Wentworth History/Theory 02.1 Summer 2020 Book by jdonovan

HISTORY T H E O RY

Wentworth Institute of Technology History/Theory O2, Professor Cowherd Summer 2O2O, Section 1

Contents Introduction

Contributors

Colonial Modernisms

Global Enlightenment?

Identity Tectonics

Technological Modernisms

Metropolis

Counter-Industrial Movements

Late Colonialism

Developmentalism

High Modernisms

107

Critical Regionalisms

120

Conclusion

132

Endnotes

134

Introduction How does a building mean? Who is it for?

Beyond precedent studies and aesthetic inspiration, history reveals the potential of architecture, once realized and used. It provides architects with the tools to analyze the past, decipher the present, and anticipate the future. It can be enlightening, but also daunting knowing how much power the built environment has. It is palpable and dominating, especially in urban centers. Using history one can recognize the need for a contemporary analysis of architecture. The world is constantly in flux. With a global pandemic, social injustice, global warming, overpopulation, and the need for resilient design, learning from the past and being critical of the present has never been more essential. Moreso, architecture has been, and in some cases still is, a significant contributor to the exacerbation and perpetuation of these issues. There are two critical functions of history theory course. The first is analysis. As architects we must analyze buildings as more than just beautiful pieces of art, but rather powerful assemblies of the Earth in which humans reside. History shows us that Architecture is more than shelter (Or has at least evolved from that humble definition as our necessities and Civilizations have grown more and more complex). Architecture can be seen as a cultural, societal, spiritual or national mirror, reflecting the values and desires of those who built it. Architecture steps into the realm of social, political, and economic relevance as history progresses. The second is a Tool to learn. Architectural

History shows us that Architects can reinforce or dismantle social ideologies, political agendas, and economic systems. Using this tool, architects can dissect a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nature, understanding its logic and its context in history, but also understanding the greater influences and symbolic gestures. The hope is to learn from the mistakes of the past, but also have the ability to catch mistakes in the present or future planning.

of each student. This does not mean skip to the end of the book, for as one learns from architectural history to make better architecture, so too does a reader learn from a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s past mistakes. Watching the evolution of the work is just as important to understanding it as is appreciating the more mature and developed content of the final chapters. That being said, the book flows as follows:

The first chapter, Colonial Modernisms, exThe content of this book reflects the aspirations plores symmetry, materiality and movement of analysis, to give you, the reader, the Tool. in the Swahili Coast, Japan, Java, and Amsterdam. The next, Global Enlightenment?, delves The work presented in this book is the culmiinto surveillance and architecture as a tool of nation of three and half months of sketched control in Enlightenment France and Haiti. analysis and written narratives that incorporate Identity Tectonics, the third chapter, focuses on the Theory into architectural history. 19 stusymmetry, materiality, power and the advent of dents under the guidance of Professor Cowherd the nation state in Prussia, France, and Japan. have brought these works to life, attempting to The fourth chapter, Technological Modernisms, shed light on new perspectives and build on old covers the Industrial Revolution and its techones. Each student completed either a narranological implications in London, Zanzibar tive or analysis for each of 10 lectures given and the United States. Metropolis explores the throughout the semester. urban form and Haussmannization in Paris, London, Casablanca and Chicago. The sixth The Narrative assignments brought the analysis chapter, Counter-Industrial Movements, covers of chapter themes and broader contexts into a rejection of Industrialization and embrace of the course. It was a collaborative effort relying Arts & Crafts and nature in Europe, the United on groups of students to coordinate and build States and Japan. Late Colonialism, the sevone comprehensive piece of text every week. enth chapter, focuses on architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s colonial Dotted among the narratives are a series of implications and the role of tradition in Europe, Analysis sketches which practice exploration India, the Congo, Indochina, and the Dutch in two dimensions. The hand became a meEast Indies. Chapter eight, Developmentalism, diator between architecture and intent as our explores politics, propaganda and abstraction at peers highlighted elements and forms, breaking the turn of the century, and through World War down meaning and symbolism. Attached is a I and II. High Modernism, the ninth chapter, succinct one paragraph claim-based argument delves into simplicity, pattern, and transparency informed by the sketch which allowed students of Modern architecture in Europe and the Unitto practice powerful and effective, yet efficient ed States. The tenth chapter, Critical Regionwriting. alisms, covers the regionalist and place-driven reaction to the International Style in BanglaThe relationship between the two exercises was desh, Africa, Japan, and more. reflexive, and each iteration informed the next. As the semester progressed, so did the strengths One of the most crucial architectural tools

is the ability to ask questions - of buildings, architects, movements, philosophies, and most importantly, ourselves. History itself must be subjected to intensive questioning. Can it be trusted, is it fact or simply “the act of making history”? Is it written by the victors - or more accurately, by the conquerors? How should it be approached today when there has been a clear Euro-centric and Imperialist slant. Should history even be learned linearly, or is chronology just a construction that flattens the web of influences and connections throughout architecture? While reading, observing, and later, designing, we hope that some of these questions may provoke and inspire. Throughout this course, we have been asked to question architecture, urbanism and the pedagogy itself to figure out what it does and why, and for who does it serve, neglect, or oppress. Can design exist in a cultural, psychological or societal vacuum? How does architecture serve a political, national or imperial purpose, like that of Haussmannization or Albert Speer? Or a commercial purpose, such as the Fordist Futurama? How much good can come from “building a more humane slave ship”? Can we tear down the master’s house with the master’s tools?

Who should we serve? The client?

The people?

The planet?

Contributers Chapter 4 Editors Richard Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;avella Meagan Herd Chapter 5 Editors Haimanot Hailu Schuyler Wilkerson Chapter 6 Editors Skylar Chardon Andrew Herzog Section Professor Robert Cowherd Lecturing Professors Jennifer Gaugler Greg Logan

Chapter 7 Editors Skylar Chardon Andrew Herzog Chapter 8 Editors Orea Plloci

Introduction Jeremy Donovan Andres Jimenez

Chapter 9 Editors Ryan Mullen Hannah Perry

Chapter 1 Editors Carvens Charles Joshua Ssebuwufu

Chapter 10 Editors Ryan Mullen Hannah Perry

Chapter 2 Editors Crystal Njoroge Sarah Stefaniak

Conclusion Sam Johnson Carrington Leclerc

Chapter 3 Editors Gina McCarthy Brianna Torres

Editing and Grahpic Design Jeremy Donovan Andres Jimenez

O1 Colonial Modernisms

Symmetry in Classical Buildings

The Queen’s House in London, the “single house” in South Carolina along with the exterior study of Baroque architecture all follow similar principles in that there are a variety of components that are symmetrical throughout both exterior and interiors of the buildings or spaces. At first sight, the facades are the highlight of symmetry that you can find when analyzing these buildings. There is a strong use of columns along the exterior front which captures one’s eye. The vertical weight of these columns guide one’s eye to then realize the equal horizontal aesthetic they create for the viewer. They sometimes became one within the facade but other times created a space such as a porch, providing two very different ambiances while maintaining their symmetry between the English classical style at the same time.The sizing of large windows and doors create a repetitive style throughout the facade and sometimes also continues towards the sides and back adjacents of the buildings.

Material Similarities Between Structures

Materiality also comes into play with careful thought of brick and stone work which create a parallelism. This parallelism can be described by the physical features such as rectangular or square-like bricks and stones that form these “lines” that can be followed from corner to corner. All of these aspects sometimes also translate into the interior layout of these buildings or spaces. Material similarities are seen in different buildings regardless of what time period they were built in, whether that be for structural purposes, aesthetic, or feasibility. The Central Market by Henrick De Keyser, Gesu Mother Church, and the English Classical style house, even though spanning over centuries from one another, all

Amsterdam Canal House are are early evidence of vertical mixed use design. The Golden Age, 12751795 (Haimanot Hailu CC BY) sectionbased on images in Robert Cowherd, “03 Identity Tectonics ,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, (27 May 2020) prespective and elevation images based on Fergus O’Sulivan,”Why Amsterdam’s Camal Houses Endured for 300 Years,” CityLab. (15 Jan 2020)

Amsterdam Canal House Amsterdam’s canal houses are evidence of the early development of vertical mixed-use design and urban expansion. During the golden age, the town was expanding rapidly due to the wealth in the trade center, so the city responded by building three main canals around town1. Looking at the floor plans it is ovbious that they are designed to be multi functional that mixes residential with comercial. The front basment of the house is used as a shop since its visable from the streets and has eassy acces, and the cranes projecting from their gables are evidence for the fast comercial city that needs storage place. What are the social, and personal benefits of these vertical mixed use space? What can we learn from them and how can they be improved?

use stone columns significantly in their facade. The specific use of these stone columns differs per building, however, they all serve to support the building as well as add character to the building’s facade. Commonly used materials seen in facades are brick and stone, which can be seen in The Queen’s house, Ozpizio di San Michele, Himeji Castle, the “single house”, and the Amsterdam Canal House. Having a

facade constructed out of brick or stone adds advantages in both durability and fire resistance compared to a facade that is composed of wood or other materials.

Organization and Movement of Buildings

In Baroque architecture, the organization of the building in plan is very symmetrical, which cre-

Colonial Modernisms

To show the depth of the building through the eyes of a person passing by. Perspective of 1690s Ospiziodi San Michele, Rome by Ferdinando Fuga (more details proposed a century later by Jeremy Bentham, Carrington LeClerc CC By)based on images in the history and theory book, “Colonial Modernism”, Wentworth Institute of Technology (13 May 2020).

Sworn To Secrecy Ospizio di san michele was a building to represent depth. It gives a better understanding for the guards who look after this building. While most of the building can be shown as a modernized and centralized plan, Ferdinando Fuga was the one to build this building around the 1690’s. It contained a hospice, workplace, and prison to house the poor and unemployment.2 The whole thing is well proportioned so that the people who are there are not squished. In this building people were swarned to not say anything and keep everything a secret from one another almost like keeping quiet for the whole time they are there. This piece of architecture was supposed to represent and identify the condition and behavior of a social problem. Built around a series of courts the wings were covered on a centralized plan for a church. The balconies also allowed better surveillance of the inmates. Couldn’t they just make the floor plan a circle instead of a rectangular building to allow the guards to have a better view of the inmates?

ates a repetitive style throughout the structure. An example of this being the Gesu in Rome, Italy by Sebasitano Serlio. In this building, there are columns lining the sides, leaving the center of the room more open, allowing free movement within the space. There isn’t a set pattern of circulation formed by the setup of the Gesu. On the other hand, a building with a much more clear method of movement would

be Ninomaru Palace. The floor plan as a whole is asymmetrical, each room must be entered in a certain order because there is only one main entrance. The organization of the Ninomaru Palace creates a clear movement of circulation from public to private. Organization within a building can also show hierarchy of people through space. For instance, in the Tai-an Tearoom, the teamaster and the guest have two

Perfect representation of symmetry with ideal of power shown throughout the building from foundation to bricks. Elevation of The Queens House, Greenwich London, by Inigo Jones. (Sam Johnson CC BY) Based on images from Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

Colonial Prowess The Queens House in London was one of the most unused buildings that King James I had ever commissioned. If you were to cut the building in half you would not see a difference on either side. The symmetry of the entire building helps to provide prominence and further build its presence. The stones on the outside faĂ§ade are even cut in such a manner so that they are more pronounced and bring a presence to the building.3 The lower foundation of the building is so powerful that it makes the building itself feel approachable. This building is one of the purest examples of classical architecture within London. This leads me to ask, if this building were never built, would there have been such a large influx of classical architecture all around London?

seperate entrances when entering the Tearoom. The teamaster enters from the north side of the tearoom where he moves through spaces to get to the tea room to prepare for the ceremony. The guest enters through a crawl space which leads to the tearoom. The hierarchy of this space shows that the tea master gets to move through the spaces whereas the guest only gets to enter the tea room.

Baroque is a style of architecture that uses a lot of symmetry when it comes to looking at it in the big picture. However, when you come closer to a piece of architecture from the Baroque era, the symmetry ceases to matter or to be taking much space in a visitorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind, because now they are focusing more on the extravagance that is displayed in Baroque architecture. Overlapping the Italian Renaissance,

Colonial Modernisms

How Architecture -Proximity, Design, and Law- Build Trust and Lead to a Robust Economy. Perspective, Axonometric of 1617 Central Market, Netherlands by Henrick De Keyser (Andres Jimenez CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd, “Colonialisms,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (14 MAY 2020). [1] Robert Cowherd, “Colonialisms,” History-Theory-02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (13 May 2020).

Marketing Trust: The Architecture of Relationships The architect Henrick De Keyser achieved trust in his Central Market through the use of columns and an arcade-like plan to create a strong economy forthe Dutch Republic. The column’s height and the use of signage eased wayfinding for customers. Keyser also employed an arcade-like design allowing for Merchants to pick up on trends and adust their prices or goods accordingly (an early version of a stock exchange).4 The proximity of the market to the Quays allowed buyers to inspect their products, ensuring reliability. Keyser also designed facilities to enforce the standards, maintenance, and authenticity of transactions. Combined, these elements in the market forged trust, allowing for a sustainable economy. Ultimately Keyser’s design successfully created a robust economic model for Dutch Republic. How can our designs build relationships in separated or in conflict, places, or people?

Baroque emphasizes rich color, realism, and the great mythological stories. If in other buildings people have a defined way of how to move within it, in Baroque it is different. People don’t necessarily have a defined way of how to move within Baroque buildings, but they are moved emotionally when they are close enough to the building to see the ornate details and the overthe-top aesthetic, where the aim is to inspire

awe. And for good reason! The Italians knew the impact that the mythological stories have on people. The mythological stories of the past are almost archetypal, stories that people will always find to be true and resonate with. They made these buildings resemble a drama, something that people can be inspired by, but also even slightly terrified by. In a way, Baroque moves people from order to chaos. If they’re

13 Rebirth of Modernation The next generation will be the ones to make a change throughout history that has more significance and can evolve bigger. One settler named William Byrd the 3rd followed his father’s footsteps when he constructs vernacular brick houses, but his son felt it could be changed with a more modern style that can be mixed with brick houses. This house is in Charleston, South Carolina and it is a typical “single house” that is 3 stories high and has features like a lateral porch and wall, brick chimney, a broken pediment that stood with classical pilaster columns and high style windows.5 He used the previous vernacular brick house from the fire and included it with a combination of an English country house and sophisticated style. It took a third generation to create a new and improved design that has such significance to the history of architecture, and many can agree that to create something new, it can overpower the older creations. Since throughout architectural history that generations make a change, how can we further explore changes within vernacular buildings throughout time?

Improvising an older generation to create a new vernacular design. Elevations of 18th century Typical Single Houses, Charleston, South Carolina by William Byrd the 3rd. (Carvens G Charles CC By) Based on images in Ingersoll, R (2019) Page 585. Pages 574-577 Ingersoll, R. (2019). World architecture: a cross-cultural history. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

far enough from it, they see a simple, symmetrical shape, that is easy to process and predictable. However, once you go close enough to the building and inside of it, your mind is captured by the art that you’re surrounded by and the ethereality, and if the atrium is meant to be spacious, you might still bump into someone else, them being probably as lost as you are.

Buildings based on Cultural Values

Structures like the Typical Single House in Charleston, SC, and the Tai-an Tearoom in Kyoto, Japan are greatly based on the cultural values of their time periods. As early as looking at the design before entering you can see what values the culture appreciated. For example, the single house that was designed for settlers in the 18th century needed shelter, so they built a

Colonial Modernisms

Levels of Privacy in Japanese Architecture, plan of 1679 Ninomaru Palace, Kyoto by the Tokugawa shogunate. Based on images in Robert Cowherd, “Colonial Modernisms” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 5/12/2020.

Ninomaru Palace In this sample of Japanese architecture, they use a few different techniques for establishing levels of privacy in the building. When looking at it in plan, you can see how the building progresses in plan through different rooms all connected by small openings. But looking at pictures of the interior, you can see that elevations are also used to achieve this. Each room is slightly different height than the last which really emphasized the progression through the building.6 The end result of this design is a progression from public spaces to private space where the shoguns quarters are. As indicated on the plan, there is only one entry point towards the front of the building. If there were more than one point of egress, this strategy would not work nearly the same. Even though this was built hundreds of years ago, this is a strategy that can and is currently used a lot in modern architecture.

multi-story home with exterior facade columns. Even though it is a fair simple design back then it was very complex and took three generations to build. Which later aided in very questionable life choices for those who owned homes like these. Even further back in the 1580s, across the world in Kyoto, Japan commonly known as Tai-an Tearoom forced individuals outside to enter the homes unarmed and forced people

to “bow (a sign of respect)” as they entered the home. Both of these design choices have been brought in by the older generations of different locations. The typical house has inspiration choices form Europe while the tea house has some from China. The inspiration of older generations also had cultural value in the design. However they do show contrast from each other based on the culture at the time. The single

The Tai-an Teahouse, was designed clearly using the architectural theory of wabi-sabi the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clear connection to the theory is what makes it so great. Plan and perspective of 1580s Tai-an Teahouse, Kyoto (Maegan Herd CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 532-533.

Wabi- Sabi: The True Beauty of Tai-an Teahouse The true beauty of this building is found in the architectural theory of wabi-sabi. .The tearoom is largely based on wabi-sabi, as seen by the asymetrical layout and rustic materials.7 The asymmetrical forms of the interior and exterior shine through, accentuating the imperfectness of the structure. The materials that are used in the tearoom are largely left unfinished, contributing to the wabi-sabi design of the house. The wabi-sabi theory is clearly shown the whole way through and truly embodies the ideas, which is what makes it so great. How does wabi-sabi continue to influence architecture today and how can it influence your designs in the future?

house has an interior inspired by the Greeks and made the home seem grander, while the Tearoom was praised for being minimalist.

The Culture of Today and Architecture

Having a family and living happily and comfortably is the main value society strives for. Even today many homes today are still built

with the Single House design.

Connection to Modern Day

From looking to our past we can draw certain conclusions and connections about architecture. Buildings such as the Tai-an Tea Room in Japan and the Central Market in Amsterdam establish important connections to modern day architecture. Minimalism can relate directly back to

Colonial Modernisms

Importance of shadow shown through a ghosted axonometric drawing, 1580s Tai-an Teahouse, Sen No Rikyo, (Jeremy Donovan CC BY) Based on images from Robert Cowhed “Colonial Modernisms 01,” History-Theory 02 lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, July 17 2020.

The Depth of Shadow The Tai-an teahouse has an atmosphere beyond the grasp of images. Jun’ichiro Tanizaki writes that “the beauty of a Japanese room depends on a variation of shadows”.8 This teahouse is a contemplative place, washed in inky darkness, with faint light seeping through paper windows and bamboo wattles. Alcoves with thoughtfully placed paintings or ikebana flowers and the space’s textures act as canvases for shadows. The guest must crawl - weaponless - through a small door, immediately gazing at the alcove where the darkness culminates. When they rise and decompress, the ceiling is canted up, immersing them in the shadows above. 9 Should a building where ambiance is so vital be flattened and misportrayed by photography? Or are our thoughts of rich, layered shadows the only stand-in the Tai-an Teahouse deserves?

modernism, and one of the structures analyzed, the Tai-an Tea Room, exhibits this idea well. Although the Tea Room is seen as a high class structure, it represents a sense of minimalism that promotes cleanliness and relaxation. The simplicity of the building can be reflected in today’s culture, where a great deal of modern architecture is focused on simple and clear motifs. The ritualistic aspect of the structure can

also be tied back to modern day, as the culture of the Tea Room is a strong part of Japan’s history. Tying these ideals into another piece of architecture, the layout of the Central Market is greatly similar to the organizational tactics used in today’s market places and cities. At the very heart of the central market, is the very begin-

17 Interior and Exterior Baroque Architecture Discussing the successful achievement of baroque architecture with in the building. Elevation of 1551 Gesu, Rome by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta, (Skylar Chardon CC BY) Based on images from on Robert Cowherd, “Colonial Modernisms 01” (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, July 17th , 2020)

This building uses complex and intricate patterns as well as curvaceous geometry to give the building a sense of motion. Vignola and Porta created large imposing columns in a repetitive pattern throughout the façade of the building, these massive supports give the viewer a sense of the grandeur of the building. This building was originally designed by Sebasitano Serlio a architect specializing in details, of creating interesting forms, and emphasizing geometric shapes.10 His Ideas were not lost by Vagnola and Port who brought this early baroque piece to fruition. The architects also translated the architectural languages of the façade to the interior plan by continuing to use repetitive patterns and elliptical shapes throughout. How does contemporary architecture create a sense of motion from an otherwise static structure.

ning of an economy. By bringing the buyer and modern buildings. seller together, sparked the evolution of the layout of where stores, warehouses, and banks should be placed as a center of commerce. Today, go to any city or town and you will find these places in relative proximity to one another because of Kaiser’s model. As exhibited in each of these examples, there is a direct relationship between tactics used in historic structures and

Colonial Modernisms

Fortifications allow for the castle to be protected from attackers. Based on images from 01 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Colonial Modernismâ&#x20AC;?, History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (12 May 2020) (Richard Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avella CC BY)

Fortifying Your House. Himeji Castle defensive capabilities made it one of the hardest castles to siege or attack in Japan. Himeji Castle was designed to not only show the power and authority of the owner, but also to provide new defensive capabilities against new weaponry. The castle itself was surrounded by three moats that hindered the number of attackers from reaching the city.11 The stone foundation was sloped at an angle that made it harder for an attacker to climb therefore they had to find an alternative route. The castle featured rock drops which allowed the defenders to drop rocks and hot water down on attackers. The loopholes made it very easy for the defenders to attack invaders, using range-based weapons like bows and the newly introduced firearms, while keeping them relatively safe from the attackers range based weapons. The way that they protected the defenders was that the inside opening was wider and as the opening went through the wall it tapered down in size, this allowed for less projectiles from entering the castle. With the world always on edge, should we adopt defensive advantages for our modern homes and buildings?

O2 Global Enlightenment?

Enlightenment and the Rise of Surveillance

Modernity. Power. Surveillance. These are the key themes that emerged throughout the period of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment can be characterized as the age of thought and science. It is here where architecture became part of a scientific discussion and experimentation where new ideals blossomed such as “moderns and ancients.” Moderns were architects who believed in the classical rules of proportion given by the human body, but also that there is more than one way to do architecture. Symmetry and Openness were fundamental elements used by Architects of this time to facilitate the Philosophies of the Enlightenment through a more “modern” architecture. On the other side of the Enlightenment was Revolution and turmoil. Citizens under Monarchy rule were tired and frustrated with horrible conditions and lifestyles. Under oppression came Revolution, and then reform. It was here that the ideas of improving the living standards of the people started to develop, however, these idealistic goals often led to the intentional and/ or unintentional effects of a new form of power through surveillance. Through semi circular and circular plans leaders gained the power to monitor and manage society. This translation from the age of thought and science, to revolution and reform, to surveillance as a means of power, did not so much improve the life of the individuals. Here we can see a contradiction of the Enlightenment Ideals.

Symmetry & Open Concept

Symmetry and the idea of open concept are two aspects of architecture that can be found throughout history. Modern buildings including the Pantheon Church and Ecole de Chirurgie help to provide inspiration for the use of these architectural elements. Both ideas are able to

Encouraging a feeling of exceptional lightness using thoughtful consideration of heavy and industrial materials. Plan, section of 1790 Panthéon, Paris by Jacques-Germain Soufflot (Ryan Mullen CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “02.2 Explorations of Form.” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (19 May 2020).

Light as a Feather The Panthéon, despite being made largely of stone, feels light and open through innovative design regarding the use of hidden and visible structural support. The reason for this was to follow the ideals of the Enlightenment which strived for a simpler look.12 Isolated columns throughout the interior support the roof structure, completely opening the inside physically and visually. A pendentive lies at the base of the three domes which sit within one another. To support the heavy load of the stone domes, hidden buttresses flank each corner. The most innovative structural members in the design are the iron cramps located within the stone. The iron adds support to the domes and was considered as modern at the time. Out of each support system, which would be considered the strongest/most effective?

bounce off of each other to create buildings that provide peculiar interactions with space. In an open concept idea particular buildings including the pantheon church, and Ecole de Chirurgie use columns to invite you into the building allowing you to move freely without being in a compressed area. They really focus on how the center of the building is the most important which gives it a sense of space. The

smaller columns give it a clean and simple look which allows the person’s eye to really concentrate on the open concept idea. The larger columns in front give it a sense of heaviness which draws the eyes of pedestrians walking by. Both structures are very large in height. The entrances of both places give it a feel of walking up and immediately being able to move freely in space. With open spaces comes a certain type

Global Enlightenment?

Simple Facade. Elevation, of Ecole de Chirurgie 1769 Paris, France, (Sarah Stefaniak CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 14

Movement Through Learning The Ecole de Chirurgie was designed specifically to allow students to move without restrictions. The building was designed to allow people to walk in freely. There are no steps into the structure but rather a flat plane that comes in from the street. The architecture allows people to see into the school from the streets. Instead an enclosed wall for the facade, Gondoin created a colonade.13 The colonnade is large in height, and many support the structure. The entryway into the structure is arched and just as tall as the colonnade to create an open space. In this modern era, should we continue to allow for open spaces in the entrance of schools?

of symmetry that can allow for a wonderful creation of space.

structure. Also, designing a building that is equal on both sides puts less stress on the architect of the building. While this may be easier Symmetrical buildings help to provide ease and it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t take away from the beauty that can satisfaction to those that look upon the buildbe found in buildings like the Royal Saltworks. ing. This can be seen within buildings such as The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s symmetry gives it a prominence the Pantheon and buildings built in the Panopthat otherwise would be lost. The space surticon style. The symmetry within the building rounding the saltworks is so efficient that it helps those to oversee the spaces within the makes the buildings all flow together in such a

IEnlightment and the rise of Palladiansim. Elevation and plan view of the House of Wonders, 1771 Monticello (Joshua L. Ssebuwufu CC BY SA) based on images from Jennifer Gaugler, “04 Technological modernisms,” History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (6/2/2020)

Palladian Idealism: A Vehicle for Enlightenment Values? Palladian architecture was used as an illusion of the Enlightenment to conceal activities that went against values of the Enlightenment. The Monticello by Thomas Jefferson is the best example. Built in the late 17th century, the Monticello uses Palladian design principles i.e. relative interior and exterior, equal value façade and cruciform organization, to conceal the domestic industry of the enslaved servants.14 The Dome, pendentive and columns express a sense of philosophy for the Palladian top used for entertaining guests dominates the living and working spaces of the servants. This proves that the Monticello uses Palladian principles as a disguise and thus does not conform to the values of freedom and Liberty of the Enlightenment era. Was the Enlightenment really a movement of reform?

way that it provides comfort for those working. Symmetry as an overall concept is an idea that can be transferred to most all buildings in some form. With the idea of an open concept, there is a strong focus of allowing people to enter the building based on the entrance design. Both the Pantheon and the Ecole de Chirurgie represent

the movement of an entrance technique as it creates a unique pathway for people to enter. The entrances of the Pantheon and the Ecole de Chirurgie illustrate the architects’ focus on open concept design. Through radial symmetry, architecture can let one observe many spaces from a central point. Some Enlightenment-era designers incorporated open concept plans and symmetry to facilitate efficiency, but this gave

Global Enlightenment?

