In what ways did the traditional architecture and design of Japan influence Western architecture at the turn of the twentieth century? Joseph Christopherson 10265423 ARCO109
Contents 1. Introduction 2. A Brief History of Tradition 3. Who, what, where, when, why? 4. East & West Exchange 5. Conclusion 6. Bibliography
1 Introduction
Introduction In this essay I will look at the traditional architecture of Japan and how this has influenced architects of the 20th century. I will discuss in depth how the architects have translated the voice of traditional Asian architecture into modern designs. I will analyse: Tradition (pre 1850) – what is traditional Asian architecture? I will be looking at religious beliefs that have existed in Japanese culture for thousands of years. Whilst looking at climatic factors that have influenced the vernacular construction of Japanese design I will also look at the parallels between Japan and China and how, during the 12th century a distinct difference in social and political views has resulted in Japan creating a unique style that we see today. I will critically discuss key buildings that have influenced the western world and the architects that these have inspired.
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1 Introduction
Who (1850 – 1950) – I will look at the major western architects who have been involved in the implementation of Asian architecture in urban designs. I will also look at the time period, location and debate as to what started this revolution in design. Exchange (post 1950) – I will discuss the relevancy of cultural exchanges between east and west during our time, and where this is leading us. I will also look at the aspects of domestic home living in Japan which have been adapted for the west. I will also discuss modern Japanese architects such as Tadao Ando and how they are innovating architecture in Japan and in the west.
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2 A Brief History of Tradition
過去 Past
A Brief History of Tradition Japanese religion is based upon duality between Shintoism and Zen Buddhism. The word Shinto means "Way of the Gods". It was adopted from the written Chinese kanji "shin", meaning gods or spirits (originally from the Chinese word shen) and "tō" or "do" meaning a philosophical path or study (originally from the Chinese word tao). 1 Shinto incorporates spiritual practices derived from many local and regional prehistoric traditions, but did not emerge as a formal centralized religious institution until the arrival of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, at the beginning in the 6th century. 2 The emergence of Zen as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the 7th century 1
2
Ono Sokyo, Shinto the Kami Way, Tuttle Publishing, 2004, p.2 Bocking Brian, A Popular Dictionary of Shinto, Curzon Press, 1997, p.7
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2 A Brief History of Tradition
AD. Through Zen there developed a way that concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed scriptures. “The marvelous mind of Nirvana, the true form of the formless, the subtle dharma gate that does not rest on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures.� 3
This idea of experience is a crucial part of understanding how Japanese people act within a place, this has particular emphasis towards contemplation and simplicity of natural beauty. Traditional Japanese architecture can be split into two parts, the visible and invisible. The visible reflects architectural styles, works of art and traditional symbols and forms and architectural elements (interior or exterior). These are objects such as roof shapes, decorative elements, materiality, and traditional performing arts. The invisible traditions are represented by religion, philosophy, emotional sensitivity, and sense of order. They make up the character of people and their culture. During the Kamakura period (1185-1333) and Muromachi period (1336-1573), Japanese architecture made technological advances that diverged from Chinese counterparts that have been seen in earlier periods such as Heian , Asuka, Nara and prehistoric, most of which followed the Zen or typically Daibutsu style. This was due to native 3
Dumoulin Heinrich, Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China, World Wisdom Inc, 2005, p.9
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2 A Brief History of Tradition
requirements such as shelter against heavy rainfall and the summer heat. In 1600 AD Ieyasu Tokugawa (1543 – 1616), the first Shogun of Japan, closed the countries ports to foreign religious and trade influence. This period of isolation lasted until admiral Matthew Perry forced open Japan’s ports in 1853. After such a long period of isolation; when the borders were opened up, the whole (western) world was open and enthusiastic to experience the mythical, spiritual, cultural and architecture influence from Japan. 4 The geographical location of the Japanese islands means that it is susceptible to earth quakes (see fig.1 5 for more details). This Seismic activity is dominated by the movement of the pacific plate under the Okhotsk plate and, in the region of the Nankai trough in southern Japan, the movement of the Philippine sea plate under the Amurian plate. The complex interaction of these plates has produced a long history of damaging earthquakes. 6
