Stevenage: Understanding 'Movement' Through the Texts of Jane Jacobs

Stevenage Understanding 'Movement' Through the Texts of Jane Jacobs ARC6984 History and Theory of Urban Design

Jonathan Foulger MArch Year 5 180207844 2697 Words 17th January 2019

History & Theory of Urban Design

Contents

2

Stevenage

3

Contents Introduction

06

The Town of Towns

12

The Town for Cars

18

The Town for Pedestrians

24

Conclusion

26

Bibliography

27

Figure List History & Theory of Urban Design

Contents

04

Stevenage

4

Introduction

Introduction Jane Jacobs’ seminal work, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, presented an important insight into the principles of city planning during the 1960s and their failure to consider how cities work in ‘real life’.1 The book has seen remarkable influence on many urban planning schemes since and remains an integral piece of literature for understanding how communities develop and sustain within cities and the forces that ‘thwart and ruin them.’2 A selection of these ‘forces’ of urban design are outlined by Jacobs in the introduction of the book, where she discusses and criticises the attempts of ‘utopian’ urban planning ideals prevalent at the time of writing. These include the schemes of Le Corbusier’s Radiant City, Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities and Daniel Burnham’s City Beautiful.3

History & Theory of Urban Design

Britain’s post war New Town movement presents a phase of urban design which was unprecedented and was largely informed by these prevalent ideals of urban planning. The New Towns Act of 1946 sought to free people of the poor living conditions in the cities and relocate them to ‘leafy’ towns in the shires.4 Stevenage was the first of these towns to be completed in 1957 and presented a utopian vision that expanded upon both the Garden City and Modernist Movements,5 placing a particular emphasis on ‘neighbourhood units’ and movement between them and the city centre. At the time of completion it was considered one of the ‘most significant pieces of urban planning of the immediate post-war era for creating car-free areas’6 and saw the first pedestrianised city centre in the United Kingdom.

This essay will explore the relevancy of Jacobs’ writings and examine the successes and failures of the New Town movement, using Stevenage as a case study. Alongside this, other key figures in urban design will be used in reference to expand upon her ideas. With a focus of how movement in cities was considered and implemented, the essay will look into the separation of pedestrian and automobile within the context by which they were planned.

Jacobs. J, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Modern Library, 2011) p.5.

Epstein. J, ‘Introduction’ in: Jacobs. J, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Modern Library, 2011) p.xii 3 Jacobs, 2011, pp.23-34.

4 Halford. J, Stevenage: The town that aimed for Utopia [Internet]. BBC News; 2016 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-37826783 5 Alexander. A, Britain’s New Towns (Oxon: Routledge, 2009) p.74.

6 Alexander, 2009, p.82.

1

2

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

Introduction

5

Fig 1: Aerial map of Stevenage showing the make-up of the town neighbourhoods and main roads.

Stevenage

6

The Town of Towns

The Town of Towns When observing Stevenage as a whole, it becomes clear that the town is defined not as a single homogeneous body but a series of individual towns linked together by arteries of roadways. The masterplan (fig 4) was envisioned as six neighbourhoods comprising of 10,000 residents each, with their own community centres, shops and schools.7 This theory draws parallel, albeit in much reduced scale, to Le Corbusier’s ‘Radiant City’ where strict zoning of particular business, residential and leisure districts defined the layout of the city (figs 2 & 3).8 This philosophy was widely criticised and, during the 20th century, public spaces for urban encounters and the needs of residents were ignored in favour of regimented planning.

Boughton. J, Stevenage New Town: ‘Building for the new way of life’ [Internet] Municipal Dreams; 2013 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2013/11/05/stevenage-newtown-building-for-the-new-way-of-life/ 8 Merin. G, AD Classics: Ville Radieuse / Le Corbusier [Internet] Archdaily; 2013 [Accessed 18 Dec 2018] Available from: https://www.archdaily.com/411878/ad-classics-ville-radieuse-le-corbusier

History & Theory of Urban Design

7

Figs 2 & 3: Le Corbusier's Radient City presented a clear regimented plan segregating city used between districts with a focus on standardisation.