Prison Architecture Buildings like the Panopticon are the reason prisons in the prison systems are terrible far beyond timed served. Built in the nineteenth century with mainly steel and minimal utilities for the inmates, the prison has a low budget build quality. The Panopticon was designed to constantly watch inmates throughout the prison, mainly from the watch tower in the center of the prison. The prison was designed to monitor the maximum number of prisoners with the minimum number of guards.15 The Panopticon was a relatively multi story, but the cells were small and not suitable for human living. The prison itself was overcrowded and was never adjusted for the inmates. Due to the lack of supplies and space prisoners would have been treated poorly.16 Even though prison architecture has evolved and been refined, why not the way prisoners are treated?

rise to surveillance.

tion, the living quarters are placed in a circular fashion so that they can all be seen from the main building. The Saltworks is also oriented in Surveillance Through Design a semi-circle pattern, this is to optimize space Beginning in 1775, the Saltworks at Arc-etSenans in France, we can see by looking at the between buildings creating a more efficient possite, how the architect designed with the idea of sible area needed to be surveyed. surveillance heavily in mind. There is only one Jeremy Bentham in the 18th century designed point of egress, so as to prevent the workers the panopticon prison to crudely monitor the from escaping or just wandering off. In addi-

Showing historic prison surveillance and watching criminals with minimal effort. Plan, section and Elevation of 1790 Panopticon, Belarus by Jeremy Bentham (Schuyler Wilkerson CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, â&#x20AC;&#x153;02.2 Explorations of Form,â&#x20AC;? History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (19 May 2020)

Architects shift away from the complex Baroque design and construct a simpler version of the iconic design. Elevation and section of The Pantheon (Crystal Njoroge CC BY) based on images from https://www. britannica.com/ topic/Pantheon-building-Paris-France and Jennifer Gaugler, “02.2 Explorations of Form,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (19 May 2020)

Simplified Architecture Architects started to shift away from the complex Baroque design and started to convey that concept into a simpler structure. There are some similar designs such as the Corinthian columns and the engravings, but looking at The Panthéon, it is clear to see how different it is compared to Baroque structures. The facade is smooth, rather than having ornaments placed. The dome and the triangular pediment also give the building its own look. Iron rods embedded into the stone structure to strengthen the structure as a whole. This method also achieves Gothic and Classical features in the structure.17 Do you think that transitioning to a simpler version of the Baroque style decreases the appreciation of the initial style, or is this a new way of passing on the concept to create a new design?

occupants of the prison. The name itself panopticon translates to “all visible.” While Bentham only published drawings of this idea, It was brought to life in the 1920s in America. The idea was simple, arrange all the prison cells in several levels around the outside of a circle with the guard’s station directly in the middle. Without the use of surveillance technology like we have today, this was an inspired solution.

Although a bit unpolished, it was effective in that the guard could see every single prisoner, and on top of that, the circular layout would’ve made the prisoners wary of the guard, even if they couldn’t see him. As we can see in other examples the circular pattern allows for optimal security in many fashions and this is what sets these buildings apart as precedents for security advantages through architecture. In the Panop-

Global Enlightenment?

Placement of Power The layout of the Royal Saltworks forced a unity amongst two different kinds of people.Simple forms became prominent in the columns, the mix of crisp corners of the square blocks and the smooth cylindrical form are combined. “They could be resembling the blocks of salt that were produced or revealing how the columns were made.”18 During this time you also begin to see “Architecture Parlante”, or speaking architecture.Sculptures of flowing water run across the exterior walls further define the purpose of this building.When you look at the overall layout you see what’s referred to as the panopticon or “all seeing” architecture.The directors house in the middle and workers housing creating the perimeter allowing for easy viewing of all the workers.This is a mechanism of power forced a unity amongst the workers and the director because although they were being watched, there is still forced interaction between these two classes due to the shared common grounds. If the director lived at the perimeter would the same panopticon approach be executed?

ticon and Saltworks buildings, the capability of the authorities to see all gave the inmates and workers the unnerving sense that they are constantly under scrutiny.

Placement and Distribution of Power. Front view and Plan view of 1774-79 Royal Saltworks, France by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux. (Brianna Torres CC BY) based on images from Jen Gaugler’s, “2 – Enlightenment, History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (19 May 2020).

revolution grows an architecture of illusion for different purposes such as keeping surveillance or even keeping a sense of seclusion.

Thomas Jefferson’s residence in Monticello The Illusion of Seclusion vs. Surveillance is one of the best examples of the illusion of seclusion during the global enlightenment era. The Panopticon is a great example of SurveilThe facade and even the interior of the home lance, but more so the illusion of surveillance. were designed to hide Jefferson’s slaves in And so, in this time of Enlightenment and

The radial plan and symmetry of the panopticon influences architecture in all ages. Perspective, section and details of 1790 Panopticon, Jeremy Bentham, (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd’s, “The Panopticon” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (17 July 2020), and Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019) The radial plan and symmetry of the panopticon influences architecture in all ages. Perspective, section and details of 1790 Panopticon, Jeremy Bentham, (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd’s, “The Panopticon” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (17 July 2020), and Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019)

Dino Felluga, “Modules on Foucault: On Panoptic and Carceral Society,” Perdue, 2002, https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/ newhistoricism/modules/foucaultcarceral.html

SocietalSurveillance Surveillance Societal symmetry of of the the panopticon panopticon influences influences architecture architecture in all ages. ages. Although Although the panopticon panopticon The radial plan and symmetry control and surveillance surveillance of prisoners, prisoners, this design can be translated to many works works today. The was used for control circle composition composition of the cells cells with the tower in the middle is much like a theatre we would see today with 19 The use of symmetry in the circle allows any person to view radial seating seating to to the the point point of of the thetower tower.(1). The use of symmetry in the circle allows any person to view the anyone in the center cancan see see people in it’sinradius. This symmetry center from from any anypoint pointbut buton onthe theother otherhand, hand, anyone in the center people it’s radius. This symand radial can relate classrooms and lecture halls too where everyone can becan seen. Do you metry and design radial design can to relate to classrooms and lecture halls too where everyone be seen. Dothink you there there are times wherewhere societalsocietal surveillance is necessary? think are times surveillance is necessary?

secret rooms, passageways or below grade, and give the illusion that Jefferson was doing all of the work, such as cooking, himself. This design included the exterior architecture hiding what was truly going on on the inside. Attic spaces not visible from the exterior hid slaves out of sight from guests. On the other hand, Claude-Nicholas Ledoux, laid out the buildings of the Royal Saltworks with the

director’s house in the middle, surrounded by the residences of the workers. Since the director’s house was in the middle, it allowed an illusion of surveillance, especially since the workers never knew if or when they were being watched. This plan exudes the illusion of surveillance. This caused psychological issues for the workers, which gave the director more control over them.

Global Enlightenment?

Expressing a sense of surveillance with the design of a radial layout. Section of 1790 Panopticon design, England by Jeremy Bentham (Gina McCarthy CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 637.

Surveillance In Architecture The Panopticon’s radial floor plan creates a strong sense of surveillance for anyone occupying the space. The building is designed with a cylinder booth in the center so that one can observe everything going on in the full 360-degree radius from inside, acting as a sort of “control center”. From the outer cells, the open walls allowed views to the center booth, but a person would not be able to see the interior of the center to see if anyone is watching. Jeremy Bentham designed this with the intended use to be for disciplinary situations, presuming that people would be more likely to behave properly if it seemed like they were always being watched.20 Would implementing this concept into prisons today would be successful in decreasing violence among inmates?

The owner of the buildings or facility had power over how the viewer perceives the structure and form. Like in Jefferson’s Monticello, he controlled how his visitors viewed him and the function of the home, fully run and occupied by himself and his family, though he owned hundreds of slaves total. The Royal Saltworks form of control and power was the director being an all-seeing eye over the workers, which

allowed him to elicit good behavior from them. This sense of control formed and shaped the architectural layout and design of the facility. The semicircle design allowed for full visibility of the surrounding residential homes.

The Contradiction of Enlightenment Ideals In Enlightenment Europe, architectural dis-

Expressing power through architecture. Perspective of 1774 Katalnaya Gorka by Antonio RInaldi based on images in Robert Cowherd, “High Modernism 1,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (17 July 2019).

Expressing Power Thorugh Architecture. The Katal’naya Gorka celebrates the grandeur of Russia during Queen Catherine’s empire. The dome, doric columns, post and lintel system, and the overall symmetricality bring a Roman and Greek influence to the building, and produce an effect of influence and elitism of ancient architecture.21 The large stairs in the front of the building, when being climbed, give the effect of ritualistically making a journey in order to arrive and aspire to something greater, in this case, the Katal’naya Gorka. The richness of the colours’ expression points to the Baroque, which makes the building have even more of an influence of the visitors by appealing to their senses and evoking emotional states. The little sculptures on the balconies’ boundaries are visually aesthetical, but also unnecessary, which gives the impression of wealth by showing the ability to use art as a means of mere entertainment. Where can we draw the line between art and aesthetics being used to show wealth versus them having a deeper meaning for us on a personal level?

course expanded beyond the realm of experienced builders, and philosophers and intellectuals sparked interest in architecture as an agent of social reform. The architecture of buildings such as schools, factories, prisons and hospitals became a focus of Enlightenment architects. Ledoux imagined his royal saltworks building as a more equitable factory, with collective housing for all the workers. At the same

time, the radial plan allowed the director to be watching at any moment. In Bentham’s unrealized design for the Panopticon, the same use of circular plans allowed for the constant surveillance - or illusion thereof. Both Ledoux and Bentham wanted to improve society, but what they achieved was an architecture of control. The ideal of architecture serving society was twisted into an apparatus for psychological

chapter

manipulation, giving the authorities even more power. In many ways, the surveillance and ambiguity of privacy in the architecture of the saltworks, Panopticon, and Monticello serve as a precedent for the modern-day. The ever-present possibility of surveillance hovers over our public interactions. In our homes, smartphones and devices, websites, and social media platforms track and analyze our actions. We might feel alone, but this perceived privacy is an illusion. While in theory, the Enlightenment aimed to improve society for the people, in many cases it only proliferated social control.

O3 Identity Tectonics

Culture Influencing Architecture

Architects are stewards of the cultural ship that steers an era. Revolutions in history have attributed to the future of architecture based on the needs and what people are feeling at that point in time. Architecture is used to embody a society based on the events in the past. Dating back to the Caribbean Primitive Hut, the community used the materials they had to make a shelter for their needs therefore bringing each other together. This is no different from modern times now. Society puts their emotions into their structures. In fact, analyzing a building can reveal a lot about a unity. Communities in the Neoclassical Era felt a sense of pride during both the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution and valued a universal architecture for all. The revival of both revolutions produced different forms of neoclassical style. This style embodied symmetry and standardization as shown in The Altes Museum and Kedleston Hall. A nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity provokes architectural styles such as the differences in neoclassicism buildings of the age. Symmetry and the inviting grandior that each of these buildings captures gives people a sense of comfort in unity. After the french revolution, power and identity were prominent in making a statement through the use of large entryways and columns which brought the community alone to the modern nation state. Although The Altes Museum and Kedleston Hall are different in terms of materiality and style, the fact remains the same that each of these structures manifests the culture of their time. By analyzing the forms of architecture in the Neoclassical Era, a connection between the essence of an era and the architecture can be seen in its construction. Buildings of each movement and age are a reflection of the heart of individuals of a nation. Through examples of the prim-

The Government House is somewhat a direct architectural quotation of The Kedleston Hall, although.Floor plan and Elevation of 1803 Government House, Calcutta, British East Indies, by Charles Wyatt and 1770 Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire England, by Robert Adam. (Haimanot Hailu CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd, “03 Identity Tectonics ,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, (27 May 2020)

Architecture Emulation The emulation of the fashionable neoclassical style of Kedleston Hall into East Indian soil to be the Governor’s Palace cast India under the power of Europe. British rule India in the 1760s, the East India Company (EIC), constructed buildings to define Europe’s nations and emphasize power through architecture.22 From the floor plan, we can see how Charles Wyatt has reproduced the Kedleston Hall with some noticeable difference. They both have a large, rectangular central block with curved passages connecting the four pavilions. The notable differences are the large openings of the window, which adapts to the climate difference, and the spatial programs that have been arranged to serve different functional needs. Overall this leads me to ask what influenced the architect Charles Wyatt to choose the Kedleston Hall as his base inspiration or replication for the Government House?

itive hut, The Altes Museum and Kedleston Hall, it is clear that people embody their culture in the form of architecture to symbolize their power and community by form, materiality and function to live on as structures forever.

From Community to the Modern Nation State

Community based structures in architecture are

defined by specific choices in the design of the structure, with the goal being to bring the community and their values together. As early as the primitive hut was developed it was accepted that communities would indulge in community activities, capturing the values of people who made it. These values later evolve on in history to become grand structures that assert power with new aged material but yet keep ancient

Identity Tectonics

Using simple technologies to really define architecture in a different light. Perspective, Section, Plan, and details of 1851 Primitive Caribbean Hut, by Gottfried Semper (Gary Guy architectural drawings) based on the images Robert Cowherd, “Identity Tectonics 03,” History-Theory 02 Course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (27 May 2020).

Here Cultural Influence In this piece of drawing it is showing the ways people can build with just simple tools and joints allowing the hut to really stand out more. They simply used bamboo weaving and stone to build this type of hut with just human hands! Primitive Huts are a traditional hut that most of the 18 century humans have used to be a supportive piece of shelter. In 1851 Gottfried Semper tried to expand his hut theory before he even published the four elements of architecture which in return was supposed to explain the architectural theory through an anthropological lens.23 Most of these huts can be compared to baroque architecture in a way. This suggests that the hut can somehow blend into someone else’s world as an architect, as we always can use this type of architecture in the modern world it can keep aspects of the culture some people might have. What can this type of architecture really represent in this day in age if it were transformed into this huge baroque architecture type of building?

history design choices. As an example, The Altes Museum and Government house from the analysis group have incorporated previous historic designs, whether that be Roman and Greek Pantheons or neoclassical. Both of these past history designs have components that are very appealing to the history after them and even modern nation

states. While the Government house splits the building from private and public, The Altes Museum forces everything to be integrated together. These Designs were grand to those who experienced it. When it comes to the purpose of a structure for a community it is expected to be spacious. Grand and open structures are inviting to the public, and also create a sense of power in the community.

35 Tectonic Systems Karl Friedrich Schinkel incorporates a Roman roof structure to the Atles Museum which allows his buildings to be observed as the roof design represents a more modern building through the Roman era. During the 18th century, architects studied ancient buildings and they classified them as neoclassicism based on the different styles each building had through the Roman and Greek times.24 The study of the pantheon’s dome structure is included towards the museum’s design and gives the whole interior space a more modern view. Schinkel also incorporates a slope down roof structure to place onto the internal of the courtyards and supports the dome. As buildings evolve after the revolution, one must observe details taken from certain designs like how a Pantheon structure merges with a trust system that represents the Roman era. Does architectural design continue to incorporate aspects of buildings to create something new?

Incorporating roof structure from modern designs to create a new building structure for the enlightened society. Section and details of 1823 Altes museum, Berlin by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Carvens G. Charles CC BY) Based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “Identifying Tectonics,” History - Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology ( 28, May 2020)

As demonstrated in Caverns Charles analysis essay, during those times in history with an upcoming nation the materiality allowed reassurance to the people that this would be a place for them to come and conjugate. The modern nation state in architecture is evolving to become more complex, while incorporating a minimalist feel with the use of steel structure and glass. As society and architecture evolves,

this makes for discussion; what do we consider a new aged community structure?

Neoclassical Symmetry and Predictability

Symmetry within architecture creates a clear floor plan with a set circulation plan, which embodies the goals of the Enlightenment by inhibiting a sense of stability and unity throughout

Identity Tectonics

Presenting perfect symmetry with the beauty and purity of neoclassical architecture within the building. South elevation with a floor plan of 1770 Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire England, by Robert Adam. (Sam Johnson CC BY) Based on images from Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

Neoclassical Symmetry With Kedleston Hall being such a great example of Palladian and Neoclassical style, it brought forth crucial changes in English architecture that otherwise could have been lost. The roman style used within the interior of the building sets the precedent for the faรงade, while also creating illustrious moments of perfect symmetry throughout the building. The layout of the building creates the Palladian style while the columns and window types help to tie in the neoclassical elements. The hemispherical dome on top was directly inspired by Pantheon to create an enormous space within the saloon.25 Overall without the creation of Kedleston hall would Neoclassical style ever have made its way to English architecture?

the building. Buildings such as the Kedleston Hall and the Altes Museum use neoclassical symmetry as architectural elements. The Kedleston Hall resembles a neoclassical style of symmetry by mirroring the columns in the facade as well as other simple geometries, such as the large dome on the top. The symmetry also makes the Great Hall located in the

middle of the building appear much more grand because it is so large compared to the other surrounding rooms that break off of the Great Hall. The Great Hall embodies a symmetrical design because the geometry of columns is used once again, this repetition of elements creates rhythm and hierarchy in the building. Symmetrical geometries, which is an important design technique for neoclassical style, often plays a large

Schinkelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mix of influences, and his ability to not conform to previous ways are what make the Altes Museum a key piece of Neoclassicism architecture. Elevation and plan of 1822 Altes Museum, Berlin by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Maegan Herd CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 645.

Mix of Influences: The Key to Success in the Altes Museum The beauty of the Altes Museum is that Schinkel did not strictly follow any influence, combining every piece but making new architecture. Schinkelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Altes Museum pulled inspiration from the Pantheon, with the central rotunda, and the grid-like systemization of Durand. Another familiar form of the building are the Ionic columns, as seen in Greek architecture, eighteen of which line the front facade of the building. Schinkel ensured to incorporate all of his influences into the museum, but also made it his own, by not forcing every room into the square grid system or making the entire building symmetrical.26 How different would the Neoclassicism era be if Schinkel had directly incorporated all of his influences and strictly followed them?

role in creating a symmetrical building in both elevation as well as in plan. In the Altes Museum by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, the floor plan consists of a column grid that wraps around the sides of the building, these columns surround a large rotunda in the center of the plan. This forces a specific circulation within the building because the movement around the rotunda remains constant due to the symmetry.

The materiality also plays a role in the perceived symmetricality of a building/object. For example, in the Altes museum there is a very clear arrangement of materials and colors, with the columns having all the same materials. The walls are made up of a different material than the columns, but all the walls together are made of the same material. The dome is made partially of brick, which is different from the

Identity Tectonics

Expressing classical forms, while pushing towards modernization. Section and plan of 1816 Altes Museum, Berlin by Karl Fredrich Schinkel. Based on images in Robert Cowherd, “Identify Tectonics” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 5/26/2020.

Altes Museum Expressing classical forms, while pushing towards modernization. In the Altes Museum, Schinkel utilizes classical architecture forms while simultaneously pushing towards the more modern ideas and architectural vocabularies that Durand proposed a few years prior. As indicated in the section, you can see expressions of the Roman Pantheon as well as the Parthenon in Greece from the front columned façade and the domed interior. The Museum embodies Schinkel’s commitment to monumental civic architecture while maintaining both antiquity and modernity through the ionic columnar halls, domed interior, and grid structure system.27 The site and program required a monumental building, so referencing classical architecture to bring a recognizable form of power was the best option. Because the King who commissioned the building requested a heavy influence of antiquity, how diﬃcult was it for Schinkel to make the museum modern still and how do architects today tackle the same problems, 200 years later?

walls and the columns. This helps the visitors have a clear understanding of the building and the architectural hierarchies within it.

Materiality and Function

The material used within a building can say a lot about the craftsmanship and design of a structure while supporting the function within the structure. The Altes Museum by Karl

Friedrich represents how the roof material can be used as a performance element. The Cupola of the Rotunda is made up of brick masonry, which also contains light bricks with the addition of charcoal within the structure¹. These materials helped to create the dome above the building, resulting as a function to protect the interior, while also producing a calming atmosphere. From thinking about the design,

Classical Elements invoke Classical Architecture and define the Museum as Neo-Classical. Plan based elements define Enlightenment values. Section, Plan details of 1816 Altes Museum, Berlin by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Andres Jimenez CC BY) based on images in Robert Coweherd, “Identity Tectonics,” History-Theory 02 Course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (28 May 2020).

Mediator of the Enlightenment Through a Neo-classical style and the creation of an ordered and grid-based plan, the Altes Museum by Karl Friedrich Schinkel acts as a mediator for the burgeoning ideals of the Enlightenment. The façade of the Museum is a wide portico with 18 Ionic columns, referencing the Parthenon of ancient Greece. In the interior is a central rotunda-referencing the Pantheon in Rome. In one building, Schinkel has successfully integrated two distinctly recognizable elements of Classical Architecture. In plan, Schinkel usesstructured and grid-based plan, which references to Durand and his Universal Grid. This embodies the Enlightenment goals of creating stability and unity in a time of instability but also notes a very Economic and rational approach to building.28 Thus, the rational method of design cements the Altes Museum as a genuine mediator of the Enlightenment ideals. How would the impact of such building change if the plan of the Altes Museum was not ordered the way it is?

the architect could have created a flat-roofed plane or a simple sloped roof, however, they built a dome, which makes the structure more intriguing. This method could be to create an echo within the space, creating a silence among people. It could also be used to form a hierarchy showing that the center of the building is the main attraction where a person enters or exits.

The Caribbean Hut also provides a great idea of how the materials were used within the roof structure. The roof of this structure is sloped to allow for the rain to run off and then collect. This could be done with many types of materials however, the use of bamboo and stone is easier found in this environment. The hut also provides shelter for those living within while also shading from the sun and the rain. The

Identity Tectonics

Combining the rational economy of the modern grid with grand elements of past architectures. Plan with gridded overlay and axonometrically projected elements of 18231830 Altes Museum, Berlin by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Jeremy Donovan CC BY) based on images from Robert Cowherd, “Identity Tectonics,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (30 May 2020)

Utility and Reproduction The Altes Museum is an excellent synthesis of modern principles and homages to past cultures, melding utility and economy with striking classic elements to become greater than the sum of its parts. Schinkel studied in Rome and Sicily, gaining an admiration and understanding of ancient styles.29 A Greek stoa-like colonnade creates a grand entrance, and the dramatic central rotunda is capped by a coffered dome with an oculus, recalling the Roman Pantheon. Schinkel simultaneously employs a modified Durand-esque grid, allowing for greater utility and economy. Durand’s grid is versatile, but Schinkel designed a unique building by adapting the grid and eschewing its rigidity. Does avoiding absolute “styles” and strict dogmatic methods lead to a better architecture?

shelter also holds the cultural values in which it was built in. The roof for both structures helps to recognize the typology of the building that also gives it a sense of identity. The materials used within the structure are natural to the environment and provide the comforts a shelter would need to function.

Architecture and Power

Whereas materiality played a huge role in architectural design and defining a building’s identity, the architecture itself has always told a story. Architecture for so long has been a means by which those in power express authority over their subjects as well as self gratification. Due to this, various elements of architecture have come to be associated with power and authority

Caption: Strong features from ancient societies allow the Neoclassical building to be a beacon for a new Nation. Section and Floor Plan of The 1823 Altes Museum by Karl Friedrich Schinkel Based on images from “Altes Museum / Karl Friedrich Schinkel.” ArchEyes, 24 Dec. 2019, archeyes. com/altes-museum-karl-friedrich-schinkel/.(Richard D’Avella CC BY)

Housing artifacts in an artifact The Neoclassical Altes Museum was a major factor in establishing Prussia as a new Nation-State. The architect of the Altes Museum, Karl Friedrich Schinkel was chosen by Prussia to lead and establish an architectural character for this new Nation-State.30 The use of the Ionic order is a strong call back to Ancient Greek architecture. The Pantheon was a very strong inspiration for the dome feature on this structure. These two features strongly show the connection to a great and strong past that a new society should try and achieve. Neoclassical buildings designed during the founding of a new nation allowed the people to have something to reassure them of the old while still pushing forward for something new and better. Does neoclassical architecture hinder new societies by keeping them grounded to the past instead of a new style that keeps them looking strictly in the future?

even in the Enlightenment era. Elements like structural organization and the size of a building, symbolize authority. The Altes Museum plays a huge role in highlighting this with it’s literal reproduction of the columns from the Greek Parthenon, Rotunda and the grid-based structural organization of the Roman Pantheon. With the development of these associations, these architectural elements became more prev-

alent in the Neoclassical with reproductions like the Kedleston Hall of the English Imperial architecture where it was primarily used as a symbol of power and an instrument to “spread” the Enlightenment. Throughout the Neoclassical era, power could simply be seen from the exterior of the building. When we look at the Altes Museum the

Identity Tectonics

column work aligning the front face creates a sense of solidarity, power and structure. This specifically comes from the fact that columns are seen as a structural piece in buildings but also just the overlying fact that they stand in the front with such elegance almost symbolizing the power of those within or the power of the building as a whole. Then as you dive into the plan view of the Altes museum you are faced with the column grid that fills this building but also the rotunda which sticks out at the very center. The rotunda may not be columns but it is a series of these large tall structures that create a space for those who enter to awe at the grandeur and solidarity that this building exemplifies.

looking at architectural form and composition, the specific architectural characteristics of the Neoclassical Era were born.

The three main buildings analyzed during this chapterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exercise, as well as other Neoclassical structures, encompass these various ideals. The primitive hut, although visually different from Kedleston Hall and The Altes Museum, still employs the same Neoclassical concepts by acting as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;standardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; piece of architecture of its time, using basic and community sourced materials for its composition. Kedleston Hall and The Altes Museum also engaged the community through their grandiose architecture, yet take it a step forward by incorporating architectural power. The symmetricality of each structure Another building during this time that follows analyzed gives yet another insight into this era, these same principles would be the Kedleston proving that this idea of architectural stanHall in East India that uses their column grid dardization and simplified assembly became a work to form these spatial programs yet also forefront of this movement. Lastly, the columns draws one eye to see these four massive areas within the hut, Kedleston Hall, and The Altes all leading into the large rectangular space in Museum (shown in each student analyses), the middle. The overall composition works in as well as other Neoclassical structures such a way to allow one to see the solid pieces of as Neue Wache, the Schauspielhaus, Adelphi the building but also what the architecture is Terrace, etc, use their materiality and structursaying to the world. In a sense, this architecture al power to represent a sense of community is screaming solidarity and power using the through their shared functions in keeping each structure and all else that aligns with it once the structure stable. All of these buildings can tie space is formed. back together into these interconnecting categories that define the Neoclassical Era.

