0 0 0 00 0 0 11111 1 1 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 1 0 0 0 1 0 100 1 10 101 0 1 0 0 1 00 0 0 0 1 1 10 1 0
0 0000 1 1 1 1 1 0 0000 0 1 00 1 0 00 00 000 1 1 1 1010 1 0 1 00
0 0 0 00 0 0 11111 1 1 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 1 0 0 0 1 0 100 1 10 101 0 1 0 0 1 00 0 0 0 1 1 10 1 0
0 0000 1 1 1 1 1 0 0000 0 1 00 1 0 00 00 000 1 1 1 1010 1 0 1 00
Digital Craft
Refabricating Digital to Analog Design Methodologies A Thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of : Master of Architecture, in the School of Architecture of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning May 2012 by Trevor Jordan | Bachelor of Arts, Architecture Clemson University 2007 Committee Chairs: Michael Mcinturf | Aarati Kanekar | Ming Tang | Eric Inglert
ABSTRACT
With the emergence of digital technologies
the hand that works physical material. It must
and parametric design, a growing obsession
also encompass the mind that can command
in digital formalism is more evident in the new
the operations of technology, which can be
generation of architects. Digital technology is
understood as intellectual ‘material’.”
being harvested as a tool to create new formal
becomes necessary to define and explore the
complexities but has little ground in the built
nature of craft as both digital and analog. This
environment. In his essay “Intention, Craft, and
thesis will explore the convergence of digital
Rationality,” Kenneth Frampton addresses the
and analog craft and its impact on the process
issue saying, “While they [parametric forms] are
of form-finding. I propose a series of studies
brilliantly contrived and graphically seductive,
that will investigate digital and analog craft and
they are invariably unspecific to the substance
its processes. The joint, material, and method
of the project.”
Renzo Piano adds that “An
of application will be examined while utilizing
architect must be a craftsman… someone who
various tools such as digital software, CNC
does not separate the work of the mind from the
machinery, conventional casting techniques,
work of the hand,” which iterates that even with
etcetera. Precedent research will be conducted
new complex technologies, we are still builders,
to compare and understand relations between
or fabricators, by nature. Craft is associated
digital technologies and analog methods to
with materials and tools and is traditionally
gauge their impact. These findings will help
understood as making with physical materials.
demonstrate the convergence of digital and
Scott Marble argues this by saying “No longer
analog
can the word craft be identified solely with
concept of craft as a driver for architectural form.
ii
methodologies
influenced
It then
by
the
iii
CONTENTS
iv
INTRODUCTION DISCONNECT IN PRODUCTION FRAMING CRAFT
01| 02|
08 12
DIGITAL CRAFT: FABRICATION-BASED DESIGN SIMULATION: THE DIGITAL ASSISTANT MATERIAL POTENTIALITY: A MATERIALS-FIRST APPROACH COMPOSITE MATERIALS IMPRESSIONS OF THE TOOL
03| 04| 05| 06|
21 27
34 38
AIMS AND METHODOLOGIES SITE RESEARCH BUILDING TYPOLOGY: PRECEDENTS PROGRAM ANALYSIS DESIGN PROCESS AND OUTCOMES
07| 08| 09| 10|
50 65 75 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY
v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
vi
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 -
Figure 22 Figure 23 -
Fluting patterns. From Pye, David. “The Nature and Art of Workmanship” (2nd ed. München: Herbert, 1995), p. 8. Diagram of mass production. Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. “Refabricating Architecture” (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. By author. By author. By author. Cringe of a sail. Pye, 46. Tempered steel. Various colors indicate temperature and hardness. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Tempering_colors_in_steel.jpg Altered formal elements. From Reiser, Jesse, and Nanako Umemoto. Atlas of Novel Tectonics.(New York: Princeton Architectural, 2006). By author. By author. Varying degree splines where curvature and inflection are determined by positions of points and weights along the motion flow of the spline. From Lynn, Greg. “Animate Form” (New York: Princeton Architectural, 1999), 24-2. By author. Wool thread optimized path system. From Otto, Frei, Sabine Schanz, and Bodo Rasch. Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch. “Finding Form : Toward an Architecture of the Minimal” (Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges, 1995), 69. By author. By author. By author. Minimal surface experiments. Otto, 122. Frank Ghery's Star Hotel. "Cosas de JA: Hotel Marqués de Riscal." Cosas de JA. http://www.cosasdeja. com/2010/12/hotel-marques-de-riscal.html (accessed May 6, 2012). Antoni Gaudi's "hanging chain" model. Otto, 122 Microscopic view of bone. Otto, F., Herzog, T., and Schneider, M., Der umgekehrte weg : Frei Otto zum 65. geburtstag, R. Muller, Kln, 1990. Close-up image of spongy bone from the human femur. Photo credit: Klaus Bach, IL-archive. Nosebone of a saddle storck preparation: Paul Bhler, University of Hohenheim. Source: Otto F et al. (1995). IL 35. Information of the Institute of Lightweight Structures (IL), Pneu and Bone. University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, p. 243 Carpal Skin. Oxman, Neri . "Carpal Skin." Neri Oxman. web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/index.html (accessed February 24, 2012). Stalasso. Oxman, Neri . "Stalasso." Neri Oxman. web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/index.html (accessed February 24, 2012). vii
Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Figure 44 Figure 45 Figure 46 Figure 47 Figure 48 Figure 49 viii
Method of stress distribution in sail construction. Reproduced from Conrad, Peter G. "Method of Stress Distribution in a Sail and Sail Construction." SobStad Sailmakers, Inc., assignee. Patent 4593639. 10 June 1986 Schmidt, David. "The Future of Grand Prix Racing Sails | Sail Magazine." Sail Magazine. http://www. sailmagazine.com/inshore-racing/future-grand-prix-racing-sails (accessed May 6, 2012) Fiber paths are laid according to load paths. Elliott / Pattison Sailmakers Custom Sails. http://www.epsails. com/Sailmaking_2010.htm (accessed May 6, 2012). Detail of overlapping fibers. "Carbon Nanotube." whatwow . http://whatwow.org/carbon-nanotube/ (accessed May 6, 2012) By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. Downtown Atlanta. "What Now Atlanta." http://whatnowatlanta.com/2011/07/18/community-meetinglaunches-i-7585-downtown-connector-beautification-project/ (accessed May 18, 2012). By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. Evolution of typology. "Skyscraper - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper (accessed May 18, 2012). Form as an animated assembly. Bratton, B. (n.d.). IAAC / Digital Technologies in Architecture / 2007: Recombinant Architecture. IAAC / Digital Technologies in Architecture / 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2012, from http:// iaac-digitalarchitecture.blogspot.com/2007/12/recombinant-architecture.html Goat Farm Arts Center. Mullins, Andrew. "The Goat Farm- Atlanta." Andrew Mullins. http://www.andrewwmullins.com/the-goat-farm-atlanta/ (accessed May 5, 2012) Goat Farm Arts Center. Mullins, Andrew By author.
Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure 54 Figure 56 Figure 57 Figure 58 Figure 59 Figure 60 Figure 61 Figure 62 -
By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author. By author.
ix
Figure 1 (right): Fluting patterns. From Pye, David. “The Nature and Art of Workmanship” (2nd ed. München: Herbert, 1995), p. 8
INTRODUCTION
1
01
DISCONNECT IN PRODUCTION
A clear distinction is now evident in most architectural practice today between processes of design generation and processes of design production. A separation was created in the conception of material knowledge, structure, and form due to this distinct divide, which was propelled by standardization and the division of labor. Modernist design theory contributed to standardization of building practices because of strict geometric prioritization and regulation. The focus was more on the number of products that could be distributed to consumers, which led manufacturers to operate in mass quantities so that their products could be competitive on the market. Henry Ford’s model
Figure 2: Models of mass production in automotive industry on the left are still synonymous with current practices in the building industry today. From Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. “Refabricating Architecture” (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.) 2
ARCHITECT
PRODUCT ENGINEER
MATERIALS SCIENTISTF
TFABRICATOR
MASTER BUILDER [ CRAFT ]
Figure 3: Diagram of information exchange among disciplines. Craft unifies areas of each discipline under the control of the “master builder.” Illustration by author. 3
of the “assembly line” became a catalyst for a
work?”3
new paradigm in production, replacing skilled
artifact? Such questions carry implications of
craftsmen with workers doing repetitive tasks
methodology and application in design and
to improve efficiency as measured by output,
their connection between the artifact and
termed the division of labor.1
The same
How is the process evident in the
its context.
Inherent within each of these
model is still evident in the building industry
questions is idea of craftsmanship, or more
today with architects, engineers, contractors,
appropriately “craft.” It speaks to the way that
subcontractors, consultants, etc… all working in
we build and processes involved in production.
a hierarchical structure. The early part of the digital revolution marked a shift from analog
The use of craft as a process can best
to digital technology making the translation of
be described by the terms techné and fabricate.
information more streamlined and automated
The term techné (Greek for craft) is defined as
for designers.
The effects however further
the rational method involved in the producing
broadened the gap between form and matter
of an object. Fabricate defines a more holistic
and made the hierarchical and sequential
sense of craft and process. The etymology of
separation of modeling, analysis and fabrication
fabricate helps to better explain its significance
processes
- “fabric” and “ate.” The term fabric is defined
infinitely
more
pronounced.2
in the following ways: 1. underlying structure; The emergence of sophisticated new
framework. 2. an act of construction; erection.
digital fabrication tools and technologies affords
3. the arrangement of physical components in
new ways of design generation and production
relation to each other. The suffix “-ate” in this
resulting in novel customized solutions. This
instance describes its use as “the product of a
shift in production now addresses the method
process.” Its origin suggests a deeply connected
of making and its impact on architecture posing
relationship to craft (the process) and the
the question “What is the relation between the
maker and maintains that position today.
way in which things are made and how they 1 Sennett, Richard. The Craftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. p. 209 2 Oxman, Neri. “Material-based Design Computation.” Diss. MIT, 2010. p. 28
4
3 Oxman, Neri. “Digital Craft: Fabrication-based Design in the Age of Digital Production.” MIT, 2008. p. 5
Figure 4: Diagram illustrating cyclical process of digital and analog craft; combining imagination and technique. Illustration by author. 5
02 Ideas of craft have evolved from initial doctrines instituted by John Ruskin in 1850 who believed that there is happiness and pleasure in man’s labor and is evident through his craftsmanship. Ruskin’s ideology embodies a morality with handcraft and challenged and highly regulated workmanship the use of machines as an aid in the crafting process saying, “Men were not intended to work with the accuracy of tools, to be precise and perfect in all their actions.” But Ruskin was not a craftsman.
He was
responding to the spirit of one who perceives the expression of labor in man’s work. He was responding to the pleasure in man’s work.
Figure 5: Risk of failure must be present through the process of making. Illustration by author. Figure 6 (right page): Cringe of a sail. Pye, 46. 6
FRAMING CRAFT
7
In his book The Nature and Art of
Workmanship,
David
Pye
399ºF
advocates
for the survival of craft with his theory of workmanship predicated on the distinction between the “workmanship of certainty” and the “workmanship of risk”.4
He suggests that
classifying between man and machine-work is meaningless. The measure is in the level of risk. The “workmanship of risk” maintains constant risk in the process of making whereas the “workmanship of certainty” is an automated process where the result is predetermined before
a
single
salable
thing
is
made.
DIVERSITY There is a truth to material; a quality that we seek to bring out. We see design in terms of its formal elements - its visible characteristics, distinguishing marks, and qualities. Through workmanship and knowledge of substance the designer in a threshold of material emergence. 4 Pye, p. 20
639ºF
Figure 7: Tempered steel. Various colors indicate temperature and hardness. From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempering_colors_in_steel.jpg 8
As the author of material emergence we seek to distill certain qualities of its making. Much like a blacksmith is cognisant of an alloys color in the tempering process in order to determine its desired hardness (see figure 6), architects as material scientists must be able to measure and gauge material qualities and techniques to determine in what way emergence takes place in the process of its becoming. Outward symptoms, or signifiers, latent in processes of material emergence become a guide for material unfoldings.
