2220 by Jin Xie

JIN XIE

EX17

2220

ABSTRACT

Thesis: Emission of Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides resulted by industrial processes has led to severe acid rain in Mexico City. Continuous rainfall during rain seasons accelerates the speed of erosion caused by acid rain on architectural objects particularly. The project aims at curating a communal space as well as a domestic space for residents at Colonia Roma in Mexico City under the influence of erosive acid rain; alternatively erosion will be used as a method of ‘construction’. Hypothesis: Colonia Roma is greatly known for its hipster atmosphere and is highly popular among tourists due to this reason. Rather than avoiding industrial processes taking place, the problem associated with over-consumption is what should be considered and changed within the neighbourhood. Methodology: The essential focus of the design will be controlling the rate of erosion thus curating an architectural object that contributes xxx experience interiorly and exteriorly. Experimenting and measuring erosion on different materials (e.g. foam, clay, stones, etc.) shall be the dependent variables; the results gathered would be used on ‘controlling’ how erosion takes place thus pushes development of the design.

ECOLOGICAL PHENOMENON: ACID RAIN Definition of Acid Rain: Acid rain is a popular expression for the more scientific term acid deposition, which refers to the many ways in which acidity can move from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface. Acid deposition includes acidic rain as well as other forms of acidic wet deposition—such as snow, sleet, hail, and fog (or cloud water). Acid deposition also includes the dry deposition of acidic particles and gases, which can affect landscapes during dry periods. Thus, acid deposition is capable of affecting landscapes and the living things that reside within them even when precipitation is not occurring.

Causes of acid rain: Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground. - Natural causes: Normal rainwater is weakly acidic because of the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere—a process that produces carbonic acid—and from organic acids generated from biological activity. In addition, volcanic activity can produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), and hydrochloric acid (HCl) depending on the emissions associated with specific volcanoes. Other natural sources of acidification include the production of nitrogen oxides from the conversion of atmospheric molecular nitrogen (N2) by lightning and the conversion of organic nitrogen by wildfires. However, the geographic extent of any given natural source of acidification is small, and in most cases it lowers the pH of precipitation to no more than about 5.2. - Human causes: Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators. Vehicles and heavy equipment. Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries. Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Reference

- https://www.britannica.com/science/acid-rain/Chemistry-of-acid-deposition - https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/acid-rain/ - https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ACID DEPOSITION Measuring Acid Rain Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a substance’s pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance’s pH (greater than 7), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4. Policymakers, research scientists, ecologists, and modelers rely on the National Atmospheric Deposition Program’s (NADP) National Trends Network (NTN) for measurements of wet deposition. The NADP/ NTN collects acid rain at more than 250 monitoring sites throughout the US, Canada, Alaska, Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Unlike wet deposition, dry deposition is difficult and expensive to measure. Dry deposition estimates for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants are provided by the Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET). Air concentrations are measured by CASTNET at more than 90 locations. When acid deposition is washed into lakes and streams, it can cause some to turn acidic. The Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) Network measures and monitors surface water chemistry at over 280 sites to provide valuable information on aquatic ecosystem health and how water bodies respond to changes in acid-causing emissions and acid deposition.

Effects on lakes and rivers: The regional effects of acid deposition were first noted in parts of western Europe and eastern North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s when changes in the chemistry of rivers and lakes, often in remote locations, were linked to declines in the health of aquatic organisms such as resident fish, crayfish, and clam populations. Increasing amounts of acid deposition in sensitive areas caused tens of thousands of lakes and streams in Europe and North America to become much more acidic than they had been in previous decades. Acid-sensitive areas are those that are predisposed to acidification because the region’s soils have a low buffering capacity, or low acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC). In addition, acidification can release aluminum bound to soils, which in its dissolved form can be toxic to both plant and animal life. High concentrations of dissolved aluminum released from soils often enter streams and lakes. In conjunction with rising acidity in aquatic environments, aluminum can damage fish gills and thus impair respiration. In the Adirondack Mountain region of New York state, research has shown that the number of fish species drops from five in lakes with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0 to only one in lakes with a pH of 4.0 to 4.5. Other organisms are also negatively affected, so that acidified bodies of water lose plant and animal diversity overall. These effects can ripple throughout the food chain. High acidity, especially from sulfur deposition, can accelerate the conversion of elemental mercury to its deadliest form: methyl mercury, a neurological toxin. This conversion most commonly occurs in wetlands and water-saturated soils where low-oxygen environments provide ideal conditions for the formation of methyl mercury by bacteria. Methyl mercury concentrates in organisms as it moves up the food chain, a phenomenon known as bioaccumulation. Small concentrations of methyl mercury present in phytoplankton and zooplankton accumulate in the fat cells of the animals that consume them. Since animals at higher tiers of the food chain must always consume large numbers of organisms from lower ones, the concentrations of methyl mercury in top predators, which often include humans, increase to levels where they could become harmful. The bioaccumulation of methyl mercury in the tissues of fishes is the leading reason for government health advisories that recommend reduced consumption of fish from fresh and marine waters. In addition, aquatic acidification may be episodic, especially in colder climates. Sulfuric and nitric acid accumulating in a snowpack can leach out rapidly during the initial snowmelt and result in a pulse of acidic meltwater. Such pulses may be much more acidic than any individual snowfall event over the course of a winter, and these events can be deadly to acid-sensitive aquatic organisms throughout the food web.

