Vernacular Architecture

Vernacular Architecture ‘Can designing with traditional or vernacular methods help design for a more sustainable future in a contemporary world?’

Jake Southcombe 3rd Year Architecture Student This dissertation is submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Architecture BA(Hons)

Faculty of Art, Design and Humanities De Montfort University Leicester 6th February 2023 Word Count: 8,683

Abstract There are deep concerns facing future generations and the natural world, with the high demands of the twenty-first century, the need for sustainable alternatives is essential for the conservation of finite resources. As there are worries over ecological, economic, and cultural aspects of modern architecture, a new perspective needs to be taken and a look back at traditional vernacular principles and techniques may provide an answer. This research aims to examine whether it is possible for these vernacular design principles can be applied to develop contemporary vernacular buildings within the United Kingdom, in a bid to reduce energy consumption and negative impact on the environment. A case study exploring methods used by native builders within Yazd, Iran was employed in order to analyse how they have been successful in challenging conditions, using passive principles to create comfortable living environments and how these principles could be applied to the United Kingdom to help resolve the arising issues. This study focused on the adoption of methods like windcatchers and the use of local materials, to create a more appropriate architecture. Although these principles can already be seen in the likes of the Queens building at De Montfort University, they will need adaptation to be used in dwellings and in cooler environments. Ultimately, It is crucial that methods previously used are studied as many lessons can be learnt, with examples already being used within the United Kingdom display how it is possible to adapt and utilise vernacular ideals in a modern world to design for a sustainable future.

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Acknowledgements I would like to give special thanks to my friends and family, especially to my parents and Jayde Parkin for their continued support throughout this degree and completion of this dissertation.

Additionally, I would like to give thanks to all my lecturers in the Architecture BA(Hons) that have offered their experience and knowledge to help me through the course.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge and give thanks to my dissertation supervisor. Nwakaego Onyenokporo who made it possible for this work to be carried out.

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List of Figures Figure 1 – CO2 Emissions between 1995 – 2025………………………………………………..1 Figure 2 – World map in relation to Yazd, Iran………………………………………………......6 Figure 3 – Yazd narrow alley way……………………………………………………………....……7 Figure 4 – Perspective sketch of Yazd, showing the compact urban grain of Yazd………....7 Figure 5 – Birds eye view of Yazd………………………………………………………………...7 Figure 6 – Qanat system in Yazd………………………………………………………………….8 Figure 7 – Sabat in Yazd…………………………………………………………………………...9 Figure 8 – Site plan of Minoudar………………………..……………………………………….....9 Figure 9 – Courtyard and Windcatcher at Minoudar House……….…………………………..10 Figure 10 – Yazd, Traditional square Windcatcher………..…………………………………....10 Figure 11 – Yazd, Windcatcher function in section……………………………………………..10 Figure 12 – Plan view of Minoudar House, Courtyard……………………..…………………...11 Figure 13 – Internal view of Minoudar House, Courtyard House……………………….……..11 Figure 14 – Ground floor plan, Courtyard………………………………………………….…….11 Figure 15 – Ground floor plan, connection between spaces………………………………….12 Figure 16 – Stained glass windows……………………………………...…………………..…..13 Figure 17 – Temperature variation of a traditional house in Yazd……………………..….….15 Figure 18 – De Montfort University – Queens building, Leicester, UK……………………....16 Figure 19 – Inland Revenue Building, Nottingham, UK……………………………….………16 Figure 20 – Yale University – School of Architecture, New Haven, USA……..….…………16

List of Tables Table 1 – Positive comments of traditional building methods used in Yazd, Iran…………….15

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Contents

Jake Southcombe

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Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................i

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Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………....................................ii

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List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………...................................iii

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List of Tables………………………………………….…………………………………………....................................iii

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Introduction ………………………………………….………………………………………...................................…..1

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Literature Review ……………………………………………………………………………….....................................2 o o

The Meaning of Vernacular Architecture ... …………………………………...................................……...2 Studies of Vernacular Architecture ……….……………………………...................................…………….3

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Methodology ………………………………………..……………………………...................................……………...5

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Case Study: Yazd, Iran …………………………....………………………..................................…………………....6 o o

Urban Context ……………………………...………………..................................…………………………..7 Minoudar House ……………………………………………..................................…………………………10

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Discussion …………………………………………..…………………….................................……………………..14

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Conclusion and Future Recommendations.……..………………..................................…………………………..18

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Bibliography ………………………………………..………………..................................…………………………..20

Introduction

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Vernacular architecture traditions play an active role in the supply of sustainable architecture that is suitable (Asquith and Vellinga, 2006, p.5). However, in modern society, vernacular principles are diminishing and are being replaced by technological alternatives (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011, p. 275). This thesis will outline the ways in which designing with traditional principles and resources can make use of the surrounding vernacular to help design for a sustainable future; in a world where modern technologies are relied upon by the global population. There are immense concerns over the future of the natural environment today, especially with the constant increase in non-renewable energy consumption (Cao, et al, -.2016), global warming, and the fast-expanding population, which creates an increase in the demand for housing that are supplied by ever diminishing resources (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016). These prevalent concerns are not only from an energy consumption standpoint, but an economic and ecological perspective as well (Emmanuel, 2005).

These factors raise big questions within the construction industry about how we can design and build, while minimising the impact on the environment but still maintaining the same levels of comfort within the building through passive systems (Fergus & Roaf, 2007 and Aycam & Varshabi, 2016). With these concerns, sustainability is becoming a vast topic in the built environment and there are renewable solutions constantly being developed to resolve these issues.

Figure 1, highlighted below, shows how the decline of natural reserves, climate change and the cost of fossil fuels along with the ever-growing population, are all issues that have caused an increase in the CO2 levels being produced. Both current and future predictions shown below reinforce the disturbing truth of how there is a need for renewable and more sustainable methods (see figure 1) (Saadatian, et al, - 2012). Forty percent of the total world energy consumption is from the construction industry and the built environment (Siew et al, 2011). As stated by the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), it is projected by 2050, that world-wide energy consumption will rise to fifty percent (EIA, 2021).

In the twenty-first century, there has been an amplified emphasis on the need for the use of natural ventilation and the demand for more energy efficient eco-friendly alternatives, particularly focusing on heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), which makes up for fifty percent of annual energy consumption in the built environment (Foruzanmehr, 2008 & Bastide et al, 2006).

