From Division Line to Spaces of encounter by jldeanda_x

Facing Borders 2020-2021

From Division Line to Spaces of Encounter

Politecnico Di Milano School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering Master of Science in Architecture and Urban Design

From Division Line to Spaces of Encounter Facing Borders

Authors: Angelica X. Venzor 912732 Jose Luis De Anda Aranda 912609

Supervisor: Professor Stefano Di Vita Academic year: 2020/ 2021

Acknowledgement

The completion of this investigation could not have been possible without the expertise of our supervisor Stefano Di Vita, to whom we would like to express our deepest gratitude for the guidance and support in completing this project regardless of the challenge of working in the middle of the Covid-19 pandemic. We would like to extend our gratitude to the staff of Politecnico di Milano for their hard work and assistance in this difficult time. And last but not least, we would like to thank our families and friends for the love and support; without you, none of this would be possible.

Abstract

The borders zones are often perceived as spaces of conflict and separation rather than spaces of meeting and unity. The investigation aims to simulate a different approach towards border zones based on the idea of unity. The case of the sister cities of Juarez and El Paso divided by the U.S-MEX border will be utilized, due mainly because of the extreme spatial fragmentation, the marginalized border zone and the presence of a 6 m high wall along the borderline. These spatial fragmentations have also contributed to fragment the communities in both sides of the border creating a sense of detachment between them. The simulation consists of improving the border zone by introducing urban design interventions such as a new park in the area, addition of pedestrian and bike infrastructure and enhancement of adjacent underdeveloped areas in order to explore the possibility of reshaping the current marginalized character of the border zone into a space of encounter as well as to develop a backbone to connect public spaces in both sides. The addition of community hubs in the new park and current public spaces will be also part of the simulation. The idea is to develop a network of hubs among communities in both sides of the border to host events, workshops and activities in order to provide an insight of the situation of the sister cities, therefore exploring the possibility reinforcing the ties across borders and looking for a future prospect of collaboration between them.

Keywords: Border cities, Fragmentation, Conflict, Urban regeneration, Space of encounter, Reconnection

Sintesi

Le zone di confine sono spesso percepite come spazi di conflitto e separazione piuttosto che spazi di incontro e unità. L’indagine mira a simulare un approccio diverso verso le zone di confine basato sull’idea di unità. Verrà utilizzato il caso delle città gemelle di Juarez ed El Paso divise dal confine USA-MEX, dovuto principalmente all’estrema frammentazione spaziale, alla zona di confine emarginata e alla presenza di un muro alto 6 metri lungo la linea di confine. Queste frammentazioni territoriale hanno anche contribuito a frammentare le comunità di entrambi i lati del confine creando un senso di distacco tra loro. La simulazione consiste nel migliorare la zona di confine introducendo interventi di design urbano come un nuovo parco nell’area, l’aggiunta di infrastrutture pedonali e ciclabili e la valorizzazione delle aree degradate adiacenti, al fine di esplorare la possibilità di rimodellare l’attuale carattere marginale della zona di confine in uno spazio di incontro, nonché di sviluppare una spina dorsale per collegare gli spazi pubblici in entrambi i lati. L’aggiunta di hub comunitari nel nuovo parco e negli attuali spazi pubblici sarà anche parte della simulazione. L’idea è quella di sviluppare una rete di hub tra le comunità di entrambi i lati del confine per ospitare eventi, workshop e attività al fine di fornire una visione della situazione delle città sorelle, esplorando quindi la possibilità di rafforzare i legami attraverso i confini e cercando una prospettiva futura di collaborazione tra loro.

Parole Chiave: Città di confine, Frammentazione, Conflitto, Rigenerazione urbana, Spazio di incontro, Riconnessione

PHASE

Introduction

Research

1.1 Topic research: multi-faceted urban barriers and borders

15 16 20 26

1.2 Context Research: characteristics and evolution of USA/MEX border

53 54 62 80 92

1.3 Considerations and Intent: From division line to spaces of encounter

101 102 106

Analysis

108

2.1 Urban Analysis: along the USA/MEX national border

111 112 118 124

PHASE

1.1.1 Urban Barriers 1.1.2 Border Cities 1.1.3 Multiplicity of political border cases

1.2.1 USA/MEX border changes 1.2.2 The sister cities of El Paso/Ciudad Juarez 1.2.3 An abacus of USA/MEX design projects 1.2.4 An abacus of USA/MEX planning projects

1.3.1 The importance of Collaboration 1.3.2 Intent and method

within the El Paso/Ciudad Juarez urban region 2.1.1 Functional maps and infrastructure networks 2.1.2 International Bridges Focus 2.1.2 Open Space Survey

2.2 Neighborhood Analysis: of the Chamizal/Bordo Area PHASE

2.2.1 Neighborhood Study Area 2.2.2 Buffer Zone Focus

135 136 142

Design

146

3.1 Strategy: Improving the border zone through Urban Design

149 150 152 153 161 162 164

3.1.1 Framework for project developments 3.1.2 Design Intent 3.1.2 Strategic Plan

3.2 Design Simulation: The new space of encounter

3.2.1 Design Phases 2.2.2 Design Project Simulation

Conclusion Appendix List of Figures Bibliography

178 183 200 211

Introduction

Political Boundaries

The U.S-MEX Border

References

Research Question

Certainly, political borders have an important and complex role in the ancient and modern world. Pursuing better control and organization, men created delimitations with the purpose of spatializing and territorialize, thus creating an understanding of where one stops and the other begins. But is division the answer to be in harmony? Or do these divisions create more conflict? We might never find the absolute answer to this, however, the reality is that the idea of conflict is often associated with political borders. One of the clearest examples of a conflictive border is the U.S-MEX border. In their search to control the excessive illegal immigration and drug trafficking, The United States opted to develop extreme immigration policies supported with extreme control measures at its border. One of them being the materialization of it into a 6 m high structure, creating a serious impact especially in the cities along the border. The border cities of El Paso and Juarez are one case that has been affected by the presence of the wall; this physical barrier is so strong that it has contributed to creating a social barrier, it is almost an element that dictates who they are and who they are not. Although the wall is a big contributive factor in this perception of otherness, it is certainly not the only one: the bad infrastructure at the legal points of entry, marginal areas at the border zone, and lack of green infrastructure add to the urban and social fragmentation as well. Currently, the communities on both sides of the border suffer from a feeling of detachment between one another, and although the cities are interdependent the collaboration is almost null. In his book “Borderwall as Architecture” Architect Ronald Rael introduces the idea of reimagining the wall as an attractor engaging both sides in a common dialogue instead of an element to keep people out and away. Several counterproposals of the wall are presented in the book to highlight opportunities for improvement, subversion, and change. The idea of reimagining the wall as an element to engage opens a new perspective, one that not only involves an element but the urban environment in between the cities. Can the border zone urban quality be improved to reimagine the area as a space for encounter? Would an urban regeneration help to improve the relationship along border communities?

Utilizing the case of the sister cities of Juarez and El Paso divided by the U.S.MEX border, the thesis aims to simulate a different approach to conflictive political borders, through urban analysis and design. This new approach consists of the simulation of a space of encounter for communities at the border zone, to explore the possibility of reinforcing ties across the border, looking for a prospect of collaboration between them and the resolution of conflict. The structure of the thesis is divided into three main phases: Research, Analysis, and Design. The research phase aims to achieve the intent of the investigation. Starting with the study and comprehension of the topic of barriers in general and the impact they can cause in society. Secondly, the history of the border between Mexico and the United States as well as the history of the cities of Juarez and El Paso will be studied to gain a better understanding of the context, therefore, develop the major intent. Case studies, precedents, and literature will be also researched to gain insight into potential strategies to move forward. The analysis phase aims to find major problems and opportunities in the selected area to further proceed with the design strategies for the simulation that will set the starting point to achieve the intent. The analysis objective is to gain an insight of the situation and condition of the urban area of border as well as its immediate surroundings to understand the major issues and how they affect the adjacent neighborhoods, thus generating a focus area to be studied more in-depth to further act as the area of intervention for the simulation. The analysis of the new neighborhood area will provide a better understanding of the potential opportunities for improvement, furthermore, guiding the development of the urban strategies The design phase aims to illustrate the design simulation as well as the process to ensure its proper development. The design simulation main objective is to explore the possibility of improvement of the urban quality of the current marginalized border zone. The idea is to improve the area through design strategies, to provide a space of encounter for both cities. This new shared space will further help to explore the possibility of reinforcing ties between communities in both cities, thus creating a new and improved outcome that will benefit the welfare of the sister cities.

Relevance

Thesis Structure

This phase aims to achieve the intent of the investigation. The research objective is to gain an insight of the topic of border cities; opportunities and issues often found at the borderlands as well as to different types of approaches and their outcomes. The situation and history of the selected border cities will be also discussed in this phase, to gain a better understanding of the major issues that need to be addressed. Combining the findings of the research and the literature and case studies reviewed the development of the intent will be achieved.

RESEARCH

1.1 Topic Research This section is dedicated to achieving a better understanding on the different approaches on Political borders. The research starts with the topic of barriers and boundaries in general, to gain an understanding of the significance they have in society. Following by the study of Political borders and the examination of the complexity of border cities as well as the different typologies. International case studies will be also studied to help gain a better insight on the issues and opportunities often present at border lands.

TOPIC RESEARCH

What are Barriers?

Urban Barriers

If we ask ourselves the question of what a barrier is, we will lean to a very generic answer. In fact, if we look up its definition, we will find that a barrier is a formation that blocks movement or action. While this pragmatic definition gives us a really simple and straightforward idea, its reality is much more complex. Certainly, a barrier is an obstacle that separates two entities, but the way it manifests varies from natural to created, physical or non-physical, making its effects vary as well. For instance, we would find the skin to be a natural barrier acting to protect the body of anything harmful that it may encounter. Mountains and swamps can be considered natural barriers since they hinder travel through. Nonetheless, there are also man-made barriers, which change in purpose and form depending on each person’s necessities, but maybe a bigger question will be, why do we have the necessity to create them? And more importantly, how do they affect us? Barriers don’t have a specific definition in terms of form, we know their purpose is to separate or to prevent certain action, yet they can take the form of anything and sometimes they can even be shapeless. It is common for people to see barriers as something that contributes to safety, which is true to a certain extent. A parapet, for instance, is an extension of the wall that acts as a barrier to prevent people from falling down. In this case, the barrier is designed specifically for safety purposes and its negative consequences are almost null. However, what if we take this to a different layer. One that not only separates, but instead, fragments them. One can argue that transportation networks are an example of a barrier that we find in contemporary cities. Although, railways, roads and highways main purpose were not originally intended as a barrier but as a necessity to ensure proper functioning of the city, its construction create negative consequences such as disconnection, urban tissue fragmentation, transformation of an urban landscape into technical, lack of continuity of public space and negative health impact (Sas-Bojarksa and Rembeza, 2016). As a result of these spatial fragmentations, the inhabitants of the city fragmented along ( Figure 1). It is important for cities to have continuity throughout for several reasons, one of them being the sense of identity, once the continuity is broken a social barrier comes to play: the negative idea of territoriality. A city divided and split into many parts, no longer generates any sense of identity, nor ties between inhabitants or places or between places and places, but instead, it draws the economic, social and physical borders between the different parts (Fratini, 2000). This type of physical barrier contributes to the fragmentation of the city, creating very strong effects that leads to the creation of a social barrier.

Discontinuity as a Barrier

Social barriers refer to differences and inequalities associated with different types of people in society. They can occur because of people’s genders, ethnicities, races, religions, or socioeconomic status.

Infrastructure as Barrier

TOPIC RESEARCH

Contrary to the example of the highways, there are physical barriers created with the sole purpose of separate and divide spaces and people. It is a complex issue to understand how we arrived at the decision of creating this type of barriers, we can continue arguing this idea of a barrier being a safety device that help us have control of a specific situation, but what about the consequences they carried with them? Perhaps one extreme case of this type of physical barriers are found in political borders. Political borders are lines created by men with the purpose of dividing countries, states, regions or provinces. Even though is not common, there are some cases where the political borders are materialized into big structures, fences or walls. Frequently, these barriers are complemented by a series of other types barriers: virtual barriers such as surveillance cameras and sensors, as well as restricted buffer zones and armed guards. The physical fragmentation caused by these barriers is too strong that is led to a social barrier in the community; that is, identity, indicating who we are and who we are not (Zartman, 2011). People are sharing physically the same land; however, they don’t feel attached to one another. It is worth mentioning that these barriers have contributed to worse outcomes such as the death of people trying to outwit them. This disconnection and detachment, far from creating an environment of unity and collaboration will continue to cause more fragmentation, and more conflict between countries and its inhabitants.

Political Boundaries

It is important to refer to historical cases such as The Berlin wall or The Great wall of China and the extent of negative effects they caused and that are still present in society up until this day. In an article written by Judy Dempsey for the New York Times she writes of the effect that the Berlin wall had in her interpretation of a barrier. Though the eradication of the Berlin wall ended the physical border between east and west Berlin, their effects were so strong that the notion of the border was not eradicated from the population of East Berlin and Eastern Europe in general ( Figure 2). For the rest of their lives the people who lived through this event had a sense of identification that was different from that of the original Western Europe. The article ends by stating that today the younger generation of Eastern Europe is reshaping the space but that is because they never experienced the wall.

Historical Cases and Effects

The erection of a physical barriers for control and safety is a suitable solution among countries, however its fragmentation goes beyond physical. Barriers can have a big impact and even change our perception of things, spaces and people; therefore, is necessary to address them, maybe we cannot delete them fully, but we can find a way around them, a sensible and humanitarian solution that will help us mitigate their impact.

TOPIC RESEARCH

Tampa bay, USA

White Black

Detroit, USA

Asian Hispanic Multi Race

Figure 1: racial fragmentation caused by Infrastructure. Source: “racial dot map” by Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service

Unemployment rate

Demographics Percentage of young people

Figure 2: 2011 census showing the effect the berlin wall barrier continues to have on the population of Germany Source: The Washington Post/ Visualization by Gene Thorp

TOPIC RESEARCH

Border Cities

It is common for people to think about a city and imagine different types, it might depend on what people are used to or what they know, it is also common for people to imagine what they think makes a perfect city: large skyscrapers, perfect grids or beautiful historic buildings. The reality however is that a city is much more than just a mass of buildings and streets. What makes a city goes beyond physicality, it is a place-bound community of people and urban institutions who have a strong feeling of belonging together. A city is attached directly to the habits, interactions and characteristics of the people that inhabit it. The communities that take part in the city strive for common values and goals and develop a sense of tie to a place which then consequently evolves into an identity which the people of a specific place share. In fact, many times when people refer to certain cities, they use connotations that allude to a city’s personality. The personality that each city develops would in fact influence the process to overcome issues and maintain the city’s success. Cities are not the same, they come in various types with their own specific and unique character, one complex type can be the “border cities”. Border cities are cities or towns close to the boundary between two countries, states or regions. One of the most polemical types of border cities are the ones close to the boundary between two countries; its complexity is so large that there is not an official name to call them. Border cities are often given a series of names such as twin cities, sister cities, border metropolis and bi-national cities. Like all types of cities, border cities have certain unique qualities to them that cause issues but also provide opportunities not available in other cities.

Border City Characteristics

A border city as a rule is generally a city that depends on the border for its existence; it is generally assumed that the sole reason that these cities came into existence is because of a border. The traditional border city usually developed following a route that crossed the border and usually a river (Buursink, 2001). They generally tend to have developed in areas where railways or other traffic communication links crossed and that throughout time led to the enlargement of these developments. A typical aspect of border cities is they tend to take place in peripheral locations and relatively far from the heart of their respective countries. This distancing from the core regions of their countries leaves the border cities to become interdependent on one another and on the border as well; therefore, their economies are typically dominated by the interchange between them and the regulations that pertain at the border. However, though border cities share same characteristics there is various types and elements that make each one of them unique.

TOPIC RESEARCH

We tend to perceive that border cities are in adjacency to one another and separated by a boundary line traced by men, but in certain cases border cities are beginning to emerge because of the infrastructure built to tie them together as is the case in the strait of Dover. The cities which are separated by the English Channel have always had ferry connections between them but recently through the creation of the underwater tunnel the traveling time between them has been greatly reduced providing further communication between the two and ultimately pairing the cities. Whether the cities paired because of infrastructure or are together side by side separated by a border, the fact remains that these cities share common interests and issues. The communities that inhabit these areas tend to identify more closely to their border region rather than to their respective countries, therefore developing an identity that is unique. Cultural, social, psychological, environmental, and even linguistic ties develop in these areas and co-operation becomes essential to their coexistence. However, sometimes the cities (especially the ones with fortified borders) generate negative perception on the other, due mainly because the big fragmentation at the borderline, creating a feeling of detachment and disconnection rather than unity and collaboration for common interests. From this notion, the topic of searching for Bi-national cities begins.

The Notion of Binational Cities

“When borders lose their separating function, as is the case in many parts of Europe, pairs of settlements at both sides are not hampered by competition and can more easily find motives for co-operation” (Buursink, 2001, p.9).

If we start by analyzing the very word, it seems rather easily grasped (Buursink 2001) compared to the word “bilingual” which stands for someone who speaks two different languages having a thorough command on both; following this analogy, a bi-national city will be essentially a city that expresses its belonging to two different nations-states. While this is not so common, the notion is certainly true for the citizens that inhabit these regions. Depending on the political situation and the rigidness of the crossborder laws, the inhabitant’s lives are directly led and influenced by the urban settlements on both sides. The settlements that are present in these regions though belonging to different states end up intertwining in their relations and even can be perceived as one unique urban agglomeration. Furthermore, depending on the situation, the settlements tend to approximate each other so much that the unique configurations evolve in pairs on each side of the border and generate what is known as a trans-frontier metropolis. As a result, the cities are faced with common problems and opportunities that should be approached to meet the needs of the cities on both sides of the border (Herzog, 1991). For this reason, it is often sought that the urban settlements of these regions join in co-operation in search for common solutions to the 21

TOPIC RESEARCH

Utopian Vision

benefit of their citizens which as discussed previously, are bound together by much more than just a place. This is of course perhaps a utopian train of thought which is discussed by Ehlers in his research: “A common identification is essential to the success of cross border cooperation.... Cross border cooperation instead undermines the bounded territory of the state and acts against the idea of territoriality, which is expressed as power to control access to a bounded territory” (Ehlers, 2001, p.21).

