Large Animal Nursing Notebook by jlsmith165

Large Animal Nursing

Contents

4 history and physical examination key terms

16 emergency and critical care nursing key terms

miscellaneous key terms

normal TPR for adult large animals

species specific diseases, vaccines & parasites

four-point abdominal auscultation

animal terminology

wound management and bandaging key terms

veterinary anesthesia key terms

large animal pain management key terms

sx instruments and aseptic techniques key terms

large animal surgical nursing key terms

restraint and handling of animals key terms

large animal nutrition key terms

basic necropsy procedures key terms

dx sampling & therapeutic techniques key terms

neonatal care of foals key terms

30 33

34 41

48 technician notes

H i s t o r y a n d P h y s i c a l E x a m i n at i o n K e y Te r m s

abdominal pinging alopecia aortic stenosis ataxia aural axillary barbering body condition score borborygmus colitis excoriation fever glycosuria halitosis hyperthermia hypothermia hypovolemia icterus ileus mentation nares patent ductus arteriosus perineal hernia petechiation pleural effusion pneumothorax polydipsia pruritic pulmonary edema pulse deficit pyometra renomegaly shock signalment stertor stridor

“The major focus of any medical history is the presenting complaint; however, it is equally important to obtain general background information.”

abdominal pinging : technique of identifying abdominal gas accumulation by simultaneous percussion and auscultation of the abdominal wall alopecia : the partial or complete absence of hair from regions of the body where it normally grows aortic stenosis : congenital cardiac anomaly resulting in resistance to flow of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta ataxia : uncoordinated gait usually associated with neurologic dysfunction aural : in of of the ear axillary : relating to the armpit barbering : behavioral problem in which the animal obsessively grooms to the point of damaging the hair and skin body condition score : estimate of the body fat composition, with higher scores indicating overweight or obese animals, and lower scores indicating thin or emaciated animals borborygmus : rumbling noises caused by propulsion of gas and ingesta thorough the intestines colitis : inflammation of the colon excoriation : skin lesions caused by the self-trauma of scratching

fever : elevation of body temperature caused by the temporary increase in the body’s thermoregulatory set point, usually caused by infection, inflammation, or neoplasia glycosuria : the presence of glucose in the urine halitosis : a foul odor to the breath hyperthermia : elevation of body temperature cause by inadequate heatdissipating mechanisms to overcome excessive ambient heat, without a change in the body’s thermoregulatory set point hypothermia : abnormally low body temperature; the measured body temperature must be compared with what is normal for the age group because neonates have lower body temperatures than adults

mentation : mental activity of acuity of a patient nares : nostrils patent ductus arteriosus : congenital cardiac anomaly that results in persistent vascular communication between the aorta and the pulmonary artery perineal hernia : herniation of abdominal contents through the pelvic diaphragm, resulting in swelling on either side of the anus petechiation : small, visible, pinpoint hemorrhage lesions less that 1 mm in diameter pleural effusion : the accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural cavity, i.e., the space between the lungs and the chest wall

hypovolemia : decreased circulating blood volume icterus : yellow discoloration of the tissues, serum, or plasma caused by the presence of bilirubiin; icterus, also referred to as jaundice, may develop as a result of hemolytic disease (prehepatic), liver disease (hepatic), or cholestasis (posthepatic or obstruction of bile flow) ileus : functional loss of intestinal motility

pneumothorax : abnormal accumulation of air in the space between the rib cage and the lung; this abnormal air pocket compresses the lung, resulting in respiratory distress; the lung may collapse; this condition may be cause by injury to lung tissue, rupture of the air-filled pulmonary cysts, or puncture of the chest wall

polydipsia : a condition evidenced by increased levels of thirst and excessive drinking pruritic : itchy pulmonary edema : fluid buildup within the alveoli or interstitial spaces of the lung pulse deficit : as detected by simultaneous cardiac auscultation and pulse palpation, a condition wherein each audible heartbeat is not accompanied by a palpable pulse wave pyometra : bacterial infection of the uterus with purulent fluid accumulation renomegaly : enlargement of one or both kidneys shock : a condition of decreased perfusion and decreased oxygen delivery to vital organs signalment : the age, sex, breed, and species of a veterinary patient stertor : inspiratory noise similar to snoring usually caused by obstruction to airflow at the pharynx or larynx stridor : a harsh, high-pitched respiratory sound usually caused by obstruction of airflow at the pharynx or larynx

R e s t r a i n t a n d H a n d l i n g o f A n i m a l s K e y Te r m s

aggression binocular vision blind spot cow kick cradle cross-tie displacement behaviors diversionary restraint double barrel kick fear biting fight-or-flight response flight zone hobbles humane twitch passerine point of balance psittacine raptorial species stocks tail tie tortoises turtles twitch

“Excellent skill in restraint is critical to ensure that the animal receives medical care without injury to patients or caregivers”

aggression : behavior that is angry, destructive, and intended to be injurious; behaviors that result in harm to opponent; threats and aggression exist along a continuum; an inhibited bite that leaves a red mark or indentation in the skin or that only pulls hair from another animal usually reflects intent to warn (threat) rather than to harm (aggression) binocular vision : vision in which both eyes are used synchronously to produce a single image blind spot : area directly in front of or behind the horse, where the field of vision is extremely limited and the horse is unable to see a person cow kick : a kick from the rear leg directly to the side and the back cradle : a barred restraint device; the bars are tied together like a non-ridged fence; it is tied around the neck of a horse like a loose splint and prevents the horse from biting or licking itself cross-ties : common methods of restraining a horse for simple procedures, such as grooming; the horse is tied to a pillar on either side by the square metal pieces on either side of the halter

displacement behavior : behaviors observed in dogs and cats that serve as a coping mechanism intended to help with pet reduce its anxiety level displacement behaviors include grooming (in cats), yawning, scratching, and licking lips (in dogs)

diversionary restraint : type of restraint in which varying techniques or devices are used to distract the horse double barrel kick : kicking out with both hind legs simultaneously fear biting : the tendency of a fearful animal to bite; anxious and fearful animals are more likely to defend themselves when they fell threatened; perceived threats may include a reaching hand or being cornered or restrained fight-or-flight response : a state of alert experienced when a threat to survival is perceived; a series of physical responses, including stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, increased heart rate, and increased blood flow to muscles, to prepare the animal to avoid the threat or confront the threat

hobbles : leather straps fastened around pasterns of horses; can be placed on all four limbs and tied together with a rope, or just on front limbs or hind limbs to keep a horse from kicking humane twitch : restraint device with a hinged metal device that is placed over the upper lip of the horse and clipped to the halter passerine : of or related to the larger order Passeriformes of birds, which includes more than half of all living birds and consists chiefly of altricial songbirds point of balance : the point on a livestock animal that if you took a step in either direction, the animal would move in the opposite direction

psittacine : of or related to parrots raptorial species : of, or related to, being a bird of prey stocks : vertical metal or wooden pillars, arranged in a rectangular shape and connected by horizontal bars, designed to restrain horses or cattle standing within

tail tie : restraint of an equine or bovine tail by tying a quick release knot in the switch and the free end to the animal, often the neck tortoises : a land turtle turtles : any of an order Testudinata of land, freshwater, and marine reptiles that have a toothless horny beak and a shell of bony dermal plates usually covered with horny shields enclosing the trunk and into which the head, limbs, and tail usually may be withdrawn twitch : device using in restraining horses; consists of a wooden handle and a chain loop or rope loop that gets twisted around a horse’s nose; it is believed that the nose is a pressure point, and once it is squeezed by the twitch, endorphins are released, relaxing the horse

L a r g e A n i m a l N u t r i t i o n K e y Te r m s

amino acids biological values concentrates digestible energy (DE) digestion forage gross energy (GE) maintenance nutrient requirements (MNR) metabolizable energy (ME) net energy (NE) protein efficiency ratio roughage total digestible nutrients (TDN)

“Because water is the largest constituent of the animal, deprivation of water can be life threatening. Clean, fresh water should be available to livestock at all times.”

amino acids : nitrogen-containing compounds that constitute the “building blocks” or units from which more complex protein is formed; they contain both amino (NH2) group and a carboxyl (COOH) group; approximately 11 essential amino acids must be provided in the diet, along with approximately 10 nonessential amino acids, which can be synthesized in the body

biological values : percentage of protein of a feed that is usable as a protein by the animal; a protein that has a high biological value is said to be of good quality concentrates : broad classification of feed stuff that is high in energy and low in fiber

gross energy (GE) : total potential energy of a foodstuff determined by measuring the total heat produced when the food is burned in a bomb calorimeter maintenance nutrient requirements (MNR) : levels of nutrients needed to sustain a body weight without gain or loss metabolizable energy (ME) : energy available to the animal after energy from feces, urine, and combustible gases has been subtracted from gross energy; used to express the energy content of foods and commercial diets net energy (NE) : energy available to the animal after energy from feces, urine, combustible gases, and loss of body heat has been subtracted from gross energy protein efficiency ratio : the number of grams of body weight gain per unit of protein consumed

digestible energy (DE) : energy that remains after the energy lost in feces is subtracted from gross energy digestion : process of protein, carbohydrate, and fat breakdown into absorbable nutrients forage : vegetative portion of plants in a fresh, dried, or ensiled state; it is fed to livestock (as pasture, hay, or silage)

roughage : coarse, bulky feeds, essential to the diets of ruminants and horses, but largely indigestible if fed to species of other than ruminants and horses; high in fiber, low in digestible carbohydrates and proteins

total digestible nutrients (TDN) : term that indicates the energy value of feedstuff; TDN is calculated by using the following formula: % TDN = % DCP + % DCF + % DNFE + (% DEE x 2.25), where, DCP is digestible crude protein, DCF is digestible crude fiber, DNFE is digestible nitrogenfree extract, and DEE is digestible ether extract

Ba s i c N ec r o p s y P r o c e d u r e s K e y Te r m s

abomasum appendicular skeleton atlas atrioventricular valve (AV) autolysis axis diaphragm duodenum foramen magnum forestomach gross pathology histopathology hydronephrosis hyoid bone in situ laminae lesions mediastinum meninges myocardium necropsy omentum pathogenesis pathology pituitary gland prosector pulmonary artery sciatic nerve sternum

“The owner’s permission must be obtained before the necropsy is performed, that animal for necropsy must be correctly identified and the history, including the clinical findings, reviewed and recorded.”