Stevenage

The Town of Towns

7

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 4: Outline plane for Stevenage at its conception, depicting the clear seperation of neighbourhoods, the town centre and industrial areas.

Fig 5: Traffic plan for Stevenage, showing the key focus on roads and traffic routes.

Stevenage

The Town of Towns

8 Alongside this, the formation of the New Towns can be linked to Howard’s ideals of Garden City planning (fig 6) which involved the integration of rural and urban fabric, promoting the ‘vitalizing of urban life on one hand’ and the ‘social improvement of rural life on the other.’9 This was a movement which Jacobs has strongly criticised, stating ‘[Howard] was uninterested in the aspects of the city which could not be abstracted to serve his Utopia.’10 She discusses at great lengths the importance of understanding the values of public space and uses these initiatives to make a case for the most effective way of city planning.

In regard to splitting a city into notable districts, Jacobs claims how an introspective neighbourhood with a population of 5,000 to 10,000 creates more limitations than it provides opportunities. She cites Reginald Isaacs who claims that ‘wide choice and rich opportunity [are] the point of cities’11 and that in the case of cities with such regimented and ordered neighbourhoods, such as Stevenage, this promotes less economic diversity or social self-containment as they are designed to be inward looking.12 It is difficult to correctly evaluate the scope of this statement within this essay due to the additional research that would be required, but is useful to look at how this methodology of urban planning has informed the spaces of movement and whether it adheres to Jacobs’ writings.

Mumford. L, ‘The Garden City Idea and Modern Planning’, in: Larice, M and Macdonald, E. (eds) The Urban Design Reader (Oxon: Routledge, 2007) p.50.

10 Jacobs, 2011, p.26.

11 Jacobs, 2011, p.151.

12 Jacobs, 2011, p.152.

History & Theory of Urban Design

9

(Left) Fig 6: Howard's Garden City demonstrating distinct segregation and order.

(Opposite top) Fig 7: Noli plan of Stevenage, highlighting the distinct separation of districts and the variations in urban form (Opposite bottom) Fig 8: Plan highlighting main roadways linked with roundabouts and the greenspace provided.

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

The Town of Towns

9

Stevenage

The Town of Towns

10 In Stevenage, the neighbourhood segregation informed the urban form as seen through the very low density that the majority of the town adopted (fig 9). This was largely in response to the high density of many of the urban slums during the post-war period and it was seen as a way to create an antidote and provide a better quality of life.13 Influences from Garden City planning can be seen with the generous green verges between roads and houses. This was coupled with the ‘post-war dream’ of car ownership where driving would become normal.14 A town defined by an ideal future with high speed movement can create a new kind of urban form. While the neighbourhoods remain conventional to British layout and styling, it is the wider town layout that consists of a notably different approach.

Through the segregation of neighbourhoods, city centre, leisure and industrial areas that are linked by a network of separated roadways and roundabouts, which form notable boundaries around the districts (figs 7 & 8).

Jacobs states that while there is a tendency to blame cars for many issues in urban planning, this can be exaggerated and in many cases the influence can be the ‘disrespect for other city needs’.15 The car has influenced the organisation of the urban areas in Stevenage and the resultant form is notable for the reliance of vehicles to efficiently move within the town. This essay will specifically examine the movement between these districts, and how the innovations that come with new approaches to movement have notably impacted the experience of movement across the whole town.

Alexander, 2009, p.74.

Reid. C, Where Driving is easy, Brits drive [Internet] Roads Were Not Built for Cars; 2013 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ 15 Jacobs, 2011, p.441.

13

History & Theory of Urban Design

14

Fig 9: Aerial view of Stevenage: the low density results in a wide spread away from the town centre.

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

The Town of Towns

11

Fig 10: The clear separation of roads, bicycle paths and pavements results in a distinct feeling of isolation from town life.

