Jewish Life Spring 1976

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IYAR 5736/SPRING 1976

Comments /Franz Kafka, The New York Times, and the "Passover Fete" /On Truth and Integrity in Jewish Life The Growing Rate of Divorce in Orthodox Jewish Life /A rabbi describes the problem and searches for explanations. "^

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The Other Jews /Not all Jews are American, Israeli, or Russian—a brief report on how the other Jews

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Where Is Modem Orthodoxy At—and Where Is It Going? of native American Orthodox Judaism

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Building Day Schools in America—in the 1840's / The more things change, the more they remain the same.

Books In Review: Jewish Medical Ethics I Living Judaism I Encyclopedia of Jewish Music A publication of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America

Mrs. Linore W and Family have established the Jess Ward Memorial Jewish Life Fund to assure the continued publication of Jewish Life in its expanded format and to continue the dissemination of Torah ideology to English-speaking Jewry throughout the world.

The Fund is a tribute to the sacred memory of Jess Ward who in his lifetime gave of his talents and his means to his fellow Jews.

We pray that these pages shall be a worthy memorial to his committed life.

IYAR 5736/SPRING 1976

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Editor: Yaakov Jacobs Editor Emeritus: Saul Bernstein Chairman, Publications Committee: Lawrence A. Kobrin Associate Editor: Yaakov Kornreich

Contents 2

Comments The Growing Rate of Divorce in Orthodox Jewish Life / Bernard Weinberger

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The Other Jews / Stanley Abramowitz

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Where Is Modem Orthodoxy At—And Where Is It Going? / Shlomo Riskin

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Building Day Schools in America—in the 1840's / Eli M. Lazar

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Reb Yitzchak Blaser: A Mussar Giant / Aaron Rakefet-Rothkoff

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A Trade For an Aristocrat / Jacob Marateck (retold by Anita and Shimon Wincelberg)

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Books Jewish Medical Ethics / reviewed by Lowell Eliezer Beilin Living Judaism Encyclopedia of Jewish Music

61 Jewish Life: Past/Present/Future Published by UNION OF ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATIONS OF AMERICA / President: Harold M. Jacobs / Chairman of the Board: Joseph Karasick / Honorary Chairman of the Board: Samuel C. Feuerstein / Honorary Presidents: Moses I. Feuerstein, Max J. Etra, Dr. Samuel Nirenstein / Senior Vice Presidents: Dr. Bernard Lander, David Politi / Vice Presidents: Nathan K. Gross, Julius Berman, Marvin Herskowitz, Sheldon Rudoff, Reuben E. Gross, Fred Ehrman / Treasurer: Marvin Hochbaum/Honorary Treasurer: Morris L. Green / Secretary: Michael C. Wimpfheimer / Financial Secretary: Bernard Levmore / National Director: Rabbi David Cohen. ©Copyright 1976 by the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America. Material from JEWISH LIFE, including illustrations, may not be reproduced except by written permission from this magazine following written request. JEWISH LIFE is published quarterly.

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Franz Kafka, The New York Times, and the "Passover Fete" Several years ago The New York Times reported on a distorted real estate tax structure adopted in a suburban community. The story was headed "Kafka May Have Set The Rates." As an admirer of Kafka, and a frustrated headline writer, we wrote a note to The Times suggesting that they were perpetuating the medieval practice of blaming bad news on the messenger, something they should be more sensitive about since they were themselves often the victim of that absurdity. Kafka, the Jewish writer who is claimed by the Germans, by Alienated Man—and most recently by Marxists—as their own, did indeed fore see the overwhelming absurdity which has gripped modem society, but surely he cannot be blamed for the fulfillment of his prophecies. The Times might have called the absurd real estate rates "Kafkaesque," we suggested, but it was crude for them to suggest that Kafka "may have set" them. The Times chose not to print our letter but they did send a written reply. "The headline," they wrote, "which obviously has space limitations, was intended (sic) to mean Kafkaesque rates," confirming the old paraphrase of the Times' slogan: "All the news that fits we print."

There are other signs that the "old gray eminence," as the Times used to be called, "aini ,what she used to be." Some come from the Times itself.

Several years ago the period following "The New York Times, on its nameplate was dropped, perhaps an admission that it was no longer the last word. The correction box alongside the daily news index is another sign of self-recognized fallibility, since in the Times of bygone days nary a word of correction or apology ever appeared—except under the most dire threats of legal action against them. (It should be said for the record that the Times has done quite well in the courts in beating back legal actions, which coupled with the demise of The Herald-Tribune—their only competitor for some years—has made them stronger than ever. It should also be stated that our criticism of the Times carries no suggestion that their freedom to be arrogant should be restricted through legislation or court action.) Indeed one cannot be sure of anything the Times says on a given day until one has scanned the correction box in the next day's issue—and one hopes that researchers and scholars will bear this in mind. This creates quite a dilemma since the correction may sometimes not appear for several days—which takes us to Chag Ha'Pesach, the Festival of Freedom.

Each year readers of the Times are treated to a column of rhetoric and homiletics on the forthcoming Passover holiday with a headline which reads, with some variation, ^'Passover Fete Set." The story opens with the breathtaking news—blunted somewhat by the head—that the Passover will indeed arrive as predicted by the calendar. It is followed by snips from statements issued by "Jewish leaders" on the eve of the Festival. It is never made clear precisely why or to whom these statements were made, other than as fodder for the "Passover-Fete-Set" story. The quotations extoll the concepts of freedom embodied in the "exodus of the Hebrews from ancient 2

Egypt;" they "call upon world leaders" to bring the blessings of freedom to all mankind; and the story carefully attributes each quote to the head of one of an exclusive group of "Jewish leaders," many of whose names mean very little to most American Jews.

But most of all: the story and the messages distort the meaning of freedom to the Torah Jew. At the second Seder we begin Sefiras Ha'Omer, the Counting of the Omer, in effect connecting the' Pesach to Shevuos, the Festival of Matan Torah, the Giving of the Torah. The Almighty chose to unite these two festivals as a lesson for all times that Freedom is meaning­ less unless it is joined to Law. So each day after the Pesach we count the days—which takes us to the recently celebrated Chag Ha' Pesach, the Festival of Freedom.

We don't expect The New York Times to polish up their understanding of Judaism and its concepts—though well they might if they seek to have us take them seriously as a responsible journal of record. But we do urge that organizations committed to the truths of Torah cease being part of the "Jewish-Fete-Set" Syndrome which cheapens us all. Among the aspects of Freedom we achieved this Pesach lets us count our freedom from the obsessive need to compete for "inches" in The New York Times as an index of organizational effectiveness. Let Freedom joined to Torah be our goal and ultimate purpose.

The Beth Din: Its Time Has Returned There is one aspect of our rich heritage which is strangely neglected by virtually all groups within our religious community. There are many who correctly clamor for enhanced observance of Shabbos, and Kashrus, but fail to remind their coreligionists that there exist specifically Jewish obligations in the field of jurisprudence as well. Others stress the impor­ tance of the unique ethical moment of Judaism but seemingly remain oblivious to Jewish teachings with regard to adjudication of legal dis­ putes.

Judaism possesses an elaborate fabric of law for resolution of the sundry financial, personal and domestic differences which inevitably arise among members of any social group. Torah jurisprudence, while biblical in origin and hence rooted in antiquity, is amazingly adaptable to the changing nature of commerce and has been applied with remarkable versatility to the realia of the twentieth-century marketplace.

Judaism does not merely provide a comprehensive code of civil law but also enjoins its adherents from submitting litigation between two members of the Jewish faith for disposition by a secular court. "And these are the ordinances which you shall place before them—'before them' [rabbinic tribunals] but not before courts of the gentiles." The Sages took a dim view of the motives which might prompt a Jew to seek recourse to a non-Jewish judicial body. They deemed such an act, in and of itself, to be tantamount to rejection of the ethical teachings of Judaism. As such, they maintained, it constitutes acceptance of a foreign ideology and hence is to be equated with glorification of pagan gods.

The halachic imperative remains fully binding.

From time to time signed comment will appear in this space which reflects the opinions o f the editors o f Jewish Life.

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Moreover, as Jews we may be justifiably proud that our legal system is the oldest extant code applied by any judicial body. Over the centuries autonomous Batei Din existed in all Jewish communities and constituted the legal forum before which all litigious claims were resolved. In our not so distant past it was not uncommon for non-Jewish inhabitants of European villages and hamlets to submit their own lawsuits to rabbinic courts which had earned universal respect for their adjudication of their disputes in a non-Jewish court was unthinkable. Emancipation and equal protection under law notwithstanding, should not Jewish pride dictate that we submit our disputes to a Beth Din rather than to a civil court?

Quite apart from religious commitment and ethnic pride there are pragmatic considerations which make this route advantageous. A Beth Din does not have a crowded docket; justice is not delayed and hence not denied. Exorbitant court costs and legal fees are avoided. When a formal agreement is drawn up in advance the decision of the Beth Din will be confirmed by the state courts as the equivalent of a binding arbitration award. In those communities where Batei Din are currently in operation the results have been salutary.

The services of a Beth Din are particularly suited for resolution of conflicting claims with regard to custody of children of a broken mar­ riage. Determination of which parent is more capable of providing a positive atmosphere and better able to promote the psychological and social adjustment of a child suffering the trauma of a broken home can be determined most accurately by perceptive and discerning members of the cultural group within which adjustment must be made. If such Solomonesque decisions can be made at all they are best made by rabbinic members of Batei Din in whom training, experience and per­ sonal involvement combine to hone a sensitivity somewhat sharper than that of lawyers elevated to the bench. Moreover, the comparative infor­ mality which prevails and the greater latitude permitted in the introduce tion of evidence may often make it easier for a Beth Din to determine what really is in the best interests of a child. The advantages which accrue from the privacy of Beth Din proceedings are so obvious that they need not be belabored.

The American Jewish community has grown in maturity. It now pos­ Dr. Bleich is Professor of Talmud sesses the spiritual and institutional resources needed to revitalize the and Philosophy at Yeshiva University and the Rabbi o f the Beth Din and to incorporate it as an integral aspect of Jewish life.

Yorkville Synagogue in New York Establishment of Batei Din can do much to enhance Jewish awareness, City. His "Karen Ann Quinlan: identity and commitment. The Beth Din is an institution which has been A Torah Perspectiveappeared neglected for too long and whose time has come. in our Adar issue.

J. David Bleich

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On Truth and Integrity in Jewish Life Clear thinking is always in order. Recent events in American Orthodox Jewish life make it all the more imperative. Clear thinking is never easy.

Recent events have made it all the more difficult. Those who are charged with recording profundities in print are at such times tempted to choose silence. But American Orthodoxy, at the height of its strength on this continent, is hurting badly from wounds inflicted on our corpus by some of our own brothers. As all Jews suffer the shame of a single Jew, so do all Jews committed to Torah suffer the shame of a single Jew identified with Orthodoxy. Perhaps we will not succeed in saying all that we want to say and perhaps we may be misunderstood. But this is the risk that all must take who attempt to reduce their thoughts to writing. We must begin to speak of certain axioms, of the Torah imperative, of integrity, and of Truth.

Chos'omoh shel Ha'Kodosh Baruch Hu Ernes. "The seal of the Almighty/' the Sages tell us, "is Truth." The simile is clear: a seal bears witness to a presence of authenticity, of a document, of a culinary or medicinal preparation, of an institution, or of a commitment. The absence of a seal or the fracture of a seal raises questions of authenticity. The presence of G-d is not easy for the ordinary mortal to detect, to be certain of. We are easily deceived. When, therefore, we see outward manifestations of piety, and we would be certain of the presence of G-d, the Sages tell us to look for the seal—to look for Ernes.

The deterioration of moral values is a process which is often set in motion by taking minor liberties with the Truth. In American political life, it is common practice to lie. The practice ranges from the Oval Office in the White House, through the corridors of both houses of the Congress of the United States, through the cloak rooms of our state legislatures and to the offices of municipal government. Watergate did not uncover this fact: it did teach us, among many lessons, how widespread and how commonplace lying really is. In the spirit of George Orwell's 1984 "newspeak," lies are called by different names; statements are "operative" or "inoperative" depending on how much which was kept secret becomes known to others.

But whether it is "stonewalling" or whatever other euphemism may be used, it is still old-fashioned lying. And when the wheels of justice turn and lying by whatever name approaches the legal definition of perjury then faulty memory comes into play.

But it is not here our purpose to discuss morality in American political life but rather to point out that whatever practices prevail in the outside world, they have no validity in Torah life. The simple playing with Truth in conversation, in public statements, in responding to governmental proce­ dures, becomes for the Torah Jew an abomination—a sin not only in its own right, but an act which gives rise to further deterioration of morality ultimately leading to outright theft, to acts of violence against human beings, and the taking of human life.

The busy executive who instructs his secretary in response to a telephone call, "Tell him I'm not in," is committing an immoral act. If the executive happens to be an Orthodox Jew, and his secretary has been trained in a religious school, then the immorality is compounded by a negation of what

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both were taught in their respective houses of learning. The person who misrepresents his academic achievements, may be guilty of a misdemeanor in the eyes of the civil law, but is violating a basic principle of Torah law.

Whatever the origin of the concept of the "white lie," it is alien to Torah and destructive of Torah values. The Jew who cannot live with the facts as they present themselves at any given moment, is duty-bound to change them in ways acceptable to Torah principles. But to "change the facts" by lying is in effect to deny the Almighty, to close one's eyes to the certain knowledge that nothing is hidden from the Almighty. To "change the facts" is to express dissatisfaction with Divine Providence—hardly a suitable attitude for a Jew who claims to believe in Hashgocha P'ratis.

While we openly profess our shame with those of our brothers whose immoral behavior has brought them to the public eye, we reject the innuendoes coming from certain quarters that this kind of ethical misbehavior is somehow a function of Orthodox Jewry. At the same time we reject with equal fervor the absurd position that a prosecutor who investigates an Orthodox institution is ipso facto an enemy of the Jews. To proclaim in an ad in The New York Times that the entire process was an "Attack on Judaism," projects a nincompoop image of Orthodoxy which makes it difficult for us to be taken seriously by non-Jewish Americans and non-Orthodox Jews. For a Yiddish-language weekly to have flashed on its front page an utter distortion of simple facts in regard to someone who has besmirched Torah and Orthodoxy, is to make a mockery of journalism, of Truth, and of Torah. One is grateful at such times that few non-Jews read Yiddish.

The New York Post in its infamous Friday edition of February 20, 1976, simply manifested again its capacity to distort and to deceive, under the protection of recent Supreme Court decisions governing libel. It is paradox­ ical that this newspaper, which plays up to New York Jews and is widely read among them, should have taken the liberty to besmirch Orthodox leaders. Nevertheless, the entire sordid affair must elicit from us an authentic Torah response. Truth, like godliness, is elusive. The Maharal Mi'Prague long ago noted that the Hebrew letters aleph, mem, tov, which spell Ernes are found at the very beginning, at the center, and at the very end of the Hebrew alphabet, while the three letters spelling Sheker (Falsehood) are adjacent to each other. Truth is indeed elusive, but all of us must become more dedicated in searching for it. This is the Torah imperative, and this must be the Torah response.

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This Issue of Jewish Life Several months ago a Yiddish weekly featured on its front page an interview with a highly respected rabbi on the subject of the growing number of young Orthodox couples whose marriages end in divorce. He alluded to certain abuses in Orthodox life which he suggested may be responsible for breaking homes. All hell broke loose. In the very next issue of the weekly, the front page carried a five column headline over a story attacking the rabbi for placing the blame with some Torah educational institutions. Nestled under this story was an article in which the rabbi

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denied saying what he was being attacked for. The issue was quickly unjoined. But the nasty attack, and the Soviet-like confession extracted from the rabbi have had no noticeable effect in decreasing the number of divorces. Orthodoxy has come too far, has grown too much, for us to fear open discussion of our problems. We firmly believe that such discussion is the first step in finding solutions to our problems. In our lead article "The Growing Rate of Divorce in Orthodox Jewish Life," Rabbi Bernard Wein­ berger confronts the problem. We welcome non-hysterical responses.

The Jewish press—such as it is—most often concerns itself with Jews in America, in Israel, and in the Soviet Union. News from smaller Jewish settlements is rare. There are no full-time Jewish correspondents in European, African, and Asian countries where Jews live and the secular press for the most part ignores them. We are therefore especially pleased to offer in this issue, "The Other Jews," by Stanley Abramowitz, whose work with the Joint Distribution Committee takes him into these countries.

"Modem Orthodoxy" is a term we don't hear quite so often these days as we used to. As Rabbi Shlomo Riskin points out in his "Where Is Modem Orthodoxy At—and Where Is It Going?" the lines between types of Orthodoxy have blurred. Most Orthodox Jews cross them freely, without experiencing any shock. But the lines are still there and those on both sides of the line would do well to know where all of us are at.

Many of us can remember when there were less than a half-dozen yeshivahs in America. But most of us think of the "day-school" (a term that is yet to be clearly defined) as a recent phenomenon. Rabbi Eli M. Lazar has searched the pages of early American Jewish history and gives us in this issue a fascinating, virtually first-hand, report of how and why Jews tried to build day-schools in America in the 1840's.

Reb Yisroel Salanter, founder of the Mussar movement which restored morals and ethics to their central position in Jewish life, left no written record of his teachings. His disciple Reb Yitzchak Blaser preserved lecture notes, letters, and anecdotes which are the sole literary heritage of his great master. But he was A Mussar Giant in his own right as Rabbi Aaron Rakefet-Rothkoff tells us in his biographical sketch. This is one more in a series of such sketches he has written for Jewish Life over the years.

Shimon Wincelberg is familiar to readers of this journal, but he has not appeared here for a while. We are happy to have him back together with his wife Anita in their re-telling of a section of the the Samurai of Vishograd: The Notebooks of Jacob Marateck.

Books don't have the urgency of a daily newspaper or weekly magazine.

But they are "new s." Very often their messages don't reach the public—-to the public's loss. We will be experimenting in the treatment of books as news. Meanwhile, we offer three reviews in this issue.