Chemical Reaction of Acid Rain SO2 + H2O ➡️H2SO4 ←→ H+ + HSO4 ←→ 2H+ + SO42 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 ←→ H+ + NO3 These reactions in the aqueous phase (for example, in cloud water) create wet deposition products. In the gaseous phase they can produce acidic dry deposition. Acid formation can also occur on particles in the atmosphere.

Reference - https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170803-in-earths-hottest-place-life-has-been-found-in-pure-acid - https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/ph/ - http://theconversation.com/acid-drainage-the-global-environmental-crisis-youve-never-heard-of-83515

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ACID DEPOSITION Effects on forested and mountainous regions In the 1970s and ’80s, forested areas in central Europe, southern Scandinavia, and eastern North America showed alarming signs of forest dieback and tree mortality. A 1993 survey in 27 European countries revealed air pollution damage or mortality in 23 percent of the 100,000 trees surveyed. It is likely that the dieback was the result of many factors, including acid deposition (e.g., soil acidification and loss of buffering capacity, mobilization of toxic aluminum, direct effects of acid on foliage), exposure to ground-level ozone, possible excess fertilization from the deposition of nitrogen compounds (such as nitrates, ammonium, and ammonia compounds), and general stress caused by a combination of these factors. Once a tree is in a weakened condition, it is more likely to succumb to other environmental stressors such as drought, insect infestation, and infection by pathogens. The areas of forest dieback were often found to be associated with regions with low buffering capacity where damage to aquatic ecosystems due to acid deposition was also occurring. Acid deposition has been implicated in the alteration of soil chemistry and the decline of several tree species through both direct and indirect means. Poorly buffered soils are particularly susceptible to acidification because they lack significant amounts of base cations (positively charged ions), which neutralize acidity. Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, which are the base cations that account for most of the acid-neutralizing capacity of soils, are derived from the weathering of rocks and from wet and dry deposition. Some of these base cations (such as calcium and magnesium) are also secondary plant nutrients that are necessary for proper plant growth. The supply of these base cations declines as they neutralize the acids present in wet and dry deposition and are leached from the soils. Thus, a landscape formerly rich in base cations can become acid-sensitive when soil-formation processes are slow and base cations are not replaced through weathering or deposition processes. Soil acidification can also occur where deposition of ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4+) is high. Ammonia and ammonium deposition leads to the production of H+ (which results in acidification) when these chemicals are converted to nitrate (NO3−) by bacteria in a process called nitrification: NH3 + O2 → NO2− + 3H+ + 2e− NO2− + H2O → NO3− + 2H+ + 2e− The sources of NH3 and NH4+ are largely agricultural activities, especially livestock (chickens, hogs, and cattle) production. Around 80 percent of NH3 emissions in the United States and Europe come from the agricultural sector. The evaporation or volatilization of animal wastes releases NH3 into the atmosphere. This process often results in the deposition of ammonia near the emission source. However, NH3 can be converted to particulate ammonium that may be transported and deposited as wet and dry deposition hundreds of kilometres away from the emission source. Besides negatively altering soil chemistry, acid deposition has been shown to affect some tree species directly. Red spruce (Picea rubens) trees found at higher elevations in the eastern United States are harmed by acids leaching calcium from the cell membranes in their needles, making the needles more susceptible to damage from freezing during winter. The damage is often greatest in mountainous regions, because these areas often receive more acid deposition than lower areas and the winter environment is more extreme. Mountainous regions are subjected to highly acidic cloud and fog water along with other environmental stresses. In addition, red spruce can be damaged by the increased concentration of toxic aluminum in the soil. These processes can reduce nutrient uptake by the tree roots. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) populations are also declining in the northeastern United States and parts of eastern Canada. High soil aluminum and low soil calcium concentrations resulting from acid deposition have been implicated in this decline. Other trees in this region that are negatively affected by acidic deposition include aspen (Populus), birch (Betula), and ash (Fraxinus). Some scientists argue that acid deposition may influence the geology of some regions. A 2018 study examining the 2009 Jiweishan landslide in southwest China proposed that acid rain may have weakened a layer of shale that separated the rock layers containing an aquifer above from the rock layers containing a mine below, which caused a large mass of rock to slip off the mountainside and kill 74 people.

