Building Blocks of a Natural Construction System - A Passive Panelization System
By: Jessika Nelson Spring 2014
Thesis Collaborative 2013-2014 Request for Approval of Project Book
Student Signature
Department of Architecture Schoold of Architecture and Construction Management
Date
Southern Polytechnic State University Approved by: Student Full Name:
Jessika Nelson
Thesis Project Title:
Building Blocks of a Natural Construction System: Passive Panelization
Internal Advisor Dean Richard Cole
Internal Advisor Prof. Christopher Welty
The proposed project consists of the development and design of a scheme of façade panels through an approach of logistical focus in a
External Advisor
will occasionally be hybridized with one another to meet all of the needs of a potential architect. Although there will be panels varying in design and materiality, all will utilize the same framing system. These panels must encompass the successful vernacular design strategies
Thesis Coordinator(s) Signature 1
egies are from the research of Norbert Lechner’s Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. Once designed to meet the vernacular needs of the four selected regions, each pan el will demonstrate a pre-fabricated assembly and production meth od. In this process of development, these panels are to contribute to existing buildings as a new panelized system to architects all over production methods will be documented in collaborative efforts by the SPSU Industrial Engineering Technology department.
Thesis Coordinator(s) Signature 2 Department Chair:
Prof. Greg Wiles
Prof. Michael Carroll
Prof. Robert Tango
Dr. Anthony Rizzuto
Honors Com. Rep.: Dr. Mine Hashas
Honors Director: Dr. Iraj Omidvar
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Acknowledgements To God, who has given me the opportunity to live spiritually free and has blessed me with protection from mental, physical and spiritual infliction. To my nieces and nephews, who have helped me understand innocence, sacrifice and the importance of continuing my education. I say this to set the example for you, in hopes that you do not forget to follow your dreams and work hard to achieve your goals. You are the world; I encourage you to not forget the responsibilities that come with that. To my mom, who has shown me to dream big, work hard and never give up. You have shown me how important it is to not surrender too early or battle for too long. You have given me inspiration to reach for the stars. To my dad, who has shown me how to challenge myself. Your tenacity and knowledge have given me the drive to endure this rigorous subject. You have always pushed me to do my best and to stay humble in competition. To my grandparents, who have shown me the importance of education, perseverance and hard work. You have shown me what it means to stand by my word, grant forgiveness and take care of those I love most. Pawpaw and Grams, you have sacrificed so much of your time to push me to be my best, mold me into a proper woman, and show me the true meanings of life and love. I will always have your persistence in my heart. To my sister, who taught me how to best compete and to never take myself too seriously. Your laughter and love have always kept me motivated to reach my goals. Continuous reminders of our special bond have never left me and never will. To my aunts and uncles, who have always shown me what it means to be a tight-knit family. You have taught me what it means to create a goal, work hard for it, and how to celebrate after my achievements. You have influenced my life as wonderful role models, each giving a part of yourself to teach me the greater qualities in our heritage, our family spirit, and myself. To all of my in-laws, cousins, and friends, who have grown with me through the best times and the hardest times. Your encouragement and commitment to our relationships have shown me that I never want to stop growing. Your acceptance has made a mark on my heart forever. To my professors, teachers, and mentors, who have prepared me for success. Through your guidance I have bettered myself and look forward to making a difference. To Alicia, my best, who has allowed me to be passionate, pushed me to accomplish the most I ever have, and who never accepted anything less of me. You have been the driving force for me to push myself to achieve my most wanted goals. You have always stood smiling for me once I have reached even the smallest of those goals. I could never ask for someone more loving and caring to support me through such a trying time in my life, yet I look forward to all we get to share in the future. Thank you for this wonderful thing I call my life. For all of you, I am thankful.
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mass-production objective “Eradicate from your mind any hard and fast conceptions in regard to the dwelling house and look at the question from the objective and critical angle, and you will inevitably arrive at the “House-Machine,” the mass-production house, available for everyone, incomparably healthier than the old kind (and morally so, too) and beautiful...” – Le Corbusier, 1931
Healthier
Beautiful
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Table of Contents List of Figures Chapter 1: Theorem
v ...............................................................P. 1
Chapter 4: Design Outcome
..................................................P. 62
Preliminary Documentation ...................................P. 63
1.1: Design Hypothesis
...............................................P.3
Final Documentation
1.1.1: Thesis Statement
...............................................P.4
Summary and Reflections
1.2: Background Information ..............................................P.6 History of Prefabrication
......................................P.8
Prefabrication Precedents
...................................P.11
Biomimetics and Passive Strategies
.................P.20
Vernacular Architecture: Sustainable Design Strategies P.28 Existing Wall Systems ............................................P.32 1.3: Proposed Project Rationale Chapter 2: Design Analysis
..................................P.37
......................................................P.39
2.1: Climatic Testing
..................................................P. 41
Climatic Regions for Testing Constraints
.................................P. 43
....................................................P. 46
Chapter 3: Design Process 3.1 Insulation Strategies
.................................................P. 48 ..........................................P. 52
Performative Testing for Existing Wall Types 3.2 Systems Integration Panel Composition Details
.......P. 54
...........................................P. 57 .........................................P. 58
.............................................................P. 59
............................................P. 65 ...................................P. 83
Chapter 5: Industrial Engineering Technology Collaboration
P. 86
Architecture and I.E.T. Collaboration .....................P. 87 Industrial Engineering Influence on Design
.......P. 89
Implementing the Supply Chain Theory to an Architectural Panel System ..............................................................P. 93 Bibliography
.......................................................................P. 98
Appendix I: Supplemental Data
.........................................P. 100
Appendix II: Collaboration Meeting Notes
.......................P. 108
v List of Figures Figure Number 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Page Number 7 9 9 9
Section Name
Source
Prefabrication “ “ “
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
11 12 12 13
“ “ “ “
Arieff, Allison, and Bryan Burkhart. Prefab. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 2002. Print. Shiffer Design. Homes in a Box: Modern Homes from Sears Roebuck. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Pub., 1998. Print. Arieff, Allison, and Bryan Burkhart. Prefab. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 2002. Print. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Drawings and Plans of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Period (1893‐1909). New York: Dover Publications, 1983. Print. Arieff, Allison, and Bryan Burkhart. Prefab. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 2002. Print.
1.9
14
“
1.10
15
“
1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15
16 16 17 18 21
1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19
23 23 24 25
“ “ “ “ Biomimetics and Passive Strategies “ “ “ “
1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23
25 29 30 31
“ Vernacular Architecture “ Existing Wall Systems
1.24
33
“
1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1
34 35 37 37 42 44 45 50
“ “ “ “ Climatic Testing “ Constraints Design Process
http://www.archdaily.com/401528/ad‐classics‐the‐dymaxion‐house‐buckminster‐fuller/ http://www.archdaily.com/401528/ad‐classics‐the‐dymaxion‐house‐buckminster‐fuller/
Wright, Frank Lloyd. Drawings and Plans of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Period (1893‐1909). New York: Dover Publications, 1983. Print. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Drawings and Plans of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Period (1893‐1909). New York: Dover Publications, 1983. Print. Schittich, Christian. In Detail: Cost‐effective Building: Economic Concepts and Constructions. Basel [etc.: Birkhäuser, 2007. Print. “ “ “ “ http://www.asknature.org/strategy/dc2127c6d0008a6c7748e4e4474e7aa1#.U2cKb_ldW1Y http://inhabitat.com/building‐modelled‐on‐termites‐eastgate‐centre‐in‐zimbabwe/ http://www.inhabitat.com/wp‐content/uploads/termitemound_cross3.jpg Self http://www.archdaily.com/101578/moving‐homeostatic‐facade‐preventing‐solar‐heat‐gain/screen‐shot‐2011‐01‐ 05‐at‐5‐ 41‐51‐pm/ http://www.archdaily.com/101578/moving‐homeostatic‐facade‐preventing‐solar‐heat‐gain/squiggle‐facade/ Self “
Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. 3rd ed. N.p.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print. Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. 3rd ed. N.p.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print. self http://chuck‐wright.com/calculators/insulpb.html self http://archtoolbox.com/materials‐systems/thermal‐moisture‐protection/24‐rvalues.html self “ “ “
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3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 5.1 5.2 5.3
51 53 56 56 58 59 59 63 64 66 67 68 69 70 70 71 71 71 72 81 84 88 88 89
“ Insulation Strategies “ “ Systems Integration “ “ Design Outcome “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ IET Collaboration “ “
5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11
90 91 91 92 93 94 95 96
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ http://heavytimbers.com/sips.html Self Self “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ self “
Wood, Donald, and Paul R. Murphy, Jr. Contemporary Logistics: Principles of Logistics & Supply Chain Management. 10th ed. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia, 2012. Print. Padovan, Richard. Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. New York: E & FN Spon, 1999. Print. self “ “ “ “ “ “
Chapter 1: Theorem
Theorem
3
Design Hypothesis
Chapter 1.1 4
Thesis Statement Thesis Statement The thesis is a compilation of applying the Supply Chain Industrial Engineering principles to the design and fabrication of an architectural façade panel. This will provide a façade panel system which contains specific performative qualities to improve existing buildings’ extensive energy usage. An analysis and digital prototype for the incentives of long term usage of the designed panels will be proposed on a website, along with a proposed method of distribution for the final panelized product.
Abstract The proposed project consists of the development and design of a scheme of façade panels through an approach of logistical focus in a supply chain. These panels will each serve a specified function, and will occasionally be hybridized
with one another to meet all of the needs of a potential architect. Although there will be panels varying in design and materiality, all will utilize the same framing system. These panels must encompass the successful vernacular design strategies of a climatic region to be most efficient. These enforced design strategies are from the research of Norbert Lechner’s Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. Once designed to meet the vernacular needs of the four selected regions, each panel will demonstrate a pre-fabricated assembly and production method. In this process of development, these panels are to contribute to existing buildings as a new panelized system to architects all over the world. The supply chain studies as well as cost efficiency and production methods will be documented in collaborative efforts by the SPSU Industrial Engineering Technology department.
5
Transportation 27%
Building 48%
Industrial 25%
Chapter 1.2 6
Background Information
7
Figure 1.1
Chapter 1.2.1 8
History of Prefabrication Many architects have encompassed techniques of prefabrication, especially after the discoveries in efficiency during the Industrial Age. Some of the most notable architects in history understood and utilized standard building materials, the modern aesthetic and simplicity, and the reduction in construction cost to obtain better quality products. Le Corbusier researched mass-production techniques for The Machine House which would be cheaper and available to the masses, yet never lost its aesthetic value (Le Corbusier, 1931). Walter Gropius developed “Building Blocks” as a system of standardized housing. Gropius influenced many architects with his design strategies in pre-fabrication, including Harry Seidler, who would become well known for his expression of Bauhaus architectural principles (Arieff and Burkhart, p.15). Craig Ellwood explains the overall need for artful prefabricated systems due to the expanding machine technology, transportation techniques and costs associated with building construction. “The increasing cost of labor and the growing lack of craftsmen will more and more force construction into the factory
where units will be manufactured for fast job assembly” (Ellwood, Progressive Architecture, p.24). Although Ellwood pushes for the prefabrication side, one must not forget the importance of beauty and aesthetics in the final design. “Most prefab buildings today are inexpensive and functional. But they need to be more than that, and, with precious few exceptions, they aren’t” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.9). The lack of many architects’ ability to incorporate beauty and prefabrication has created a wide spread critique that prefabricated architecture is not beautiful; however, Sir Richard Rogers addresses that critique: “ When we first started seriously to think about the prefabricated home, everybody jumped to the conclusion that it would lead to monotony. I say it offers us a way of building truly imaginative and exciting [constructions.]” –Sir Richard Rogers After the established physical needs of prefabrication, there should always the architectural aesthetic necessary to create beautiful constructions. Most of what is constructed
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today using prefabrication techniques are functional and inexpensive. But to make constructions that are only functional and inexpensive is not enough, aesthetic s must be incorporated (Arieff and Burkhart, p.17). “Ideally, prefabrication combines traditional materials with contemporary aesthetics to create innovative [design] solutions.” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.36). The architect’s role spreads wide, and the use of prefabricated systems must be designed in a way that can encourage cost reduction yet compliment the site while not damaging the environment. “Neutra’s personal architectural philosophy, what he called “biorealism,”, emphasized man’s relationship to nature and seamlessly merged prefabricated building materials like steel and glass with natural aesthetic.” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.18). move to biomimcry
Alas, it is the architect that will set the foundation for an efficient overall design and has a duty to plan the assembly and details of a final design because other fields are not as specialized in design aesthetic. Once a design
document is given to producers and fabricators, they make this mistake, “they often fail to consider or acknowledge the unique factors operating when human beings and the environment are involved” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.10). The following precedents incorporate beautiful, simplistic designs and prefabricated modularized buildings.
