Angels and Madonnas in Islam. Mughal and other Oriental Miniatures in the Vollmer Collection

ANGELS AND MADONNAS IN ISLAM Mughal and other Oriental Miniatures in the Vollmer Collection

Foreword Right from the beginning I would like to caution the readers of this catalogue: I am not an art historian, not even a lay one. I have developed an interest in Indian painting while living in India in the sixties and seventies of the last century. My interests were without focus: A folk painting here, a Rajput miniature there, oc­ casionally – while in Europe – a Pahari painting in an auction.

It was only after my retirement that I found time and energy to concentrate on a particular core theme. Based on my experiences in international cooperation I felt I should focus on something in­ tercultural. The topic of “Christian Themes in Mughal Painting” was surfacing gradually. I somehow felt easiness to look at Ma­ donnas, Angels, portraits of Saints, because they were part of my own cultural and religious heritage. I did not have to battle with Hindu iconography and the intricacies of Indian epics. Very of­ ten I simply had to open the Bible in order to identify a scene.

However, the more I got involved into collecting, the more I was in need of advice and consultancy. Anna Dallapiccola, B.N. Goswamy, Eberhard Fischer and Milo C. Beach became my mentors and in the course of the years my friends. The biggest contribution to the scientific description of my collection was made by Friederike Weis. Being a specialist on European influences in Mughal painting, she took up the workload to catalogue 34 miniatures of my collection. By April 2011 she had accomplished a private catalogue on my behalf which was and is a valuable refe­rence work for me. This private catalogue will be referred to as “Weis, Friederike, 2011” in the following entries, whenever applicable.

This catalogue was originally published in connection with the exhibition “Christus in Indien” at the Museum Rietberg, Zurich, 2014/15. In the meantime a number of paintings have been in oth­ er exhibitions, in the Islamic Museum of the Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin, in the Kupferstichkabinett of the Staatli­ che Kunstsammlungen Dresden, in the Kupferstichkabinett of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, and, in 2018, in a major exhibition in the Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg. I owe gratitude to the cura­ tors of these exhibitions, since I have learned a lot from them.

My cordial thanks also go to two family members: My wife Birgit, who typed the catalogue texts and did all the proof reading, and to our son Jörg who shouldered all the editorial issues connec­ ted with the printing and the publication of the catalogue.

My own interests continue to circle around the paintings: How did European paintings/etchings/prints travel to India and Persia? Why and how did they find acceptance with the Mughal and the Safavid nobility? What made Indian paint­ ers and their patrons pick up European/Christian themes?

Peaceful intercultural and interreligious encounters are a never ending process, in the 16th and 17th centuries as well as today.

F.-J. V. 3

Christian Themes in Mughal Painting

I. The Mughals and the Christians When Babur – the first of the Great Mughals – won the battle of Panipat in 1526, the Portuguese had already established a few terri­ torial footholds on the South-Western coast of India. However, it is quite likely that Babur and the Portuguese did not know of each other.

It took two generations before the Mughals and the Portuguese met.

In 1573 Babur’s grandson Akbar entered the port city of Surat with his army in order to get access to the Gujarat coast. The Portuguese had sailed up from Goa to defend Surat. But, it seems, there was not much of a battle. Instead, the meeting was rather cautious and polite. The Portuguese presented Akbar with a few of their mirabili­ ties, and Akbar made enquiries about these wonders of the West.

A further meeting took place in Agra in 1577. A Portuguese com­ mander had come up from Satgaon to negotiate commercial affairs with the Mughal court. This commander was accompanied by a Jesuit priest. Akbar, again, showed interest in the manners and customs of the Christians and in their beliefs. The visiting Jesuit obvious­ ly did not feel competent enough to teach theology to the Emperor and suggested to contact his Superior in Goa. Akbar followed this advice in a perfect manner: He dispatched an ambassador to Goa with a firman (royal letter) to request the Portuguese Viceroy and the Jesuit Superior to send some learned priests to his court.

So, the first Jesuit Mission, consisting of three Fathers, arrived in Fatehpur Sikri in 1580. They were very well received. Akbar not only installed the Mission within the Imperial Palace compound, but met the Fathers frequently and enjoyed discussing with them.

The Jesuits brought several presents, among them two which turned out to be of great importance: One of them was a copy of the famous icon of the Madonna Salus Populi Romani. It was re­ ceived by Akbar with great esteem. He came several times to the chapel of the Jesuits, where the painting was placed on the altar.

He not only demonstrated great respect but ordered his paint­ ers to copy the icon. This was probably the beginning of an ex­ tended series of copies and adaptations to come (see No. 25).

The other present was an illustrated bible in four languages, the Biblia Sacra, printed 1568–1572 by Plantin in Antwerp. The fronti­ spiece of this bible showed a Pietas Concordiae, where all the animals are peacefully assembled. The frontispiece carried a dedi­ cation to Philipp II of Spain. Akbar was impressed: The most holy book of the Christians was dedicated to their Ruler.

The favourable reception of the Christian pictures became known among the European merchants dealing with Indian trading partners.

Art soon became part of the ongoing Indo-European trade. The main export good from India was pepper. Other export spices were cinna­ mon, nutmeg, cloves, kurkuma, cardamom and ginger. Europe had 5

very few goods to export which would have been in demand in Mughal India. So it became a standard practice to pay for the Indian spices by bullion, i.e. gold and silver. These precious metals originally came from Central and South America, i.e. from the Spanish and Portuguese colonies which were conquered after 1492. The trade route from the Americas via Portugal/Spain to India was indeed an early form of globalisation.

Unfortunately we do not possess – till now – adequate information about the volume of the art trade that went along with the bullion trade.

But it is quite certain that from 1600 onwards – the date of the estab­ lishment of the (Dutch) Vereenigte Oostindie Compagnie VOC – not only single sheets of etchings/prints were taken to India but packages of prints. The main reason for the deficiency of proper historical docu­ ments lies in the customary law of the the VOC: Pieces of art, books, presents were handled as personal effects of captains and officers of the Company. Even shareholders of the VOC enjoyed this privilege as we know from Rembrandt (who was a shareholder). Thus the standard load lists would not give any information on transported art goods.

The headquarters of VOC was in Antwerp, a city that was part of the Spanish Netherlands and the main centre of the European art trade.

European art at the time of the Renaissance and early Baroque was still to a large extent religious. Paintings and etchings depicted themes from the Old Testament, from the New Testament, from religious legends and from stories of local saints. It is therefore not surprising that a large number of the pictures imported into India were of a religious nature.

II. The Arts of the Christians and their Reception in Mughal India Most of the pictures brought into India were not oil paintings but engravings/etchings/prints: – Oil paintings were difficult to transport and were bound to suffer in the Indian climate – Engravings were much cheaper than paintings and could be transported en bloc – The Indian painters found it more convenient to work on and with prints instead of working with oil paintings – Engravings were smaller in size and fitted easily into the albums in the kitab khana (library).

The easiest way to work on prints was to COLOUR them. We know that the Jesuits were frequently approached for advice which colour to use. They told the painters that the mantle of the Madonna should be blue, that the dress of the child Jesus should be yellowish, etc.

7

The next step was to make COPIES of the engravings. While we have a good number of faithful copies, there are those where the Mughal painter has simplified the original source or has added details to the original design.

The most frequent reception of the European sources was their AD­ APTATON. The imported prints were modified in such a way that they fitted into Mughal patterns and traditions. The most obvious adaptations appear in the paintings of figures. Renaissance portraits of biblical personalities are blended with Persian characteristics. So, a prophet of the Old Testament could adopt the facial contours of a Central Asian nobleman, or Mother Mary could develop into the likeness of a Deccani lady … The most striking innovation along with the adaptation of Renaissance and early Baroque pictures was the import of realism, to be observed in nature, architecture, dress and portrait design. In fact, Persian terms like tasvir or shabi or surat became termini technici when they were applied to biblical personalities or allegorical figures in the same way as when they were applied to portraits of aristocrats.

The last step in the process of integrating European art was the complete ASSIMILATION. In assimilated paintings the European prototype cannot easily be identified any more. A single engraving might be merged with two or three others so that a new compo­ sition turns out. The different elements of the picture indicate the original sources but the assimilated Mughal painting is definite­ ly a piece of art in its own right. It is incorporated, it is Indian.

All the paintings, whether copied or adapted or assimilated, have margins, ornamented borders (hashiyas). The illuminated margins of the miniatures vary to a great extent and are usually just decorative in nature. Small paintings had to fit into larger muraqqa (album) folios.

There are also album pages, where Christian themes are part of the border decoration.

III. Religion at the Mughal Court We are in the fortunate situation that both Akbar’s biographers, Abu’l–Fazl’Alami as well as Abd al-Qadir Bada’uni, deal exten­ sively with religious matters. In addition to these two sources, the Jesuits had an elaborate scheme of reporting and of writing diaries.

Akbar seems to have had a genuine interest in religions, right from the time when he – quite suddenly – became padshah in 1556. He was a youngster at that time but he had already realized that he was surrounded by a population majority of Hindus. Akbar was aware that he was a member of an immigrant dynasty and that he did well in identifying his role in the Indian religious setup. Religious discus­ sions became part of court life, even during campaigns. From 1575 onwards they took place in the ibadat khana (House of Wor­ship). The participants in the beginning were just the Ulema, a few Sufis and Sayids, and the amirs (commanders) of the court. Their majles (as­ sembly) was later enlarged by resident Brahmins, Parsis and Jains.

8

Akbar had good reasons for inviting the Jesuit Fathers: – Akbar had received a report from Bengal with the informa­ tion that the Jesuit Fathers had refused communion to Portu­ guese merchants who had not paid their due taxes to the collec­ tor. Akbar was very impressed by this strict moral attitude.

– Akbar remembered his meeting with the Portuguese in Su­ rat, their technical gadgets and their works of art.

– Akbar had an interest to be on good terms with the Portuguese.

So it was not his religious search alone but a mixture of political, economic and spiritual reasons which led to the reception of the Jesuits.

Akbar’s reasoning proofed to be correct: The Jesuits brought academic quality into the theological debates, and their presence at the impe­ rial court added cultural enrichment to the court society. The Jesuits’ intention to convert the emperor proofed to be a miscalculation: Akbar showed real interest in Christian theology and Christian iconography, but certainly not with the intention to become a Christian. Instead of becoming a Christian, Akbar went into the direction of developing a religion of his own. He manipulated the Ulema in such a way that they would declare him Sultan-e-Adil, the Just Sultan. This declaration sanctioned his imperial decisions, not only in worldly matters, but also in religious issues.

In a further step, Akbar – aware of being the Emperor of a multireligious empire – proclaimed a new universal religion in 1582, the din-e-illahi, the “divine” religion. This universal religious system was meant to apply to Muslims, Hindus and all the minorities within the Mughal Empire. It was envisaged to establish a tawid-e-illahi, a “unity” religion, to foster sulh-e-kull, peace for all, universal peace. Imperial peace under an emperor who was at the same time the highest polit­ ical authority as well as spiritual master was indeed more than what Philipp II had achieved. Akbar considered himself to be a Holy King.

This merger of political and spiritual powers could have led into a tota­ litarian regime. In the case of the Mughals it had, however, the opposite effect. Akbar and his two successors became very tolerant towards all the religions prevailing within their empire. They developed a kind of enlightened autocracy, and the European pictures were a beautiful tool in this development.

IV. The Mughal Reception of Christian Themes Not all the European pictures received equal attention. The patrons of the painters obviously had their priorities. I suggest five themes to be considered: 1. MARY, the mother of Jesus Christ, is probably the Christian subject most frequently represented. The life of Mary was a constant topic, not only in the Imperial kar khana (atelier), but also at provincial courts and in the Deccan. In fact, when the Jesuits came to Fatehpur Sikri, 9

they discovered a wall painting of the Annunciation over the doorway of the Palace of Maryam Makani, Akbar’s mother. Maryam, the mother of Isa, is the most prominent female figure in the Koran. Her story is related in seven suras. The Koran celebrates Mary as an example of chastity, obedience and faith. This is in harmony with the gospel.

The Council of Trent (1542–1556) had declared Mother Mary “cupo­ la of chastity”, the dignified abode (of her son Jesus). The honorific title “makani” is indeed a very near translation of the Latin term.

The main reason for putting such emphasis on Mary might, however, not only be found in the concordance of the Bible and the Koran, but in Timurid mythology. Alanqu’a, the legendary Mongol princess, had a kind of Annunciation: She became pregnant by divine light, in the same way as the Virgin Mary. Here, Akbar had a referral point to his own genealogy. The Akbarnama (Chronicle of Akbar) mentioned: “Alanqu’a was reposing on her bed, when a glorious light cast a ray into her tent and entered the mouth and throat of that fount of spiritual knowledge and glory. The cupola of chastity became preg­ nant by that light, in the same way as did her Majesty Miryam”.

The glorious light, the farr-e-izadi, became a topos in Mughal painting for which the various European representations of the Annunciation provided the prototypes. They provided Akbar and his imperial suc­ cessors with a beautiful tool to demonstrate their dynastic legitimacy.

