably a few tens of billions of US$ annually, which is almost negligible in terms of the global economy. Compared with expenditure on defence, trade, agriculture, health or social security, it is practically invisible. The amount spent each year through government subsidies to destroy nature massively outweighs the amount spent to conserve it.

Bart van Dorp, Flickr

maintained for the long periods of time necessary to ensure recovery. When species are brought back from the brink, it is almost always the result of long-term conservation programmes such as those for the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) in Brazil, or several species of bird on Mauritius. There has been much discussion in recent years about the values we bring to the conservation endeavour. Do we practise conservation because nature (species and ecosystems) has an intrinsic right to exist? Or because nature is good for human wellbeing and livelihoods? Or for both reasons? This is a major discussion in the conservation movement right now â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is the fundamental ethic of conservation intrinsic or utilitarian, or can it actually be both? Or do we have a conservation strategy 54

Given all of this, it is remarkable how much positive impact the tiny conservation investment actually has. If we paid what it really takes to stop extinctions (perhaps a 100-fold increase in expenditure, which would still be very small in global economic terms), we would certainly see dramatic gains. Scientists have shown that the total amount of funding required to meet globally agreed targets for mitigating biodiversity loss is less than 20 per cent of annual global consumer spending on soft drinks. Of course conservation problems cannot be solved just with money. We have to take some bold decisions that will affect our lifestyles. This will include decarbonising the global economy as rapidly as possible, reducing human population growth in the developing world, and dramatically reducing consumption in the richer countries. In short, we would need to reconstruct the global economy. Which brings us back to the question of values. If we continue to be driven by material wealth and consumption, we shall accelerate rates of species extinction and cause global ecological collapse. Such ecological collapse will inevitably lead to economic collapse, as the global economy, in the end, depends on well-functioning ecosystems that support the continuance of 55

life. The path that we are on can only end in tears – a lot of tears. But how can we change course? We must be driven by a different set of values that are of far greater importance to us than money, consumption and greed. To some extent the current debate in conservation on intrinsic or utilitarian values misses the point. The key problem is that we are all slaves to an economic paradigm that treats neither nature nor people as intrinsically valuable. People are simply economic statistics. And according to the neoliberal economists, nature is an externality and therefore of no value. When Thomas Jefferson wrote that all people were created equal and were endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, he was surely correct. If only he had gone on to say that nature – species and ecosystems – are also endowed with inalienable rights! The true path of conservation will be to find novel and creative ways to balance the needs of people and nature that enable both to flourish (and people do not flourish if they are reduced to becoming consumption machines). We need both a society and an economy that make the rights of people and nature non-negotiable. Making this radical change from our current path will require serious leadership. But perhaps this would be slightly easier if we realise that our current path cannot possibly continue, because we are exceeding the planetary boundaries of the biosphere. We cannot predict the exact consequences of this brinksmanship, but we know that they will be large and, for most of the world’s species and people, unpleasant. Do we want to take some careful, bold and intentional decisions to move to a sustainable world respecting the intrinsic values of people and nature? Or do we want to carry on as we are and, as a result of crossing planetary boundaries, allow nature itself to decide our fate? That is our choice, and I think it should be any easy one to make.

56 Zana Briski

A Glimpse into the Natural World 58

Overview Gemma Goodman Freshwater and Species Lead, Synchronicity Earth

Featuring 50 of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most remarkable regions and some of their species, this section describes the changing human relationship with and impacts on the natural world â&#x20AC;&#x201C; from symbiosis to destruction to regeneration. Many areas with unique and/or exceptional numbers of plant and animal species have been identified as priorities by conservation organisations including Biodiversity Hotspots (Conservation International), Key Biodiversity Areas (IUCN), Ecoregions (WWF) and Endemic Bird Areas (BirdLife) to name but a few. To protect their biological and cultural heritage, some are given UNESCO World Heritage status; additionally, wetlands recognised as of international importance are categorised as Ramsar sites. While these mechanisms provide useful tools for focused conservation efforts, the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wild places are all worth protecting and appreciating. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species assesses the conservation status of species, with classifications ranging from Least Concern to Critically Endangered and finally Extinct. Despite the need for such information as a basis for conservation prioritisation and action, we are far from having an accurate barometer of life on Earth. Numerous species are yet to be discovered by humans and countless others are so poorly understood that we have insufficient information with which to assess them. Declines have been seen in the 1 per cent of invertebrates that has been assessed, yet these species are the linchpins of ecosystems and could be lost before we truly understand their importance. The 50 regions in this book have been categorised within eight landscape types from the frozen poles to the deepest ocean, via luxuriant forest and arid desert. In reality, just as some rivers flow from glaciers, down mountainsides, through forests into the sea, these landscape distinctions are arbitrary. Life on Earth is interconnected: the places featured are by no means representative of the whole but, nonetheless, they comprise it. Earth would not be the same without them.

Many of the species in this section will be familiar. Others are rare and little known. All are fascinating and provide an insight into the diversity and wonder of the natural world and the role all species play in maintaining healthy ecosystems. The threats to species are multiple and compound; the most severe and common is habitat loss. Biodiversity is greatest in tropical countries, yet rates of species depletion are now higher in the tropics than in temperate countries where much has already been lost. In many tropical countries, existing threats are intensifying and new ones emerging. Threat drivers include growing domestic populations and consumerism, external pressures for large-scale production of goods and resources, and the increasing impacts of global climate change. Forests are being clear-cut and rivers blocked; lakes are becoming polluted and oceans denuded of fish, invertebrates and natural minerals. As a result species, ecosystems and regional resilience are all compromised, and this in turn exacerbates extreme poverty and reduces wellbeing in human populations. Islands are particularly susceptible to human-induced threats such as colonisation by invasive species. Some creatures â&#x20AC;&#x201C; particularly those that are large-bodied, slow moving, late maturing and have a low level of reproduction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; suffer most from changes to their environment. The loss of individual species may not always seem significant yet the removal of almost any can have a profound effect on remaining species. This is true even of a tiny bug of some undescribed variety. All species are adapted to their ecosystem â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the functioning of which depends on the dynamics between them. Declines in apex predators, pollinators and important prey species can have massive cascading impacts on the abundance of particular fauna and flora, species interactions and overall ecosystem functioning. For instance, the decline in numbers of 62

Zana Briski

lions and leopards in Africa has resulted in increased numbers of baboons and changes to their behaviour including increased contact with people, causing higher rates of intestinal parasites in both baboons and humans. Many of the negative trends described in this section are reversible. Evidence suggests that deconstructing dams, curbing unsustainable offtake, developing wild areas and wildlife corridors, and eliminating or confining invasive species can have remarkably positive impacts. We hope you enjoy reading about theses amazing places and species and feel inspired to join us in protecting them. While every effort has been made to give an accurate account of these landscapes and species, evolving information and threats mean some information could be out of date or incorrect at the time of reading.

Forests

I was born in a village surrounded by forests. As teenagers, we helped our parents till the land and gather fruits, mushrooms and spices from the forests. Sufficient, diverse and nutritious food was always abundant. The food was organic and healthy. Today, the forest is almost gone. The wild fruits I picked from the forest as a teenager are almost extinct, and the mushrooms and spices I watched my mother gather are no longer easily found.

Silas Kpanan Ayoung Siakor Sustainable Development Institute, Liberia

My grandparents lived for more than 100 years. My last surviving grand-aunt lived past her 100th birthday – she died in 2013. The forest supported their healthy lifestyles and they, in return, took great care of the forest and ensured its survival. Today life expectancy in Liberia is just 60 years. Even with the advances in medicine I will be fortunate to reach 70 years – three decades less than my grandparents! Do I need a scientist to explain to me why I won’t live to be my grand-aunt’s age? The disappearing forest has a lot to do with it – that I know. Forest destruction will ultimately contribute to the death of civilisation as we know it in most parts of the world. Acting to save the forest is not about going green or being a treehugger. It is a calling to play our part to save our world. I dare not imagine life on this planet without forests.

The Atlantic Forest, or Mata Atlântica, stretches along Brazil’s Atlantic coast to Uruguay, across various islands and archipelagos, and inland to Paraguay and Argentina. It is older than the nearby Amazon rainforest and somewhat cooler, with a greater range of temperatures. Yet despite being one of the world’s most diverse and threatened forests, it receives little conservation attention.

Atlantic Forest

The Atlantic Forest contains abundant plant diversity: the lowland forest of the coastal plain, montane forests and high-altitude grassland (or campo rupestre) are home to over 23,000 plant species, 40 per cent of which are thought to be endemic. In some places a single hectare can contain over 450 tree species, and half of the Atlantic Forest’s trees are thought to be unique to the region. This ecosystem is home to many different species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, many of which are endemic. Some of the region’s most recognisable species include the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) and the southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), a tree-climbing anteater. The lesser known, but just as striking, redbelly toad (Melanophryniscus admirabilis) is Critically Endangered. T H R E AT S Much of the Atlantic Forest’s wildlife is threatened with extinction. It is thought that less than 10 per cent of the original vegetation cover of the Atlantic Forest remains intact and much of what remains is highly fragmented. Large-scale agriculture (for soy, cocoa, tobacco, sugarcane and coffee), pine and eucalyptus plantations, logging for timber, pulp and paper, and slash-and-burn clearance for cattle ranching have led to massive habitat loss, soil erosion and species loss. Two of the world’s largest cities (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo) were built within the Atlantic Forest region. Increasing urban and rural populations as well as infrastructure development have led to further pressure on and fragmentation of the natural environment.

While improved legislation has reduced deforestation somewhat, continued logging and trade threaten remaining forests and species. Many protected areas have been established in the region and efforts are underway to improve their management. Collaborations between conservationists, businesses, local communities and indigenous people are now being established to restore degraded ecosystems and reconnect fragmented forest habitats.

Kevin Schafer, kevinschafer.com

M A N E D T H R E E - TO E D S L OT H (Bradypus torquatus) The maned three-toed sloth is one of six sloth species and is found only in Brazil. It is one of two species present in the Atlantic Forest. A recent assessment has found that the maned sloth is more common than it was once thought, with a larger home range, meaning it is now classed as Vulnerable, when it was once considered Endangered. This slow-moving, arboreal mammal is found hanging upside down in trees in three distinct subpopulations feeding on the leaves of a very limited number of plants. Its survival is still threatened by the continued loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat. Maned sloths are sometimes killed for subsistence purposes, despite protection by a law whose enforcement is extremely weak.

Frederico Pereira, Flickr

While habitat loss is ongoing, the rate of deforestation in the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil has reduced dramatically in the last 30 years, easing the pressure on this and other species. Halting deforestation is the key to saving the maned sloth from extinction.

Borneo

Victoria, Flickr

Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia, located in the centre of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. It incorporates the provinces of three countries: Indonesia (South, East, West, North and Central Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) and Brunei Darussalam. Borneo’s mountainous terrain and rich dipterocarp (large tropical hardwood) forests teem with wildlife. The island is Indonesia’s most diverse within the Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot and its forests are said to be the oldest in the world. The full extent of the island’s diversity is still being explored: in just three years, 123 species were ‘discovered’ in the Heart of Borneo (where Borneo’s most intact forest remains). Already, over 15,000 flowering plant species have been recorded as well as more than 220 mammals, around a fifth of which are unique to the island. There are an estimated 420 endemic birds and 430 species of freshwater fish, around a third of which are only found in Borneo’s waters. Reptiles including the unusual false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii), a freshwater crocodile with a long and slender snout, snakes and several threatened species of tortoise and turtle are also abundant.

James Harding

S P I N Y T U R T L E (Heosemys spinosa) It is easy to see why this Endangered species is named ‘spiny’. It has a sharp, spiky-edged carapace – presumably to protect against predators. These spikes become less apparent in older and larger turtles, but juveniles are often referred to as walking pincushions! The sparse information that exists suggests that this species has a large range including Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. It is most commonly found in shallow clear streams in mountainous rainforests. As with other Asian tortoise and turtle species, the combined pressures of hunting and habitat loss threaten to drive it to extinction.

Kalyan Varma

T H R E AT S The ecosystems of Borneo, once described by Darwin as a ‘luxuriant hothouse made by nature for herself’, are now highly threatened. Exploitation of its coal, mineral and precious-metal deposits, and the industrial processing of aluminium, petrochemicals, glass and food are causing widespread damage. So too is the burgeoning aquaculture sector. The development of large-scale hydropower on the island – ostensibly to service these industries – is disrupting and destroying natural ecosystem functioning and threatening the most vulnerable species. Deforestation for timber, pulp and paper products and largescale palm oil concessions remain the biggest threat to Borneo’s wildlife. Associated with this, intentional fires are periodically started by plantation companies to clear large areas of forest. This destroys habitat and displaces species. If current rates of deforestation continue, the lowland rainforest in Borneo could have disappeared within the next decade.

Multinational and transnational agreements offer some hope for the future of Borneo’s forests: the governments of Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia committed to conserve the Heart of Borneo in 2007. Efforts are now underway across Borneo to restore degraded forests and mangroves and reconnect habitats.

Trade of the spiny turtle in food and pet markets was once widespread. However, a fall in ‘supply’ has been noted, which suggests that this species is now in considerable decline. This may put pressure on other species. There have been some recent successes in captive breeding programmes, which might be key to preventing the extinction of the spiny turtle.

The island of Borneo conjures up images of uncharted primaeval tropical rainforests and swarming exotic wildlife. But these are mostly images of the past. Today, with less than 50 per cent of its forests left and industrial conversion of forests into oil palm and timber plantations driving rapid landscape changes, Borneo is now facing an unprecedented challenge to strike a balance between economic development and biodiversity conservation. Dr Isabelle Lackman Primatologist and Co-founder, HUTAN – Kinabatangan Orang-utan Conservation Programme

Coastal Forests of East Africa

Joachim S. Müller, Flickr

The Coastal Forests of East Africa range from mountains to grasslands, moist and dry forests, and coastal and riverine habitats. They span the length of East Africa (roughly 6,200 km2) from the south of Somalia through Kenya and Tanzania and almost along the entire coast of Mozambique. They also cover parts of nearby islands such as Pemba, Zanzibar, Mafia and Mozambique’s Bazarruto Archipelago. The region is renowned for its exceptional plant endemism, with over 40 per cent of all plants only found in the area. African Violets (Saintpaulia spp.) are of significant value globally – just three of the species found in the East African Coastal Forests are the basis of a US$100 million per year house plant trade. There are over 40,000 cultivated varieties. The Coastal Forests of East Africa also have high levels of animal diversity, providing habitat to almost 200 mammal and over 600 bird species. They are home to five endemic primates including two galagos or ‘bush babies’ (Galagoides spp.).

Galen Rathbun ÂŠ California Academy of Sciences

G O L D E N - R U M P E D S E N G I (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus)

Jeff Walker for Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

T H R E AT S Growing human populations, and their quest for subsistence agriculture and livelihoods in an area defined by poor soil quality and extreme poverty, have long put pressure on the Coastal Forests of East Africa. So, too, have logging, charcoal production and the deliberate use of forest fires by hunters and honey collectors. More recently, forest loss has accelerated due to the rising global trade in non-timber forest products including coconut, sisal, clove, cardamom and cashew nut. Coastal Forests are increasingly threatened by a surge in mining interest in the region which is rich in titanium, manganese, iron and silica sands, as well as some precious stones.

Only 10 per cent of the Coastal Forestsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; vegetation is thought to be in good condition and remaining habitats are significantly fragmented. Despite this, they remain a Biodiversity Hotspot and are still home to many of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most unusual species.

The evolutionarily distinct and Endangered golden-rumped sengi (or elephant-shrew) is an extraordinary small mammal thought to be distantly related to elephants. It has a long flexible snout used for foraging through leaflitter for invertebrates. Unusually, the species is monogamous. It has one of the most restricted ranges of any elephant-shrew species, inhabiting the coast of Kenya, from the Mombasa area north to the mouth of the Tana River. Due to this, the golden-rumped sengi is severely threatened by habitat destruction and hunting along the Kenyan coast.

The species is found in the ArabukoSokoke Forest Reserve but records suggest numbers decreased by approximately 30 per cent between 1993 and 1996 and populations are thought to be continuing to decline. However in a few areas the species has started to show signs of recovery thanks to regeneration of habitat and construction of new fencing to prevent unmonitored entry to areas. While forest habitats are already highly fragmented in this area, signs suggest that this species could survive if more sustainable management practices are implemented and community participation in forest conservation increases.

Congo Basin

Rainforest Foundation UK

The Congo Basin spans six countries including Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo-Brazzaville, Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The lush tropical rainforest and wetlands in this region are still largely intact. Only the Amazon rivals the Congo Basin in terms of its tropical forest cover. Similarly, only the Amazon River is larger than the Congo’s, which is both the world’s deepest and Africa’s largest river (by discharge). The Congo Basin’s amazing biodiversity ranges from freshwater mussels found nowhere else in the world to large but elusive mammals such as the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). Many more species await discovery in the rich ecosystems of the Congo Basin. The diversity in the region is astounding, but it is perhaps best-known for its great apes – chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), bonobos (Pan paniscus) and gorillas (Gorilla spp.). The variety of plants and species that can be found in the Congo Basin is mirrored by the area’s rich cultural and social traditions: the Congo Basin is home to up to 50 million rural people including up to 700,000 indigenous hunter-gatherers commonly known as Pygmies. There are an estimated 150 different ethnic groups, many of whose livelihoods are intertwined with nature. 81

Ollivier Girard for Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

T H R E AT S Improved political stability and large areas of seemingly available land and water have made the region increasingly attractive to foreign investors. This has resulted in large-scale land and water acquisitions for mining, logging and agriculture. Huge areas of forest are being cleared and the rate of deforestation is expected to increase to make way for more oil palm plantations and massive dams which are now planned for the Congo River. While some of these developments are intended to provide ‘green energy’, the environmental and social impacts are often worse than promised benefits, especially in countries with minimal infrastructure, high levels of poverty, low levels of education and a significant history of political unrest and corruption. These activities create transport infrastructure within previously untouched landscapes which increases the amount of illegal logging and hunting in the region. Human encroachment is associated with a range of zoonotic diseases which are particularly threatening to great apes.

Unless we act quickly, much of the Congo Basin could be lost. This would leave millions homeless and jobless and result in the extinction of some of the world’s most loved and interesting species, as well as accelerating global climate change by releasing huge amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. Furthermore, this would all take place in a relatively short space of time.

George Grubb

A F R I C A N E L E P H A N T (Loxodonta africana) The African elephant is regarded as Vulnerable but concerns for the species are increasing due to growing threats from poaching. A much more secretive elephant than that found in African savannahs roams the dense forests of the Congo Basin and West Africa – the African forest elephant (Loxodonta africana ssp. cyclotis). Forest elephants are smaller than their Savannah relatives, which are the largest terrestrial animal in the world: their ears, skin and tusks also differ slightly. Habitat destruction by humans is a growing concern throughout Central and West Africa where global demand for resources is giving rise to large-scale land acquisitions.

By far the biggest threat to elephants comes in the form of illegal trade of ivory (elephant tusk), which has risen exponentially in recent years in part due to dwindling numbers of elephants. As a result, forest elephant population sizes have fallen by some 60 per cent since 2001. Many have disappeared altogether, leaving parts of Cameroon, Gabon and northern Congo-Brazzaville as the only remaining strongholds for the species.

The rich Guinean Forests of West Africa span several countries: Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon. Dry winds from the Sahara and cool currents from the Atlantic make for a seasonal climate and a diverse landscape, ranging from moist forest along the coast to swamp forests and inland, semi-deciduous forests.

Guinean Forests of West Africa 84

There are two areas of exceptional biodiversity within this region: one is in Upper Guinea in the west (especially Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire); the other is situated along the Nigeria–Cameroon border. These two areas include Mount Nimba in Upper Guinea and the Cameroonian Highlands – both montane regions which are home to a significant number of threatened and endemic species. Mammal diversity in the region is exceptional, with a spectacular number of primates found in the forests (regarded as one of the highest priority areas for primate conservation), as well as numerous other species such as the endearing black-bellied pangolin (Uromanis tetradactyla) and the beautifully striped zebra duiker (Cephalophus zebra). There are thought to be almost 800 bird species in six Endemic Bird Areas as identified by BirdLife. Furthermore there are more than 9,000 vascular plants species.

Jason Taylor, Friends of the Earth

T H R E AT S Fauna and flora in the Guinean Forests have been pushed to their limit by large-scale agriculture and logging, with only about 15 per cent of forest cover remaining. The situation is worsening as huge rubber, timber and oil palm plantations take over the landscape, clear-cutting invaluable forest habitat. In Liberia alone, one of West Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s remaining chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) strongholds, 600,000 ha of oil palm plantations are planned. Mining for precious metal and minerals is also a major threat to the forests. Poaching levels have risen in parts as a result of forest fragmentation which, combined with improvements to transport infrastructure, has led to increased access for hunters engaged in the increasingly lucrative bushmeat trade.

While in the past Guinean Forests have been heavily degraded, there is more focus on their protection now than ever before (although this is still small compared to other parts of Africa). Increased conservation attention has led to the recent discovery of West Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest populations of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ssp. verus). Progress towards peace in the region has created space for transnational conservation interventions, such as plans to develop a Peace Park to protect Gola Forest, covering 2,000 km2 and linking the forests of Liberia and Sierra Leone.

Dr. Rob Small, Fauna and Flora International

Neil Cumberlidge

P Y G M Y H I P P O P O TA M U S (Choeropsis liberiensis) The Endangered pygmy hippo is considerably less common and more threatened than its larger relative, the common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius). It is so secretive that western zoologists regarded its very existence, until the mid-1800s, as a myth. Now, there are estimated to be fewer than 3,000 individuals, restricted to the West African countries of Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone. Over the past 100 years, the pygmy hippo’s habitat has become extremely fragmented and declined dramatically as a result of logging, farming, human settlement and mining. As deforestation continues, and as transport infrastructure improves, populations are coming under increasing

pressure from hunters. One population in Nigeria, comprising a distinct subspecies (Choeropsis liberiensis ssp. heslopi) may have already been driven to extinction. While some conservation initiatives are being undertaken, more are needed to prevent this species from being lost forever. A captive breeding programme has led to the doubling of zoo populations over the last 25 years, potentially providing a last-ditch safeguard against total extinction.

Hamish Irvine, Flickr

L I B E R I A N T R E E H O L E C R A B (Globonautes macropus) The Endangered Liberian tree hole crab is an unusual tree-climbing freshwater crab that is endemic to the Upper Guinea Forests of West Africa. It lives in water-filled tree holes in closed-canopy primary rainforest in Liberia and Guinea. These air-breathing land crabs live well away from permanent water sources, forage at night on the forest floor and climb tree trunks to hide deep inside holes where rainwater collects.

Unfortunately, the rainforest habitats on which these crabs depend for their survival are under serious threat and deforestation is increasing in all parts of the Upper Guinea Forest. The Liberian tree hole crab is not found in a protected area and this casts doubt on the long-term survival of this Endangered and ecologically unusual species.

The Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot covers over 2 million km2, extending from eastern Bangladesh, across north-eastern India and including most of Myanmar, also known as Burma, and Thailand, as well as all of Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and a small part of Peninsular Malaysia. It also includes the coastal lowlands of southern China, a number of islands in the South China Sea, the Andaman Islands and the Lower Mekong catchment. The region is home to 13,500 vascular plant species, over half of which are unique to the area. Localised endemism is high, particularly in isolated montane and lowland forest regions, as well as in river basins. The Hotspot is important for birds and includes five Endemic Bird Areas. Indo-Burma is home to the Mekong, the world’s largest inland fishery, and is termed the ‘rice bowl of Asia’. Its wetlands support a huge number of freshwater fish species, well over 1,000, and the highest diversity of freshwater turtles in the world.

Indo-Burma

However, some 80 per cent of the known 57 turtle and tortoise species in the region are threatened with extinction including the Critically Endangered Chinese three-striped box turtle (Cuora trifasciata). New species are being discovered regularly. In just 12 years, six large-mammal species were discovered including two muntjacs (Muntiacus vuquangensis and Muntiacus truongsonensis), a primate named the grey-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix cinerea), the Annamite striped rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi), the leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis) and the saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis). Five of these were found in the Annamite mountains, a highly diverse, little-known chain of mountains straddling the Laos–Vietnam border.

Veronique Dumont

T H R E AT S This densely populated region is one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most threatened Hotspots. Small-scale charcoal production and firewood extraction have long been a problem in the area but the rise in industrial-scale logging and agricultural practices has led to even more widespread deforestation. Large-scale hydropower development is causing cross-border tensions, despite the establishment of a regional commission to facilitate agreement. The impacts of dams are felt downstream both in terms of socio-economic fallout and species loss: around 13 per cent of freshwater species are already threatened in the region and are under increasing pressure because of destructive dams.

Veronique Dumont

Mangroves in the region have been severely degraded through shrimp aquaculture. Many shrimp producers use forced labour and their farms are viable only for a short period before they become diseased, leaving toxic waste and destroyed habitats in their wake. Wildlife trade is a massive and growing threat to plant and animal species in Indo-Burma. Attempts are currently being made to improve enforcement of laws, to grow the protected area network and to investigate more fully the nature of wildlife trade. Organisations are also working to address the joint environmental and human abuses associated with current agricultural and hydropower development.

Zeb Hogan

M E K O N G G I A N T C AT F I S H (Pangasianodon gigas) This large freshwater fish was once distributed widely throughout its range in the lower Mekong basin from northern Laos to the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. However, fishery pressure has led to a decline of over 80 per cent in the last two decades and the species is considered Critically Endangered. The Mekong giant catfish is endemic to the Mekong Basin, found in the Tonle Sap Lake, Tonle Sap River and the Mekong River. This species faces a major threat in terms of future damming of the main stem Mekong River. Spawning, nursery and feeding habitats are likely to be impacted by the building of dams, even possibly eliminating the species altogether.

Fisheries for this species are regulated and captive-bred individuals have been released but these measures are unlikely to protect this species against large-scale damming. Jennie Webber

S A O L A (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis) The saola is Critically Endangered. Restricted to a narrow area on the border between Vietnam and Laos in the Annamese lowlands, this unusual bovid was only discovered in 1992, but is in grave danger of extinction. The clearance of forests for agriculture, timber, roads and other development opens up remote parts of remaining forest fragments to hunters who unintentionally catch saolas in their snares. Economic development and human population growth in the region are only likely to increase these threats.

Although the saola occurs in some protected areas, effective management and conservation of many of these areas has been a problem. The species is legally protected in both Vietnam and Laos, and a number of conservation initiatives are underway including snare removal. However, the future of this unique but little-known species remains uncertain and the next step is likely to be captive breeding.

Madagascar

Mariusz Kluzniak, Flickr

Madagascar is the fourth-largest island in the world, located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of south-eastern Africa. The landscape ranges from lush tropical rainforests along the eastern escarpment to dry deciduous forests on the west coast. Spiny deserts and high mountain ecosystems can also be found on the island. What makes Madagascar so special is that over 90 per cent of its plants and animals (ranging from invertebrates to mammals) are unique to the island. For example, lemurs are found nowhere else in the world, yet Madagascar is home to over 70 different lemur species including the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s smallest primate discovered only in the year 2000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Madame Bertheâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae). Madagascar is also home to the Critically Endangered gigantic palm, Tahina palm (Tahina spectabilis), as well as beautiful amphibians and highly threatened freshwater fish such as the pinstripe damba (Paretroplus menarambo).

Frank Vassen, Flickr

T H R E AT S Habitat loss is by far the biggest threat to Madagascan species – only 17 per cent of Madagascar’s original vegetation remains. Deforestation has resulted in erosion that, in turn, has caused massive sedimentation into Madagascar’s inland water bodies causing them to run red with soil. Coastal environments have also suffered rapid rates of erosion, resulting in heavy clogging of coastal waterways.

Drivers of deforestation include commercial timber (particularly valuable hardwoods), fuelwood, charcoal and agriculture. Damaging agricultural practices include slash and burn, heavy cattle grazing and rice cultivation. Pollution from pesticides and fertilisers has intensified these problems. The survival of many of Madagascar’s species is now threatened, but conservationists and local people are working hard and quickly to bring them back from the brink.

Lake Sofia has the potential to once again become a healthy, flourishing wetland that benefits people and wildlife including the world’s rarest duck – the Madagascar pochard. Working closely with the local communities, empowering them to become guardians of the lake and manage it sympathetically is key to the success of the project.

Floriot Randrianarimangason Manager, Madagascar Pochard Conservation Breeding Centre 98

Blue Ventures

Jeff Gibbs, lemur.duke.edu/protect/conservation/sava-conservation/

Iñaki Relanzon, www.photosfera.com

S I L K Y S I FA K A (Propithecus candidus)

M A DA G A S C A R P O C H A R D (Aythya innotata)

Characterised by its long-silky white fur, the silky sifaka is an elusive creature. Its diet consists of fruit and leaves from Madagascar’s tropical moist montane forests in the north-east of the country, where they live in female-headed groups. The silky sifaka has been considered Critically Endangered since the year 2000. Tragically, its numbers are thought to be fewer than 250 and the population is continuing to decline.

Very nearly following the fate of its Lake Alaotra neighbour – the Alaotra grebe (Tachybaptus rufolavatus), now extinct – the Critically Endangered Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata), otherwise known as the ‘unremarkable diving duck’, was thought extinct before being rediscovered in 2006. At this time, numbers were so low that an emergency captive breeding programme was required to prevent the species’ complete disappearance. In a heroic effort, given the poor infrastructure on the island, and with no proper rearing facilities, eggs were taken to a hotel immediately to be incubated and safely hatched. A captive population (in proper facilities) is now thriving in Madagascar and plans are being made to release the birds into the wild.

This species faces major loss of its habitat as well as hunting, which occurs even within two of Madagascar’s protected areas. Mining activities in AnjanaharibeSud are exacerbating hunting activities due to improved infrastructure. Large trucks have been observed containing rosewood, palissandre, ebony and other valuable hardwood trees that were illegally cut within the species habitat. As one of the world’s poorest countries, economic requirements often trump consideration of the longer-term impacts of environmental degradation, but efforts are being made to end hunting of this spectacular species and to create new or better protected areas.

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However, existing freshwater bodies are so degraded that a suitable wetland habitat must be restored before the birds can be released in the hope of creating a successful breeding population. This huge conservation effort is helping poor local communities improve their livelihoods through improved fisheries practices and living conditions; through education and sanitation initiatives as well as helping to restore the natural ecosystem.