Stevenage

12

The Town for Cars

The Town for Cars In a town defined by the use of the car, notable impacts arise from the network of roadways that link the various districts together. One aspect of this is infrastructure, which much like the neighbourhood units, are segregated from each other. Paths are separated from roads, which are separated from cycleways by verges (figs 10 & 12).

This separation has a distinct effect when moving through the city as the transport arteries can feel expansive and vast. The lack of sidewalks and sustained contact in urban planning is something that Jacobs claims will lead to a lack of ‘togetherness’ in areas that lack ‘a natural and casual public life’, resulting in increased isolation of residents.16 Similarly, Gordon Cullen discusses the experience of moving through spaces defined by such vastness. He states: ‘The last thing it does is suggest a stroll; the unhappy pedestrian is left with a feeling of hopelessness in face of a terrifying infinity of wideness punctuated at intervals by seas of concrete.’17 The design for these main roads was based upon the theories of Garden City planning and one could argue for the benefits of these spaces and the positive effects that a generous amount of green space and open countryside can have on the well-being of residents.

History & Theory of Urban Design

While this particular form of urban planning can be seen in many cities and developments around the world, a particular ideal that sets Stevenage apart is the strong integration of bicycle pathways and pavements alongside the roads. This aspect of urban planning was particularly forward-thinking at the time in the UK and something Jacobs has advocated for, however due to the convenience of driving and poorly considered urban space, it has never proved an enticing enough option for residents to make the most of.18 Jacobs, 2011, p.85.

Cullen. G, The Concise Townscape (Oxon: Architectural press, 1971) p.135.

18 Reid. C, Where Driving is easy, Brits drive [Internet] Roads Were Not Built for Cars; 2013 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ 16 17

Stevenage

The Town for Cars

13

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 11: Stevenage upon completion.

Fig 12: Stevenage today with very little noticeable change: an empty and isolated public realm.

Stevenage

The Town for Cars

14 When viewed through Cullen’s concept of ‘serial vision’ (fig 13), movement through Stevenage displays little of the ‘revelations’ that come from the discovery and exploration in urban spaces19 and this has a negative affect on the overall form of the town resulting in it feeling disparate and empty (fig 14). This is further expanded upon by Jan Gehl, who claims that it ‘becomes duller to drive, duller to walk, and duller to live along the roads and streets because a significant number of the people in transit are now segregated from other city activities.’20 Jacobs discusses the importance of good sidewalk provision and integration and the benefits they have upon the safety and general use of the streets to create lively places. She states how the general requirements of streets give people reasons to use them over simply driving, and when there is nothing to draw people there specifically, ‘enterprises must be frequent in a city district if they are to populate with walkers those other stretches of street that lack public spaces along the sidewalk.’21 She follows up by stating how simply providing benches in spaces that lack any form of ‘enterprise’ will generally go unused. This context is very different to the one Jacobs originally studied in New York, which involved city blocks, and in order to adequately apply this line of thinking to an existing place a certain amount of adapting of the theory would be required.

Cullen, 1971, pp.18-19.

Gehl. J, Life Between Buildings (Washington: Island Press, 2011) p.109.

21 Jacobs, 2011, p.47.

19

History & Theory of Urban Design

20

(Left) Fig 13: Extract from Cullen's 'A Concise Townscape' depicting serial vision through the urban grain.

(Opposite) Fig 14: Serial Vision through Stevenage from the perspective of a car revealing a distinct lack of variety when moving through the town.

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

The Town for Cars

15

Stevenage

The Town for Cars

16

Many of the sidewalks and bicycle paths cross through the roundabouts and road infrastructure (fig 12) with little additional enterprise or purpose for stopping. This results in a space that appears noticeably isolated and marks a notable parallel to the experience of moving on the road as a merely utilitarian function. Interestingly, very little has changed in these urban spaces since the town’s initial completion, as shown in historic photographs (fig 11). Ultimately, Jacobs concludes that, in the absence of consideration for city diversity, people are ‘probably better off in cars than foot’ as a result of the ‘vacuums’ that arise from segregation.22 This movement by car draws parallels to Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown’s discussion of ‘megatexture’ in Learning From Las Vegas where one moves through the landscape as if it were a vast texture referencing how ‘symbol dominates space’, especially in reference to commercial application (fig 15). The experience of movement becomes one where signs ‘inflect toward the highway even more than buildings.’23