2. ANGELS have a role and a function both in Christianity as well as in Islam. Angels serve as intermediaries between God and Man, as ambassadors between heaven and earth. They do not, however, get in touch with ordinary human beings, but only with exquisite selected ones. The appearance of angels would always announce a very impor­ tant event with a very important person. Jibril would carry the revealed Koran to Prophet Mohammad. Gabriel would announce Mary’s preg­ nancy with the Christ Child, Israfil would blow the trumpet on the Day of Judgement (see No. 31), numerous angels hovering in the sky are announcing the nativity of God’s son on earth (see No. 19 and No. 20).

Angels in the presence of a king or an emperor are a recurring mo­ tif in Christian as well as in Islamic painting. Angels demonstrate that the ruler is far above human standards, that he enjoys divine grace, that he might even be a divinity himself. Angels symbol­ ise a paradisiacal setting in which the divine ruler dwells. The Mughals, especially Jahangir, have used this well worn concept by referring to biblical themes. The most frequent representa­ tion was that of Solomo on his throne surrounded by angels (see nos. 17f and 50). No doubt, Jahangir felt to be a new Solomo and he wanted his amirs and the ashraf (aristocracy) to know.

3. SAINTS, irrespective whether Muslim or Hindu or Christian, were important for the Mughals. Akbar was the first Muslim conqueror of India who did not destroy Hindu temples. Instead, he felt attracted to the sadhus, yogis, sanyasis, kalandars as well as to the Sufi saints.

The story of Akbar’s visits to the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin at Ajmer has been told and retold many times. Christian saints became 10

part of this universe of pirs, prophets, ascetics, shaikhs, apostles and other holy men and women. The Jesuits seem to have pro­ vided Akbar as well as Jahangir with numerous pictures of saints.

The Christian saints in Europe were, by their exemplary life, their virtues and their merits, promoted to be patron saints of villag­ es, towns and countries. Late medieval as well as Renaissance and Baroque paintings show us Lord Mayors of cities, Dukes and Duch­ esses, Kings and Queens accompanied by Christian saints. To be in the company of a saint was a sure sign of one’s high position.

The most frequent attribute of Christian saints is the halo around their head (nimbus, gloriole), or sometimes around their whole body (aureole). The halo is a radiant disc, a luminous sphere, a glory (it is indeed significant, that the English language uses the Latin “gloria” (honour) for the saintly halo). It seems that the Mughals had no diffi­ culty to “hijack” the halo of the Christian saints to demonstrate their own holiness. Akbar considered himself to be “the shadow of God”.

All the three Mughal Emperors of the Golden Age were represented with halos. The glory of the Christian saints became part and parcel of the iconographic program of the Mughal painters, resp. their patrons.

4. The JESUIT FATHERS were very well integrated into the court­ ly life in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Lahore and Delhi. They partici­ pated in all major public functions, especially in Durbars. They had their role in the debates in the ibadat khana and they were in constant communication with the amirs, the high nobles at the court and with some of the aristocracy in the provinces. The em­ perors Akbar and Jahangir visited the Fathers on Christian holi­ days like Christmas and Easter. Prince Murad, Akbar’s son, was tutored by the Jesuits and studied Portuguese with them.

The Jesuits were not only missionaries trying to propagate their faith, but were at the same time de facto ambassadors of the Estado da India in Goa. The Jesuit reports did not only reach the Pope in Rome, but also the King of Spain (1580–1640 united with Portugal). King Philipp II reigned (1556–1598) almost simultaneously with Akbar. Both were not only contemporaries, but had a number of similarities. While Akbar considered himself the greatest territorial ruler, Philipp II commanded the greatest maritime power of the time. His commercial realm reached from the Americas in the West to the maritime factories on the Japa­ nese islands in the East. He was in command of an empire “where the sun was never setting”. This mighty emperor was the “Protector of Faith”, and in this capacity the highest temporal authority of the Jesuits.

Akbar became aware of this constellation. He had a good nose for it.

5. ALLEGORICAL paintings were very common in Renaissance art, which favoured pictorial modes of antique Greece and Rome.

Very often antique goddesses like Venus or Minerva re-entered Re­ naissance Italy – in antique robes – as allegories of virtues. Christian virtues like Faith, Hope, Charity, Mercy, Justice, Truth, Fortitude, Temperance etc. were made visible by personalising them. Personi­ fications made abstract notions vivid: Mercy would be exemplified by depicting the seven works of mercy (clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, nursing the sick, sheltering 11

strangers, visiting prisoners, burying the dead). Charity would be depicted as a woman caring for and feeding children. Each of the divine virtues had typical attributes. Faith (Fides) would carry a cross and a chalice (see No. 5); Hope (Spes) looks into the radiant sun; Truth (Veritas) is portrayed as a victorious goddess (see No. 44).

Allegories of direct political symbolism were the frequently depicted animals: The lion is in the company of sheep and cows, animals at peace with each other as living symbols of peaceful rulership and good governance under the ideal emperor.

V. Christian Themes as Means of Imperial Representation From all we know, Akbar was illiterate. Incoming correspondence from the provinces was read out for him. Written petitions were presented to him by the petitioners at the weekly audiences in the diwan-e-aam (Hall of Public Audience), firmans were spoken to him before they were issued. This was certainly a disadvantage for the ruler of a large territorial empire to be governed by bureaucratic correspondence.

But Akbar’s deficiency was probably an advantage when it came to “reading” pictures. Akbar had a sharp eye, not doubt. In addi­ tion he was gifted with a deep understanding of the MEANING of paintings. He knew about surat (form) and ma’ani (content).

His visual senses were able to look behind the actual icon in or­ der to be led to the “recognition of a higher truth”. I owe this ex­ pression and many other insights in this context to Ebba Koch.

Here the Jesuits at the court were of valuable assistance. They carried with them proceedings of the Council of Trent (1542–1565), where​ the Catholic Church had discussed and pronounced its teachings on the value of sacred pictures. The Council had justified the use of sacred art because of its didactic purpose: To educate the faithful, in a language understandable to all, irrespective whether learned or igno­ rant, literate or illiterate. This must have been extremely appealing to Akbar: Pictures to propagate the faith, the glory of God and His Mother, His Angels and Saints, the value of virtues and good deeds.

Akbar was a religious man in a very broad sense. He was a con­stant seeker after truth and his spiritual mind was always on search. He experimented with religion. His din-e-illahi was a kind of spiritual club, not meant for the masses, but for the elite at the court. The recitation of the thousand Sanskrit names for the sun, the light, was for the vast majority of the Hindu population. Akbar never left the Islamic belief system nor did he join a new belief system. Even when he got declared sultan-e-adil, he did not commit apostasy. He be­ came a heretic within Islam, so to say. He was too broad a mind and too tolerant to belong exclusively to one particular faith. Akbar was syncretic. His creed was a central point of convergence to which all could subscribe even while remaining true to their own faith.

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The European term of the time for such a personality would have been HUMANIST. Akbar’s humanism is indeed compara­ ble with that of the European rulers of the Renaissance and of early Baroque. It was Akbar’s royal humanism that was trans­ ferred to his son and his grandson, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

It might sound very bold to compare the Golden Age of the Mughals with that of the Renaissance in Europe. But it is striking that European dynasts like the Habsburg monarchs of Spain/Portugal and the Medici Princes and Popes of Italy – contemporaries of Akbar/Jahangir/Shah Jahan – were humanistic patrons of the arts, in the same way as the Mughals, and may be for the same purpose.

A major problem in projecting the Mughals’ image was the fact that they were immigrants in India. Babur was a conqueror who always felt homesick. Humayum had to go into temporary exile before returning to India. Akbar was the first Mughal emperor who stayed in India and ruled continuously for nearly fifty years. He felt the necessity to prove his dynastic legitimacy vis-a-vis the public but also within the courtly circles, outdoor and indoor, so to say.

The outdoor projections were manifold. The palaces in all the Mughal capitals, the fortifications, the tombs, the Mughal gar­ dens bear witness till today. They were the “hardware” of image projection. Equally important was the “software”: The marriage alliances with the Indian nobility, the public hunting parties with their elaborate camps, the public pilgrimages to saints and pirs, the public distribution of food and clothes on public holidays, the public Durbars and the jharoka darshans (window viewing).

The indoor image projections were more intimate, meant for the ashraf, the amirs, the courtiers and the nobility from the provinces.

The first necessity consisted in proving the legitimacy by way of lineage, down from Timur Shah and up into the Timurid mythology.

Here the frequent representations of the Madonna and their link to the “mother of mankind” Alanqu’a had their role and function in­ cluding the adorations of the sun/the light, the farr-e-izadi (see No. 4). What a beautiful tool to demonstrate the divine origin of a Ruler!

The company of angels and saints was another opportunity to show the ruler’s divine grace or even his holiness. The nobles at the court who had a close look at such a painting of their padshah – surrounded by an­ gels and adorned by a halo – had no need for a further argument about the legitimacy of their emperor.

The Jesuits were apostles of the Council of Trent where sacred art was declared a major didactic instrument to educate the peo­ ple. The Mughals made use of the same instrument to educate their subjects about their legitimacy to rule, about their sovereignty at home and abroad, about their benevolent governance. It seems the Mughal state of mind had many similarities with that of their Chris­ tian counterparts. May be the Mughals had a kind of Renaissance of their own. They certainly were the beginning of modern India.

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table of contents

MUGHAL MINIATURES

The Birth of Mary

16

Evangelist 18

orthodox Priest

21

22

Madonna adoring the sun

Fides 24

an angel and a man seated in discussion

26

A Man being served a meal by two maidservants

29

a woman with angels

30

Three Biblical Women beneath a Tree

33

St. Mary Magdalene

34

Mother and Child in a Garden

36

A Night Scene in a Harem

39

Saint Bartholomew

40

A Lady Reading

42

The Presentation of Jesus at the Temple

44

St. Jerome in his Study

47

St. Helena

48

PROVINCIAL MUGHAL AND DECCANI MINIATURES

Madonna with Putti

50

Adoration of Mary and Child

53

The Adoration of the Christ Child

54

Sultan Ibrahim ibn Adham of Balkh

56

Sultan Ibrahim ibn Adham of Balkh

59

Rabi‘a 60

Madonna and Child (“Hastings Madonna”)

63

Salus Populi Romani

64

Saint Zachariah

67

Saint Zachariah (?)

68

A Lady nursing her Child

71

Man with a Dog

72

Two Men at a Hermitage

75

The Archangels Israfil and Jibril

76

Nativity 78

The Virgin Mary holding a book

81

Maryam showing a Book

82

Virgin and Child (Omen Book)

85

other indian MINIATURES Winged female Musicians

86

PietĂ with Angels

89

Maryam and ‘Isa

90

Portrait of Mary (Rajput)

93

Mother and Child at the Jarokha

94

A Mother cradling her Child

97

The Begum Samru

99

Persian MINIATURES

Yusuf being rescued from the well

100

The Victory of Truth

102

Virgin and Child (Armenian Madonna)

104

Christ healing a Man sick of Palsy

107

The Day of Cursing

108

Christ on the Cross

110

Mary and Joseph

113

Solomon enthroned

114

MUGHAL MINIATURES

1

Decorated Page 26,0 x 15,4 cm miniature 15,9 x 9,0 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Provenance Oliver Forge and Brendan Lynch Ltd., 2010 References Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011 Carvalho, Pedro Moura, Mir’at al-quds (Mirror of Holiness): A Life of Christ for Emperor Akbar, Leiden/Boston 2012 Stronge, Susan, Painting for the Mughal Emperor, The Art of the Book 1560–1660, London 2002 Weis, Friederike, Maryam – Maria. Bilder aus dem Marienleben aus einer Mer’at al-Qods Handschrift des Moghulhofes, in: Baleva, Martina/Reichle, Ingeborg/ Schultz, Oliver Lerone (eds.), Image Match. Visueller Transfer, „Image­ scapes“ und Intervisualität in globalen Bildkulturen, München 2012 Weis, Friederike, 2011

The Birth of Mary

Mughal, here attributed to Dharmadasa, 1602 The manuscript page belongs to a Mer’at al-Qods (Mirror of Holiness), a Life of Christ, presented by Jerome Xavier to Akbar and his son Salim in 1602. Several contemporary copies were executed at the imperial atelier of which a few are illustrated. This leaf is part of a Mer’at al-Qods preserved at the Cleveland Museum of Art (Carvalho, 2012).

The passage appearing in the text above the miniature reads: “Anna became pregnant and after nine months on Friday, the 8th of September, corresponding to 11th Shahriwar, she gave birth to a daughter. The people were filled with astonishment and joy.

They gave the name Maryam to the girl, and this word – continued on the verso of the folio – has many meanings.”

The visual scheme of the painting is easy to recognise: Anna, the mother of Mary, is resting exhausted, but decorated with a coronet, in her bedchamber. The child Mary is presented to her by a midwife who sits behind the bed. The child Mary is wrapped in a white cloth. Her saintliness is marked by a golden halo.

The bedchamber is separated from the foreground by a curtain.

Here, in the larger room, two female servants are busy caring for the wellbeing of Anna and her child.

An engraving by Cornelis Cort, dated 1568, might have served as a prototype (reproduced in The New Hollstein, Cornelis Cort, Part II, no. 94). But it is more likely that the painter Dharmadasa made use of an earlier work in which he was involved. Dharmadasa had been colouring an illustration designed by Kesu Kalan for an Akbarname in 1590. The illustration depicted the birth of Prince Salim (Stronge, 2002, pl. 51). In fact, pictorial representations of the births of rulers were already part of the visual schemes of the painters at the time of Akbar. So, Dharmadasa was probably not in need of a European source of inspiration.