We asked Dr. Lowell Beilin to review the new edition of Jewish Medical Ethics. In response to the traditional question: "How many words?" we said: "Stop when you've said what you want to say." In his letter enclosing his review he wrote: "As you suggested, I stopped writing after I had finished saying what I wanted to say." We were sorry we hadn't asked for more words, but "azoy geht es!" We hope to have more words from Dr. Beilin in the future.

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Bernard Weinberger

The Growing Rate of Divorce In Orthodox Jewish Life Surprisingly, no one has yet taken the trouble to gather data on the divorce rate amongst Orthodox Jews in this country, and more particu­ larly in New York City. Relying therefore, only on observation and general impression, we are struck by the uncomfortable feeling that the number of divorces in Orthodox circles is increasing to the point of alarm. Even after we make allowances for the fact that the Orthodox community is a closely tied-together group, living in densely populated enclaves where a single divorce is whispered about by the many people who are immediately involved making each one seem to like a dozen, we are still confronted with the reality of a tremendous increase, in recent years, in the divorce rate among Orthodox and Bnei-Torah families. Each of the Orthodox rabbinic groups now has a Bais-Din which prepares Gitten, and they all seem to be keeping busy. One hopes that some social scientist will undertake a study of the dimensions of the problem, because in the absence of hard data we will tend to exaggerate the problem. However, we must concede that a problem does exist, even if its magnitude is uncertain, and we should begin to examine the causes and determine whether we can in fact reverse the trend. While we need the help of Orthodox psychologists and sociologists to study the problem carefully and professionally—which this writer is not equipped to do-we can meanwhile explore the religious implications of the problem, and what the role of rabbis ought to be in curbing the incidence of divorce whenever possible.

In the larger American community the divorce rate is rapidly moving from one out of three marriages to one out of every second marriage. It is conceivable that soon those who stay married may be accorded status as a "minority." For the average American, Sunday is becoming a day for a man to do household chores, wash the car, watch the football game, and visit with the children—of his first wife. The affluent can combine these activities by taking the children to the football game with them. Happily, the Orthodox community is yet far removed from this state of affairs, but there is a trend that deserves our attention.

We frequently speak of divorce as the result of "incompatibility," even though we fully recognize that this catch-all phrase really tells us little about the real reason for the divorce. We have to break that concept down into the various components that will give us a more meaningful insight into the cause of divorce. I suggest several categories of incom­ patibility: character differences, psychological and emotional differences, economic, family, and physical differences. A well-known story tells of the mother who instructed her daughter in seeking a mate to search for someone who was very much like herself in family, character, and economic station and then explained: Adding "even though they say that opposites attract, being a man and a woman is opposite enough—

Each of the Orthodox rabbinic groups now has a Bais-Din which prepares Gitten, added to any number of individual rabbis who ■arrange Gitten, and they all seem to be keeping busy.

Rabbi Weinberger's "Confessions of an Orthodox Rabbi," which appeared in our Tishrei issue, caused a great deal of comment in Jewish communal circles. He reacts here to a serious problem in Orthodox life, which some people seem to believe will go away if we choose not to recognize its existence. In addition to his many communal interests, Rabbi Weinberger is the spiritual leader of the Young Israel of Williamsburg in New York City.

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everything else should be the same." Yet, we all have differences and in some cases the degree of difference can become an impediment to a mutually tolerable or beneficial relationship.

Differences in character which relate to such things as attitude, temp­ erament, habits, likes and dislikes can become so acute as to render living together unbearable. Anger, envy, frugality, personal or house­ hold sloppiness and the like, can become so serious a point of difference as to make adjustment impossible. These are traits that we each bring to a relationship that can become a stumbling block if carried to an ex­ treme, or if exaggerated in the mind of an impatient or extremely sensitive spouse. Readers of the "Dear Abby" columns in the tabloid newspapers are shocked and amused by the range of issues which divide people in marriage. Some have considered divorce from a spouse otherwise loved because of intolerable snoring at night. Character differ­ ences, real or imagined, can become barriers to a workable marriage.

The Gift of Giving

The basic ability to give of oneself and to demonstrate some measure of selflessness-a basic ingredient of marriage-is simply beyond the psychological reaches of some people. There are those who need to see an immediate return for every expenditure of themselves and these people are severely handicapped in developing a rewarding and enduring marital relationship.

The same is obviously true, in a more fundamental way, for psychological and emotional differences. The basic ability to give of oneself and to demonstrate some measure of selflessness—a basic ingredient of marriage—is simply beyond the psychological reach of some people. There aré those who need to see an immediate return for every expenditure of themselves and these people are severely hand­ icapped in developing a rewarding and enduring marital relationship.

Some lack the emotional strength necessary to attempt a reconciliation after a quarrel and are thus similarly thwarted in the relationship with their partner.

Economics is easily recognized as an important factor in keeping a household together. Not all relationships are strong enough to surmount the hardships of deprivation. Many are simply not equipped to accept a life of poverty, or even denial of amenities that most people take for granted. In our society where, all too often, women have been compel­ led to seek gainful employment to sustain the economic base of the household, there has been an inevitable strain added to marriage and a concomitant weakening of the family fabric. It is no coincidence that the women's liberation movement has emerged precisely when more and more women have entered into the labor, industry, and management markets. We in the Orthodox community have not been completely impervious to this challenge even though we give it little attention.

Jews have always taken justifiable pride in the solidarity of our family fabric and the decisive role our parents play in the family relationship.

But, we have always focused on the salutary aspect of that relationship.

We have not, however, given sufficient evidence to our awareness that in the marriage situation these relationships can, and indeed do, become serious handicaps. In Chassidic families, where living in close proximity to parents is still valued, and in Orthodox families wher§ the parents tend to provide economic support in the early years of marriage, this problem can become even more serious.

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The Physical Factor That we do not talk much about it does not in any way mean that the Orthodox community is unaware of the absolutely crucial role of physi­ cal togetherness in marriage. A deep-rooted sense of modesty enjoins us from public discussion of the role of sex in marriage. It is so axiomatic as to need no elaboration. The Rabbis taught us "Everyone knows why the bride enters the bridal canopy, but......." We do not necessarily agree with the Freudians who would add to that statement: "Everyone knows why the bride gets out of marriage." Yet, it is undeniable that sexual incompatibility or inadequacy is a decisive factor in many divorces. The Talmud discusses at length the issues of childlessness, impotence, pre­ mature ejaculation, and similar sexual problems which contribute to divorce. We are guilty of ostrichlike blindness if we do not recognize that in our society, where there is an obsessive concern with sexual gratification, marriage is being challenged as never before. It is to the great credit of the Torah community that we have managed to create communities that are shielded and insulated from the torrential waves of sexuality that pervade our whole society. Yet, it would be a dangerous self-delusion not to recognize that some seepage has taken place into our own homes. The most serious peril is not the permissiveness in dress, exposure, literature, and uninhibited exhibitionism that prevails in the larger society. That we can perhaps protect ourselves against.

What is troublesome is that the compulsively neurotic obsession with almost limitless magnitudes of sexual gratification creates a level of expectation that is doomed to frustration in marriage and almost cer­ tainly guarantees a high incidence of divorce.

The Stigma of Divorce To the five categories of incompatability which result in divorce al­ ready listed, must be added some new realities if we are to explain why these sources of tension account for more divorces today than in years gone by. Foremost in importance: In our society today there is no longer any shame in being divorced, and even in the Orthodox community the stigma and shame have been significantly reduced and perhaps even removed completely. It is impossible to even hazard a guess as to the numbers of people who stay married only to avoid the shame and embarrassment, but it is safe to assume that an army of colossal size could be mobilized if we joined all these people together. Undoubtedly, there will be many who will applaud this new development, that re­ moves shame as an impetus to staying married. Indeed, the Torah itself provides for divorce as an alternative to an unhappy marriage. And although the Sages tell us that "the Altar weeps for a man who divorces his first wife", it is lamentable, they will argue, but nonetheless a reality of life. In American society divorce has become as acceptable as tradingin your three year old car for a new model. In the Torah community there is still some hesitancy but there are strong voices that prefer the experience of slight shame over the torment of staying married. One

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YJe are guilty of ostrich-like blindness if we do not recognize that in our society, where there is an obsessive concern with sexual gratification, marriage is being challenged as never before.

American Orthodoxy, at the height of its strength on this continent, is hurting badly from wounds inflicted on our corpus by some of our own brothers. As all Jews suffer the shame of a single Jew, so do all Jews committed to Torah suffer the shame of a single Jew identified with Orthodoxy.

point needs emphasis, however: as you weaken shame as a deterrent to divorce you simultaneously weaken the motivation to make the strong effort needed for man and wife to stay together.

Moreover, as divorce increases in the absence of shame, the options for those contemplating divorce become greater. It now becomes so much easier to risk starting all over again with a new and similarly affected partner. The opportunities created by the growing number of divorced people becomes another source of encouragement to those saddled with conflict.

Parenthetically, there is another development that has some bearing on the situation that few of us notice. Because life in our large cities is becoming a nightmare for old people living all alone, they are being encouraged to remarry even by their own children. Thus, the increasing number of senior citizens remarrying to escape the horrendous fear of loneliness in old age has given remarriage a new dignity. The widowed mother or father who has remarried is less convincing in discouraging a son or daughter from contemplating remarriage.

Divorce is also no longer the economic burden it once was. For the affluent there are comfortable alimony awards, while for the poor gov­ ernment "Aid to Dependent Children" programs often provide more funds than the low earning frugal husbands could have provided. Also, job opportunities for women are vast enough as to make it a realistic possibility. Surely: it is not an ideal situation, but there are now options that were not available before. We ought not lament the fact that couples contemplating divorce now have more and better options available to them. However, we should guard against the reality that these new options should not become an easy cop-out for those who experience marital difficulties and thereby fail to make that special effort to save the marriage and the family. Divorce should be the absolutely last option after every effort at adjustment has failed.

In the Orthodox community there is an additional factor causing increased family tensions that lead to divorce and part of it is due to the success of that community. American Orthodoxy is growing more and more observant. There is a good deal more Torah learning and it is on a higher level than ever before. There is more appreciation and respect for the Ben-Torah, and more emphasis on Torah at all levels of the Or­ thodox community. Parents looking for a shidduch for their Bais Yaakov daughters are looking more to the Kollelim. These people are often ready to support the Kollel prospect after he is married. (The dimensions of this phenomenon are beyond the scope of this paper).

Complementing the growth of the Kollelim are the synagogues and shtiblech, each with a different nuance and specialty. This is evident throughout the Jewish community. Interestingly, while the restaurant business generally is experiencing a grave financial crisis, with ban­ kruptcies emerging everywhere, "Glatt Kosher" eating places are grow­ ing everywhere, even on college campuses, and all are doing a whale of a business. More and more single and married yeshiva bochrim are wearing beards (the religious kind) and peyos. You see more and more tzizis showing out from under plaid and gray flannel suits; and on Shabbos more and more people are wearing their taleisim in the streets of

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Boro Park and Williamsburg on the way home for Kiddush. We are also witnessing more small Torah communities emerging in places like Monsey, Monroe, Teaneck, Staten Island, Lakewood, Morristown, and Pas­ saic. There appears to be a new vitality in the burgeoning Orthodox community.

In the Chassidic community this new dynamism is all the more appa­ rent. The manufacture of shtreimlech and sheitlech are now growth indus­ tries. It is almost impossible to attend a Chassidic wedding where the choson doesn't wear a streimel, even when the parents from both sides can't recall their fathers or grandfathers having worn one. The atten­ dance at the tishin of various rebbes in metropolitan areas is overwhelm­ ing and tell a tale of unimagined growth of Chassidus in this country.

Young people wearing "white socks" on Shabbos—once symbolic of the elite in Chassidic communities—are seen in staggering numbers. Cer­ tainly the growth of such East Coast villages as New Square, Monroe, Irvington, Union City, Mount Kisco, and other surburban areas reveal a Chassidic community that is bursting at the seams.

The portrait of a dynamic growing Torah community is as real as it is gratifying. It is enhanced also by a numerical growth stemming from a high birth rate and from the "conversion" of many borderline Jews to Orthodoxy. All of this would be absolutely exhilarating if it weren't for the sad fact (and it grieves me to have to say it) that all of this vigorous piety is all too often superficial, and not supported by personal behavior behind closed doors. There is a distinct discrepancy and inconsistency between the image we project on the outside and the real world in which we function privately. It is not simply the usual discrepancy between the ideal that we give lip service to and the real that we experience. That would be quite normal, since this is the way people express their hopes and aspirations. What we have here is a blatant self-deception that really entails adulteration of the ideal. If "learning in a kollel" is not supported by other aspects of piety that they purport to imply, then they can become a caricature and denigration of Chassidic life. And...nowhere is the failure to be genuine more devastating than in marriage. Here self-deception becomes deception of another human being who may or may not be able or willing to be a party to the facade.

American Orthodoxy is developing its own idiomatic forms that some­ times touch on the bizarre and often evoke a grimace on the face of an oldtime European Jew. I have seen such expressions on the faces of Chassidic Jews when they see an American Orthodox boy wrap a thick gartel around a loud-colored plaid blazer or sport jacket, or when they see grown Yeshiva bochrim on the basketball court with their tzizis flying from the side of their trousers. Many an American-born Yeshiva bochur will return that puzzled look when he sees a Chassidic man or woman in Brooklyn hitching a ride from Williamsburg to Boro Park, or when he sees a young Chassid driving a two-tone convertible or a Lincoln Conti* nental. These are part of the cultural oddities that will inevitably emerge in the American Orthodox melting pot, and pose no inherent conflict.

There are, however, much more serious basic conflicts in our behavior that do threaten our growth and development. Wearing the "shtreimel and white socks" is a commitment of some kind to a prescribed way of

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The portrait of a dynamicgrowing Torah community is as real as it is gratifying. It is enhanced also by a numerical growth stemming from a high birth rate and from the "conversion" of many borderline Jews to Orthodoxy. All of this would be absolutely exhilarating if it weren't for the sad fact (and it grieves me to have to say it) that all of this vigorous piety is all too often superficial, and not supported by personal behavior behind closed doors.

life and should be an indication of what life at home is going to be like.

When it is inconsistent with intimate and private behavior it becomes a source of great tension and conflict. Similarly acceptance of life in a Kollel brings with it a whole array of sacrifices that are part of the package and are simply incongruous with the rest of American norms. It is painful to spell out these conflicts in detail, but, it can be generalized that these kind of commitments to a special level of piety should be reflected in: how we dress; where we spend our vacations; the kind of surroundings our wives and daughters will work in; and many other religious, moral, and ethical questions we must daily confront.

A good deal of what adds up to maturity is the capacity to resolve personal conflict. In religious life, conflict resolution is indispensable to a wholesome and healthy understanding of what Torah life is all about.

However, little of this capacity is acquired by study alone. It is absorbed from a stable family environment, or from being in close proximity to Torah scholars whose personal behavior is an integral part of the educa­ tional process. But so many of your young people today, wonderful as they may be in their religious fervor and commitment, lack this background. Quite often they far surpass the level of piety they experi­ enced at home, and even when the gaps in their learning are filled in at a yeshiva, they lack shimush, the exposure to mature religious per­ sonalities at close hand, leaving them with a lack of religious sophistica­ tion. It is such young people.who are at a disadvantage in confronting the kind of conflict resolution that marriage makes all the more impera­ tive.

It is not here suggested that we somehow inhibit the growth of external manifestations of piety. But we must create the circumstances that will support that growth with commensurate development of religi­ ous integrity and personal introspection. This is surely one way to make our marriages more stable and our homes a happy setting for a rich Torah life.

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RESERVE THIS DATE: NOVEMBER 24-28, 1976 UOJCA BIENNIAL CONVENTION For further information write: UOJCA Convention Committee 116 East 27th Street New York, N.Y. 10016

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Top: Talmud Torah in Tunisia

Bottom: Community Seder in Bucharest

Photos courtesy o f Joint Distribution Committee 16

Stanley Abramovitch

The Other Jews Not all Jews are Americans, Israelis, or Russians. In this report the writer tells us how "the other Jews" are doing in their far-flung communities.

France has the largest Jewish community in Western Europe. This community faces many problems accumulated since the end of World War II, when it began to receive refugees and immigrants from many countries. Other communities have also absorbed refugees, but in no Jewish community are three out of four people newcomers, who brought with them so many different problems—problems that have not and could not be solved in a quarter of a century. The Jewish People are not on the best terms with the French at the present time; French foreign policy works against the best interests of Israel. But, it should not be forgotten that France is one of the few countries to accept wave after wave of Jewish refugees, not only from North Africa, but also from Egypt and Eastern Europe. France keeps its doors open, now with some restrictions, to a constant flow of immigrants. Refugees can settle in France without being subject to any screening process prior to their coming, in contrast to those who choose to settle in Canada, the United States or Australia. Refugees enter without prior medical examination; without having to prove that they have skills needed in the country; and without an affidavit of support. No wonder, therefore, that increasing numbers of Jewish refugees require welfare and medical care, and for a large percentage their integration remains marginal at best. They lose their jobs at the first signs of economic recession.

Consequently, thirty years after the war, the Joint Distribution Com­ mittee is still active in France and still has to provide financial and technical aid, admittedly on a decreasing scale.

Even more critical than welfare problems, is the problem of education.

The FSJU, the central Jewish Social Service agency in France, and the Consistoire, the central religious body of French Jewry, have done very much to build up social, cultural and educational institutions required by a community of over half a million souls. But, whatever has been done, however impressive, is far from adequate.

Many communities Have insufficient school space to provide a Jewish education for their children. The day schools in Paris last year had to turn away over 500 children for lack of space. Marseilles, for its more than 70,000 Jews—the vast majority from North Africa—has only two small day schools in inadequate buildings, and a few Sunday schools Marseilles would require a large school campus, only a dream under present circumstances.

Many tens of thousands of Jews are concentrated in the suburbs north of Paris. Schools were started by Ozar Hatorah, the Alliance, and by individual educators. These have developed and now require permanent buildings.

The same is true of half a dozen large communities throughout France. School buildings are expensive, capital funds cannot be found, 17

French foreign policy works, against the best interests of Israel.

But, it should not be forgotten that France is one of the few countries to accept wave after wave of Jewish refugees, not only from North Africa, but also from Egypt and Eastern Europe.