History & Theory of Urban Design

The experience of moving in a town defined by the car means that speed acts as a defining factor and as such the field of view is reduced to a focused view of the road ahead which is oriented on moving objects and points of decision.24 A result of the built landscape focused around the experience of the car means that the opportunities and visual experience of pedestrian interest becomes few and far.

Furthermore, the views and observations that come from moving through a town can be lost when one is separated within a car, creating a similar sense of isolation (fig 16).

Jacobs, 2011, p.452.

Venturi, Scott Brown, 1977, p.52 24 Venturi, Scott Brown, 1977, p.74.

22

23

Stevenage

The Town for Cars

17

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 15: Image taken from 'Learning from Las Vegas' depicting the 'megatexture' of an automobile landscape dominated by symbols.

Fig 16: The Stevenage 'megatexture' at a reduced scale still is dictated by recognisable signs and symbols directed toward the driver.

Stevenage

18

The Town for Pedestrians

The Town for Pedestrians In contrast to the town defined by the car, the pedestrianised town of Stevenage features an entirely different density of building and land use, offering a contrasting experience of movement through the urban grain. Much of this is responding to the strong integration of the network of roadways around the town along with the idea that cars should move to the centre but not through. This results in the town centre being notably separated by a perimeter of road from the neighbourhood units.25 Many of the issues that will be discussed arise from the need to facilitate the reliance of designing a town for the primary use of cars.

This clear designation of a place for pedestrians separate from cars is something Jacobs claims is indeed a ‘fashionable solution’ but in reality promotes ‘disintegration’ of a city through the demands of parking, access arteries and garages which results in a ‘deadening’ of the space.26 Stevenage town centre is an example of this effect, where the car park access roads are filtered through streets with underpasses and overpasses allowing access into the clearly separated centre (fig 18). Further more, pedestrianisation can ‘suck the life out of a public street by marooning it in the midst of the hard-to-cross ring roads'27 (fig 17).

Alexander, 2009, p.82.

Jacobs, 2011, pp.447-448.

27 Sudjic. D, The Language of Cities (London: Penguin, 2017) p.70.

25

History & Theory of Urban Design

26

Fig 17: When access is poorly thought out, then people will have to negate boundaries.

Stevenage

19 Area used by car parking Pedestrianised areas

History & Theory of Urban Design

The Town for Pedestrians

Main town centre access points

Fig 18: Stevenage town centre highlighting the overwhelming amount of space for car parking and access roads required to service the ring-road around the pedestrianised areas.

Stevenage

The Town for Pedestrians

20

Fig 19: The overpass from the town centre feels hidden away and unwelcoming.

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 20: The overpass between the two districts, as seen from the dual carriageway.

Fig 21: The Stevenage Leisure Park: dominated by car parking and symbol.

Stevenage

This is the case in the centre, where it is split between the ‘shopping’ and ‘leisure’ districts (fig 22), where an overpass (figs 19 & 20) crosses over a dual carriageway to create a single link. In between these districts is the train station and the separation means it also exists as a separate entity. The dispersal of access over levels is outlined by Gehl as problematic and severely reduces the possibility of interaction and activity, likening the experience to hiding in a tree.28 This pedestrianised space for movement provides little by the means of actual opportunity and creates a severe separation between the two main public areas and is an unfortunate result of the reliance of roads in the town.

The ‘Leisure Park’ that forms part of the town centre is a particular typology of urban space commonly seen in parts of the UK, whereby the urban form is defined by an expanse of parking contrasted by the signage of various restaurants, cinemas and bowling alleys (fig 21). It is a place that is very well evidenced by the number of cars in the area. This type of space can be likened to Venturi and Scott Brown’s writings on the Las Vegas Strip, where it is ‘made by symbols more than by forms, architecture in this landscape become a symbol in space rather than the space.’29 As a result, a space that should promote a civic function for pedestrians is instead one that responds to the servicing the requirements of cars, and thus fails to function as any form of civic space.