Published Bressan, 2011, pl. 38 Carvalho, 2012, cat. no. 1, p. 75 Weis, 2012, fig. 1, pl. II Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 4 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 153–157 16

2

Full Folio 23,2 x 14,8 cm DEcorated Page (to edge of original orders only): 20,0 x 12,3 cm Miniature (without text panel): 13,8 x 7,8 cm PROVENANCE Collection Catherine and Ralph Benkaim, Los Angeles ExhibitionS Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Sotheby’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Art, March 20, 1997, Lot 11 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 2 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 195–197

Evangelist

Mughal, School of Kesu Das from the Salim Album The grey-bearded man with wings is dressed in a monk’s robe.

He holds an open book with undecipherable (Greek) letters.

The writing on top of the miniature indicates that the man is meant to be an evangelist: “He transmitted the good news of eternal mercy from paradise/ an angel brought the book of peace to me”.

The painting belonged originally to the so-called Salim Album. It was commissioned by Jahangir while he was still a prince but fashioned himself already as “Shah Salim”. The album consists of 31 loose folios, predominantly showing single figures, some of them portraits of noblemen, some of them figures from the Hindu/Muslim/Christian religious traditions (Leach, 1995, Vol. I., pp. 300–307).

The presence of the dog, which is an impure animal to a Muslim mind, is difficult to explain. However, we have Islamic accounts dealing with Jesus’ attitude towards dogs. Ghazzali, for instance, relates to Jesus telling his disciples that they should not refrain from sleeping with a dog on a manure heap if they were truly seeking paradise (Schimmel, 1996, p. 40).

The miniature does not refer directly to a European source of inspiration. The nearest prototype might be an engraving by Hans Sebald Beham, dated 1541, depicting St. Luke. Kesu Das had copied this engraving in ca 1585. It also shows a dog looking at its master.

(Preserved at the Fondation Custodia, Institut Neerlandais, Paris.)

References Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Indian Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, London 1995 Schimmel, Annemarie, Jesus und Maria in der islamischen Mystik, München 1996 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated Page 14,9 x 9,7 cm Miniature 11,8 x 6,7 cm PROVENANCE Collection Catherine and Ralph Benkaim, Los Angeles Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015

orthodox Priest

Mughal, beginning of 17th cent.

The priest, in a dark robe and a blue scarf, stands on a green meadow. He holds a richly decorated book in his left and a rosary in his right hand. The rosary can be clearly identified as an orthodox prayer rope (ref. de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenkranz).

While there are quite a number of miniatures depicting Jesuit priests, this cleric is definitely a member of an Orthodox Church. He probably belonged to the Armenian Apostolic Church. There were Armenian trade representatives at the Mughal Court and there might have been clerics with them.

The sky area is slightly rubbed and there is also some water staining. In several places in the upper third of the miniature the colour has flaked.

Reference Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated pate 43,5 x 27,5 cm Miniature 15,8 x 9,0 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi: Manohar 2012, p. 85, fig. 2/92 Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting. Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013, p. 76 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 147–149 Provenance Doris Wiener Gallery, 2010

Madonna adoring the sun

Mughal, ca 1595–1600 The Madonna is looking towards the golden sun at the upper left, her hands joined in adoration. The child seeks to attract her attention by pulling at a corner of her blue scarf.

It is well known that Akbar used to offer daily devotions to the rising sun. He maintained that his kingship is legitimised by a light emanating from God. The divine light – farr-e-izadi – had manifested itself for the first time in the Mongol Princess Alanqua who became pregnant by the divine light in a similar way as the Virgin Mary became pregnant by the divine annunciation. Alanqua was considered to be the original Mother of the Mughal dynasty, through a chain of prominent ancestors including Chingiz Khan and Timur. Akbar’s mother Maryam Makani (1527–1604) was considered to be a direct descendant of Timur. So, there were good reasons to depict Maryam in adoration of the farr-e-izadi, acknowledging the important role of virtuous women in the transmission of the glorious light.

There are a number of similar miniatures, the nearest being the one by Basawan, now in the Doha Museum (see Beach/Fischer/Goswamy, 2011, p. 129, fig. 10).

The nearest European prototypes for this painting might have been two engravings, dated 1566, by Jerome Wierix. Both engravings depict allegories, Caritas and Spes. The virtue of Spes (Hope) looks into a “light of hope”, depicted by rays of the rising sun.

References: Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi: Manohar 2012 Beach, Milo C./Fischer, Eberhard/Goswamy, B.N., Masters of Indian Painting, Zürich 2011 Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting.

Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013 Weis, Friederike, 2011 (Spes and Caritas)

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decorated page 24,8 x 16,0 cm Miniature 10,4 x 5,6 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 11

Fides

Mughal, School of Kesu Das, ca 1595–1600 A female figure stands in a hazy blue-green landscape with a town in the distance. She is wearing a dark robe over a yellow and blue tunic-like garment. In her right hand she holds a bowl, in her left she carries a cross. Her head is adorned by a crown and a blue halo from which golden rays are beaming.

The figure obviously derives from a European allegory of Faith (Fides), one of the theological virtues. According to European pictorial tradition the virtues are always represented as women dressed in antique robes. Examples are the engravings of Fides by Hans Sebald Beham and by Jerome Wierix.

Prince Salim who in 1605 became Emperor Jahangir, had a predilection for allegorical figures. A Fides relief decorated the back of his throne, demonstrating him as a faithful ruler.

Jahangir’s Audience, detail depicting Jahangir leaning against the back of his throne, Mughal, 1618, Museum für Islamische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Inv.Nr. I. 4597 fol. 5.

Photo courtesy by Georg Niedermeiser / bpk / Museum für Islamische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin References Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 38,6 x 27,0 cm Miniature 17,0 x 10,0 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Sotheby’s London, Fine Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures, October 17, 1983, Lot 16

an angel and a man seated in discussion

Mughal, ca 1595–1600 The seated man (a scribe?) is dressed in a European costume. In front of him a female angel sits in a chair looking at the open book which the man is showing her in an interrogative manner. A female attendant is arriving with a candle while another attendant is crouching on the floor. A traveller with a staff stands in the foreground. In the background is a palace chamber and beyond a rocky landscape.

The drawing uses some colours and gold.

The figure of the European man derives almost certainly from an engraving by Georg Pencz, dated 1544. This engraving – Joseph telling his dreams to his father – reached the Mughal scriptorium at an early stage in Akbar’s reign and influenced numerous Mughal painters, among them Kesu Das (see Leach, 1995, Vol. I., cat. no. 1, 233).

What could the meaning of such a scene be? The bearded man with a book or a scroll seated in front of a woman could possibly be understood as Zachariah, and the angel/woman could be Mary.

The Koran, Sura 3:37, mentions that Mary was cared for by Zachariah while she grew up in the temple. After the birth of Zachariah’s son John, Zachariah regained his abilility to speak by writing John’s name into a book (Luke 1, 62 f). The angel in this drawing might be a substitute for Mary. So the scene might allude to the close relationship between Mary and Zachariah.

References Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Indian Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, London 1995 Weis, Friederike, Europäische Einflüsse auf die Miniaturmalerei am Hof des Moghulkaisers Akbar (1556–1605), Microfiche Ph. Diss. Freie Universität Berlin 2005 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 38,2 x 27,0 cm Miniature 10,3 x 6,5 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Sotheby and Co., Catalogue of Persian, Turkish and Arabic Manuscripts, Indian and Persian Miniatu­ res, from the celebrated collection formed

by Sir Thomas Philipps Bt. (1792–1872).

The Property of the Trustees of the Robinson Trust, November 25 and 26, 1968, Lot 396.

A Man being served a meal by two maidservants

Mughal, ca 1600 The slightly coloured drawing shows similarities with the previous picture (An Angel and a Man seated in Discussion). Here, how­ever, the bearded man is not holding a book but a cloth napkin. He is served by two young women. Another woman is standing in the doorway of a house. This figure is clearly inspired by a European image of the Virgin Mary.The architecture and the sari-like dress style of the maidservants are inspired by Indian prototypes. The pillar of the building even shows a kirtti mukha (face of glory).

The painting reminds of the biblical story relating to Abraham’s encounter with the angels who inform him that he and his wife Sara will have a child despite their advanced age (Genesis 18, 2–10).

This story appears in the Koran as well (11: 69–76 and 15: 51–77).

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 29,2 x 20,0 cm Miniature 18,0 x 10,0 cm Calligraphy 17,7 x 9,5 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, April 8, 2008, Lot 284 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 10

a woman with angels

Mughal, attr. to Shankar, 1595–1600, calligraphy dated 1742–43 (AH 1155) The Mughal artists often combined various motifs taken from different European prints. This brush drawing showing a woman with angels contains features drawn from two different iconographic schemes: One is an engraving of St. Roch by Johannes Wierix, 1586 (repr. in Hollstein’s Dutch and Flemish Engravings, The Wierix Family, part VII, no. 1627) and the second one is an illustration of the Story of Tobias by Maarten van Heemskerck, dated 1556 (repr. in The New Hollstein, Dutch and Flemish Engravings, part I, no. 192).

The story of Tobias was indeed well known at Akbar’s Court: Not only missionaries but travellers and traders carried prints of Tobias with them. Tobias was protected during his trip by the Archangel Raphael. This is why his image was in high consideration by travelling Christians coming to India, resp. the Mughal capital.

The calligraphy on the recto side is a monayat (hymn) by Haji Abdullah Ansari, dated 1155 AH, i.e. 1742/43. This is probably the time when the drawing was integrated into an album.

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 37,0 x 24,0 cm Miniature 11,9 x 7,0 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Sotheby’s London, Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures, October 18, 1995, Lot 90 Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, April 17, 2007, Lot 213 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 7 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 180–181

Three Biblical Women beneath a Tree

Mughal, ca 1595–1600, signed by Shankar, Calligraphy by Muhammad Hussain Kashmiri (al Katib, Zarin Qalam) The brush drawing with touches of gold and colour depicts three women beneath a tree. One is carrying a large bowl, two are carrying books. In the bottom left corner the signature amal-e-shankar can be read. The drawing is flanked by two calligraphic panels, each with quatrains in flowing nastaliq and signed on the last line by Muhammad Hussain al Katib.

The women in their long draped garments betray a European source of inspiration. This might have been an engraving showing Mary Magdalene (with the bowl), Mary Jacobi and Mary Salome in front of the empty grave of Christ (Mark, 16, 1–8).

The recto side of the album leaf shows four couplets of flowing nastaliq and three horizontal calligraphic panels, the one on the left side also signed by Muhammad Hussain.

Both, the painter Shankar and the calligrapher Muhammad Hussain, worked for Akbar. Abu’l Fazl testifies that Muhammad Hussain was given the honorific title zarin qalam (golden pen)

by Akbar (Abu’l Fazl, 1965, p. 109).

Muhammad Hussain was a very prolific calligrapher. He copied several important manuscripts for Akbar (Losty, 1982, cat. nos.

58,64,70/71). The two quatrains which he wrote on this page reappear in another beautiful calligraphy in a Swiss private collection (Goswamy and Fischer, 1987, cat. no. 78).

This is one of the rare cases where painter and calligrapher worked simultaneously and where both artists signed their works.

References Abu’l Fazl, The Ain-i-Akbari, translated

by H. Blochmann, Second Edition New Delhi, 1965 Goswamy, B.N./Fischer, Eberhard, Wunder einer Goldenen Zeit, Zürich 1987 Losty, Jeremiah P., The Art of the Book in India, London 1982 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 31,0 x 19,4 cm Miniature 9,1 x 5,5 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi: Manohar 2012, p. 80, pl. 2/74 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 12 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 182–185

St. Mary Magdalene

Mughal, ca 1595–1600 The faint red colouring on Mary Magdalene’s lips and cheeks, the fine golden beams around her halo and the gold paint on the jar of ointment in her left hand are probably Mughal adaptations of a monochrome European print. Since there was no printing press available at the Mughal Court at the time of Akbar/Jahangir, the artists of the imperial atelier were free to copy, to imitate, to adapt. This painting is a beautiful example of adaptation.

Even without the inscription S. MARIA MAGDALENA, the identity of the Saint would be evident on account of her specific attribute, the jar of ointment. In addition, the crosses on the Mount Golgotha in the background identify her as a witness of the crucifixion (John, 20: 14–18).

The recto side is a calligraphy mounted on a page decorated with flowers. The central verse is in nastaliq, while the verses on the vertical sides are in Persian.

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 18,3 x 9,6 cm Miniature 12,1 x 8,9 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Christie’s London, Islamic Art, October 11, 2005, Lot 83

Mother and Child in a Garden

Mughal, beginning of 17th cent.

The lightly coloured drawing shows a young woman seated on a folding chair. She holds a book in her left hand. With her right hand she caresses the head of a boy. The drawing is mounted on an album page and bears a modern stamp impression.

There are two possible sources for drawings of this type: Linda Leach argues that a classical goddess or a female allegory of the Liberal Arts must be considered (Leach, 1998, cat. nos. 11 and 13). Edwin Binney suggests that the Annunciation of the Virgin is the prototype (Binney et al., 1973, cat. no. 70).