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Mesoamerica encompasses Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, and incorporates a third of Mexico and nearly two-thirds of Panama. The region is home to 32 distinct ethnic groups and an incredible diversity of species. Several ecosystems converge in Mesoamerica including lowland and high coniferous forests and coastal mangroves. Either side of the Sierra Madre of southern Chiapas – a chain of mountains running parallel to the Pacific coastline – boasts unique wildlife and natural ecosystems. The world’s loudest land animal, the black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya), lives within Mesoamerica’s forests: its loud calls can be heard from several kilometres away. The region is classed as the world’s most important Hotspot for reptiles. Furthermore, it provides habitat to an array of amphibians and to over 220 bird species whose migratory routes converge there, as well as to some unique resident species such as the beautiful hummingbird, the Honduran emerald (Amazilia luciae), which is one of Central America’s rarest birds.

Mesoamerica

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T H R E AT S Mesoamerica has some of the highest deforestation rates in the world, with large areas being cleared for coffee and banana plantations and cattle ranches. The trade in commercially valuable timbers has given rise to large-scale habitat destruction. As a result, many once-abundant species such as big-leafed mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and Pacific coast mahogany (Swietenia humilis) are threatened; Pacific coast mahogany has been wiped out from much of its natural range. Oil and mineral exploration and extraction have led to further degradation in the region and infrastructure development associated with tourism has increased human settlement and encroachment.

Around 20 per cent of Mesoamerica remains protected including several recognised Ramsar sites. Recognition of the need for wildlife conservation has given rise to attempts to prevent uncontrolled agricultural and urban expansion and logging. Wildlife corridors are being established, providing connectivity between different areas, which in turn create socio-economic benefits to local populations due to increased ecotourism.

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Gonçalo M. Rosa

U T I L A S P I N Y- TA I L E D I G U A N A (Ctenosaura bakeri) The Utila spiny-tailed iguana is named after the single island on which it occurs, located off the coast of Honduras. Its tiny range and low numbers (estimates suggest that there are fewer than 5,000 mature individuals remaining) mean that it is now Critically Endangered. Despite legislation to prevent the harvesting of eggs for human consumption, the Utila spiny-tailed iguana population is still in decline. This is largely due to loss and degradation of its habitat: mangrove forests are used as rubbish dumps, or cut down to make way for housing, resorts and marina construction.

A more thoughtful approach to ecotourism could protect the species and its habitats, bringing much-needed prosperity to the island. Since 1994, initiatives have been established to save the species from extinction including protecting mangrove habitat, educational and awareness raising campaigns and, more recently, captive breeding both in the country and outside.

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Brian Gratwicke, Flickr

R A B B ’ S F R I N G E - L I M B E D T R E E F R O G (Ecnomiohyla rabborum) Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog was only discovered in 2005. In 2008 it was classified as a new species, but it is now so rare that it is feared possibly extinct and is therefore listed as Critically Endangered. The Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog’s home is in the mountains near El Valle de Anton in central Panama. It once inhabited the forest canopy and leapt from the trees to escape danger, using its outstretched limbs and large, webbed hands and feet to glide safely to the ground.

As with the iguana, the development of luxury holiday homes and tourist accommodation has contributed to the demise of the species. It is thought that the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, which arrived in the region in 2006, may have devastated remaining populations.

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New Guinea is the world’s second-largest island. It is home to the planet’s thirdlargest rainforest as well as spectacularly diverse coastal mangroves which stabilise coastal areas and provide a home to many species. New Guinea lies in the South-West Pacific Ocean and incorporates Papua and West Papua – provinces of Indonesia – as well as Papua New Guinea (PNG). PNG itself includes the Bismarck Archipelago, a group of volcanic islands off its northern coast.

New Guinea including the

PNG is home to over 5 per cent of the world’s plant and animal species, an astonishing two-thirds of which are unique to the country. The Goodfellow’s tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus goodfellowi) is particularly specialised in its behaviour and only found in PNG, Indonesia and Queensland, Australia. Many species of butterfly are found in PNG including the Queen Alexandra’s birdwing (Ornithoptera alexandrae) whose wings span 28 cm. New Guinea has more orchid species than anywhere else on the planet and, since its islands lie within the Coral Triangle, it is rich in reef fish and coral species. In a country where 800 languages are spoken (that’s about one-fifth of the world’s languages), the people of PNG and, more broadly, New Guinea have rich and varied cultures. PNG is home to the largest known cave system in the southern hemisphere, containing hand printings dating back tens of thousands of years. These are still home to hunter-gatherer groups.

B I S M A R C K A R C H I P E L AG O

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Dr Nancy Sullivan

It is hard to generalise about PNG’s people – they range from tough highlands warriors to hula-dancing islanders, and everything in between. The majority of people still live where their distant ancestors were born. They speak the same language, use the same fishing and hunting and gardening techniques and have only just begun to intensify their production as a result of increasing population pressures. No other word describes PNG better than ‘diversity’ and yet being so diverse makes it easy to factionalise and subjugate by promises of ‘development’ in return for the gold, copper and timber that other countries need to extract. Helping the stewards of the PNG rainforest remain on their ancestral land will enable some of the world’s greatest biodiversity to continue to flourish. Dr Nancy Sullivan Anthropologist, PNG 108

Hadi Zaher, Flickr

T H R E AT S Until recently, over 95 per cent of PNG’s land was held under customary tenure and managed by local communities according to their traditions. The country’s large, remote forests were largely protected under this system. However, the government introduced 99-year Special Agricultural Business Leases (SABLs) under which more than 11 per cent of the land has been ‘rented’ to large logging, mining and agricultural companies. Their activities have led to deforestation and marine and freshwater pollution.

Experimental seabed mining off the coast of PNG presents an additional, although less well understood, threat to PNG’s marine life. Local groups are working hard to protect vital habitat and as a result of their work, the government has recently pledged to return land that was ‘leased’ under SABLs to the affected communities.

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Eye of the Crocodile (Bruguiera hainesii)

Jennie Webber

Ria Tan

E A S T E R N L O N G - B E A K E D E C H I D N A (Zaglossus bartoni)

E Y E O F T H E C R O C O D I L E (Bruguiera hainesii)

The eastern long-beaked echidna, part of an ancient clade of egg-laying mammals, is found only in New Guinea and is Critically Endangered. Overhunting and cultivation of its habitat have put severe pressure on the species, now additionally threatened by the impacts of industrial-scale logging and mining. Remaining populations are now restricted to enclaves on the highest parts of New Guineaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mountains, or to protected areas. Local organisations are working to protect the species by raising awareness among communities.

The eye of the crocodile is a striking mangrove tree species. It grows in an area known as the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;back mangroveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, which is susceptible to coastal development. Much of its habitat is being converted into agricultural land and shrimp farms. Other threats include pollution from sewage, siltation, oil and agricultural and urban runoff. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricanes and tsunamis. This species has a patchy distribution and is found in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and a newly discovered locality in Rakhine State, western Myanmar. There are only an estimated 200 individuals left in the wild making it Critically Endangered.

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Several propagation studies have been carried out on the species in an attempt to restore population numbers, but unfortunately it is a slow and frequently unsuccessful process. Further research is needed to fully understand the status of the various populations of this species and its rate of decline, in order to protect both it and the many associated species that rely on mangrove habitats.

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Andy Enero, Flickr

Philippines

The Philippines, at the heart of the Coral Triangle (see page 246), is a top-priority Hotspot for global conservation. More than 7,000 islands in the West Pacific are included within the geopolitical boundaries of the Philippines, with the majority of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s burgeoning population found in just 11 of the largest islands. Due to their location, the islands of the Philippines are graced by a diversity of marine and terrestrial life: the larger islands are home to more endemic species than are many entire countries. As a result of the volcanic origins of the islands, their landscape is mountainous and their soils rich and fertile. Dense tropical forests characterise the area. Eastern Mindanao, Palawan and Sierra Madre are three of the key areas for biodiversity and contain the largest remaining tracts of dipterocarp forest. There is still much to learn about the amazing tropical forests of the Philippines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the country has one of the highest discovery rates of new species in the world. In the last decade, nearly 40 new species of fauna and flora have been discovered including more than a dozen new mammal species. Many of the plants and animals found in the Philippines are unique to the region such as the highly threatened Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), the Philippine pond turtle (Siebenrockiella leytensis) and the Palawan horned frog (Megophrys ligayae).

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Merlijn Van Weerd, Mabuwaya Foundation

T H R E AT S The biggest threat facing all species on the Philippines is habitat loss or alteration. Between 1990 and 2005, the Philippines lost approximately a third of its forest cover to logging and agriculture. The resulting soil erosion has been linked to the increased flood-risk in the country. Bans on logging in natural forests have not been totally effective in preventing deforestation, but rates have slowed significantly. However, mining and industrial, agricultural and urban development continue to threaten the natural environment.

Regeneration and protection programmes are now in place to protect the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s remaining forests, mangroves and wetlands: the government is developing a National Greening Strategy.

Merlijn Van Weerd, Mabuwaya Foundation

P H I L I P P I N E C R O C O D I L E (Crocodylus mindorensis)

Generally, in San Mariano where we work for the conservation of the Philippine crocodile, the people believe that if you do not harm the crocodile, the crocodile will also not harm you. The Agta ask permission to their Apong (grandfather crocodile) before they go to catch fish in their rivers so that they will catch more fish and the grandfather crocodile will not get angry.

Marites Gatan-Balbas Deputy Director, Mabuwaya Foundation, Inc. 114

The Critically Endangered Philippine crocodile is native to the country, with the most viable populations on Luzon and Mindanao Islands, and a few small groups elsewhere. The speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; initial decline was due to commercial overexploitation, followed by widespread habitat destruction. The decline continued as wetlands were converted for other uses and the hunting of crocodiles persisted. Killing of crocodiles is now prohibited under national and municipal law, though occasional killings and illegal fishing activity are still recorded.

While there have been conflicts in the past, the good news for the Philippine crocodile is that many local communities respect and do not wish to harm the crocodiles. Some feel a close connection with the species; others feel the crocodile brings them luck and many believe in making offerings to the crocodile to appease their ancestors. Working through local communities to implement habitat protection, regular monitoring and release of crocodiles hatched in captivity, the future for this species is looking bright but, given its tiny population, ongoing efforts are crucial.

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Sumatra and Java

Sara Marlowe, Flickr

Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest island, Sumatra, and its most populous, Java, lie within the Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot which encompasses the western half of the IndoMalaysian Archipelago. Sumatra is the most threatened part of this Hotspot. Many of the species found in Java and Sumatra have evolved independently for many years and so are unique to the islands. They are home to some of the rarest large mammal species in the world such as the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. sumatrae), Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) and the Sumatran and Javan rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis and Rhinoceros sondaicus respectively). Lowland rainforest, coastal mangrove forests and high mountain peaks have provided ideal habitat for the evolution of 17 unique plant types (and more than 10,000 species) in Sumatra and over 270 native orchid species in Java. It is expected that many species are still to be discovered: amphibians, for example, are poorly known.

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S U M AT R A N O R A N G U TA N (Pongo abelii)

Marc-André Jung, Flickr

T H R E AT S Commercial and illegal logging (for timber, pulp and paper) and large-scale agricultural development, particularly for palm oil, have led to widespread deforestation in Java and Sumatra. The islands are increasingly susceptible to forest and peatland fires as a result. These discharge huge volumes of CO2 into the atmosphere and lead to further destruction of slow-growth forest and peatland. The impacts on public and environmental health are significant. In 2010, the governments of Norway and Indonesia negotiated a US$1 billion deal to reduce deforestation. This led to a moratorium on new agriculture and logging concessions in primary forests and peatlands, but had limited success: deforestation rates have actually risen. Fortunately, other initiatives are being developed that protect the land rights of indigenous communities who have long protected their forests.

The trade in wildlife parts for traditional Chinese medicine and of live animals for the pet trade poses a serious threat to numerous species including orangutans (Pongo abelii), sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) and Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica). Many bird species are popular locally as pets including parakeets, hornbills, birds of prey and songbirds: they are therefore vulnerable to poaching. Almost any species can be found in open markets including reptiles such as the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), which is exported to China for medicine, consumption and trophies. Wildlife trade regulations are in place and efforts are being made to improve their enforcement and compliance. Attempts are also being made to improve tracking of illegal timber and to verify legal timber, thereby diminishing the viability of illegal timber.

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The Sumatran orangutan, whose name means ‘person of the forest’, is more endangered than its Bornean counterpart and is regarded as Critically Endangered. Once widespread across Southeast Asia, this large, mainly solitary ape is now restricted to the north of Sumatra. Hunting was once its main threat and while the illegal pet trade continues, the biggest risk to both the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and Sumatran orangutan is widespread loss, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat due to deforestation.

Domestic and international laws have been developed to protect the Sumatran orangutan but these are poorly enforced and do not tackle its biggest threat – habitat loss. The final stronghold for the species is in the Leuser Ecosystem conservation area. The orangutan’s range extends far beyond this protected area to places that face relentless deforestation.

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The Tropical Andes span 7,000 km from Western Venezuela in the north, down to northern Chile and Argentina, incorporating parts of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Their dramatic landscapes comprise tropical wet, cloud and moist forests, as well as grasslands and snow-capped peaks. The area is characterised by deep ravines and freshwater bodies including Lake Titicaca and Colca Canyon, the world’s deepest gorge. The Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot is home to an abundance of vascular plants; some suggest there are as many as 50,000 species, of which nearly half are unique to the region. This profusion of vascular plants in the Andes–Amazonia ‘transition zone’ makes it one of five megadiverse Hotspots, globally.

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Reptiles, amphibians and birds thrive in the Andes. In Colombia, for example, in an area just one-quarter of the size of New York State, there are thought to be around 100 species of resident hummingbird competing for nectar. They are specially adapted to live at these higher altitudes; their blood contains extra haemoglobin to store oxygen. The Tropical Andes contain some of the richest amphibian diversity in the world including the amazing Titicaca water frog (Telmatobius culeus), which can weigh up to a massive 1 kg. Unfortunately it, like many other amphibian species in the region, is threatened with extinction.

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Gerben van Heijningen, Flickr

A N D E A N F L A M I N G O (Phoenicoparrus andinus) The Andean flamingo is the rarest of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s six flamingo species and has undergone a rapid population decline. It is considered Vulnerable. Its range extends from southern Peru, through north-western Argentina, western Bolivia and central Chile. The Andean flamingo is primarily found in the shallow salt lakes of the high Andes; in winter, many fly to lowland wetlands in Argentina. It feeds entirely on tiny algae called diatoms.

Karl Norling, Flickr

T H R E AT S The profusion of human settlement within the Tropical Andes places a huge strain on the natural environment. Millions of people are concentrated in the most hospitable areas along valleys and rivers, which are becoming degraded as a result. The cloud forests of the Andes are being cleared for agriculture and for infrastructure development, such as large-scale hydropower and road building. This, in turn, leads to disturbances in adjacent uncleared areas. At higher altitudes, the grasslands and scrublands of the Puna and PĂĄramos face local level threats from small-scale agriculture, mining and fuelwood collection.

The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to mining, agricultural expansion and urban development. This species is also directly affected by egg removal at colonies and human disturbance at breeding and foraging sites.

Opium cultivation, linked to guerrilla activity in the area, has led to the clearing of large swathes of montane forests and the use of polluting herbicides. While, at present, the eastern slopes of the Andes remain relatively untouched, the presence of oil, gas, minerals and precious metals make conservation efforts in the Andes ever more urgent.

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Western Ghats

Thangaraj Kumaravel, Flickr

The Western Ghats are made up of a mountain chain that extends along the west coast of India covering an area roughly 140,000 km2. These mountains, while less dramatic in height, are older than the Himalayas. Annual monsoons deliver up to 8 m of rain each year: the mountains of the Western Ghats help to intercept the rainy winds, protecting surrounding areas. Their diversity is, in part, a product of the range of habitats that occur at different elevations. Some of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best-known species are found here including Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris ssp. tigris) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). The region is also home to an array of reptiles, amphibians and bats and is regarded as one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hottest Hotspots, along with Sri Lanka. It is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Western Ghats provide important hydrological and watershed functions, feeding the rivers in the peninsular Indian states and many of the 245 million people living there.

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Kalyan Varma

T H R E AT S Forested areas in the Western Ghats are heavily fragmented by coffee, tea, cardamom, ginger, oil palm and rubber plantations, and by reservoir and road development. Overgrazing by goats and cattle and the introduction of monocultural tree plantations are also affecting diversity in the region, as are burgeoning human populations and rising consumption. Human impacts are even being felt in the region’s protected areas. Encroachment has led to an increase in human–wildlife conflicts as animals are confined to smaller areas and come into closer contact with people, their livestock and crops. This can result in death of wildlife and, occasionally, people.

Kalyan Varma

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Numerous well-established Indian and international NGOs are working to tackle human–wildlife conflict and trade issues. Meanwhile, wildlife corridors are being created to connect protected areas and allow migratory species to maintain their range.

Kalyan Varma

P U R P L E F R O G (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) Rajeev Raghavan

M A L A B A R P U F F E R F I S H (Carinotetraodon travancoricus) The Malabar pufferfish, otherwise known as the dwarf pufferfish (it grows to a maximum of one inch), is unique to the Western Ghats. Its population numbers are falling dramatically â&#x20AC;&#x201C; predicted to decline by up to 40 per cent over a 10-year period â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and as such it is classified as Vulnerable. These population declines have been caused by local deforestation, agriculture and hydropower â&#x20AC;&#x201C; some of which are being addressed as part of wider conservation efforts. Furthermore, overharvesting for the aquarium trade puts additional pressures on population numbers. Specific measures to improve the sustainability of the aquarium trade would help local livelihoods and help protect the Malabar pufferfish.

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An extraordinary-looking amphibian, the purple frog burrows for termites and spends the majority of its life underground, emerging only to breed. Formally discovered in 2003, it is unique to the Western Ghats and is known to exist in just a handful of localities. However, given its subterranean lifestyle, it is difficult to ascertain true population numbers. Human encroachment is proving problematic for this species and it is currently classified as Endangered.

It is hoped that this distinctive frog will become a flagship species for conservation in the region. Studies of the purple frog are currently being undertaken to improve knowledge about its ecology, which will help establish the best and most practical conservation interventions.

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Most of us think of inland waters as abundant waterfalls, rivers and lakes. In them, we see a mirror image of our terrestrial world, seldom looking beyond the surface to view what lies beneath. Within them is a parallel universe of great beauty and richness. Take the time and peer into a pond, lake or river: the diversity of animals and plants will amaze you – it is unmatched anywhere on Earth.

Dr William Darwall Manager, IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit

The world’s freshwater bodies cover only a tiny proportion of the planet’s surface yet contain more than one quarter of the world’s vertebrates. Freshwater species live, largely unnoticed, in wetlands that are becoming ever smaller in size – around half have been lost due to human pressures. We are only just beginning to understand the variety and importance of freshwater species. Their value lies beyond economics. While we compete for scarce water resources to improve our lives, we overlook the needs of the plants and animals – and, indeed, people – that live in and depend upon wetlands. With no voice and little representation, they are losing ground (or water). If only we could better appreciate this diversity of life, things might be different. A world with no space for fishes and crabs, otters and dolphins or water beetles and dragonflies would certainly be a poorer one.

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The Amazon Basin is one of the most iconic in the world with its lush tropical rainforests and winding waters. It extends over 40 per cent of South America, spanning Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The Amazon River is the second longest in the world, and the largest in terms of volumes of water discharged. The Amazon Basin spans an area of nearly 6,734,000 km2 and provides a rich diversity of habitats including marshes, swamps, streams and tropical forests. It is home to one-tenth of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s known species including 40,000 plant species, 3,000 freshwater fish (more than in the entire Atlantic Ocean!) and at least 400 reptile species. In the last decade alone, more than 1,200 new species were described, with many others still to be discovered.

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The Amazon Basin also plays an important role in the wider global ecosystem. The rainforest provides oxygen on which the whole world depends; it acts as a massive carbon sink (storing an estimated 120 billion tonnes) protecting the planet against worsening climate change. More than two thirds of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freshwater is held within the Amazon Basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s watershed: approximately one-sixth of the freshwater draining to the oceans comes from the Amazon, which directly enriches the Atlantic Ocean into which it flows. The Amazon is home to over 30 million people including almost 400 distinct indigenous groups, most of whom depend on the natural resources of the Amazon and have lived side by side with its trees, rivers and animals for millennia. As industrial expansion shrinks the natural habitat, their ways of life and their homes are threatened.

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We are living in a moment of great global transformation, where capitalism dominates and all those who do not incorporate themselves into this system are seen as an inconvenience. Today, we indigenous peoples are seen as an embarrassment to this system because of our age-old and harmonious relationship with nature, where land is a sacred good and not merchandise, where rivers represent life and the forest is our protector. In the name of economic development all of this is threatened, if not already destroyed. Our role as conscious citizens is to fight against this looming chaos, maintaining our way of life, enjoying [our lands] responsibly and significantly contributing to the wellbeing of the planet. Sônia Guajajara National Coordinator, Brazil’s Association of Indigenous Peoples (APIB)

Rodrigo Soldon, Flickr

T H R E AT S The best-known threat to the Amazon Basin comes from deforestation for large-scale agriculture (including soy, palm oil and cattle) and logging. However, large-scale infrastructure for roads, dams and oil and gas pipelines are all taking their toll on the region. As well as their direct impacts, they are resulting in greater fragmentation: increased penetration into the forest is leading to more poaching and freshwater pollution. The loss has already been catastrophic. It is estimated that over 80 dams are in various stages of construction and functioning along the Brazilian Amazon River alone: there are plans to build 150 more across the whole basin. Furthermore, the forest has lost almost 20 per cent of its canopy cover in the last 50 years.

New protected areas are being set aside in the Amazon Basin and attempts made to gain better recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights, which, it is hoped, will lead to better protection of the Basin’s forest and freshwater ecosystems. Ensuring that the Amazon’s freshwater ecosystems are encompassed in conservation planning is crucial.

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Michel Roggo

Dr. Rosser W. Garrison

B O T O (Inia geoffrensis) The boto or pink river dolphin is probably better recognised than the other river dolphin species due to its distinctive grey to pink colouring, bulbous forehead, long beak and rotund body shape. Despite this, the boto is classed as Data Deficient, meaning there is not enough information on threats, ecology or population size and trends to assess how threatened this species is. We do know that the boto is found in the drainage basins of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers and that in areas where botos have previously been studied, they appear widespread and relatively abundant. However, these areas cover only a small proportion of the species’ total range and are often in areas where the dolphins have some protection.

K L U G I ’ S T H R E A D TA I L (Protoneura klugi) The known threats to this species include hydroelectricity and irrigation dams, as well as suspected poisoning from high mercury levels caused by pollution from gold mining operations. Botos are also viewed by some local fishermen as destructive and as competitors. They are also killed for fish-bait. Furthermore, it is thought they are sometimes caught accidentally as bycatch or injured by fishing gear.

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This delicate damselfly is known from only a few males found in two localities close to each other in the Amazon rainforest of northern Peru. It is therefore not well enough understood to be assigned a conservation status and as such is regarded as Data Deficient. The habitat of Klugi’s threadtail includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest. During a visit to the research station of Tiputini, located in the Amazon forest of eastern Ecuador, this species was found inhabiting several narrow streams within the forest. This discovery considerably enlarges the previously known range of distribution of Klugi’s threadtail. It is hoped that many other rare species of both dragonfly and damselfly, which are insufficiently known, may be found to be more widely distributed upon further study of this vast and rich forest.

The two known localities of this species are not within protected areas and are of unknown conservation status. Further information is needed to protect Klugi’s threadtail including surveys to find more localities and establish distribution range, biological studies and an evaluation of threats to its continued survival.

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The Amur River acts as a natural border between north-eastern China and Russia. It flows from the steppes of Mongolia through China and Russia and empties into the Pacific Ocean. At almost 3,000 km in length, it is one of the last remaining large undammed rivers in the world. There are only two major bridges along its entire length, hinting at the sparsely populated wilderness through which it runs. Wetlands, grasslands and species-rich temperate forests fill the 2 million km2 watershed of the Amur River that supports some 6,000 species of vascular plant and hundreds of fish, bird and mammal species.

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The grasslands and mountains of the Amur basin are home to rare big cats such as the Amur leopard (Panthera pardus ssp. orientalis) and Amur tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. altaica). Powered by the annual monsoon rainfalls and spring snowmelt, the river has capacity to house some very large freshwater species. The Siberian taimen (Hucho taimen), for example, is the largest salmonid in the world, reaching lengths of 2 m and living for 30 years. This species occurs throughout Europe and Asia, whereas the huge and Critically Endangered kaluga sturgeon (Huso dauricus) is unique to the Amur River Basin. Furthermore, the surrounding wetlands are vital for geese, ducks and waders during their annual migration.

T H R E AT S The Amur River is one of the few relatively intact rivers in the world. The Chinese side is the most degraded due to a large (and expanding) population and relatively recent settlement of people. Over 90 per cent of the Amur River Basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s human population lives on the Chinese side. North-East China has undergone significant conversion of wetlands and forests into agricultural land, resulting in fragmentation of remaining natural vegetation and wetlands. The habitats in Russia and Mongolia remain relatively intact with much smaller human population impacts. Russia is much more richly endowed with forests than Mongolia, which is drier and not well suited to intensive agriculture, meaning the River Basin and its surrounding habitat have been less degraded, although overgrazing by nomadic herders has meant some loss of rich grasslands.

The biggest threats to the Amur River Basin include logging of surrounding forests and water pollution. Growing and emerging threats including mining of rich mineral resources (resulting in further water pollution and habitat loss), infrastructure development and climate change are also problematic. For some species, hunting for the traditional Chinese medicine market and overfishing also have an impact. Discussions about the construction of large hydropower and flood control dams have begun: if built, these would threaten the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecosystems. However, so far these proposals have proved unpopular and instead there have been discussions about creating a new nature reserve within the basin to protect the upper flow of the Amur River and its resources.

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Jim Harris, International Crane Foundation

T I G E R (Panthera tigris) The largest of all cats, the tiger is Endangered. This species once occurred throughout central, eastern and southern Asia. However, in the past 100 years, the tiger has lost more than 93 per cent of its historic range and numbers have declined by more than 50 per cent in the past 20 to 30 years. It now only survives in scattered populations in 13 countries, from India to Southeast Asia and in Sumatra, China and the Russian Far East. The Caspian, Javan and Bali tigers are already extinct and, of the remaining six subspecies, the South China tiger has not been observed for many years. The Amur (or Siberian) tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. altaica) has made a spectacular comeback since the 1930s when there were thought to be as few as 20 individuals, but there are still only a few hundred in the wild and illegal logging is creating renewed threats for the species.

Poaching and illegal killing, to meet an illicit demand in high-value tiger body parts for the Oriental medicine market, are the major threats to tigers. Habitat loss and overhunting of tigers and their natural prey have also caused a reduction in distribution and, over the past century, tiger numbers have fallen from about 100,000 individuals to an estimated 3,200. Targeting wildlife trade is crucial for the survival of this species. The tigerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s future also depends upon conserving and protecting large areas of suitable habitat with viable populations, while working with local communities to discourage retributive killings.

Emmanuel Keller

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Africa’s Great Rift Valley consists of the Ethiopian Rift Valley, the Eastern Rift Valley and the Western Rift Valley (inclusive of the Albertine Rift, see page 176). These distinct areas, formed by plate tectonics, contain one of the world’s oldest, most expansive, spectacular and diverse lake systems. Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa are home to 12 of the Rift Valley lakes. Lake Victoria, which at 70,000 km2 is the largest lake in Africa and the world’s secondlargest lake, sits between the eastern and western rifts just outside the Rift Valley. Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi (also known as Nyasa) in the Albertine Rift are, respectively, the second and third largest lakes in Africa, sometimes referred to as the African Great Lakes, along with Lake Victoria. Lake Malawi is home to an amazing array of wildlife, hosting one of the richest abundance of species in the world.

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The Rift Valley provides a key flyway for migratory birds from Europe and Asia: the eight-strong Kenyan lake system is the most important site for lesser flamingos who congregate in great numbers (sometimes exceeding 1 million birds) feasting on its abundant green algae (Spirulina platensis). The region is associated with many well-known species such as the common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) and spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis). Its freshwater systems are home to an array of unique cichlid (fish) species and to the delicate and beautiful red-veined dropwing dragonfly (Trithemis arteriosa).

T H R E AT S Many of the lakes are included in protected areas or classified as UNESCO World Heritage sites, Important Bird Areas and Ramsar sites due to their biological and cultural significance. Despite efforts to protect them, the Great Rift Lakes are among the most threatened globally. Many people living around the lake areas are dependent on freshwater fish as a source of protein and income, which contributes to overfishing. In addition, the introduction of invasive species is causing widespread damage – as is unchecked economic development, deforestation, pollution and climate change. Warming in the lakes has already been documented as causing subtle but significant changes to the environment, reducing biological productivity.

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Gemma Goodman

G R E Y C R O W N E D - C R A N E (Balearica regulorum) Prof GF Turner

Oreochromis karongae One of three ‘chambo’ species endemic to Lake Malawi, Oreochromis karongae shoals in many areas of the lake. Like other Oreochromis, they are maternal mouthbrooders, with the mother protecting the eggs in her mouth until they hatch. Often the juvenile fry continue to use her mouth for shelter when danger is present. The chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi and are very important for local subsistence as well as commerce. Populations of this species, however, collapsed in the 1990s as a result of overfishing, with as much as a 70 per cent decline within 10 years. The species is therefore Endangered.

This species is, however, very easy to maintain in captivity. Although formal management of fisheries in the lake has been in place since the 1930s, overharvesting is still a problem. Greater enforcement of harvest levels is vital in order to minimise further losses of this species and other fishes in Lake Malawi.

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The elegant grey crowned-crane, with its golden-feathered head and striking colouration, is sadly Endangered. The grey crowned-crane is found in eastern and southern Africa, where it ranges from Kenya and Uganda in the north to Zimbabwe and South Africa in the south. The crane is the national emblem of Uganda and is therefore an important part of the country’s culture. Despite international trade being closely monitored and protection by law in Kenya, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe, the removal of live birds and eggs from the wild for trade is thought to have caused a recent rapid decline through most of the grey crowned-crane’s range.

Another main threat to this species is the loss and degradation of suitable wetland habitat due to increasing human populations accelerating the demand for agricultural land and freshwater resources. Additionally, wetlands are threatened by damming, drainage, increased sedimentation due to deforestation and increased pollution from agricultural pesticides. There are several grey crowned-crane conservation projects currently underway including the development of wetland action plans and population surveys.

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Mississippi River Basin

Yortw, Flickr

The Mississippi River is the third-largest river in North America, running just over 4,000 km from Lake Itasca in Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi watershed is the fourth-largest in the world and passes through 31 US states and two Canadian provinces, traversing grasslands, forests (including pine and hardwood) and wetlands. The Mississippi River is home to an estimated one-quarter of all known North American fish species. Several endemic reptiles, birds and invertebrates are also found in or around the river such as the native Mississippi crayfish (Orconectes mississippiensis). It is also a key migratory bird corridor for an estimated 60 per cent of North Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s birds. Furthermore, the Mississippi is a key resource for huge numbers of people: it provides drinking water for an estimated 18 million and roughly 90 per cent of the USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agricultural exports are from the region.