Communal Power through Architectural Form and Materiality

In the Neoclassical Era, the social and cultural changes had the largest impact on architecture. The two large revolutions in history that paved the way for this new classical revival were The French Revolution and The Industrial Revolution. This in turn created the need for a universal architecture, one that would serve all and become a standard that could be applied across the field. Through the commonalities surrounding community, materiality, and power when

By incorporating all of these concepts, the architectural styles of the Neoclassical Era become clear, even when the buildings analyzed seemingly have nothing in common. Neoclassical architecture draws heavily from the past (reproduce) and continues to encourage innovation in order to strengthen revolutionary ideas and concepts. The analyses done by our classmates in written and sketch form have further exemplified these ideals by thoroughly dissecting the impact of the Neoclassical Era on architecture of the past, present, and future.

How the use of Neoclassical architecture can convey a sense of power. Elevation and plan of 1803 Government House, Calcutta, British East Indies, by Charles Wyatt. (Skylar Chardon CC BY) Based on images from on Robert Cowherd, “Identity Tectonics 03” (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, May 27, 2020)

Neoclassical PowerThe Government house uses Neoclassical typologies to create a sense of power and prestige. This structure is a powerful symbolic gesture of Neoclassical architecture, and exemplification of power through scale and grandeur. The grand entrance disrupted by six large dramatic Doric columns personifies the power aspects sought after by Wyatt.31 Another key element in any Neoclassical building is the effective use of simple geometries, this is not only prevalent in the exterior façade of the building but is translated well to the floor plan of the interior as well. Is the Neoclassical style the best way to represent power within a building?

O4 Technological Modernisms

The Corruption of Technological Advances The New Iron Age shifted the perception of what architecture was, changing the expression of private and public spaces, expanding the built formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nationalist role, and helping the expansion of colonialism and oppression. This age of innovation was ushered in by the progress set in motion by the Industrial Revolution. The breakneck spread of industry and mass production allowed architects to design at a great scale with glass and iron, known as ferrovitreous buildings. This expansion of structural possibilities proved to be revolutionary. These new ferrovitreous technologies shifted the paradigm of architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s structural perception. Vast open spaces with light iron columns were in stark contrast to the heavy stone and brick structures from the previous eras. However, metal was not new to architecture. The Pantheon in Paris used concealed iron rods to reinforce the stone construction. Later buildings, like the Library of Ste. Genevieve and the Crystal palace instead expressed their iron structures. The Crystal Palace was so far from the normal idea of a building at the time, that some questioned its legitimacy as architecture. Today, countless ferrovitreous buildings dot the skylines of our cities. Another result of new Iron construction was a remarkable level of openness. Large spans supported by metal frames and sweeping glass facades gave buildings in the New Iron Age an unprecedented level of transparency, both interior and exterior. Ferrovitreous techniques were innovatively used to create grand public spaces, such as train stations and the Crystal Palace. These spaces also served to project a nationalistic image of power and modernity. To many travelers, the first image of Britain was their train stations. The modern stations

Plan and sectional perspective of the Crystal Palacè, designed by Joseph Paxton, uses modernity in it’s simple and innovative structure to show off Britain and its inhabitants, Perspective, section and details of 1850 Crystal Palace, London, Joseph Paxton (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “4.02 The Crystal Palace,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (02 June 2020) “Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History”, Page 675. Chapter 15.3. Accessed June 02, 2020. [1] Jennifer Gauler, “04.1 The New Iron Age,” Lecture, History/Theory 02, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, (2 June 2020).

Modernity as as Power: Power: To To See See and and be be Seen Seen Modernity The Crystal Crystal Palace Palace uses uses modernity modernity in in it’s it’s simple simple structure structure to to show show off off Britain Britain and and its its inhabitants. inhabitants. By By using using cast cast The iron columns columns and and glass glass alone alone as as seen seen in in plan, plan, the the building building is is able able to to achieve achieve aa light light and and minimalistic minimalistic feeling feeling that that iron is common common with with most most modern modern designs. designs. It’s It’s grid grid structure structure and and pre-fabricated pre-fabricated design design was was innovative innovative for for its its age. age. is The strength strength of of the the iron iron allows allows the thegreat greatspan spanbetween betweeneach eachother otherfor formore morespace spaceinside. inside. 32 People inside were The People inside were on display display because because their their goods goods from from their their own own countries, countries, as as seen seen on on the the flags flags surrounding surrounding the the palace, palace, were were on being traded running thethe event [1]. 33 Architecture being traded which which essentially essentially show showthemselves themselvesoff offasaswell wellasasthe thecountry country running even. Architecture expresses what what people people want want to to convey, convey, what what does does the the amount amount of of transparency transparency say say about about modern modern buildings? buildings? expresses

may have been these travelers’ first experience with ferrovitreous construction, suggesting the advancement of the country they had arrived in. However, the power of architecture was also used to support colonialism and oppression. The Crystal Palace hosted the World Expo, which was framed as a way to spread the culture of those displayed. The Expo simultaneously pushed an agenda of colonialism, by

showing the goods from all over the world and placing them in a British context. The New Iron Age marks a great leap in the technology of structure and facade. This progress was at best used to create open and light public spaces, and at worst used to normalize colonialism and assert dominion over the oppressed.

Technological Modernisms

Showing interior of the Crystal Palaces structure and design. Section Perspective of 1850 the Crystal Palace, London by Joseph Paxton (Schuyler Wilkerson CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “04.2 The Crystal Palace,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (02 June 2020).

The Steel Community Implementing steel increased the longevity of structures and restoration. The Crystal Palace was once an underappreciated monumental structure that was designed for dense public use. The architect intended the structure to be used as an exhibition to impress the world with Britain’s industrial achievements.34 Even while in construction the structure was utilized to build other components. Because of the rod framing it was easier to access the higher levels by placing materials on each other. Dragging materials across the structure made it easier to transport. The Crystal Palace has structural frames constructed from cast-iron. During this time, the use of iron became more popular even though this structure was not meant to last. Without the Crystal Palace being a successful structure would iron-based structures have taken longer to become noticed?

Crystal Palace structure allowed the building to be “transparent” and open. The Farnsworth With the new inventions of steel structures, house is a more recent example of having this architectural structures were able to express light and open idea in architecture. The Isabella themselves in a new way. Some structures remained heavy and grounded despite using these Gardner extension by Renzo Piano uses this steel and glass system to create open spaces. new technologies to their advantage. The Chicago Post Office’s facade is almost The new structures allowed for buildings to feel more light and open compared to buildings entirely made of glass except for the steel structure that keeps it in place. The floor plan constructed with concrete. The Palm House,

Structural Changes

47 The Grandeur of Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II The Galleria of Milan. Perspective, plan of 1864 The Galleria, Milan, (Joseph Paxton Orea Plloci CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “4.02 The Crystal Palace,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (02 June 2020)

The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele’s positioning makes it inviting and uplifting for everyone that visits it. The high glass dome and vaults flood the interior of the block with light and make the visitors feel as if they are outdoors, while enclosing the plaza to protect them from the weather.35 The monumental dimension of the Galleria makes it intimidating, yet the doors inside are of human scale, which tones down the grandeur and makes the visitors relate more to the building. Even as the luxury stores and restaurants can make a working-class person shy away, the Galleria is arranged as a familiar street, so it is welcoming to all.36 The floor is an artwork of intricate design, but instead of being treated as such, visitors and citizens can walk all over it with dirty shoes. Are the millions of visitors attracted to this building every year because, just like the Galleria, they too are full of contradictions, like every human in the world?

is extremely open and transparent due to the structure being on the outside. The Crown Hall by Mies Van Der Rohe keeps the structure of the building on the outside to create a massive open interior, but the giant steel structures that wrap the structure give it a heavy and ground feeling instead of a light and free one. The Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve

uses the steel structure to create a very open interior but still feels heavy and grounded due to its exterior facades. The glass ceiling and open areas of the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele ii give it this grounded, heavy feeling while also capturing the idea of openness and transparency. The ability to mass produce glass and steel allowed for architecture to take on different forms that had previously been not achievable due

Technological Modernisms

Exemplifying modern technology using revolutionary cast iron to invoke weightlessness, which served as a model for the architectural field. Perspective, elevation details of 1850 Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Paris by Henri Labrouste (Ryan Mullen CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “04.1 The New Iron Age,” History/Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (2 June 2020).

Iron Inspired In wake of the French and Industrial Revolutions, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève became one of the most important precedents of its time because of its modern use of iron to support the roof structure. The plaster and iron mesh barrel vaults are supported by lace-like iron arches that rest upon cast iron ionic columns, opening the interior and giving it a sense of weightlessness despite the stone façade. Large windows on the exterior shed light inside, adding to this effect. The library’s magnificence soon spread across the globe, becoming a precedent for buildings like the Boston Public Library, where the use of inscription (denotation) of famous scholars was imitated.37 How do you think it felt for people at the time to walk into a library grounded by stone yet gracefully enlaced by such a modern feat?

to the material and systems. Structures were able to become more open and free because the structure was no longer an interior system. With glass and steel structures being created, they began to blur the lines between public and private.

Public, Private, and Transparency

The new seemingly simplistic style of iron

construction opened many doors for architects when it came to open public spaces and more transparent facades. Where previous generations were limited to heavy concrete or stone construction, opening up spaces using iron became much easier because the actual structure of iron takes up much less space. So without even trying, facades and walls could be left much more open.

Negotiating an intimidating power to reveal oppression through architecture. Perspective, elevation of 1883 House of Wonders, Zanzibar (Gina McCarthy CC BY) based on images from Jennifer Gaugler, “Technological Modernisms” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 02 June 2020).

Opression In Architecture The House of Wonders represents oppression more than it represents “an architecture of power”. From the view of a person standing in front of the building, the monolithic architecture towers over a person from the street, as to make a person feel small and lesser than the structure. Observing the design and materials, the use of vertical height and cast-iron columns running up three stories is a representative cage that generates a feeling of control. Not only was this building literally built by slave labor per order of the ruler of Zanzibar, it became a pure symbol of what the ruler of Zanzibar wanted, to be viewed as a center of power and ultimately dominate the waterfront.38 It appears to be an architecture meant to intimidate rather than one to show power. How can we as designers create a powerful structure without an intimidating impression?

Architects of this time achieved these ideas in a multitude of ways, take for example the Crystal Palace, the House of Wonders, the Pyramide du Louvre, and the Farnsworth House. The Crystal Palace, by Joseph Paxton, uses a lighter iron structure and a mostly glass envelope Paxton created expansive open spaces throughout the interior, designating the entire building as a public space. The House of Wonders uses a mix

of large and smaller spaces coupled with a similar iron structure to create moments of seamless transition from a public space to a more private area of the establishment. Projects like The Pyramide du Louvre also use glass and steel to create open spaces, in addition to juxtaposing the harsh, classical style. The Farnsworth House uses glass and openness, in order to blur the line between outside and inside.

Technological Modernisms

The Dominant & Subordinate The House of Wonders exterior proportions align directly with the hierarchy of power between the rich and the poor. Thin cast iron columns wrap around the building facade except for the very center. At the very center sits what is now a clock tower. The British added the Clock Tower after they first bombed the House of Wonders and it became the staple of the building.39 This facade easily establishes the dominant and subdominant elements, being the columns and clock tower. And in the midst of that these proportions create large spaces or verandahs that allow for those in power which could be symbolized by the Clock Tower to look over or watch those outside of the building which could be symbolized by the thin columns. If the verandahs were closed off and replaced with a wall with small openings would there still be a sense of a higher power watching over everyone else?

By having further control over public and private spaces and how they interact, architects can start to use this concept to create a sense of power within a structure. In the House of Wonders, thin cast iron columns held up balconies that looked over the slaves and made it easier to control them. Where the Crystal Palace used only metal and glass, The House of Wonders was made up of a combination of concrete and

Hierarchy of power established by direct proportions of the building faĂ§ade. Street View and Perspective of 1873 House of Wonders, Zanzibar (Brianna Torres CC BY) based on images in Jen Gaugler, â&#x20AC;&#x153;04 - Technological Modernisms, History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (2 June 2020).

iron and for that reason, the architect had much more control over where public spaces were and where to close off private areas. The Pyramide du Louvre uses the ferrovitreous structure to display the power and significance of the museum. The new forms of architecture made possible in the New Iron Age gave greater control to those in power, these ideas and means of construction are still used today.

Intersection of ancient and modern architecture with the use of iron. Perspective and plan view of the House of Wonders, 1883 Zanzibar (Joshua L. Ssebuwufu CC BY SA) based on images from Jennifer Gaugler, “04 Technological modernisms,” History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (6/2/2020)

Iron: A Blessing or a Curse The re-invention of the Zanzibari architecture by the Omani Arabs with the introduction of iron, increased their power and control of the East African coast. Cast iron being used as an architectural element was very contemporary in Zanzibar at the time.40 The preeminent example is the House of Wonders in Zanzibar, with its prominent cast iron column façade that supported exterior spaces also known as verandahs which were effective in their use as surveillance balconies, thus any threats from the ocean or inland could be detected with ease as well as control the slaves and indigenous people. The cast iron columns were very tall therefore projecting the building as the center of power since it was the tallest structure at the coast thereby enabling the Omanis to assert their authority. Besides aiding Omani influence over the coast, did the construction of the House of Wonders exacerbate the need for slave labor in Zanzibar?

Symbols of Power and Modernity

Architecture can be used as a tool to show power and modernity in the modern world. It can also be used to oppress people around it. When architecture has power, it can either be displayed in a way that promotes advances or it can be used to keep people down. The Crystal Palace creates the feeling of power through exhibition, and the innovative, modern

architecture for the time. The House of Wonders is a building that was purely made to be a symbol of power and modernity, but more to show the people of Zanzibar the power of England. The Liverpool Townhall as made of of the backs of the slave trade and slavery. While it was not directly affecting those it was oppressing, its creation and design was created by oppression others.The idea behind the Pan-

Technological Modernisms

Interior of the Galerie Vivienne. Interior Perspective, of Galerie Vivienne 1823 Paris France, (Sarah Stefaniak CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 14

Beauty Derived from Simplicity Is it necessary to create a shopping area with more detail and precision then what is considered the standard normal? The Galerie Vivienne showcases a mixture of materials from the use of mosaic pavements, glass roofs, and the use of metal struts, all highlighted by a cupola.41 The glass roof that is outlined with metal struts sheds light upon the pathway of mosaic tiles. The light not only highlights the pathway, but casts shadows along the cupola, accenting the columns that line the pathway towards the shops. The roof not only brings in the natural light but it makes the space feel more open rather than confined. If the design of shopping centers were more detailed, would people shop more for the product or more for the architecture?

opticon was to give people inside of the guard tower power over those in the cells. The Lever House by SOM took away the individuality of those working in it, but it also was a new type of architecture that promoted advancements in technology. Architecture could also be used to represent that national power of a country. Buildings

such as the Monadnock by Burnham and Root represent the new power that architecture had in cities. The Home Insurance Building was the first modern skyscraper and it dominated the skylines while towering over its surrounding context. The Twin Towers were a representation of Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and that is what made it a target for terrorists. The National assembly of Bangladesh exerted its power over its citizens.

Using a jointing system to provide more than support to a building. Elevation and Perspective of The Ise Jingu (Grand) Shrine in Japan (Crystal Njoroge CC BY). Based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “04 Technological Modernisms” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (2 June 2020).

The Importance of Joints New technology was introduced to architecture that has impacted design in many ways and The Ise Jingu (Grand) Shrine in Japan represents how wood joints are linked to a deeper meaning than just being used for support. Wooden joints were used throughout the space, and the setup of the joints were to be temporary since the structure is rebuilt every 20 years, with the last being in 2013.42 The process of rebuilding this structure has been going on for 1,300 years. The reconstruction happens due to the rotting of wood over time, but also to follow the Shinto belief of death and renewal. The inner shrine is dedicated to the Shinto sun goddess and supreme deity of the Shinto pantheon.43 The method of using joints not only helps with support but also providing an eﬃcient way of building. Should the technique of jointing be more present in architecture today?

Advances in architecture can always be a double edged sword. In some instances it can be used to promote advances in society and looking forward or it can be used as a way to keep people around it down. Architecture has the ability to show power over others in many different ways, one of these ways is how it can be used to oppress people.

Colonialism and Oppression

Understanding the relationship between culture and architecture plays a vital role in the built environment. In many cases, particularly around the 18th and 19th centuries, architecture was used as a tool to control, demonstrate power, or produce cultural changes. This allowed European Colonials to use urban spaces to benefit themselves and exercise or show off power.

Technological Modernisms

Early forms of oppression in the 18th century included surveillance, as seen in the Panopticon and the House of Wonders. The Panopticon was an 18th-century concept for prisons and social reform, which relied on a central “eye” with prison cells on the circumference, allowing guards to see all the prisoners or at least leave the illusion that they were. The House of Wonders in Tanzania worked as surveillance, the height and open facade of the House of Wonders offers a nearly 360-degree view of the city benefitting the Sultan or any ruler who oversaw trade, disturbances, and used power to subjugate the people. Another form of oppression we see through architecture which asserts control over locals is the means of constructing on top of the ruins of a previous ruler or ritual places, shown in The Qorikancha and and the House of Wonders. We see these tactics, which erase the history of the build forms of the indigenous people take place in different parts of the world. One example would be The Qorikancha, Inca Temple; this temple was engulfed by the Santo Domingo Church by the Spains to show their dominance over the country. This might seem harmless at first glance, but it destroys the history of the people preventing the new generation from witnessing their authentic culture. We see similar patterns with The House of Wonders as it is built on over the remaining indigenous rulers. The introduction of new construction methods, such as prefabricated cast iron, was seen as a superior form that gave the colonizers a platform for power over the indigenous people. However, the new construction technologies not only enabled Colonialism, by physically oppressing or dominating citizens but also by allowing leaders to argue for continuing Colonialism. For this, we turn to the Crystal Palace once again, where Joseph Paxton’s icon, whether intentionally or not, facilitated the political intentions of the “World Expo.” As mentioned

earlier, The Crystal Palace’s ferrovitreous construction allowed for a never before seen level of transparency in which all the occupants and objects could be displayed for anyone to see, piquing interest and attendance. In a more modern example, one can see the profound and devastating effects the new technologies had in advancing and elevating Wars and oppression to new heights through Nazi Germany’s prosecution of the Jews. The new material of the iron led to the invention of the railroad and eventually, the train. The train was a tool the Nazi regime used to advance their agenda to exterminate Jews by allowing for faster transport and carrying larger loads. The train and railroad also enhanced warfare as military supplies could be produced and supplied from further distances in a shorter time. The new technologies of this time revolutionized the world for better or, unfortunately, for worse by advancing methods of surveillance, persuading populations through innovation as superiority, and in a more modern context by advancing warfare. Humanity is always discovering new technologies, and the consequences those innovations trigger depends on how we use them. Ultimately, the intention for us as architects should be to use innovation as a driving force for progress and resilience, especially in a time where climate change and social divisions plague our world.

Merging Technological Modernism

Within the Industrial Revolution, iron and glass were an influential aspect to architecture as it developed modern designs to buildings throughout the 18th century. Modern designs like the Crystal Palace creates a view of a structural perception where certain elements like the transparent glass, open structural space and cast iron columns help visualize the space as one can explore it’s structural aspects. The

Crystal Palace also gave the perspective of public vs private space as the transparent glass envelope and iron columns created a free space for people to explore whereas having bearing walls in certain buildings like the House of Wonders kept certain spaces private in order to stand out with power over England. The power and modernity in the House of Wonders was an inspiration from iron as it was used to create iron fences to enclose their space for their empire to watch over their land which creates a sense of the people knowing of surveillance over England. The thought of knowing there is surveillance within the House of Wonders led to colonialism and oppression as the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s height and ionic columns gave it more power to watch over others and made the people feel like they were in control. Through the idea of changing the view of a structural within architecture, shifting the relationship of private and public space, proliferating architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nationalist role, and increasing colonialism and oppression, architecture uses these aspects into consideration to make an innovative change based on the use of iron and glass throughout the Industrial Revolution. The Iron age led many buildings like the Crystal Palace, Ise Shrine and the House of Wonders to innovate iron usage which impacted their era. Even after the Revolution, Iron continues to be used within architecture to make designs modern and innovative within the aspects and usage of iron and glass.

O5 Metropolis

Social and Architectural Power through Urban Form

The influence of the industrial revolution leading into the expansion of urban city growth brought great changes to economic status and socialization using architecture to the streets of Paris. Through the power of architecture, socialization can be expressed in many ways after the industrial revolution. Studies of urban form and the development of cities paved the way for architecture to represent not only forms of power but also be a place to show off status and wealth. New technology led to the expansion of streets and buildings.In aiming to better society, the streets were gentrified. Displacing the poor to make way for the boulevards and by putting up facades to keep the unpleasing neighborhoods out of sight. The elite enjoyed the theses changes and advancement but most were unable to enjoy the wealth of impressive architecture that came with it. Class status and an ecosystem of social hierarchies prevented many from socializing at places where being seen was part of the conversation. Ornamentation was used to exert wealth and power such as the Paris Opera by Charles Garnier or the Palais De Justice by Joseph Marras which conveys importance. Attendance to these places was the reason why people went because the grandeur of buildings using ornamentation reflected a higher status and those who wanted to be seen and could afford to attend. Expansion of cities and urbanization is something civilization has been doing for centuries and architecture is a way to embody a culture, the rich wanted buildings with ornamentation that expressed the wealth of their country and the innovative ways of using modern materials While some ornamentation was interior like the Paris Opera, other architectural decoration was to be seen through the exterior such as the bourgeois ballet in the streets. In fact, the streets and

57 Social Gatherings Spaces within architecture are an essential aspect to bring people together and communicate with one another. Relating to the 1861 Paris Opera by Charles Garnier, a lobby and stage were built to allow shows to continue and have access to watch in any of the high platforms given.44 Garnier wanted the lobby space to represent a free performance space for the audience by creating an arrival system where, for the Opera, is the staircase being a triple-height atrium surrounded by paired columns where people can socialize before and after a show.45 Having a lobby space with the stairs and social platforms to the Opera creates an audience in which everyone can listen to the performer and can communicate and reflect not only about the performance but about the architectural space within the Opera. Is entertainment in an architectural space the only way to bring people together?

Gathering space to observe performers and interact amongst one another. Section of 1861 Paris Opera, by Charles Garnier for Emperor Napoleon III (Carvens G. Charles CC By) based on images in Robert Cowherd, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Metropolisâ&#x20AC;?, History - Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (09, June 2020)

roads were a huge part in the reformation of urban cities.

ple recognize today as grand boulevards. The urban form of these newer and grander streets changed the way people socialized through the Battling with problems of riots from lower class use of architectural form. Socialization was workers and hygienic problems, a reformation brought to a new level of class by using decowas on the rise and control needed to be estab- rative techniques and creating a new divide belished. While the roads at the time were small tween the lower classes. Today, we see demonand easily overtaken by overcrowding and riots, strations of this happening on a broader scale. urban reform expanded the streets to what peo- In light of the recent pandemic, the guidelines

Metropolis

Garnier’s Paris Opera is home to and is, itself, a piece of theater. Elevation and perspective of 1861 Paris Opera, Paris by Charles Garnier (Maegan Herd CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 693.

The Paris Opera: A Piece of Theater The Paris Opera, by Charles Garnier, was home to theater on stage, a spectacle in the lobby, and was a piece of theater itself. The theatre itself was a show of status, making everything decoration, even including the structure. Garnier used techniques to emphasize the drama, he hid the steel structure behind stone cladding, emulated the paired columns from the Louvre on the facade, and topped the structure with a copper dome, as its “crown.” The layout included a grand staircase, a reception area, a room to get drinks, and a place to socialize during intermissions as well as before and after the show.46 What ways do we create a piece of theater in our designs and the existing architecture around us?

people set to reform the way people interact with others in spaces are examples of taking control of the situation by urban form. Public spaces now have guidelines that force people to socialize in a certain way. Another example of this is found in the Black Lives Matter movement, with riots happening around the country. Those who have more social power, use it to control situations. Through examples of histor-

ical and modern events and architecture, it is evident that urban form redefines social interactions using the power of architecture.

Urban Form

Architecture is an asset that influences the urban form of a landscape. Herzog’s analysis of Piazza Del Campidoglio by Michelangelo suggests that the urban landscape takes on its

Perspectives highlight Islamic inspired mosaics, and classical elements reference French architecture. The figures emphasize scale showing the Palais’ monumentality. Perspectives of 1922 Palais de Justice, Casablanca by Joseph Marrast (Andres Jimenez CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd, “05 Metropolis,” History-Theory 02 Course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (11 June, 2020).

Where the Colonial Power Meets Man The Palais de Justice reinforces a Eurocentric view of the French as a superior Civilization exuding French Power and strength during its period of colonialism. Characterized by flanking porticos, arches, ionic columns, and a very symmetrical design (reminiscent of the Enlightenment principles of order), the building associates itself as French. The Palais is monumental, making anyone near it feel insignificant. The use of Islamic iconography in the Frieze empathizes with the colonized, but it too belittles the viewer.47 The barren lower portion of the building forces your gaze up- an act associated with being less than- and demands your eyes to the massive doorway in the center where the patterns finally reach the human scale of the ground. It says: you may enter. How could these elements be turned to reassociate the building as a mediator of equality and “for the people?”

form through travel patterns of people by creating paths to circulate through. as ;which was defined by architectural edges of its streets, set in a larger natural land. Architecture enhances the urban form by creating these spaces of travel through the use of walkways that are made from stone or roads wide enough to allow for cars. Building struc-

tures also add to how condensed a site may be which generates the need for these parks for people to bring themselves back to nature. Similar to The William Watts Sherman House by Richardson, Johnson’s analysis explains that the use of certain structural materials like heavy timber can give a more natural feel to a building, by influencing the shape and layout. Likewise, a city design with natural elements

Metropolis

can grant the design the ability to become something greater than what the city expected , while developing its society where people come together. Does a more natural landscape allow for successful experience of a non-natural structure?

Social Interaction to Social Distancing

Urban form contributes greatly to promoting social interaction through architecture. The way social interaction is designed through architecture today is becoming vastly different than what we as a society once sought it out to be. Large gatherings and communities close to each other is something that we cannot deem as “safe” with viruses becoming such a prominent issue. As designers in the modern-day, our focus is on how to create interactive spaces without causing crowding and discomfort to the people using them in everyday life.

the spacing easier throughout the structure. Furthermore, it would be safe to assume that with six feet being a minimum distance from each other, people would rarely interact with each other. Large groups could not congregate about their lives or what they are experiencing in the structure. Due to lesser medical utilities at the time there would not be as much assistance in preventing the virus. The virus can last days on high-quality design materials such as marble and stone represented throughout each structure. Would it have been possible for these leisure’s to remain open if there was a stronger surge of Covid-19? Could previous societies financially support a virus like this?