To Rosa Maria Cimino we owe the identification of the folding chair as “Savanarola” chair, depicted in Renaissance paintings (Cimino, 1991, p. 151). It is not unlikely that such folding chairs were brought to the Mughal Court by European traders.

References Leach, Linda York, Paintings from India (The Nasser Khalili Collection), New York 1998 Binney, Edwin, et al., Indian Miniature Painting from the Collection of Edwin Binney III, Portland, Oregon 1973 Cimino, Rosa Maria, La sedia Savanarola nelle miniature Moghul, in: Lo Specchio del Principe, ed. by Dalu Jones, Rome 1991, pp. 148–155 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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A Night Scene in a Harem

Mughal, School of Payag, first half of 17th cent. miniature 22,0 x 12,8 cm PROVENANCE Sam Fogg Ltd., 2004

Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Sotheby’s London, Arts of the Islamic World, April 15, 2002, Lot 47 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 144–146

A bare-breasted Indian princess is resting against a cushion while drinking a cup of wine. The miniature represents a night scene in a zenana (women’s quarter). On a column a statue of the Virgin Mary can be recognised. A second Madonna (with a child) is visible on the right side of the painting, and a Mary Magdalene with an oil jar kneels in the foreground. The other figure in the foreground might represent a third Madonna with a little Jesus behind her.

Night scenes are typical of the Shah Jahan period. Most of them can be attributed to Payag (Okada, 1992, pp. 207 ff.). Milo Beach has identified the European print from which the painting might originate: It is the personification of Poetry from the Liberal Arts, engraved by Cornelius Jacobz Drebbel after Hendrik Goltzius (Beach, 1965, p. 86. Reproduced in The Illustrated Bartsch, 3, Hendrik Goltzius, p. 375, no. 4 (120)).

References Beach, Milo C., The Gulshan Album and its European Sources, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, 63/332 (1965), pp. 63–91 Okada, Amina, Imperial Mughal Painters: Indian Miniatures from the 16th and 17th centuries, Paris 1992 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 20,1 x 13,0 cm Miniature 8,0 x 6,8 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Provenance Michael and Henrietta Spink Ltd., London 1992

Saint Bartholomew

Mughal, 1st quarter of 17th cent.

The miniature is a close copy of an engraving of St. Bartholomew by Raphael Sadeler I after Maarten de Vos (reproduced in The Illustrated Bartsch, 70, part 2, Johann Sadeler I, nos. 277–285). The miniature is almost of the same size as the engraving. The painter, however, has “mughalised” Sadeler’s prototype: The Saint is given a pearl earring.

This was in keeping with jewellery worn by Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The Saint wears a cloak with a flower pattern.

Under the image is a golden devanagari inscription “sabig yogi” (portrait of a yogi).

Milo Beach has published copies of engravings of St. Peter and other apostles from the Muraqqa-e-Golshan (Beach, 1965, fig. 10 and figs. 10 b and 10 c). Since these paintings are very similar to St. Bartholomew it can be reasonably assumed that the miniature can be dated to the same period.

References Beach, Milo C., The Gulshan Album and its European Sources, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, 63/332 (1965), pp. 63–91 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 14,6 x 10,0 cm Miniature 11,9 x 7,2 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Published Sotheby’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Art, March 20, 1997, Lot 11 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 2

A Lady Reading

Mughal, ca 1600 The miniature belongs to a group of paintings and drawings showing young women sitting on a sumptuous seat placed in a landscape setting (cf. no. 11, Mother and Child in a Garden).

Here the background is blank apart from a band of blue sky at the upper border, suggesting an open-air scene.

The words on the two pages of the open book in the lady’s hands are legible except for the very last word: “Work of the slave of the court and of the benevolent wellwisher Zain al-Abedin ...”.

This is a rare case where the artist used the pages of a book for his personal inscription. He refers to his patron Zain al-Abedin, obviously a high official (mansabdar?) of Akbar or Jahangir.

It is not known – so far – which European painting the Mughal artist had in mind when he drafted the Lady reading. In European art the most popular motif of a woman holding a book is Mary in the Annunciation.

Other possible sources could be found in representations of the “Wise Virgins” of the parable of St. Matthew (Matth. 25, 1–13).

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 17,2 x 13,3 cm Miniature 9,6 x 7,6 cm Published Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, April 26, 2012, Lot 303

The Presentation of Jesus at the Temple

Mughal, early 17th cent.

The miniature is a grisaille brush drawing after one or more European prototypes. There are three versions of the subject, all of them by Jan Wierix, 1572 (Weis, 2008, pp. 112/113).

It depicts Mary and Joseph encountering Simeon the Righteous at the temple upon the presentation of the baby Jesus.

In Joseph’s hand is a cage with two turtle doves.

According to Luke (2, 21–32 ) Simeon “would not die before he had seen the Lord Christ”. The drawing depicts the moment when Simeon takes the child Jesus into his arms and starts praising God, saying: “... My eyes have seen your salvation ... a light for reve­ lation to the gentiles and for the glory of your people Israel”.

The miniature is led down between gold and polychrome rules on a minor pink border with gold illumination and a plain blue margin.

References Weis, Friederike, Christian Iconography Disguised, in: South Asian Studies, XII, 2008, pp. 109–118

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Decorated page 28,3 x 23,0 cm miniature 10,5 x 6,7 cm Exhibitions Brendan Lynch, Asia Week New York, March 2014 Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 198–200

St. Jerome in his Study

Mughal, 1600–1620 Prints of St. Jerome (Hieronymus), the translator into Latin of what became the Vulgate Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek, were relatively common in 16th century Europe, showing him as a learned scholar seated in his study, with a number of books around him, and his iconic lion and his red cardinal’s hat nearby.

The Mughal artist has travelled some way from the original print of St. Jerome. He is sitting on a blue-carpeted plinth placed in front of a Mughal arch opening onto a blue and gold sky between two pilasters in a red sandstone wall. His writing hand is supported by a cushion, the lion has been transformed into a cat and the cardinal’s hat into a black shield.

The painting shows opaque pigments with gold on paper, led down within frames of beige and blue with gold floral scrolls in a buff coloured album page splashed with gold.

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Decorated page 28,8 x 16,2 cm Miniature 13,8 x 7,8 cm provenance Sam Fogg Ltd., 2004

St. Helena

Mughal, ca 1595 The long-stemmed cross held up by the boy attendant suggests that the woman seated on a throne is St. Helena. She is probably reading up on the material relevant to her search for the True Cross.

She wears a Mughal approximation of a European dress.

Costume and head dress indicate that she was an Empress, the mother of Constan­tine the Great.

According to the historian Eusebius, Helena travelled to Palestine “in due veneration to the footsteps of the Saviour” where – after a vision – she discovered the remains of the Holy Cross. There are a number of prints depicting this event, among them a “Vision of St. Helena” by Marcantonio Raimondi after Raphael, where an angel with a cross appears and shows her the way to Jerusalem. In other versions she is seen standing with a book in her hand with angels behind her.

The long-stemmed cross is seen elsewhere in Mughal and Deccani drawings inspired by European prints, such as a possibly-Deccani drawing of St. Helena, dated ca 1630, now in the Gentil Collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris (Hurel, 2010, no. 35).

Reference Hurel, Roselyne, Miniatures et Peintures Indiennes, Vol. I, Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale de France 2010

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17 a

Decorated page 16,5 x 23,3 cm miniature 10,8 x 16,8 cm PUBLISHED Sotheby’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Works of Art March 15, 2017, Lot 303

King David plays the Harp

Mughal, ca 1770–1800 The miniature is a later version of Manohar’s David, dated ca 1620, now in the David Collection Copenhagen (inv. nr. 31/2001).

Mughal images of King David were likely inspired by an engraving of Johan Sadeler I., done in Venice ca 1590. While the Manohar miniature is mounted on an album page with floral borders, our minature is applied within a later 18th century album folio with dark blue inner gold-flecked borders between coloured ruled lines.

The inscription above appears twice, on the outer border as well as on the verdigris ground. It is in Farsi resp.

Urdu, the benediction formula is in Arabic: shabîh-i mubârak-i hazrat-i Dawûd alayhu’s-salam Blessed portrait of the venerated Daoud, peace be upon him Images of David/Daoud were popular in Mughal as well as in Safavid art. Both the Thora and the Qur’an recognised David/Daoud not only as king but also as prophet. His popularity among the storytellers originates from the Book of Psalms, i.e. songs in verses revealed to David by divine inspiration. Therefore the image shows David playing the harp.

ReferenceS Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Vol. 2, p. 182 Thackston, Wheeler M., The Tales of the Prophets of al-Kisai, Cambridge, Mass. 1978 Milstein, Rachel, La Bible dans l’Art Islamique, Paris: PUF 2005, pp. 101 ff.

17 b

Miniature 9,5 x 12,3 cm provenance Koller, Zurich, March 2016

Virgin and Child

Late Mughal, 1820–1830 The child Jesus lies naked on cushions. The Virgin is seen half-length bending over him, holding a rose in her right hand. Roses are strewn on the foreground.

The painting is derived from an engraving of Aegidius Sadeler II (1570–1629), see British Museum, 311 540 (1713) 51–3–8–1027.

A similar piece is in the Staatsgemäldesammlung München, Inv.Nr. 5289. A closely related Mughal painting is in the British Library, India Office Library, publ. in: Falk, Toby/Archer, Mildred, Indian Miniatures in the India Office Library, London 1981, p. 67 (text) and p. 372 (picture). A similar drawing is in the Bodleian Library Oxford, Ms. Douce Or. B1, f.1. A related painting is in the Wereldmuseum Rotterdam, Inv.No. 71803/29, publ. Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, frontispiece and tavola 2.

The painting shows flakes on the dark background. The damage does, however, not affect the central figure.

ReferenceS Chakraverty, Anjan, Indian Miniature Painting, Delhi: Lustre Press 1996, p. 37 Schimmel, Annemarie, Jesus und Maria in der Islamischen Mystik, München 1996, pp. 8–9

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17 c

Decorated page 26,0 x 15,7 cm miniature 14,8 x 8,3 cm PUBLISHED Sotheby’s, Arts of the Islamic World, April 20, 2016, Lot 44

An Angel Holding a Fish

Mughal, ca 1590–1600 The drawing is inspired by the Biblical story of Tobias and the Angel (Book of Tobit, Chapter 5–6). Tobias finds a huge fish in the river Tigris and is advised by the Archangel Raphael to pull it out. In the European prints it is usually Tobias who carries the fish. Here, however, it is the angel who carries the fish. There are, however, several European works of the period who show the Archangel Raphael holding the fish, without the presence of Tobias. One such work is by the Spanish artist Francesco Ribalta (1565–1628).

Probably our Mughal artist used a combination of these iconographic sources for this painting. A well known Mughal painting of ca 1590 of an angel holding a fish is in the Musée Guimet. Another painting of three angels, one holding a fish, is in the Chester Beatty Library.

References Okada, Amina, Miniatures de l’Inde Imperiale, Paris 1989, pp. 208–209, Nr. 64 Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Indian Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, Vol. I., 1995, p. 144 Gombrich, Ernst H., Das symbolische Bild. Zur Kunst der Renaissance II, Stuttgart: Klett Cotta 1986, Tobias und der Engel, pp. 36–41

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17 d

Decorated page 18,0 x 28,5 cm Miniature 13,0 x 24,0 cm provenance Hôtel des Ventes, Genève, Juin 2016, Lot 725 EXHIBITION Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 pUBLISHED Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 186–188

Mary Magdalene praying before the Crucifix

Mughal, early 17th cent.

The miniature is a close copy of the “Madonna praying before the Crucifix”, attributed to Manohar Das, fol. 53 recto of the St. Petersburg Muraqqa. The original painting carries an attributive signature on the pedestal of the cross. Our copy carries an inscription which is difficult to decipher.

It seems that neither Manohar nor our painter had a correspondent print of the Madonna as prototype but an engraving of St. Mary Magdalene praying before the cross. Members of the Wierix family, Hieronymus W. and Johannes W., had produced a number of versions of this subject, all in Antwerp, ca 1600. Probably our painter misinterpreted the two female figures of Mary and Mary Magdalene.

So he painted a “classical” Madonna with a reddish tunica and a blue coat.

ReferenceS Habsburg, Francesca von, The St. Petersburg Muraqqa, Album of Indian and Persian Miniatures from the 16th through the 18th century, Milano: Leonardo Arte 1996 Mauqoy-Hendrickx, Marie, Les Estampes des Wierix conservées au cabinet des estampes de la Bibliothèque Royale Albert I, Bruxelles, 1982 Stock, Jan van der/Leesberg, Marjolein/Ruyven-Zeman, Zsuzsanna van, The Wierix Family, Rotterdam 2003

17 e

Decorated page 33,0 x 20,3 cm miniature 17,8 x 10,1 cm EXHIBITION Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Sotheby’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Art March 15, 2017, Lot 304 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 140–143

Jussuf rescued from the well

Mughal, ca 1610, from a manuscript of the Haft Aurang of Jami The painting displays an Indian setting: A Banyan tree with its numerous vertical roots and stylised rock formations in mauve and pink, colourful tents and a blue sky above.