EFFECTS ON HUMAN-MADE STRUCTURES Acid deposition also affects human-made structures. The most notable effects occur on marble and limestone, which are common building materials found in many historic structures, monuments, and gravestones. Sulfur dioxide, an acid rain precursor, can react directly with limestone in the presence of water to form gypsum, which eventually flakes off or is dissolved by water. In addition, acid rain can dissolve limestone and marble through direct contact. The Chemistry of Corrosion Wet and dry deposition both contribute to the corrosion of materials. Dry deposition consists of gaseous and particulate matter that falls to Earth close to the source of emissions causing direct damage. Sulphur dioxide often falls as dry deposition within 30km of its source. Wet deposition occurs when the pollutants are spread high into the atmosphere, where they react with water vapour in clouds to form dilute acids. The effects are felt much further afield and therefore wet deposition can affect areas that are many tens of kilometres away from any sources of pollution. Calcium carbonate in certain stones dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid to form calcium sulphate: CaCO3 + H2SO4 + H2O ® CaSO4.2H2O + CO2 This has two effects. Firstly it causes the surface of the stone to break up; secondly, a black skin of gypsum (calcium sulphate) forms which blisters off exposing more stone. When the gypsum crystals form they can grow into the stone, and the process may continue for up to 50 years. This is known as the Memory Effect. Sulphur dioxide is the main pollutant in respect to corrosion but others also take their toll including NOx, carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (on organic materials) and sea salt from sea spray. Research has revealed that when nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is present with SO2, increased corrosion rates occur. This is because the NO2 oxidises the SO2 to sulphite (SO3) thereby promoting further SO2 absorption. The Review Group on Acid Rain report in 1990 indicated that in remote areas wet deposition will predominate, whereas in Eastern England dry deposition will predominate. This finding is supported by a study of south-east England, which suggests that up to 40% of total damage is due to dry deposition. The interactions between materials and pollutants are very complex and many variables are involved. Deposition of pollutants onto surfaces depends on atmospheric concentrations of the pollutants and the climate and micro-climate around the surface. Once the pollutants are on the surface, interactions will vary depending on the amount of exposure, the reactivity of different materials and the amount of moisture present. The last factor is particularly important because the SO2 that falls as dry deposition is oxidised to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture on the surface. Examples of Damage The effects of acid deposition on modern buildings are considerably less damaging than the effects on ancient monuments. Limestone and calcareous stones which are used in most heritage buildings are the most vulnerable to corrosion and need continued renovation.

Reference

Evidence of the damaging effect of acid deposition can be seen throughout the world. For example, world famous structures as the Taj Mahal, Cologne Cathedral, Notre Dame, the Colosseum and Westminster Abbey have all been affected.

- https://www.caryinstitute.org/science/research-projects/acid-rain - https://www.britannica.com/science/acid-rain/Effects-on-forested-and-mountainous-regions

Reference

- http://www.air-quality.org.uk/12.php - https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain - https://scienceprojectideasforkids.com/damages-of-acid-rain/ - https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d414d3363544e7a457a6333566d54/share_p.html - https://www.cyark.org/about/top-5-endangered-heritage-sites-acid-rain

Limstone pavement formed under the influence of acid rain at Malham Cove ÂŠ NERC P005457 (https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/geologyOfBritain/limestoneLandscapes/limestoneTopography/LimestonePavement.html)

FIRT PHYSICAL CONSTRUCT ATTEMPT: My central design motif is based on the idea of transition: how architectural space can change and provide different spital experience after erosion led by acid rain occur?

Initial inspiration: Nomadic House installtion in Paris, 2014

Iteration 1: Physical Model

Acid Rain

I thought of recreating the erosion created by acid rain by dripping acetone onto greyform immediately. The question I had in mind was how to maximise the contact surface of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;acid rainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with the architectural structure itself in order to form exiciting new spitial configuration. The Cube House by Sou Fujimoto has given me great inspiration in terms of forming initial un-eroded form of structure.

The photographs in the middle show the very initial form of my physical construct: purely cubic aggregate; as well as some experiment I did at the very start testing the effects of acetone on grey form. The photos on the right show the final outcome for my first physical construct attempt.

30x30x30cm

ITERATION 1

ITERATION 2

ITERATION 3

ITERATION 4

ITERATION 5

ITERATION 6

ARTICULATING EROSION: MAKING OF ELEMENTS

A2 CUTTING

A3 B1 B2

SMALL BRUSH

C2 SPRAY

D1 D2 BIG BRUSH Different tools used to create eroded volumes including: - Small brushes - Large brushes - Cotton sticks - Fire (candle) - Pouring - Spray