Moreover, in recent years, there has been research into how vernacular architecture, or its underpinning principles can be utilised and implemented into modern day construction, as a solution for the reliance being solely dependent on technology. Many lessons can be learnt from studying the energy efficient architectural solutions from the past and they prove that intelligent design is key to adapting to the surrounding context (Asquith and Vellinga, 2006). This body of research aims to discover whether it is feasible to merge past traditions with current ways, studying work carried out by academics such as Paul Oliver (2003), Lindsay Asquith (2006), Marcel Vellinga (2006) and Ahmadreza Foruzanmehr (2008, 2011, 2015, 2017). Oliver was an avid researcher and advocate for vernacular architecture and played a key role in conveying its importance.

His works such as: ‘Dwellings: The Vernacular House Worldwide’ (Oliver, 2003) emphasise the future responsibilities and significance vernacular traditions will have in the built environment (Asquith and Vellinga, 2006, p. 2). Foruzanmehr is an academic and architect that has worked in both the Middle East and the United Kingdom and has been commended for first prize in two architectural competitions in Iran. As well as this he has published an array of articles on passive cooling systems within Iran, advocating the benefits of utilising these traditional methods (Foruzanmehr, 2017).

Through studying their work, it will make it possible to understand the importance of vernacular architecture, not just physically but also the knowledge used to design and to create comfortable living conditions suited to the context in which it is set.

This investigation into the current state of vernacular architecture in Yazd, particularly housing, will help to highlight the key methods and solutions towards achieving comfortable living environments using only sustainable methods without much reliance on industrial materials and modern technology. Demonstrating how architects, planners and designers should employ similar philosophies and underlying principles and adapt them to the current needs of the contemporary world, more specifically the United Kingdom.

Overall, the main aim of this thesis is to determine whether the utilisation of vernacular methods combined with the contemporary is the true solution to the difficulties that face our future.

The objectives of this thesis are: - To explore how feasible, it is for vernacular principles to be used in a modern world.

- To identify how vernacular methods are successful in achieving comfortable environments in hot and arid climates through a case study of Yazd, Iran.

- To determine whether the vernacular principles used within Yazd, Iran can be applied to the United Kingdom.

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Literature Review

Jake Southcombe

Vernacular architecture exists all around the world in a range of climates and cultures where they are all suited and adapted to their individual context. Viewing design from a different angle is important to examine various ideals that have been successful in difficult climates and could be adapted and applied to the United Kingdom.

Vernacular principles and techniques are commonly used throughout hot climates and across the Middle East therefore, this dissertation is going to focus on the exceptionally hot and arid climate of Yazd, Iran, the City that is nicknamed the City of Windcatchers (Mahmoudi Zarandi, 2009, p.574) along with its courtyard houses and distinctive urban grain. Yazd is a great example of how comfortable environments can be created despite the difficult living conditions, through utilising simple but clever traditional techniques, materials, and principles to produce passive cooling systems (A’zami et al, 2005).

Through focusing on the city of Yazd and studying the urban context, the author will examine whether these underlying principles commonly used on smaller scale housing developments can be applied to large scale buildings and can be maintained effectively in the United Kingdom. This research will include a detailed analysis of the characteristics and methods of the architecture that forms these comfortable spaces in harsh climates - as well as the actual theories that underpin the architecture, which can then be applied elsewhere.

Some academics, including Asquith and Vellinga (2006) have already highlighted their worries regarding the sustainability of current construction techniques, and how in the future these may not exist due to limited resources, and the impact on future generations.

By incorporating the use of nearby resources and techniques of local builders into contemporary designs, there will be less reliance on technology, materials and methods that have negative impacts on the environment. Through merging these energy efficient techniques previously used into the twenty first century it will help transition towards a more sustainable ¬future (Small, 2015). The main set of techniques that will be analysed are the use of windcatchers, courtyards, and materials that are situated within the local context (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016). The question is whether these vernacular systems could be used to give the same thermal performance and provide the same thermal comfort, while reducing the impact on the natural world and reducing energy consumption.

This research intends to see whether this is possible and also demonstrate how the built environment will become more sustainable through analysing these different techniques. The overall carbon footprint generated will therefore be reduced and the diminishing resources would be preserved.

Traditional buildings that are set in challenging climates demonstrate substantial energy conservation capabilities and the introduction of retrofitting these ideas into modern buildings would benefit contemporary ways immensely. Utilising these previous ideas and techniques would decrease energy use while maintaining the level of comfort required and still be cost effective. This essay considers energy performance levels that they deliver, and they will be discussed in order to discover whether it is possible to merge the traditional methods and materials into the present-day technological approach, allowing for the resources to be preserved. Analysis and research into modern day technologies, will enable the researcher to build an understanding of the issues that are facing future generations. With there being immense concerns over the reduction of finite resources and climate change, it is crucial to see why new sustainable methods are required.

The Meaning of Vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture can be defined as displaying the surrounding native, local and indigenous buildings constructed by skilled workmen in the area (Sayigh, 2019). They mirror the neighbouring social, cultural, and historical context in which it was, by way of using nearby resources to provide for the communities needs (Bronner, 2006 & Nash, 2017, p.12).

When researching, it was found that Foruzanmehr and Vellinga, (2011) suggested that vernacular architecture is associated with the past and less economically developed countries, therefore architects, planners and developers overlook it. However, when Clements-Croome (2020) researched work by Oliver (2003), he identified that there were various lessons to be discovered within vernacular architecture, and they stressed the significance in using local materials, builders’ knowledge, and passive principles; this was also supported by Nash (2017, p.16).

Throughout the world, vernacular practices are diminishing and most of the time people disregard or even dismantle them (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011, p. 275). Despite 90% of the worlds structures being vernacular designs, it is still ignored in architectural education and the built environment in general (Nash, 2017). But as shown by Ozkan (2006) vernacular architecture is highly sustainable and not only does it make use of the most available materials, it also uses the most obtainable technologies.