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Jim Brekke, Flickr

T H R E AT S The Mississippi has undergone significant alterations during the last two centuries. Land conversion affecting forests, grasslands and agriculture, and hydrological changes including the building of dams, locks and levees, plague the length of the river. There is an estimated 2,570 km-worth of levees on the lower river. These structures have reduced the Mississippi floodplain to an estimated 10 per cent of its original size and the sediment that once fertilised the vast delta no longer reaches most of the previous floodplains, reducing biodiversity and intensifying agricultural run-off.

Brent Moore, Flickr

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Downstream, these dramatic terrestrial and hydrological changes have contributed to the large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico. They have also exacerbated natural disasters: New Orleans was particularly badly affected by Hurricane Katrina, for example, due to the lack of coastal protection. Lessons have been learnt from the over-development of the Mississippi River and applied elsewhere. Efforts are now underway to restore the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecosystems and reduce negative impacts of agricultural practices.

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Vince LoPresti, Flickr

M I S S I S S I P P I G R E E N W AT E R S N A K E (Nerodia cyclopion) The Mississippi green watersnake is an aquatic, heavy-bodied snake with a unique scale pattern around its eye which enables it to be easily identified. This snake is found mainly in slow-moving water bodies such as marshes, swamps, ditches, canals, ponds and flooded fields. This species is endemic to the southern US, where its range stretches from western Florida in the east to southern Alabama in the west. It is found from south-eastern Texas to south-eastern Missouri and southern Tennessee, where it reaches the northern limit of its range. Due to its wide distribution and common occurrence this species is currently of Least Concern. The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to drainage, in particular in the north of its range of the Mississippi Valley.

Chris Taylor

H A R D I N C R AY F I S H (Orconectes wrighti) The Hardin crayfish was only known from four sites in 1995, but has recently been found in 18 streams in the Hardin and McNairy Counties in Tennessee and Alcorn County in Mississippi. This species inhabits small- to medium-sized slow-flowing creeks, streams and large pools. Increased sedimentation due to poor agricultural practices is thought to be a major threat to the Hardin Crayfish. This species is regarded as Vulnerable. Habitat destruction and alteration from the channelisation of streams is also a threat to this species in many parts of its range. Additionally, the introduction of various species such as the related Orconectes virilis, particularly from the release of bait from recreational fishing, may have increased competition for resources.

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There are not known to be any conservation measures in place for the Hardin crayfish, although the American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Endangered. Further research into threats to this speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; survival and population monitoring may be necessary should additional conservation measures be required in the future.

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The Nile is a lifeline to many of the driest parts of Africa – in particular Sudan and Egypt. The ancient civilisation of the Pharaohs was built along its shores. At 6,600 km, the Nile is the world’s longest river. It runs north through 11 East African countries: Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. The Nile has two main tributaries: the White Nile, which begins at the Great Lakes in mountainous East-Central Africa (see page 144), and the Blue Nile, coming from the Ethiopian Highlands (see page 192). It is the continent’s greatest source of water and fertile soils. The Nile flows through high mountainous landscapes, tropical forests, woodlands, savannahs, wetlands and arid and desert ecosystems. The diverse scenery along the Nile provides habitat to a wide variety of plants and animals including uniquely adapted species such as the Nile delta toad (Bufo kassasii).

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Records show that 130 species of fish (and likely many more) are found within the river itself, and almost 70 of its surrounding wetlands are classed as Important Bird Areas, with the Nile Delta being regarded as one of the world’s most important migration routes for birds – part of the East Africa Flyway through which millions of birds pass on their way between Europe and Africa.

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Teseum, Flickr

N I L E L E C H W E (Kobus megaceros)

T H R E AT S The area surrounding the Nile is highly populated. The 25 large cities along its shore are home to over 360 million people – an estimated 78 million of whom live in Egypt. In a region of high water-scarcity, human populations vie for control of the Nile’s precious freshwater. For example, the Aswan dam, which was completed in the 1970s, put an end to seasonal floodplain agriculture in Egypt, replacing it with permanent settled farming. The resulting decrease in sediment dispersal in the surrounding floodplains led to a loss of soil fertility, which in turn produced an over-reliance on chemical fertilisers and a build-up of sediment elsewhere.

More recently, Ethiopia has begun building a mega dam (the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam) on the Blue Nile. Egypt and Sudan are concerned that it will reduce the volume of water flowing from Ethiopia, and discussions are now taking place about transboundary water management and the negative impacts of focusing cultivation on ‘thirsty’ crops. It is predicted that climate change will have an increasingly severe impact on the region, particularly because levels of evaporation are already high. In an area that is particularly sensitive to variations in weather patterns, this could have catastrophic implications for both people and wildlife.

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The Endangered Nile lechwe (a species of antelope) is sexually dimorphic with the male and female looking like almost entirely different animals. She is plain and light brown/yellow with small horns, while he is dark brown with large S-shaped horns and a white patch on the upper back/shoulders. Both reside comfortably in swampy habitats and have adapted to do so.

The Nile lechwe has undergone significant population declines due to civil war and the resulting resettlement of human populations in or near to its habitat. Numbers have also been affected by increased hunting and encroachment by cattle and their farmers. Their primary remaining habitat, in Sudan’s Sudd swamps (created by the White Nile), is also in peril due to oil exploration.

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Two of the world’s most important wetlands sit in the southern part of Africa. The Okavango Delta is a vast oasis in an otherwise arid environment – the Kalahari Desert. It spans 68,640 km2 of northern Botswana. Meanwhile, the Zambezi River flows east from Angola, passing through Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and, finally, Mozambique where it reaches the Indian Ocean.

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The Okavango is the world’s largest Ramsar site and has World Heritage Site status. It is sub-Saharan Africa’s largest inland delta system. Its floodplains, lagoons and reed beds support abundant wildlife including Africa’s largest contiguous population of African elephants (Loxodonta africana). The region is home to over 70 small mammal species, 95 reptile and amphibian species and 70-80 species of fish. Local communities derive their livelihoods from the latter and from the region’s growing tourist industry. The Okavango River does not reach the sea but instead is dissipated within the Okavango Alluvial Fan within the Zambezi flooded grasslands. When rainfall is high in Angola, water overflows into the Zambezi. The Zambezi is the fourth-longest river in Africa and the largest river flowing into the Indian Ocean. The Zambezi River and its floodplains, tributaries and wetlands, as well as the world-renowned Victoria Falls, are the biologically richest and most extensively shared common resource in southern Africa – more than 35 million people depend on its waters and it is home to thousands of fish species including cichlids, catfish, tigerfish, yellowfish and many other species.

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Jim Frost, Flickr

T H R E AT S The Zambezi’s headwaters are relatively intact. However, large-scale hydroelectric dams on the Middle and Lower Zambezi have caused widespread ecosystem damage, leading to an irreversible loss of species. There are 30 vast storage reservoirs on the Zambezi and four of the world’s biggest hydroelectric dams. In a bid to reverse this damage, some conservation organisations are trying to alter the quantity, timing and quality of river flow through these dams to mimic natural processes. The Okavango is relatively intact, but increased socio-economic stability in the area may lead to agricultural development and dam construction. The Permanent Okavango River Basin Commission has been established to promote sustainable management. Water extraction and transfers – moving water from water-rich to water-scarce areas (e.g. for farming) – have adversely affected local flora and fauna. They have altered water flows and composition, affecting ecosystem functioning.

Habitats, such as the gravel spawning beds used by fish, have been degraded and pollution from sewage effluent has led to eutrophication and the spread of human diseases. The introduction of invasive species has also proved problematic. For example, in the Middle Zambezi, the highly invasive Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from the Kafue tributary has replaced the indigenous O. mortimeri in Lake Kariba, which is now classified as Threatened. However, there are some efforts to control invasive plants and fish. Whole catchment management and large-scale conservation efforts are underway in the region. Notably, the Kavango–Zambezi (KAZA) Transfrontier Conservation Area – situated in the Okavango and Zambezi River Basins – is the world’s largest transfrontier conservation area, spanning approximately 520,000 km2 (similar in size to France) and including 36 protected areas. Mattias Klum, National Geographic

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As soil erosion and river siltation rage on, most rivers in semi-arid parts of the world have turned into sand beds. The Thuli River in south-western Zimbabwe is one such case. I visited this river early in the dry season in June 2014. The river had long ceased to flow and all that remained was a dry sand bed where the large river once flowed. Skinny cattle were drinking from a few pools that remained in the sand. The local people are all too familiar with the short lifespan of the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flow and quickly pointed out that the river had gone underground; that it was still flowing under the sand. To tap water from under the sand, pipes have been laid as deep as 6 m. This indeed used to be a large river, but anthropogenic activities such as dam construction upstream, destruction of vegetation in the catchment leading to accelerated soil erosion and other poor catchment management practices have turned what used to be a perennial river with permanent hippo and fish populations into a dry swathe of deep sand. Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities have turned a river from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment. This case is not unique to the Thuli. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s happening on all our African rivers. Many people forget that the mighty Zambezi, the Congo and the Okavango Rivers among others may disappear, together with the biodiversity they support, if we do not protect and manage our activities sustainably.

Rudo Sanyanga Africa Program Director, International Rivers

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Kim Navarre, Flickr

A F R I C A N W I L D D O G (Lycaon pictus) The Endangered African wild dog has disappeared from much of its historical distribution, with populations eradicated from West Africa and greatly reduced in central and Central and North-East Africa. Sadly, they are rarely seen in the wild due to their low population densities. African wild dogs experience high mortality in comparison with other large carnivore species. While competition from other predators, primarily lions, is the principal cause of natural mortality in adults, more than half of all deaths are due to human activity. African wild dogs ranging outside protected areas encounter highspeed vehicles, guns, snares and poisons, as well as domestic dogs, which represent reservoirs of potentially lethal diseases (rabies and canine distemper).

The establishment of protected areas, as well as conservancies on private and communal land, has decreased contact between African wild dogs, people and domestic dogs. There are also efforts to work with local people to reduce deliberate killing of the dogs in and around these protected areas. Establishing effective techniques for protecting small populations from serious infections is also a priority.

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The Pantanal is an immense alluvial plain – the largest wetland in the world – created by a biologically complex river delta with dramatic seasonal flood regimes. It provides important water purification functions, discharging and recharging groundwater, while stabilising climate and associated weather events. The Pantanal is located in central South America to the south of the Amazon Basin (see page 134) and the east of the Andes (see page 120) spanning Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay. It features diverse landscapes including grasslands, savannahs and tropical forests, as well as lagoons, marshes, lakes and rivers. The Pantanal is categorised as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, covering a total of 187,818 ha and consisting of four protected areas.

Pantanal

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The Pantanal is one of the world’s best-preserved wetlands. It harbours at least 80 mammal species such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) and marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus). It is home to at least 650 bird species including almost 30 beautifully coloured parrots such as the hyacinth and the blue-and-yellow macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus and Ara ararauna). The Pantanal also boasts a variety of butterflies, fish, reptiles, amphibians and plants.

T H R E AT S The Pantanal is one of the world’s best-preserved wetlands, yet less than 2 per cent of it is under strict protection. Increasing human settlement, unsustainable farming practices (including cattle ranching), illegal mining, water pollution, hydropower dam construction and unregulated tourism are all slowly increasing pressure on the Pantanal. Extraction of resources such as ornamental fish and birds for the pet and aquarium trade also threatens to destabilise some populations. Conservationists are working hard to ensure these threats do not destroy this wildlife haven.

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Michel Roggo

Emmanuel Keller

L O W L A N D TA P I R (Tapirus terrestris) The lowland tapir occurs through a wide geographic range from northern Central Colombia and east of the Andes throughout most of tropical South America. It occurs mostly in tropical lowland rainforest, but can also be found in seasonally dry habitats such as the Chaco of Bolivia and Paraguay. The lowland tapir is threatened with loss of habitat through deforestation, hunting for meat and competition with livestock. It is therefore regarded as Vulnerable. Hunting is a serious threat along the numerous new road systems and settlements in the Amazon Basin as well as along the agricultural frontier. Hunting also occurs around logging camps and can completely eliminate the species from seemingly viable habitat. Lowland tapirs can be common road kills, particularly as an increasing number of tracks are cut into forests for logging.

Michel Roggo

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This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and while it is legally protected in many range countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and therefore have proven to be ineffective. The species is being monitored in the Pantanal and is used as an ambassador for wider conservation.

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Yangtze

The Yangtze is the world’s third-longest river and China’s largest, supporting one third of its human population, which is estimated at nearly 3.4 billion people. The Yangtze originates in the Tibetan Plateau (page 220) from where it flows through mountains and densely forested areas until, 6,440 km downstream, it reaches the coast near Shanghai port. The river has historically supported many people, particularly the rural poor, providing important sources of food and livelihoods (as the country’s largest inland fishery), alongside water and transport. In fact, the river basin is said to provide 40 per cent of China’s GDP, though as its condition deteriorates, so too does its economic value. Species within the Yangtze’s surrounding area include some well-recognised large mammals such as the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). Within its waters, it harbours little-known but fascinating creatures, almost all of which are Critically Endangered including the finless porpoise (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), Yangtze sturgeon (Acipenser dabryanus) and one of China’s largest and most imperilled (perhaps already extinct) fish, the Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius).

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Dr Qiwei Wei

C H I N E S E PA D D L E F I S H (Psephurus gladius)

William Warby, Flickr

T H R E AT S Between 1990 and 2000, an estimated 30 per cent of China’s wetlands disappeared. The Yangtze faces some of the world’s most severe freshwater ecosystem challenges. The river and watershed are subject to habitat destruction and degradation, severe soil erosion, overfishing, poor fishing practices and illegal harvesting for the wildlife trade. High traffic levels on the river affect its species, many of which are entangled with or involved in collisions with vessels. The overall quality of the Yangtze has declined so significantly that it is the site of the first known human-caused dolphin extinction: the baiji or Yangtze river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) recently disappeared as a result of the cumulative impacts of these pressures. Fears are that the finless porpoise will soon follow in its wake. With regards to overfishing, short-term bans are in place to provide recovery time and hatcheries are being developed for some threatened fish species. However, scientists warn that a 10-year moratorium is necessary for a reasonable recovery of fish stocks.

Pollution of the river has risen by 70 per cent in the past halfdecade due to increased levels of agricultural and industrial activity, and shipping. Efforts to reduce pollution are slowly being scaled-up due to public concern and media attention. The development of large-scale dams including the world’s biggest – the Three Gorges – has been massively detrimental to the river’s wildlife, blocking migratory routes and causing habitat fragmentation. Over 1.2 million people were displaced by the Three Gorges and further affected by widespread landslides and drought. In recent years, there has been some official acknowledgement of the detrimental impacts of the Three Gorges and efforts made to improve river basin management. Despite this, 12 new mega-scale dams are planned for the Yangtze and China’s banks and companies are now the biggest dam builders in the world, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.

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This huge fish usually grows to around 1.5 m but can reach 7 m in length. It gains its name from its huge paddle-like snout (rostrum). It is unique to the Yangtze and classified as being Critically Endangered, although it is feared extinct. The paddlefish has been overharvested for its roe, and affected by dam-building that blocks the route to its spawning grounds. In 1981, the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in the middle reaches of the Yangtze blocked the migration route of this species, preventing adult fish moving to the upper reaches of the river to spawn. Given its large size and late sexual maturity, this species is particularly vulnerable to such pressures.

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Mountains 172

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Prof. Jonathan Baillie Director of Conservation Programmes, Zoological Society of London

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After two days of continual climbing through the humid tropical forest of Western Papua (Indonesia), I finally reached the summit of the Cyclops Mountains. As I circled the peak looking for signs of the potentially extinct Sir David’s long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus attenboroughi), the clouds engulfed the moss-covered forest and I completely lost my sense of direction. Exhausted, I sat down and looked out over the unique vegetation, knowing many of the plant species would be new to science. Many of the local tribes believe that these mountains are home to the gods and sitting in silence, disoriented, watching distant peaks disappear and reappear through the clouds, I could understand why. Looking over a cliff face into a deep valley of green trees I thought about how mountains are often the last features on the landscape to be dominated by us, simply because their geography presents a challenge to human exploitation or land conversion. As a result they have traditionally been a natural refuge for other forms of life and are particularly important as one fourth of all terrestrial species are found in the mountains. However, mountains cannot escape the impact of climate change and, as temperatures and habitats shift, many species will have no place to go. On the descent, I was fortunate enough to find the distinct ‘nose poke’ imprints of the long-beaked echidna and despite the many challenges for this amazing creature, I remain optimistic.

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George Grubb

Albertine Rift

The Albertine Rift spans Burundi, DRC, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. It includes some of the world’s most spectacular lakes including Tanganyika, the world’s longest and second-deepest. It is one of Africa’s Great Rift Lakes (see page 144). The Albertine Rift is recognised as being home to a great diversity of species, cultures and landscapes. It includes World Heritage and Ramsar sites, comprising rich mountain ecosystems, forests, woodlands, grasslands, savannahs and wetlands. The Albertine Rift holds over half of Africa’s bird species, 40 per cent of mammals (including well-known species such as mountain and eastern lowland gorillas (Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei and Gorilla beringei ssp. graueri), and 20 per cent of its amphibians and plants including Encephalartos whitelockii, a spectacular Critically Endangered plant species (cycad) found only on the escarpment of the Albertine Rift in Uganda’s Mpanga Gorge.

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Cara G. Dana

T H R E AT S Geological changes have given shape to the Albertine Rift, creating its unique mountainous habitats and outstanding lakes. Over the years, conflict and violence have taken their toll on its precious ecology. Parts of the region have seen conflict raging over four decades: civil war has affected Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and the DRC, with many people in these countries still living in poverty. Adding to these pressures, human population density is also high, reaching over 1,000 people per km2 in some areas, particularly in those with fertile soils. Natural ecosystems in the Albertine Rift are becoming increasingly strained due to encroachment for agricultural land, human settlement, illegal logging, pollution, soil erosion, charcoal production and hunting. Overfishing and the introduction of nonnative fish species in the lakes, as well as the gradual increase in water temperature due to climate change, are causing significant and ongoing changes to their composition.

Industrial-scale threats are becoming commonplace including mining, large-scale damming and oil exploration. These large-scale threats can be detrimental to both the environment and people, often triggering conflict and associated human rights violations due to unregulated and corrupt methods of operating. This area has long been of significant economic and cultural importance to local people. Traditional livelihoods, as well as peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s connection to nature, are being destroyed by poorly considered infrastructure and business development.

Gemma Goodman

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George Grubb

M O U N TA I N G O R I L L A (Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei) The Critically Endangered mountain gorilla, a subspecies of the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei), consists of two populations. One is in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda – the other in the Virunga Mountains volcano range located on the border between Rwanda, Uganda and the DRC. Both habitats are at elevations of over 2,430 m. People worldwide love gorillas, in large part due to their character and evolutionary closeness to humans – both of which make them fascinating and endearing. Their appeal ensures that there is a near-constant flow of tourism to parts of their habitat and that people are well-motivated to protect them.

As a result, and following dramatic population declines due to decades of war and human encroachment, the last 30 years has seen a gradual rise in numbers. However human conflict, the illegal pet and bushmeat trades, habitat loss and disease transmission mean that they are still under threat. Proposed oil drilling in the world’s oldest national park – Virunga – has the potential to further destabilise the region and put gorilla populations nearby at risk.

Mattias Mattias Klum Klum

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Situated in the highlands and mountains between Nigeria and Cameroon, the Cameroon Highlands include a small but spectacular area of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest. The area includes the Rumpi Hills, the Bakossi Mountains, Mount Nlonako, Mount Kupe, Mount Manengouba, Mount Cameroon and the Bamenda Highlands.

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The Gulf of Guinea Islands, off Africa’s west coast, include four islands, two of which are part of Equatorial Guinea: Bioko, off the coast of Cameroon, and the tiny island of Annobón, as well as the two islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, which constitute a single independent nation (Africa’s smallest country). The Cameroon Highlands and Gulf of Guinea Islands are home to a spectacular array of wildlife; São Tomé alone holds 28 endemic bird species, while the Cameroon Highlands are home to a number of endangered primates. There is also a wide range of endemic amphibians including the striking São Tomé giant treefrog (Hyperolius thomensis) a brilliant example of ‘island gigantism’. T H R E AT S The region is highly fertile due to its volcanic history and high rainfall. The Cameroon Highlands have a fairly high human population density, which has meant significant conversion of forest to agricultural lands (including for grazing). Exploitation for firewood, fire damage and hunting also threaten some species and habitats. The second-highest peak in the region, Mount Oku (over 3,000 m), is part of a community forest reserve, yet it is still threatened by clearance of land for agriculture and logging. Strengthening such reserves is essential if the wildlife within them is to survive and flourish. The government of São Tomé and Príncipe is considering whether to exploit the country’s potentially large offshore oil reserves and beginning to encourage foreign investment in land for conversion into oil palm plantations.

One acquisition has recently seen over 2,000 ha of forest cleared with more still on the horizon. One of the last hopes for the forests on the islands is if the government remains committed to protecting Obo Natural Park, which covers almost one-third of São Tomé. The park and surrounding areas provide habitat for three Critically Endangered and endemic bird species: São Tomé Fiscal (Lanius newtoni), São Tomé grosbeak (Neospiza concolor) and the dwarf olive ibis (Bostrychia bocagei). Other threats in São Tomé and Príncipe include large-scale hydropower, hunting, logging and infrastructure related to cocoa production.

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The forests of São Tomé are like no other place on Earth. This rugged terrain is powered by insane amounts of rainfall, exceeding 7 m in places. The thick forest reaches huge heights and is cut through by streams of crystal clear, potable water. The rich cacophony of bird song and insect sounds can only be described as magical. It is the perfect place to pit your skills and passion against the forest whether you are a naturalist, keen birdwatcher, botanist or fitness freak, and if you do, the experience will live with you forever. Once you have been to these forests, you find it almost incomprehensible that anyone would put a bulldozer, chainsaw or machete to the forest or that the global community would look the other way while often distant consumer demand and commercial interests drive such destruction. Yet the battles for local communities remain real and there is a need to find an important balance between protecting this amazing diversity and ensuring the wellbeing of the country’s 400,000 people, now and in the future. Martim Pinheiro de Melo, Birdlife International

S Ã O T O M É G R O S B E A K (Neospiza concolor)

Dr Julius Arinaitwe Regional Director for Africa, BirdLife International

The São Tomé grosbeak is Critically Endangered and has a tiny (less than 50 mature individuals) and declining population. Prior to its rediscovery in 1991, this São Tomé endemic bird was known from just a single specimen collected in the late 19th century. Information on the species is still sparse and sightings are rare. The São Tomé grosbeak occurs in the lowland forests in the south-west of the island. These forests have been classified as the second most important forests for bird conservation in Africa. However, forest clearance began on São Tomé in the 15th century and accelerated rapidly in the 1800s. More recently, oil palm plantations are threatening remaining habitat and include road developments to improve transportation between concessions and mills.

A lack of understanding of the causes of the species’ rarity and decline is problematic for identifying which conservation action is most relevant and urgent. Nevertheless, conservationists are working with local communities to raise awareness, develop knowledge on the species and implement necessary conservation actions.

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185 Nathanael Stanek

The Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya are a chain of 13 ancient crystalline mountain blocks (over 30 million years old) covered in grasslands, rainforest and woodland and under the climatic influence of the Indian Ocean. It is thought that these spectacular mountains may once have been connected to the tropical forests of West and Central Africa. Tanzania holds 12 of the mountain blocks and some of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most important rivers flow from these mountains, making them crucial for much of its domestic and industrial water supply.

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The Eastern Arc Mountains have been recognised for their incredible biodiversity for many decades. They are classed as a regional centre for endemism, an Endemic Bird Area by BirdLife, a Global 200 Ecoregion by WWF, part of a Biodiversity Hotspot as identified by Conservation International and an important area for the sequestration and storage of carbon. The region is rich in wild fauna and flora due to years of isolation and independent evolution. In addition to plants and animals, some of the local communities are among the oldest in Africa. There are around 2,000 plant species, around 40 per cent of which are unique to the area and about 100 vertebrates are thought to be found only in the Eastern Arc Mountains.

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Joachim Huber

T H R E AT S There are many forest reserves throughout the region but hugely important habitat surrounding these parks has been degraded: around 80 per cent of the Eastern Arcâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forest cover has been lost. Agriculture, logging for timber, fire, collection of wood for firewood and charcoal production have all contributed to the loss of forest habitat and to nearby woodlands. Indeed, agricultural land is in such high demand that in 1963 part of the Shume-Magamba Forest Reserve was degazetted (i.e. it has lost its status as a protected area) to release more land for agriculture.

Walter Jubber

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While roughly one-fifth of the Eastern Arc Mountain region falls within protected areas, these remain highly fragmented and continue to be subject to extraction. In recent years, steps have been taken towards improving the effectiveness of protected areas. As part of these, new wildlife corridors have been created.

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Dr John Measey

S A G A L L A C A E C I L I A N (Boulengerula niedeni) The Sagalla caecilian, an Endangered, wormlike amphibian, was discovered in 2004. It inhabits the rich, fertile soil of Sagalla Hill â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an isolated mountain in South-East Kenya, which is part of the Eastern Arc Mountains. Subterranean, rarely encountered and regularly mistaken as an earthworm (due to its lack of limbs), the Sagalla caecilian is one of the most threatened amphibians on the planet. Conversion of much of the indigenous forest to eucalyptus plantation has led to a loss of habitat over most of its range. In remaining areas, soil erosion due to poor farming practices has seen the disappearance of this species from an increasing area of otherwise suitable terrain.

Conservationists have worked with local communities to plant more than 30,000 native trees to help restore degraded areas. More sustainable natural resource management by communities is also being promoted through the introduction of appropriate alternative livelihoods and improved agricultural practice. There is real hope that these methods will not only benefit the species but also local communities and biodiversity across the Eastern Arc Mountains.

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Nik Borrow, www.nikborrow.com

L O N G - B I L L E D TA I L O R B I R D (Artisornis moreaui) The long-billed tailorbird is a small, secretive warbler found in just two widely separated sites in the East Usambara Mountains of north-eastern Tanzania and the Njesi Plateau in northern Mozambique. Due to forest destruction and fragmentation, there may be only a few hundred individuals remaining in the wild. The long-billed tailorbird is therefore, unfortunately, Critically Endangered.

Large parts of the East Usambaras are now protected, but surrounding areas are still under heavy pressure from a range of human activities including the introduction of nonnative trees. As for the Sagalla caecilian, the planting of eucalyptus is proving particularly problematic. Protected areas offer the main hope for this speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; survival, but education initiatives and monitoring programmes may also help raise awareness of the importance of this small bird.

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Ethiopian Highlands

Kalyan Varma

Home to many of Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tallest mountains and the largest area of continuous high-altitude land in Africa, the volcanic peaks of the Ethiopian Highlands include montane moorlands, grasslands, woodlands and forests. Volcanic forces created the Highlands 75 million years ago. The landscape has changed significantly since and now includes cloud forest in the south and evergreen broadleaf and alpine forest in the north. The Highlands are remote and as such are home to many endemic and nearendemic mammals such as the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and Walia ibex (Capra walie). There are two Endemic Bird Areas in the Highlands. Difficulty in traversing the Highlands is thought to have helped prevent the colonisation of Ethiopia, which has accordingly retained much of its cultural heritage. However, severe droughts and famines have resulted in civil conflict and Ethiopia remains one of Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s poorest countries and the second most populous due to its productive arable land.

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E T H I O P I A N W O L F (Canis simensis)

T H R E AT S The area is highly populated with an estimated population of 100 to 400 people per km2. The economy depends on agriculture, with much of the population relying on subsistence farming. Coffee is the biggest export crop, but its production has led to significant soil degradation and erosion, and to forest fragmentation and habitat loss. Expanding agriculture, shifting cultivation fires and overgrazing are major threats to this region. Climate change is also a major concern for the future of the region.

Ethiopiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bale Mountains National Park, part of the Ethiopian Highlands, offers some protection to its species and natural habitat: it is one of the few alpine ecosystems left in Africa. However, it lacks legal boundaries and so suffers encroachment by the increasing human population. Local communities are being educated about the importance of protected areas and are being given support to develop alternative livelihoods. In addition, more resources are being made available for park protection and management.

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The rarest canid in the world, the Endangered Ethiopian wolf is found only in the Highlands at altitudes above 3,500 m, primarily in Bale National Park. It lives in packs and preys on small mammals, many of which are also endemic to this Afro-alpine ecosystem. Less than 500 wolves remain in seven distinct populations. Their habitats are shrinking due to encroachment by highaltitude agriculture. The introduction of domesticated dogs and livestock into the wolfâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range has caused outbreaks of rabies and distemper in the local population: these may result in local extinctions.

Conservation measures focus on dog vaccinations in and around the wolfâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range to prevent disease transmission. Intensive wolf monitoring and research, environmental education and protected area support provide a multi-pronged strategy to secure the longterm survival of this species.

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Meaning â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;abode of snowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, the Himalayas boast high-altitude valleys and lakes, rich alpine forests and meadows and humid lowland jungles. The Himalayas straddle five countries: Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan and are bordered by the Karakoram and Hindu ranges, the Tibetan Plateau (see page 220) and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The range comprises thousands of glaciers and hundreds of giant (over 7,000 m) summits including Mount Everest, the highest in the world. Many Himalayan mountains are sacred to Hindus and Buddhists, which has helped in their protection throughout history. The Himalayas are home to a spectacular array of fauna and flora. The Eastern Himalayas alone provide habitat to 10,000 plant species, 750 bird and 300 mammal species. Notable residents of the region include clouded and snow leopards (Neofelis nebulosa and Panthera uncia), the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) and the small Himalayan newt (Tylototriton verrucosus).

Himalayas

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Veronique Dumont

T H R E AT S The rivers that run from the Himalayas are threatened by climate change, with melting glaciers causing too much or too little water at key intervals throughout the year. Damming is also a threat: India and China, in particular, are keen to harness the region’s hydropower potential. Indeed, the threats to Himalayan rivers are similar to those affecting the Tibetan Plateau (page 220). Deforestation for agriculture and timber threatens Himalayan forests, many of which are now fragmented. Poaching is also rife in the region: prized animals such as the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. tigris) are targeted.

‘Dark Snow’ is becoming more evident in the region: dust from exposed and eroded soil, soot from fires, and pollution from industry and diesel engines – sometimes travelling over thousands of kilometres – is collecting on Himalayan glaciers. The resultant darkening of these surfaces means that they absorb more heat, which in turn lengthens the melt season: a vicious cycle ensues. Efforts are in place to increase the resilience of vulnerable human communities to climate change. However, long-term commitments to tackling its causes are essential for the region’s wellbeing.