abomasum : the “true stomach” of the ruminant; secretes acids, mixes and contract ingesta, and moves liquid chyme into the small intestine

duodenum : the first segment of the small intestines after the stomach; chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach

appendicular skeleton : bones of the limbs; appendages

foremen magnum : large hole in the occipital bone through which the spinal cord exits the skull

atlas : first cervical vertebra; it forms the atlantooccipital joint with the occipital bone of the skull, and the atlantoaxial joint with the axis - second cervical vertebra atrioventricular valve (AV) : heart valve located between an atrium and a ventricle; the right AV is the tricuspid valve, and the left AV is the mitral valve autolysis : self-digestion of tissues or cells by enzymes that are released by they own lysosomes axis : second cervical vertebra; it forms the atlantoaxial joint with the first cervical vertebra - the atlas diaphragm : thin, dome-shaped sheet of muscle that forms the boundary between thoracic and abdominal cavities; it helps to produce inspiration when it contracts;the diaphragm is dome shaped at rest, with it convex surface directed cranially; this increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and causes air to be drawn into the lungs

laminae : interdigitations between the corium and the hoof that serve as attachment sites between the hoof and the coffin bone; also bony plates that form the roof of the arch of each spinal vertebra

forestomach : prestomach chambers in a ruminant animal; includes reticulum, rumen, and omasum gross pathology : refers to pathologic changes in tissue that are visible with the unaided eye histopathology : refers to pathologic changes in tissue that are microscopic and can be seen only with the use of a microscope hydronephrosis : dilation and distention of the renal pelvis and calices usually caused by obstruction of the flow of urine from the kidney hyoid bone : bone in the neck region that supports the base of the tongue, the pharynx, and the larynx and aids the process of swallowing; the hyoid is usually referred to as a single bone, but it is composed of several portion; the hyoid bone is attached to the temporal bone by two small rods of cartilage in situ : in its normal place; confined to the site of origin

lesions : alterations or abnormalities in a tissue, pathologic changes; for example, wounds, sores, ulcers, tumors, cataracts, and any other tissue damage mediastinum : space in the thorax between the lungs that contains the trachea, esophagus, heart, nerves, lymphatic vessels and major blood vessels necropsy : examination of the animal after it has died to determine abnormal and disease-related changes that occurred during its life omentum : supportive mesenteries, which arise from the greater and lesser curvatures of the stomach pathogenesis : modified form of sexual reproduction characterized by the formation of an ovum without the fertilization of a male’s spermatozoan

pathology : the science and study of disease, especially the causes and development of abnormal conditions pituitary gland : the “master endocrine gland” a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, made up of the anterior pituitary gland, which produces seven known hormones, and the posterior pituitary gland, which stores and releases two hormones from the hypothalamus prosector : the person performing the necropsy pulmonary artery : artery arising from the right ventricle that delivers blood into the pulmonary circulation sciatic nerve : nerve that runs along the caudal aspect of the femur beneath the biceps; it is vital to avoid this nerve when giving intramuscular injections sternum : the breastbone; the series of rod-like bones called sternebrea that form the floor of the thorax

DX S a m p l i n g & Th e r a p e u t i c Tec h n i q u e s K e y Te r m s

abdominocentesis arthrocentesis cystocentesis diagnositc peritoneal lavage extravasation intraosseous percutaneously phlebitis pleural effusion pneumothorax rumen thoracocentesis thrombosis vasodilation

“When injecting Brucella vaccines, the technician should not tent the skin, to ensure that no drug is accidentally injected into the person administering the drug.”

abdominocentesis : sampling of free fluid within the peritoneal space arthrocentesis : aspiration of fluid from a joint cystocentesis : method of obtaining a urine sample by inserting a needle through the abdominal wall and into the urinary bladder and withdrawing urine from the bladder into a syringe; the bladder may be located by palpation or under ultrasound guidance diagnostic peritoneal lavage : insertion of fluid into the peritoneal cavity; fluid is allowed to dwell for a short time and then is drained; gross, microscopic, and chemical analyses are performed on the returned fluid

extravasation : leakage of something out of its container or normal location, such as a drug out of a vein intraosseous : administration of a drug or fluid into the bone percutaneously : term that refers to administering something through the skin phlebitis : inflammation of a vein pleural effusion : the accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural cavity

pneumothorax : abnormal accumulation of air in the space between the rib cage and the lung; this abnormal air pocket compresses the lung, resulting in respiratory distress; the lung may collapse; this condition may be cause b injury to lung tissue, rupture of airfilled pulmonary cysts, or puncture of the chest wall

rumen : the first chamber of the ruminant digestive tract;used for storage of ingested food and initial digestion of protein an simple carbohydrates thoracocentesis : a procedure in which air or fluid is removed from the chest (pleural space) using a syringe and needle aseptically thrombosis : clotting of blood within a vessel that results in obstruction of blood flow vasodilation : dilation of the blood vessels; the opposite of vasoconstriction

N eo n ata l C a r e o f Foa l s K e y Te r m s

congenital dehydration foal genetic hypoglycemia hypothermia mare neonatal period

“Once a neonatal foal is admitted to a veterinary hospital, blood pressure should be monitored closely because decreased blood pressure is one of the first signs that the foal is not responding to treatment.”

congenital : born with a specific condition; can be genetic or environmentally induced dehydration : abnormal depletion of body fluids foal : juvenile horse nursing from its mother genetic : inherited; in general, on parent or both parents transmit disease-causing genes to the offspring, unless it is a new mutation in the patient; the disease may not show up until much later in life

hypoglycemia : lower than normal levels of blood glucose resulting in lack of fuel to the brain and other organ systems hypothermia : abnormally low body temperature; the measured body temperature must be compared with what is normal for the age group because neonates have lower body temperature than adults

mare : adult female horse neonatal period : in puppies and kittens, the first two weeks of life are characterized by complete dependence on the mother because of incomplete neurologic function, such as audio and visual abilities and proper spinal reflexes

E m e r g e n c y a n d C r i t i c a l C a r e N u r s i n g K e y Te r m s

acidosis arrhythmia asystole atrial fibrillation atrial premature complexes azotemia borborygmi capillary refill time cardiopulmonary resuscitaition chest tube choke colic defibrillation disseminated intravascular coagulation down animals dystocia electrocardiography endometrial eructation fetatome fetotomy flail chest hypovolemia hypoxemia ileus ischemia jugular vein mastitis metritis

“Horses that are stoic can be very difficult to assess accurately because the level of pain they exhibit may not reflect the severity of their disease”

acidosis : elevated levels of metabolic acids within blood or tissue arrhythmia : abnormal heartbeat rhythm detected during palpation of the chest or pulse during auscultation or recorded on an electrocardiogram (ECG) asystole : type of arrhythmia characterized by a “flat line” or the absence of heartbeats

caplliary refill time : time required for blood to refill the small capillary beds of the mucous membranes after digital blanching cardiopulmonary resuscitation : emergency procedure performed in an effort to manually preserve intact brain function until further measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulation and breathing

atrial fibrillation : very rapid, uncoordinated contractions of the atria of the heart, resulting in lack of synchronism between heartbeat and pulse beat atrial premature complexes : premature contractions of the atria initiated by one of the atria from a location other than the normal sinus heartbeat, which originates in the sinoartial node azotemia : condition in which blood has increased concentrations of nitrogenous wastes, such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN); azotemia may be further characterized as prerenal azotemia caused by dehydration, as renal azotemia caused b impaired kidney function, or as post renal azotemia cause by obstruction of the urinary tract borborygmi : rumbling noises caused by propulsion of gas and ingesta through the intestines

down animals : animals that are not able to stand dystocia : difficult birth; this term can be applied to difficult birth in any species, which can result from a number of causes such as large fetus, small dam, or malpositioning electrocardiography : measurement of the electrical conductance of the heart; ECG rhythm strips endometrial : belonging to the mucous membrane lining the uterus eructation : act or instance of belching

chest tube : flexible tube inserted through the intercostal muscles into the pleural space choke : physical blockage of rumen colic : severe abdominal pain of sudden onset caused by a variety of conditions, including obstruction, twisting, and spasm of the intestines defibrillation : process of converting a fibrillation arrhythmia to a normal heartbeat (usually via electrical shock with a defibrillator) disseminated intravascular coagulation : pattern of generalized concurrent intravascular thrombosis and bleeding; this is among the most serious complications of shock

fetatome : device used to cut a fetus into smaller parts that can be more easily extracted vaginally when a fetotomy is performed fetotomy : procedure in which a dead fetus is cut into smaller pieces so that i can be extracted vaginally

flail chest : freely movable segment of the chest wall caused by segmental fracture of two or more ribs hypovolemia : decreased circulating blood volume

hypoxemia : low blood oxygen levels ileus : functional loss of intestinal motility ischemia : deficient supply of blood to a body part, such as the heart or brain, caused by obstruction of the inflow or arterial blood jugular vein : consists of paired veins running in the neck that drain the brain, face, and neck mastitis : inflammation of the mammary gland; typically occurs during lactation; if endotoxins are absorbed from septic secretions within the udder, endotoxemia can result, and the condition is termed toxic mastitis metritis : inflammation of the uterus; this condition can be associated with build up of septic fluid within the uterus; if endotoxins are absorbed from the septic uterine fluid, endotoxemia can result, and the condition is termed toxic metritis

E m e r g e n c y a n d C r i t i c a l C a r e N u r s i n g K e y Te r m s

multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) perineal pulse oximeter regional nerve block reperfusion injury rumen tympany rumenostomy sepsis syncope systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) tachycardia thromboembolism tracheostomy tracheotomy transfaunation triage tube cystostomy tympany urethral process urethrostomy urolithiasis uterine prolapse uterine torsion ventricular premature complexes ventricular tachycardia

“Various medications can alter HR, respiratory rate, attitude, degree of pain, and GI motility; therefore, it is always beneficial to assess these parameters before administration.”

multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) : a complication of shock in which generalized microvascular clotting causes sufficient organ damage to result in failure of multiple organs

rumenostomy : surgical procedure whereby a permanent hole is created from the skin into the rumen sepsis : a state of systemic inflammation characterized by deteriorating vital signs and the presence of infection syncope : fainting

perineal : the area between the anus and the dorsal part of the external genitalia, especially in the female pulse oximeter : instrument used to noninvasively measure the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin; this value serves as an indirect assessment of the animal’s oxygenation status regional nerve block : procedure whereby a relatively small amount of local anesthetic is injected near a nerve, causing desensitization to a larger area on the body; proximal and distal paravertebral nerve blocks are examples of regional nerve blocks used to anesthetize the flank area

systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) : widespread inflammation caused by an underlying disease process; often causes generalized tissue damage and can be a complication of shock tachycardia : rapid heart rate; the opposite of bradycardia thromoembolism : formation of a blood clot that lodges in or obstructs a blood vessel tracheostomy : surgical creation of a hole from the skin to the trachea tracheotomy : surgical act of making an incision on the ventral aspect of the neck and opening a direct airway through an incision in the trachea

reperfusion injury : tissue injury resulting from the reestablishment of blood flow after a period of oxygen deprivation

transfaunation : transfer of beneficial microorganisms from the rumen of one individual to that of another

rumen tympany : rumen distention with air; commonly referred to as bloat

triage : the act of sorting patients quickly into groups on the basis of a rapid initial assessment of disease or injury severity

tube cystostomy : surgical procedure in which a Foley catheter is placed through the abdominal wall and into the bladder; the catheter allows urine to passively drain from the bladder while urolithiasis is managed tympany : hallow sound produced when a body cavity containing air is sharply tapped urethral process : the portion of the urethra that extends beyond the end of the glans penis in the male goat, sheep, and horse urethrostomy : a surgical procedure that creates a permanent opening in the urethra; the procedure is most commonly performed in male cats that have a history of multiple urethra blockages; in this species, a urethrostomy is made in the perineum urolithiasis : the process of forming stones in the urinary tract

uterine prolapse : condition that occurs when the uterus folds inside-out through an open cervix and protrudes through the vulvar lips

uterine torsion : condition in which the uterus twists, preventing delivery of the fetus; uterine torsion occurs in cattle and in camelids and can be a cause of dystocia ventricular premature complexes : premature contraction of the ventricles, initiated by one of the ventricles from a location other than the normal cardiac conduction system ventricular tachycardia : an abnormally high heart rate initiated and sustained by one of the ventricles outside the normal cardiac conduction system