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A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Contemporary designs are often inappropriate towards cultural ideals and demands (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016), In the modern day, the knowledge and expertise of the worlds vernacular builders could bring significant benefits to the way in which contemporary architecture is developed, especially in the western world. Some of the reoccurring issues within modern day architecture are similar problems that were faced by traditional builders. Their effective solutions for designing in harsh climates did not come from exact reasoning, instead from multiple tests and setbacks, alongside a build-up of knowledge passed down through generations. What they have managed to achieve in difficult conditions should be studied and further developed (Fathy, 1986, p. 7 & Ozkan, 2006) instead of being replaced by technologies that are not suitable to the natural surroundings. Given the current energy and economic crisis in the United Kingdom (Guardian News and Media, 2022) the inclusion of vernacular knowledge is vital in designing sustainable and ethnically appropriate architecture that resembles the socio-economic times of the users that behold it (Kamizee, 2008, p. 3). A question which aims to be answered in this analysis, is whether Vernacular Architecture is the solution to the arising issues regarding sustainability?

The repeated themes seen across the literature displays the significance of these concerns and that they are very valid issues within the twenty first century.

These fears over global warming and the need for change can also be seen when Asquith and Vellinga (2006, p. 6) mention the challenges facing the future of generations to come. However, so far, not much has been done to raise vernacular architecture as a solution to a sustainable world. This raises questions as to whether or not previous methods used by native people are actually the solution to the current problems in a modern world.

Throughout the academic literature passive design principles and distinct vernacular techniques used by local builders and developers to create comfortable living environments are a very prominent theme (Keshtkaran, 2011; Foruzanmehr, 2015; Aycam & Varshabi, 2016; Sahebzadeh, et al,- 2017). Throughout the literature, it is portrayed that the use of these passive principles is prevalent to the success of the architecture within Yazd, Iran, when facing its challenging climate. Foruzanmehr (2015) analysed some architectural elements and their relevance to the hot and arid climate explaining that these methods are key to providing thermal comfort in harsh environments. Despite some buildings losing their purpose and diminishing, Foruzanmehr advocates that others should be studied and used in the contemporary world (Foruzanmehr, 2017). Both at city planning level and building forms, the literature speaks about how the principles create a comfortable environment throughout the city using energy efficient design constraints (Aycam and Varshabi, 2016). Keshtkaran (2011) analyses data to show the correlation between the passive principles and the challenging climate, demonstrating how these methods provide comfortable living spaces using the surroundings within which they are set. This research will help to understand how designing using renewable natural sources will minimise the impact on the environment and how the same level of comfort can be performed without the use of electro-powered technologies. Although the construction techniques are different and modern ways are rejected, it displays how a build-up of knowledge over many years has in fact been very successful. This implies that these same principles can be implemented into places such as the United Kingdom to help in reducing the energy consumption but still provide comfortable spaces.

Studies of Vernacular Architecture Vernacular architecture has been widely studied in recent times by researchers including Oliver (2003), Vellinga (2006), Asquith (2006), Nash (2017) and Foruzanmehr (2008, 2011, 2015, 2018), who have played a pivotal role in identifying the importance of the use and implementation of vernacular traditions into the Western World. This literature review will particularly focus on benefits and drawbacks of traditional methods used with the vernacular architecture of Yazds, the principles underpinning it and how these would be influential to architecture in a contemporary world. This review sets out to examine a range of academic texts around the use of vernacular techniques, principles, and materials on a smaller scale, and analysing the benefits of using them to help design for a sustainable future in the Western World, more specifically within the United Kingdom.

Every academic text used will be considered in detail along with outlining how it relates to the research topic and question being considered. This review will therefore display arguments and conclusions outlined by key authors who have previously studied this subject of research and allow the researcher to develop an argument for their research.

Across the literature the authors highlight their major concerns over the climatic conditions of the world today and how modern-day designs should be considering the use of traditional methods and energy efficient techniques that have already adapted to the climate and using it to their advantage (Aycam and Varshabi, 2016; Foruzanmehr, 2017 & Sahebzadeh. et al, - 2017).

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Jake Southcombe

Another theme discussed within the texts is the importance of local materials that are readily available and practical to the climatic and socio-economic issues regarding the region. Keshtkaran (2011) states that ‘Iranian builders and masons have devised various techniques to enhance architectural sustainability through the use of natural materials and with the absence of modern technology.’ This displays how the use of locally sourced materials is both sustainable and they have been proven to be the most viable choice over technological options. Adobe and mud are materials that are local to the area and therefore are easily accessible and renewable. These materials are used widely across the entire city and the majority of the raw materials used are from the excavation of underground spaces which is then reused elsewhere (Sahebzadeh, et al, -2017). Additionally, it links back to the definition of vernacular buildings being constructed by native people with nearby resources which reinforces the importance of it. These methods also have a low embodied energy and actually provide for a better living environment, therefore influencing areas around the world to start to use materials that are more readily available, have less of an environmental impact and are crafted by local workers. It demonstrates how these buildings are built for the environment around them, without the need for importing resources. It establishes a relationship between the Indigenous people, the architecture, and the surrounding region; being true to their vernacular instead of opposing against it.

However, across the articles there is little attempt to see whether or not these vernacular principles have the ability to decrease the reliance on technologies and ultimately the amount of energy usage across the world, in different environments and conditions. Can these principles be designed into buildings so that structures can become self-sufficient and use minimal energy sources? An example that relates to this, is the United Kingdom’s energy crisis which has seen a dramatic rise in energy prices due to limited supplies (Wolf, 2022).

Therefore, families across the nation are struggling to live in comfortable environments. Due to the fact that this topic is very recent, there has been little research into it and therefore there is insufficient data to analyse to determine whether vernacular techniques would help to resolve these issues; however, this identifies a gap in literature therefore this could be further investigated in the future.

The purpose of this dissertation is to argue for the use of underpinning vernacular ideals to be implemented into the modern world. This will largely be done through focusing on techniques used in Yazd, in Iran and examining how these can be merged into buildings within the United Kingdom.

These ideals used by the local builders and masons reveal a strong link back to the Arts and Crafts movement, which was pioneered by key individuals such as William Morris, John Ruskin, and Augustus Pugin.