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Chapter 1.2.1 10
prefabricated “When we first started seriously to think about the prefabricated home, everybody jumped to the conclusion that it would lead to monotony. I say it offers us a way of building truly imaginative and exciting homes.” –Sir Richard Rogers
imaginative
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Prefabrication Precedents Robert McLaughlin- American Motohomes With the harsh socio-economic conditions of the 1930s, many architects realized the need to reduce construction costs and select building materials that were readily accessible. Robert McLaughlin designed a series of prefabricated homes on wheels known as American Motohomes. These steel framed structures possessed “durability, beauty, economy, and convenience to a degree the world has never known before” according to McLaughlin (Arieff and Burkhart, p.17). However clever the idea was, the American Motohome was not widely adopted by the public and was eventually abandoned for the lack of consumer appeal.
highly successful in allowing consumers to choose a house layout from a series of catalogs (Arieff and Burkhart, p.14). The chosen catalogue house would later be shipped directly to the client’s building site, including everything needed for the construction as well as the nails and screws. McLaughlin’s early designs motivated other investments in ideas for prefabricated mobile homes which later became companies such as The Lustron Corporation and Spartan Aircraft Company (Arieff and Burkhart, p.24). Many manufacturers of pre-construction homes and mobile trailers still use many of the principles McLaughlin inspired in the 1930s.
These mobile homes were completely fabricated in New Jersey as a kit, and then were assembled on site. The entire kit included furniture, a kitchen layout and finishes. This kit of parts was greatly influenced by the company Sear, Roebuck and Co. which became
Figure 1.5 “The low cost of mobile homes attracted buyers more concerned with shelther than style, which helps explain why the higher-end versions failed to go into production… By 1960, homes on wheels would account for 15 percent of the nation’s housing dollar, amounting to fully one-quarter of all single-family homes by 1968.” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.29)
Chapter 1.2.1 12
Buckminster Fuller- Dymaxion Prototype In his search for “efficiency in living,” Buckminster Fuller designed the Dymaxion Prototype in 1929. He was among the first architects to ask “How much does your building weigh?” in hopes that architects may be challenged “to discover how efficient it [the architecture] was; to identify how many tons of material enclosed what volume.”(Foster, Zung, p.4). It was to be unique and was constructed from a kit of parts to provide a non-traditional, mobile dwelling. Fuller’s intentions were to use prefabricated parts to create a system that is practical for both the buyer and environmental resources. Fuller decided on a hexagonal shape which comprised of several wedges of occupiable space. A central mast would be secured on the ground, and
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
suspension cables and tension lines would hold up the individual wedges. While the wedges themselves were modules, Fuller also utilized repetitious building modules for the roof, walls, and flooring systems. Because the kit of parts was standardized, the Dymaxion Prototype could be easily disassembled, transported and reassembled on a different site. Unfortunately, the Dymaxion prototype was designed with the use of unavailable resources (such as metals) that became limited during World War II. After World War II, Fuller proposed a sequel to the Dymaxion Prototype for military use known as the Airbac Dymaxion Dwelling Machine. This design was also rejected because of the lack in building materials (Arieff and Burkhart, p.18).
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Frank Lloyd Wright - Usonian Houses Frank Lloyd Wright is most commonly known for his horizontality in design and attention to detail. However, Wright created an entire series of homes based on modularization and repetition better known as the Usonian Houses. “Wright had developed not a prefabricated kit of parts per se but rather a grid system that established regular, modular dimensions for the wooden houses. This grid allowed for maximum design flexibility and also unified the group of buildings. Each design, however, was unique.� (Arieff and Burkhart, p.19).
that excluded ornamentation. Wright designed built-in furniture to reduce the expenses at the time a client occupied the house. By creating modern, elegant and cost efficient designs, Wright built over 24 Usonian style houses between 1930 and 1950.
Utilizing modules and repeating architectural details reduced costs in a time that proved economically difficult for many Americans. There was little extra or unused space within each Usonian design. Wright designed with efficiency to reduce the costs further by not including attics and basements, and reusing the most simplistic details Figure 1.8
Chapter 1.2.1 14
Figure 1.9
15
KFN Systems - Two Family House, Andelsbuch, Vorarlberg, Austria 1997 completed The building system utilizes modular timber frame construction and was developed by the Kaufmanns with a group of traditional carpenters. Basic modules of 5x5x2.7 meters can be combined for up to 4 floors. Exterior is of 10 factory produced walls, which along with ceiling and floor panels are installed after the frame is complete. Panels can be chosen by the customer.
Figure 1.10
2
Chapter 1.2.1 16
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
3
17
Naill McLaughlin Architects Apartment Building in London, London The Naill McLaughlin Architects’ Apartment Building was inspired by cost-efficient design on a limited budget. Naill McLaughlin created desirable housing using a modularized façade and a commonly found iridescent film. Designed to prove both economy and beauty, the iridescent louvers face the south façade and are contained within a panel. The louvers are between two glass panes which are arranged so
the outer glass will reflect light back inside. Utilizing pre-fabricated construction elements such as paneled timber-frame walls and pre-assembled staircases saved on the interior construction as well. Most technical problems were presented by the heaviness of the large window panels despite the standardization of the panels. However, these panels were supported by additional pre-fabricated steel framing along with the timber-framing.
Figure 1.13
Chapter 1.2.1 18
Figure 1.14
19
grow “And so shall your garden grow; from the rich soil of the humanities it will rise up and unfold in beauty in the pure air of the spirit.� - Louis Sullivan, 1918
spirit
Beauty
Chapter 1.2.1 20
Biomimetics and Passive Strategies Biomimicry As an initial inspiration to reduce energy consumption in a way that does not create more harm to the environment, biomimicry research displayed helpful precedents for design. Nature utilizes repetitive patterns (much like the techniques of prefabrication) to gain heat, to properly ventilate and to collect water, especially when resources are limited. The architect’s role is spread wide, and the use of prefabricated systems must be designed in a way that can encourage cost reduction yet compliment the site while not damaging the environment. “Neutra’s personal architectural philosophy, what he called “biorealism,” emphasized man’s relationship to nature and seamlessly merged prefabricated building materials like steel and glass with natural aesthetic” (Arieff and Burkhart, p.18). Janine Benyus, a renowned expert in biomimetics, states the importance of returning to our roots of existence and learning to design from the natural world. “Organisms have figured out a way to do the amazing things they do, while taking care of the place that’s going to take care of their offspring… That’s the biggest design challenge.” Janine Benyus 2007
One of the most significant current applications of design in architecture incorporates biomimicry. Biomimicry can be defined literally as the mimicking of life using imitation of biological systems (Dictionary. com.) However, this thesis refers to biomimicry as “an innovation method that seeks sustainable solutions by emulating nature’s time-tested patterns and strategies” (Biomimicry Guild.) The beauty of biomimetic systems is that they come from nature; nature has already solved many of the design challenges encountered. With this in mind, one must consider how biomimetic systems can be integrated into a building and co-exist in an architectural wholeness (Berkebile and McLennan, p2.) Architectural wholeness is the co-existence between mankind and nature, not a domination of nature by mankind. The natural world has adapted and evolved over millions of years to create life and one may apply these systems to a modular façade assembly. Janine Benyus is the mother of biomimetics in all design fields. Benyus offers many examples in nature that echo one another, as one may echo the natural world in any design strategy (Benyus, p295.) This echoing may be applied in all scales of the
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Figure 1.15
Chapter 1.2.1 22
built environment. For example, a furniture design, the creation of new building materials, and constructed assemblies may all be biomimetic. In Benyus’ lecture “Biomimicry in Action” she focuses on twelve important systems in nature that can be applied to construction methods and architectural design. Benyus speaks of the systems in this order: 1. Self-Assembly 2. CO2 as a feedstock 3. Solar transformations 4. The power of shape 5. Quenching thirst 6. Metals without mining 7. Green Chemistry 8. Timed Degradation 9. Resilience and healing 10. Sensing and responding 11. Growing fertility 12. Life creates conditions conducive to life. These steps are carving a path for design excellence. When applied to architecture, Benyus’ twelve points will create a new concept in biomimetic design in the form of three major principles which link her twelve points to several innovative architectural designs. These principles go beyond the typical understanding of constructing sustainably, and concentrate on learning from biological systems. Notably, this does not constitute one to reinvent the wheel, but to evolve the wheel into something durable, useful and ecologically friendly. The link to architecture through biomimetic systems are further explored in detail within this thesis as methods of analysis. These topics include: 1. Passive Lighting Strategies 2. Passive Ventilation Systems 3. Biomimetic Water Collection. In a sense, one would not be proposing a finite solution to
Benyus’ principles stated above, but more of a beginning point to educate, inspire and facilitate a sustainable product. In proof of the sustainability and dependability of natural systems, examples of natural elements are necessary in describing how biomimicry will be successful in this façade panel design. Through research and exploration with biomimetics, one has developed a series of main points linked among many scientists, designers and innovators. With extensive research on the importance of natural system and what they may offer to design, the apparent connections between all researched principles yield these main points. They shall remain a key factor in further research to achieve architectural wholeness in design development. In short, Passive Lighting (day lighting) will provide relief in artificial light use, which creates heat and requires the purchasing of products for maintenance such as bulbs. Incorporating an artful design technique to allow light to penetrate a thick non-porous space will reduce extensive artificial lighting costs. Passive ventilation strategies are important due to the fact that most of any building’s energy consumption comes from the heating in the winter and cooling in the summer. Several processes maybe used to accommodate the temperature extremes, however, some of the most innovative and economical ways can be found in nature. Construction materials are deemed sustainable when sourced locally, but Benyus provides a deeper insight about the production methods to create polymers for these materials. Natural polymers often outperform arti-
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ficially made polymers, and use significantly less labor, chemicals and energy to produce (Janine Benyus, Biomimicry in Action.) With five organic polymers’ support, biomimetic systems of water treatment can provide a multitude of benefits. These benefits range from self-cleaning to the collection and filtering of the smallest amount of water. It is forecasted that 1.8 billion people will have strenuous water scarcity by 2025. (Cohen, Dew Collector) The beauty of biomimetic systems is that they come from nature; nature has already solved many of the design challenges one could encounter. With this in mind, one must consider how biomimetic systems can be integrated into an existing building so that there is both a co-existence and an architectural wholeness. The co-existence is between the occupant and the structure, the tectonic systems and the form, as well as the natural world and the built world. The wholeness includes not only a biomimetic system’s sustainable functions, but also its aesthetic and experiential functions.
Bio-inspired Passive Ventilation East Gate Centre The East Gate Centre in Harare, Zimbabwe uses passive heating and ventilation systems based on the design of an indigenous termite mound. The centre naturally ventilates itself through a thermal chimney system. The building itself was designed to prevent high energy costs in the heating and air conditioning system, and prevent the accrual of stuffy, contaminated, un-ventilated air within the building. Although the building was also constructed out of masonry materials, the purpose was not to simply copy the clay of the termite mounds, but rather copy the qualities expressed by the material itself. As seen in Figure 1.17, termite mounds supply porous chimney mounds, some capped and some open. The need for trapping heat within the mound triggers a capped mound chimney. When there is a need to ventilate and free the mound of air toxins, the chimney mounds or opened to allow cross-ventilation. Figure 1.16 further describes how the East Gate Centre uses its circulation path as an open chimney, and an enclosed atrium space as a capped chimney.
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Chapter 1.2.1 24
Biomimetic Water Collection
Figure 1.18
ture must be designed with strategies to treat, retain, and reuse collected Namib Desert Beetle Polyfresh water. In nature, the Namib mer-based Dune Dew Collectors Desert beetle has evolved to accommodate harsh, dry conditions that There are hydrophilic (water attracthave little to no water. The Namib ing) bumps and hydrophobic (water repellent) valleys on the beetle’s wing Desert beetle does this by collecting moisture out of the air in the form of scales that collect water and act as dew. There are hydrophilic (water a canal to make the water droplets attracting) bumps and hydrophobic drinkable (Cohen, QinteQ Dew Col(water repellent) valleys on the beelector.) This is vital to the beetle’s tle’s wing scales that collect water survival in desert like climates. and act as a canal to make the dropThe research firm QinetiQ has used lets drinkable (Cohen, QinteQ Dew the skin of the beetle to create a Collector.) water collection polymer material that could be applied to building facades. The research firm QinetiQ has used the skin of the beetle to create a waThis material has already been ter collection material that could be used to capture water vapor from applied to building facades. This mawater-cooling towers on buildings. terial has already been used to capThey collect and return at least 10% of the lost water vapor, which reduc- ture water vapor from water-cooling towers on buildings. They collect and es costs and inefficiencies (Cohen, QinteQ Dew Collector.) The ability to return at least 10% of the lost wacollect and channel water by utilizing ter vapor, which reduces costs and inefficiencies (Cohen, QinteQ Dew the form and polymers of the beetle Collector.) The ability to collect and prove to be sustainable. channel water by utilizing the form With the growing need to reduce and polymers of the beetle prove to fresh water consumption, architecbe sustainable.