Wo u n d M a n ag e m e n t a n d Ba n dag i n g K e y Te r m s

abrasions carpal flexion sling collagen contralateral dead space debridement decubitus ulcers degloving injury elmer sling epithelialization external coaptation extracellular matrix exuberant granulation tissue fibroblasts granulation tissue hypertonic inflammatory phase inguinal isotonic inguinal lacerations maturation phase modified robert jones bandage modified thomas splint moist wound healing myofibroblast nonadherent dressing non-occulsive primary closure primary intention wound healing proliferative phase re-epithelialization robert jones bandage second intention healing secondary closure semi-occlusive third intention wound healing

“A bandage should cover the limb well above and below the ends of a splint to prevent pressure sores.”

abrasions : an area of skin that has been superficially scraped, creating a wound; also, tooth wear associated with chewing on objects, such as rocks, ice cubes, toys, an bones carpal flexion sling : forelimb sling used in small animals that flexes the wrist joint and is used to protect flexor tendo repair and prevent weight bearing while allowing movement of the elbow and the shoulder contralateral : the opposite side dead space : space between tissues created by a wound, allowing accumulation of fluid debridement : removal of foreign matter and dead tissue from a wound

epithelialization : process of wound coverage by epithelial cells during the final stage of the proliferative phase of wound healing external coaptation : use of a rigid external device such as a bandage, splint, or cast to align fractures extracellular matrix : meshwork-like substance attached to the outer cell surface that provides support and anchorage exuberant granulation tissue : excessive formation of vascularized fibrous tissue (granulation tissue) in and open wound; granulation tissue is considered exuberant when it grows above the level of the skin; also referred to as proud flesh

decubitus ulcers : pressure sores (bed sores) that develop when an animal lies on a bony prominence for too long

fibroblasts : cells that are recruited into a wound during the proliferative phase of wound healing that help form granulation tissue

degloving injury : injury - typically to the distal limb - in which a large section of skin is torn off the underlying tissue in a glove-like fashion

granulation tissue : vascularized fibrous tissue that covers a full-thickness skin wound if the wound is left to heal by second intention

elmer sling : pelvic limb sling used in small animals that prevents weight bearing and helps force the femoral head into the acetabulum by abduction and internal rotation of the femur

hypertonic : having an osmolality lower than that of blood

non-occulsive : a state in which the teeth of the upper and lower mandibles do no mesh with one another

inguinal : pertaining to the groin area semi-occlusive : allowing air and moisture to move through; used in reference to bandage material; a semi-occlusive primary layer is used for moist wound healing

inflammatory phase : the first phase of wound healing; characterized by formation of a blood clot within the wound, release of growth factors, and recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils to clean up the wound and to modulate healing isotonic : having the same osmolality of blood lacerations : sharp cut or tear through the skin and possibly deeper tissues maturation phase : the third and final phase of wound healing; during this phase, collagen fibers remodel and align, and there is a final gain in wound strength modifided robert jones bandage : bandage that is similar to a robert jones bandage but with a much thinner secondary layer moist wound healing : maintaining a moist wound environment by using an occlusive or semiocclusive primary bandage layer myofibroblast : type of fibroblast with contractile properties similar to those of smooth muscle cells, which are responsible for wound contraction nonadherent dressing : primary layer that does not adhere firmly to the wound surface primary intention wound healing : healing of a wound across a surgically closed incision

primary closure : surgical closure of a fresh, clean wound, leading to primary intention healing proliferative phase : the second phase of wound healing; characterized by invasion of fibroblasts, formation of granulation tissue, deposition of collagen, epithelialization across healthy granulation tissue, and wound contraction by myofibroblasts re-epithelialization : regrowth of epithelial cells over a wound; cells advance in a single layer across the wound until they meet in the middle when migration stops as the result of contact inhibition robert jones bandage : distal limb bandage for which a large amount of rolled cotton is used; aids in immobilization of fractures; rigid material can be incorporated into this bandage second intention healing : healing of a wound by granulation tissue formation, epithelialization, and contraction secondary closure : wound that has formed healthy granulation tissue and is then closed by apposing the skin over the granulation tissue third intention wound healing : healing of a wound that has already formed granulation tissue and undergone secondary closure

Ve t e r i n a r y A n e s t h e s i a K e y Te r m s

analgesia apnea atelectasis ayre’s t-piece bain coaxial circuit cyanosis hypercarbia hypnotic hypothermia hypoventilation hypoxia miosis mydriasis non-rebreathing system oxygen saturation pneumothorax rebreathing system respiratory minute volume (RMV) tachycardia tachypnea tidal volume vasodilation

“Never induce anesthesia in a horse that is not adequately sedated.”

analgesia : pain relief apnea : temporary absence of spontaneous breathing atelectasis : collapse of a portion of or all of one or both lungs ayre’s t-piece : non-rebreathing circuit with corrugated tubing, but no reservoir bag or pressure relief valve, in which the fresh gas inlet is located near the patient, and the waste gas exits away from the patient; mapleson e circuit bain coaxial circuit : non-rebreathing circuit with a reservoir bag and corrugated tubing in which the fresh gas inlet is located near the patient and the pressure relief valve is located away from the patient; mapleson d circuit cyanosis : bluish discoloration of the mucous membranes or skin caused by severe reduction of hemoglobin in blood hypercarbia : elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood hypnotic : drug that induces sleep hypothermia : elevation of body temperature caused by inadequate heat-dissipating mechanisms to overcome excessive ambient heat, without a change in the body’s thermoregulatory set point

hypoventilation : decreased ventilation; a respiratory problem that results in higher blood levels of carbon dioxide hypoxia : low tissue oxygen levels

rebreathing system : breathing circuit in which exhaled gases are recirculated to the patient after carbon dioxide is removed

miosis : constriction of the pupil of the eye mydriasis : dilation of the pupil of the eye non-rebreathing system : breathing circuit in which exhaled gases area carried away from the patient into a scavenging system oxygen saturation : the amount of hemoglobin bound to oxygen at any given moment; this value is measured in percent, and it reflects the degree of blood oxygenation pneumothorax : abnormal accumulation of air in the space between the rib cage and the lung; this abnormal air pocket compresses the lung, resulting in respiratory distress; the lung may collapse; this condition may be caused by injury to lung tissue, rupture of airfilled pulmonary cysts, or puncture of the chest wall

respiratory minute volume (RMV) : the amount of air that moves into and out of the lungs in a minute; tidal volume multiplied by respiratory rate tachycardia : rapid heart rate; the opposite of bradycardia tachypnea : fast, shallow breathing tidal volume : the volume of a normal breath (≈10-15 mL/kg body weight) vasodilation : dilatation of the blood vessels; the opposite of vasoconstriction

L a r g e A n i m a l P a i n M a n ag e m e n t K e y Te r m s

agonist allodynia antagonist dysphoria hyperalgesia modulation multimodal analgesia neurotransmitter nociception preemptive analgesia transduction transmission wind-up phenomenon

“A bandage should cover the limb well above and below the ends of a splint to prevent pressure sores.”

agonist : substance, such as a drug, that produces a physiologic or pharmacologic effect characteristic of the receptor to which it binds

nociception : term used to describe three neuralgic phases of the pain pathway; transduction, transmission, and modulation

allodynia : recruitment of nonpainful nerve fibers that transmit information as pain, resulting in previously pleasant or neutral sensations experienced as unpleasant

preemptive analgesia : pain management administration before any trauma occurs to prevent expected pain

antagonist : drug that blocks activation a receptor by it agonists (including the receptor’s endogenous substrate) dysphoria : uneasy emotional state characterized by anxiety and abnormal behavior

hyperalgesia : lowering of the pain threshold resulting in less stimulation required to produce pain modulation : process of amplifying or dampening incoming pain signals after arrival to the spinal cord multimodal analgesia : use of two or more drugs to affect different phases of nociception simultaneously neurotransmitter : chemical substance released from the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron; diffuses across the synaptic cleft to excite or inhibit the target cell

transduction : conversion of unpleasant stimuli into nerve signals at the point of injury transmission : the sending of pain signals via nerve fibers to the spinal cord wind-up phenomenon : alterations in the nervous system (hyperalgesia and allodynia) that occur as a result of untreated or inadequately treated pain, leading to untreatable pain states

S X I n s t r u m e n t s a n d A s e p t i c Tec h n i q u e s K e y Te r m s

antiseptic asepsis aseptic technique assisted gloving autoclave box lock chemical sterilization closed gloving disinfectant ethylene oxide flash sterilization gas sterilization incise drape ingress port insufflate joule obturator one-step prep open-gloving osteochondral fragments paralumber fossa peritoneal lining physical sterilization plume prosthesis ratchet recumbency residual activity scrub in scrub suit sterilization sterile field sterile technique strike-through subchondral bone triangulatin watts per unit time

“Scissors are specifically designed for many purposes, including dissecting tissue and cutting suture or bandage materials; each pair of scissors should be used only for its intended purpose.”