Stanley Abramovitch has served for over two decades in the Headquarters for Overseas Operations of the American Joint Distribution Committee in Geneva, Switzerland. His work takes him frequently to the various Jewish communities he here describes.

especially when Israel—properly so—claims and receives priority in all fund raising.

In spite of all these obstacles, there is a long list of achievements. The FSJU has developed schools in Paris, Strasbourg and elsewhere. The Consistoire has opened Talmud Torah schools in dozens of communities.

Special mention must be made of a group of young Jews from North Africa, graduates of Jewish day schools in Morocco, who are imbued with a pioneering spirit, who are real soldiers for Jewish education. They start schools, develop and nurture them until they become viable institu­ tions. Some fail, some go broke, some make mistakes, but others suc­ ceed. A dozen institutions have been set up all over France, some with—but many without—the support of the official community. One young man started a school outside Paris which today has an enrollment of 350 pupils. He spends most of his time travelling in order to raise the $150,000 required to maintain the school, while his wife teaches and directs the school. The same story can be told about a school in Stras­ bourg or a yeshiva in Marseilles, a school and kollel in Nice or one in Saint Louis.

One young man started a school outside Paris which today has an enrollment of 350 pupils. He spends most of his time travelling in order to raise the $150,000 required to maintain the school while his wife teaches and directs the school.

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Day Schools in Stockholm No other community in Western Europe faces similar problems. They do all struggle to maintain their education programs—some more and others less successfully. Nevertheless, there are full time day schools in practically all the larger communities. Some, like Stockholm, achieve impressive results in spite of an environment which is not conducive to Jewish education.

Eastern Europe In Rumania and Yugoslavia the JDC works openly and officially and in other East European countries it can only help indirectly. A quick review of the communities in countries behind the Iron Curtain will show what they require and what can be done for them.

There are some 5,000 Jews in Poland, 75% of whom are over 65 years of age. The JDC helps maintain eight canteens which provide a warm kosher meal and which serve as a meeting place for Jews. The Joint supports basic religious services, and provides funds for the baking and distribution of Matzot for 3,000 needy people and sends them cash allocations from two to six times a year.

Synagogues and cemeteries are in various stages of decay. There are over 600 cemeteries in Poland, but in over 550 communities there are no Jews, and the tombstones are slowly disappearing.

The Jewish community in Warsaw is disintegrating. There has been no Bris Milah in Cracow in 12 years. That is the pathetic story of the great Polish Jewry in the final throes of death.

The Polish government maintains some token services, such as a Yiddish theater, where most of the theater-goers and many of the actors are not Jews.

There are over 600 cemeteries in Poland, bu t in over 550 communities there are no Jews, and the tombstones are slowly disappearing.

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Czechoslovakia The once glorious Jewish community of Czechoslovakia has about a thousand Jews left, six hundred of which rely on JDC cash allotments to survive. There is little Jewish life in Czechoslovakia. There is the usual public Seder, the Chanukah and Purim celebrations. Only two synagogues are kept open.

Jews in Hungary Hungary has a large community of 90,000 Jews, with the best economy in Eastern Europe. Consequently, outside help is limited to the needy aged. About 4,500 people receive cash assistance. The average age of those assisted is 75, and the vast majority are women. Another 3,000 receive other assistance.

Support is provided for a canteen in Budapest which distributes 1,500 meals daily, once a day. Most people take the meal home, to divide it for lunch and dinner. There is an old-age home for 200 people, a Jewish hospital, and the Memorial Foundation supports the Rabbinical Semi­ nary where, among others, there are two students from the Soviet Union. This, briefly, is the story of Hungarian Jewry. There are hardly any departures. It is a community that suffers little because of the fact that they are Jews, a community that is the least exposed to political and economic pressures among Jewish communities in Eastern Europe.

Rumanian Jewry Enjoys Religious Freedom The 80,000 Jews in Rumania live in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, there is complete religious freedom. There is kosher food in practically all communities. The government pays the salaries of relig­ ious functionaries. Chief Rabbi Moshe Rosen has organized Hebrew classes for many hundreds of young people, including students in the larger university cities. Public sedarim and Chanukah celebrations for many thousands are impressive and touching. The government permit­ ted 3,000 Sifrei Torah to be sent out of the country, fully aware of their monetary value. There is a Jewish newspaper written in Hebrew, Yid­ dish, and Rumanian. There is a large Jewish choir and regular lectures on Jewish topics are held in Bucharest.

At the same time Rumania has limited emigration. The few who are permitted to leave go to Israel. The need to assure the Jewish life of the communities, to provide a regular supply of kosher meat for Jews who remain in Rumania, and the fact that some families, nevertheless, do get permission to leave, has presented Rabbi Rosen with an unenviable dilemma. There are about a dozen shochtim left in Rumania. Many of them have children in Israel they would like to join. The government has given Rabbi Rosen veto right on exit permits for religious functionaries. What should he do?...Allow the few remaining shochtim to leave and discontinue the availability of kosher meat, or force them to stay behind? Rabbi Rosen has pleaded with the Israeli rabbinate to

The need to assure the Jewish life of the communities, to provide a regular supply of kosher meat for Jews who remain in Rumania, and-ihe fact that some families, nevertheless, do get permission to leave, has presented Rabbi Rosen with an unenviable dilemma.

19

relieve him of the burden of this decision. At the present time there are two shochtim assigned from Israel, their costs covered by the Joint.

The JDC supported program is imposed by the conditions and age structure of the Jewish community. Children up to the age of 19 repre­ sent only 14% of the Jewish community. For comparison: the same age group represents 40% in Israel. Those over 70 are 17% of the total community, in Israel only 4%. These statistics tell the story and impose the nature of the program. The immensity of the problem forces the JDC to limit its aid to the most needy sections of the population: the aged without any family. The assistance is kept to a minimum level of subsis­ tence, limiting the income of an assistee to a maximum of about 700 Lei or 40 to 50 dollars a month. The JDC supports kosher canteens in ten cities and delivers food daily to about 900 bedridden old people. It assists altogether about 10,000 people. One cannot foresee any decrease, over the next five years, in the number of assistées. On the contrary, it may increase, and in order to limit JDC's financial obligations the criteria remain stringent.

The immensity of the problem forces the JDC to limit its aid to the most needy sections of the population: the aged without any family. The assistance is kept to a minimum level of subsistence, limiting the income of an assistee to a maximum of about 700 Lei or 40 to 50 dollars a month.

Jews in Yugoslavia The 7,000 Jews in Yugoslavia enjoy the same rights and suffer the same handicaps as the rest of the population. They are permitted to be members of international Jewish bodies, and have a Jewish cultural program, including summer camps for their youth.

About 700 persons are aided by JDC through the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia, the bulk of the aid going to the old-age home in Zagreb and to needy old people in other communities.

(The story of Jews in the Soviet Union need not here be repeated, it has been making headlines for a number of years. The JDC is not directly involved in this struggle. The JDC supports financially a pro­ gram of aid to Soviet Jewry, mainly through the sending of parcels. This is a large program which directs itself primarily to destitute people and to those who have become needy because of circumstances. These par­ cels have much more than a monetary value, as confirmed by hundreds of heartrending letters, and statements from Jews who have come out of Russia. The parcels had, for many years, been the only link between Soviet Jewry and Jews outside. They were a real help—the only help—but also an assurance that other people care for them. No one can now tell how much they contributed to the renaissance of Soviet Jewry).

Jews in Morocco Leave for Israel and France Out of a population of 300,000 in Morocco only 20,000 remain. The others have left, mainly for Israel, but also for France and elsewhere.

Those that stay behind have various reasons for remaining. They leave in small numbers, about 1,*500 in 1974, a third to Israel, a third to France and Canada with assistance, and the rest leave on their own. A family thinking of leaving quietly liquidates their property or simply puts up “the shutters on a shop and leaves—one by one—not to arouse suspicion.

The currency and income tax laws are so strict that those planning their 20

departure keep their intentions secret. This applies to people with means, who can afford to re-establish themselves in France or elsewhere. It also applies to the few who can obtain Canadian visas. For the others there seems to be no place to emigrate. The situation in Israel does not encourage immigration. The French authorities have become much more difficult about residence and labor permits. Jews who have a job and somehow make ends meet, stay on in Morocco.

There is no doubt, however, that the Jewish community in Morocco has reached the last chapter of its millenia old history. Those staying on know that they may be trapped. Still, life goes on. Even today one can see the valiant efforts of the community to keep alive its old traditions.

There is a minyan each morning in over 20 synagogues in Casablanca.

There is a stubborn perseverance to maintain Jewish communal life.

Synagogues are kept open. Torah learning and Tehilim groups are maintained and, above all, the schools continue to function.

Day Schools in Morocco Have 5,000 Pupils There are over 5,000 pupils in full-time Jewish day schools run by the Alliance Israelite Universelle, Ozar Hatorah, Lubavitch and ORT. This is a , precious asset in Jewish life, and the JDC continues to support this education program, in spite of urgent needs elsewhere. The real prob­ lem of maintaining these schools is not so much funds as the supply of teachers and textbooks. The textbooks JDC once printed have been used up, and new ones cannot be imported. Great ingenuity is required to assure Hebrew books for each child at the beginning of the school year.

These schools continue to function under very abnormal conditions only because of the devotion of the personnel. The four organizations mentioned, the Alliance, Ozar Hatorah, Lubavitch and ORT are directed by exceptional people who stick to their posts in spite of all the dangers.

They are not only devoted but unusually able and accept as part of their job the difficulties of life in Morocco. Imagine a Lubavitcher Chassid with his black coat, black hat, and beard calmly walking the streets of Casablanca during the Yom Kippur War, or during the Arab summit in Rabat. The newspapers, radio and television are full of hate stories against Israel, and the Lubavitcher Chassid is very evidently a Jew, a foreign Jew—a representative of the enemy. He is sometime spat at or his hat is pulled off and taken away by young hooligans. All this is part of the job; he considers it part of his work and he walks, therefore, proudly on Shabbat to his Yeshiva, or to his Bet Rivka, miles from his house, to say prayers with his students. His reward is the hundreds or thousands of boys or girls who have become observant Jews as a result of the education they have received, or the fact that the small workshop at­ tached to the Yeshiva is the only source of kosher Mezuzos and Tefillin in Morocco.

The director of Ozar Hatorah is a young Moroccan rabbi who sees his life-function not only in maintaining the network of Ozar Hatorah schools with its. 2,000 pupils, but in keeping alive the Jewish com­ munities in Morocco. He is constantly on the move, travelling from one community to the other. He is everywhere except in his home, with his 21

There is no doubt, however, that the Jewish community in Morocco has reached the last chapter of its millenia old history. Those staying on know that they may be trapped. Still, life goes on. Even today one can see the valiant efforts of the community to keep alive its old traditions. There is a minyan each morning in over 20 synagogues in Casablanca. There is a stubborn perseverance to maintain Jewish communal life.

Synagogues are kept open. Torah learning and Tehilim groups are maintained and above all the schools continue to function.

He is sometimes spat at or his hat is pulled offund taken away by young hooligans. All this is part of the job; he considers it part of his work and he walks, therefore, proudly on Shabbos to his Yeshiva, or to his Bet Rivka, miles from his house, to say prayers with his students. His reward is the hundreds or thousands of boys and girls who have become observant Jews as a result of the education they have received, or the fact that the small workshop attached to the Yeshiva is the only source o f kosher Mezuzos and Tefillin in Morocco.

own ten children. In one community he builds a mikva, in another he helps to sell some communal property. Here he may intervene with the Pasha, there lead a delegation to the Governor. He arranges for a widow and her children to emigrate, or collects a dowry for a poor bride; he will check the knife of a shochet and join the local rabbis to form a Bet-Din to decide pending cases. He is a member of the Community Committee in Casablanca, director of Ozar Hatorah Schools, the mainstay of Jewish life in Morocco, a gracious host, and a heroic and underpaid Jewish civil servant.

How does one maintain a Jewish education program in Morocco for over 5,000 children in Jewish day schools: the answer is Reb Shlomo the Lubavitcher, whom the Rebbe sent to Morocco about 25 years ago and has never permitted to leave; and Reb Aharon Monsonego who could leave—who should perhaps leave for the sake of his own ten children—but who will not leave because of his 2,000 children in Ozar Hatorah schools.

Jews in Tunisia Mainly Elderly The JDC program in Tunisia is similar to, but much smaller than, the one in Morocco. There are about 8,000 Jews in Tunisia, mainly in the city of Tunis. JDC helps take care of the old people who have been left behind in Tunisia, as they have been left behind in Morocco. These old people literally live on cemeteries, keeping body and soul together with what they could beg. The JDC has collected these human wrecks, re­ lodged those who lived in the ghetto, and opened a few old-age homes for the others where they can pass the last years of their lives, have a clean bed, a warm meal and some care when they are sick. This today is one of the main functions of the JDC welfare program in Morocco and Tunisia.

There is a small education program in Tunis, directed by a Lubavitcher, and a few schools in Djerba and neighbouring communities in the South.

Jews in Syria Very Severely Restricted About 4,500 Jews in Syria live under punitive restrictions imposed by administrative decree, to avoid the enactment of laws which must be published and would draw the attention of world public opinion. They live under the following restrictions: * Syrian Jews cannot leave the country for whatever reason. Jews holding foreign passports are also forbidden to leave. *Jews are forbidden to contact foreign diplomats or any foreigner, for that matter. *Jews may travel only within the zone of their residence. *Their identity cards carry the word "Jew " in large red letters. *There is a curfew for the Jewish* population from 10:00 p. m. to 6:00 a.m. The Kamishli Jewish homes are marked with a red cross. *Jews cannot be employed in public administration, public institutions or banks. Jews in professions are not allowed to practice except on rare occasions.

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*Civil servants and officials are forbidden to buy in Jewish shops. *Jewish students finishing school are not allowed to register for uni­ versity. *Jewish affairs are the province of special committees of representa­ tives of Security, Minister of Justice, Finance, and—probably—Palestinian organizations. ^Palestinian refugees have been installed in the Jewish quarter and the Jews must suffer their insults and provocations.

Under the circumstances it remains difficult to understand why the Syrian Government still permits Jewish funds to reach the Jewish community. Without them the two Jewish schools (700 children) would have to close, the normal services of the Jewish community—Shechita, matzot, welfare, medical care, religious education, Chevra Kadisha—would cease to function. For a Jewish community cut off from all outside communica­ tion, this lifeline gives the Jews of Syria the stamina to continue under the most trying conditions.

Jews in Lebanon and Iran

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There is an Alliance school in Beirut which functions normally in a community of about 1,500 Jews. Jews in Iran face a most unusual situation. This Jewish community in a Moslem country is settled and has no plans of leaving. The Jews in Iran were still in ghettoes fifty years ago. Today they occupy important positions in professions, commerce and industry. An unusual degree of economic and social mobility pre­ vails in the country resulting from the leadership of the Shah and the economic boom. This economic and social mobility has weakened the influence of the Moslem priests—the Mullahs—and naturally affects Jews as well. The Jews have suddenly moved out of the inhibiting and constricting confines of the Mehaleh into a whirlpool of problems of assimilation and challenges to Jewish identity well known in the West­ ern world but unheard of until recently in Iran. European Jewry went through this difficult period over a century ago, when emancipation gave equal rights to Jewish communities. Tens of thousands of Jews gave up their Jewish identity when they came out of the ghettoes because of the attractions and enticements of the non-Jewish world around them. European Jewry survived that difficult period because of the vast cultural resources it possessed which built up counter forces to this threat. No such Jewish cultural resources exist in Iran. They have not existed for a long time. There is no spiritual leadership; there are practically no rabbis, no scholars and no scholarship, no books on Judaism in the Iranian language except for a few recently translated minor works. It is difficult to find another community where such Jewish cultural poverty and ignorance prevailed. Not only is there no knowledge, there is little desire to acquire such knowledge. Education to a Jew in Iran must be utilitarian—and Jewish education is not utilitarian.

These are the realities faced by the education programs run by the Alliance and Ozar Hatorah and supported by the JDC. Its results must be measured by local standards. Its failures and successes must be placed in the context of conditions in Iran.

The Jews have suddenly moved out of the inhibiting and constricting confines of the Mehaleh into a whirlpool of problems of assimilation and challenges to Jewish identity well known in the Western world but unheard of until recently in Iran.

European Jewry survived that difficult period because of the vast cultural resources it possessed which built up counter forces to this threat. No such Jewish cultural resources exist in Iran.

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There are about 10,000 pupils in full-time Jewish day schools. The Alliance started its work in Iran at the turn of the century; Ozar Hatorah about a quarter of a century ago. The community has also opened its own schools.

A Long List of Achievements in Education The Jewish education program had to be built from scratch. Teachers had to be trained, textbooks written, curricula developed, school build­ ings built. All of this was done with inadequate means. The teachers are paid too little, the school buildings are shabby and do not compare well with the new private and government schools. In spite of all these obstacles, there is a long list of achievements. The younger generation, unlike their parents, knows some Hebrew, is literate, and knows more about Jewish history and traditions than their parents ever did. The results of the general education program are far above those of other schools. A greater percentage of the graduates of Jewish schools pass the strict university entrance examination.

A New Edict by the Shah If the conditions under which Alliance, OzarHatorah and ORT have to work were not yet difficult enough, a new edict was recently issued by the Shah, which compounds all the difficulties of the past. The Shah decreed that all education during the first eight school years wül be nationalized.

The official aim is to provide a uniform education for all Iranian children. The government took over private schools, undertook to pay teachers' salaries and introduced government control and program. The Alliance and Ozar Hatorah schools were included in this decree. As of September 1974, all schools are nationalized and the government pays the salaries of most teachers, including some Hebrew teachers.

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If the conditions under which Alliance, Ozar Hatorah have to work were not yet difficult enough, a new edict was recently issued by the Shah, which compounds all the difficulties of the past. The Shah de­ creed that all education during the first eight school years will be nationalized. The official aim is to provide a uniform education for all Iranian children. The government took over private schools, undertook to pay teachers' salaries and introduced government control and pro­ gram. The Alliance and Ozar Hatorah schools were included in this decree. As of September 1974, all schools are nationalized and the government pays the salaries of most teachers, including some Hebrew teachers.