Their need to demonstrate honesty to the nature of the materials in the construction and utilise the natural surroundings as inspiration is portrayed throughout vernacular architecture (Designing Buildings LTD, 2021). The Arts and Crafts movement desire and ideology was to concentrate on the physical crafting of the structures and materials being true to themselves (Irish Times, 2002). This arts and crafts movement represents the societal and economic thoughts of the region at the time. These thoughts are seen within Yazd, Iran, exhibiting how society is being true to its social and cultural history by using these materials that are locally available, practical, and therefore suited to their vernacular. Architects, planners, and builders within Yazd are all using the same notions of that of Morris, Pugin and Ruskin, displaying true craftsmanship and hand-built structures with sustainable architecture at the forefront of their designs, without the reliance of machinery to construct them. It creates an architecture that can be related to because it is being true to its location, clearly showing the similarities between vernacular architecture and the Arts and Crafts movement.

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Methodology The research questions that the author intends to answer are: - How feasible is it to adopt traditional construction principles into the design of contemporary buildings?

- Is it possible for the principles behind vernacular architecture to be merged and used on a bigger scale buildings?

Are vernacular architectural principles the an swer to a true sustainable future?

The research will focus largely on Yazd, Iran, which is situated 3,100 miles away from the United Kingdom (Geodatos, 2022) meaning that the researcher is unable to carry out primary research. As a result, secondary research will be relied upon to carry out this exploration into vernacular systems and fundamental principles. A variety of methods will be used to assess the extrinsic approach being taken. This will predominantly be done through looking at a range of secondary sources and taking information from peer reviewed books, reviews and journal articles from various architects and academics including Oliver (2003), Vellinga (2006), Asquith (2006), Nash (2017) and Foruzanmehr (2008, 2011, 2015, 2017). This will allow the author to review the most relevant data from within the field concerning the use of vernacular architecture in the modern world. Initially, Google Scholar, ProQuest and Scopus were used to collect the appropriate articles, journals and books employing general terms such as ‘Vernacular architecture’ And ‘Traditional methods’ which will assist the author in gaining an understanding into the research. Furthermore, to fully understand whether vernacular architecture can be applied to build a sustainable future within the United Kingdom, the author will investigate by using qualitative research through a case study specific to Yazd, Iran. In addition, a thorough content analysis will be used when exploring existing literature and therefore offer a better insight into the arguments and theories encompassing the subject. These methods will be applied because they directly allow the aims and objectives of this dissertation to be met, primarily outlining how the use of vernacular underlying traditions can help shape a more sustainable future.

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Through De Montfort University’s databases, a plethora of resources will be assembled to help conduct the research, particularly the academic advanced search database was utilised when conducting this dissertation. This was very important as it allows the author to refine the search down to a relevant set of articles. Using the De Montfort University Library, the writer then went to ‘subject guides’ and then clicked on ‘architecture’ to create a search relevant to architecture related articles. The first search was done using the key phrase “Vernacular architecture” in which the database produced 9,469 results. However, “Vernacular architecture” will not be used on its own because it is not specific enough to provide relevant information towards the research question. Because of this, more keywords were then used to refine the search therefore showing the significant material dedicated to the question set out. To ensure the findings were appropriate, searches across other databases were carried out to back up the articles found. The researcher then selected ‘Peer reviewed’ articles to narrow down the results further within the inclusion and exclusion criteria section. It is important for the author to use peer reviewed sources and as (Cowell, 2014) says validity and reliability of the literature can be established through a peer review. Once the peer reviewed search was created, it produced 4,796 results. Additionally, through using the ‘AND’ feature within the advanced search, the author could then search with additional keywords allowing for a focus on articles relating to a specific refined area within the research.

Using the key term “Yazd’s” focused the results down to twenty findings. Further to this, an additional key phrase “Construction” was used resulting in the search providing ten results, this was significant in finding sources specific to the techniques used behind vernacular traditions within Iranian architecture. To focus the research further the author has chosen four select literatures to focus on. Firstly, “The Analysis of Form, Settlement Pattern and Envelope Alternatives on Building Cooling Loads in Traditional Yazd Houses of Iran” (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016). Secondly “Harmonization Between Climate and Architecture in Vernacular Heritage: A Case Study in Yazd, Iran.” (Keshtkaran, 2011). The “People’s perception of the loggia: A vernacular passive cooling system in Iranian architecture” (Foruzanmehr, 2015). Finally, “Sustainability Features of Iran Vernacular Architecture: A Comparative Study between the Architecture of Hot-Arid and Hot-Arid-Windy Regions’” (Sahebzadeh. et al, -2017). Secondary data and qualitative research will be crucial to this research study because they will allow the researcher to analyse the importance of the previous underpinning principles within vernacular architecture and how they can be applied to the issues presented the modern day.

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Vernacular Architecture: Yazd City

Jake Southcombe

Yazd, located in Iran, shown in figure 2, has been chosen as a case study in this dissertation because it has a rich and abundant three-thousand-year history of using traditional methods and principles that have been built up over many years. Particularly through trial-and-error, traditional Iranian techniques have been developed to help withstand designing in a harsh climate utilising only materials and resources obtainable in the region (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011, p.276). The use of these sustainable elements woven into the City, give the City its own distinctiveness which can be recognised globally.

Yazd is located in the Iranian desert and endures extreme hot and arid conditions, has limited resources and temperatures reach highs of 50° Celsius during the day, however the temperature drops considerably to 15°c at night. This highlights the massive variation between day and night, which is another factor considered during the design and construction of the local houses (Zarei et al, 2017). Yazd also receives around five Inches of annual rainfall, which means water supplies are incredibly limited and alternative methods are relied upon (Lambton, 1992).

However, the traditional methods that have proven to be effective in the history of Iran are progressively becoming dismissed (Foruzanmehr, 2015, p.61). Contemporary architecture has developed throughout years and progressively the traditional methods used previously have adapted towards a more modern technological approach. These modern technologies are becoming increasingly popular however, while they mirror the current economic and socio-cultural times, they are not appropriate to its vernacular environment in which it is set (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011, p.277). The challenging conditions mean that high volumes of power are required for cooling purposes however this frequently leads to power cuts and therefore demonstrates that electronic power as a resource is not suitable to the environment.

This is important because it reinforces how traditional methods would be more beneficial (Aycam, Varshabi, 2016).

This climate creates challenging conditions for the local people to survive in, and therefore builders have utilised different architectural techniques and adapted to create a more comfortable living environment. Yazd’s has a wealthy history of architecture that has been constructed over thousands of years of gradual adaptation, particularly due to the extreme climate in which it is situated.