E1 E2

DIRECT POURING

ACROSANTI FIELD TRIP

Mudd bell making

Threatre roof

ACROSANTI FIELD TRIP

Mudd bell making

Threatre roof

MORE DETAILS

CITIES AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN Like the majority of the coastal part of Veracruz State and southern parts of Tamaulipas, the city of Veracruz has a tropical savanna climate (Koppen: Aw).[37] The wet season typically lasts from June to October, when a vast majority of the yearly precipitation falls. Large tropical thunderstorms occur nearly daily in the late afternoon, originating in the moist atmosphere above the Gulf of Mexico. The wet season has slightly hotter temperatures and is more humid than other seasons; the dewpoint can easily exceed 25 °C (77.0 °F). It has fewer foggy days than the dry season (averaging around 4-7 foggy days). The dry season of the year spans from November to May, with slightly cooler temperatures and less humid days; making it the much more desirable part of the year for visiting tourists as opposed to the stormy, humid wet season. Despite the dryness, winters are foggy and cloudy, averaging 10-17 overcast days and 11-17 foggy days per month during the dry season. Many tourists visit Veracruz during Christmas and March break, in the midst of the winter’s comfortably warm dry season. Veracruz receives an average of 1,564 mm (61.6 in) of precipitation annually. The wettest month of the year is July with an average monthly total of 385 mm (15.2 in) of rainfall, while the driest month of the year is March with an only 13 mm (0.51 in) of rainfall. Temperature-wise, the hottest months of the year are June and August, both sharing mean temperatures of 28 °C (82.4 °F), while the coolest month of the year is January with a mean temperature of 21.2 °C (70.2 °F).

CITIES AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN Since 2003, La Mancha works under a strcit quality assurance and quality control portocol, which makes this station a prototype for the studies in atmospheric deposition on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

The relationships between reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions and changes in sulfate and nitrate formation involve a complex group of gas and aque-ousphase chemical reactions between acid deposi-tion and aerosol precursors and oxidants. These re-actions can produce nonlinear responses to emission reductions. For example, reducing NOx while leaving SO2 unchanged can lead to an increase in sulfate formation under certain conditions. Reducing NOx emissions could increase the concentrations of the oxidant hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (NAPAP, 2003).

It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus in the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexicois located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters (16,000 feet). This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century. Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco. Seismic activity is frequent there. Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed’s heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater-related subsidence. Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine meters (30 feet) in some areas. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the summer. The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city’s remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco.

Veracruz, officially known as Heroica Veracruz, is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located along the coast in the central part of the state,[2] 90 km (56 mi) southeast of the state capital Xalapa along Federal Highway 140. It is the state’s most populous city, with a population that is greater than the municipality’s population, as part of the city of Veracruz extends into the neighboring Boca del Río Municipality. At the 2010 census, the city had 554,830 inhabitants, 428,323 in Veracruz Municipality and 126,507 in Boca del Río Municipality.[3] Developed during Spanish colonization, Veracruz has been Mexico’s oldest, largest, and historically most significant port. Veracruz has a blend of cultures, mostly indigenous, ethnic Spanish and Afro-Cuban. The influence of these three is best seen in the food and music of the area, which has strong Hispanic, Caribbean and African influences.

Geography conspires with human activity to produce a poisonous scenario. Located in the crater of an extinct volcano, Mexico City is about 2,240 metres above sea level. The lower atmospheric oxygen levels at this altitude cause incomplete fuel combustion in engines and higher emissions of carbon monoxide and other compounds. Intense sunlight turns these into higher than normal smog levels. In turn, the smog prevents the sun from heating the atmosphere enough to penetrate the inversion layer blanketing the city.

Causes of acid rain The most important air pollutant of Mexico City are ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), precursors like nitrogen oxides (NOX), hydrocarbons (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO), that originate from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. At these altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) is far lower than at sea level, thus combustion is far from ideal. Most of the energy consumed in this city is related to urban transportation. A very important source of air pollution is gas exhaust from private vehicles.

Health impacts

The global wind-distribution charts reveal the general trends among the most distinct seasons (January and July average - see fig.2.1). During the winter months a very persistent high pressure system resides over the south-eastern Pacific of the northern hemisphere. This enables a weak flow of moderately tempered air (synoptic flow from the south) into the highlands of Mexico.

Veracruz

Mexico city’s geographic disadvantage

Earlier efforts to assess the costs of pollution in Mexico City had focused on direct medical costs such as medicines and hospital visits and on productivity losses. This study, however, sought to provide a more comprehensive picture. A transdisciplinary research team assessed a range of health benefits and “savings,” including people’s willingness to pay for better health and a potentially longer life. Communications and social participation specialists worked to understand peoples’ perceptions and assess indirect costs because, as Muñoz explains, “not only do people who get sick lose days from work, but also mothers who stay home to take care of the children who get sick.”

The Mexico City Mexico City, or the City of Mexico (Spanish: Ciudad de México, American Spanish: [sjuˈða(ð) ðe ˈmexiko] (About this soundlisten); abbreviated as CDMX, Nahuatl languages: Āltepētl Mēxihco), is the capital of Mexico and the most populous city in North America. It is one of the most important cultural and financial centres in the world. According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the population of Greater Mexico City is 21.3 million, which makes it the second largest metropolitan area of the Western Hemisphere, the eleventh-largest agglomeration (2017), and the largest Spanish-speaking city in the world.