One may think that this is only for the good. The government has taken over a large share of the financial charges which formerly fell on the Jewish groups. In fact, however, it may mean an end of Jewish education in Iran. Government regulations foresee a 28-hour program per week. Jewish schools have 35 hours to provide for Jewish education.

Government regulations permit two hours of religious instruction weekly. Ozar Hatorah gave 10 hours weekly, kept its schools open on Fridays, now the official closing day, and closed on Shabbat and Yom Tov. Jewish children were collected by buses from all over Teheran.

Government law insists that children attend schools in their area. This may mean that Moslem children will attend Jewish schools.

It is too early to say if we have a decree that will relieve Jewish organizations from heavy financial obligations, or whether we face a gezera which threatens all that has been built up in twenty-five years by Ozar Hatorah.

When I came to Iran for the first time 25 years ago, I did not find a single complete Shass in the whole of Iran, and maybe one or two people who could be considered a Talmid Chacham. Much has been achieved in the last quarter of a century.

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Much of the credit must go to the late Mr. Isaac Shalom; were it not for him, assimilation in Iran would have assumed much more threaten­ ing proportions. There were other people, the unheralded soldiers for Jewish education, like the late Rabbi Lewi and a man like Israel Szyf who continues to give his life for Jewish éducation in Iran.

This, in brief is a review of some Jewish communities, their achieve­ ments, their problems, their successes and failures, the challenges they face. American Jewry through vanous organizations acting on its behalf, has assumed the task of helping Jewish communities in rieed. The JDC has understood, from its very inception, that aid and rescue in the Jewish sense means not only physical but also spiritual and cultural survival. The story of the JDC is full of examples where these two complementary aspects of its work were not only equally stressed but were intertwined to make up the JDC program.

It is understandable and natural that the attention of all Jews be focussed on Israel. However, the welfare and fate of a Jew in Rumania, or Syria, the Soviet Union or Morocco must also remain the concern of all of us. The life and survival of these communities depends on the unwavering solidarity of all Jews, and the continued expression of such concern and solidarity.

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It is understandable and natural that the attention of all Jews be focussed on Israel. However, the welfare and fate of a Jew in Rumania, or Syria, the Soviet Union or Morocco must also remain the concern of all of us.

The life and survival of these communities depends on the unwavering solidarity of all Jews, the continued expression of such concern and solidarity.

Shlomo Riskin

Where Modem Orthodoxy Is At— And Where It Is Going "Modem Orthodoxy" is a rubric which has been utilized to encompass institutions, organizations, and practicing Jews in twentieth century American Jewish life based on a synthesis of the worlds of Torah and secular learning. For many decades of this century a university-trained person who maintained a commitment to Torah beliefs and Torah practices was a rare phenomenon. The growing number of such Jews is a reality, and it is further attested to by the existence of such groups as the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists, the Commission on Law and Public Affairs (COLPA), and the growth of Yeshiva University.

At the same time, American Orthodoxy is experiencing a shift to the "right," which is also a reality, and which is attested to by the vigorous leadership of the non-university oriented Roshei Yeshiva and Chassidic Rebbaim. Charles Liebman, one of the few modem sociologists who has seriously studied American Orthodoxy, made note of this trend in his pioneering study "Orthodoxy in American Jewish Life," which appeared in the 1965 issue of the American Jewish Yearbook. In the past decade many of the new Yeshiva High Schools founded in such diverse communities as Philadelphia, Scranton, Denver, Long Beach, and St. Louis, have been organized and lead by musmachim of the Beth Midrash Govoha of Lakewood, itself a living monument to the sainted Rav Ahron Kotler.

Surprisingly—or perhaps not so surprisingly—many parents themselves trained in Yeshiva University and other modem yeshivos, are sending their sons to these schools. Obviously, students in these yeshivos are taught the primacy of Torah learning to the exclusion of college studies, and their approach to the State of Israel and to secular culture differs considerably from that of the Yeshiva University High Schools, the Yeshiva of Flatbush, and Ramaz.

In addition, the expansionist philosophy of the Lubavitcher movement has made significant inroads in almost every major Jewish community, often giving spirited competition to already existing day schools which have prided themselves on their modern approach, and on their heterogeneous parent body.

The Shtiebel and the Hashkama Minyan have drawn off from the modern Orthodox shul many of the young yeshiva graduates, much to the chagrin of the local Rav who has tailored his sermons and rabbinic style to the tastes of "the young people." How do we account for this radical change in direction? Is it due to inherent weaknesses in modem Orthodoxy?—or to a combination of the two factors?

The following article was adapted from a sermon delivered by Rabbi Riskin at his Lincoln Square Synagogue in New York City.

In the past decade many of the new Yeshiva High Schools founded in such diverse communities as Philadelphia, Scranton, Denver, Long Beach, and St. Louis, have been organized and lead by musmachim of the Beth Midrash Govoha of Lakewood, itself a living monument to the sainted Rav Ahron Kotler.

Surprisingly-or perhaps not so surprisinglynnany parents themselves trained in Yeshiva University and other modem yeshivos, are sending their sons to these schools.

Changes in American Life

In addition to his pulpit activities, where he has been highly successful in reaching young unaffiliated Jews, Rabbi Riskin is Professor of Talmud at Yeshiva University. He recently founded the Mesivta Ohr Torah in Riverdale, New York, a Yeshiva high school which has been acclaimed by Torah educators and may well become a prototype for future secondary yeshiva education in America.

It is indisputable that today's America is radically different from the America of the forties and the fifties. A general consensus on morality 27

subscribed to by the religious and secular alike is no longer subscribed to in our society. Sexual conduct is no longer governed by moral standards, having given way to the "consenting adults" thesis. Pre-marital chastity is smiled at as a relic of a by-gone day, and it has even been declared by some to be "unhealthy." Objective ethical norms have given way to "situation ethics," which make ethical decisions a subjective matter governed by statistically-determined common practice. Deviations from normal sexual behavior are now alternative "life-styles," and the institutions of marriage and family are no longer viable. Removal of reference to the Divinity in the Pledge of Allegiance, has been followed by the removal of the "postulate of G -d" from civilized and intelligent discourse. Even Freud's acceptance of the need for restraint as a prerequisite for a moral society—expounded in his Civilization and Its Discontents, has been superseded by Brown's Eros and Civilization, which insists upon incontinent behavior as the ultimate ideal for human society. Restraints are rapidly disappearing from the printed word, the theater, and the tv screen. It becomes increasingly difficult to maintain a synthesis of Torah values with contemporary values, with the radical changes in contemporary values and their imminent total oblitera­ tion.

It is indisputable that today's America is radically different from the America of the forties and the fifties. A general consensus on morality subscribed to by the religious and secular alike is no longer subscribed to in or society.

Sexual conduct is no longer governed by moral standards, having given way to the "consenting adults" thesis.

Pre-marital chastity is smiled at as a relic of a by-gone day, and it has even been declared by some to be "unhealthy."

Torah Attitudes and Inverted Marranoes

There is yet another factor operating here. Torah Judaism draws its strength iromMitzvos Ma'asiyos, from action imperatives. But these actions must be supported by Mitzvos She'b'lev, Torah attitudes which give meaning to our behavior. America has spawned inverted Marranoes: Jews who act out the rituals, but have the inner responses of the secularist. Any monotheistic religion stands or falls on its ability to imbue its adherents with a deep abiding faith in a Higher Being, which endows every human activity with higher meaning and which views even tragedy as a potential for spiritual achievement. The context of religious practice must be Kedushah—the sanctity which endows even the most mundaneexperience with a sense of transcendence. If American Orthodoxy produces secularminded Jews wearing kippot,Sabbath-observing intellectuals say "my soul thirsts for the Living G -d," we shall have failed.

There is yet another factor operating here. Torah Judaism draws its strength from Mitzvos Ma'asiyos, from action imperatives. But these actions must be supported by Mitzvos She'b'lev, Torah attitudes which give meaning to our behavior.

America has spawned inverted Marranoes: Jews who act out the rituals, but have the inner responses of the secularist.

Emunah and Kedushah Many of our synagogue "services" are sterile and noisy, devoid of the straining for Kavannah, for direction, which characterize the authentic effort to achieve an awareness of the Divine Presence. The closing prices on the New York Stock Exchange have a greater impact on the worshipper at the Shabbos morning service than the cry of Shm'a Yisrael climaxing with the emphatic "ECHAD." The siddurim, once stained by tears, are now marked with lipstick.

Emunah and Kedushah, Faith and Sanctity, are not easily achieved. Their temporal absence are understandable. But the absence of a striving after Emunah and Kedushah, which is widespread within the modem Orthodox community, is symptomatic of spiritual failure, and goes to the heart of many of the practical shortcomings that are more visible to the eye. Many of our synagogue "services" are sterile and noisy, devoid of the straining for Kavannah, for direction, which characterize the authentic effort to achieve an awareness of the Divine Presence. The closing prices on the New York Stock Exchange have a greater impact on the worshipper at the Shabbos morning service than the cry of Shm'a Yisrael climaxing with the emphatic "ECHAD.” The siddurim, once stained by tears, are now marked with lipstick. The man or woman who musters tears during prayer—even on the

28

Days of Awe—is looked upon as strange. Having lost our talent for the art of prayer, it is not surprising that many congregants arrive in the middle of the Torah reading on Shabbos morning, and begin to show signs of boredom after the Mussaf Kedushah. And despite all of the kippot at Grossingers, how many have the commitment to attend daily minyan?

A person shows his true mettle by how he spends his "spare time"—if one can properly speak of time, the very essence of our lives, as being superfluous. How many of us spend our evening hours with a seifer?—and how many of us spend our evening hours watching Johnny Carson? The plethora of kosher eating places in New York City offering Chinese, Italian, and French cooking may well be a legitimate sign of a more sophisticated American Orthodoxy but is a nightclub, replete with all the trappings of modern-day hedonism, a proper environment for an Orthodox Jew—even though the meat served is Glatt Kosher?

How many modem Orthodox Jews pride themselves on their children's "early admission" to an Ivy-League school, and aspire to their becoming scientists, attorneys, or physicians?—and how many look forward to a sort who is a talmid chochom, a Torah educator, or a Rosh Yeshiva? Do we really believe that sitting in Grossinger's night club, or at the pool while wearing a kippah will inspire our children to be vibrant and committed Jews who will passionately accept their Jewish heritage and reject the valueless world of secularism? And is it any wonder that with all of our yeshivos American Orthodoxy has produced so few genuine Talmidei Chachemim? Producing authentic Torah scholars requires the single-minded intensity of purpose, and total devotion to G-d and his Torah, which modem Orthodoxy hardly reflects.

The plethora of kosher eating places in New York City offering Chinese, Italian, and French cooking may well he a legitimate sign of a more sophisticated American Orthodoxy hut is a nightclub, replete with all the trappings of modern-day hedonism, a proper environment for an Orthodox Jew-even though the meat served is Glatt Kosher?

The Brighter Side Having said all this is not to say that modem Orthodoxy must be declared bankrupt. Many of its teachings are indeed responsible for the strengths of Orthodox Judaism today. Secular learning in a university has become accepted by many yeshivas to the right of Yeshiva University.

After all, most professions, with their opportunities for growth and fulfillment exclude the Orthodox Jew without university training. But beyond this: Torah scholars throughout the ages have noted that secular studies often make possible a deeper understanding of Torah. Many sections of the Talmud are closed to those not having a considerable grasp of mathematics. Many observations of the Sages of the Talmud become more understandable when viewed with the insights of modem advances in the dynamics of human behavior. And surely the Talmud (B.T. Shabbos, 75a) had no question about the inherent value of the physical sciences when it records the observation of Reb Shimon ben Pazi who said in the name of Reb Yehoshua ben Levi: Regarding those who are equipped to make astronomical calculations, but choose not to do so, the Torah declares: "The work of G-d they fail to scrutinize, and the work of his hand they fail to see." Hence secular knowledge, and especially the sciences, can provide valuable insights into the glories of the Almighty. Through biology one can perceive the wonders of the human organism and through physics the unity behind all of creation. Our challenge must be to insure the fact that our youth

Having said all this is not to say that modem Orthodoxy must be declared bankrupt. Many of its teachings are indeed responsible for the strengths of Orthodox Judaism today. Secular learning in a university has become accepted by many yeshivas to the right of Yeshiva University.

29

derive its axiological standards from Torah, and to adequately prepare them to extract the religious principles from the secular studies they pursue. This is especially crucial on the secondary level—where a high school diploma is mandatory—and must be maintained throughout the college and university level for those who are so directed. And if we attempt to seriously provide Torah study and Torah atmosphere for all of our youth on campus, commitment to such study may well become the pattern of life for many more of our Jewish scientists and professionals, who may come to see a more profound connection between the work they do by day and the Torah they study by night.

The Challenge of the State of Israel The establishment and existence of the State of Israel poses many fundamental religious questions for our generation. Wé dare not be too quick to embrace all the excesses of misguided patriotism to the neglect of the religious paradoxes. Certainly we deplore the religious indifference of some Israeli leaders—not to speak of open hostility to Torah. Our twothousand-year-old dream was not for us to become a nation like all others, replete with crime, corruption, and pornography. Yet, what happened in 1948 was more significant than the establishment of a mammoth-size "Camp Massad" in the Middle East. The miraculous rebirth of a people from the very ashes of Auschwitz and Treblinka, the ingathering of exiles, the return of Jerusalem, all provide a dazzling confirmation of the visions of the prophets and the eternal Covenant of our Pçople. Perhaps the debate over whether it was or was not the beginning of our redemption is moot—to be resolved only by the speed and the intensity of Klal Yisrael's return to G-d and His Torah. However, the hand of G-d in contemporary Jewish affairs must be recognized by both the right and the left.

There is yet one more area in which modem Orthodoxy may be able to make a unique contribution. We have all neglected the ethical standards with which we relate to non-Jews and governmental agencies. The government of the United States, as well as those of other modern democracies, is based on Chesed, seeking to provide the largest good for the largest number of people. IXis far different from the European states which did violence to human rights in their treatment of Jews, taking them out of the category of governments of whom the Talmud declared that "their law becomes in effect Torah Law." No sin is more abhorrent than that of Chilul Ha'Shem, the desecration of the Divine Name, for which there is no atonement. If we wish to merit the respect of our fellow citizens, and their support of our brothers and sisters in the Holy Land, our conduct in the realm of human relations and financial affairs, must be above reproach.

The Talmud records that Shimon ben Shetach made extraordinary efforts to return a lost gem to its non-Jewish owner, to cause him to praise G-d. So too must we rear a generation of Jews to whom ethical misconduct will be as abhorrent as the desecration of the Shabbos.

The establishment and existence of the State of Israel poses many fundamental religious questions for our generation. We dare not be too quick to embrace all the excesses of misguided patriotism to the neglect of the religious paradoxes.

The government of the United States, as well as those of other modem democracies, is based on Chesed, seeking to provide the largest good for the largest number of people. It is far different from the 1European states which did violence to human rights in their treatment of Jews, taking them out of the category of governments of whom the Talmud declared that "their law becomes in effect Torah Law."

Some Conclusions Modem Orthodoxy can make a major contribution to the mainstream of 30

Torah life. Unfortunately, its strength is being lost because it has failed to provide an environment for the commitment to Torah study and Torah living as an absolute, without which Torah Judaism of any variety cannot survive. Living in two worlds, and hopping between two disparate value systems produces ''pareve'' Jews, at best, and schizophrenic Jews, at worst.

"Render unto Caesar that which is Caesar's, and unto G-d that which is G -d's," is a christological concept expressed in the Gospels.

"Be a Jew in your tents and a man in the marketplace," is a slogan of the Haskalah.

Neither of these concepts are compatible with Jewish survival. They must both be rejected in whatever modern-day dress they present them­ selves.

"Let all that you do be for the sake of Heaven." This monothesis must displace "synthesis" as the common ideal of a united Torah Jewry. Only when we join spiritual and scientific endeavor and our professional and personal lives to the service of the Almighty only when we strive to pursue Kedushah and Emunah in our daily lives, will we produce in American Orthodoxy the fiery commitment which will enable us to endure, and ultimately to prevail.

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"Render unto Caesar that which is Caesar's, and unto G-d that which is G-d's," is a christological concept expressed in the Gospels. "Be a Jew in your tents and a man in the marketplace," is a slogan of the Haskalah. Neither of these are compatable with Jewish survival.

They must both be rejected in whatever modern-day dress they present themselves.

THE OCCIDENT, AND

AMERICAN JEW ISH ADVOCATE. A MONTHLY PERIODICAL DEVOTED TO

THE D IFFU SIO N

OF K N O W L E D G E ON

Jetuisl) Citmtnre anb HeUgion.

E D IT ED

BY ISAAC L E E S E E . nw j;1?! -iintyV? tnSi maSS “ To learn and to teach, to observe and to do.”

VOL. X IX .

PHILADELPHIA:

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Eli Lazar

Building Day Schools In América­ in the 1840's In the year 1840 there were about 15,000 Jews living in America. They had already built and organized congregations and synagogue-centered social and philanthropic institutions. But already many of these institu­ tions were breaking away from the synagogue and became separate communal organizations. Among the groups whose names appear in the first volume of the Occident are: the Hebrew Beneficial Society, the Hebrew Society for Mutual Assistance and Visitation of the Sick (Gemilas Chesed and Bikur Cholim) the Society for Indigent Old Men, the Ladies Benevolent Society, the United Hebrew Beneficient Fuel and Saving Society, and the Hebrew Sewing Society for Females. As these societies became removed from the synagogues, there was a resultant decline in religious life, a fact bemoaned by one of the founders of B'nai Brith in the pages of the Menorah Monthly of August 1886. "The synagogue.. .used to be open twice a day; for a Jew desiring to find a friend, he had but to go there and make himself known by...the magical words Sholem Alechem ("peace be unto you") ...The Arbacanphoth (fringes worn under the shirt) represented the regalia. Shema Israel ("Hear O Israel") was the pass-word. But now since the synagogue is open but once a week...since the regalia, the Arbacan­ photh, has almost disappeared from the breasts of our co-religionists, since the pass-word is not given twice a day as it used to be, and therefore has lost its magical power; since to speak plainly, a youth would rather not be recognized as a Jew, and never thinks of visiting a synagogue, it becomes necessary for us to try at least to remedy this evil and show the beauties of our Holy Religion."