Certain tools allow the control
of these unfoldings as a means of regulation. The effectiveness and beauty is often missed if repetition or consistency in qualities becomes too regulated. Diversifying such qualities by allowing incidental and irregular manifestations to occur presents fresh and unexpected moments in a form. It is a tangible signifier of the relationship between author and artifact.
Figure 8: Organization and perception of formal elements are altered, creating diversity. From Reiser, Jesse, and Nanako Umemoto. Atlas of Novel Tectonics.(New York: Princeton Architectural, 2006). 9
INTUITION
SIM UL AT ED CR AF
AT SIMUL IONS
DA
TM
OV
EM
TE
CH
LTIP LE F
ORC E
NIQ
S IN
UE
T EX
ENT
OF M U
NT CO
RICA TION
IVE CT TIME
ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL STRUCTURING
Y
EROGENEIT MATERIAL HET
IC
DM RO AN
MAC
ER RO MAT
ANIZAT
IAL ORG
ION
IAL
Y ERIT DEX T ENT DGM
ITY ERS DIV
E -JU C AR
EE
subjective
element involved in the crafting
EQ UIV O
GR
a
ISK FR
DE
element,
WO RK M A NS HIP O
There is a qualitative
CA LIT Y-
OF
INTUITION
MA TE R
FA ILU
RE
AS IGN IFIE R
S
ENTIALITY RIAL POT MATE
PUTER
AN
- IMB
process that separates a normal worker from an artisan using the same tools. This element is known as intuition. What is the role of intuition in craft, or our imagination? In his book The Craftsman, Richard Sennett suggests that there is a link between the known and unknown resulting in the “sublime,” which he calls “The Intuitive Leap”.5
“The Intuitive
Leap” refers to a stumbling on the unexpected 5 Sennett, p. 209 10
TY
F COM
E OP EL
TRA C
UNCERTAIN
OR O BEHAVI
NV
GY
ABS
INTELLECTUAL MATERIAL
NEAR
LO
E EN
VS
E TW BE
HN O
ON OPERATING
NON-LI
N TIO RA BO
VIR TUA L ECT ION
LLA
TE C
INFL
CO
T
Figure 9: Diagram showing key ideas contributing to discourse of digital craft. Illustration by author.
“The truth is that what we want to do is, not to express the properties of materials, but to express their qualities. The qualities are subjective: they are in our heads. They are ideas of ours.” - David Pye FABRICATION-BASED DESIGN OPEN-ENDED METHODOLOGY
DIGITAL CRAFT
MATERIAL [informed] ORGANIZATIONS
ARTIFACT
EVIDENCE OF PROCESS DIVERSITY
or the unforeseen.
It is where imagination
principles and computational tools guide and
He posits that for a craftsman,
organize “intellectual material” that can be
specific practice prepares the ground on which
manufactured through computer numerically
people might stumble - “Intuition begins with
controlled
the sense that what isn’t yet could be." It is
prototyping. The craftsman serves as a filter
a superior kind of pattern organization that
throughout the process, connecting non-linear
a maker is able to operationalize. In general,
elements and behavior of various systems
craftsmanship may be interpreted as a
to allow unique manifestations to take place.
happens.
(CNC)
machines
and
rapid
guiding instruction set combining knowledge “Digital Craft” reintegrates modeling,
and application with material and tools. With a conventional understanding of the
analysis,
role of craft and making in architecture,
constructs on the front-end of the design, giving
craft can now be framed in the digital age
the architect more control and understanding
by combining processes of imagination with
of the building throughout the entire building
processes of technique.
process.
Generative design
and
fabrication
of
architectural
The terms digital craft and analog
11
craft imply a cyclical process where one feeds off the other. They suggest that certain skills acquired
through
fabrication
and
digital
design can contribute to fabrication-based design methodologies.
Elements of digital
craft and analog craft are further explored in the following chapters to understand their significance
in
fabrication-based
design.
Figure 10 (right): Illustration by author. 12
01101001011010010110101001010 11000011101010101010010110101 10101010010010101011010100010 11011010101011011000101010111 0101010101101010101010101001 0101010111010111010101000010 1000100011010101010100101010 0101010101010010111011010010 1101001011010100101011000011 1010101010100101101011010101 0010010101011010100010110110 1010101101100010101011101010 1010110101010101010100101010 1011101011101010100001010001 0001101010101010010101001010 1010101001011010010110100101 1010100101011000011101010101 0100101101011010101001001010 1011010100010110110101010110 1100010101011101010101011010 13
DIGITAL CRAFT: FABRICATION-BASED DESIGN
03 Digital
software
has
been
SIMULATION: THE DIGITAL ASSISTANT
used
traditionally as an advanced drafting board, and until recently has yet to fully take advantage of its capabilities as a design tool.
This paper
poses the idea that our current building practices are limited to rigid materials due to standardized practices in manufacturing which has influenced the way buildings are designed - constrained to orthogonal planes and lines. We are able utilize new organizational, material, and structural systems that have the added benefit of optimizing building performance.
Figure 11: Varying degree splines where curvature and inflection are determined by positions of points and weights along the motion flow of the spline. From Lynn, Greg. “Animate Form� (New York: Princeton Architectural, 1999), 24-25
Greg Lynn is the first theorist to critically analyze the computer as a design tool REPULSION
ATTRACTION
Figure 12: Hierarchy of form generation. Illustration by author. 15
and prescribe a set of guiding principles. Time,
and crude results, lacking a certain finesse
Topology, and Parameters are fundamental
that is latent in the material properties. By
principles that govern form morphology in
using simulation as a technique, we are able
the digital environment. He exclaims that the
to evaluate the performance and behavior
computer is an unintelligent mechanism that
of material and structural systems in real
simply connects multiple variables with no
time. In the words of Pye, technology is the
intuitive reasoning. Its capabilities are limited
scientific study and extension of technique.7
only by our imagination. The computer is not
As such, the information manipulated in
a brain (Lynn), meaning our ability to evaluate
the virtual environment in the form of
non-linear
points, lines, and vectors may be considered
6
behavior,
pattern
recognition,
and reasoning capabilities are far superior.