CITIES AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN Delhi is located in Northern India, at 28.61°N 77.23°E. The city is bordered on its northern, western, and southern sides by the state of Haryana and to the east by that of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge. The Yamuna river was the historical boundary between Punjab and UP, and its flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods. The Yamuna, a sacred river in Hinduism, is the only major river flowing through Delhi. The Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. The Delhi ridge originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west, north-east and north-west parts of the city. It reaches a height of 318 m (1,043 ft) and is a dominant feature of the region. The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of 1,484 km2 (573 sq mi), of which 783 km2 (302 sq mi) is designated rural, and 700 km2 (270 sq mi) urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country. It has a length of 51.9 km (32 mi) and a width of 48.48 km (30 mi). Delhi is included in India’s seismic zone-IV, indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes. Delhi features a dry-winter humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). The warm season lasts from 21 March to 15 June with an average daily high temperature above 39 °C (102 °F). Temperatures in Delhi usually range from 2 to 47 °C (35.6 to 116.6 °F), with the lowest and highest temperatures ever recorded being −2.2 and 48.4 °C (28.0 and 119.1 °F), respectively. The annual mean temperature is 25 °C (77 °F); monthly mean temperatures range from 13 to 32 °C (55 to 90 °F). The highest temperature recorded in July was 45 °C (113 °F) in 1931. The average annual rainfall is approximately 886 mm (34.9 in), most of which falls during the monsoon in July and August.The average date of the advent of monsoon winds in Delhi is 29 June.

CITIES AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN Causes of acid rain India faces an increasing threat from acid rain -earlier believed to be the scourge of the West. The large-scale industrial growth and reliance on the use of coal and crude oil distillates like diesel have led to acidification of the atmosphere.The burning of fossil fuels is mainly responsible for creation of sulphur dioxide ( so 2 ) and oxides of nitrogen ( no x ) which lead to the formation of acid rain. Automobile exhaust fumes are partly to blame, but the worst culprits are coal-burning thermal power plants and the steel industry. Already, a low pH has been observed at Chembur, Maharashtra and Delhi. This is the conclusion of a study conducted by Manju Mohan and Sanjay Kumar of the Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology ( iit ), New Delhi.Moreover, the use of diesel is causing a high amount of sulphur and nitrogen emissions in the metros. Indian diesel has a sulphur content of 0.5 per cent by weight. Delhi and Agra are supplied with diesel that has a lower sulphur content. “But even this is far higher than sulphur levels in diesel used in countries like Sweden (0.001 per cent). Swedish diesel is 250 times cleaner. It means that with the rising number of diesel vehicles, the government’s objective to bring down sulphur emissions may not be achievable,” says H B Mathur, professor emeritus, Delhi College of Engineering. “If the government continues to encourage diesel usage, the prediction made by the iit study may well come true,” adds K P Nyati, head (environmental division), Confederation of Indian Industries ( cii ), New Delhi.

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. It is bordered by Haryana (Gurugram, Faridabad, Jhajjar and Sonipat) on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh (Gautam Budh Nagar, Ghaziabad and Baghpat) to the east. The NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres (573 sq mi). Delhi ranks fifth among the Indian states and union territories in human development index. Delhi has the second-highest GDP per capita in India. Furthermore, it is considered one of the world’s most polluted city by particulate matter concentration.

Bergen occupies most of the peninsula of Bergenshalvøyen in the district of Midthordland in mid-western Hordaland. The municipality covers an area of 465 square kilometres (180 square miles). Most of the urban area is on or close to a fjord or bay, although the urban area has several mountains. The city centre is surrounded by the Seven Mountains, although there is disagreement as to which of the nine mountains constitute these. Ulriken, Fløyen, Løvstakken and Damsgårdsfjellet are always included as well as three of Lyderhorn, Sandviksfjellet, Blåmanen, Rundemanen and Kolbeinsvarden. Gullfjellet is Bergen’s highest mountain, at 987 metres (3,238 ft) above mean sea leve. Bergen is sheltered from the North Sea by the islands Askøy, Holsnøy (the municipality of Meland) and Sotra (the municipalities of Fjell and Sund). Bergen borders the municipalities Meland, Lindås, and Osterøy to the north, Vaksdal and Samnanger to the east, Os and Austevoll to the south, and Sund, Fjell, and Askøy to the west. Bergen has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), with plentiful rainfall in all seasons. Average annual precipitation is 2,250 mm (89 in). This is because Bergen is surrounded by mountains that cause moist North Atlantic air to undergo orographic lift, yielding abundant rainfall. It rained every day from 29 October 2006 to 21 January 2007: 85 consecutive days. The highest temperature ever recorded was 33.4 °C (92.1 °F) on 26 July 2019, beating the previous record from 2018 at 32,6 degrees, and the lowest was −16.3 °C (2.7 °F) in January 1987. Bergen is considered the rainiest city in Europe, although it is not the most precipitous “place” on the continent.