Thus, establishing an architecture that is well developed and suited to its vernacular.

Yazds specifically stands out because of its abundance of sustainable ideals spread throughout the city including Wind Catchers, Central plan courtyards, Loggia’s, Qanats, and locally sourced materials, specifically adobe (Mahdavi, 2010). The city of Yazd contains various typologies that all come together as one intertwined through the use of sabats (Ghouchani et al, 2022).

Figure 2- World map in Relation to Yazd, Iran Source: (Taken and adapted from IranPoll, 2022 & Vectorstock, 2022)

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A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Urban Design of Yazd The overuse of technology including heating and air conditioning (Saadiatan, 2011) provides an opportunity that vernacular architecture principles could resolve. Architectural design in Yazd, Iran, makes particular use of passive design and natural ventilation through the use of windcatchers that have been widely implemented across the city.

Urban planners have designed the city using passive methods to provide a comfortable environment, despite the difficulties that surround the city regarding the harsh climate conditions. Yazd as a city can be described as being ‘condensed and compressed’ (Figure 3 & 4) with the houses connecting via adjoining walls meaning that there is a limited number of exposed areas, and therefore preserving the energy within each building. In addition to this, the compact arrangement creates a barrier against the prevailing adverse winds, but also retains heat gain during cooler months (A’zami., et al, Pp. 614-615, 2005). .

Figure 4 - Perspective sketch of Yazd, showing the compact urban grain of Yazd Source: (The Author, 2022)

Connecting the city of Yazd is an array of intertwined outdoor shaded passageways, specifically named Sabats (Figure 5). This element is key in the urban design of the city and also contributes to controlling temperatures throughout the area. Particularly used in hot and arid regions, the Sabat is a vaulted form that is built between opposed buildings along a thin street. It’s form creates a shaded space that provides a partially enclosed area that shields users from harsh winds and solar radiation. Usually curved to stop warm air flowing through, it enables the outdoor space to be cool in the summer and warmer during the winter (Yardimi et al, 2020 & Tehran Times, 2022).

Figure 5 – Sabat in Yazd Source: (The Author, 2022)

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Figure 3- Yazd narrow alley way Source: (The Author, 2022)

Jake Southcombe

Figure 6 - Birds Eye View of Yazd Source: (Afshar, 2022)

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A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Additionally, since Yazd is amongst some of the driest provinces, challenges involving retrieving freshwater for use in the city are resolved through utilising a technique named Qanats (Figure 6). Used for procuring water and irrigation of surrounding arid lands, this process takes advantage of underground water aquifers within mountainous areas and distributes water from beneath the water table and through slightly inclined interconnected tunnels. This is significant because it is a renewable source making use of gravity, so no electrical technology is required. It is reported that there are still many active qanats which are providing roughly 11% of the country’s total groundwater supply (Megdiche-Kharrat, Ragala & Moussa, 2019).

Figure 7- Qanat System in Yazd Source: (Nasiri & Mafakheri, 2015)

To allow the author to have a better understanding of a typical house in the region of Yazd and the architectural features that make them up, the Minoudar House will be analysed in depth. This building highlights how these individual architectural techniques and principles work together in designing a relaxed and sustainable living environment.

The Minoudar House is a 400-year-old structure built in the safavieh era, which has been newly restored since being derelict and eroded, into a hotel open to the public. With its restoration the architects have maintained the previous architectural elements including the windcatchers and courtyard, ensuring they respect the cultural history. It is located in central Yazd and is a key example of a traditional Yazdi house (Minoudar House, 2021).

Figure 8 – Site Plan of Minoudar House Source: (The Author taken and adapted from Minoudar House, 2021)

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Windcatcher

Jake Southcombe

The newly restored Minoudar House has a windcatcher which is prevalent across the City. Windcatchers, a traditional method, are cooling systems situated towards the northwest to take advantage of the harsh prevailing winds through its inlet and outlet openings, which are split up by individual vertical channel partitions. This allows for air to stream internally up and down, in and out of the building.

The wind blows into the opening and is channelled down to the internal spaces and circulated around. The inlets and outlets of the wind tower use pressure to allow for the flow of air in and out. The hot polluted air then rises up out of the outlet and fresh clean air comes in through a build of pressure on the opposing opening (the inlet) (Mahdavi, 2010, p.39).

This process naturally ventilates a building by solely relying on the natural world, reducing both consumption and the carbon footprint. Therefore, it is a much more sustainable approach as opposed to technologies that use constantly depleting resources and energy, such as air conditioning. Findings have shown the most common form of windcatcher to be four-sided and rectangular in section (Mahnaz & Shemirani, 2009). Windcatchers are a passive ventilation system that take advantage of the natural surroundings and conditions, particularly harsh winds. Consequently, it is crucial that they are situated in the correct position to optimise their performance (Hughes et al, 2012, p.606). For the principles of the windcatcher to be used in different regions, it would require some adaptation for it to be feasible for use in cooler environments.

Figure 9 – Courtyard and Windcatcher at Minoudar House Source: (Minoudar House, 2021)

Windcatchers are a key structure that has defined the city and has dated back thousands of years (Mahdavi, 2010, p.38). This method is a key strategy used to ventilate the buildings across the city and eliminates the reliance on electrically powered sources.

Figure 10 Yazd, Traditional Square Windcatcher Source:(The Author, 2022)

Figure 11 – Yazd, Windcatcher Function in Section Source: (Foruzanmehr, 2017)

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Courtyards and Loggia’s

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Courtyards are one of the most prominent passive design techniques seen and used across the Middle East and especially within Yazd, Iran which can be seen in Figure 5 (Soflaei et al, 2017). Courtyards are seen as a sign of wealth with some dwellings even having two. The Minoudar House has one courtyard which connects the surrounding spaces. The courtyard is an enclosed area within the dwelling that is either a part of the building or has its own outer wall. This space helps to create personal gardens through inclusion of vegetation or water features, which also contribute to controlling the microclimate of a building (Yang et al, 2020). The living spaces within the hotel connect with the courtyard through openings, allowing the internal and external spaces to flow together.