An Ecosystem of Social Hierarchies

Global changes like Covid-19 can cause architecture to change its design intention and experience through programing, circulation and site context..The Paris Opera and the BourLeClerc’s analysis of Gillette’s 1855 Utopian geois Ballet express social status through their Settlement demonstrates how a utopian luxury intricate layout of spaces and design intent. The could be achieved despite the modest means of Paris Opera, by Charles Garnier exhibits wealth its residents. An isolated utopia is something through the interior of the building by designthat would work very well in current events. ing everything as a decoration. Hailu’s analysis Designed in a honeycomb layout, it separates reinforces that The Paris Opera was not only smaller communities of residents to the exterior designed as a place to display theater but a of the building while bringing everyone togeth- place to display wealth through the ability to er in a central dining hall for gatherings. Hailu’s attend. Garnier designed a grand staircase, a reanalysis of Charles Garnier Calcutta’s 1861 ception area, and a long entrance arrival space Paris Opera House exemplifies a place people as areas to socialize and show off your wealth went to see and be seen. Similar to Michelanduring intermissions and before/after the show. gelo’s 1536 Piazza del Campidoglio, they both The Paris Opera allowed the steel structure to were designed with columns and sculptures be a decoration by covering the structure with to provide a feel of luxury in the space which stone cladding.The copper dome on the exterior drew people to socialize. Crowds would gather roof in a way symbolizes a “crown” which adds and be an integral part of bringing the commu- to the level of social class that are attending the nity together. performances. As you arrive into the space, a low vestibule welcomes you which is very long The experience of these structures would sigthus allowing a long period of time for visitors nificantly change due to the Covid-19 pandem- to showcase themselves, what they are wearing ic. The symmetrical design would help divide and who they are with. This then leads to the

61 Piazza Del Campidoglio; Using Architecture to Frame a Public Space

Using architecture to frame a public space, plan and perspective view of 1536 Piazza del Campidoglio Rome by Michelangelo (Andrew Herzog CC BY), based on images in Robert Cowherd “05 Metropolis” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (11 June 2020)

Piazza del Campidoglio uses the surrounding architecture to frame a space for the public that Michelangelo deemed more significant than the architecture itself. Although the surrounding buildings are ornate, the arrangement of the site suggests that the piazza was really more designed for the people to use it. Through the plan you can see how the circulation is demarcated by the white stone paths imbedded in the ground. Michelangelo designed both palazzos on an angle so that it changed the perspective and made the square seem larger than it actually was.48 This idea of designing for the people and giving a weight to the space rather the architecture would be reproduced many time in the next 500 years. How does this discourse between space and architecture benefit the people using actually the spaces?

grand staircase that becomes sort of a spotlight scene where visitors could really make an entrance. The staircase works as a stage that is elevated higher up than the rest of the space thus allowing for the rest of the visitors to awe in the presence of higher class. The rest of the space becomes a triple height atrium for socializing during intermissions or before and after the show. This is yet another time where all the

visitors could see and be seen and boast together in unity over their social class level. Whereas the Paris Opera showcases wealth through the interior of the building, the “bourgeois ballet” of the streets and grand new building types show the fantasy of wealth through the outside of a building. Parks created an illusion that people were in a natural landscape

Metropolis

The Paris Opera house functioned not only as musicians’ performance space but also as a place where higher class audiences come to seen and be seen. Section and Perspective of 1861 Paris Opera Paris, France by Charles Garnier Calcutta. (Haimanot Hailu CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd, “05 metropolis,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, (10 June 2020)

To see and Be Seen The Opera house of Paris functioned as a cultural space where people go to see and be seen.Napoleon III favored the new Opéra, rather than a church, a palace, or a triumphal arch, to represent his regime.49 Here visitors enter the building through a low ceiling vestibule leading to the grand staircase. The interior of the Opera is made of carved polychromatic marbles, including the stairs, columns, and sculptures. These elements create a luxurious leisure space, which plays a significant role in classifying social class. From the section drawing, we can see the importance of the sequenced entrance and the hierarchy of space. This design allowed the grand staircase to function as a contest stage for the aristocratic. When designing a gathering space for millennials, where the culture has shifted from contest stages to instagrammable moments, how would the technology of smartphones affect the design of social space of today?

covering up the demolition of the city’s real natural landscape. This shows wealth because through man made landscapes, people have an opportunity to design a park that is suitable for human engagement that isn’t considered dirty. Fancy shops lining the boulevard were able to hide the starving artists living in the higher floors of these buildings while also projecting a status of wealth through shop windows.

The Power of Ornamental Design

Inasmuch as architecture as a whole can embody power and influence social hierarchy, it is objectively important to identify specific features that inflate this effect. Architecture has always utilized several features to demonstrate power and ornamental designs availed potential for this purpose. Ornamental designs were usually used to directly denote specific moments

Synthesis of Serlio’s concept of the Stage Set and Noli’s negative plan. Perspective highlighting set-like parallel facades and promenade of 1853-70 Avenue de l’Opera, Transformation of Paris, Baron Haussmann (Jeremy Donovan CC BY) based on images from Google Earth, Wentworth Institute of Technology (11 June 2020)

Bourgeois Ballet The transformation of Paris created skin-deep urban spaces to reinforce the performative rituals of wealthy French citizens. After witnessing metropolis’s in Europe and America, Napoleon III put Haussmann in charge of revitalizing Paris.50 While Haussmann installed sewers and built parks, he also gentrified the city and displaced destitute Parisians to carve out enormous boutique-lined boulevards. These stores acted as a facade, hiding the poor and projecting an air of prosperity. This promenade of the bourgeois walking down the stage set-like Avenue de l’Opera was the main spectacle. The facades and street frame the monumental Opera, and the volume between was designed as architectural space. Do Haussmann’s infrastructural improvements justify the reinforcement of an inequitable class system, and how should architects balance who they are serving?

that conveyed power in society for example Greek and Roman theology as well as monuments to rulers of the time. Ornamental designs were incorporated in architectural features such as the grand staircase in the Paris Opera, which made them stand out exuding France’s wealth and power at the time. The Palais De Justice displays a similar exudence of power, where the French as a colonial power, integrates local

Islamic ornamental designs in its imperial architecture. This integration made the structure monumental to the locals as these designs are sacred and only usually found on mosques (which is the holy place of worship for the Muslims). Nevertheless, ornamental designs enhanced the influence of power that the architecture individually was already exemplifying. Ornamental designs are one of the most icon-

Metropolis

Focused Architecture Harley used Neoclassical typologies to create the most effective monumental building in Hanoi. Harley used typical neoclassical ideals such as large interior spaces, long columns, and geometries on the exterior to enhance the building’s monumental features. The architecture extended into the site, the space, the city, and the society as a whole. Harley and other architects who created similar structures took this idea to heart, they strategically arranged these structures at the end of major avenues or large boulevards in important areas to increase consumer traﬃc and emphasize its grandeur. 51 In some cases these large streets would have to be created from an otherwise crowded or cramped area of a city. Could these monumental buildings achieve the same effect if the architects could not appropriately influence the site?

ic and intricate designs in architecture. These designs are used as an important embellishment within and outside of the building/structure, which provides the building with a sense of power and relevancy. A great example of a building that exemplifies this scheme is the Paris Opera by Charles Garnier. Elements such as the composite columns, the complex carvings, and the monumental statues leading up to the

How an architect can use neoclassical typologies to make the most effective monumental building. Elevation and plan of Hanoi Opera House Hanoi, present day Vietnam, by Broyer V. Harley and Francois Lagisquet. (Skylar Chardon CC BY) Based on images from on Robert Cowherd, “Metropolis 05” (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, June 11th , 2020)

center staircase are included in the opera house. These elements give the building a luxurious and bourgeois look. People who were wealthy and had a high social class not only went to the opera house to see a performance but also to show off their wealth. Given this reasoning, the ornamental elements enhanced the ambience of the space, inflating the power and influence the building had.

Caption: A massive entrance and lobby area allow for spectators to gather and gossip. Section, Floor Plan, Perspective of The 1861 Paris Opera, Paris by Charles Garnier. Based on images from 05 The Metropolis”, History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (9 June 2020) Francisco de Casa / Alamy Stock Photo, and Christopher Curtis Section (Richard D’Avella CC BY)

The Audience Puts on a Show The Paris Opera House allowed its audience to “perform” and showcase themselves to their fellow social classmates. It was a setting for a ritual in which the spectators were also actors, participants in the rite of social encounter, seeing and being seen”. 52 The massive entry/lobby allowed people to meet and gather before and during intermission of the show. This allowed people to see everyone that attended and what they were doing including how they were dressed and who they were with. The grand staircase also acted as a stage for the audience, a place where they could be elevated over the rest of their peers to show off. The long entrance area allowed people to be seen and to see others for a greater amount of time. While architecture designed to denote a social class still exists in the modern world, to what extent does it oppress others?

Another building that presents ornamental design in a powerful way is the Palais De Justice by Joseph Marrast. Looking at the exterior frieze of the building, Muslim mosaics are represented and carried on throughout the perimeter of the building. Another important element to mention are the columns within the colonnade. The capital part of the columns on the front of the building also shows the intricate

and significant design, heightening the appearance of the building. Now focusing on the interior of this building, the French design is implemented throughout the space. The curvatures on the ceiling, engravings and figures on the wall, and the details on the railing for stairs help to enhance and bring more power to the interior design and structure of the building. In conclusion, whereas ornamental designs greatly

Metropolis

Creating styles for American architecture that provide examples and inspire architects that create in the presence of monolithic skyscrapers. Front elevation with a floor plan of William Watts Sherman House, Newport Rhode Island, by Henry Hobson Richardson. (Sam Johnson CC BY) Based on images from Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

Asymmetrical Shingles The William Watts Sherman House combines elements from many different styles to create one of the most influential buildings for American architecture. The exterior of the second floor is cladded with shingles which creates the style that we know today as shingle-style. The open floor plan allowed for considerably more space compared to those of the Victorian style which was common to the era. With this home under his toolbelt, Henry Hobson Richardson became the most influential American architect of the late 19th century.53 Without the creation of this beautiful home would the American classical style look the way it does today or would another building have taken its place?

affected how people perceived architecture, it is important to note they worked in association with other architectural elements to mediate perception of power, wealth and status.

world, more specifically in Europe and America, began to expand exponentially and focus on urban planning and its impact on society. In Haussmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Paris, long, wide, and straight streets started to dominate the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s layout, Social and Architectural Power Through becoming a sort of promenade for the wealthy as they were lured by the social component of Urban City Growth buildings like the Paris Opera House (as anaAfter the major advancements in technology from the Industrial Revolution, cities across the lyzed by Haime Hailu). The architecture of the

time is incorporated into the layout of the city as a whole, using intricate design and ornamentation to establish power in an age whose social constructs were so focused on showcasing wealth and control.

ticism of the Beaux-Arts Movement.

In conclusion, this period saw a great deal of architectural advancement among cities in the forms of urban planning, social hierarchies and the interactions between them, and excessive These concepts of control through the use of ornamentation. These foundational concepts urban and architectural planning are overarare what constructed this era to create such a ching, with moments in history continuously prestigious and wealthy focused society. repeating themselves as a result. The streets However, we must not get too carried away being widened in Haussmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Paris was with the notion that everything about humanity somewhat the result of preventing rioting and is power and that all is done for power. The barricading of oppressed groups, something conclusion that people interpret the world in a that is extremely relevant today with the Black way that facilitates their acquisition of power, Lives Matter Movement. In addition to this starts to get corrupt. Because, that can be true movement, large-scale city planning also plays to some extent, but it also isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t. The world is a role when events like the current pandemic complicated beyond our ability to comprehend, become prominent. The widening of the streets so there are a very large number of ways one also allows for people to circulate the city at a could interpret it, but you have to extract out distance from one another, lessening the spread from the world a game from your interpretaof disease and redefining architectural spaces. tion that you can actually play. So we need to These types of social situations are greatly inextract out an interpretation that allows us to fluenced by the urban form of a city, and while live and thrive, over multiple periods of time the motives for doing so in Haussmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time in multiple environments, while we are doing may have been for mostly different reasons the same thing with other individuals who are (gentrification, hygiene, staging, etc), they are motivated the same way, so that people are still incredibly relevant to modern day. willing to cooperate and compete with us in a During this time, the theme of showcasing peaceful manner. We cannot interpret the world power through social class became more in any way we want, and before assuming relevant than ever before, with people using the all people ever want to do is play power any and every opportunity to make their status games based on their identity (oppressor and known. Soon, the architecture of the time began oppressed), maybe we need to take a step back to mirror these ideals, with structures like the and be grateful, and take a brief bit of considerArc de Triomphe, the Opera, The Votivkirche, ation for the absolute miracle that buildings and the Fifth Avenue Mansions, and even the architectural structures such as these represent. department store (such as Bon Marche) using ornamentation and grandiosity to radiate power and wealth. This flaunting of wealth and prestige was especially notable as cities across the globe began to follow suit. Cities like Hanoi, Barcelona, Vienna, and NYC saw a wave of gentrification and wealth. Overall, cities across the world began to see vast changes in urban form and architecture, especially with the eclec-

O6 Counter Industrial Movements

Beauty and Nature: A reaction to European Industrialization

Confinement, darkness, and a lack of sustenance. These conditions emerged from the rapid industrialization and urbanization of the late 19th and 20th centuries. There was a never-ending fear that your own house might be torn down in favor of Bourgeois apartment. It was a time in which a reactionary movement, inspired by nature and motivated by a declining lifestyle flourished. A shift manifested through movements, beginning with the Arts and Crafts in England, to the Neveau Arts, and the iterative nature of Gesamtkunstwerk. Beauty, aesthetic, craftsmanship, design. These terms are unified in this period by nature and architecture’s role in the well-being of a society. Materialized in vernacular-inspired houses such as William Morris’ Red House characterized by an “unprescribed order” uniquely shining against the classical and economic buildings of the time; then, at an urban scale with the introduction of Unwin’s superblock which found ways to obtain more space in the dense city. The desire to free design from the shackles of the Economy and order of the Enlightenment began an appreciation for craftsmanship. Furthering this, new ideas such as Frank Lloyd Wright’s Prairie style, or Antoni Gaudi’s fluid and hyperbolic architecture began to combine craft and “the organic” with incredible detail and virtuous flare. Gesamtkunstwerk is a term meaning a Total Work; indeed architecture began to develop as not just a work of art, but also as a means of rejecting heavy industrialization, building individuality, and introducing nature as a cooperative and educating element. To this day, these principles have transformed the practice of architecture and its shift towards sustainable design. We begin with the return to nature.

Counter Industrial Movements

Utilizing subtle modern features to contrast the Art Nouveau movement in order to propel the world of architecture towards the future. Perspective, elevation details of 1901 Peter Behrens’ House by Peter Behrens (Ryan Mullen CC BY) based on images in Greg Logan, “06.3 Meanwhile, back on Continental Europe: The Werkbund and Japonisme,” History/ Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (16 June 2020).

Modern Where? While Peter Behrens’ House portrays a variety of strong Art Nouveau characteristics, the real protagonists in the house’s design are the subtle yet revolutionary modern architectural features that are often overlooked. Beginning with the façade, the continuous curved lines, organic forms, and bottle green bricks immediately draw peoples’ attention, but the sleek white stucco impeccably contrasts these eccentric forms with its modern simplicity. The second-floor window also exemplifies this with its curvature, while the window below uses a simple rectilinear form. Lastly, while moving through the ornamental front doors, the contrasting kitchen appears, using simple yet functional open shelving and white cabinets with inlaid glass to expose each interior. Which feature of the house is considered the most revolutionary in terms of modern design?54

the “return to nature” lifestyle.55 From materiAt the time of the counter-industrial movement, ality to organic form of structure and ornamentation, architects at this time were able to bring nature was becoming an important part of the feeling of nature into their buildings. architecture and design for many people once Many buildings were popping up at this time again. It was at this time that Central Park in New York, the United States National Park sys- interpreting the themes of nature in their own individual ways. For instance, in 1901 in tem, along with Henry David Thoreau’s cabin were all created. Thoreau’s cabin is an explicit Germany, Peter Berhens was designing the Behrens House. The building boasted organic example of simple vernacular architecture and

Returning Nature to Architecture

curves in both the facade and interior. But more importantly, the facade consisted of many bottle green bricks.56 This material selection gave the building a natural look. Imagine how different the facade would be with normal red bricks. The combination of materiality, curved lines and a simple construction give the building an organic yet modern aesthetic, exemplifying the ‘return to nature’ themes of the time period. Another example of bringing nature back to architecture is in the Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station. It’s a completely different expression of nature, in a completely different setting from the Berhens house, but still shares the same root idea. The front facade is decorated in golden floral designs that follow the lines and curves of the facade. This was a great way to bring nature, although in the form of iron, into an urban setting. Similar to the station, the Hotel Tassel in Brussels used design in an urban setting to create a setting that resembles nature. The intricate designs of vegetation on the ceiling combined with the structure itself make a space that resembles being under trees. The Hotel Tassel was built in 1893, which made it ahead of its time, especially in regard to the themes of nature.

a physical connection between the viewer, the structure of the building, and the natural surroundings. The prairie style typology, horizontal roof structure, and the shadows formed by these geometries, personified the central theme of the ‘return to nature’ within the counter-industrial movement.

Influence of Arts and Crafts Movement on Europe The Arts and Crafts movement largely strayed from the industrial revolution that was taking place, the movement strived to circumvent industrialism and focus on craftsmanship. European designers would later fully embrace the movement.

The craft of the facades of the Glass Pavilion, Behren’s House, and Ernst Ludwig’s House, were heavily influenced by those of the Arts and Crafts movement. Both Behren’s House and Ernst Ludwig’s House were part of the Darmstadt Artist’s Community, and had many organic features. Behren’s house had many curved lines and organic forms, highlighted by the green ornamentation on the facade, and around the front door. Many buildings during this time such as Behren’s House and An important theme seen in the Counter-indus- Ernst Ludwig’s House used earth tones that trial movement was the idea of nature returning further tie back to the style of the Arts and to architecture, rather than more industrial Crafts movement. Ernst Ludwig’s House had buildings often seen. A great example designed a curved arch entrance that framed the front during this era was the Robie House by Frank door. Gold plated flower ornamentation framed Lloyd Wright. Wright designed this structure by the entrance, as well as two grand statues following the idea of a prairie style typology. A exemplifying grand ornamentation. The Glass prairie style is based on the idea of the architec- Pavilion, by Bruno Taut, was influenced in a ture being heavily influenced by the surrounddifferent way by the Arts and Crafts movement. ing natural environment.57 The horizontality of The Glass Pavilion used inlaid colored glass the geometries within the roof structure directly plates that were handmade, and acted as mirrors relates to the flat open spaces often found in a creating a kaleidoscope effect. The form of the prairie landscape. As well as the shadows crefacade was largely influenced by the geometry ated by these platforms create spaces to inhabit of nature and used other natural materials such outside of the envelope.58 This begins to play as bricks to tie earth tones into the building. with the idea of interior and exterior and creates

Counter Industrial Movements

Negotiating ornamental structure and expression through architecture. Perspective, elevation of 1889 Galerie des Machines (Gina McCarthy CC BY) based on images from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 781.

Expression Through Ornamental Structure The structure in the Galerie des Machines functions as a highly ornamental aspect of the design, serving mainly as decoration and an expressive piece of architecture. The intricacy of the repeated curved trusses holding up the entirety of the structure are repeated running along the entire space. This forces a person to look at the complicated ornamental design of the steel work. The space itself spans a very long distance for the time it was built, being the largest spanned building in 1889.59 The horizontal runs of steel draw your eyes to the very back of the space, where we see more intricate steelwork that expresses beauty in design. How can we as designers use structure as a form of ornamental design?

Hand crafted objects allowed for buildings to be designed with more precision and detail as opposed to industrially designed objects that while took less time to create, did not elicit the same type of quality that came during the Arts and Craft Movement. . Buildings such as the Hill House and Glasgow School or Art by Charles and Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh, the Red House by William Morrisand, and The

Grange by Augustus Pugin were buildings that were designed in their totality during the Arts in Craft Movement. Their interiors were focused on with immense detail and custom pieces such as furniture, wallpapers, and upholstery. Handcrafted furniture designed for specific locations and buildings took over from industrial grade products. While it took more time to produce, the quality of work added to the experience.

Horizontality of organic architecture to merge with the landscape. Perspective of interior and exterior of the Robie House by Frank L. Wright 1910 - Chicago (Joshua L. Ssebuwufu CC BY SA) based on images from Gregory, “06 Counter-Industrial movements,” History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (6/16/2020)

Organic Architecture: The return to nature Organic architecture established the significance of nature in the design of buildings at the time when the accelerating development in architecture with the industrial revolution espoused total exploitation of natural resources. However, in the early 19th century, there rose a movement to counter the industrial complex henceforth buildings such as the Robie House,1910-Chicago by Frank Lloyd Wright were built. Features like open floor plans, deep overhangs, and the long horizontal elevation with long rows of windows that opened the interior to the landscape expressed a sincere association to nature and the building’s surroundings.60 In reflection to this, was organic architecture effective in countering the industrial complex?

The windows of the Hill House were “true to the Arts and Crafts approach, its forty windows were differently shaped and asymmetrically placed.” 61 The pieces of these buildings were designed to capture the craftsmanship and quality of the overall building, where not one aspect of the building was left untouched. This international trend that spread throughout Europe stood for craftsmanship and manu-

facture. The designs for the hill house, glass pavilion, and the Peter Behren’s House were hallmarks of this movement. The arts and crafts movement shifted focus away from industrialization and mass-produced features and created a heightened relevance on ornate compositions within architecture. Architects such as William Morrisand and Ernst Ludwig believed that the craft standard of these expensive luxuries

Counter Industrial Movements

were too advanced for machinery to achieve. In addition to this point, the industrialization of such details drew away from the importance of tradition through architecture. This realization allowed for this movement to inspire architectects and designers to apply handcrafted detail and ornamentation through every detail of both vernacular and monumental designs. These themes explored in the mid-nineteenth century of craft, ornamentation, and art had strong implications to how we live in the modern world today.

interior. On the interior of the building we can see beautiful hand crafted mosaics to decorate and tell the story of the building.63 Even on the floor of the building there is decoration to further the idea of architecture as art. Using the ornamental elements to create the art that we can see today in both of these buildings.

Each building decorated back in the day has historical meaning including the Sainte chapelle church. While looking at this piece of architecture The church uses the stained glass windows to represent the bibles story. Telling everything about the bible itself, “The stained-glass winArt Through Ornaments dows tell the story of the Bible, from Genesis The use of ornaments in architecture is some64 thing tht we can see throughout history and has to the Resurrection of Jesus-Christ” (Pierre). revived itself during the art nouveau movement In architecture itself some of the time the works of art play a role in the building, while in this used to further the art and beauty that a building can hold. The Tassel House, The Pantheon, church the golden staircase symbolizes the heavens which allows the user to really see as well as the Sainte Chapelle Church are all the architecture that is being told through the stunning examples of creating art of architecbuilding.”Unlike the Lower Chapel, the vaults ture through the use of ornamentation. The are not portrayed with fleur-de-lys (the royal buildings all use decoration on the facade as symbol) but with golden stars, symbolising the well as the interior to further the artfulness of Heavens” (Pierre). In the article by Pierre he the building. explains that the church has a shrine that contains the 22 relics of the passion of christ Both the Tassel House and the Pantheon are which in turn shows that the church can be a wonderful examples of ornamentation within symbolic way to show architecture in its true architecture. Both buildings have chosen to form through the church and jesus christ. “In work on the inside of the building with small the choir, the empty shrine once contained the touches on the exterior. The Tassel house has 22 relics of the Passion of Christ” (Pierre). a wonderful staircase that covers two floors with a beautiful vine like railing. That staircase Symbolism in architecture and in churches are a massive step towards the way we look at leads up to a beautiful iron worked dome that opens up to the sky. The dome at the top of the architecture especially in an ornamental way of staircase has wonderful worked iron that deco- how art can show the architectures true form. rates the ceiling to give an idea of plant life and Through these different works of ornamentation we can see that architecture can play a huge adda interesting element of ornamentation.62 The exterior of the tassel house is simplistic in role in what we describe as modern or historical. Art can change the way we perceive things. that it creates its own form of ornamentation. On the other side of the spectrum we have The In these examples showing the way architecture Pantheon. The subtle ornaments on the exterior can be a cultural idea that furthers the way we give way to the complex and extremely artistic as architecture students can understand the art. Especially the Tassel house ,Sainte Chapelle

Forgotten domestic lifestyle of The Red House design. Plan and perspective of 1860 The Red House, Bexleyheath, Southeast London by Philip Webb (Schuyler Wilkerson CC BY) based on images In Blue 3,” axonometric drawing of red house,” online http:// groupblue3.blogspot. com /2012/12/ axonometric-drawing-of-red-house.html (17 June 2020). in Khan Academy, “William Morris and Philip Webb, Red House, Khan academy, online, https://www. khanacademy.org / humanities/becoming-modern/victorian-art-architecture/ pre-raphaelites/a/william-morris-and-philip-webb-red-house (17 June 2020)”.

Standing Out in Red The red house is innovative because it does not follow the architectural designs of the industrial age. As the industrial age was increasing Philip Webb designed the red house in 1860 to go against the rapidly changing age. The house was designed with materials that are easier to craft with, such as wood and brick. The roof of the red house produces Complex compositions of curves that reinforce family values. The red house was perceived as the grounds of revival towards the medieval guild which were craftsmen who directly influenced the construction process.65 The floor plans are familiar and avoid gothic style design making it innovative for its time. Can unpopular designs bring a community closer?65

church, and the Pantheon (St. Genevieve) as described in these paragraphs each set of art can be so important to what architecture can be today.

Holistic Design

As labor became industrialized and joyless, John Ruskin and William Morris longed for a return to the craft and wholesomeness of prein-

dustrial, vernacular England. The craft to Morris and Ruskin was more than a physical and aesthetic quality, but a lifestyle in which work was fulfilling and humanistic. Morris worked with Philip Webb to create the epitome of the Arts and Crafts movement, the Red House. The design extended into the house’s interior, where Morris, his wife, and friends crafted many patterns, hutches, chairs, and more. The

Counter Industrial Movements

Red house appeared rustic without making specific historical references. Perspective (Sarah Stefaniak CC BY) based on images from Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

The Color Red Brick buildings were meanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t to make a building feel boxy and enclosed to create a simple design in which fulfills the purpose of a project. The brick facade is a common material used in homes for this time period, but it is able to create different shaped to a building in which are not symmetrical. Windows in the Red House were different sizes and shapes because they were not placed to create a specific sequence, but were used for the conveince of a specific amount of light needed in certain rooms of the home.66 The multiple chimneys used in this home are necessary for the size, shape, and amount of people that can occupy this space. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing climate, should we take down brick structures for their lack of movement, or should we keep them in order to preserve their history in architecture?

attention to detail and cohesiveness elevated the Red House from great architecture to a total work of art, or gesamtkunstwerk. Husband and wife Charles Rennie Mackintosh and Margaret Macdonald were designers steeped in the Arts and Crafts ethic. In the Hill House, wallpapers, fabrics, and stained glass designed by Macdonald and furniture by Mackintosh are thoughtfully unified with the abstract, roughcast volumes

of the architecture. Mackintosh and Macdonald used a varied palette of materials and colors in each space, creating experiences that reflected the unique uses while elegantly maintaining a sense of balance and wholeness. Morris and following proponents of the Arts and Crafts movement advocated for socialist communities that revealed in the beauty of handicrafts, however, the societal changes they envisioned

Welcoming shaded areas. Perspective of 1910 Robie House, Chicago (Brianna Torres CC BY) based on images in Logan Gregory’s, “06 Counter-Industrial Movements, History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (16 June 2020).