4
“Shogun whose policies brought centuries of suffering upon Japan” [online] www.hyperhistory.net [22.12.2009]
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“blank outline map of Japan” [online] schools.look4.net.nz [2005]
6
Mahdiar Mehrdad, “Modelling Uncertainty in Earthquake Occurrence in Japan”, air worldwide [online] http:/www.air-worldwide.com[19.02.2009]
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2 A Brief History of Tradition
Fig.1
The master carpenters of this time responded with a unique type of architecture. They built using light materials that could be used again to rebuild a destroyed building, and architects devised a techniuqe for building towers around a sturdy pillar (Shinbashira), that could absorb some of the lateral ground movement as well as keep the supported floors from toppling. Unfortunately, the heavy reliance on wood as the primary building material has meant that fires destroyed many of the original structures. 6
2 A Brief History of Tradition
The Great Fire of Meireki also known as the Furisode Fire, destroyed 60-70% of the Japanese capital city of Edo (now Tokyo) on March 2, 1657 7.It lasted for three days, and is estimated to have claimed over 100,000 lives. It is one of the greatest disasters in Japanese history, the death and destruction incurred by the Meireki fire was very nearly comparable to that suffered in the 1945 bombing of Tokyo in World War II. Reconstruction efforts took two years, as the Shogunate took the opportunity to reorganize the city according to various practical considerations, for example streets were widened to reduce the risk of fires spreading and some districts replanned and reorganized. Japanese military and political power was dominated by the armed samurai. Their “simple” and “sturdy” ideas affected their style of architecture, and many houses are a mixture of shinden-zukuri and turrets or trenches. Shinden-zukuri refers to the style of domestic architecture developed for palatial or aristocratic mansions built in Heiankyo (today’s Kyoto) in the Heian period (794-1185) 8. A typical example of this style is the higashi sanjo-dono (see fig2 9 for more details).
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Sansom, George, A History of Japan: 1615-1867, Stanford University Press, 1963, p.61
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Perkins P.D, The Rise and Decline of Bukezukuri, Vol. 2, No.2, Monumenta Nipponica, july, 1939, p.596-608 9
“Miniature Model of Higashi-Sanjo Dono” [online] upload.wikimedia.org [09.06.2007]
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2 A Brief History of Tradition Fig.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
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Shinden (sleeping place / primary residence of house holder Kita-no-tai (North Pavillion Hosodono Higashi-no-tai (Eastern Pavillion) Higashi-kita-no-tai (North-East Pavillion) Samurai-dokoro Watadono (Roffed bridges) Chumon-ro Tsuridono (open pavillions at the South end of corridors, jutting out across or abutting the artificial pond, frequently used for moon-viewing parties) 10
Bryant Anthony, “shinden-zukuri Estates of the Heian period� [online]
www.sengokudaimyo.com[24.10.2009]
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3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
䝊 present
Who, What, Where, When, Why? Architects that have played a major part in bringing Asian architecture to the western civilisation are notably Charles Rennie Macintosh and Frank Lloyd Wright; these are but a few amongst many architects to have been inspired by Japanese culture and tradition. They have used this influence to develop their own styles and introduce innovative forms to the west. Charles Rennie Mackintosh was born in Glasgow on the 7th June, 1868. In 1890 he was the second winner of the Alexander Thomson travelling studentship, set up for the study of ancient classic architecture. Alexander Thomson had little appreciation outside of Glasgow during his lifetime. It has only been since the 1950s and 1960s that his critical 9
3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
reputation has been revived. It is also probable that he influenced many American architects such as Louis Sullivan and even Frank Lloyd Wright. 11 Charles Rennie Mackintosh lived most of his life in a prosperous area in the city of Glasgow. Located by the margins of the river Clyde, during the industrial revolution, shipyards at the river were exposed to Japanese navy and training engineers; Glasgow’s link with Japan became particularly close and design became more accessible and gained great popularity. Mackintosh admired the Japanese style because of its restraint and economy of means rather than ostentatious accumulation; its simple forms and natural materials rather than elaboration and artifice, the use of texture and light and shadow rather than pattern and ornament. At the same time a new philosophy concerned with creating functional practical design was emerging throughout Europe: the so called “modernist ideas”. Mackintosh was seen as a pioneer on the modernist movement even though his designs were far from bleak utilitarianism, they where focused around the needs of people: people seen, not as masses, but as individuals who needed not a machine for living but a work of art. Mackintosh took his inspiration from his Scottish upbringing and blended them with the flourish of art nouveau and the simplicity of Japanese forms. A good example of Mackintosh’s style is notably The House for an Art Lover, based on a design produced in 1901 by Mackintosh with his wife, Margaret 11