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1
2
preventing the most heat gain
3
4
allowing the most heat gain Figure 1.19: The polymers cause the skin to open and close depending on the heat gain.
Figure 1.20: Decker Yeadon Polymers
Chapter 1.2.1 26
Passive Heat and Lighting Control Decker Yeadon Homestatic Façade The façade developed by Decker and Yeadon regulates the internal temperatures of the building by using natural properties of polymers combined with elastomer and silver for electric current. The resulting design aesthetic of the polymer- elastomer materials is similar to a ribbon woven within the façade. The polymers are within a double-skin glass façade system and are reactive to heat within the building which makes them act as an actuator. (Decker Yeadon, Ask Nature.) When the polymers are heated, the elastomer flexes and the form widens to shield the interior from the intense sunlight. Once the interior of the building has cooled, contraction within the polymers allows light to penetrate through the façade. Like human muscle polymers, the façade requires minimal energy to regulate internal temperatures and offers a great advantage to control and maintain the movement within
the façade system. As mentioned previously, five natural polymers make up all biological construction materials, whereas 350 artificial man-made polymers perform similar tasks at a poorer quality. These many polymers also contribute to high carbon footprint through production (Benyus, Biomimicry in Action.) It is evident that natural polymer systems may have more than textural qualities to learn from. Homeostasis is the ability of the body of a cell to maintain a condition of stability within its internal environment when dealing with external changes (Biology-Online.) Hence, the façade developed by Decker and Yeadon regulates the internal temperatures of the building by using natural properties of polymers combined with elastomer and silver for electric current. The resulting design aesthetic of the polymer- elastomer materials is similar to a ribbon woven within the façade. The polymers are within a double-skin glass façade system and are reactive to heat within the building which makes them act as an ac-
tuator. (Decker Yeadon, Ask Nature.) When the polymers are heated, the elastomer flexes and the form widens to shield the interior from the intense sunlight. Once the interior of the building has cooled, contraction within the polymers allows light to penetrate through the façade. The polymers themselves are derived from similar polymers in muscles which maintain a stable and constant temperature within the body. (Decker Yeadon, Homeostatic Façade System.) Like human muscle polymers, the façade requires minimal energy to regulate internal temperatures and offers a great advantage to control and maintain the biomimetic façade system. The main critique of this design: it works but is very expensive and therefore does not offset the expenses of using the natural polymer system. The Decker and Yeadon façade system utilizes all necessary biomimetic principles, but it is not cost efficient. The ability to produce a façade system that utilizes biomimetics in a cost efficient way is needed.
27
Offspring “Organisms have figured out a way to do the amazing things they do, while taking care of the place that’s going to take care of their offspring… That’s the biggest design challenge.” - Janine Benyus 2007
care
design challenge
Chapter 1.2.1 28
Vernacular Architecture: Sustainable Design Strategies The 3 Tier System by Norbert Lechner
this thesis are the igloo, the Malaysian style hut, the badgir and the Georgian Townhouse. These design strategies may be apEach of these styles uses scientific principles plied to any architectural design scheme to for ventilation and heating. The scientific prinproduce an efficient and environmentally ciples of conduction, convection and radiaconscious design. The Three-Tier Design tion are applied differently depending on the Approach emphasizes the many important desired comfort level of the occupant and the topics presented on insulation, infiltration and local materials available in each vernacular passive systems design which can be noted example. For examples, see Figure1.21. in Figure 1.23. Some of Lechner’s principles are out of scope for this architectural The four main types of vernacular arthesis because the panelized system will not chitecture pertaining to this thesis are the igchange building orientation due to the fact loo, the Malaysian style, the badger and the that a building will be oriented whatever way Georgian style townhome. These each use it already existed. However, an architect may native building techniques, localized materilater design on a larger scale using a varials and a scientific application for maintaining ation of panels and will be (by default) also a comfortable temperature. The igloo is condesigning using Lechner’s Three-Tier Apstructed mostly out of ice blocks and snow proach because the panelized system itself stacked in a brick like pattern. The interior has taken into account many principles. contains a raised seating area for warmth around a fire and a small oculus to expel What is Vernacular Architecture? smoke. The dome-like structure allows warm air to circulate within the living area, and forcVernacular Architecture is a category of architecture based on localized needs and es cold air to return out the same direction in which it entered. The Malaysian style hut construction materials, which often have influences from local traditions (Gissen, p.38). consists of grasses and bamboo sticks tied Vernacular principles align directly with Lech- together and raised off of the ground. The ner’s Three-Tier Approach to architecture as pitched roof creates an area for warmer air to collect and be pulled away from the livwell as Benyus’ biomimetic principles, even ing areas by roof vents. By having a raised though the actual constructions using these principles long outlive Lechner’s and Benyus’ and porous structure, wind is able to pass through all living areas, maintaining a movetexts. ment in airflow to remove the thick humid air. The four vernacular styles analyzed in
29
Scientific Research for Vernacular Architecture Type
Igloo
Perspective
Heating and Cooling Diagram
Construction Techniques
Material Use
Raised seating area
Ice
Thermal Heating
Snow
Scientific Application
Convection/ Conduction
Ventilation Oculus
Raised Stick Framing Lumber
Maylasian Hut
Pitched Roof Native trees
Convection
Porches/ Vented Walls Grasses and twigs Many Openings
Large Flues
Badgir
Masonry Thick walls
Convection Mud
Tall Open Levels
Georgian Townhouse
Basement Thick Walls Pitched Roof Chimney Order of ornamentation
Masonry Mortar Radiation Concrete
Figure 1.21: Understanding Vernacular and Climatic Responses
Chapter 1.2.1 30
The badgir is equipped with tall tower-like elements to capture wind in hot and dry climates. The badgir acts as a wind catcher, collecting wind, cycling it through the living spaces, and taking the hot air out in the process. Unlike the porous structure of the Malaysian style hut, the badgir has thick walls with small but thoughtfully placed openings. Finally, the Georgian Townhouse style uses a basement as an insulation technique between the ground and the living space, along with thick, insulated exterior walls. The Georgian, unlike any of the other types discussed, uses a radiant-conduction heating through a chimney to warm each level of the home. The pitched roof prevents a large collection of winter snow, and provides another air gap to insulate the interior living space (Gissen, p.3639). What is the scientific approach to passive heating and cooling? Conduction is energy (in this instance heat) that is transferred by direct
contact between two objects. For instance, touching a metal pot handle that has been over a stove eye will burn your hand because the energy has been transferred to the pot from the hot stove. Architecturally, a trombe wall explains conduction. It collects heat from the winter sun, and then slowly transfers the heat collected throughout the night into the space. Convection is energy transferred by the mass motion of molecules. An example of convection would be boiling a pot of hot water to create steam. The steam is very hot when it leaves the pot of boiling water, but cools as it moves up into the air away from the pot. In architecture, the Malaysian style uses convection to maintain cool temperatures by moving the cooler air through the hot stagnant air of the home. Lastly, radiation is energy transferred by electromagnetic radiation. This is like putting your hands next to a camp fire to warm them from the radiating heat. Architecturally, a chimney like that used in the Georgian townhome uses radiation to heat an entire building.
Double Pane Glass
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Point of Air Infiltration
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
Figure 1.22: Understanding Heat Transfer and Infiltration
31
U.S. Energy Consumption Lechner’s Three Tier System Figure 1.23 Table 1.4: The Three-Tier Design Approach (Lechner, p9) Heating Cooling Tier 1 Conserva on Heat Avoidance Basic Building Design 1. Surface-to1. Shading Volume Ra o 2. Exterior Colors 2. Insula on 3. Insula on 3. In ltra on 4. Mass Tier 2 Passive Solar Passive Cooling Natural Energies and 1. Direct gain 1. Evapora ve cooling Passive Techniques 2. Trombe wall 2. Night- ush cooling 3. Sunspace 3. Comfort ven la on Tier 3 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
Hea ng Equipment 1. Furnace 2. Boiler 3. Ducts/Pipes 4. Fuels
Cooling Equipment 1. Refrigera on machine 2. Ducts 3. Geo-exchange
Lighting Daylight 1. Windows 2. Glazing type 3. Interior Finishes Dayligh ng 1. Skylights 2. Clerestories 3. Light Shelves Electric Light 1. Lamps 2. Fixtures 3. Loca on of Fixtures
OF THE 48% OF BUILDING ENERGY CONSUMPTION 8% FOR CONSTRUCTION
40% FOR OPERATING
It is commonly known that buildings consume the largest amount of energy usage (48%) in the United States and 32% globally. Lechner specifies design strategies through a tier system to reduce or eliminate typical building energy consumption. Utililizing these strategies are nearly impossible for most existing buildings that do not meet Lechner’s Tier System. This means other design strategies may be used to improve the energy usage in these existing buildings.
Transportation 27%
Building 48%
Industrial 25%
Chapter 1.2.1 32
Existing Wall Systems There are many facets to understanding typical construction methods. For this reason, this thesis will examine the most common wall systems and the most common prefabricated wall system utilized in current construction techniques. This includes poured concrete walls, exterior insulation and finishing systems, wood framing walls, aluminum metal framing walls, brick wall systems, concrete masonry unit wall systems, and structural insulated panels. Poured Concrete This wall system is driven by the formation of a jig, which is usually constructed on site. Batches on concrete are poured into the form for the desired thickness of the wall. Poured concrete may be clad with a different exterior finish, or it may be left unfinished depending on the desired aesthetic. For this thesis’ purposes, a twelve inches thick, unfinished concrete wall was tested. Exterior Insulation and Finishing System (EIFS)
finish on wood stick framing, and EIFS finish on metal stick framing. EIFS on Wood Framing There are fixed studs on center at 16 or 24 inches. The individual members may be assembled on site or pre-fabricated in an offsite facility per an architect’s specifications. If the latter is used, it reduces construction time and increases exactness and quality control. EIFS on Aluminum Metal Framing Metal stud framing acts much like a wood system, but weighs much less while providing more structural efficiency. There are fixed studs on center at 16 or 24 inches. The individual members may be assembled on site or pre-fabricated in an offsite facility per an architect’s specifications. If the latter is used, it reduces construction time and increases exactness and quality control. Brick on Aluminum Metal Framing
Bricks are a pre-fabricated, firedmud component manufactured off-site and EIFS are exterior wall cladding systems brought to the site location in bulk where a that improve insulation value on different ex- well- trained mason will construct them in a isting wall systems. The material often looks desired pattern. Bricks are commonly used like a stucco finish, but it is actually comas an exterior wall finish in the U.S. today, prised of synthetic foam and is not heavy. but have been commonly used as structural EIFS can be attached to any existing wall members for thousands of years. In today’s finish by using adhesives or fasteners. Two construction, the structural framing system types of EIFS were tested in this thesis: EIFS (the aluminum metal framing in this case)
33
Performative Research: Building Materials
Material
Glass- Double Pane -1/4" Air Space Glass- Single Pane Gypsum 1/2"
is constructed first, and then the bricks are applied with an air gap as a thick veneer. The bricks will be joined to the structural framing through a series of metal ties which keep the brick wall secured to the structure while allowing moisture and addition air insulation to occur.
aesthetic finish.
CMU 8"
Concrete @ 90lb/ft3
Structural Insulated Panels- SIPs
Structural Insulated Panels are one of the most current examples of successful modular production for architectural design. They consist of OSB (plywood) rigid insulation and a thin moisture barrier. Architects may Brick on Concrete Masonry Unit seek SIP producers, like industry leadMuch like the previous brick on er Insulspan Inc., to meet the highmetal stud system, the brick on CMU est energy efficiency ratings, highest system utilizes brick as a veneer. One R-value ratings and lowest construcaddition to the brick on metal stud tion labor costs. Because pre-manuhappens in this case, a large concrete factured SIPs are constructed per the masonry unit (CMU) is placed between architect’s specifications off site, they the air gap and the traditional metare quickly assembled once delivered al framing system. As a typical wall to the building site by typical construcsystem, the brick and CMU combination crews requiring little extra assemtion rank among the heaviest and the bly knowledge. The ability to assemble thickest, despite the fact of its moduthe structure in such a short amount larity and ability to be partially pre-fab- of time with less error means a better ricated. The brick and the concrete quality product. masonry unit are both prefabricated, Insulspan Inc. offers many differhowever, the structural stability and ent sizes and types of SIPs including cohesiveness does not come until a wall, roof and flooring panels. They laborer assembles the entire system. have established a way to pre-fabriThe process to assemble this entire wall system is labor intensive and rela- cate modules that can then be applied tively expensive to the other types test- to an architect’s design drawings, leaved. This system relies on its assembly ing rough openings as necessary for apertures. In this thesis, a SIP using methods for measurable insulative values, structural support, texture, and five and one-half inches of rigid insulation was selected for testing.