The story of Joseph/Jussuf who had been thrown into a well by his jealous brothers is told in the Old Testament (Genesis 37, 24 ff.) and also in the Koran (Sura 12: 11 ff.). The painting illustrates how Joseph/Jussuf was rescued from the well by Egyptian merchants. The miraculous rescue of Joseph/Jussuf is narrated in a large corpus of literary works in Persia, India and Europe (e.g. Thomas Mann, Joseph und seine Brüder). Josephs/Jussufs stay in the dark well for three days and his rescue is sometimes compared with the death of Jesus Christ and his resurrection on the third day.

The two pannels above read: Chû ân mâh-i jahân-ârâ bar âmad/Zi jânish bâng-i “yâ bashari” bar âmad” Once the beautiful moon appeared/They rejoiced “Oh Bashari” (In later literature Joseph/Jussuf was called “Moon of Egypt”.

Bashari is the name of the Ethiopian caravan slave who pulled him out of the well) References For the same subject refer to Nr. 43 of this catalogue.

Beach, Milo C., Indian Painting from 1575 to 1650, in: Beach, Milo C./Fischer, Eberhard/Goswamy, B.N., Masters of Indian Painting, Vol. I, Zürich 2011, pp. 111–118

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17 f

Decorated page 23,0 x 14,0 cm Miniature 15,2 x 7,9 cm Ink on buff paper, an illuminated cartouche above, brown marbled borders provenance Christie’s, London, October 12, 1999, Lot 103 H.H. Sheikh Saud bin Muhammad al-Thani (1966–2014) Sir Howard Hodgkin (1932–2017), gift from the above

Solomon enthroned seeks the counsel of his subjects

Mughal, ca 1630–1640 Solomon sits enthroned within an open domed pavillion surrounded by his council of djinns with animals and a youth as representative of mankind. A flock of birds descend from above. Solomon has been offered the Water of Immortality (ab-e-hayat) by a celestial messenger. He took counsel with all creation as to whether he should drink it. They all advised that he should, and he was minded to do so when he realised that the heron was absent. On being summoned, the heron asked whether the ab-e-hayat was for him alone or for the others also.When told that it was for Solomon alone, he advised that in that case he should reject it, for he would have to live alone when all he loved should die before him. Solomon realised the wisdom of the heron’s words and sent back the ab-e-hayat untasted.

The story is from Book XII of the Anvar-i-Suhaili (The Lights of Canopus) of Husayn Va’iz al-Kashifi. As in our painting No. 50, the story retells an old popular fable, meant to instruct rulers but appealing to humanity at large. The animals are types of human beings, yet they preserve their animal traits.

These stories were known from Arabia via Persia to India.

Our drawing refers to a painting in the British Library (Wilkinson, pl. XXXV) and was most probably executed in the early years of Shajahan’s reign.

ReferenceS Losty, Jeremiah P., The Art of the Book in India, London 1982 Wilkinson, James Vere Stuart, The Lights of Canopus: The Anvar-i-Suhaili, London 1929 Milstein, Rachel, La Bible dans l’Art Islamique, Paris: PUF 2005

17 g

Decorated page 32,0 x 21,4 cm miniature 10,3 x 5,4 cm Brush drawing with wash and some colour on paper, with pink floral border, laid down in a blue album page with gold and white rules, ink seal and short inscription on verso.

PUBLISHED Sotheby’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Art March 15, 2017, Lot 304 provenance Oliver Forge and Brendan Lynch Ltd., Indian and Persian Court Painting, Asia Week New York, March 2018, No. 1

Christian Sibyl

Mughal, 1620–1630 The Sibyl is seated on a high-backed chair with solid arms terminating in rams head finials. She is dipping a quill pen in a pot of ink held by a female assistant, who also holds up a large volume for her to write in. Both women wear long, high-waisted gowns with drapes around their shoulders and have their loose hair bound with plaited fillets. A cat lies by the Sibyl’s feet. Behind is a hilly landscape with trees and a temple.

The writing Saint is a representation of the Sibylla Cumana, the Cumaen Sibyl. Sibylline images are frequent in Italian Renaissance in Church frescoes as well as in canvas paintings. They are originally ancient pagan prophetesses who became part of the Christian universe. The Cumaen Sibyl is shown with a Book of Omens, where she would enter prophetic divinations.

The brush drawing shows reference to Basawan who reworked a number of European allegorical themes, e.g. a woman with an old man holding a book in the Musée Guimet (Okada, fig. 10).

The inscription on verso reads: zanni husn billah: “My thoughts are on God’s beauty”.

References Okada, Amina, Basawan, in: Master Artists of the Imperial Mughal Court, ed. Pal, P., Bombay 1991 Stumpfe, Wolfger, Sybillendarstellungen im Italien der frühen Neuzeit. Über die Identität und den Bedeutungsgehalt einer heidnischchristlichen Figur. (Italian Representations of Sibyls in Early Modern Time. On Identity and Meaning of a Christianised Pagan Woman.)

Trier 2006

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PROVINCIAL MUGHAL AND DECCANI MINIATURES

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miniature 13,1 x 9,7 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015

Madonna with Putti

Provincial Mughal, 17th cent.

The small painting of a Madonna in praying attitude was probably copied from a painting by a Spanish artist in the 2nd quarter of the 17th cent. Characteristic of the Spanish Baroque style are the heads of angels appearing in a cloud and the Virgin’s halo which is formed by small golden stars.

The painting might have been a full-length portrait on an album page which was later cut on each side.

Reference Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 27,2 x 20,2 cm miniature 24,2 x 17,2 cm ExhibitionS Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/15 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Sotheby’s London, Catalogue of Oriental Miniatures and Manuscripts. The Property of John Gilmore Ford and other Properties, July 2, 1984, Lot 105 Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. 39 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 160–161

Adoration of Mary and Child

Oudh, attributed to Mir Kalan Khan, ca 1770 Mary is seated on the edge of a palace terrace holding the Christ child on her lap. The child who gesticulates vividly is worshipped by a white-bearded man kneeling before them. A woman sitting at Mary’s right side raises her hands in adoration.

There are five female devotees. One of them holds a book, another one is carrying a palm branch. In the background are rocky hills. In the sky angels appear carrying offerings.

The painting is executed in the style of Mir Kalan Khan who was originally trained at the Delhi Court. He was strongly influenced by Dutch and Flemish paintings. He later on migrated to the court of the Nawab of Oudh (Faizabad/Lucknow), where he continued his Europeanised style.

A related painting is in the Benkaim collection (Roy, 2010, no. 17, p. 168).

References Roy, Malini, Origins of the Late Mughal Painting Traditions in Awadh, in: Markel, Stephen/Gude, Tushara Bindu, India’s Fabled City: The Art of Courtly Lucknow, New York 2010 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 18,6 x 20,3 cm Miniature 17,5 x 9,5 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Oliver Forge and Brendan Lynch, Indian Painting 1580–1850, March 2013, Asia Week, New York

The Adoration of the Christ Child

Faizabad or Lucknow, 1770–1780 The seated Virgin Mary holds the Christ Child in her arms, each with a gilt nimbus, while an elderly bearded man kneels in adoration before them. The man, probably a shepherd, wears a long gown tied around the waist. His fur-lined hat lies on the ground. Around them stand various women, all dressed similarly to the Virgin but wearing fur-lined hats. The scene is set in front of a Renaissance-style loggia.

Curtains are arranged in the form of a tent. In the sky angels amidst the rolling clouds play instruments or sprinkle star dust.

A European nativity scene lies at the base of the composition.

The Awadh artist, however, has dressed his figures in all sorts of eclectic guises. The fur-trimmed jackets and hats come from Afghan or Persian models. Such models are occasionally seen in Awadhi paintings (Losty, Jeremiah P./Roy, Malini, 2012, fig. 137).

Reference Losty, Jeremiah P./Roy, Malini, Mughal India: Art, Culture and Em­ pire – Manuscripts and Paintings in the British Library, London 2012

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Miniature 17,8 x 13,4 cm EXHIBITION Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, April 26, 2012, Lot 332 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 204–207 References Bailey, Gauvin et al., The St. Petersburg Muraqqa. Album of Indian and Persian Miniatures from the 16th through the 18th Century and Specimens of Persian Calligraphy by Imad al-Hasani, 2 vols, Lugano and Milan 1996 Loewenstein, Felix zu, Christliche Bilder in altindischer Malerei, Münster 1958 Weis, Friederike, The Impact of Nadal’s Evangelicae Historiae Imagines on three Illustrations of the Akbarnama in the Victoria and Albert Museum, in: Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift, 6/7, 2002–2003, pp. 95–117

Sultan Ibrahim ibn Adham of Balkh

Lucknow, mid 18th cent.

Ibrahim ibn Adham was the Sultan of the ancient city of Balkh (nowadays in Afghanistan) in the 8th cent. He renounced his high social status and left his palace to become a dervish in the wilderness. He lived in strict asceticism but was cared for by angels who brought food to him in the night.

The first one to discover European sources of inspiration for the Ibrahim/Angels subject was the Jesuit Felix zu Loewenstein (Loewenstein, 1958). More than 40 years later it was Friederike Weis who, in the course of her research on the Evangelicae Historiae Imagines, identified some of the Imagines as European prototypes used for quite a number of illu​strations to Mughal chronicles (Weis, 2002–2003, and Weis, 2004).

The Evangelicae Historiae Imagines by Jeronimo Nadal were a book of gospel illustrations, consisting of 153 engravings, produced 1593 in Antwerp. Since the book was – at least in the beginning – without accompanying text it became a Biblia Pauperum, a pauper’s bible. It was brought into India by the Jesuits and was in use until 1773 when the Jesuits had to withdraw from India.

The picture in question here was an engraving by Hieronymus Wierix, pl. 14 of the Imagines, titled: “Angeli ministrant Christo” (Angels serving Christ). Gauvin Bailey has shown that this imago also served as a prototype for the miniature of Ibrahim ibn Adham in the St. Petersburg Muraqqa. The engraving shows Christ sitting on a rock, flanked by five angels, four of them kneeling before him. They serve him with food and drink while more angels float on a cloud down from heaven.

Weis, Friederike, A Painting from a Jahangirnama and its Compositional Parallels with an Engraving from the Evangelicae Historiae Imagines, in: Crill, Rosemary/Stronge, Susan/ Tops­ field, Andrew (eds.), Arts of Mughal In­ dia. Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton, Ahmedabad/London 2004, pp. 119–128 Weis, Friederike, Personal Communication regarding no. 14 of the Imagines

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Miniature 32,2 x 22,8 cm eXHIBITION Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Christie’s South Kensington, Arts of India, June 10, 2013, Lot 85 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 208–211 References Bailey, Gauvin et al., The St. Petersburg Muraqqa. Album of Indian and Persian Miniatures from the 16th through the 18th Century and Specimens of Persian Calligraphy by Imad al-Hasani, 2 vols, Lugano and Milan 1996

Sultan Ibrahim ibn Adham of Balkh

Northern Deccan, mid 18th cent.

The legend of Ibrahim ibn Adham has always been alive in popular Islamic tales, especially among the Sufis. However, it was only by the middle of 18th century that paintings of Ibrahim ibn Adham began to appear in great numbers. They were produced in the ateliers of the Nawabs of Oudh in Faizabad or Lucknow (see no. 21 of this cata­ logue). In the Sultanates of the Deccan the subject was equally popu­ lar. Both provinces, Oudh and Deccan, were under strong influence of Safavid Persia and had their own relations – independent of the Mughal Court – with Isphahan.

Ibrahim ibn Adham is leaning on his fakir’s crutch, warmed by a fire. Angels swoop down through the trees to bring him food in bowls and dishes. The scene is set in a striking landscape.

The Devanagari inscription on the upper margin says: “Oh my Lord: Because of you I have left the city and all my companions and fortunes...”

Loewenstein, Felix zu, Christliche Bilder in altindischer Malerei, Münster 1958 Weis, Friederike, The Impact of Nadal’s Evangelicae Historiae Imagines on three Illustrations of the Akbarnama in the Victoria and Albert Museum, in: Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift, 6/7, 2002–2003, pp. 95–117 Weis, Friederike, A Painting from a Jahangirnama and its Compositional Parallels with an Engraving from the Evangelicae Historiae Imagines, in: Crill, Rosemary, Stronge, Susan, Topsfield, Andrew, Arts of Mughal India, Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton, Ahmedabad/London 2004, pp. 119–128 Weis, Friederike, Personal Communication regarding no. 14 of the Imagines Falk, Toby/Archer, Mildred, Indian Miniatures in the India Office Library, London 1981, nos. 325 and 367 Hurel, Roselyn, Miniatures et Peintures Indiennes, Paris 2010, no. 211 73

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Decorated page 22,5 x 16,5 cm Miniature 15,3 x 9,5 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Christie’s New York, Indian and Southeast Asian Works of Art, September 16, 2009, Lot 883 Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting. Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 189–191

References Loewenstein, Felix zu, Saint Magdalene – or Bibi Rabi‘a Basri – in Mogul Painting? in: Islamic Culture. An English Quarterly Vol. XIII, No. 4, Oct. 1939 Smith, Margaret, Muslim Women Mystics.

The Life and Work of Rabi‘a and other Women Mystics in Islam, Oxford: Oneworld Publications 2001 Weis, Friederike, 2011

Rabi‘a

OUDH, by Shyam Das, 2nd half of 18th cent.

The painting is signed in gold at the lower left “amal-e-shyam das”.