City overview The city is an international center for aquaculture, shipping, the offshore petroleum industry and subsea technology, and a national centre for higher education, media, tourism and finance. Bergen Port is Norway’s busiest in terms of both freight and passengers, with over 300 cruise ship calls a year bringing nearly a half a million passengers to Bergen

Acid rain causes Most of the acid rain that falls in Norway, especially in the south, is believed to contain British pollutants because of prevailing winds. Much of Britain’s electricity was then generated by big coal-burning power stations situated in northern England on the eastern side of the Pennines, such as Drax in Yorkshire. These plants burned enormous amounts of coal with a very high sulphur content, and the resultant sulphur dioxide emissions from the power station chimneys were blown by the prevailing westerly winds across the North Sea, transformed into sulphuric acid and deposited on the Scandinavian land mass.

Bergen Bergen. historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Hordaland on the south-west coast of Norway. At the end of the first quarter of 2018, the municipality’s population was 280,216. and the Bergen metropolitan region has about 420,000 inhabitants. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers 465 square kilometres (180 sq mi) and is on the peninsula of Bergenshalvøyen.

CITIES AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN

Keelung City is located in the northern part of Taiwan Island. It occupies an area of 132.76 km2 (51.26 sq mi) and is separated from its neighboring county by mountains in the east, west and south. The northern part of the city faces the ocean and is a great deep water harbor since early times.[22] Keelung also administers the nearby Keelung Islet as well as the more distant and strategically important Pengjia Islet, Mianhua Islet and Huaping Islet. Keelung has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with a yearly rainfall average upwards of 3,700 millimetres (146 in). It has long been noted as one of the wettest and gloomiest cities in the world; the effect is related to the Kuroshio Current.[25] Although it is one of the coolest cities of Taiwan, winters are still short and warm, whilst summers are long, relatively dry and hot, temperatures can peek above 26 °C during a warm winter day, while it can dip below 27 °C during a rainy summer day, much like the rest of northern Taiwan. However its location on northern mountain slopes means that due to orographic lift, rainfall is heavier during fall and winter, the latter during which a northeasterly flow prevails. During summer, southwesterly winds dominate and thus there is a slight rain shadow effect. Fog is most serious during winter and spring, when relative humidity levels are also highest.

TWO CITIES COMPARISON:

Acid rain data and causes

KEELUNG CITY:

MEXICO CITY:

Mexico City is located on the high south-central Mexico plateau of Anáhuac in the Valley of Mexico at nearly 7,400 feet in elevation. The valley is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.

Keelung has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with a yearly rainfall average upwards of 3,700 millimetres (146 in). It has long been noted as one of the wettest and gloomiest cities in the world; the effect is related to the Kuroshio Current. Although it is one of the coolest cities of Taiwan, winters are still short and warm, whilst summers are long, relatively dry and hot, temperatures can peek above 26 °C during a warm winter day, while it can dip below 27 °C during a rainy summer day, much like the rest of northern Taiwan. However its location on northern mountain slopes means that due to orographic lift, rainfall is heavier during fall and winter, the latter during which a northeasterly flow prevails. During summer, southwesterly winds dominate and thus there is a slight rain shadow effect. Fog is most serious during winter and spring, when relative humidity levels are also highest.

Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that soar to 16,000 feet, Mexico City sits on what used to be Lake Texcoco. Since the beginning of the 20th century Mexico City has sunk as much as 30 feet in some areas. Its location on the former lakebed also makes Mexico City prone to seismic activity. The Valley of Mexico also has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the surrounding mountains, making the city vulnerable to floods. The Mexico City metropolitan area is the ninth largest in the world and has the world’s largest Spanish-speaking population. It includes 16 municipalities and 18 additional municipalities in the Valley of Mexico. Major municipalities within Mexico City proper include Azcapotzalco, Alvaro Obregòn, Benito Juràrez, Coyoacàn, Cuajimalpa de Morelos, Cuauhtèmoc, Gustavo A. Madero, Iztacalco, Iztapalapa, Magdalena Contreras, Miguel Hidalgo, Milpa Alta, Tiàhuac, Tlalpan, Venustiano Carranza and Xochimilco. Mexico City is in the Central Standard Time zone and observes daylight saving time beginning the first Sunday in April and ending the last Sunday in October.

Keelung City

Keelung (Mandarin pinyin: Jīlóng; Hokkien POJ: Ke-lâng), officially known as Keelung City, is a major port city situated in the northeastern part of Taiwan. It borders New Taipei with which it forms the Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area, along with Taipei itself. Nicknamed the Rainy Port for its frequent rain and maritime role, the city is Taiwan’s second largest seaport (after Kaohsiung).

Reference - https://news.tvbs.com.tw/life/820938 - https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/maps/z0o9/Keelung/ -https://www.cwb.gov.tw/V8/E/D/phRain.html

TWO CITIES COMPARISON:

KEELUNG CITY:

MEXICO CITY:

Rains in Keelung are the most acidic in the nation, according to information from the Central Weather Bureau (CWB). While rains across the nation tend to be acidic, Keelung’s geographical location has made its rains more acidic. Keelung is the first region affected by seasonal weather fronts from the northeast that bring a lot of rainfall. Due to Keelung’s location far forward into the weather front, the reaction (of particulate matter and rain) is much stronger than elsewhere in the nation. Once dissolved in rain, particulate matter in the atmosphere tends to become acidic, and northeast seasonal winds and typhoons often bring high concentrations of rain and particulate matter. Keelung’s rain has been acidic for 18 consecutive years — since 1999.