Brick Face 3 5/8" Plywood 1"
Solid Wood Aluminum 1/8" 0.00
Aluminum 1/8" Solid Wood
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
Plywood 1"
Brick Face 3 5/8"
Concrete @ 90lb/ft3
CMU 8"
Gypsum 1/2"
U-Value
1.64
0.67
0.80
2.27
3.85
0.83
2.22
R-Value
0.61
1.50
1.25
0.44
0.26
1.20
0.45
3.50
4.00
Glass- Double Glass- Single Pane -1/4" Air Pane Space 1.10 0.59 0.91
1.69
Insulation Types
Performative Research: Insulation- Typical Air Gap 1"-4"
Batt Insulation 3.5"
Polystyrene Extruded 1"
Rigid Insulation 1"
Aerogel 0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
Aerogel
Rigid Insulation 1"
R-Value
10.00
6.50
Polystyrene Extruded 1" 5.00
U-Value
0.10
0.15
0.20
8.00
10.00
12.00
Batt Insulation 3.5"
Air Gap 1"-4"
11.00
1.00
0.09
1.00
Figure 1.24
Typical W
Chapter 1.2.1 34
R-VALUE: 26.1802 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
R-VALUE: 35.6887 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
R-VALUE: 66.0967 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
R-VALUE: 6.6185 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
R-VALUE: 54.0217 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
U-VALUE: 0.0629 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
U-VALUE: 0.0382 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
U-VALUE: 0.0280 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
U-VALUE: 0.0151 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
U-VALUE: 0.6044 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
U-VALUE: 0.0185 BTU/(h·ft²·°F)
INSULATION TYPE: Polystyrene Extruded
INSULATION TYPE: BATT
INSULATION TYPE: BATT
INSULATION TYPE: BATT
INSULATION TYPE: N/A
INSULATION TYPE: BATT
THICKNESS: 5.5in.
THICKNESS:
THICKNESS:
THICKNESS:
THICKNESS: 12in.
THICKNESS:
UNFINISHED
BRICK
CMU
CONCRETE
EIFS METAL FRAME
R-VALUE: 15.8944 (h·ft²·°F)/BTU
SIPS 5.5”
EIFS WOOD FRAME
Typical Wall Type Investigation
UNFINISHED
SCALE: 1’-0” = 1” Figure 1.25
35
Cost Efficiency
“Cost efficiency is not the same as cheap building; but it must not by definition be a disadvantage. Often doing away with the multitude of superfluous elements can lead to a more aesthetically credible solution.”
CREDIBLE – Christian Schittich
Payoff for Insulation With a Higher R-Value
Figure 1.26: This chart displays the expense and possible payoff (in years) of purchasing higher R-Value insulation. These values are compared to basic, R-8 Batt insulation and the cost calculations are based on a 4000 squarefoot building with annual heating and cooling costs of $750 per year.
Chapter 1.2.1 36
Batt Insulation in the U.S.
Batt Insulation Installation Costs Because R-8 Batt Insulation is the most basic of its kind. This study compares higher R-Value batt insulations to R-8.
R - Value
Minimal annual savings is incurred after installation. The Return on Investment (ROI) is not worth the initial costs.
Cost/ Squarefoot
Annual Savings (USD $) Compared to R-8 Batt Insulation
So, WHY would one invest in a higher R-value batt insulation when there is no monetary benefit? Usually, there is no investment.
Years to Payoff Initial Investment
37
Typical Wall Assemblies
Figure 1.27: 1:1 Scale models of each wall system were constructioned to further analyze the process of typical wall system construction, the method of operations, and the materiality of the most common wall types. The ease of construction comes with lighter weight materials, while rigidity and mass come with heavier materials such as brick and CMU.
Typical Wall Assemblies
Performative Research: Typical Wall Assemblies SIP- Extruded Polystyrene @ 4.5" Concrete Block Bearing Masonry Face Reinforced Concrete Frame 8"
Metal Stud @ 16" OC (R11 Batt) Wood Stud @ 16" OC (R11 Batt) 0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00 20.00 25.00
Wood Stud @ 16" OC (R11 Batt) R-Value 12.44
Metal Stud @ 16" OC (R11 Batt) 5.50
Reinforced Concrete Frame 8" 1.40
Masonry Face
Concrete Block Bearing
20.21
2.00
SIP- Extruded Polystyrene @ 4.5" 19.00
Figure 1.28: Performative Research Shows the R-Value relationship between the typical wall types.
Chapter 1.3 38
Proposed Project Rationale Proposed Project Rationale Key Points The
amount of air infiltration on older, existing buildings is inefficient. It costs more money and energy consumption to maintain comfort inside relative to more recent wall system constructions. Battling air infiltration with a panelized system with appropriate R-Values can increase comfort much like SIPs but with an added aesthetic value, much like that found in the London Apartment Building or the Two Family Home.
Benyus
established design criteria to create using natural techniques for the sake of creating less waste and helping the environment. Addressing existing building energy consumption will be helpful to the environment. Less waste will be created in retrofitting an existing building with a modular façade rather than demolishing less efficient buildings to create new ones.
Variation in design and insulation quality is necessary to accommodate the need of a plethora of site locations. This was greatly influenced by Buckminster Fuller and McLaughlin Motohomes precedents ability to have fast assembly and transportation time.
Pre-fabricated Architectural Systems and Wall Systems Prefabrication has been a growing asset in architecture since the Industrial Age. However, a stigma has also been associated with prefabrication. Many critics of early architectural designs using prefabrication argued that it did not meet the needs of the client, and would therefore fail
– and in some cases it did (Schittich, p9.) It is clear, that architects must find a way to utilize efficiency techniques to create both beautiful and economical architecture. Having a system that allows customization and architectural design within a functional, environmentally friendly system would implement the same techniques early architects like McLaughlin, Fuller and Wright used. This thesis will use these pre-fabrication examples as precedents and will apply them to the creation of a panelized façade system. The importance of pre-fabricated materials can be explained through the ability to build faster on site, with less error due to the standardization of building materials. This creates better quality in the final product.
Location The sites proposed all provide different benefits and strengths. This is needed for the ability to use the designed panels in varying locations. Formulating panels that can be useful in multiple environments is the goal, as well as formulating a set of panels that, when combined together, create environmental solutions to each of these climatic conditions. For example, the major design constraint for Region 14 -the Gulf Coast Region- must have proper ventilation to cool temperatures as well as remove any excess moisture that could create mildew in the summer months. The priority for design varies for Region 17- Southern California- because one should utilize more outdoor and open air spaces, the temperatures are comfortable year round making the climatic conditions very advantageous.
Design
Chapter 2: Design Analysis
Analysis
41
Climatic Testing
Chapter 2.1 42
Climatic Conditions Selected: Scientific Approach to Understanding Design
Figure 2.1
43
Climatic Regions for Testing Locations for Data Testing
Southeast- Region 14
The following locations were chosen to test aperture conditions related to existing wall types. Once tested digitally in these locations, the data will be collected and organized to determine how effective each panel may be in a given climate zone in collaboration with Lechner’s Three-Tier Approach to design. Although each climate is unique in annual rain fall, all have the need to let daylight in and provide proper ventilation and insulation throughout the different seasons. The variation in climatic conditions will yield varying results from each wall type, thus revealing which will be the most efficient in each scenario.
The Gulf Coast Region has cool, short winters and long, hot and humid summers. High Humidity can cause mildew easily in this region. Annual precipitation is frequent throughout the year and results in a high average near 60 inches per year. (Lechner, p.114)
As shown in Figure 2.2, each climate consists of a variation of qualities. The following descriptions emphasize what makes each location unique. Mid-West - Region 4 This region is considered a semiarid climate, having cold winters and warm dry summers. Although summer temperatures are high, the humidity is low creating a high diurnal shift. The most rainfall occurs in the spring, but the region’s 15 inches of annual rainfall ensues regularly throughout the year. (Lechner, p.94)
Southern California - Region 17 The semiarid climate of Southern California has moderate winter temperatures so there is not a high priority for a heating source. Along with comfortable winter temperatures comes the majority of annual precipitation at 15 inches per year. (Lechner, p.120) Northeast - Region 1 The New England region is a harsh climate, consisting of mostly cold temperature that frequently drop below freezing temperatures. This region often experiences severe winds from the northwest and west. Summers here are mild but the shift in extreme annual temperature ranges around 120 degrees. (Lechner, p.88)
Chapter 2.1 44
FOUR Climatic Regions
Design Strategies
Climate Characteristics
Climatic Testing
Midwest Semiarid Very Cold Winters Warm, Dry Summers Low Humidity in Summer 15in. Annual Precipitation
Region 4 Keep heat in and cold temperature out in winter. Let in winter sun. Protect from cold winter winds.
Southern California Semiarid High Humidity, Low Temperatures Variations in microclimates Majority Precipitation in Winter 15 in. Annual Precipitation
Region 17 Open building to outdoors.
Northeast
Very humid Cool Short Winters Long, Hot, and Humid Summers 60 in. Annual Precipitation
Severe, Cold Winters Short, Mild Summers Extreme Annual Temperature Range of 120 degrees F 44 in. Annual Precipitation
Region 14
Region 4
Protect from the summer sun.
Allow natural ventilation to cool and remove moisture in summer.
Let the winter sun in.
Protect from the summer sun.
Use natural ventilation.
Avoid creating additional humidity during the summer.
Thermal mass to reduce diernal swings in teh summer. Figure 2.2
Southeast
Keep heat in and cold temperatures out in winter. Protect from the cold winter winds. Let in the winter sun in.
45
Transportation 27%
Building 48%
Figure 2.3
Industrial 25%
Chapter 2.2 46
Constraints •
Insulative Quality Constraints: R-Value Requirements, Preventing addition air infiltration, Material finish choice
•
Prefabrication of Modules
•
Shipping dimensions, weight and costs of modular system
•
Attaching modular façade system to an existing building
•
Making assumptions about general aesthetic and insulative needs for an outside architect
•
Creating a purchasing system for architects to choose proper product
•
Regional and Climatic Constraints: Varying locations (not site specific), Four locations for data testing and Three distribution facility locations.
Formulating panels that can be useful in multiple environments is the goal, as well as formulating a set of panels that, when combined together, create environmental solutions to each of these climatic conditions. For example, the major design constraint for Region 14 -the Gulf Coast Region- must have proper ventilation to cool temperatures as well as remove any excess moisture that could create mildew in the summer months. The priority for design varies for Region 17- Southern California- because one should utilize more outdoor and open air spaces, the temperatures are comfortable year round making the climatic conditions very advantageous. •
Standardized Framing System to accommodate a variation in height, length and thickness.
Design
Chapter 3: Design Process
Process
49
Important Research Steps Within Process
Chapter 3 50
Cycle of Performative and Aesthetic Design Aest het ic
Existing Wall Types Existing Wall Types –Digital Modeling
Module Sizing Digital Fabrication of Panels Simplify Design According to IET Specs Material Use
Modular Systems and Proportion
Digital Fabrication of Panel B
Design Question Refinement
Thesis Book Design
Climatic Needs
Graphic Representations of IET Analysis (1)
Material Choice
Modular Composition of Panels
Existing Wall Types Digital Testing Existing Wall Type Written Vs. Existing Wall Type Revit Comparison Designed Panels
Research in Written Report
or
rf
Meeting 2: IET for Data Analysis (1)
Pe
Designed Panels Digital Testing
ma
ti v e
Figure 3.1: There is a constant revolution in the questions for research and design solutions. A swap from performative research to aesthetic research and back again is a contiuous cycle, much like Buckminster Fuller who recognized both the scienctific approach to architecture as well as an aesthetic balance.