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Farhad Bengalli, Flickr

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Jainy Maria

W H I T E - B E L L I E D H E R O N (Ardea insignis) The white-bellied heron, the second-largest heron in the world, is Critically Endangered. It is exceedingly rare and its populations have experienced high rates of decline. Its last remaining habitat can be found in the eastern Himalayan foothills of Bhutan, North-East India, Myanmar and – possibly (though unlikely) – South-East Tibet. It is extinct in Nepal and feared extinct in Bangladesh. It is thought that the cumulative impacts of deforestation, hydropower, mining, pollution, fishing and forest fires may have all affected the species, causing habitat loss, reduced food sources and human disturbance. Direct exploitation is also a risk and the species faces increasing threats from proposed dams in Bhutan.

Several range-state and international organisations are working together – spearheaded by Synchronicity Earth and its partners – to pull this species back from the brink of extinction. Without this action, this little-known, enigmatic species will inevitably be lost.

Jennie Webber

Scaphophyllum speciosum Scaphophyllum speciosum is a large, beautiful liverwort found in China (Yunnan), Tibet, Taiwan, Bhutan and East Nepal. This species inhabits old-growth mountain forest with high air humidity. Its habitat is extremely sensitive to disturbance, particularly to thinning and grazing by cattle which opens up the forest to wind and sunshine, lowering humidity levels. The trees of these forests are highly valued for their timber and so logging is a significant threat, further opening up the forest. 200

Scaphophyllum speciosum is now restricted to small, declining populations in fewer than 10 locations and is therefore thought to be Vulnerable to extinction. However, its current assessment is out of date so new information needs to be understood and accounted for to ensure the situation has not deteriorated further.

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SteFou!, Flickr

Japan

There are more than 3,000 islands in the Japanese Archipelago. The four main islands are Honshu (where Tokyo is located), Hokkaido, Shikoku and Kyushu. The archipelago includes several smaller island groups including the unique Ogasawara (or Bonin) Islands. Japan is located at the intersection of three major tectonic plates. Shifts have resulted in a proliferation of volcanoes, hot springs, mountains and earthquakes throughout the region. The climate and terrain is highly diverse, ranging from snow-capped mountains to flat plains and from boreal mixed forests to subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests and mangrove forests. The subtropical island chains in the south of Japan support different flora and fauna to that of the main islands and hold many endemic species. As much as a third of Japan’s vascular plants are endemic. One of the most recognised mammals in Japan is the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), the most northerly-living monkey in the world, found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and a few other small islands. These unique monkeys can live in snowy conditions and use volcanic springs to warm themselves. The extent of Japan’s biodiversity is not well known, but includes unique species such as the Bonin flying fox (Pteropus pselaphon), found only on the islands from which it derives its name, and the Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), an endemic conifer. Japan’s marine life is highly biodiverse considering its small size.

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Jennie Webber

A M A M I R A B B I T (Pentalagus furnessi) Malcolm Browne, Flickr

T H R E AT S Japan’s human population is confined to 3 per cent of its landmass, yet its wildlife has suffered significant losses due to human activity. Following the Second World War, many of the country’s native conifer forests were clear-cut and replaced with more economically valuable commercial timber species. This led to the loss of biodiversity within primary forest. Meanwhile, introduced pine species have caused the proliferation of pests such as Japanese pine sawyer beetle (Monochamus alternatus) which damage tree species. The smaller islands of the Ryukyus and Ogasawaras have lost natural habitat to timber plantations and associated urban development. Nearly all the original subtropical forest on the Ogasawaras was cleared, for example. On other islands, only small areas of primary forest remain, often in protected areas. Despite its own commercial-growth plantations, Japan is one of the largest importers of timber including illegally sourced wood from Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries.

Japan is one of the most significant fishing countries in the world. In recent years, it has been criticised for its whaling activities, which it claims are carried out for scientific purposes. The average person in Japan consumes over 60 kg of marine products per year including whale and bottlenose dolphin meat. Recently the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) has been classified as Endangered partly as a result of overfishing. There has been an increase in citizen-led conservation in recent years due to growing concern about the state of the country’s ecosystems. This is beginning to have an impact on policy.

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The distinctive, heavy-bodied Amami rabbit evolved in isolation on two small Japanese islands due to the lack of predators. The Amami rabbit’s habitat is now severely degraded due to widespread logging, and its population has undergone a significant decline: only four fragmented subpopulations remain and it is regarded as Endangered. Since 1980, over three-quarters of the old growth forest on the islands of Amami and Tokuno have been lost. The species has also faced predation from introduced species such as domestic cats and dogs, and mongooses.

The Amami rabbit is classified as a Japanese National Monument, and as such receives protection from hunting and capture. However, the protection of remaining forests and management of invasive species will be the key to securing the future of this unique rabbit.

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With the southernmost capital city in the world, New Zealand is made up of two main islands and a cluster of over 700 smaller ones, some as far as 1,000 km from the shore. Combined, the islands boast over 18,000 km of coastline featuring abundant marine diversity. According to Maori traditions, the North Island is called Te Ika-a-Maui, meaning the fish of Maui – a legendary character. The South Island is called Te Waka o Maui, meaning the canoe of Maui. New Zealand’s landscape is dramatic: given its small human population, many of its natural glaciers, volcanoes, forests, open plains and mountains are relatively untouched. New Zealand is known for its numerous unique bird species but its flightless birds have fared badly in the face of human colonisation. According to BirdLife, there are almost 220 birds in New Zealand, of which 82 are endemic, and six Endemic Bird Areas.

New Zealand

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Some of New Zealand’s most famous birds include the kiwi (Apteryx spp.), a small flightless bird and national icon, of which there are five species; the Chatham Island black robin (Petroica traversi), found only on Chatham Island and for which huge conservation efforts have resulted in it being brought back from the very brink of extinction; and the well-known mountain-dwelling parrot, the kea (Nestor notabilis).

T H R E AT S Prior to human settlement, New Zealand had no native mammal species other than a few bats and several marine mammals. Its endemic species, in particular its birds, had few predators and therefore many of them did not evolve to fly. When people arrived around the 13th century, they found it easy to hunt the islands’ flightless birds for meat and eggs. The moa (Dinornis spp.), New Zealand’s largest, was driven to extinction in this way. When European settlers arrived in the 1770s, pressure on native species intensified due to the introduction of domestic, agricultural and wild animals including the possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) – one of the most prolific pests of our time. With no natural predator, the possum population soared quickly, resulting in extensive degradation of vegetation.

Deforestation and soil erosion have resulted in unfortunate extinctions, such as that of the delicate Chatham bellbird (Anthornis melanocephala). Attempts to control and eradicate invasive species are now underway, and strict border controls are in place to ensure that no pests are introduced. Some 30 per cent of New Zealand’s landscape has been incorporated into protected areas and attempts are being made to expand the country’s marine protected area network.

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Dr Paddy Ryan

Chris Birmingham, DOC, Flickr

K A K A P O (Strigops habroptila)

M A H O E N U I G I A N T W E TA (Deinacrida mahoenui)

The Critically Endangered kakapo is the heaviest parrot in the world. It is a nocturnal, ground-dwelling bird that is endemic to New Zealand, found in very small numbers on only four offshore islands. This unique parrot has been decimated by hunting, forest clearance, competition with introduced deer and possums, and predation by introduced dogs, cats, stoats and rats. Being flightless, the kakapo is particularly vulnerable to attacks: the birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s risk is exacerbated by its strong scent, groundnesting behaviour and habit of freezing when disturbed. Because it is late to reach maturity, not reproducing until it is nine or 10 years old and even then doing so only every two to five years, the population of kakapo has no resilience to such impacts.

As with many of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s invertebrates, the Mahoenui giant weta has not been officially assessed for its global conservation status. However it is thought to be Endangered. This large, flightless arboreal insect is endemic to New Zealand but was not discovered until the 1960s. Once widespread throughout the forests of the central North Island, its last remaining wild population survives in a patch of gorse, considered a weed. This prickly plant provides protection from introduced mammals such as rats, hedgehogs and possums, but catches fire easily. To reduce the risk of extinction, translocations of this gentle giant have been made and they are flourishing at two new sites.

The species is now the subject of intensive conservation action including protection of nest sites, continuous monitoring and supplementary feeding. These methods have more than doubled the population.

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Patagonia lies at the southernmost end of South America, encompassing the most remote regions of both Argentina and Chile. The Falkland Islands are situated in the South-West Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian shelf. They are largely windswept and treeless and made up of two main islands and hundreds of smaller ones. One of their main draws for visitors is the vast number of nesting penguins that can be found there.

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Patagonia is regarded as one of the last few wildernesses on Earth. It is home to exceptional natural beauty and dramatic landscapes characterised by high mountain peaks and glaciers, waterfalls, crystal-clear lakes and large rivers including the Barker and Pascua. Towards the east, the terrain changes to windswept arid and semi-arid steppes, stretching to the Atlantic coast. Vegetation in this area is highly adapted to cope with wind and drought. Therefore, many of its plants and grazing animals are endemic to the region. Along the coast and out of the cool, turbulent waters, some of Patagoniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lagoons and gulfs offer refuge to seabirds and marine mammals such as the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). The species of Patagonia range from the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), the ancestor of the domestic llama, to the noisy, braying Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus).

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Mattias Klum, National Geographic

Why do so few of us connect ourselves, our health, our sense of self-worth and happiness, to nature? The power of consumer culture trumps common sense and our innate sense of wonder: we find ourselves rolling steadily off the ecological cliff, propelled by massive shifts in climate and species extinctions, all the while abdicating our responsibility to slow it all down. Walking away from our business lives, my husband Douglas and I heard the whistle of the freight train of destruction entering the tunnel of the natural world from the other side. We decided to do something: accumulating over 809,000 ha of key habitat, all destined to become new national parks in Chile and Argentina, we set about protecting its astoundingly beautiful wildlife. Didier Watelet

T H R E AT S Unfortunately less then 5 per cent of Patagonia is protected and due to its rich resource potential, it is becoming an increasingly attractive prospect for mining and energy companies. Hydropower firms are proposing five large dams in the region: their development has been opposed by local communities on the basis that they will change the course of Patagonia’s rivers, flooding the region’s large valleys and causing widespread environmental damage. Drilling for oil remains a threat to the wildlife as there are believed to be significant reserves in the surrounding seabed.

Oil extraction within the vast and arid grasslands of the steppes of Patagonia is one of the biggest threats to an area already affected by the introduction of ruminants. Soil erosion caused by overgrazing has led to the desertification of as much as 35 per cent of the steppes, while some level of soil degradation is found in as much as 90 per cent of the steppes. Private protected areas are increasingly common in Patagonia and attempts to keep grasslands free of livestock have led to successful ecosystem regeneration.

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When you realise that you’re part of the great ecosystem of things both seen and unseen and you commit yourself to living within the laws that form that web of sustenance, deciding what to do with one’s life is simple. I choose responsibility for the whole over my individual rights. I choose the flourishing of life over the fastgrowing list of species lost. I choose clean water, clean air over Beijing and Mexico City. I choose the wild over the tame. If you come to the edge of a cliff and turn around and take one step forward, is that not progress? Kris Tompkins Co-founder, Tompkins Conservation 213

Simon Littlejohn

PATA G O N I A N H U E M U L (Hippocamelus bisulcus) Endemic to southern parts of Chile and Argentina, the Patagonian huemul is a deer well adapted to the cold wintery conditions of Patagonia and the Andes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; its hair grows thicker and longer in winter so it can withstand temperatures as low as -50 oC. The Patagonian huemulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range has declined significantly as a result of overhunting, overstocking of its habitat with domestic livestock and land conversion to agriculture. More locally, it has been threatened by construction, logging, poaching and disease. Suitable winter habitat has been almost entirely eliminated and illegal hunting continues in many areas. The remaining subpopulations are small and fragmented, and the species may now total fewer than 1,500 individuals, making it Endangered.

Although now fully protected in Chile and Argentina, Patagonian huemul populations mainly occur outside protected areas and laws are often poorly enforced even within reserves. Ongoing and potential conservation activities include raising awareness of the creation of private protected areas, removing livestock in national parks and captive breeding.

Didier Watelet

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This mountain range runs 640 km north to south in the western US. Many of its highest peaks are snow-covered. Its valleys boast spectacular lakes as well as rivers and streams that flow through forests and grasslands. The Sierra Nevada spans the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province. The mountain range includes Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous US; and the glacial valley in Yosemite. It is home to three national parks and 20 wilderness areas where human impacts on the environment are classed as minimal.

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The largest tree on Earth – the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) – is native to the region’s temperate conifer forest. It can grow to 95 m, with a diameter of nearly 11 m and can live for more than 3,200 years. The Sierra Nevada contains spectacular plant diversity including an estimated 50 per cent of California’s 7,000 vascular plant species. Furthermore, large mammals such as the American black bear (Ursus americanus) and bobcat (Lynx rufus) can be found in the region, as well as restricted range amphibians such as the threatened Yosemite Park toad (Anaxyrus canorus).

T H R E AT S Sierra Nevada is subject to intensive logging, mining, railway development, fire suppression and livestock grazing. Only a quarter of its habitat remains intact – most at higher elevations. Intensive forestry practices such as removal of older trees and replanting with genetically similar seedlings of single species, as well as intensive application of pesticides, have left forests vulnerable to fire and disease. Pathogens introduced by livestock threaten native species locally, the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) for example.

Introduction of fish species, particularly for angling purposes, as well as increased ultra-violet radiation, viruses, loss of habitat and acid rain are thought to have contributed to a massive decline in amphibian species at higher elevations. Many parts of Sierra Nevada have now been incorporated into national parks or designated as wilderness areas in a bid to halt its degradation. However, wilderness areas allow livestock grazing which threatens remaining habitat and species. Fire management policies are in place to help restore the forest’s ability to protect itself from this threat.

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USFWS, Rick Kuyper, Flickr

S O U T H E R N M O U N TA I N Y E L L O W- L E G G E D F R O G (Rana muscosa) The southern mountain yellow-legged frog is endemic to southern Sierra Nevada. It is Endangered having experienced sustained declines over a long period. Its population is fragmented and numbers are assumed to be low. This species is also on the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

At one point the species was thought to occur in more than 150 localities but most recent surveys have found the yellow-legged frog only in seven or eight locations. It has been particularly badly affected by a harmful fungal disease known as chytridiomycosis as well as the introduction of non-native trout species, pollution and hydrological changes.

G I A N T S E Q U O I A (Sequoiadendron giganteum) The spectacular giant sequoia is one of the largest living species in the world. It is native to the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. This red-brown-trunked tree is currently classed as Endangered due to the popularity of its wood for human use. Around 35 per cent of its original range has been destroyed and the tree is now restricted to fewer than 70 fragmented areas. Fire prevention strategies have prevented the tree from regenerating successfully.

The tree is important to local people, featuring in the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultural heritage. It attracts huge numbers of tourists to Yosemite, Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. As such, it is now protected in about 90 per cent of its existing range. New fire prevention strategies are being devised to facilitate regeneration.

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The Tibetan Plateau lies north-east of the Himalayas (see page 196). Tibet was annexed by China in 1951 and became the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China in 1965. Tibet’s government-in-exile – based in Dharamshala – seeks independence from China. The Tibetan Plateau, the highest region on Earth, is known as the ‘roof of the world’ and the ‘water tower of Asia’ since it contains one of the largest stores of freshwater outside the poles. Its glaciers and springs are the source of almost all of Asia’s lifegiving rivers: the Yellow River, the Yangtze, the Mekong, the Salween, the Ganges, the Indus, the Irrawaddy and the Yarlung Tsangpo (which becomes the Brahmaputra downstream).

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The Tibetan Plateau is regarded as one of the world’s last remaining wildernesses, with diverse alpine pastures, scrubs and wetlands as well as gravelly periglacial ecosystems. The mountains of the plateau are some of the highest in the world and home to rare and endangered species including wild yak (Bos mutus), Tibetan wild ass or kiang (Equus kiang), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata) and Tibetan antelope or chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii).

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Mattias Klum, National Geographic

T H R E AT S Climate Change has affected the hydrology of the Tibetan Plateau. The retreat of glaciers, warmer winters (more rain, less snow), a reduced seasonal snowpack, shifts in the timing of snowmelt, as well as increased evaporation, are all worrying signs. Rising sea levels are affecting several of Asia’s rivers downstream. Dams also pose a significant threat. China has built several in the region and plans to construct around 100 more on the plateau’s major rivers. The dams could affect the almost 40 per cent of the world’s population who live downstream. Planned cascade dams will be particularly detrimental, diminishing water flows beyond the Tibetan Plateau. Several of Asia’s rivers are already classed as at risk due to rising sea levels and reduced sediments linked to extensive dam building upstream. There are concerns that dams could increase the chance of earthquakes.

222 Veronique Dumont

The local economy depends largely on agriculture and the once-nomadic Tibetan people have been ‘encouraged’ to settle in one place for its sake. This has, in some cases, undermined their traditional practices, stemming from Buddhist teachings, that view humans as part of a living system which must be nurtured. The result has been environmental degradation due to overgrazing. Logging and the mining of uranium, gold and coal all threaten the Tibetan Plateau. Some parts of Tibet have reportedly been the site of chemical weapons testing and nuclear dumping by China.

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Ventdroit, Flickr

The Tibetans have the great privilege to live spread across a vast land of green pastures, mountain chains and snow peaks; a land that naturally provides all that is needed to live well, grazing herds of yaks, sheep and goats on alpine meadows, mingling freely in an unfenced land with wild herds of gazelles and antelopes. We have never considered ourselves apart from nature, still less as the lords of nature. Our culture teaches us to care compassionately for all sentient beings, who have in countless past lifetimes been our own mother, who gave us life. Today a new power, beyond our control, treats nature as a commodity to be manipulated at will. This deeply saddens us.

P L AT E A U P I K A (Ochotona curzoniae) The plateau pika, a rabbit-like creature, lives primarily underground at high altitudes in the Tibetan Plateau. This species is currently regarded as of Least Concern. The plateau pika is a keystone species and an ecosystem engineer. Its burrows serve to recycle nutrients and minimise erosion and run-off from monsoonal rains. They also provide nest sites for many endemic birds in the region.

The pika is hunted by the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s avian and mammalian carnivores but is considered by the Chinese government to be an agricultural pest. It has therefore been subjected to widespread poisoning. When the pika population is poisoned, carnivores in the region could starve and as the burrows collapse, native birds could lose breeding habitat and disappear.

Thubten Samdup Representative of His Holiness the Dalai Lama for Northern Europe and Poland 224

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Most of us experience the sea at its surface, looking out across it as it fades to a distant wave-strewn horizon, almost endless. It is difficult to appreciate that it is the largest ecosystem on Earth, reaching a depth of nearly 11 km in the Marianas Trench. The ocean is home to about 90 per cent of all life. It represents an inner space, occupied by giant phantom-like jellyfish, fang-toothed, deep-living fish, luminous squid and some of the most spectacular predators on Earth â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sharks, tunas, marlins, turtles and whales.

Prof. Alex Rogers Professor of Conservation Ecology, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford

In the course of a year, some of these animals will migrate thousands of kilometres between feeding and breeding grounds. Others will dive from the surface to a depth of more than 1.5 km every day. But the ocean is not just about the large and awesome, it is full of microbes that convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into living material, providing us with much of the oxygen we breathe and controlling the chemical cycles crucial for our entire biosphere. Great currents stir the ocean, moving heat around and oxygenating the depths, acting as a planetary thermostat. To see this vast alien wilderness we need to employ technology usually reserved for exploring the moon or planets, and large tracts of marine life still remain unseen and mysterious. Intuitively, it was believed for many years impossible to change such a vast body of water or to have an impact on the life within it. We know now that our seas are warming, their chemistry is changing and once-vast populations of fish and other animals have been depleted to less than a tenth of their abundance prior to industrial fishing. The ocean still has the power to take our breath away with its magnificence. We must act now to ensure that it is there to provide for and to inspire future generations.

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The Black Sea – an inland body of water – is bordered by Turkey, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria. It is shallowest in the north-west (the Azov Sea) where it averages 7 m in depth. The Black Sea is unique. When water levels are high, the sea joins the world’s oceans: otherwise, it acts as an independent lake. Combined with other unique hydrological characteristics such as high freshwater ratio, low surface salinity and rich nutrients, its structural variability creates a unique habitat for specialised organisms including little-known benthic communities of arthropods and worms. A number of designated Ramsar sites protect wetlands connected to the Black Sea, providing breeding and wintering grounds for migratory birds including geese, shelducks, gulls and raptors. For one such species – the Endangered red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) – 90 per cent of its population gathers on the coast to roost, making the Black Sea a vital habitat for the species.

Black Sea

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The sea brims with creatures that over billions of years have transformed rocks, water and toxic gases into a planet just right for life as we know it. The living ocean touches you with every breath you take, every drop of water that falls from the sky. Ancient, fine-tuned systems of life in the sea shape planetary chemistry, hold the planet steady and, with care, provide hope for an enduring future for humankind. Dr Sylvia A. Earle National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Founder, Mission Blue

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B E L U G A S T U R G E O N (Huso huso) Fr Maxim Massalitin, Flickr

T H R E AT S Vast volumes of agricultural run-off containing damaging fertilisers and pesticides flow down the many rivers that feed the Black Sea. The resulting algal blooms and hypertrophication hinder and suffocate native plants and animals. Many of the species in the Black Sea are slow-growing and long-lived, making it particularly hard for them to recover from such incidents. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean via the Bosphorus Strait – one of the world’s busiest waterways, which acts as a shipping route between Russia and Europe. Invasive species enter the sea from the ships’ ballast water. One such organism, the veined rapa whelk (Rapana thomasiana), has become so abundant it is now harvested via bottom trawling – a fishing method that in itself destroys native benthic communities and habitat.

Native species such as oysters are being outcompeted by the snail, which can cause the collapse of entire fisheries. The accidental introduction of the wart comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) has also had significant impacts on fisheries due to its tendency to eat the eggs of pelagic fish including commercially important European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus). Fishing practices are currently unsustainable and have caused commercial fish stocks to significantly deplete. Marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and seals are also being impacted by the collapse of food chains, as well as by bycatch, habitat destruction and pollution. There is increasing effort to improve the Black Sea’s protection before this unique habitat is destroyed beyond repair.

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The beluga sturgeon was assessed as Critically Endangered in 2010 due to a decline in wild, native numbers by more than 90 per cent in the past three generations. Measuring up to 5 m in length, the beluga sturgeon is the largest sturgeon in the world. It is also the biggest freshwater fish in Europe. Tragically, this ancient giant with its fascinating life history has been extirpated from much of its previous range because of overfishing, pollution and loss of spawning sites due to dams and siltation. It now only exists as stocked fish (i.e. not wild) in the Azov Sea and Volga River: the last wild population in the Black Sea basin migrates up the Danube River.

Despite catastrophic impacts on the species, its roe (otherwise known as caviar, or ‘black pearls’) is still regarded as a delicacy in many parts of the world, fetching extremely high prices and meaning that female beluga remain in high demand. Trade in beluga sturgeon eggs and meat is currently restricted to aquaculture-derived products but there is ongoing illegal trade in wild fish. The species’ survival now depends on stocking and re-introductions.

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The Sargasso Sea, in the North Atlantic Ocean, is the only sea without a land boundary and is therefore defined by ocean currents. It is named after Sargassum, a type of free-floating, golden-brown, leafy seaweed prolific in the Sargasso Sea, giving the appearance of a golden floating forest. Sargassum provides a unique structural habitat and diet to a huge number of endemic, native and migratory species in the open ocean including marine turtles which use the sargassum mats as nurseries, providing food and shelter for their hatchlings. Furthermore, the deep waters of the Sargasso Sea provide a spawning ground for the Critically Endangered European eel (Anguilla anguilla) which travels for hundreds of kilometres to spawn there. The open water column provides a different habitat. Strong currents create pathways for migratory species such as the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares).

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T H R E AT S The Sargasso Sea faces serious anthropogenic threats from overfishing, plastic pollution, oil-spills, unsustainable fishing techniques and shipping, as well as broader problems including climate change and acidification. As one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s busiest international shipping areas, noise disturbance is becoming increasingly problematic for marine mammals that rely on echolocation for hunting, navigating and communicating. Ship strikes (collisions) with dolphins and whales have also been noted. Shipping also causes pollution and introduces invasive species which can outcompete native species, introduce disease and disrupt food chains.

There is growing recognition of the importance of the Sargasso Sea. Recently, an agreement was reached between five nations to promote the care of the Sargasso Sea, a first for the high seas. Suggestions are being made that ships could avoid key migratory routes thereby minimising harm to endangered species.

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Urban Gazelle

I’ve never been into cute animals. I remember being obsessed with deep sea fish when I was a kid. That obsession with the more unusual species has continued with my love, and it is a love, of (anguillid) eels. What a lot of people seem to dislike about them – their slime, their similarity to snakes, their mystery – I find appealing. You will rarely find a more tenacious and charismatic fish. With an astonishing life history, the eel has exquisite physical and physiological adaptations to a vast range of habitats and an ability to cope with environmental extremes; it has a stubborn will to survive, overcoming a range of human pressures that most other species would buckle under. So when I get called the ‘eel guy’ by colleagues and friends, I could not be paid a higher compliment. Dr Matthew Gollock Marine and Freshwater Programme Manager, Zoological Society of London 238

Sean Nash, Flickr

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Tchami, Flickr

H A W K S B I L L T U R T L E (Eretmochelys imbricata)

E U R O P E A N E E L (Anguilla anguilla)

The hawksbill turtle, named for its strongly hooked beak, is Critically Endangered. This migratory marine reptile is found worldwide in tropical waters but has declined by as much as 80 per cent in the last century. The thick sargassum in the Sargasso Sea provides a perfect habitat on which the young hawksbills, who are unable to dive deep, can float near the water’s surface. This well-loved species possesses a tortoiseshell carapace which has been revered for its beauty since ancient times: artifacts have been found in the predynastic graves of the Nubian rulers of Egypt. Although the international trade in this species is banned, the hawksbill is still hunted and killed for its shells to make jewelry and ornaments.

The Critically Endangered European eel is a fascinating creature with a complex life history – migrating thousands of kilometres from Europe’s rivers, where it spends most of its life, to the western sub-tropical Atlantic, where it breeds. An iconic species and part of British culture for many years (the great jellied eel), and popular in Asia since the demise of their own eel populations, the European eel has become increasingly rare as a result of overfishing for food at various life stages. Infant eels (glass eels) are captured and used in aquaculture to bring on to adulthood, while adult eels are fished for direct consumption. The European eel’s rarity has led to a resurgence of consumer interest: much like caviar, it seems to be an icon of ‘wealth’. As such, illegal activity is a concern for the species.

Egg collection (for food), destruction of nesting habitat to build tourist resorts, harvests to support traditional customs, crossbreeding, bycatch and entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris are all taking their toll on this graceful creature. By far the greatest threat is the loss of coral reef communities which act as their feeding sites. Like many marine turtles, hawksbills are Critically Endangered due mostly to human behaviours. If enough resource and expertise were mobilised, these behaviours could be at least amended.

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The European eel has been severely affected by dams which have blocked migration routes, causing mortality and preventing spawning and breeding. In addition, a parasitic nematode, introduced via stocked eels from Japan, is believed to affect the ability of these eels to reach their spawning grounds. Habitat loss, pollution and climate change are also all likely contributors to the species’ decline. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has recommended that a recovery plan be developed as a matter of urgency. International trade is being regulated and the issue has received legislative attention in the European Parliament.

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Coastal Marine 242

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Dr Heather Koldewey Head of Global Conservation Programmes, Zoological Society of London

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Something draws us to the sea, whether it’s the sound of lapping waves or a beautiful sunset on the ocean’s horizon. Exploring some of the most remote coral reefs in the world, I have been entranced as huge schools of fish surrounded me, creating vivid explosions of colour. During these incredible threedimensional wildlife experiences, I have been totally immersed in the world’s most diverse marine ecosystems. For me, the Chagos Archipelago – the largest marine reserve on the planet – epitomises Biophilia. Here fish are wildlife, not food, and the ocean looks like it should. Worldwide, half a billion people depend on coral reefs for subsistence or coastal protection. Achieving effective marine conservation in the Philippines, a country of over 7,000 islands with a population of 99 million people, requires an understanding of the ways that humans interact with and have need of ecosystems. Walking through a mangrove forest hit by Typhoon Haiyan, remarkably intact with new leaves and seedlings emerging, is a reminder that nature is the ultimate engineer, providing reefs and mangroves as bio-shields. Faced with worsening typhoons, the local communities understand the need to rebuild their mangrove nurseries alongside their houses: they are at home with nature.

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The Coral Triangle is the epitome of marine biodiversity, containing over threequarters of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coral species, along with 3,000 species of reef fish. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, the Coral Triangle comprises around 6 million km2 of marine habitat within the waters of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands. Coral reefs provide habitats and nursery grounds for a wide range of invertebrates and fish and for six of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s seven marine turtle species, most of which are highly threatened. Migratory species such as sharks, rays and turtles use reefs as cleaning stations, letting shrimp and small fish feed on their parasites. The area is also a prime feeding ground for whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), the largest fish in the world.

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The vibrant marine life found around reefs makes them popular with divers and tourists, providing a source of income to local communities. They are also vital to the fisheries that sustain a third of the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population.

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One Reef

T H R E AT S Increasing global demand for fish is affecting the Coral Triangle. In particular, five commercial species of tuna – notably albacore (Thunnus alalunga), skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) and Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) – are overfished, which significantly depletes their populations and disrupts the balance of food chains. Trade in reef fish either for food or aquaria – the latter, due to their beauty – is expanding exponentially.

As fish populations fall, fishing practices are becoming increasingly destructive. These include the use of bottom-trawling, cyanide and dynamite fishing, all of which have destructive impacts on reefs. Climate change poses the greatest threat to coral reefs, causing rising sea levels and increased ocean temperatures that – together with acidification from increased emissions – lead to bleaching.

Michael Aston, Flickr

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E L E G A N C E C O R A L (Catalaphyllia jardinei)

W H A L E S H A R K (Rhincodon typus)

The elegance coral is an Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species, found as individual polyps or in colonies settled loosely in depressions in the sand. While the species can catch small prey with its tentacles, it relies upon zooxanthellae (algae living within the coral) to provide it with energy. Due to its spectacular colouring, overharvesting for the aquarium market is the biggest threat to this species, which is Vulnerable. For over a decade, 20,000 specimens have been exported annually from Indonesia alone. Like all corals it is also threatened by bleaching and ocean acidification, which are linked to increased emissions, as well as destructive fishing practices.