“intellectual material.”
The term “form follows software” has been
acting as a tool that is implemented at certain
recently coined to describe forms generated
stages, it is regarded as an assistant in the
using complex digital tools, insinuating our
context of digital craft. The digital or virtual
lack of control over form morphology and
environment contributes to a reactionary
the relative ease in which it can be created
design methodology and should be regarded
in programs such as Maya.
as an active player in the design process.
One must
Instead of simulation
exercise control over digital design tools Simulation is the potential for a digital
and software using one’s intuitive reasoning.
construct to become actualized. It is a move away to
from abstract processes of making to a closer
describe real qualities and conditions that
relationship between the architect and artifact.
Simulation
is
a
term
used
can be abstracted and modeled in the digital environment based on mathematical principles,
The diagram presented to the right
giving the designer an understanding of
is an image of Frei Otto’s popular wool thread
material behavior against certain forces. Often
test. In his experiment, he sets up a network of
times we find that modeling conditions like
wool threads that connect directly from points
Gaudi’s “hanging chain model” or modeling
A to B. He allows an 8% slack in the threads to
flexible materials in a system yields inaccurate
allow movement differential in the system. The
6 Lynn, Greg. Animate Form. New York: Princeton Architectural, 1999. p. 25 16
threads are then lowered into water causing 7 Pye, p. 51
them to draw towards one another and attach
Frei Otto’s experiment is understood as an
to themselves. This reaction occurs because
optimized path system, meaning that paths
of the natural starches in the wool strings and
will bundle and merge depending on its
the extra slack in the system. An emergent
proximity and attraction to its neighbors.
grouping and behavior occurs as a result of
represents the synthesis of structural capacity
material behavior reacting to a predefined
and material organization in analog form.
organization while being influenced by physical
Power
forces.
laws
of
attraction
and
It
unary
If we are able to understand and
(gravitational) forces are examples of forces
harness the simulation of such forces, we can
that can be applied to a digital environment
move towards more innovative formal solutions
to optimize load paths in a structural system.
that contain the memory of said forces. The
The aim of this thesis is to control the
digital capabilities of this process increase the
behavior of the digital environment and use it as
generative nature of design tremendously
an aid in the way it helps to shape form, not just
while allowing us to simultaneously test other
as a tool, but as an assistant. The benefit of being
unique
able to control such behavior is to potentially
scenarios
in
different
conditions.
Figure 13: Wool thread optimized path system. From Otto, Frei, Sabine Schanz, and Bodo Rasch. Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch. “Finding Form : Toward an Architecture of the Minimal� (Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges, 1995), 69. 17
18
Relaxed geometry
Simulated forces
Constraints
Initial geometry
Figure 14: Relaxed mesh diagram showing topological changes based on constraints. Illustration by author.
minimize surface area of topologies and optimize material and structural performance. Mesh relaxation is a technique shown below that follows the material logic of fabric structures. Surface tension is introduced on a surface or geometry causing it to “shrink” wherever it is not constrained. Curves that comprise a mesh attempt to reach a zerolength position, resulting in a minimal surface condition. The designer chooses the initial constraints of this technique involving the selection of anchor points where the initial geometry remains stationary, mesh curves where tension is to be introduced, and “ridge cables” where more stiffness can be Figure 15 (left): Grasshopper script using Kangaroo physics engine showing organization of data. Illustration by author.
introduced where desired. This technique is one example utilized in the digital craft process.
Figure 16 (bottom) Relaxed mesh diagram in plan showing topological changes based on constraints. Illustration by author.
19
20
04 Material
potentiality
is
used
MATERIAL POTENTIALITY: A MATERIALS-FIRST APPROACH
to
describe the relationship between matter and form. There exists a disconnect between the
generative
model
and
its
physical
manifestation which must account for a certain material logic.
How is material a factor in
the design process? How can its qualities be attributed and quantified in a way to inform both the design and production processes? These questions are inherent in craft itself suggesting a materials-first design approach. Some
architects
consider
the
inclusion of material as an application to form, acting as a “wrapper� in a sense. Examples of
Figure 17 (left) Minimal surface experiments. Otto, 122. 21
this design practice are evident in Frank Ghery’s work where form is conceived by folding and tearing pieces of paper to represent form and space and later assigning a cladding system. Systems are often post-rationalized in terms of material such as building openings and apertures resulting in awkward and unresolved details and connections.
This is referred to
as a top-down approach, which follows a form-structure-material sequence that has dominated the profession for centuries. This design approach can become highly abstracted and remains subjective based on the designers preferences.
It also puts the design in a
position where performative analysis takes place after the design process, leaving much of the considerations to the structural engineer or fabricator. Craft, on the other hand, inherently takes into consideration material knowledge and construction processes. How can evaluation processes and material behavior inform the design process?
New fields of research in
areas of form-finding, pioneered by Frei Otto at the Institute for Lightweight Structures, are re-emerging that examine naturally occurring processes and material behavior to extract new formation processes in the pre-digital era. Processes in biology, specifically in cellular formations and morphologies have become relevant to architectural research in areas of optimization of structural systems and new 22
Figure 18 (above): Frank Ghery's Star Hotel. "Cosas de JA: Hotel MarquĂŠs de Riscal." Cosas de JA. http:// www.cosasdeja.com/2010/12/hotel-marques-deriscal.html (accessed May 6, 2012). Figure 19 (right) : Antoni Gaudi's "hanging chain" model finds equilibrium between material, force, and structure. Otto, 122
synthetic material systems. Biomimicry is one example where natural structures and materials are mimicked for their sustainable qualities. To explore the relationships that lay between material composition, structure, and form, Neri Oxman presents a method of digital craft known as Material-based Design Computation.8 This design approach positions itself among fields of material science, biology, and engineering.