Scheduling 51
Figure 3.2
Chapter 3.1 52
Insulation Strategies
53
Figure 3.3: Revit Testing of Typical Wall Systems
Chapter 3.1 54
Performative Testing for Existing Wall Types Revit Testing Each of the wall systems described were digitally fabricated in Revit, and tested for insulative performance. The R-value results found in Revit can be found in Appendix I. This testing was further investigated by testing the theoretical constructions with varying percentages of apertures. This testing reveals varying percentages of thermal loss through apertures, and the insulative value of the wall systems themselves. These digital models were also tested using various regions of the U.S. as described by Norbert Lechner in Heating, Cooling, and Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. After the data tested by Revit was directly exported, additional calculations were completed to a lot for percentages of aperture leakage as
well as thermal leaks within the wall systems themselves. The results of this analysis along with the previous R-value research, provides further information to successfully create a panelized system that can be altered to fit the architect’s needs. In short, the climatic differences were not dramatic enough through the Revit testing to declare one system outperforms another in each of the selected regions. This is due to Revit’s inability to calculate without a climatic percentage of error. However, additional research from Lechner’s reading provides design strategies and lists the criteria of what wall systems work best in each location. The calculations and Revit findings can be found beginning on page 101 in Appendix I.
55
Application of Thermal Value Research
Air Leakage in Apertures
The research concerning thermal value, and thermal resistance proved particularly important when constructing new prototypes for the panelized system. After calculating thermal qualities of basic building materials, found in Figure1.27, the application of materials in the new system could be calculated. The calculations gave an analyzing point for a variety of criteria in the faรงade system, and how it could provide a variety of solutions to accommodate a wide variety of architectural needs, including performative and aesthetic needs.
After ample testing and calculating from both the Revit and insulative quality data, it was clear there is one major factor of heat loss in creating apertures in the panels; air infiltration and leakage. Once each panel is created with an approximate insulative value, a calculation of 10% must be deducted for every 10% increase in aperture square footage. The reduction for each panel can be found in Figure 4.13 on page 81.
Chapter 3.1 56
Double Pane Glass
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Point of Air Infiltration
OUTSIDE Figure 3.4: Insulative Quality Testing in Revit
INSIDE
Figure 3.5: Understanding Heat Transfer and Infiltration
57
Systems Integration
Chapter 3.2 58
Panel Composition
Figure 3.6: A shift in composition can create thousands of dimensions and accommodate most exisitng buildings.
59
Details The details in Figure 3.7 are of double pane windows, each of which has a metal frame. Window A contains fewer compartments to stop air flow both around the glass and throughout the metal frame itself. This means air infiltration is heightened. Window B displays an upgraded metal window frame with
Figure 3.7: Air tight assembly of SIPs
many compartments to trap air, and prevent the air leakage found in Window A. The thermal image, also known as infrared, clearly displays how the cold air is kept outside in Window B and is let in Window A. The infrared image display heat as red, orange and yellow, and coolness as purple, blue and cyan.
Chapter 3.2 60
A
B
A
Figure 3.8: Multiple compartments prevent Air Infiltration and Heat Loss Through Apertures. This technique can be used when opening occur within panels.
B
Design O
Chapter 4: Design Outcome
Outcome
63
Preliminary Documentation The use of the Revit Analysis helped guide decisions made in the final design outcome. The percentage of aperture and the ability to properly insulate have directed the final specifications for the faรงade system. These
designed panel samples contain information organized in a Rating System Legend. Because weight, thickness and especially R-value are of importance, those can be found first on the specification sheet for each panel.
Figure 4.1: Insulative Quality Testing in Revit used as a measurement of loss in aperatures.
Chapter 4.1 64
Figure 4.2: Aristotle’s Proportional Study Applied to Shipping Materials
1
1
2
4
3
8
9
65
Final Documentation The pre-fabricated modular faรงade consists of two main components: the panel and the framing system. Both provide the designer the freedom to create a variety of patterns, grids and existing building types. The panels come in a variation of finish materials and insulative values. The modules and frame can be arranged in several different combinations to fit the needs of most existing buildings. The architect may utilize the panels so they fit the
needs of the site as well. Skins may be most beneficial to shade a building that is overly exposed to heat gain, while a high R-value panel is needed where winters are cold and harsh. This system gives the architect the ability to choose a custom design, in the arrangement of their choice, with the necessary insulation values, in a way that can be quickly shipped to the site, and easily assembled. This will reduce costs tremendously on construction labor and will increase the consistency of each finished panel.
Chapter 4.2 66
Basic System Designed
Figure 4.3: The basic design is a system which contains a combination of five panel sizes, one of which contains two smaller panels. The framing system is a combination of I-beams fabricated to the proper thickness to receive the desired panel options.
67 Aesthetic Finish Available Variations
Figure 4.4: The aesthetic finish of the panels can be determined by the architect. Customization is needed if the panelized system is to appeal to various site conditions and aesthetic tastes. The basic design is a system which contains a combination of five panel sizes, one of which contains two smaller panels. The framing system is a combination of I-beams fabricated to the proper thickness to receive the desired panel options.
Chapter 4.2 68
Figure 4.5: Calculations such as the available combinations of panels can be of use when selecting panel sizes as an architect. An example of a visual representation of combinations is shown above. Using combinations calculations like these, the consistent five sizing options and a combination of only ten panels, there are 1,001 arrangement options.
69
As previously stated, the framing system can rearranged to accommodate different existing building types. In Figure 4.6, the connection is shown between new framing system and two different existing building types. The first building type is a concrete wall system. The second connection is a brick veneer with steel framing.
There are three major conditions for the framing system to work for all panel variations; the roof condition, the corner condition, and the wall condition. These three conditions can completely seal the walls of an existing building, reducing air infiltration and ensuring thorough coverage of insulation.
Figure 4.6: New Frame to Existing Wall Systems Detail
Chapter 4.2 70
Roof Condition
Corner Condition
Wall Condition Figure 4.7: Changing Conditions of Frame
Figure 4.8: Changing Conditions of Frame require attachment details like these shown above.
71
2
3
1
5
8
Figure 4.9: Aristotle’s proportional study projected in 3D explains how modules can be proportioned to give variation yet fit similar dimensions. Figure 4.11 displays how this influences construction modules.
Figure 4.10: The width of each panel will effect the amount of direct light penetration.
Figure 4.11: Modularized Systems in the proper proportions can provide a wide variation in arrangement. The application of this diagram to the panel facade system allows exponential growth in module selection and arrangement.
Chapter 4.2 72
Panel Specification Legend
R-VALUE RATING
WEIGHT RATING
THICKNESS RATING
*R-Values measured in (h x ft^2 x degrees F) / BTU*
*Weight in pounds per the largest panel size available.*
*Includes necessary gaps within panel.Excludes air film distances.*
More than 20 50 lbs. or Less
Less than 2in.
51 lbs. to 75lbs.
2-3in.
76 lbs. to 100lbs.
3-6 in.
101 lbs. or More
6-12in.
10 - 20
5 - 10
Less than 5
Figure 4.12
73
Rating:
R- Value
Less than 5
Thickness 2-3in.
Max. Weight 76 lbs. to 100lbs.
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1. 1/8” Aluminum
Finished Aluminum
1” Aerogel
Painted Aluminum
Air Gap 1” 1/8” Aluminum Interior Air Film
Ideal Climatic Conditions
Exterior Air Film
Mid-West Southern California Northeast
Sizes Available
Aalto Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
Chapter 4.2 74
Rating:
R- Value
Less than 5
Thickness 2-3in.
Max. Weight 76 lbs. to 100lbs.
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1. 1/8” Aluminum
Finished Aluminum
2. 1” Aerogel
Painted Aluminum
3. 1/8” Aluminum 4. Interior Air Film 5. Exterior Air Film
Ideal Climatic Conditions Mid-West Southern California North East
Sizes Available
Benyus Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
75
Rating:
R- Value
10 - 20
Thickness 3-6 in.
Max. Weight 76 lbs. to 100lbs.
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1/8” Aluminum
Finished Aluminum
3/4” Plywood
Painted Aluminum
3” Aerogel
Veneer Wood
3/4” Plywood Air Gap 1”
Ideal Climatic Conditions
1/8” Aluminum Interior Air Film Exterior Air Film
Mid- West Southern California
Sizes Available
Corbusier Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
Chapter 4.2 76
Rating:
R- Value
Thickness
More than 20
6-12in.
Max. Weight 101 lbs. or More
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1. Module Brick
Brick
2. 3/4” Plywood
Custom Concrete Block
3. 2” Aerogel 4. 3/4” Plywood 5. 1/8” Aluminum 6. Interior Air Film 7. Exterior Air Film
Ideal Climatic Conditions
Mid-West Southern California
Sizes Available
Dymaxion Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
77
Rating:
R- Value
More than 20
Thickness 6-12in.
Max. Weight 101 lbs. or More
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1/8” Aluminum
Finished Aluminum
3/4” Plywood
Painted Aluminum
3” Aerogel
Veneer Wood
3/4” Plywood Air Gap 1”
Ideal Climatic Conditions 1/8” Aluminum Interior Air Film
Mid- West
Exterior Air Film
Southern California
Sizes Available
Eames Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
Chapter 4.2 78
Rating:
R- Value
Less than 5
Thickness Max. Weight
Less than 2in. 50 lbs. or Less
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes Finished Aluminum
1/8� Aluminum
Painted Aluminum Hard Plastic Veneer Wood
Ideal Climatic Conditions Southeast Northeast Mid-West Southern California
Sizes Available
Fuller Skin Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
79
Rating:
R- Value
Thickness
10 - 20
2-3in.
Max. Weight 50 lbs. or Less
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes
1. 1/8” Aluminum
Finished Aluminum
2. 2” Aerogel
Painted Aluminum
3. 1/8” Aluminum
Veneer Wood
4. Interior Air Film 5. Exterior Air Film
Ideal Climatic Conditions
Southeast Northeast Mid-West
Sizes Available
Gehry Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
Chapter 4.2 80
Rating:
R- Value
More than 20
Max. Weight
Thickness 3-6 in.
76 lbs. to 100lbs.
Elevation
Section
Material Composition
Available Finishes Finished Aluminum
1/8” Aluminum Painted Aluminum 1” Aerogel 3/4” Plywood
Veneer Wood
2” Aerogel 3/4” Plywood
Ideal Climatic Conditions
Rigid 1”
Southeast
1/8” Aluminum
Northeast
Interior Air Film
Mid-West
Exterior Air Film
Sizes Available
Herzog Panel Series Technical Specifications Certified Shipping Available
Panel Calculations
81 Figure 4.13
Chapter 4.2 82
83
Summary and Reflections The proposed project consists of the development and design of a scheme of façade panels through an approach of logistical focus in a supply chain. These panels will each serve a specified function, and will occasionally be hybridized with one another to meet all of the needs of a potential architect. Although there will be panels varying in design and materiality, all will utilize the same framing system techniques. These panels encompass the successful vernacular design strategies of a climatic region to be most efficient.
These enforced design strategies are from the research of Norbert Lechner’s Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. Once designed to meet the vernacular needs of the four selected regions, each panel will demonstrate a pre-fabricated assembly and production method. In this process of development, these panels are to contribute to existing buildings as a new panelized system to architects all over the world.
Chapter 4.3 84
Figure 4.14: Shipping the PAnelized system to even the most remote site can be done in a timely manner, with minimal resources. Once it has been delivered to the site, construction may begin because all the assembly requires is basic construction knowledge and hand tools.
Collab
Chapter 5: Industrial Engineering Te c h n o l o gy Collaboration
boration
87
Architecture and Industrial Engineering Technology Collaboration The Pitch The architecture field is very broad, and includes many different facets to make it wholesome. One of the many important facets of the professional environment is that architects will be working with other disciplines to create a functioning piece of architecture. In this case, it is absolute preparation for the professional environment for students and professors alike to work with different disciplines. The learning opportunities and knowledge will expand, providing further detailed insight on the utilization of the proposed panels. To begin collaboration between any two programs, both must agree to work together. To ensure a mutual interest, a proposal was pitched to the Industrial Engineering Technology Department to collaborate on this thesis. In this meeting, Dr. Thomas Ball and Professor Greg Wiles were consulted as to what IET may offer towards the project, and if they would accept working in a collaboration for this project. It was established that both may work closely with the project after the initial meeting. Meeting notes may be referenced in Appendix II. What is Industrial Engineering Technology? This is a field that specializes in making processes more efficient. The pri-
mary concept of Industrial Engineering is the utilization of the supply chain and supply chain management. The supply chain “encompasses all activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the raw material stage (extraction), through to the end user, as well as the associated information flows” (Wood and Murphy, p.79). Quality control is a supply chain principle that can provide precision and speed during the construction process. “Although there are somewhat stringent definitions of quality, such as a product that is free from defects, deficiencies, or errors, [but] we will take a more flexible approach and define quality as conformance to mutually agreed-upon requirements” (Wood and Murphy, p.101). The utilization of quality control in a remote distribution facility allows the panelized system to be fabricated to the architect’s specifications, and arranged onsite with little or no modifications to the prefabricated kit of parts. Logistics within the supply chain require intensive research on shipping and routing methods. Cargo containers can be found in a variety of sizes and styles, the use of which depends on the product being shipped. For this thesis, the standard shipping container was selected and will be filled with standard U.S. pallets. The standard dimensions of each pallet are forty-eight inches in length and a width of
forty inches (48” x 40”). The enclosure dimensions of a container are fifty-two feet and four inches long by ninety-eight and seven tenths wide by one hundred and ten inches tall (52’4” long x 98.7” wide x 110” high) and may fit a single layer of twenty six (26) standardized pallets. The pallets would be loaded and unloaded with a forklift machine which can be attached outside the shipping container for service onsite. Routing can be defined as “the process of determining how a shipment will be moved between consignor and consignee or between place of acceptance by the carrier and place of delivery to the consignee” (Wood and Murphy, p.256). For the means of architecture, routing is usually the process of getting building materials to a client’s construction site.