Common Identification among citizens

Border Typologies

Lastly, it is clearly expressed that term to express these utopian thoughts is a bi-national city. Even so research and strategies have attempted to be found in order to create and maintain successful bi-national cities. Since these regions are intertwined it is clear that the necessity to address the urban settlements together is crucial to ensure the positive welfare of the citizens that inhabit them. However, this is not always the case and since each case is unique it is necessary to understand what some of the obstacles are that prevent successful co-operation and planning in border cities. It is also essential to understand the typologies found within the realm of border cities. The following section will provide typologies and case studies both positive and negative of border cities and regions in an attempt to demonstrate the possibilities and the obstacles that can be encountered in the search for a bi-national city. In their research Theoretical Models of Cross-border Integration, Tamas Hardi and Andrea Uzkai develop a theoretical model to the various types of border spaces that exist. They argue that the effect they have in the socio-economic context of the region is ever changing and unique in each case. “The border itself, however, can be characterized in many ways, and the characteristics of every border are also influenced by the qualities of the nearby territories, i.e., we can actually see a close interrelatedness. On the other hand, it is precisely this variety and uniqueness that makes it difficult to categorize border regions, because border regions – starting from Hansen’s definition – spread to the point where the social and economic modifying effects of the border are still palpable”. Tamas Hardi/Andrea Uzkai. Due to the complexity in finding a definition of border types, the researchers analyzed and integrated the various characteristics of border regions in an attempt to categorize and better understand the types of borders as well as their spatial integration. The complex process ended in ten types of typologies of functional urban areas found in border cities which can help in understanding the possibility of cross border integration.

Complexity of Typologies

Type 1 pertains to twin cities which are generally small in size and in which the agglomeration makes one “single city” divided by the borderline. Each city has its proper functional area separately even though they share in most cases public transfer connections.

Typologies of border cities/ towns

TOPIC RESEARCH

The ten types are as follows:

Type 2 is meant to describe a large city into which the urban morphology extends to the surrounding municipalities and regions in the form of small towns or as a suburban zone. In this type the key element of cooperation is typically by the public transport network. Type 3 explains a big city in which the morphology of the city does not extend into the smaller towns that are in close proximity to it. In this arrangement each has their own functional areas and in which a small amount of people commute daily from the small towns to the larger city. In this typology the necessity of cross border companies generally decreases since the smaller towns are the ones benefiting most from any collaboration. Type 4 is meant to describe a similar situation to type 2 but the size of the cross border morphological set is much smaller. Due to the smaller size of the towns, organizational principles are generally much easier. Type 5 pertains to a large city in which the urban functional area extends into the other country and possibly with smaller scattered centers. Type 6 are generally two large cities or metropolises, one on each side of the border and connected structurally in which collaboration is generally limited to joint marketing practices. Type 7 is a continuation of type 6 and in which the difference lies in the lack of structural connection. Type 8 pertains to two cities with functional urban areas that are near each other but not immediately adjacent. In these cases, the distancing of the urban functional areas leads to a rapid competition between the two cities and generally there is little or no strategies for collaboration. Type 9 is a city that was divided by a border. Several examples of this exist in history and generally due to the conditions of the division, collaboration

Type 10 is lastly a set of towns in a border in which there is no near settlement on the other side of the border and in which the functional area could spread across the border in the future.

TOPIC RESEARCH

Figure 3: Typologies of urban areas along borders. In Hardi, Tamás & Uszkai, Andrea. (2017). Theoretical Models of Cross-border Integration.

TOPIC RESEARCH

Multiplicity of Political Border Cases

Border cities and the effects they can have on people is a multidimensional concept. Every border is perceived differently by the inhabitants and this can be because of an infinite number of reasons. However, the topic remains that border cities share the same land, issues and identities at times and the collaboration between border communities can help bring common welfare to the inhabitants of said towns/cities. For this reason, it is essential to comprehend the various scenarios present worldwide and the successfulness or failure of overcoming the border condition and participating in collaborating strategies. In this section, the several scenarios presented are based in the previous examined typologies. This was done with the aim to provide a range of scenarios, strategies and aspects that can provide an initial insight into the possibilities and constraints that can come with a border. The case studies were selected with 4 criteria. The first criteria was to select cities with close proximity to each other. Secondly, the population present in these border cities to understand the effect of how different levels of population affects border cities. Thirdly, what type of division line was present in these cities was considered. Lastly, the relationship between the governing parties was also taken into account. All of these criteria were specifically thought due to them being elements present in our study case of El Paso and Juarez.

“Borders, therefore, are not simply practical phenomena that can be taken as given. They are complex human creations that are perpetually open to question. At an extreme, perhaps, existing borders are the result of processes in the past that are either no longer operative or are increasingly eclipsed by transnational or global pressures. In other words, borders are increasingly redundant, and thinking constrained by them restricts thinking about alternative political, social, and economic possibilities.” John Agnew, 2008

TOPIC RESEARCH Close proximity of urban cores

Population over 500.000

Typology of division line

Relationship among institutions

Figure 4: Criteria for the selection of International Border Cases. Authors Work

TOPIC RESEARCH

Strasbourg-Kehl, FRA/GER Bi-national Planning Context and History

The city of Strasbourg is considered the legislative and democratic capital of the European Union. After world war 2 the city was seen as the perfect example of European reconciliation and for this reason was given the primary seat for many institutions. Aside from this very important point, the city is constantly seen as the European capital of the future and has become a sort of laboratory for the strategies and visions of the future of cities in Europe. One unique aspect is it adjacency to the city of Kehl, Germany which makes up for an urban agglomeration amounting to approximately 510,000 people. Due to the proximity of both cities from each other and their complex relationship, they have envisioned an opportunity to unify the urban agglomeration into a eurodistrict. A Eurodistrict results from a partnership between France and Germany to generate strategies, plan and create projects in cross-border territory. The idea first came to be in the year 2003 to celebrate the 40th year anniversary between the two countries. In its initial stages the name given to the Eurodistrict was Strasbourg-Kehl but through the research and further development of the project the opportunity to unify more urban agglomeration was grasped and thus the birth of the Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau. Today the district houses approximately 900,000 in population and has been functional since 2010.

GER FRA 01

Figure 5: Diagram of Strasbourg-Kehl Location Authors Work

TOPIC RESEARCH

The vision and objectives of the Eurodistrict host many topics but Proposed Solution the main goal is to provide common benefits to all the communities in the district. Many agencies and institutions have been created to ensure the cooperation of the district and provide the most benefit as possible. For example, in an aid to ensure and enhance the unity of both regions the Maison de la petite enfance crèche offers a bilingual education and environment to the incoming children. The notion is to from an early age enhance the identity of both regions. The project was developed in response to the common lack of spaces for children as well as generating initiatives for cross border projects.

In another pivoting project the cross border tram between Strasbourg Projects and Kehl provided new and enhanced connection between the two cities. Along with a careful implementation of a common ticket tariff for the region, the project sought to cater to the transportation and communication of the locals (Figure 5). The tramway project forms part of a larger flagship project called Metropolis of two rivers. In a statement made by the public company in charge of the project: “Two European cities and a border-free region with four bridges crossing the Rhine. And so the inhabitants of Strasbourg-Kehl are seeing their life, urban environment and mindsets gradually undergoing a significant transformation around the port and along the river, echoing Victor Hugo’s words, The Rhine for everyone. Furthermore the project intends to provide attractive, sustainable, cultural districts to the citizens on both sides of the river. All of this to be done in extension to the city’s already existing cross-border transportation system. Due to the extent of the urban strategy several competitions have taken place to redevelop, reconnect and unify the urban cores of the cities on both sides of the river (Figure 6). Due to the relation of the riverfront to both cities a trans-frontier park was imagined collaboration from both sides. In fact, in the beginning stages the park took construction on the German side only, but efforts to create a unified vision and identity for the region pushed the park into what it is today (Figure 7). Currently the park is part of the lives of both the citizens of Strasbourg and of Kehl and hosts events such as the Philharmonic orchestra concert in the summer of each year.

In the case of Strasbourg and Kehl the border is seen as an Collaborating Cities opportunity to bring together and collaborate into the pushing forward of their communities. The French-German border in this case is divided by the barrier of the Rhine river which helps to delineate the boundary between the cities. Today the relationship between the two cities goes more than social. Each day thousands of people cross over the neighbor city to work or study. This has led the drive to generate a trans-border agglomeration and providing a completely unified community. In a statement made by the deputy mayor of Strasbourg International Affairs, “There are no longer physical borders and now there will also no longer be borders in the minds of people” 29

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 6: Aerial view of Strasbourg-Kehl cross border Tramway project by SPL Source: strasbourgdeuxrives.eu

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 7:Jardin des Deux Rives-Strasbourg-Kehl By SPL Source: https://strasbourgdeuxrives.eu/en/spl-deux-rives-2/

TOPIC RESEARCH

Niagara Falls City, USA/CAN Bi-National Planning

Context and History

Niagara falls city are 2 cities that share the same name and pertain to 2 countries situated in the US-Canadian border. The cities are approximately similar in size and population and appear as one united urban area separated by the border. Due to their proximity the cities share a number of characteristics ranging from language to even urban fabric appearance. The city is home to the world famous Niagara falls which draws an estimated 30 million visitors each year. For this reason and other sightseeing opportunities, the main economy of both cities is anchored in tourism which caused for a tradition of competition between the two cities ( Buursink, 2001). In fact it has been stated that tourism mainly favored the Canadian side which provided a more vast infrastructure to cater to incoming tourists. Naturally it was thought that no co-operation would occur between the two cities and no bi-national planning would develop but in recent years strategies and development have begun to reshape the co-ordination and co-operation between the two cities and propelling it into a bi-national region.

Figure 8: Diagram of Niagara Falls Location Authors work

TOPIC RESEARCH

Proposed Solution

By utilizing the new strategy, a masterplan for the revitalization of the area at the borderline of the two cities has been developed to reshape the character of the cities. The masterplan aims to provide different strategies along various areas of the cities and perhaps the most promising one is that of the “Innovation Park Strategic area” which is set to re-purpose the existing underutilized industrial area into a more pleasant and inviting neighborhood. In conclusion, the Niagara Falls city case is an example of cities that played to their strengths and opportunities to find a common goal that benefited not only them but several regions in adjacency. Today the bi-national cooperation is focused in ensuring the future of the cities by continuing to find possible strengths and opportunities that benefit the future of the cities.

Future Collaboration

Due to the touristic nature of the region both countries have implemented strategies and visions to the development of a bi-national cooperative region. While the cities are most affected ones because of their vicinity to each other. The strategies plan to involve the locations near the cities in an attempt to create a “touristic corridor” that can provide benefits to the surrounding areas. The leading strategy is to provide an efficient transportation network that enhances the connectivity of the area and thus enhance the local economies and solve common issues found in the cities. The motivation for this strategy came from a vast study of the regions. The region contains a large exchange of goods and trade which made the transportation infrastructure its most valuable asset. The vision was that in order to minimize the time of commute and accessibility to both the cities and the surrounding regions, the already existing transportation could be connected and improved to provide a unitarian benefit. High speed railways, highways, roads and international crossing bridges were either developed or improved to create this system of transportation. In fact the specific goals set out by the planning committee emphasized on this matter. In addition to these goals the idea to use the new transportation hubs as places for increased quality for both communities is being investigated and planned on both sides. This leading to vision of what the spaces could look like in a near future if the strategies are followed. Furthermore, several bi-national organizations were developed at different levels to ensure bi-national cooperation. In this case the relationship between the two countries is essential to the well-being of the bi-national region. While a natural border separates the cities and causes a fragmentation a the co-operation between the two nations allowed for the cities to overcome this barrier and connect to each other through a more effective transportation. In fact, the natural border itself was seen as an opportunity to further bring together the cities by redeveloping the waterfront of these areas.

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 9: Masterplan Waterfront revitalization project as strategy of unification at the border Source: New York State Department of State

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 10: Vision of Niagara Falls Station Area Source: Niagaraopportunity.org

TOPIC RESEARCH

Nicosia, Turkey/Cyprus Borders of conflict

Context and History

The city of Nicosia is currently the largest city of Cyprus and gained its independence from Greek and British dominion in they year 1960. Shortly after, a series of conflicts left the city divided between Greek and Turkish control. The north side of Nicosia was controlled by Turkish dominion while the south was left to Greek dominion. The borders of the area was then finalized by a buffer zone places by the United Nations straight through the historic center of the city. The buffer zone consisted of a place where neither of the communities could have any interaction. This left the historic center of the city in a degraded space and in a state where cooperation between the two communities became very difficult near to impossible.

Figure 11: Diagram of Cyprus Buffer zone and Nicosia Division Source: https://unficyp.unmissions.org. Authors work

Proposed Solutions

In conclusion the set of strategies were seen as pinpoint “glue” actions that little by little could further enhance the connection and integration of both communities. In an attempt to blur or bypass the rigid border condition in this area, these pinpoint strategies aim to provide mutual benefits and raise mutual attraction to the importance of having bi communal collaboration. In this case study an organization such as the UN is perhaps seen as the mitigation of such a rigid border and attempts to provide solutions to the negative perception between both communities which is not only causing a physical barrier but a psychological one.

Enhancing Collaboration

TOPIC RESEARCH

In an attempt to bring commonwealth to the city as a whole and consequently to both communities, the Nicosia masterplan was developed with the main goal of improving current and future living conditions of the residents. The main attracting point was to grasp both communities with common interests and necessities. Furthermore, the objectives of the planning committee were to provide rehabilitation and preservation of valuable historic urban context which was valuable to both communities. Through this process, it would be able to incorporate a bi-communal agreement and participation between the existing communities. Furthermore, a common vision between two communities was developed which was something not seen before and the plan is intended to raise awareness, promote a sense of identity, and stimulate the local communities and economy in a positive way.

The division of Cyprus and the city of Nicosia most importantly consists of three layers in which the Buffer zone is meant to act as a mitigator of conflict between the two communities on either side. However the buffer zone has also brought forth further separation and decay to the once rich heritage of the city. A problem which is sought to be addressed and solved by careful strategies that involve a collaboration from communities on both sides.

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 12: Nicosia Master Plan Initiative of 1981 Source: https://unece.org

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 13: View inside the buffer zone Nicosia Source: Photo by Roman Robroek

TOPIC RESEARCH

Jerusalem, Palestine/Israel Borders of conflict

Context and History

pre-1948 Palestine

The situation between Palestine and Israel is nothing short of complex. A conflict is which is the topic of discussion in news all over the world almost on a daily basis. A separation of countries that goes beyond just the political boundary. It is perhaps one of the most sensitive topics when discussing the relations between borders and their people. As previously discussed, in general a border city or border regions tend to share characteristics that pertain to both. These regions tend to share culture, language and even economy and thus providing a sense of a unifying identity to them. However in the case of Palestine-Israel the fragmentation and barrier is so strong and evident that a co-operation for strategies and a common vision between the bordering cities of the two states looks like a far reality. In fact as time has progressed the situation has worsened to a critical state and the separation from an urban perspective is more evident. In her research Anne Marie Byalouny stated: “ In the Palestinian West Bank, the rising number of borders has decreased mobility and limited individuals to small local spaces, generating new patterns of collective action and identity”. In fact her research was fundamentally focused on the fact that the ever changing border between the two countries was one of the main elements causing violence in Palestinian communities. Today, the mental barrier that has affected their lives so much and which was the product of years of conflict is physicalized in the landscape arising new issues at different levels. However separated they may feel and perceive themselves the reality is that any action Israel does has an immediate effect on Palestine and vice versa. 1947 UN Partition

1967 De Facto Line

Figure 14: Border Development Israel-Palestine Timeline. Source: BBC.com. Authors work

Current Situation

The conflict has been offered a number of solutions but to no avail. One of the most sought after solution was to unify both states in a one state solution. Of course due to the nature of the conflict this seems like an impossibility and strategies to provide a benefit for both states and their respective cities continues. The S. Daniel Abraham Center for Middle East Peace has worked for a number of years with planners and designers to decipher a possible strategy and solution to the benefit of both states and their people. The work focused on finding solutions by imagining the land in both states as movable pieces. As in the case of the jigsaw puzzle, by re-imagining and re-arranging land a solution could come to develop by maintaining approximately the same size in land and in population and bring benefit and ultimately peace to both states. One of the visions brought forth was a parallel rail system parting from both east and west Jerusalem and would come together outside the Damascus old city walls and furthermore be a border crossing between the two states. While the idea was seen as a possible solution and first step towards future strategies it was never realized. In fact Jerusalem has since built a rail system with a stop in Damascus but peace deals never came afterwards and the collaboration between the two continues to be a very far future.

Proposed Solutions

Failed Co-operation

Sadly, in this case the fragmentation is so evident and so powerful as an image, as a concept, as a physical barrier that a co-operation between the two is nonexistent and countries have concentrated in developing and considering strategies to satisfy their own needs. In an attempt to unify the separated regions of Palestine, a new and unified road transport network has been designed to the need of the Ministry of Transport of Palestine. The masterplan aims to provide a backbone providing firstly a unity between the two regions and furthermore provide a future vision for the transport technology in the country bypassing the restrictions and separation present by the opposing state.

TOPIC RESEARCH

The Palestinian state is currently separated in physical terms in two regions. One region which is the West Bank and the other is the Gaza strip. Both of these regions are fortified by developed infrastructure meant to separate the two states and ensure safety to their respective population. In fact, despite belonging to a relatively small size land (approximately the size of the city of New Jersey), the two states rarely share an urban agglomeration at their borders. Perhaps in one example we do find an urban city agglomeration is in the case of Jerusalem at the West Bank. Jerusalem was divided into East and West in the late 1940’s but become annexed by Israel by 1967. As the city continues to grow the borders have extended and the city is beginning to intertwine with other settlements around. For this reason the infrastructure built to separate the two states is affecting the communities in both sides. On one side the west bank barrier is limiting the mobility and causing major restrictions and on the other it is excluding them further from the already extreme exclusion that exists.

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 15: Masterplan for road network Palestine backbone Ministry of Transport PNA/Systematica

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 16: Wall in East Jerusalem Source: Photo by Leopold Lambert 2016

TOPIC RESEARCH

Hamburg, Germany

Blurring Political-Administrative Borders

Context and History

The city of Hamburg, Germany is today known for being a green metropolis and perhaps this is due to the fading of an administrative political border by careful and thoughtful planning. Though the case is not a border between two nations the case serves as a different border case which can provide insight in possible variations of strategies to address this type of borders. At the start of the 20th century the city of Hamburg was territorially pinned between the cities of Bergerdorf and Altona which are found to the east and west of the cities. It is for this reason that the city found itself growing to the south. During this period the city faced several hardships, and to which were addressed by the development of a masterplan in 1919 by the architect Fritz Schumacher. One of the main issues to mention during this period was the low presence of housing in the city. An issue which was addressed in the main masterplan provided by Shumacher. Unfortunately, one of the main obstacles for the development and successfulness of the project was the spatial proximity of the city with other municipalities. This notion not only provided issues in the strategic realm but also developed into an economic competition between the surrounding cities and Hamburg. In order to address this issue, the architect developed a plan in the vision of natural axis’s radiating from the city center. This plan envisioned multiple developments growing in various axis’s and in this way generate a cohesive masterplan that could address the issues found in the metropolitan area rather than be restricted to the administrative boundaries. Furthermore, the

Figure 17: Hamburg and Surrounding municipalities. Authors work

The plan has become the principle for the sustainable development in the city of Hamburg. The planning however does not stop at the edges of the city, but includes and considers the whole region into what is now perceived as the metropolitan region. As of today the city collaborates with surrounding municipalities and provinces following this main principle and with the main goal to ensure that the spaces in these axis’s remain free of construction, and also allow for the spaces to develop into regional parks in a near future.