antiseptic : antimicrobial agent that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms on external surfaces of the body

ethylene oxide : gaseous substance used as a sterilant for instrument and articles that would be damaged by steam sterilization

asepsis : condition of sterility wherein no living organisms are present

flash sterilization : emergency sterilization in which the instrument is placed unwrapped in an autoclave and is taken directly to surgery after sterilization

aseptic technique : methods used to prevent contamination of a surgical site or wound by diseaseproducing organisms assisted gloving : method of putting on sterile gloves in which a sterile, gloved assistant holds the glove open to allow the surgeon to advance his or her hand into the glove without touching the outside autoclave : machine that uses pressurized steam to sterilize objects box lock : hinged part of a needle holder, tissue forceps, or hemostatic forceps chemical sterilization : use of a liquid or gas to sterilize surgical materials closed gloving : method of putting on sterile gloves whereby the hands are kept hidden within the sleeves of a sterile gown during gloving disinfectant : antimicrobial agent that is applied to nonliving objects to destroy disease-causing microorganisms and their spores by physical or chemical means

gas sterilization : use of chemical vapors to sterilize surgical instruments that cannot withstand the high temperatures associated with autoclaves incise drape : a sterile, adherent, plastic surgical drape; often impregnated with an antiseptic ingress port : port on a tubular instrument used to infuse a solution into a cavity, such as a joint insufflate : to pump a gas or medical substance into a body cavity

obturator : stylus or removable plug used during insertion of a tubular instrument one-step prep : alcohol-based solutions containing other antiseptics that form a film when painted on the skin

osteochondral fragments : fracture involving that articulre cartilage and underlying bone paralumber fossa : depression in the dorsocaudal abdominal body wall of quadrupeds bordered by the coastal processes of the lumber vertebra, the last thoracic rib, and the tuber coxae peritoneal lining : a thin transparent membrane (serosa) that lines the peritoneal cavity physical sterilization : use of filtration, radiation, and heat applied to medical products plume : smoke created from laser application on tissue prosthesis : synthetic material used to replace some tissue or part of the body ratchet : part of an instrument that allows the instrument to be maintained in one position after it has grasped or retracted the tissue recumbency : lying down residual activity : continued bactericidal activity that persists after antiseptic or disinfectant has been applied scrub in : disinfecting that hands and donning sterile gown and gloves to participate in a sterile procedure scrub suit : shirt and pants worn into the operating room; usually made of lint-free cotton or polyester material

sterile field : an area that has been prepared for the use of sterile equipment; includes area around wound, incision site, or body orifice which an instrument or catheter will be passed; also includes the area covered by sterile drapes and the sterile region of properly attired personnel sterile technique : creating a sterile field and working within it by not contaminating it with nonsterile objects sterilization : the destruction of all disease-producing organisms and spores on an object strike-through : when fluid penetrates a surgical drape or gown; it creates a pathway by which organisms can invade the sterile field subchondral bone : the bone that lies just beneath joint cartilage triangulation : technique used in laparoscopic and arthroscopic surgery that establishes tow reference points-one using the scope and the other the surgical hand instrument-to target a third point, the surgical site; this enables the surgeon to visualize instruments inside a bod cavity to make surgical corrections watts per unit time : a unit of power in the International Systems of Units that is defined as 1 joule per second

L a r g e A n i m a l S u r g i c a l N u r s i n g K e y Te r m s

abomasopexy colpotomy laparotomy omentopexy pyloropexy rumenostomy rumenotomy urachus

“The most common approach to the abdominal cavity is through the ventral midline incision, with the horse under general anesthesia and position in dorsal recumbency.”

abomasopexy : surgical fixation of the abomasum to the body wall colpotomy : incision through the wall of the vagina laparotomy : surgical incision into the abdominal wall omentopexy : surgical fixation of the omentum to the body wall pyloropexy : surgical fixation of the pylorus to the body wall rumenostomy : surgical procedure whereby a permanent hole is created from the skin into the rumen rumenotomy : surgical incision into the rumen urachus : the remnant of the fetal allantois that drains the fetal urinary bladder and exits the fetal abdomen via the umbilical cord

M i s c e l l a n eo u s K e y Te r m s

Abdominocentesis Active immunity Anaphylaxis Anestrous Antitoxin Arthrocentesis Artificial insemination Congenital Cryptorchid Cystocentesis Diagnostic peritoneal lavage Estrus Extravasation Fomite Intraosseous Oocyte Parturition Passive immunity Percutaneously Phlebitis Pineal gland Placenta Pleural effusion Pneumothorax Rumen Seasonally polyestrous Superfecundation Superfetation Thoracocentesis Thrombophlebitis Thrombosis Toxoid

“Anaplasmosis, anthrax, clostridial disease, lightning strikes, and bloat are causes of sudden death in cattle.”

abdominocentesis : sampling of free fluid within the peritoneal space active immunity : production of substances in the body, e.g., antibodies and interferon, that render the animal immune from disease; active immunity can occur via immunization,as an immune response cause by natural exposure to the antigen or as a sequela of the disease anaphylaxis : hypersensitivity to foreign proteins or drugs resulting from sensitization after prior contact with the causative agent; severe anaphylaxis can be fatal if untreated because of hypoxia

cystocentesis : method of obtaining a urine sample by inserting a needle through the abdominal wall and into the urinary bladder and withdrawing urine from the bladder into a syringe; the bladder may be located by palpation or under ultrasound guidance diagnositc peritoneal lavage : insertion of fluid into the peritoneal cavity; fluid is allowed to dwell for a short time and then is drained; gross, microscopic and chemical analysis are performed on the returned fluid

passive immunity : type of immunity incurred via one of the following ways: in utero when antibodies pass through the placenta from the dam to the fetus, in newborns from the consumption of antibody-rich colostrum or first milk, or by intravenous infusion of antibody-rich plasma - usually given to neonates that failed to gain adequate levels of antibodies from the previous two percutaneously : term that refers to administering something through the skin

estrus : period of sexual activity in nonhuman, female mammals that includes proliferation of uterine mucosa, swelling of the vulva, ovulation, and acceptance of coitus

phlebitis : inflammation of a vein

antitoxin : antibody produced in response to a toxin, such as tetanus, and capable of neutralizing the toxin

extravasation : leakage of something out of its container or normal location, such as a drug out of a vein

arthrocentesis : aspiration of fluid from a joint

fomite : an object that in itself, such as clothing or instruments, but is able to harbor pathogenic or infectious agents and serve as an agent of transmission of infection

placenta : structure that consists of the yolk sac, the amnion, the allantois, and the chorion; responsible for the passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between the fetus and dam

anestrous : period of no or least reproductive activity

artificial insemination (AI) : placement of semen within the uterus or oviduct by other than natural means so that fertilization of oocytes can occur congenital : born with a specific condition; can be genetic or environmentally induced cryptorchid : a male with one or both testes not in the scrotum

intraosseous : administration of a drug or fluid into the bone oocyte : female component of the embryo that originates from the follicle of the ovary parturition : process by which delivery of mammalian offspring occurs

pineal gland : the endocrine structure within the brain that acts to correlate the length of daylight to reproduction

pleural effusion : fluid buildup in the space surrounding the lungs within the thorax pneumothorax : abnormal accumulation of air in the space between the rib cage and the lung; this abnormal air pocket compresses the lung, resulting in respiratory distress; the lung may collapse; this condition may be caused by injury to lung tissue, rupture of air-filled pulmonary cyst, or puncture of the chest wall

rumen : the first chamber of the ruminant digestive tract; used for storage of ingested food and initial digestion of protein and simple carbohydrates seasonally polyestrous : having repeated estrous cycles that occur during the breeding season of a species superfecundation : successive fertilization of ova involving multiple episodes of coitus during the same heat; fertilization is provided by different males superfetation : fertilization of two or more ova in the same female during different heats; in this way a pregnant dam my ovulate and become pregnant a second time thoracocentesis : a procedure in which air or fluid is removed from the chest, plural space, using a syringe and needle aseptically thrombophlebitis : inflammation of the vein associated with a thrombus thrombosis : clotting of blood within a vessel that results in obstruction of blood flow toxiod : a toxin that has been altered so that is does not cause disease but is able to induce the production of protective antibodies; the immunogenicity, however, remains intact and makes toxoids sutable fore use as vaccines; immunizations against tetanus and botulism are examples of toxoids

N o r m a l T P R fo r A d u lt L a r g e A n i m a l s Rectal Temperature °F

Heart Rate

Respiratory Rate

99.0 - 101.5

28 - 44 /minute

6 - 16 /minute

101.5 (range 100.4 - 103.1)

40 - 80 /minute

10 - 30 /minute

102.5 (range 102.0 - 104.0)

70 - 90 /minute

12 - 25 /minute

102.0 (range 101.5 - 104.0)

70 - 90 /minute

15 - 30 /minute

Horse

Cattle

Sheep

Goat

S p ec i e s S p ec i f i c D i s e a s e s , Vacc i n e s & P r a s i t e s

“Many aspects of preventative medicine must be applied in livestock species. Vaccination is important, but it is not a substitute for proper management. In addition to vaccination, disease is prevented through proper nutrition, good hygiene, appropriate housing, and parasite control. New animals must be tested for disease and quarantined before they are mixed in with the herd, to prevent the introduction of disease into the herd”

Equine Diseases • Clostridium tetani tetanus “lockjaw” • equine encephalomyelitis “sleeping sickness” • rhinopneumonitis/equine herpesvirus EHV • equine influenza “flu” • Streptococcus equi “strangles” • equine viral arteritis “EVA” • Clostridium botulinum “botulism” • Bacillus anthracis “anthrax” • Neorickettsia risticii “potomac horse fever” • equine rabies

Vaccines • tetanus antitoxin and/or tetanus toxoid • equine encephalomyelitis • EHV • equine influenza • strangles • EVA • botulism type b toxoid • equine rabies • potomac horse fever • 5-way (rhinopneumonitis, encephalitis, tetanus, influenza, west nile viruss

Parasites • ascarids • strongyles • tapeworms • bots

B ov i n e Diseases • infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) • parainfluenza (PI3) • bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) • Mycobacterium paratuberculosis “Johne’s disease” • trichamoniasis • campylobacterosis • leptospirosis • mastitis

Vaccines • E. coli • rotavirus • coronavirus • bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) • brucellosis

Parasites • Echinococcus granulosus “hydatid tapeorm” • Bunostomum spp. “hookworm” • Haemonchus spp. • Marshallagia spp. • Taenia saginata • Schistomsoma bovis • Eimeria bovis • Ehrlichia ruminantium • H. eurysternus “lice” • H. quadripertusus “lice”

Ovine Diseases

Vaccines

Parasites

• Clostridium tetani tetanus “lockjaw”

• Clostridium perfringes types C and D

• Haemonchus contortus “barber pole worm”

• Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis caseous lymphadenitis

• Clostridium tetani tetanus

• Dictyocaulus filaria “lung worm”

• foot scald and rot • mastitis • ovine progressive pneumonia (OPP)

• Muellerius capillaris “hair lungworm” • Protostrongylus spp. “lungworm” • Echinococcus granulosus “hydatid tapeorm”

• spongiform encephalopathies “scrapie”

• Elaeophora schneideri “arterial worm”

• respiratory disease “pneumonia”

• Taenia ovis “tapeworm”

• brucellosis

• Linognathus ovillus “lice” • Linognatus pedalis “lice”

Caprine Diseases

Vaccines

Parasites

• Clostridium tetani tetanus “lockjaw”

• Clostridium perfringes types C and D

• Haemonchus contortus “barber pole worm”

• Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis caseous lymphadenitis

• Clostridium tetani tetanus

• Dictyocaulus filaria “lung worm”