One of the richest sources for the study of American Jewish History lies hidden in the yellowing pages of English language newspapers and periodicals published in the 18th and 19th centuries. Long before the first yeshiva in America opened its doors, traditional Jews struggled with the challenge of keeping Jewish children Jewish through education. Their efforts may seem feeble in retrospect, and they were not notable for their wide success, but they provide a fascinating and instructive backdrop to an understanding of the problems o f educating Jewish youngsters today.

Isaac Leeser Isaac Leeser, later to become editor of the Occident, was elected "minis­ ter" of the Congregation Mikveh Israel of Philadelphia in 1829. Born in Westphalia in 1806, he had come to Richmond, Virginia at the age of 18 to enter his uncle's mercantile establishment. In the four years prior to his coming to America, Leeser lived in the home of a Rabbi Sutro, Chief Rabbi of Munster and Mark. In Richmond, Leeser voluntarily assumed such tasks as conducting services and teaching the children of the local congregation.

Leeser was only twenty-three years old when he accepted the leadership of Mikveh Israel. The title "minister," much to his credit, was selfimposed; since he had no s'micha, he considered it presumptuous to be called "rabbi." As he explained in a letter written six years later to the Chief Rabbi of London: "Knowing my own want of proper qualification, I would never have consented to serve, if others more fitting in point of standing, information or other qualities had been here; but this not being the case...I consented to serve."

Rabbi Eli Lazar, Director of the Yeshiva University High Schools of Brooklyn, has culled the pages of The Occident and American Jewish Advocate, published and edited by Isaac Leeser in Philadelphia from 1843 to 1868, the year of his death, to portray some of the earliest efforts at Jewish education on the American Continent

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A Call for Day Schools in 1843

"Do our readers know," Leeser asked in a lead editorial in the first volume of the Occident "that we Israelites, living in America. . .are laboring under a fatal disease which has destroyed many a precious soul. . .We allude to the great ignorance which prevails among us with respect to the tenets of our religion, and the language of our Bible. . "I The second issue appearing in May 1843, shows the following headlines: "Fifth Anniversary of the Hebrew Sunday School," "Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies of the Jewish Faith," "Talmud Torah School, of New York."

Leeser almost single-handedly took up the crusade for educational improvement. He visited the schools that were in existence in his time, and even wrote the textbooks used in these schools. Through the pages of the Occident he sounded the cry for more schools, he offered encouragement to those in the field, he monitored the progress of the existing educational programs, he pressed for curricular change, he stimulated debate on the teaching functions of the clergy and, perhaps above all, he underscored the need for Jewish all-day schools. "Do our readers know," Leeser asked in a lead editorial in the first volume of the Occident "that we Israelites, living in America...are laboring under a fatal disease which has destroyed many a precious soul...We allude to the great ignorance which prevails among us with respect to the tenets of our religion, and the language of our Bible...And how can it be otherwise? Where are our teachers? Where our schools? our colleges?"

Though published in Philadelphia, the Occident enjoyed a very wide audience—such was Leeser's aim from the start. In his "Introductory Remarks" to the very first number, he tells us that he will "give circulation to every thing which can be interesting to the Jewish inhabitants in the western hemisphere." Correspondents from every state of the Union are encouraged to forward material: "We...request the respective presidents and secretaries of our American congregations especially to send us a condensed account of their first establishment, and of any thing of interest connected with them. Such a series would serve as the best history of the American Jews, who have always been hitherto in too small numbers, and have happily been always unmolested, to fill any large space in the history of the country independently of its other inhabitants."

The list of subscribers only four months after the publication's inception, shows that the Occident was already being read in sixteen states comprising fifty cities, in Lower Canada, St. Thomas, Barbadoes, Grenada, Jamaica, Venezuela and England. The Occident became the chronicle of Jewish life in general, and of educational activity, in particular. The second issue appearing in May 1843, shows the following headlines: "Fifth Anniversary of the Hebrew Sunday School," "Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies of the Jewish Faith," "Talmud Torah School, of New York." And so the pattern continues throughout the years of the Occident's appearance. In these articles, Leeser adopts a nurturing role; he not only conveys the reports, but "sells" and encourages. It is not at all uncommon to find comments such as these: "...w e are assured that the benefits it (the Talmud Torah School of New York) dispenses are so fully appreciated by a discerning public, as to leave no doubt of its complete success...and we trust that the spirit displayed by our New York friends may be emulated by the Israelites of all our American congregations."

Leeser devoted many an editorial to education, and the formation of Jewish-community sponsored day-schools. "The best interests of Israel," writes Leeser in November 1843, "are safest in the hands of the Jewish community, much more so, indeed, than with those who are selfconstituted leaders." Leeser's plan called for the establishment of a Jewish school where both religious and secular subjects would be taught. He saw

34

such a school making a positive contribution to Jewish knowledge but also—and perhaps predominantly so—as a deterrent to the Christian influences to which Jewish children were exposed in the existing public and private schools.

Christian Influences

l

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Leeser began to write Jewish textbooks because non-Jewish texts were being used. In Leeser's Memorial on Sunday Schools (1840), we can see the impetus quite clearly; "...formidable, was the scarcity of suitable books ...since those published by the American Sunday School Union.. .contain so much matter of a sectarian nature as must almost banish them from the Jewish school..."

From accounts in the Occident of attempts to justify the formation of specifically Jewish Sunday Schools, it is clear that Jewish children—prior to the 1840's—were being sent to the Church Sunday Schools. The remarks of the guest speaker, J. Levin, at the first examination of the Columbia, South Carolina Sunday School, attest to this fact: "The question may arise, Where is the necessity of originating this institution when there are so many Sunday Schools long since established to which we could send our children for instruction?...It is a duty we owe to the rising generation of Israelites that the foundation of their moral and social edifice ...should be solidly formed and carefully guarded.. .With all due respect for the opinion of our Christian friends...this foundation should be laid in schools con­ ducted by those professing our own religious faith...Our youth should avoid imbibing those irreconcilable tenets (in our opinion) of a plurality in the godhead... which they must naturally imbibe if permitted to at­ tend...and thus become apostates to the religion of their fathers."

When day-to-day schooling under such influence was considered, the dangers were adjudged to be of crisis proportions. The theme rang out sharply in Leeser's December 1843 editorial entitled, "Jewish Children Under Gentile Teachers." "We are not illiberal," he began, "and far from entertaining sectarian feelings; but we cannot shut our eyes to the dangerous tendency of placing Jewish children under the exclusive care of gentile teachers." The entire experience at such a school would be in conflict with what the child was taught at home: "...they are dismissed from the domestic fireside to a public or private school which is essentially Christian; they hear prayers in which the name of a mediator is invoked; they hear a book read as an authority equal if not superior to the received word of G -d."

Leeser pointed to overt attempts to "missionize" the Jewish child: "We are in a great error if we suppose that Christian teachers do not endeavour to influence actively the sentiments of their Jewish pupils." Leeser posed the rhetorical question "What is the remedy?" and offered his answer: "Diffusion of religious knowledge in the full sense of the words; it would be best to establish Jewish elementary schools in every district where there are sufficient children to occupy the time of a teacher, who should be both religiously and scientifically qualified..." Where the establishment of an independent school was impracticable, Lesser counsel­ led the parents to be completely on the alert; pressure should be exerted

From accounts in the Occident of attempts of justify the formation of specifically Jewish Sunday Schools, it is clear that Jewish children-prior to the 1840's-were being sent to the Church Sunday Schools.

"With all due respect for the opinion of our Christian friends.. this foundation should be laid in schools conducted by those professing our own religious faith. . .Our youth should avoid imbibing those irreconcilable tenets (in our opinion) of a plurality in the godhead. . .which they must naturally imbibe if permitted to attend. . .and thus become apostates to the religion of their fathers."

. .They are dismissed from the domestic fireside to a public or private school which is essentially Christian; they hear prayers in which the name of a mediator is invoked; they hear a bood read as an authority equal if not superior to the received word of G-d."

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on the school to allow the children to leave the room "when prayers are recited in which a mediator is invoked."

The Rev. Samuel M. Isaacs The December editorial triggered a series of responses in the coming issues of the Occident; the first "letter to the editor" came from New York's Rev. Samuel M. Isaacs. "We welcome our friend and colleague," Leeser wrote, "the Rev. Samuel M. Isaacs of New York, as an able correspondent and ally..." With these words the alliance between the minister from Philadelphia and the rabbi from New York—then the pillars of traditional Judaism—was born.

Isaacs, in his letter stresses the magnitude of the problem; he blames not only the parents but the rabbis as well. He is concerned not just with what the child is taught, but also with the type of emotional experiences the Jewish child goes through in school: "Jewish Children Under Gentile Teachers, is of too important a character to be permitted to pass as mere reading matter; it is a subject in which the immortal state of thousands of our co-religionists is concerned...it is not whether Jewish children shall be taught by gentiles, but whether Jewish souls shall be lost through the criminal neglect of parents, and the apathetic slumber of Hebrew ministers.. .Early lessons are lasting; they are engrafted on the tender mind of the child; he hears his nation reproached with cruelty to the Christian godhead, not by the teacher only, but by the companions of his boyhood, his schoolmates..."

For Isaacs, too, the Jewish day-school was the only answer for the American Jewish community. Leeser and Isaacs did not merely speak about such schools; they created them—Leeser, the school of the Hebrew Education Society in Philadelphia and Isaacs, the Talmud Torah of New York.

The Talmud Torah of New York While German Jews began to organize their religious life in America as early as 1824, it was not until 1842 that the first German-Jewish congrega­ tion in New York established the first German congregational day-school.

The school started with eight pupils, and was organized by Rev. Isaacs who was at that time the rabbi of B'nai Jeshurun, the sponsoring synagogue.

The following year, the Occident carries its first report about the new school: "The primary object of the association is to give an elementary English education with a thorough instruction in Hebrew and the religion of Israel; and though the school has been not quite a year in operation...it has already within its walls eighty pupils, receiving a liberal instruc­ tion...under separate masters."

In 1844, an anonymous "J.K .G ." reports details of that year's public examination which "embraced Hebrew reading and translating, Hebrew grammar, catechism, English grammar, arithmetic, and declamation." The correspondent's account of the Hebrew examination reveals a welldeveloped study-program: "Since the opening of the school, the boys forming the first class have been taught to translate nearly the whole book 36

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of Genesis;.. .They displayed a good knowledge of the Hebrew grammar, and showed that they were not mechanically, but thoroughly taught."

Inspired by the proficiency of the students in their language work, the writer seizes the opportunity to speak about the importance of Heb­ rew: "To gain a thorough knowledge of our religion, the Hebrew language is indispensable.lt is...the palladium of our religion, the tie that unites the scattered remnants of Israel...Unless proper measures be taken to diffuse an adequate knowledge of the Hebrew among the rising generation, innovation will, and, as a matter of course, must take place. For a liturgy comprehended only by a select few, and incomprehensible to the majority, falls short of its edifying and ennobling character."

Isaacs spoke with great pride about the fact that although the school was synagogue-sponsored, "the doors are open to receive the scion of Judaism, whether his parents are connected with that Synagogue, or any other."

Both Isaacs and Leeser saw in their respective schools the hope for an American-trained learned ministry. However, one should not infer from this that they saw the school as a training-ground for the ministry alone. In writing to the editor of the Occident in 1847, Isaacs states that, "The aim of the institution will be to prepare its pupils for the pulpit, the senate, or the bar." In an eloquent address on the occasion of the school's second public examination, guest speaker Jonas B. Phillips, Esq. told his audience that the institution's educational offerings ought to be occupationally oriented.

"And more especially in this country," he said, "is the influence of early education upon business more apparent... the literary acquirements which have facilitated the business operations of the merchant, the farmer, and the mechanic, also fit him for the higher trusts...and qualify him for the grave discussions of the legislative halls."

"To gain a thorough knowledge of our religion, the Hebrew language is indipensable. It is. . .the palladium of our religion, the tie that unites the scattered remnants of Israel. . . Unless proper measures be taken to diffuse an adequate knowledge of the Hebrew among the rising generation, innovation will, and, as a matter of course, must take place. For a liturgy comprehended falls short o f its edifying and ennobling character."

School of the Hebrew Educational Society When the Hebrew Educational Society was founded in Philadelphia in 1848, it had in mind, from the start, to establish not one but a network of Jewish day-schools throughout the city. Leeser lived to see one such school; in the 1880's there were already four.

A curriculum and rules for the government of the proposed schools were drawn up by the school directors of which Leeser was chairman. There were to be seven classes and a course of study embracing English, Hebrew, geometry, natural history, philosophy, rabbinical literature, French, Ger­ man, Latin, Greek, botany and chemistry.

Leeser formally dedicated the first HES school in April 1851 with 22 students on hand for opening day. After seven weeks of operation the roster jumped to 71 students: "29 are full paying scholars, 26 part paying, and 16 free." Leeser has this interesting comment to make about the scholarship program: "As it is only known to the five School Directors who are free and who pay, no distinction is made in school, the child of the poor and the child of the rich man being placed, whilst in school, on the same level; and, as all are alike compelled, by the established rules, to appear cleanly and tidily clad, there is no apparent distinction."

The community-orientation of the school, to which we referred earlier, the curriculum, the choice of teachers and the scholarship program—all

Leeser formally dedicated the first HES school in April 1851 with 22 students on hand for opening day.

After seven weeks v f operation the roster jumped to 71 students: "29 are full paying scholars, 26 part paying, and 16 free." Leeser has this interesting comment to make about the scholarship program: "As it is only known to the five School Directors who are free and who pay, no distinction is made in school, the child of the poor and the child of the rich man being placed, whilst in school, on the same level: and, as all are alike compelled, by the established rules, to appear cleanly and tidily clad, there is no apparent distinction."

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seem new. Indeed, they were new; Philadelphia never before had a non-congregational community approach to education. Nor do we find such an intense interest in the academic image of the school and its faculty as we do here. Likewise, we do not find reference in the literature to a school trying so hard to preserve the anonymity of those receiving tuition assistance. Yet, for Leeser, none of this was new! Ten years before the HES school opened its doors, Leeser was already designing such an approach for the entire nation. Another historical "first" for Leeser was his call to the congregations of America to unite. When he and another Philadelphia rabbi, Rev. Louis Salomon, called together the various congregations of the city in 1841, an appeal for unified action was issued to congregations in other cities throughout the land. The group published a manifesto entitled "Union for the Sake of Judaism," the middle article of which, was devoted exclusively to education: Article II - The Schools

The "pledge to send regularly" reveals a critical problem of the schools at that time-stable attendance. By 1854, the school reported an enrollment of 120 students. The organization became secure due to the receipt of $20,000 from the estate of Judah Touro, and a fine structure was purchased for the school.

However, the years 1850-1859 become difficult years for the city due to severe economic difficulties.

Parents withdrew their children from the HES school and enrolled them in the free public schools.

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Section 1. As soon as practicable, schools for both sexes are to be established in every town where Israelites reside, and the teachers are to be paid out of a common local fund, and on no account to receive any pay or fee whatever from the parents.

Section 2. Whatever rates for education it may be necessary to charge, are to be paid to the local treasurer of this Union.

Section 3. The system of education is to be strictly Jewish, and is to embrace: a. Hebrew reading, grammar, translation, catechism, Biblical commentaries, and at least an introduction to the Jewish Oral Law, and if possible, an elementary knowledge of the Talmud. b. English grammar, composition, elocution, arithmetic, writing, singing, geography, universal history, history of the Jews, history of England and, history of the United States. c. For the higher classes, in addition to the above, Hebrew composition, Talmud, general Jewish literature, Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, mathematics, natural history, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, political economy, and chemistry...

Section 5. A High School for the education of the higher branches is to be established in some central point whenever practicable...young men are to be educated in such a manner, that they may be fit for the office ofHazan, lecturer and teacher; and young women be instructed for the high calling of female instructors; and all persons educated in our schools, are to have the preference if any vacancy occurs, for any office in the gift of this Union...

Section 7. Though it may be found requisite to charge for education to those able to pay^yet no person, who brings evidence of his inability to pay, shall have his children or wards refused admission into our schools, provided he or she sign a pledge to send them regularly to school at least three months in the Spring, and four months in the Winter.

The "pledge to send regularly" reveals a critical problem of the schools at that time—stable attendance. By 1854, the school reported an enrollment of 120 students. The organization became secure due to the receipt of $20,000 from the estate of Judah Touro, and a fine structure was purchased for the school. However, the years 1850-1859 become difficult years for the city due to severe economic difficulties. Parents withdrew their children from

the HES school and enrolled them in the free public schools. The Chairman of the Board of School Directors tells in his annual report (1858) that the roll stands at 116 (71 boys and 45 girls). The striking statistics are the following: "The average attendance during the month of May, ...88...

Pupils withdrawn and suspended during (the year) ...84, thirty-one paying and fifty-three non-paying, of which one was suspended for improper conduct. Only thirty-three were regularly withdrawn, while forty-five of the free scholars had to be taken from the roll for honattendance."

Waning attendance thus began* to be the pattern; some children were sent to the free schools, while others were sent to work.

The public examination results reported in the Occident are guite good.

Two items are of particular significance. First, there are indications that spoken Hebrew was used in at least one of the classes by the Rev. S. C. Noot, principal Hebrew teacher. Thus Leeser writes that "on one of my visits to Noot's class I heard the teacher and children speaking in the Holy Tongue." Secondly, we find reference to the introduction of Mishnah, the Oral Law, in the 1867 examination reports: "A small class of boys showed that the Mishnah can be taught in America, as a searching examination in the first chapters of Rosh-hashanah (New Year) showed that they had been well grounded and understood their subject."

Rise of The Public Schools The educational developments described took place during the 1840's, the '50's and the early W s . But by the time the public school movement took firm hold on the country as a whole, Jewish educational institutions had diminished considerably in strength. Thus we find the following information about the education of Jewish children during the year 1870 in the official U. S. government Report of the Commissioner of Education: "Chicago: Jewish population -10,000; 90% of the children study in public schools. The city has one Jewish private school...Hebrew language is taught there. However, most Jewish parents rely on the education pro­ vided for their children by 'Sabbath' schools which teach religious fundamentals. There are 600 enrolled in such programs.