Legacy

In a further development towards the progressive plan, in recent years a new initiative has commenced in order to ensure the quality of developments. The city has adopted a collaboration between the communities and the governments in order to enhance the dialogue and target the main priorities that are needed by the citizens. In this manner the effectiveness of each project developed is maximized and the issues targeted become the main priority. The way that this has been achieved is by created what is called an urban workshop in which every project and strategic decision is discussed with the citizens in order to gain necessary feedback and analysis. This process has developed into a specific goal which has been given the motto “ more city in the city”. The main message that is intended to get across is that if the necessity arises to build, develop or expand, it should be done so within the city instead of constructing in open spaces in the country. This with the aim to preserve the precious natural environment that exists in this area. In addition to this, the aim is also to ensure and enhance public and open spaces as the city progresses or develops. The final aim is to continuously enhance and upgrade quality of open and green spaces to ensure a welcoming and healthy environment for the city.

Hamburg Today

The number of strategies that follow the principle of the plan by Shcumacher, have led to a successful implementation of projects in the city of Hamburg. In fact this year of 2021 Hamburg received the good design award of the green city of the year. The importance of the plan lies in the manner it contributed into to a metropolitan area with borders in a thoughtful and careful planning. The development became so influential that even today the concepts and visions of a plan that was developed a century ago continue to cause well being the regions affected. Perhaps the case study is of a different nature than an international boundary, but it very well presents an opportunity of what can be achieved by a clever solution.

Relevance

TOPIC RESEARCH

interaxial developments were ensured with green corridors and green open spaces connections to ensure public spaces along the city.

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 18: Hamburg Plan concept by Architect Fritz Schumacher Source: https://www.hamburg.de

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Figure 19: Hafencity by KCAP Source: https://www.kcap.eu/en/projects/v/hafencity/

TOPIC RESEARCH

Findings

In conclusion, we examined a gradient of situations in regards to cities and regions that share a border. On the one extreme we encountered the case where due to the co-operation of both sides it was possible to mitigate the effects of the border and bring a positive quality of life and space to the inhabitants. In another extreme side however it was clear that through a history of conflicts the barrier separating the two regions goes beyond the political boundary and becomes mental and physical generating a sort of scar in the landscape and in the lives of the people. In this case the situation has become so sensitive that a possible co-operation to resolve common issues is a very far reality. Lastly, in the case of Niagara Falls City and Hamburg we found cases that cannot be described as a perfect scenario but where thoughtful planning and vision ensured positive well being for the future of the cities. In their case the various regions co-operated to a certain extent and provided positive strategies to aid their respective communities. Currently while the regions may not be completely unified and functioning completely in regards to each other, it is certainly the first step to becoming a unified region. The fact is that all these cities or regions are sharing many things and most importantly the land. Through these examples it is evident that when collaboration between the two sides began to occur they commenced in contributing a more harmonious relationship and thus provide a better quality of their spaces. Still the topic remains that borders are necessary to ensure safety and control. Borders and barriers may be a practical and also an efficient solution but they are also a recipe for fragmentation both in the physical sense and in the mental sense. In cases like Israel and Palestine the fragmentation caused has reached an extent that even though they share common land and issues they have no interest in relating to one another.

As cities become more globalized each day the communication and collaboration between one another is becoming more necessary. In the case of border cities this is true not only because they share the same land but also because they are interdependent on the actions of each other. For this reason the topic of borders is a sensitive one. Borders should be approached in a sensible and humanitarian way rather than just in a practical and efficient one , in order to mitigate the extreme fragmentation that they can cause . In this way this allows the opportunity to collaborate, identify and contribute to each other and in effect bring positive development to their establishments. Lastly, it is only logical for communities that share the same land and issues to unite for a common good to the welfare of their region rather than bearing a territorial approach.

TOPIC RESEARCH

Besides being physical realities in geographical space, borders are social constructions. They divide people between known and unknown, between native and foreign, between US and THEM.

Anderson/O’Dowd, 2006 49

TOPIC RESEARCH 01

Summary of Case Studies Strategies

Figure 20: Summary of strategies based on case studies. Authors Work

TOPIC RESEARCH

1.2 Context Research This section is dedicated to achieving a better understanding of the History and context of the selected border cities: Juarez, MEX and El Paso, USA. The research starts with the History of the U.S and Mexico and how has the relationship developed over the years, creating a complex situation that has affected both nations, especially the cities located at the border. The focus of the study will be centered in the border cities of Juarez-El Paso, to gain a better understanding of the situation, issues and opportunities. Design and planning case studies will be also studied to understand what actions are currently taken place.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

USA/MEX Origin of the Border

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, seven years after in 1828 the “treaty of limits” is signed, confirming the initial border between the US and Mexico, it was the very first treaty concluded between the two countries. In 1846, the United States declared the war to Mexico, the motive being the will of expansion of the American territory and the declined response of Mexico after a purchase offer of Texas, New Mexico and Alta California which equaled 55 per cent of the Mexican territory at the time. The war ended in 1848 with the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which established the states as American as well as the Rio Grande as part of the border line. The states will later become California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming and Oklahoma, all together added up to more than 2,100,000 km2 of land (Figure 21). Indisputably was a huge loss for Mexico and a great acquisition for the United States that will also be key in their economy. Nowadays the Mexican-American borderlines composed of 3,152 km. Along the border zone are located 25 counties in the American side and 35 Municipalities in the Mexican side. The northern Mexican states of the area are Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas. The southern American states are California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.

Figure 21: Change of the border after the treaty of Guadalupe Source: United States Customs and Border Protection

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Initially the relationship that both nations shared was more harmonious since the border control was not very strict. The main purpose of control at the border at the time had nothing to do with immigration, in fact was to control slaves from escaping. Since Mexico had ended slavery in 1830, many runaway slaves would attempt to escape from the US into Mexico, leaving the border strictly to monitor this aspect. The first instant in which immigration became an issue for the United States was in 1882. American citizens became concern about the economic ills and wages and attributed these to the Chinese Immigrants. The anti-Chinese sentiment grew as Chinese laborers became successful in America. “The Chinese exclusion act “was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. These immigrants began to enter mostly through Mexico, after Canada passed a tax on Chinese immigration. The United States began utilizing the US-Mexican border to concentrate its forces, placing officials to screen people and determined whether if they could enter or not.

The Initial Control at the Border

In 1910 the Mexican Revolution broke out and the American control at the border was reinforced with Texas rangers and armed officials. Initially these measures were implemented to prevent revolutionary conflicts from trespassing into American territory, however after some Mexican people began to escape the conflict by immigrating to the United States, the focus switched to keep Mexican immigrants out. The Texas Rangers, which were an organized military force, along with Texas vigilantes best known as “home guards” began to guard the border. The latter were not official state forces, they were just regular people, however they still had the support from the government. Consequently in 1924, the United States passes the “Immigration Act”, which according to the US department of state’s office of the Historian, the purpose was to “preserve the ideal of U.S. homogeneity”. The new law banned all immigration from Asia and set a limit of immigrants of other countries as well as provide funding and an enforcement mechanism to carry out the longstanding ban on other immigrants. The act mandates no alien to be allowed to enter the United States without a valid immigration visa issued by an American consular office abroad. In addition, the United states border patrol was officially established primarily to guard the US-Mexican border. The USBP is the armed and uniformed federal police that secure the borders from illegal aliens, terrorists and contraband. Their primary activity is “line watch”, which involves the detection, prevention, and apprehension of terrorists and illegal immigrants.

Control due to the Mexican Revolution

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 22: Timeline of major events concerning the border between US-Mexico Source: Secretaria de relaciones exteriores Mexico. Authors Work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

In the 1990s, operations such as the “operation hold the line” and “operation gatekeeper” were implemented. The operations consisted of creating human and vehicles blockades to protect the illegal entry to the US. Four hundred of agents were placed every 90 meters along the borderline. These operations were one of a kind because it represented a shift in ideology in policing illegal immigration. Previous policies focused on finding and deporting illegal immigrants who had already crossed the border. “Operation hold the line” instead focused on intercepting and preventing illegal entries at the border. During that same time the construction of the first section of the fence along the US-Mexico border is built. “The tortilla wall”, as people called it, is a 22.5 km fence that runs between the border crossing of San Diego, California and it is the longest section of the wall ever built up to date. The purpose of the fence is to complement the border patrol in their purpose to protect the United States from illegal immigration. The construction of the fence forced illegal border crossings to be moved to the more dangerous area of the Arizona desert, leading to hundreds of deaths every year. In early 2001, Mexico and the US announced efforts to introduced massive immigration reforms that will benefit both nations, thus strengthening the relationship rather than continue to fragment. After visiting Washington DC, Former Mexican President Vicente Fox stated that an immigration agreement could be reached by the end of the year. Unfortunately, the US was victim of terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 and the whole proposal was no longer a priority for the American government. Quite the contrary, instead the US intensified the immigration policies, thus worsening the relation between the two nations. The security measures at the border were reinforced as well and the possibility of the opening of the borders and the integration of the nations remained a dream.

Reinforcement of the border wall

By 2005 total of almost 120 km of fence built along the border, the barrier, however, was not a one contiguous structure but a discontinuous series of fences. In October 2006, former President George W. Bush signed the “secure fence act of 2006”, authorizing and partially funded the addition of 1,125 km of physical double layered fence along the US-Mexico border. In 2015 the promised fence was finally complete costing a total of over 6 billion dollars. The fences are complemented by a “virtual fence” which consists of sensors, cameras and other surveillance equipment. In 2016, Donald trump began his presidential campaign, stating the construction of a much larger fortified wall, that would cover the complete borderline. In 2019, the construction of the wall begins expanding in places where previously was not a barrier and reinforcing the existing ones. Some private organizations, followers of Trump, built part of this new wall independently but with the consent and support of the former President. It was envisioned to be 6-meter high structure that would fully cover the border line (3,145 km) and will be completely impermeable. Up until March of 2021 there has been constructed 76 km more.

Operation Hold the line and 9/11

Development of a Complex Relationship

The American measures to prevent illegal immigration had been effective only to a certain extent. The reality is that regardless of all the efforts of the American government to keep immigrants to coming into their territory, some immigrants still find new ways to evade them. Instead of taking the routes where the fence and the border patrol is, they decided to take a more dangerous route. The Sonoran Desert is one of this way of entry, the journey is one of the most dangerous one, due to the extreme heat, the difficulty of the terrain and all the animals that live there. The Sonoran Desert has been the place of death for many people, some of them were never found. There are also some other more fortunate cases where people accomplish to cross to the other side of the border, however some of them leave their families behind without the possibility of seen them again at least in a long period of time. In this case, families have to give up the possibility to be around their loved ones in order to earn some extra money in the other side. Without a doubt these cases are perhaps the most difficult and extreme ones that immigrants suffer, but what about the consequences the people that live in border cities have to face? What is the impact of having to look every single day at a 6-meter high structure in front of their houses, cutting through the middle of a park and in some cases being the fourth wall of their home? What are the repercussions of living in a third world city that is sister to a first world city?

Effects of the Border

CONTEXT RESEARCH

The relation of the two countries have always been a complex one. The severe immigration policies of the United states and the extreme violence in Mexico have contribute to the fragmentation of the relation. Regardless of its history and cultural attractions Mexico is not a prosperous country. In fact, it is an underdeveloped country that does not offer a great quality of life, the poor salaries and the violence that had break out due to the drug trafficking have generate an initiative in people to search for a better place to live. The US immigration polices however, look to protect their country from a large amount of immigrants seeking for a better quality of life. Fears of overcrowding, unemployment and scarcity of resources makes the policies of immigration extremely complex. This conflict of interests has caused extremely serious consequences including death.

Border cities are some of the most complex ones and they have special characteristics that makes them different from regular cities. This is the Case of El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 23: View of Migrants line-up at the border wall in El Paso Source: Photo by Jaime Rodriguez Sr.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Early Days

Sister Cities

El Paso del Norte (the present-day Ciudad Juarez) was founded on the south bank of the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) in 1659 by Franciscan missionaries in a low pass between the Franklin mountains and the Mexican sierras. It was part of the territory conquered by Spanish colonialists and was one of their first major settlements. It started as a mission which was originally called “Mision de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de los Mansos del Paso del Rio del Norte” and shortened to “Paso del Norte” which means “the pass to the North”. Although it was a Spanish mission, the population that started to grow around the mission were native indigenous tribes, however they soon began to adapt the mestizo culture. Later Americans would start to settle in the region, thereby generating a mixed region of Anglo and Hispanics. In 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and all the conquered territory known at that time as “New Spain” was recovered. The fight for independence from the Spanish took 11 years, leaving Mexico ill prepared for a major international conflict. Since the early 19th century, The U.S. south to expand its territory, thus making a purchase offer to Mexico for some part of its territory. Mexico declined the offer, unleashing a war for the territory. In 1848, Mexico lost the war to the United states and the treaty of “Guadalupe Hidalgo” is signed. It stipulated that 55 per cent of Mexican territory would become part of the U.S. including Texas, Alta California and New Mexico.

Figure 24: Map of municipal boundaries of El Paso and Juarez Source: City of El Paso. Authors work

The combined land area is approximately of 993 square km. The regional urban core is formed by the central business districts of El Paso and Ciudad Juárez, which are separated only by the international border formed by the Rio Grande. The region is located at the intersection of three states (Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua) and two countries (the U.S. and Mexico). The cities are located in the Chihuahuan desert making the climate of the region hot and arid. El Paso is the only major Texas city on Mountain Time. Ciudad Juarez was once in Central Time, but both cities are now on Mountain Time. Currently, Ciudad Juarez is the largest city in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico. It is considered a dominant industrial center since is made up by more than 380 “maquiladoras” or assembly plants of which its economy (and part of the economy of El Paso) is based on. Its vicinity with El Paso Texas, makes Ciudad Juarez a main point of entry and transportation into the U.S. for all of the central northern Mexico. El Paso is home to the Medical Center of the Americas, the only Medical research and care provider complex in West Texas, as well as a home of three publicly traded companies. Within the City, there is also Fort Bliss, which is one of the largest military complexes of the United States army. The area has been constantly under rapid growth and under constant interchange of people making it one of the largest mixed communities in both the United States and Mexico.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

The Rio Grande was utilized to define the international division, between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas, thus converting the north part of the region into American territory and the south part remained “Paso del Norte”. In 1850 El Paso county would be established in the north part of the river in this particular area, the name was given as a form of cross-border naming with its sister city. However, in 1888 the name “Paso del Norte” was change to its current name of Ciudad Juarez in honor of Benito Juarez who was President of Mexico and at some point, utilized the city as a refuge from the French intervention. Ciudad Juarez and El paso were officially established. Current Situation

In 1870, after the Civil war was ended, El paso’s population began to grow as Texans continued to move into the town and soon becoming the majority. During that period a population of 23 Non-Hispanic whites and 150 Hispanics was reported. 63

After 1848, the region began to grow and developed in the form of a borderland area, therefore an inseparable and complex relationship began to emerge. The location of this region is very distant from the capital and major cities in both nations (Figure 27). While in contrast the sister cities are so close to each other that you can sit on a bench in a park in El Paso and watch what is happening in a backyard of a house in Juarez. This closeness has made them interdependent in order to survive, leading to a state of cause and effect. Whatever happens in one will have a direct effect in the other one, economically, culturally and socially.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 25: Timeline of important events in the sister cities of El Paso and Juarez Source: Chicano Studies-UTEP. UACJ. Authors work.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Introduction of the Railway

The introduction of the railway network in 1881 was a pivotal point for the region in general, because it connected the region to the outer regions, thus transforming these little dusty adobe villages into flourishing sister cities. The population started to grow very rapidly after this occurrence and because of the lawlessness in the region, it immediately became a western boomtown where all types of vice could be found. A total of 10,000 people were reported in the 1890 census including many Anglo-Americans, old Hispanic settlers and recent arrivals from Mexico. Commerce also thrived in the cities as banks began operating, telegraph and telephone services became available and trams appeared

Free Trade Policy

Another contributing factor on the flourishing of the region was the free trade policy between nations, people and merchandise moved freely across the border. Little by little the villages started to develop in the form of cities. At the beginning of the 1900s the cities already had established sewer system, potable water, schools, libraries and markets as well as restaurants and hotels to attract more newcomers. During World War I, pressured by the department of the army, El paso decided to put order and crack down the vice that was happening in the town, focusing instead on the development of premier manufacture, transportation and retail center of the railway company. The lawlessness and the vice were now left exclusively to its sister city, Juarez.

The Chamizal Dispute for the river boundary

In 1909 the sister’s cities would face their first disagreement. The Chamizal area was originally at the south of the Rio Grande, making it part of the Mexican side. However, as time passed the River course changed splitting the park into two parts. The Americans immediately tried to obtain the part that was now in the north part of the river, arguing that legally it was American territory. Mexico didn’t agree with this and the fight for The Chamizal began, fight that would continue for the next 50 years. It was until 1963 when the fight will come to an end, Juarez will obtain 1.5 km2 of the area plus 28 hectares of the adjacent “Isla de Cordova” and El Paso will obtain 78 hectares of “Isla de Cordova”. Both countries agreed on transforming the river into a canal to prevent it from changing the border again.

Mexican Revolution

By 1910 an overwhelming number of people were Americans, but this period was short lived as the Mexican revolution brought a large number of people that were escaping from the war into the border region. This major growth of population led to another conflict between the sister cities. Some people were not only escaping to stay in Ciudad Juarez but instead they started fleeing into El Paso. The United States was concerned that the war would trespass into American territory, therefore they started to place Texas rangers along the border to protect it from Mexican immigrants. Ciudad Juarez was captured by the revolutionaries one year after the revolution started, they immediately took advantage of the proximity with the United States and started to cross weapons from El Paso, this would be key in their 66

Prohibition era

The introduction of a military base in El paso as well as oil discoveries, helped to engender rapid economic expansion in the mid-1900s. Cooper smelting, oil refining, and the proliferation of low wage industries led the city growth. The period from 1942 to 1956 had the “bracero program” which brought in cheap Mexican labor into the rural area, supplying for the Americans that were serving in the war, giving Mexicans the opportunity to work temporarily in the U.S. By 1965, Hispanics once again were a majority but the “bracero program” was reaching its end, thus incrementing the unemployment rate.

Military base

In their search for a solution to this issue, the Mexican Government created a program of establishment of “maquiladoras” or assembly plants in Juarez leading to a rapid expansion and propelled the region to be the 7th most productive region in North America. Certainly, this brought an economic boost to the region, however the impact was not completely positive. American industries began placing their plants on the Mexican side because of the cheap labor opportunities it brought leaving the previously thriving industrial areas of El Paso in a state of abandonment. Eventually other important areas of El paso such as downtown would start to be affected by the decrease of population and job activity. The situation in Juarez became chaotic. Its rapid expansion in the industrial field led for an uncontrolled growth in population, people from the south of Mexico and Latin America in general started to move to Juarez motivated by the massive opportunity of jobs, leading for the city to develop in an unplanned way.