The whale shark grows up to 12 m – the size of a bus – and weighs in at 20 tonnes. This slow-moving, migratory fish swims in tropical and warm temperate waters. Despite being widespread, it is categorised as Vulnerable and its populations are decreasing. It is hunted for its flesh, liver oil and fins – particularly by harpoon fisheries in Southeast Asia. Although relatively little is known about the whale shark’s biology, its long lifespan and slow reproductive rate, alongside its migratory nature, increase its vulnerability to overexploitation.

The construction of a marine port in Kushimoto, western Japan, resulted in the destruction of over 5,000 km2 of coral reef including a large community of elegance coral. However, the species is afforded some protection within marine protected areas and also through regulations established to help monitor and reduce negative impacts of trade on the species.

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This huge, charismatic shark now plays an important role in ecotourism in Thailand, South Africa, the Maldives and the Seychelles, providing a valuable source of income for local economies. It is hoped that increased tourism will lead to reduced fishing pressure. The whale shark’s behaviour has already been significantly altered by human activity. Feeding through filters, the whale shark usually subsists on tiny plankton, crustaceans and small fish: recent footage shows whale sharks feeding directly and copiously from fishing nets. The impact of this (beyond the fisherman’s frustration) is not yet known!

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Eastern Tropical Pacific

The Eastern Tropical Pacific marine area (or Seascape) encompasses the region between California, Peru and the Galápagos Islands, covering nearly 2 million km2 and including the waters, coasts and islands off the shores of Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica. With more than 5 million people living within its coastal area, the incredible marine diversity of the Eastern Tropical Pacific sustains the livelihoods of many communities in the region. The Gulf of California has such a high density of commercial fish species it supplies nearly three-quarters of Mexico’s total annual catch. Nearly a third of all whale species, as well as many shark and commercial fish species, migrate through the Eastern Tropical Pacific, making it a highway between the North and South Pacific. It is a popular location for sighting blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), hosts coral communities and is an important area for leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas). The islands in the region (along with the Galápagos (see page 260)) are also vital for a number of seabirds such as the brightly billed Nazca booby (Sula granti).

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Trish Hartmann, Flickr

T H R E AT S The human population within many of the coastal communities of the Eastern Tropical Pacific is increasing, as are the number of tourists. This is resulting in greater infrastructure and development pressures, causing loss and degradation of habitat and greater pollution. Overfishing is dramatically altering the structure of the marine ecosystem resulting in dwindling populations of high-economic-value target species such as lobster, snapper and tuna. Destructive fishing practices are resulting in the bycatch of cetaceans, sharks and turtles.

The management of an area as large as the Eastern Tropical Pacific presents an enormous challenge. However, sustainable tourism and improved fisheries management, as well as whale and shark monitoring programmes, are on the rise. There are also several marine protected areas including the GalĂĄpagos Marine Reserve, the largest marine protected area in the region.

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Sakura, Wikicommons

M A R I N E O T T E R (Lontra felina) The Endangered marine otter is the only species of otter found exclusively in marine habitats, feeding mainly on crustaceans, molluscs and fish. It inhabits exposed shores along the Pacific coast of South America from northern Peru, along the Chilean shoreline to Cape Horn and Isla de Los Estados (Argentina). It can also be found in parts of the Strait of Magellan. The marine otter has long been hunted for its pelt, leading to its virtual extinction in the northern- and southern-most extremities of its range. Habitat destruction, pollution and persecution by fishers, who see the marine otter as competition, are adding to the speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; woes. The marine otter is increasingly caught as bycatch due to the rise in damaging fishing practices.

This species is legally protected in Peru, Chile and Argentina and occurs in several protected areas. However, human poverty levels are high along the coast, and with poor law enforcement, hunting can be an attractive source of income. As a result, a change in public attitudes to otters, together with increased law enforcement, are both necessary in order to slow the decline of this cheeky and endearing species.

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vgm8383, Flickr

French Polynesia comprises 118 volcanic islands and coral atolls, some up to 6 million years old, which are grouped into five clusters: the Tuamotu Archipelago and the Gambier, Marquesas, Tubuai and Society Islands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the last of which is home to Tahiti, the largest island. Tourism is important to the local economy: visitors flock to the region due to its year-round warm climate and dramatic scenery which includes high volcanic peaks, deep gorges, tranquil lagoons, moist tropical forests and spectacular marine life. French Polynesia is part of a Biodiversity Hotspot as defined by Conservation International. There are 80 species of native land snails including the Polynesian tree snail (Samoana diaphana), and almost half of all plants are unique to the islands due to their remoteness. However, there are no native terrestrial mammals. Several endemic bird species can be found in the region including the beautifully coloured ultramarine lorikeet (Vini ultramarina) and the Critically Endangered Polynesian ground-dove (Alopecoenas erythropterus).

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P O LY N E S I A N G R O U N D - D O V E (Alopecoenas erythropterus) vgm8383, Flickr

T H R E AT S As with other islands, French Polynesia is particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of introduced species â&#x20AC;&#x201C; indeed its wildlife is among the most threatened globally. With over 200 introduced plants, many native species are being crowded out or replaced. Feral sheep have caused such extensive damage to native vegetation that soil erosion is becoming commonplace, with little chance of regeneration. Meanwhile, the introduction of a non-native snail to provide biocontrol has proved a disaster for local species.

Habitat destruction, overexploitation and hunting have all compounded the impact of invasive species, as have increasingly frequent extreme weather events such as cyclones. These are all likely to intensify with climate change, which will also lead to rising sea-levels, which in turn will threaten low-lying islands and atolls.

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The Polynesian ground-dove is Critically Endangered with a highly fragmented population of fewer than 200 individuals found scattered across the forests, scrubland and unworked plantations of four small islands. Hunting by humans and by introduced predators including cats and rats, has led to its extinction on several islands. More recently this shy ground-bird has struggled with human expansion into its range. The vegetation it depends upon has also been cleared for coconut plantations.

Rats have successfully been eradicated in some areas of French Polynesia but not yet entirely throughout the Polynesian grounddoveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s distribution. Local conservation programmes are now underway including research to better understand this enigmatic and elusive species.

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The revered Galápagos – an archipelago of volcanic islands – are located 960 km off the coast of Ecuador in the Pacific Ocean. The Galápagos probably have the best-studied island fauna in the world, well recognised for their extreme levels of biodiversity. They are classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a designated national park and a marine reserve. The combination of a sunny equatorial position among the upwelling of nutrientrich cool waters from the south, warm currents from the north and deep cold currents merging from the west makes for an interesting mix of tropical and temperate environments and has resulted in extreme species adaptations and worldrenowned levels of endemism.

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The Galápagos are well known for Darwin’s finches as well as other birds, 80 per cent of which are endemic. Each species has evolved different adaptations to specific environmental conditions: some finch species, for example, have developed a mutualistic relationship with giant tortoises (of which there are several subspecies on the Galápagos), feeding on the ticks found in the folds of the tortoises’ skin. It was Darwin’s observation of these unique processes and outcomes that led him to develop the theory of natural selection. The Galápagos’ marine habitat is also teeming with life, 20 per cent of which is unique to its waters including the world’s only marine lizard – the Galápagos marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) – and the only penguin found in the northern hemisphere, the Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus).

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Gabriele Gentile

G A L Á PA G O S P I N K L A N D I G U A N A (Conolophus marthae) The Galápagos pink land iguana, which has only been known to science since 2009, is thought to have diverged from its ancestors 5.7 million years ago and is distinct from them genetically, behaviourally and anatomically. The species is currently Critically Endangered because of its tiny range (less than 25 km2) and single population on Isla Isabela along the northern slopes of Volcán Wolf, the highest volcano in the Galápagos Islands.

Alejandro Villanueva, Flickr

T H R E AT S Population growth, tourism and unregulated development have taken their toll on the fragile ecosystems of the Galápagos. Overfishing including tuna fisheries, whaling, shark finning and fishing for sea cucumbers and lobsters has also had devastating impacts. Tourism has led to an increased need for infrastructure, a larger workforce and more imported goods, as well as greater pollution and increased oceanic traffic. The rise of invasive species including pigs, goats, rats, cats, fire ants, blackberry plants and many more are the greatest threat to the local fauna and flora. Almost 40 vertebrate species and over 700 plants have been introduced to the islands, many of them deliberately.

In 1998, industrial fishing was made illegal in the Galápagos Marine Reserve, though controlling fishing activity can be problematic. In 2007, the Galápagos were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘in Danger’. This status has been removed as a result of progress in addressing its problems. One of the most significant improvements has been the eradication and control of invasive species, as well as regulating visitor numbers and areas of access, introducing waste management schemes, implementing fisheries management, encouraging research and educating visitors.

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The population stands at only about 200 adults and is therefore susceptible to genetic, demographic and environmental stochasticity (including volcanic eruptions and periodic droughts). Threats include the presence of invasive house rats (Rattus rattus) and feral cats (Felis catus), which are likely predators. However, the Galápagos National Park (GNP) is working hard to control and eradicate invasive alien species, including on Volcán Wolf. With a successful record of captive breeding of the common land iguana in Galápagos, there are options to do the same for the Galápagos pink iguana, should this be required.

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At 348,000 km2, the Great Barrier Reef is the largest living body (and coral reef) in the world. It is between 6,000 and 8,000 years old and represents a globally unique ecosystem, comprising over 2,900 separate structures. These support 1,500 species of fish including the largest of all parrotfish â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the green humphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with its huge bulbous head; the largetooth sawfish (Pristis pristis) with its long, flattened, tapered snout; and the beautifully coloured lined surgeonfish (Acanthurus lineatus). There are some 4,000 mollusc species living on the reef, which is also home to over 240 species of bird and over 400 species of coral.

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The reef provides foraging and nursery grounds, cleaning stations and resting places for many different animals. Its influence spills into the surrounding waters so that it plays a role in supporting a diverse range of marine life beyond its boundaries. The reef also provides people with livelihoods linked to tourism and fishing. It is managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) authorities and has been recognised as a World Heritage Area since 1981.

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Phil, Flickr

T H R E AT S Pollution and sedimentation affect water quality around the Great Barrier Reef, which is also threatened by global warming. Warmer seas have led to severe bleaching along large parts of the reef that are now uninhabitable to the species that once thrived there. Overfishing and damaging fisheries practices (such as trawling for prawns) are allowed in as much as a third of the marine park, resulting in bycatch, reef and seabed damage. The reef community also suffers attacks from the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a prolific coral predator that breaks down the reefs with its digestive juices and then consumes them. The reason for reef-vulnerability to this kind of attack is poorly understood, although overfishing of the Endangered humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and other predators of the starfish may be partly to blame. Algal blooms (caused by pollution) also provide an abundant food source for juvenile starfish.

In the past, the Great Barrier Reef was regarded as a wellmanaged marine park but recent budget cuts and fast-tracking of coastal and economic development are of increasing concern. A recent rise in the dredging and dumping of sediment into the marine park by the mining industry is expected to have significant adverse impacts on the reefâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s complex ecosystem.

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L A R G E T O O T H S A W F I S H (Pristis pristis) Sawfish are the most endangered marine fish species globally and the Critically Endangered largetooth sawfish is no exception. While it once had a widespread tropical distribution, it is now extinct in many of its previous ranges. Its natural history characteristics make it highly susceptible to population crashes: it is long-lived (up to 80 years) and slow-growing, only reaching maturation at around eight to 10 years. Trade in the largetooth sawfish is now banned, but it was once hunted for its long-toothed rostrum, for use in traditional medicines. Nowadays, the biggest threat is accidental bycatch: largetooth sawfish are frequently entangled in fishing nets including trawling gears and so-called ‘ghost nets’ (i.e. discarded fishing gear).

Habitat loss, alteration and degradation affect large parts of its migratory range including Australia and New Guinea where mining activity is increasing. The building of freshwater dams affects vital migratory behaviour, further compromising the species. Efforts are now underway to minimise bycatch and release accidentally caught individuals. Conservationists have developed a global action plan to bring this iconic species back from the brink of extinction.

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C O M M O N B O T T L E N O S E D O L P H I N (Tursiops truncatus) The common bottlenose dolphin is one of the best-known and most widely distributed species of cetacean. It is categorised as of Least Concern as, while threats exist, the species is still doing well across the majority of its range. There are an estimated 600,000 plus common bottlenose dolphins occurring across much of the world, through tropical and temperate inshore, coastal shelf and oceanic waters. Hunting, incidental catch and habitat degradation are the key problems for this species. Bottlenose dolphins consume a wide variety of prey species, mostly fish and squid or occasionally shrimp and other crustaceans. This can make them unpopular with fishermen: in the 1960s, extermination campaigns to reduce competition for fish caused major declines in species abundance. In the northern Adriatic for example, populations declined by over half.

Live capture of common bottlenose dolphins for public display, research and military applications have occurred and continue to do so in several parts of the species’ range. Other threats include pollution, reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing, disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic, commercial dolphin watching and interactive programmes), and habitat destruction and degradation. However, at present this species continues to thrive in many of the world’s oceans.

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The Greater Antilles form the largest of three Biodiversity Hotspots on the Caribbean coastal shelf. They comprise the islands of Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), which together constitute around 90 per cent of the Caribbean land mass. The islands contain diverse habitat types ranging from high montane forests to semi-arid shrubland and are home to highly specialised terrestrial species such as the shrew-like solenodons – one of the world’s few venomous mammals.

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The islands of the Greater Antilles are surrounded by rich marine ecosystems, as well as freshwater habitats for at least 70 native freshwater fish species – many restricted to single river basins. The islands’ amazingly diverse amphibian populations are now highly threatened: in Haiti, nine out of 10 species are at risk. What makes this worse is that a high proportion of these amphibians are unique to each island: in Jamaica, amazingly, all amphibians are endemic. Cuba is the largest and most biodiverse island of the Greater Antilles. It is home to around half of the region’s endemic plant species: about half of its 6,500 vascular plants are native to the island. The region boasts the smallest living bird in the world, the bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae), as well as the largest living member of the sea cows, the West Indian or American manatee (Trichechus manatus).

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After more than half a dozen trips to Haiti, I realised that one of the hurdles to achieving conservation was a dysfunctional relationship between the people and their environment. As a child I was lucky to have the opportunity to indulge my fascination with the natural world but what I saw was a very different attitude among youth in Haiti, who were more inclined to persecute wildlife than investigate it. I decided to focus my energies on nurturing a more personal and positive relationship between young Haitians and their natural world. The results really blew me away, as the youth genuinely appeared to view the natural world on their doorstep through new eyes. Dr Robin Moore Author and Conservation Officer, Amphibian Survival Alliance

J. Amezqua, Flickr

T H R E AT S The expanding human populations living in and visiting the Greater Antilles have led to increased industrial activities, land degradation and the overexploitation of terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems. Clearance of forests for sugar cane plantations has had a significant and detrimental impact on the environment of the islands, as have the sugar cane mills themselves. Charcoal production has led to widespread deforestation, particularly in Haiti where less then 2 per cent of original forest remains. For these delicate freshwater ecosystems, the clearing of forests and the introduction of commercial fish species (including tilapia) have been particularly damaging. The marine environment and its inhabitants have suffered from coastal development, causing the loss of suitable nesting sites for turtles, as well as the death of mangroves in other areas.

Coral bleaching and destructive fishing practices, coupled with overexploitation, such as of queen conch (Strombus gigas), are having long-lasting impacts on the marine environment, affecting its ability to regenerate and sustain itself. Conservation efforts are in place to slow or reverse the impacts of these pressures including establishing coral nurseries, reducing agricultural run-off and pollutants, long-term monitoring programmes, mangrove restoration, sustainable fisheries programmes, designation of marine protected areas and integrated coastal zone management.

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S P I N Y G I A N T F R O G (Eleutherodactylus nortoni) The spiny giant frog, found in the montane forests of south-western Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is Critically Endangered due to severe degradation of its habitat. Its population is likely to face an 80 per cent crash within the next 10 years. Mining and extraction of wood for charcoal production and agriculture threaten the species in the Dominican Republic. Extraction of wood for charcoal production, as well as habitat loss for agriculture, are ongoing even in the protected areas of the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti and Massif de la Selle.

The Haitian Pic Macaya and Morne La Visite National Parks, in which the spiny giant frog should be able to seek refuge, offer little by way of protection. Lack of proper enforcement and management means that critical habitat continues to be destroyed. The Dominican Republic’s Sierra de Bahoruco National Park is somewhat better managed although degradation of habitat within this park’s limits also continues. Strengthening the management of these protected areas and providing improved livelihoods for local human populations are essential for the survival of this frog, as is habitat regeneration.

Preserving and respecting the remaining beauty on Earth is a prerequisite for human wellbeing on every level. Mattias Klum Award-winning National Geographic Photographer and Film-maker

Didier Watelet

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The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world’s five oceans, located between Africa, Asia and Australia. It gives rise to the monsoonal weather patterns of much of Southeast Asia and contains the largest no-take marine reserve in the world (Chagos) at 640,000 km2. Numerous islands and clusters sit within the Indian Ocean including the Mascarenes, Comoros, Madagascar (see page 96), Christmas Island and the Seychelles. These are comprised of volcanoes, coral atolls and separated continental landmasses whose habitats range from tropical rainforests to dry deciduous forests. The islands are renowned for their picturesque scenery, unique species and rich coastal ecosystems.

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The Seychelles are of particular biological interest. Made up of 115 islands – both granite and limestone – they are surrounded by spectacular marine life. The Aldabra Atoll, a cluster of four large coral islands enclosing a shallow lagoon, surrounded by coral reefs, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is home to the largest population of Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea). The Seychelles also host several interesting endemic invertebrates including one of the largest millipedes in the world, Sechelleptus seychellarum, as well as the Endangered Seychelles predatory bush-cricket (Seselphisis visenda). The Seychelles are home to 11 endemic amphibians including the Gardiner’s Seychelles frog (Sechellophryne gardineri). Neither the Mascarenes nor Comoros have any endemic amphibians, yet host endemic birds, reptiles and mammals including the Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus), a small falcon which was brought back from the edge of extinction from just six individuals by a pioneering conservation project.

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As a marine biologist my damascene moment was the first time I dived underwater on Indian Ocean coral reef, bearing witness to the bewildering diversity and fragility of our tropical seas. It was an overwhelming experience that led me to dedicate my career to the conservation of this magnificent ocean. Dr Alasdair Harris Research Director, Blue Ventures

Nic Adler, Flickr

T H R E AT S Climate change is a major threat to coral reefs throughout the Indian Ocean. Rising sea levels and increasing water temperatures put many reef structures at risk with severe implications for the diversity of life they support. Other human disturbances, whether from forestry, mining, hunting, agriculture or the introduction of invasive species, are putting pressures on each of the inhabited islands. Due to their remoteness, such detrimental human activity has profound and lasting impacts. On Christmas Island, for example, mining for phosphorus (permitted up to 1987) led to the loss of a third of nesting habitats for Abbottâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s booby (Papasula abbotti) on this, the only known breeding site for the species. Some of the old mining sites are now being colonised by exotic plants, causing further problems for the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s native species.

While many threats still exist, intensive conservation efforts for some species have had positive results. For example, in the Seychelles, the Seychelles magpie-robin (Copsychus sechellarum), the Seychelles white-eye (Zosterops modestus) and the Seychelles paradise-flycatcher (Terpsiphone corvina) are all now increasing in numbers. The Seychelles scops-owl (Otus insularis) is still Endangered but its decline has halted and numbers are now considered stable.

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S E Y C H E L L E S PA R A D I S E - F LY C AT C H E R (Terpsiphone corvina) The Seychelles paradise-flycatcher is Critically Endangered due to its extremely small range, although increases in numbers have been seen in the past 20 years. This elegant flycatcher is endemic to the Seychelles, where it is known in Creole as ‘veuve’, from the French for ‘widow’, owing to its black plumage. The only viable population of the Seychelles paradise-flycatcher is found in La Digue. Habitat loss, due to tourism and housing developments, poses the greatest threat to this species.

Robin Moore

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The designation of a small reserve and a public awareness programme have led to a small increase in population size in recent decades. The Seychelles paradise-flycatcher is beginning to demonstrate its own natural resilience by extending its range into areas of woodland with housing encroachment and is beginning to use an increasing number of tree species for nesting. The bird has been reintroduced to Denis Island and may be viewed as being less at risk if both populations are still self-sustaining in five years’ time.

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Aptly named, the Sundarban, meaning â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beautiful forestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Bengali and sitting on the border of India and Bangladesh, is the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world. This enormous ecosystem on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers on the Bay of Bengal acts as an interface between marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The Sundarbans are categorised as a World Heritage Site and the whole area is recognised internationally for its biodiversity. They provide millions of people with livelihoods and perhaps even more importantly act to protect people from storms, cyclones, tidal surges, seawater seepage and intrusion.

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The complex intertidal and estuarine areas of the Sundarban Mangroves provide a sheltered habitat for a myriad collection of fish, invertebrates and crustacean species, as well as 260 bird species, large reptiles including crocodiles and pythons, and large populations of the threatened Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) and the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris). The Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and the Asian buffalo (Bubalus arnee) have long been exterminated from the area, yet it still supports the Endangered Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris ssp. tigris) and the less well-known, but also Endangered, fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus).

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Martin Keeley, Mangrove Action Project

Having been to the Sundarbans, I can attest to the beauty and magnificence of this natural wonder. I still can clearly recall the pneumatiphors or breathing roots of the mangrove trees jutting up out of the mud ooze, making it difficult to walk in this maze of roots and meandering tidal creeks. The near presence of the Bengal tiger, resident of these forests, was keenly felt, though not seen. We saw no tigers, but did see their pugmarks (footprints) in the thick mud crossing a muddy streambed at low tide. My thoughts turned to how impossible it would be to attempt to flee on foot in that tough terrain, with those countless protruding roots and low branches that only a wild tiger could manoeuvre through with graceful ease. Unfortunately, the Sundarbans has not really gained the protection or conservation it deserves and so desperately needs, but restoration and education projects offer some hope for the future of this magnificent ecosystem. Alfredo Quarto Executive Director, Mangrove Action Project 284

Martin Keeley, Mangrove Action Project

T H R E AT S Estimates suggest that around half of the original Sundarban area has been deforested, with mangrove trees felled for timber, pulpwood and fuel. Pollution from industrial waste and untreated sewage has caused widespread damage and there are fears that oil-spills would have catastrophic impacts. The development of shrimp farms and other forms of aquaculture has resulted in widespread deforestation and contamination. Agricultural expansion is also resulting in loss of habitat for irrigation canals. Deforestation of the Himalayas has caused silt and fertiliser deposits in the Sundarbans which are experiencing a much higher than average rate of sea level rise. As a result, parts of the ecosystem are now submerged: a further rise of 1 m in the next 50 years or so could see as much as 1,000 km2 of the Sundarbans lost.

Recent plans to develop mega coal-fired power plants at Phulbari and Rampal in Bangladesh pose additional grave threats to the Sundarbans, inspiring a global, grassroots movement in opposition to these planned structures. In the face of these increasing pressures, research, local community opposition and conservation projects are growing. Responsible ecotourism may also provide incentives to protect the remaining wildlife.

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Josh More, www.starmind.org

G I A N T R I V E R P R A W N (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) Clyde Nishimura, Smithsonian’s National Zoo

F I S H I N G C AT (Prionailurus viverrinus) The Sundarbans provide perfect habitat for the little-known fishing cat. Widespread destruction and degradation of its wetland habitat mean that the fishing cat is now extinct in much of its former range across South and Southeast Asia. It is therefore classified as Endangered. Habitat loss is largely the result of urban encroachment, drainage for agriculture, pollution and logging. The fishing cat is also vulnerable to snares set for other mammals. Its fur may be traded in some Asian markets, but the fishing cat is rarely hunted for food – deliberate killings are more usually carried out in retribution for taking livestock or fish from nets.

With 94 per cent of globally significant wetlands in Southeast Asia considered to be under threat, the main conservation priority for the fishing cat is to increase the protection afforded to its remaining wetland habitat.

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The giant river prawn is the largest freshwater prawn, sometimes growing to more than 30 cm. This nocturnal creature inhabits coastal rivers and estuaries and its natural range extends eastwards from eastern Pakistan up to Borneo and Java. While considered a freshwater species, the larval stage of this prawn depends on brackish water. Despite being extensively fished, this species is currently categorised as of Least Concern due to its wide distribution. Commercial aquaculture of the giant river prawn started in the 1960s in Hawaii and now has major economic value as a food source in subtropical and tropical regions. In Bangladesh it is estimated to make up 30 per cent of all fisheries export products, and total fisheries and fishery products were thought to comprise an impressive 3.74 per cent of the country’s GDP between 2007 and 2008.

There are no specific conservation actions in place for the giant river prawn, although many parts of its range are likely to occur in protected areas. There have been widespread reports of frequent aquaculture escapees, some of which have successfully established as breeding populations, where in general it is considered to be a ‘harmless nonindigenous species’.

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Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands sit within the East Melanesian Islands, which is one of the most geologically complex areas on Earth. The Solomon Islands are located to the east of Papua New Guinea, while Vanuatu is about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to Australia. The islands are mountainous and generally heavily forested. They form part of the Coral Triangle and have exceptional reef and fish diversity: the Solomon Islands are ranked within the top five areas of high fish biodiversity with over 1,000 species. Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands are flanked by mangroves and seagrasses which also provide important marine habitat.

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The people of the islands rely on these coastal ecosystems for subsistence and livelihoods, or – further inland – depend on small-scale agriculture or forestry. Poverty is more extreme in the Solomon Islands than elsewhere in the Pacific – exacerbated by civil unrest between 1999 and 2003. International mining companies have briefly engaged in mineral and precious metal extraction on the islands, but past conflict and recent flash flooding mean that such activity is precarious. In addition to large numbers of marine species, the islands boast a high number of unique (endemic) bird and bat species. Examples include the dwarf flying fox (Pteropus woodfordi) and the Solomon fish-eagle (Haliaeetus sanfordi) – the latter found only in Buka and Bougainville, both part of PNG but situated in the Solomon Islands. There are 26 recorded endemic or near-endemic mammals (bats and rodents) and almost 70 endemic birds. Many of the species found on the islands are restricted in range – confined to a single or a handful of islands rather than occurring throughout the archipelago. One such example is the large and Endangered king rat (Uromys rex) which is found only in parts of the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

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D W A R F F LY I N G F O X (Pteropus woodfordi) Robin Moore

T H R E AT S Many of the islands are low-lying, making them susceptible to oceanographic changes and extreme weather conditions. Tropical cyclones and flash floods can be extremely destructive to both marine and terrestrial habitats and have recently caused loss of lives and homes on Vanuatu. The primary threat, however, comes from extensive logging including for hardwoods, deforestation for copra (coconut oil) and oil palm plantations, and subsistence agriculture. As the island population grows, these pressures are increasing.

Mining also threatens the habitats and species on the Solomon Islands where gold, zinc, lead and nickel deposits have been found. The Solomon Islands have already lost much of their forest cover, having undergone a decline of at least 4 per cent since the 1990s (according to the Food and Agriculture Organization), and their surrounding coral reefs are at risk. Losses are also being felt culturally. There were once more than 70 languages spoken on the Solomon Islands and over 100 on Vanuatu, with the latter recognised as having the highest density of languages per capita in the world. These are now merging and becoming lost.

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The dwarf flying fox is one of 17 bat species endemic to the Solomon Islands. This tiny bat is Vulnerable due to its suspected small range of less than 20,000 km2 and its fragmented and declining distribution. Its numbers, along with other endemic bat species in the Solomon Islands, are thought to be declining primarily due to deforestation, often for logging purposes. The dwarf flying fox has been seen on 12 of the Solomon Islands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Fauro, Guadalcanal, Kerehikapa, Kolombangara, Malaita, Mbanika, New Georgia, Nggela Sule, Pavuvu, Sikopo, Vangunu and Vella Lavella.

It is thought to rely on primary forest for roosting sites that are being lost due to extensive deforestation and logging in a number of islands within this batâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range. Additionally, it is possible that this bat is threatened to some degree by localised hunting. A more thorough understanding of the threats it faces is essential for the conservation of a species with a narrow range size. There are currently no known conservation measures in place for the dwarf flying fox, although international trade in this species is carefully monitored.

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I lived for seven years in the central deserts of Oman. I was there to undertake a unique challenge: to reintroduce captive-bred Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) to the wild, from which the species had been exterminated 10 years before. However, I had my reservations about the oryx habitat, a gently undulating limestone plateau, largely unchanged since it was laid down in the Miocene 60 million years ago; to my naive eye it seemed flat and boring, with only the occasional sandy pan and scrubby acacia tree.

Dr Mark Stanley Price Senior Research Fellow, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford

However, the desert soon began to show its charms and diversity: Palaearctic birds passed through twice a year or over-wintered with us; we observed and recorded mammals, birds and plants and marvelled at the geomorphology of landscapes that were the result of natural forces rather than manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s destructive activities. This desert was not unique: deserts support a very large proportion of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s people whose skilful use of sparse resources are the basis of many livelihoods. These people know their desertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plants and animals, and modern science demonstrates the extraordinary diversity and adaptation of desert species to extreme and unpredictable conditions. Deserts are not deserted: they are full of life and surprises, and should be conserved and treasured for their biodiversity and as part of our global natural and cultural heritage.

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One of the oldest and largest deserts, the Namib Desert is nestled between a high inland plateau and the Atlantic Ocean. The Namib Desert stretches 2,000 km along the coastline of Namibia and includes parts of South Africa, where it meets the Karoo Desert, and Angola, where it merges with the Kaokoveld Desert.

Namib Desert

The shifting sand dunes, gravel plains and sheer mountains create spectacular scenery while their relative stability over the last 55 million years has allowed specialised flora and fauna to evolve and survive these harsh conditions. Reptiles unsurprisingly thrive here; 70 species have been recorded, 25 of which are endemic to the region. Succulent plants also exhibit astounding diversity in the region and, perhaps more unexpectedly, it is home to several species of mammal such as the mountain zebra (Equus zebra), African desert elephant (Loxodonta africana), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) and black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). While the black rhinoceros is Critically Endangered overall, the subspecies (Diceros bicornis ssp. bicornis) found in Namibia has an increasing population, and so is listed as Vulnerable. Dry riverbeds can be found in parts of the Namib. These support enough vegetation for hardy large mammals and other species. In coastal areas, thick fogs are key to the survival of resident species.

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Aina Sm책vik, Flickr

T H R E AT S The Namib Desert is relatively well protected with large areas set aside for conservation. Much of it is therefore still intact. The low number of human inhabitants is clearly an advantage to wildlife. However, exploitation of natural resources in the area is still significant: mining (for salt and diamonds) does not just cause damage to the immediate land area but has consequences for the wider sand dune system. Illegal harvesting of plants is also an issue. Off-road vehicles can be damaging, in particular to ancient lichen fields. Tyre tracks on gravel plains can leave a physical impression on the environment for 40 years, a constant reminder of the impact of human activity on nature.