Concepts of Nature’s way
are presented to offer examples of sustainable approaches to design that have existed for millions of years.
Nature is a master
craftsman , organizing material and structure to fit very specific functions. Diversity in form is embedded through evolutionary processes. In her paper, “Structuring Materiality: Design
Fabrication
Materials,” concepts
Oxman derived
Nature’s Way:
of
Heterogeneous
presents from
her
two
major
analysis
of
Material Heterogeneity and
Material Anisotropy9, directional dependence, illuminating materials.
the
structuring
of
natural
Nature uses these principles to
negotiate a multitude of complex forces and 8 Oxman, Neri. “Material-based Design Computation.” Diss. MIT, 2010. p. 100 9 Oxman, Neri. "Structuring Materiality: Design Fabrication of Heterogeneous Materials." MIT, 2010. p.80 23
24
reactions such as load distribution, food absorption,
heat
transmission,
moisture
control, etc... The human bone for example has the ability to alter its composition based on altering mechanical loads, demonstrating nature’s ability to locally optimize its shape and composition based on external requirements, densifying where it is needed and hollowing where it is not. Wood is another example that exhibits anisotropic behavior whose structural properties vary widely when measured in different orientations, allowing it to effectively resist tremendous loads and distribute water simultaneously.
Nature teaches us systems
have the ability to integrate multiple functions, not as discrete elements, but heterogeneously. "Nature's Way" presents a materialsfirst approach teaching us unique ways in which function and form coexist and the ways the shaping process occurs. Materialsfirst approach to design seeks to learn from material properties, behavior, organization, etcetera. Digital Craft offers us a way to
Figure 20 (above): Microscopic view of bone (above). Diagram of stress lines acting within the bone structure determines how material is allocated. From Otto, F., Herzog, T., and Schneider, M., Der umgekehrte weg : Frei Otto zum 65. geburtstag, R. M6ller, Kln, 1990. Figure 21 (left): Close-up image of spongy bone from the human femur. Photo credit: Klaus Bach, IL-archive. Nosebone of a saddle storck preparation: Paul Bhler, University of Hohenheim. Source: Otto F et al. (1995). IL 35. Information of the Institute of Lightweight Structures (IL), Pneu and Bone. University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, p. 243 25
Figure 22: Carpal Skin is a process by which to map the pain-profile of a particular patient and to distribute hard and soft materials to fit the patient’s anatomical and physiological requirements. Oxman, Neri . "Carpal Skin." Neri Oxman. web.media.mit.edu/~Neri/site/index.html (accessed February 24, 2012).
26
operationalize such behavior and performance using computational tools and fitting those with unique fabrication techniques. By doing so we can move towards understanding new protocols in execution of knowledge and production of material systems which can help shift future manufacturing processes in the building industry. By considering the physical composition of the building as artifact in the process of digital craft we begin to move away from a semiotic relationship with architecture (what it means) and towards an operative relationship, asking “What is the relationship between how it is made and how it operates?� How can material properties and behaviors be operationalized to fit into the context of digital design and craft? How can we benefit from directionally dependent properties in materials and structure in an architectural context, not just in the form of an object? We can first learn from other industries who have made advances in technology and construction beyond the building industry; namely the ship-building
and
sail-making
industries.
Figure 23: Stalasso mimics mineralization processes for design purposes. This enables construction based on performance requirements. Oxman, Neri . "Stalasso." Neri Oxman. web.media.mit.edu/~Neri/ site/index.html (accessed February 24, 2012)
27
05 With
material
and unique patterns all responding to different
technologies,
functions. The result is an almost sheet-metal
we have been able to realize new types of
like cloth with minimal stretch in each direction.10
knowledge
advancements and
emerging
in
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
materials with characteristics and benefits Composite
that far exceed most that are commonly used in practice today.
Composite materials are
material
construction
contributes to the practice of digital craft by
in
allowing the designer to organize material and
compositional heterogeneity and anisotropy.
structural behavior according to contextual
Discrete materials with particular strengths can
and user-defined constraints. Every natural-
be combined to fit a specific purpose through
made material at either the macro or micro
the combination of discrete elements into a
level is composed of fibers - as seen in
unified element. Laminate sail construction is
human bones, trees, and even egg shells.
a technique of building a composite material
Laminate
system where layers of discrete materials are
solution of attaining material heterogeneity,
essentially glued, layered, and combined in a
lending
beginning to simulate nature's practices
sail to
constructions
unique
offers
customized
one
solutions.
vacuum bag. It is a sandwich technique that first starts with a film of Mylar. Glue is applied, after which high modulus fibers of varying lengths and types are laid in specific patterns followed by more adhesive and another layer of film. Fiber patterns are generated based on projected load paths calculated by the sail’s designer. Multiple layers of fibers follow specific 28
10 Schmidt, David. "The Future of Grand Prix Racing Sails | Sail Magazine." Sail Magazine. http://www.sailmagazine.com/inshoreracing/future-grand-prix-racing-sails (accessed May 6, 2012)
PANEL 6
PANEL 5
PANEL 4
PANEL 3
PANEL 2
PANEL 1
Figure 24: Method of stress distribution in sail construction. Reproduced from Conrad, Peter G. "Method of Stress Distribution in a Sail and Sail Construction." SobStad Sailmakers, Inc., assignee. Patent 4593639. 10 June 1986 29
30
Figure 25: Synthetic fibers are vacuum-bagged and heat laminated. Schmidt, "The Future of Grand Prix Racing Sails"
Figure 26: Fiber paths are laid according to load paths. Elliott / Pattison Sailmakers Custom Sails. http://www.epsails.com/ Sailmaking_2010.htm (accessed May 6, 2012).