Maquiladoras

It was around the 20s, during the American prohibition era, when the recovery of Juarez started. Many American people would cross the border to drink alcohol, gamble or get involved in all types of vice. Juarez was soon, once again a boomtown and began to recover everything it lost during the revolution and more. The city is known as the original “sin city”, definition that would later be given to the city of Las Vegas in Nevada.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

later victory. The revolution lasted until 1924, but around 1913 Ciudad Juarez was completely destroyed leading for a lot of the population to abandon the city.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 26: Aerial view Juarez-El Paso Source: The Guardian.com

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 27: Location and distance of borderplex to major cities. Source: OECD-Paso del Norte Region. Authors work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Duality at the Sister Cities

Nowadays, the community in both sides of the border have adopted a dual lifestyle, is really common for people in this region to have two passports and carry them at all times (in case they want to cross the border), as well as two different identity cards, it is also common for people to carry two different types of currency (dollar and Mexican peso). This dual condition is key in the search of defining the identity of the people in this borderland. The fact that both cities are peripheral, extremely far from the major cities in their countries have affected the identity of the community. Neither the people in El paso, nor the people in Juarez feel fully identified with the culture of their respective countries. Together they have created a unique dual identity, different even from the other border cities, it is a special and independent one. The “Chicano” identity was adopted around the mid 60’s, this was attributed to people that is native of, or descends from Mexico, who live in the United States and had a non-Anglo vision of themselves. It can be argued that the identity in Juarez and El Paso is that of the “Chicano’s”, however in this region there are not only people with such characteristics, but there are also still people that are Mexican and lives in Mexico and the same happens in the United States, not to mention also people from Latin America as well as Native Americans. Thus, making the identity of the region really difficult to define. This is mainly due to the fact that people, whether Mexican or American, have adopted this dual lifestyle as the rule and operate in these two cities is as if it was only one. To the community of the sister’s cities the fact of talking English and Spanish and sometimes (not to say all the time) combining them and creating a new one “Spanglish”, is completely normal. Something similar happens to the food, it is perfectly normal to find American, Mexican or “Tex-Mex” food in both cities. The local art is also an interesting issue, since most of the time it touches on the perception of this dual identity, creating a unique and very characteristic style. The traditions and holidays are another important issue, people in the American side celebrate the official Mexican holidays, and vice versa.

International Bridges

The cities have four international bridges which are crossed by approximate 20,000 people daily to live their everyday lives, people who live in one city and work or study in the other, people who have to visit family in the other city or simply people that wants to enjoy the goods the other city has to offer. The fact they have to cross an international bridge on a regular basis, is perceived as something normal and common. It is the case of Adriana Carbajal, a 32-year-old Mexican lady, who was born, raised and educated in Juarez. Some years ago, an American company hired her. Adriana, forms in line daily in order to cross to el Paso Texas. “There are days that it takes me 10 minutes to cross, while there are others that take me 2 hours” expresses the young Engineer (El Paso Times, 2016). This is the situation of thousands of people, who, like Adriana, experience something different every single day, and while this can be incomprehensible for a lot of people, it makes perfect sense to the border people. 70

Disparity between cities.

“The city of El Paso is a planned city while Juarez is a city that is designed to exploit the worker”.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Even though Juarez and El Paso share many things, such as land, commerce, an identity, etc., the opportunities are not the same for the cities, creating a perception of a “divided city”.

- Javier Ulloa, Los Angeles Times (2019)

In Juarez the salary of a working class per year is approximate 7,000 dollars while in El paso is 36,000 dollars. The majority of the factories that are located in Juarez, are American companies, that take advantage of the low costs of labor, thus selling their goods at a lower price and keep a competitive market.

Violence caused division

The city of Juarez as a whole is in a very bad shape, the road infrastructure is not well maintained and very degraded, there is a lack of green and open spaces throughout, the pollution is highly present due to the large number of factories and the built environment has grown in a very chaotic way. Certainly is not a pleasant city to look at, and it is extremely difficult to move throughout. However, the amount of program, events and places the city offers is extraordinary. Juarez is well known for the cultural and sports events it offers as well as for its night life. A huge number of celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe and Frank Sinatra had crossed the border in order to live this remarkable experience. Although Juarez is an important city, which checks out most of the boxes to become a Capital, the city since its origin has been strategically planned not to be developed, it is wanted to be a city of production and the threshold to the U.S. but not a quality place to live in. El Paso on the other hand, while is not a big city and does not offer a lot of program and things to do, it is highly developed in terms of its infrastructure and offers a quieter, safer and better quality of life in comparison with its sister city. The level of violence in Ciudad Juarez is another aspect that adds to the complexity of the region and contributes to this “divided city” perception. In 2000 the city was denominated “The most dangerous city of the world” with the highest murder rate in the world due to its involvement in the drug war and was also infamously known because of the large number of women and girls that were killed during those years. El Paso on the other hand was ranked as the safest city in the U.S. around the same time. The negative image that Juarez portrayed, generated a fear so big in the citizens, especially the ones that lived in El Paso area at that time, wanting to be as far as possible from Juarez. Although throughout the years, Juarez has improved significantly its community is still alerted. Hundreds of families and businesses had moved to El Paso in their search for safer and better place to live, increasing the economy of this city. However, the United States government does not see this as an opportunity, instead they see it as a

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 28: Los Dos by Ramon and Christian Cardenas Source: https://remezcla.com/features/culture/interview-los-dos/

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 29: Two kids look beyond the wall towards the American side Source: Jose Luis Gonzales/Reuters

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Immigration Policies

Some of the major figures in the United States such as the former U.S. President, Donald Trump, have expressed xenophobic ideas. In their minds, the immigrants would go to their land and would appropriate it, steal their resources, jobs and opportunities. The U.S. government reaction towards this idea of protecting their land, had come up with a series of severe immigration policies, that amongst other things have weakened the relationship between Mexico and U.S. separated families and created a negative perception of each other. For instance, one of these policies consisted in separate the children from their parents as a form of “punishment” for trying to enter to American territory in an illegal way. Most of the time the parents are deported back to Mexico and the children are held in the U.S. in inhumane conditions.

The Wall

In 1994, in an effort to control and prevent illegal immigration, the United States started to build a wall along the division line, this physical barrier is complemented by sensors, cameras and other surveillance equipment. In 2001, following the September 11 terrorists’ attacks, The U.S. government steeped-up its security in the borders and invest several billions of dollars in order to strengthen the control in the border zones. Among other things the number of border patrols were increased, and the wall was reinforced. By 2009 it was reported that the wall covered 930 km of the 3,145 km that consists the US/MEX border. The border between El Paso and Juarez was part of the areas that did in fact were fenced, and it was fully covered. In 2019, former President Donald Trump started expanding the wall in places where previously was not a barrier as well as reinforcing the previous fence. The vision of the new wall was even more terrible than the previous one. It was envisioned to be 16-meter height, it will fully cover the border line (3,145 km) and will be completely impermeable. Up until March of 2021 there has been constructed 76 km more.

The effectiveness of the wall is unlikely and questionable, however the effects that it has caused are extremely serious. Juarez and El Paso have heavily suffered the effects this infamous wall had brought. This huge physical barrier had made a spatial fragmentation so big and powerful that has also fragmented families, people and communities along not to mention the environmental impact it caused. Regardless of everything they share and the uniqueness of their identity, the effects of this fragmentation are somehow bigger. Nowadays the community lives in a constant state of war. Some of them no longer see the community as one, the division line that once was almost invisible has been materialized and replaced by a high infrastructure which dictates whether if you are from one city or another promoting a hate perception. The spatial fragmentation the wall caused is complemented by several other elements. The border wall is located in an impermeable 220 m wide marginal buffer zone filled with border patrols. The canal that was once the Rio Grande which defines the international division is 74

A Degraded Threshold

Nowadays, about a 50 km stretch of the river (including the area of the sister cities) is almost dry, due to the heavy water consumptions for agricultural irrigation along with diversion dams. Below Presidio the river restores the flood of water because it merges with the conchos river (Figure 32). It is estimated that only 20 per cent of the river natural discharge flow to the Gulf. Climate change is another contributor in the decrease in flow of the river. In 2020 the river flowed from March to September only, this water shortages are affecting the local ecosystems and endangering species including cottonwood trees and the southwestern willow flycatcher.

A Forgotten River

CONTEXT RESEARCH

is completely dry creating an abandoned and degraded area perfect for illegal activity and vice. The Rio Bravo del Norte or Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States and flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The river serves as part of the natural border between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. The sister cities of Juarez, Chihuahua and El Paso, Texas are part of these states were the river serve as the international boundary. In 1906 and 1944 agreements about sharing the water of the river were signed by the two countries. The destination of the water is primarily for agriculture in both sides of the border. In 1909 the river course changed causing a conflict between the two cities about the ownership of the territory. In 1963, fifty years after, both countries reached a solution, they divided the area and agreed on turning the river into a canal in order for it not to move again.

Because of both drought and overuse, the section from El Paso downstream through Ojinaga was recently tagged “The Forgotten River”. An unpleasant transition

The points of entry which are the international bridges are degraded, not well maintained and completely filled with armed officials and dogs. Certainly, one would think that these bridges that are crossed by more than 20,000 people on a daily basis would have to be pleasant areas, but the reality is that they are quite unpleasant. People have developed a distinctive perception of this thresholds that reflects in their behavior whenever they are in them. The idea of this threshold is as if one was in danger, people are very cautious in everything they do, because they know that one wrong move and they would be in serious trouble. It is normal for people minding their own business waiting in line to be approach by an official with a dog and start asking questions or searching the car without even asking. People have learned to answer in monosyllables or just use the necessary number of words, not to give any detail, because everything that it is said or done is being monitored. The tension that is lived in the threshold between one city and the other definitely creates an impact on the people perception making them to be fully aware of the division as opposed of creating a smooth and invisible transition creating a distinction between “us” and “them”.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 30: Current Rio Grande status and reservoirs Source: Comision Internacional de Limites y Aguas. Authors work

Figure 31: Views of the Rio Grande 2021 Source: El Paso Times

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 32: Rio Grande Historic Movement Source: El Paso Times. Authors work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Comunity Response

Luckily, there still a bigger part of the community that refuses to be separated and that is bigger than these xenophobic policies. The community have come around this fragmentation with manifestations promoting peace and unity. The border area and especially the border wall have been important participants in these manifestations. “Hugs not walls” is an event organized by the Border Network for Human rights. The association that works with the local authorities, allows separated families to be united for 3 minutes. A large number of families cross the border in order to hug their loved ones that lived in the Mexican side. The time is precise: 3 minutes, no more, always under supreme surveillance of cameras and local authorities. Other manifestations of a more informal an artistic character is also present. People express their feelings of this separation, through murals, quotes and graffiti along the border zone and even in the wall.

“Rather than a line of separation, the border should be conceived of as a membrane, connecting the tissues of communities on both sides, enabling mutually beneficial trade, manufacturing, ecosystem improvements, and security, while enhancing inter–cultural exchanges. “ - Vanda Felbab-Brown (2017) . In her thesis “Understanding perception of the U.S.- Mexico border” Daria Herchner explains about the principles of behaviors through cognition and affection. She argues that “behavior influence by affection includes the concept of dissonance and difference which describes the feeling that citizens across the border are dealing with a feeling of ‘them’ and ‘us’. The border creates a mental nearness towards the own nation and a mental exclusion towards the other state. This might be seen as an indifference towards the other side.”

As for behavior influence by cognition, she explains “Inhabitants might not know the other side well and distinguish themselves from the others also by having prejudices of the others which can be seen as a process of ‘Othering’. In this process, similar and opposite norms and values for the American and Mexican side of the border can be found, which tend to include or exclude the other group. Nevertheless, this clash of prejudices, and maybe also no willingness to understand each other, could possibly be solved while working with each other for the same bi-national region” It is feasible that because of the ongoing fragmentation the sister cities have experienced throughout the years, the communities are at the point where they feel indifference towards each other. However, the truth is that even though the region was spitted into two cities from different countries, the land is still one, and the state of cause and effect will always be inevitable. The cities will forever remain tied together. 78

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 33: “Hugs not walls” event Source: Publico.es

US/MEX Design Projects

The situation at the border between the U.S and Mexico is a complex one. Over the years policies have been implemented but unfortunately most of the policies have not been for the unity of the border regions, instead they have contributed to the further separation of the countries. Certainly one controversial issue is a wall that is being built along the border and has caused a further fragmentation to the people and to the communities found in these regions. The following projects and proposals present different visions, solutions and perceptions at how various issues are being approached in this specific context. The criteria used to select the projects and proposals is based on the research done in the contextual research. It is based on the elements that were found to be most relevant in this case to the border communities of U.S and Mexico. For this reason it was decided to select projects based in border cities that attempt to mitigate the effect that the current situation of the border is having on these communities. For this reason elements such as the wall, community integration and the mobility network were taken into consideration for the selection.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 34: Criteria for the selection of Projects and Proposals in the MEX-USA context. Authors Work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Borderwall as architecture Rael San Fratello

“Viewing the boundary as a site that severs relationships between the two countries, they wanted to create a place where citizens across the border could connect, so they designed three bright pink ‘teeter-totters’ (see-saws) to slot into gaps in the steel border wall. One designer worked from Juárez in Mexico and another in El Paso, USA. For just under twenty minutes on 28 July 2019, residents of El Paso and the Anapra community in Mexico could, for the first time, unite through play”. -The Design Museum

Rael San Fratello has been researching the border condition at the USMexico region since 2009. It began by a search for an architecture of the borderlands, but his search soon focused on an important element of the fragmentation between the two countries. The wall that separates has been a topic in which the architecture studio has developed various scenarios and cases. The main objective is to envision a different way to perceive and build walls. Especially walls that divide people. The architect in fact is the author of the book Borderwall as architecture: a manifesto for the U.S.Mexico boundary which explores the effects the wall is having and can have in the future. Furthermore the manifesto serves as thought provoking book which provides various alternatives to this wall and encourages the physical and conceptual dismantling. Figure 8 and 9 show two different projects and concepts of possible alterations that could take place in the wall to have a more humanistic approach to it. While Rael’s work has been highly discussed worldwide, it is not the first time the wall has been under attack. This continues to arise the question of many designers and artists on how the wall could or should be treated.

CONTEXT RESEARCH Figure 35: The wall as a library to share books from one side to another. Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com

Figure 36: Teeter-Totter Wall Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 37: Field of Dreams Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 38: Yoga without Borders Source: The San Diego Union Tribune.

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Unwalling Citizenship Tijuana/San Diego Teddy Cruz and Fonna Forman

“Borders cannot stop environmental, hydrological, viral, economic, normative, cultural, ethical, and aspirational flows. They cannot stop the winds that blow. These informal and often invisible circulations shape the transgressive, hybrid identities and urban practices of everyday life in border regions such as ours”. Teddy Cruz and Fonna Forman have engaged in multiple bordercrossing ideas and projects to address the various situations that are present in the San Diego- Tijuana region. The ideology is to provide community engagement and practical solutions to bring conscience to the various issues that arise because of the fragmentation caused by a political border and by a physical border such as the wall. The main objective of their design is not only to bring consciousness to the general public about the issues of a political border but also to provide the necessary framework for the future development and collaboration of cross-border projects. They state that for example due to the increased militarization of the USA at the border in the past years, issues such as human rights, disparity and other issues have drawn the attention of activists and artists from all over the world to participate in a form of performative protest. This is a very helpful approach but the fact remains that in time these actions dissolve and are forgotten. For this reason the pair write:

“In the last years, our environmental, civic, and architectural work has advocated for a more rooted, embedded, and long-term infrastructure of cross-border partnerships with grass-roots organizations. These solidarities are spatialized through a physical cross-border network of public spaces that educate, taking a longer view of resistance, strategic thinking, anticipatory planning, and architectural intervention”. Furthermore one of the main strategies that has helped in the development of the projects is one called Community Stations: Spatializing Solidarity. In co-producing with communities the conceptual and programmatic content to reorganize spatial, social and economic relations, we see ourselves as mediators, intervening in the gap between top-down resources and bottom-up urban and political intelligence. But it also requires transforming physical public space into a flexible and adaptable site for knowledge production (Cruz and Forman). Furthermore in order to ensure the long term engagement of communities the pair have sought various cross border partnerships and sanctuary spaces in which the communication from both sides of the border is ensured and present in these stations. It is also important to note that instead of viewing the communities as clients the communities are seen as co-developers of this process and in this way summon the bottom up process and the top down institutions for updating the projects in the absence of formal support. 86

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 39: Community Stations across the San Diego-Tijuana Border Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 40: Proposal for a Community Station in the Tijuana-San Diego region Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 41: Earthlab Station teaching program of climate change and sustainable solutions for the border communities. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Nogales Station A journey along the border (Unbuilt) Unbuild the Wall Competition/2017 Fu Wang, Jun Seong Ahn

As one of the striking segregation in history that caused tremendous casualties through border crossing with a purpose of survival and better quality of life, the border between U.S. and Mexico has created separation of culture, politics, economy, ethnicity, and infrastructure. The conceptual project which received the finalist award in the unbuild the wall competition 2017 in Nogales took aim at generating a new and attractive railway station that serves as new neutral zone and replacement for the unattractive port of entry that currently exists. In addition to this a new infrastructure would benefit both countries as well as serve as a memorial site in remembrance to the victims of the region. In addition to this the project serves to incorporate the surrounding context. The final aim of the project is it attempts to recover the relationship between the countries and furthermore with a railway expansion to provide a safe and comfortable journey across the border.

The project serves as a variable of different style solutions to the problems that exist at the border. In this project a different approach is sought by addressing a unification or relationship in a transport infrastructure. As seen in previous examples, the development and connection of transport infrastructure is not an idea that is unheard of and at times can prove to be positive in the right context.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 01

Figure 42: Nogales Train Station/ Unbuild the wall competition 2017 Source: Leahfuwang.com

CONTEXT RESEARCH

US/MEX Planning Projects

While our intention of work for this specific case is focused more in an urban implementation scenario, there are currently several planning project that are either underway or in the process of taking place. As mentioned previously, the collaboration between border regions is a complex situation especially in the case of Mexico and U.S.A. Even though there are planning actions taking place, the successfulness of the plans are not always ensured due to the ever changing situation of the border. Various issues are present throughout the border because as mentioned before it is a very extensive area with a variety of issues throughout its landscape. The following table shows several of the most relevant planning strategies that are present in the specific border of Mexico-USA. To grasp a wider range of understanding as to the nature of projects at the planning level in the border region, we took in consideration the specific aspects that pertain to them. It is vital to mention that due to the nature of the relationship between the two countries, the strategies and visions implemented at a certain time may become completely disregarded when a new political environment takes place and policies change. Many times border cities have seen strong effects due to the change of political environment. They are regions that are under a constant change and depend in a great amount to the national policies on both countries. For this reason we also decided to include planning projects that are organized by private or non-profit parties in an attempt to bypass the national policies that can be a burden to successful planning strategies at times.