• foot scald and rot • mastitis • ovine progressive pneumonia (OPP)

• Muellerius capillaris “hair lungworm” • Protostrongylus spp. “lungworm” • Echinococcus granulosus “hydatid tapeorm”

• spongiform encephalopathies “scrapie”

• Linognathus africanus “lice”

• respiratory disease “pneumonia”

• Linognathus stenopis “lice”

• brucellosis

Porcine Diseases

Vaccines

• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

• erysipelas

• Mycoplasma bacteria pneumonia • parvovirus • leptospirosis • brucellosis • pseudorabies

• parvovirus • leptospirosis • E. coli

Parasites • Ascaris suum “ascarids” • Strongloides ransomi “threadworms” • Trichuris suis “whipworms” • Toxoplasma gondii “toxoplasma” • Taenia solium “pork bladder worms” • sarcoptic mange • Demodex phylloides “demodectic mange” • Haematopinus suis “lice” • Microsporum nanum “ringworm” • flies, ticks, mosquitoes

Camelid Diseases • rabies • foot and mouth disease • vesicular stomatitis • retinal degeneration • blue tongue • ringworm • Aspergillus funigatus “pneumonia” • Coccidioides immitus “pneumonia” • Colstridium botulinum “botulism” • Mycobacterium bovis “tuberculosis” • Bacillus anthracis “anthrax”

Vaccines • Clostridium perfringes types C and D • Clostridium tetani tetanus • lepotospirosis • rabies • west nile virus

Parasites • Trichostrongyle spp. • Nematodirus spp. • Haemonchus spp. • Ostertagia spp. • Trichuris spp. • Capillaria spp.

• eastern equine encephalitis

• Monezia spp.

• equine rhinopneumonitis

• Eimeria spp.

• bovine viral diarrhea virus

• Cryposporidium parvum

• rotavirus or coronavirus

• Giardia 1 spp.

• anthrax

• Fasciola spp.

• seven-and-eight way clostridial vaccines

• Dicrocoelium dendriticum

Fo u r - P o i n t A b d o m i n a l Au s c u ltat i o n

Upper Left Quadrant

Upper Right Quadrant

Lower Left Quadrant

Lower Right Quadrant

Borborygmi are recorded using the following values: 0 = no motility heard + 1 = hypomotility (<1 borborygmus/minute) +2 = normal motility (1 - 3 borborygmus/minute) +3 = hypermotility (>3 borborygmus/minute)

A n i m a l Te r m i n o lo g y

Equine stallion

an intact male horse, four years or older

gelding

a castrated male horse, four years or older

colt

mare

filly

weanling

yearling

foal

rig

broodmare

foaling

an intact male horse or pony, four years or younger

a female horse, four years or older

a female horse or pony, four years or younger

a foal weaned from its dam

a horse or pony of either gender that is one year old

a horse or pony of either gender that is one year or younger

also known as a cryptorchid where one or both testicles have not descended

a female horse used for breeding that is three years or older

the act of parturition in equine

B ov i n e bull

an intact male bovine

steer

a castrated male bovine

heifer

a female bovine that has not had a calf

cow

a female bovine that has had a calf

calf

young bovine of either gender

calving

the act of parturition in bovine

Ovine ram

wether

ewe

an intact male sheep

a castrated male sheep

a female sheep

lamb

young sheep of either gender

lambing

the act of parturition in sheep

Caprine buck

wether

an intact male goat

a castrated male goat

doe

a female goat

kid

a young goat

kidding

the act of parturition in goats

Porcine boar

barrow

gilt

sow

pig

farrowing

an intact male pig

a castrated male pig

a female pig that has not had a litter

a female pig that has had a litter

young pig

the act of parturition in swine

Tec h n i c i a n N ot e s

Each instrument is designed for a specific purpose, such as cutting, holding, clamping, or retracting, and should only be used for its designed purpose.

Needle holders are designed for handling the suture needle and performing instrument suture ties.

Instruments with hinges or box locks should remain in the unlocked position during autoclaving.

Scissors are specifically designed for many purposes, including dissecting tissue and cutting suture or bandage materials. Each pair of scissors should be used only for its intended purposes.

The safe minimum standard for autoclave sterilization is 121°C (250°F) for 13 minutes

Accordion folding of drapes allows easy unfolding and placement on the patient.

Packs should be allowed to cool slowly to reduce condensation formation.

The arthroscope or laparoscope, fiberoptic light cable, and the camera should never be steam sterilized.

Tissue forceps use a self-locking mechanism to clamp and hold tissue.

Hemostatic forceps are used to clamp, crush, and hold blood vessels with a self-locking mechanism.

The two most commonly used antiseptic agents are povidoneiodine and chlorhexidine.

Retractors are used to retract tissues and provide good visibility of the surgical site.

The four types of sterilization indicators are (1) autoclave tape, (2) melting pellet glass, (3) culture tests, and (4) chemical sterilization indicators.

Glutaraldehyde is carcinogenic, causes chemical synovitis, and is injurious to chondrocytes.

One-step preps are easy to apply, faster than traditional scrubbing techniques, and effective for antimicrobial kill. They have a rapid onset and a long residual effect if utilized properly.

Two methods of gloving yourself are closed gloving and open gloving. Assisted gloving requires the help of a sterile assistant.

If drapes or gowns (especially those made of cloth) become wet with saline or blood, they may no longer be impermeable to bacteria and are said to have strike-through. They should be removed and replaced

Because of the high toxicity of ethylene oxide, it is being replaced by hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization.

Nonsterile personnel should not lean over or reach across sterile fields.

Assess the location of the warming blanket and the electrocautery plate before draping.

Thumb forceps are commonly used to hold tissues while dissecting or suturing.

The dorsal recumbent position is commonly used for abdominal surgical procedures.

After gowning and gloving, the sterile region is the front of the gown between the waist and just below the shoulders. Gown sleeves are also sterile, but not the back.

The surgery gown is considered sterile only in front from the shoulders to the waist.

Daily and weekly cleaning schedules should be established for the operating room.

The surgical hand scrub requires that all surfaces of the fingers, hand, and forearm be scrubbed. Skin-soap contact time should last 5 minutes.

While opening a pack, make sure that the opening faces away from you.

Instruments that are contaminated should be passed off the instrument table to an OR technician or placed in an isolated region of the instrument table.

Anyone entering the operating room should wear a cap, mask, booties, and scrub suit.

Waterless hand antiseptics are easy to apply and a supplement to traditional handscrubbing techniques, effective against microorganisms, and nonirritating to the skin. This, however, should not replace surgical hand-scrubbing.

Chlorhexidine is an effective antimicrobial agent with rapid onset and long residual activity.

Light handles or sterile light covers should be placed after the patient has been draped.

The animal should not be allowed to experience pain before medication is given. Pain medication should be administered at dosing intervals appropriate for the medication – not as needed.

Surgical assistants should focus on using the tips of suture scissors to cut sutures.

Eyed needles cause greater tissue trauma than swaged needles because of the loop of suture through the eye.

Drains, when present in tissue, may stimulate fluid production.

The surgical assistant can assist in the postoperative care of a surgical patient by cleaning the wound, placing a bandage, submitting a biopsy sample, and/or writing the surgical report.

It is important that no gauze sponges fall into the abdominal cavity without being retrieved.

Both passive and active drains need to be secured to the skin to prevent premature removal.

All veterinary technicians working with lasers must be trained in the safety measures when a laser is used, including the use of the emergency shutoff button

Inadequate surgical preparation can hinder surgical technique, increase risk of infection, and result in prolonged anesthetics.

Dehiscence of an abdominal wound or thoracic wall can result in life-threatening complications. The veterinarian should be alerted immediately of impending complications. Pneumothoraxrelated dehiscence may result in sudden death.

Sutures are constructed in monofilament or multifilament forms. Monofilament sutures are more resistant to contamination in infected wounds compared with multifilament sutures.

Antibiotics should never be given indiscriminately to animals undergoing surgery because this contributes to the development of resistant strains of bacteria (hospital “superbugs”) that are difficult to treat.

Some drainage is expected as long as a drain is in place as a result of tissue irritation caused by the drain, but it should be minimal.

The suture selected to close a wound should be at least as strong as the tissue that it is holding together and the smallest diameter to hold the tissues together.

A single abnormal vital sign does not necessarily identify a significant clinical problem. All indicators (temperature, pulse, respiration, mucous membranes) should be evaluated serially to detect a trend in the animal’s condition. This trend will determine the severity of the postoperative problem and will likely dictate appropriate treatment.

The veterinary technician must have a working knowledge of common surgical procedures to properly prepare the animal for surgery, act as an efficient surgical assistant, have discussions with the owner, and manage immediate and long-term postoperative care.

Any instrument that becomes contaminated during surgery is immediately removed from the surgical table.

It is imperative that a glove that is torn during surgery be replaced immediately.

The animal with a chest tube should be handled carefully to prevent inadvertent introduction of air around the lungs and death of the animal. Make sure the tube is air-tight, that all connections to the environment are closed, and that it is equipped with a protective clamp.

Hunting dogs may have dewclaws removed for practical reasons, such as trauma that can occur through thick brush, and other breeds, such as the Great Pyrenees and Newfoundland, will not be of show quality without their dewclaws.

Do not place tissue glue into the open wound formed after a claw is removed. The wound should be manually apposed and the glue placed only on the skin edges. Placing surgical glue internally can result in chronic lameness and foreign body reaction.

IV catheters should be placed in the front half of an animal suffering from GDV. Venous return is compromised from the back half of the dog as a result of compression of the vena cava from the dilated stomach.

Bandages from the onychectomy should be removed within 24 hours. The cat should remain in the hospital until the bandages have been removed.

For the first week after cystotomy, mild hematuria, with or without blood clots, and frequent urination can be expected.

Tissues exposed to the air during surgery should be kept moist to help prevent tissue desiccation with subsequent tissue irritation or death and should be handled atraumatically.

Animals with a diaphragmatic hernia should have oxygen and cage confinement to achieve maximal oxygenation, minimal stress, and constant monitoring for respiratory insufficiency before surgery.

Preoperative and postoperative sponge counts are recommended and instruments should be assessed to prevent objects from being left in the abdominal cavity.

Positioning an animal with diaphragmatic hernia in sternal recumbency with the shoulders higher than the pelvis or gently raising the animal up from the front end may help reduce abdominal structures back into the abdomen from the thoracic cavity and improve respiration.

Care should be taken to avoid placing retractors in direct contact with the articular cartilage, and the cartilage should be kept moist to prevent permanent cartilage damage.

It is important to encourage limb use for optimal recovery after long-bone or joint surgery. This is best done by slow, controlled leash walking at limited times throughout the day. Running, jumping, and off-leash activity are not allowed.

It is better to prevent pressure sore formation that to have to treat a pressure sore once it occurs.