Figure 27: Detail of overlapping fibers. "Carbon Nanotube." whatwow . http://whatwow.org/carbon-nanotube/ (accessed May 6, 2012) 31
06 The projects presented in this section are studies conducted in relation to digitallyassisted production methods.
The practice
of machining artifacts follows the idea of embedding
memory
of
fabrication
and
design processes into the built artifact. The first project shown is a study in the creation of
material
qualities,
organization,
and
performative criteria that learns from naturally occurring systems, called the "Coralight Wall". In this case, brain coral became the focus of study. Brain coral contain a simplicity in their form, but has intricate and complex characteristics in their surface to meet various functional needs. Its grooves and hard shell
Figure 28 (right): Detail of Coralight Wall showing surface diversity. Original image. 32
Impressions of the Tool
33
shelter algae from which it absorbs food and provides resistance against heavy forces such as hurricanes. This project seeks mimic "collection" behaviors across its surface by densifying and scaling formal elements on its surface in collection groups that can potentially store water or house various types of plant life.
Machining effects help to induce the
matriculation of water, channeling it to desired areas.
Larger cells on the surface rotate
and orient themselves to collect sunlight. The construction of the Coralight Wall is consisted of laminated baltic birch plywood. Surface depth becomes apparent as each new layer of ply is exposed, developing emergent material processes
behavior
from
and
material
manufacturing composition.
Figure 29: Details of machining effects and diversity realized through digital craft protocols. Original image. Figure 30 (right page): Overall composition of form. Original image. 34
35
The following process describes a generative process resulting in a constructed artifact. Techniques in digital clustering and variation induced by attraction and repulsion forces are primary organizational principles. Lamination and
tooling
processes
produce
material
artifacts that range in behavior. Irregularities and diversity are built into the generative design process, anticipating unexpected qualities to emerge while still maintaining a level of control.
Figure 31: Diagram of generative design process controlled by surface manipulation and point distribution. Illustration by author. 36
roughing pattern
semi-finish pattern
rest-rough pattern
custom tool pattern
Figure 32: Diagram of procedural tooling processes that can be controlled through CNC technology. Illustration by author. 37
Fig 33: Different tooling depths allow varying amounts of light, exposing the inherent material properties 38
The following project is a "pink screen" partitioning system composed of standard rigid insulation. CNC machining processes are overlaid to create variation in depth and opacity to take advantage of the material's transmissive qualities. Daylight filters through the porous material according to the prescribed depths. Material
"pocketing"
and
"furrowing" strategies create unique formal elements
in
the
artifact's
simultaneously
correspond
requirements.
Common
surface to
that
daylighting
materials
such
as this are "upgraded," removing standard labels
with
customized
machine
effects.
Figure 34 (top right): Standard labels are removed by tooling, "upgrading" the material. Figure 35 (bottom right): Overall panel composition. 39
DESIGN GENERATION
EMERGENT BEHAVIOR SIMULATION forces
MATERIAL SELECTION
ATTRACTION
TENSILE MEMBRANES
REPULSION
THICKNESS
STIFFNESS UNARY FORCES
MESH CURVES
GEOMETRY
HIGHWAY CURVATURE ANCHOR POINTS GROUNDING CONDITIONS OPENINGS DESIRED PROGRAM
constraints
40
DESIGN PRODUCTION
ASSEMBLY LOGIC LAMINATION LAYERED COMPOSITE
EMERGENT BEHAVIOR
FABRIC FORMING WEAVING CABLE NET STRUCTURES SEWING LOAD DISTRIBUTION PATHS CURVATURE ANALYSIS
FABRICATION
PLANARITY
STRUCTURAL EVALUATION
Figure 36: Diagram of design generation and production processes as a non-linear system. Digital Craft combines elements through the design pipeline causing emergent behavior at different points along the way. Illustration by author. 41
AIMS and METHODOLOGIES
07
SITE RESEARCH
The aim of this design proposal is to bridge relations of scale and structure to accommodate different interactions between people, vehicles, and the neighboring buildings.
An urban
groundscraper will serve as a prototype for
mega-
infrastructural
architecture.
This project proposes a mega-typology that utilizes the overlooked interstate infrastructure as
a
way
of
bridging
connections
and
establishing a new built environment that has the potential to mitigate environmental problems such as noise and air pollution in it vicinity while engaging pedestrians and vehicles in new and unique ways.
Urban
Figure 37: Development patterns of Atlanta from 1970 to 2000. Illustration by author.
43
Figure 38: Downtown Atlanta. "What Now Atlanta." http:// whatnowatlanta.com/2011/07/18/community-meeting-launches-i-7585downtown-connector-beautification-project/ (accessed May 18, 2012). 44
“Atlanta is not a city, it is a landscape” - Rem Koolhaas
45
N
S
SITE ATLANTA, GA INTERSECTION OF I-75/ I-85 46
View from 17th street looking North
View from 17th street bridge looking South Figure 39: Site map and view corridors. Illustrations by author.
47
on the city's growth and directly contributing to the increase in congestion.
A common
and temporary solution to this problem has been to expand highway infrastructure, which in turn prompts new development along its proximity.
This pattern has contributed to
Atlanta's outward growth, lengthy commute times,
and
various
forms
of
pollution.
In Rem Koolhaas' analysis of Atlanta, he states that "Atlanta is not a city, it is a landscape." It has many downtown areas which become disparate areas of activity. The landscape itself is shaped by its interstates, encircling the city core and dissecting it with its major interstates.
SITE APPROACH MOVING SOUTHBOUND I-85
sprawl has continued to have an adverse effect
1
2
The condition of an urban fissure sets the design framework for a new urban fabric The site that is to contain the desired building is on the fringe of downtown Atlanta at the intersection of I-75 and I-85 at a convoluted and interconnected assemblage of highway infrastructure which consumes on average 30 minutes a day of a driver’s time.