In order to further grasp a better understanding of the planning strategies, it has been decided to further research three specific projects which were chosen due to their difference in strategies and their organizing bodies.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 93

Figure 43: Table of relevant planning projects at the border cities. Source: Author’s work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Paso Del Norte Strategic Plan 2025 El Paso/Juarez Paso Del Norte Foundation

The Paso del Norte Community Foundation was founded in 2013 to build upon the Health Foundation’s excellence in governance, investments and grantmaking to support and address the growing needs the region. The mission of the foundation is to provide a better quality of life to the citizens of the region by providing health, economic, and social development. The foundation has been vital to the development of the region in the recent years and has even become a source of security to the residents of the regions in extraordinary events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Along with other associations and partnerships, the foundation has been regarded as a strong aid to the well being of the citizens of the region.

For the year 2025 the foundation has developed a strategic plan that focused in 4 main priorities for the growth and impact of the communities. The priorities are as follows: 1. Philanthropic Giving which outlines the ensuring of necessary funds and partnerships to address and solve the emerging issues of the communities in the following years. 2 Non Profit Investment to ensure the growth of non profit funds and non profit partnerships. In addition to this the strategy aims at providing the necessary leadership to emerging non profit organizations in the region. 3. Community Projects which aims to support the positive development of projects that ensure the growth and welfare of the border communities. 4. Community Response + Resilience that aims to ensure the necessary funds in the case of immediate community needs.

CONTEXT RESEARCH 95

Figure 44: Table of strategies and priorities for PDN strategic plan 2025 Source: Paso Del Norte Foundation. Authors work

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Vision 2020

Ambos Nogales State and City Government

Nogales, Arizona and Nogales, Sonora form a single, functional and complex urban fabric in which some members of the same family may live on the United States while others may reside in Mexico, creating a sense of fluidity that impacts all aspects of life, including culture, language, heritage, character, identity, context, environment and economy. Ambos Nogales was once an easy, friendly and relaxed two-nation border town. The urban fabric is now separated by an international border, yet still Ambos Nogales remains heavily reliant on each other. Ambos Nogales continue to share their families, cultures, heritages, characters and identities. The economy of Ambos Nogales is strongly intertwined. Being a community member in Ambos Nogales provides a unique opportunity to learn the languages, cultures and traditions from both Mexico and the United States. The vision 2020 consists of a general plan that serves the purpose of providing a common framework for current officials and mandates to strive for the common benefit of the border cities. “The General Plan seeks to provide a model for border city planning through meeting the City’s challenges and opportunities while supporting the creation of a shared Ambos Nogales vision that meets the needs of both sides of the border and further strengthens its binational economy. This General Plan is created to provide specific guidance for Nogales, Arizona that not only supports Ambos Nogales but also continues to further the rich culture, tradition, identity and economic base of Ambos Nogales as a unique place to live, work, learn, visit and be among friend”. Vision 2020 City of Nogales General Plan

The general plan then identifies and analyzes different areas throughout the cities and region that either need redevelopment or growth and the potentialities that could take place. Furthermore the guiding principles of the plan identify the different topics and how they should be approached. Elements such as parks, cultural heritage, transportation are addressed in the general plan. Furthermore, the general plan includes a volume dedicated to the guidance of policies that could enhance the unity and quality of life of the inhabitants of the region.

CONTEXT RESEARCH Figure 45: Conceptual Masterplan for redevelopment of Mariposa port of entry outlined in the Vision 2020 general plan Source: City of Nogales Planning Center

Figure 46: Mariposa Port of Entry redevelopment Source: Jones Studio Architects

CONTEXT RESEARCH

Border 2020

U.S/MEXICO Border National Governments

The Border 2020 is an eight-year (2013-2020) binational effort designed to protect the environment and public health in the U.S.-Mexico Border region, consistent with the principles of sustainable development. Its implementation will be accomplished within the framework of the respective laws and regulation of the U.S. and Mexico. The program developed successful results in its final stages and has developed into the new partnership program of Border 2025 which serves as an extension of the original program. It develops on previous bi-national efforts, especially the Border 2012 approach which sought bottom-up regional efforts to address environmental and health concerns in the border region. The program has identified five long term strategic goals which are outlined in their program. The goals are as follows: 1. Reduce Air Pollution 2. Improve Access to Clean and Safe Water 3.Promote Materials Management and Waste Management, and Clean Sites 4. Enhance Joint Preparedness for Environmental Response 5. Enhance Compliance Assurance and Environmental Stewardship

In addition to these goals, Border 2020 seeks the inclusion of border communities input towards generating a healthier environment for their communities. This includes native tribes and organizations all throughout the full extent of the border landscape. Furthermore two entities on each side of the border will ensure the guidance of proper implementation and development of projects that strive for the protection of the environment and the achievement of the program goals.

CONTEXT RESEARCH Figure 48: Protection and revitalization of rio grande along the border line. Source: Epa.Gov

Figure 47: Boundary of areas of development as outlined by Border 2020 strategic plan. Source: Epa.Gov. Authors work

100

1.3 Considerations and Intent This section is dedicated to reflecting on the findings from the previous sections, to gain a clearer idea of the issues that need to be addressed, therefore, developing our major intent. It starts with the summary of the importance of collaboration in border cities to hinder conflict, as well as the significance of utilizing public spaces as part of the method of reinforcing the ties between communities. Literature was also reviewed to gain a broader understanding of the different methods to consider. Following by the development of the major intent and supported by the approach analysis.

101

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT

The Importance of Collaboration Necessity of collaboration

From the research and the case studies both in the topic and the contextual research it is understood that perhaps an effective method of mitigating barriers and boundaries is the integration of communities. and people in collaboration. In the case of cities or urban entities that are separated or affected by a border, one can argue that collaboration is fundamental. In some instances, due to the flexibility of the policies or the friendly relationships between both parts the collaboration is easier. The cities that engage in collaborative strategies often find it less difficult to overcome issues found in their respective regions, therefore, generating attractive and healthier cities. On the other hand, cities with strict borders and policies find it more difficult to collaborate even if it is for a mutual benefit. However, there is a complexity that exists within the different perspectives of communities. The fact is that the priorities of one community will not always be the same as the other, therefore collaboration does not happen ( Travis et al., 1999). The more a division or fragmentation occurs between communities, the less likely they are to engage in a collaborative processes. For this reason, the question remains of how to engage communities in a collaborative environment especially in border communities. From the case studies it was found several examples of cities or projects that involved the communities utilizing various methods. It is important to create conscience within the community that unity and collaboration is key for the efficient development of cities. Yuan Chen writes in his article Integration and Cross-Border: Design of General Education Based on Multiple Fusion about the importance of creating a general education that is catered to the individual and not just as a method of possessing the necessary traits and qualities a person should have in the 21st century (Chen 2018, 2). He believes that by exposing students to real life situations and scenarios that are relevant to their specific location and background, gives the possibility of generating a stronger identity and an overall development of various skills. This allows to enhance and develop a strong academic knowledge as well as a sociological one. One of the strategies discussed as a possible teaching method is through integration and exposure of students and communities to people of different backgrounds and ideologies to engage in a cycle of learning and teaching. Furthermore, this type of activity could enhance the integration and communication between neighborhoods communities and cities themselves.

Education from exposure

102

Public Spaces as a tool for collaboration

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT

Today, many municipalities and governments around the world have undergone the task in attempting to find strategies to expose people to a unified message in order to bring people together. One of the leading strategies is to utilize public spaces of towns and cities to spread a message, create consciousness and thus indirectly strengthen relationships among the inhabitants. A good example of this is The Building Schools for the Future program which is an initiative by the UK government to “ produce far reaching change. It offers local authorities and schools in England a once-in-a-generation opportunity to transform educational provision and to significantly improve educational outcomes and life chances of children, young people and families.” The main driving concept behind the project is by taking reference to Danish architect Jan Gehl’s theory of public spaces. Gehl’s thesis is important because it acknowledges the social nature as human beings. We are stimulated by social interactions and develop knowledge and experiences from this. For this reason it has been seen as an opportunity to provide this concept into using the urban public spaces as places for learning and teaching. Of course the spaces would not be transformed into a classroom but the spaces could be designed to cater to various necessities such as marketplaces, conventions, and events which could take an important role in improving community ties.

Benefit of Open Spaces

In addition to the fact that public spaces can become an opportunity to unify communities by exposure, public spaces and open spaces provide a general benefit to the inhabitants of cities. A study developed by the city of Burlington, USA showed the general benefit that open spaces and public spaces can have in various spectrums. For example, the conservation and careful planning of open spaces increases property values and desirability of cities and towns. The study also demonstrated that as time progressed, inhabitants of cities have further expressed a desirability for open spaces due to the increased quality of life they produce. In addition to the environmental and economic benefits that open spaces generate, the program that they cater to, has an essential impact in the lives of the people that use these spaces. Parks and recreational open spaces for example have been linked to increasing the overall quality of life and preventing crime in American cities. Furthermore, open spaces can become an identity landmark for the cities they take place in. Spaces such as Central Park in New York and Hyde Park in London are emblems to the cities and communities in which they identify in. It can be argued that open spaces can also become an emblem for fragmented communities and in essence bring people together and generate a better co-existence with borders. This emerges from the idea that open spaces can address issues that go beyond the physical realm. Open spaces can also play a crucial role in the symbolic and social aspect in cities (Nared, 2015). In cities that are fragmented by a political border, open spaces can be a crucial element in the well being of the inhabitants and in the relationship amongst communities. 103

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT

Benefit of open spaces in Border Cities

In fragmented spaces such as border cities the role of open spaces can be extremely significant in providing better quality to the inhabitants both in the physical and social sense. Carr et. al (1992:3) claim that public spaces can help satisfy peoples needs, shape, define, and protect significant human rights and in consequence convey special cultural meanings. This concept could not only provide benefit to the inhabitants of border cities but it could also provide a sense of attachement to the spaces which could in consequence improve the possibilites of inhabitants into engaging in collaborative processes. In an article written by Johana Holvandus she discusses about the 2018 URBACT seminar on the border cities of Valga and Valka in the Estonian-Latvian border which had the aim of demonstrating to other European cities how twin cities found in border regions could coordinate innovative cross-border initiatives and respective investements to enhance the urban quality and quality of life of its inhabitants. One of the most prominent showcased works and investements was the new central squares and shared public spaces in both towns. For the centennial of Estonia, the Estonian Association of Architects led an architectural programme “Great Public Space” which looked to developing new public squares in small towns. By 2015, Valga held an international competition which received national funding and developed into a beloved place for the locals. Just a few steps away across the border is the city center of Valka (Latvia) and as a next stage the cities decided to launch the Interreg Estonian-Latvian program which aims at connecting the public spaces of both city centers to encourage the integration of communities.

“It is notable that both, the already finished central square in Valga as well as its prospective counterpart in Valka, brought the creativity of Italian and Spanish architects to the peripheral Nordic twin city, demonstrating that the ideas how to connect something that was once divided do not feel North-South, or core-periphery boundaries”. (Holvandus, URBACT 2019)

The planned intervention of the project includes an improved connectivity and walkable urban environment which would be achieved by the development of a planned pedestrian street which connects the two churches in the city center that are the main visual and symbolic landmarks on both sides. By utilizing this strategy a renewed urban space will now be perceived as a naturally united landscape. In a further layer to this notion is the opportunity to engage the community in the participation of the design of public space planning and designing. The main driving force behind this concept is not only the possibility of educating and providing quality spaces for the inhabitants but it is also an opportunity to provide a sense of belonging and ensure a positive maintaining of them. Furthermore, the participation of communities in the

Community engagement in public space planning

104

“Public participation begins by laying the base for sustainable practices in planning and management of the physical landscape as well as landscape architecture. In creating a sustainable design for communities, it involves local citizens by allowing them to analyze their own problems and fashion their own solutions plus by supporting community initiatives in which to allow them to be the instruments of their own change”

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT

planning of their public spaces allows communities to openly analyze and communicate issues that they believe should be addressed. This then leads to more successful actions to take place which allow the public spaces to be more utilized, well maintained, and meaningful to the inhabitants.

(Loures and Crawford, 2008).

In addition to communities solving issues and taking a participatory role in the planning and design of their public spaces, this method is also seen as a main source of generating social interactions between urban dwellers. These interactions have been proven to create stronger community ties and improve social life of the inhabitants of said communities. This notion is extremely crucial in border communities where a fragmentation exists between communities and cities.

“I found that collaboration can be a powerful alternative to conventional mechanisms for effecting change, such as coalitions, task forces, and commissions. Traditional groups and organizations tend to be structured vertically, Collaborative groups, by contrast, are structured horizontally. Leadership, to the extent that it exists at all, is broadly distributed”. Scott London (2012)

The participation of communities in the development of their public spaces can be a catalyst for collaboration between the inhabitants and generate ties that go across a border.

105

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT

Intent and method

Ciudad Juárez and El Paso are one community that is divided by a materialized political border. Due to the complex relationship that the two countries share, there is currently minimal efforts to consolidate strategies that benefit the region as a whole. The difference in priorities, budget and governance between both countries makes the possibility collaboration efforts difficult. However, the reality remains that these cities share the same land and mutual issues. When asked about the COVID-19 situation in Juárez, El Paso county judge Ricardo Samaniego provided a simple and clear answer: “If they sink, we all sink”. While he was referring to this specific situation, the interdependence of the cities makes the statement true in general. The previous considerations and case studies led for a clear understanding on the direction to proceed. Due to the interdependence condition of the cities, the initiative aims to develop a collaborative environment between communities across the borders in order to improve the welfare for the sister cities and their inhabitants. The idea is to begin involving the communities in mutual projects in order to strengthen their ties and develop a sense of attachment, seeking to later involve higher governmental agencies in projects and strategies of this nature.

Fragmented Cities

Suture the Fragmentation

Figure 49: Diagram of intent Authors work

106

Reconnect Communities

CONSIDERATIONS AND INTENT Figure 50: Top down-Bottom up model based on the participatory planning method by PK Das Source: natureofcities.com. Authors work

107

Participants and Roles

The analysis phase aims to find major problems and opportunities in the selected area to further proceed with the design strategies for the simulation. The analysis objective is to gain an insight of the situation and condition of the urban area of border as well as its immediate surroundings to understand the major issues and how they affect the adjacent neighborhoods, thus generating a focus area to be studied more in-depth to further act as the area of intervention for the simulation. The analysis of the new neighborhood area will provide a better understanding of the potential opportunities for improvement, furthermore, guiding the development of the urban strategies for the simulation that will set the starting point to achieve the intent.

ANALYSIS

110

2.1 Urban Analysis This section is dedicated to developing an urban study area, to analyze its condition and find problems and opportunities that will contribute to develop our future strategy. The analysis starts with the study of the Borderplex region to gain a better understanding of the delimitations and composition. Following by the development of the initial urban study area that will act as the starting point of the analysis and, furthermore, guide the development of a focus area. Due to its major significance, the points of entry will be also study in this section, to reach an understanding of their condition. And last but not least, a recollected data from locals regarding open spaces will be examined, in order to gain a better understanding of their condition and usage.

111

URBAN ANALYSIS

Urban Study Area

The region known also as Borderplex is a bi-national metropolitan zone centered on two large cities: El Paso, USA and Ciudad Juarez, Mex. Additionally the region is subdivided creating sub-regions. These sub-regions includes various municipalities on the American side and extends over 3 states and two countries. In addition to the political boundary between both countries, the difference in governance that presides in each municipality makes the collaboration between each other a complex task. Map of Metropolitan Area

Scale: 1: 250,000

Figure 51: Municpal boundary map. City of El Paso. Authors work

112

Based on the case studies and literature previously analyzed, we perceived that some of the biggest problems of these metropolitan areas occur at the borderline. In this specific case, The borderline is materialized into a wall and worsened by a marginal and underdeveloped buffer zone between the cities of Juarez and El Paso. Both the buffer zone and the wall are crucial elements that need to be addressed. The adjacent neighborhood in both cities were added to the area of study in order to gain a better understanding of their condition and how its vicinity with the buffer zone and the wall affects them. Primary roads are utilized to develop the boundary of the initial study area which will leventually guide us into a focus and more in depth area of inquiry.

URBAN ANALYSIS

Scale: 1: 250,000

Figure 52: Map of the Study Area Google Earth. Authors work

113

URBAN ANALYSIS

Built Enviroment Functional Map

Scale: 1: 150,000

Figure 53: Functional Map of built enviroment City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work

114

URBAN ANALYSIS

Open Spaces Functional Map

Scale: 1: 150,000

Figure 54: Functional Map of open spaces City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work

115

URBAN ANALYSIS

Mobility

Scale: 1: 150,000

Figure 55: Mobility infrastructure map City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work

116

117

URBAN ANALYSIS

International Bridges

This section is dedicated to study one crucial element of the cities: the international points of entry. The cities share 3 main international border crossings which are crossed by an average of 20,000 people on a daily basis. The Santa Fe street bridge was the first bridge to cross the river at the El Paso w Norte region, and its located in the downtown area in both sides. The other two are the Bridge of the Americas and Ysleta bridge. The way the bridges operate varies depending on whether you are entering to Mexico or the U.S. To cross the border from the United States to Mexico is in fact really simple, it can be done by foot or by car and there isn’t necessary to present any type to document to enter. There are some electronic machines at the entrance with sensors that randomly selects people for a quick revision to make sure nothing illegal is coming in. The machines operate one car at the time creating waiting lines. The sensors take seconds to make their selection and most of the time is a free pass, therefore the waiting lines are not usually long. On the other hand, the entrance from Mexico to the United States takes longer since it is very controlled. The entrance can also be done by car or by foot and the requirements to enter are American passport or a visa permit for tourists which is checked and documented. The customs are also in charge of register the people trying to enter and check their belongings to verify nothing illegal enters the country. The waiting line can vary from minutes to hours depending on how much people are waiting to cross.

Even though the points of entry are places visited by around 20,000 people daily, their condition is very degraded. The bridges that cross the Rio Grande are around 450 meters long with no facilities, shaded or green areas. Certainly, the bridges serve their function as the threshold between the two countries, they are spaces that are not only visited by a large quantity people, but are also spaces where people spend a lot of their time. The fact that these spaces are very important for the cities makes it hard to understand the reason behind their low quality and maintenance.