When Nature and Program collide In Wright’s 1910 “Robie House” the exterior layout encourages people to gaze at the natural landscape. As Wright was building the “Robie House” he wanted there to be a sense of “architecture emerging from nature. ”66 The use of these low pitched roofs and long overhangs create a horizontal sense of continuity between the building itself and nature while also making reference to the typical flat prairie landscape. They also create these shaded areas which allow for the “awe” moment where the inhabitants can soak in the natural views of the prairie landscape which in a way, mimics what the building is doing by blending with its surrounding components. If the roofs were higher pitched and the overhangs were shorter, would there still be a connection between architecture and nature or an inviting feel to gaze at natures beauty?

never came to light. The Arts and Crafts ethic rejected Industrialism, but with gesamtkunstwerk came a great cost. The craftsmanship needed to create holistic architecture like the Red House or the Hill House was immense, and without the communal trade-based pre-industrial society of Morris’s dream, total works of art were prohibitively expensive for all but the wealthy, and ironically, industrialists. This

contradiction echoes that of Japan’s principle of Wabi-Sabi, based in vernacular rustic beauty. Despite the simplicity of works such as the Tai-An teahouse, it was incredibly meticulously crafted, with the utmost attention paid to joinery and the quality of materials. Both Arts and Crafts and Wabi-Sabi embodied elements common to the humble craft of the working class but elevated them to such a level that

Counter Industrial Movements

made them inaccessible.

as detailed. More impressively they designed industry and affordability in mind, making furWhile the members of the Arts and Crafts niture such as their fiberglass chairs ubiquitous movement reacted to industrialization with and iconic. Much like the Eames, Arne Jacobbitter resentment, some architects began to sen approached his craft as a “total work of realize that the principles of gesamtkunstwerk art.” Although he was primarily known for his and equity could co-exist with industry. In stark chair designs, Jacobsen was also an architect. contrast to the affordable yet often dismal hous- In his design of Oxford’s St. Catherine campus, ing complexes of Europe, Frank Lloyd Wright Jacobsen integrated his “Seven” and “Swan” began designing his Usonian houses. These chairs with furniture crafted specifically for the cost around half the price of a typical one-fam- college. Furthermore, he also designed all of ily home. Wright worked with manufacturers the lamps, handles, tables and more, making to make modular components and Usonian all the buildings feel cohesive and unified. The houses were partially prefabricated, providing way light falls on the wood of his chairs and owners with the ability to assemble their own glints off their tubular steel frames gives St. homes.67 Wright echoed the holistic approach of Catherine’s a sense of atmosphere that would Arts and Crafts, “total work of art,” designing certainly be missing if Jacobsen’s vision didn’t chairs, built-in cabinetry, and shelving. In the permeate every inch of the school. The reacUsonian Zimmerman House, the owners asked tion of Morris and Mackintosh to industry was Wright about pottery and art to make sure the understandable, but the principle of gesamtcontents of their homework with the clean lines kunstwerk was reserved for those who could and warmth of the honey-colored wood and red afford it. Later, the embrace of industry allowed brick interior. This meticulous detail made the modernist designers to mass-produce good house “handcrafted like a fine piece of furnidesign while also making total works of art. 68 ture,” as Wright once said. Ray and Charles Eames’s case study house furthered the idea of the thoughtful marriage of industry and design. Made from entirely prefabricated or recycled materials, the Eames House was as much a study within the economy and through its beautiful design.69 The Eames were prolific furniture makers, and living spaces are full of their chairs and tables. Rows of steel and wooden shelves designed to line the walls when Ray’s incredible eye for art and interior design is evident in the decoration. The house is a collage of original Eames pieces and fabrics, artworks and objects found on their travels. For dessert, Ray and Charles would serve their guests fastidiously arranged flowers, as a “visual delight.” The Eames House is undeniably gesamtkunstwerk. The craft that the Eames put into their furniture was immense and equally

Nature Does it Better

The term green architecture and green design have gained popularity in today’s world as a response to global warming, which is the ultimate consequence of the industrial revolution. In this context, the idea of holistic design evolved into a type of design that takes account of the people, the environment, and sustainability as a whole system. We start seeing architects lean towards transcendentalism or finding beauty in nature. For example, Frank Lloyd Wright’s concept of “organic form” that stems from the idea of a natural system: a type of organic architecture that is informed by nature’s law. Exemplified by works such as, Falling Water, it is characterized by the use of material and how it sits

Modern in versatility but timeless in craftsmanship, the Robie House is a part of the landscape and is a staple of the Arts and Crafts era. Perspective, plan and details of 1906-1909 Robie House, Chicago by Frank Lloyd Wright (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Gregory Logan, “The Robie House,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (16 June 2020), and Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019),758.

Ahead of its Time and Timeless Modern in versatility but timeless in craftsmanship, the Robie House is a part of the landscape and is a staple of the Arts and Crafts era. Unrelenting in horizontality, the overhangs and brick mortar accents show an integration to site. Details such as the stained glass windows, made to look like plants, along the front elevation continue to draw the eye and relate to nature. Built-in features like the furniture and finishes of the interior as well as the integration to the site are direct staples to the Prairie Style but it’s multifunctional, open spaces created a wave of new possibilities.70 History has been known to repeat itself, given the way abstraction took over in the next decades, is there still underexplored potential for building on the precedents of the Prairie Style?

over the waterfall with horizontal planes that’s harmonious to the site. Fast forward to today, terms like biomimicry have emerged. It means to imitate elements of nature to solve complex problems since nature relies on unique geometry and material to discover the most efficient solutions. Unlike the Prairie house,which is a surface level form

of imitating nature by using horizontal forms, the Media TIC by Enric Rviz Geli advanced the idea. It takes inspiration from how a plant responds to the sun and how clouds diffuse light then directly applies it to the southeast and southwest facade which creates a performative architecture.71 On the southeastern facade sunlight penetration is mitigated through the release of a nitrogen gas creating a “vertical

Counter Industrial Movements

Smaller rods are extruded out to the center of the ceiling

Parts of the columns extend to create arches

Bends and curves of the columns provide support

Sinuous lines and curves shown on the wall and floor Artistry of vegetation

Design of Its Own Time The arts and crafts of ornamental design play an important role in architecture, which is evident to see in the Tassel House by Victor Horta. This building is filled with artistry and different elements from those before, to the point that it was considered a design of its own time.72 Elements such as sinuous lines and curves are represented on parts of the walls and floors. Designs of vegetation on the glass ceiling and the bendings of the columns show that this building is uniquely different. The space with the raised glass ceiling shows many components of design that collectively come together as one beautiful piece. This also gives the space a lighter feeling, even though there are many columns and lines that could make this space overwhelming. Should these elements be more present in architecture?

cloud” diffusing the light. A holistic design of today also incorporates the industrial process.The Media TIC integrates prefabricated materials to mass produce the structure and joineries. Here we see the combination of the efficient and economic industry with the holistic principles of today’s design trends. It is the synthesis of these two influenc-

es which were at once at odds with one another that may be the key to bettering the world of today, all of which were born from a reactionary movement in the early 18th Century.

The arts and crafts of ornamental design playing an important role within architecture, making this building to be a design of its own time. Perspectives of the Tassel House by Victor Horta, 1893-4, Brussels (Crystal Njoroge CC BY). Based on images in Gregory Logan, “06 Counter-Industrial Movements,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (17 June 2020), and https:// www.designartmagazine.com/2018/04/ master-of-light-victor-horta-in-brussels. html.

Late Colonialism

O7 Late Colonialism

Colonialism through Architecture

Architecture has been used in history as a way to colonize civilizations but how this is done is in the making of the structure and how it influences cultures or is it the other way around? Through the utilization of power and control, inclusiveness of culture, combination of past and present design, and symbolic elements, architecture is the physical instrument of colonialism. In the nineteenth century, Europeans wanted to bring their new technologies and advancements to indigenous people in an effort to colonize. Through this movement emerged new blends of cultural architecture that empowered or discouraged indigenous people of the time. Although it may seem like architecture has more power to connect or overpower cultures, it is shown through history that architecture can impact culture as well. Structures such as the Liverpool Townhall in the analysis of Richard and Skylar as highlighted below reflect the symbolization of ornamental elements in the facade to demonstrate the power and control of the British. Tying themes of dominance and control of Britain to civilize a colony, architecture is a tool to establish colonialism through construction. Although it may seem like Britain is bringing the modern era to less advanced areas, their main goal is to take responsibility and control over through various means. However, there are instances such as the Gateway of India, discussed in the following paragraph, that blend cultures in order to colonize. Instead of achieving global modernity, some buildings of the era represent a perfect combination of cultures. Using traditional styles and symbols, structures are able to communicate the culture of societies. Through Jennifer Gauglerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lecture, the ideas that culture influences architecture can be studied within many works such as Ponts 1919

Designing for inclusiveness. Perspectives of The Gateway of India, George Wittet, 1911-28, Bombay, India. (Haimanot Hailu CC BY). Based on images and prespective drawing Sukhada Chaudhary 9 February 2017,Gaugler, Jennifer, “07 Late Colonialism” History/ Theory 02 course, lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (25 June 2020)

Gate way of India The gateway of India, an arched monumental structure built as an Indo Saracenic style, aimed to soften the tension between locals and the European’s. The mixture of onion domes, Indian pattern design light filters, and minarets are some of the elements introduced to Europe’s neoclassical and gothic styles in India. Although it incorporated local and Arabian architecture, it still held on to the eurocentric view. Built to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary, rather than to honor or celebrate the locals.73 Ironically as the Raj entered through the Gateway of India, the last troops also marched out. How can we better design with inclusiveness in mind without dominating others?

Bandung Institute of Technology, analyzed by Jeremy as shown in the following essay.74 As easily stated as this is, it is our job as architects to see that architecture influences cultures as well. The statements made in architecture from the past drive the societies of the future. The French changed their societal norms by changing the structure of roads, making them wider to discourage people from rioting within the

small streets as they were before. This change in architecture transformed the society and influenced social hierarchies forever. Another example of an architectural-cultural impact is found within the Algiers under the Ottoman Rule. When the French invaded the Algiers medina, their way of life changed.75 Instead of the large courtyard spaces occupied by more multifamily spaces, today the area is focused

Late Colonialism

A New Order The Presidential Residence house in New Delhi incorporates Indian elements from the Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi to provide a high order of space to both the house and the land. Edwin Lutyens who designed the house takes Stupa’s Dome structure that created a higher form with its materials including a large copper plate instead of mud bricks to give the house a modern and Indian style. Columns towards the façade provides a sense of direction into the space where one can approach . Indian elements from the Stupa includes a Chattra and Hamika which are located at the top of the dome which Lutyens transforms towards the house as a cultural flag to represent being a house of culture in New Delhi. The government house uses the elements of the Stupa very well and represents a new order of power within the dome that stands tall over New Delhi.76 Can culture in other worlds be incorporated into architecture?

on more individual styles and lacks the need for these spaces. As described in the following paragraphs, architecture is used to embody cultures of an era through monumentality, blends of cultures, and symbolization. While it is important to understand how structures demonstrate a culture in order to colonize, it can be determined that architecture also influences colonization in cultures as well.

Monumental Architecture

Monumental architecture, as a highly visible and enduring form, plays an important role in shaping the political, economic and social conditions of people in other words, the power hierarchy. Throughout time and civilizations, various architectural forms have developed into symbols associated with this conceptualization. In the early 19th century, as colonialism spread

Incorporating Indian elements to give classical architecture a new order. Elevations & Details of Presidential Residence, by Edwin Lutyens. Elevation of Stupa at Sanchi by Emperor Ashoka. (Carvens G. Charles CC BY) Based on images from Jennifer Gaugler, “Late Colonialism 07” (History - Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology. Boston, MA June 23, 2020)

The prominence of white colonization through the appeasement of a French standard cathedral, hiding the colonization of the surrounding lands. Interior and front faรงade images of 1930 Sacre-Coeur Cathedral, Casablanca Morocco, by Paul Tournon. (Sam Johnson CC BY) Based on images from Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

Stained Colonization While the Sacre-Coeur Cathedral is a stunning piece of architecture, the underlying colonialist intentions marr the potential beauty the building can hold. The exterior and interior of the building is decorated with arches to try and appeal to the colonized people, while also presenting the French with their own standard of a cathedral. The shining white towers on the front faรงade are a beacon of white colonization that was brought to the land of morocco to further the subjugation of those taking over the lands.77 The interior of the building is a simplistic yet complex geometric design of stained glass windows that provide the light for the building, while showing the influence of Paul Tournon. Should this building be condemned due to the original intent of spreading religion and furthering the colonization of nations that may have never needed it?

across the world, both to the benefit of the colonists and to the detriment of the colonized, architecture took centre stage. In India, the New Delhi Presidential House by the British used various symbols from local Indian architecture that were deemed sacred to impose and announce British rule over India. In the same light, the Liverpool Townhall in the UK utilized ornamental features on its facade to depict

wealth and power that Britain had become at the time. These pieces of architecture clearly established the power hierarchy. Monumental architecture took a political form during colonial times and was excessively utilized. In India,the New Delhi Presidential House is a monumental and powerful structure, with elements that highlight the power within the building given its use as the residence of the

Late Colonialism

Viceroy (colonial leader of India). Shown on the exterior, large scales of design are incorporated, which gives a sense of high order and power. This method heightens the structure shape and builds off of the form. The dome features also brings hierarchy, which becomes an important implement to making it appear grander while involving elements of the Stupa. Colonial power is represented in the construction. This also ties in with Liverpool Townhall’s neoclassical design. This design is specifically executed through the craft of the windows and the multiple columns. Heavy stone material also revealed the wealth and significance of the building, while also involving the classic arches in the front entrance. This method conveys superiority over the community while also making their importance known by having intricate forms and traditional monumental elements. Eventually, after most colonized states started attaining independence, most of these colonial and monumental buildings were kept and similarly used for administration. Some structures took on alternative associations to independence. For example, the Gateway of India became a symbol of freedom to the Indian people. Socially, the building became a beacon of hope amongst the people. This further shows the significance of monumental architecture as an enduring form that with time takes on different contextualizations.

pieces of architecture exemplify what it means to incorporate culture within the design. LeClerc’s analysis of Willet’s 1911 Gateway of India portrays the idea that representing culture in design is important to the general history of architecture. The influence of culture on design has a heavy connotation to where a building is constructed. Furthermore, erecting significant monumental pieces of architecture claims a cultural status and ownership of the design, which gives a culture a sense of power over others. In the lecture, Gaugler demonstrates the idea that If we as designers try to include some of the local cultures into the design, the people will be appeased. The Gateway of India is a combination of European neoclassical and neo-gothic styles with Indian and Islamic architecture. With the arches, fine details, and overall inclusion, this combination is a great representation of what can be successfully accomplished when representing culture in architecture.

Donovan’s analysis of Ponts 1919 Bandung Institute of Technology was represented as a superior structure during its time. The strategies were made by the natives using rigid bamboo framing which was vastly different from European architecture. Regardless of the obvious tectonic knowledge, the Javanese showed, European colonizers found the design very secondary. Due to the designs being different the Europeans were more pursuing stewardship Cultural Colonialism rather than displacement. In Cowherd’s lecture The process of colonialism plays a role in on Pont’s 1924 structural strategies, the Euroarchitecture by developing a stronger sense peans believed that the Javanese did not have of blending culture within design. The term cultural colonialism alludes to the extension of an understanding of how the structure works. colonial state power through culture or the sys- The arch in the tent strategy was designed to be complex in the idea that the upper roof leaned tematic subordination of cultural identity over others. This term exemplifies the idea of claim- on the lower roof. Another thing was allowing ing ownership over cultures to raise popularity the rafters to bend to produce better dynamics and recognition. Between the Gateway of India of buildings. Even today architects talk about and Bandung Institute of Technology, these two how they could influence their own style on a piece of design and do better. This can lead to

Contrasting roof framing elevations of traditional Javanese architecture and a naïve emulation seen in Bandung Institute of Technology by Henri Maclaine Pont, 1919, (Jeremy Donovan CC BY) based on images from Robert Cowherd’s “Associationism and the Dutch East Indies” Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, June 2020.

Colonial Ego Architecture conceived in a cultural and regional vacuum cannot be considered good design, regardless of its aesthetic beauty. Henri Maclaine Pont built the Bandung Institute of Technology, and while he defended Javanese vernacular architecture’s worth in debates with Schoemaker, the Institute’s tectonics was culturally distant from Java.78 The rigid, mainly rectilinear framing of Bandung is seen on the left. Each framing member seems discrete, and the “curve” that the roof approximates feels clumsy and incohesive. The traditional Javanese framing conversely feels like a unified and cohesive mesh of bamboo units, forming a graceful and sinuous curved profile. The tectonic knowledge shown through Javanese construction compared to Pont’s emulation shows the colonial ego and lack of willingness to adopt culture of the colonized in any substantive way. Is culturally unfamiliar architecture any less appropriate than foreign architecture that hides under a mien of familiar aesthetics, especially when faced with the built form’s colonial implications?

taking ideas from history; is it worth changing defines our society. For the 19th-20th century, a culture’s architecture to benefit the colonizing traditional and modern architecture could also nations? be seen as the architecture of the colony and the architecture of the colonizer. One hundred years ago, there was a harsh history around Blend of Modern and Traditional how the melting pot of these different archiArchitecture Blending traditional and modern architecture is tecture styles manifested itself, but nowadays, we can view them as the symbol of 2 societies’ what allows society to develop because archiartistic and architectural expressions intertwintecture is part of what shapes, and, later on,

Late Colonialism

Caption: Wittet’s Gateway of India was designed to signify power over the people of India ,and show that they are a small part of the British Empire. Elevation and perspective of 1911-1928 Gateway of India, Bombay by George Wittet (Maegan Herd CC BY). Based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “07 Late Colonialism,” History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (23 June, 2020).

Gateway of India: A Symbol of Colonialism and Independence The Gateway of India, designed by George Wittet, in Bombay, India, used mainly European styles with some local styles to symbolize that India is a small part of their empire. Wittet used European styles such as gothic and neoclassical using: the European triumphal arch, domes, and spires. Indian and Islamic styles with the perforated screens, and small details were scattered around the structure. Though the British Empire built the Gateway of India to symbolize their power over the citizens, it was the site of the British troops’ exit from India, symbolizing their independence.79 The British wanted to show the colony was only a small part of a larger picture, however the meaning later flipped, and now the British are only a small part of their long history. How can we better blend different architectural styles together? Is there a right way?

ing. In the Louis Pinot Museum, the architect, Ernest Hebrab, used French colonial style to represent traditional Vietnamese style in order to blend the two. He also used hand chiseled corbels, and wide beams, aspects of French colonial style, to represent the indented spaces found in traditional Vietnamese ornamentation. Le Corbuisier also used modernist techniques blended with traditional architecture in order to

improve solutions for urbanism and housing. He used the L-shaped unit of the monk’s cell as “the solution to workers’ housing”. The Esprit Nouveau Pavilion was derived from the Carthusian monks’ cell, and this led him to begin working on his theory of vertical architecture. He used the traditional form of architecture in the monks’ cell to develop modern and more efficient types of architecture. The Children’s

Using French Motifs compared with French Boulevard to show an oppressive replication with difference. Perspectives of 1917 Habous “Indigenous” district, Casablanca by Albert Laprade (Andres Jimenez CC BY) based on image in Richard Ingersoll,

World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History, (New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press, 2019), 772; and Gheorghe, Radu Razvan. “Paris- July 6,2017: People Walking on the Famous French Boulevard,” 123RF, accessed June 24, 2020, https:// www.123rf.com/ photo_84029978_ paris-july-6-2017people-walking-onthe-famous-frenchboulevard-champselysees-closed-forcar-traffi.html.

The Colonialist Mask The Habous District, designed by Albert Laprade, exemplifies how subtle changes to typologies and replication can experientially deny freedom of thought. Habous carries oriental motifs using tiles and lattice filigree on the windows, but also experientially, as the facades frame a tighter volume and the arches define a new block at denser intervals. Yet Habous is also distinctly French with inherent motifs of a frieze, defined columns, and the arches subtly infiltrating the façade. The masonry is also carefully placed and cleanly defined, signifying craftsmanship familiar in Europe. However, Laprade intended the District to keep the “indigenous population” out of European affairs.80 The French motifs now take on a more oppressive context in which they are a constant reminder of French dominance in a traditional typology. If this architecture was intended to blind the oppressed to their toils, to what extent could one find this ethically right or wrong?

Library in Burundi used more traditional materials to build a modern structure. It is built using earth block masonry and baked clay roof tiles which allows the facade of the building to fit in with the surroundings while maintaining a modern design of architecture. In all these examples, we see how architects took from different cultures’ and eras’ architectural practices, and used those to solve difficult problems. This

is exactly why we, as future architects, analyze these buildings, because of the inevitable fact that we, as well, are going to face difficulties in design. Instead of reinventing the wheel, these architects took architecture for what it already was, and thought about it in an innovative way. Without the hybrid that the blending of traditional and modern architecture created, societies would find it hard to grow architecturally

Late Colonialism

Using a blend of traditional and modern architecture techniques to create a sense of familiarity in a colony. Exterior perspective of 1932 Louis Finot Museum, Hanoi by Ernest Hebrard (Andrew Herzog CC BY) based on images in Robert Cowherd History/ Theory 02 lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 25, June 2020.

Louis Finot Museum; Using a blend of traditional and modern architecture techniques to create a sense of familiarity in a colony Ernest Hebrard used elements of traditional Vietnamese architecture and integrated them with French colonial architecture to create a balanced blend of tradition and modernity. On top of the otherwise French style building, Hebrard used hand chiseled corbels, wide beams, indented spaces with ornamentation and motifs to look like traditional Vietnamese ornamentation. Herepresented both national and international architecture in an effort to give the building a familiar quality to the local peoples. For the structure, he used double post and beams and lintels, and was therefore able to use bricks and plaster which were both common materials in French colonies.81 Because of the unique program, being an archeological institution, it was extremely important that some sense of indigenous architecture remain visible. How does this blend of traditional and modern architecture help assimilate peoples to the colony and thus help facilitate order?

and to create new urban settings, while being stuck with the old ways. Throughout history we continually see how the architect’s design includes styles, writings, structures and materiality to reference past successes and failures in the nation’s history. In Gateway of India by George Willet, there is a combination of European and local styles

that bring together the past and present. These styles symbolize the entrance of British empires ruling as well as their exit. The representation of the british exit is so important because that marks the moment where India gained their independence from British ruling. In the “Liverpool Townhall” by John Wood the Elder there is a strong use of stone materiality which references the heavy labor that was used to build it

but also references Liverpools history of slave labor and being the biggest port in Britain for slave trade.

analyzed by students, each can strongly relate back to the four highlighted themes. Specific examples of these analyses include The Louis Pinot Museum The Gateway of India (anaIn past events through history, we can see sym- lyzed by Haime, Carrington, and Maegan), The bolic elements that have shaped architecture. As Liverpool Townhall (analyzed by Richard and can be seen from the Gateway of India, we see Skylar), The Sacre-Coeur Cathedral (analyzed an Indo-Saracenic architecture that has shaped by Sam), and The New Delhi Presidential Resthis structure. The mixture of European style idence (analyzed by Carvens). These structures and Indian as well as Islamic architecture help all have a strong sense of monumentality, which to create the form of this arch. With the pointed as stated earlier in the writing, shapes a “power arches, we see how over time they started with hierarchy” that takes hold over the surrounding Islamic architecture, transitioned into gothic communities being colonized. They explore European styles of architecture, and have now how colonialism begins to mix the architecture translated into this style of architecture. of the colonists with the indiginous through the use of symbolism (whether that is depictions of Along with the Gateway of India, the Sapeople/animals, or a religious symbol like the cre-Coeur Cathedral uses symbolic elements Catholic cross) and the blending of “modern” from their past history to shape the style of (European) and “traditional” (Indigenous). architecture. The Sacre-Coeur Cathedral, also Although, it should be noted that the European known as the Casablanca Cathedral, uses white architecture heavily outweighed the Indigetowers on the facade of the Cathedral to symnous as a nod to who truly held the power at bolize the white colonization that was brought the time. By using monumental architecture to Morocco. Paul Touron designed light conthat blends cultures through various means, the crete vaults within the Cathedral to represent colonists truly believed that they were bettering the colonization letting the Cathedral reflect these countries, although they were doing quite the modern Morocco architecture style. Touron the opposite. experimented with using cast concrete as decWhile the analyses give various insights into oration on the Cathedral furthering the modern the architectural motives of this time, there Morocco architecture idea. Even though the are many other sources that also portray this Cathedral has not been kept up after, the history concept. From the textbook World Architecof Morocco is expressed for many generations turebuildings such as the Victoria Memorial, Notre Dame d’Afrique, and the Hanoi Opera to see. all use monumentality and various forms of cultural blending to “claim ownership” over the Achieving Colonialism with Architecaffected regions, as stated before. Each stand ture as a Driving Force Throughout history, architecture has been used tall and use their architectural styles to impose European culture and ideals on people. Other as a vehicle for instituting power and control, pieces of architecture, like the Municipal Coras noted in the previous writings regarding poration Building in Mumbai and St. Andrew’s monumentality, culture, the blending of modChurch in Chennai, both use this intimidating ern and traditional, and symbolism. Each of factor as well. By forcing the ideas of European these points all relate back to one overarching theme: colonialism. Among all of the buildings government and religion upon the people of India, they begin to assimilate the population

Late Colonialism

Caption: The Liverpool Townhall’s elements and features directly related back to the prosperity that England made off the Slave Trade. Elevation and detail of The Liverpool Town Hall by John Wood the Elder, John Foster, and James Wyatt Based on images from Marc Zakian (Elephant Frieze) and Tony Hisgett (Elevation) (Richard D’Avella CC BY)

The Truth behind the Prosperity of Liverpool Narrative argument here (Gill Sans Nova - Book - 10pt) Liverpool’s dark history is shown the architecture of the Liverpool Townhall. The use of heavy materials such as stones presented this building as a heavy and labor-intensive structure. The Neo-Classical design showed high class and superiority over the colonies. England wanted to show how sophisticated they were compared to the people that they colonized and using a Neo-Classical design showed that. The frieze depicted images of both Native Americans and natives of Africa which the wealth of Britain was built on. Liverpool was also Britain’s leading slave port which made it one of the most prosperous parts of England.82 With the Liverpool Townhall being built on the back of the slave trade, how can we make sure that the terrible history of buildings like this are remembered and we do not just see it as a fancy building

to gain more power and control. Through all of these examples, whether from the analyses, lecture, reading, or an outside source, it becomes blatantly clear the architectural methods with which the Europeans took to colonize and inhabit countries within Asia and Africa. For centuries, architecture has been used as a tool for cultural dominance and power, with less thought towards impacting the world and its

morals as a whole. By learning from these tragedies of cultural appropriation and colonialism, hopefully one day the world’s architecture will be composed of structures that benefit all of humanity, instead of favoring one small part. narrative.