The subject illustrated in this miniature is related to the previous two miniatures: A Saint – this time a female Saint – is visited by an angel who brings food. Shyam Das does not depict the Saint as an emaciated ascetic but as a young and beautiful woman, adorned with precious jewellery.

When the miniature was offered for auction it carried the catalogue title “The Annunciation”. Obviously the cataloguer recognised the female Saint as Mary and the angel as Gabriel. There are indeed a number of European paintings and engravings of the annunciation and some of them were certainly available to Shyam Das. However, as Friederike Weis argues, European annunciation scenes are following a different pattern: – The annunciation takes place inside a room (Luke 1, 28) – Mary usually has an open book in her hands or on a table – Godfather and the Holy Spirit as a dove appear in the sky In contrast to this pattern Rabi‘a is shown in the desert, far away from any habitation, in a praying, not in a reading attitude. A closed book lies next to a candelabrum.

It was the Jesuit Felix zu Loewenstein who first identified the female Saint as Rabi‘a al Basri (Loewenstein, 1939, pp. 466–469).

Loewenstein had at that time access to a painting in the Akbar Hydari Collection, where he saw a miniature very similar to this one (pl. II). Loewenstein considered the figure of the repentant Mary Magdalene a convincing source of inspiration for the representations of Rabi‘a al Basri. The figure of the repentant Mary Magdalene was indeed frequently depicted since she was the most popular female Saint during the Counter Reformation, representing an outstanding model of sincere penitence.

The Societas Jesu was founded as a Catholic Congregation in the course of the Counter Reformation, and the Society’s Fathers must have taken prints and perhaps also paintings of St. Mary Magdalene to the Mughal Court.

A certain amount of uncertainty and mystery will probably remain.

In any case, Rabi‘a al Basri (717–801 AC) was – in a similar way as Ibrahim ibn Adham – a frequently depicted subject. She was popular among the friends of the Sufi Orders like the Chistis of Ajmer, where Akbar went on pilgrimage several times. Rabi‘a’s life legend was known throughout the Islamic world, especially in Safavid Persia and in the Indo-Islamic subcontinent.

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Decorated page 43,9 x 28,8 cm miniature 19,1 x 10,7 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018

PUBLISHED Sotheby’s and Co. London, Catalogue of Oriental Manuscripts, Indian and Persian Miniatures, November 27, 1974, Lot 806 Christie’s London, Islamic Art and Manuscripts, April 26, 2005, Lot 227 Weis, 2006, fig. 5 Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. 33 Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi: Manohar 2012, pl. 2/9, p. 44 Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting. Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013, fig. 5.2, p. 68

Madonna and Child (“Hastings Madonna”)

OUDH, 2nd half of 18th cent.

The Virgin stands behind a parapet draped with an oriental carpet. She wears a necklace of pearls and a chain with a ruby pendant. The child Jesus raises his right hand in blessing.

Several palace buildings can be seen behind them. In the background is a landscape with rocks and trees.

The miniature belonged to the Warren Hastings Album, which contained 23 leaves. Hastings stayed in India for altogether 34 years and was a Governor General of India from 1774 to 1785.

He collected Indian miniatures, but it is not clear whether this miniature was collected by him or it was painted on his order.

The composition is based on an engraving by Jerome Wierix, ca 1600, of the Salus Populi Romani. The Awadhi painter obviously recognised the holy status of Jesus by adorning him with a halo while he does not really confer saintliness to Mary. There is speculation that this has to do with Hasting’s adherence to the Anglican Church.

References Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011 Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi: Manohar 2012 Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting. Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013 Weis, Friederike, Die Salus Populi Romani in Miniaturen der Moghulzeit, in: Vanamala – Festschrift für Adalbert J. Gail, ed. by Gerd Mevissen und Klaus Bruhn, Berlin 2006, pp. 235–242 Weis, Friederike, 2011

Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 5 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 162–165

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Decorated page 26,0 x 19,0 cm Miniature 9,8 x 7,6 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Sharma, Mahesh/Kaimal, Padma, Indian Painting. Essays in Honour of B.N. Goswamy, Ahmedabad: Mapin 2013, fig. 5.1, p. 66 Museum Rietberg, 2014, cat. no. 6 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 166–167

Salus Populi Romani

DECCAN, 18th cent.

The miniature is a close copy of the Salus Populi Romani in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Copies of this famous icon were produced from 1569 onwards, after Pope Pius V. had given formal permission to use the icon for missionary purposes. One of the copies (produced in Goa?) reached the Mughal Court in 1580. According to the Jesuit Monserrate, Emperor Akbar came a number of times into the chapel of the Jesuits to see and adore this Madonna (Monserrate, p. 48/49).

References Monserrate, Antonio, S.J., The Commentary of Father Monserrate S.J. on his journey to the court of Akbar, transl. from the original Latin by J. S. Hoyland, annotated by S. N. Banerjee, London 1922 Weis, Friederike, Die Salus Populi Romani in Miniaturen der Moghulzeit, in: Vanamala – Festschrift für Adalbert J. Gail, ed. by Gerd Mevissen und Klaus Bruhn, Berlin 2006, pp. 235–242 Weis, Friederike, 2011

PRovenance Koller Auktionen, Asiatika, Zürich, March 27, 2010, Lot 357

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Decorated page 25,6 x 37,2 cm miniature With illumination 16,7 x 23,0 cm Miniature without illumination 11,5 x 18,0 cm

Saint Zachariah

provincial Mughal, 18th cent.

The lightly coloured drawing shows the elderly Zachariah who is about to write the name of his new-born son John (Yahya) onto the blank page of a book. An angel standing in front of him holds up the book and hands him an inkpot.

At first sight one may think of St. Matthew, the Evangelist, who receives inspiration by an angel while writing the gospel (cf. no. 6 of this catalogue). Different from no. 6, however, there is not much communication between the old man and the angel.Thus, the more convincing interpretation is the story of Zachariah which is reported in the New Testament (Luke 1, 5–25) as well as in the Koran (Sura 3: 38). Zachariah remained mute after the birth of his son till he wrote the name “John� onto a book presented to him by an angel.

The Mughal artist places the scene into the courtyard of a palatial building. He uses some colour and gold.

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Decorated page 30,0 x 21,0 cm

Saint Zachariah (?)

provincial Mughal, 18th cent.

Miniature 28,0 x 19,0 cm

A white-bearded man and an elegantly dressed woman meet in a hilly landscape under a tree. The woman standing in front of the man is handing him an inkpot and a book with blank pages.

Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015

The visual scheme “bearded man with a book in discussion with an angel/a woman” is reminiscent of engravings depicting St. Matthew the Evangelist (e.g. Philipp Galle, 1562).

However, the more convincing interpretation is – again – the story of Zachariah, as in the previous entry (no. 26).

Reference Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 43,0 x 27,5 cm miniature 9,1 x 6,9 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 PUBLISHED Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. 51 Provenance Sam Fogg Ltd., 2003

A Lady nursing her Child

DECcan, ca 1685–1700 The subject of the breast-feeding Madonna was not uncommon in Renaissance Europe (Madonna Lactans). There are Italian as well as Dutch engravings of the subject. One of the better known is “The Holy Family resting during the flight to Egypt”

by Johan Sadeler I. Around the oval engraving an inscription is readable “... dabo tibi ubera mea” (I give you my breast).

The Deccani artist has adorned his figures with some jewellery.

The child wears bangles around his ankles and his right wrist.

Mary has an opulent necklace formed by two rows of pearls. In addition she has a bracelet and three rings on her left hand.

The miniature is most likely an example of the Mughal-style painting in the Deccan after the successive conquest of the Deccan Sultanates by the Mughals. There are miniatures with similar features in Deccani painting (Zebrowski, 1983, figs. 177 and 186) but also in Awadhi painting (Leach, 1995, p. 698).

References Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Indian Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, London 1995 Zebrowski, Mark, Deccani Painting, Berkeley: University of California Press 1983 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 29,2 x 20,7 cm Miniature 20,0 x 12,7 cm Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015

Man with a Dog

Deccan, late 18th or early 19th century A bearded man with a dog seems to have been a common theme in Mughal painting (cf. no. 2, Evangelist). Here, however, the man in the miniature wears a wreath of flowers and a halo. He holds a stick and a flywhisk in his hands. The two cypresses en­twined with flowery bushes do appear on other Mughal paintings.

No immediate European source of inspiration jumps up: The only prototype could be – again – St. Roch, whose dog is a constant companion to him on his pilgrimages. Engravings of St. Roch were available in India. One of them is mounted on a page in the Large Clive Album (Victoria and Albert Museum, I.S. 133 – 1964, fol. 7b, unpublished photograph).

Reference Weis, Friederike, 2011

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miniature 22,6 x 16,2 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018

Two Men at a Hermitage

provincial Mughal, 18th or 19th cent.

An old man with coloured wings sits in a wooden hut. His eyes are closed. He holds a rosary in his right hand.

A younger man stands in front of him. He is dressed in a green robe and leans on a stick. In his left hand he holds an open book.

No really convincing European prototype for this miniature surfaces.

So, may be, the two men at a hermitage are a late popular version of the pir and murid theme, which was in fashion during the Golden Age of the Mughals, like the miniature to the left by Muhammad Nadir Samarquandi, 2nd quarter of 17th century.

Published Diözesanmuseum Rot­ tenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 201–203 References Skelton, Robert, Relations between Mughal and Central Asian Painting in the 17th century. Paper presented at the 2nd European Seminar on Central Asian Studies, London, SOAS, April 1987 (published in the Douglas Barrett Festschrift) Weis, Friederike, 2011

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page 27,9 x 23,0 cm

The Archangels Israfil and Jibril

Deccan, Bijapur, 1571

Miniature with text a) Israfil: 24,3 x 18,7 cm b) Jibril: 25,4 x 18,8 cm

From a ‘Aja‘ib al-makhluqat wa ghara‘ib al mawjudat (The Wonders of Creation and Oddities of Existence) of Zakariya al-Qazwini

Provenance Collection Catherine and Ralph Benkaim, Los Angeles

Israfil – the Archangel Raphael – is blowing the horn on the Day of Judgement. Jibril – the Archangel Gabriel – brought the Koran to Mohammad, and in the New Testament the Annunciation to Mary.

The page belongs to a cosmography by Zakariya al-Qazwini. The manuscript was written and illustrated in the atelier of the Sultan of

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Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 192–194

Bijapur, Ali Adil Shah, reg. 1557–1580. There are two more manuscripts with the same subject from the same workshop. One of them bears the date 979 A.H., i.e. 1571/72 A.D. (Badiee, 1978, fig. 10). Based on the striking similarity of the depiction of the Archangels it can be reasonably assumed that this leaf is exactly contemporary to the manuscript in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. References Badiee, Julie, Angels in an Islamic Heaven, in: Los Angeles County Museum of Arts Bulletin, 24 (1978), pp. 51–59 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 41,9 x 27,7 cm Miniature 19,8 x 12,1 cm Provenance Sam Fogg Ltd., 2004

Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. V Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 158–159

Nativity

deccan, ca 1640–1660 The composition type is common: Mary kneels before the newborn child which lies on the ground. Two angels stand in adoration on the left. A pair of cows and a pair of sheep are placed at the border of a pond. Behind Mary a stable can be seen. In the middle ground is a temple. The background is made up by angels who descend from the clouds, each holding a different object.

One is playing a flute, and three of them are ringing bells.

While the miniature is certainly based on a Christian engraving, there are interesting adaptations: One of the standing angels and two of the hovering angels wear feathered shirts which brings them into the neighbourhood of adhivasis (original inhabitants of India).

The cows have Indian humps, the temple has Hindu features.

There is a similar miniature by Manohar in the Fondation Custodia (Gahlin, 1991, pl. 12). Manohar’s Nativity dates to ca 1600. It might have served as a prototype for the Deccani painters who had been trained at the Mughal ateliers before migrating to the South, when the Deccan became a zone of Mughal influence after 1640.

References Gahlin, Sven, The Courts of India. Indian Miniatures from the Collection of the Fondation Custodia, Paris 1991 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 21,3 x 16,7 cm miniature 11,4 x 6,9 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Sotheby’s London, Important Oriental Miniatures, Manuscripts and Qajar Lacquer, October 8, 1979, Lot 23 Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, March 31, 2009, Lot 220

The Virgin Mary holding a book

probably HYDERABAD, ca 1750 The Virgin stands in a window framed by a white arch with floral panels. A rug with floral motifs is draped over the ledge. This composition corresponds to bust portraits of Mughal emperors standing at the jharokha window, where they appeared for darshan.

Throughout the 16th century engravings and woodcuts depicting bust portraits of emperors and territorial rulers behind a parapet and within an architectural frame were widely known in Europe.

Equally widely known were Madonnas holding a book.

The Hyderabad artist may have combined these prototypes in order to convey nobility to the Virgin.

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. 8 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 150–152

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Decorated page 31,0 x 20,3 cm Miniature 8,3 x 3,4 cm provenance 25 Blythe Road, London’s Specialist Antique Auctioneers, November 2013, Lot 219

Maryam showing a Book

provincial Mughal, late 17th cent.

The subject of this miniature is very similar to the previous one (no. 33). The composition is, however, more simple and concentrates exclusively on the portrait of the Madonna.

The miniature has a pink floral border and is laid on gold paper. It carries verso a later inscription, “Maryam”.