118

Figure 56: Map of port of entries in the sister cities. City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work

URBAN ANALYSIS

Port Of Entries

119

URBAN ANALYSIS

Santa Fe International Bridge

Plan View

Figure 57

Satellite View

Figure 58

Control Point

Figure 60

Pedestrian Path/MEX

Figure 59

Peak Time Condition

Figure 61

Pedestrian Path/USA

Figure 62

Figure 63

120

URBAN ANALYSIS

Bridge of the Americas

Plan View

Figure 64

Satellite View

Figure 65

Control Point

Figure 67

Pedestrian Path/MEX

Figure 66

Peak Time Condition

Figure 68

Pedestrian Path/USA

Figure 69

Figure 70

121

URBAN ANALYSIS

Zaragoza International Bridge

Plan View

Figure 71

Satellite View

Figure 72

Control Point

Figure 74

Pedestrian Path/MEX

Figure 73

Peak Time Condition

Figure 75

Pedestrian Path/USA

Figure 76

Figure 77

122

123

URBAN ANALYSIS

Open Space Survey

The research phase helped us understand about the importance and contribution of open spaces, especially when it comes to the subject of identity. The previous analysis shows that the presence of open spaces in the area is very minimal, therefore it was important for us to understand how the inhabitants of the region perceive and utilize these spaces. An online survey was done in order to collect the necessary data. In April 2021, an online survey was done to 100 residents of the area, in an effort to better understanding the opens spaces and how they are being utilized. The survey was done in a google platform which was accessed through a link. The link was distributed via social networks such as “Facebook” and “WhatsApp” to friends and relatives that live in the area and asked them to forward it to their close friends and relatives as well, creating a network of participants. The questionnaire was done in a yes/no and multiple-choice format and started by asking 3 general questions: What is your place of residence? Ciudad Juarez, El Paso, Other What is your Age group? Under 18, 18-24, 25-39, 40-60, 60 + How often do you visit parks, recreational areas and green spaces? Often (3 or more times a week), Once a week, once a month, only on special occasions, I don’t remember the last time I visited Following by questions with visual aids asking which of all the open spaces found in the urban territorial study area they had frequented, e.g.: Have you visited (Selected Open Space)? yes, no This question was done for every one of the open spaces found in the territorial study area. Depending on the spaces they selected as yes two questions followed: How frequent do you visit the (Selected Open Space)? Often (3 or more times a week), Once a week, once a month, only on special occasions, I don’t remember the last time I visited What is your reasoning for visiting (Selected Open Space)? (check all that apply)? Open/Green Space quality, Amenities, Location or Proximity, Accessibility to the space, Events held in the space.

The collected data was graphed and mapped to give better illustrate the results.

124

URBAN ANALYSIS 125

Figure 78: Diagram of Methodology for the open space survey. Authors work

URBAN ANALYSIS

General Information Place of Residence

Age group

Frequency of visits to open spaces

Figure 79

Most Frequented Open Spaces

1 2 1

3 2

6 7

4 5 7

Scale: 1: 150,000

Figure 80

126

URBAN ANALYSIS

Catalogue of most frequented open spaces

Plan View

Satellite View

Perspective View

Figure 81

Figure 82

Figure 83

Figure 85

Figure 86

Figure 88

Figure 89

Figure 84

Figure 87

127

URBAN ANALYSIS

Figure 90

Figure 91

Figure 92

Figure 94

Figure 95

Figure 97

Figure 98

Figure 100

Figure 101

Figure 93

Figure 96

Figure 99

128

Frequency of use

Figure 102

URBAN ANALYSIS

Rating

Figure 103

129

URBAN ANALYSIS

Frequency of use map

Figure 104

The outcome in general is that the open spaces are not used on a regular basis but are more frequented by the general public on special occasions or when an event takes place. From these results a calendar of events on a regular year was researched and generated to understand potentially which of these spaces host the most events as well as what type.

130

URBAN ANALYSIS

Calendar of Events (2019)

Figure 105: Calendar of Events and type of events held in the year 2019 City of El Paso. Eventos Ciudad Juarez. Authors work.

131

Overall events per year

URBAN ANALYSIS

Vocations

Figure 106

132

URBAN ANALYSIS 02

Although these spaces are not very used on a regular basis, the research helps us understand the criteria the users chose to visit an open space as well as the type of events that they are drawn to. This gives us a clearer picture of the characteristics that are important to consider in the development of the strategy.

133

134

2.2 Neighborhood Analysis This section is dedicated to developing a neighborhood study area, to analyze its condition and find problems and opportunities that will contribute to develop our future strategy and furthermore, act as the intervention area for the design simulation. The analysis starts with the development of a neighborhood study area based on the findings of the analysis of the initial urban area. Issues such as disconnection of open spaces, poor accessibility, impermeability and lack of green infrastructure were the major considerations that contributed to the selection of the new area of study. An indepth analysis of the neighborhood area will provide the information required to proceed to the development of the further design strategies for the simulation.

135

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS 02

Neighborhood Study Area

The findings of the previous phases led us to understand the important to work with open spaces as a method of integration, the results from the research provide an important area that has a cluster of the most frequented open spaces. Five frequented open spaces in close proximity to the border that are currently not connected and share different characteristics are found in this area. This can be seen as an opportunity to create a network of open spaces and achieve the integration of communities.

Figure 107: Map of selected focus area. City of El Paso. Authors work

136

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Built Environment Functional Map

Figure 108: Functional Map of built environment in Focus Area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work

137

Scale: 1: 50,000

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Open Spaces Functional Map

Scale: 1: 50,000

Figure 109: Functional Map of open spaces in Focus Area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work

138

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Accessibility Network

Figure 110: Accessibility and Mobility Infrastructure Map of the focus area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work

139

Scale: 1: 50,000

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Based on the previous analysis findings, a specific area was identified to have major issues. Disconnection of public spaces, lack of pedestrian accessibility, impermeability, lack of public transport routes, degraded and fenced areas were some of the issues present. Therefore the decision was made to utilize the area as the intervention for the starting point of the simulation.

Area of Intervention

Figure 111: Map of selected relevant elements from previous considerations. City of El Paso. Authors work

140

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Current Functions

Existing Relevant Functions Chamizal Bi-National Park

Industrial/Maquiladora District

Bordo Community

Educational

High/Secondary School

Sports

University of Ciudad Juarez High School

Sports

Football FIeld Baseball Field Parkour Area Cycle Track

Cultural

Archeological Museum Memorial Musuem Temporary Exhibitions

Infrastructure

International Bridge

Football Field Baseball Field Sports Center

Entertainment

Football Field Baseball Field Pool Golf course

Industry

Drive-in Cinema Event Hall

Event Center Zoo

Automotive plant Water waste plant

Comunity Services Senior center Donation Center Hospital

Comunity Services Supported Living Center Donation Center Medical Clinic

Figure 112: Table of existing functions Authors work

Entertainment

141

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Buffer Zone

The space has a condition of a levee and is paralleled on both sides by highways which can make the access to the space very difficult. In fact, there is no formal way of entry to the space and the only way to access it is by climbing the levee. In the Mexican side, informal points of entry have been made by the users which are usually found at the intersections where traffic lights are present and where users cross when traffic is stopped. In the American side, the space is smaller and completely impermeable. However difficult the accessibility may be, the space is still used specially for sports and leisure, mainly because of its location (proximity to the borderline), the size of the space and because of its informal use as a bike route along the borderline. All these elements led to further investigate this space in order to understand the problems and opportunities that can influence a future strategy.

Aerial View Border Area

Figure 113: Satellite view of Buffer Zone area Google Earth

142

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Photo Survey Border Area

Figure 114: Map of Buffer Zone from Focus Area. City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work

Figure 115: Section of the buffer zone extending to residential areas. Authors work

143

Border Area Section

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

Photo Survey El Paso/USA 1

Figure 116: Border Area view from Trail in MEX Google Street View

Figure 119: Informal access to border Google Street View

Figure 117: Border Area view from highway/ MX Google Street View

Figure 120: Aerial view of buffer zone area in USA Google Street View

Figure 122: Top view of intersection Google Earth

144

Figure 118: View from Intersection Google Street View

Figure 121: View of area from highway Google Street View

145

NEIGHBORHOOD ANALYSIS

The design phase aims to illustrate the design simulation as well as the process to ensure its proper development. The design simulation main objective is to explore the possibility of improvement of the urban quality of the current marginalized border zone. The idea is to improve the area through design strategies, to provide a space of encounter for both cities. This new shared space will further help to explore the possibility of reinforcing ties between communities in both cities, thus creating a new and improved outcome that will benefit the welfare of the sister cities.

DESIGN

148

3.1 Strategy This section is dedicated to illustrating the design strategy for the simulation. It starts with the explanation of the framework that will be utilized for the development of the simulation project to ensure effectiveness and resilience. Following by the design intent which consists of the development of a simulation based on the improvement of the selected neighborhood area through urban design strategies. The main goal is to regenerate the current marginalized border zone and develop an area of encounter for both cities as well as a backbone to connect public spaces. The strategic plan and detailed schemes will be provided in section.

149

STRATEGY

Framework For Project Developments

In order to ensure the progressiveness, maintenance and resilience of the project, a framework has been developed to serve as a manual for the development of interventions. The process is divided in 3 stages and takes precedent from the analyzed case studies in which the stages ensure a higher understanding of the necessities and opportunities of the community. In the case of this project the framework can aid not only in reaching unified communities but also provide resilience for possible future changes which are common in border cities due to their political environment.

Figure 123: Framework Based from precedent of Teddy Cruz “Unwalling Citizenship” and “Structures of Mutual Support” by Framework Collaborative. Authors work

150

151

STRATEGY

Design Intent

Goals and Objectives

Figure 124: Goals and objectives table for the strategy Authors work

152

Figure 125: Strategic plan map. Authors work

STRATEGY

Strategic Plan

153

STRATEGY 03

Figure 126: Strategic Actions for the development of a new park as the backbone. Authors work

154

155

STRATEGY

STRATEGY 03

Figure 127: Strategic Actions for the development of the mobility and accessibility network. Authors work

156

157

STRATEGY

STRATEGY 03

Figure 128: Strategic Actions for the development of Community Hubs. Authors work

158

159

STRATEGY

STRATEGY Figure 129: Strategic Actions for the development of enhancement areas and roads.. Authors work

160

3.2 The Design Simulation This section is dedicated to illustrating the design simulation. It starts with the detailed explanation of how the design phases for the simulation of the urban design project will work as well as the actors involved in each phase. Following by the explanation of the design guidelines to ensure the proper development of the masterplan designed for the simulation. The masterplan will be provided in this section as well as an additional zoom in plan of a selected area to illustrate in more detailed the urban design strategies proposed for the simulation. The design simulation is the finalization of the findings from previous sections and the initial step to move from a division line into a space of encounter.

161

Preparation of Experimental Adaptation of Raising of Talks with Wall Hubs Municipality Border Site Funds

Development of Mobility System a new park

Mobility S Stations

Community Municipality National Government

Actors

DESIGN SIMULATION

Stra

Public Transportation Commission Non-Profit Organization Private Organization Architects Engineers Contractors Landscaping Experts Planners Artists

PRE-PHASE

Due to the nature of the project a solid initial phase is needed. The Pre-Phase will mainly consist of prepping the necessary elements in order for the effective implementation of the strategic actions. This initial phase will constitute mainly of acquiring the necessary funds and generating the necessary partnerships and agreements to carry out the project. In addition to this, the constant participation and communication with the border communities will guide and inform the effecient strategies and solutions for the project.

PHA

Phase 1 will consist of the major intervention phase the mutual participation from bottom effective implementation of the strategic act network will be created generating a system local neighborhoods but also to neighborhood the development of a more efficient mobility neighborhood hubs and binational hubs will border.

Public Spaces with Experimental Hubs

Public Spaces with Neighborhood Hubs

Preparation of Border Site

New Park with Binational Hubs

Adaptation of Wall

Mobility System

Figure 130: Diagram of strategies in phases. Authors work

162

Development of System Development of Neighborhood Hubs Binational Hubs

DESIGN SIMULATION

ategies Enhancement of Existing Areas

Introduction of Green Corridors

Future

ASE 1

ns that will take place in the project. During this up and top down groups will aid in the tions. In this phase the backbone of the green m that will not only bring relationship amongst ds across the border. Supplementary to this, y system and the incorporation of l strengthen the community ties across the

PHASE 2 In phase 2 the enhancement of existing areas will take place. During this phase the improvement of the areas will give a new character and quality to the border in this area, thus propelling a new perception of the border region among border communities.

Through the development of more partherships and progressiveness of the project, the project could become a catalyst for more Binational relationships and eventually Binational Policies that could bring more unity among border communities.

Areas of Enhancement Green Corridors

Mobility System Stations

163

DESIGN SIMULATION

Design Project Simulation

The intent our strategy is to develop a simulation based on the improvement of the urban quality of the current marginalized border zone to provide a space of encounter in both cities. The simulation consists of introducing urban design interventions such as a new park in the area, addition of pedestrian and bike infrastructure and enhancement of adjacent abandoned area, to explore the possibility of reshaping the current marginalized character of the border zone into a space of encounter as well as to develop a backbone to connect public spaces in both sides. The addition of community hubs in the new park and current public spaces will be also part of the simulation. The idea is to develop a network of hubs among communities in both sides to host events, workshops and activities, to provide an insight of the situation of the sister cities, therefore exploring the possibility of reinforcing ties across borders and looking for a future prospect of collaboration between them. The design guidelines are meant to ensure the proper development of the masterplan throughout the various phases. They provide in further detail the intended design strategies to be utilized in the different parts of the intervention area and the country they pertain to. The simulation project envisions to increase the urban quality of the area regardless the country by treating the space as one. It was important to understand the priority actions needed in each city. The findings from the analysis phase showed that some issues were similar while others completely different in both cities. Therefore, the guidelines for the development of the masterplan explicit the necessary actions that need to be taken in each municipality in order to match and consolidate the vision of the strategy while also taking in consideration the difference in code law between the cities.

Design Guidelines

164

Figure 131: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in the Pre-Phase Authors work

165

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Masterplan-Pre-Phase Guidelines

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Masterplan-Phase 1 Guidelines

Figure 132: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in Phase 1 Authors work

166

167

DESIGN SIMULATION

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Masterplan-Phase 2 Guidelines

Figure 133: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in Phase 2 Authors work

168

169

DESIGN SIMULATION

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Masterplan-The Consolidated Vision

Figure 134: Consolidated masterplan Authors work

170

171

DESIGN SIMULATION

Zoom In- Masterplan

100m

300m

Figure 135: Zoom in plan from the masterplan Authors work.

172

DESIGN SIMULATION

Zoom In- Axonometric View

Figure 136: Axonometric view of the Zoom in area, Authors work.

173

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Figure 137: Aerial View of the Green System and Border Park. Authors work.

174

175

DESIGN SIMULATION

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Figure 138: Inside view at the border park with activities near the border wall. Authors work.

176

DESIGN SIMULATION 03

Figure 139: Perspective view from redeveloped neighborhood park showing pedestrian/bike bridge connection to border park. Authors work.

177

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION The topic of political borders is certainly a complex one, especially when the relationship between parts is not the best. Such is the case of the border between Mexico and the United States, the imaginary line that was delimited in 1848 has now materialized into a 6 m high wall, splitting people, animals, and built and natural landscape. In his book “Borderwall as Architecture” Architect Ronald Rael introduces the idea of reimagining the wall as an attractor engaging both sides in a common dialogue instead of an element to keep people out and away.Several counterproposals of the wall are presented in the book to highlight opportunities for improvement, subversion, and change. One of the most significative one is the design project of teeter-totters slotted into the gaps of the wall, bringing together (for some minutes), residents on both sides of the border by the act of play as well as providing a clear representation of the balance necessary for two nations, with the understanding that the actions on one side have a direct consequence on the other. Architects Teddy Cruz and Fonna Forman have contributed with design initiatives to bring the communities together and reinforce their identity and ties.

“The border wall not only divides the United States from Mexico, creating false perceptions of distance and antagonism, but it is also reproduced invisibly across the United States, from the grand scale of the national electorate to the microscale of our neighbor-hoods and communities” (Cruz + Fonna, 2018).

Their main objective is to reorient the idea of citizenship into a more fluid one, based on an experience of belonging that emerges through shared practices of living, surviving and resisting together and less as a formal identity validated by documents. To achieve this, they have designed physical spaces as well as protocols for inclusion. Provoked by these references, research questions emerged: Can the border zone urban quality be improved to reimagine the area as a space for encounter? Would the relationship amongst border communities improve by creating shared spaces? Can urban improvement at the border zone aid to reach collaboration between communities and municipalities? 178

The thesis is divided into three main phases: Research, Analysis and Design. The research phase objective is meant to achieve the intent of the investigation. The phase begins with the discussion on different types of barriers starting from natural to artificial, leading to the examination of the complex case of political borders especially the international ones. The pursuit of control over the movement of people and goods happening between countries have caused for some of them to built physical barriers that creates various types of fragmentations, thus, generating even more fragmentation at the physical and social level; Several case studies of border cities were researched with the aim of gain an insight as to various scenarios that are occurring at some border zones in different cities. The conclusiveness of this section led to the comprehension of how these cases have addressed their condition of border cities: the issues they have encounter, the solutions towards those issues and whether they generated a positive or negative outcome. The research phase continues with the examination of contextual situation of the cities of El Paso and Juarez. First it was worth researching the complex relationship that the respective countries (MEX- USA) of the cities share; their history and events were studied in order to gain a better understanding of the current situation of conflict the countries face. Secondly a section dedicated to the history of the sister cities of El Paso and Juarez was examined, to provide a clearer picture about the interdependence, duality and close relationship as well as the big fragmentations and detachment they currently face because of the violence in Mexico and the U.S. extreme immigration policies. Case studies related to the context of USA-Mexico were analyzed, to generate a better understanding of the proposals, strategies, and planning that has taken place to address the conflictive situation at the border of the countries. The conclusion of this phase discussed and analyzed its findings; issues such as the importance of collaboration and the role of public spaces to help achieve it, were discussed supported by the discussion of literature reviews. Based on the previous findings the major intent was generated: The intent aims to develop a more collaborative environment between communities across the borders in order to improve the welfare for the sister cities and their inhabitants.

179

CONCLUSION

The thesis aims to investigate potential answers by simulating a different approach to conflictive political borders, through urban analysis and design, in an effort to explore the possibility of a new and improved outcome both at the urban and social level. The investigation utilized the case of El Paso and Juarez, cities that are divided by the U.S-MEX border and have been affected by the complex relationship between the nations. Over the years, the sister cities have experienced a series of physical fragmentations at the borderline which consequently have contributed to the generate a sense of detachment and disconnection regardless of their interdependence.

CONCLUSION

The analysis phase objective is meant to find major problems and opportunities in the selected area to further proceed with the design strategies for the simulation that will set the starting point to achieve the intent. Guided by the previous phase, the decision was made to analyze the borderline and its immediate surroundings to understand the major issues and how they affect the adjacent neighborhoods. The work provided a vision of car-oriented cities with very few public and open spaces and problematic accessibility, big industrial areas with no presence of green as well as a marginal zone at the border. Furthermore, through the development of a local survey it was understood that the public spaces in these areas are underused, disconnected and some of them underdeveloped. Based on the findings, a focus area at a neighborhood scale was selected in order to analyzed it more in-depth and gain a better understanding of the opportunities for improvement as well as act as an intervention area for an urban design simulation. The analysis of the new neighborhood area provided a better understanding of the potential opportunities for improvement, furthermore, guiding the development of the urban strategies for the simulation. The goal of the design phase is to simulate an urban regeneration of the marginalized border zone. The design envisions a shared park at the border zone, with flexible spaces and a series of Bi-national hubs that will host mutual events and activities to engage the users on both sides. The park will also serve as a backbone of a green network, connecting the existing public parks in both cities. Other urban design strategies such as the redevelopment of degraded areas and roads, as well as the introduction of green infrastructure will be also part of the simulation. In addition to this a set of guidelines were developed to ensure the goal of the design. In conclusion, the contribution of the thesis aims to simulate a different approach to conflictive political borders, through urban analysis and design. This new approach consists of the simulation of a space of encounter for communities at the border zone, to explore the possibility of reinforcing ties across the border, looking for a prospect of collaboration between them and the resolution of conflict, in order to improve the welfare for the sister cities and their inhabitants. The fragmentation of cities like El Paso and Juarez has been normalized to the extent where people don’t address it anymore, they already learned to live with it. Clearly the border creates the separation but at the same time it creates the identity of the cities, therefore

180

Should the border be celebrated instead of marginalized? Could the development of more pleasant and humanistic spaces at the border contribute positively or would it hazard the interest of the nations?