Figure 12 – Plan View of Minoudar House, Courtyard Source: (Minoudar House, 2021)

When orientated correctly, they play a crucial role in controlling the air circulation, solar exposure, and natural lighting throughout the year during both summer and winter months (Abass et al, 2016). A shadow is cast which covers the area so that users can enjoy the space without the direct sunlight. As well as this, the space offers a social area users can interact with and gain a sense of privacy at the same time, a distinctive element of Yazd that plays an important role from a social and environmental point of view (A’zami., et al.

Pp. 614, 2005). Connected to the courtyard space is the Loggia, which is an open living space, frequently used for socialisation, that is enclosed on three sides.

Often, they have slightly raised floors giving it a sense of importance within the building, as well as allowing for space underneath for a basement to be built. They were constructed to allow for solar shading against the beaming sun and provide for a social space that overlooks the courtyard (See Figure 14) (Foruzanmehr, 2015).

Figure 13 – Internal View of Minoudar House, Courtyard House Source: (Minoudar House, 2021)

Figure 14 – Ground Floor Plan, Courtyard Source: (The Author taken and adapted from Minoudar House, 2021)

Figure 15 – Ground Floor Plan, Connection between spaces Source: (The Author taken and adapted from Minoudar House, 2021)

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Materials and Facade

Jake Southcombe

Yazd city Iran is predominantly constructed of locally sourced and readily available materials such as mud and adobe (Sahebzadeh et al, 2020). As well as being easily accessible, these materials were also used for their thermal properties. Due to the climate conditions within the desert, mud and adobe allow for great protection from the harsh sunlight during the summer months and to hold the interior heat in during the winter, evidencing their high thermal properties. The process of heat transfer takes a long time for heat to permeate through which delays the time in which it takes for the building to heat up. Because of this, it also means that the heat stored during the day will then radiate into the internal spaces through the night when the temperatures are lower - creating a self-sustaining comfortable environment (Keshtkaran, 2011).

Due to Iran’s climate and religious beliefs, the facades of the Minoudar House has no external facing openings, and instead overlook the internal courtyard (Ahani, 2011), therefore providing a protected and private internal space.

Stained glass windows are widely used across Iran within various typologies. They can be seen here at the Minoudar House (Figure 16). These are a typical feature of Yazdi buildings because of the colourful spiritual expressions portrayed onto the internal spaces, which also reflects Iranian religious beliefs (Faghihi, 2013 & Ahani, 2011).

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Figure 16 – Stained Glass Windows Source: (Minoudar House, 2021)

Discussion

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Through a thorough analysis of previous literature and the case study of Yazd, Iran it can be seen that the systems built-up by native people have been effective in providing adequate comfort levels, without the use of technology over many years (A’zami et al, 2005).

Throughout the case study it is clear that passive design is a prominent theme when designing towards a comfortable environment from both a city and housing scale. These techniques have helped to design a city that has lasted many years and have used minimal resources in doing so. Vernacular techniques provide hope for a sustainable future; however, little has been done to outline what can be taken forward for future use. Buildings within the United Kingdom rely heavily on technological systems with materials and methods all requiring vast amounts of energy to be used. Architects, planners, and developers within the modern world and the United Kingdom should implement vernacular principles into designs to reduce the impact on current resources and CO2 pollution levels. Ideas taken from Yazd can be used in the United Kingdom, taking advantage of the local context, and using methods such as local materials and passive design suitable to that area. A common theme prevalent throughout the literature and within the case study is the use of materials local to the area, which have low embodied energy, they are readily available, and finally being suited to their surroundings (Keshtkaran, 2011 and Sahebzadeh, et al.- 2020). Current materials used within western architecture are typically high in embodied energy and therefore are increasingly unsustainable considering the global warming concerns (Saadatian et al, 2012).

Techniques within Yazd display how materials assist in controlling temperatures (A’zami., et al, 2005) and thus buildings rely less on mechanical assistance. Through studying these vernacular techniques, architects and designers can learn more about using more appropriate materials, which could help to reduce thermal bridging heat loss and hence lower energy consumption as it will mean less energy is required. While techniques such as ventilation using windcatchers would need adaptation for cooler environments, utilising these principles will help to design for a sustainable future where buildings will become more self-sufficient and still provide for suitable living spaces. In turn, this would reduce the use of finite resources and therefore have both ecological and economic benefits (Asquith and Vellinga, 2016).

Courtyards however wouldn’t be as effective as they are designed to provide solar shading, therefore would only be ecological beneficial during the summer months within the UK. It is important that the knowledge behind the vernacular methods is not lost, however taken forward and merged to continue to provide for usable spaces in a developing world that is constantly looking for renewable sources (Asquith and Vellinga, 2006).

Designing using the vernacular would also allow for the architecture to complement its surroundings rather than opposing it, taking advantage of natural resources, and establishing an architecture that exists in harmony with its local context (Kazimee, 2008). Saadatian (2012) argues that techniques such as the windcatcher is extremely valuable for tackling the current global energy challenges and as Jones and Kirby (2009) state, it has been in use for over 30 years within UK commercial buildings. Designing using the vernacular would also allow for the architecture to complement its surroundings rather than opposing it, taking advantage of natural resources, and establishing an architecture that exists in harmony with its local context (Kazimee, 2008). Saadatian (2012) argues that techniques such as the windcatcher is extremely valuable for tackling the current global energy challenges and as Jones and Kirby (2009) state, it has been in use for over 30 years within UK commercial buildings. Unfortunately, it is becoming progressively ignored in the modern era and within other typologies. Kazimee (2008) also supports the discussion around the use of these traditional principles over technical heating and cooling systems, stating that the use of these modern alternatives disengages the structure from its context. As a result of this, using traditional methods is affordable, eco-friendly, and readily available. Ultimately, connecting to these ideals will form a better relationship between the architecture and nature, decreasing the burden on the worlds limited resources.

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Table 1 – Positive comments of traditional building methods used in Yazd, Iran Source: (Foruzanmehr, 2011)

A questionnaire carried out by Foruzanmehr (2011) displays positive comments made by users of traditional Yazdi dwellings, which supports the use of these sustainable methods when designing (Table 1). However, there are some negative that come with vernacular traditions and methods, as they are generally only able to achieve the desired levels of comfort when used together, not as single entities (Foruzanmehr, 2011, p 280-283). This shows that ideal comfort levels can be achieved, but to be used in different climates they will need adapting for them to be successful individually. Taking the underlying principle as opposed to the physical form of the vernacular tradition into the modern world will have great financial and ecological advantages and help to reduce the stress on the essential resources. More research and development would be required to look into how these original methods can be optimised, merged, and utilised in the United Kingdom, because although they provide some level of comfort, they don’t meet the needs of most users when used individually.