Chapter 5.1 88
Panel System and Supply Chain Logistics
Figure 5.2: Prefabricated options with varying finishes will allow architects to request a variety of panels to be applied to their individual design.
Figure 5.1: Supply Chain principles have been applied to this thesis process and product design. Major steps can be continued to properly serve the client.
89
Industrial Engineering Influence on Design In this collaboration, IET greatly influenced the design of the panelized facade system. Although the process included a continuous revolution in both performative and aesthetic principles, serious design moves and constraints derived in the roots of supply chain concepts. Examples of this include proportioning the individual modules to be placed on standardized shipping pallets. These pallets may be lifted individually by a forklift, placed in a shipping container, and unloaded easily on-site. In cases where the shipping container itself can be left on-site, the materials will be stacked into the container (on pallets) with the first building materials needed closest to the door and the materials needed last farthest from the door. If this is the case, the truck must be loaded with the construction order in mind by putting the last materials needed in the truck first. This concept is commonly known as Cargo Loading Optimization (Wood and Murphy, p.265). The understanding of IET principles also influenced material dimensions in the framing system and the selection of I-beams as the material for on-site assembly. The ability to connect the steel I-beam members together is im-
portant to a speedy construction time. The I-beam frame, like the panels, is to be prefabricated off-site in a quality controlled area and shipped with the necessary panels. A theoretical shipment can be found in Figure 5.8. Notice the arrangement of pallets holding panels versus the linear arrangement for the framing system. This arrangement utilizes the entire container which is necessary to reduce costs. After intensive calculations regarding insulative qualities of the modular faรงade system panels, the application of IET principles requires a rating system, defining the quality and specifications of each panel designed. The basic rating system legend may be found in Figure 5.6. The most important of qualities have been listed on each specification sheet, including insulative values, thickness, weight, material composition and the proposed aesthetics of each panel.
Figure 5.3: IET Influences on Modularized System Research
Chapter 5.2 90
13
8 2 1
1
2
4
8
3
5
1
3
9
Figure 5.4: Aristotle’s Proportional Study Applied to Shipping Materials
91
Figure 5.5: Calculations such as the available combinations of panels can be of use when selecting panel sizes as an architect. An example of a visual representation of combinations is shown below. Having the consistent five sizing options and using a combination of only ten panels, there are 1,001 arrangement options.
Panel Specification Legend
R-VALUE RATING
WEIGHT RATING
THICKNESS RATING
*R-Values measured in (h x ft^2 x degrees F) / BTU*
*Weight in pounds per the largest panel size available.*
*Includes necessary gaps within panel.Excludes air film distances.*
More than 20 50 lbs. or Less
Less than 2in.
51 lbs. to 75lbs.
2-3in.
76 lbs. to 100lbs.
3-6 in.
101 lbs. or More
6-12in.
10 - 20
5 - 10
Less than 5
Figure 5.6: Standardization principles in Industrial Engineering create a Rating System for the designed panels. This legend allows architects to easily compare panel insulation values, weight and thickness.
Chapter 5.2 92
Shipping Container Types end loading, fully enclosed
end loading, open top
liquid bulk
flat bulk
end loading, ventilated
side loading, fully enclosed
refrigerated
Figure 5.7: Basis for Distribution Containers. Functionality of container meets the needs of a product. Shipping containers are universal to shipping, trucking and train transportation, making a container the optimal solution for distribution. For this thesis, the End Loading, Fully Enclosed container will be utilized.
93
Implementing the Supply Chain Theory to an Architectural Panel System The supply chain is the system in which a product is realized, manufactured, distributed and the customer provides feedback on the product. In this thesis, design and distribution are keys to merge supply chain principles and architectural design. Architectural principles outline by prefabrication methods, Benyus’ principles, and Lechner’s tier system provide a backbone for creating a truly beautiful, environmentally conscious modular system. Logistical research suggests the distribution of the panelized system will happen mostly in eighteen-wheel trucks. Distribution facilities are strategically placed in growing manufacturing regions of the U.S. with major arterial roads in mind. The Interstate System is crucial to the timely distribution of the proposed modular façade system, and the secondary or tertiary roads will provide access to even the most remote site locations. Standard freight costs for ground shipping costs approximately $2.53573 per mile as an all-inclusive shipping rate, but the rates change monthly Figure 5.8: Cargo Loading Optimization for Panelized Facade System
in concurrence with traveling expenses (Freight Rate Index, 2014). Shipping times and distances vary according to the region, and estimated shipping times can be found in Figure 5.9 with the UPS shipping tool. This demonstrates three important variables to calculate logistical plans and budget: 1.shipping time, 2. distribution location, and 3. the mileage to each site. As shown in Figure 5.9, three relevant distribution facilities were chosen with current manufacturing growth in mind (Alex, 2013). Distribution facilities are located in Antelope, Oregon; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Chicago, Illinois which provide the entire United States with delivery options lasting less than five days.
Chapter 5.3 94
Figure 5.9: Distribution Facilites and Ground Freight Time Estimates
95
Method of Distribution and Purchase: The Website To properly distribute the panelized system all over the U.S. would mean having a database of panel options for an architect to access and order as needed. A database will be created to host images and documentations for all panels or modular sys-
tems so they may become marketable to architects and designers. Each panel is documented on the website with its specifications, suggested usage and installation details. A mock-up web-design was used to provide an efficient method of purchasing and distribution for the finalized panels. The interactive version of this panel selection process and specifications can be found at JessikaNelson.com/Thesis.
Figure 5.10: A website has been created to give architects the oppurtunity to research the product of thier choosing, and obtain the specifications of that product before deciding to purchase for their project.
Chapter 5.3 96
Figure 5.11: The product website contains details and specifications of the panels and materials availabe to purchase.
97
Bibliography
Alex, E.M. Hess, Michael B. Sauter, and Thomas C. Frohlich , 24/7 Wall St. "10 States Where Manufacturing Still Matters." USA Today. Gannett, 10 Aug. 2013. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. Allen, Edward, and Joseph Iano. Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods. 5th ed. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons, 2004. Print. Arieff, Allison, and Bryan Burkhart. Prefab. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 2002. Print. Autodesk. "Total R-Values and Thermal Bridging | Sustainability Workshop." Total R-Values and Thermal Bridging | Sustainability Workshop. Autodesk, 2011. Web. 02 Feb. 2014. Benyus, Janine. "Biomimicry in Action." Lecture. Ted Talks. Oxford, England. July 2009. Ted: Ideas Worth Spreading. TedGlobal, Aug. 2009. Web. 25 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ted.com/talks/janine_benyus_biomimicry_in_action.html>. Benyus, Janine M. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. New York: Perennial, 2002. Print.
Carroon, Jean. Sustainable Preservation: Greening Existing Buildings. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. Print. Ching, Frank. Building Construction Illustrated. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. Print. Cohen, Robert, Michael Rubner, and Christopher Lawrence. "Dew Collector: Namib Desert Beetle." QinetiQ Dew Collector. RexResearch, 30 May 2008. Web. 01 Mar. 2013. <http://www.rexresearch.com/qinetiq/qinetiq.htm>. Darlington, Robert P., Melvin W. Isenberg, and David A. Pierce. Modular Practice: The Schoolhouse and the Building Industry. New York: Wiley, 1962. Print. Decker Yeadon. "Homeostatic Facade System." Ask Nature. The Biomimicry 3.8 Institute, 31 Jan. 2013. Web. 01 Mar. 2013. <http://www.asknature.org/product/0c2046bdbcb82fbcec31c8b4030f6e6b>. Decker Yeadon. "Homeostatic Facade System." Homeostatic Facade System. Decker Yeadon, n.d. Web. 01 Mar. 2013. <http://www.deckeryeadon.com/projects/HomeostaticFacadeSystem.html>. "Freight Rate Index." Freight Rate Index. N.p., 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. Gissen, David. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural, 2002. Print. Greenberg, Gary. "The Beautiful Nano Details of Our World." Lecture. Ted Talks. Maui, Hawaii. Jan. 2012. Ted: Ideas Worth Spreading. TedxMaui, Nov. 2012. Web. 25 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ted.com/talks/gary_greenberg_the_beautiful_nano_details_of_our_world.html>. "Insulspan SIPS." Insulspan SIPs. Insulspan, Inc., 2014. Web. 13 Jan. 2014. <http://www.insulspan.com/>. Jackson, N. "List of Works." Craig Ellwood. London: Laurence King Pub., 2002. 192-201. Print.
Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects. 3rd ed. N.p.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print. Lovegrove, Ross. "Organic Designs." Lecture. Ted Talks. Monterey, California. Feb. 2005. Ted: Ideas Worth Spreading. Ted2005, Aug. 2006. Web. 25 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ted.com/talks/ross_lovegrove_shares_organic_designs.html>. Mazzoleni, Ilaria, and Shauna Price. Architecture Follows Nature: Biomimetic Principles for Innovative Design. Boca Raton: CRC, 2013. Print. McDonough, William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point, 2002. Print. Padovan, Richard. Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. New York: E & FN Spon, 1999. Print. Schittich, Christian. In Detail: Cost-effective Building: Economic Concepts and Constructions. Basel [etc.: Birkhäuser, 2007. Print. Shiffer Design. Homes in a Box: Modern Homes from Sears Roebuck. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Pub., 1998. Print. "The U-factor of Thermal Replacement Windows." HomeAdvisor. N.p., 1999-2014. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. "United States." Ground Time-in-Transit Maps. UPS, 1994-2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. Wagner, Andrew. "Was It Motohome-o-phobia?" Google Books. Dwell, Apr. 2001. Web. 02 May 2014.