Philadelphia: There are three Jewish schools in the city with an aggregate staff of ten men-teachers and three women-teachers. Their students number 454.

Boston: 500 Jewish children attend public elementary and high schools.

Of this group, 300 receive supplementary religious training.

Baltimore: Most Jewish children attend public schools. A Jewish private school lists 150 students...260 children attend two Sunday Schools.

St. Louis: There are no private Jewish schools here. An estimate of the ^number of Jewish children attending the public schools—1,120. 398 children attend "Sabbath" schools."

Two items are of particular significance. First, there are indications that spoken Hebrew was used in at least one of the classes by the Rev. S. C. Noot, principal Hebrew teacher. Thus Leeser writes that "on one of my visits to Noot's class I heard the teacher and children speaking in the Holy Tongue. " Secondly, we find reference to the introduction of Mishnah, the Oral Law, in the 1867 examination reports: "A small class of boys showed that the Mishnah can be taught in America, as a searching examination in the first chapters of Rosh-hashanah (New Year) showed that they had been well grounded and understood their subject."

The Challenge of Public Education Leeser's opposition to the Christian influences found in public and private schools has already been noted. Moshe Davis, in The Emergence of 39

In 1851, Leeser spoke of the over-riding importance of the HES school by comparing it to the efforts of Christian parochial as opposed to public education. "We can think of nothing so important," he said, "as the diffusion of religious knowledge among the people. So evident has this necessity become, that, as we learn, several Christian sects have lately established educational institutions of their own, as they find that public schools, where no religion can be taught, do not supply the demand which each individual feels for somethng more than mere book-knowledge. "

The State. . .may teach whatever is received alike by all its inhabitants. . .The State may thus be left to educate grammarians, mathematicians, geographers, historians, and impart the knowledge of drawing, writing. . .or, in a word, whatever can conduce to form the mind. . .A moral training is no less. . .requisite to place us properly on our feet. . .than to acquire any given amount of scientific lore. . .

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Conservative Judaism, argues that the opposition to the public schools on the part of the rabbis was based exclusively on this fear. "As the public school system took on a secular character," he writes, "they accepted public education and began to experiment with supplementary religious educa­ tion." The pages of the Occident do not support such an hypothesis.

In 1851, Leeser spoke of the over-riding importance of the HES school by comparing it to the efforts of Christian parochial as opposed to public education. "We can think of nothing so important," he said, "as the diffusion of religious knowledge among the people. So evident has this necessity become, that, as we learn, several Christian sects have lately established educational institutions of their own, as they find that public schools, where no religion can be taught, do not supply the demand which each individual feels for something more than mere book-knowledge."

In June 1862, Leeser devoted his lead editorial to the subtle problems inherent in public education. At great length, he establishes the necessity for moral training. He then goes on to pose the question, "Who is to be charged with this business of calling out the full character of mankind?.. .Is the State at large to burden itself with the whole business of education?"

Leeser answers, "We will concede that the State...the whole collective mass of any particular community, has a right to levy taxes...in order to build school-houses and reward teachers for their labor. It has another right... to insist that all children capable of being instructed should be held to be sent to school during a sufficient period every year till they attain... that quantity of knowledge according to their capacity, the posses­ sion of which the public may demand of all its members...What is the extent of this prerogative in the State to teach? And it is mainly here that we are at issue with the advocates of State education. The State...may teach whatever is received alike by all its inhabitants.. .The State may thus be left to educate grammarians, mathematicians, geographers, historians, and impart the knowledge of drawing, writing...or, in a word, whatever can conduce to form the mind...A moral training is no less...requisite to place us properly on our feet...than to acquire any given amount of scientific lore...How is the State to implant morals into all its members? The matter would be stripped of much of its difficulties, if all the inhabitants of the same country had the same religion...(It is) impossible...to impart morals, based on religion, in general schools, for the reason assigned that the Variety in speculative opinions renders every attempt at a uniformity of teaching utterly futile.. .Nor will it do to assert that the minority must yield; for, in the first place, it is doubtful to decide who compose the actual majority...And secondly, in a matter of conscience, where any one is convinced that he cannot...adopt another's opinions, no minority, how­ ever insignificant, can fairly be coerced to set aside its own convictions, without submitting thereby to the most galling tyranny...You will then.. .have to conclude, that no State can be required to educate the morals of its members, notwithstanding the great interest it has at stake in the matter...If there were no other party chargeable with this duty, mankind would speedily degenerate..."

Though there were exceptions, the vast majority of opinion expressed in the Occident opposed public education for the Jewish child. For example, the issue of February 1847 contains a letter from an L. M. Ritterband of New

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York which states: "Some may say, in a land where education is open to all, separate institutions for different sects are not required. But experience teaches us a very different conclusion; for though we do not pretend to deny that they are quite capable of developing the faculties of the mind, they do so at the expense of Jewish principles."

But then, as now, not all Jews saw the need for day-schools. The April 1849 edition of the Occident records an opposing view. Isidore Bush, a banker who had been in the country hardly a year, delivered an address in St. Louis entitled, "The Task of the Jews in the United States." In it he presents a seven-point program for Jewish survival; the fourth guidepost reads as follows: "Support as much as you can the public schools, and lend no help whatever to sectarian institutions: do not send your children, neither your sons nor your daughters, to such, and don't complain about heavy school taxes; establish no Jewish schools except only the one branch of your religion, history and Hebrew language."

In a footnote to the Bush piece, the editor comments: "In this latter clause we differ totally from our learned correspondent. Whilst we would condemn energetically the sending of Jewish children to sectarian schools, where they have to imbibe principles hostile to their faith, such as nunneries and priest's institutes, we would earnestly recommend the establishment of Jewish seminaries."

While there are no statistics on enrollment and while we cannot identify the leader with the follower, we can appreciate the tones of optimism that begin to fill the Occident's pages as the schools progress. In rising to dedicate the new building of the Hebrew Educational Society, in 1855, Leeser himself reflected on the progress: "For see, go where you will now, in Boston, New York, Albany, Baltimore, Richmond, Charleston, Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, New Orleans, Savannah, Montreal, and even San Francisco, where Jews a few years ago were unknown—efforts have been made or are making (sic) at this moment to impart religious instruction, either separately, at stated times, or daily in connection with the usual elementary branches, in the manner we are doing; thus proving that Israelites have at length been awakened to the paramount necessity devolving on them to rescue our young members from the curse of indifference which rests like a deadly pall on...Israel."

Leeser may have been carried away by his own rhetoric in the year 1855.

But with slight revision and paraphrase his words would ring true today in the year 1976.

"Some may say, in a land where education is open to all, separate institutions for different sects are not required. But experience teaches us a very different conclusion; for though we do not pretend to deny that they are quite capable of developing the faculties of the mind, they do so at the expense of Jewish principles."

"For see, go where you will now, in Boston, New York, Albany, Baltimore, Richmond, Charleston, Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, New Orleans, Savannah, Montreal, and even San Francisco, where Jews a few years ago were unknown-efforts have been made or are making (sic) at this moment to impart religious instruction, either separately, at stated times, or daily in connection with the usual elementary branches, in the manner we are doing; thus proving that Israelites have at length been awakened to the paramount necessity devolving on them to rescue our young members from the curse of indifference which rests like a deadly pall on. . .Israel."

41

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Reb Yitzchak Blaser: A Mussar Giant Reb Yisrael Salanter, the founder of the Lithuanian Mussar movement, proudly described the main characteristics of his three leading disci­ ples: Reb Simcha Zissel Ziev was the Chacham (Wise One), Reb Naftali Amsterdam was the Chassid (Pious One), Reb Yitzchak Blaser was the Lamdan (Scholar). The description of Reb Yitzchak was precise: he was a rare composite of intellectual brilliance and ethical purity, but most outstanding was his stature as a true Gaon in the Litvishe mold.

Reb Yitzchak was born on Rosh Chodesh Adar in 1837 in the Vilna suburb of Shnipishuk. His father, Reb Shlomo, was an elder of the Vilna community who spent his final years in Yerushalayim, the Holy City. Reb Yitzchak studied on his own in the local batei medrash, as was customary during this period. For his daily bread, he was dependent upon the pious women who sustained the poor yeshiva bochurim with food and drink. At the age of fifteen, he married the daughter of Reb Shmuel Volk of Vilkomir, and, together with his young wife, settled in Kovno. Here he joined the yeshiva of Reb Israel Salanter and became one of his most devoted students. After his teacher moved to Germany in 1857, Reb Blaser continued to correspond with him and even visited with Reb Salanter in the latter's Memel residence, near the German Lithuanian border.

Reb Yitzchak originally intended to earn his livelihood through his own endeavors as a house painter. However, at the insistence of his teacher, he became, in 1862, the spiritual leader of the Jewish community of St. Petersburg, then the capital of Russia, and now known as Leningrad. He became affectionately known as "Rav Itzele Peterburger," a designation he still retains in the Torah world. His reputation as a Litvishe Gaon spread, and many turned to him for halachic responsa. He prepared his Chiddushei Torah and responsa for publication, and an initial volume was ready for the press by 1868. The volume, P'rz Yitzchak, was not published, however, until 1881. Rav Itzele waited for this length of time to be certain that all his Chiddushim were correct, a lesson in scholarship and modesty that may well be emulated. A second volume of the P'n Yitzchak was published posthumously in 1912.

While in St. Petersburg, Rav Itzele became the focal point of the many Jewish communal activities centered in the capital city. He was particularly helpful to the representatives of Orthodox Jewry who were constantly engaged in mitigating the Czar's decrees and his attempts to tamper with the Jewish educational system. On one occasion, Reb Yisrael Salanter found it necessary to make an extended visit in St. Petersburg in order to safeguard the interests of the nascent Mussar movement. He lived at the home of his student and involved Reb Yitzchak in all his endeavors. Reb Yitzchak also was deeply involved in the continuous debate with the irreligious Maskilim who nurtured an

An overview of the life of one of the outstanding disciples of Reb Yisrael Salanter, founder of the M ussar Movement, which molded the character and ethical behavior of several generations of European yeshiva students, and continues to have an impact on the American scene.

Rabbi Aaron RakefetRothkoff is well known to readers of Jewish Life for his word-portra its of great rabbinic leaders of the nine­ teenth and early twentieth centuries. He is a resident of Yerushalayim.

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Although Reb Yitzchak contin­ ued to oppose the excesses of the Maslcilim, he never de­ scended to their polemical level and ultimately won the admi­ ration and respect of some .of his opponents:

His wife helped out by running a tavern. At times, Rav Itzele helped her and waited on cus­ tomers. When he was asked if this was a better profession than the rabbinate, he replied: "While serving my patrons, I can still contemplate Talmudic passages. In the rabbinate, when I had to make decisions and advise others on difficult communal problems, it was im­ possible to ponder Talmudic texts at the same time."

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irrational hatred for the adherents of Mussar. He was often attacked in the Haskalah press by Yehuda Leib Gordon, the Hebrew writer and critic, who lived in St. Petersburg at the time. Gordon was the director of the Society for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews, and considered the community's spiritual leader a major obstacle to the successful achievement of the Society's goals. Although Reb Yitzchak continued to oppose the excesses of the Maskilim, he never descended to their polemical level and ultimately won the admiration and respect of some of his opponents.

During the years he was the Rav of the capital city, Reb Yitzchak received a munificent salary, thanks to the many wealthy Jews who resided in St. Petersburg. Despite this material well-being and the high esteem in which he was held by the community's Orthodox Jews, Reb Yitzchak was anxious to leave the rabbinate. His constant preoccupa­ tion with communal affairs greatly diminished the time, he could devote to Torah study. He was also grieved with the frequent need to obtain gittin from apostates, which at times necessitated his going to local churches in order to arrange the divorces. Finally in 1878, Rav Itzele resigned his rabbinate and settled in Kovno, where he bought a large house and earned his livelihood from renting apartments. Now without financial worries, he devoted all of his time to Torah study and his personal spiritual development. For a while, his wife also helped out by running a tavern. At times, Rav Itzele helped her and waited on customers. When he was asked if this was a better profession than the rabbinate, he replied: "W hile serving my patrons, I can still contem­ plate Talmudic passages. In the rabbinate, when I had to make decisions and advise others on difficult communal problems, it was impossible to ponder Talmudic texts at the same tim e."

Rav Itzele now began to visit the mussar klausen, which Reb Yisrael had established in Kovno, where he lectured to the many yeshiva students who flocked around him and eagerly followed his teachings.

In 1880 he was officially appointed to head the Kollel P'rushim of Kovno.

This unique, advanced Talmudic school h< d been established in 1877

by Reb Yisrael Salanter through the generosity of his follower, Obadiah Lachman of Berlin, who later gave Reb Yisrael ten thousand marks and pledged an additional thousand marks annually for the support of his projects. The new school was planned as a post-graduate yeshiva where advanced students would be supported as they contin­ ued their studies. Reb Yisrael asked the illustrious spiritual leader of Kovno, Reb Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor, to head the new school.

Initially, Rav Spektor was hesitant to undertake this responsibility since his time was fully occupied by a multitude of communal problems. When his son, Reb Zvi Hirsch, who was then in business, consented to aid in the administration, Rav Spektor agreed to accept the position.

While Rav Spektor and his son were nominally the heads of the Kollel, they were far too occupied with their other responsibilities to properly supervise the school. The actual leadership in the Kollel was in the hands of two leading disciples of the Mussar movement, Reb Avraham Shenker and Reb Noson Zvi Finkel, who guided the school in

the ways of Mussar. When Reb Zvi Hirsch gave up his commercial involvements to enter the rabbinate and accepted a call to Mittau, Latvia, it became necessary to appoint an official successor. Rav Spektor called a meeting of those concerned with the future develop­ ment of the school, and Reb Yitzchak Blaser was their choice. Rav Itzele now immersed himself in his new responsibilities and energetically sought to broaden the activities of the Kollel. He increased its student body from sixty to one hundred and twenty, with many future leading rabbinical figures among the students, including Avraham Burstein, later the Rav of Tavrig; Chaim Rabinowitz, the future Telshe Rosh Yeshiva; and Joshua Klatzkin, later the Rav of Russein. In order to raise the funds to meet the budget of one hundred thousand rubles a year, Rav Itzele had to travel through many Russian and German cities. This was particularly difficult for him in Germany, where he often did not trust the local Kashrus and had to subsist on bread and beer. To aid Rav Blaser in this task, Reb Noson Zvi Finkel anonymously published the volume Etz P'ri, an anthology of essays by Reb Yisrael, Rav Spektor, and the Chofetz Chayim, regarding the primacy of Torah study and Mussar. These essays also called upon Jews everywhere to support Torah institutions and its scholars. As additional funds were realized, the activities of the Kollel were expanded. Branches were organized in other communities which were supported by the central Kovno Kollel treasury.

Rav Itzele utilized his presence in the Kollel to infuse it with the spirit of Mussar. Although the study of the classical Mussar texts was never formally introduced in the Kollel, Reb Yitzchak did deliver Mussar Shmussen (discourses) in his home and the local Mussar Klausen. Most of the Kollel's students attended these lectures, and they espoused the Mussar ideology. Rav Itzele also aided Rav Finkel when he organized an advanced school for the graduates of the local elementary yeshiva.

The new institution was later to gain renown as the pre-eminent Slobodka Yeshiva. Rabbi Blaser occasionally lectured in the new yeshiva, and its leading students attended his weekly Mussar Shmussen which he delivered in his home at the end of the Shabbos.

Despite all his activities on behalf of the Kollel and the Mussar movement, Rav Blaser did not accept any payment for his services—the rentals for his apartments remained his sole source of income.

The Kollel student body now numbered about two hundred. But the growth and popularity of the Kollel and Reb Yitzchak became the targets of intense criticism. The Maskilim found fault with his "unworldliness and fanaticism." Others opposed him because of the Mussar environment he was engendering at the Kollel. Some promi1 nent rabbis had long opposed the innovations of the Mussar move­ ment. They feared that the study of Mussar was pre-empting the study of Talmud and believed that the emphasis on Mussar study was an affront to those leading Torah scholars, who had not adopted this new approach. They also feared that the Mussar ideology was creating an aristocracy of the few who were alone capable of meeting its rigorous demands of introspection, self-analysis, and moral improvement.

Others opposed what they considered a melancholy atmosphere

He increased its student body from sixty to one hundred and twenty, with many future lead­ ing rabbinical figures, among the students, including Avra­ ham Burstein, later the Rav of Tavrig; Chaim Rabinowitz, the future Telshe Rosh Yeshi­ va; and Joshua Klatzkin, later the Rav of Russein.

Despite all his activities on be­ half of The Kollel and the M us­ sar movement, Rav Blaser did not accept any payment for his services—the rentals for his apartments remained his sole source of income,m

45

created by the expounders of Mussar and their preoccupation with death. Finally, in 1891, Reb Yitzchak resigned his position as director of the Kollel and was succeeded by Reb Zvi Hirsh Sultzovsky, the son-in-law of Reb Yitzchak Elchanan.

Rav Itzele, however, remained a dominant figure on the Kovno scene, and continued to influence the many young scholars in the city's batei medrash and klausen to become devotees of the Mussar movement.

Among the Kovno students who followed his teachings was Reb Dov Revel, who was later to head the Yeshiva Reb Yitzchak Elchanan, and founded Yeshiva College. Reb Yitzchak also aided other scholars in the organization of new yeshivos to be conducted in the Mussar tradition.

He helped Rav Yoseph Horowitz with his yeshiva in.Nowogrodek, and aided Reb Yaakov Dovid Willowski (Ridvaz) with his nascent yeshiva in Slutsk.