Jake Southcombe

Figure 17 (Foruzanmehr 2017) shows how the temperature levels within a traditional house are reduced using these traditional methods in relation to the external air temperature. Correlating to Foruzanmehr’s (2011) (Table 1) questionnaire, this demonstrates how these techniques control the temperatures across the house, as well as providing benefits including social spaces, ecological and economic savings, and finally aesthetic improvements. However, despite the advantages, users still preferred environments controlled using electrical equivalents (Foruzanmehr, 2011, p 280-283).

With more research into this field, it may allow for comfortable environments to be established using solely renewable energy and therefore buildings across the United Kingdom would see a reduction in energy consumption and costs.

15

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

Arguably the use of all the techniques would not be feasible for use in the United Kingdom, and while there are doubts towards whether desired levels of human comfort could be met, principles that underpin traditional windcatchers can already be seen in contemporary architecture. Underlying methods from vernacular origin can be adapted and scaled up into much larger buildings but still provide high thermal properties, without the need for a technological equivalent within the United Kingdom. Namely, at De Montfort University, Leicester in the United Kingdom, they have used solar chimneys, similar to windcatchers in the Queens building to help create a naturally ventilated building. Increasing the stack affect and therefore reduce reliance on technological equivalents (Figure 18) as well as brickwork to wrap around the building increasing the thermal mass, stabilising temperatures during cooler months (Compton, 2006 & Clements-Croome, 2020, p, 26).

Also, at the Inland Revenue Building in Nottingham, United Kingdom, (Figure 19) (Saadatian, et al, 2012) designed by Hopkins Architects implementing passive ventilation methods to assist in constructing a Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) building. The passive ventilation process works through using wind power it forces fresh air into the building and therefore circulating air throughout the building. The fresh cool air falls and warm air rises which then exits through outlets at the top of the structure. A ventilation system is created without the use of damaging technological materials and methods. This is significant as it displays how the use of these key traditional principles observed in Yazd previously built up over many years can help in designing towards more sustainable architecture, in a world where resources are becoming increasingly scarce. In this case natural ventilation reduces reliance on modern alternatives like mechanical ventilation which would increase energy conservation.

Outside of the United Kingdom similar ideas have been used, for example at the Yale University School of Architecture, New Haven in the USA (Figure 20), a wind catcher is used in the façade to provide ventilation to the building without reliance on technology. These examples all demonstrate how previous traditions and systems that were originally used on much smaller scaled structures can still be effectively merged when scaled up and provide equal levels of comfort to the buildings users with minimal impact on diminishing resources. These examples reinforce how it is possible to design using passive principles seen in the vernacular and they can be combined with modern ways to produce suitable architecture.

16

Jake Southcombe

While there is proof of these ideals being conveyed in commercial buildings in the UK, there is little transfer of these principles into dwellings. As the techniques are mainly used on houses in Yazd, the underlying principles should in theory be easier to adapt and apply to similar within the United Kingdom. An architect who also advocated for the use of similar ideas was Tim Cullinan. He was an architect who passed away in 2019 (Ravenscroft, 2019). Awarded the RIBA gold medal in 2008, he was a keen advocate for the use of passive design within residential projects, especially in the UK (Ravenscroft, 2019).

One of his main projects demonstrating this interest is his personal house in Camden, London, which was a very early example of a ‘Passive Solar House.’ Cullinan was known for his holistic vision and designs considerate towards the environment (Ravenscroft, 2019). Cullinan also had a keen interest in the Arts and Crafts movement (Woodman, 2019) and therefore advocated for the same ideas of that of Morris, Pugin and Ruskin. He designed for the vernacular and believed in true craftsmanship, which is found across his work.

Earlier examples display how the model of passive ventilation has started to be developed, as well as demonstrating how vernacular principles are able to be combined with modern environments. The Western World and the UK should learn from these principles and apply them to their own vernacular, utilising materials and methods that provide a sustainable solution and are suitable to the region; thus, bringing back and adapting previous ideas that relate the local area resulting in ecological and economic benefits.

17

Conclusion and Future Recommendations The principles used by vernacular builders reinforce the importance and effectiveness of vernacular architecture, in particular relation to the recent energy crisis suffered by the majority of the United Kingdom (Wolf, 2022). Due to the dramatic increase in the prices of energy, many people are considering alternative methods or solutions to decrease the economic effects on families throughout the nation. There is a lot of reliance on fuel powered infrastructure, which could be substituted by the sustainable methods applied in vernacular architecture to assist in reducing the amount of energy used and therefore energy prices. This research presents a gap in knowledge, due to it being a very a recent topic, consequently there is not sufficient analysis into this subject and there has been little investigation into the arising issues.

A Solution to a Sustainable Future

A comprehensive study of the Minoudar House focuses on the sophisticated architectural features that provide for comfortable environments utilising readily available simple resources and passive approaches including, windcatchers, central courtyards and urban planning (A’zami et al, 2005). While the Minoudar House and city planning help to provide for comfortable living spaces, there is still more research needed to perfect the use of all of the techniques, but buildings such as the Queens Building at De Montfort University, Leicester (Figure 18) clearly demonstrates how vernacular principles like the windcatcher merged into cooler regions, can provide for a sustainable and comfortable environment.

Adopting traditional methods should ultimately have beneficial effects globally, economically, ecologically, and finally help in the conservation of precious resources. It is clear that vernacular architecture is a strong contender for providing a sustainable future for generations to come and with further research into contemporary needs, vernacular principles could be the answer.

Meir and Roaf (2006, p.230) advocate this in saying how knowledge from the vernacular will provide an important foundation from which to construct more durable, locally appropriate, structures that are vital if we are to survive the demands of the twenty first century.

It is important to understand that for architects, planners, and developers to employ these vernacular ideas into the present day, the principles need to be fully comprehended and adapted for cooler climates, instead of just replicating what has already been done. By combining them with modern day technological innovations and materials, the principles can be developed and improved for use in new buildings.