The Town for Pedestrians

21

Gehl, 2011, p.97.

Venturi, Scott Brown, 1977, p.13.

28

History & Theory of Urban Design

29

Fig 22: The two separate parts of the town centre, with the train station located in-between.

Stevenage

The Town for Pedestrians

22 Jacobs states that any use of land in a district needs to be ‘supplemented by other primary uses so people on the streets will be well spread through the hours of the day.’30 Similarly, Rob Krier states that in places such as central squares, residential use should not be excluded from this31 - a quality notably lacking in Stevenage. These theories are proven to still be notably applicable today, with the Stevenage town centre redevelopment plans (fig 23) looking to resolve these issues by incorporating new restaurants and homes in the areas currently occupied by access roads and garages.32 Despite the cases made for the negative effect of urban design, when visiting the town centre it was lively with many people visiting the shops and using the public spaces. This shows that while many of the discussed factors exist in Stevenage, people still have needs and requirements that can overcome this. Ultimately, however, this disintegration of the centre as defined by the infrastructures to facilitate the movement of people within the city does detract from the overall unity of urban form and still exist in a manner that Jacobs describes as a ‘collection of interests isolated from each other.’33 Jacobs, 2011, p.262.

Krier, R. 'Typological and Morphological Elements of the Concept of Urban Space' in: Cuthbert, A. ed.

Designing Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003). p.329.

32 ‘Ambitious’ Stevenage town centre redevelopment launched [Internet] BBC News; 27th February 2018 [Accessed 11 Jan 2019] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-43212856 33 Jacobs, 2011, p.215.

30

History & Theory of Urban Design

31

Fig 23: Stevenage redevelopment plans hoping to improve the livliness of the town centre by including housing, restaurants and bars.

Stevenage

The Town for Pedestrians

23

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 24: Stevenage's town centre draws parallels to many classic design typologies: the square at the centre forms a clear meeting point and focus.

Fig 25: The streets were busy and full of activity during the daytime. This level of activity is unexpected to be the same in the evenings considering the lack of restaurants and bars.

Stevenage

24

Conclusion

Conclusion As shown in this essay, new ideas and initiatives for town planning can be innovative when implemented correctly but often fail to really consider how places ‘work’ and the real life application. Jacobs shows how fundamental facts can be found when looking at cities themselves and seeking what makes them work, but merely identifying and examining these issues does not help to determine a solution to improve these places. Much of Jacobs’ work related to New York and the city conditions there, and it can be difficult to translate many of these solutions into a place that has been so distinctively designed from the ground up, as opposed to the changing fabric that comes with a city that has naturally grown.

Stevenage has proven to be an interesting study to view this. At the time of writing this essay, controversial comments from former resident Lewis Hamilton have been widely reported as he referred to the town as ‘the slums’.34 At the time of conception and construction, the town was seen as forward thinking, but due to poor upkeep and the legacy of the town planning it has attained a mixed reputation.

Movement has proven to be a useful lens to observe the way that urban design informs the function of a town. Cities today are focusing on creating more and more pedestrianised spaces as the role of the car is playing a smaller role, especially in response to climate change and CO2 emissions. Studying Stevenage shows that movement is a critical part of how cities work, but also a key aspect of how they are experienced. Jacobs shows that the limitations that result from segregation can create somewhere that is unengaging and ultimately works against the experience of living in a town and the wide potential it has on offer.