The
3
perplexities of the automobile culture and its weight on our environment and our dwelling patterns become a primary driver, shaping the emergence of the proposed building. The urban groundscraper typology accepts this condition and attempts to mend the urban fracture caused by interstates I-75 and I-85. 48
4
2
SITE APPROACH MOVING NORTHBOUND I-75
1
It is not the intention of this project to completely answer issues pertaining to urban sprawl and congestion in the urban environment, as they are vastly complex and broad in scope. Instead, this project aims to narrow its focus on the ways in which we can begin to quantify problems, contextual relationships and forces presented in this chapter to begin to manifest new ways of organizing material, structure, and space through the mechanism of digital craft.
The conception of the groundscraper’s
form, program, and cultural relevance will be framed by this thesis to suggest a way of virtual and physical attributes contribute to digital craft as fabrication-based design methods.
3
4
Figure 40: Approach from North and South
49
National Highway System
50
Annual Carbon Emissions
The average daily driver in Atlanta spends on average
34 minutes in their vehicles
NASHVILLE
population annual congestion cost ($) travel delay annual excess fuel consumed (gal)
CHARLOTTE
population annual congestion cost ($) travel delay annual excess fuel consumed (gal)
COLUMBIA
population annual congestion cost ($) travel delay annual excess fuel consumed (gal)
ATLANTA
population annual congestion cost ($) travel delay annual excess fuel consumed (gal)
BIRMINGHAM
population annual congestion cost ($) travel delay: annual excess fuel consumed (gal)
1,129,000 556,000,000 26,475,000 6,971,000
1,052,000 378,000,000 17,730,000 5,228,000
486,000 181,000,000 8,515,000 2,723,000
4,304,000 2,489,000,000 115,958,000,000 53,021,000
859,000 326,000,000 15,832,000 5,639,000
Figure 41: Impacts of the automobile. Illustrations by author.
51
FIGURE/GROUND
Analysis of road networks combined with building elements makes primary datum lines more apparent.
52
A negative Figure/ Ground relationship helps to illustrate the city morphology. Organic growth where residential and commercial development coincide create a distinct crease in the city infrastructural fabric.
Figure 42: Figure/Ground Studies. Illustrations by author. 53
54
ACTIVITY CENTERS
PARKS AND RECREATION
TRANSIT
COMMUNITY CENTERS Figure 43: Site Analysis of activity and contributing forces. Illustrations by author. 55
INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIA COMMERCIAL COMMERCIA SINGLE FAMILY HOUSIN HOUSING RESIDENTIAL GENERAL PLANNED DEVELOPMEN DEVELOPMENT
Figure 44: Zoning diagram and circulation. Illustrations by author. 56
Urban activity is disrupted by highway infrastructure. Small gestures to link East and West sides of the interstate have been made in the form of pedestrian bridges, but are too small to have much of an impact at the current scale . By investigating the intersection of I-75/ I-85 as a prototype for infrastructural architecture, a connection between the
SN S N
industrial and commercial districts can be made. Opposing fabrics merge, introducing a new landscape that exposes and connects disparate movement systems. Performance spaces, hospitality, and retail fold in accordingly to help supplement and encourage urban activity.
57
08
BUILDING TYPOLOGY: PRECEDENTS
The skyscraper as a building model was first implemented in Chicago then in New York to respond to increasing urban density and property values. The design of this thesis will attempt to mitigate issues of road congestion, urban sprawl, and other negative impacts associated with those conditions by expanding the meaning of the skyscraper and its evolving role in society in the digital age. Skyscrapers are typically classified as having a skeletal structure from which walls are suspended and being of a certain height which changes the overall skyline. Technological advancements in iron and steel construction in the late 1800’s permitted buildings to reach new heights never before
Figure 45: Evolution of typology. "Skyscraper - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper (accessed May 18, 2012). 58
59
conceived due to the material’s self-sufficiency.
of porosity in tunnel walls will allow connected
Technology has still continued to
views to other movement systems within the
innovate into new materials and methods, but
spatial network. Tunnel walls and surfaces
for the most part are still dominated by a frame
also become a canvas for artists to design;
construction system. One question that must
to address the viewer in a form of elongated
be asked is “how does a moving automobile
stasis.
occupy
spatial parameters and desired experiential
and experience a tall building?�
The project proposes a new conceptional relationship
between
user,
vehicle,
and
building. When designing for automobiles, turn radii plays a vital role in planning, demanding a radical change in construction and spatial organization.
The
dynamics
between
movement and stasis are key relationships in
the
evolution
of
this
building
type.
One way of articulating the program is by categorizing a list of spatial experiences. This proposal is both a transitory structure and one of destination. Defining those moments and overlapping experiences is essential. Vehicles entering into the building must be slowed down to a speed to a point where they can participate in the experience. This can be accomplished through the use of sloped and spiral ramps.
Procession through space can
be influenced through daylighting strategies by controlling porosity in the form. Moments of compression and expansion elevate means of procession through the control of ceiling heights and openings though spaces. Levels 60
The criteria discussed will establish
conditions
sought
after
in
this
design.
Figure 46: Form as an animated assembly. Bratton, B. (n.d.). IAAC / Digital Technologies in Architecture / 2007: Recombinant Architecture. IAAC / Digital Technologies in Architecture / 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2012, from http://iaacdigitalarchitecture.blogspot.com/2007/12/recombinant-architecture.html 61
09
PROGRAM ANALYSIS
The Goat Farm is an artist community in Atlanta that provides unique experiential opportunities for visitors and residents.
It's
program consists of performance venues, gallery spaces, coffee shops, studio live/work spaces, and rentable studio spaces for artists. It is a grassroots community that is spirited in its commitment to the people of the city, providing a mechanism that supports the arts and supports cultural activity. It is a re-adapted cluster of warehouses located in Fulton County which offers local artists both live/work studio spaces as well as normal studio spaces that are both affordable and generate attention. The Goat Farm Arts Center positions
Figure 47: Goat Farm Arts Center. Mullins, Andrew. "The Goat Farm- Atlanta." Andrew Mullins. http://www.andrewwmullins.com/the-goat-farm-atlanta/ (accessed May 5, 2012). 62
63
itself as an open community for creative
architecture is the spirit perceived in man’s
exchanges to take place and for innovative
labor.
thought to be stimulated. Exhibition halls are
common intuition that is at the heart of craft.
not closed and conditioned buildings.