Tee La Rosa

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Other human-induced problems include livestock damage and water demand (particularly for mining activities), which causes the water table to drop. There are risks that if further water sources are discovered, more pipelines and infrastructure will be developed which will have major consequences for the natural environment.

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Alan Channing

D E S E R T R A I N F R O G (Breviceps macrops) This rotund, large-eyed frog is a specialised desert dweller. It lives along the coast in South Africa and south-western Namibia. The desert rain frog is decreasing in numbers and is listed as Vulnerable because it is restricted to a 2,000 km2 range. This species is threatened by habitat loss due to coastal opencast diamond mining which is well established in the area.

This is reducing and fragmenting the speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; range, reducing the number of locations in which it is found. Development of roads, human settlements, and changing land use (e.g. increased grazing) pose additional threats.

Galen Rathbun ÂŠ California Academy of Sciences

G R A N T â&#x20AC;&#x2122; S G O L D E N M O L E ( Eremitalpa granti ) The desert-adapted golden mole occurs in Namibia and South Africa at low densities due to the arid, sparse conditions of the environment. The golden mole lacks functional eyes. Its nose and ears have special features to prevent sand from entering into nasal and auditory canals, and its front paws are paddle-like for digging in loose sands.

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As with the desert rain frog, this species has experienced some habitat loss due to mining, but the amount of space left for the species is currently adequate. The species is therefore of Least Concern and so is not regarded as in danger.

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Spanning nine countries across northern Africa and occupying 10 per cent of the continent, the Sahara is the largest desert in the world. It is one of the hottest and driest places on Earth, creating an extremely hostile environment for any living organism. Any that survive are highly adapted to such conditions. The landscape not only consists of vast swathes of sand but also grasslands and mountains, with vegetation supported by the presence of underground aquifers. These aquifers occasionally break the surface creating oases and a lifeline for many desert fauna and flora.

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Despite harsh conditions, the region has many plants and animals. These survive by meeting water needs through their food, burrowing during the heat of the day, hunting at night and having adapted special cooling mechanisms, such as the fennec foxâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (Vulpes zerda) large heat-dispersing ears. Some plants are more prolific near oases and drainages while others have shallow, quick-growing roots ready to absorb any rainwater, and produce seeds that can lie dormant until the next rainfall, sometimes for many years.

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Judith Anenberg, Flickr

A D DA X ( Addax nasomaculatus)

Stuart Rankin, Flickr

T H R E AT S One may think that an inhospitable environment such as the Sahara would be safe from human pressures but unfortunately general neglect and lack of focus on the region has led to damage, some of which is irreversible. Hunting for food, sport and recreation has caused catastrophic declines of some species, particularly antelopes, that have a knockon impact on their predators. Some have already been lost from the Sahara, such as the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah), believed Extinct in the Wild (surviving only in captivity) due to hunting and habitat loss. A subspecies of bubal hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus ssp. buselaphus) is now believed entirely extinct.

The addax (Addax nasomaculatus) and dama gazelle (Nanger dama) have disappeared from much of their former ranges. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are believed to have disappeared from the eastern Sahara altogether. Urgent measures are needed to protect the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s remaining wildlife and tackle ongoing threats. These threats include cultivation and freshwater generation projects that rely on solar panels and saltwater, placing additional pressures on the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecosystems.

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The Critically Endangered addax was once found across northern Africa, but is now restricted to a much smaller area in Niger, Chad and possibly along the border between Mali and Mauritania. The addax has undergone a dramatic decline, mainly as a result of overhunting (from vehicles) for its highly prized meat and leather. Other factors such as drought and human encroachment threaten the addax population: fewer than 300 individuals now survive in the wild, in mainly fragmented herds â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the largest of which is in the Tin Toumma area of Niger.

International trade in the addax is banned and the species is protected under national legislation in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. Relatively large numbers of addax exist in captive populations around the world and are being used for re-introduction programmes.

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Sonoran Desert

Jon Mided

The Sonoran Desert lies across the border of the US, covering large parts of Arizona and California, and Mexico in Sonora, Baja California and Baja Californian Sur. The Colorado, Yaqui, Salt Verde and Gila Rivers pass through the region. A high level of biodiversity can be found in the region due to its variable climate. There are two rainy seasons â&#x20AC;&#x201C; one in the winter and one in the summer â&#x20AC;&#x201C; making it one of the wettest deserts in North America. Despite high levels of rainfall, scorching temperatures in the summer months create an arid climate, causing droughts that can last up to 30 months. The region is regarded as having the greatest diversity of vegetative growth for any desert in the world, with large columnar cacti species dominating the landscape, storing water for the dry months and even providing protection and water for animals. Invertebrate and vertebrate diversity is also significant. For example, more than 200 bee species have been discovered in the Arizonan Sonoran Desert. Surprisingly, even amphibians can be found in the region: over 10 species are known. It is regarded as a key area for birds, with over 40 per cent of birds found in the US seen in the Sonoran at some point in the year.

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It was Wilfred Thesiger, the British explorer, whose entrancing book Arabian Sands first introduced me, in my youth, to the marvels of the desert that was to become such an important geographical locus for my life. As for him, my first desert experience was exhilarating for ‘the sense of space, the silence, and the crisp cleanness of the sand. I felt in harmony with the past…’ Wadi Rum in Jordan’s Arabian Desert is where King Hussein and our family retreated to mark the milestones of life; to renew our perspective, in vast otherworldly vistas, and reminders of the infinity of our universe. The rich, fragile biodiversity of deserts including many animals and valuable and beneficial plants and minerals comprises one-fifth of the Earth’s landmass, is home to one-sixth of the world’s population and may be a valuable sink for atmospheric CO2. Threatened by ignorance and overexploitation, desert culture has much to offer: its inhabitants – human, plant and animal – are the original conservationists. Their intrinsic wisdom coupled with evolving scientific insight can benefit us all. Her Majesty Queen Noor Steve Berardi, Flickr

T H R E AT S The Sonoran faces a multitude of threats, largely as a result of its relatively productive and hospitable environment. Cattle ranching (and, with it, encroachment and overgrazing of native vegetation), mining and, more recently, irrigated agriculture are all present in the region. In the US alone, 60 per cent of the habitat has been altered by agriculture and grazing. Groundwater use has risen sharply due to such human activity and associated urbanisation. Introduced animals and plants including crops for livestock feed have displaced natural desert flora.

Efforts are being made to protect highly threatened species by listing them on the US Endangered Species Act and attempting to integrate land management and species protection plans, but more work is needed to protect this unique ecosystem.

Jon Mided

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Kevin Cole, Flickr

O R G A N P I P E C A C T U S (Stenocereus thurberi)

B U R R O W I N G O W L ( Athene cunicularia)

The organ pipe cactus derives its name from the curving vertical stems resembling the large pipes of an organ. It is of Least Concern due to its wide range and relative abundance, mostly in areas not under threat. The species is widespread in the Sonoran Desert scrub, coastal and foothills thornscrub, and tropical deciduous forest in Mexico, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Sinaloa and Arizona.

The burrowing owl is unique among owls due to its burrowing behaviour â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it nests and sleeps underground, often adopting abandoned burrows of mammals. This owl even uses mammal dung, purposefully depositing it around its burrow to attract dung beetles upon which it preys. The burrowing owl is of Least Concern as it has a very large breeding range that extends throughout the Americas. This species is found from the north, in central and western Canada, to the south, through central and western North America, Central America and South America.

While not of major conservation concern currently, the organ pipe cactus is thought to be declining in numbers and large areas of its range have disappeared because of agriculture. The species is used by the local people for several purposes including construction of houses, food and medicine. Part of the speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; range is affected by landuse change for agriculture and shrimp farms, and clearing and planting of buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare) for cattle forage and subsequent fires in central Sonora. The species does occur in some protected areas including its namesake Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument among others.

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While not currently thought to be threatened on a global scale, local declines have led to conservation concern in many of the provinces and states in which it is found. The causes of these localised declines are thought to be habitat destruction, pesticide poisoning and vehicle collisions. A number of local conservation initiatives have been implemented within North America to conserve the burrowing owl. Current programmes include using artificial breeding burrows to encourage population growth in safe areas and campaigning to promote the cessation of pesticide use in the vicinity of this speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; burrows.

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The Poles 312

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The top and the bottom of our planet being cold and covered in ice, many are fooled into the false belief that the Arctic and the Antarctic are the same, that they are both big white places that could be interchanged for each other. In fact, they are unmistakably unique.

Felicity Aston Polar Explorer

Skiing alone across the Antarctic Plateau, the vast elevated centre of the southern continent, I was often struck by a sense of overwhelming vulnerability. All of Antarctica’s wildlife, even the penguins, cling to the coasts and to open water. There is no life on the plateau – not a bug or a bird, not even so much as a lichencovered rock – and neither is there any human history. There has never been a native population in Antarctica and the tracks of those few explorers who have travelled there have long since been obliterated by the wind. In contrast, within the high northern latitudes of the Arctic it is impossible not to be acutely aware of the abundant life all around. Underfoot, the ocean constantly churns its delicate skin of ice, the seals and whales making use of the cracks that appear and close, while the wolves and polar bears prowl oblivious to any geographical or political borders. There is that same feeling of vulnerability, however, caused, I think, by a recognition that the forces of nature so visibly at work in the polar regions are far more powerful than we will ever be – leaving us impotent and insignificant. In my mind that is why these regions are so important to humanity, as a reminder that we are caretakers, not conquerors.

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Antarctica is the southernmost continent at the South Pole, surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica is colder than the Arctic due to its large landmass and heightened elevation, dropping as low as -90 oC. It is also the driest and windiest continent in the world and is therefore considered a desert. The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single piece of ice in the world, covering 14 million km2 and containing 30 million km3 of ice. It holds 90 per cent of all the world’s freshwater. There is little in the way of life on the icy surface of Antarctica – no trees or shrubs are found and no truly terrestrial mammals reside here. In fact the only terrestrial animals to exist on land in the Antarctic are arthropods (invertebrates). Greenery comes mainly in the form of mosses, liverworts and lichen – the latter is particularly abundant – and there are two species of flowering plant. Yet the Antarctic Ocean (and surrounding ice) provides home to a bounty of whales, dolphins, penguins and seals.

Antarctica

The world’s favourite group of bird – the penguin – is the most common type of bird in Antarctica. There are six different species but only two are permanent residents: the world’s largest penguin – the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) – and the smaller Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae). There are an estimated 20 million breeding pairs of penguins in total in Antarctica. There are also numerous species of seabird including the wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), the largest known seabird.

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More than any other region in the world, the Poles are for me places of truth. It was on reading the accounts of the Arctic expeditions of my great-great-grandfather, Prince Albert I, that as a child I discovered the power of nature and its ability to inspire. It was by travelling, in turn, around the Arctic and Antarctic, that many years later I was able to concretely measure the extent of the damage humankind has inflicted upon the environment. It has been by taking part in many international meetings devoted to these regions and by implementing initiatives on site with my Foundation, that I have genuinely recognised the need to invent another development model for the entire planet. It has been by meeting representatives of the Arctic populations on a regular basis that I now clearly realise the uniqueness of these regions where humanity is confronted daily by the truth about its future â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a future which is only conceivable if it is in harmony with nature and the preservation of our common heritage. The Poles are therefore the future of us all! His Serene Highness, Prince Albert II of Monaco

Martha de Jong-Lantink, Flickr

E M P E R O R P E N G U I N (Aptenodytes forsteri)

T H R E AT S Antarctica is regarded as one of the most pristine places in the world due to its harsh climate and inaccessibility. Like the Arctic (see page 320), Antarctica is undergoing more rapid warming than most places in the world. Scientists predict that only parts of the Antarctic ice sheet will melt but, given its vast size and water-storage function, any melting will have an impact on sea levels. Ships can be a source of pollution and disturbance, causing the introduction of invasive species. Rats are particularly damaging and have been introduced on some of the islands that support breeding colonies of seabirds. Unsustainable fishing including Illegal Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fishing occurs in the Southern Ocean. However, legal fisheries have minimised bycatch of birds by implementing new fishing methods and equipment. This has helped stabilise seabird numbers. Overfishing of krill (Euphausia superba), small shrimp-like animals used as food for farmed fish, is having a negative impact on the simple food web in Antarctica. It is a major prey species for fish, squid, penguins, whales and seals.

The Antarctic Treaty is designed to help protect Antarctica against harmful practices, help promote international scientific research and cooperation and ensure there are no sovereignty disputes. Currently mining and mineral exploitation are banned in the region, maintaining Antarctica as a natural reserve. Japan has been whaling in the Southern Ocean, under the premise of scientific research, even since the ban on commercial whaling in 1986; recently a United Nations court ruling ordered Japan to cease this practice in Antarctica.

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The emperor penguin has recently been uplisted to Near Threatened due to projected moderately rapid population declines, mainly due to the threats of climate change including decreases in sea-ice concentration and thickness. Climate change models predict colossal reductions in the Antarctic sea ice, and consequently the penguinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s breeding habitat, where they venture at the coldest time of year to lay a single egg which must be incubated for nine weeks by the male penguin.

The emperor penguin, which appears to be very sensitive to shifts in climate, could therefore decline by as much as 95 per cent by 2100. This species may also be negatively affected by increasing ecotourism and by industrial fisheries which deplete its food supply. It is particularly vulnerable as a result of its slow life history â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is long-lived and has low reproduction rates. However, as the largest penguin known, there are efforts to protect and monitor the species. For example, the emperor penguin is the first species to have its population estimated by studying images taken from space.

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The Arctic is a vast, ice-covered area culminating in the North Pole (see page 316 for Antarctica). The Arctic includes parts of Canada, Russia, the US, Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland, as well as the vast icy waters of the Arctic Ocean. Despite its cold temperatures and dark winters, the Arctic is surprisingly rich in biodiversity. The Arctic Tundra supports several species despite the narrow window of opportunity in which its flora can grow – the summer lasts for between 50 to 60 days. The Arctic’s best-known mammal species is the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). It also harbours the Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus), Norway lemming (Lemmus lemmus), muskox (Ovibos moschatus) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The southern regions of the Arctic are home to large numbers of insects and migrating birds which visit during the summer when the permafrost melts to form bogs and lakes that are perfect for breeding and feeding. Many species live in the Arctic waters and under the ice including a variety of fish and invertebrates, as well as 17 different whale and dolphin species, and the walrus (Odobenus rosmarus).

Arctic

In addition to the abundance of terrestrial and marine life, 4 million people live in the region, some of whom are Inuit – traditional hunter-gatherers who understand the importance of living in harmony with nature, having done so for generations. Different Inuit groups have different rules and beliefs but many of these were created to help protect the balance of life – for example not killing animals during mating periods.

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Didier Watelet

T H R E AT S The Arctic is one of the least-fragmented inhabited regions but as the rate of climate change accelerates it is at risk of losing much of its biodiversity. The implications for the rest of the planet are enormous. Carbon dioxide and methane (an even more potent greenhouse gas) are being released as the permafrost melts, intensifying ocean acidification. Shrinking glaciers are resulting in increased warming due to the impairment of their heat-reflecting function. It is anticipated that rising sea levels will change the way that the ocean’s waters move with even more disastrous consequences. Some estimate that the Arctic will be ice-free during the summer within just a few decades. The huge (up to 1,100 km at its greatest width) Greenland ice sheet is the second-largest in the world, but the region is now warming at twice the rate of the rest of the planet. Greenland has experienced a temperature rise of approximately 1.5 oC since 1951, whereas the average rise for the rest of the world is 0.7 oC. Furthermore, as ice cover reduces and temperatures rise, the composition of the ecosystem changes, meaning species that were once unable to live in the cold, harsh environment are now taking root – shrubs and spruce have started to colonise the Arctic Tundra and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has migrated into the area and is now competing for food and territories with the rightful resident – the Arctic fox. However, the species that are likely to be most negatively impacted by climate change are dependent on ice as habitat, including ice algae, ice amphipods (shrimp-like creatures), ringed seals (Pusa hispida) and polar bears.

Exploitation of the region’s oil and gas (the largest remaining untapped reserve in the world) is growing and there are concerns that should an oil-spill occur, or any other incident requiring a rapid response, it would be impossible given the region’s remote location. Overfishing, whaling and seal hunting have all harmed species populations in the past. Organochlorides used in industry or agriculture are particularly damaging as they resist degradation, meaning they can reach the Arctic through drainage from rivers or on wind and ocean currents. In addition, seismic surveys for exploration can damage the hearing of marine mammals. Adaptive wildlife management to improve resilience to climate change is essential for the Arctic, as well as understanding and acting upon early warning signs of its impacts. Where the ice melts and the Arctic Ocean becomes more accessible, there is an increased likelihood of shipping, tourism and commercial exploitation worsening the impacts of climate change.

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I was just in the Arctic Circle, Svalbard. We felt so much power and energy from the glaciers! We met the Arctic tern for the first time – they’re built like a large swallow. They migrate from the Arctic to the Antarctic every year but we don’t know exactly why: we really have a lot to learn. Dame Vivienne Westwood

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Doc White

George Grubb

P O L A R B E A R (Ursus maritimus)

N A R W H A L (Monodon monoceros)

The polar bear is the largest living land carnivore, growing up to 2.6 m in length. It is specially adapted to live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, with thick white fur, large amounts of body fat, claws and feet adapted for walking on ice and strong limbs and forepaws for swimming. The polar bear is classed as Vulnerable due to worrying projections regarding the melting of sea ice. As with most species in the Arctic, threats caused by climate change are now the main concern for the polar bear â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is already having an impact on eight of the 19 subpopulations of polar bear.

The narwhal is a whale with a spectacular unicorn tusk, which is a massively elongated tooth. Usually these bizarre tusks are found singularly, only on males, but occasionally females grow them and sometimes two can develop. The function of the tusk is still unclear. Some have suggested that narwhals use their tusk to detect changes in their environment, while others believe it is used as a sort of ice pick and some think it might help to attract mates. The narwhal occurs in Arctic waters and the North Atlantic Ocean, with the largest populations being found in the eastern Canadian Arctic Ocean and Greenland. The species is classed as Near Threatened. Some subpopulations have declined significantly, while data are lacking for others.

As sea ice retreats, polar bears will be forced to keep moving polewards which will impact their den areas and prey availability. Organochlorides also pose a threat â&#x20AC;&#x201C; if accumulated at elevated levels, these compounds can cause neurological, reproductive and immunological changes. Hunting of polar bear is now controlled through international agreements.

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Intense hunting in Greenland and Canada is the biggest threat to this species. Traditionally, narwhals were hunted for subsistence purposes, but more recently their tusks have been sold for profit. The narwhal has been assessed as highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change due to its narrow geographic range and restricted feeding and habitat preferences.

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Grasslands go by many names â&#x20AC;&#x201C; steppes, prairies, pampas and savannahs. They are among the largest ecosystems in the world, covering between 20 and 40 per cent of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land, and are hugely biodiverse with 10,000 plus species living within them. They support more wildlife than any other ecosystem, feeding more people than any other habitat on Earth. In natural grasslands, antelope, wild horses and rodents find their food in grasses, while the grazers support numerous predators. In converted grasslands, livestock for meat, dairy and wool thrive. Often viewed as wastelands (neither desert, nor forest), grassland areas have been cleared, often for agriculture, where deep and fertile soils can support cultivation.

Greg Nicolson Consultant Botanist, Cape Town, South Africa

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Scrublands support yet another community of plants and animals. The scrublands of the Cape Floral Kingdom are known locally as Fynbos and Renosterveld. The Cape Floral Kingdom has extremely high levels of biodiversity with over 9,600 species occurring within the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s smallest plant kingdom. In the mountainous areas, the Fynbos is often protected, as human activity is impossible due to the terrain. In the lowlands, however, much of the Fynbos and Renosterveld have been transformed through agriculture and urbanisation. I work in these highly fragmented and disturbed areas with other botanists and ecologists, hoping to inform developments so that the remaining ecosystems and ecological processes may remain intact for as long as possible.

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Cape Floristic Region

The Cape Floristic Region sits on the far south-western tip of South Africa. This 553,000 ha World Heritage Site is considered one of the most important in the world for plant density and endemism, yet makes up just 0.5 per cent of Africa’s landmass. It is home to almost one-fifth of Africa’s and 3 per cent of the world’s plant diversity. Five of South Africa’s 12 endemic plant families are native to the region, as are 70 per cent of the country’s unique plant species. Fynbos, a unique natural scrub/heathland vegetation characterises much of the area and provides much of its diversity. Furthermore, several freshwater fish, reptiles and amphibians are endemic to the area including the tiny Critically Endangered Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne rosei), restricted to less than 8 km2 of Table Mountain.

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I was recently sitting on Lion’s Head, a mountain peak in Cape Town, looking at the spectacular diversity of early spring flowers around me while admiring the beauty of Table Mountain and the chain of mountains stretching away in the distance down the Cape Peninsula. While doing so, I was reminded that this small area contains more species of plants than the number found in the whole of the UK. In fact, the Cape Peninsula has one of the world’s greatest concentrations of unique plant and animal life. As the sounds of the bustling city below drifted up to me, I looked down at the urban sprawl of Cape Town stretching all around Table Mountain and across the Cape Flats towards the Hottentots Holland Mountains in the far distance. That whole area would once too have been covered in unique Fynbos vegetation with many species found nowhere else in the world. Sadly, many of those are now lost forever having become extinct due to human activities. In between the urban sprawl I could spot the occasional ‘green spot’ where remnants of lowland Fynbos still precariously hang on. The maintenance of the beauty, ambience and rich diversity of this area is dependent on ongoing conservation efforts to protect and properly manage the areas that remain and to ensure that local communities are given the opportunity to learn about this incredible and unique floral wealth so that they too will develop a desire to conserve nature.

Reis. In. Stijl, Flickr

Craig Hilton-Taylor Head of The IUCN Red List Unit

T H R E AT S Although there are eight protected areas within the Cape Floristic Region, only 4 per cent of its lowland ecoregion is formally conserved. In total, between 15–16,000 km2 remain intact. Nearly 30 per cent of the Cape Floristic Region is given over to agriculture: techniques used to cultivate its soil damage the area’s delicate ecology and increase colonisation of natural habitats by invasive species. Introduced plants are spreading throughout the region, altering the composition of the terrestrial landscape. As a result, fires are becoming more widespread and waterways are becoming clogged.

With growing and increasingly urbanised human populations, the region’s diverse aquatic and terrestrial species are coming under more pressure – particularly in the Cape Peninsula – in large part due to the construction of water storage reservoirs and dams. Meanwhile, the virulent fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, threatens the region’s amphibian species, as is the case in many parts of the world. Ralph Pina, Flickr

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Atherton de Villiers

Rupert Koopman

G E O M E T R I C T O R T O I S E (Psammobates geometricus)

Babiana blanda

The geometric tortoise is named for the pattern that adorns its carapace. This Endangered species is restricted to the southwestern part of the Western Cape Province where it lives in the Fynbos scrubland of the coastal lowlands. Agriculture and urbanisation in the region has resulted in habitat loss. This, together with occasional hunting for food and the pet trade, has led to a reduction in geometric tortoise numbers in recent years.

Babiana blanda is classed as Critically Endangered on the Red List of South African plants due to its very restricted range and small, declining population. It is distinguished by its large, rosy-pink flowers and striking, deep purple-blue anthers. The species was believed to be extinct for over 50 years after nearly all its marshy lowland habitat was transformed by urban and agricultural expansion. Fortunately, a small surviving population was discovered in 2006 growing underneath a dense thicket of alien acacias.

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The privately owned site where Babiana blanda was rediscovered also contains 29 other threatened plant species, and people are now working to better conserve this area.

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The worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most diverse tropical savannah, the Cerrado, is located between the Amazon, the Atlantic Forest and the Pantanal in southern Brazil. The region is one of the less well-known wonders of the natural world, yet around half of its 10,000 plant species are endemic. Many are tolerant of the fire and drought conditions that define the Cerradoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dry season: the colourful Tabebuia flowering trees, for example, are cultivated for that purpose. The area consists largely of dry grasslands, forests and wetlands: the latter feed the Amazon, Paraguay and SĂŁo Francisco Rivers. The Cerrado is home to around 300 mammals as well as many birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates. Large mammals such as the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), jaguar (Panthera onca), giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) and maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) can be found here.

Cerrado

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T H R E AT S Until the mid-20th century, the Cerrado supported a small population, mainly of indigenous peoples. The decision to build the country’s capital city – Brasília – in the region resulted in a surge in its human population and led to widespread infrastructure development and large-scale agriculture. Now, the Cerrado is known for mining and its industrial-scale agricultural activities from cattleranching to soy, maize and cotton production. The resulting habitat loss has been extensive: roughly one-fifth of the original canopy vegetation remains.

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Despite the Cerrado’s incredible wildlife, it is one of the leastconserved areas in Brazil and faces faster rates of destruction than its neighbouring rainforests: less than 3 per cent is legally protected. The desire to conserve what remains of the Cerrado’s wildlife and water has led to the creation of private reserves with local populations calling for legal measures to protect the region’s biodiversity.

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Ana Cristina Monteiro-Leonel

Phyllomedusa ayeaye

Jennie Webber

K A E M P F E R ’ S W O O D P E C K E R (Celeus obrieni) Once considered extinct, the Kaempfer’s woodpecker was rediscovered in 2006 – 80 years after the last sighting. This bird has a chestnut-red crest and is adapted, like other woodpeckers, to chiselling tree trunks, extracting insects from small crevices and tree climbing. It is thought to have a very small and declining population (estimates vary between 350 and 4,000 individuals) due to habitat loss. As such, it is classified as Endangered, although so little is known about the species or its ecological requirements that its conservation needs are not well understood.

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The Critically Endangered Phyllomedusa ayeaye is a small frog, identified by its striking colouration – a green body and pattern of red-orange blotches, encircled by black or purple, on its flanks and limbs. It is currently known to exist only in small areas in the transition zone between the Cerrado’s tropical woodland-savannah and the Atlantic semi-deciduous forest in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo.

It lays its eggs on leaves above streams or pools so that the tadpoles, when hatched, fall into the water below. This species is under threat from habitat loss due to mining and fires, and is affected by pollution from mining and pesticides. While there are currently no specific conservation measures targeting this colourful amphibian, its occurrence in protected areas may provide it with some level of protection.

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The Mediterranean Basin contains a diverse range of plants, animals, ecosystems and cultures. Spanning Europe, Asia and Africa, it includes 24 countries and countless islands within the Mediterranean Sea. As such, it is one of the most diverse regions in the world. The Mediterranean Basin lies between Portugal and Lebanon, with Italy to the north and Morocco to the south. Its subtropical climate is characterised by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters: levels of rainfall can vary from 100 to over 4,000 mm. The region’s vascular plants are well adapted to these conditions with thick, hardened leaves preventing water-loss during hot, dry summers and strong veins aiding the rapid transportation and storage of water when it rains.

Mediterranean Basin 342

The habitats range across pine forests, high mountains, scrublands, coastal ecosystems and diverse marine habitats within the largest inland sea worldwide – the Mediterranean. The region is the birthplace of many of the oldest civilisations in the world – Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Arab – and the world’s Abrahamic religions. T H R E AT S Having been occupied by humans for around 8,000 years, only 5 per cent of the Mediterranean Basin’s original habitat is believed to remain. Human population growth, urbanisation and increasing agricultural requirements have led to deforestation, water shortages and desertification – particularly in northern Africa. Some 60 per cent of endemic freshwater fish in the Basin is now threatened. The effects of human activity are felt most strongly by species with small or single populations. Historically, intensive hunting, poisoning, pollution and the introduction of disease to control species numbers caused significant declines. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), for example, is now Near Threatened in its native range of Algeria, Morocco, Spain, Portugal, France and Gibraltar due, in part, to the intentional introduction of myxomatosis, an event that has also affected prey species.

The populations of most remaining wild large mammals, such as the Critically Endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), are under pressure due to agriculture, dams, roads and other large-scale infrastructure developments that destroy their habitat. However, more protected areas are being developed and measures to reduce pollution and other pressures implemented.

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Roy Kleukers

E P I R U S G R A S S H O P P E R (Chorthippus lacustris) This grasshopper is unique to the area of north-western Greece from which it derives its name. It is strongly dependent on wet grasslands that flood on a seasonal basis but has lost between 85 and 99 per cent of its habitat as a result of wetland drainage. As such, it is now Critically Endangered. The five remaining populations are found only in three lake areas.

The greatest population density is recorded in one site that contains a diversity of dominant plant species. Urbanisation and land conversion to agriculture at the other two sites could potentially wipe out the species whose only hope lies in wetland restoration and protection efforts.

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Giuseppe Venturella

W H I T E F E R U L A M U S H R O O M (Pleurotus nebrodensis) The Critically Endangered white ferula mushroom was first described by Giuseppe Inzenga in 1863 when he called it â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the most delicious mushroomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Sicily. This edible and prized mushroom only occurs in northern Sicily, growing in scattered localities in the Madonie Mountains at an altitude of 1,200â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2,000 m. The area where the white ferula mushroom is found covers fewer than 100 km2 and its population is severely fragmented. This is to due to the increasing number of mushroom gatherers, both professional and amateur, who usually collect unripe fungi. As a result, it is estimated that fewer than 250 white ferula mushroom individuals reach maturity each year.

This species is now being cultivated to reduce collection of the species from the wild. This ex situ (i.e. outside its natural habitat) cultivation also provides additional income for local farmers, who can offer a cheaper product than that collected from the wild, therefore reducing pressures on this species.

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Epilogue 346

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George Monbiot Writer and Political Activist

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Trying to save the natural world by putting a price on it is understandable â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and catastrophic. It creates the impression that the true value of nature is to be found in dollars and euros. It endorses the extrinsic human values (an obsession with money, image and power) that cause people to lose interest in the living planet, while trampling on intrinsic values (intimacy, empathy, delight in people and places). We should emphasise the wonder and enchantment that motivate people to fight for the world that gives us life. We should appeal not to money but to love.