Would an urban design approach contribute to border cities such as El Paso/Juarez to reinforce their community ties and give way to collaboration? Would design and urban strategies can reinforce the sense of identity? Can we reach collaboration through design?

Could the collaboration ever be substantial to influence governmental institutions into reconsidering border cities into bi-national cities? Would the sense of identity ever be strong enough to lead for a development of integration of cities as one? Should the Binational approach be pursued, or would it add another layer of complexity by creating binational border cities?

181

CONCLUSION

What if we evoke a new approach towards the border zone through design?

182

Appendix of Projects The following appendix is a set of projects that utilized one or all concepts discussed and used in the design phase of the thesis. Working with public spaces, community collaboration, flexible spaces, enhancing degraded areas are all issues addressed in the following projects. The projects serve the purpose of providing different scenarios that could be possible using the strategies and conecpts developed in the thesis.

Unwalling Citizenship Teddy Cruz+Fonna Forman Tijuana-San Diego- MEX/USA

Structures of Mutual Support Framework Collaborative

Sava Installation Openact Architecture + Sara Palomar Zagreb, Croatia

GK Farm. Philippines

11th Street Park OMA Washington D.C, USA

183

APPENDIX

Unwaling Citizenship Teddy Cruz+Fonna Forman One case study that was key in the search for the strategy was the “Unwalling citizenship” by Teddy Cruz and Fonna Forman. The main idea behind the project is to provide the necessary hubs or spaces for bringing a conscience about the issues found on communities on both sides of the border. The final aim of these set of projects is to provide relationships and ties across border communities in order to generate a stronger sense of unity and thus developing a new ideology of citizenship. In their perception, the causes the border condition has caused has been evolving and increasing in problems through the pass of time. They argue that as time progresses, the issues are aggravated and even spread to more distant communities. “The border wall not only divides the United States from Mexico, creating false perceptions of distance and antagonism, but it is also reproduced invisibly across the United States, from the grand scale of the national electorate to the microscale of our neighborhoods and communities. In other words, as the border has become a site of criminalization, the polarization of communities at the US–Mexico border resonates with the exclusion and urban violence we have been witnessing with increasing intensity.” -Teddy Cruz+Fonna Forman In the search to solve the previous issue the pair found quickly that in order to overcome the set of issues presented by the border a strong community engagement was needed. The pair mentioned: “In particular, we have been inspired by a central premise in all these cases: that confronting urban violence with “law and order” will not work. Laws do not change mores. Physical force does not produce new public values. Both typically perpetuate division and resentment. The Colombian cities fought violence and apathy not with walls, surveillance, and guns but with community processes, to restore trust between communities and institutions and inspire a model of shared responsibility across sectors. This is the greatest lesson we need to reproduce at our own border: how to deploy citizenship as a unifying principle that reorients collective and participatory capacities with a common sense of purpose, despite jurisdictional division and social alienation”. -Teddy Cruz+Fonna Forman For this reason the pair have developed a frameword that uses the community as participants of the project instead of being viewed as clients. In this manner the resilience, and the effectiveness of the projects are ensured. Furthermore, by developing “community stations” in both sides of the border, the framework aims at generating a process in which the community communicates the necessary issues that need to be regarded and the developments that need to be made. 184

APPENDIX Figure 140: Community Stations along San Diego-Tijuana region. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

Figure 141: A UCSD-CASA Community Station “collaboratory” program that enables a local artist to partner with a UCSD theatre script writer. Orientation and rehearsal meetings occur in the open-air classroom, culminating in a public performance in the black-box theater where teens and residents enact stories of environmental injustice to the community. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

185

APPENDIX Figure 142: View of “Infosite” temporary pavilion Spirce: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

Figure 143: Community engagement in “Inforsite” Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

186

APPENDIX Figure 144: UCSD Earthlab Community Station Concept RenderTeaching Children of sustainable practices at the border. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

Figure 145: UCSD Earthlab Community Station Concept Axonometric- Creating hubs for interaction among the community. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

187

APPENDIX

Structures of Mutual Support (Biennale Exhibition) Framework Collaborative GK Farm, Philippines “The exhibition explores how the Filipino concept of mutual support, “bayanihan,” can shape architecture anew by transforming the process from merely building to fulfilling a community’s dream by involving its people from planning, designing, and constructing a structure that holds their shared needs, desires, and values”. -Philippine Arts in Venice Biennale The exhibition will demonstrate about the possibilities of how community engagement in the process of architecture can be beneficial. For the project volunteer residents attended a series of workshops led by the architects to find a common method to build something that they all want. The residents ended up discussing and came up with a desire for a library. Later, the participants participated in the construction of the structure, which was then packed, shipped and will be hosted in the Venice Biennale 2021. The importance of collaboration between the community and the architects serves as an example of the process that can take place to take more efficient paths towards the necessary developments that need to be addressed in communities. The process not only addresses the needs of the community, but enhances the sense of belonging to the projects themselves and thus increasing the chances of future participation in community development.

188

APPENDIX Figure 146: Mind Map. Before going into building the structure they want for the community, the workshop participants underwent a mind-mapping exercise. This first phase of the process helped the curators understand how the residents see GK Enchanted Farm, and the places in and around it that they deem important. Source: Photo by Ron Stephen Reyes

Figure 147: The Community Members as Experts: Bayanihan deals not just with the physical aspect of helping out but also with involving more voices to achieve a goal. In the workshops, each member was encouraged to contribute their own ideas for the look and purpose of the structure they wanted to build. Here, Christy and Fe present their plan for a library. Source: Photo by Ron Stephen

189

APPENDIX Figure 148: Prototyping: The making of the door and window prototypes, from bamboo and coco lumber, also gave a glimpse on the construction skills of the participants. Moreover, it showed their capacity on transforming their ideas into life-size samples and verbalizing them during the presentation to their fellow GK community members. Source: Photo by Alexander Eriksson Furunes

Figure 149: The Grid: During the Concept Phase, the participants were able to gain knowledge on architectural theories from the curators who are the experts in this field. The full-scale grid is one of the results of this exercise, which allowed the community members to test the structural configuration of their proposed library in terms of area, lighting, and ventilation Source: . Photo by Ron Stephen Reyes

190

APPENDIX Figure 150:Through mutual cooperation and the creation of a common language, Framework Collaborative and the members of the GK Enchanted Farm were able to start planning, designing, and building the library that holds the shared needs and values of the community. Source: Photo by Chris Yuhico.

191

APPENDIX

Sava Installation Openact Architecture + Sara Palomar Studio Zagreb, Croatia The main aim of the project and the process concentrates on the transformation of 7-km long riverside into an enduring public space with temporary programming. In this manner, the project stands as an exploration of opportunities to experiment the effect of relatively small, soft and temporal interventions that are characterized by dynamism, immateriality, and indeterminacy on a large urban scale scenario. Due to the presence of the river, no permanent interventions can take place and for this reason the project utilizes scaffolding as a process for an everchanging public space. The flexibility of the structures or pavilions allows the space to be under a constant experimental phase and provide new insights and possibilities as to the approach of public space in this area. In its initial phase, the project began as an entry to the “adaptable city” competition held in 2015 and developed around the idea of redeveloping the 7km long undeveloped area that was present adjacent to the Sava river. The Sava river historically flooded and caused many damages to the surrounding areas, leaving the urban development of the city to stray away from this area. This as consequence left the area surrounding the river undeveloped and degraded. As new technologies progressed, the river has been more regulated and the space is seen as an opportunity to serve as vital public spaces for the city. Through programmatic injections along the 7km stretch, the project serves to provide more inclusive spaces and interactions between the inhabitants. Furthermore, the insertions help to provide an east to west connection along the site.

192

APPENDIX Figure 152: Sava river activities masterplan. Source: Archdaily

Figure 153: Top view of activity pavilions. Source: Archdaily

193

APPENDIX Figure 154: Temporary Structure to provide flexible activities. Source: Archdaily

Figure 155: Birds view of temporary structures places in the area. Source: Archdaily

194

APPENDIX Figure 156: Pavilion and Sport area activities. Source: Archdaily

Figure 157: Axonometric of public space possibilities Source: Archdaily.

195

APPENDIX

11th Street Park OMA Washington D.C, USA The main aim of the project and the process concentrates on the transformation of 7-km long riverside into an enduring public space with temporary programming. In this manner, the project stands as an exploration of opportunities to experiment the effect of relatively small, soft and temporal interventions that are characterized by dynamism, immateriality, and indeterminacy on a large urban scale scenario. The 11th street park project aims to minimze the physical divide formed by the Anacostia River, along with the socioeconomic and racial divides between the neighborhoods of Capitol Hill and Anacostia. For example, the child poverty rate in Capitol Hill is 20 percent, and in Anacostia, it’s more than double that. Capitol Hill has a 7 percent unemployment rate, while Anacostia’s is more than 20 percent. The park has not yet been built, but stakeholders have taken an equitable development approach to ensure residents are not displaced. An oversight committee of residents and neighborhood business owners helped choose the winning design for the park, suggested programming ideas, and vetted the recommendations for equitable development. As a result of these discussions, BBAR and City First Enterprises formed the Douglass Community Land Trust, demonstrating how residents have helped shape both the park development and the development of the surrounding areas.

196

APPENDIX Figure 158: Diagram of program activity of 11th street park Source: OMA

Figure 159: Rendering View of proposal for 11th street park. Source: OMA

197

APPENDIX Figure 160: Rendering View of proposal for 11th street park Source: OMA

Figure 161: Rendering View of covered area of proposal for 11th street park Source: OMA

198

199

LIST OF FIGURES

List of Figures Figure 1: Racial fragmentation caused by Infrastructure. Source: “racial dot map” by Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service Figure 2: 2011 census showing the effect the berlin wall barrier continues to have on the population of Germany Source: The Washington Post/ Visualization by Gene Thorp Figure 3: Typologies of urban areas along borders. In Hardi, Tamás & Uszkai, Andrea. (2017). Theoretical Models of Cross-border Integration. Figure 4: Criteria for the selection of International Border Cases. Authors Work Figure 5: Diagram of Strasbourg-Kehl Location Authors Work Figure 6: Aerial view of Strasbourg-Kehl cross border Tramway project by SPL Source: strasbourgdeuxrives.eu Figure 7:Jardin des Deux Rives-Strasbourg-Kehl By SPL Source: https://strasbourgdeuxrives.eu/en/spl-deux-rives-2/ Figure 8: Diagram of Niagara Falls Location Authors work Figure 9: Masterplan Waterfront revitalization project as strategy of unification at the border Source: New York State Department of State Figure 10: Vision of Niagara Falls Station Area Source: Niagaraopportunity.org Figure 11: Diagram of Cyprus Buffer zone and Nicosia Division Source: https://unficyp.unmissions.org. Authors work Figure 12: Nicosia Master Plan Initiative of 1981 Source: https://unece.org Figure 13: View inside the buffer zone Nicosia Source: Photo by Roman Robroek Figure 14: Border Development Israel-Palestine Timeline. Source: BBC.com. Authors work Figure 15: Masterplan for road network Palestine backbone Ministry of Transport PNA/Systematica 200

Figure 17: Hamburg and Surrounding municipalities. Authors work Figure 18: Hamburg Plan concept by Architect Fritz Schumacher Source: https://www.hamburg.de Figure 19: Hafencity by KCAP Source: https://www.kcap.eu/en/projects/v/hafencity/ Figure 20: Summary of strategies based on case studies. Authors Work Figure 21: Change of the border after the treaty of Guadalupe Source: United States Customs and Border Protection Figure 22: Timeline of major events concerning the border between US-Mexico Source: Secretaria de relaciones exteriores Mexico. Authors Work Figure 23: View of Migrants line-up at the border wall in El Paso Source: Photo by Jaime Rodriguez Sr. Figure 24: Map of municipal boundaries of El Paso and Juarez Source: City of El Paso. Authors work Figure 25: Timeline of important events in the sister cities of El Paso and Juarez Source: Chicano Studies-UTEP. UACJ. Authors work. Figure 26: Aerial view Juarez-El Paso Source: The Guardian.com Figure 27: Location and distance of borderplex to major cities. Source: OECD-Paso del Norte Region. Authors work Figure 28: Los Dos by Ramon and Christian Cardenas Source: https://remezcla.com/features/culture/interview-los-dos/ Figure 29: Two kids look beyond the wall towards the American side Source: Jose Luis Gonzales/Reuters Figure 30: Current Rio Grande status and reservoirs Source: Comision Internacional de Limites y Aguas. Authors work Figure 31: View of the Rio Grande 2021 Source: El Paso Times

201

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 16: Wall in East Jerusalem Source: Photo by Leopold Lambert 2016

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 32: Rio Grande Historic Movement Source: El Paso Times Figure 33: “Hugs not walls” event Source: Publico.es Figure 34: Criteria for the selection of Projects and Proposals in the MEX-USA context. Authors Work Figure 35: The wall as a library to share books from one side to another. Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com Figure 36: Teeter-Totter Wall Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com Figure 37: Field of Dreams Source: https://www.rael-sanfratello.com Figure 38: Yoga without Borders Source: The San Diego Union Tribune. Figure 39: Community Stations across the San Diego-Tijuana Border Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 40: Proposal for a Community Station in the Tijuana-San Diego region Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 41: Earthlab Station teaching program of climate change and sustainable solutions for the border communities. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 42: Nogales Train Station/ Unbuild the wall competition 2017 Source: Leahfuwang.com Figure 43: Table of relevant planning projects at the border cities. Source: Author’s work Figure 44: Table of strategies and priorities for PDN strategic plan 2025 Source: Paso Del Norte Foundation. Authors work Figure 45: Conceptual Masterplan for redevelopment of Mariposa port of entry outlined in the Vision 2020 general plan Source: City of Nogales Planning Cente Figure 46: Mariposa Port of Entry redevelopment Source: Jones Studio Architects Figure 47: Boundary of areas of development as outlined by Border 2020 strategic plan. Source: Epa.Gov. Authors work 202

Figure 49: Diagram of intent Authors work Figure 50: Top down-Bottom up model based on the participatory planning method by PK Das Source: natureofcities.com. Authors work Figure 51: Municpal boundary map. City of El Paso. Authors work Figure 52: Map of the Study Area Google Earth. Authors work Figure 53: Functional Map of built enviroment City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work Figure 54: Functional Map of open spaces City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work Figure 55: Mobility infrastructure map City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work Figure 56: Map of port of entries in the sister cities. City of El Paso.PdN Interactive Map. Authors work Figre 57: Plan view of Santa fe international Bridge City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 58: Satellite view of Santa Fe International Bridge Google Earth Figure 59: Pedestrian Path view from the Mexican Side at the Santa Fe International Bridge Google Street view Figure 60: View of the control point at the Santa Fe International Bridge Google Street view Figure 61: Aerial view of the peak time condition at the Santa Fe International Bridge El Paso Times Figure 62: Pedestrian Path view from USA at the Santa Fe International Bridge Google Street View Figure 63: Table showing number of crossings in the year 2019 at the Santa Fe International Bridge Bureau of Transportation 203

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 48: Protection and revitalization of rio grande along the border line. Source: Epa.Gov

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 64: Plan view of Bridge of the Americas City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 65: Satellite view of Bridge of the Americas Google Earth Figure 66: Pedestrian Path view from the Mexican Side in the Bridge of the Americas Google Street view Figure 67: View of the control point at the Bridge of the Americas Google Street view Figure 68: Aerial view of the peak time condition at the Bridge of the Americas El Paso Times Figure 69: Pedestrian Path view from USA at the Bridge of the Americas Google Street View Figure 70: Table showing number of crossings in the year 2019 at the Bridge of the Americas Bureau of Transportation Figure 71: Plan view of Bridge of the Americas City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 72: Satellite view of Zaragoza International Bridge Google Earth Figure 73: Pedestrian Path view from the Mexican Side in the Bridge of the Americas Google Sreet view Figure 74: View of the control point at the Bridge of the Americas Google Street view Figure 75: Aerial view of the peak time condition at the Bridge of the Americas El Paso Times Figure 76: Pedestrian Path view from USA at the Bridge of the Americas Google Street View Figure 77: Table showing number of crossings in the year 2019 at the Bridge of the Americas Bureau of Transportation Figure 78: Diagram of Methodology for the open space survey. Authors work Figure 79: General Information collected from the open space survey: Age group, Frequency use of public spaces. Autthors work

204

Figure 81: Plan View of Frequented open space Mt. Cristo Rey City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 82: Satellite view of frequented open space Mt. Cristo Rey Google Earth Figure 83: Perspective view of frequented open space Mt. Cristo Rey Google Street view Figure 84: Plan View of Frequented open space Plaza San Jacinto City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 85: Satellite view of frequented open space Plaza San Jacinto Google Earth Figure 86: Perspective view of frequented open space Plaza San Jacinto Google Street view Figure 87: Plan View of Frequented open space Chamizal Park-USA City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 88: Satellite view of frequented open space Chamizal Park-USA Google Earth Figure 89: Perspective view of frequented open space Chamizal Park-USA Google Street view Figure 90: Plan View of Frequented open space Chamizal Park-MEX City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 91: Satellite view of frequented open space Chamizal Park-MEX Google Earth Figure 92: Perspective view of frequented open space Chamizal Park-MEX Google Street view Figure 93: Plan View of Frequented open space Plaza de la Mexicanidad City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 94: Satellite view of frequented open space Plaza de la Mexicanidad Google Earth Figure 95: Perspective view of frequented open spacePlaza de la Mexicanidad Google Street view

205

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 80: Map of most frequented spaces based on data collected from open space survey Authors work

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 96:Plan View of Frequented open space Ascarate park City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 97: Satellite view of frequented open space Ascarate Park Google Earth Figure 98: Perspective view of frequented open space Ascarate Park Google Street view Figure 99: Plan View of Frequented open space at the Bordo Area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map. Authors Work Figure 100: Satellite view of frequented open space at the Bordo area Google Earth Figure 101: Perspective view of frequented open space at the Bordo area Google Street view Figure 102: Table of user rating of open spaces data collected from the open space survey Authors work Figure 103: Sankey Diagram of frequency of use developed from data collected from the open space survey Authors work Figure 104: Map of frequency of use of open spaces from data collected from the open space survey Authors work. Figure 105: Calendar of Events and type of events held in the year 2019 in frequented open spaces City of El Paso. Eventos Ciudad Juarez. Authors work. Figure 106. Map of Vocations of most frequented open spaces based on the open space survey and calendar of events. Authors work Figure 107: Map of selected focus area. City of El Paso. Authors work Figure 108: Functional Map of built environment in Focus Area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work Figure 109: Functional Map of open spaces in Focus Area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work Figure 110: Accessibility and Mobility Infrastructure Map of the focus area City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work