It is a search for the sublime or a
They
are rustic and tired walls with no windows and open roofs, where the only remnants are its A-frame structures.
Walls are canvases
for street art and the floors are compacted assemblages of sand and brick.
There is
an air of expressive and youthful mentality. This
organization
and
program
align well with this thesis not only for its social
and
cultural
relevance,
but
also
to relating the artists’ process with the architects’ process. The link between art and
64
Figure 48: Goat Farm Arts Center. Mullin, Andrews.
65
10 Craft
is
defined
as
a
process
combining knowledge and application with matter and tools. It is a guiding instruction set, an operational framework. Risk and intuition are constantly at work in the maker’s hands and imagination allowing him to link unrelated and otherwise unrecognizable entities, leading him into a process of discovery. Digital craft operates according to the same criteria while taking into account new forms of risk that result from emerging tools and methods. When considering its application and context, it becomes a periodic manifestation in the process of making, in which the artifact retains evidence of its becoming.
66
In this
DESIGN PROCESS AND OUTCOMES
Figure 49: Optimized form digital study. Illustration by author. 67
respect, the tool, technology, or technique
DIGITAL SEWING
carries as much importance as the artifact itself.
laminating
Digital sewing is explored in a broad context
techniques help develop a framework for
Sewing,
weaving,
and
as first an organizational tool for structure,
digital craft to emerge in this project.
on
space, and material. Sewing patterns establish
are considered to understand their influence
constraints where material is to be fixed using
over material and the overall impact on form.
linear and button stitches. Locations are defined
ORGANIZATIONAL DIAGRAM
68
DIGITAL SEWING Figure 50: Digital sewing technique instruction set. Illustration by author. where loads meet the ground, automatically
for organizing various relationships. It begins
generating a corresponding diagram that
to tie relationships of fabrication with material
associates conditions of space with distance
heterogeneity by organizing material densities
and
elements.
near structural conditions and circulation paths.
Seams are then selectively reduced to allow
A flexible sheet material and plastic medium
varying behaviors in the system to emerge. The
are used in the production of this exercise
resulting diagram is a conceptual instruction set
to demonstrate the negotiations between
density
of
corresponding
69
Figure 51 (top): Simulation of material affects. Figure 52 (left): Physical study model using digital sewing technique. Figure 53 (right): Speculative model to scale on site.
70
71
vehicular movement systems
crude mesh generated form network
selective filtering of mesh faces
Selectiv e filterin
Detail types: desired conditions
g
2 Figure 54: Generative form-finding methods in minimal surfaces. Constraints are defined in surface construction for varying results as form attempts to reach a minimal surface condition. Illustrations by author. 72
relaxed mesh form resulting from forces
1
3
structure and material as a form-finding
governing the direction of vectors and points.
model. The study model illustrates a minimal
Instead of creating form, we now develop
surface
sets of relationships.
condition
induced
by
internal
By combining sets of
As material
internal forces as a series of constraints and
expands and contracts, it attempts to find
subjecting them to pre-defined simulations
a moment of equilibrium. This logic follows
we essentially set up a framework for the
Frei Otto's "optimized path system" where
"Intuitive Leap" to occur. It is an open-ended
he describes paths will converge based on
system that allows moments of discovery.
pressure and external forces.
attraction
of nearby elements.
Minimal
surfaces are a result of forces attempting to reach equilibrium in some form of matter. Digital
craft
seeks
to
synthesize
properties of architectural form as a multi-faceted system capable of amalgamating performative traits with qualities of space and experience. Through physical modeling of plaster and flexible fabric, a behavior of material and structure becomes apparent that can be simulated in the digital environment. Mesh
relaxation
simulation
of
fabric
experiments
(digital
structures)
continue
the logic of previous studies and become the foundation for further digital studies in form-finding for an urban groundscraper. Computationally-driven
techniques
require knowledge of parametric tools and other assisting programs. Form is no longer a linear development, but is a network of rules 73
Figure 55: Form-finding procedural diagram. Illustration by author. 74
Form finding process developed in this thesis
structural requirements, creating the operative
project follows a pattern illustrated in the figure
mesh primitive. The form is then subjected to
above. Initial mesh primitives are constructed
exterior forces defined in this thesis through
according to site constraints relating to
simulation, creating a relaxed and optimized
movement.
structure.
alternative
Vehicular
transportation,
The resulting
geometry serves
transportation, and pedestrian
as a base form that will be further refined
circulation comprise the movement systems
through analytical procedures to address
that help dictate material organization. Meshes
various
take shape according to spatial and program
criteria. These reductive processes continue
requirements
to filter material and structure producing
consisting
of
office,
retail,
performance, restaurant, vehicular, and other
a
form
performative
that
is
and
formed
by
experiential
its
context
supporting spaces. Combined with these are 75
February
March
July
August
September
Figure 56: Solar studies for each month
Figure 57: Solar diagram
76
SOLAR IRRADIATION ANALYSIS
January
SOLAR IRRADIATION ANALYSIS
April
May
June
October
November
December
Figure 58: Aggregation of material based on solar requirements 77
Figure 59: Grasshopper definition of parametric module
5
1d
2d 3d 4d
5d
4
3
2
1
z
x Figure 60: Parameters control size of opening for each cell. Corners of each module remain constrained. 78
Figure ?: Family of cells used to aggregate surface based on solar analysis.
Figure 61: Material reduction of surface based on solar irradiation criteria. Variable output is accomplished through parametric manipulation. 79
80
Figure 62: Study of form on site. Branches reach out to integrate various movement systems and supporting exisiting activity on site. 81
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