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Reflection Dr Laura Miller

Executive Director, Synchronicity Earth

We travel across Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continents and oceans. Along the way, we see how species have adapted to their changing conditions over millennia. We realise that, over a relatively short period, the infinite variety of life on Earth, this dynamic mosaic, has begun to disintegrate. We understand that we must shift from our current trajectory: the loss of species paves the way to yet more extinctions. Is this where we want to go? It is time to wake up from our reverie that we are as gods, and listen to what human societies throughout the ages have always understood! We travel back across continents and oceans, through the centuries, to a time when our ancestors first asked how they should govern. We see men and women sitting together, looking out to nature for answers, enshrining its teachings into their laws, realising that to survive we need to adapt to its fluctuations, which means understanding first principles. We appreciate that around the world, peoples with no means of communicating with one another have strikingly similar ideas about what these might be. Foremost, they share a belief that we are here as guests, and that a concern for our youngâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wellbeing must be placed at the heart of all that we do, which means passing on a world as beautiful as the one we inherited. 350 Robin Moore

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Coming back to the present day, we see that their insights, derived from close observations of the natural world, are still central to the practices of many peoples around the world who understand that we are part of our environment and that we should protect it rather than misuse or abuse it. Unfortunately, we also see that nowadays, their view is far from universal. And yet, as weather patterns pull us through seasonal changes, and water currents move vast oceans and rivers over great distances, we must realise – at some level – that we are part of the fabric of life on Earth. This idea should give us hope: it will be easier to change course than we fear. A connection with nature is no more alien to us than the love we feel for our children. Nor does it require us to look to a bygone era but, simply, to recognise Earth’s reality. From across continents, indigenous leaders share their ancestral knowledge with the ‘modern’ world in a bid to stop us from polluting rivers and oceans, hoping to prevent us from sucking all life up from their waters, eager too that we might leave some of the world’s remaining forests intact.

George Grubb

What would society look like if we decided – as did our forebears – that our sole responsibility was to ensure that we did not harm our young by degrading the natural world? How would we function if we placed, at the centre of all that we did, a pledge that no power, no action, no belief could be enacted that would cause harm to Earth’s inhabitants, present or future? If we committed to lovingly restoring our ecosystems so that we could bequeath them to those who come after us? This is the message from our ancestors. It is Biophilia: the way of life. Michel Roggo

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Bibliography Much of the information included in this text was derived from: Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund (www.cepf.net), Conservation International (www.conservation.org), BirdLife (www.birdlife.org), UNESCO World Heritage (http://whc.unesco.org/), WWF (wwf.panda. org), IUCN Red List (www.iucnredlist.org) and Wildscreen Archive (www.archive.org).

Allen, D.J., Brooks, E.G.E., Darwall, W.R.T. (Compilers). (2011). The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Central Africa. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.

NB: where several pages have been used as a source of information, no specific URL has been given.

Berridge, R.J., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., Hoffmann, M., Ramani, P., Stuart, S.N., Young, B.E. (2008). Threatened Amphibians of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain; IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; and Conservation International, Arlington, Virginia, USA.

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www.blackseascene.net www.peaceparks.org www.cia.gov www.pewtrusts.org/en www.conservacionpatagonica.org www.rainforestfoundationuk.org www.coralcoe.org.au www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/concerns-04172013125938.html ctatlas.reefbase.org www.ramsar.org www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art38/ www.sargassoalliance.org www.edgeofexistence.org www.sierranevada.ca.gov www.falklandsconservation.com www.tompkinsconservation.org www.fao.org www.wcs.org www.forestpeoples.org web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/02RegionsofJap.pdf www.galapagos.org www.wetlands.org www.gbrmpa.gov.au www.who.int/countries/en www.theguardian.com

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IUCN, WCPA (undated). Temperate Grassland Conservation Initiative: Patagonian Steppe. Developing a transboundary strategy for conservation and sustainable management. Kareiva, P., Marvier, M. (2014). Extinction is a Moral Wrong but Conservation is Complicated. Biological Conservation 176: 281-282. Mazzonia, E., Vazquez, M. (2009). Desertification in Patagonia. Developments in Earth Surface Processes 13: 351-377.

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Mendelsohn, J. M., Mosepele K., Murray-Hudson M., Vanderpost C., Ramberg L., Wolski P (2010). Okavango Delta: Floods of Life. Windhoek, Namibia: RAISON. McNeely, J.A., Mittermeier, R.A., Stuart, S.N., Wilson, E.O., Rodríguez, J.P. (2010). The Barometer of Life. Science 328: 177. Wahad et al. (2012). Current Status and Prospects of Farming Giant River Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) in Bangladesh. Aquaculture Research 43: 970–983.

Darwall, W.R.T., Skelton, P., Smith, K.G., Tweddle, D. (eds) (2009). The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Grahamstown, South Africa: SAIAB. Brooks, E.G.E., Darwall, W.R.T., Harrison, I.J., Holland, R.A, Smith, K.G. (eds). (2011). Diversity of Life in African Freshwaters: Under Water, Under threat. An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwater species throughout mainland Africa. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Estes, J.A. et al. (2011). Trophic Downgrading of Planet Earth. Science 333: 301–306.

Wilson, E. O. (1986). Biophilia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. WWF. (2012). Threatened Species, Disappearing Species: The Forests and Woodlands of the Coastal East African Region.

Dirzo, R. et al. (2014). Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science 345: 401-406. Donaldson, G.M., Eamer, J., Gaston, A.J., Kosobokova, K.N., Lárusson, K.F., Melnikov, I.A., von Quillfeldt, C. H., Reist, J.D., Richardson, E., Staples, L., (2013). Life Linked to Ice: A guide to sea-ice-associated biodiversity in this time of rapid change. CAFF Assessment Series No. 10. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Iceland.

www.zeroextinction.org www.internationalrivers.org www.zsl.org www.mongabay.com www.nancysullivan.net/projects www.nationalgeographic.org www.nature.org news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profiles

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For contributing amazing photographs and illustrations:

Thanks

For some of the rarest species included in the book, it was not possible to obtain high-resolution images. In these instances, illustrations have been shown.

For sharing their experiences and inspiring us with their words:

For their introductory and concluding text and essays:

Alasdair Harris . His Serene Highness,

Adam Sweidan

. Alex Rogers

For Book Production:

Lead Author:

. Gemma Goodman

Prince Albert II of Monaco

. Douglas Tompkins

Alfredo Quarto

. Edward O. Wilson

Amazon Watch

. Felicity Aston

Craig Hilton-Taylor

. Gemma Goodman

Floriot Randrianarimangason

. Greg Nicolson

George Monbiot

. Heather Koldewey

. Laura Miller

Julius Arinaitwe

. Jerome Lewis

. Lewis Carpenter

Isabelle Lackman

. Jessica Sweidan

. Michele Sanders

Kris Tompkins

. Jonathan Baillie

Marites Gatan-Balbas

. Julia Marton-Lefèvre

Matthew Gollock

. Laura Miller

Mattias Klum

. Mark Stanley Price

Nancy Sullivan

. Paul Kingsnorth

Her Majesty Queen Noor

. Silas Siakor

Robin Moore

. Simon Stuart

Rudo Sanyanga

. William Darwall

Sônia Guajajara

. William Sutherland

Sylvia Earle

Thubten Samdup

Dame Vivienne Westwood

Image Management:

. Victoria Steele

Principal Editors:

Designer:

. Michael Knight

Print:

. Richline Graphics, London Stocks used: Cyclus Offset, 100% Recycled - FSC Certified Satimat Silk, 15% Recycled - FSC Certified

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Page 5: ‘An Hourglass Frog (Dendropsophus ebraccatus) on a blade of grass in the Osa Peninsula’. Photo by: Robin Moore - http://www. robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 6: ‘Africa Monotones Gallery, Photo 6’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http://kalyanvarma.net Page 8: ‘Raja Ampat corals, Indonesia’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic - http://www.mattiasklum.com Page 12: ‘The flooded Amazonian rainforest, Rio Negro Igapó, Brazil, Matrincha (Brycon sp.)’. Photo by: Michel Roggo - http://www.roggo. ch Page 14: ‘Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)’. Photo by: Zana Briski Page 17: ‘Female Orangutan (Pongo spp.) with baby’. Photo by: George Grubb - http://georgegrubb.com Page 26: ‘Sunset on the Congo River’. Photo by: UN Photo by Marie Frechon - https://www.flickr.com/photos/un_photo/ Page 30: ‘Making the forest home. Mbendjele women building a camp in the equatorial forest of northern Congo’. Photo by: Nicolas Lewis Page 33: ‘Sunset at Pinnacle nature reserve, Hawker, ACT, Australia’. Photo by: Andrew Trousdell, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 http://www.jirrupin.com Page 34: ‘Ingoyo pegs large marantacae leaves to cover her young family’s mongulu ‘. Photo by: Nicolas Lewis Page 40: ‘Gibeon, Hardap, Namibia’. Photo by: Mario Micklisch, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ fvfavo/ Page 45: ‘Macro shot of bees swarming on a honeycomb’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/ViktorCap Page 51: ‘Grazing rhino, Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/3dan3 Page 53: ‘Explosive breach, Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/anarchyjim Page 54: ‘Golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia)’. Photo by: Bart van Dorp, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - http://www. bartvandorp.com Page 56: ‘Zebras (Equus quagga)’. Photo by: Zana Briski Page 63: ‘Mantis (Mantodea)’. Photo by: Zana Briski Page 70: ‘Mata Atlântica, Serra da Gandarela, Atlantic forest’. Photo by: Frederico Pereira, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/fredecologia/ Page 71: ‘Maned three-toed Sloth (Bradypus torquatus)’. Photo by: Kevin Schafer - kevinschafer.com Page 73: ‘False gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii)’. Photo by: Victoria, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/tooiake/ Page 74: ‘Morning mist shrouds the lowland dipterocarp forests of Danum Valley, Sabah, Borneo’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http:// kalyanvarma.net Page 75: ‘Spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa)’. Photo by: James Harding

Page 77: ‘Mohol bushbaby (Galago moholi)’. Photo by: Joachim S. Müller, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/joachim_s_mueller/ Page 78: ‘The Miombo woodlands’. Photo by: Jeff Walker for Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/cifor/ Page 79: ‘Golden-rumped sengi (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus)’. Photo by: Galen Rathbun © California Academy of Sciences Page 81: ‘Kribi and Akom II Forest’. Photo by: Rainforest Foundation UK Page 82: ‘Congo River’. Photo by: Ollivier Girard for Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/cifor/ Page 83: ‘African elephant (Loxodonta Africana)’. Photo by: George Grubb - http://georgegrubb.com Page 86: ‘Jogbahn Clan Chairlady’. Photo by: Jason Taylor for Friends of the Earth - http://www.thesourceimage.com Page 87: ‘Cestos Senkwhen forest’. Photo by: Dr. Rob Small, Fauna and Flora International Page 88: ‘Libearian tree hole crab (Globonautes macropus)’. Photo by: Neil Cumberlidge Page 89: ‘Pygmy hippo (Choeropsis liberiensis)’. Photo by: Hamish Irvine, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/topaz-mcnumpty/ Page 92: ‘Myanmar’. Photo by: Veronique Dumont Page 92: ‘Birmanie’. Photo by: Veronique Dumont Page 93: ‘Serenity on the River, Ngo Dong River, Vietnam’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/gizzyinvn08 Page 94: ‘Mekong giant catfish (Pangasius mekongensis)’. Photo by: Zeb Hogan Page 95: ‘Saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis)’. Illustration by: Jennie Webber - http://www.jenniewebber.com Page 97: ‘Madagascar rock’. Photo by: Mariusz Kluzniak, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/39997856@N03/ Page 98: ‘Allée des Baobabs (Adansonia) near Morondava, Madagascar’. Photo by: Frank Vassen, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/42244964@N03/ Page 99: ‘Artisanal fisherman, Madagascar’. Photo by: Blue Ventures Page 100: ‘Silky sifaka (Propithecus candidus)’. Photo by: Jeff Gibbs http://www.jeffgibbs.org Page 101: ‘Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata) at Lake Bemanevika ‘. Photo by: Iñaki Relanzon - www.photosfera.com Page 104: ‘Utilia spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura bakeri)’. Photo by: Gonçalo M. Rosa Page 105: ‘Rabb’s fringe-limbed treefrog (Ecnomiohyla rabborum) ‘. Photo by: Brian Gratwicke, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/briangratwicke/ Page 108: ‘Hand painting, Karawari Caves, Papua New Guinea’. Photo by: Nancy Sullivan

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Page 109: ‘Morning Reflections, Manus Island’. Photo by: Hadi Zaher, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/11331051@N00/ Page 110: ‘Eastern long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bartoni)’. Illustration by: Jennie Webber - http://www.jenniewebber.com Page 111: ‘Bakau mata buaya (Bruguiera hainesii)’. Photo by: Ria Tan - www.wildsingapore.com - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ wildsingapore/ Page 113: ‘El Nido, Philippines’. Photo by: Andy Ener, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ andyenero/ Page 114: ‘Dunoy Lake, Philippines’. Photo by: Merlijn Van Weerd, Mabuwaya Foundation Page 115: ‘Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) hatching Dunoy Lake’. Photo by: Merlijn Van Weerd, Mabuwaya Foundation Page 117: ‘Mount Bromo, Java, Indonesia’. Photo by: Sara Marlowe, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ saramarlowe/ Page 118: ‘Borobudur, Java (RIA)’. Photo by: Marc-André Jung, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ maggi_homelinux_org/ Page 119: ‘The people of the forest, Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/purea Page 122: ‘Inca Trail Day 3 to Machu Picchu’. Photo by: Karlnorling, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ karlnorling/ Page 123: ‘Take-off, Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus)’. Photo by: Gerben van Heijningen, Flickr is licensed under CC BYNC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/breenjones/ Page 125: ‘Elephant (Elephas maximus) seen at Topslip, Western Ghats’. Photo by: Thangaraj Kumaravel, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/kumaravel/ Page 126: ‘A perennial steam in the Western Ghats’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http://kalyanvarma.net Page 127: ‘Shola-grasslands ecosystem of Western Ghats’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http://kalyanvarma.net Page 128: ‘Malabar pufferfish (Carinotetraodon travancoricus)’. Photo by: Rajeev Raghavan Page 129: ‘Purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis)’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http://kalyanvarma.net Page 136: ‘Rio Paraná’. Photo by: Rodrigo Soldon, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/soldon/ Page 137: ‘Andean poison dart frog, (Ranitomeya opisthomelas), on a leaf in the Choco rainforests of Colombia’. Photo by: Robin Moore http://www.robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 138: ‘Pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis)’. Photo by: Michel Roggo - http://www.roggo.ch Page 139: ‘Klugi’s threadtail (Protoneura klugi)’. Photo by: Dr. Rosser W. Garrison Page 142: ‘Keerqin Nature Reserve’. Photo by: Jim Harris, International Crane Foundation Page 143: ‘Coto at the water, Tiger (Panthera tigris)’. Photo by: Emmanuel Keller, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https:// www.flickr.com/photos/tambako/ Page 146: ‘Oreochromis karongae’. Photo by: Prof GF Turner Page 147: ‘Grey Crowned-crane (Balearica regulorum)’. Photo by: Gemma Goodman

Page 149: ‘Swamp Scene’. Photo by: Yortw, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/yortw/ Page 150: ‘Reelfoot Lake in Autumn’. Photo by: Brent Moore, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ brent_nashville/ Page 151: ‘Wisconsin River Mississippi River Sunrise 35,000 Feet’. Photo by: Jim Brekke, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https:// www.flickr.com/photos/jimbrekke/ Page 152: ‘Green watersnake (Nerodia floridana)’. Photo by: Vince LoPresti, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/vlopresti1964/ Page 153: ‘Hardin crayfish (Orconectes wrighti)’. Photo by: Chris A. Taylor, Ph.D. Page 156: ‘Nile River’. Photo by: Teseum, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/teseum/ Page 157: ‘Nile lechwe (Kobus megaceros)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto. com/jiwhite Page 160: ‘Leopard (Panthera pardus)’. Photo by: Jim Frost, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/40112784@N03/ Page 161: ‘Botswana’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic - http://www.mattiasklum.com Page 162: ‘Victoria Falls, border of Zambia and Zimbabwe’. Photo by: Jessica Sweidan Page 163: ‘African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)’. Photo by: Kim Navarre, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/thegirlsny/ Page 166: ‘Pantanal, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil’. Photo by: Michel Roggo - http://www.roggo.ch Page 166: ‘Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare)’. Photo by: Michel Roggo - http://www.roggo.ch Page 167: ‘Cool tapir! Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris)’. Photo by: Emmanuel Keller, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https:// www.flickr.com/photos/tambako/ Page 169: ‘Yangtze River, Three Gorges area in China’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/eglinston Page 170: ‘Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis)’. Photo by: William Warby, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/wwarby/ Page 171: ‘Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius)’. Photo by: Dr Qiwei Wei Page 177: ‘Lake Edward, Uganda’. Photo by: George Grubb - http:// georgegrubb.com Page 178: ‘Sunset’. Photo by: Cara G. Dana - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/33888451@N07/ Page 179: ‘Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), Uganda’. Photo by: Gemma Goodman Page 180: ‘Nyaragongo crater, Democratic Republic of Congo, ’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic - https:// www.mattiasklum.com Page 181: ‘Mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei) in Bwindi Park, Uganda’. Photo by: George Grubb - http://georgegrubb.com Page 184: ‘São Tomé grosbeak (Neospiza concolor), São Tomé Rainforest’. Photo by: Martim Pinheiro de Melo, Birdlife International Page 185: ‘Bioko_2010_0397’. Photo by: Nathanael Stanek, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/16994342@N05/

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Page 188: ‘Morning Tarangire Hill, Tarangire’. Photo by: Walter Jubber Page 189: ‘Usambara Mountains, Tanzania’. Photo by: Joachim Huber, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/sara_joachim/ Page 190: ‘Sagalla caecilian (Boulengerula niedeni)’. Photo by: Dr John Measey Page 191: ‘Long-billed tailorbird (Artisornis moreaui)’. Photo by: Nik Borrow - http://www.nikborrow.com Page 193: ‘The Ethiopian Highlands –Simien Mountains’. Photo by: Kalyan Varma - http://kalyanvarma.net Page 194: ‘Rare wildlife shot of a Walia ibex (Capra walie), Simien Mountains’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/guenterguni Page 195: ‘Simien wolf (Canis simensis), Ethiopian Highlands’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/AlbertoLoyo Page 198: ‘Annapurna’. Photo by: Veronique Dumont Page 199: ‘Tenzing Chorten, Everest Trail’. Photo by: Farhad Bengalli, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/21105084@N00/ Page 200: ‘White bellied heron (Ardea insignis)’. Photo by: Jainy Maria Page 201: ‘Scaphophyllum speciosum’. Illustration by: Jennie Webber - http://www.jenniewebber.com Page 203: ‘Jigokudani, Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)’. Photo by: SteFou!, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/stephen-oung/ Page 204: ‘Kyoto Autumn leaves Japan’. Photo by: Malcolm Browne, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/mal-b/ Page 205: ‘Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) ‘. Illustration by: Jennie Webber - http://www.jenniewebber.com Page 208: ‘Sirocco munching manuka, Kakapo (Strigops habroptila)’. Photo by: Chris Birmingham, DOC, Flickr is licensed under CC BYNC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/docnz/ Page 209: ‘Mahoenui weta (Deinacrida mahoenui)’. Photo by: Dr Paddy Ryan Page 212: ‘Patagonia’. Photo by: Didier Watelet Page 213: ‘Mountain - Torres del Paine’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic - http://www.mattiasklum.com Page 214: ‘Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)’. Photo by: Simon Littlejohn Page 215: ‘Two Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) close-up in the Falkland Islands’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/Marc-Andre_ LeTourneux Page 215: ‘Patagonia’. Photo by: Didier Watelet Page 218: ‘Giant redwood trees (Sequoiadendron giganteum), sequoia national park,california,usa’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/ hotshotsworldwide Page 219: ‘Southern mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa)’. Photo by: USFWS/Rick Kuyper, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfws_pacificsw/ Page 222: ‘Tibet’. Photo by: Veronique Dumont Page 223: ‘Ladakh’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic http://www.mattiasklum.com Page 224: ‘Yaks (Bos spp.) in Langtang valley with Langshisha Ri moutain - Nepal ‘. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/DanielPrudek Page 225: ‘Plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae)’. Photo by: Ventdroit,

Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/misoponia/ Page 232: ‘The Black Sea’. Photo by: NASA/GSFC/MODIS, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/ Page 234: ‘3akat (Sunset) ‘. Photo by: Fr Maxim Massalitin, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/people/ massalim/ Page 235: ‘Beluga sturgeon (Huso huso)’. Photo by: Tony Gilbert Page 238: ‘Sargasso weed (Sargassum spp.)’. Photo by: Urban Gazelle, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/urbangazelle/ Page 239: ‘Luminescent Sargasso weed (Sargassum spp.)’. Photo by: Sean Nash, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/nashworld/ Page 240: ‘Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)’. Photo by: Tchami, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/tchami/ Page 241: ‘European eel (Anguilla Anguilla)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto. com/MikeLane45 Page 248: ‘Chromodoris Strigata’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/ UnderwaterPhoto Page 249: ‘Lionfish (Pterois spp.)’. Photo by: Michael Aston, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ michaelaston/ Page 249: ‘Lively reef’. Photo by: One Reef Page 250: ‘Elegance coral (Catalaphyllia jardinei)’. Photo by: Dr Tim Wijgerde Page 251: ‘Whale shark (Rhincodon typus)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto. com/crisod Page 253: ‘Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) off Long Beach, California’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/roclwyr Page 254: ‘Rio Aguajitas, Costa Rica’. Photo by: Trish Hartmann, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/21078769@N00/ Page 255: ‘Marine otter (Lontra felina)’. Photo by: Sakura, Wikicommons is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 Page 257: ‘Moorea’. Photo by: vgm8383, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/vgm8383/ Page 258: ‘Lagoon’. Photo by: vgm8383, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/vgm8383/ Page 259: ‘Polynesian ground dove (Gallicolumba erythroptera)’. Photo by: Tun-Pin Ong Page 262: ‘Cuadro de Galapagos’. Photo by: Alejandro Villanueva, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/villanueva_alejandro/ Page 263: ‘Galapagos pink land iguana (Conolophus marthae)’. Photo by: Gabriele Gentile Page 266: ‘Under the sea’. Photo by: Phil, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/sbszine/ Page 267: ‘Aerial view of Hardy Reef’. Photo by: Greens MPs, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ greensmps/ Page 268: ‘Largetooth sawfish (Pristis pristis)’. Photo by: Forrest Samuels, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/fsamuels/ Page 269: ‘Mother and calf bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/ShaneGross

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Page 272: ‘River’. Photo by: J. Amezqua, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/jamezqua/ Page 273: ‘Hispaniola Panorama (NASA, International Space Station Science, 08/19/08)’. Photo by: NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/nasamarshall/ Page 274: ‘Spiny giant frog (Eleutherodactylus nortoni)’. Photo by: Robin Moore - http://www.robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 275: ‘Jamaica’. Photo by: Didier Watelet Page 278: ‘Maldive anemonefishes (Amphiprion nigripes)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/Rostislav Ageev Page 279: ‘Paradise — Explore’. Photo by: Ethan Crowley, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ ethancrowley/ Page 279: ‘Maldives’. Photo by: Nic Adler, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/whoshotya/ Page 280: ‘Dark clouds over Paje Beach, Zanzibar’. Photo by: Robin Moore - http://www.robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 281: ‘Seychelles paradise-flycatcher (Terpsiphone corvina)’. Photo by: Jean-Christophe Vié Page 284: ‘Boatman 3’. Photo by: Martin Keeley, Mangrove Action Project Page 285: ‘Water Trees 2’. Photo by: Martin Keeley, Mangrove Action Project Page 286: ‘Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) kittens explore their yard at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo’. Photo by: Clyde Nishimura, Smithsonian’s National Zoo, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalzoo/ Page 287: ‘Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)’. Photo by: Josh More - www.starmind.org Page 290: ‘Calm early morning waters off the coast of Tetapare, the Solomon Islands’. Photo by: Robin Moore - http://www. robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 291: ‘Dwarf flying fox (Pteropus woodfordi)’. Photo by: Jan Haft Page 298: ‘Oryx at Sesriem (Oryx gazella)’. Photo by: Tee La Rosa, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/hobgadlng/ Page 299: ‘Namib desert’. Photo by: Aina Småvik, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ainas/ Page 300: ‘Desert rain frog (Breviceps macrops)’. Photo by: Alan Channing Page 301: ‘Golden mole (Eremitalpa granti)’. Photo by: Galen Rathbun © California Academy of Sciences Page 304: ‘Mauritania and the Richat Structure’. Photo by: Stuart Rankin, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www.flickr. com/photos/24354425@N03/ Page 305: ‘Addax (Addax nasomaculatus)’. Photo by: Judith Anenberg, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 - https://www. flickr.com/photos/59292328@N00/ Page 307: ‘Sonoran Desert’. Photo by: Jon Mided Page 308: ‘Bigelow’s Monkeyflower (Mimulus bigelovii)’. Photo by: Steve Berardi, Flickr CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/ photos/steveberardi/ Page 309: ‘Sonoran Desert’. Photo by: Jon Mided Page 310: ‘Starstruck organ pipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/tonda Page 311: ‘Female burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) and Owlet’.

Photo by: Kevin Cole, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0 - https:// www.flickr.com/photos/kevcole/ Page 319: ‘Antarctica November 2007, Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri)’. Photo by: Martha de Jong-Lantink, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ marthaenpiet/ Page 322: ‘Arctic’. Photo by: Didier Watelet Page 323: ‘Svalbard’. Photo by: Mattias Klum, National Geographic http://www.mattiasklum.com Page 324: ‘Polar bear (Ursus maritimus)’. Photo by: George Grubb http://georgegrubb.com Page 325: ‘Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)’. Photo by: Doc White Page 331: ‘Cape Town and Table Mountain’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto. com/ StuartApsey Page 333: ‘Field of gold - Sunset over De Hoop Nature Reserve’. Photo by: Reis. In. Stijl, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/instijl/ Page 333: ‘Jonkershoek glory’. Photo by: Ralph Pina, Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 - https://www.flickr.com/photos/ ralphpina/ Page 334: ‘Geometric tortoise (Psammobates geometricus)’. Photo by: Atherton de Villiers Page 335: ‘Babiana blanda ‘. Photo by: Rupert Koopman Page 338: ‘Silver trumpet tree (Tabebuia spp.)’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/raweenuttapong Page 339: ‘Jaguar (Panthera onca) has a rest against falls’. Photo by: ©iStockphoto.com/Lenorlux Page 340: ‘Kaempfer’s woodpecker (Celeus obrieni)’. Illustration by: Jennie Webber - http://www.jenniewebber.com Page 341: ‘Phyllomedusa ayeaye’. Photo by: Ana Cristina MonteiroLeonel Page 344: ‘Epirus grasshopper (Chorthippus lacustris)’. Photo by: Roy Kleukers Page 345: ‘White ferula mushroom (Pleurotus nebrodensis)’. Photo by: Giuseppe Venturella Page 350: ‘A Sumburu Moran surveys a vast landscape, Kenya’. Photo by: Robin Moore - http://www.robindmoore.com/#!/index Page 353: ‘Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), Antartica’. Photo by: George Grubb - http://georgegrubb.com Page 353: ‘Fishing Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) - Kuril’skoye Ozero, Kamchatka, Russian Federation’. Photo by: Michel Roggo - http:// www.roggo.ch

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Index Abbot’s booby (Papasula abbotti) 278 Aboriginal Australians 29, 32, 35 Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns starfish) 266 Acanthurus lineatus (lined surgeonfish) 265 Acinonyx jubatus (cheetah) 304 Acipenser dabryanus (Yangtze sturgeon) 169 Acrocephalus rodericanus (Rodrigues warbler) 49 addax (Addax nasomaculatus) 304, 305 Addax nasomaculatus (addax) 304, 305 Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) 317 African desert elephant (Loxodonta africana) 297 African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 83, 159 African forest elephant (Loxodonta Africana spp. cyclotis) 83 African Great Lakes 144–7 African violets (Saintpaulia spp.) 77 African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) 163 agriculture, and human views of nature 39, 42–3 Ailuropoda melanoleuca (giant panda) 169 Ailurus fulgens (red panda) 197 Alaotra grebe (Tachybaptus rufolavatus) 101 albacore (Thunnus alalunga) 248 Albert II, Prince of Monaco 318 Albertine Rift 176–81 Alcelaphus buselaphus spp. buselaphus (bubal hartebeest) 304 Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) 277 Alligator sinensis (Chinese alligator) 169 Alopecoenas erythropterus (Polynesian ground-dove) 257, 259 Alopex lagopus (Arctic fox) 321, 322 Alouatta caraya (black howler monkey) 103 alpaca (Vicugna pacos) 50 Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) 205 Amazilia luciae (Honduran emerald hummingbird) 103 Amazon Basin 134–9 Amazonian peoples 29, 31 Amblyrhynchus cristatus (Galápagos marine iguana) 261 American black bear (Ursus americanus) 217 American manatee (Trichechus manatus) 271 amphibians, chytrid fungal disease 47, 105, 219, 332 Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) 141 Amur River Basin 140–3 Amur (Siberian) tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) 141, 142 analogism 29 Anaxyrus canorus (Yosemite Park toad) 217 Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus) 123 Anguilla anguilla (European eel) 237, 238, 241 Anguilla japonica (Japanese eel) 204 animism 29, 31–2 Annamite striped rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi) 91 Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus (hyacinth macaw) 165 Antarctic Treaty 318 Antarctica 314–15, 316–19

Anthornis melanocephala (Chatham bellbird) 207 Aptenodytes forsteri (emperor penguin) 317, 319 Apteryx spp. (kiwi) 207 Ara ararauna (blue and yellow macaw) 165 Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) 50, 294–5 Arctic 314–15, 320–5 Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) 321, 322 Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) 321 Arctic tern 323 Ardea insignis (white-bellied heron) 200 Arinaitwe, Dr Julius 185 art, connection with nature 24, 29, 31–5 Artisornis moreaui (long-billed tailorbird) 191 Asian buffalo (Bubalus arnee) 283 Asian crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) 49 Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) 125 Aston, Felicity 314–15 Athene cunicularia (burrowing owl) 311 Atlantic Forest (South America) 68–71 Avicennia marina (grey mangrove) 51 Aythya innota (Madagascar pochard) 98, 101 Babiana blanda 335 baiji (Yangtze river dolphin) (Lipotes vexillifer) 170 Baillie, Prof. Jonathan 174–5 Balaenoptera musculus (blue whale) 253 Balearica regulorum (grey crowned-crane) 147 bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) 271 beluga sturgeon (Huso huso) 235 Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) 125, 198, 283, 284 Bermuda petrel (Pterodroma cahow) 49 Berry, Thomas 42 big-leafed mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) 103 bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) 217 biodiversity conservation reasons for 22–3 Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN) 18–19, 49, 52, 61 Biodiversity Hotspots (Conservation International) 61, 73, 78, 91–2, 103, 117, 121, 125, 187, 257, 271 Biophilia 20–57 bringing species back from the brink 48–57 Chagos Archipelago 244–5 definition 16 human alienation from the rest of life 36–44 human capacity for ecological destruction 36–44 human connection with nature 16, 24–35, 43–4, 351–2 human orientations to the environment 24–35 impact of a single extinction 46–7 indigenous traditions 24–35 reasons for biodiversity conservation 22–3 the message from our ancestors 351–2