At the end of the 1980´s particulates and sulfur dioxide (SO2) were the main atmospheric pollutants in the Mexico City Metropolitan Zone (MCMZ). To reduce emissions, fuel oil was replaced by natural gas at power plants located inside Mexico City. Currently, SO2 levels do not exceed its air quality standard; however, acid rain is present with a high contribution of sulfate (SO4 2-). In this study, spatial and temporal variations in the chemical composition of rain in Mexico City between 2003 and 2014 were analyzed. Major ions (Na+, NH4 +, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO4 2-, NO3 - and Cl-), pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) were analyzed weekly at 16 sampling stations located in the MCMZ. The pH decreased from north to south, with the lowest annual volume weighted mean (VWM) of 4.16 in 2006. Annual ion concentrations were, in decreasing order: NH4 +, SO4 2-, NO3 - and Ca2+ for the entire study period at most of the sampling sites. The highest values for wet atmospheric deposition (kg/ha) were found in the Western area and were the maximum in 2007. Wet deposition had major

Reference

- https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/maps/lpg1/Mexico-City/ - https://en.mxcity.mx/2016/04/mexico-citys-mountains/ - http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-62362019000100055&lng=en&nrm=iso

Colima Street

Patrick Miller

Filled with great amount of boutiques and indie designer shops.

Retro club that only serves water and beer. Opens from 9pm to 3am on Friday only. Plays disco (HI-RNG) music frequently

Mercado Medellín

Mamá Rumba

Mercado Roma

It is known as the market in the city where one can find produce and goods from other countries in Latin America such as Colombia and Cuba, whose flags hang from many stalls, as well as from Yucatán in Mexico. It has been nicknamed "La Pequeña Habana" (Little Havana), and there are over 500 stalls in total.

A chill place to dance Cuban salsa. Very busy and really packed.

("Roma market") is a public market that offers organic and other food products for sale; stands and counters where visitors can eat a variety of cuisines (pozole, tacos, tapas, hamburgers).

COLONIA ROMA LIFESTYLE

THE MEXICO CITY: COLONIA ROMA

residential

restaurants &cafe educational office commercial bar art related public services hotel

RED

ORANGE

Red is one of the most common colors seen in Mexican art and culture. One third of the Mexican flag is red, symbolizing blood shed by historical heroes. Red chili peppers are a staple used in Mexican food and the Matador in a Mexican bullfight entices the bull with an artfully manipulated red cape. Colorful Mexican blankets and serapes often feature bold bands of red and brilliant fuchsia stripes. Deep or bright red is popular on walls inside and outside the home and various shades of red can also be found on the fiery blooms of courtyard bromeliads, flowering cacti and the unmistakable reddish purple or fuchsia blooms of bougainvillea vines.

Almost as common as yellow, orange frequently warms the walls both inside and outside the home in Mexico. Muted shades of orange are seen everywhere from terra-cotta tiles on floors to planters, fountains and clay wall art. Bright orange appears in fabric patterns, painted ceramics and furniture. Deep shades of orange are common on pillows and rugs.

YELLOW

Yellow is used heavily in Mexican design as well, in shades ranging from bright lemon yellow to deep earthy golds. Stately haciendas with sunny yellow stucco walls and muddy orange tinted terra cotta floors can't help but look warm and inviting amid the lush greenery of the tropical climate. Almost any shade of yellow can be found on stucco walls, both inside and outside the home. Bright yellow is infused in vividly patterned textiles such as pillows and rugs as well as hand painted ceramic art. yellow walls

PINK

GREEN

BLUE

Interior courtyards filled with the greenery of climbing vines, palms and flowering plants are a common design characteristic of hacienda style homes. Bright green is a favorite color for trim on cabinets, around doors and windows, on painted furniture, patterned textiles and hand painted ceramic tiles. One third of the Mexican flag is dark green, symbolizing hope.

Reminiscent of sea and sky along Mexico's gorgeous coastline, shades of blue range from deep navy and indigo to brilliant electric blue to blue-green hues of turquoise or teal. Blue is a popular color for accent walls, furniture, doors and decorative trim. Colorful bands of blue are commonly found in striped rugs and blankets and artful patterns painted on Talavera tiles.

PURPLE

MEXICO CITY COLOUR SUMMARY Red is one of the most common colors seen in Mexican art and culture. One third of the Mexican flag is red, symbolizing blood shed by historical heroes. Red chili peppers are a staple used in Mexican food and the Matador in a Mexican bullfight entices the bull with an artfully manipulated red cape.