Most long-bone fractures are not life threatening and do not require emergency surgery.

To prevent further cervical damage, animals with injuries to the cervical spine should always be placed in a harness, rather than in a collar.

All animals with a spinal cord injury will require cage rest, whether or not surgery is done. It is important to emphasize to owners that cage rest is important for proper healing, even if the pet is walking and feeling normal.

No single behavior can indicate an animal’s state of mind in all situations. Ear position, vocalization, tail movement, and other behaviors are open to interpretation and must be evaluated collectively to determine whether a patient is exhibiting threatening behavior.

If pet owners perceive that coming to the veterinarian’s office is too stressful for their pet, they are more likely to forego regular visits. This means that patients will not receive the medical care they deserve.

Excellent skill in restraint is critical to ensure that the animal receives medical care without injury to patients or caregivers.

When restraining a dog or cat, use the minimal amount of restraint necessary to prevent injury and facilitate examination. Many pets do much better with minimal restraint.

Adopting safe, effective handling procedures protects everyone-the technician, the veterinarian, the pet, and the owner. It also strengthens the bond between the client and the practice.

Never put a chain over a juvenile horse’s nose; the horse does not know what it is and will not react favorably to the application; this could make future attempts to handle the young horse very difficult.

Patience is imperative when working with horses; it will go a long way toward easing the horse’s fears and keeping everyone safe.

Even the most experienced technician may need help when handling a patient. It is better to ask for help than to risk injury (or harm to a patient).

Pet owners expect their pet to be handled in a respectful, compassionate manner. Wresting with a pet or using what may be perceived as excessive force can damage a client’s perception of the practice and its staff.

Most cats prefer to be stroked around the head, neck and chin, but avoid this if the cat is trying to strike with front claws, or if it is trying to bite.

The key to successful restraint is reducing the animal’s stress.

Proper and safe restraint of the equine patient starts with observation of the horse’s behavior.

A gum or lip chain is a fairly severe form of restraint. Handlers using this technique should be skilled in this practice to avoid damage to the gums and additional stress to the horse.

For the safety of the animal and the handler, never use a chain over the nose of a juvenile horse for restraint.

Pet cattle do not have a flight zone; the best method of moving these animals usually involves placing a rope halter on their head and leading them.

When the half-hitch method is used to case a cow, a large loop can be made on one side to facilitate removal of the rope after the procedure is completed.

Protective gloves and sleeves should always be worn for examination of the oral cavity of a cow that is exhibiting neurologic signs because rabies is a differential diagnosis with potentially fatal complications for the examiner.

Placement of the halter upside down on a cow so that the part that tightens when the tail is pulled is around the ears provides additional head control while maintaining the ability to open the cow’s mouth for an oral examination or speculum placement.

Temporarily grasping the nasal septum between the thumb and the index finger provides additional control of fractious patients while a second handler provides treatment.

If you attempt to move a large group of pigs, the leaders will often turn back before entering the desired pen, making the remainder of pigs difficult to move.

Pet pigs are pets first and pigs second. Treat them (and their owners) as you would any other companion animal.

Guardian dogs are sometimes used in small ruminant flocks to protect against predators and should not be confused with herding dogs.

The normal temperature of sheep (101°F to 103°F) makes development of hyperthermia a greater risk. Be careful when working with heavily fleeced sheep in hot weather.

Make sure all windows in examination and treatment rooms are closed and shaded with curtains or blinds. Fleeing birds will go straight for a clear glass pane during an escape and can critically injure themselves.

A Macaw can crack a Brazilian nut with minimal effort, which points to the fact that leather gloves are useless defense against its powerful beak.

When wrapping a bird in a towel, care must be taken not to restrict normal movement of the thoracic wall and cause inadvertent suffocation.

As with the patient’s history, following a consistent routine for every physical examination will prevent you from overlooking an important finding.

An improperly restrained rabbit can kick forcefully with its hind legs and subluxate or fracture the thoracolumbar vertebrae, resulting in paralysis. Therefore, it is important that the hind legs be under the control of the handler at all times.

The major focus of any medical history is the presenting complaint; however, it is equally important to obtain general background information.

Taking a brief moment to observe the patient in its surroundings before performing a physical examination can provide important information.

In emergency situations where rapid patient stabilization is necessary, information regarding the presenting complaint should always be obtained first to assist in generating an immediate response and treatment plan for the patient.

Rabbits are obligate nasal breathers, meaning that they do not breather through their oral cavity but only through their nares. Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that the nares are not obstructed during restraint.

Using a consistent, organized system for obtaining historical information about each and every patient is important to ensure that nothing is overlooked.

Explaining your position and role to clients and tailoring your questions to their level of understanding will allow you to gain the client’s trust and obtain more detailed information.

Handling guinea pigs with intensely pruritic dermatologic disorders, such as sarcoptic mange, can elicit a grand mal seizure of short duration. Always forewarn the owner of this potential complication before handling an extremely itchy guinea pig.

Historical and physical examination findings should be recorded thoroughly, professionally, and legibly in every patient’s medical record; they are legal documents.

Every major body system should be examined briefly in every patient. Special attention may be paid to specific systems depending on the individual patient.

A thorough oropharyngeal examination should include both open-mouth and closedmouth examinations.

Although a complete ocular examination requires specialized ophthalmologic equipment, a significant amount of information can be obtained without the use of any equipment.

A complete cardiac examination includes assessment of perfusion status, heart rate, heart rhythm, and heart sounds.

A complete neurologic examination should include evaluation of mentation, gait and posture, muscle tone, cranial nerves, postural reactions, and reflexes.

In a patient with lameness, all limbs should be thoroughly examined to allow comparisons to be made and to isolate the affected area.

The history of an individual is not complete without herd health information.

In an emergency situation, it may be necessary to perform the physical examination before taking a detailed history.

Ejection murmurs are commonly auscultated in the horse and usually are normal findings

Respiratory noises should be characterized as inspiratory, expiratory or both.

An otoscope examination must consist of a thorough ear examination performed by visualizing the vertical and horizontal canals.

Patients in significant respiratory distress should be placed on oxygen and stabilized before a complete respiratory examination is performed.

The rectal examination provides an impressive amount of useful information and should be performed on every patient except those that will experience significant discomfort from the examination.

A urogenital examination as well as mammary palpation is most important in patients who are sexually intact.

The peripheral lymph nodes that should be palpated in evert patient are the mandibular, prescapular, and popliteal lymph nodes.

Dermatologic diseases are common in small animal patients. Familiarity with the skin examination and with terminology of skin lesions will be useful.

Prepurchase examinations are a potential source of lawsuits, and examination results must be kept strictly confidential.

The facial artery where it crosses the ventromedial aspect of the mandible is the most convenient location for obtaining the pulse rate.

Rectal thermometers should be inserted and advanced into the rectum without use of force.

Valuable information can be obtained by observing an animal from a distance before the physical examination is performed.

The abdominal “silhouette” viewed from behind the animal, provides useful diagnostic information for possible GI diseases.

The AAHA-AVMA Canine and Feline Preventative Health Guidelines recommend that adult dogs and cats be examined annually, with some animals requiring more frequent visits.

It is recommended that wellness visits be scheduled every 6 months for senior and geriatric dogs and cats.

For certain diseases, young puppies and kittens require a series of vaccinations to ensure that an adequate active immune response to the antigen occurs at the earliest possible time, once passive immunity is lost.

Adjuvant are substances that, when added to a noninfectious vaccine, stimulate a stronger immune response in the animal, with the adjuvant having no immunologic effect on its own.

All dogs and cats should receive the same designated vaccine dose, per manufacturer recommendations, regardless of the age or size of the animal.

Always be aware of the appropriate route of administration of a vaccine. Intranasal vaccines should never be administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly.

Core vaccinations are recommended for all animals of a particular species because they provide protection against highly contagious common pathogens.

Measles vaccine can provide some temporary cross-protection against canine distemper virus in young puppies.

FIV-negative cats who receive the FIV vaccine will test positive on the antibody-based FIV screening test.

FHV-1 and FCV are common causes of upper respiratory disease in cats.

Veterinary health care team members must be aware of local or regional rabies immunization laws before administering the vaccination.

Many serovars can cause leptospirosis. The vaccine provides protection against four of the most common ones.

Intranasal B. bronchiseptica vaccines are often preferred over injectable forms of the vaccine because they stimulate both local and systemic immunity.

Young horses and those with an unknown vaccination history should receive an initial immunization followed by a booster in 4 weeks.

The presence of intestinal sounds does not always indicate the presence of intestinal motility.

Capillary refill time is more accurate that skin turgor in assessing an animal’s hydration status.

Initial wellness visits for puppies and kittens typically occur every 3 to 4 weeks until the animal is approximately 16 weeks of age, and usually coincide with the animal’s vaccination schedule.

Tetanus antitoxin and tetanus toxoid should never be mixed in the same syringe.

The 1-2-3 recommendations for biopsy or removal of a postvaccinal mass are as follows: 1. The mass is still growing after 1 month. 2. The mass is greater than 2 cm in diameter. 3. The mass persists for longer than 3 months.

Because swine in modern production systems may never be outdoors, many pigs do not require deworming at any time.

Administration of intranasal vaccines often results in MLV contamination of hands and clothing. Therefore, intranasal vaccines should be given last if a series of injections is being given, and hand should be washed thoroughly after administration.

Developing deworming protocols based on fecal egg count is generally more cost effective than “blanket deworming” all horses at set periods.

The first step in keeping calves healthy is ensuring that they receive an adequate amount of good-quality colostrum shortly after birth

Cattle vaccines should be administered as labeled (intramuscularly or subcutaneously) only in the neck region to maintain meat quality. In addition, most vaccines for food animals have withdrawal or withholding periods wherein the animal and its products (e.g., milk) may not be sold for human consumption.

Nearly all adult cattle receive vaccinations against viral respiratory and reproductive pathogens (IBR, BVD, PI3, and BRSV), frequently combined with antigens for one or more bacterial pathogens, at least once per year.

Rabies vaccination is not practiced for all animals in commercial sheep and goat flocks, but it should be considered for pet sheep and goats.

Diseases caused by bacteria of the genus Clostridium are especially dangerous in sheep and goats. Pregnant ewes and does should be vaccinated against clostridial diseases to protect their offspring.

Young horses (younger that 5 years) and those with a history of dental problems should have their teeth examined biannually.

Maintenance Nutrient Requirements (MNR) are the levels of nutrients needed to sustain body weight without gain or loss.

Protein is a common component of plants, and the highest concentration is found in the seed and leafy portions.

Fat has more energy per gram than all other nutrients.

Carbohydrates are the primary energy source in livestock rations.

Because water is the largest constituent of the animal, deprivation of water can be life threatening. Clean, fresh water should be available to livestock at all times.

Feed represents 50% of the total costs of milk production.

Feeding represents 75% of the cost of beef cattle production.