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the need to connect with nature 43–4 values of the conservation movement 52, 54–7 bird migration routes 103, 141, 145, 149, 155, 231, 307, 323 Birdlife International 49 Endemic Bird Areas 61, 85, 91, 145, 187, 193, 207 Important Bird Areas 145, 155 Bismarck Archipelago 106–11 black-bellied pangolin (Uromanis tetradactyla) 85 black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) 103 black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) 297 black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis bicornis) 297 Black Sea 230–5 Blastocerus dichotomus (marsh deer) 165 blue and yellow macaw (Ara ararauna) 165 blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) 253 bobcat (Lynx rufus) 217 Bolbometopon muricatum (green humphead parrotfish) 265 Bonin flying fox (Pteropus pselaphon) 203 bonobo (Pan paniscus) 81 Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) 119 Borneo 72–5 Bos mutus (wild yak) 221 Bostrychia bocagei (dwarf olive ibis) 183 boto (pink river dolphin) (Inia geoffrensis) 138 Boulengerula niedeni (Sagalla caecilian) 190 Brachyscome muelleri (Corunna daisy) 51 Bradypus torquatus (maned three-toed sloth) 71 Branta ruficollis (red-breasted goose) 231 Breviceps macrops (desert rain frog) 300 brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) 297 Bruguiera hainesii (‘eye of the crocodile’ mangrove) 111 bubal hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus buselaphus) 304 Bubalus arnee (Asian buffalo) 283 buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare) 310 Bufo kassasii (Nile delta toad) 155 burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) 311 bush babies (Galagoides spp.) 77 bushmeat trade 86, 181 Cacatua haematuropygia (Philippine cockatoo) 113 California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) 49 Cameroon Highlands 182–5 Canis simensis (Ethiopian wolf) 195 Cape Floristic Region 328–29, 330–5 Capra walie (Walia ibex) 193 capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) 165 Carinotetraodon travancoricus (Malabar or dwarf pufferfish) 128 Catalaphyllia jardinei (elegance coral) 250 Celeus obrieni (Kaempfer’s woodpecker) 340 Cephalophus zebra (zebra duiker) 85 Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum (southern white rhinoceros) 50 Cerrado 336–41 Chagos Archipelago 244–5 chambo (Oreochromis karongae) 146 Chatham bellbird (Anthornis melanocephala) 207 Chatham Island black robin (Petroica traversi) 49, 207 cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) 304

Cheilinus undulatus (humphead wrasse) 266 Chelonia mydas (green turtle) 253 Chewong forest people, Malaysia 29 chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) 81, 86 chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) 86 Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) 169 Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius) 169, 171 Chinese three-striped box turtle (Cuora trifasciata) 91 Chinese traditional medicine 118, 141, 142, 268 Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis) 169 chiru (Tibetan antelope) (Pantholops hodgsonii) 221 Choeropsis liberiensis (pygmy hippopotamus) 89 Choeropsis liberiensis heslopi (pygmy hippopotamus) 89 Christianity, notion of a human Fall 39 Chrothippus lacustris (Epirus grasshopper) 344 Chrysocyon brachyurus (maned wolf) 337 chytridiomycosis in amphibians 47, 105, 219, 332 climate change effects 29, 38, 42, 62, 82, 135, 141, 145, 156, 174–5, 178, 194, 198, 213, 223, 228–9, 237, 241, 248, 250, 258, 266, 272, 278, 318–19, 322–5 clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) 197 Coastal Forests of East Africa 76–9 coastal marine environments 242–91 Coral Triangle 246–51 Eastern Tropical Pacific 252–5 French Polynesia 256–9 Galápagos 260–3 Great Barrier Reef 264–9 Greater Antilles 270–5 Indian Ocean Islands 276–81 Solomon Islands 288–91 Sundarban Mangroves 282–7 Vanuatu 288–91 common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) 269 common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) 89, 145 Congo Basin, forests 80–3 Conolophus marthae (Galápagos pink land iguana) 263 conservation action, bringing species back from the brink 48–57 conservation investment evidence for positive impacts 48–57 levels of 54–5 conservation movement, intrinsic vs utilitarian values 52, 54–7 Copsychus sechellarum (Seychelles magpie-robin) 278 coral bleaching 272 coral reefs 244–51 Great Barriet Reef 264–9 Coral Triangle 246–51 see also Philippines; Solomon Islands; Vanuatu Corunna daisy (Brachyscome muelleri) 51 Cottus cognatus (slimy sculpin) 51 Crocodylus mindorensis (Philippine crocodile) 114, 115 crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) 266 Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese cedar) 203 Ctenosaura bakeri (Utila spiny-tailed iguana) 104 Cuora trifasciata (Chinese three-striped box turtle) 91 cycad (Encephalartos whitelockii) 177

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dama gazelle (Nanger dama) 304 Darwall, Dr William 132–3 Darwin, Charles 74, 261 Darwin’s finches 261 defaunation 4 Deinacrida mahoenui (Mahoenui giant weta) 209 Dendrolagus goodfellowi (Goodfellow’s tree kangaroo) 107 Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback turtle) 253 Descola, Philippe 29 desert rain frog (Breviceps macrops) 300 deserts 292–311 Namib Desert 296–301 Sahara Desert 302–5 Sonoran Desert 306–11 Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Sumatran rhinoceros) 117 Diceros bicornis (black rhinoceros) 297 Diceros bicornis bicornis (black rhinoceros) 297 Dinornis spp. (moa) 207 Diomedea exulans (wandering albatross) 317 dwarf flying fox (Pteropus woodfordi) 289, 291 dwarf olive ibis (Bostrychia bocagei) 183 dwarf pufferfish (Carinotetraodon travancoricus) 128 Earle, Dr Sylvia A. 232–3 East Africa, Coastal Forests 76–9 Eastern Arc Mountains, Africa 186–91 eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei) 181 eastern long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bartoni) 110 eastern lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) 177 Eastern Tropical Pacific 252–5 Ecnomiohyla rabborum (Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog) 105 ecocide, human capacity for 36–44 Ecoregions (WWF) 61, 187 ecosystem engineer species 224 ecosystems impact of species loss 61–3 range of threats to 62–3 elegance coral (Catalaphyllia jardinei) 250 elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus) 79 Elephas maximus (Asian elephant) 125 Eleutherodactylus nortoni (spiny giant frog) 274 emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) 317, 319 Encephalartos whitelockii (cycad) 177 Endemic Bird Areas (Birdlife International) 61, 85, 91, 145, 187, 193, 207 Engraulis encrasicolus (European anchovy) 234 environment, human orientations to 24–35 Epirus grasshopper (Chrothippus lacustris) 344 Equus kiang (Tibetan wild ass, kiang) 221 Equus zebra (mountain zebra) 297 Eremitalpa granti (Grant’s golden mole) 301 Eretmochelys imbricata (hawskbill turtle) 240 Ethiopian Highlands 192–5 Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) 195 Euphausia superba (krill) 318 Euphractus sexcinctus (yellow armadillo) 165 European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) 234

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 237, 238, 241 European mudminnow (Umbra krameri) 51 European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 343 Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered Species (EDGE) 250 extinction crisis 22–3 extinctions 2–3, 4 bringing species back from the brink 48–57 growing extinction risks 49 identifying threatened species 47 vomiting frog 46–7 ‘eye of the crocodile’ mangrove (Bruguiera hainesii) 111 Falco punctatus (Mauritius kestrel) 49, 277 Falkland Islands 211 false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) 73 Felis catus (feral cat) 263 fennec fox (Vulpes zerda) 303 feral cat (Felis catus) 263 finless porpoise (Neophocaena asiaorientalis) 169, 170 fish migration routes 253 fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) 283, 286 flightless birds 207 forests 64–129 Atlantic Forest (South America) 68–71 Bismarck Archipelago 106–11 Borneo 72–5 Coastal Forests of East Africa 76–9 Congo Basin 80–3 Guinean Forests of West Africa 84–9 Indo-Burma 90–5 Java 116–19 Madagascar 96–101 Mesoamerica 102–5 New Guinea 106–11 Philippines 112–15 Sumatra 116–19 Tropical Andes 120–3 Western Ghats 124–9 French Polynesia 256–9 frog (Phyllomedusa ayeaye) 341 Fromm, Erich 16 Galagoides spp. (galagos or bush babies) 77 galagos (Galagoides spp.) 77 Galápagos 260–3 Galápagos marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) 261 Galápagos Marine Reserve 254, 261–2 Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) 261 Galápagos pink land iguana (Conolophus marthae) 263 Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) 283 Garden of Eden, notion of a human Fall 39 Gardiner’s Seychelles frog (Sechellophryne gardineri) 277 gastric-brooding frog 46–7 Gatan-Balbas, Marites 114 gemsbok (Oryx gazella) 297, 298 Geochelone gigantea (Aldabra giant tortoise) 277 geometric tortoise (Psammobates geometricus) 334

363

giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) 337 giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) 169 giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) 287 giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) 217, 218 global warming see climate change Globonautes macropus (Liberian tree hole crab) 89 golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) 52, 54, 69 golden-rumped sengi (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus) 79 Golding, William 42 Gollock, Dr Matthew 238 Goodfellow’s tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus goodfellowi) 107 Goodman, Gemma 60–3 Gorilla beringei (eastern gorilla) 181 Gorilla beringei beringei (mountain gorilla) 177, 181 Gorilla beringei graueri (eastern lowland gorilla) 177 Gorilla spp. (gorillas) 81 Grant’s golden mole (Eremitalpa granti) 301 Grasslands and Scrublands 326–45 Cape Floristic Region 328–9, 330–5 Cerrado 336–41 Mediterranean Basin 342–5 grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) 51 Great Barrier Reef 7, 264–9 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) 265–6 Great Rift Lakes 144–7, 177 Great Rift Valley 145 Greater Antilles 270–5 greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) 49–50 green algae (Spirulina platensis) 145 green humphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) 265 green turtle (Chelonia mydas) 253 grey crowned-crane (Balearica regulorum) 147 grey-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix cinerea) 91 Grus americana (whooping crane) 49 Guajajara, Sônia 137 guanaco (Lama guanicoe) 211 Guinean Forests of West Africa 84–9 Gulf of Guinea Islands 182–5 Gymnogyps californianus (California condor) 49 Haliaeetus sanfordi (Solomon fish-eagle) 289 Hardin crayfish (Orconectes wrighti) 153 Harris, Dr Alasdair 278 hawskbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) 240 Helarctos malayanus (sun bear) 118 Heleophryne rosei (Table Mountain ghost frog) 331 Heosemys spinosa (spiny turtle) 75 Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni) 51 Heyerdahl, Thor 42 Hilton-Taylor, Craig 332 Himalayan newt (Tylototriton verrucosus) 197 Himalayas 196–201 Hinduism, ages of the world 44 Hippocamelus bisulcus (Patagonian huemul) 214 Hippopotamus amphibius (common hippo) 88, 145 Honduran emerald hummingbird (Amazilia luciae) 103 honey bee colony collapse disorder 37–8

house rat (Rattus rattus) 263 Hucho taimen (Siberian taimen) 141 human culture, alienation from the rest of life 36–44 human–wildlife conflicts 127, 163, 286 humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) 50, 237 humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) 266 hunter-gatherer peoples 29, 31–5, 39, 81, 107 Hurricane Katrina 151 Huso dauricus (Kaluga sturgeon) 141 Huso huso (beluga sturgeon) 235 hyacinth macaw (Anodorhyncus hyacinthinus) 165 Hyaena brunnea (brown hyena) 297 Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (capybara) 165 Hydropotes inermis (Chinese water deer) 169 Hyperolius thomensis (São Tomé giant treefrog) 183 Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) 343 Important Bird Areas (Birdlife International) 145, 155 Indian Ocean islands 276–81 indigenous peoples’ rights 135–7 Indo-Burma 90–5 Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot 91–2 industrial revolution 39, 42 Inia geoffrensis (boto, pink river dolphin) 138 inland waters 130–71 Amazon Basin 134–9 Amur River Basin 140–3 Great Rift Lakes 144–7 Mississippi River Basin 148–53 Nile 154–7 Okavango-Zambezi 158–63 Pantanal 164–7 Yangtse River 168–71 Zambezi River 158–63 International Union for Conservation of Nature see IUCN Inuit peoples 31, 321 invasive/introduced species 62, 145, 160, 205, 207–9, 217, 234, 237, 258, 259, 262, 263, 272, 278, 287, 318, 332 Inzenga, Giuseppe 345 Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) 283 island gigantism 183 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Key Biodiversity Areas 61 Red List of Threatened Species 18–19, 49, 52, 61 Species Survival Commission 50–1 ivory trade 83 jaguar (Panthera onca) 165, 337 Japan 202–5 Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) 203 Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) 204 Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) 203 Japanese pine sawyer beetle (Monochamus alternatus) 204 Java 116–19 Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) 51, 117, 283 Jefferson, Thomas 57 Jung, Carl 16

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Kaempfer’s woodpecker (Celeus obrieni) 340 kakapo (Strigops habroptila) 208 Kaluga sturgeon (Huso dauricus) 141 Kariba tilapia (Oreochromis mortimeri) 160 Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack tuna) 248 kea (Nestor notabilis) 207 Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) 50 Key Biodiversity Areas (IUCN) 61 keystone species 224 kiang (Tibetan wild ass) (Equus kiang) 221 king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) 118 king rat (Uromys rex) 289 Kingsnorth, Paul 36–44 kiwi (Apteryx sp.) 207 Klugi’s threadtail (Protoneura klugi) 139 Klum, Mattias 275 Knight, S. 32 Kobus megaceros (Nile lechwe) 157 Koldewey, Dr Heather 244–5 krill (Euphausia superba) 318 Lackman, Dr Isabelle 74 lakes see inland waters Lama guanicoe (guanaco) 211 Lanius newtoni (São Tomé fiscal) 183 large blue butterfly (Phengaris arion) 51 largetooth sawfish (Pristis pristis) 265, 268 leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis) 91 leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) 253 Lemmus lemmus (Norway lemming) 321 Leontopithecus rosalia (golden lion tamarin) 52, 54, 69 Lepidochelys kempii (Kemp’s ridley sea turtle) 50 Lepus arcticus (Arctic hare) 321 Lewis, Dr Jerome 24–35 Liberian tree hole crab (Globonautes macropus) 89 lined surgeonfish (Acanthurus lineatus) 265 Lipotes vexillifer (Yangtze river dolphin or baiji) 170 Liuixalus romeri (Romer’s treefrog 51 liverwort (Scaphophyllum speciosum) 201 long-billed tailorbird (Artisornis moreaui) 191 Longmen County magnolia (Magnolia longipedunculata) 51 Lontra felina (marine otter) 255 loop-root mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) 51 lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) 167, 337 Loxodonta africana (African desert elephant) 297 Loxodonta africana (African elephant) 83, 159 Loxodonta africana cyclotis (African forest elephant) 83 Lutra maculicollis (spotted-necked otter) 145 Lycaon pictus (African wild dog) 163 Lynx pardinus (Iberian lynx) 343 Lynx rufus (bobcat) 217 Macaca fuscata (Japanese macaque) 203 Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn) 287 Madagascar 96–101 Madagascar pochard (Aythya innota) 98, 101

Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae) 97 Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) 211 Magnolia longipedunculata (Longmen County magnolia) 51 Mahoenui giant weta (Deinacrida mahoenui) 209 Malabar pufferfish (Carinotetraodon travancoricus) 128 maned three-toed sloth (Bradypus torquatus) 71 maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) 337 Manis javanica (Sunda pangolin) 118 marine mammal migration routes 237, 253 marine otter (Lontra felina) 255 marine reserves 261–2, 265–6 marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) 165 Marton-Lefèvre, Julia 18–19 Mata Atlântica see Atlantic Forest Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus) 49, 277 Mbendjele Pygmies 25, 28, 29, 31–2 Mediterranean Basin 342–5 Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) 50, 237 Megophrys ligayae (Palawan horned frog) 113 Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) 94 Melanophryniscus admirabilis (red-belly toad) 69 Mellisuga helenae (bee hummingbird) 271 Mesoamerica 102–5 Microcebus berthae (Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur) 97 Miller, Dr Laura 351–2 millipede (Seychelleptus seychellarum) 277 Mirounga leonina (southern elephant seal) 211 Mississippi crayfish (Orconectes mississippiensis) 149 Mississippi green watersnake (Nerodia cyclopion) 152 Mississippi River Basin 148–53 Mnemiopsis leidyi (wart comb jelly) 234 moa (Dinornis spp.) 207 monadism 29 Monbiot, George 348–9 Monochamus alternatus (Japanese pine sawyer beetle) 204 Monodon monoceros (narwhal) 325 Moore, Dr Robin 273 mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) 177, 181 mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) 193 mountain zebra (Equus zebra) 297 mountains 172–225 Albertine Rift 176–81 Cameroon Highlands 182–5 Eastern Arc Mountains, Africa 186–91 Ethiopian Highlands 192–5 Falkland Islands 211 Gulf of Guinea Islands 182–5 Himalayas 196–201 Japan 202–5 New Zealand 206–9 Patagonia 210–15 São Tomé and Príncipe 182–5 Sierra Nevada 216–19 Tibetan Plateau 220–5 Muntiacus putaoensis (leaf muntjac) 91 Muntiacus truongsonensis (muntjac) 91 Muntiacus vuquangensis (muntjac) 91 muskox (Ovibos moschatus) 321

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myxomatosis 343

Ovis canadensis (bighorn sheep) 217

Namib Desert 296–301 Nanger dama (dama gazelle )304 narwhal (Monodon monoceros) 325 Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis (purple frog) 129 natural selection, theory of 261 naturalism 29 nature human connection with 15–16, 24–35, 43–4, 351–2 human views of 4–7, 24–35 intrinsic value of 348–9 Nazca booby (Sula granti) 253 Neofelis nebulosa (clouded leopard) 197 neoliberal economic view of nature 54–5 neonicotinoid pesticides 37 Neophocaena asiaorientalis (finless porpoise) 169, 170 Neospiza concolor (São Tomé grosbeak) 183, 184 Nerodia cyclopion (Mississippi green watersnake) 152 Nesoenas mayeri (pink pigeon) 49 Nesolagus timminsi (Annamite striped rabbit) 91 Nestor notabilis (kea) 207 New Guinea 106–11 New Zealand 206–9 Nicolson, Greg 328–9 Nile 154–7 Nile delta toad (Bufo kassasii) 155 Nile lechwe (Kobus megaceros) 157 Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) 160 Nipponia nippon (Asian crested ibis) 49 northern crayfish (Orconectes virilis) 153 Norway lemming (Lemmus lemmus) 321

Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) 248 Pacific coast mahogany (Swietenia humilis) 103 Palawan horned frog (Megophrys ligayae) 113 Pan paniscus (bonobo) 81 Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) 81, 86 Pan troglodytes verus (chimpanzee) 86 Pangasianodon gigas (Mekong giant catfish) 94 Pantanal 164–7 Panthera onca (jaguar) 165, 337 Panthera pardus orientalis (Amur leopard) 141 Panthera tigris (tiger) 142–3 Panthera tigris altaica (Amur or Siberian tiger) 141, 142 Panthera tigris sumatrae (Sumatran tiger) 117 Panthera tigris tigris (Bengal tiger) 125, 198, 283, 284 Panthera uncia (snow leopard) 169, 197, 221 Pantholops hodgsonii (Tibetan antelope or chiru) 221 Papasula abbotti (Abbot’s booby) 278 Papua New Guinea see New Guinea Paretroplus menarambo (pinstripe damba) 97 Patagonia 210–15 Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) 214 Pennisetum ciliare (buffel grass) 310 Pentalagus furnessi (Amami rabbit) 205 pet and aquarium trade 118, 165, 181, 248, 334 Petroica traversi (Chatham Island black robin) 49, 207 Phengaris arion (large blue butterfly) 51 Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) 113 Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) 114, 115 Philippine pond turtle (Siebenrockiella leytensis) 113 Philippines 112–15 Phoebastria albatrus (short-tailed albatross) 49 Phoenicoparrus andinus (Andean flamingo) 123 Phyllomedusa ayeaye (frog) 341 pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri) 49 pink river dolphin (boto) (Inia geoffrensis) 138 pinstripe damba (Paretroplus menarambo) 97 Platanista gangetica (Ganges river dolphin) 283 plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) 224 Pleurotus nebrodensis (white ferula mushroom) 345 polar bear (Ursus maritimus) 321, 322, 324 Poles 312–25 Antarctica 314–15, 316–19 Arctic 314–15, 320–5 Polynesian ground-dove (Alopecoenas erythropterus) 257, 259 Polynesian tree snail (Samoana diaphana) 257 Pongo abelii (Sumatran orangutan) 117, 118, 119 Pongo pygmaeus (Bornean orangutan) 119 possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) 207 Price, Dr Mark Stanley 294–5 Priodontes maximus (giant armadillo) 337 Prionailurus viverrinus (fishing cat) 283, 286 Pristis pristis (largetooth sawfish) 265, 268 Propithecus candidus (silky sifaka) 100 Protoneura klugi (Klugi’s threadtail) 139 Psammobates geometricus (geometric tortoise) 334

Ochotona curzoniae (plateau pika) 224 Odobenus rosmarus (walrus) 321 okapi (Okapia johnstoni) 81 Okapia johnstoni (okapi) 81 Okavango-Zambezi 158–63 open oceans 226–41 Black Sea 230–5 Sargasso Sea 236–41 Ophiophagus hannah (king cobra) 118 Orcaella brevirostris (Irrawaddy dolphin) 283 Orconectes mississippiensis (Mississippi crayfish) 149 Orconectes virilis (virile or northern crayfish) 153 Orconectes wrighti (Hardin crayfish) 153 Oreochromis karongae (chambo) 146 Oreochromis mortimeri (Kariba tilapia) 160 Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) 160 organ pipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi) 310 Ornithoptera alexandrae (Queen Alexandra’s birdwing butterfly) 107 Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) 343 Oryx dammah (scimitar-horned oryx) 304 Oryx gazella (gemsbok) 297, 298 Oryx leucoryx (Arabian oryx) 50, 294–5 Otus insularis (Seychelles scops-owl) 278 Ovibos moschatus (muskox) 321

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Psephurus gladius (Chinese paddlefish) 169, 171 Pseudoryx nghetinhensis (saola) 91, 95 Pterodroma cahow (Bermuda petrel) 49 Pteropus pselaphon (Bonin flying fox) 203 Pteropus woodfordi (dwarf flying fox) 289, 291 purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) 129 Pusa hispida (ringed seal) 322 Pygathrix cinerea (grey-shanked douc langur) 91 pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis) 89 pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis heslopi) 89 Pygmy peoples 25, 28, 29, 31–2, 81 Pygoscelis adeliae (Adélie penguin) 317 Quarto, Alfredo 284 Queen Alexandra’s birdwing butterfly (Ornithoptera alexandrae) 107 queen conch (Strombus gigas) 272 Queen Noor of Jordan 309 Quinn, Daniel 39 Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla rabborum) 105 Ramsar sites 61, 103, 145, 159, 177, 231 Rana muscosa (southern mountain yellow-legged frog) 219 Randrianarimangason, Floriot 98 Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) 321 Rapana thomasiana (veined rapa whelk) 234 Rappaport, Roy 35 Rattus rattus (house rat) 263 red-belly toad (Melanophryniscus admirabilis) 69 red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) 231 red fox (Vulpes vulpes) 322 Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN) 18–19, 49, 52, 61 red panda (Ailurus fulgens) 197 red-veined dropwing dragonfly (Trithemis arteriosa) 145 Rees, Martin 35 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) 321 religion, and human views of nature 25, 28 Rhinoceros sondaicus (Javan rhinoceros) 51, 117, 283 Rhinoceros unicornis (greater one-horned rhino) 49–50 Rhinocodon typus (whale shark) 247, 251 Rhizophora mucronata (loop-root mangrove) 51 Rhynchocyon chrysopygus (golden-rumped sengi or elephant shrew) 79 ringed seal (Pusa hispida) 322 rivers see inland waters Robobees project 38, 42–3 Rodrigues warbler (Acrocephalus rodericanus) 49 Rogers, Prof. Alex 228–9 Romer’s treefrog (Liuixalus romeri) 51 Sagalla caecilian (Boulengerula niedeni) 190 Sahara Desert 302–5 Saintpaulia spp. (African violets) 77 Samdup, Thubten 225 Samoana diaphana (Polynesian tree snail) 257 Sanyanga, Rudo 162 São Tomé and Príncipe 182–5 São Tomé fiscal (Lanius newtoni) 183 São Tomé giant treefrog (Hyperolius thomensis) 183

São Tomé grosbeak (Neospiza concolor) 183, 184 saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis) 91, 95 Sargasso Sea 236–41 Sargassum seaweed 237–40 Scaphophyllum speciosum (liverwort) 201 scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) 304 scrublands see Grasslands and Scrublands sea cow (manatee) (Trichelus manatus) 271 Sechellophryne gardineri (Gardiner’s Seychelles frog) 277 Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) 217, 218 Seselphisis visenda (Seychelles predatory bush-cricket) 277 Sechelleptus seychellarum (millipede) 277 Seychelles see Indian Ocean islands Seychelles magpie-robin (Copsychus sechellarum) 278 Seychelles paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone corvina) 278, 281 Seychelles predatory bush-cricket (Seselphisis visenda) 277 Seychelles scops-owl (Otus insularis) 278 Seychelles white-eye (Zosterops modestus) 278 short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) 49 Siakor, Silas Kpanan Ayoung 66–7 Siberian (Amur) tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) 141, 142 Siberian taimen (Hucho taimen) 141 Siebenrockiella leytensis (Philippine pond turtle) 113 Sierra Nevada 216–19 silky sifaka (Propithecus candidus) 100 Simmel, Georg 31 Sir David’s long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus attenboroughi) 174–5 skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) 248 slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus) 51 snow leopard (Panthera uncia) 169, 197, 221 solenodon 271 Solomon fish-eagle (Haliaeetus sanfordi) 289 Solomon Islands 288–91 Sonoran Desert 306–11 South America, Atlantic Forest 68–71 southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) 211 southern mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa) 219 southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) 69 southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum) 50 Spencer, Herbert 25 Spheniscus magellanicus (Magellanic penguin) 211 Spheniscus mendiculus (Galápagos penguin) 261 spiny giant frog (Eleutherodactylus nortoni) 274 spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa) 75 Spirulina platensis (green algae) 145 spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis) 145 Stenocereus thurberi (organ pipe cactus) 310 Strigops habroptila (kakapo) 208 Strombus gigas (queen conch) 272 Stuart, Dr Simon 48–57 Sula granti (Nazca booby) 253 Sumatra 116–19 Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) 117, 118, 119 Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) 117 Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) 117 sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) 118 Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) 118

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Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot 73, 117 Sundarban Mangroves 282–7 Sutherland, Prof. William 46–7 Sweidan, Adam 4–7 Sweidan, Jessica 15–16, 108 Swietenia humilis (Pacific coast mahogany) 103 Swietenia macrophylla (big-leafed mahogany) 103 Synchronicity Earth 200 Tabebuia trees 337 Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne rosei) 331 Tachybaptus rufolavatus (Alaotra grebe) 101 Tahina palm (Tahina spectabilis) 97 Tamandua tetradactyla (southern tamandua) 69 Tapirus terrestris (lowland tapir) 167, 337 Telmatobius culeus (Titicaca water frog) 121 Terpsiphone corvina (Seychelles paradise flycatcher) 278, 281 Testudo hermanni (Hermann’s tortoise) 51 Thunnus alalunga (albacore) 248 Thunnus albacares (yellowfin tuna) 237 Thunnus orientalis (Pacific bluefin tuna) 248 Tibetan antelope (chiru) (Pantholops hodgsonii) 221 Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata) 221 Tibetan Plateau 220–5 Tibetan wild ass (kiang) (Equus kiang) 221 tiger (Panthera tigris) 142–3 Titicaca water frog (Telmatobius culeus) 121 Tomistoma schlegelii (false gharial) 73 Tompkins, Douglas 22–3 Tompkins, Kris 213 totemism 29, 32, 35 Tragelaphus buxtoni (mountain nyala) 193 Trichechus manatus (West Indian or American manatee) 271 Trichosurus vulpecula (possum) 207 Trithemis arteriosa (red-veined dropwing dragonfly) 145 Tropical Andes 120–3 Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot 121 Tursiops truncatus (common bottlenose dolphin) 269 Tylototriton verrucosus (Himalayan newt) 197

Vini ultramarina (ultramarine lorikeet) 257 virile crayfish (Orconectes virilis) 153 vomiting frog 46–7 Vulpes ferrilata (Tibetan fox) 221 Vulpes vulpes (red fox) 322 Vulpes zerda (fennec fox) 303 Walia ibex (Capra walie) 193 walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) 321 wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) 317 wart comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) 234 West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) 271 Western Ghats 124–9 Westwood, Dame Vivienne 323 whale shark (Rhinocodon typus) 247, 251 whaling 318 white-bellied heron (Ardea insignis) 200 white ferula mushroom (Pleurotus nebrodensis) 345 whooping crane (Grus americana) 49 wild yak (Bos mutus) 221 Wilson, Prof. Edward O. 2–3, 16 World Heritage Sites see UNESCO Yangtze River 168–71 Yangtze river dolphin (baiji) (Lipotes vexillifer) 170 Yangtze sturgeon (Acipenser dabryanus) 169 yellow armadillo (Euphractus sexcinctus) 165 yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) 237 Yosemite Park toad (Anaxyrus canorus) 217 Zaglossus attenboroughi (Sir David’s long-beaked echidna) 174–5 Zaglossus bartoni (Eastern long-beaked echidna) 110 Zambezi River 158–63 zebra duiker (Cephalophus zebra) 85 zoonotic diseases 82, 181 Zosterops modestus (Seychelles white-eye) 278

ultramarine lorikeet (Vini ultramarina) 257 Umbra krameri (European mudminnow) 51 UNESCO Biosphere Reserve 165 World Heritage Sites 61, 125, 145, 159, 177, 261–2, 265, 277, 283, 331 Uromanis tetradactyla (black-bellied pangolin) 85 Uromys rex (king rat) 289 Ursus americanus (American black bear) 217 Ursus maritimus (polar bear) 321, 322, 324 Utila spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura bakeri) 104 values of the conservation movement 52, 54–7 Vanuatu 288–91 veined rapa whelk (Rapana thomasiana) 234 Vicugna pacos (alpaca) 50 Vicugna vicugna (vicuña) 50

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