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Decorated page 33,4 x 21,2 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018

PUBLISHED Sotheby’s London, Art of Imperial India, October 8, 2014, Lot 204 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 168–170

Virgin and Child (Omen Book)

Provincial Mughal, most probably Deccan, ca. 1580 The painting is a gouache on cloth, laid down on stout paper. It is an illustration from a series of omens and interpretations of dreams.

Maryam and Isa (both are addressed in the text panel above) sit in a Mughal garden. Mary holds a pomegranate in her left hand, a reference to a paradisical setting, vaguely reminiscent of European hortus-conclusus-paintings (“Paradiesgärtlein”). She wears a red cloak, but is not adorned with a flame halo like her son.

Books of Omens – falnameh – were in use in Persia, in the Ottoman Empire and in Mughal India. Many of the miniatures in the books of omens depict prophets or holy figures relevant in Islam, e.g. Jonah, Abraham, Mose, etc. In this painting it is the Virgin Maryam and Isa who provide a very auspicious omen. Invocations to Maryam were quite common, especially with the ladies of the high nobility.

Within the Shia Maryam is frequently associated with Fatimah, Ali’s wife. Both “guarded their chastity”, “conceived a child through a word of God” and are called “pure”. One of Fatimah’s names is “Maryam al-Kubra” (the Greater Mary).

The affinity to Shia belief is not certain in this painting, but a similar leaf from a Persian falnameh in the Wereldmuseum Rotterdam (inv. no. 71803/29) carries a mention of the son – pessar – which could be interpreted as a reference to the Mahdi who will be sent with the help of Isa on the Day of Judgement (reproduced in Bressan, 2011, tavola 2).

It is suggested to place the painting into one of the Sultanate ateliers in the Deccan (Bijapur, Bidar, Golconda). Since these principalities had their own relations with Persia, the prototype for this miniature might not necessarily have come via the Mughal Court.

References Blair, Sheila/Bloom, Jonathan, Images of Paradise in Islamic Art, Hannover 1991 Digby, Simon, Paintings from Mughal India, London: Colnaghi 1979, pp. 15–17 Farhad, Massumeh/Bagci, Sepril, Falnama. The Book of Omens, Washington 2009 Langer, Axel/Lutz, Albert (eds.), Orakel: Der Blick in die Zukunft, Zürich: Museum 1999

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OTHER INDIAN MINIATURES

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Decorated Page 16,2 x 23,2 cm miniature 7,8 x 14,8 cm

Winged female Musicians

RAJASTHAN, Bundi, ca 1670–1680 The miniature shows three angel-like female musicians and one female angel-like dancer. The music theme was part of Bundi painting from the time of Bhao Singh of Bundi (reg. 1659–1682) onwards. The ruler is often shown in the company of female musicians. Angel-like musicians appear on murals as well (Bautze, 2005, fig. 4).

In Mughal art, miniatures showing angels were mostly influenced

by European engravings. When Mughal patronage started to decline in the 2nd half of the 17th cent., a number of painters migrated to provincial courts. It is possible that the angels migrated with them.

References Bautze, Joachim, The Early Royal Murals of Dungarpur, Rajasthan, in: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archeologists, ed. by Ute Franke-Vogt and Hans-Joachim Weisshaar, Aachen 2005, pp. 509–514 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Pietà with Angels

RAJASThAN, 19th cent. miniature 25,0 x 21,6 cm

The ink drawing, partly coloured with red, shows Christ sup­ ported by three angels. The structure on which Christ is resting is not easy to identify. It may be a tomb or an altar stone.

Friederike Weis suggests that it is reasonable to follow the altar stone-version: In 15th and 16th centuries Venetian painting – Bellini/Veronese – the dead Christ is supported by angels (Belting, 1985, fig. 31). May be the painter of this ink drawing was exposed to a reproduction of a Venetian painting.

Since Christ’s body does not show any wounds, an alternative interpretation of the drawing could refer to the statement in the Koran, that Christ was not killed on the cross but “elevated up to Allah” (Sura 4: 159). It deserves mention that this version was also prevailing in some Christian sects.

References Belting, Hans, Giovanni Bellini’s Pietà – Ikone und Bilderzählung in der venezianischen Malerei, Frankfurt/Main 1985 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 34,0 x 24,5 cm Miniature 29,8 x 20,5 cm EXHIBITION Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018

Published Bressan, Luigi, Maria nella devozione e nella pittura dell’Islam, Milano: Jaca Book 2011, pl. 7 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 171–172

Maryam and ‘Isa

ANDHRA, probably Masulipatnam, 19th cent.

The inscription on the upper margin of the miniature reads: “Hazrat Maryam wa ‘Isa ruhullah” (The venerable Mary and Jesus, the spirit of God). The miniature is an interesting example of Indo-Islamic folk art. Even after the decline of the Mughal Empire and the Sultanates of the Deccan, representations of Mary and Child continued to be popular. This ongoing popularity may have to do with the fact that similar Hindu images of Yashoda caring for the little Krishna have always been popular in Indian art – up to today!

The painting suggests an allusion to Kalamkari (pen work) Painting of Coastal Andhra in the 19th century, see Dallapiccola, 2011, pp. 139–155.

ReferenceS Dallapiccola, Anna, Indian Painting. The Lesser-known Traditions, New Delhi 2011 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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miniature 6,3 x 5,4 cm PUBLISHED Christie’s New York, Christie’s Interiors, October 2-3, 2012, Lot 344 provenance Doris Wiener Collection

Portrait of Mary (Rajput)

Rajasthan, 18th/19th cent.

The little ink drawing is partly coloured, nim qalam (half pen). It shows a portrait of Mary, who is adorned with an Indian necklace.

The careful study drawing was probably done in one of the Raj­put ateliers in the end of 18th or the beginning of 19th century. It is not evident on whose commission it was executed. Maybe it was intended to be a devotional image for one of the many European mercenaries serving in the different Rajput armies.

Doris Wiener had acquired the little painting a long time back.

When I got it it was too late to ask her about the details.

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Miniature 8,6 x 13,5 cm Published Christie’s New York, The Doris Wiener Collection, March 20, 2012, Lot 259 provenance Doris Wiener Collection

Mother and Child at the Jarokha

Rajasthan, probably Bundi, 18th cent.

The Virgin Mary sits on a carpet, tenderly embracing the grown-up child. The scene is portrayed against a Jharoka background with a floral-patterned, rolled-up curtain. The child Jesus is adorned with a halo (cf. no. 24), while his mother is identifiable by her customary blue cloak.

The painter did not exactly correspond to the pattern of a Jharoka setting (cf. no. 33), where there is always a certain amount of formality. This small painting is more informal, more intimate.

The style of the painting and certain accessoires (pome­granates, strawberry, white cat) is indicative of Bundi painting in the 1st half of 18th century.

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oVal picture 26,2 x 19,6 cm PUBLISHED Bonhams London, Islamic and Indian Art, April 24, 2012, Lot 267

A Mother cradling her Child

Rajasthan, possibly Mewar, early 19th cent.

At first sight the oval painting gives the impression of displaying Indian iconography: Mary is wearing an Indian dopatta and necklaces and earrings. The little boy wears ornaments on his wrists and around his upper body, according to Brahmin custom.

The onlooking figure of the elderly lady is, however, an indication that the painting is based on some other prototype. The onlooking elderly lady is most probably Anna, the mother of Mary. This arrangement was often depicted in European religious art: Anna Selbdritt, the three generations together.

The Rajasthani painter was certainly influenced by the ubiquitous depictions of Yashoda and Krishna. But at the same time he must have been aware of one of the often reproduced images of Anna Selbdritt.

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Folio 21,0 x 18,0 cm oval miniature 7,2 x 6,2 cm Exhibition Forge and Lynch Ltd., Asia Week New York, March 2014, Lot 4 References Losty, Jeremiah P./Roy, Malini, Mughal India: Art, Culture and Em­ pire – Manuscripts and Paintings in the British Library, London 2012 A well researched article with many pictures is: Begum Samru, baptized Johanna, in: Amaladass, Anand/Loewner, Gudrun, Christian Themes in Indian Art, New Delhi (Manohar) 2012. pp. 94 ff.

A very impressive portrait of Begum Samru is in: Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi, 1707–1857, ed. by William Dalrymple and Yuthika Sharma, New Haven/Lon­ don: Yale University Press 2012 The most comprehensive documentation of paintings associated with Begum Samru is: Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Indian Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, Vol. II., London 1995, pp. 791 ff.

The Begum Samru

DELHI, 1840–1845; after a portrait by Jivan Ram The inscription above the margin says: “Portrait of Begum Samru Saheb”.

The Begum was a most extraordinary character. She was probably born in 1745 into a North Indian Muslim family of petty nobility.

At the age of 20 she got married to the German mercenary Walther Reinhardt (1720–1778). His nom de guerre was Summer which got corrupted into Sumroo or Samru. Being a very successful commander of his private army, Summer was awarded by Shah Alam II with the jagir (landed estate) of Sar­dhana near Meerut. On his death the Begum not only succeeded to his jagir but also to the command of his mercenary troops.

In 1781 the Begum converted to Catholicism and took up the new name Johanna Nobilis. She built a huge church at Sardhana and persuaded the Vatican to make it into a cathedral. That is how her palace chaplain became the first (and last) bishop.

After her death in 1836 a funerary monument in marble was carved for her in Italy and shipped to her cathedral in Sardhana.

The catholic Begum was a patron of artists. The most famous of them was Raja Jivan Ram who painted a number of portraits of her.

This miniature is based on one of Jivan Ram’s portraits. The decorative arrangement is the same as in the por­ trait of Emperor Bahadur Shah II, dated 1844 (Losty, Jeremiah P./Roy, Malini, 2012, fig. 164).

For the Sardhana basilica and the Begum’s marble tomb see: Bailey, Gauvin, Architectural Relics of the Catholic Missionary Era in Mughal India, in: Crill, Rosemary/Stronge, Susan/ Topsfield, Andrew (eds.), Arts of Mughal India. Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton, Ahmedabad/London 2004, pp. 141–151

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Miniature 20,4 x 14,0 cm provenance Christie’s, April 22, 2016, Lot 514

The Virgin and Child (Mewar)

Mewar, 2nd half 18th century The Virgin Mary is breastfeeding the child. She wears a black veil.

The child’s head is adorned by a golden nimbus. The painting is within a pink medaillon with a walled cityscape in the background.

The painting carries the signature of Sheikh Turab. This painter seems to have worked at the court of the Maharaja of Mewar in the 2nd half of 18th century. The lower Nastaliq script is probably a later attribution with an incorrect spelling of the painter’s name.

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PERSIAN MINIATURES

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Decorated Page 32,5 x 19,0 cm miniature 19,8 x 11,5 cm Exhibitions Joseph und Zulaikha. Beziehungsge­ schichten zwischen Indien, Persien und Europa, Kupferstichkabinett, Staatl. Museen zu Berlin, 2014 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Sotheby’s London, Arts of the Islamic World, April 5, 2006, Lot 36 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 137–139

Yusuf being rescued from the well

BUKHARA, 2nd half of 16th cent., from a manuscript of Jami’s Yusuf wa Zulaikha The story of Joseph/Yusuf who had been thrown into a well by his jealous brothers is told in the Old Testament (Genesis 37, 24 ff.) and also in the Koran (Sura 12: 11 ff.). Both holy scriptures tell us about his rescue and his subsequent sale to Egyptian merchants who were passing by. The painting illustrates how Yusuf was lifted out of the well.

According to Friederike Weis the miniature originates from a manuscript of Yusuf and Zulaikha, written in 1483 by the Persian poet Jami. Sotheby’s cataloguer had mentioned a different source, i.e. a khamse of Nizami. The Yusuf and Zulaikha text was illustrated quite often in Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries, see no. 17e of this catalogue.

References Weis, Friederike, 2011 Beyer, Vera/Weis, Friederike/Schulze Altcappenberg, Heinrich, Joseph und Zulaikha. Beziehungsgeschichten zwischen Indien, Persien und Europa, Berlin 2014, fig. 2

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Decorated page 27,3 x 20,5 cm miniature 18,2 x 24,5 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Sehnsucht Persien, 2013 Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 PUBLISHED Schulz, Walter Philipp, Die persisch-islamische Miniaturmalerei, Vol. I., Leipzig 1914, p. 195 Sotheby’s London, Catalogue of Important Oriental Manu­ scripts and Miniatures. The Property of the Hagap Kevorkian Fund, May 2, 1977, Lot 54 Sims, Eleanor, The European print sources of paintings by the seventeenth-century Persian painter Muhammad-Zaman ibn Haji Yusuf of Qum, Bologna 1983, plates 76–83 Bonhams, Islamic and Indian Art, April 10, 2008, Lot 15 Langer, Axel, Sehnsucht Persien, Zürich 2013, Abb. 90

The Victory of Truth

SAFAVID, Isphahan, attr. to Mohammad Zaman ibn Haji Yusuf Qumi, dated Jumada 2, 1059 A.H. (June/July 1649 A.D.) The miniature is most probably one of the earliest works of Moham­ mad Zaman ibn Haji Yusuf of Qum. The legible part of the inscrip­ tion identifies him as “The least Mohammad Zaman (“kamtarin Mohammad Zaman”). The identity of this painter is a matter of discussion. The Italian traveller Niccolo Manucci who spent some time in India in the middle of the 17th century refers to a Persian by name of Mohammad Zaman who was able to talk to him in Italian. This Mohammad Zaman explained to Manucci that he originated from Isphahan and was sent to Rome to study Italian painting. While in Rome he converted to catholicism and was called Paolo Zaman.