Carbohydrates are the major energy source for beef cows.

Creep-fed calves can weigh 30 to 50 lbs. more by weaning time.

Large animals often share resources, such as food, water, shelter and turnout areas, with other animals.

Lambs must receive colostrum within the first hour after birth to have immunologic protection.

Good-quality grass and legume hay are essential for all horses.

Sow’s milk is devoid of iron, and nursing pigs will develop anemia unless they are supplemented with iron.

Sows are often fed twice daily to ensure adequate energy intake.

Feed accounts for 60% to 70% the cost of raising swine.

Horses need free access to salt, in the form of blocks or lose salt.

Mares entering the breeding season with a moderate BCS (≥5) require fewer cycles for conception and have higher conception rates than mares entering breeding season in a thinner condition.

Creep feeding should be initiated at an early age and with small amounts of creep feed. Foals typically are weaned at 6 months of age and then are offered 0.45 to 1.53 kg of grain and 0.7 to 1 kg of hay daily per each 45 kg of live weight.

Queens are long-photoperiod breeders, and ovulation is induced by copulation.

Canine parvoviral enteritis is a highly contagious disease; infected patients must be housed in designated isolation areas during hospitalization.

Many serovars can cause leptospirosis. The vaccine provides protection against four of the most common ones.

Spermatogenesis is completed within the testicles, but sperm are not mature until they pass through the epididymis.

Superfecundation refers to two or more sires causing a single gestation. This is common in some species, such as dogs that have litters. Superfetation occurs when a pregnant female ovulates and conceives again while pregnant. This is rare under normal conditions.

Intranasal B. bronchiseptica vaccines are often preferred over injectable forms of the vaccine because they stimulate both local and systemic immunity.

Young horses and those with an unknown vaccination history should receive an initial immunization followed by a booster in 4 weeks.

Fertilization of oocytes occurs in the oviducts – not in the uterus for all species covered in Chapter 11; canine, feline, equine, bovine, ovine, caprine, and camelid.

The flehmen response occurs when a stallion curls the upper lip exposing the vomeronasal organ inside the nose so that it is easier for the stallion to smell the pheromones from the mare.

Think safety first! When working around horses, particularly their rear ends can be dangerous. Tranquilization should be used, when necessary, to protect both the workers and the animals.

Foal heat occurs within 18 days of parturition and is a fertile heat in many mares.

Because of cows’ very short estrus, barn personnel should check for heat three times a day.

The number of caruncles is determined by the time at birth. The has an average of 75 to 120 caruncles; once damage or destroyed, they are not replaced.

Breeding sheep and goats in the fall for their first year as weanling can be an economically sound practice, provided good nutrition and parasite control have been ensured.

Camelids including alpacas and llama are induced ovulators. They do not cycle regularly, rather, copulation with a male induces ovulation.

The purpose of a breeding soundness examination (BSE) in males is to determine potential fertility without actually breeding. Males of all species should have a BSE before they are used for breeding.

In an examination of semen, rapid forward progressive movement indicates excelled motility. A finding of 70% or more progressively motile sperm is desired.

Tissues collected for histopathology must be handled carefully before fixation and properly marked for identification.

Fresh tissues for laboratory examinations should be collected aseptically If rabies is suspected, the animal’s head should be sent to the appropriate laboratory for testing, according to the guidelines and laws of the state.

For venipuncture, the needle should be inserted with the bevel facing upward.

Care should be taken to avoid rubbing the mucosal surfaces of tissues during examination.

Birds suspected of having infectious or zoonotic diseases, such as psittacosis, should be submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for necropsy.

The necropsy technique for small mammals can be used for most laboratory animals. However, for evaluation of the health status of laboratory animal colonies, more extensive testing is required.

Cosmetic necropsies can be performed when the disease processes are limited to the abdomen and chest.

Pretreatment blood and urine samples be obtained before administration of fluids or medications.

Although referred to as a uterine biopsy, it is, in fact, a biopsy of the endometrium, or lining of the uterus. It is most valuable in species with diffuse placentas and least valuable in species with cotyledonary placentas.

Technicians should be adept at administering oral medications to animals and able to demonstrate techniques for pet owners.

A facilitative incision or a relief hole reduces skin tension and friction against the catheter; it is indicated in severely dehydrated patients and in patients with tough skin.

Fluids or drugs that have an osmolality greater than 600mOsm/L should be administered through the jugular vein.

Placement of a bag of fluids, a sandbag, or rolled towels under the neck helps make the vessel more accessible and stable for jugular catheter placement.

The required distance for a jugular catheter insertion is estimated by measuring the distance from the intended insertion site to the caudal edge of the triceps muscle.

Preputial prolapse occurs most commonly in bulls of Bos indicus influence as a result of several breed-related factors, including a pendulous sheath, a long prepuce, a large preputial orifice, and the absence of retractor prepuce muscles.

Care should be taken to appropriately discard needles and catheters used in chemotherapeutic dosing.

The most important aspects of any venipuncture techniques are proper restraint of the animal and proper distention and immobilization of the vessel.

One of the best ways to assess pulmonary function is through measurement of the arterial blood gases.

Urine is most easily obtained from a dog by walking it outdoors and catching a voided midstream sample.

Cystocentesis is the percutaneous aspiration of urine from the bladder.

Remove negative aspiration pressure on the plunger of the syringes before withdrawing the needle when performing any paracentesis procedure, such as cystocentesis.

The most common reason for catheterizing a male cat is to relieve a urethral obstruction.

Pleural filling defects should be considered when the patient has tachypnea; short, shallow breaths; respiratory distress; open-mount breathing; diminished breath sounds, and cyanosis.

A steady hand is essential in performing arthrocentesis.

Common sites for bone marrow aspiration include the iliac wing, femur, and humerus.

Stainless steel Rosenthal bone marrow aspirate needles are manufactured with a matched stylet.

Mineral oil should never be given via drench as it can be fatal if inhaled.

When placing “stay” tape around the muzzle of a neonate, care must be taken to keep the tape loose enough to allow for opening of the mouth and to keep it secured well above the nostrils to prevent occlusion of the nostrils.

Occluding the end of the tube and kinking it prevents any residual fluid from entering the trachea when the tube is removed from the patient.

Arterial blood will forcibly pulse out of the hub of the needle and tends to be bright red, whereas venous blood will steadily drip from the hub of the needle and tends to be darker red.

Once the stylet has been withdrawn from the catheter, it should not be introduced because the sharp tip may cut through the catheter causing a small piece to be dislodged into the vein, or may make a very jagged edge on the catheter. Discard in sharps container.

Administering irritating drugs into the coccygeal vein can cause thrombosis of the vein and sloughing of the tail.

When injecting Brucella vaccines, the technician should not tent the skin, to ensure that no drug is accidentally injected into the person administering the drug.

Administration of cold enema solutions can lead to hypothermia in young patients.

Cleaning the hair and/or skin with isopropyl alcohol facilitates visualization of the vein.

Samples for BG analysis must remain anaerobic (not contaminated by atmospheric air) because exposure to air will alter the laboratory values obtained.

Urine samples degrade rapidly, so they should be analyzed promptly or refrigerated for no longer than 2 days.

Administration of a drug by any route can result in an anaphylactic reaction and epinephrine may be indicated.

Polyurethane and silastic catheters are less thrombogenic compared with catheters made of Teflon and can be maintained in veins for longer periods.

The thick skin and large transverse processes of the cervical spine help to protect camelids from exsanguination cause by bites from fighting males.

Always utilize a new needle for each attempt of IM injection. Never reuse a needle!

Some eye conditions may require aggressive treatment with administration of ophthalmic medication as often as every hour.

Gloves should be worn when handling transdermal patches to avoid accidental self-administration of the medication.

To locate the site, the technician may place the thumb at the medial canthus and the index at the lateral canthus and draw an imaginary V shape diagonally down to the facial crest.

Following the collection of arterial blood samples, firm digital pressure should be applied immediately to the puncture site and maintained for several minutes.

A midstream sample should be collected for analysis.

Always use a plastic collection vessel to avoid breakage and possible injury to animals or technician.

A horse may require mild sedation when a transtracheal wash is performed, but heavy sedation should be avoided because it may suppress the cough reflex.

Fresh feces will yield more accurate diagnostic information for parasite identification and culture.

A Frick speculum is commonly used on cattle to pass orogastric tubes. For small ruminants, a short piece of PVC pipe may be used as a mouth speculum.

While the bronchoalveolar lavage tubing is passed into the trachea, 2% lidocaine may be injected into the tube whenever the horse coughs to decrease the cough reflex.

The composition of peritoneal fluid is determined by the condition of the abdominal organs.

Safety must be observed at all times during abdominocentesis – expect the unexpected and be prepared to move away from the animal quickly.

The technician should be familiar with laboratory capabilities and should be knowledgeable about appropriate anticoagulant requirements

Periodic back-and-forth movements of the needle in time with the animal’s respiration is normal.

Foal intestine is thin and fragile, and care must be taken to avoid contacting the bowel.

A ruptured bladder is common in male goats, secondary to urolithiasis and leads to the uroabdomen (accumulation of urine in the abdominal cavity).

Collecting spinal fluid from the atlantooccipital site requires general anesthesia.

Choke refers to obstructions of the esophagus, usually as a result of impacted food in the esophagus.

Different neurologic diseases can have similar clinical signs in horses. It is important to take proper precautions, such as the use of gloves and eye protection, when working with these patients. Rabies is zoonotic and is fatal.

Equine recurrent uvesitis (moon blindness, periodic ophthalmia) is the most common cause of blindness in horses.

The veterinary technician plays a central role in the day-today monitoring and care of hospitalized patients; therefore, the abilities to be observant and to perform a thorough physical examination are vital.

Capitalization of veterinary technician skills in food animal production can help meet client and patient needs and can improve practice productivity, efficiency, and revenue.

Colostrum ingestion soon after birth is an important part of the prevention of infectious disease in neonates, and veterinary technicians may play a valuable role in monitoring a farm’s colostrum feeding program.

The patient should be made to stand as squarely as possible for a lumbosacral tap.

Horses with infectious contagious diseases should be hospitalized in isolation facilities. The most common infectious diseases requiring isolation are colitis, strangles (S. equi equi), and the neurologic form of EHV.

The key to successful rearing of lambs is the establishment of a strong ewe-lamb bond; lambing in individual pens (lambing jugs) helps establish this bond.

Small ruminants are considered highly susceptible to enterotoxemia and should be vaccinated every 6 months.

Grain overload is an emergency situation in ruminants and may lead to death if rapid patient assessment and subsequent treatment are not provided.

Control of mastitis in cattle may be achieved by implementation of the five-point plan for mastitis control: 1. Hygiene 2. Use of proper milking procedures 3. Dry cow treatment 4. Culling cows 5. Maintaining good records

Infection with Staphylococcus aureus, which is most likely to be associated with the gangrenous form of mastitis in sheep and goats, “blue bag mastitis”, may progress rapidly, resulting in death of the animal.