Supporting this notion, Fathy (1986) writes, the theories that formed the traditional solutions should be acknowledged. These underpinning principles are the only way contemporary architecture can exceed in social and environmental quality, as demonstrated by the success of vernacular in the hot arid areas of the world.

Architecture and the built environment within the present day make up for 40% of the global energy consumption (Siew et al, 2011) and the EIA project for a 50% rise in world-wide energy consumption by the year 2050 (EIA, 2021). These projections display immense concerns especially with a rising global population, global warming, and increased demand for housing (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016). With these concerns there is a need for new sustainable methods to provide a solution into how the architectural world can design for and help to reduce the reliance on modern technology such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning units (Aycam & Varshabi, 2016 & Fergus & Roaf, 2007).

Following the current technological methods will lead to shortages and an increase in pollution which is not sustainable. It is crucial that low energy and renewable methods are substituted in order to replace the current non-renewable ways.

In conclusion, this study into vernacular principles has highlighted the importance of looking back at previous techniques and how they can actually aid the future wellbeing of the environment and provide for a more sustainable approach. This thesis has identified a different perspective of methods that can be utilised, through looking at Yazd, Iran to gain an understanding of how previous traditional methods have been successful when designing for challenging climates, and how they can provide the solution for a sustainable future.

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List of Figures

Jake Southcombe

Afshar, K., (2022), Yazd birds eye view. Pinterest. [Online Image] Available from: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/ pin/501447739769232862/ [Accessed 22nd December 2022] Arch Daily., (2022) Yale School of Architecture Building, [Online Image]. Available from: https://www.archdaily.com/123171/yale-art-architecture-building-gwathmey-siegel-associates-architects/5013dba428ba0d3b4500009f-yale-art-architecture-building-gwathmey-siegel-associates-architects-image [Accessed 15th December 2022] Foruzanmehr. A., & Vellinga, M. (2011). ‘Positives comments of Traditional building methods used in Yazd, Iran,’ Vernacular Architecture: question of comfort and practicability. Building Research & Information. 39 (3), p274-285.

[Online Image] Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.proxy.library.dmu.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1080/09613218.2011.56 2368?needAccess=true [Accessed 1st November 2022] Foruzanmehr. A., & Vellinga, M. (2011). ‘Temperature variation of a Traditional house in Yazd’ Vernacular Architecture: question of comfort and practicability. Building Research & Information. 39 (3), p274-285. [Online Image] Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.proxy.library.dmu.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1080/09613218.2011.562368?needAccess=true [Accessed 1st November 2022] Foruzanmehr. A., (2017). The function of a windcatcher, ’Thermal Comfort in Hot and Dry Climates: Traditional Dwellings in Iran.’ Taylor & Francis Group. Pp. 1-198 [Online]. Available at: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dmu/ reader.action?docID=5046902 [Accessed: 29th December 2022] Good University Guide., (2022) De Montfort University; Queens Building, Leicester UK [Online Image]. Available from: https://dlv.tnl-uk-uni-guide.gcpp.io/universities/de-montfort-university-auIBy4K50CRo [Accessed 15th December] Hopkins Architects., (2022), Inland Revenue Building, Nottingham UK [Online image] https://www.hopkins.co.uk/projects/workplace/inland-revenue-centre/ [Accessed 15th December] Iranpoll., (2022), Regions, Map of Yazd, Iran, [Online Image] Available at: https://www.iranpoll.com/regions [Accessed 23rd December 2022] Minodaur House., (2021) Photos of Minodaur House, Yazd, Iran. [Online Images] Available from: https://minoudar-house.com/photos/ [Accessed 27th December 2022] Nasiri, F. and Mafakheri, M.S., (2015) Qanat water supply systems: A revisit of Sustainability Perspectives - Environmental Systems Research, SpringerOpen. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. [Online Image] Available at: https://environmentalsystemsresearch.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40068-015-0039-9 [Accessed: December 22, 2022].

Saadatian, O. et al., (2012). CO2 Emissions between 1995-2025, ‘Review of Windcatcher Technologies’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 16(1). Pp. 1477-1495. Available online at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.11.037 [Accessed: 16th November 2022].

The Author., (2022). 3D Perspective sketch of Yazd, showing the compact urban grain of Yazd.

The Author., (2022). Yazd narrow alley way The Author., (2022). Yazd, Sabat The Author., (2022). Yazd, Traditional Square Windcatcher Vectorstock., (2022). Iran on a world map, [Online Image] Available at: https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/template-country-iran-on-world-map-vector-36929949 [Accessed 23rd December]

List of Tables Foruzanmehr. A., & Vellinga, M. (2011). ‘Temperature variation of a Traditional house in Yazd’ Vernacular Architecture: question of comfort and practicability. Building Research & Information. 39 (3), p274-285. [Online Image] Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.proxy.library.dmu.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1080/09613218.2011.562368?needAccess=true [Accessed 1st November 2022]

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A Solution to a Sustainable Future

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A Solution to a Sustainable Future

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Jake Southcombe

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Vol 246. Issue 22. Pp. 138. [Online] Available from: https://web-p-ebscohost-com.proxy.library.dmu.ac.uk/ehost/ detail/detail?vid=1&sid=b02ea92a-411f-4196-81ac-80954cc328cb%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=143178262&db=aft [Accessed 9th January 2023] Yang, L.I., et al (2020). Research on the wind and air quality of parallel courtyards in a university campus. Sustain Cities and Society, Vol 56. Pp 1-17. [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102019 [Accessed 27th December 2022] Yardimi, S, et al (2020) ‘Sustainable street architecture and its effects on human comfort conditions: Yazd, Iran’, Vol 17, No 2. Pp. 113-122. [Online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20200828102156id_/https://www.journalagent.com/itujfa/pdfs/ITUJFA_17_2_113_122.pdf, [Accessed: 22nd December 2022] Zarei, M., et al., (2017), ‘THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL COURTYARD IN MODERATING THE HARSH ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF A HOT AND DRY CLIMATE (CASE STUDY: CITY OF YAZD, IRAN)’ (38)1. Pp 1-9. [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.2298/SPAT1738001Z [Accessed: 17th December 2022]

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