When he returned to Isphahan he fell into disfavour with the ruling elite and had to flee to India where he received protection by Emperor Shah Jahan (Ivanov 1979 and Sims 1983). Since Mohammad Zaman is a very common name in Persia till today, it is questionable whether Manucci really met the painter Mohammad Zaman in India.

In any case Mohammad Zaman ibn Haji Yusuf Qumi was a famous painter in Isphahan in the second half of the 17th century. He executed a number of paintings “in the European style” (farangi sazi), mostly with Christian subjects, but also with antique and allegorical themes.

The painting is an almost direct copy of an engraving

by Zacharias Dolendo after Karel van Mander. The engraving shows the personification of Truth as one of the “Powers That Rule The World” (repro­­duced in The New Hollstein, The de Gheyn Family, part I, no. 29). If Mohammad Zaman would not have been in Italy, he might have had fairly easy access to this engraving in Isphahan, where a number of Dutch merchants were living and where trade with the Dutch East India Company was ongoing.

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References Ivanov, A. A., The Life of Muhammad Zaman: A Re­ consideration, in: IRAN, Vol. XVII, pp. 65–70 Sims, Eleanor, op. cit., pp. 73–83 Langer, Axel, op. cit., pp. 170–237 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 36,4 x 24,5 cm

Virgin and Child (Armenian Madonna)

ISPHAHAN, New Julfa, dated 1649, Safavid border 16th cent.

Exhibition Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015

From 1600 onwards Armenian Christians were resettled by the ruling Shah Abbas I (reg. 1587–1629) from Julfa into a newly established location called New Julfa, across the river from Isphahan. Most of the new inhabitants were prosperous merchants who had trade relations with European countries. They sponsored the construction of churches and monasteries in New Julfa and acted as patrons of religious art.

Published Christie’s London, The Arcana Collection: Important Rare Books and Manuscripts, Part II, October 27, 2010, Lot 21

The miniature of Virgin and Child was obviously intended and com­ missioned as a devotional image. The line below the painting says: “From Mr. Khachatur as a remembrance for his sons”. The line above the painting mentions the date 1649. However, the blue and golden border is of an earlier date, probably the first half of 16th century.

Miniature 16,8 x 11,5 cm

The peculiarity of this miniature is the micrographic script on the Virgin’s robe and on the vase with the lilies.

The script is in German. It consists of parts of Psalm 103 “Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele ... Lobet den Herrn, alle seine Heerscharen ...

Lobet den Herrn, alle seine Werke ..., die Tage des Menschen sind wie Gras ... er blüht wie eine Blume auf dem Felde ...”.

So far no convincing explanation was found as to how the German microscript got onto the painting.

Since the writing is without mistakes and in the style of the 17th century, it can be assumed that it was written by a German hand. Possibly the leaf was taken to Germany, may be by one of the Armenian silk merchants. The more likely alternative is that the writing was executed by a German member of one of the Catholic Congregations, established at that time at Isphahan, or by a member of a German trade delegation accredited to the Imperial Court.

References Herzig, Edmund, The Armenian Merchants of New Julfa, London 2004 Weis, Friederike, 2011

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Decorated page 26,5 x 38 cm miniature 14,5 x 22 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 PUBLISHED Bonhams London, Islamic and Indian Art, April 10, 2008, Lot 44

Christ healing a Man sick of Palsy

QAJAR PERSIA, late 19th cent.

The easiest way to identify the scene of this painting is to open the New Testament: Jesus’ stay at Capernaum and the healing miracle are reported in three gospels: Matthew 9, 1–8, and Mark 2, 1–12, and Luke 5, 17–26.

The miniature shows the paralytic lying on his bed. Jesus, adorned by a huge aureole, stands at his bedside. He is touching the sick man’s left hand. The two bearded men at the right are probably Pharisees, as mentioned in the gospels.

The painting as well as its border contain many features of traditional Persian painting. At the same time the leaf demonstrates the impact of European art which became sig­nificant in Qajar Persia in the late 19th century.

References Weis, Friederike, 2011

Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 173–176

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Decorated page 33 x 50 cm Miniature 24,5 x 41 cm Published Bonhams London, Islamic and Indian Sale, October 14, 2004, Lot 101

The Day of Cursing

PERSIA, probably Isphahan, ca 1900 When offered for auction the painting carried the description: “The Imam Ali and his two sons under a tree, angels hovering in the sky, Jews and Christians praying in the foreground”. An extended family picture? The three main figures – Mohammad, Ali and Fatimah – are adorned with halos. The two sons of Ali, Husain and Hassan, have a smaller nimbus.

However, the key to the identification of the scene are the two groups of men in the centre and at the left side. Most of them are wearing European clothes. Hence, they represent Christians. This leads us to an event that is part of Shi‘ite history: The meeting of the Christian leaders of Najran with Mohammad. The Najrani Christians – most of them merchants – had engaged Mohammad into a dispute on the status of the Christians. Since there was no agreement, Mohammad invited the Christians to an ordeal by oath: God should destroy those whose statements are untrue. The next morning the two opposing groups met.

Mohammad brought his family with him: His daughter Fatimah, his son-in-law Ali, and his grandsons Husain and Hassan. When the Christians saw Mohammad’s family, they decided to forego the oath and agreed to pay the jiziya (poll tax) to become dhimmis (protegés).

References Chelkowski, Peter, The Scholar and the Saint, New York 1975 Schmucker, Werner, Die christliche Minderheit von Najran und die Problematik ihrer Beziehungen zum frühen Islam, in: Bonner Orientalische Studien, N.S. XXVII/1, pp. 183 ff.

Weis, Friederike, 2011

While the painting itself might be of moderate quality, its historical significance is high: The presence of Ali and his sons at this dramatic event is decisive for the status of the two religious communities. Consequently the painter put up three angels emerging from the sky pouring golden light onto Ali and his sons.

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Decorated page 29,3 x 18,9 cm Miniature with illumination 18,8 x 11,6 cm core Miniature 9,2 x 6,1 cm EXHIBITIONS Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014, cat. no. 8 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 177–179

Christ on the Cross

SAFAVID PERSIA, 17th cent.

The grisaille drawing is a genuine engraving by Hieronymus Wierix.

It was produced in Antwerp before 1613 and was copied several times (cf. Wallraff Richartz Museum, Cologne, Graphische Sammlung, Inv. Nr. 19568). The drawing is an allegory of the Salvation of the World.

The five personifications at the bottom of the cross can be identified since the original engraving by Wierix carried a Latin text below the image. This text was probably cut off when the engraving was fitted into the album. The personifications refer to the Epistle of Paul to the Romans 8, 35: “Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness ...?”

The Persian painter extended the core engraving by adding more rocks of the Golgotha hill below and more clouds above. This was probably meant to adjust the leaf to the size of an album page.

The leaf is a curiosity and will probably remain enigmatic.

Why was it integrated into a Safavid album? According to the Koran, Sura 4: 158–159, Jesus was not really crucified on the cross but Allah lifted him up and thus saved him from death.

PROVENANCE Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, October 6, 2011, Lot 255

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Folio 30,5 x 40,6 cm miniature 10,2 x 5,5 cm PUBLISHED Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, October 6, 2011, Lot 223

Mary and Joseph

SAFAVID PERSIA, 1st quarter of 17th cent., School of Riza-yi ’Abbasi The lightly coloured drawing shows Mary in a cloak with headscarf and pink-washed lips and the balding Joseph with long thin hair.

The famous 17th century Isphahani artist Riza-yi ’Abbasi and his school have copied European prints, although Riza mainly painted portraits of dervishes and court servants. A European source for this drawing has not yet been identified.

References Canby, Sheila, Rebellious Reformer, The drawings and paintings of Riza-yi ’Abbasi of Isphahan, London 1996

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Decorated page 37,8 x 23,9 cm Miniature 23,0 x 14,6 cm Exhibitions Museum Rietberg, Christus in Indien, 2014/2015 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018 Published Christie’s London, Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, A private sale donated to benefit the University of Oxford, April 25, 2013, Lot 108 Museum Rietberg, 2014, fig. 4 Diözesanmuseum Rottenburg, Dialog der Welten, 2018, pp. 134–136 References Koch, Ebba, The Solomonic Peace among the Beasts as a Symbol of the Ruler’s Justice, in: Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, New Delhi 2001, pp. 116 ff.

Solomon enthroned

SAFAVID SHIRAZ, ca 1580 The folio is half of a double-page frontispiece of a manuscript.

It would probably have faced a folio of Bilqis, the Queen of Sheba enthroned. This arrangement is in conformity with the First Book of Kings, chapter 10, of the Old Testament.

Solomo, in a halo of flame, kneels upon a golden throne. Before him kneels his wazir Asaf. There are angels, divs (demons), attendants, real and fantastic beasts around him. A landscape with a silver stream is in the foreground and purple rocky mountains in the background.

Solomo (in Persian/Arabic/Turkish: Suleyman) was considered throughout the Islamic world as the representation of the ideal king, who is fair and just (“sultan-e-adil”). According to the prophecies of Isaiah, Solomon’s kingship would eventually lead to messi­ anic rule, perfect peace and harmony, a state of paradise, where the bull lives in neighbourhood with the lion, the lamb with the wolf, the peacock with the panther and the dove with the falcon.

The fact that Solomo was very often represented, not only in paint­ ings but also in murals, has to do with the imperial ideology of the Safavid and the Mughal Emperors. Solomo was their “role model”.

In line with the intended imperial representation of the Safavid Dynasty, the successor of Shah Abbas I (reg. 1587–1629) took up the name Suleyman when he ascended the throne in Isphahan.

Cf. no. 17f of this catalogue.

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Nativity in the Desert

Decorated page 32,5 x 20,5 cm

Safavid, end of 16th century, from a Qesas al-Anbiyâ of Neyshâburi, possibly Tabriz

Miniature 16,0 x 12,5 cm

The painting, which was originally part of a manuscript, combines two events that are both qur’anic : the annunciation to Maryam by the Archangel Jibril (right side) and the birth of the child (left side).

The pictorial representation of the annunciation and the birth of Isa follow rather strictly the qur’anic text, Sura XIX, 17–26. The nativity takes place in the desert, under a palm tree and by the side of a small river which comes out of a miraculous spring.

The child Isa is dressed in a blue caftan in the Ottoman style. He is placed in the lap of his mother Maryam.

A similar picture is in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Suppl. Persan, 1313, f.174r.

Reference Milstein, Rachel/Rührdanz, Karin/Schmitz, Barbara, Stories of the Prophets, Illustrated Manuscripts of Qisas al-Anbiyâ, Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Publishers 1999, esp. pp. 155–157

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Decorated page 31,8 x 19,7 cm Miniature 18,5 x 14,0 cm Provenance Sotheby’s, Arts of the Islamic Worlds, London, April 25, 2018, Lot 77

Angels bowing before the newly created Adam

Safavid Persia, 17th century The album page depicts a rare scene, the birth of Adam. It refers to Surah al-Hijr, XV, 30/31.

All the angels, except Iblis, are represented bowing before God’s creation, Adam, who lies naked on flowering grass. Iblis, in the form of a respectable old man, is kneeling on a prayer rug. Above his head is a disk, which could be understood as a symbol of God (?). This might explain why Iblis refuses to prostrate before a mortal creation.

The inscription above the painting refers to the above mentioned Quoranic verse “... the angels prostrated ... all of them together except Iblis”. The inscription below continues “... they were touching the soil with their heads like birds targetting seeds ...”.

A similar scene is listed on f.9b of the Majalis al-Ushshak in the catalogue of the Persian manuscripts in the British Library (Or.11837; Safavid Persia, Shiraz, circa 1560s, Titley 1977).

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Decorated page 21,5 x 13,5 cm Miniature 12,0 x 7,0 cm Provenance Matthew Barton Ltd., 25 Blythe Rd, London, Sale June 6, 2018, Lot 310

The Holy Family

Qajar Persia, end of 18th century The Album page depicts Mary, the infant Jesus, and Joseph by the window of a European palace. The scene is surrounded by five concentric floral and geometric borders.

The Christian Holy Family is sometimes put into analogy with the family of the Prophet, ahl-al bayt. This might be a reason why this topic appears often in Shia Persian painting.

The stamp on the verso of the painting caries the title Nizam-al Mulk and the date 1204 or 1206, i.e. 1790 or 1792. Since stamps were used for a few years after being cut, it might be reasonable to assume that the album page was painted in the end of 18th centruy, i.e. in the early years of Qajar rule.

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imprint

All texts by Dr. Franz-Josef Vollmer in cooperation with Dr. Friederike Weis Coverdesign, stylesheet & layout: Gerald Sohn © Photos of the paintings nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 24, 25 by Rainer Wolfsberger, Museum Rietberg Zürich © Photo of the painting page 24 by Georg Niedermeiser / bpk / Museum für Islamische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ISBN: 978-3-00-061681-5 (second, revised and enlarged edition 2019) © 2015, 2019 by Franz-Josef Vollmer Dr. Jörg Lehmann Verlag, Berlin