Developmentalism

O8 Developmentalism

ArchitecturalIinfluence and Politics Using Governmental Tools

During the 1920-1940s, art and architecture were met with the challenge of becoming distorted corrupt mediums, used for personal or group gains. The leaders during those times understood that people are highly influenced, and their opinions dramatically transformed by the arts, so the leaders started using them as instruments for political power. Even though the arts and architecture were created during such controlling and tyrannical times in history, it still is evident in today. Having a modern day 20th century perspective, we are able to notice the influence, power, oppression, and diversity between the people and their countries. The natures of the buildings serve as a canvas for increasingly instrumental political art. Before we jump to art made as a means of propaganda, we should recognise that there is a thin line that differentiates art and propaganda. You can tell if something is propaganda if you can say exactly what it is about. As for a true art piece, you can never specifically tell what it is about: you can talk about it forever and ever, and derive all sorts of meanings from it. And that is because an artist creates something where the process is embedded in the byproduct, rather than creating a mere end product, which is what propaganda aims to do. You can see it in the black and white film by Henry-George Clouzot, where he films Picasso creating his masterpiece, Le Mystere. Picasso doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have a set end goal in mind, rather, he is exploring as he goes about his art, drawing various lines and motifs, and then covering them with other colors repeatedly. So it seems as if he is letting his characters, the colors, the process tell the story. The same can be said about Henry William Turner depicting the Sublime in The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, and Holy Island. He didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have a narrative to push when he put himself in the

Transparency in architecture of modernism and totalitarianism. Elevation and Perspective (interior) of the Casa del Fascio, 1932-1936 (Joshua L. Ssebuwufu- Como, Italy based on images in Robert Cowherd, “08 Developmentalism, History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute Technology (7/8/2020)

Transparency: Architecture in Government Transparency of Architecture enhances the interaction and relatability of the government to the people as it objectifies figurative transparency in government itself. In the 1930’s, with the rise of totalitarianism , transparent architecture was an effective piece of propaganda for the government. Built through 1932-1936, the Casa del Fascio by Giuseppe Terragni with its bright, clean and assertive presence to show power, the large rows of openings on the façade and hollow interior permit views to people outside of the building exemplifies transparency in architecture.83 In summation, how can transparency in architecture be achieved in government buildings today?

sublime settings of a big fire or of a sea storm. He went on to explore the unknown, and let that experience and process effortlessly lead to the byproduct. Propaganda, on the other hand, is done by people who know exactly what sort of message they want to portray, and do so successfully. One of the ways propaganda was displayed through the 19th century was as a physical rep-

resentation of supremacy and elitism. The Casa Del Fascio is raised three steps up, to differentiate itself from the common buildings of the Como region, because, as the local headquarters of the Fascist Party, it needed to demonstrate power and supremacy. The humongous blank wall on the Casa Del Fascio was done to later be used as a place where propaganda posters of political narratives would be put,

Developmentalism

Negotiating propaganda and persuasion through architecture. Elevation, section of 1932 Casa Del Fascio, Italy by Giuseppe Terragni (Gina McCarthy CC BY) based on images in Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 07 July 2020).

Using Architecture for Propaganda The architecture in the Casa Del Fascio functions as a piece of propaganda, serving as an influential and persuasive building to the people. In the center of the building there is an open core that is surrounded by offices, giving the space a central heart that appears welcoming and safe. The front façade has a constant repetition of large square openings that gives the building a connotation of being honest and transparent to the people. The constant repetition of gridlike columns gives the structure a strong sense of symmetry and order. On the right side of the façade, the large blank wall was used for projections and for hanging large propaganda to directly influence the people.84 How can we as designers create architecture that strongly influences the people around it?

which made the Casa Del Fascio a propaganda building meant to display posters of that very same nature. Hitler also used propaganda to his advantage. Films such as “The Eternal Jew”, and “Triumph of the Will” depicted the Jews as subhuman and less-then, and glorified Hitler. Displays of this sort is what made the Germans adopt the sentiment of disgust towards the Jews, and made it easier for Hitler to make the

Germans flirt with the idea of the genocide of the Jews, and later on implement those ideas. Propaganda works as a calculated marketing strategy, which aims to make masses of people do what the people in power want them to do. This is why it is important to know whether we are looking at an art piece, or whether we are looking at propaganda designed to make us

Retired political power in architecture. Elevation and perspective of 1936 Casa del Fascio, Como, Italy by Giuseppe Terragni (Schuyler Wilkerson CC BY) based on images In ArchDaily, “AD Classics: Casa del Fascio / Giuseppe Terragn,” Online, https://www.archdaily. com/312877 /ad-classics-casa-del-fascio-giuseppe-terragni (07 July 2020).

Architectural Facism A structure’s intention can be changed by how someone experiences it. Terragni’s 1936 Casa Del Fascio was placed in a symmetrical location with asymmetrical facades.85 The center of the interior is structurally open for a dynamic congregation, but due to fascism, this made the structure politically unambiguous. Designed to be an elegant location for fascist rallies, The Casa Del Fascio has at least a dozen doors that lead to rooms to conduct work. Along with the use of multiple windows and balconies to give the sense that people can look and have a choice in what is happening. Does history make architecture or does architecture make history?

follow a warped ideology.

Pure abstraction

With the rise of photography, artists were liberated from the onus of realism. Paul Cezanne continued the abstraction of Impressionism, depicting the world through a subjective, proto-cubist lens. Mountains became patches of blues, grays and browns, only assembling into

a landscape when seen as a whole.86 In 1915, two years prior to the Bolshevik revolution, Kazimir Malevich created “Black Square,” one of the first pieces of Suprematist art.87 Malevich entirely eschewed the concept of art representing an object, creating geometric forms and compositions purely based on the abstraction of feeling. Malevich wished to divorce utility and materialism from art, embodying the “New Ob-

Developmentalism

jectivity” ethic by wholeheartedly embracing subjectivity. Surrealist Man Ray took a different approach to addressing objectivity in the 1920 “L’Enigme d’Isidore Ducasse,” (pictured right) where he de-objectified a sewing machine by obscuring, and subsequently, abstracting it.88 The once function-driven machine became an enigmatic sculpture that acted as a canvas for the viewer’s subjective interpretation. The De Stijl movement began engaging abstraction across a variety of scales and dimensions. De Stijl co-founder Piet Mondrian morphed from creating Impressionist landscapes to Cubist scenes of nature to an original and pure style of composition. Much like Malevich, Mondrian felt that his rectilinear explorations of rhythm, color, and form were rooted in feeling, and even a sense of spiritualism and revelation.

Abstraction with spatial implications

While Mondrian explored a flat “Neoplastic” art, Theo Van Doesburg and Gerrit Rietveld brought the ideas of abstraction into the third dimension. Rietveld’s 1923 Schroder House can be seen as a sculptural abstraction of Mondrian’s paintings. Intersecting planes create walls and hover as ceilings in an asymmetrical composition, forming a series of volumes. As Rietveld built off of Mondrian, El Lissitsky integrated Malevich’s Suprematist ideas of expression through abstract geometries in his Proun studies. The Proun studies applied a suprematist lens to spatial explorations, simultaneously architectural and non-objective. El Lissitsky painted in isometric projection, showing depth and giving his abstractions a sense of volume that feels quasi-recognizable. Malevich eventually joined the three dimensional realm with his Arkitekton studies. Solid plaster compositions furthered the Suprematist exploration of feeling as the “supreme” subject of art. The spaces have no program, only subjective impact

and weight.

Abstraction of Forces: Molding the Mediator

With abstraction, artists could begin to explore and understand the human body, and forces in a profound and often impactful manner, surpassing objectivity and logic in how it influenced people. Human abstraction seems in part as the long desire for many to understand the Human beginning and form. Works such as Oskar Schlemmer’s Pole Dance and Marcel Duchamp’s Cubist “Nude Descending Staircase” are both works that aim to analyze human interactions in space through time, and explore the displacement of mass through different mediums: painting and physical. Human expression, abstracted, can have meaning. When Hitler took the stage, one could not help but be impressed by his theatrics and intentional gestures. He would in fact, record himself and perfect such gestures that would enrapture Germany.89 The movement of the arm defiantly punching through the atmosphere and visually echoing across entire masses of people is powerful. More profoundly, Lenin’s Left learning figure that shot to a future, inspiring thousands, would go on to spark left leaning political action. Artist’s would abstract this symbol of eloquent speaking in an effort to manifest and evoke those same hopes and changes. Abstraction of forces especially with the use of directional and repeated elements convey a message through a viewer’s eye movement. Hitler and Lenin’s Gestures demanded people’s gaze, and Cubist paintings moved your eyes across a canvas; however in the third dimension abstraction could begin to activate more of the human senses, and spatial awareness.91 The ten-

Language of Materiality. Front view of 1936 Casa del Fascio, Italy by Giuseppe Terragni (Brianna Torres CC BY) based on images in Logan Gregory’s, “08 - Developmentalism, History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (7 July 2020).

Materiality emphasizing power or weakness? Facades of architecture can emphasize power or weakness depending on choice of materiality. In Giuseppe’s Casa del Fascio, there is a use of white marble slabs which are rock solid and give this building a sense of solidarity. Then the strong use of horizontality and verticality create these translucent pieces showing the strict organization of government in a time where design was “architecture by means of propaganda”.90 What furthers this idea of a strong government backed by a strong architectural building is the general design of the building being these balconies that appear from these openings but also the large white core on the side allowing for abundant propaganda display for the world to see. If this buildings proportions were smaller or if the material were lighter, would there still be a sense of a strong fascist government in power?

sile structures of Gertrud Louise Goldschmidt, and Janet Echleman explore space through the density of linear segments, blurring the line between space and mass, but also attempting to express emotion through perceived weight.92 Yet Frank Ghery’s works and Maya Lin’s Vietnam Memorial (both primitive and stereotomic forms) rely more on formthan perception to express themselves.93 With a heavy empha-

sis on directionality, but also simplicity, these forms stamp their power into the earth and the physical consequences materialized from their existence. The abstraction of forces of movement, compression, and light is inherently experiential when made three dimensional, as it creates a certain perception to those who engage with the space.

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As transparent as fascisim appears to be, the Casa del Fascio is a prime example that there are two sides to glass.. Elevation and section of 1936 “Casa Del Fascio”, Italy, Giuseppe Terragni, (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Gregory Logan’s, “Casa del Fascio,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (09 July 2020) “Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History”, Page 830. Chapter 18.3. Accessed July 9, 2020.

Two Sides of Glass As transparent as Fascisim appears to be, the Casa del Fascio is a prime example that there are two sides to glass. Through section and elevation, it is clear there is an openness in design that does not define inside vs outside. The use of white concrete and thin columns and floors create a square grid open to the public, or so you may think. The use of propaganda on the exterior only reveals what they want their citizens to see. Balconies on the front exterior demonstrate a hierarchy of power which ties back to previous lecture themes of “to see or be seen”.94 While open in nature, people may think the system is transparent to them but they are also transparent to the system. Architecture is used as a tool to convey ideas but also to send a message, is there architecture that isn’t political?

Architecture user experience

The way we interact and maneuver around the built environment is a well thought out end product design by Architects and Urban Designers. Most architects and urban designers strategically make an effort to control the meaning of space in relation to the human scale to help us formulate an impression by evoking our senses of sight, sound and touch.

In 1925 the Soviet Pavilion by Konstantin Mel’nikov’s evoked the feeling of lightness of space, revolutionizing the people as they ascended perambulatory through the open staircase. The rectangular glass mass that is split diagonally by the stairs and an unusual cross-connecting roof filled the space with natural light was all unprecedented, which

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Prioritizing affordability without compromising comfort and thoughtful design to revolutionize the modern home and its impact on society. Perspective, plan details of 1937 Jacobs First House by Frank Lloyd Wright (Ryan Mullen CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 805.

Discount Design The Jacobs First House is an entity that should be as recognized in history as Ford’s Model T because of its affordability without compromising comfort, something modern people could learn from in creating affordable housing. Costing nearly $5,000 in 1937 ($89,000 today), the simple materials like pine/redwood, recycled bricks, concrete, and glass kept costs low and accentuated the land.95 The furniture within the house was builtin and functional, which could make living in a home more affordable today. The grid design makes the house replicable and simple, something often overlooked in modern day housing. Lastly, the use of long overhangs provides the luxury of sun shading and prioritizes comfort even with the low budget. How important is it to prioritize comfort, style, and efficiency when designing an affordable, replicable house in today’s world?

became an ideal form of ‘modern life.’ As Crystal Njoroge indicates in her analysis about the forces of form and the sculpting of space, the Soviet Pavilion was indeed an experimental architecture that formulates different opinions based on its deformed geometric mass.96 Thinking about the user experience, Albert Speer was able to create a state that symbolizes stability. Looking at The Zeppelinfeld building,

we can see how they achieved an architecture that stands for power, order, and simplicity. The neoclassical style inspired the design of the Zeppelinfeld, although it is stripped of the ornamentation and other decorative depiction. This was done to eliminate any sort of confusion that might be felt by the people; it’s the idea of avant-garde, going back to simple geometries.

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Choosing color to define architectural elements throughout a structure. Elevation of 1924 Schroder House, Utrecht, the Netherlands by Stijn Poelstra (Sarah Stefaniak CC BY) based on images in https://www.dezeen. com/2018/08/29/ stijn-poelstra-photographs-mondrian-rietveld-schroder-house-architecture/

Red and Blue It goes without saying that color within architecture is not necessary to the design process, however by fixating on specific elements, architecture becomes more than a building, but takes on the role of art. The bold choice of color which is featured on the facade of the house, creates a show drawing the eye to that part of the home which then allows the person to see past the colored columns into the space, and draws the onlooker into what is past the glass of the structure. Just like the art piece the artist designed with his red/ blue chair, Gerrit Rietveld incorporated that element into his architecture.97 The home features many windows throughout the sturucture, which allows for natural light and natural heating from the sun which then creates more of an open space throughout the home. By restricting color, Rietveld has allowed for the onlooker to gaze upon the structure and see other capturing elements such as the one circular window, which contrasts with the entire rectangular facade, contrasts with the windows, yet does not stand out against the accenting colors. If architecture is also a form of art, why donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t more architectects take risk with the use of color?

Conservation vs Preservation

Some people do not consider community space when designing a new interaction space. Other architects take considerations into providing a community connection to create an interaction space better and more welcoming. One famous architect in the 20th century, Le Corbusier, had a strong focus on modifying a community to be modern to have a clean and brighter future

within the community of architecture. Le Corbusier took part in creating a city in Paris where he wanted to incorporate his vision of human pedestrians with their footpaths that they could walk in and move around without being overcrowded or interactions with vehicles could cause traffic jams.98 Taking in to Jane Jacobs defending a community from highway being created over homes, Le Corbusier spent most

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of his life making vernacular houses better and more cleaner that prevented anyone to think about destroying a home and breaking a nice community and with his vision of a brighter movement with pedestrians and vehicles, he could connect the two together and create a socialize community where there would be less traffic jams, more interaction amongst one one another and a more brighter future. With that in mind, spatial interactions will be more effective as pedestrians can get to places better and admire the architectural buildings and spaces whether they be skyscrapers or family houses as they move along in the community. Although building for a better transportation system including highways it became a destructive process. Historic neighborhoods and their tight community were being divided and destroyed by the transportation infrastructure. Once an incident in NYC led to a battle with developers who threatened to demolish a tight knit neighborhood, Jane Jacob fought her community block. Jane Jacobs is an urbanist and activist whose writings championed a fresh, community based approach to city building.99 She advocated urban justice and emphasized the importance of scale in the urban context. The need for sidewalks, parks, retail design and the importance of having short blocks, local economies and mixed uses.100 Although she didn’t have any training as an urban planner she wrote “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” where she breaks down ideas about how a city evolves and fails. Jacob understood the importance of historical attributes throughout her community and influenced architects to incorporate people to be more involved and familiarizing oneself with the space around them.

Interaction Through History

Architecture is involved more when considering historical admiration within an era that can

impact it’s time. Norman Bel Geddes, who came up with a design of the 1939 Futurama that takes place in the New York World Trade Center where people can take part of the space by allowing them to sit in moveable chairs and move around the exhibit where they experience moving to the past and then getting a glimpse of a possible future that would be in 1960 which is all in the comfort of their seat as they move. How Geddes envisioned the future within the World Trade Center is with the Futurama that gave an experience into the 1960s that included people seeing and experiencing more cars being on highways and looking at skyscrapers - filled metropolises that could reach the suburbs all in one movement.101 Geddes’ vision of the 1960’s future incorporates within the architectural space based on having the futuristic space be filled with passageways for cars as well as platforms above the highways for pedestrians to move with ease without any traffic jams that moved into the 1960’s. The Futurama gave people a glimpse into a possible future as they can have a spatial interaction amongst the past and the future and Geddes capture that moment well as people come together to continue exploring this space throughout the World Trade Center. Historical moments through time are ideas that contribute to architecture as they involve a person’s perspective throughout history and led to an exploration of the historic space within it’s era. A historical interaction designed in 1920 by El Lissitzky for Vladimir I Ludin who was the leader of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia was the Ludin

Tribune where it was designed to be a high platform to dictate over the people throughout the revolution. Lenin’s dictatorship was fierce as he and Lissitzky ruled over Russia throughout the Civil war, creating numerous designs to strengthen their empire all within the tribune that stood high above the people. The Lenin Tribune represents a social platform on a high beam structure with stairs that allows a person to explore each platform as they make their way to the highest platform where they can get a sense of where Lenin stood throughout 1920 when giving his speeches to a crowd.103

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The evolution of sculpting that creates new forms throughout the structure. Perspective drawing of the Soviet Pavilion by Konstantin, 1925, Paris based on images in Robert Cowherd, â&#x20AC;&#x153;08 Developmentalism,â&#x20AC;? History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (7 July 2020), (Crystal Njoroge CC BY), and section drawing from http://www.arch. mcgill.ca/prof/mellin/ arch671/winter2005/ student/buchinger/ paris.htm.

Revolutionized Sculpting The evolution of sculpting has resulted in generating intriguing elements to create different forms. The diagonal forces form into the building rather than being laid on top. The use of the panels above creates a compression and release effect that goes hand in hand with the stairs. This method helps to achieve the concept of the sculpting of form and spacial experience.102 The stairs are placed in opposite directions that would give the passer a different perspective from each side. The elevation of the stairs contributes to the idea of the building form changing at different stair landings. Should renewed sculpting be more visible in future buildings that transform the shape of the structure?

Visitors in Russia can have access to explore the Tribune and climb up to where Ludin and Lissitzky once stood and visualize being one of the dictators watching over its people and being heard from great distance. As the Ludin Tribune gave a historical view of how dictatorship was, it also provided a glimpse into how people were in order throughout the civil war and soon led into a divided world.

Duality of Architecture in a Divisive World

Architecture is a tool that can be used to either bring people together or divide them, this is shown throughout history and continues to prevail today. The government uses architecture as a tool, as stated above, as propaganda, as a representation of power, and to physically divide

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people. All of these techniques can be used to bring people together or to divide them. Architecture can serve as a way to bring people together. The Tempelhof Airport is an example of how architecture can bring people together, while its original use was as a Nazi airport, it now serves as a large park and a place where Syrian refugees live when they migrate to Germany. While the space may not be up to par with most spaces, it serves as a constant area for hope of a better world. The Treptower Park is a place where Germany honors the Soviet Union for defeating the Nazis. Modern examples of bringing people together through architecture would be an embassy in a foriegn country or the United Nations General Assembly Hall in New York. This type of architecture not only spatially brings people together but also on a conceptual level. The Assembly Hall brings world leaders together in a place to meet, but also form a bond or alliance between the countries. Architecture can not only bring people together in a spatial sense, but also a way to unite people for a common goal.

the ICE Detention Centers in the United States. ICE and its facilities is a truly divisive force in and of itself, and their facilities are faced with a lot of scrutiny and support. Architecture is a strong device that divides people and cultures with their uses and form. The tool of architecture is extremely powerful and when it falls into the hands of dangerous individuals, people suffer. Architecture’s way of dividing or bringing people together can be based on the message that the architecture was abstracted from, such as a message or a form. What architecture represents can shift and change over time, but that can only be determined by the people that control or inhabit its spaces. Architecture can be used as a weapon against people for political reasons. narrative

Propaganda

Fascist architecture of the early 1900’s explicitly displays themes of propaganda. A blatant physical representation this amplified through architecture is the Casa Del Fascio. Through use of rationalism the architect created a very Unfortunately, architecture can also be a means flat and geometric facade with ⅓ of its surface to divide and alienate people and groups. Casa area as one large face, the other side having de Fascio was built and used Nazi regime, square punctures to create balconies. These specifically to promote propaganda and hold architectural features allowed for the display rallies for their cause. This piece of architecof early projects on the flat face, flags over the ture was divisive in its time and continues to balconies, and gave an area for government serve as a stark reminder of the harsh history events or speakers. Similar techniques can be of Italy. Zeppelinfeld was used as a large Nazi seen in former Nazi Germany, the Nuremburg party rally ground further dividing the country rally grounds were a location for large proand showing that those who do not support the paganda and fascist activities. The massive Nazis are not welcome.104 The Tempelhof Airgrandstands only amplified the influence the port, though it is now a space that brings people Nazi Party had on the people. Furthermore In together, the airport was originally a Nazi a modern day setting, in North Korea, they Airport which served to show dominance and have the Arch of Triumph. It’s a massive arch divisivity. The Berlin Wall is a perfect example spanning a major highway, as a monument to of physically dividing a city, due to political Kim II Sung. It serves the people as a symbol interests, using its citizens as pawns. Division of power and wealth, and to the people, it’s a through architecture is still used today, seen in

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gift from their leader and they have genuine pride for it.105 Propaganda can be used by the government for many things not just physical displays but symbolic representations can also be a powerful medium.

trapping all of its occupants inside the government set up checkpoints and then had personal control over everyone in West Berlin. In the Nuremberg rally grounds, the masses of people supporting the Nazi party were packed so close together in the massive open space. Lined up in perfect grids and in perfect rectangles, it shows Representation of power how even in a space without defined boundIn the early 1900s displaying your country’s power was of the utmost importance. That’s not aries or walls or anything, the people chose to pack in so tightly and yet so organized. This yet to say it’s not still important today, but back again exhibited the morals of the Nazi Party, then it was a bit less modest and a bit more simplicity and uniformity, without such a direct brash. In Italy in the 1930’s, the facist party was busy building Casa Del Fascio. The build- influence from the architecture. ing appears to be transparent from the outside, but in fact they only showed the people what Architecture as a Political Canvas they wanted them to see. In addition, the large With these diverse idigious topics architecture marble construction gave the building this aura can be fully explained by the way we look at of power and strength. Similar ideas were used things today. Using these techniques architecin many other buildings of this time. Particular- ture can be the influence we have all needed. ly in Nazi Germany, the architecture was large Thus being shown in Hitler’s movement to and had a lack of decor and therefore displayed power over the jews, that created the embodall the things that the Nazi Party wanted to be iment of power and oppression which was a though of. Things like simplicity, monumental- huge factor in the past societies. Continuing ity, uniformity and solidity. In North Korea, the through history the human body served as a architecture is all a display of power, however relative means for experience and movement of unlike other countries, North Korea is so closed the times. This architecture was able to create off from the rest of the world, the people have spaces that serve for a political means while nothing to compare the architecture to. The providing a new insight into the future of the buildings only have to capture some architecpeople as a whole. While the analysis gives tural idea to convince the people of their power various insights the history of the holocaust and wealth. along with the history of human interaction with space, varied in its specific time zone. For Physical displacement and spatial quali- the 1920-1940s, architecture has been used as a tool for cultural dominance and power, which ties in turn gave less thought towards impacting the Typically we see governmental uses of archiworld and its morals as a whole. Within today’s tecture in representational ways, however an world we should be able to use these buildings architect can use design to influence or conand political ideals as ways to free ourselves trol human action often for the government. from the mess that was created in our distant This displays how architecture can physically past. impose itself on its spectators, an example of this type of architecture is the walls separating East and West Berlin during the Cold War. West Berlin became completely enclosed in walls

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O9 High Modernisms

Modernity: Simple and Limitless Forms

Developed from innovation in technological advancements, modern architecture became powerful in its use of free forms and standardization. Pushing away from the past, modern architecture stood to implement simplicity and transparency in form. Instead of grand ornamentation, the structure itself was put on display utilizing simple forms, grids and repetition. While modern architecture is the greatest movement of the 20th century, is the future of architecture too modern? In the following readings, the examples of the classâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s analyses on the Glass House and the Barcelona Pavilion all reject ornamental design.106 Simple in geometry, each structure was considered ornamental pieces with high volumes of glass allowing for transparency of the space. Not unlike its predecessors such as the Casa del Fascio that used simple geometries like squares and grid systems to convey their extremist ideas of modernity in architecture.107 These grid systems allow for a more fluid and open design which allows for the walls and structure to speak for themselves rather than ornamentation from architectural elements of the past. In addition, the Nordic Pavilion uses a similar open plan system by only using two outer walls and leaving the rest open only enclosed by large walls of glass.108 Through open spaces, this allows for a more diverse program. Using symmetry and repetition are other examples reinforcing the idea of standardization in modern architecture. In many of Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s works, he uses simple grid patterns to emphasize the structure and symmetry in many of his buildings including Villa Savoye.109 Simple geometries and repetition is pleasing to the eye and is the exact opposite of the decoration styles of past architectural movements.

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Attention to detail for a holistic design. Perspective, details of 1929 Barcelona Pavilion by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Haimanot Hailu CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, â&#x20AC;&#x153;09 High Modernism,â&#x20AC;? History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (14 July 2020).

Attention to Detail The attention to specific details all come together to create a tranquil atmosphere demonstrating the power of a carefully controlled holistic design. The rectangular pool roughly duplicates the roof slab in size and proportion using water. Each granite slab wall was carefully bookmatched to reveal a symmetric pattern. The cruciform shaped columns meet the ground precisely at the intersecting seams of each floor plate demonstrating a total commitment to a singular holistic design. The simple geometries of walls, columns, and roof give an illusion of weightlessness with the roof floating above the walls almost as if a burden that appears huge has been lifted lightly.110 How far do we have to go in paying attention to details to create powerful architecture?