Stamp Gavin, Mckinstry sam, ‘Greek’ Thomson, Edinburgh University Press, 1994, p.207
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3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
MacDonald. The house was originally designed for an ideas competition set by a German design magazine despite disqualification due to late entry; the portfolio was awarded a prize for "pronounced personal quality, novel and austere form and the uniform configuration of interior and exterior". The building is situated in Bellahouston Park in Glasgow, construction began in 1989 and the house was finally opened to the public in 1996. (See fig.3a 12 and 3b 13)
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“Photograph of ''House for an Art Lover” competition entry”,[online] en.wikipedia.org [23.04.2006] 13
“Reception and Music Room”,[online] www.architecture.com
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3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
Fig.3a
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Fig.3b
3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
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3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright) on June 8th, 1867 was an American architect, interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 projects, which resulted in more than 500 completed works. 14 In 1991, the American institute of architects in a national survey recognised Wright as “the greatest American architect of all time.” And voted his “falling water” house built in 1939 in Pennsylvania as “the best all-time work of American architecture.” 15 (see fig.4a 16 and 4b 17). Falling water stands as one of Wright's greatest masterpieces for its integration with the striking natural surroundings and dynamic structure. Wright's passion for Japanese architecture was strongly reflected in the design of Falling water, particularly in the importance of exterior and interior spaces and the strong emphasis placed on harmony between man and nature. The house is well-known for its connection to the site: it is built on top of an active waterfall which flows beneath the house. The view of the building is such that the falls can be heard when inside the building, but the falls are visible only when standing on the balcony on the topmost floor. This type of geometrical architecture mystery has even puzzled Wright himself. 14
Brewster Mike, business weekly – “ Frank Lloyd Wright: Americas Architect”, [28.07.2004]
15 16 17
ibid Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Fallingwater: plan” [online] library.artstor.org Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Fallingwater: section” [online] library.artstor.org
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Fig.4a
3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
15
3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
Fig.4b
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3 Who, What, Where, When, Why?
Though most famous as an architect, Wright was an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily “ukiyo-e” woodblock prints. Ukiyo-e can be categorized into two periods: the Edo period, 1620s until 1867 and the Meiji lasting until 1912. The Edo period was largely a period of calm that provided an ideal environment for the development of the art in a commercial form; while the Meiji period is characterized by new influences as Japan opened up to the West. The word ukiyo can be literally translated to "floating world" in English, referring to a conception of an evanescent world, impermanent, fleeting beauty and a realm of entertainments. Wright frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients; “he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it” 18. For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. Wright first travelled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organise the world’s first retrospective exhibition of works by Hiroshige, held at the art institute of Chicago. 19 For many years, he was a major presence in the Japanese art world, selling a great number of works to prominent collectors and museums such as the metropolitan museum of art in New York. 20 18
Cotter Holland, New York Times – “Seeking Japan’s Prints, Out of Love and Need”, [06.04.2001] 19
ibid
20
Reif Rita, New York Times – “Frank Lloyd Wright’s love of Japanese Prints Helped Pay The Bills”, [18.03.2001]
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4 East & West Exchange
ćœŞć?Ľ Future
East & West Exchange Japan has a long-standing tradition in architecture that reaches back across to the first civilisations on earth. These traditions have never been forgotten, born again repeatedly in the work of progressive architects with a strong sense of their cultural foundation. One of the most influential Asian architects today is Tadao Ando, born in Japan 1941. He has played a crucial part in modern architecture, taking traditional modernist ideas from European architects such as Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, “I take what they did and interpret it in my own