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Wood, Donald, and Paul R. Murphy, Jr. Contemporary Logistics: Principles of Logistics & Supply Chain Management. 10th ed. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia, 2012. Print. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Drawings and Plans of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Period (1893-1909). New York: Dover Publications, 1983. Print. Zung, Thomas T. K. Buckminster Fuller: Anthology for the New Millennium. New York: St. Martin's, 2001. Print. Â
99
Appendices 100
Appendices
101
Aperature Loss per Wall Type
Sou er a i or ia c a ge rom a
e
a ue
Fi i e a S em
0 10
10 20
20 40
40 60
Nor a c a ge rom 0 60
0 10
10 20
20 40
40 60
Sou a c a ge rom 0 60
0 10
10 20
20 40
40 60
i e c a ge rom 0 60
5.55
6.55
0 10
10 20
20 40
40 60
0 60
Appendix I: Supplemental Data 102 Peak Aperature Loss on Walls North East
Aperature
Building Name
12" Concrete Brick on Mtl Stud EIFS on Mtl Stud EIFS on Wood Stud CMU Insulated SIPS 5.5"
1 2 3 4 5 6
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
3,692.60
7.84%
5,798.70
34.24%
3,692.60
7.86%
5,798.70
34.24%
0%
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
3,692.60
7.85%
5,798.70
34.24%
3,692.60
7.82%
5,798.70
34.24%
3,692.60
7.97%
5,798.70
34.24%
3,692.60
7.78%
5,798.70
34.24%
66 55 44 33 22 11
SIPS 5.5" CMU Insulated EIFS on Wood Stud EIFS on Mtl Stud Brick on Mtl Stud 12" Concrete
7 8 9 10 11 12
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
3,132.50
6.23%
4,948.80
25.84%
3,132.50
6.37%
4,948.80
25.84%
3,132.50
6.26%
4,948.80
25.84%
3,132.50
6.28%
4,948.80
25.84%
3,132.50
6.29%
4,948.80
25.84%
3,132.50
6.28%
4,948.80
25.84%
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A
12" Concrete Brick on Mtl Stud EIFS on Mtl Stud EIFS on Wood Stud CMU Insulated SIPS 5.5"
13 14 15 16 17 18
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
2,737.80
5.16%
4,098.90
19.19%
2,928.60
5.12%
4,441.20
19.63%
2,968.30
5.74%
4,445.80
21.73%
3,141.70
6.05%
4,666.20
22.59%
2,917.30
5.69%
4,367.70
21.14%
2,965.50
5.69%
4,439.80
21.69%
6B 5B 4B 3B 2B 1B
SIPS 5.5" CMU Insulated EIFS on Wood Stud EIFS on Mtl Stud Brick on Mtl Stud 12" Concrete
19 20 21 22 23 24
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
2,200.30
3.84%
3,263.90
13.50%
2,211.70
3.95%
3,312.70
13.67%
2,281.60
4.01%
3,420.10
14.10%
2,290.70
4.03%
3,427.10
14.13%
2,057.80
3.63%
3,080.90
12.83%
2,237.10
3.95%
3,321.50
13.87%
1C 2C 3C 4C 5C 6C
12" Concrete Brick on Mtl Stud EIFS on Mtl Stud EIFS on Wood Stud CMU Insulated SIPS 5.5"
25 26 27 28 29 30
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
1,205.60
1.93%
1,804.40
6.53%
1,089.50
1.74%
1,644.00
5.92%
1,201.80
1.92%
1,813.80
6.51%
1,238.40
1.93%
1,896.40
6.48%
1,581.50
2.36%
2,312.40
6.84%
1,239.20
1.98%
1,847.90
6.71%
10%
20%
40%
60%
Wall Type
Cooling
Space #
Heating
Cooling
South East Heating
Cooling
1 2 3 4 5 6
3,429.20
7.68%
12,551.40
34.24%
3,429.20
7.70%
12,551.40
34.24%
3,429.20
7.68%
12,551.40
34.24%
3,429.20
7.66%
12,551.40
34.24%
3,429.20
7.81%
12,551.40
34.24%
3,429.20
7.62%
12,551.40
34.24%
7 8 9 10 11 12
2,908.40
6.09%
10,711.80
25.84%
2,908.40
6.24%
10,711.80
25.84%
2,908.40
6.13%
10,711.80
25.84%
2,908.40
6.14%
10,711.80
25.84%
2,908.40
6.15%
10,711.80
25.84%
2,908.40
6.14%
10,711.80
25.84%
13 14 15 16 17 18
2,408.90
4.81%
8,872.20
19.19%
2,569.80
4.76%
9,613.00
19.63%
2,611.70
5.34%
9,623.00
21.73%
2,769.90
5.64%
10,100.00
22.59%
2,566.80
5.30%
9,453.90
21.14%
2,609.20
5.29%
9,610.00
21.69%
19 20 21 22 23 24
1,940.50
3.61%
7,064.70
13.50%
1,945.70
3.71%
7,170.40
13.67%
2,006.90
3.76%
7,402.90
14.10%
2,015.80
3.78%
7,418.00
14.13%
1,810.60
3.41%
6,668.60
12.83%
1,972.60
3.72%
7,189.40
13.87%
25 26 27 28 29 30
1,100.70
1.89%
3,905.70
6.53%
992.7
1.70%
3,558.50
5.92%
1,095.10
1.87%
3,925.90
6.51%
1,124.00
1.89%
4,104.80
6.48%
1,396.30
2.26%
5,005.30
6.84%
1,132.40
1.94%
3,999.90
6.71%
Mid West Heating
Cooling
1 2 3 4 5 6
4,443.10
9.18%
6,434.70
34.24%
4,443.10
9.19%
6,434.70
34.24%
4,443.10
9.18%
6,434.70
34.24%
4,443.10
9.15%
6,434.70
34.24%
4,443.10
9.32%
6,434.70
34.24%
4,443.10
9.11%
6,434.70
34.24%
7 8 9 10 11 12
3,778.40
7.35%
5,491.60
25.84%
3,778.40
7.51%
5,491.60
25.84%
3,778.40
7.38%
5,491.60
25.84%
3,778.40
7.40%
5,491.60
25.84%
3,778.40
7.42%
5,491.60
25.84%
3,778.40
7.40%
5,491.60
25.84%
13 14 15 16 17 18
3,129.50
5.83%
4,548.50
19.19%
3,350.60
5.78%
4,928.30
19.63%
3,393.60
6.45%
4,933.40
21.73%
3,592.50
6.80%
5,177.90
22.59%
3,334.70
6.40%
4,846.70
21.14%
3,389.70
6.40%
4,926.70
21.69%
19 20 21 22 23 24
2,539.70
4.43%
3,621.80
13.50%
2,555.00
4.56%
3,676.00
13.67%
2,636.00
4.62%
3,795.20
14.10%
2,645.90
4.65%
3,803.00
14.13%
2,377.20
4.19%
3,418.80
12.83%
2,582.40
4.56%
3,685.80
13.87%
25 26 27 28 29 30
1,395.30
2.25%
2,002.30
6.53%
1,261.90
2.04%
1,824.30
5.92%
1,392.00
2.24%
2,012.70
6.51%
1,436.20
2.26%
2,104.40
6.48%
1,824.20
2.77%
2,566.00
6.84%
1,433.80
2.31%
2,050.60
6.71%
Heating
1 2 3 4 5 6
4,129.20
8.71%
9,446.30
34.24%
4,129.20
8.72%
9,446.30
34.24%
4,129.20
8.71%
9,446.30
34.24%
4,129.20
8.68%
9,446.30
34.24%
4,129.20
8.85%
9,446.30
34.24%
4,129.20
8.64%
9,446.30
34.24%
7 8 9 10 11 12
3,508.80
6.94%
8,061.80
25.84%
3,508.80
7.10%
8,061.80
25.84%
3,508.80
6.97%
8,061.80
25.84%
3,508.80
6.99%
8,061.80
25.84%
3,508.80
7.00%
8,061.80
25.84%
3,508.80
6.99%
8,061.80
25.84%
13 14 15 16 17 18
2,906.20
5.49%
6,677.30
19.19%
3,107.30
5.43%
7,234.90
19.63%
3,151.30
6.08%
7,242.30
21.73%
3,338.40
6.41%
7,601.30
22.59%
3,096.80
6.03%
7,115.00
21.14%
3,147.90
6.03%
7,232.60
21.69%
19 20 21 22 23 24
2,338.40
4.12%
5,317.00
13.50%
2,347.60
4.24%
5,396.50
13.67%
2,421.60
4.29%
5,571.50
14.10%
2,431.80
4.31%
5,582.80
14.13%
2,184.40
3.89%
5,018.80
12.83%
2,377.30
4.24%
5,410.80
13.87%
25 26 27 28 29 30
1,283.70
2.10%
2,939.50
6.53%
1,158.90
1.89%
2,678.20
5.92%
1,278.30
2.08%
2,954.70
6.51%
1,314.20
2.10%
3,089.30
6.48%
1,677.00
2.58%
3,767.00
6.84%
1,320.10
2.15%
3,010.30
6.71%
Appendix i
Southern California
103 Performative Research: Typical Wall Assemblies Typical Wall Assembly Wood Stud @ 16" OC Metal Stud @ 16" OC Reinforced Concrete
R-Value U-Value 12.44 5.50 1.40
0.08 0.18 0.71
20.21 2.00
0.05 0.50
19.00
0.05
Masonry Face Concrete Block Bearing SIP- Extruded Polystyrene @ 4.5"
Performative Research: Typical Insulation
Performative Research: Building Materials
Material Aluminum Solid Wood Plywood 1" Brick Face 3 5/8"
R-Value
U-Value 0.61 1.50 1.25 0.44
1.64 0.67 0.80 2.27
Concrete @ 90lb/ft3 CMU 8" Gypsum 1/2"
0.26 1.20 0.45
3.85 0.83 2.22
Glass- Single Pane Glass- Double Pane
0.91 1.69
1.10 0.59
Initial Studies for R-Value in Designed Panels
Appendix I: Supplemental Data 104
Appendix i
Performative: Insulation Comparison to R-8
Additional Resources for Calculations
Masonry Advisory Council -!3/.29 !$6)3/29 #/5.#), 1480 Renaissance Drive, Suite 302
Technical Note
2ENAISSANCE $RIVE 3UITE 0ARK 2IDGE ), Park Ridge, IL 60068 847/297-6704 phone 847-297-8373 fax 4ELEPHONE &AX 7EB WWW -AC/NLINE ORG %MAIL )NFO -AC/NLINE ORG
Weights of Building Materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Pounds Per Square Foot [PSF] CEILING (1) Acoustical fiber board (1) Suspended steel channel system Suspended wood channel system 2x8 ceiling joists @ 16" o.c., R-49 insulation, 1/2" gypsum board 1â&#x20AC;? Plaster (1) 1/2" gypsum board (1) 5/8" gypsum board ROOF Fiberglass shingles (1) Asphalt shingles (1) Wood shingles (1) Spanish clay tile Concrete roof tile Composition Roofing: (1) Three-ply ready roofing (1) Four-ply felt and gravel (1) Five-ply felt and gravel (1) 20 gage metal deck (1) 18 gage metal deck 0.05â&#x20AC;? thick polyvinyl chloride polymer (4) membrane 1" fiberglass batt insulation 1" loose fiberglass insulation 1" loose cellulose insulation (1) 1" rigid insulation Blowing wool insulation R-38 (16â&#x20AC;?deep) (1) 3/16" slate (1) 1/4" slate (1) Single-ply (no ballast) Single-ply (ballasted) (1) Dry gravel 2x8 rafters @ 16" o.c., fiberglass shingles, 15# felt, 3/8" sheathing (1) Skylight: metal frame w/ 3/8â&#x20AC;? wire glass FLOOR 1" reinforced regular weight concrete (1) 1" plain lightweight concrete 7/16" cementitious backerboard Ceramic or quarry tile (3/4") on 1/2" (1) mortar bed Ceramic or quarry tile (3/4") on 1" mortar (1) bed 1" mortar bed (1) 1" slate 3/8" marble tile (1) 3/8" ceramic floor tile
1 2 2.5 7 8 2.2 2.75
3 2 3 19 12 1 5.5 6 2.5 3 0.35 0.04 0.04 0.14 1.5 0.62 7 10 0.7 11 8.7 8 8 12.5 8 3 16 23 12 15 6 4.7
Masonry Advisory Council
FLOOR (cont.) (1) Hardwood flooring, 7/7-in (1) 1/4â&#x20AC;? linoleum or asphalt tile ÂŽ BCI/AJS joists @ 16" o.c., 3/4" sheathing, 1/2" gypsum board ÂŽ 3/4" Gyp-Crete topping Carpet & Pad Waterproofing Membranes (1) Bituminous, smooth surface (1) Liquid applied
1.5 1
SHEATHING (3) 11/32â&#x20AC;? or 3/8" Plywood â&#x20AC;&#x201C; OSB (3) 15/32â&#x20AC;? or 1/2" Plywood - OSB (3) 19/32â&#x20AC;? or 5/8" Plywood - OSB (3) 23/32â&#x20AC;? or 3/4" Plywood - OSB (3) 7/8â&#x20AC;? Plywood - OSB (3) 1 1/8â&#x20AC;? Plywood - OSB 1/2" cementitious backerboard 1-1/2" softwood T & G decking
1.0 - 1.2 1.4 - 1.7 1.8 - 2.1 2.2 - 2.5 2.6 - 2.9 3.3 - 3.6 3 4.6
FRAMING 2x4 @ 16" o.c. 2x6 @ 16" o.c. 2x8 @ 16" o.c. 2x10 @ 16" o.c. 2x12 @ 16" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 4500s, 5000 or 5000s @ 12" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 4500s, 5000 or 5000s @ 16" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 4500s, 5000 or 5000s @ 19.2" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 4500s, 5000 or 5000s @ 24" o.c ÂŽ BCI 6000 or 6000s @ 12" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 6000 or 6000s @ 16" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 6000 or 6000s @19.2" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 6000 or 6000s @ 24" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 60, 60s, 6500 or 6500s @ 12" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 60, 60s, 6500 or 6500s @ 16" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 60, 60s, 6000 or 6500s @19.2" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 60, 60s, 6500 or 6500s @ 24" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 90 or 90s @ 12" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 90 or 90s @ 16" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 90 or 90s @ 19.2" o.c. ÂŽ BCI 90 or 90s @ 24" o.c. ÂŽ AJS 140, 150, 190 or 20 @ 12â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 140, 150, 190 or 20 @ 16â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 140, 150, 190 or 20 @ 19.2â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 140, 150, 190 or 20 @ 24â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 25 or 30 @ 12â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 25 or 30 @ 16â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 25 or 30 @ 19.2â&#x20AC;? o.c. ÂŽ AJS 25 or 30 @ 24â&#x20AC;? o.c.