After the industrial revolution, the arts and crafts movement became a staple of anti-modern architecture because of its lack in ornamentation. The modern movement included the works of simple geometries with limitless forms that put structure on display. In most recent works such as Zaha Hadidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, architects see a shift to soft forms rather than rigid forms of the modern era. We see Le Corbusier talk about

in his works shifting to urbanization later in his works which can be related to the possible architecture to come: parametricism on a larger scale.111 Although these forms are fantastically diverse and innovative, there might be such a thing as too modern. Will history repeat itself given the abstraction of forms moving into the 21st century?

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The use of transparent walls and an open floor plan allow for a seamless connection to nature that is not impeded by structure and faĂ§ade dampeners. Interior, elevation, and site plan of 1949 Glass House, New Canaan Connecticut, by Philip Johnson (Sam Johnson CC BY) Based on images from Ingersoll, Richard, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019.

Transparent Tranquility When speaking of The Glass House it is arguably fair to assume that this was the last great modern building of the times. The tranquility of the surrounding nature is considered by the transparent glass that if looked at from a certain distance mirrors the surrounding area almost entirely. The open interior provides a perfect area for the artist to connect the building to the surrounding area as much as possible while making sure the building does not draw away from nature.112 Using the glass to create zero privacy while still accomplishing the goal of working with the land, the Glass House is a transparent wonder that still today is toured and marveled at by many. With a transcendent scene of nature that is furthered by the use of little structure is it fair to presume that when creating a building the use of less structure leads to a more fulfilling environment?

Simplicity

When observing architecture, it is evident to notice and gravitate towards elements that are grand and that stand out. It is also important to recognize minimalist architecture that provides a simple layout, while still having an effective influence. Designs and features added to the building is what strengthens the structureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s appearance and meaning. The use of geometry,

lines and planes, and color schemes play an important role in achieving this structure. The use of geometrical shapes can benefit the structure and enhance the simplicity of the desired outcome. We can see this example in Maegan Herdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s drawings. The repetitive layout keeps the overall form of the building consistent and orderly, which provides cleanliness

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Highlighting the Promenade in an axonometric drawing with sectional “narrative,” the Carpenter Center by Le Corbusier and Josep Luis Sert, (Jeremy Donovan CC BY) based on images from Matt Osborn’s analysis of the Carpenter Center (https:// portfolios.risd.edu/ gallery/24438985/Architectural-Analysis), July 2020.

A Promenade of Moments The Carpenter Center exists somewhere between studio, exhibition, and performance, centered on a ramp that takes you through a sequence of curated moments. Harvard, looking to elevate their visual arts program, turned to Le Corbusier.113 From Prescott Street, by Harvard’s Art Museum, you enter the ramp and rise off the ground plane, gazing through the angled windows. As you turn, the concrete fins hide the windows from view, until the ramp slips past the envelope and bisects the building. Leaving the light from outside, large glazed openings invite you into the space before they can even enter. Continuing, you emerge back outside, now turning to Quincy Street. Does the promenade belong in any architecture, or should a theatrical sequence of spaces be reserved for a performative program?

throughout the rest of the building, with the help of a grid system. It is also clear to read the geometries through an image.114 The raised floor above the columns shows a clean shape, but it is also important to recognize the form where the columns are. That area makes up a geometric open space that is between those cylinder columns, which contributes to the idea of using shapes without a physical form being

present. With this idea, these figures create orderly structures and spaces that add to the simplicity of the building. Similar to geometries, lines and planes contribute to the idea of creating a minimalistic structure through the use of walls, floors, and horizontal line points. The look composed of lines and planes was earlier presented by Piet

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Mondrian in his painting, “Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow”, where the artist has given up on representing concrete objects, and has moved to a more simple and abstract style, made of planes and lines of different sizes. This two dimensional representation of planes is transformed into three dimensional planes by the invention of the Wassily Chair and the Barcelona Chair. We can look at these features closer in the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It is a simple form that contains only horizontal and vertical planes that work together to create that composition. The arrangement of these planes makes navigation effortless since there are no hidden areas or multiple pathways. Mies treated each of its staggered planes, including the flat roofs, using independent materials of travertine paving, large panes of glass, a light box of frosted glass, marble outer walls, and inner walls.115 These materials were used to attain the concept of minimalism. Architects and artists incorporated simplicity in the colors they were using as well. One of the color schemes that became popular was the one composed of red, blue, yellow, and black. We see this combination of color in the “Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow” by Mondrian, and in the Red and Blue Chair by Rietveld. Another way that color was used to make a simple work of art, was by using a one or a few materials in one work, and stripping it down of any ornamentation so that the color and materiality of the object are made the focal point. We can see this technique used in the Zig Zag Chair by Rietveld, the Teapot, by Brandt, and the Thonet Chair by Thonet. In order to use solely steel in her Teapot design, Brandt had to innovate with the way steel is used, by bending steel and mvaking it tubular, in order to create the bent handle semicircle and the semi-sphere bottom. Thonet used only wood for his chair, which he had to use the technique of steaming,

in order to bend it. When a movement causes one form of art, such as painting, to become simple and stripped down of ornamentation, it causes other forms of art to simplify as well, such as furniture design. Although the facade of the objects look simple, it took a lot of innovative thinking when it came to making the objects real, such as the bending of steel, and binding wood by steaming. These innovations in small scale, made way for advancements on a larger scale, such as the structure used in building techniques. narrativeNarrativenarrative

Patterns in Modern Architecture Style

In modern architecvture, patterns in grid design, repetition, simplicity and symmetry all contribute to the unification of a building. The use of a grid design enforces structure and order in architecture. Explained in Charles’ analysis, the grid system of the columns in Corbusier’s Villa Savoye allows the walls to be independent with an innovative and open design. The grid shifts on a facade to produce a clear entrance. Represented in last week’s lecture, Terragni’s Casa Del Fascio used a grid system to symbolize order and structure interpreted by the fascist party.116 Emphasized in Logan’s High Modernism lecture, Le Corbusier’s five points made him a successful architect due to the descriptions of a grid system being relevant in the design.117 Expressing the benefits of exposed walls, structure, facades, and roofing correlating to the basic grid system being part of the design. Repetition in architecture emphasizes a design element that wants to stand out. Illustrated in Jimenez’s analysis of Lever House, the repetition of glass windows on the facade shows the consistency of offices throughout the building, highlighting efficiency. The repetition continues inside with office desks, mullions, and the

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Exposing structure to represent the industrial spirit at an institute of technology. Exterior perspective of 1956 S.R. Crown Hall, Chicago by Mies Van Der Rohe (Andrew Herzog CC BY) Based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, High

Crown Hall; Exposing structure to represent the industrial spirit at an institute of technology. In perhaps Van Der Rohe’s greatest work, Crown Hall boats simple volumes, exposed structure and a literal representation of the industrial age. The main floor appears to float over the ground as a result of the stair’s construction and the slight elevation of the floor plate.118 All of this is exposed, along with the steel trusses that span over the roof of the building, letting the unique structural choices inform the spacious interior. The construction is standardized and repetitive, an exhibition of the industrial building processes that created it. The building as a whole is a blunt expression of both construction and materiality, which allows it to transcend into almost its own form of art.119 In what programmatic situation would blatantly displaying the structure of a building be to an architect’s advantage?

people. Described in Logan’s developmentalism lecture, the repetition of statues in the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe give the memorial an ominous feel. Without this intense repetition, it would not be as successful in demonstrating the number of victims they are memorializing and how horrible it was. Gropius’s Bauhaus Campus exposed the value of repetition in modern architecture by making

the campus feel comfortable while incorporating historic ideas. The use of symmetry in architecture often gives stability to design, making a building appear balanced to the eye. Explained in Herzog’s analysis, Rohe’s S.R. Crown Hall is a structure that is standardized and repetitive. This allowed for open concept and symmetrical interior

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Supporting a system of Economy and lack of individuality through repetition and monotony. Elevation, section, and interior perspective of 1952 Lever House, New York by SOM (Andres Jimenez CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “High Modernisms 1,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (16 July 2020); and “Lever House – Curtain Wall Replacement,” SOM, accessed July 16, 2020, som.com/projects/lever_house__ curtain_wall_replacement.

Gesamtkunstwerk: The Corporate Building SOM’s Lever House is a Total Work, from its overall form to the furniture within, built with Capitalist principles and stripping away individuality. The building’s structure is Homogenous; a skeletal post and beam and the glaze curtain wall is minimal. Its form, a box that expresses uniformly throughout a horizontality and equal rhythm of floor slab and space; desks, cabinets, and fluorescent lights are unvaryingly placed in a grid. The workers each occupy the desks and contribute to the form of the space, not inhabit it. Adding the intent of this building to market the Client’s cleaning product, one begins to understand a typology that no longer considers the human, but rather enables a system built on efficiency and making the most money possible.120 To what extent does the client-architect system begin to separate design from the human experience?

design. Shown in Logan’s developmentalism lecture, Terragni’s Casa Del Fascio had an asymmetrical design which was utilized to produce the work needed structurally at the time. Mies’s IIT was criticized due to its similarity to the classical style of symmetry; however, the IIT symmetry connects to the circulation of the site which is highly recommended in modern architecture.121

The use of patterns in architecture enables a variety of elements to become a cohesive design. Today, many buildings are designed for efficiency rather than to stand out. This creates unoriginality and is seen in the classic transparent “pancake” skyscrapers that are all over cities. Why did the use of pattern in design become less common to corporations, and the

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lack of originality become more common in current day designs? Is efficiency more important than originality? narrative

touch the product to be lured into buying it. The structure of the store being prominently glass, through transparency, enhances the products on the inside.

Transparency goes hand in hand with reflectivIndeed patterns of components create a bench- ity and how the manipulation of light through mark for which other architectural elements can reflection can become an integral part of the overall form of an architecture. As can be seen emerge and develop from in order to unify the from the Barcelona Pavilion, the pool of water building. Similarly, transparency plays a huge role in its essence as a defining feature in mod- becomes a mirror, from which the light from the sun reflects onto the glass facade, magnifyern architecture. Transparency is an idea that ing the space, casting fascinating water marks is physically made possible by making large which can also be seen in the MIT Chapel. The sheets of glass a prominent feature of a build122 moat surrounding the chapel acts as a beacon ing and works not only visually but spatially. for light to enter the chapel, without the need Transparency became a very popular idea in for windows thus incorporating a renewable the early 1920’s with the rise of modernism architecture, as architects sought to create more feature into the architecture that can benefit the structure within by eliminating the need advanced structures. Transparency was used for openings on the facade to accommodate as a medium to open up spaces to light and air as seen in the Barcelona Pavilion, Glass house windows.By design, architects can create forms and the Crown Hall, which made spaces appear which are reliant on the relationship of daylight and feel bigger than they actually were creating and the structure itself. Incorporating transparency as well as reflectivity in the building simultaneous perceptions of the space. challenges the norms in terms of the perception Besides it’s spatial qualities, transparency plays of spatial depth as well as layering. These roles within a building become simple in form and a huge role in the visual aspect of architecyet are a crucial part to the structure. ture as well. As explained by Haimanot in her analysis of the Barcelona Pavilion, transparency enhanced other architectural elements and The Modern Approach details in the building, for this case, it was the During the early stages of the 20th century, the marble walls and cruciform shaped columns. architectural concepts of simplicity, patterns, In this way, transparency becomes the currency and transparency became the forefront of the through which other elements engage with the newly emerging era of modernism, as exemoccupant by amplifying the visual qualities of plified by the previous writings. The analyses the building. More so, in architecture today, done by the class exemplify these ideals of we can see this phenomenon play out in the modern architecture, with works by Le Corretail market i.e fashion industry as well as busier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Phillip tech industry, transparency becomes a medium Johnson among some of the most famous. through which shoppers can interact products without having to physically touch them and As noted in the previous writings on sima very good example of this is the Apple store plicity, buildings like the Barcelona Pavilion, whereby at times the shopper doesn’t need to Unite d’Habitation, Crown Hall, and the Allen

Transparency in Architecture

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Le Corbusier’s Five Points: An Architectural Teaching Tool Villa Savoye, designed by Le Corbusier, in the outskirts of Paris, France, exemplifies Corbusier’s five key points so directly, which is what makes it one of the most influential buildings in architecture as well as one of the most taught. Le Corbousier’s five point system looked to free up architecture by eliminating load bearing walls, using a free plan and facade, long horizontal windows and use flat roofs instead of pitched roofs.123 The five point system is shown in this building perfectly, using the column grid instead of load bearing walls. This column grid system also allows for the facade to be designed without the fear of structural fault, as shown with the long windows. As consistent with his five points, Corbusier finished the Villa off with a flat roof. Where else have you seen Le Corbusier’s five points directly used?

Parkway Village all use various combinations of geometry, planes, and color schemes to achieve a sense of cleanness and abstraction.124 These concepts were used to take a step towards the future and break away from strong ornamentation to create a more “international style” that could be interpreted by all. This idea of simplicity starts to mix with the structured use of patterns and grids to maintain certain

forms, which as stated above, starts to create a language of unity. Buildings like Villa Savoye, the Farnsworth House, Maison de Verre, and the General Petroleum Building start to engage with symmetry, grid placement, and repetition to exhibit simplicity through patterns.125 Lastly, by using simplified grids in the structure, transparency starts to appear in large spans to create a relationship between the interior and exterior.

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An Interactive Façade

An interior and exterior connection provides an interactive environmental space throughout an architectural façade. The 1920 Villa Savoye is known for having the 5 points of architecture convey the definition of modern architecture within the whole building.126 Designer, Le Corbusier incorporates ribbon windows and a glass entrance as one of the 5 points that allow a visible look into the interior and exterior space but also interact more with the outdoors when entering and leaving. The spiral stairs seen inside the building is helpful as it takes visitors to a flat roof terrace that includes a rooftop garden where people can interact better within the interior and exterior of the garden. Le Corbusier blends an environmental façade within the Villa Savoye where it creates a social house that will fit within the modern world of bringing people together. As architects, how can we ensure that connecting with the environment can create a better interactive space?

Whether it’s through the use of glass or reflectivity with water, structures like the Glass House, the Lever House, the Lake Shore Drive Apartments, the Barcelona Pavilion, and the UN Headquarters utilize transparency to maximize light conditions and heighten overall user experience.127 All three of these elements come together through the manifestation of modernism and become dependent on one another to

define the modern architecture of the time. The influence of modernism during the 20th century has had a major impact on the architecture of today. The concepts of simplicity, grid systems/patterns, and transparency are still extremely relevant today and can create buildings that are simple in form yet complex in theory. Overall, the period of modernism is one of great importance and started an unforgettable

Capturing points of Architecture for an interactive space within the interior and exterior of the facade. Elevation & Detail of 1920 Villa Savoye, Poissy by Le Corbusier ( Carvens Charles CC BY) based on images in Gregory Logan, “ 09. High Modernism 1,” History - Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (16 July 2020).

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Caption: Using culture as a means of changing history. Perspectives, Elevation and details of 1948 Glass House, by Philip Johnson (Carrington LeClerc CC BY) based on the images Robert Cowherd, “High Modernism,” History-Theory 02 Course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (15 July 2020).

Modern Perception This modern pavilion from the 20th century brings back the feel of architecture through perspective. Some of these aspects can show a transparency of glass which focuses on the nature beyond it. It also is best understood as a place to view the landscape rather than just living in a space that doesn’t focus on nature.128 Focusing on those aspects it seems like the blending of modern culture can be applied way back then into today’s world. Given the aspects of a traditional glass building how can we continue to make the building disappear?

movement away from the ideas of the past in order to turn towards the future.

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Caption: The Lever House by SOM uses its architectural elements to force and control those within the structure. Perspective (2) and floor plan of the Lever House by SOM Based on images from SOM https:// www.som.com/ projects/lever_house (Perspective-interior) and World Architects (Perspective-exterior) and Kencurtis Studio (Plan) (Richard D’Avella CC BY)

Individuality in Modern Architecture Narrative argument here (Gill Sans Nova - Book - 10pt) The architectural elements in the Lever House by SOM control those working within the structure and take away their individuality. The open floor plan allows for individuals to be visible to most people no matter where they are in relation to each other. The movable petitions allow for the floor plan to be laid out in a manner that best suits the optimization of work to be produced in instead of the best conditions for people to work in. The lack of ornamentation throughout the inside and outside of the building made spaces made it appear to be plain and lacking individualism. The “spaces are all the same which led to the belief that the workers were all the same”.129 As humans push for more individuality in the modern world could we see the fall of the typical office building floor plan?

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Perspective and plan talking the successful and unsuccessful moments created in the Farnsworth House By Van Der Rohe. (Skylar Chardon CC BY) Based on images from on Robert Cowherd, â&#x20AC;&#x153;High Modernism 09â&#x20AC;? (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, July 17th , 2020)

Successfully UncomfortableThe Farnsworth House successfully utilizes the modernist style of design to create an uncomfortable living space. Van Der Rohe designed the Farnsworth house very thoughtfully but there were a few oversights that cause the original owner of this establishment to dislike the project overall. While the open floor plan concept is crucial to a modernist building, a very open plan enclosed with all glass walls creates a very public space, where an otherwise private setting would be more appropriate. These glass walls also created a problem with heat loss and overall temperature control of the establishment.130 Many thought the building was most intriguing at night when it was illuminated, which may be the case, but living in a marsh land that often floods this bright source of light often attracts many insects making the nice plat porch areas almost unusable.131 Is there a way to achieve the same modernist or international design effects while also appeasing the client and creating a more comfortable space to inhabit.

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1O Critical Regionalisms

An Architectural Harmonic Setting

Within the era of critical regionalism, architecture shaped modern design to create a harmonic setting where society and naturalism are connected as one and expand throughout the history of architecture. The regionalism era within architecture was a time of adaptation between the global and the local as a primitive focus of modernizing a social class order. Regionalism started in Africa right after African colonies were free and gained independence where they remained to create technical progress within architecture while also forging new identities to keep their independence civilized. Forms of identity later shifted into architectural designs that focused on interactions within the people, the landscape, and the architecture itself that formed an interactional setting of harmony. Harmonic settings like the Sydney Opera House in Australia, on a platform by the bay where it interacts with sailboats based on its placement and basic form structure of its shell. Other forms of a harmonic setting have a visualization idea like the Torre Velasca, BBPR office in Milan where its tall concrete structure, made for when a person enters the office on a high level floor, can see how high they are in comparison to a person being on ground level looking up at the building. The idea of capturing a harmonic setting within architecture has shaped throughout critical regionalism as a primary focus of crafting a new modern world order for years to come. Critical regionalism brought a bigger concentration within architecture where its harmonic setting created a single or even a multiple style of architecture throughout modernism. An architectural building is adapted towards the environmental nature of the space as architecture tends to connect their designs to the surrounding spaces within its environment, creating a blend that later transforms to becomes an interactive space between people and nature. As the

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Passive monumental museum. Section and Perspective of 1966 São Paulo Museum of Art, São Paulo, Brazil by Lina Bo Bardi (Schuyler Wilkerson CC BY) based on images In ArchDaily,“ AD Classics: São Paulo Museum of Art (MASP) / Lina Bo Bardi” Online, https:// www.archdaily.com/ 537063/ad-classicssao-paulo-museumof-art-masp-lina-bobardi (21 July 2020).

An Elevated Community Architecture can be as substantial over a site as it could be connected to the site. Bardi’s 1966 Museum of Art in Sao Paulo, Brazil reaffirmed the idea that a museum can be innovated to a site regardless of connection. The design was very successful in the community even though it was intended not to be designed into the site. Primarily built on two giant concrete beams the museum provides cultural experience while acting as a monumental structure. Additionally, containing the museum’s program space can still be greatly experienced with disruption towards non-users outside.132 Can design be efficacious to a site connection without disturbing a site?

interaction space of nature transforms, so do its geometric relations within the site and building where the geometric proportions are blended with its environment and creates interactive spaces both inside and outside the geometry of the building. Geometric spaces within a building create a cultural interaction as the area encourages a

group of communities to come and represent or express themselves in a larger space towards the public. Once a cultural heritage is discovered and is known very well, that idea soon transforms into a discovery of identity where a conflictual identity within the setting of architecture that rose to become an issue with society as they determined a fundamental truth that was associated with the identity of archi-

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Traditional Architecture recreated in a modern setting. Perspective of the entrance, elevation and small traditional haus tambaran (Joshua L. Ssebuwufu CC BY SA) of the Papua New Guinea Parliament by Cecil Hogan - 1977-84 based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “10 Critical Regionalisms,” History Theory 02 course, Wentworth Institute of Technology (7/23/2020)

Reproduction vs. Reduction The reproduction of traditional architecture by incorporation of modern styles of architecture with abstraction today, has caused the dilution of significant symbolism of indigenous architecture. During the fall of colonialism, newly independent states sought to relieve themselves of the colonial monuments by erecting modern structures that reflected their national identity through the reproduction of local indigenous architecture. In Papua New Guinea, the Parliament building in this case, with its steep roof, mosaic of local art and tri-frame, overlooks important symbols of the Haus tambaran it’s meant to replicate.133 Considering the scarcity of local materials, can traditional architecture be reproduced without reduction?

tecture. A social order within the identity of architecture soon led to an evolution of culture in their society as it was essential to incorporate cultural aspects towards their building designs that creates a welcoming environment in their cultural architectural space. At the center of a connectivity between man and nature, architecture lies in the midst of its nature where it has evolved into the modern society within a

harmonic setting of interaction and association.

Architectural Connection to Environment Meagan Herd & Richard D’Avella Architecture does not float in a vacuum, it is designed to be placed in a specific site with connections to its surroundings and culture as stated above. Where architecture can detract from the environment, it also can add new

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With the mexican revolution, it’s hard to tell who took influence from who in Frida Kahlo’s house. Perspective of 1931 “House-Studio of Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo”, Mexico, Juan O’Gorman, (Hannah Perry CC BY) based on images in Gregory Logan’s, “House-Studio of Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (01 July 2020) “Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History”, Page 873874. Chapter 19.2. Accessed July 22, 2020

Moderno or Mexicanidad? With the Mexican modernist revolution, it’s hard to tell who took influence from who in Frida Kahlo’s house. Accommodations from Europe are the start of Mexico’s architectural culture such as the bright blue and red colors coming from the muralist movement painted onto the exterior. A cacti perimeter is also shown as a representation of Frida Kahlo’s paintings as well as a note to mexican culture. The free form and function of the windows are integrated for the Latin American climate. Less derivative from the French Revolution, the elements of the concrete and pilotis construction to the functionalist windows show a reference to Le Corbusier’s work in the modernist revolution.134 Did the modernist movement make mexicanidad architecture or did mexicanidad have more of an influence on the idea of the modernist style of a nation?

properties to it.

vironment to help create and analyze new types of medical treatment. Fallingwater by Frank The context on which a building is set in can Lloyd Wright was designed around a waterfall determine whether it is a successful piece of flowing through the building, one of the most architecture. Structures such as the Villa Mairea iconic examples of architecture’s connection to inhabit the space created by nature to maximize nature. This style is called Organic Style, “The its relation with the environment around it. The epitome of “organic architecture,” FallingwaSalk Institute uses the views of the ocean to ter’s design symbolizes the harmony between help render its concept of creating a tranquil en- people and nature”.135 The Allmannajuvet Zinc

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Mine Museum took a piece of nature that was shaped by humans for natural resources, and turned it into a piece of architecture that incorporates both natural and man made environments.

Geometry in architecture is used to simplify the needs of space through the use of interactions. Providing the architect with a means to freely involve the surrounding area or culture if the need arises. In doing so the building is able to create spaces that help to connect the surroundArchitecture can not only connect to its existing ings to its geometrical shapes. The architect is environment, but it can also create its own enable to create spaces that look satisfying due vironment. Buildings can take advantage of the to their geometric shapes, while also creating a environment that is already there, by making building that is a seamless connector. it its own, like the Kuwait National Assembly Building and the Museu de Arte de São Paulo. Architects can express an ideal through the use The Kuwait National Assembly Building uses of geometry and it provides for a wonderful large windows and a tent-like form for the roof, means of space through the creation of those bringing the light into the building and creatshapes. A great representation of geometric ing an entirely different atmosphere from the architecture can be seen within the national exterior of the building. The Museu de Arte assembly of bangladesh. This building uses de São Paulo interestingly creates a different the shape of the national flag in the geometric type of environment on the exterior, by lifting shapes that graces the facade.137 Then using the museum above the ground. By lifting the those shapes on the interior of the building building up, there is a new environment created they are able to create the spaces needed for below the building, which now is a large gath- the council members. Most of these geometric ering space for residents and tourists of the city. shapes help the sunlight portray the buildArchitecture can also work to create brand new ing without fail. To look at the nature side of environments like the Perpetual Spring Pavilthings connecting to the before research one ion and Copenhill Power Plant. The Perpetof the best buildings to look at for geometry is ual Spring Pavilion, by Obra Architects, is an Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright. He uses “artificially controlled” greenhouse that uses a geometry to portray space below allowing for it climate control system, heated floors, reflective to create and shape the environment as well as curtains, and many more features to drastically providing a means for the waterfall to escape. control the environment inside.136 Copenhill The rectangular shape of the building opens up Power Plant creates a new environment using at the bottom to provide a space for relaxation its new form, by placing a ski slope on the roof that also allows for the complete connection to of the plant. the waterfall. As the article states, “Fallingwater was a masterpiece of Wright’s theories on Architecture can either be shaped by the enviorganic architecture, which sought to integrate ronment around it, or create a brand new envi- humans, architecture, and nature together.”138 ronment. Architectural geometry can be shaped Keeping the aspects of geometry Frank LLoyd by the environment in which it is located. Wright had a massive impact on nature through geometry. The Villa Mairea uses geometry in a different capacity compared to the previous two. It is able to use a basic rectangular shape that is then continued into the exterior. The Space through Geometric Interaction entrance to the building uses a natural stone

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Combining nature with a building can create a connection of becoming one craft. Perspective drawing of the Glass House by Lina Bo Bardi, 1950-51, São Paulo based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “10 Critical Regionalism,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (7 July 2020), (Crystal Njoroge CC BY), and section drawing from https://archeyes.com/ glass-house-lina-bobardi/.

Building With Territory Harmonizing the building and its surroundings can achieve the concept of binding the structure to the environment, becoming one holistic creation. The columns shown from the exterior view are thin and dainty-like, which imitates the surrounding trees. This gives the appearance of the columns blending into the environment. The trees meet with the higher level of the house, functioning as a facade and a curtain.¹ The building as a whole is being built off of the sloping and rocky foundation rather than leveling the ground.139 When constructing in these surroundings, should architects build on a clear canvas or build with its natural conditions?

paver to help the connection to the surrounding nature.140 As we can see from these three buildings, a simple shape such as a rectangle has the ability to connect all of them to their surroundings.

mational space that is unique to the surrounding but yet celebrated by the community and accepted as their culture. `

Architecture Evolves Cultures

Architecture, in some form, has been around The National Assembly of Bangladesh by Louis as long as mankind. Different peoples around Kah is a perfect example of geometric walls the world have different styles based on their and opening in which it expresses a transforneeds. In the last 200 years, there are some

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Incorporating functional and cultural features to aid in the overall architectural influence and development of the surrounding city and country. Perspective, section, plan details of 1983 Kanchanjunga Tower by Charles Correa (Ryan Mullen CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History (New York, Oxford University Press, 2013), 885.