In his efforts to propagate the ideals of the Mussar movement, Rav Itzele even travelled to Volozhin, where he attempted to influence Reb Chaim Soloveitchik. On the basis of quotations from the Talmud, Rav Blaser attempted to prove that the study of Mussar is important for all Jews, and especially critical for young students. He cited the famous text: "A man should always incite his good impulse to combat his evil impulse, since it is written 'Tremble and sin not.' If he subdues it, well and good. If not, let him study Torah, since it is written: 'Commune with your own heart/ If he subdues it, well and good. If not, let him recite the Sh'ma, since it is written: 'Upon your bed/ If he subdues it, well and good. If not, let him remind himself of the day of death, since it is written: 'And be still, Selah!" (Berakos, 5a). This text demonstrates, he argued, that evil impulses could not always be conquered by Torah study alone, and, at times, one must invoke the stark prospect of death, as taught by the masters of Mussar.

Reb Chaim, in turn, countered with another text: "M y son, if this repulsive wretch (the evil impulse) assails you, drag him to the Beis Medrash" (Kiddushin 30b), concluding that the study of Torah was the most effective method for dealing with the evil impulse. Reb Chaim continued the debate with an analogy: "The study of Mussar can be compared to castor oil. It will cure one who is ill, but it will make a healthy person ill. We here in Volozhin are healthy in spirit and body, and have no need for medication. Torah study is sufficient for us. It may be that the scholars of Kovno and Kelm need to drink this bitter medicine, but let them not incite healthy people to take it with them."

Reb Yitzchak refused to accept Rav Soloveitchik's contention, arguing that Mussar is not new "m edicine," but rather an integral aspect of Torah study. Just as the Talmudic tractate Shabbos details the laws of the Shabbos, similarly the classical Mussar works detail the laws of Fear of G-d and development of character and personality.

Rav Blaser's major literary contribution to the Mussar movement was his Or Yisrael (Light of Israel), which first appeared in 1900 and has been reprinted many times. For several decades this volume was the only exposition of the Mussar ideology in print. In the first section, "Shaarei Or," Rav Itzele detailed the methods and goals of the movement. In the section, "Or Yisrael," he assembled many of the

Among the Kovno students who followed his teaching was Reb Dov Revel, who was later to head the Yeshiva Reb Yitzchak Elchanan, and founded Yeshiva College.

46

important letters Reb Yisrael had written to his disciples. These letters remain virtually the sole printed legacy of the founder of the new movement. Another division, "Nesivos Or" describes the personalities of Reb Yisrael, and his master, Reb Zundel Salant. The final section, "Kochvei Or" contains Reb Yitzchak's own essays, which delineate his approach to Mussar. His main emphasis was on acquiring "Fear of the Lord" through emotional immersion in the classic works of Mussar.

Unlike other followers of Reb Yisrael who stressed the intellectual aspects of Mussar, he believed that knowledge and conceptualization were not adequate to curb man's evil impulses and desires. Proper "Fear of the Lord" could only be cultivated by contemplation of man's physical inadequacies, his moral depths, and the punishment he must face for continued disobedience to Torah imperatives. He prescribed reading aloud Mussar texts in a melancholy melody, since such mediation leaves a more lasting impression. Likewise, his ethical discourses were simple, sad, and usually accompanied by tears. Even when he and his colleague, Reb Simcha Zissel Ziev, repeated the same ideas which they had previously received from Reb Yisrael, there was a marked distinction in their style. Reb Simcha Zissel reviewed thè teachings in a purely intellectual manner, while Reb Yitzchak spoke with deep emotion and fervor.

Rav Itzele's main spiritual thrust took place during the month of Elul and the High Holy Day period. While in Kovno, he left his home from the start of Elul and did not return until the day after Yom Kippur. He spent this period almost entirely in solitude, devoting all his efforts to the study of Torah and Mussar. At designated times, his students came to his place of seclusion to listen to his M ussar discourses and exhortations. Reb Yitzchak spoke no mundane words during these awesome days. Even when a daughter was born to his wife, the only words he permitted himself were "Mazal Tov." When Reb Yaakov Dovid Willowski (Ridvaz) of Slutsk visited during the month of Elul, Reb Yitzchak wrote his distinguished visitor a polite note explaining why he could not speak to him at that time.

Despite all the tension and fear he expressed in his behavior and Shmussen during the High Holy Day period, Rav Itzele became a different person once Succos began. He became effervescent, filled with joy and exuberance. During his Kovno period, the local Yeshiva and Kollel students always came to visit with him during one of the evenings of Choi Ha'Moed to celebrate the Simchas Bais Ha'Sho'evah. He and his students spent the entire night in song and festivity, and he delivered an appropriate discourse in a tune and in rhyme he composed as he spoke. The joy of the night would reach its peak when the students would lift Reb Yitzchak on a chair and fervently sing the refrain, "Tzadik Ka'tamar Yifrach . . . " "The righteous will flourish like the palm tree; they will grow like a cedar in Lebanon" (Psalm 92:13).

Reb Yitzchak remained married to his first wife for over thirty-five years, although their union was not blessed with children. When he was already over fifty, his first wife suggested that they divorce since she knew of his intense desire to have his own children. Finally they parted, but only after he sent her to Eretz Israel with ample monetary 47

investments to provide for her for the rest of her life. Rav Itzele married a twenty four year old widow, who was the mother of four small children. He raised these children as his own, and their union resulted in four children of their own. He constantly aided his wife in running their large household. On Erev Shabbos, he helped in the Shabbos preparations, and he insisted on rising at night when one of the children cried. The most prominent of all his children was his stepson, Rav Moshe Shatzkes (1881-1958), later Lomza Rav. Rav Shatzkes, when he was a senior Rosh Yeshiva at Yeshivas Reb Yitzchok Elchanan, used to tell how his stepfather would awaken his children in time to recite the morning Shema. He aroused his own children with force, but he was especially gentle with his stepchildren since they had been orphaned of their natural father.

In 1904 Reb Yitzchak fulfilled his long-standing dream of settling in the Holy City. His famous student, Rabbi Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg, later the rector of the Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary in Berlin and the author of four volumes of responsa entitled S'ridei Aish, described Reb Yitzchak's final d'rasha in Slobodka: I rem em b er vivid ly the d'rasha he gave on th e Y o m K ip p ur b efore he w en t to

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Kittel and w rapped in his tallis. H e w as pale, th in , and tall. H is text w as "C a s t m e n ot aw ay in m y old ag e !" (Psalm s 7 1 :9 ). H e told a story of so ldiers w h o left th eir posts, and fled the co u n try to avoid b ein g tried as d eserters. A fter som e years, a new k in g issued a pardon on co n d ition th at th ey retu rn to com p lete th eir m ilitary service. O n e old soldier agreed to com e back. B u t w h en the cou n try 's o fficials saw his ag e-w o rn body, th ey scoffed at h im and said he was of n o v alu e an y longer. In tellin g this, Reb Y itzch ak a lm ost collap sed and then cried ou t to his stu d en ts, "H o w fo rtu n ate you are th at you are y o u n g! If you apply y o u r tim e and en ergy, you can still reach great h eig h ts. H ave pity on a poor old m an w h o w asted his tim e on e a rth !"

The effect of his talk cannot be described. We felt an electric shock pass through us. Here was a man, a giant who had not stopped learning all his life, sobbing his fear that he had not fulfilled his duty to the Almighty! ("Lithuanian Mussar" in Men of the Spirit, ed. Leo Jung, p.249f).

In Jerusalem, Reb Yitzchak settled in the Strauss Courtyard of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. This Courtyard was the focal point of the elders of the Mussar movement who had previously settled in Yerushalayim. Here he remained in daily contact with his neighbors, Reb Naftali Amsterdam, his lifelong colleague, and Reb Zvi Levitan, the founder of the elementary Slobodka Yeshiva which became the forerunner of the advanced Slobodka Yeshiva. Rav Itzele was soon elected to important communal positions, and he became the overseer and gabbai of a number of Old City institutions. He continued to deliver Mussar Shmussen, and, particularly during the month of Elul, the Strauss Courtyard was filled with the masses that came to hear him.

During the summer of 1907 he became ill, and his physicians sent him to Jaffa to benefit from the Mediterranean air. After spending a few days there, Rav Itzele sensed that his end was near. He insisted on returning to Jerusalem, and on the Seventh of Av, surrounded by the leading scholars of the Holy City, he returned his soul to the Almighty.

48

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A Trade For an Aristocrat

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Having run away from the Yeshivah in Plinsk for what seemed to me adequate cause—a belief that no Jew, even at my trifling age, should be expected to fast more than two days a week—my return home would, of course, have been less spectacular if my parents were not, at that very moment, (in response to a rumor about an unidentified boy found drowned near another village) already engaged in preparations for my funeral—right after Shabbos, when the Chevra Kadisha could send men to identify my body and bring it home.

Unhappily, the sensation about my return from the dead was not very long-lived, either for me or for my parents, because the food heaped on us that first Friday afternoon did not (thanks to my rabid appetite) last beyond Shabbos. And my father's wages as a forester (that is, resident guard, bookkeeper and supervisor of timbering operations) seemed per­ fectly suited only to keep him starving by degrees, instead of all in one gulp.

At that, my father's ten rubles a month were princely wages compared At that, my father's ten rubles a to those of his assistant, the Rabbi's son-in-law. He, on eight rubles, had month were princely wages to feed a wife and six children whom, like my father on alternate weeks, compared to those of his assistant, the Rabbi's he only got to see every other Shabbos. For months, the assistant had son-in-law. He, on eight rubles, been urging my father to go on strike for at least one extra ruble a week. had to feed a wife and six But my father, reared in a wealthy home and perhaps still imbued with a children whom, like my father rich man's point of view, argued that there were undoubtedly hundreds on alternate weeks, he only got to see every other Shabbos. of jobless men around who'd be glad to work for even less.

Although I deplored my father's lack of fighting spirit and "ambition," he was of course being perfectly realistic, because once this forest was cut down, it might be years before another job as good as this would turn up. What saved my father, and us, may have been only the fact that he'd been raised to such standards of piety, he was accustomed to fasting every Monday and Thursday. If not for that, he might have died of hunger altogether.

Naturally, during these "seven fat years" there was no way my par­ Shimon Wincelberg is an author ents could have saved money for the lean years inevitably bound to and playright whose work has appeared on the stage and the follow. And they arrived a good deal even sooner than expected.

The forest suddenly passed into the hands of new owners, who screen. His stories have been published in The New Yorker, naturally installed their own trusted men, and, overnight, my father and Punch, Harper's Bazaar, and in his fruitful young assistant had to clear out of the little hut deep in the this journal. His television scripts woods where they had lived each week from Sunday through Friday with authentic Jewish content have won him high praise. and, every other week, over Shabbos, as well.

For me, after weeks of total idleness, of fighting with my younger Anita Marateck Wincelberg is a brother Avrohom, of swimming in the river, mountain climbing, strip­ writer and critic whose essays and ping my shirts to play "buttons" with my gentile friends, my father, translations have appeared in a now brooding about the house like someone who'd been buried the variety of publications. She has collaborated with her husband on week before, soon became impossible to live with. Truly, for him, a novel, Send Money and Stay idleness was the hardest kind of work.

Home.

51

It had not yet occurred to me that, having closed the door on a life of the mind, I myself was, after all, old enough to look for work and help support the family. But, in fact, all I dreamt about was leaving home, perhaps even going as far as Warsaw, where my older brother Mor­ dechai lived and, in his infrequent letters, spoke of the responsible position he held in a bakery.

The prospect of spending my days in a large, modem bakery, with its perpetual warmth, its delectable smells and the unceasing availability of something to eat, gripped my imagination and wouldn't let go. Aside from which, if the truth were known, I was sick to death of Vishogrpd.

During the few short weeks I'd been away, the whole town seemed to have changed. Not one of my friends was left. Those who were too dumb or too rebellious to go on to Yeshivah, had been apprenticed to various trades, and some had even been sent to other towns in quest of work or training. Only I remained, nearly thirteen and doing nothing with my life. The situation was intolerable, not only to my parents but, now with my father constantly about the house, to me as well.

The question was, what to do in a small town like Vishogrod with a The question was, what to do in a small town like Vishogrod with boy of working age, who clearly lacked the stamina or brains for a a boy of working age, who scholarly life? clearly lacked the stamina or Had anyone troubled to ask me, I would have told them I was more brains for a scholarly life? than ready to go and join Mordechai in Warsaw, which I pictured as a vast modem metropolis glittering with golden opportunities for making money, the frantic pursuit of exquisite pleasures and, altogether, a degree of modish living we villagers dared not dwell on even in our thoughts, for fear of violating the Commandment, "thou shalt not covet." (Our image of the great city was of course partly conditioned by such rumors as that, in Warsaw, you could turn a large screw in the wall of your kitchen and clean water came gushing out.)

But my father, while he had nothing in principle against Warsaw, held to the belief that a boy's only assurance of seizing his "golden opportun­ ity" in life lay in having a skilled craft in his hand before he left home.

"A skill is a kingdom," he would say, in a play on the words m'locho and m'lucho. And I quite understood his concern. Having sunk so low after a childhood of fairytale luxury and a wedding contract guaranteeing him "perpetual sustenance," he was determined that his sons' security would rest upon no man's promises, but, aside from our Father in Heaven, depend solely on the work of their own hands. And while he had nothing against the baker's trade, he didn't feel I was mature And now began a brief season when even the poorest boys and enough yet to be trusted out of his sight.

For a while, I had a reprieve. Winter was over, the snow had melted girls could make some money. It was the time of baking matzos for and we children could once more get out of our dark, narrow homes and Pesach, and there was work for go running barefoot in the streets. And now began a brief season when everyone, regardless of age. But even the poorest boys and girls could make some money. It was the time right after Pesach, my parents took up the question anew. High of baking matzos for Pesach, and there was work for everyone, regard­ schools and universities being of less of age. course as unattainable as the But right after Pesach, my parents took up the question anew. High moon to a Jew without money or protektzia, what was to become schools and universities being of course as unattainable as the moon to a Jew without money or protektzia, what was to become of a "a big, of a "big, strapping lout" like me? strapping lout" like me? Once again it was impressed upon me that, of

It had not yet occurred to me, that having closed the door on a life of the mind, I myself was, after all, old enough to look for work and help support the family. But, in fact, all I dreamt about was leaving home, perhaps even going as far as Warsaw, here my older brother Mordechai lived and, in his infrequent letters, spoke of the responsible position he held in a bakery.

52

my contemporaries, this one had already been apprenticed to a tailor, that one to a shoemaker, while a third was still in Yeshivah and, unlike myself, would one day surely astonish the world with the razorlike subtlety of his insights.

What did I want to do— wait till I was old enough to be conscripted into Fonya's Army where, with my sadly deficient Jewish education, there was nothing to prevent my being turned into a bloodthirsty Rus­ sianized oaf, if not actually into a Christian?

Call me spoiled, if you will, but none of the trades being learned by my friends exactly made my mouth water. So, in consideration of my high-class family origins, it was finally decided to prepare me for a more "aristocratic" career. My father made a deal with Liebke the watch­ maker, and early one morning, he took me by the hand and led me over to Leibke's shop, hard by the pig market.

After all, as my father consoled me with one of his rare smiles, a watchmaker is also a professional, almost a doctor of sorts, although not enjoying the same profitable partnership with the Angel of Death.

If one look at the outside of the place was enough to make my heart fall out, this was nothing compared to the shock of meeting Leibke himself. The watchmaker was a wisp of a man, almost a midget, but what he lacked in overall stature he made up by the size of his head, which was decorated with a pair of mad red eyes in a creased little face divided by a nose curved like a Turkish scimitar.

Leibke's house consisted of two parts. The front section, which had a window, was the store. The half without the window was where he and his family made their home. I took a stealthy glimpse into that eternal darkness, and found its furnishings made up of two foolish beds whose straw never ceased to leak out of the mattresses and, combined with the dried mud, covered the floor like a carpet.

I think most children are raised to believe that a bed is expected to stand on four legs. But Liebke's rested confidently on such casual makeshifts as a stack of bricks, a chunk of firewood, and a vinegar jar.

There was one other piece of conspicuous furniture, a foul-smelling tub, of which more in a moment. For, if Leibke lacked worldly posses­ sions, he was more than generously blessed with children.

I tried to count how many, but the moment one ran out, two others came in, then three went out, and finally the only one stayed in one place long enough to let itself be counted was the baby, whom the tub served as a cradle, and who was at this moment screaming for help as if someone had poured boiling water on him.

In the store, my father was still waiting for Liebke to lift his head and acknowledge his presence. But the watchmaker was concentrating, one eye closed entirely, the other surrounded by a wooden ring with glass in it, through which he was madly peering deep into the bowels of a dismantled watch.

I was, for the moment, rather impressed by any trade which made it possible for a man to ignore my father. But in due course Leibke raised his head, deigned to recognize his visitor, and even affected to re­ member their agreement. Thus I found out for the first time that I already belonged to Leibke for the next six years.

53

After all, as my father consoled me with one of his rare smiles, a watchmaker is also a professional, almost a doctor of sorts, although not enjoying the same profitable partnership with the Angel of Death.

It was settled that I would start on Rosh Chodesh, nine days

tightlyZitoZy^aihZ’sZnd, all I could think of was how to keep from falling into the clutches of that angry little man.

the master came home,

prayLml ^ fs^nglZas finished with the broom and had found nothing else to do, he swooped at me with a shout of stan din gZ eZ ike a gokm? ^ Don't you hear the child is crying?"

Looking me over, for which he had to stand on tiptoe, Liebke made it sound as though he weren't quite sure what had made him bestow such a kindness upon me, and I was desperately hoping for him to say he had changed his mind.

Instead, just in case I had dreamt I would at once begin to learn about watches, Leibke now made clear to me that, for the first two years, my duty was to do nothing but obey him and his wife. This meant, do whatever household chores they required, such as carrying water, emptying the slop pails, sweeping the floors and, above all, rocking and carrying the baby.

I was so stunned by this, I forgot my manners enough to ask, "Do I have to nurse the baby,too?"

At this, Leibke sprang to his feet, pointed a finger at my nose, and screamed, "Sheigatzl I'll teach you to open a mouth when the master speaks!"

So it seemed that this little man, hardly bigger than a matchstick, was already my "master!" I stood there, boiling inside, staring down at Leibke, who was less than half my size, and if my father hadn't still been in the room I might have said a word or two on how I felt about this whole transaction.