Caseous Lymphadenitis, a highly contagious disease caused by C. pseudotuberculosis, is the most common cause of lymph node abscess in small ruminants.

Anaplasmosis, anthrax, clostridial disease, lightning strikes, and bloat are causes of sudden death in cattle.

Pinkeye, or infectious keratoconjunctivitis, usually cause by C. psittaci in sheep and M. conjunctivae in goats, often is treated with tetracycline in both species.

Lameness is commonly encountered in ruminants and most often is caused by lesions or problems with the foot.

Pharyngeal trauma in cattle can be prevented by careful use of oral dosing equipment.

Indigestion is a very common disease in ruminants. It is usually self-limiting.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus may cause gastroenteritis, respiratory tract disease, immunosuppression, abortion, in utero infection, and birth defects in cattle.

Bovine Respiratory Disease Syndrome, which affects primarily feedlot calves and dairy calves younger than 6 months of age, is caused by a complex interaction of respiratory viruses, bacteria and stress.

Milk fever is a common metabolic problem in periparturient dairy cows resulting from a severe decline in serum calcium level.

Pericarditis in cattle usually is caused by penetration of the pericardial sac by metallic foreign body.

Small ruminants are extremely susceptible to tetanus; therefore, tetanus toxoid and/ or antitoxin should be given to small ruminants any time surgery is performed or injury occurs.

Acute laminitis may be caused by sudden excessive grain ingestion or may occur secondary to other diseases during the postparturient period.

Contagious ecthyma (sore moth, orf), a common viral disease of small ruminants, is zoonotic, so care should be taken when infected animals are handled.

Prevention of hypothermia and hypoglycemia in the neonatal period is important for successful pig rearing.

Pseudorabies Virus (PRV) is responsible for the development of neurologic signs in baby pigs, flu-like signs in growing pigs, and embryonic death, abortion or still-birth in pregnant sows or gilts.

Baby pig diarrhea may be caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) or colibacillosis, rotavirus, coronavirus or TGE, clostridial enteritis, coccidiosis, and parasites (S. ransomi or threadworms).

Llamas and alpacas are herd animals and therefore need to live with at least one other llama or alpaca. Gelded male llamas or adult female llamas can be used as guardians for sheep, goats, alpacas, cattle, and miniature horses.

PPS, or malignant hyperthermia, is a genetic disease that results in muscle tremors, hyperthermia, and death. Stress, halothane, and other anesthetics may precipitate the development of PSS.

Typically, the temperature, pulse and respiration (TPR) of a normal cria is as follows: T = 100°F to 102°F (37.8°C to 38.9°C); P = 70 to 100 bpm; and R = 20 to 30 breaths per minute.

Considerable variations in gestation has been noted in alpacas and llamas (330-360 days), with some pregnancies lasting longer than 1 year. Therefore it may be difficult to determine prematurity based on length of gestation.

Deficient energy intake is a hallmark factor in initiating hepatic lipidosis; therefore, therapy must be focused on increasing energy intake immediately.

The best and easiest method of evaluating a camelid nutritional program is by body condition scoring.

P. tenuis larvae migrate through the spinal cord of aberrant hosts, such as llamas and alpacas, causing neurologic deficits that may be acute or chronic in nature.

The prognosis for survival depends on how severe the clinical signs become. A decreased prognosis is given if the animal is recumbent.

Most premature crias are incapable of nursing the dam, so it is suggested that a warm plasma transfusion using camelid plasma be administered.

Pathogens responsible for abortion and reproductive failure in swine include PRV infection, brucellosis, PRRS, PPV infection, and leptospirosis.

The camelid fetus is covered with an epidermal membrane that will dry and flake off shortly after birth.

Diarrhea is an important cause of morbidity in neonatal camelids; if not treated effectively, it may lead to the development of chronic diarrhea, which may ultimately result in chronic renal failure.

Shearing of camelids before the onset of hot weather and careful monitoring of the animals during summer months are important for the prevention of heat stress.

Similar to all mammals, camelids are susceptible to rabies, demonstrating an aggressive or paralytic syndrome. Therefore annual vaccination is recommended.

Veterinary technicians play a vital role in camelid herd health management through programs such as vaccination, parasite control, dental examinations, foot trimming, and body condition scoring.

Horses that are stoic can be very difficult to assess accurately because the level of pain they exhibit may not reflect the severity of their disease.

Abdominal distention can be difficult to assess in a large horse; therefore, it is always important to question the owner regarding the horse’s normal abdominal contour.

Rectal examination of a patient with colic should be performed only by a veterinarian and in a horse that is adequately restrained.

The most common reason for surgical intervention in the patient with colic in continual pain despite sedation.

New World camelids, also called South American camelids (SACs), include the llama (Lama glama), the alpaca (Lama pacos), and guanaco (Lama guanicoe), and the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna).

Bloat becomes life threatening when the distended rumen pushes cranially on the diaphragm and inhibits normal respiration.

If the pneumothorax is the result of a laceration of the thoracic wall, the wound should be repaired or sealed before, and along with, evacuation of the air to restore negative intrathoracic pressure.

A tracheotomy is a lifesaving procedure that should be familiar to all veterinarians and technicians.

Volvulus of the abomasum and of the cecum are among the most acute and life-threatening conditions of the bovine abdomen.

Abdominal surgery to correct an abomasal volvulus, a cecal volvulus, or another GEI abnormality is typically performed in the right flank region (paralumbar fossa) with the animal standing.

Once collected, rumen fluid should be used as soon as possible because the microorganisms will become less effective with time.

Sterile obstetric chains should be available for assisting in vaginal extraction of calves. Each chain should be accompanied by at least two handles, so the assistant can help with the delivery.

Epidural anesthesia can be useful for reducing the pain associated with vaginal manipulation and for decreasing the force of uterine contractions so the vaginal manipulation of the fetus can be accomplished.

Normal rumen pH should be approximately 7.

The prognosis for successful treatment of joint luxation depends on how rapidly it is treated.

Hydroflotation is an option for assisting down cows to stand; it is the best option for supporting cattle for long periods.

Vaginal delivery can be successfully performed with the fetus presented head first or hind legs first.

When a C-section is performed in cattle, assistance is almost always required to extract the calf.

Caution must be used if a cow with uterine prolapse is transported over a long distance in a trailer before correction.

The absence of visible stones on radiographs does not rule out a diagnosis of urolithiasis.

Urethrostomy is a process that involves creating an opening in the urethra proximal to an obstruction. A urethrostomy can be performed rapidly and may not require general anesthesia.

Anticholinergics are used to counteract bradycardia and hypersalivation. LA and SA concentrations of injectable atropine differ in strength by a factor of almost 30. Do not mix them up!

The most common approach to the abdominal cavity is through a ventral midline incision, with the horse under general anesthesia and positioned in dorsal recumbency.

Post-castration hemorrhage is a potentially life-threatening complication. Hemorrhage should stop rapidly after surgery, and anything more frequent than an occasional drip should be monitored closely.

Mares are often uncomfortable after ovariectomy, but laparoscopic techniques are followed by much shorter and better-quality postoperative recoveries, requiring fewer analgesics and characterized by a more rapid return to function.

Prevention is very important aspect of urolithiasis management. The most important recommendation for owners of pet male goats and sheep is to feed no grain.

When evaluating a foal with a flexural or angular limb deformity, it is often easiest to perform this with the foal standing on a firm surface with no bedding. This allows accurate evaluation of foot and limb placement and conformation.

Laminitis (or founder) is a serious, often life-threatening disease of horses involving inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the feet. It often involves both front feet or all four feet.

The horse with non-weight bearing lameness is always an emergency because the differential diagnosis list includes severe laminitis, hoof abscess, septic arthritis, and fracture.

Left laryngeal hemiplegia (roarer) is a condition resulting in paralysis of the left arytenoid cartilage, which prevents it from being abducted during inspiration.

TRP (hardware disease) may lead to peritonitis, liver or reticular abscesses, pericarditis, vagal indigestion, or other secondary problems.

Lameness is commonly encountered in cattle and most often is caused by lesions or problems in the foot.

Formation of most stones is associated with ingestion of high-phosphorus diets, such as those high in concentrates (grain).

Foley catheters smaller than 16-Fr are not recommended for urethrostomy because they are easily plugged with blood clots or calculi.

Urinary calculi are composed of calcium carbonate and have a specular appearance. They occur frequently in horses.

Diseases of the foot may become so severe that they cannot be treated, thus necessitating amputation of the affected digit.

During dystocia or forced fetal extraction, the obturator and/ or sciatic nerves may sustain damage, resulting in “calving paralysis.”

During forced fetal extraction, obstetric chains should be looped above the calf’s fetlocks and half-hitched below the fetlocks to more evenly distribute pulling forces on the legs to prevent physeal (growth plate) fractures.

Uterine prolapse is considered an emergency because the possibility of shock from exposure of uterine mucosa, fatal hemorrhage from rupture of the middle uterine arteries, and concurrent hypocalcemia.

Ocular Squamous Cell Carcinoma, (OSCC), “cancer eye”, the most common tumor of cattle, results in large economic losses for cattle producers.

Male small ruminants are at high risk for development of obstructive urolithiasis as a result of feeding of excessive grain in the diet.

The optimal time for disbudding or dehorning kids is 3 to 5 days in buck kids and 5 to 7 days in doe kids.

Providing plenty of fresh water, shade, air movement, and small pools will help keep camelids cool and will prevent heat stress.

Partial insertion of the cannula into the teat canal delivers fewer contaminants to the udder that would occur with full insertion.

Animals that cannot stand or ambulate are at great risk for secondary problems, such as sores and muscle damage resulting from compression.

TRP, or hardware disease, is caused by the ingestion of sharp metallic objects, such as wire. Sharp objects can perforate the wall of the rectum, causing pericarditis.

A lead rope, although similar to a dog leash, is not a dog leash and should never be wrapped around hands or arms.

Constant irrigation of the drill bit is necessary while bone drilling is performed during fracture repair.

A patient may require thoracocentesis on both left and right sides because each may yield different laboratory results.

Abdominal palpation should be performed using a consistent routine in every patient to avoid omitting evaluation of any area.

A common problem attributed to poor nutrition in ewes is lambing paralysis or ketosis.

As much as possible, use gentle restraint when capturing and handling reptiles. Many reptiles present at veterinary hospitals with calcium and vitamin D deficiencies making them prone to iatrogenic bone fracture with rough handling.

Canine parvoviral enteritis is a highly contagious disease; infected patients must be housed in designated isolation areas during hospitalization.

Student: Jennifer L. Smith Instructor: Ramona Crane, CVT School: Apex College of Veterinary Technology Program: Veterinary Technology, A.A.S. Course: VET 402: Large Animal Nursing