Hamilton under fire for Stevenage ‘slums’ comment [Internet]. BBC News; 17th Dec 2018 [Accessed 8 Jan 2019] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-46598155

History & Theory of Urban Design

34

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

Conclusion

25

Stevenage

26

Bibliography

Bibliography Books Alexander. A, Britain’s New Towns (Oxon: Routledge, 2009) Boughton. J, Municiple Dreams: The Ride and Fall of Council Housing (London: Verso, 2018) Carmona. M, Tiesdell. S, eds. Urban Design Reader (London: Architectural Press, 2007) Cullen. G, The Concise Townscape (Oxon: Architectural press, 1971) Cuthbert. A, ed. Designing Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003) Gehl. J, Life Between Buildings (Washington: Island Press, 2011) Howard. E, Garden Cities of To-morrow (Oxon: Routledge, 2007) Jacobs. J, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Modern Library, 2011) Sudjic. D, The Language of Cities (London: Penguin, 2017) Venturi. R, Scott Brown. D, Izenour. S, Learning From Las Vegas Revised Edition (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977)

Online Resources

History & Theory of Urban Design

Halford. J, Stevenage: The town that aimed for Utopia [Internet]. BBC News; 2016 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-37826783 Jones The Planner, Brave New World - Stevenage, Hatfield & the future, [Internet]. Jones the Planner; 2012 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018]. Available from: http://www.jonestheplanner.co.uk/2012/07/brave-new-worldstevenage-hatfield.html Boughton. J, Stevenage New Town: ‘Building for the new way of life’ [Internet] Municipal Dreams; 2013 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2013/11/05/stevenage-newtown-building-for-the-new-way-of-life/ Reid. C, Where Driving is easy, Brits drive [Internet] Roads Were Not Built for Cars; 2013 [Accessed 16 Dec 2018] Available from: http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ Merin. G, AD Classics: Ville Radieuse / Le Corbusier [Internet] Archdaily; 2013 [Accessed 18 Dec 2018] Available from: https://www.archdaily.com/411878/ad-classics-ville-radieuse-le-corbusier ‘Ambitious’ Stevenage town centre redevelopment launched [Internet] BBC News; 27th February 2018 [Accessed 11 Jan 2019] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-43212856 Hamilton under fire for Stevenage ‘slums’ comment [Internet]. BBC News; 17th Dec 2018 [Accessed 8 Jan 2019] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-46598155

Stevenage

27

Figure List Contents Image: < http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 1: Image edited by author < https://www.google.com/maps/place/Stevenage/@51.902617,0.2278547,13zata=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x48762916a02a64d9:0x4341e6e1cebe29fa!8m2!3d51.903761!

4d-0.196612 > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 2: < https://99percentinvisible.org/article/ville-radieuse-le-corbusiers-functionalist-plan-utopianradiant-city/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Figure List

Cover Image: Photograph by Author.

Fig 3: < http://idaaf.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/6-lifeedited.com-Le-Corbusier-city-oftomorrow.jpg > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 4: < https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205132811 > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 5: < https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205133044 > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 6: < http://library.famu.edu/c.php?g=276202&p=1841225 > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 7: Drawing by Author.

Fig 8: Drawing by Author.

Fig 9: < http://www.ourstevenage.org.uk/content/category/places/aerial-views-of-stevenage > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 10: < http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 11: < https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/2048/cpsprodpb/E2B8/production/_92304085_stevenage13. jpg > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 12: < http://roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/stevenage/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 13: < https://blogs.ethz.ch/prespecific/2013/09/17/cullen-townscape/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 14: Photographs by Author.

Fig 16: Photograph by Author.

Fig 17: Photograph by Author.

Fig 18: Drawing by Author.

Fig 19: Photograph by Author.

Fig 20: Photograph by Author.

Fig 21: Photograph by Author.

Fig 22: Drawing by Author.

Fig 23: < https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-43212856 > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Fig 24: Photograph by Author.

Fig 25: Photograph by Author.

Fig 26: Photograph by Author.

Fig 27: < https://www.curbed.com/2016/5/4/11580294/jane-jacobs-legacy-architecture-designurban-planning > (Last accessed 15.01.19).

Stevenage

History & Theory of Urban Design

Fig 15: < https://99percentinvisible.org/episode/lessons-from-las-vegas/ > (Last accessed 15.01.19).