As it was, I had to look on in silence while Leibke handed my father a scrap of paper, and my father obediently signed it, then turned to me with a sigh and, as though asking my forgiveness, pointed out once more that I was, after all, learning an "aristocratic" trade.

It was settled that I would start on Rosh Chodesh, nine days from now.

As I left, holding tightly on to my father's hand, all I could think of was how to keeP from falUn8 into the dutches of that angry little man.

But nine days were over before I knew it, and early one morning I started my apprenticeship, going with all the appetite of a conscript on his way to serve the Czar, and thinking bitterly how a proud man like my father had humbled himself, and enslaved me, only because he no longer felt like a man.

When I arrived, the master was still in shul, but his wife was already up and about. I judged her to be a fairly young woman, whom her hard life had already turned into a dusty, shrivelled hag.

But any pity I might have felt for her was quickly gone when she turned on me, afraid I might stand idle for a moment, and, in a pause between her baby's unheard shrieks, demanded to know how many invitations I needed to pour out the slops. Following this aristocratic task, she showed me how to sweep the floor with her crippled broom. It seemed no use telling her all this accomplished was to stir up the mud beneath the straw.

Finally the master came home, unburdened of his angry prayers, and, seeing I was finished with the broom and had found nothing else to do, he swooped at me with a shout of rage. "Yungatch! What are you standing there like a golem? Don't you hear the child is crying?" j approached the cradle, terrified. Below me, in the tub, I saw a shrunken little demon screaming curses up at the Heavens. With palsied hands I tried to rock the tub without tipping it over. But the creature inside had already taken a poisonous dislike to me and, for spite, cried 54

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even louder. During this, the little master stood watching me with his red, ferocious eyes as though it were all my fault.

Out in the street, I could hear boys not much younger than I playing ball, or hitching rides on passing wagons, while I, overnight, had been translated ,into a servant girl.

Meanwhile the baby didn't stop shrieking, and its mother finally bestirred herself. Not, Heaven forbid, to pick up her misfortune with her own hands. No. She sprang up with a mouthful of curses at her little husband and demanded, "Why aren't you sending the apprentice out with the child?"

The master obeyed at once. He wrapped it up in the nearest rag and handed me the package. "G o take it out."

I asked, "Where should I take it?"

At this, he became enraged, and passed on to me all curses he had absorbed from his wife, with a few of his own thrown in. He also accused me of pretending to be even more stupid than I was, and taking advantage of his patience because it was my first day on the job. But just wait until tomorrow!

I took the screaming bundle and fled.

Outside, all the rest of the morning, I trudged up and down the sweet, mudpaved streets, holding the little monster like some carrier of a contagious disease.

Choked with envy, 1 watched other boys at games my age and state of servitude would never allow me to play again, and could have sunk into the ground when I looked up and found them pointing and grinning at me and the thing in my arms.

And then the baby did something I would rather not describe, and my first impulse was to drop it in the nearest gutter, wash my hands at the pump and, as I was, flee into the world, an outcast and a wanderer like Cain.

I compromised by running back to Leibke's house, ducking in the back way, gently dumping his little treasure back into its foul trough and escaping unseen.

But, while I walked the streets now, wondering if there was any point in my ever going home again. Leibke must have heard or smelled what I had faithfully returned to him. He tore off his apron and trotted directly over to my father with the scream of one who had been looted by the Cossacks. "Your renegade of a son! He ran away from the job. He's broken our agreement!"

I am told that, at first, my father was furious at me. But then, as Leibke continued to insult him, virtually in front of half the town, my father took the agreement Leibke was waving in his face and, without much ceremony, tore it in half. Then he seized the little watchmaker by the collar and pitched him out.

I had meanwhile, in despair, gone to my aunt Tzivia's house and told her I was running off to Warsaw, with or without a pass from the police.

But, while she was still trying to calm me, my mother arrived, told me what had happened, and that my father said to come home, I would not have to continue my "apprenticeship."

I returned like a man reprieved from the firing squad, which is not an 55

"A Trade For an Aristocrat" is a chapter in the forthcoming The Samurai of Vishogrod-The Notebooks of Jacob Marateck, published by The Jewish Publication Society. The Note­ books were translated and adapted from the Yiddish by Mr. Marateck's son-in-law, Shimon Wincelberg, and his daughter Anita.

idle turn of phrase because, half a dozen years later, I had occasion to experience that pleasure as well.

The way it turned out, my father who, for all his strictness, also knew when to let a child have his own way, had already inquired at the magistrate's. If I was still determined to go to Warsaw, I could have a travel-permit within three days.

For a moment I felt the full terror of leaving home for the second and possibly last time. But, even at thirteen, the great world drew me like a magnet, and I knew if I stayed I would only have to submit to another apprenticeship.

My father, as somber as the day he sent me to war, took my hand and went with me to the magistrate. And never before or since did I love him so desperately as on that day.

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Book Review Reviewed by Lowell Eliezer Beilin Jewish Medical Ethics

Immanuel Jakobovits Bloch Publishing Company

The 1959 or first edition of Jewish Medical Ethics by Rabbi Dr. Immanuel Jakobovits (now Chief Rabbi of Great Britain) entered my own library shortly after its publication about the time I began the private practice of internal medicine. Since then my casual readings of the libraries of col­ leagues in practice would suggest that the book has quietly become a standard reference work for many Jewish physicians.

This second edition appends a supplementary chapter on "Recent Developments in Jewish Medical Ethics". Continuing advances in therapeutic and preventive technology raise such questions as: "May one transplant this or that organ?" "May one pull out the plug and cut off life supports?" "May one sacrifice the embryo?" And so on. A caveat: like all such works the book, of course, does not pretend to be a substitute for a definitive rabbinical opinion on a specific problem.

Recent technological developments have thrown off dilemmas that continue to bewilder and agonize the religiously and ethically sensitive health practitioners and administrators who look for guidance. Publica­ tion of the second edition is particularly appropriate now at a time when medical ethics related to the newer technology has become more than a de rigeur pop subject in the living room. Medical ethics is now the stuff of daily headlines.

One continues to be grateful to the author for culling the enormous literature of responsa and summarizing representative rulings. At the same time I must confess a few frustrations that derive from the author's method in dealing with his material: * In every case there is not necessarily a single definitive ruling.

Halachists will disagree about specific issues, as they sometimes do.

But, still, when Rabbi A and Rabbi B issue contrary opinions after having analyzed presumably identical data, which opinion is the reader expected to select as normative Judaism? The embarrassing conclusion is that one sometimes can shop for the desired Halachic decision by selecting the appropriate dayan. * I wish that Rabbi Jacobovits had been less scrupulous in refraining from advancing his own views with respect to each of these issues.

Truly there are instances when even the relatively informed reader is better served by less neutrality on the part of the author.

An introductory comment in the book deserves quotation: "As long as the moral law reigns supreme, the spectacular advances in sci­ ence and technology will be effectively controlled by the overriding claims of human life and dignity."

New York 1975 (10.00)

Dr. Beilin is Commissioner of Health for the City of New York, and lectures on various aspects of Public Health at Columbia and New York University.

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It has become obvious that if the Jewish moral law is to remain operationally supreme in the field of Jewish medical ethics, there will have to be more than a tepid tolerance on the part of physicians and rabbis toward each other's views. Both groups are obliged to reach out heroically to one another to try to grasp premises that they sometimes perceive as arcane and exasperating. For this task sophisticated knowl-

edge outside one's own intellectual field and professional specialty is indispensable. This book continues to be a useful adjunct here.

Living Judaism

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Paul Forcheim er, Philipp Feldheim, Inc.

"Learning Perek," studying the section of the Mishna called "Fathers," has an air of lightness about it. Many associate it in their minds, with a leisurely Shabbos afternoon when the rabbi discourses on a subject less taxing on the intellect than Gemorah. The translation of Pirkei Avos as "Ethics of the Fathers" fosters this notion, conjuring up an image of wise old men reciting maxims about life. Avos is more correctly translated as "principles," in the sense in which we speak of Avos Nezikin, principles of damages, from which we derive toldos (offspring), secondary principles.

Avos then is serious business, being the basic principles of Jewish conduct and moral behavior as prescribed by the Torah and elucidated by the Sages of the Mishna. It is in this spirit that Dr. Paul Forcheimer approaches Avos in his work Living Judaism.

Unlike others who have set out to construct a contemporary philosophy of Torah in the modem idiom, Dr. Forcheimer first lays down the basic principles from which any authentic Torah philosophy must derive. He opens his work with a translation of "The Chain of Tradition" from the Rambam's Introduction to the Mishna supplemented with a section of the same author's Introduction to his Mishne Torah. He then proceeds to the translation of the text of Avos, with each Mishna accompanied by the Rambam's commentary, and followed by Forcheimer's own annotations.

All this is followed by a clear translation of the Rambam's Introduction to Perek Cheilek, another classic statement of Jewish doctrine which climaxes with the famous Thirteen Principles of Faith.

Having prepared for us a feast of classic sources of Torah doctrine, Professor Forcheimer then proceeds to offer a series of studies on such subjects as: "Prophecy and Free Will," "Probability and Entropy," "Pre­ judice in Science," and "The Value of a Human Life." These studies reveal the author's expertise in linguistics and language in what is, paradoxically, a strange manner. Rather than the heavy-handed, tedious jargonese which readers have learned to associate with linguistic scholars, Forcheimer writes clearly and smoothly. There is a minimum of foot-notes and scholarly apparatus, yet the reader senses the writer's ease with his material.

Living Judaism is a typographical delight which enhances the work's content: the text of the Mishna is set in large type; the translations are set off in italic; and the annotations and essays are in yet another type face adequately spaced and set on wide-margined pages. Living Judaism will reward its reader. It deserves to be widely circulated, widely read and widely studied. It is a most welcome addition to the growing library of authentic Judaica which American Jews have long been waiting for.

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New York, Jerusalem, 1974, 241 pp.

M acy Nulman, M cG raw -H ill Book Company, N ew York, 1975, 276 pp. $14.95

Concise Encyclopedia of Jewish Music Music has come to be such an important factor in the Rennaissance of American Orthodoxy that one would normally welcome a scholarly work on Jewish music. Yet the Concise Encyclopedia of Jewish Music is the kind of book the traditional Jew approaches with trepidation. He expects to find glaring errors and even misrepresentations in the exposition of Torah tradition. He is even ready to be slighted by slurs directed at Jewish belief and believers. This reviewer trusts that Macy Nulman will himself not be slighted by this back-handed compliment: his work manifests knowledge of and sensitivity to tradition, while at the same time it covers the broad spectrum of Jewish music including non-traditional and secular aspects of the field. Here one will find an entry on the "Te'amim," the Biblical accentuation, with explanations from Talmud and other traditional sources, as well as the opinions of non-traditional writers. Crossreferences direct the reader to such recent works as The World of Prayer by Elie Munk (Feldheim, New York, 1963), a contemporary Orthodox study of prayer. The entry "Din Torah Mit G-tt" offers the famous classic Yiddish folk-song of that name attributed to Reb Levi Yitzchak Berdichev, in which the Chassidic master pleads for the redemption of the Jewish People as a matter of simple justice. Some entries may remind the traditional reader of aspects of "Jewish" music that are less than Jewish, and some entries will interest only the serious musician, but in its totality the Encyclopedia is a valuable reference which is in effect a history of Jewish music. The work also meets the more popular test of an encyclopedia: reading it can be a most enlightening and pleasurable experience.

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Jewish Life: Past/Present/Future

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Because many readers joined us after the Tishrei 5736 issue appeared, we are I reprinting our introduction to the new Jewish Life, which describes our goals and aspirations. We will from time to time take a close look at our progress, but we value the expressions of our readers on what you feel we should be doing in these pages.

This issue brings to Jewish Life a new format and a new editor. But the Jew recognizes no real distinction between past, present, and future, so I newness is an illusion. It is, of course, the nature of human life—equally I binding on the Jew—that we look back upon the past, live in the I present, and look forward to the future. But these dimensions limit us I only as individuals. Collectively, as a people standing in a peculiar I relationship to G-d the Eternal, we live in all three dimensions. Our I present is meaningless without our past and our aspirations for the I future. For the Jew who stood at Sinai, the Torah was the totality of I Jewish experience. For the Jew living today, Torah'encompasses all of I Jewish experience and teaching accumulated through the centuries: I from the Prophets through Maimonides, from Rashi through the Vilner I Gaon, the Chofetz Chaim and Reb Ahron Kotler. And the Jew lives in I the future: the coming of world peace; the coming of the Moshiach; the I Restoration of the Bais Ha'Mikdash and the Kingdom of G-d—all these I yearnings mold our personal lives and our collective life as a people.

I So too must we view such a comparatively mundane entity as a I Jewish magazine or journal. Jewish Life has a noble past. While it bore I the writing of hundreds of different people from its first appearance in 1946 to the present, it was in effect a reflection of one man: Saul j Bernstein, Editor Emeritus. For three decades, when illiteracy was—and too often remains—the hallmark of Orthodoxy's attempts to espouse Torah positions in the English language, Saul Bernstein was the exemplar of Orthodox journalism speaking with conviction and finesse. It is to him those who follow him must look for our past. And it is with a prayer that we will be worthy of his example, that we take up where he left off.

In the pages of Jewish Life we will share with you insights into the Jewish past as they clarify the Jewish present, and as they help us to see into the future. We will examine the Jewish present in the light of the past, and in the light of what must be our future aspirations. We will look into the future, not with any mystical powers—there are few Jews today who lay claim to such powers—but with the techniques made available to us by the Jewish mind and the Jewish heart refined by Torah learning and historical Jewish experience.

A word about our physical appearance. You have already noted that our page size is larger. You may also have noticed the use of new type faces and design more in keeping with our times. A publication must have a body and a soul. As a person's soul is reflected in his body, so too is his body reflected in his soul. A publication's design must reflect its contents, and its contents must reflect its design. We have gone to great effort to give Jewish Life the finest design available to us. If our body and design seem too pretentious for our content, let it inspire us i

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Is it perhaps the case that the written word may become a unifying force for American Orthodoxy?

Jewish Life will continue to be a platform for the expression of diverse points of view in the America-Torah community.

Here these criteria alone will gain admittance to the minds of readers: a commitment to Jewish values, and an articu­ late expression of a point of view on matters of interest and deep concern to other committed Jews.

to greater editorial achievement. And as we approach the state where each reflects well on the other, we will feel that we are coming closer to—while yet never reaching—our goal.

I must here leave behind for awhile the editorial "w e." Writing these words as editor of Jewish Life is for me a highly emotional experience. I do this in a time when "personal journalism" has become widespread.

Many of those who labor in the field of what has been defined as "literature under pressure" have given up the ghost of objectivity. No man is objective who thinks, who believes, who has convictions. This is not to say that the editorial columns of Jewish Life will not speak with a collective voice; but if I am to make some contribution to this collective effort, I will need find my own voice and speak it here.

Five years ago I left the field of Torah Journalism after having spent over a decade as an Orthodox editor. I shall forever be indebted to the Young Israel movement and to Agudath Israel of America for having entrusted to me their publications—Viewpoint and The Jewish Observer. Surely it must say something about Torah Journalism that I have now been entrusted—albeit only as a part-time assignment—with a journal published by the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America. Amidst the annual "calls" for Orthodox unity which are heard around this time of the year—only to be forgotten afterwards—is it perhaps the case that the written word may become a unifying force for American Orthodoxy? It is surely significant that many of the people whose writing appears in this journal, have consistently contributed to most other Orthodox publications. Is it too optimistic to suggest that from their work there may yet arise that elusive unity we all seek? Is it perhaps the case that those factors which have divided us in the past are really of minor magnitude, at least in the minds of the people who choose to express themselves in the written word and who choose to expose themselves—as all writers do—to the slings and arrows of their readers? Whatever the answers to these questions, Jewish Life will continue to be a platform for the expression of diverse points of view in the American Torah community. Here these criteria alone will gain admittance to the minds of our readers: a commitment to Jewish values, and an articulate expression of a point of view on matters of interest and deep concern to other committed Jews. Surely not all readers will agree with our application of these criteria—and we earnestly look forward to hearing from them. Writing is a mystique I hope to explore in these pages, particularly as it relates to the articulation and interpretation of Torah values and concepts. And reading too is a mystique: but the two can function only in unison.

Young readers—those considerably less than a half-century old by my definition—are not likely aware of the vast changes which have taken place in American Orthodoxy in the last three or four decades.

When I was a boy in Williamsburg about that long ago, a youngster who wandered into a shul for Mincha and Ma'ariv was usually handed a Siddur turned to the last page where the Kaddish was transliterated into English characters—why else would he be there? When a young man was engaged in our shul to read the Torah, people came from miles around to hear "ahn Amerikaner" read the Torah. This is an area 62

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that should be more deeply explored, but in effect much of what appears in these pages reflects these changes. To our great misfortune, the Torah renaissance and the tremendous advances achieved during and following World War II have not been reflected in the growth of a cadre of Orthodox thinkers who can use the English language to articulate Orthodoxy's positions. More so: the low standards of literacy which prevail in Orthodox life, abetted by the mass circulation of "Orthodox" publications/ have almost become the norm. A version of Gresham's Law operates: bad writing drives out good writing—people have accepted illiteracy with a "what-can-you-do?" attitude. "After all, it's so educational—so what if it's not good English?" But if it's not good English, and if its distorts Torah concepts, it is hardly "educational."

Most people who read are aware of the difficulties of translating from one language into another. When a judge angrily said to a Yiddish interpreter that there must be an English word that means "shofar," the reply was "it's a horn." When asked why he didn't say so to begin with, the interpreter shrugged his shoulders and said, "Because it's not a horn!" But few readers realize that all writing is in a sense "transla­ tion," particularly when we try to express Torah concepts in any language other than Hebrew.

All such attempts must, therefore, by definition, fall short of their mark. It shall here be our objective to come as close to the mark as we can in stretching the English language to accommodate Torah catego­ ries and Torah concepts as Jews have in the past used other foreign tongues.

In these difficult tasks we solicit your help, your understanding, your patience—and your prayers.

Y aakov Jacobs

It shall here he our objective to come as close to the mark as we can in stretching the English language to accommodate Torah categories and Torah concepts.

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