206

Figure 112: Table of existing functions in areas Authors work Figure 113: Satellite view of Buffer Zone area Google Earth Figure 114: Map of Buffer zone area from the focus area. City of El Paso. PdN Interactive Map Authors work Figure 115: Section of the buffer zone extending to residential areas Authors work Figure 116: Border Area view from Trail in MEX Google Street View Figure 117: Border Area view from highway/ MX Google Street View Figure 118: View from Intersection Google Street View Figure 119: Informal access to border Google Street View Figure 120: Aerial view of buffer zone area in USA Google Street View Figure 121: View of area from highway Google Street View Figure 122: Top view of intersection Google Earth Figure 123: Framework Based from precedent of Teddy Cruz “Unwalling Citizenship” and “Structures of Mutual Support” by Framework Collaborative. Authors work Figure 124: Goals and objectives table for the strategy Authors work Figure 125: Strategic plan map for the development of the masterplan Authors work

207

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 111: Map of selected relevant elements from previous considerations. City of El Paso. Authors work

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 126: Strategic Actions for the development of a new park as the backbone. Authors work Figure 127: Strategic Actions for the development of the mobility and accessibility network. Authors work Figure 128: Strategic Actions for the Addition of Community Hubs. Authors work Figure 129: Strategic Actions for the development of enhancement areas and roads. Authors work Figure 130: Diagram of strategies in phases. Authors work Figure 131: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in the Pre-Phase Authors work Figure 132: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in Phase 1 Authors work Figure 133: Guidelines for the development of the masterplan in Phase 2 Authors work Figure 134: Consolidated masterplan Authors work Figure 135: Zoom in plan from the masterplan Authors work. Figure 136: Axonometric view of the Zoom in area, Authors work. Figure 137: Aerial View of the Green System and Border Park. Authors work. Figure 138: Inside view at the border park with activities near the border wall. Authors work. Figure 139: Perspective view from redeveloped neighborhood park showing pedestrian/bike bridge connection to border park. Authors work. Figure 140: Community Stations along San Diego-Tijuana region. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 141: A UCSD-CASA Community Station “collaboratory” program that enables a local artist to partner with a UCSD theatre script writer. Orientation and rehearsal meetings occur in the open208

Figure 143: Community engagement in “Inforsite” Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 142: View of “Infosite” temporary pavilion Spirce: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman

Figure 144: UCSD Earthlab Community Station Concept RenderTeaching Children of sustainable practices at the border. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 145: UCSD Earthlab Community Station Concept Axonometric- Creating hubs for interaction among the community. Source: Estudio Teddy Cruz + Fonna Forman Figure 146: Mind Map. Before going into building the structure they want for the community, the workshop participants underwent a mind-mapping exercise. This first phase of the process helped the curators understand how the residents see GK Enchanted Farm, and the places in and around it that they deem important. Source: Photo by Ron Stephen Reyes Figure 147: The Community Members as Experts: Bayanihan deals not just with the physical aspect of helping out but also with involving more voices to achieve a goal. In the workshops, each member was encouraged to contribute their own ideas for the look and purpose of the structure they wanted to build. Here, Christy and Fe present their plan for a library. Source: Photo by Ron Stephen Figure 148: Prototyping: The making of the door and window prototypes, from bamboo and coco lumber, also gave a glimpse on the construction skills of the participants. Moreover, it showed their capacity on transforming their ideas into life-size samples and verbalizing them during the presentation to their fellow GK community members. Source: Photo by Alexander Eriksson Furunes Figure 149: The Grid: During the Concept Phase, the participants were able to gain knowledge on architectural theories from the curators who are the experts in this field. The full-scale grid is one of the results of this exercise, which allowed the community members to test the structural configuration of their proposed library in terms of area, lighting, and ventilation Source: . Photo by Ron Stephen Reyes Figure 150:Through mutual cooperation and the creation of a common language, Framework Collaborative and the members of the GK Enchanted Farm were able to start planning, designing, and building the library that holds the shared needs and values of the community. Source: Photo by Chris Yuhico.

209

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 151: A Showcase for the World: The library structure, which was dismantled and shipped to Italy, will be mounted at the Philippine Pavilion during the 17th Venice Architecture Biennale. After the exhibition, the framework will be brought back to Angat, Bulacan and permanently constructed on its original site, for the benefit of the GK Enchanted Farm community. Source: Photo by Don Patrick Claudio Figure 152: Sava river activities masterplan. Source: Archdaily Figure 153: Top view of activity pavilions. Source: Archdaily Figure 154: Temporary Structure to provide flexible activities. Source: Archdaily Figure 155: Birds view of temporary structures places in the area. Source: Archdaily Figure 156: Pavilion and Sport area activities. Source: Archdaily Figure 157: Axonometric of public space possibilities Source: Archdaily. Figure 158: Diagram of program activity of 11th street park Source: OMA Figure 159: Rendering View of proposal for 11th street park. Source: OMA Figure 160: Rendering View of proposal for 11th street park Source: OMA Figure 161: Rendering View of covered area of proposal for 11th street park Source: OMA

210

Agnew, J. (2008) “Borders on the mind: re-framing border thinking,” (online) Ethics & Global Politics, 1(4), pp. 175–191. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ full/10.3402/egp.v1i4.1892. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021). Almodovar, A. (2017) “Ciudad Juárez y El Paso, las dos caras de un mismo pueblo.”(online) La Izquierda Diario - Red internacional. Available at: http://www.laizquierdadiario.mx/Ciudad-Juarez-y-El-Paso-las-dos-caras-de-un-mismo-pais. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021). Ampudia Rueda, L. (2012) Formación de la zona libre e importancia del comercio en Ciudad Juárez: Breve visión cronológica. (online) Available at: https://bivir.uacj.mx/ bivir_pp/cronicas/zona_libre.htm (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021). Atkinson, D. (2010) Reshaping our learning landscape: a collection of provocative papers, Educationdesign.com. (online) Available at: https://educationdesign.com/ wp-content/uploads/2019/11/LearningLandscapeNairGehling.pdf (Last accessed: 17 May, 2021). ATLAS (2016) Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México: Una frontera con historia. (online) Available at: http://www.atlas.ufba.br/atlas_observatorio/Ciudad%20Juarez_mexico. pdf (Last accessed: 11 May, 2021). Barragan del Rey, S. (2019) “La ARQUITECTURA que reflexiona sobre el muro de TRUMP.” Architectural Digest España. (online) Available at: https://www.revistaad.es/ arquitectura/articulos/arquitectura-reflexiona-sobre-muro-trump/23464. (Last accessed: 17 May, 2021). Carr, S. et al. (1993) Environment and behavior: Public space. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Ceniceros, B. and Ettinger, C. (2020) “Paisaje urbano desde la frontera JuárezEl Paso. Mapeando manifestaciones de arte urbano desde el bordo.”(online) EURE. Revista latinoamericana de estudios urbano regionales, 46(137), pp.181-201. Available at: https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0250-71612020000100181&lng=es&nrm=iso. (Last accessed: 4 May, 2021). CILA (2021) Rio Bravo, Gob.mx. (online) Available at: https://cila.sre.gob.mx/cilanorte/index.php/boletin/11-doctos/73-rio-bravo (Last accessed: June 27, 2021). Corona, S. (2016) “La frontera económica que Donald Trump no puede romper,” El país. (online) Available at: https://elpais.com/internacional/2016/10/30/actualidad/1477865135_897285.html. (Last accessed: 13 June, 2021). Crewdson, J. M. (1981) “In sister cities of El Paso and Juarez, 400 years of history erase a,” The New York times. (online) Available at: https://www.nytimes. com/1981/07/18/us/in-sister-cities-of-el-paso-and-juarez-400-years-of-historyerase-a.html. (Last accessed: 5 June, 2021).

211

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crespo, J. (2018) “La historia olvidada de nuestros héroes en el Descubrimiento: Fray García de San Francisco, Ciudad Juárez y los indios mansos y piros.” (online) La Paseata. Available at: https://lapaseata.net/2021/06/11/fray-garcia-mansos-y-piros/. (Last accessed: 13 June, 2021). Cruz, T. et al. (2019) Access all areas: the porosity of a hostile border, Architectural-review.com. (online) Available at: https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/access-all-areas-the-porosity-of-a-hostile-border. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021). Cruz, T. and Forman, F. (2017) “Un-walling citizenship,” in Graham, J. et al. (eds.) And now - architecture against a developer presidency (essays on the occasion of trump`s inauguration). New York, NY.: Columbia Books onArchitecture and the City, pp. 98–109. Daxböck, A. (2019) “From fragments to centrality,” Behance. (online) Available at: https://www.behance.net/gallery/7933015/Urban-satellite. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021). Dowd, V. (2012) Operation Hold the Line, Organpipehistory.com. (online) Available at: https://organpipehistory.com/orpi-a-z/operation-hold-the-line-2/. (Last accessed: 1 June, 2021). EFE (2019) “Ciudad Juárez y El Paso, separadas por una guerra y unidas en el dolor.” (online) Los Angeles Times en Español. Available at: https://www.latimes. com/espanol/eeuu/articulo/2019-08-28/efe-4051960-15719308-20190828. (Last accessed: 23 June, 2021). EFE (2019) “Los diseñadores detrás del sube y baja que eliminó la frontera México-EU.” (online) Obras. Available at: https://obras.expansion.mx/arquitectura/2019/08/07/los-disenadores-detras-del-sube-y-baja-que-elimino-la-frontera-mexico-eu. (Last accessed: 29 June, 2021). Felbab-Brown, V. (2017) The Wall: The real costs of a barrier between the United States and Mexico, Brookings. (online) Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/essay/the-wall-the-real-costs-of-a-barrier-between-the-united-states-and-mexico/#economy. (Last accessed: 29 June, 2021). Felbab-Brown, V. (2020) The damage Trump’s wall causes in Mexico, Brookings. (online) Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/07/20/ the-damage-trumps-wall-causes-in-mexico/. (Last accessed: 30 June, 2021). Fundación Aquae (2012) El Río Bravo se está quedando sin agua, (online) Fundacionaquae.org. Available at: https://www.fundacionaquae.org/rio-bravo/ (Last accessed: June 27, 2021). Hardi, T. and Uszkai, A. (2017) “Theoretical Models of Cross-border Integration,” (online) Socialni Studia, 14(1), pp. 9–30. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Types-of-functional-urban-areas-along-borders_fig6_322115137 (Last accessed: 19 June, 2021). Harford, T. (2019) “Por qué la Ley Seca de EE.UU. fracasó de una manera tan espectacular,” BBC News. (online) Available at: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noti212

Herchner, D. (2016) Understanding perceptions on the U.S.-Mexico border. (online) Available at: https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/1765/Herchner%2C_Daria_1.pdf?sequence=1. (Last accessed: 7 June, 2021). Herzog, L. A. (2021) “The Transfrontier Metropolis,” Harvard Design Magazine. (online) Available at: http://www.harvarddesignmagazine.org/issues/1/the-transfrontier-metropolis. (Last accessed: 30 June, 2021). History.com Editors (2009) President Coolidge signs Immigration Act of 1924, HISTORY. (online) Available at: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ coolidge-signs-stringent-immigration-law. (Last accessed: 1 June, 2021). History.com Editors (2018) U.S. Immigration Timeline, HISTORY. (online) Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/immigration-united-states-timeline. (Last accessed: 1 June, 2021). History.com Staff. (2018) Chinese Exclusion Act, HISTORY. (online) Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882. (Last accessed: 1 June, 2021). Holvandus, J. (2019) Common public space design in Estonian-Latvian twin town Valga-Valka, URBACT (online) Available at: https://www.blog.urbact.eu/2019/02/common-public-space-design-in-valga-valka/ (Last accessed: July 3, 2021). Houeix, R. and Brault, C. (2018) “America al pie del muro: #3 El Paso y Juárez: una comunidad partida en dos” FRANCE 24. (online) Available at: https://webdoc. france24.com/muro-eeuu-mexico-frontera-trump/capitulo-3.html. (Last accessed: 10 May, 2021). Ismail, W. A. and Said, I. B. (2015) “Integrating the Community in Urban Design and Planning of Public Spaces: A Review in Malaysian Cities,” Procedia-SocI. (online) Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271226227_Integrating_the_ Community_in_Urban_Design_and_Planning_of_Public_Spaces_A_Review_in_Malaysian_Cities. (Last accessed: 30 April, 2021). Krasner, C. (2012) History of the border fence, Organpipehistory.com. (online) Available at: https://organpipehistory.com/border/history-of-th-border-fence/. (Last accessed: 26 June, 2021). Little, B. (2018) The violent history of the U.S.-Mexico border, HISTORY. (online) Available at: https://www.history.com/news/mexico-border-wall-military-facts. (Last accessed: 1 June, 2021). London, S. (2012) Building collaborative communities, Scott.london. (online) Available at: http://scott.london/articles/oncollaboration.html. (Last accessed: 10 May, 2021). Long, T. (2008) “Builiding of Cordova Island Bridge began in 1949,” El Paso Times. (online) Available at: https://eu.elpasotimes.com/story/life/2017/01/08/building-cordova-island-bridge-began-1949/96179112/. (Last accessed: 21 May, 2021). 213

BIBLIOGRAPHY

cias-50180626. (Last accessed: 7 May, 2021).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Los Angeles times staff (2019) “5 misconceptions about the U.S.-Mexico border,” The Los Angeles times. (online) Available at: https://www.latimes.com/projects/ la-na-us-mexico-border-misconceptions/. (Last accessed: 30 June, 2021).

Marston, R. and Lloyd, W. (2014) “Geographical hydrology of the El Paso-Ciuad Juarez border region,” (online) in Norwine, J., Giardino, J. R., and Krishnamurthy, S. (eds.) Water for Texas. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press, pp. 242–248. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232755924_Geographical_hydrology_of_the_El_Paso-Ciudad_Juarez_border_region (Last accessed: 18 June, 2021). McAuliffe, M. and Khadria, B. (2019) World migration report 2020. (online) Available at: https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/wmr_2020.pdf. (Last accessed: 23 June, 2021). McMahon, M. and Bhamra, T. (2012) “‘Design Beyond Borders’: international collaborative projects as a mechanism to integrate social sustainability into student design practice,” Journal of cleaner production, 23(1), pp. 86–95. (online) Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652611003933. (Last accessed: 12 May, 2021). Misra, T. (2017) “The Border Is a Way of Reinforcing Antagonism That Doesn’t Exist,” Bloomberg Citylab. (online) Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-11/teddy-cruz-and-fonna-forman-on-unwalling-mexico. (Last accessed: 3 June, 2021). Mundo, B.C.C. (2016) “Es una enorme máquina de matar’: lo que el desierto de Sonora les hace a los cuerpos de los que intentan cruzarlo.” (online) BBC News. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/america_latina/2016/06/160530_migrantes_ mexico_eeuu_desierto_sonora_efectos_men. (Last accessed: 15 June, 2021). National Geographic Society (2011) “Boundary,” Nationalgeographic.org. (online) Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/boundary/6th-grade/. (Last accessed: 23 June, 2021). Pedraza, A. B. (2005) “The US borders with Mexico and Canada after the Terrorist Atacks of September 11th, 2001. A Comparative View. Boletin Mexicano, 38(113). (online) Available at: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0041-86332005000200002. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021) Perez Ruiz, M. (1991) “Los múltiples rostros de la identidad en Ciudad Juárez.” Alteridades, 1(2), pp.63-77. (online) Available at: https://www.redalyc.org/ pdf/747/74745539008.pdf. (Last accessed: 1 July, 2021) Rincones, R. (2004) “La frontera México-Estados Unidos: elementos básicos para su comprensión.” Araucaria. Revista Iberoamericana de Filosofía, Política y Humanidades, 5(11). (online) Available at: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/282/28211506.pdf. (Last accessed: 16 June, 2021) Rael, R. (2017) Borderwall as architecture: A manifesto for the U.s.-Mexico boundary. 214

Romero, F. and LAR (2007) Hyperborder: The contemporary U.S.? Mexico border and its future. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press. Sandoval Solis, S., Garza Díaz, L. E. and Leal Nare, O. A. (2019) Estimación de Caudales Ecológicos para la Cuenca del Río Bravo. (online) Available at: http://watermanagement.ucdavis.edu/files/7315/7834/9466/Draft_Caudales_Ecologicos_Pronatura_UCDavis.pdf. (Last accessed: 16 June, 2021)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Sas-Bojarska, A. and Rembeza, M. (2016) “Planning the city against barriers. Enhancing the role of public spaces,” Procedia engineering, 161, pp. 1556– 1562. (online) Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S1877705816328557. (Last accessed: 21 Feb, 2021) Snibbe, K. (2019) “Here’s how much traffic crosses the U.S.-Mexico border,” Orange County Register, 5 April. (online) Available at: https://www.ocregister.com/2019/04/05/ heres-how-much-traffic-crosses-the-u-s-mexico-border/. (Last accessed: 19 June, 2021) Tertrais, B., Papin, D. and Laborde, X. (2018) Atlas de las fronteras muros, conflictos, migraciones. Translated by T. Arias. Spain: Catedra. The Planning Center (2010) City of Nogales General Plan. (online) Available at: http://www.azplanningcenter.com/Nogales/Files/2010_08_20-000-ExecutiveSummary_IntroductionAndOverview.pdf. (Last accessed: 3 June, 2021) Tintěra, J. et al. (2018) “Inadequacies of heritage protection regulations in an era of shrinking communities: a case study of Valga, Estonia,” (online) European planning studies, 26(12), pp. 2448–2469. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10. 1080/09654313.2018.1518409 (Accessed: July 3, 2021). Travis, R. et al. (1999) “Community development in South AfricaIts use as an intervention strategy,” (online) International Social Work , 42(2), pp. 177–187. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249729955_Community_development_ in_South_AfricaIts_use_as_an_intervention_strategy_c_Raphael_Travis_Jr_Natalie_ McFarlin_Colin_AJ_van_Rooyen_and_Mel_Gray (Last accessed: July 1, 2021). Upmeyer, B. (2015) Binational urbanism: On the road to paradise. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Valiz. Vergara, G. and Crisostomo, A. (2018) call to action, Postcards from the border. (online) Available at: https://www.postcardsfromborder.com/call-to-action. (Last accessed: 27 June, 2021) Vogeler, I. (2010) “The Changing United States-Mexico Border,” Types of International Borders along the U.S.-Mexico Border. (online) Available at: https://www.siue.edu/ GEOGRAPHY/ONLINE/Vogeler/US-MexciodBorder.htm. (Last accessed: 27 Feb, 2021) Ward, F. A., College,Siena and Michelsen, A. (2006) “Integrated Economic, Hydrologic, and Institutional Analysis of Policy Responses to Mitigate Drought Impacts in 215

BIBLIOGRAPHY

William Zartman, I. (2011) “Boundaries in war and peace,” Accord: an international review of peace initiatives, (22). (online) Available at: https://rc-services-assets.s3.euwest-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/Accord%2022_3Boundaries%20in%20war%20 and%20peace_2011_ENG.pdf (Last accessed: 9 June, 2021)

216