1.1 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.5 2.0 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.9 1.5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.2 1.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.8 1.0 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1.5 2.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.4 1.7 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.6 1.4 - 2.1 1.1 - 1.7 2.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.8 1.7 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.9 1.4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.4 1.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1.9 3.9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4.9 2.9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.7 2.4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.1 1.9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.5 2.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.3 1.7 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.5 1.4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.1 1.1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1.7 3.1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.9 2.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.9 1.9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.4 1.6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.0
4 1 10 6.5 2.0
file:///C:/Users/Jess/Documents/Thesis/R%20Value%20Calculations/GE-1_Weights_Building_ Materials.pdf Tech Note GE-1
Page 1 of 2
Design Alert No 10, (Revised 2003)
r11/13 (valid 2 years past publish date)
DESIGN ALERT NO. 10, (REVISED 2003)
Steel stud wall systems face several design challenges; from meeting structural requirements to effective insulation values. Current typical conventional steel stud construction is as follows: interior gypsum, optional vapor barrier, 4â&#x20AC;?-6â&#x20AC;? steel studs filled with R-11 to R-19 fiberglass Steel wall systems face several design challenges; from meeting structural to effective insulation batt stud insulation, exterior gypsum board, air barrier, air space, and arequirements brick exterior. Two issues values. Current typical conventional steel stud construction is as follows: interior gypsum, optional vapor barrier, 4â&#x20AC;?-6â&#x20AC;? are apparent in this system; R-value effectiveness and moisture in the system. steel studs filled with R-11 to R-19 fiberglass batt insulation, exterior gypsum board, air barrier, air space, and a brick exterior. Two issues are apparent in this system; effectiveness and moisture in the system. ASHRAE 90.1 (below) addresses the R-value correction factor for R-values when constructing the
conventional design outlined above. 90.1 lists the effectiveness of batt insulation between steel studs, to90.1 be (below) anywhere fromthe 35-60% effective onconstructing stud spacing and insulation ASHRAE addresses correction factor for depending R-values when the conventional designRoutlined values. correction factors thermal inefficiencies every or 24,â&#x20AC;? based on above. 90.1The lists the effectiveness of battaccount insulationfor between steel studs, to be anywhere from16â&#x20AC;? 35-60% effective depending steel an R-value of roughly 0.1 per inch. These thermalinefficiencies bridges not only a on stud studs spacingwith and insulation R-values. The correction factors account for thermal every 16â&#x20AC;?result or 24,â&#x20AC;? in based significant reduction in of R-values forperyour but they pose inana significant issue of reduction in on steel studs with an R-value roughly 0.1 inch.wall Thesesystem, thermal bridges not also only result condensation at the steelbutstuds. Interior dust shadowing/staining may occur R-values for your wall system, they also pose anand issueexterior of condensation at the steel studs. Interior andalso exterior dust at the location of the studs where colder air is present. shadowing/staining may also occur at the location of the studs where colder air is present. Nominal Framing Depth and Spacing
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Labeledâ&#x20AC;? batt insulation R-Value (between steel studs)
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Effectiveâ&#x20AC;? R-Value with batt insulation and steel studs
Wall thermal efficiency(1)
4â&#x20AC;? @ 16â&#x20AC;? on center
R-11 R-13 R-15
5.5 6.0 6.4
50% 46% 43%
4â&#x20AC;? @ 24â&#x20AC;? on center
R-11 R-13 R-15
6.6 7.2 7.8
60% 55% 52%
6â&#x20AC;? @ 16â&#x20AC;? on center
R-19 R-21
7.1 7.4
37% 35%
6â&#x20AC;? @ 24â&#x20AC;? on center
R-19 R-21
8.6 9.0
45% 43%
(1) - Data Source: ASHRAE/EIS Standard 90.1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1999, Appendix A. Below is a website with a research study done by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Performance of a Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Wall Systemâ&#x20AC;? dated May 13, 2002.
Below is a website with a research study done by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Performance of a Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Wall Systemâ&#x20AC;? dated May 13, 2002.
http://www.cmhc.ca/en/imquaf/himu/himu_004.cfm
http://www.cmhc.ca/en/imquaf/himu/himu_004.cfm
The study was done over a 7-year period with the conventional construction described above and closely monitored by The study was done over a 7-year period with the conventional construction described above thermocouples, humidity moisture sensors, and humidity pressure taps. The wallmoisture was openedsensors, after 4 years and closely relative monitored by sensors, thermocouples, relative sensors, andand the results are startling. Building exteriorafter gypsum board and were the veryresults wet withare significant amounts of mildew, minor pressure taps. The wallpaper wasand opened 4 years startling. Building paper corrosion of the building andwere the fiberglass battwith insulation was wet. amounts of mildew, minor and exterior gypsumframe, board very wet significant
corrosion of the building frame, and the fiberglass batt insulation was wet.
http://www.cmhc.ca/en/imquaf/himu/himu_004.cfm
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Appendix I: Supplemental Data 106
Additional Resources for Calculations
T&T
Masonry Advisory Council
Brick Veneer On Wood Frame (residential and single family usage) R of the outside air film R of a 4” Brick R of 1” reflective air space R of 3/4” polyisocyanurate R of 3 1/2” batt insulation R of 1/2” drywall R of the inside air film R of the total wall U of the wall
MATERIALS, INC.
0.17 0.44 2.89 5.60 11.00 0.45 0.68 21.23 0.047
Solid Loadbearing Masonry Wall (midrise and multifamily usage)
170 Mt. Read Blvd • Rochester, NY 14611 Ph: 1-888-909-9119 • Fax: 585-486-1187 http://www.tandt-materials.com Service Disabled Veteran Owned Small Business (SDVOSB)
POUNDS PER CUBIC INCH Aluminum Alloy Nom. 1100 2011 2024 3003 5052 6061 6063 7075
Copper Alloys Alloy lb/cu in CDA 110 0.323 CDA 230 0.316 CDA 360 0.308 CDA 464 0.304 Stainless Steel Alloy lb/cu in 300 Series 0.290 400 Series 0.280 17-4 0.280
lb/cu in 0.100 0.098 0.102 0.101 0.099 0.097 0.098 0.097 0.101
Nickel Alloys Alloy Nickel Monel Inconel
lb/cu in 0.322 0.319 0.307
Misc Metals Carbon Steel Lead Magnesium Tin Titanium
0.280 0.410 0.064 0.264 0.162
FORMULAE FOR WEIGHT
0.17 0.44 1.25 12.00 0.45 0.68 14.99 0.066
Sheets Circles Rings Round Rods Square Bars Rectangular Bars Hexagonal Rods
Length x Width x t x w .785 x D2 x t x w .785 x (D + d) x (D - d) x t x w D2 x 9.42 x w D2 x 12 x w Thickness x Width x 12 x w D2 x 10.39 x w
D = Outside diameter (or dimension) in inches
Brick and Block Cavity Wall (Quality construction for schools, Commercial/industrial, multifamily and high rises)
Round Tubing Square Tubing
d = Indide diameter in inches
t = Thickness in inches
37.7 x w x t x (D-t) 48.0 x w x t x (D-t)
D = Outside diameter (or dimension) in inches
=lbs per piece =lbs per piece =lbs per piece =lbs per foot =lbs per foot =lbs per foot =lbs per foot
t = Wall thickness in inches
w = Pounds per cubic inch
=lbs per foot =lbs per foot w = Pounds per cubic inch
LINEAR MEASURE CONVERSION 1 1 1 1
Inch = 25.4 Millimeters Inch = 2.54 Centimeters Foot = 30.48 Centimeters Yard = .9144 Meters
1 Millimeter = 0.03937 Inches 1 Centimeter = .3937 Inches 1 Meter = 39.37 Inches 1 Meter = 1.0936 Yards
WEIGHT CONVERSION
Use the examples above and the material properties on the next page to figure the R-Value of any wall system
1 Short Ton 1 Long Ton 1 Metric Ton
1 Pound = .4536 Kilograms 1 Kilogram = 2.2049 Pounds 2,000 Pounds 907.18 Kilograms 2,240 Pounds 1,016 Kilograms 2,205 Pounds 1,000 Kilograms
STRENGTH CONVERSION To Convert From pound/sq. inch (psi) ksi pound/sq. inch (psi) Newton/sq. millimeter (N/mm2) pound/sq. inch (psi) ksi ksi
http://www.maconline.org
To ksi (1000psi) megapascal (Mpa) megapascal (Mpa) megapascal (Mpa) Newton/square millimeter (N/mm2) Newton/square millimeter (N/mm2) kilogram/square millimeter
Multiply by 0.001 6.895 0.006895 1 0.006895 6.895 0.704
Appendix i
R of the outside air film R of a 4” Brick R of 6” Block R of 3” expanded polystyrene R of 1/2” drywall R of the inside air film R of the total wall U of the wall
This guide is provided for informational purposes only. T&T Materials is in no way responsible for any errors on this guide, or any errors resulting from the use of this guide.
http://www.tandt-materials.com/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=DL1z0xk7U3w=
107
IET Collaboration Initial Meeting Notes: Jan. 20, 2014 The Pitch IET Collaboration Meeting Notes: Feb 20, 2014 Ask yourself things like: Is your product made modular so it can be made in small pieces and large quantities and also transported that way? This would require more work on the construction site to install BUT easily transported. OR make it in very long pieces making it faster/easier to install on construction site BUT much more difficult to transport? Std Dims: Pallet: A standard U.S. pallet size is 48” by 40” (Europe has their own) Flatbed trailer: Open space, standard 48’ long x 102” wide flattop can carry max of 48,000 lbs of cargo. It can be stacked to 8’4” high (if your product allows that). Dry van: Most common type of semi-truck trailer if cargo must be shielded from the elements. Std is 53’ long and useable space inside is 52’4” long x 98.7” wide x 110” high. It can carry max of 44,000 lbs consisting of 26 pallets (one layer). Need material, density (wt per cu ft), length, width, fragility, etc. For transportation and logistics pricing (like loading dock, forklift needed, etc.) these factor in. IET Collaboration Meeting Notes: March 11, 2014 Collected textbook “Contemporary Logistics” 10th ed. by Murphy and Wood IET Collaboration Meeting Notes: April 3, 2014 Usually logistical plans are already formulated and are professionally tested by logistical specialist companies like UPS, unless the company is large enough to do logistics in-house, like Home Depot. Basic points to logistics: •
WEIGHT! - only 50,000 lbs. per truck load.
•
Modularity of panels by using pallets.
•
Fork lift needed to move pallets.
Think about previously stated Std Dims: Pallet: A standard U.S. pallet size is 48” by 40” (Europe has their own)
Appendix II: Collaboration Meeting Notes 108
Think about previously stated Std Dims: Pallet: A standard U.S. pallet size is 48” by 40” (Europe has their own) Flatbed trailer: Open space, standard 48’ long x 102” wide flattop can carry max of 48,000 lbs. of cargo. It can be stacked to 8’4” high (if your product allows that). Dry van: Most common type of semi-truck trailer if cargo must be shielded from the elements. Std is 53’ long and useable space inside is 52’4” long x 98.7” wide x 110” high. It can carry max of 44,000 lbs. consisting of 26 pallets (one layer).
IET Collaboration Meeting Notes: April 14, 2014 No contact for an existing logistical plan from Home Depot of Lowes. Basics to another distribution plan:
Route Times Calculating route times using a UPS tool. This will help with how long to ship via ground from the manufacturing facility (assuming New Orleans and anywhere in Oregon) Link: http://www.ups.com/maps?srch_pos=1&srch_phr=time+in+transit+map If the lengths in days don’t work, here’s a mileage distance calculator link: http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm Also USP offers a logistics service to manufacturers – they do all the work. http://www.ups-scs.com/logistics/distribution.html
Freight Cost According to FreightRateIndex.com who keeps a monthly all up costs of ground freight shipping, they say it costs $2.53573 per mile all inclusive cost.
Manufacturing Locations As for choosing locations for your 3 manufacturing facilities, there are many factors involved and requires much more research than shown here. Just to get started, we can look at where the current growth is of other manufacturing facilities… Top 10 states where manufacturing is best (as of August 2013) based on economics according to USA Today. Link: http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/08/10/10-states-where-manufacturing-still-matters/2638363/ 10. Alabama, 9. Michigan, 8. Iowa, 7. Ohio, 6. Kentucky, 5. Wisconsin, 4. North Carolina, 3. Louisiana (fits into your SE map), 2. Oregon (fits into your Mid-West map) 1. Indiana Only two of these fit into the maps you provided.
Appendix II
Link: http://www.FreightRateIndex.com