Traditional Tower The Kanchanjunga Tower in Mumbai proves that the label â&#x20AC;&#x153;third world countryâ&#x20AC;? does not define a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to produce influential, efficient, and culturally rich architecture. During construction, the concrete core for vertical circulation was built using the innovative slip method of construction, which was its first time being used in India for a large project . The deep verandahs (derived from the traditional Indian bungalow) are oriented East-West to harness the western ocean breezes and to capitalize on sunlight for the gardens at the openings.141 In section, the efficiency of the design is evident, with various standardized units interlocking to ultimately form a tower that provides a strong architectural precedent in an area undergoing rapid development. What architectural solutions can be used to address the quality of life in third world countries without compromising affordability and functionality?

clear examples of how architecture has evolved different cultures around the world

ture is the Akenzua Cultural Center. This design takes heavy influence from traditional japanese architecture, specifically showcased in double Architecture not only evolves cultures but other roof tops and ornamental facade pieces, and cultures can do the same.There are countless brings it to a modern setting in Benin City, examples of cultures borrowing architecture Nigeria.142 Another good example from Nigeria from other cultures of their time or even before is the Miss Pearce Chapel. This Chapel has a them. One example that clearly displays this protruded roof composition that allows for venidea of cross cultural progression of architectilation and light infiltration, as well as similar

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Negotiating definition of space and boundaries through architecture. Plan, sections of 1966 Kimbell Art Museum, Texas by Louis Kahn (Gina McCarthy CC BY) based on images in Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 904-07.

Architectural Boundaries The Vaults in the Kimbell Art Museum serves as dividers, separating spaces within the museum without the need for actual walls. Each section has an arch overhead that encloses the area below with the roofline of the arches. The repetition of these vaults gives the structure a sense of symmetry and order while defining the boundaries of the galleries. In the apex of each vault, there is an opening along it to allow light into the spaces below. The vaults are slightly flatter than a circular arch, allowing the opening to happen without lessening the structural abilities, as they behave like beams rather than arches.143 What other ways can we as designers create boundaries within space without the use of physical walls?

materials to a traditional Nabari House. This chapel also has very interesting interior spaces inspired from different forms of interior design within italian architecture. These interior spaces have been known to be dictated by the program of the space and of course food is such an important part of italian culture. These examples showcase the effect architecture can have on cultures and how those ideas can spread and

affect all cultures. In Africa and Asia, there are many buildings that can be traced back many years and that evolve different cultures. The Kuwait national assembly in particular is a large, modern concrete structure, that references the traditional nomadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tent. Being a political building, it was imperative that it represent some form of

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Distraction of True Representation While forms and masses may please the eye, they take away from the meaning of buildings and what they stand for. Throughout history we have seen new governments form and immediately call upon architects to develop their newfound identity through buildings.144 In the National Assembly of Bangladesh Louis Kahn got very creative with the use of geometric forms and shapes to create architectural eye candy for the people of Bangladesh but I would argue the building lacks representation of the true culture of the nation. What should have been a staple of Bangladesh, lacks everything thereof . While building envelopes are important in inviting and arriving to the space, does that make it okay for architects to stray away from true meaning and representations of a nation to accommodate aesthetics?

national identity in architecture.145 In addition, the Kariakoo market in Tanzania is a modern construction building, with an allusion to more primitive styles. The building addresses the same conditions that the more primitive markets would have included, while introducing some sense of modernity and advance to the people. Because of this, the market is the heart of the commercial center and attracts many

people. In Japan, some architects had the same idea. Maekawa residence in Tokyo is a reproduction of the traditional pitched roof japanese construction. Where all these projects show an evolution of their culturesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; traditional forms, what really evolves them is the materiality. The Kuwait National Assembly is made of concrete in a way that makes it appear light and airy, rather than heavy. Almost a reference to the

Distraction of true representation. Front view and callout of geometric forms of 1962-82 National Assembly of Bangladesh, Dhaka by Louis Kahn (Brianna Torres CC BY) based on images in Jen Gaugler, â&#x20AC;&#x153;10 - Cultural Regionalisms, History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (21 July 2020).

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fabric used in these tents. Similarly in Kariakoo market, the construction is of concrete and even features a rainwater collection system.146 Finally, while the Maekawa residence alludes to traditional japanese architecture, the roof construction, glass facade and modern interior all break away from the traditional. Despite these differences, all these examples show how the respective culture was evolved and modernized in the architecture in hope to find their architectural identity.

Dangers of Identity - Nationalism and architecture

Throughout history, a lineage of European civilizations agglomerated into various neo-Classical styles, and with them is an inherent set of associations: power, stability, conquest, pride. British and French Colonial architecture and Haussmann-esque urban schemes smothered the vernacular of the people in Casablanca and New Delhi, reinforcing their subjugation. The dominant identity in these cities was stripped from the local population and taken by the colonizers. In a shallow attempt to quell resistance and revolt from the colonized populus, the French and British and Belgian adorned their architecture with a “local” skin while still erecting buildings designed to oppress. This imperialist mirage was employed to shift the perceived identity of the European rule to an empathetic, local architecture.147 While the International style projected an image of bleeding edge modernity pre-World War II, countries like Germany and Japan turned inward to cultivate a National identity. After Germany was left crippled in the wake of World War II, Adolf Hitler filled the Nationalist vacuum and seized power. Design became one of Hitler’s most powerful tools in fabricating the identity of the Third Reich. The Bauhaus

was driven out of Germany, and Paul Renner’s iconic geometric font Futura was made illegal. Nazi propeganda used Fraktur, a “blackletter” typeface that evoked an image of Germany’s Gothic past. Further isolating from outside influences, the Nazis condemned works from the Bauhaus, Dadaism, New Objectivism, Jazz, and other modern art movements in the 1939 Degenerate Art exhibition. Simultaneously, a newly imperial Japan was rapidly moving away from the syncretism of the Meiji Restoration. Japan’s Restoration saw ports open, and the country rapidly modernized and westernized. Brick Beaux-Arts buildings, like the Tokyo Station by Tatsuno, reflected the country’s outside influences after a long period of isolation. The Empire of Japan turned to the Imperial Crown Style, capping Western-like buildings with a Japanese “hat,” and subsequently, identity. Japan’s National identity also took roots in their revamped imperial efforts, especially in China and Korea.148

Aspiring to the universal

Association is key to understanding the conflicts in architectural identity. It is our collective perspectives, experiences, and traditions that mold our perceptions of the world. Yet, in the 20th Century, global destruction and rapid industrialization led designers through a logical sequence of steps to Universality: a one size fits all approach, devoid of vernacular, culture and place. Prescriptive architecture existed decades before Universal aspirations tantalized architectural minds. You see it in Durand’s Grid studies and Schinkel’s application of these principles in his Altes Museum, ideas that came from the Enlightenment philosophies of order and rationality.149 It can be found in the demanding efficiencies of Capitalism seen in Lever House and Futurama in which people quite literally moved

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Critical Regionalisms

Creating simple geometries in exterior and interior. Elevation, interior perspective of 196284 National Assembly of Bangladesh, (Sarah Stefaniak CC BY) based on images in Jennifer Gaugler, “Critical Regionalisms ,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (21 July 2020)

The National Assembly of Bangladesh is a prime example of simple geometries becoming the main focus of a building. The facade of the structure is made up of rectangular and cylindrical blocks that form multiple masses in which fuse together to create the base of the building. By fusing these mases together, Kahn created windows in the basic shapes of triangles, rectangles, circles, and broken circles, which allow for sunlight and differening forms of air flow throughout the structure. These simples shapes then translate into the interior of the structure, allowing for the walls to take on these shapes such as rectangular, or curved moments, which then create the program within the structure. By creating the exterior of the building, and then creating these moments within, Kahn was then able to create the programs of this structure.150 In today’s designs in architecture, should we be focusing more on program rather than the exterior of a building, or should we work from the design of the exterior and work our way into program?

as machines in cyclical patterns, working in the former and moving in the latter.151 While such movements in Germany straight out of the enlightenment aimed to “benefit” its citizens (rather those who could afford it) by establishing rich, rational, and culturally stimulating works, the Capitalist doctrine sucked every possible use out of the human; there was intent to negate the human experience, and this neglect

carried to urban planning a well. In terms of human identity these forms of universality stole it. However the stark, monumental skyscrapers would symbolize prosperity and wealth, and therefore be a source of pride and national identity, such as cases of William L. Pereira & Harry D. Som’s Transamerica Pyramid, which was at first rejected as a horrible addition, but now revered by some of its critics as one of San

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Francisco’s prides.152

types of buildings don’t necessarily belong to anyone, it somehow allows it to be claimed by International Styles was the next logical step. everyone. Despite the criticisms they face, they The minimalist and bare principles of the inter- have become an important symbol of each city. national style, exemplified by the undecorated Therefore, is it necessary to exemplify buildplanes of the farnsworth house and Illinois Inings of the past or refer to cultural contexts? stitute of Technology, the Jenga-like formation Since culture is ever-evolving, there shouldn’t of Corbusier’s housing schemes such as Unité be a need for architects to keep referring back d’habitation aimed to find a Universal architec- to cultural ideologies but rather learn for the ture that might help solve social issues of the neoclassical styles and modernism periods into time propagated from the needs of a devastated a futuristic architecture. world, where rapid prefabricated assemblies could rebuild the lost cities, and more imporFilippo Tommaso started the futuristic architantly, rebuild identity. Often not focusing on tecture movement in the 20th century; one of the human experience, the 20th century aspihis goals is to incorporate the most modern ration for a Universal language of architecture and forward looking technological advances.153 would add to the discourse of architecture’s This movement has become the umbrella of role in society. But how can we learn from the Googie architecture, Parametric design, and missteps of nationalism and Universality to Sustainable architecture, unlike the neoclassical better look to the future? style and Gothic architecture, they are aided by the advances of computer modeling. With this advancement, architects became more efficient, Heading to the Future experimental, and, most of all, became capable Architects express different designs and forms of reimagining the built environment in a differwhether to fit into the local cultural context or completely detached the building from any cul- ent lens. From this, cities like Masdar in Abu tural reference. We see this sort of decision play Dhabi were able to build a livable city in an una back and forth movement through the history inhabitable climate, unlike the National Assembly of Bangladesh by Louis Kahn who never of architecture. A current example would be a statement Trump made about “Making Federal considered the orientation of the sun and facade system but rather the aesthetics of the form, the Building Beautiful again” to bring back the classical style that symbolizes order and logic, Masdar was made possible by learning from vernacular architecture, and systematic design but on the other hand, we see buildings like the Courthouse in Salt Lake City that is a large methods aided by advanced technology.154 cube with no cultural reference. This struggle of architectural identity is still noticeable in buildings constructed in the 20th and 21st centuries. Looking at Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum, Zhara Hadid’s Heydar Aliyev Center, and Kenzo Tange’s Saint Mary Cathedral, we can see how they all created their own architectural identity that doesn’t associate with any pre-existing culture. Since these

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Conclusion

In previous lectures we had taken a look at neoclassical architecture as well as baroque, and how it impacted the architect of the past. From that we could see the architect start to take an artistic approach to their designs. From this we can see the modernist movement take hold within architecture and lead us into the downfall of that style around the end of the 20th century. In the years following we have come to the conclusion that architecture needs to step away from the styles of the past and into the future of design. Not only do we need to take a step back from the previous style but also to integrate the culture so that it has a larger influence. With this idea of culture comes the need for the surrounding landscape to be a key factor in designing. As we move forward creating a balance between architecture and art can be a difficult representation of the architects intentions. In order to change those things some examples which include, Parc De la Villette, Double Negative and others need to be looked at from a different perspective. Leading to the end of the 20th century we can see how modern architecture takes hold of these ideals and develops them into functional forms of architectural expression. Some reflections of architecture history we have looked at throughout the base of semester really focuses on how we can create and look at a building from a point of view or several aspects of modern to neoclassical buildings itself. Architecture history is very important to learn especially when we analyze the buildings of yester years. We need to know aspects of landscapes as well as the aspects of the structural system to really understand a building all together. We also look for a sense of art and creativity when we design a building today. Some recommendations for doing it well is to go in depth of the history behind something because if we dont we canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fully understand what we want to do in the future. The relation-

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ship between history skills and practice is that history allows the user to understand from a different point of view while practicing helps you fully comprehend what aspects of the buildings you want to look at. Some context outside of architecture that could be included are solar energy or maybe sustainable environments around the building itself. We can look at the density of people as they move through or around the building being presented or a building you have designed. Cultural aspects of architecture should also be included especially in modern day architecture while we focus on pretty we should focus more on how people relate to the building itself. How we can design something that helps interaction all around. As Architects of the next generation we are entering into a world with concerns that were not previously facing architects of the past. We now know that our building techniques and styles can have severe impacts on the environment leading us to ask the question of how we can make our buildings healthier. Using new forms of buildings can allow for the architect to work with greener materials as well as not harming the sites themselves. With the pandemic of COVID we face challenges with WWdesigning buildings to create healthy environments for those working and living in them. Designing so that people meet the standards of six feet of separation while still maintaining a space that fits the users. To allow for those that use the building a freedom to feel safe while working around the problem of COVID. Another problem facing our generation of architects will be the rapidly growing population. To design cities and communities so that they are able to handle the rapid increase that we see happening every day. Not only working with the increase of population but also the need for cultural identities within those cities. To allow for the culture of the surrounding area to not be forgotten about while still maintaining a sustainable community.

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Endnotes

10. Robert Cowherd, “Colonial Modernisms 01” (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, July 17th , 2020). 11. Richard Ingersoll and Spiro Kostof, World Architecture: A Cross-cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 532).

2 - Global Enlightenment

1 - Colonial Modernisms 1. Fergus O’Sulivan,”Why Amsterdam’s Camal Houses Endured for 300 Years,” CityLab.(15 Jan 2020). 2. Richard Ingersol, “Chapter 13 World Architecture A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 532-533. 3. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 13 4. Robert Cowherd, “Colonialisms,” History-Theory-02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (13 May 2020). 5. Pages 574-577 Ingersoll, R. (2019). World architecture: a cross-cultural history. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 6. Ninomaru Palace 7. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A 7. Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 532-533. 8. Jun’ichiro Tanizaki, In Praise of Shadows (Leetok, 1977), 18. 9. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture - A Cross-Cultural History (Oxford University Press, 2019), 533.

12. Jennifer Gaugler, “02.2 Explorations of Form,” Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, (19 May 2020). 13. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 14 14. Cowherd, Robert, “02.1 Enlightenment,” (Lecture, History Theory 02, Wentworth Institute of Technology, June 02, 2020.) 15. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), pp 675. 16. “The Architecture of Surveillance” ArchDaily, 18 April 2020, https://www.archdaily.com/937611/the-architecture-of-surveillance-the-panopticon-prison 17. Jennifer Gaugler, “02.2 Explorations of Form,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (19 May 2020) 18. Jen Gaugler, “Enlightenment” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 19 May 2020). 19. Dino Felluga, “Modules on Foucault: On Panoptic and Carceral Society,” Perdue, 2002, https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/ english/theory/newhistoricism/modules/ foucaultcarceral.html 20. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 637. 21. “Difference Between Greek and Roman

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Architecture of Antiquity.” n.d. UKEssays. Com. Accessed July 30, 2020.

31. Robert Cowherd, “Identity Tectonics 03” (History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth institute of technology, Boston, MA, May 27, 2020)

3 - Identity Tectonics 22. Sydney Ayers, “An English Country House in Calcutta: Mapping Networks between Government House, the Statesman John Adam, and the Architect Robert Adam,” ABE Journal (2019): https://doi.org/10.4000/abe.6193 23. Wilson, Gary Guy, Tyler Stanger, Jimmy Chang, and UNLV University Libraries. “Schung.” Home ,2016. https://www.library.unlv.edu/whats_new_in_special_collections/2016/10/collection-highlight-garyguy-wilson-and-primitive-hut. 24. Page 643-646. Ingersoll, R. (2019). World architecture: a cross-cultural history. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. 25. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 15.1 26. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 645 27. Altes Museum / Karl Friedrich Schinkel” in ArchEyes, November 30, 2016, https:// archeyes.com/altes-museum-karl-friedrich-schinkel/. 28. Greg Logan, “Identity Tectonics,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (28 May, 2020). 29. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture - A Cross-Cultural History (Oxford University Press, 2019), 546. 30. Gregory Logan, “Identity Tectonics 03”, History Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (26 May 2020

4 - Technological Modernisms 32. “Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History”, Page 675. Chapter 15.3. Accessed June 02, 2020. 33. Jennifer Gauler, “04.1 The New Iron Age,” Lecture, History/Theory 02, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, (2 June 2020). 34. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), pp 675. 35. “Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History”, Page 675. Chapter 15.3. Accessed June 02, 2020. 36. “Exploring Milan: More than just the fashion capital of the world.” Aesu Expanding Horizons since 1977. March 13th, 2014. Accessed July 30, 2020 37. Jennifer Gaugler, “04.1 The New Iron Age,” Lecture, History/Theory 02, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, (2 June 2020). 38. Jennifer Gaugler, “Technological Modernisms” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 02 June 2020). 39. Jen Gaugler, “Technological Modernisms” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 2 June 2020). 40. Gaugler, Jennifer, “04.1 The New Iron Age,” (Lecture, History Theory 02, Wentworth Institute of Technology, June 02, 2020.)

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41. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross- Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 15.3 42. Cartwright, Mark. “Ise Grand Shrine.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, May 31, 2020. https://www.ancient.eu/Ise_Grand_Shrine/. 43. Jennifer Gaugler, “04 Technological Modernisms,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (2 June 2020).

Garnier, Paris Opéra, n.p 53. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 16.2

6 - Counter-Industrial Movements

54. “At Peter Behrens’ House (Matildenhohe, Darmstadt)” (Poem, Southwest Review Vol. 95, issue 4, 2010). 55. Gregory Logan, “Counter-Industrial Move5 - Metropolis ment 06” (History-Theory 02 course lecture section 6.2, Wentworth Institute of Tech44. “05 Metropolis”, History – Theory 02 nology, Boston, MA, June 6th, 2020). Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Tech56. “At Peter Behrens’ House (Matildenhohe, nology (09, June 2020). Darmstadt)” (Poem, Southwest Review 45. Page 692 & 693. Ingersoll, R. (2019). Vol. 95, issue 4, 2010). World architecture: a cross-cultural history. 57. Gregory Logan, “Counter-Industrial New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. Movement 06” (History-Theory 02 course 46. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A lecture, Wentworth Institute of technology, Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford Boston, MA, June 6th, 2020) University Press, 2019), 692. 58. “Shadows in architecture.” (UK Essays, 47. Robert Cowherd, “Metropolis,” HistoVenture House, Arnold, Nottingham, July ry-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth 31st, 2018) Institute of Technology, Boston (11 June, 59. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: a 2020). Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford 48. Robert Cowherd, “Metropolis,” HistoUniversity Press, 2019), 781. ry-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth 60. Gregory. Logan. “06.1 Counter-Industrial Institute of Technology, Boston (11 June, Movements” (Lecture. History Theory 02, 2020). Wentworth Institute of Technology, June 49. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture (New 16, 2020.) York, Oxford University Press, 2013), 61. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: a pg693. Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): 50. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 17 Cross-Cultural History (Oxford University pg 746 Press, 2019), 687. 62. Gregory Logan, “Counter-Industrial 51. Robert Cowherd, “Metropolis 05” (HistoMovement 06” (History-Theory 02 course ry-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth lecture, Wentworth Institute of technology, institute of technology, Boston, MA, June Boston, MA, June 6th, 2020) 6th, 2020 63. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: a 52. Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.):

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Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 14 pg 616-617 64. Pierre. “Be Stunned by the Beauty of the Sainte-Chapelle, Paris.” French Moments. April 15, 2020. Accessed June 18, 2020. 65. AD Classics: Red House / William Morris and Philip Webb,” ArchDaily, 16 June, 2017,. https://www.archdaily.com/873077/ ad-classics-red-house -arts-crafts-williammorris-philip-webb 66. Logan Gregory, “Counter-Industrial Movements” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, (16 June 2020). 67. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture - A Cross-Cultural History (Oxford University Press, 2019), 803. 68. Craven, Jackie. “The Zimmermans’ New Hampshire Home Is a Usonian Classic.” ThoughtCo. Accessed June 18, 2020. https://www.thoughtco.com/zimmermans-new-hampshire-home-usonian-classic-177794. 69. Behance. “Arne Jacobsen - St Catherine’s College, Oxford.” Behance. Accessed June 20, 2020. https://www.behance.net/ gallery/17511317/Arne-Jacobsen-St-Catherines-College-Oxford 70. “Frederick C. Robie House,” Frank Lloyd Wright Trust, 2002, https://flwright.org/researchexplore/robiehouse. 71. GELI, ENRIC RUIZ, and HIS TEAM AT CLOUD 9. “MEDIA-ICT.” In Fabricate 2011: Making Digital Architecture, by GLYNN RUAIRI and SHEIL BOB, 178. London: UCL Press, 2017 72. Gregory Logan, “06 Counter-Industrial Movements,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston (17 June 2020).

7 - Late Colonialism

73. Kajari Goswami, “Gateway of India: 9 facts you should know,” India Today. (4 Dec 2018), https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/gateway-of-india9-facts-you-should--2018-12-04 74. Gaugler, Jennifer. “07 Late Colonialism”, (Lecture, History Theory 02, Wentowrth Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, 23 June 2020). 75. “Locating architecture, post-colonialism and culture: contextualisation in Algiers,” (Kahina Amal Djiar 2009). 76. Understand Edwin Lutyens in 5 buildings: Architecture: Agenda. (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2020, from https://www.phaidon. com/agenda/architecture/articles/2017/ march/29/understand-edwin-lutyens-in-5buildings/ 77. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 17.2 78. Robert Cowherd, “Associationism and the Dutch East Indies,” Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, June 23, 2020. 79. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 767. 80. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 772. 81. How did East Meet West in the Design of the History Museum in Ha Noi?. Travel. http://culturaltravelvn.blogspot. com/2016/04/how-dideast-meet-west-indesign-of.html. 82. “TOWN HALL, Liverpool - 1360219: Historic England.” , Liverpool - 1360219 | Historic England. Accessed June 24, 2020. https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/thelist/list-entry/1360219.

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al-ef7a0232e550. 94. Geoffroy Griveaud “Casa del Fascio: architecture as an expression of political 83. Gregory. Logan. “08.1 DevelopmentalIdeology,” 2018, https://issuu.com/geofism” (Lecture. History Theory 02, Wentworth froygriveaud/docs/final_version Institute of Technology, June 16, 2020.) 84. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism” (His- 95. “First Jacobs House” WTTW Chicago, 2016, https://interactive.wttw.com/ten/ tory-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth homes/more/first-jacobs-house. Institute of Technology, 07 July 2020). 85. “AD Classics: Casa Del Fascio / Giuseppe 96. The evolution of sculpting that creates new forms throughout the structure. PerspecTerragni.” ArchDaily, January 3, 2013, tive drawing of the Soviet Pavilion by https://www.archdaily.com/312877/ad-clasKonstantin, 1925, Paris based on images sics-casa-del-fascio-giuseppe-terragni. in Cowherd, Robert, “08 Developmental86. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism 08,” ism” History/Theory 02 course, lecture, History-Theory 02 course lecture, WentWentworth Institute of Technology, Boston worth Institute of Technology (07 July (7 July 2020), (Crystal Njoroge CC BY), 2020). and section drawing from http://www.arch. 87. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism 08,” mcgill.ca/prof/mellin/arch671/winter2005/ History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentstudent/buchinger/paris.htm. \ worth Institute of Technology (07 July 97. 1 Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A 2020). Cross- Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): 88. Jennifer Mundy, “‘L’Enigme D’Isidore Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter Ducasse’, Man Ray, 1920, Remade 1972,” 18.2-16 Tate, 2003, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/ 98. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sT1fartworks/man-ray-lenigme-disidore1Se_9g&t=311s ducasse-t07957. 99. “Jane Jacobs.” RSS. Accessed July 11, 89. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism 08,” 2020. https://www.pps.org/article/jjacobsHistory-Theory 02 course lecture, Went100. “Jane Jacobs.” The Center for the Livworth Institute of Technology (07 July ing City. Accessed July 11, 2020. https:// 2020). centerforthelivingcity.org/janejacobs. 90. Logan Gregory, “Developmentalism” (His101. “‘I Have Seen the Future:” Norman tory-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Bel Geddes and the General Motors FuInstitute of Technology, (7 July 2020). turama,” June 6, 2014. https://blog.mcny. 91. Ibid org/2013/11/26/i-have-seen-the-future-nor92. Catalina Carrizosa, “Gego (Gertrud man-bel-geddes-and-the-general-motorsGoldschmidt): MoMA,” The Museum of futurama/. Modern Art, 2016, https://www.moma.org/ 102. 1&2. Robert Cowherd, “08 Develartists/2107. opmentalism,” History-Theory 02 course 93. Library of Congress, “A War Remembered: lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Maya Lin’s Design for the Vietnam VeterBoston (7 July 2020). ans Memorial,” Medium (Medium, June 103. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism 22, 2017), https://medium.com/@library08,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, congress/a-war-remembered-maya-lins-deWentworth Institute of Technology (07 July sign-for-the-vietnam-veterans-memori2020).

8 - Developmentalism

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104. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History(New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 842. 105. Architecture is Propaganda, Arch Daily, Alex Davidson 2016

9 - High Modernisms 106. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture, (New York, Oxford, 2013), 107. Gregory Logan, “Developmentalism 08,” History-Theory 02 course lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology (07 July 2020). 108. James Taylor Foster, “AD Classics: Nordic Pavilion in Venice / Sverre Fehn” (Website, Archdaily, Norway, 2016). 109. Gregory Logan, “High Modernism 09” (History-Theory 02 Course Lecture, Wentworth Institute of Technology, 14 July 2020). 110. Sandeep Singh, “Barcelona Pavilion: Statement of Modernism,” Nirman Consultants PVT. LTD. (3 May 2017), http:// nirman.com/blog/2017/05/03/barcelona-pavilion-statement-of-modernism/. 111. Patrik Schumacher, “Parametricism - A New Global Style for Architecture and Urban Design,” (Website, Digital Cities, Vol 79, No 4, July/August 2009). 112. Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press., 2019. Chapter 19.1 113. Robert Cowherd, “High Modernisms,” Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, 14 July 2020. 114. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 812. 115. Richard Ingersol, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 827.

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