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4 East & West Exchange
fashion.” 21 Tadao Ando took a number of visits to the United States, Europe and Africa in the period between 1962 and 1969. It was certainly at this time that he began to form his own ideas about architectural design. Other things that had influenced his work and vocabulary of architecture is the pantheon in Rome and "enso", which is a mysterious circle drawn by Zen-budhists and symbolizing emptiness, loneliness, oneness and the moment of enlightenment. He is also inspired by traditional Japanese architecture, “When I was about 18, I started to visit temples, shrines and tea houses in Kyoto and Nara”. 22 He is Known for the creative use of natural light and for architecture that follow the natural forms of the landscape. An example of modern architecture that still maintains a sense of tradition in Japan is the “T residence” by Kidosaki Architects. Like the structures from Japan’s past, the T Residence maintains a focus on sustainable style, bringing the world of nature into its forms to merge seamlessly with the environment. (See fig.5 23)
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22
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[online] architect.architecture.sk
ibid [online]http://www.thecoolist.com [07.04.10]
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4 East & West Exchange
Fig 5
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4 East & West Exchange
As you can see from the images the rough form of the structures is essentially the same with the long over hanging rafters and use of timber. The east and west exchange started during the 1820’s This coincided with the widespread dissemination of Arts and Crafts theories, in which 'honest' construction employing 'natural' materials was esteemed. There are also important interior design features which have been brought from Japan to the west; these include open plan spaces and rooms that flow from one to another along with elements such as the tategu which refers to the sliding doors and windows in a Japanese house. These articles concern subjects such as shoji screens and fusuma doors. Other interior design elements include tatami mat flooring; traditional tatami mats are 90x180cm. The floor plans of tatami rooms are standardized and come in sizes such as "6mat" or “8-mat" arrangements. These articles also address other flooring systems such as the modern bamboo flooring seen in the West. Some of the first open plan spaces used in western architecture where designed by architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Charles Rennie Mackintosh as you can see from Wright’s drawings the open space in falling water creates a seamless movement from interior to exterior allowing the people within the place to be at harmony with the nature surrounding the building. 22
5 Conclusion
Conclusion Traditional Japanese architecture has had significant influence on the western world. This can be seen through the architects who have been inspired by Japanese culture, history and art. When Japanese architecture was first introduced to the west it was seen as innovative and a necessary development in design, this brought about the minimalist ideas during the turn of the 20th century. However, these ideas had existed for centuries in most of Asia and are functional and rational spaces most of which are still used today. Japanese architectural historian Hiroshi Adachi noted 'the west discovered the quality of space in traditional Japanese architecture through the filter of western architectural values' 24
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McNeil Peter, Myths of Modernism: Japanese Architecture, Interior Design and the West, 1992, p.281
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6 Bibliography
Bibliography http://www.air-worldwide.com http://architect.architecture.sk Bocking Brian, A Popular Dictionary of Shinto, Curzon Press, 1997 Brewster Mike, business weekly – “ Frank Lloyd Wright: Americas Architect”, [28.07.2004] Bryant Anthony, ‘Shinden-zukuri Estates of the Heian Period’ [online] www.sengokudaimyo.com [24.10.2009] Cotter Holland, New York Times – “Seeking Japan’s Prints, Out of Love and Need”, [06.04.2001] Dumoulin Heinrich, Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China, World Wisdom Inc, 2005 http://en.wikipedia.org http://library.artstor.org McNeil Peter, Myths of Modernism: Japanese Architecture, Interior Design and the West, 1992 Ono Sokyo, Shinto the Kami Way, Tuttle Publishing, 2004 Perkins P.D, The Rise and Decline of Bukezukuri, Vol. 2, No.2, Monumenta Nipponica, 1939 Reif Rita, New York Times – “Frank Lloyd Wright’s love of Japanese Prints Helped Pay The Bills”, [18.03.2001]
6 Bibliography Sansom, George, A History of Japan: 1615-1867, Stanford University Press, 1963 http://www.schools.look4.net.nz Stamp Gavin, Mckinstry Sam, ‘Greek’ Thomson, Edinburgh University Press, 1994, http://www.thecoolist.com http://www.upload.wikimedia.org