The color pink represents compassion, nurturing and love. It relates to unconditional love and understanding, and the giving and receiving of nurturing. A combination of red and white, pink contains the need for action of red, helping it to achieve the potential for success and insight offered by white. It is the passion and power of red softened with the purity, openness and completeness of white. Yellow is used heavily in Mexican design as well, in shades ranging from bright lemon yellow to deep earthy golds. Stately haciendas with sunny yellow stucco walls and muddy orange tinted terra cotta floors can't help but look warm and inviting amid the lush greenery of the tropical climate. Almost any shade of yellow can be found on stucco walls, both inside and outside the home. Bright yellow is infused in vividly patterned textiles such as pillows and rugs as well as hand painted ceramic art.

Vibrant shades of purple from red violet to blue violet can be seen on stucco walls, painted furniture and in colorful bands on blankets and serapes. Deep purple is used to highlight architectural features and is often paired with yellow or orange.

TEXTILES

INDIGENOUS CLOTHING

Fajas

Rebozos

Textiles is one of Mexico's more important crafts as it represents the continuation of tradition as well as its fusion with modern designs and techniques. Both pre-Hispanic and colonial era style textiles are still made in Mexico. In addition, many of the textile factories use machines based on old foot pedal looms from the colonial period. There are basically four types of fibers used for fabric production:[5] Vegetable products such as cotton Animal products such as wool and silk Minerals such as gold and silver thread Synthetics

Quechquemitl

Teyacapan

Huipil

Rebozos and fajas

Most of the pre-Hispanic clothing that survives is for women. These include "enredos", or wrap dresses, fajas, or cloth belts, huipils, a type of tunic, quechquemitl, which is a kind of rectangular or square short poncho. The last was originally worn directly on the upper body of a woman but today it is worn over a blouse. Loose-fitting sack dresses, called huipils in Oaxaca and guanengos in Michoacรกn, are often heavily embroidered with straight stitching, cross stitching and tucks with floral and geometric motifs.

EMBRODIERY

MEXICAN CERAMICS

One of the most distinctive aspects of indigenous handcrafted textiles is the use of embroidery. Indigenous motifs found on garments range from geometric patterns, zig-zag, spirals, moons, crosses and stepped frets. Thin cloth belts that wrap around the waist (fajillas) are common in a number of indigenous groups and are richly embroidered. The borders are often adorned with zig-zag edging, such as those of the Huichols. The Otomis use a moon pattern on these belts along with their morrals or carrying bags, and the Tarahumara tend to decorate theirs with triangular designs. Many of the embroidery patterns of the huipils in Oaxaca, also show pre-Hispanic influence. Flower designs are popular for embroidering women's clothing among the Otomis, Nahuas, Huastecs, Huichols and others. Spirals and curved designs appear with frequency especially in the center and south of the country. In addition to flowers, other themes from nature in woven and embroidered designs include plants, animals such as squirrels, rabbits, deer, armadillos, doves, hummingbirds, pelicans, seagulls and fish. Mazahua embroidered belts are known for their zoomorphic designs and those of Santo Tomás Jalieza tend to have images of large plumed birds. The cloth napkins of San Mateo del Mar have images of aquatic birds such as pelicans and seagulls, with those of the Tacuates of Santiago Zacatepec have borders with many diminutive animals such as centipedes, scorpions, birds, iguanas, cats, foxes and more. Human figures appear with relative frequency as well. They feature prominently on the embroidered napkins of San Juan Colorado and as Danza de la Pluma dancers on the cloth belts of Santo Tomás Jalieza. Patriotic symbols such as two-headed eagles, the three colors of the Mexican flag and the eagle with serpent crest. These are most prevalent in the central region of the country among the Otomis, Nahuas, Huastecos, Huicholes and others. Christian symbols such as the cross, virgins, saints, angels and other elements were introduced by evangelists in the early colonial period. These appear on small and large pieces such as men's shirts among the Tzotzil in Chiapas, in the fabrics of San Miguel Ameyalco, which feature churches, and the appearance of the Virgin of Guadalupe in many textiles in the Sierra Norte of Puebla. Popular sayings or phrases also appear especially in the textiles of the Purépecha around Lake Pátzcuaro and in the state of Puebla.

Ceramics in Mexico date back thousands of years before the Pre-Columbian period, when ceramic arts and pottery crafts developed with the first advanced civilizations and cultures of Mesoamerica. With one exception, pre-Hispanic wares were not glazed, but rather burnished and painted with colored fine clay slips. The potter's wheel was unknown as well; pieces were shaped by molding, coiling and other methods.

POTENTIAL SITE 1

POTENTIAL SITE 2

POTENTIAL SITE 3

COMMON ROOM GYM

BAR WORKSHOP

COOKING

LEISURE

CO-LIVING SPACE PROGRAMES

DINNING STUDY SPACE

PERSONAL WORKING SPACE

BATHROOM SLEEP

SECOND FLOOR DIAGRAM

FIRST FLOOR PLAN

THIRD FLOOR DIAGRAM

1. Private room

1. Private room 2.Living room 3.Work space

1. GYM

ANNOTATE EROSION TYPES

ADD NEIBOURGHS A2

MORE FIGURES AND OBJECTS

AXON

RESULT AFTER 200 YEARS